,illustration3 ,,baxters ,,patent ,,oil ,,color ,,printing ,,xi1 ,,northampton ,,square ,,chimborazo ,,views ,,of ,,nature3 ,,or ,,contemplations ,,on ,,the ,,sublime ,,phenomena ,,of ,,creation2 ,,with ,,scientific ,,illustrations4 ,,by ,,alexander ,,von ,,humboldt4 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,german ,,by ,e4 ,c4 ,,ott1 ,,and ,,henry ,g4 ,,bohn4 ,,with ,a ,,frontispiece ,,from ,a ,,sketch ,,by ,,the ,,author1 ,a ,,fac-,,simile ,,of ,,his ,,hand-,,writing1 ,,and ,a ,,comprehensive ,,index4 ,,london3 ,,henry ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 #ahej4 ,,printed ,,by ,,harrison ,,and ,,sons1 ,,london ,,gazette ,,office1 ,,st4 ,,martin's ,,lane4 ,,preface ,,by ,,the ,,publisher4 ,great pains have been taken with the present translation1 as well in regard to fidelity and style1 as in what may be termed the accessories4 ,in addition to all that is contained in the original work1 it comprises an interesting view of ,chimborazo1 from a sketch by ,humboldt himself2 a fac-simile of the author's handwriting2 head-lines of contents2 translations of the principal ,latin1 ,french1 and ,spanish quotations2,a a very complete index2 and a conversion of all the foreign measurements4 ,it was at first intended to give both the foreign and ,english measurements1 in juxta-position2 but this plan was abandoned on perceiving that the pages would become overloaded with figures1 and present a perplexing and somewhat appalling aspect1 without affording any equivalent advantage to the ,english reader4 ,in some few instances1 however1 where it seemed desirable1 and in all the parallel tables1 duplicate measurements have been inserted4 ,the ,french toises are converted into their relative number of ,english feet2 and ,german miles1 whether simple or square1 are reduced to our own4 ,the longitudes have been calculated from ,greenwich1 conformably to ,english maps1 in lieu of those given by ,humboldt1 which are calculated from ,paris4 ,the degrees of temperature1 instead of ,reaumur's1 are ,fahrenheit's1 as now the most generally recognised4 ,it here becomes necessary to say something of the translators1 and the cause of so much unexpected delay in producing this volume2 the more so as many of the subscribers to the ,scientific ,library have expressed an interest in the subject1 owing1 in some measure1 to a controversy which arose out of my previous publication of ,cosmos4 ,the translation was originally entrusted to ,e4 ,c4 ,ott1 with an agreement as to time1 according to which ,i had every reason to expect that ,i should fulfil my engagement to publish it in ,october last1 or at latest in ,november2 but1 after much of the manuscript was prepared1 the translator's indisposition and subsequent absence from ,london1 occasioned a serious suspension4 ,in this dilemma ,i found it necessary to call in aid1 as well as to assist personally4 ,the result of this 8co-operation of forces0 will no doubt prove satisfactory to the reader1 inasmuch as every sheet has been at least trebly revised1 and it is hoped proportionably improved4 ,in addition to the responsible translator1 my principal collaborateur has been ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,whitelocke1 a gentleman well qualified for the task4 ,all the measurements are calculated by the scientific friend1 who fulfilled this department so satisfactorily in my edition of ,cosmos4 ,the translation of the pretty poem1 ,the ,parrot of ,atures1 7page #ahi17 now first given in ,english1 is contributed by ,mr4 ,edgar ,a4 ,bowring4 ,for the additional notes subscribed 8,,ed40 ,i am myself1 in most instances1 responsible4 ,much has been said1 pro and con1 about the sanction of the ,author to the several translations of his works4 ,my answer has1 ,i believe1 been generally considered satisfactory and conclusive4 ,i have now only to add1 that when ,i wrote to ,baron ,humboldt1 more than a year and a-half ago1 presenting him with my then unpublished edition of ,cosmos1 ,i announced my intention of proceeding with his other works1 and consulted him on the subject4 ,he replied in the kindest spirit1 without intimating any previous engagement1 and honoured me with several valuable suggestions4 ,a portion of one of his letters is annexed in fac-simile4 ,in consequence of what ,i then presumed to be his recommendation1 ,i determined to make the ,ansichten my next volume1 and announced it1 long before any one else1 though not at first by its ,english name4 ,at that time ,i had reason to hope that ,i should receive the new ,german edition at least as early as any one1 but was disappointed4 ,this circumstance1 added to the delay already alluded to1 has brought me late into the field4 ,in now1 however1 presenting my subscribers with what ,i have taken every available means to render a perfect book1 ,i hope ,i shall afford them ample atonement4 ,a few words respecting the work itself4 ,the first edition was published forty-three years ago1 the second in #ahbf1 and the third1 of which the present volume is a translation1 in ,august last4 ,the difference between the three editions in respect to the text 7if ,i may so distinguish the more entertaining part of the work from the scientific 8,illustrations07 is not material1 excepting that each has one or more new chapters4 ,thus to the second edition was added the ,essay on ,volcanos and the curious allegory on vital force1 entitled ,the ,rhodian ,genius1 and to the third ,the ,plateau of ,caxamarca4 ,the additions to the 8,illustrations0 however in the third edition are considerable1 and comprise a rapid sketch of whatever has been contributed by modern science in illustration of the ,author's favourite subjects4 ,no intellectual reader can peruse this masterly work without intense interest and considerable instruction4 ,after feasting on the highly wrought and1 it may be said1 poetical descriptions1 written in the ,author's earlier years1 he will turn with increased zest to the elaborate illustrations1 which1 in a separate form1 are brought to bear on every subject of the text4 ,this scientific portion1 although not at first the most attractive1 presents many delightful episodes1 which will amply repay the perusal of even those who merely read for amusement4 ,,henry ,g4 ,,bohn4 ,york ,street1 ,january1 #ahej4 ,,author',s ,,preface1 ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,with some diffidence1 ,i here present to the public a series of papers which originated in the presence of the noblest objects of nature1--on the ,ocean1--in the forests of the ,orinoco1--in the ,savannahs of ,venezuela1--and in the solitudes of the ,peruvian and ,mexican ,mountains4 ,several detached fragments1 written on the spot1 have since been wrought into a whole4 ,a survey of nature at large1--proofs of the co-operation of forces1--and a renewal of the enjoyment which the immediate aspect of the tropical countries affords to the susceptible beholder1--are the objects at which ,i aim4 ,each ,essay was designed to be complete in itself2 and one and the same tendency pervades the whole4 ,this sthetic mode of treating subjects of ,natural ,history is fraught with great difficulties in the execution1 notwithstanding the marvellous vigour and flexibility of my native language4 ,the wonderful luxuriance of nature presents an accumulation of separate images1 and accumulation disturbs the harmony and effect of a picture4 ,when the feelings and the imagination are excited1 the style is apt to stray into poetical prose4 ,but these ideas require no amplification here1 for the following pages afford but too abundant examples of such deviations and of such want of unity4 ,notwithstanding these defects1 which ,i can more easily perceive than amend1 let me hope that these 8,views0 may afford the reader1 at least some portion of that enjoyment which a sensitive mind receives from the immediate contemplation of nature4 ,as this enjoyment is heightened by an insight into the connection of the occult forces1 ,i have subjoined to each treatise scientific illustrations and additions4 ,everywhere the reader's attention is directed to the perpetual influence which physical nature exercises on the moral condition and on the destiny of man4 ,it is to minds oppressed with care that these pages are especially consecrated4 ,he who has escaped from the stormy waves of life will joyfully follow me into the depths of the forests1 over the boundless steppes and prairies1 and to the lofty summits of the ,andes4 ,to him are addressed the words of the chorus who preside over the destinies of mankind3 ,on the mountains is freedom6 the breath of decay ,never sullies the fresh flowing air2 ,oh6 nature is perfect wherever we stray2 ',tis man that deforms it with care4,b ,,author',s ,,preface1 ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,and ,,third ,,editions4 ,the twofold object of this work1--an anxious endeavour to heighten the enjoyment of nature by vivid representations1 and at the same time to increase1 according to the present state of science1 the reader's insight into the harmonious co-operation of forces1--was pointed out by me in the preface to the first edition1 nearly half a century ago4 ,i there alluded to the several obstacles which oppose themselves to the sthetic treatment of the grand scenes of nature4 ,the combination of a literary and a purely scientific aim1 the desire to engage the imagination1 and at the same time to enrich life with new ideas by the increase of knowledge1 render the due arrangement of the separate parts1 and what is required as unity of composition1 difficult of attainment4 ,notwithstanding these disadvantages1 however1 the public have continued to receive with indulgent partiality1 my imperfect performance4 ,the second edition of the ,views of ,nature1 was published by me in ,paris in #ahbf4 ,two papers were then added1 one1 8,an inquiry into the structure and mode of action of ,volcanos in different regions of the earth20 the other1 8,vital ,force1 or ,the ,rhodian ,genius40 ,schiller1 in remembrance of his youthful medical studies1 loved to converse with me1 during my long stay at ,jena1 on physiological subjects4 ,the inquiries in which ,i was then engaged1 in preparing my work 8,on the condition of the fibres of muscles and nerves1 when irritated by contact with substances chemically opposed10 often imparted a more serious direction to our conversation4 ,it was at this period that ,i wrote the little allegory on ,vital ,force1 called ,the ,rhodian ,genius4 ,the predilection which ,schiller entertained for this piece1 and which he admitted into his periodical1 ,die ,horen1 gave me courage to introduce it here4 ,my brother1 in a letter which has recently been published 7,william von ,humboldt's ,letters to a ,female ,friend1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ci71 delicately alludes to the subject1 but at the same time very justly adds2 8,the development of a physiological idea is exclusively the object of the essay4 ,such semi-poetical clothings of grave truths were more in vogue at the time this was written than they are at present40 ,in my eightieth year ,i have still the gratification of completing a third edition of my work1 and entirely remoulding it to meet the demands of the age4 ,almost all the scientific illustrations are either enlarged or replaced by new and more comprehensive ones4 ,i have indulged a hope of stimulating the study of nature1 by compressing into the smallest possible compass1 the numerous results of careful investigation on a variety of interesting subjects1 with a view of shewing the importance of accurate numerical data1 and the necessity of comparing them with each other1 as well as to check the dogmatic smattering and fashionable scepticism which have too long prevailed in the so-called higher circles of society4 ,my expedition into northern ,asia 7to the ,ural1 the ,altai1 and the shores of the ,caspian ,sea7 in the year #ahbi1 with ,ehrenberg and ,gustavus ,rose1 at the command of the ,emperor of ,russia1 took place between the second and third editions of my work4 ,this expedition has essentially contributed to the enlargement of my views in all that concerns the formation of the earth's surface1 the direction of mountain-chains1 the connexion of the ,steppes and ,deserts1 and the geographical distribution of plants according to ascertained influences of temperature4 ,the ignorance which has so long existed respecting the two great snow-covered mountain-chains1 the ,thian-schan and the ,kuen-ln1 situated between the ,altai and ,himalaya1 has 7owing to the injudicious neglect of ,chinese sources of information7 obscured the geography of ,central ,asia1 and propagated fancies instead of facts1 in works of extensive circulation4 ,within the last few months the hypsometric comparisons of the culminating points of both continents have unexpectedly received important and corrective illustration1 of which ,i am the first to avail myself in the following pages4 ,the measurement 7now divested of former errors7 of the altitude of the two mountains1 ,sorata and ,illimani1 in the eastern chain of the ,andes of ,bolivia1 has not yet1 with certainty1 restored the ,chimborazo to its ancient pre-eminence among the snowy mountains of the new world4 ,in the ,himalaya the recent barometric measurement of the ,kinchinjinga 7#bf1dch ,parisian1 or #bh1agh ,english feet7 places it next in height to the ,dhawalagiri1 which has also been trigonometrically measured with greater accuracy4 ,to preserve uniformity with the two former editions of the ,views of ,nature1 the calculations of temperature1 unless where the contrary is stated1 are given according to the eighty degrees thermometer of ,reamur4 ,the lineal measurement is the old ,french1 in which the toise is equivalent to six ,parisian feet4 ,the miles are geographical1 fifteen to a degree of the equator4 ,the longitudes are calculated from the first meridian of the ,parisian ,observatory4 ,berlin1 ,march1 #ahdi4 ,,contents ,page ,,publisher',s ,,preface v ,,author',s ,,preface1 ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition ix ,,author',s ,,preface1 ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,and ,,third ,,editions xi ,,summary ,,of ,,contents xvii ,,steppes ,,and ,,deserts #a ,illustrations and ,additions #bb ,,cataracts ,,of ,,the ,,orinoco #aec ,illustrations and ,additions #agd ,,nocturnal ,,life ,,of ,,animals ,,in ,,the ,,primeval ,,forest #aia ,illustrations and ,additions #bjb ,hypsometric ,addenda #bjd ,,ideas ,,for ,a ,,physiognomy ,,of ,,plants #baj ,illustrations and ,additions #bcb ,,on ,,the ,,structure ,,and ,,mode ,,of ,,action ,,of ,,volcanos ,,in ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,earth #cec ,illustrations and ,additions #cgf ,,vital ,,force1 ,,or ,,the ,,rhodian ,,genius #chj ,illustration and ,note #chf ,,the ,,plateau ,,of ,,caxamarca1 the ,ancient ,capital of the ,inca ,atahuallpa1 and ,first ,view of the ,pacific from the ,ridge of the ,andes #cij ,illustrations and ,additions #dba ,,index #dcg ,illustration3 ,,fac-,,simile ,,of ,,the ,,hand-,,writing ,,of ,,baron ,,humboldt4 ,,extracts ,,of ,a ,,letter ,,to ,,the ,,publisher4 ,,summary ,,of ,,contents4 ,,on ,,steppes ,,and ,,deserts pp4 #a-ba4 ,coast-chain and mountain-valleys of ,caracas4 ,the ,lake of ,tacarigua4 ,contrast between the luxuriant abundance of organic life and the treeless plains4 ,impressions of space4 ,the steppe as the bottom of an ancient inland sea4 ,broken strata lying somewhat above the surface1 and called ,banks4 ,uniformity of phenomena presented by plains4 ,heaths of ,europe1 ,pampas and ,llanos of ,south ,america1 ,african deserts1 ,north ,asiatic ,steppes4 ,diversified character of the vegetable covering4 ,animal life4 ,pastoral tribes1 who have convulsed the world--pp4 #a-e4 ,description of the ,south ,american plains and savannahs4 ,their extent and climate1 the latter dependant on the outline and hypsometrical configuration of the ,new ,continent4 ,comparison with plains and deserts of ,africa--pp4 #e-aj4 ,original absence of pastoral life in ,america4 ,nutriment yielded by the ,mauritia ,palm4 ,pendant huts built in trees4 ,guaranes--pp4 #aj-ac4 ,the ,llanos have become more habitable to man since the discovery of ,america4 ,remarkable increase of wild ,oxen1 ,horses1 and ,mules4 ,description of the seasons of drought and rain4 ,aspect of the ground and sky4 ,life of animals2 their sufferings and combats4 ,adaptability with which nature has endowed animals and plants4 ,jaguar1 ,crocodiles1 ,electric ,fishes4 ,unequal contest between gymnoti and horses--pp4 #ac-ai4 ,retrospective view of the districts which border steppes and deserts4 ,wilderness of the forest-region between the ,orinoco and ,amazon rivers4 ,native tribes separated by wonderful diversity both of language and customs2 a toiling and divided race4 ,figures graven on rocks prove that even these solitudes were once the seat of a civilization now extinct--pp4 #ai-ba4 ,,scientific ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions pp4 #bb-aeb4 ,the island-studded ,lake of ,tacarigua4 ,its relation to the mountain-chains4 ,geognostic tableau4 ,progress of civilization4 ,varieties of the sugar-cane4 ,cacao plantations4 ,great fertility of soil within the tropics accompanied by great atmospheric insalubrity4--pp4 #bb-bf4 ,banks1 or broken floetz-strata4 ,general flatness4 ,land-slips--pp4 #bf-bh4 ,resemblance of the distant steppe to the ocean4 ,naked stony crust1 tabular masses of syenite2 have they a detrimental effect on the atmosphere8--pp4 #bh-bi4 ,modern views on the mountain systems of the two ,american peninsulas4 ,chains1 which have a direction from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 in ,brazil and in the ,atlantic portion of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america4 ,depression of the ,province of ,chiquitos2 ridges as watermarks between the ,guapor and ,aguapehi in #ae and #ag south lat41 and between the fluvial districts of the ,orinoco and ,rio ,negro in #b and #c north lat4--pp4 #bi-ca4 ,continuation of the ,andes-chain north of the isthmus of ,panam through the territory of the ,aztecs1 7where the ,popocatepetl1 recently ascended by ,capt4 ,stone1 rises to an altitude of #ag1gbj feet17 and through the ,crane and ,rocky ,mountains4 ,valuable scientific investigations of ,capt4 ,frmont4 ,the greatest barometric levelling ever accomplished1 representing a profile of the ground over #bh of longitude4 ,culminating point of the route from the coast of the ,atlantic to the ,south ,sea4 ,the ,south ,pass southward of the ,wind-,river ,mountains4 ,swelling of the ground in the ,great ,basin4 ,long disputed existence of ,lake ,timpanogos4 ,coast-chain1 ,maritime ,alps1 ,sierra ,nevada of ,california4 ,volcanic eruptions4 ,cataracts of the ,columbia ,river--pp4 #ca-ch4 ,general considerations on the contrast between the configuration of the territorial spaces1 presented by the two diverging coast-chains1 east and west of the central chain1 called the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,hypsometric constitution of the ,eastern ,lowland1 which is only from #djj to somewhat more than #fjj feet above the level of the sea1 and of the arid uninhabited plateau of the ,great ,basin1 from #ejjj to more than #fjjj feet high4 ,sources of the ,mississippi in ,lake ,istaca according to ,nicollet1 whose labours are most meritorious4 ,native land of the ,bisons2 their ancient domestication in ,northern ,mexico asserted by ,gomara--pp4 #ch-db4 ,retrospective view of the entire ,andes-chain from the cliff of ,diego ,ramirez to ,behring's ,straits4 ,long prevalent errors concerning the height of the eastern ,andes-chain of ,bolivia1 especially of the ,sorata and ,illimani4 ,four summits of the western chain1 which1 according to ,pentland's latest determinations1 surpass the ,chimborazo in height1 but not the still-active volcano1 ,aconcagua1 measured by ,fitz-,roy--pp4 #db-dd4 ,the ,african mountain range of ,harudje-el-,abiad4 ,oases of vegetation1 abounding in springs--pp4 #dd-df4 ,westerly winds on the borders of the desert ,sahara4 ,accumulation of sea-weed2 present and former position of the great fucus-bank1 from the time of ,scylax of ,caryanda to that of ,columbus and to the present period--pp4 #df-ej4 ,tibbos and ,tuaryks4 ,the camel and its distribution--pp4 #ej-ec4 ,mountain-systems of ,central ,asia between ,northern ,siberia and ,india1 between the ,altai and the ,himalaya1 which latter range is aggregated with the ,kuen-ln4 ,erroneous opinion as to the existence of one immense plateau1 the so-called 8,plateau de la ,tartarie0--pp4 #ec-ef4 ,chinese literature a rich source of orographic knowledge4 ,gradations of the ,high ,lands4 ,gobi and its direction4 ,probable mean height of ,thibet--pp4 #ef-fc4 ,general review of the mountain systems of ,asia4 ,meridian chains3 the ,ural1 which separates lower ,europe from lower ,asia or the ,scythian ,europe of ,pherecydes of ,syros and ,herodotus4 ,bolor1 ,khingan1 and the ,chinese chains1 which at the great bend of the ,thibetan and ,assam-,burmese river1 ,dzangbo-tschu1 stretch from north to south4 ,the meridian elevations alternate between the parallels of #ff and #gg east long4 from ,cape ,comorin to the ,frozen ,ocean1 like displaced veins4 ,thus the ,ghauts1 the ,soliman chain1 the ,paralasa1 the ,bolor1 and the ,ural follow from south to north4 ,the ,bolor gave rise1 among the ancients1 to the idea respecting the ,imaus1 which ,agathodmon considered to be prolonged northwards as far as the lowland or basin of the lower ,irtysch4 ,parallel chains1 running east and west1 the ,altai1 ,thian-schan with its active volcanos1 which lie #aebh miles from the frozen ocean at the mouth of the ,obi1 and #aeab from the ,indian ,ocean at the mouth of the ,ganges2 ,kuen-ln1 already recognized by ,eratosthenes1 ,marinus of ,tyre1 ,ptolemy1 and ,cosmas ,indicopleustes1 as the greatest axis of elevation in the ,old ,world1 between #ce and #cf lat4 in the direction of the diaphragm of ,dicarchus4 ,himalaya4 ,the ,kuen-ln may be traced1 when considered as an axis of elevation1 from the ,chinese wall near ,lung-tscheu1 through the somewhat more northerly chains of ,nan-schan and ,kilian-schan1 through the mountain node of the 8,starry ,sea10 the ,hindoo ,cush 7the ,paropanisus and ,indian ,caucasus of the ancients71 and1 lastly1 through the chain of the ,demavend and ,persian ,elburz1 as far as the ,taurus in ,lycia4 ,not far from the intersection of the ,kuen-ln by the ,bolor1 the corresponding direction of the axes of elevation 7inclining from east to west in the ,kuen-ln and ,hindoo ,cush1 and on the other hand south-east and north-west in the ,himalaya7 proves1 that the ,hindoo ,cush is a prolongation of the ,kuen-ln1 and not of the ,himalaya which is associated to the latter in the manner of a gang or vein4 ,the point where the ,himalaya changes its direction1 that is to say1 where it leaves its former east-westerly direction1 lies not far from #ha east long4 ,the ,djawahir is not1 as has hitherto been supposed1 the next in altitude to the ,dhawalagiri1 which is the highest summit of the ,himalaya2 for1 according to ,joseph ,hooker1 this rank is due to a mountain lying in the meridian of ,sikhim between ,butan and ,nepaul1 called the ,kinchinjinga or ,kintschin-,dschunga4 ,this mountain 7,kinchinjinga7 measured by ,col4 ,waugh1 ,director of the ,trigonometrical ,survey of ,india1 has for its western summit an altitude of #bh1agh feet1 and for its eastern #bg1hbf feet1 according to the ,journal of the ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1 ,november1 #ahdh4 ,the mountain1 now considered higher than the ,dhawalagiri1 is represented in the engraving to the title-page of ,joseph ,hooker's splendid work1 ,the ,rhododendrons of ,sikkim ,himalaya1 #ahdi4 ,determination of the snow-limits on the northern and southern slopes of the ,himalaya2 the former lies in the mean about #cfbj up to #dijj feet higher4 ,new statements of ,hodgson4 ,but for the remarkable distribution of heat in the upper strata of the air1 the table-land of western ,thibet would be uninhabitable to millions of human beings--pp4 #fc-hj4 ,the ,hiongnu1 whom ,deguignes and ,john ,mller considered to be a tribe of ,huns1 appear rather to be one of the widely spread ,turkish races of the ,altai and ,tangnu mountains4 ,the ,huns1 whose name was known even to ,dionysius ,periegetes1 and who are described by ,ptolemy as ,chuns 7hence the later territorial name of ,chunigard67 are a ,finnish tribe1 from the ,ural mountains1 which separate the two continents--pp4 #hj-ha4 ,representations of the sun1 animals1 and characters1 graven on rocks at ,sierra ,parime1 as well as in ,north ,america1 have frequently been regarded as writing--p4 #hb4 ,description of the cold mountain regions between #aa1jjj and #ac1jjj ,parisian1 or #aa1gbj and #ac1hej ,english feet in height1 which have been designated ,paramos4 ,character of their vegetation--p4 #hc4 ,orographic remarks on the two mountain clusters 7,pacaraima and ,sierra de ,chiquitos7 which separate the three plains of the lower ,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 and ,la ,plata rivers from each other--p4 #hd4 ,concerning the ,dogs of the ,new ,continent1 the aboriginal as well as those from ,europe1 which have become wild4 ,sufferings of ,cats at heights surpassing #ac1hed feet--pp4 #he-hh4 ,the ,low ,land of the ,sahara and its relations to the ,atlas range1 according to the latest reports of ,daumas1 ,carette1 and ,renou4 ,the barometric measurements of ,fournel render it very probable1 that part of the north ,african desert lies below the level of the sea4 ,oasis of ,biscara4 ,abundance of rock-salt in regions which extend from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e4 ,causes of nocturnal cold in the desert1 according to ,melloni--pp4 #hh-ib4 ,information respecting the ,river ,wadi ,dra 7one-sixth longer than the ,rhine71 which is dry during a great part of the year4 ,some account of the territory of the ,sheikh ,beirouk1 who is independent of the ,emperor of ,morocco1 according to manuscript communications of ,capt4 ,count ,bouet ,villaumez1 of the ,french ,marine4 ,the mountains north of ,cape ,nun 7an ,edrisian name1 in which by a play of words a negation has been assumed since the #aeth century7 attain an altitude of #iahf feet--pp4 #ib-id4 ,gramineous vegetation of the ,american ,llanos between the tropics1 compared with the herbaceous vegetation of the ,steppes in ,northern ,asia4 ,in these1 especially in the most fertile of them1 a pleasing effect is afforded in spring by the small snow-white and red flowering ,rosace1 ,amygdale1 the species of ,astragalus1 ,crown-imperial1 ,cypripedias1 and ,tulips4 ,contrast with the desert of the salt-steppes full of ,chenopodi1 and of species of ,salsola and ,atriplex4 ,numerical considerations with respect to the predominant families4 ,the plains which skirt the ,frozen ,ocean 7north of what ,admiral ,wrangel has described as the boundary of ,conifer and ,amentace71 are the domain of cryptogamic plants4 ,physiognomy of the ,tundra on an ever-frozen soil1 covered with a thick coating of ,sphagnum and other foliaceous mosses1 or with the snow-white ,cenomyce and ,stereocaulon paschale--pp4 #id-if4 ,chief causes of the very unequal distribution of heat in the ,european and ,american continents4 ,direction and inflection of the isothermal lines 7equal mean-heat of the year1 in winter and summer7--pp4 #if-aje4 ,is there reason to believe that ,america emerged later from the chaotic covering of waters8--pp4 #aje-ajg4 ,thermal comparison between the northern and southern hemispheres in high latitudes--pp4 #ajg-aji4 ,apparent connexion between the sand-seas of ,africa1 ,persia1 ,kerman1 ,beloochistan1 and ,central ,asia4 ,on the western portion of the ,atlas1 and the connection of purely mythical ideas1 with geographical legends4 ,indefinite allusions to fiery eruptions4 ,triton ,lake4 ,crater forms1 south of ,hanno's 8,bay of the ,gorilla ,apes40 ,singular description of the ,hollow ,atlas1 from the ,dialexes of ,maximus ,tyrius--pp4 #aaj-aa4 ,explanations of the ,mountains of the ,moon 7,djebel-al-,komr7 in the interior of ,africa1 according to ,reinaud1 ,beke1 and ,ayrton4 ,werne's instructive report of the second expedition1 which was undertaken by command of ,mehemet ,ali4 ,the ,abyssinian high mountain chain1 which1 according to ,rppell1 attains nearly the height of ,mont ,blanc4 ,the earliest account of the snow between the tropics is contained in the inscription of ,adulis1 which is of a somewhat later date than ,juba4 ,lofty mountains1 which between #f and #d1 and even more southerly1 approach the ,bahr-el-,abiad4 ,a considerable rise of ground separates the ,white ,nile from the basin of the ,goschop4 ,line of separation between the waters which flow towards the ,mediterranean and ,indian seas1 according to ,carl ,zimmermann's map4 ,lupata chain1 according to the instructive researches of ,wilhelm ,peters--pp4 #aad-abj4 ,oceanic currents4 ,in the northern part of the ,atlantic the waters are agitated in a true rotatory movement4 ,that the first impulse to the ,gulf-stream is to be looked for at the southern apex of ,africa1 was a fact already known to ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert in #aefj4 ,influence of the ,gulf-stream on the climate of ,scandinavia4 ,how it contributed to the discovery of ,america4 ,instances of ,esquimaux1 who1 favoured by north-west winds1 have been carried1 through the returning easterly inclined portion of the warm gulf-stream1 to the ,european coasts4 ,information of ,cornelius ,nepos and ,pomponius ,mela respecting ,indians1 whom a ,king of the ,boii sent as a present to the ,gallic ,proconsul ,quintus ,metellus ,celer2 and again of others in the times of the ,othos1 ,frederick ,barbarossa1 ,columbus1 and ,cardinal ,bembo4 ,again1 in the years #afhb and #afhd1 natives of ,greenland appeared at the ,orkney ,islands--pp4 #abj-abe4 ,effects of lichens and other cryptogamia in the frigid and temperate zones1 in promoting the growth of the larger phanerogamia4 ,in the tropics the preparatory ground-lichens often find substitutes in the oleaginous plants4 ,lactiferous animals of the ,new ,continent2 the ,llama1 ,alpaca1 and ,guanaco--pp4 #abe-abh4 ,culture of farinaceous grasses--pp4 #abh-aca4 ,on the earliest population of ,america--pp4 #aca-acd4 ,the coast-tribe the ,guaranes 7,warraus71 and the littoral palm ,mauritia1 according to ,bembo1 ,raleigh1 ,hillhouse1 ,robert and ,richard ,schomburgk--pp4 #acd-acf4 ,phenomena produced in the ,steppe by a long drought4 ,sand-spouts1 hot winds1 deceptive images by arial refraction 7mirage74 ,the awaking of crocodiles and tortoises after a long summer sleep--pp4 #acf-adb4 ,otomaks4 ,general considerations respecting the earth-eating of certain tribes4 ,unctuous and ,infusorial earths--pp4 #adb-adf4 ,carved ,figures on rocks1 which form a belt running east and west from the ,rupunuri1 ,essequibo1 and mountains of ,pacaraima1 to the solitudes of the ,cassiquiare4 ,earliest observation 7,april1 #agdi7 of such traces of an ancient civilization1 in the unpublished travels of the ,surgeon ,nicolas ,hortsmann1 of ,hildesheim1 found among d',anville's papers--pp4 #adg-aea4 ,the vegetable poison ,curare1 or ,urari--pp4 #aea-aeb4 ,,on ,,the ,,cataracts ,,of ,,the ,,orinoco1 ,,near ,,atures ,,and ,,maypures pp4 #aec-agc4 ,the ,orinoco1 general view of its course4 ,ideas excited in the mind of ,columbus on beholding its mouth4 ,its unknown sources lie to the east of the lofty ,duida and of the thickets of ,bertholletia4 ,cause of the principal bends of the river--pp4 #aec-afb4 ,the ,falls4 ,raudal of ,maypures1 bounded by four streams4 ,former state of the region4 ,insular form of the rocks ,keri and ,oco4 ,grand spectacle displayed on descending the hill ,manimi4 ,a foaming surface1 several miles in extent1 suddenly presents itself to view4 ,iron-black masses of tower-like rocks rise precipitately from the bed of the river2 the summits of the lofty palms pierce through the clouds of vapoury spray--pp4 #afb-afh4 ,raudal of ,atures1 another island-world4 ,rock-dykes1 connecting one island with the other4 ,they are the resort of the pugnacious1 golden-coloured rock manakin4 ,some parts of the river-bed in the cataracts are dry1 in consequence of the waters having formed for themselves a channel through subterranean cavities4 ,visit to these parts on the approach of night1 during a heavy thunder-storm4 ,unsuspected propinquity of crocodiles--pp4 #afh-aga4 ,the celebrated cave of ,ataruipe1 the grave of an extinct tribe--pp4 #aga-agc4 ,,scientific ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions pp4 #agd-aij4 ,abode of the river-cow 7,trichecus ,manati7 in the sea1 at the spot where1 in the ,gulf of ,xagua on the southern coast of the ,island of ,cuba1 springs of fresh water gush forth--pp4 #agd1 #age4 ,geographical illustration of the sources of the ,orinoco--pp4 #age-agi4 ,juvia 7,bertholletia71 a ,lecythidea1 remarkable as an instance of lofty organic development4 ,haulm of an ,arundinaria upwards of sixteen feet from joint to joint--pp4 #agi-ahj4 ,on the fabulous ,lake ,parime--pp4 #ahj-ahh4 ,the ,parrot of ,atures1 a poem by ,ernst ,curtius4 ,the bird lived in ,maypures1 and the natives declared that he was not understood1 because he spoke the language of the extinct ,aturian tribe--pp4 #ahh-aij4 ,,nocturnal ,,life ,,of ,,animals ,,in ,,the ,,primeval ,,forest pp4 #aia-bja4 ,difference in the richness of languages as regards precise and definite words for characterizing natural phenomena1 such as the state of vegetation and the forms of plants1 the contour and grouping of clouds1 the appearance of the earth's surface1 and the shape of mountains4 ,loss which languages sustain in such expressive words4 ,the misinterpretation of a ,spanish word has enlarged mountain-chains on maps1 and created new ranges4 ,,primeval ,,forest4 ,frequent misuse of this term4 ,want of uniformity in the association of the arboral species is characteristic of the forests within the tropics4 ,causes of their imperviousness4 ,the ,climbing plants 7,lianes7 often form but a very inconsiderable portion of the underwood--pp4 #aia-aif4 ,aspect of the ,rio ,apure in its lower course4 ,margin of the forest fenced like a garden by a low hedge of ,sauso 7,hermesia74 ,the wild animals of the forest issue with their young through solitary gaps1 to approach the river-side4 ,herds of large ,capybar1 or ,cavies4 ,fresh-water dolphins--pp4 #aif-aii4 ,the cries of wild animals resound through the forest4 ,cause of the nocturnal noises--pp4 #aii-bjj4 ,contrast to the repose which reigns at noontide on very hot days within the tropics4 ,description of the rocky narrows of the ,orinoco at the ,baraguan4 ,buzzing and humming of insects2 in every shrub1 in the cracked bark of trees1 in the perforated earth1 furrowed by hymenopterous insects1 life is audible and manifest--pp4 #bjj-bja4 ,,scientific ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions pp4 #bjb-bjc4 ,characteristic denominations of the surface of the earth 7,steppes1 ,savannahs1 ,prairies1 ,deserts7 in the ,arabic and ,persian4 ,richness of the dialects of ,old ,castile for designating the forms of mountains4 ,fresh-water rays and fresh-water dolphins4 ,in the giant streams of both continents some organic sea-forms are repeated4 ,american nocturnal apes with cat's eyes2 the tricoloured striped ,douroucoali of the ,cassiquiare--pp4 #bjb-bjc4 ,,hypsometric ,,addenda pp4 #bjd-bji4 ,pentland's measurements in the eastern mountain-chain of ,bolivia4 ,volcano of ,aconcagua1 according to ,fitz-,roy and ,darwin4 ,western mountain-chain of ,bolivia--pp4 #bjd-bje4 ,mountain systems of ,north ,america4 ,rocky ,mountains and snowy chain of ,california4 ,laguna de ,timpanogos--pp4 #bje-bjg4 ,hypsometric profile of the ,highland of ,mexico as far as ,santa ,f--pp4 #bjg-bji4 ,,ideas ,,for ,a ,,physiognomy ,,of ,,plants pp4 #baj-bca4 ,universal profusion of life on the slopes of the highest mountain summits1 in the ocean and in the atmosphere4 ,subterranean ,flora4 ,siliceous-shelled polygastrica in masses of ice at the pole4 ,podurell in the ice tubules of the glaciers of the ,alps2 the glacier-flea 7,desoria glacialis74 ,minute organisms of the dust fogs--pp4 #baj-bac4 ,history of the vegetable covering4 ,gradual extension of vegetation over the naked crust of rock4 ,lichens1 mosses1 oleaginous plants4 ,cause of the present absence of vegetation in certain districts4--pp4 #bac-bbj4 ,each zone has its peculiar character4 ,all animal and vegetable conformation is bound to fixed and ever-recurring types4 ,physiognomy of ,nature4 ,analysis of the combined effect produced by a region4 ,the individual elements of this impression4 ,outline of the mountain ranges2 azure of the sky2 shape of the clouds4 ,that which chiefly determines the character is the vegetable covering4 ,animal organizations are deficient in mass2 the mobility of individual species1 and often their diminutiveness1 conceals them from view--pp4 #bbj-bbc4 ,enumeration of the forms of ,plants which principally determine the physiognomy of ,nature1 and which increase or diminish from the equator towards the ,pole1 in obedience to established laws-- ,text4 ,illustrations4 ,palms pp4 #bbc-bbd pp4 #bif-cjd ,banana form p4 #bbd p4 #cje ,malvace p4 #bbd pp4 #cje-cjg ,mimos p4 #bbe pp4 #cjg-cjh ,erice p4 #bbe pp4 #cjh-caj ,cactus form p4 #bbf pp4 #caj-cab ,form of ,orchide p4 #bbf pp4 #cab-cac ,casuarin p4 #bbf pp4 #cac-cad ,acicular-leaved ,trees p4 #bbg pp4 #cad-cbi ,pothos form1 and that of the ,aroide p4 #bbg pp4 #cbi-cca ,lianes and ,climbing plants pp4 #bbg-bbh pp4 #cca-ccb ,aloes p4 #bbh pp4 #ccb-ccd ,grass form p4 #bbh pp4 #ccd-ccg ,ferns p4 #bbi pp4 #ccg-cda ,lilies p4 #bbi pp4 #cda-cdc ,willow form p4 #bbi p4 #cdc ,myrtles p4 #bbi pp4 #cdc-cdf ,melastomace p4 #bbi p4 #cdf ,laurel form p4 #bbi p4 #cdf ,enjoyment resulting from the natural grouping and contrasts of these plant-forms4 ,importance of the physiognomical study of plants to the landscape-painter--pp4 #bbi-bca4 ,,scientific ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions pp4 #bcb-ceb4 ,organisms1 both animal and vegetable1 in the highest ,alpine regions1 near the line of eternal snow1 in the ,andes chain1 and the ,alps2 insects are carried up involuntarily by the ascending current of air4 ,the small field-mouse 7,hypudus nivalis7 of the ,swiss ,alps4 ,on the real height to which the ,chinchilla laniger mounts in ,chili--pp4 #bcb-bcc4 ,lecide1 ,parmeli on rocks not entirely covered with snow2 but certain phanerogamic plants also stray in the ,cordilleras beyond the boundary of perpetual snow1 thus ,saxifraga ,boussingaulti to #ae1ggc feet above the level of the sea4 ,groups of phanerogamic ,alpine plants in the ,andes chain at from #ac1gjj to nearly #ae1jjj feet high4 ,species of ,culcitium1 ,espeletia1 ,ranunculus1 and small moss-like umbellifera1 ,myrrhis andicola1 and ,fragosa arctioides--pp4 #bcc-bcd4 ,measurement of ,chimborazo1 and etymology of the name--pp4 #bcd-bcf4 ,on the greatest absolute height to which men in both continents1 in the ,cordilleras and the ,himalaya1--on the ,chimborazo and ,tarhigang--have as yet ascended--p4 #bcf4 ,economy1 habitat1 and singular mode of capturing the ,condor 7,cuntur1 in the ,inca language7 by means of palisades--pp4 #bcg-bci4 ,use of the ,gallinazos 7,cathartes urubu and ,c4 aura7 in the economy of nature1 for purifying of the air in the neighbourhood of human dwellings2 their domestication--pp4 #bci-bdj4 ,on the so-called revivification of the rotifera1 according to ,ehrenberg and ,doyre2 according to ,payen1 germs of ,cryptogamia retain their power of reproduction in the highest temperature--pp4 #bdj-bda4 ,diminution1 if not total suspension1 of organic functions in the winter-sleep of the higher classes of animals--p4 #bdb4 ,summer-sleep of animals in the tropics4 ,drought acts like the cold of winter4 ,tenrecs1 ,crocodiles1 ,tortoises1 and ,east-,african ,lepidosirens--pp4 #bdb-bdd4 ,pollen1 ,fructification of ,plants4 ,the experience of many years concerning the ,clebogyne2 it brings forth mature seeds in ,england without a trace of male organs--pp4 #bdd-bde4 ,the phosphorescence of the ,ocean through luminous animals as well as organic fibres and membranes of the decomposing animalcul4 ,acaleph and siliceous-shelled luminous infusoria4 ,influence of nervous irritability on the coruscation--pp4 #bde-bej4 ,pentastoma1 inhabiting the lungs of the rattle-snake of ,cumana--p4 #bea4 ,rock-constructing ,coral animals4 ,the structure surviving the architects4 ,more correct views of the present period4 ,coast-reefs1 ,reefs surrounding islands and ,lagoon-islands4 ,atolls1 ,coral walls inclosing a lagoon4 ,the royal gardens of ,christopher ,columbus1 ,the ,coral ,islands south of ,cuba4 ,the living gelatinous coating of the calcareous fabric of the coral-stems allures fishes in quest of food1 and also turtles4 ,singular mode of fishing with the ,remora1 ,echeneis ,naucrates 7the little angling fish7--pp4 #bea-beh4 ,probable depth of the coralline structures--pp4 #beh-bfj4 ,besides a great quantity of carbonate of lime and magnesia1 the madrepores and ,astre contain also some fluoric and phosphoric acid--pp4 #bfj-bfa4 ,oscillating state of the sea-bottom according to ,darwin--pp4 #bfa-bfb4 ,irruptions of the sea4 ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,sluice-theory of ,strato4 ,samothracian legends4 ,the ,myth of ,lyctonia and the submerged ,atlantis--pp4 #bfb-bff4 ,concerning the precipitation of clouds--p4 #bff4 ,the indurating crust of the earth while giving out caloric4 ,heated currents of air1 which in the primordial period1 during the frequent corrugations of the mountainous strata1 and the upheaval of lands1 have poured into the atmosphere through temporary fissures and chasms--pp4 #bff-bfh4 ,colossal size and great age of certain genera of trees1 e4 g41 the dragon-tree of ,orotava of #ac1 the ,adansonia digitata 7,baobab7 of #cc feet in diameter4 ,carved characters of the #aeth century4 ,adanson assigns to certain ,baobab-stems of ,senegambia an age of from #ejjj to #fjjj years--pp4 #bfh-bgc4 ,according to an estimate based on the number of the annual rings1 there are yews 7,taxus baccata7 of from #bfjj to #cjjj years old4 ,whether in the temperate northern zone that part of a tree which faces the north has narrower rings1 as ,michael ,montaigne asserted in #aeha8 ,gigantic trees1 of which some individuals attain a diameter of above #bj feet and an age of several centuries1 belong to the most opposite natural families--pp4 #bgc-bgd4 ,diameter of the ,mexican ,schubertia disticha of ,santa ,maria del ,tule #dc1 of the oak near ,saintes 7,dep4 de la ,charente inf47 #cj feet4 ,the age of this oak considered by its annual rings to be from #ahjj to #bjjj years4 ,the main stem of the rose-tree 7#bg feet high7 at the crypt of the church of ,hildesheim is #hjj years old4 ,a species of fucus1 ,macrocystis pyrifera1 attains a length of more than #cej feet1 and therefore exceeds all the conifera in length1 not excepting the ,sequoia gigantea itself--pp4 #bgd-bgf4 ,investigations into the supposed number of the phanerogamic species of plants1 which have hitherto been described or are preserved in herbariums4 ,numerical ratios of plant-forms4 ,discovered laws of the geographical distribution of the families4 ,ratios of the great divisions3 of the ,cryptogamia to the ,cotyledons1 and of the ,monocotyledons to the ,dicotyledons1 in the torrid1 temperate1 and frigid zones4 ,outlines of arithmetical botany4 ,number of the individuals1 predominance of social plants4 ,the forms of organic beings stand in mutual dependence on each other4 ,if once the number of species in one of the great families of the ,glumace1 ,leguminos1 or ,composit1 on any one point of the earth1 be known1 an approximative conclusion may be arrived at not only as to the number of all the phanerogamia1 but also of the species of all remaining plant-families growing there4 ,connection of the numerical ratios here treated on in the geographical distribution of the families1 with the direction of the isothermal lines4 ,primitive mystery in the distribution of types4 ,absence of ,roses in the southern1 and of ,calceolarias in the northern zone4 ,why has our heath 7,calluna vulgaris71 and why have our ,oaks not progressed eastwards across the ,ural into ,asia8 ,the vegetation-cycle of each species requires a certain minimum heat for its due organic development--pp4 #bgc-bhg4 ,analogy with the numeric laws in the distribution of animal forms4 ,if more than #ce1jjj species of phanerogamia are now cultivated in ,europe1 and if from #afj1jjj to #bab1jjj phanerogamia are now contained1 described and undescribed1 in our herbariums2 it is probable that the number of collected insects scarcely equals that number of phanerogamia2 whereas in individual ,european districts the insects collected preponderate in a threefold ratio over the phanerogamia--pp4 #bhg-bia4 ,considerations on the proportion borne by the number of the phanerogamia actually ascertained1 to the entire number existing on the globe--pp4 #bia-bie4 ,influence of the pressure of atmospheric strata on the form and life of plants1 with reference to ,alpine vegetation--pp4 #bie-bif4 ,specialities on the plant-forms already enumerated4 ,physiognomy of plants discussed from three different points of view3 the absolute difference of the forms1 their local preponderance in the sum total of the phanerogamic ,floras1 and their geographical as well as climatic dispersion--pp4 #bif-cdf4 ,greatest height of arboral plants2 examples of #bbc to #bdf feet in ,pinus ,lambertiana and ,p4 ,douglasii1 of #bff in ,p4 ,strobus1 of #cjj feet in ,sequoia gigantea and ,pinus trigona4 ,all these examples are from the north-western part of the ,new ,continent4 ,the ,araucaria excelsa of ,norfolk ,island1 accurately measured1 rises only from #ahb to #bbc feet2 the ,alpine palms of the ,cordilleras 7,ceroxylon andicola71 only #aij feet--pp4 #cbb-cbd4 ,a contrast to these gigantic vegetable forms1 presented not merely by the stem of the arctic willow 7,salix arctica1 two inches in height17 stunted by cold and exposure on the mountains1 but also in the tropical plains by the ,tristicha hypnoides1 a phanerogamic plant which is hardly three ,french lines 7quarter of an inch7 in height1 when fully developed--pp4 #cbd-cbe4 ,bursting forth of blossoms from the rough bark of the ,crescentia ,cujete1 of the ,gustavia augusta1 from the roots of the ,cacao tree4 ,the largest blossoms borne by the ,rafflesia ,arnoldi1 ,aristolochia cordata1 ,magnolia1 ,helianthus annuus--p4 #cdh4 ,the different forms of plants determine the scenic character of vegetation in the different zones4 ,physiognomic classification1 or distribution of the groups according to external facies1 is from its basis of arrangement entirely different from the classification according to the system of natural families4 ,the physiognomy of plants is based principally on the so-called organs of vegetation1 on which the preservation of the individual depends2 systematic botany bases the classification of the natural families on the consideration of the organs of reproduction1 on which the preservation of the species depends--pp4 #cdh-ceb4 ,,on ,,the ,,structure ,,and ,,mode ,,of ,,action ,,of ,,volcanos ,,in ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,earth-- pp4 #cec-cge4 ,influence of travels in distant lands on the generalization of our ideas and on the progress of physical orology4 ,influence of the conformation of the ,mediterranean on the earliest ideas respecting volcanic phenomena4--,,comparative ,,geology ,,of ,,volcanos4 ,periodical return of certain revolutions in nature1 the cause of which lies deep in the interior of the globe4 ,proportion of the height of volcanos to that of their cone of ashes in the ,pichincha1 ,peak of ,teneriffe1 and ,vesuvius4 ,changes in the height of volcanic mountain summits4 ,measurements of the margins of the crater of ,vesuvius from #aggc to #ahbb2 the author's measurements embrace the period from #ahje to #ahbb--pp4 #cec-cfe4 ,circumstantial description of the eruption in the night between the #bdth and #beth of ,october1 #ahbb4 ,falling in of a cone of ashes more than #djj feet high1 which stood in the interior of the crater4 ,the eruption of ashes from the #bdth to the #bhth of ,october1 was the most memorable among those1 of which authentic accounts are possessed1 since the time of the elder ,pliny--pp4 #cfe-cga4 ,difference between volcanos that are of very diverse forms1 with permanent craters1 and the phenomena more rarely observed in historic times1 in which trachytic mountains suddenly open1 eject lava and ashes1 and reclose1 perhaps for ever4 ,the latter phenomena are peculiarly instructive for geognosy1 because they remind us of the earliest revolutions that occurred in the oscillating1 upheaved1 fissured surface of the earth4 ,in ancient times they led to the notion of the ,pyriphlegethon4 ,volcanos are intermittent earth-springs1 the result of a permanent or transitory connection between the interior and exterior of our planet1 the result of a reaction of the still fluid interior against the crust of the earth2 hence the question is useless1 as to what chemical substance burns in the volcanos1 and furnishes the material for combustion--pp4 #cga-cgc4 ,the primary cause of subterranean heat is1 as in all planets1 the formative process itself1 the separation of the conglomerating mass from a cosmic vaporous fluid4 ,power and influence of the calorific radiation from numerous deep fissures1 unfilled veins in the primordial world4 ,great independence1 at that period1 of the climate 7atmospheric temperature7 in respect to geographical latitude1 the position of the planet towards the central body1 the sun4 ,organisms of the present tropical world buried in the icy north--pp4 #cgc-cge4 ,,scientific ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions pp4 #cgf-cgi4 ,barometric measurements on ,vesuvius1 comparison of the two crater-margins and the ,rocca del ,palo--pp4 #cgf-cgi4 ,increase of temperature with depth1 being #a of ,fahrenheit for every #ed feet4 ,temperature of the ,artesian well in ,oeynhausen's ,bath 7,new ,salt-works near ,minden71 at the greatest depth yet reached below the level of the sea4 ,as early as the third century the thermal springs near ,carthage led ,patricius1 ,bishop of ,pertusa1 to form correct suppositions respecting the cause of calorific increase in the interior of the earth--p4 #cgi4 ,,vital ,,force1 ,,or ,,the ,,rhodian ,,genius2 ,,an ,,allegory4 pp4 #chj-che4 ,,illustrations ,,and ,,note pp4 #chf-chi4 ,the ,rhodian ,genius is the development of a physiological idea in a mythical garb4 ,difference of views concerning the necessity and nonnecessity for the assumption of peculiar vital forces--pp4 #chf-chg4 ,the difficulty of satisfactorily reducing the vital phenomena of the organism to physical and chemical laws is1 principally1 based on the complexity of the phenomena1 on the multiplicity of forces acting simultaneously1 as well as on the varying conditions of their activity4 ,definition of the expressions1 animate and inanimate matter4 ,criteria of the miscent state ensuing upon separation1 are the simple enunciation of a fact--pp4 #chg-chi4 ,,the ,,plateau ,,of ,,caxamarca1 ,,the ,,ancient ,,capital ,,of ,,the ,,inca ,,atahuallpa1 ,,and ,,first ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,from ,,the ,,ridge ,,of ,,the ,,andes4 pp4 #cij-dbj4 ,cinchona1 or ,quina-woods in the valleys of ,loxa4 ,first use of the fever-bark in ,europe2 the ,vice-,queen ,countess of ,chinchon--pp4 #cij-cib4 ,alpine vegetation of the ,paramos4 ,ruins of ancient ,peruvian causeways2 they rise in the ,paramo del ,assuay almost to the height of ,mont ,blanc--p4 #cid4 ,singular mode of communication1 by a swimming courier--p4 #cii4 ,descent to the ,amazon ,river4 ,vegetation around ,chamaya and ,tomependa2 red groves of ,bougainvilla4 ,rocky ridges which cross the ,amazon ,river4 ,cataracts4 ,narrows of the ,pongo de ,manseriche1 in which the mighty stream1 measured by ,la ,condamine1 is hardly #afj feet broad4 ,fall of the rocky dam of ,rentema1 which for several hours1 laid bare the bed of the river1 to the terror of the inhabitants on its banks--p4 #dja4 ,passage across the ,andes chain1 where it is intersected by the magnetic equator4 ,ammonites of nearly #ae inches1 ,echini and ,isocardia of the chalk-formation1 collected between ,guambos and ,montan1 nearly #ab1hjj feet above the sea4 ,rich silver-mines of ,chota4 ,the picturesque1 tower-like ,cerro de ,gualgayoc4 ,an enormous mass of filamentous virgin silver in the ,pampa de ,navar4 ,a treasure of virgin gold1 twined round with filamentous silver1 in the shell-field 7,choropampa71 so named on account of the numerous fossils4 ,outbursts of silver and gold ores in the chalk-formations4 ,the little mountain-town of ,micuipampa lies #aa1hgc feet above the sea--pp4 #djb-dje4 ,across the mountain wilderness of the ,paramo de ,yanaguanga the traveller descends into the beautiful embosomed valley or rather ,plateau of ,caxamarca 7almost at an equal altitude with the city of ,quito74 ,warm baths of the ,inca4 ,ruins of ,atahuallpa's palace1 inhabited by his indigent descendants1 the family of ,astorpilca4 ,belief entertained there1 in the existence of subterranean golden gardens of the ,inca2 said to be situated in the lovely valley of ,yucay1 under the ,temple of the ,sun at ,cuzco1 and at many other points4 ,conversation with the son of the ,curaca ,astorpilca4 ,the room is still shown in which the unfortunate ,atahuallpa was kept prisoner for nine months1 from the ,november of #aecb2 also the wall on which he made a mark to indicate the height to which he would cause the room to be filled with gold1 if his persecutors would set him free4 ,account of the prince's execution on the #bith of ,august1 #aecc1 and remarks on the so-called 8indelible blood stain0 on a stone slab before the altar in the chapel of the city prison--pp4 #djf-dad4 ,how the hope in a restoration of the ,inca empire1 also indulged in by ,raleigh1 has been maintained among the natives4 ,causes of this fanciful belief--p4 #dad4 ,journey from ,caxamarca to the sea-coast4 ,passage across the ,cordilleras through the ,altos de ,guangamarca4 ,the often disappointed hope of enjoying the sight of the ,pacific from the crest of the ,andes1 at last gratified1 at a height of #ichj feet--pp4 #dae-dbj4 ,,scientific ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions pp4 #dba-dcf4 ,on the origin of the name borne by the ,andes ,chain p4 #dba4 ,epoch of the introduction of ,cinchona 7,peruvian7 bark into ,europe--p4 #dbb4 ,ruins of the ,inca's causeways and fortified dwellings2 ,aposentos de ,mulalo1 ,fortaleza del ,caar1 ,inti-,guaycu--p4 #dbc4 ,on the ancient civilization of the ,chibchas or ,muyscas of ,new ,granada--p4 #dbe4 ,age of the culture of the potato and banana--p4 #dbg4 ,etymology of the word ,cundinamarca1 corrupted from ,cundirumarca1 and which1 in the first years of republican independence1 designated the whole country of ,new ,granada--p4 #dbg4 ,chronometric connection of the city of ,quito with ,tomependa1 on the upper course of the ,amazon ,river1 and the ,callao de ,lima1 the position of which was accurately determined by the transit of ,mercury on the #ith of ,november1 #ahjb--p4 #dbh4 ,on the tedious court ceremonies4 of the ,incas4 ,atahuallpa's imprisonment and unavailing ransom--p4 #dbi4 ,free-thinking of the ,inca ,huayna ,capac4 ,philosophical doubts on the official worship of the sun1 and obstacles to the diffusion of knowledge among the lower and poorer classes of people1 according to the testimony of ,padre ,blas ,valera--p4 #dca4 ,raleigh's project for the restoration of the ,inca dynasty under ,english protection1 which should be granted for an annual tribute of several hundred thousand pounds--p4 #dcb4 ,columbus' earliest evidence of the existence of the ,pacific4 ,it was first seen on the #beth of ,september1 #aeac1 by ,vasco ,nunez de ,balboa1 and first navigated by ,alonso ,martin de ,don ,benito--p4 #dcb4 ,on the possibility of constructing an ,oceanic canal through the isthmus of ,panama 7with fewer locks than the ,caledonian ,canal74 ,points1 the exploration of which has been hitherto totally neglected--p4 #dce4 ,determination of the longitude of ,lima--p4 #dce4 ,,on ,,steppes ,,and ,,deserts4 ,at the foot of the lofty granitic range which1 in the early age of our planet1 resisted the irruption of the waters on the formation of the ,caribbean ,gulf1 extends a vast and boundless plain4 ,when the traveller turns from the ,alpine valleys of ,caracas1 and the island-studded lake of ,tacarigua#a1 whose waters reflect the forms of the neighbouring bananas1--when he leaves the fields verdant with the light and tender green of the ,tahitian sugar-cane1 or the sombre shade of the cacoa groves1--his eye rests in the south on ,steppes1 whose seeming elevations disappear in the distant horizon4 ,from the rich luxuriance of organic life the astonished traveller suddenly finds himself on the dreary margin of a treeless waste4 ,nor hill1 nor cliff rears its head1 like an island in the ocean1 above the boundless plain3 only here and there broken strata of floetz1 extending over a surface of two hundred square miles1 7more than three thousand ,english square miles,c17 appear sensibly higher than the surrounding district4 ,the natives term them banks#b1 as if the spirit of language would convey some record of that ancient condition of the world1 when these elevations formed the shoals1 and the ,steppes themselves the bottom1 of some vast inland sea4 ,even now1 illusion often recalls1 in the obscurity of night1 these images of a former age4 ,for when the guiding constellations illumine the margin of the plain with their rapidly rising and setting beams1 or when their flickering forms are reflected in the lower stratum of undulating vapour1 a shoreless ocean seems spread before us#c4 ,like a limitless expanse of waters1 the ,steppe fills the mind with a sense of the infinite1 and the soul1 freed from the sensuous impressions of space1 expands with spiritual emotions of a higher order4 ,but the aspect of the ocean1 its bright surface diversified with rippling or gently swelling waves1 is productive of pleasurable sensations1--while the ,steppe lies stretched before us1 cold and monotonous1 like the naked stony crust of some desolate planet#d4 ,in all latitudes nature presents the phenomenon of these vast plains1 and each has some peculiar character or physiognomy1 determined by diversity of soil and climate1 and by elevation above the level of the sea4 ,in northern ,europe the ,heaths which1 covered by one sole form of vegetation1 to the exclusion of all others1 extend from the extremity of ,jutland to the mouth of the ,scheldt1 may be regarded as true ,steppes4 ,they are1 however1 both hilly and of very inconsiderable extent when compared with the ,llanos and ,pampas of ,south ,america1 or even with the ,prairies on the ,missouri#e and ,copper ,river1 the resort of the shaggy ,bison and the small ,musk ,ox4 ,the plains in the interior of ,africa present a grander and more imposing spectacle4 ,like the wide expanse of the ,pacific1 they have remained unexplored until recent times4 ,they are portions of a sea of sand1 which towards the east separates fruitful regions from each other1 or incloses them like islands1 as the desert near the basaltic mountains of ,harudsch#f1 where1 in the ,oasis of ,siwah1 rich in date-trees1 the ruins of the temple of ,ammon indicate the venerable seat of early civilization4 ,neither dew nor rain refreshes these barren wastes1 or unfolds the germs of vegetation within the glowing depths of the earth2 for everywhere rising columns of hot air dissolve the vapours and disperse the passing clouds4 ,wherever the desert approaches the ,atlantic ,ocean1 as between ,wadi ,nun and the ,white ,cape1 the moist sea-air rushes in to fill the vacuum caused by these vertically ascending currents of air4 ,the navigator1 in steering towards the mouth of the river ,gambia1 through a sea thickly carpeted with weeds1 infers by the sudden cessation of the tropical east wind#g1 that he is near the far-spreading and radiating sandy desert4 ,flocks of swift-looted ostriches and herds of gazelles wander over this boundless space4 ,with the exception of the newly discovered group of ,oases1 rich in springs1 whose verdant banks are frequented by nomadic tribes of ,tibbos and ,tuarycks#h1 the whole of the ,african deserts may be regarded as uninhabitable by man4 ,it is only periodically that the neighbouring civilized nations venture to traverse them4 ,on tracks whose undeviating course was determined by commercial intercourse thousands of years ago1 the long line of caravans passes from ,tafilet to ,timbuctoo1 or from ,mourzouk to ,bornou2 daring enterprises1 the practicability of which depends on the existence of the camel1 the ship of the desert#i1 as it is termed in the ancient legends of the ,east4 ,these ,african plains cover an area which exceeds almost three times that of the neighbouring ,mediterranean4 ,they are situated partly within and partly near the tropics1 a position on which depends their individual natural character4 ,on the other hand1 in the eastern portion of the old continent the same geognostic phenomenon is peculiar to the temperate zone4 ,on the mountainous range of ,central ,asia1 between the ,gold or ,altai ,mountain and the ,kouen-lien#aj1 from the ,chinese wall to the further side of the ,celestial ,mountains1 and towards the ,sea of ,aral1 over a space of several thousand miles1 extend1 if not the highest1 certainly the largest ,steppes in the world4 ,i myself enjoyed an opportunity1 full thirty years after my ,south ,american travels1 of visiting that portion of the ,steppes which is occupied by ,kalmuck-,kirghis tribes1 and is situated between the ,don1 the ,volga1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and the ,chinese ,lake of ,dsaisang1 and which consequently extends over an area of nearly #b1hjj geographical miles4 ,the vegetation of the ,asiatic ,steppes1 which are sometimes hilly and interspersed with pine forests1 is in its groupings far more varied than that of the ,llanos and the ,pampas of ,caracas and ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the more beautiful portions of the plains1 inhabited by ,asiatic pastoral tribes1 are adorned with lowly shrubs of luxuriant white-blossomed ,rosace1 ,crown ,imperials 7,fritillari71 ,cypripede1 and ,tulips4 ,as the torrid zone is in general distinguished by a tendency in the vegetable forms to become arborescent1 so we also find1 that some of the ,asiatic ,steppes of the temperate zone are characterized by the remarkable height to which flowering plants attain2 as1 for instance1 ,saussure1 and other ,synanthere2 all siliquose plants1 and particularly numerous species of ,astragalus4 ,on crossing the trackless portions of the herb-covered ,steppes in the low carriages of the ,tartars1 it is necessary to stand upright in order to ascertain the direction to be pursued through the copse-like and closely crowded plants that bend under the wheels4 ,some of these ,steppes are covered with grass2 others with succulent1 evergreen1 articulated alkaline plants2 while many are radiant with the effulgence of lichen-like tufts of salt1 scattered irregularly over the clayey soil like newly fallen snow4 ,these ,mongolian and ,tartar ,steppes1 which are intersected by numerous mountain chains1 separate the ancient and long-civilized races of ,thibet and ,hindostan from the rude nations of ,northern ,asia4 ,they have also exerted a manifold influence on the changing destinies of mankind4 ,they have inclined the current of population southward1 impeded the intercourse of nations more than the ,himalayas1 or the ,snowy ,mountains of ,sirinagur and ,gorka1 and placed permanent limits to the progress of civilization and refinement in a northerly direction4 ,history cannot1 however1 regard the plains of ,central ,asia under the character of obstructive barriers alone4 ,they have frequently proved the means of spreading misery and devastation over the face of the earth4 ,some of the pastoral tribes inhabiting this ,steppe1--the ,mongols1 ,get1 ,alani1 and ,usni1--have convulsed the world4 ,if in the course of earlier ages1 the dawn of civilization spread like the vivifying light of the sun from east to west2 so in subsequent ages and from the same quarter1 have barbarism and rudeness threatened to overcloud ,europe4 ,a tawny tribe of herdsmen#aa of ,tukiuish i4 e41 ,turkish origin1 the ,hiongnu1 dwelt in tents of skins on the elevated ,steppe of ,gobi4 ,a portion of this race had been driven southward towards the interior of ,asia1 after continuing for a long time formidable to the ,chinese power4 ,this shock1 7dislodgement of the tribes7 was communicated uninterruptedly as far as the ancient land of the ,fins1 near the sources of the ,ural4,d ,from thence poured forth bands of ,huns1 ,avars1 ,chasars1 and a numerous admixture of ,asiatic races4 ,warlike bodies of ,huns first appeared on the ,volga1 next in ,pannonia1 then on the ,marne and the banks of the ,po1 laying waste those richly cultivated tracts1 where1 since the age of ,antenor1 man's creative art had piled monument on monument4 ,thus swept a pestilential breath from the ,mongolian deserts over the fair ,cisalpine soil1 stifling the tender1 long-cherished blossoms of art6 ,from the ,salt-steppes of ,asia1--from the ,european ,heaths1--smiling in summer with their scarlet1 honey-yielding flowers1--and from the barren deserts of ,africa1 we return to the plains of ,south ,america1 the picture of which ,i have already begun to sketch in rude outline4 ,but the interest yielded by the contemplation of such a picture must arise from a pure love of nature4 ,no ,oasis here reminds the traveller of former inhabitants1 no hewn stone#ab1 no fruit-tree once cultivated and now growing wild1 bears witness to the industry of past races4 ,as if a stranger to the destinies of mankind1 and bound to the present alone1 this region of the earth presents a wild domain to the free manifestation of animal and vegetable life4 ,the ,steppe extends from the littoral chain of ,caracas to the forests of ,guiana1 and from the snow-covered mountains of ,merida1 on whose declivity lies the ,natron lake of ,urao1--the object of the religious superstition of the natives1--to the vast delta formed by the mouth of the ,orinoco4 ,to the south-west it stretches like an arm of the sea#ac1 beyond the banks of the ,meta and of the ,vichada1 to the unexplored sources of the ,guaviare1 and to the solitary mountain group to which the vivid imagination of the ,spanish warriors gave the name of ,paramo de la ,suma ,paz1 as though it were the beautiful seat of eternal repose4 ,this ,steppe incloses an area of #bef1jjj square miles4 ,owing to inaccurate geographical data1 it has often been described as extending in equal breadth to the ,straits of ,magellan1 unmindful that it is intersected by the wooded plain of the ,amazon1 which is bounded to the north by the grassy ,steppes of the ,apure1 and to the south by those of the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,the ,andes of ,cochabamba and the ,brazilian mountains approximate each other by means of separate transverse spurs1 projecting between the province of ,chiquitos and the isthmus of ,villabella#ad4 ,a narrow plain unites the ,hyla of the ,amazon with the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the area of the latter is three times larger than that of the ,llanos of ,venezuela2 indeed so vast in extent1 that it is bounded on the north by palms1 while its southern extremity is almost covered with perpetual ice4 ,the ,tuyu1 which resembles the ,cassowary1 7,struthio ,rhea17 is peculiar to these ,pampas1 as are also those herds of wild dogs#ae1 which dwell in social community in subterranean caverns1 and often ferociously attack man1 for whose defence their progenitors fought4 ,like the greater part of the desert of ,sahara#af1 the ,llanos1 the most northern plains of ,south ,america1 lie within the torrid zone4 ,twice in every year they change their whole aspect1 during one half of it appearing waste and barren like the ,lybian desert2 during the other1 covered with verdure1 like many of the elevated ,steppes of ,central ,asia#ag4 ,the attempt to compare the natural characteristics of remote regions1 and to pourtray the results of this comparison in brief outline1 though a gratifying1 is a somewhat difficult branch of physical geography4 ,a number of causes1 many of them still but little understood#ah1 diminish the dryness and heat of the ,new ,world4 ,among these are3 the narrowness of this extensively indented continent in the northern part of the tropics1 where the fluid basis on which the atmosphere rests1 occasions the ascent of a less warm current of air2 its wide extension towards both the icy poles2 a broad ocean swept by cool tropical winds2 the flatness of the eastern shores2 currents of cold sea-water from the antarctic region1 which1 at first following a direction from south-west to north-east1 strike the coast of ,chili below the parallel of #ce south lat41 and advance as far north on the coasts of ,peru as ,cape ,paria1 where they suddenly diverge towards the west2 the numerous mountains abounding in springs1 whose snow-crowned summits soar above the strata of clouds1 and cause the descent of currents of air down their declivities2 the abundance of rivers of enormous breadth1 which after many windings invariably seek the most distant coast2 ,steppes1 devoid of sand1 and therefore less readily acquiring heat2 impenetrable forests1 which1 protecting the earth from the sun's rays1 or radiating heat from the surface of their leaves1 cover the richly-watered plains of the ,equator1 and exhale into the interior of the country1 most remote from mountains and the ,ocean1 prodigious quantities of moisture1 partly absorbed and partly generated--all these causes produce in the flat portions of ,america a climate which presents a most striking contrast in point of humidity and coolness with that of ,africa4 ,on these alone depend the luxuriant and exuberant vegetation and that richness of foliage which are so peculiarly characteristic of the ,new ,continent4 ,if1 therefore1 the atmosphere on one side of our planet be more humid than on the other1 a consideration of the actual condition of things will be sufficient to solve the problem of this inequality4 ,the natural philosopher need not shroud the explanation of such phenomena in the garb of geological myths4 ,it is not necessary to assume that the destructive conflict of the elements raged at different epochs in the eastern and western hemispheres1 during the early condition of our planet2 or that ,america emerged subsequently to the other quarters of the world from the chaotic covering of waters1 as a swampy island1 the abode of crocodiles and serpents#ai4 ,south ,america presents indeed a remarkable similarity to the south-western peninsula of the old continent1 in the form of its outlines and the direction of its coast-line4 ,but the internal structure of the soil1 and its relative position with respect to the contiguous masses of land1 occasion in ,africa that remarkable aridity which over a vast area checks the development of organic life4 ,four-fifths of ,south ,america lie beyond the ,equator1 and therefore in a region which1 on account of its abundant waters1 as well as from many other causes1 is cooler and moister than our northern hemisphere#bj4 ,to this1 nevertheless1 the most considerable portion of ,africa belongs4 ,the extent from east to west of the ,south ,american ,steppes or ,llanos1 is only one third that of the ,african ,desert4 ,the former are refreshed by the tropical sea wind1 while the latter1 situated in the same parallel of latitude as ,arabia and ,southern ,persia1 are visited by currents of air which have passed over heat-radiating continents4 ,the venerable father of history1 ,herodotus1 so long insufficiently appreciated1 has in the true spirit of a comprehensive observer of nature1 described all the deserts of ,northern ,africa1 ,yemen1 ,kerman1 and ,mekran 7the ,gedrosia of the ,greeks71 as far even as ,mooltan in ,western ,india1 as one sole connected sea of sand#ba4 ,to the action of hot land winds1 may be associated in ,africa1 as far as we know1 a deficiency of large rivers1 of forests that generate cold by exhaling aqueous vapour1 and of lofty mountains4 ,the only spot covered with perpetual snow is the western portion of ,mount ,atlas#bb1 whose narrow ridge1 seen laterally1 appeared to the ancient navigators when coasting the shore1 as one solitary and arial pillar of heaven4 ,this mountain range extends eastward to ,dakul1 where the famed ,carthage1 once mistress of the seas1 lies in crumbling ruins4 ,this range forms a far extended coast-line or ,gtulian rampart1 which repels the cool north winds and with them the vapours rising from the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,mountains of the ,moon1 ,djebel-al-,komr#bc1 fabulously represented as forming a mountainous parallel between the elevated plain of ,habesch--an ,african ,quito--and the sources of the ,senegal1 were supposed to rise above the lower sea line4 ,even the ,cordilleras of ,lupata1 which skirt the eastern coast of ,mozambique and ,monomotapa1 in the same manner as the ,andes bound the western shores of ,peru1 are covered with eternal snow in the gold districts of ,machinga and ,mocanga4 ,but these mountains1 abundantly watered1 are situated at a considerable distance from the vast desert which extends from the southern declivity of the chain of ,atlas to the ,niger1 whose waters flow in an easterly direction4 ,possibly1 these combined causes of aridity and heat would have proved insufficient to convert such large portions of the ,african plains into a dreary waste1 had not some convulsion of nature--as for instance the irruption of the ocean--on some occasion deprived these flat regions of their nutrient soil1 as well as of the vegetation which it supported4 ,the epoch when this occurred1 and the nature of the forces which determined the irruption1 are alike shrouded in the obscurity of the past4 ,perhaps it may have been the result of the great rotatory current#bd1 which drives the warmer waters of the ,gulf of ,mexico over the bank of ,newfoundland to the old continent1 and by which the cocoa-nut of the ,west ,indies and other tropical fruits have been borne to the shores of ,ireland and ,norway4 ,one branch of this oceanic current1 after it leaves the ,azores1 has still1 at the present time1 a south-easterly course1 striking the low range of the sandy coasts of ,africa with a force that is frequently fraught with danger to the mariner4 ,all sea-coasts--but ,i refer here more particularly to the ,peruvian shore between ,amotape and ,coquimbo--afford evidence of the hundreds1 or even thousands of years1 which must pass before the moving sand can yield a firm basis for the roots of herbaceous plants1 in those hot and rainless regions where neither ,lecide nor other lichens can grow#be4 ,these considerations suffice to explain why1 notwithstanding their external similarity of form1 the continents of ,africa and ,south ,america present the most widely different climatic relations and characters of vegetation4 ,although the ,south ,american ,steppe is covered with a thin crust of fruitful earth1 is periodically refreshed by rains1 and adorned with luxuriant herbage1 its attractions were not sufficient to induce the neighbouring nations to exchange the beautiful mountain valleys of ,caracas1 the sea-girt districts1 and the richly watered plains of the ,orinoco1 for this treeless and springless desert4 ,hence on the arrival of the first ,european and ,african settlers1 the ,steppe was found to be almost without inhabitants4 ,the ,llanos are1 it is true1 adapted for the breeding of cattle1 but the primitive inhabitants of the new continent were almost wholly unacquainted with the management of animals yielding milk#bf4 ,scarcely one of the ,american tribes knew how to avail themselves of the advantages which nature1 in this respect1 had placed before them4 ,the ,american aborigines1 who1 from #fe north lat4 to #ee south lat41 constitute 7with the exception1 perhaps1 of the ,esquimaux17 but one sole race1 passed directly from a hunting to an agricultural life without going through the intermediate stage of a pastoral life4 ,two species of indigenous homed cattle 7the ,buffalo and the ,musk ,ox7 graze on the pasture lands of ,western ,canada and ,quivira1 as well as in the neighbourhood of the colossal ruins of the ,aztek fortress1 which rises like some ,american ,palmyra on the desert solitudes of the river ,gila4 ,a long-horned ,mouflon1 resembling the so-called progenitor of the sheep1 roams over the parched and barren limestone rocks of ,california2 while the camel-like ,vicunas1 ,huanacos1 ,alpacas1 and ,llamas1 are natives of the southern peninsula4 ,but of these useful animals the two first only 7viz4 the ,buffalo and the ,musk ,ox7 have preserved their natural freedom for thousands of years4 ,the use of milk and cheese1 like the possession and culture of farinaceous grasses1 is a distinctive characteristic of the nations of the old world#bg4 ,if some few tribes have passed through ,northern ,asia to the western coast of ,america1 and preferring to keep within a temperate climate1 have followed the course of the ridges of the ,andes southward#bh1 such migrations must have been made by routes on which the settlers were unable to transport either flocks or grain4 ,the question here arises1 whether on the downfall of the long-declining empire of the ,hiongnu1 the consequent migration of this powerful race may not have been the means of drawing from the north-east of ,china and ,korea1 bands of settlers1 by whom ,asiatic civilisation was transported to the new continent8 ,if the primitive colonists had been natives of those ,steppes in which agriculture was unknown1 this bold hypothesis 7which as yet is but little warranted by etymological comparisons7 would at all events explain the remarkable absence of the ,cereals in ,america4 ,perhaps contrary winds may have driven to the shores of ,new ,california one of those ,asiatic ,priest-colonies who were instigated by their mystic dreameries to undertake distant voyages1 and of which the history of the peopling of ,japan1 at the time of the ,thsinschihuang-ti1 affords a memorable instance4#bi ,if a pastoral life--that beneficent intermediate stage which binds nomadic bands of hunters to fruitful pasture lands1 and at the same time promotes agriculture--was unknown to the primitive races of ,america1 it is to the very ignorance of such a mode of life that we must attribute the scantiness of population in the ,south ,american ,steppes4 ,but this circumstance allowed freer scope for the forces of nature to develop themselves in the most varied forms of animal life2 a freedom only circumscribed by themselves1 like vegetable life in the forests of the ,orinoco1 where the ,hymena and the giant laurel1 exempt from the ravages of man1 are only in danger of a too luxuriant embrace of the plants which surround them4 ,agoutis1 small spotted antelopes1 the shielded ,armadillo1 which1 rat-like1 terrifies the hare in its subterranean retreat2 herds of slothful ,chiguires1 beautifully striped ,viverr1 whose pestilential odour infects the air2 the great maneless ,lion2 the variegated ,jaguar 7commonly known as the tiger71 whose strength enables it to drag to the summit of a hill the body of the young bull it has slain--these1 and many other forms of animal life#cj roam over the treeless plain4 ,this region1 which may be regarded as peculiarly the habitation of wild animals1 would not have been chosen as a place of settlement by nomadic hordes1 who like the ,indo-,asiatics generally prefer a vegetable diet1 had it not possessed some few fan-palms 7,mauritia7 scattered here and there4 ,the beneficent qualities of this tree of life have been universally celebrated4#ca ,upon this alone subsist the unsubdued tribe of the ,guaranes1 at the mouth of the ,orinoco northward of the ,sierra de ,imataca4 ,when they increased in numbers and became over-crowded1 it is said that1 besides the huts which they built on horizontal platforms supported by the stumps of felled palm-trees1 they also ingeniously suspended from stem to stem spreading mats or hammocks woven of the leaf-stalk of the ,mauritia1 which enabled them1 during the rainy season1 when the ,delta was overflowed1 to live in trees in the manner of apes4 ,these pendent huts were partly covered with clay4 ,the women kindled the fire necessary for their culinary occupations on the humid flooring4 ,as the traveller passed by night along the river1 his attention was attracted by a long line of flame suspended high in the air1 and apparently unconnected with the earth4 ,the ,guaranes owe the preservation of their physical1 and perhaps even of their moral independence1 to the loose marshy soil1 over which they move with fleet and buoyant foot1 and to their lofty sylvan domiciles2 a sanctuary whither religious enthusiasm would hardly lead an ,american ,stylite4#cb ,the ,mauritia not only affords a secure habitation1 but likewise yields numerous articles of food4 ,before the tender spathe unfolds its blossoms on the male palm1 and only at that peculiar period of vegetable metamorphosis1 the medullary portion of the trunk is found to contain a sago-like meal1 which like that of the ,jatropha root1 is dried in thin breadlike slices4 ,the sap of the tree when fermented constitutes the sweet inebriating palm-wine of the ,guaranes4 ,the narrow-scaled fruit1 which resembles reddish pine-cones1 yields1 like the banana and almost all tropical fruits1 different articles of food1 according to the periods at which it is gathered1 whether its saccharine properties are fully matured1 or whether it is still in a farinaceous condition4 ,thus in the lowest grades of man's development1 we find the existence of an entire race dependent upon almost a single tree2 like certain insects which are confined to particular portions of a flower4 ,since the discovery of the new continent1 its plains 7,llanos7 have become habitable to man4 ,here and there towns#cc have sprung up on the shores of the ,steppe-rivers1 built to facilitate the intercourse between the coasts and ,guiana 7the ,orinoco district74 ,everywhere throughout these vast districts the inhabitants have begun to rear cattle4 ,at distances of a day's journey from each other1 we see detached huts1 woven together with reeds and thongs1 and covered with ox-hides4 ,innumerable herds of oxen1 horses1 and mules 7estimated at the peaceful period of my travels at a million and a half7 roam over the ,steppe in a state of wildness4 ,the prodigious increase of these animals of the old world is the more remarkable1 from the numerous perils with which1 in these regions1 they have to contend4 ,when1 beneath the vertical rays of the bright and cloudless sun of the tropics1 the parched sward crumbles into dust1 then the indurated soil cracks and bursts as if rent asunder by some mighty earthquake4 ,and if1 at such a time1 two opposite currents of air1 by conflict moving in rapid gyrations1 come in contact with the earth1 a singular spectacle presents itself4 ,like funnel-shaped clouds1#cd their apexes touching the earth1 the sands rise in vapoury form through the rarefied air in the electrically-charged centre of the whirling current1 sweeping on like the rushing water-spout1 which strikes such terror into the heart of the mariner4 ,a dim and sallow light gleams from the lowering sky over the dreary plain4 ,the horizon suddenly contracts1 and the heart of the traveller sinks with dismay as the wide ,steppe seems to close upon him on all sides4 ,the hot and dusty earth forms a cloudy veil which shrouds the heavens from view1 and increases the stifling oppression of the atmosphere#ce2 while the east wind1 when it blows over the long-heated soil1 instead of cooling1 adds to the burning glow4 ,gradually1 too1 the pools of water1 which had been protected from evaporation by the now seared foliage of the fan-palm1 disappear4 ,as in the icy north animals become torpid from cold1 so here the crocodile and the boa-constrictor lie wrapt in unbroken sleep1 deeply buried in the dried soil4 ,everywhere the drought announces death1 yet everywhere the thirsting wanderer is deluded by the phantom of a moving1 undulating1 watery surface1 created by the deceptive play of the reflected rays of light 7the mirage#cf74 ,a narrow stratum separates the ground from the distant palm-trees1 which seem to hover aloft1 owing to the contact of currents of air having different degrees of heat and therefore of density,e4 ,shrouded in dark clouds of dust1 and tortured by hunger and burning thirst1 oxen and horses scour the plain1 the one bellowing dismally1 the other with outstretched necks snuffing the wind1 in the endeavour to detect1 by the moisture in the air1 the vicinity of some pool of water not yet wholly evaporated4 ,the mule1 more cautious and cunning1 adopts another method of allaying his thirst4 ,there is a globular and articulated plant1 the ,melocactus#cg1 which encloses under its prickly integument an aqueous pulp4 ,after carefully striking away the prickles with his forefeet1 the mule cautiously ventures to apply his lips to imbibe the cooling thistle juice4 ,but the draught from this living vegetable spring is not always unattended by danger1 and these animals are often observed to have been lamed by the puncture of the cactus thorn4 ,even if the burning heat of day be succeeded by the cool freshness of the night1 here always of equal length1 the wearied ox and horse enjoy no repose4 ,huge bats now attack the animals during sleep1 and vampyre-like suck their blood2,f or1 fastening on their backs1 raise festering wounds1 in which mosquitoes1 hippobosces1 and a host of other stinging insects1 burrow and nestle4 ,such is the miserable existence of these poor animals when the heat of the sun has absorbed the waters from the surface of the earth4 ,when1 after a long drought1 the genial season of rain arrives1 the scene suddenly changes#ch4 ,the deep azure of the hitherto cloudless sky assumes a lighter hue4 ,scarcely can the dark space in the constellation of the ,southern ,cross be distinguished at night4 ,the mild phosphorescence of the ,magellanic clouds fades away4 ,even the vertical stars of the constellations ,aquila and ,ophiuchus shine with a flickering and less planetary light4 ,like some distant mountain1 a single cloud is seen rising perpendicularly on the southern horizon4 ,misty vapours collect and gradually overspread the heavens1 while distant thunder proclaims the approach of the vivifying rain4 ,scarcely is the surface of the earth moistened before the teeming ,steppe becomes covered with ,kyllingi1 with the many-panicled ,paspalum1 and a variety of grasses4 ,excited by the power of light1 the herbaceous ,mimosa unfolds its dormant1 drooping leaves1 hailing1 as it were1 the rising sun in chorus with the matin song of the birds and the opening flowers of aquatics4 ,horses and oxen1 buoyant with life and enjoyment1 roam over and crop the plains4 ,the luxuriant grass hides the beautifully spotted ,jaguar1 who1 lurking in safe concealment1 and carefully measuring the extent of the leap1 darts1 like the ,asiatic tiger1 with a cat-like bound on his passing prey4 ,at times1 according to the account of the natives1 the humid clay on the banks of the morasses#ci1 is seen to rise slowly in broad flakes4 ,accompanied by a violent noise1 as on the eruption of a small mud-volcano1 the upheaved earth is hurled high into the air4 ,those who are familiar with the phenomenon fly from it2 for a colossal water-snake or a mailed and scaly crocodile1 awakened from its trance by the first fall of rain1 is about to burst from his tomb4 ,when the rivers bounding the plain to the south1 as the ,arauca1 the ,apure1 and the ,payara1 gradually overflow their banks1 nature compels those creatures to live as amphibious animals1 which1 during the first half of the year1 were perishing with thirst on the waterless and dusty plain4 ,a part of the steppe now presents the appearance of a vast inland sea#dj4 ,the mares retreat with their foals to the higher banks1 which project1 like islands1 above the spreading waters4 ,day by day the dry surface diminishes in extent4 ,the cattle1 crowded together1 and deprived of pasturage1 swim for hours about the inundated plain1 seeking a scanty nourishment from the flowering panicles of the grasses which rise above the lurid and bubbling waters4 ,many foals are drowned1 many are seized by crocodiles1 crushed by their serrated tails1 and devoured4 ,horses and oxen may not unfrequently be seen which have escaped from the fury of this blood-thirsty and gigantic lizard1 bearing on their legs the marks of its pointed teeth4 ,this spectacle involuntarily reminds the contemplative observer of the adaptability granted by an all-provident nature to certain animals and plants4 ,like the farinaceous fruits of ,ceres1 the ox and horse have followed man over the whole surface of the earth--from the ,ganges to the ,rio de la ,plata1 and from the sea-coast of ,africa to the mountainous plain of ,antisana1 which lies higher than the ,peak of ,teneriffe#da4 ,in the one region the northern birch1 in the other the date-palm1 protects the wearied ox from the noonday sun4 ,the same species of animal which contends in eastern ,europe with bears and wolves1 is exposed1 in a different latitude1 to the attacks of tigers and crocodiles6 ,the crocodile and the jaguar are not1 however1 the only enemies that threaten the ,south ,american horse2 for even among the fishes it has a dangerous foe4 ,the marshy waters of ,bera and ,rastro#db are filled with innumerable electric eels1 who can at pleasure discharge from every part of their slimy1 yellow-speckled bodies a deadening shock4 ,this species of gymnotus is about five or six feet in length4 ,it is powerful enough to kill the largest animals when it discharges its nervous organs at one shock in a favourable direction4 ,it was once found necessary to change the line of road from ,uritucu across the ,steppe1 owing to the number of horses which1 in fording a certain rivulet1 annually fell a sacrifice to these gymnoti1 which had accumulated there in great numbers4 ,all other species of fish shun the vicinity of these formidable creatures4 ,even the angler1 when fishing from the high bank1 is in dread lest an electric shock should be conveyed to him along the moistened line4 ,thus1 in these regions1 the electric fire breaks forth from the lowest depths of the waters4 ,the mode of capturing the gymnotus affords a picturesque spectacle4 ,a number of mules and horses are driven into a swamp1 which is closely surrounded by ,indians1 until the unusual noise excites the daring fish to venture on an attack4 ,serpent-like they are seen swimming along the surface of the water1 striving cunningly to glide under the bellies of the horses4 ,by the force of their invisible blows numbers of the poor animals are suddenly prostrated2 others1 snorting and panting1 their manes erect1 their eyes wildly flashing with terror1 rush madly from the raging storm2 but the ,indians1 armed with long bamboo staves1 drive them back into the midst of the pool4 ,by degrees the fury of this unequal contest begins to slacken4 ,like clouds that have discharged their electricity1 the wearied eels disperse4 ,they require long rest and nourishing food to repair the galvanic force which they have so lavishly expended4 ,their shocks gradually become weaker and weaker4 ,terrified by the noise of the trampling horses1 they timidly approach the brink of the morass1 where they are wounded by harpoons1 and drawn on shore by non-conducting poles of dry wood4 ,such is the remarkable contest between horses and fish4 ,that which constitutes the invisible but living weapon of these inhabitants of the water--that1 which awakened by the contact of moist and dissimilar particles#dc1 circulates through all the organs of animals and plants--that which flashing amid the roar of thunder illuminates the wide canopy of heaven--which binds iron to iron1 and directs the silent recurring course of the magnetic needle--all1 like the varied hues of the refracted ray of light1 flow from one common source1 and all blend together into one eternal all-pervading power4 ,i might here close my bold attempt of delineating the natural picture of the ,steppe2 but1 as on the ocean1 fancy delights in dwelling on the recollections of distant shores1 so will we1 ere the vast plain vanishes from our view1 cast a rapid glance over the regions by which the ,steppe is bounded4 ,the northern desert of ,africa separates two races of men which originally belonged to the same portion of the globe1 and whose inextinguishable feuds appear as old as the myth of ,osiris and ,typhon#dd4 ,to the north of ,mount ,atlas there dwells a race characterised by long and straight hair1 a sallow complexion1 and ,caucasian features2 while to the south of ,senegal1 in the direction of ,soudan1 we find hordes of ,negroes occupying various grades in the scale of civilization4 ,in ,central ,asia the ,mongolian ,steppe divides ,siberian barbarism from the ancient civilization of the peninsula of ,hindostan4 ,in like manner1 the ,south ,american ,steppes are the boundaries of a ,european semi-civilization#de4 ,to the north1 between the mountain chain of ,venezuela and the ,caribbean ,sea1 lie1 crowded together1 industrial cities1 clean and neat villages1 and carefully tilled fields4 ,even a taste for arts1 scientific culture1 and a noble love of civil freedom1 have long since been awakened within these regions4 ,to the south1 a drear and savage wilderness bounds the ,steppe4 ,forests1 the growth of thousands of years1 in one impenetrable thicket1 overspread the marshy region between the rivers ,orinoco and ,amazon4 ,huge masses of lead-coloured granite#df contract the beds of the foaming rivers4 ,mountains and forests re-echo with the thunder of rushing waters1 the roar of the tiger-like jaguar1 and the dull rain-foreboding howl of the bearded ape#dg4 ,where the shallower parts of the river disclose a sandbank1 the crocodile may be seen1 with open jaws1 and motionless as a rock1 its uncouth body often covered with birds#dh2 while the chequered boa-constrictor1 its tail lashed round the trunk of a tree1 lies coiled in ambush near the bank1 ready to dart with certain aim on its prey4 ,rapidly uncoiling1 it stretches forth its body to seize the young bull1 or some feebler prey1 as it fords the stream1 and moistening its victim with a viscid secretion1 laboriously forces it down its dilating throat#di4 ,in this grand and wild condition of nature dwell numerous races of men4 ,separated by a remarkable diversity of languages1 some are nomadic1 unacquainted with agriculture1 and living on ants1 gums1 and earth1 mere outcasts of humanity#ej1 such as the ,ottomaks and ,jarures3 others1 for instance the ,maquiritares and ,macos1 have settled habitations1 live on fruits cultivated by themselves1 are intelligent1 and of gentler manners4 ,extensive tracts between the ,cassiquiare and the ,atabapo are inhabited solely by the ,tapir and social apes2 not by man4 ,figures graven on the rocks#ea attest that even these deserts were once the seat of a higher civilization4 ,they bear testimony1 as do also the unequally developed and varying languages 7which are amongst the oldest and most imperishable of the historical records of man71 to the changing destinies of nations4 ,while on the ,steppe tigers and crocodiles contend with horses and cattle1 so on the forest borders and in the wilds of ,guiana the hand of man is ever raised against his fellow man4 ,with revolting eagerness1 some tribes drink the flowing blood of their foes1 whilst others1 seemingly unarmed1 yet prepared for murder1 deal certain death with a poisoned thumb-nail#eb4 ,the feebler tribes1 when they tread the sandy shores1 carefully efface with their hands the traces of their trembling steps4 ,thus does man1 everywhere alike1 on the lowest scale of brutish debasement1 and in the false glitter of his higher culture1 perpetually create for himself a life of care4 ,and thus1 too1 the traveller1 wandering over the wide world by sea and land1 and the historian who searches the records of bygone ages1 are everywhere met by the unvarying and melancholy spectacle of man opposed to man4 ,he1 therefore1 who amid the discordant strife of nations1 would seek intellectual repose1 turns with delight to contemplate the silent life of plants1 and to study the hidden forces of nature in her sacred sanctuaries2 or yielding to that inherent impulse1 which for thousands of years has glowed in the breast of man1 directs his mind1 by a mysterious presentiment of his destiny1 towards the celestial orbs1 which1 in undisturbed harmony1 pursue their ancient and eternal course4,g ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions4 ,footnote #a3 p4 #a--8,the ,lake of ,tacarigua40 ,on advancing through the interior of ,south ,america1 from the coast of ,caracas or of ,venezuela towards the ,brazilian frontier 7from the #ajth degree of north latitude to the equator71 the traveller first passes a lofty chain of mountains 7the littoral chain of ,caracas7 inclining from west to east2 next vast treeless ,steppes or plains 7,los ,llanos71 which extend from the foot of the littoral chain to the left bank of the ,orinoco2 and1 lastly1 the mountain range which gives rise to the cataracts of ,atures and ,maypure4 ,this mountain chain1 which ,i have named the ,sierra ,parime1 passes in an easterly direction between the sources of the ,rio ,branco and ,rio ,esquibo1 in the direction of ,dutch and ,french ,guiana4 ,this region1 which is the seat of the marvellous myths of the ,dorado1 and is composed of a mountain mass1 divided into numerous gridiron-like ridges1 is bounded on the south by the woody plain through which the ,rio ,negro and the ,amazon have formed themselves a channel4 ,those who would seek further instruction regarding these geographical relations1 may compare the large chart of ,la ,cruz ,olmedilla 7#agge71 which has served as the basis of nearly all the more modern maps of ,south ,america1 with that of ,columbia1 which ,i drew up in accordance with my own astronomical determinations of place1 and published in the year #ahbe4 ,the littoral chain of ,venezuela is1 geographically considered1 a portion of the ,peruvian ,andes4 ,these are divided at the great mountain node of the sources of the ,magdalena 7lat4 #a #ee to #b #bj7 into three chains1 running to the south of ,popayan1 the easternmost of which extends into the snowy mountains of ,merida4 ,these mountains gradually decline towards the ,paramo de las ,rosas into the hilly district of ,quibor and ,tocuyo1 which connects the littoral chain of ,venezuela with the ,cordilleras of ,cundinamarca4 ,this littoral chain extends murally and uninterruptedly from ,portocabello to the promontory of ,paria4 ,its mean elevation is scarcely #gej toises1 or #dgif ,english feet2 but some few summits1 like the ,silla de ,caracas 7also called the ,cerro de ,avila71 which is adorned with the purple-flowering ,befaria 7the red-blossomed ,american ,alpine rose71 rise #acej toises1 or #hfcc ,english feet above the level of the sea4 ,the coast of the ,terra ,firma everywhere bears traces of devastation1 giving evidence of the action of the great current which runs from east to west1 and which1 after the disintegration of the ,caribbean ,islands1 formed the present ,sea of the ,antilles4 ,the tongues of land of ,araya and ,chuparipari1 and more especially the coasts of ,cumana and ,new ,barcelona1 present to the geologist a remarkable aspect4 ,the rocky islands of ,boracha1 ,caracas1 and ,chimanas rise like beacon-towers from the sea1 affording evidence of the fearful irruption of the waters against the shattered mountain chain4 ,the ,sea of the ,antilles may once have been an inland sea1 like the ,mediterranean1 which has suddenly been connected with the ocean4 ,the islands of ,cuba1 ,hayti1 and ,jamaica still exhibit the remains of the mountains of micaceous schist which formed the northern boundary of this lake4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the highest peaks are situated at the very point where these islands approach one another the closest4 ,it may be conjectured that the principal nucleus of the chain was situated between ,cape ,tiburon and ,morant ,point4 ,the height of the copper mountains 7montaas de cobre7 near ,saint ,iago de ,cuba has not yet been measured1 but this range is probably higher than the ,blue ,mountains of ,jamaica 7#aach toises1 or #gbgg ,english feet71 whose elevation somewhat exceeds that of the ,pass of ,st4 ,gothard4 ,i have already expressed my conjectures more fully regarding the valley-like form of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and the ancient connection of the continents1 in a treatise written at ,cumana1 entitled ,fragment d'un ,tableau gologique de l',amrique mridionale1 which appeared in the ,journal de ,physique1 ,messidor1 an ,,ix4 ,it is remarkable that ,columbus himself makes mention1 in his official report1 of the connection between the course of the equinoctial current and the form of the coast-line of the ,greater ,antilles4,h ,the northern and more cultivated portion of the province of ,caracas is a mountainous region4 ,the marginal chain is divided1 like that of the ,swiss ,alps1 into many ranges1 enclosing longitudinal valleys4 ,the most remarkable among these is the charming valley of ,aragua1 which produces an abundance of indigo1 sugar1 and cotton1 and1 what is perhaps the most singular of all1 even ,european wheat4 ,the southern margin of this valley is bounded by the beautiful ,lake of ,valencia1 the ancient ,indian name of which was ,tacarigua4 ,the contrast presented by its opposite shores gives it a striking resemblance to the ,lake of ,geneva4 ,the barren mountains of ,guigue and ,guiripa have indeed less grandeur and solemnity of character than the ,savoy ,alps2 but1 on the other hand1 the opposite shore1 which is covered with bananas1 mimos1 and triplaris1 far surpasses in picturesque beauty the vineyards of the ,pays de ,vaud4 ,the lake is #aj leagues1 7of which #bj form a degree of the ,equator71 i4e41 about #cj geographical miles1 in length1 and is thickly studded with small islands1 which continually increase in size1 owing to the evaporation being greater than the influx of fresh water4 ,within the last few years several sandbanks have even become true islands1 and have acquired the significant name of ,las ,aparecidas1 or the 8,newly ,appeared40 ,on the island of ,cura the remarkable species of solanum is cultivated1 which has edible fruit1 and has been described by ,willdenow 7in his ,hortus ,berolinensis1 #ahaf1 ,tab4 xxvii474 ,the elevation of the ,lake of ,tacarigua above the level of the sea is almost #adjj ,french feet 7according to my measurement1 exactly #bcj toises1 i4e41 #adga ,english feet7 less than the mean height of the valley of ,caracas4 ,this lake has several species of fish peculiar to itself1,i and ranks among the most beautiful and attractive natural scenes that ,i am acquainted with in any part of the earth4 ,when bathing1 ,bonpland and myself were often terrified by the appearance of the ,bava1 a species of crocodile-lizard 7,dragonne871 hitherto undescribed1 from three to four feet in length1 of repulsive aspect1 but harmless to man4 ,we found in the ,lake of ,valencia a ,typha1 perfectly identical with the ,european bulrush1 the ,typha angustifolia--a singular and highly important fact in reference to the geography of plants4 ,in the valleys of ,aragua1 skirting the lake1 both varieties of the sugar-cane are cultivated1 viz41 the common ,caa criolla1 and the species newly introduced from the ,south ,sea1 the ,caa de ,otaheiti4 ,the latter variety is of a far lighter and more beautiful green1 and a field of it may be distinguished from the common sugar-cane at a great distance4 ,cook and ,george ,forster were the first to describe it2 but it would appear1 from ,forster's treatise on the edible plants of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 that they were but little acquainted with the true value of this important product4 ,bougainville brought it to the ,isle of ,france1 whence it passed to ,cayenne and 7subsequently to the year #agib7 to ,martinique1 ,saint ,domingo or ,haiti1 and many of the ,lesser ,antilles4 ,the enterprising but unfortunate ,captain ,bligh transported it1 together with the bread-fruit tree1 to ,jamaica4 ,from ,trinidad1 an island contiguous to the continent1 the new sugar-cane of the ,south ,sea passed to the neighbouring coasts of ,caracas4 ,here it has become of greater importance than the bread-fruit tree1 which will probably never supersede so valuable and nutritious a plant as the banana4 ,the ,tahitian sugar-cane is more succulent than the common species1 which is generally supposed to be a native of ,eastern ,asia4 ,it likewise yields one-third more sugar on the same area than the ,caa criolla1 which is thinner in its stalk1 and more crowded with joints4 ,as1 moreover1 the ,west ,indian ,islands are beginning to suffer great scarcity of fuel 7on the island of ,cuba the sugar-pans are heated with orange-wood71 the new plant acquires additional value from the fact of its yielding a thicker and more ligneous cane 7bagaso74 ,if the introduction of this new product had not been nearly simultaneous with the outbreak of the sanguinary ,negro war in ,st4 ,domingo1 the prices of sugar in ,europe would have risen even higher than they did1 owing to the interruption occasioned to agriculture and trade4 ,the important question which here arises1 whether the sugar-cane of ,otaheiti1 when removed from its indigenous soil1 will not gradually degenerate and merge into the common sugar-cane1 has been decided in the negative1 from the experience hitherto obtained on this subject4 ,in the island of ,cuba a caballeria1 that is to say1 an area of #cd1ifi square toises 7nearly #cc ,english acres71 produces #hgj cwt4 of sugar1 if it be planted with the ,tahitian sugar-cane4 ,it is remarkable enough that this important product of the ,south ,sea ,islands should be cultivated precisely in that portion of the ,spanish colonies which is most remote from the ,south ,sea4 ,the voyage from the ,peruvian shore to ,otaheiti may be made in twenty-five days1 and yet1 at the period of my travels in ,peru and ,chili1 the ,tahitian sugar-cane was not yet known in those provinces4 ,the natives of ,easter ,island1 who suffer great distress from want of fresh water1 drink the juice of the sugar-cane1 and1 what is very remarkable in a physiological point of view1 likewise sea-water4 ,on the ,society1 ,friendly1 and ,sandwich ,islands1 the light green and thick stemmed sugar-cane is everywhere cultivated4 ,in addition to the ,caa de ,otaheiti and the ,caa criolla1 a reddish ,african sugar-cane is cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 which is known as the ,caa de ,guinea4 ,it is less succulent than the common ,asiatic variety1 but its juice is esteemed especially well adapted for the preparation of rum4 ,in the province of ,caracas the light green of the ,tahitian sugar-cane forms a beautiful contrast with the dark shade of the cacao plantations4 ,few tropical trees have so thick a foliage as the ,theobroma ,cacao4 ,this noble tree thrives best in hot and humid valleys4 ,extreme fertility of soil and insalubrity of atmosphere are as inseparably connected in ,south ,america as in ,southern ,asia4 ,nay1 it has even been observed that in proportion as the cultivation of the land increases1 and the woods are removed1 the soil and the climate become less humid1 and the cacao plantations thrive less luxuriantly4 ,but while they diminish in numbers in the province of ,caracas1 they spread rapidly in the eastern provinces of ,new ,barcelona and ,cumana1 more especially in the humid woody region lying between ,cariaco and the ,golfo ,triste4 ,footnote #b3 p4 #a--8,the natives term this phenomenon #8banks4'0 ,the ,llanos of ,caracas are covered with a widely-extended formation of ancient conglomerate4 ,on passing from the valleys of ,aragua over the most southern range of the coast chain of ,guigue and ,villa de ,cura1 descending towards ,parapara1 the traveller meets successively with strata of gneiss and micaceous schist1 a probably ,silurian transition rock of argillaceous schist and black limestone2 serpentine and greenstone in detached spheroidal masses2 and lastly1 on the margin of the great plain1 small elevations of augitic amygdaloid and porphyritic schist4 ,these hills between ,parapara and ,ortiz appear to me to be produced by volcanic eruptions on the old sea-shore of the ,llanos4 ,further to the north1 rise the far-famed cavernous and grotesquely-shaped elevations known as the ,morros de ,san ,juan1 which form a species of devil's dyke1 the grain of which is crystalline1 like upheaved dolomite4 ,they are1 therefore1 to be regarded rather as portions of the shore than as islands in the ancient gulf4 ,i consider the ,llanos to have been a gulf1 for when their inconsiderable elevation above the present sea level1 the adaptation of their form to the rotation current1 running from east to west1 and the lowness of the eastern shore between the mouth of the ,orinoco and the ,essequibo are taken into account1 it can scarcely be doubted that the sea once overflowed the whole of this basin between the coast chain and the ,sierra de la ,parime1 extending westward to the mountains of ,merida and ,pamplona 7in the same manner as it probably passed through the plains of ,lombardy to the ,cottian and ,pennine ,alps74 ,moreover1 the inclination or line of strike of these ,llanos is directed from west to east4 ,their elevation at ,calabozo1 a distance of #ajj geographical 7#djj ,english7 miles from the sea1 scarcely amounts to #cj toises1 or #aib ,english feet2 consequently #ae toises 7#if ,english feet7 less than the elevation of ,pavia1 and #de toises 7#bhh ,english feet7 less than that of ,milan in the plain of ,lombardy between the ,swiss ,lepontine ,alps and the ,ligurian ,apennines4 ,this conformation of the land reminds us of ,claudian's expression1 8curvata tumore parvo planities40 ,the surface of the ,llanos is so perfectly horizontal that in many parts over an area of some #dhj ,english square miles1 not a single point appears elevated one foot above the surrounding level4 ,when it is further borne in mind that there is a total absence of all shrubs1 and that in some parts1 as in the ,mesa de ,pavones1 there is not even a solitary palm-tree to be seen1 it may easily be supposed that this sea-like and dreary plain presents a most singular aspect4 ,far as the eye can range1 it scarcely rests on any object elevated many inches above the general level4 ,if the boundary of the horizon did not continually present an undefined flickering and undulating outline1 owing to the condition of the lower strata of air1 and the refraction of light1 solar elevations might be determined by the sextant above the margin of the plain as above the horizon of the sea4 ,this perfect flatness of the ancient sea-bottom renders the banks even more striking4 ,they are composed of broken floetz-strata1 which rise abruptly about two or three feet above the surrounding level1 and extend uniformly over a length of from #aj to #ab geographical 7i4e41 #dj to #dh ,english7 miles4 ,it is here that the small rivers of the ,steppe take their origin4 ,on our return from the ,rio ,negro1 we frequently met with traces of landslips in passing over the ,llanos of ,barcelona4 ,we here found in the place of elevated banks1 isolated strata of gypsum lying from #c to #d toises1 or #ai to #be ,english feet1 below the contiguous rock4 ,further westward1 near the confluence of the ,river ,caura and the ,orinoco1 a large tract of thickly grown forest land to the east of the ,mission of ,san ,pedro de ,alcantara1 fell in after an earthquake in the year #agij4 ,a lake was immediately formed in the plain1 which measured upwards of #cjj toises 7#aiai feet7 in diameter4 ,the lofty trees1 as the ,desmanthus1 ,hymena1 and ,malpighia1 retained their verdure and foliage for a long time after their submersion4 ,footnote #c3 p4 #b--8;,a shoreless ocean seems spread before us40 ,the distant aspect of the ,steppe is the more striking when the traveller emerges from dense forests1 where his eye has been familiarised to a limited prospect and luxuriant natural scenery4 ,i shall ever retain an indelible impression of the effect produced on my mind by the ,llanos1 when1 on our return from the ,upper ,orinoco1 they first broke on our view from a distant mountain1 opposite the mouth of the ,rio ,apure1 near the ,hato del ,capuchino4 ,the last rays of the setting sun illumined the ,steppe1 which seemed to swell before us like some vast hemisphere1 while the rising stars were refracted by the lower stratum of the atmosphere4 ,when the plain has been excessively heated by the vertical rays of the sun1 the evolution of the radiating heat1 the ascent of currents of air1 and the contact of atmospheric strata of unequal density1 continue throughout the night4 ,footnote #d3 p4 #b--8,the naked stony crust40 ,the deserts of ,africa and ,asia acquire a peculiar character from the frequent occurrence of immense tracts of land1 covered by one flat uniform surface of naked rock4 ,in the ,scha-mo1 which separates ,mongolia and the mountain chain of ,ulangom and ,malakha-,oola from the north-west part of ,china1 such rocky banks are termed ,tsy4 ,in the woody plains of the ,orinoco they are found to be surrounded with the most luxuriant vegetation4,j ,in the midst of these flat1 tabular masses of granite and syenite1 several thousands of feet in diameter1 presenting merely a few scattered lichens1 we find in the forests1 or on their margins1 little islands of light soil1 covered with low and ever-flowering plants1 having the appearance of small gardens4 ,the monks settled on the ,upper ,orinoco1 singularly enough regard the whole of these horizontal naked stony plains1 when extending over a considerable area1 as conducive to fevers and other diseases4 ,many of the villages belonging to the mission have been transferred to other spots on account of the general prevalence of this opinion4 ,do these stony flats 7laxas7 act chemically on the atmosphere or influence it only by means of a greater radiation of heat8 ,footnote #e3 p4 #b--8;,compared with the ,llanos and ,pampas of ,south ,america1 or even with the ,prairies on the ,missouri40 ,our physical and geognostic knowledge of the western mountain region of ,north ,america has recently been enriched by the acquisition of many accurate data yielded by the admirable labours of the enterprising traveller ,major ,long1 and his companion ,edwin ,james1 but more especially by the comprehensive investigations of ,captain ,frmont4 ,the knowledge thus established clearly corroborates the accuracy of the different facts which in my work on ,new ,spain ,i could merely advance as hypothetical conjectures regarding the northern plains and mountains of ,america4 ,in natural history1 as well as in historical research1 facts remain isolated until by long-continued investigation they are brought into connection with each other4 ,the eastern shore of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america inclines from south-west to north-east1 as does the ,brazilian coast south of the equator from the ,rio de la ,plata to ,olinda4 ,on both these regions there rise1 at a short distance from the coast line1 two ranges of mountains more nearly parallel to each other than to the western ,andes1 7the ,cordilleras of ,chili and ,peru71 or to the ,north ,mexican chain of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the ,south ,american or ,brazilian mountain system1 forms an isolated group1 the highest points of which1 ,itacolumi and ,itambe1 do not rise above an elevation of #ijj toises1 or #egee ,english feet4 ,the eastern portion of the ridge most contiguous to the sea is the only part that follows a regular inclination from ,s4,s4,w4 to ,n4,n4,e41 increasing in breadth and diminishing in general elevation as it approaches further westward4 ,the chain of the ,parecis hills approximates to the rivers ,itenes and ,guapor1 in the same manner as the mountains of ,aguapehi and ,san ,fernando 7south of ,villabella7 approach the lofty ,andes of ,cochabamba and ,santa ,cruz de la ,sierra4 ,there is no direct connection between the two mountain systems of the ,atlantic and ,south-sea coasts 7the ,brazilian and the ,peruvian ,cordilleras72 ,western ,brazil being separated from ,eastern or ,upper ,peru by the low lands of the province of ,chiquitos1 which is a longitudinal valley that inclines from north to south1 and communicates both with the plains of the ,amazon and of the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,in these regions1 as in ,poland and ,russia1 a ridge of land1 sometimes imperceptible 7termed in ,slavonic ,uwaly71 forms the line of separation between different rivers2 as for instance1 between the ,pilcomayo and ,madeira1 between the ,aguapehi and ,guapor1 and between the ,paraguay and the ,rio ,topayos4 ,the ridge 7seuil7 extends from ,chayanta and ,pomabamba 7#ai-bj lat417 in a south-easterly direction1 and after intersecting the depressed tracts of the province of ,chiquitos1 7which has become almost unknown to geographers since the expulsion of the ,jesuits17 forms to the north-east1 where some scattered mountains are again to be met with1 the divortia aquarum at the sources of the ,baures and near ,villabella 7#ae-ag lat47 ,this water-line of separation which is so important to the general intercourse and growing civilization of different nations corresponds in the northern hemisphere of ,south ,america with a second line of demarcation 7#b-c lat47 which separates the district of the ,orinoco from that of the ,rio ,negro and the ,amazon4 ,these elevations or risings in the midst of the plains 7terr tumores1 according to ,frontinus7 may almost be regarded as undeveloped mountain-systems1 designed to connect two apparently isolated groups1 the ,sierra ,parime and the ,brazilian highlands1 to the ,andes chain of ,timana and ,cochabamba4 ,these relations1 to which very little attention has hitherto been directed1 form the basis of my division of ,south ,america into three depressions or basins1 viz41 those of the ,orinoco in its lower course1 of the ,amazon1 and of the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,of these three basins1 the exterior ones1 as ,i have already observed1 are ,steppes or ,prairies2 but the central one between the ,sierra ,parime and the ,brazilian chain of mountains must be regarded as a wooded plain or ,hyla4 ,in endeavouring by a few equally brief touches to give a sketch of the natural features of ,north ,america1 we must first glance at the chain of the ,andes1 which1 narrow at its origin1 soon increases in height and breadth as it follows an inclination from south-east to north-west1 passing through ,panama1 ,veragua1 ,guatimala1 and ,new ,spain4 ,this range of mountains1 formerly the seat of an ancient civilization1 presents a like barrier to the general current of the sea between the tropics1 and to a more rapid intercommunication between ,europe1 ,western ,africa1 and ,eastern ,asia4 ,from the #agth degree of latitude at the celebrated ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec1 the chain deflects from the shores of the ,pacific1 and inclining from south to north becomes an inland ,cordillera4 ,in ,northern ,mexico1 the ,crane ,mountains 7,sierra de las ,grullas7 constitute a portion of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,on their western declivity rise the ,columbia and the ,rio ,colorado of ,california2 on the eastern side the ,rio ,roxo of ,natchitoches1 the ,canadian river1 the ,arkansas1 and the shallow river ,platte1 which latter has recently been converted by some ignorant geographers1 into a ,rio de la ,plata1 or a river yielding silver4 ,between the sources of these rivers rise in the parallels of #cg #bj and #dj #ac lat41 three huge peaks composed of granite1 containing little mica1 but a large proportion of hornblende4 ,these have been respectively named ,spanish ,peak1 ,james or ,pike's ,peak1 and ,big ,horn or ,long's ,peak4,k ,their elevation exceeds that of the highest summits of the ,north ,mexican ,andes1 which indeed nowhere attain the height of the line of perpetual snow from the parallels of #ah and #ai lat41 or from the group of ,orizaba1 7#bgag toises1 or #ag1cgd ,english feet71 and of ,popocatepetl 7#bgga toises1 or #ag1gbj ,english feet7 to ,santa ,f and ,taos in ,new ,mexico4 ,james' ,peak 7#ch #dh lat47 is said to have an elevation of #aa1dig ,english feet4 ,of this only #hecg feet have been determined by trigonometrical measurement1 the remainder being deduced in the absence of barometrical observations1 from uncertain calculations of the declivity or fall of rivers4 ,as it is scarcely ever possible1 even at the level of the sea1 to conduct a purely trigonometrical measurement1 determinations of impracticable heights are always in part barometrical4 ,measurements of the fall of rivers1 of their rapidity and of the length of their course1 are so deceptive1 that the plain at the foot of the ,rocky ,mountains1 more especially near those summits mentioned in the text1 was1 before the important expedition of ,captain ,frmont1 estimated sometimes at #hjjj and sometimes at #cjjj feet above the level of the sea4,l ,from a similar deficiency of barometrical measurements1 the true height of the ,himalaya remained for a long time uncertain2 now1 however1 science has made such advances in ,india1 that when ,captain ,gerard had ascended on the ,tarhigang1 near the ,sutledge1 north of ,shipke1 to the height of #ai1daa feet1 he still had1 after having broken three barometers1 four equally correct ones remaining4,m ,frmont1 in the expedition which he made between the years #ahdb and #ahdd1 at the command of the ,united ,states ,government1 discovered and measured barometrically the highest peak of the whole chain of the ,rocky ,mountains to the north-north-west of ,spanish1 ,james'1 ,long's1 and ,laramie's ,peaks4 ,this snow-covered summit1 which belongs to the group of the ,wind ,river ,mountains1 bears the name of ,frmont's ,peak on the great chart published under the direction of ,colonel ,abert1 chief of the topographical department at ,washington4 ,this point is situated in the parallel of #dc #aj north lat41 and #aaj #g west long41 and therefore nearly #e #cj north of ,spanish ,peak4 ,the elevation of ,frmont's ,peak1 which according to direct measurement is #ac1efh feet1 must therefore exceed by #bjgb feet that given by ,long to ,james' ,peak1 which would appear from its position to be identical with ,pike's ,peak1 as given in the map above referred to4 ,the ,wind ,river ,mountains constitute the dividing ridge 7divortia aquarum7 between the two seas4 8,from the summit10 says ,captain ,frmont in his official report1,n 8we saw on the one side numerous lakes and streams1 the sources of the ,rio ,colorado1 which carries its waters through the ,californian ,gulf to the ,south ,sea2 on the other1 the deep valley of the ,wind ,river1 where lie the sources of the ,yellowstone ,river1 one of the main branches of the ,missouri which unites with the ,mississippi at ,st4 ,louis4 ,far to the north-west we could just discover the snowy heads of the ,trois ,tetons1 which give rise to the true sources of the ,missouri not far from the primitive stream of the ,oregon or ,columbia river1 which is known under the name of ,snake ,river1 or ,lewis ,fork40 ,to the surprise of the adventurous travellers1 the summit of ,frmont's ,peak was found to be visited by bees4 ,it is probable that these insects1 like the butterflies which ,i found at far higher elevations in the chain of the ,andes1 and also within the limits of perpetual snow1 had been involuntarily drawn thither by ascending currents of air4 ,i have even seen large winged lepidoptera1 which had been carried far out to sea by land-winds1 drop on the ship deck at a considerable distance from land in the ,south ,sea4 ,frmont's map and geographical researches embrace the immense tract of land extending from the confluence of ,kanzas ,river with the ,missouri1 to the cataracts of the ,columbia and the ,missions of ,santa ,barbara and ,pueblo de los ,angeles in ,new ,california1 presenting a space amounting to #bh degrees of longitude 7about #acfj miles7 between the #cdth and #deth parallels of north latitude4 ,four hundred points have been hypsometrically determined by barometrical measurements1 and for the most part1 astronomically3 so that it has been rendered possible to delineate the profile above the sea's level of a tract of land measuring #c1fjj miles with all its inflections1 extending from the north of ,kanzas ,river to ,fort ,vancouver and to the coasts of the ,south ,sea 7almost #gbj miles more than the distance from ,madrid to ,tobolsk74 ,as ,i believe ,i was the first who attempted to represent1 in geognostic profile1 the configuration of entire countries1 as the ,spanish ,peninsula1 the highland of ,mexico1 and the ,cordilleras of ,south ,america 7for the half-perspective projections of the ,siberian traveller1 the ,abb ,chappe1,o were based on mere and for the most part on very inaccurate estimates of the falls of rivers72 it has afforded me special satisfaction to find the graphical method of representing the earth's configuration in a vertical direction1 that is1 the elevation of solid over fluid parts1 achieved on so vast a scale4 ,in the mean latitudes of #cg to #dc the ,rocky ,mountains present1 besides the great snow-crowned summits1 whose height may be compared to that of the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 elevated plateaux of an extent scarcely to be met with in any other part of the world1 and whose breadth from east to west is almost twice that of the ,mexican highlands4 ,from the range of the mountains1 which begin a little westward of ,fort ,laramie1 to the further side of the ,wahsatch ,mountains1 the elevation of the soil is uninterruptedly maintained from five to upwards of seven thousand feet above the sea's level2 nay1 this elevated portion occupies the whole space between the true ,rocky ,mountains and the ,californian snowy coast range from #cd to #de north latitude4 ,this district1 which is a kind of broad longitudinal valley1 like that of the lake of ,titicaca1 has been named ,the ,great ,basin by ,joseph ,walker and ,captain ,frmont1 travellers well acquainted with these western regions4 ,it is a terra incognita of at least #hjjj geographical 7or #abh1jjj ,english7 square miles1 arid1 almost uninhabited1 and full of salt lakes1 the largest of which is #cidj ,parisian 7or #dbjj ,english7 feet above the level of the sea1 and is connected with the narrow ,lake ,utah1,p into which the 8,rock ,river0 7,timpan ,ogo in the ,utah language7 pours its copious stream4 ,father ,escalante1 in his wanderings from ,santa ,f del ,nuevo ,mexico to ,monterey in ,new ,california1 discovered ,frmont's 8,great ,salt ,lake0 in #aggf1 and confounding together the river and the lake1 called it ,laguna de ,timpanogo4 ,under this name ,i inserted it in my map of ,mexico1 which gave rise to much uncritical discussion regarding the assumed non-existence of a large inland salt lake1,q--a question previously mooted by the learned ,american traveller ,tanner4 ,gallatin expressly says in his memoir on the aboriginal races,r--8,general ,ashley and ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,smith have found the ,lake ,timpanogo in the same latitude and longitude nearly as had been assigned to it in ,humboldt's ,atlas of ,mexico40 ,i have purposely dwelt at length on these considerations regarding the remarkable elevation of the soil in the region of the ,rocky ,mountains1 since by its extension and height it undoubtedly exercises a great1 although hitherto unappreciated influence on the climate of the northern half of the new continent1 both in its southern and eastern portions4 ,on this vast and uniformly elevated plateau ,frmont found the water covered with ice every night in the month of ,august4 ,nor is the configuration of the land less important when considered in reference to the social condition and progress of the great ,north ,american ,united ,states4 ,although the mountain range which divides the waters attains a height nearly equal to that of the passes of ,mount ,simplon 7#fagj ,parisian or #fegf ,english feet71 ,mount ,gothard 7#fddj ,parisian or #fhfc ,english feet71 and the great ,st4 ,bernard 7#gdgf ,parisian or #gieg ,english feet71 the ascent is so prolonged and gradual that no impediments oppose a general intercourse by means of vehicles and carriages of every kind between the ,missouri and ,oregon territories1 between the ,atlantic ,states1 and the new settlements on the ,oregon 7or ,columbia7 river1 or between the coast-lands lying opposite to ,europe on the one side of the continent1 and to ,china on the other4 ,the distance from ,boston to the old settlement of ,astoria on the ,pacific at the mouth of the ,oregon when measured in a direct line1 and taking into account the difference of longitude1 is #eej geographical1 i4e41 #bbjj ,english miles1 or one-sixth less than the distance between ,lisbon and ,katherinenburg in the ,ural district4 ,on account of this gentle ascent of the elevated plains leading from the ,missouri to ,california and the ,oregon territory 7all the resting-places measured between the ,fort and ,river ,lamarie on the northern branch of the ,platte river to ,fort ,hall on the ,lewis ,fork of the ,columbia1 being situated at an elevation of from five to upwards of seven thousand feet1 and that in ,old ,park even at the height of #igfj ,parisian or #aj1djb ,english feet671 considerable difficulty has been experienced in determining the culminating point1 or that of the divortia aquarum4 ,it is south of the ,wind ,river ,mountains1 about midway between the ,mississippi and the coast line of the ,southern ,ocean1 and is situated at an elevation of #gdij feet1 or only #dhj feet lower than the pass of the ,great ,bernard4 ,the emigrants call this culminating point the ,south ,pass4,s ,it is situated in a pleasant region1 embellished by a profusion of artemisi1 especially ,a4 tridentata 7,nuttall71 and varieties of asters and cactuses1 which cover the micaceous slate and gneiss rocks4 ,astronomical determinations place its latitude in the parallel of #db #bd1 and its longitude in that of #aji #bd ,w4 ,adolf ,erman has already drawn attention to the fact1 that the line of strike of the great east-,asiatic ,aldanian mountain-chain1 which separates the basin of the ,lena from the rivers flowing towards the ,great ,southern ,ocean1 if extended in the form of a great circle on the surface of the globe1 passes through many of the summits of the ,rocky ,mountains between #dj and #ee north lat4 8,an ,american and an ,asiatic mountain-chain10 he remarks1 8appear therefore to be only portions of one and the same fissure erupted by the shortest channels40,t ,the western high mountain coast chain of the ,californian maritime ,alps1 the ,sierra ,nevada de ,california1 is wholly distinct from the ,rocky ,mountains1 which sink towards the ,mackenzie ,river 7that remains covered with ice for a great portion of the year71 and from the high table land on which rise individual snow-covered peaks4 ,however injudicious the choice of the appellation of ,rocky ,mountains may be1 when applied to the most northerly prolongation of the ,mexican central chain1 ,i do not deem it expedient to substitute for it the denomination of the ,oregon ,chain1 as has frequently been attempted4 ,these mountains do indeed give rise to the sources of three main branches constituting the great ,oregon or ,columbia river 7viz41 ,lewis'1 ,clarke's1 and ,north ,fork72 but this mighty stream also intersects the chain of the ever snow-crowned maritime ,alps of ,california4 ,the name of ,oregon ,territory is also employed1 politically and officially1 to designate the lesser territory of land west of the coast chain1 where ,fort ,vancouver and the ,walahmutti settlements are situated2 and it would therefore seem better to abstain from applying the name of ,oregon either to the central or to the coast chain4 ,this denomination1 moreover1 led the celebrated geographer ,malte-,brun into a misconception of the most remarkable kind4 ,he read in an old ,spanish chart the following passage3--8,and it is still unknown 7y aun se ignora7 where the source of this river0 7now called the ,columbia7 8is situated10 and he believed that the word ignora signified the name of the ,oregon4,u ,the rocks which give rise to the cataracts of the ,columbia at the point where the river breaks through the chain1 mark the prolongation of the ,sierra ,nevada of ,california from the #ddth to the #dgth degree of latitude4,v ,in this northern prolongation of the chain lie the three colossal elevations of ,mount ,jefferson1 ,mount ,hood1 and ,mount ,st4 ,helen's1 which rise #ad1edj ,parisian 7or #ae1ejj ,english7 feet above the sea-level4 ,the height of this coast chain or range far exceeds therefore that of the ,rocky ,mountains4 8,during an eight months' journey along these maritime ,alps10 says ,captain ,frmont1,w 8we were constantly within sight of snow-covered summits2 and while we were able to cross the ,rocky ,mountains through the ,south ,pass at an elevation of #gjbg feet1 we found that the passes in the maritime range1 which is divided into several parallel chains1 were more than #bjjj feet higher0--and therefore only #aagj 7,english7 feet below the summit of ,mount ,etna4 ,it is also a very remarkable fact1 and one which reminds us of the relations of the eastern and western ,cordilleras of ,chili1 that volcanoes still active are only found in the ,californian chain which lies in the closest proximity to the sea4 ,the conical mountains of ,regnier and of ,st4 ,helen's are almost invariably observed to emit smoke2 and on the #bcrd of ,november1 #ahdc1 the latter of these volcanoes erupted a mass of ashes which covered the shores of the ,columbia for a distance of forty miles1 like a fall of snow4 ,to the volcanic ,californian chain belong also in the far north of ,russian ,america1 ,mount ,elias 7according to ,la ,prouse #aihj toises1 or #ab1ffj feet1 and according to ,malaspina #bgib toises1 or #ag1hej feet in height71 and ,mount ,fair ,weather 7,cerro de ,buen ,tiempo1 #bcjd toises1 or #ad1gcc feet high74 ,both these conical mountains are regarded as still active volcanoes4 ,frmont's expedition1 which has proved alike useful in reference to botany and geognosy1 likewise collected volcanic products in the ,rocky ,mountains 7as scoriaceous basalt1 trachyte1 and true obsidian71 and discovered an old extinct crater somewhat to the east of ,fort ,hall 7#dc #b north lat41 and #aab #bh west long471 but no traces of any still active volcanoes emitting lava and ashes1 were to be met with4 ,we must not confound with these the hitherto unexplained phenomenon termed smoking hills1 ctes brles1 and terrains ardens1 in the language of the ,english settlers and the natives who speak ,french4 8,rows of low conical hills10 says the accurate observer ,m4 ,nicollet1 8are almost periodically1 and sometimes for two or three years continually1 covered with dense black smoke1 unaccompanied by any visible flames4 ,this phenomenon is more particularly noticed in the territory of the ,upper ,missouri1 and still nearer to the eastern declivity of the ,rocky ,mountains1 where there is a river named by the natives ,mankizitah-watpa1 or the river of smoking earth4 ,scorified pseudo-volcanic products1 a kind of porcelain jasper1 are found in the vicinity of the smoking hills40 ,since the expedition of ,lewis and ,clarke an opinion has generally prevailed that the ,missouri deposits a true pumice on its banks2 but here white masses of a delicate cellular texture have been mistaken for that substance4 ,professor ,ducatel was of opinion that the phenomenon which is chiefly observed in the chalk formation1 was owing to 8the decomposition of water by sulphur pyrites and to a reaction on the brown coal floetzes40,x ,if before we close these general remarks regarding the configuration of ,north ,america we once more cast a glance at those regions which separate the two diverging coast chains from the central chain1 we shall find in strong contrast1 on the ,west1 between that central chain and the ,californian ,alps of the ,pacific1 an arid and uninhabited elevated plateau nearly six thousand feet above the sea2 and in the ,east1 between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,alleghanies4 7whose highest points1 ,mount ,washington and ,mount ,marcy1 rise1 according to ,lyell1 to the respective heights1 of #ffeb and #edjj feet17 we see the richly watered1 fruitful1 and thickly-inhabited basin of the ,mississippi1 at an elevation of from four to six hundred feet1 or more than twice that of the plains of ,lombardy4 ,the hypsometrical character of this eastern valley1 or in other words1 its relation to the sea's level1 has only very recently been explained by the admirable labours of the talented ,french astronomer ,nicollet1 unhappily lost to science by a premature death4 ,his great chart of the ,upper ,mississippi1 executed between the years #ahcf and #ahdj1 was based on two hundred and forty astronomical determinations of latitude1 and one hundred and seventy barometrical determinations of elevation4 ,the plain which encloses the valley of the ,mississippi is identical with that of northern ,canada1 and forms part of one and the same depressed basin1 extending from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,arctic ,sea4,y ,wherever the low land falls in undulations1 and slight elevations which still retain their un-,english appellation of cteaux des prairies1 cteaux des bois1 occur in connected rows between the parallels of #dg and #dh north lat41 these rows and gentle undulations of the ground separate the waters between ,hudson's ,bay and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,such a line of separation between the waters is formed1 north of ,lake ,superior or ,kichi ,gummi1 by the ,missabay ,heights1 and further west by the elevations known as ,hauteurs des ,terres1 in which are situated the true sources of the ,mississippi1 one of the largest rivers in the world1 and which were not discovered till the year #ahcb4 ,the highest of these chains of hills hardly attains an elevation of from #aejj to #afjj feet4 ,from its mouth 7the old ,french ,balize7 to ,st4 ,louis1 somewhat to the south of its confluence with the ,missouri1 the ,mississippi has a fall of only #chj feet1 notwithstanding that the itinerary distance between these two points exceeds #abhj miles4 ,the surface of ,lake ,superior lies at an elevation of #fah feet1 and as its depth in the neighbourhood of the island of ,magdalena is fully #gij feet1 its bottom must be #agb feet below the surface of the ocean4,z ,beltrami1 who in #ahbe separated himself from ,major ,long's expedition1 boasted that he had found the sources of the ,mississippi in ,lake ,cass4 ,the river passes1 in its upper course1 through four lakes1 the second of which is the one referred to1 while the outermost one1 ,lake ,istaca 7#dg #ac north lat41 and #ie west long471 was first recognised as the true source of the ,mississippi1 in #ahcb1 in the expedition of ,schoolcraft and ,lieutenant ,allen4 ,this stream1 which subsequently becomes so mighty1 is only #ag feet in width1 and #ae inches deep1 when it issues from the singular horse-shoe-shaped ,lake ,istaca4 ,the local relations of this river were first fully established on a basis of astronomical observations of position by the scientific expedition of ,nicollet1 in the year #ahcf4 ,the height of the sources1 that is to say1 of the last access of water received by ,lake ,istaca from the ridge of separation1 called ,hauteur de ,terre1 is #afhj feet above the level of the sea4 ,near this point1 and at the southern declivity of the same separating ridge1 lies ,elbow ,lake1 the source of the small ,red ,river of the north1 which empties itself1 after many windings1 into ,hudson's ,bay4 ,the ,carpathian ,mountains exhibit similar relations in reference to the origin of the rivers which empty themselves into the ,baltic and the ,black ,sea4 ,m4 ,nicollet gave the names of celebrated astronomers1 opponents as well as friends1 with whom he had become acquainted in ,europe1 to the twenty small lakes which combine together to form narrow groups in the southern and western regions of ,lake ,istaca4 ,his atlas is thus converted into a geographical album1 reminding one of the botanical album of the ,flora ,peruviana of ,ruiz and ,pavon1 in which the names of new families of plants were made to accord with the ,court ,calendar1 and the various alterations made in the ,oficiales de la ,secretaria4 ,the east of the ,mississippi is still occupied by dense forests2 the west by prairies only1 on which the buffalo 7,bos ,americanus7 and the musk ox 7,bos moschatus7 pasture4 ,these two species of animals1 the largest of the new world1 furnish the nomadic tribes of the ,apaches-,llaneros and ,apaches-,lipanos with the means of nourishment4 ,the ,assiniboins occasionally slay from seven to eight hundred bisons in the course of a few days in the artificial enclosures constructed for the purpose of driving together the wild herds1 and known as bison parks4,,aa ,the ,american bison1 called by the ,mexicans ,cibolo1 is killed chiefly on account of the tongue1 which is regarded as a special delicacy4 ,this animal is not a mere variety of the aurochs of the old world2 although1 like other species of animals1 as for instance the elk 7,cervus alces7 and the reindeer 7,cervus tarandus71 no less than the stunted inhabitants of the polar regions1 it may be regarded as common to the northern portions of all continents1 and as affording a proof of their former long existing connection4 ,the ,mexicans apply to the ,european ox the ,aztec term quaquahue1 or horned animal1 from quaquahuitl1 a horn4 ,the huge ox-horns which have been found in ancient ,mexican buildings near ,cuernavaca1 south-west of the capital of ,mexico1 appear to me to belong to the bison4 ,the ,canadian bison can be used for agricultural labour1 and will breed with the ,european cattle1 although it is uncertain whether the hybrid thus engendered is capable of propagating its species4 ,albert ,gallatin1 who1 before his appearance in ,europe as a distinguished diplomatist1 had acquired by personal observation a considerable amount of information regarding the uncultivated parts of the ,united ,states1 assures us that the fruitfulness of the mixed breed of the ,american buffalo and ,european cattle is an undoubted fact3 8the mixed breed10 he writes1 8was quite common fifty years ago in some of the north-western counties of ,virginia1 and the cows1 the issue of that mixture1 propagated like all others40 8,i do not remember10 he further adds1 8that full-grown buffaloes were tamed2 but dogs would at that time occasionally bring in the young bison-calves1 which were reared and bred with ,european cows4 ,at ,monongahela all the cattle for a long time were of this mixed breed4 ,it was said1 however1 that the cows yielded but little milk40 ,the favourite food of the buffalo is the ,tripsacum dactyloides 7known as buffalo-grass in ,north ,carolina7 and a hitherto undescribed species of clover allied to the ,trifolium repens1 and designated by ,barton as ,trifolium bisonicum4 ,i have elsewhere,,ab drawn attention to the fact1 that according to a passage of the trustworthy ,gomara,,ac1 there lived1 as late as the sixteenth century1 an ,indian tribe in the north-west of ,mexico1 in #dj north lat41 whose greatest wealth consisted in hordes of tamed buffaloes 7bueyes con una giba74 ,yet1 notwithstanding the possibility of taming the buffalo1 and the abundance of milk it yields1 and notwithstanding the herds of ,lamas in the ,peruvian ,cordilleras1 no pastoral tribes were met with on the discovery of ,america4 ,nor does history afford any evidence of the existence1 at any period1 of this intermediate stage of national development4 ,it is also a remarkable fact that the ,north ,american bison or buffalo has exerted an influence on geographical discoveries in pathless mountain districts4 ,these animals advance in herds of many thousands in search of a milder climate1 during winter1 in the countries south of the ,arkansas river4 ,their size and cumbrous forms render it difficult for them to cross high mountains on these migratory courses1 and a well-trodden buffalo-path is therefore followed wherever it is met with1 as it invariably indicates the most convenient passage across the mountains4 ,thus buffalo-paths have indicated the best tracks for passing over the ,cumberland ,mountains in the south-western parts of ,virginia and ,kentucky1 and over the ,rocky ,mountains1 between the sources of the ,yellowstone and ,plate rivers1 and between the southern branch of the ,columbia and the ,californian ,rio ,colorado4 ,european settlements have gradually driven the buffalo from the eastern portions of the ,united ,states4 ,formerly these migratory animals passed the banks of the ,mississippi and the ,ohio1 advancing far beyond ,pittsburgh4,,ad ,from the granitic rocks of ,diego ,ramirez and the deeply-intersected district of ,terra del ,fuego 7which in the east contains silurian schist1 and in the west1 the same schist metamorphosed into granite by the action of subterranean fire17,,ae to the ,north ,polar ,sea1 the ,cordilleras extend over a distance of more than #hjjj miles4 ,although not the loftiest1 they are the longest mountain chain in the world1 being upheaved from one fissure1 which runs in the direction of a meridian from pole to pole1 and exceeding in linear extent the distance which1 in the old continent1 separates the ,pillars of ,hercules from the ,icy ,cape of the ,tschuktches1 in the north-east of ,asia4 ,where the ,andes are divided into several parallel chains1 those lying nearest the sea are found to be the seat of the most active volcanoes2 and it has moreover been repeatedly observed that when the phenomenon of an eruption of subterranean fire ceases in one mountain chain1 it breaks forth in some other parallel range4 ,the cones of eruption usually follow the direction of the axis of the chain2 but in the ,mexican table-land1 the active volcanoes are situated on a transverse fissure1 running from sea to sea1 in a direction from east and west4,,af ,wherever the upheaval of mountain masses in the folding of the ancient crust of the earth has opened a communication with the fused interior1 volcanic activity continued to be exhibited on the murally upheaved mass by means of the ramification of fissures4 ,that which we call a mountain chain has not been raised to its present elevation1 or manifested as it now appears1 at one definite period2 for we find that rocks1 varying considerably in age1 have been superimposed on one another1 and have penetrated towards the surface through early formed channels4 ,the diversity observable in rocks is owing to the outpouring and upheaval of rocks of eruption1 as well as to the complicated and slow process of metamorphism going on in fissures filled with vapour1 and conducive to the conduction of heat4 ,the following have for a long time1 viz41 from #ahcj to #ahdh1 been regarded as the highest or culminating points of the ,cordilleras of the new continent3-- ,the ,nevado de ,sorata1 also called ,ancohuma or ,tusubaya 7#ae #eb south lat471 somewhat to the south of the village of ,sorata or ,esquibel1 in the eastern chain of ,bolivia3 elevation1 #be1bbb feet4 ,the ,nevado de ,illimani1 west of the mission of ,yrupana 7#af #ch south lat471 also in the eastern chain of ,bolivia3 elevation1 #bd1jjj feet4 ,the ,chimborazo 7#a #bg south lat471 in the province of ,quito3 elevation1 #ba1dbb feet4 ,the ,sorata and ,illimani were first measured by the distinguished geologist1 ,pentland1 in the years #ahbg and #ahch2 and since the publication of his large map of the basin of the ,laguna de ,titicaca1 in ,june1 #ahdh1 we learn that the above elevations given for the ,sorata and ,illimani are #cifj feet and #bhea feet too high4 ,his map gives only #ba1bhf feet for the ,sorata1 and #ba1adi feet for the ,illimani4 ,a more exact calculation of the trigonometrical operations of #ahch led ,mr4 ,pentland to these new results4 ,he ascribes an elevation of from #ba1gjj to #bb1cej feet to four summits of the western ,cordilleras2 and1 according to his data1 the ,peak of ,sahama would thus be #ibf feet higher than the ,chimborazo1 but #hej feet lower than the ,peak of ,aconcagua4 ,footnote #f3 p4 #b--8,the desert near the basaltic mountains of ,harudsch40 ,near the ,egyptian ,natron ,lakes1 which in ,strabo's time had not yet been divided into the six reservoirs by which they are now characterized1 there rises abruptly to the north a chain of hills1 running from east to west past ,fezzan1 where it at length appears to form one connected range with the ,atlas chain4 ,it divides in north-eastern1 as ,mount ,atlas does in north-western ,africa the ,lybia1 described by ,herodotus as inhabited and situated near the sea1 from the land of the ,berbirs1 or ,biledulgerid1 famed for the abundance of its wild animals4 ,on the borders of ,middle ,egypt the whole region1 south of the #cjth degree of latitude1 is an ocean of sand1 studded here and there with islands or oases abounding in springs and rich in vegetation4 ,owing to the discoveries of recent travellers1 a vast addition has been made to the number of the ,oases formerly known1 and which the ancients limited to three1 compared by ,strabo to spots upon a panther's skin4 ,the third ,oasis of the ancients1 now called ,siwah1 was the nomos of ,ammon1 a hierarchical seat and a resting-place for the caravans1 which inclosed within its precincts the temple of the horned ,ammon and the spring of the ,sun1 whose waters were supposed to become cool at certain periods4 ,the ruins of ,ummibida 7,omm-,beydah7 incontestably belong to the fortified caravanserai at the ,temple of ,ammon1 and therefore constitute one of the most ancient monuments which have come down to us from the dawn of human civilization4,,ag ,the word ,oasis is ,egyptian1 and is synonymous with ,auasis and ,hyasis4,,ah ,abulfeda calls the ,oases el-,wah4 ,in the latter time of the ,csars1 malefactors were sent to the ,oases1 being banished to these islands in the sandy ocean1 as the ,spaniards and ,english transported their malefactors to the ,falkland islands and ,new ,holland4 ,the ocean affords almost a better chance of escape than the desert surrounding the ,oases2 which1 moreover1 diminish in fruitfulness in proportion to the greater quantity of sand incorporated in the soil4 ,the small mountain range of ,harudsch 7,harudje,,ai7 consists of grotesquely-shaped basaltic hills4 ,it is the ,mons ,ater of ,pliny1 and its western extremity1 known as the ,soudah mountain1 has been recently explored by my unfortunate friend1 the enterprising traveller ,ritchie4 ,these basaltic eruptions in the tertiary limestone1 and rows of hills rising abruptly from fissures1 appear to be analogous to the basaltic eruptions in the ,vicentine territory4 ,nature repeats the same phenomena in the most distant regions of the earth4 ,hornemann found an immense quantity of petrified fishes' heads in the limestone formations of the ,white ,harudsch 7,harudje el-,abiad71 belonging probably to the old chalk4 ,ritchie and ,lyon remarked that the basalt of the ,soudah mountain was in many places intimately mingled with carbonate of lime1 as is the case in ,monte ,berico2 a phenomenon that is probably connected with eruptions through limestone strata4 ,lyon's chart even indicates dolomite in the neighbourhood4 ,modern mineralogists have found syenite and greenstone1 but not basalt1 in ,egypt4 ,is it possible that the true basalt1 from which many of the ancient vases found in various parts of the country were made1 can have been derived from a mountain lying so far to the west8 ,can the obsidius lapis have come from there1 or are we to seek basalt and obsidian on the coast of the ,red ,sea8 ,the strip of the volcanic eruptions of ,harudsch1 on the borders of the ,african desert1 moreover reminds the geologist of augitic vesicular amygdaloid1 phonolite1 and greenstone porphyry1 which are only found on the northern and western limits of the steppes of ,venezuela and of the plains of the ,arkansas1 and therefore1 as it were1 on the ancient coast chains4,,aj ,footnote #g3 p4 #c--8,when suddenly deserted by the tropical east wind1 and the sea is covered with weeds40 ,it is a remarkable phenomenon1 although one generally known to mariners1 that in the neighbourhood of the ,african coast1 7between the ,canaries and the ,cape de ,verde islands1 and more especially between ,cape ,bojador and the mouth of the ,senegal17 a westerly wind often prevails instead of the usual east or trade wind of the tropics4 ,the cause of this phenomenon is to be ascribed to the far-extending desert of ,zahara1 and arises from the rarefaction1 and consequent vertical ascent of the air over the heated sandy surface4 ,to fill up the vacuum thus occasioned1 the cool sea-air rushes in1 producing a westerly breeze1 adverse to vessels sailing to ,america2 and the mariner1 long before he perceives any continent1 is made sensible of the effects of its heat-radiating sands4 ,as is well known1 a similar cause produces that alternation of sea and land breezes1 which prevails at certain hours of the day and night on all sea-coasts4 ,the accumulation of sea-weed in the neighbourhood of the western coasts of ,africa has been often referred to by ancient writers4 ,the local position of this accumulation is a problem which is intimately connected with the conjectures regarding the extent of ,phnician navigation4 ,the ,periplus1 which has been ascribed to ,scylax of ,caryanda1 and which1 according to the investigations of ,niebuhr and ,letronne1 was very probably compiled in the time of ,philip of ,macedon1 contains a description of a kind of fucus sea1 ,mar de ,sargasso1 beyond ,cerne2 but the locality indicated appears to me very different from that assigned to it in the work 8,de ,mirabilibus ,auscultationibus10 which for a long time1 but incorrectly1 bore the great name of ,aristotle4,,ak 8,driven by the east wind10 says the pseudo-,aristotle1 8,phnician mariners came in a four days' voyage from ,gades to a place where the sea was found covered with rushes and sea-weed 7 74 ,the sea-weed is uncovered at ebb1 and overflowed at flood tide40 ,does he not here refer to a shoal lying between the #cdth and #cfth degrees of latitude8 ,has a shoal disappeared there in consequence of volcanic revolution8 ,vobonne refers to rocks north of ,madeira4,,al ,in ,scylax it is stated that 8the sea beyond ,cerne ceases to be navigable in consequence of its great shallowness1 its muddiness1 and its sea-grass4 ,the sea-grass lies a span thick1 and it is pointed at its upper extremity1 so that it pricks40 ,the sea-weed which is found between ,cerne 7the ,phnician station for merchant vessels1 ,gaulea2 or1 according to ,gosselin1 the small estuary of ,fedallah1 on the north-west coast of ,mauritania17 and ,cape ,verde1 at the present time by no means forms a great meadow or connected group1 8mare herbidum10 such as exists on the other side of the ,azores4 ,moreover1 in the poetic description of the coast given by ,festus ,avienus1,,am in which1 as ,avienus himself very distinctly acknowledges1 he availed himself of the journals of ,phnician ships1 the impediments presented by the sea-weed are described with great minuteness2 but ,avienus places the site of this obstacle much further north1 towards ,ierne1 the ,holy ,isle4 ,sic nulla late flabra propellunt ratem1 ,sic segnis humor quoris pigri stupet4 ,adjicit et illud1 plurimum inter gurgites ,exstare fucum1 et spe virgulti vice ,retinere puppim 444 ,hc inter undas multa cspitem jacet1 ,eamque late gens ,hibemorum colit4 ,when we consider that the sea-weed 7fucus71 the mud or slime 771 the shallowness of the sea1 and the perpetual calms1 are always regarded by the ancients as characteristic of the ,western ,ocean beyond the ,pillars of ,hercules1 we feel inclined1 especially on account of the reference to the calms1 to ascribe this to ,punic cunning1 to the tendency of a great trading people to hinder others1 by terrific descriptions1 from competing with them in maritime trading westwards4 ,but even in the genuine writings of the ,stagyrite1,,an the same opinion is retained regarding the absence of wind1 and ,aristotle attempts to explain a false notion1 or1 as it seems to me1 more correctly speaking1 a fabulous mariner's story1 by an hypothesis regarding the depth of the sea4 ,the stormy sea between ,gades and the ,islands of the ,blest 7,cadiz and the ,canaries7 can in truth in no way be compared with the sea1 which lies between the tropics1 ruffled only by the gentle trade-winds 7vents aliss71 and which has been very characteristically named by the ,spaniards,,ao ,el ,golfo de las ,damas4 ,from very careful personal researches and from comparison of the logs of many ,english and ,french vessels1 ,i am led to believe that the old and very indefinite expression ,mar de ,sargasso1 refers to two fucus banks1 the larger of which is of an elongated form1 and is the easternmost one1 lying between the parallels of #ai and #cd1 in a meridian #g westward of the ,island of ,corvo1 one of the ,azores2 while the smaller and westernmost bank is of a roundish form1 and is found between ,bermuda and the ,bahama ,islands 7lat4 #be-ca1 long4 #ff-gd74 ,the principal diameter of the small bank1 which is traversed by ships sailing from ,baxo de ,plata 7,caye d',argent17 northward of ,st4 ,domingo to the ,bermudas1 appears to me to have a ,n4 #fj ,e4 direction4 ,a transverse band of fucus natans1 extending in an east-westerly direction between the latitudes of #be and #cj1 connects the greater with the smaller bank4 ,i have had the pleasure of seeing these views adopted by my lamented friend ,major ,rennell1 and confirmed1 in his great work on ,currents1 by many new observations4,,ap ,the two groups of sea-weed1 together with the transverse band uniting them1 constitute the ,sargasso ,sea of the older writers1 and collectively occupy an area equal to six or seven times that of ,germany4 ,the vegetation of the ocean thus offers the most remarkable example of social plants of a single species4 ,on the main land the ,savannahs or grass plains of ,america1 the heaths 7ericeta71 and the forests of ,northern ,europe and ,asia1 in which are associated coniferous trees1 birches1 and willows1 produce a less striking uniformity than do these thalassophytes4 ,our heaths present in the north not only the predominating ,calluna vulgaris1 but also ,erica tetralix1 ,e4 ciliaris1 and ,e4 cinerea2 and in the south1 ,erica arborea1 ,e4 scoparia1 and ,e4 ,mediterranea4 ,the uniformity of the view presented by the ,fucus natans is incomparably greater than that of any other assemblage of social plants4 ,oviedo calls the fucus banks 8meadows10 praderias de yerva4 ,if we consider that ,pedro ,velasco1 a native of the ,spanish harbour of ,palos1 by following the flight of certain birds from ,fayal1 discovered the ,island of ,flores as early as #adeb1 it seems almost impossible1 considering the proximity of the great fucus bank of ,corvo and ,flores1 that no part of these oceanic meadows should have been seen before the time of ,columbus by ,portuguese ships driven westward by storms4 ,we learn1 however1 from the astonishment of the companions of the admiral1 when they were continuously surrounded by sea-grass from the #afth of ,september to the #hth of ,october1 #adib1 that the magnitude of the phenomenon was at that period unknown to mariners4 ,in the extracts from the ship's journal given by ,las ,casas1 ,columbus certainly does not mention the apprehensions which the accumulation of sea-weed excited1 or the grumbling of his companions4 ,he merely speaks of the complaints and murmurs regarding the danger of the very weak but constant east winds4 ,it was only his son1 ,fernando ,colon1 who in the history of his father's life1 endeavoured to give a somewhat dramatic delineation of the anxieties of the sailors4 ,according to my researches1 ,columbus made his way through the great fucus bank in the year #adib1 in latitude #bh1 and in #adic1 in latitude #cg1 and both times in the longitude of #ch-da4 ,this can be established with tolerable certainty from the estimation of the velocity recorded by ,columbus1 and 8the distance daily sailed over20 not indeed by dropping the log1 but by the information afforded by the running out of half-hour sand-glasses 7ampolletas74 ,the first certain and distinct account of the log1 7catena della poppa17 which ,i have found1 is in the year #aeba1 in ,pigafetta's ,journal of ,magellan's ,circumnavigation of the ,world4,,aq ,the determination of the ship's place during the days in which ,columbus was crossing the great bank is the more important1 because it shews us that for three centuries and a half the total accumulation of these socially-living thalassophytes1 7whether consequent on the local character of the sea's bottom or on the direction of the recurrent ,gulf stream17 has remained at the same point4 ,such evidences of the persistence of great natural phenomena doubly arrest the attention of the natural philosopher1 when they occur in the ever-moving oceanic element4 ,although the limits of the fucus banks oscillate considerably1 in accordance with the strength and direction of long predominating winds1 yet we may still1 in the middle of the nineteenth century1 take the meridian of #da west of ,paris 7or #h #ch west of ,greenwich7 as the principal axis of the great bank4 ,columbus1 with his vivid imaginative force1 associated the idea of the position of this bank with the great physical line of demarcation1 which according to him1 8separated the globe into two parts1 and was intimately connected with the changes of magnetic deviation and of climatic relations40 ,columbus when he was uncertain regarding the longitude1 attempted to determine his place 7,february1 #adic17 by the appearance of the first floating masses of tangled weed 7de la primera yerva7 on the eastern border of the great ,corvo bank4 ,the physical line of demarcation was1 by the powerful influence of the ,admiral1 converted on the #dth of ,may1 #adic1 into a political one1 in the celebrated line of demarcation between the ,spanish and ,portuguese rights of possession,,ar4 ,footnote #h3 p4 #c--8,the ,nomadic ,tribes of ,tibbos and ,tuaryks40 ,these two nations1 which inhabit the desert between ,bornou1 ,fezzan1 and ,lower ,egypt1 were first made more accurately known to us by the travels of ,hornemann and ,lyon4 ,the ,tibbos or ,tibbous occupy the eastern1 and the ,tuaryks 7,tueregs7 the western portion of the great sandy ocean4 ,the former1 from their habits of constant moving1 were named by the other tribes 8birds40 ,the ,tuaryks are subdivided into two tribes--the ,aghadez and the ,tagazi4 ,these are often caravan leaders and merchants4 ,they speak the same language as the ,berbers1 and undoubtedly belong to the primitive ,lybian races4 ,they present the remarkable physiological phenomenon that1 according to the character of the climate1 the different tribes vary in complexion from a white to a yellow1 or even almost black hue2 but they never have woolly hair or negro features4,,as ,footnote #i3 p4 #c--8,the ship of the desert40 ,in the poetry of the ,east1 the camel is designated as the land-ship1 or the ship of the desert 7,sefynet-el-badyet,,at74 ,the camel is1 however1 not only the carrier in the desert1 and the medium for maintaining communication between different countries1 but is also1 as ,carl ,bitter has shown in his admirable treatise on the sphere of distribution of this animal1 8the main requirement of a nomadic mode of life in the patriarchal stage of national development1 in the torrid regions of our planet1 where rain is either wholly or in a great degree absent4 ,no animal's life is so closely associated by natural bonds with a certain primitive stage of the development of the life of man1 as that of the camel among the ,bedouin tribes1 nor has any other been established in like manner by a continuous historical evidence of several thousand years40,,au 8,the camel was entirely unknown to the cultivated people of ,carthage through all the centuries of their flourishing existence1 until the destruction of the city4 ,it was first brought into use for armies by the ,marusians1 in ,western ,lybia1 in the times of the ,csars2 perhaps in consequence of its employment in commercial undertakings by the ,ptolemies1 in the valley of the ,nile4 ,the ,guanches1 inhabiting the ,canary ,islands1 who were probably related to the ,berber race1 were not acquainted with the camel before the fifteenth century1 when it was introduced by ,norman conquerors and settlers4 ,in the probably very limited communication of the ,guanches with the coast of ,africa1 the smallness of their boats must necessarily have impeded the transport of large animals4 ,the true ,berber race1 which was diffused throughout the interior of ,northern ,africa1 and to which the ,tibbos and ,tuaryks1 as already observed1 belong1 is probably indebted to the use of the camel throughout the ,lybian desert and its oases1 not only for the advantages of internal communication1 but also for its escape from complete annihilation and for the maintenance of its national existence to the present day4 ,the use of the camel continued1 on the other hand1 to be unknown to the negro races1 and it was only in company with the conquering expeditions and proselyting missions of the ,bedouins through the whole of ,northern ,africa1 that the useful animal of the ,nedschd1 of the ,nabatheans1 and of all the districts occupied by ,aramean races1 spread here1 as elsewhere1 to the westward4 ,the ,goths brought camels as early as the fourth century to the ,lower ,istros 7the ,danube71 and the ,ghaznevides transported them in much larger numbers to ,india as far as the banks of the ,ganges40 ,we must distinguish two epochs in the distribution of the camel throughout the northern part of the ,african continent2 the first under the ,ptolemies1 which operated through ,cyrene on the whole of the north-west of ,africa1 and the second under the ,mahommedan epoch of the conquering ,arabs4 ,it has long been a matter of discussion1 whether those domestic animals which were the earliest companions of mankind1 as oxen1 sheep1 dogs1 and camels1 are still to be met with in a state of original wildness4 ,the ,hiongnu1 in ,eastern ,asia1 are among the nations who earliest trained wild camels as domestic animals4 ,the compiler of the great ,chinese work1 ,si-yu-wen-kien-lo,,av1 states that in the middle of the eighteenth century1 wild camels1 as well as wild horses and wild asses1 still roamed over ,eastern ,turkestan4 ,hadji ,chalfa1 in his ,turkish ,geography1 written in the seventeenth century1 speaks of the very frequent hunting of the wild camel in the high plains of ,kashgar1 ,turfan1 and ,khotan4 ,schott finds in the writings of a ,chinese author1 ,ma-dschi1 that wild camels exist in the countries north of ,china and west of the basin of the ,hoang-ho1 in ,ho-si or ,tangut4 ,cuvier,,aw alone doubts the present existence of wild camels in the interior of ,asia4 ,he believes that they have merely 8become wild20 since ,calmucks1 and others professing kindred ,buddhist doctrines1 set camels and other animals at liberty1 in order 8to acquire to themselves merit for the other world40 ,the ,ailanitic ,gulf of the ,nabatheans was the home of the wild ,arabian camel1 according to ,greek witnesses of the times of ,artemidorus and ,agatharchides of ,cnidus4,,ax ,the discovery of fossil camel-bones of the ancient world in the ,sewalik hills 7which are projecting spurs of the ,himalaya range71 by ,captain ,cautley and ,dr4 ,falconer1 in #ahcd1 is especially worthy of notice4 ,these remains were found with antediluvian bones of mastodons1 true elephants1 giraffes1 and a gigantic land tortoise 7,colossochelys71 twelve feet in length and six feet in height4,,ay ,this camel of the ancient world has been named ,camelus sivalensis1 although it does not show any great difference from the still living ,egyptian and ,bactrian camels with one and two humps4 ,forty camels have very recently been introduced into ,java1 from ,teneriffe,,az4 ,the first experiment has been made in ,samarang4 ,in like manner1 reindeer were only introduced into ,iceland from ,norway in the course of the last century4 ,they were not found there when the island was first colonised1 notwithstanding its proximity to ,east ,greenland1 and the existence of floating masses of ice4,,ba ,footnote #aj3 p4 #c--8;,between the ,altai and the ,kuen-ln40 ,the great highland1 or1 as it is commonly called1 the mountain plateau of ,asia1 which comprises the lesser ,bucharia1 ,songaria1 ,thibet1 ,tangut1 and the ,mogul country of the ,chalcas and ,olotes1 is situated between the #cfth and #dhth degrees of north latitude and the meridians of #ha and #aah ,e4 long4 ,it is an erroneous idea to represent this part of the interior of ,asia as a single1 undivided mountainous swelling1 continuous like the plateaux of ,quito and ,mexico1 and situated from seven to upwards of nine thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,i have already shown in my 8,researches respecting the ,mountains of ,northern ,india1,,bb0 that there is not in this sense any continuous mountain plateau in the interior of ,asia4 ,my views concerning the geographical distribution of plants1 and the mean degree of temperature requisite for certain kinds of cultivation1 had early led me to entertain considerable doubts regarding the continuity of a great ,tartarian plateau between the ,himalaya and the chain of the ,altai4 ,this plateau continued to be characterized1 as it had been described by ,hippocrates1 as 8the high and naked plains of ,scythia1 which1 without being crowned with mountains1 rise and extend to beneath the constellation of the ,bear40,,bc ,klaproth has the undeniable merit of having been the first to make us acquainted with the true position and prolongation of two great and entirely distinct chains of mountains1--the ,kuen-ln and the ,thian-schan1 in a part of ,asia which better deserves to be termed 8central10 than ,kashmeer1 ,baltistan1 and the ,sacred ,lakes of ,thibet 7the ,manasa and the ,ravanahrada74 ,the importance of the ,celestial ,mountains 7the ,thian-schan7 had indeed been already surmised by ,pallas1 without his being conscious of their volcanic character2 but this highly-gifted investigator of nature1 led astray by the hypotheses of the dogmatic and fantastic geology prevalent in his time1 and firmly believing in 8chains of mountains radiating from a centre10 saw in the ,bogdo ,oola 7the ,mons ,augustus1 or culminating point of the ,thian-schan17 such 8a central node1 whence all the other ,asiatic mountain chains diverge in rays1 and which dominates over all the rest of the continent60 ,the erroneous idea of a single boundless and elevated plain1 occupying the whole of ,central ,asia1 the 8,plateau de la ,tartarie10 originated in ,france1 in the latter half of the eighteenth century4 ,it was the result of historical combinations1 and of a not sufficiently attentive study of the writings of the celebrated ,venetian traveller1 as well as of the nave relations of those diplomatic monks who1 in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries 7thanks to the unity and extent of the ,mogul empire at that time71 were able to traverse almost the whole of the interior of the continent1 from the ports of ,syria and of the ,caspian ,sea to the east coast of ,china1 washed by the great ocean4 ,if a more exact acquaintance with the language and ancient literature of ,india were of an older date among us than half a century1 the hypothesis of this central plateau1 occupying the wide space between the ,himalaya and the south of ,siberia1 would no doubt have sought support from some ancient and venerable authority4 ,the poem of the ,mahabharata appears1 in the geographical fragment ,bhischmakanda1 to describe 8,meru0 not so much as a mountain as an enormous swelling of the land1 which supplies with water the sources of the ,ganges1 those of the ,bhadrasoma 7,irtysch71 and those of the forked ,oxus4 ,these physico-geographical views were intermingled in ,europe with ideas of other kinds1 and with mythical reveries on the origin of mankind4 ,the lofty regions from which the waters were supposed to have first retreated 7for geologists in general were long averse to the theories of elevation7 must also have received the first germs of civilization4 ,hebraic systems of geology1 based on ideas of a deluge1 and supported by local traditions1 favoured these assumptions4 ,the intimate connexion between time and space1 between the beginning of social order and the plastic condition of the surface of the earth1 lent a peculiar importance and an almost moral interest to the ,plateau of ,tartary1 which was supposed to be characterized by uninterrupted continuity4 ,acquisitions of positive knowledge1--the late matured fruit of scientific travels and direct measurements1--with a fundamental study of the languages and literature of ,asia1 and more especially of ,china1 have gradually demonstrated the inaccuracy and exaggeration of those wild hypotheses4 ,the mountain plains 77 of ,central ,asia are no longer regarded as the cradle of human civilization1 and the primitive seat of all arts and sciences4 ,the ancient nation of ,bailly's ,atlantis1 which d',alembert has happily described as 8having taught us everything but its own name and existence10 has vanished4 ,the inhabitants of the ,oceanic ,atlantis were already treated1 in the time of ,posidonius1 as having a merely apocryphal existence4,,bd ,a plateau of considerable but very unequal elevation runs with little interruption1 in a ,s4,s4,w4-,n4,n4,e4 direction1 from ,eastern ,thibet towards the mountain node of ,kentei1 south of ,lake ,baikal1 and is known by the names of ,gobi1 ,scha-mo1 7sand desert17 ,scha-ho4 7sand river17 and ,han-hai4 ,this swelling of the ground1 which is probably more ancient than the elevation of the mountain-chains by which it is intersected1 is situated1 as we have already remarked1 between #ha and #aah east longitude from ,greenwich4 ,measured at right angles to its longitudinal axis1 its breadth in the south1 between ,ladak1 ,gertop1 and ,h'lassa 7the seat of the great ,lama71 is #gbj miles2 between ,hami in the ,celestial ,mountains1 and the great curve of the ,hoang-ho1 near the ,in-schan chain1 it is scarcely #dhj2 but in the north1 between the ,khanggai1 where the great city of ,karakhorum once stood1 and the chain of ,khin-gan-,petscha1 which runs in a meridian line 7in the part of ,gobi traversed in going from ,kiachta to ,pekin by way of ,urga71 it is #gfj miles4 ,the whole extent of this elevated ground1 which must be carefully distinguished from the more eastern and higher mountain-range1 may be approximately estimated1 including its deflections1 at about three times the area of ,france4 ,the map of the mountain-ranges and volcanoes of ,central ,asia1 which ,i constructed in #ahci1 but did not publish until #ahdc1 shows in the clearest manner the hypsometric relations between the mountain-ranges and the ,gobi plateau4 ,it was founded on the critical employment of all the astronomical determinations accessible to me1 and on many of the very rich and copious orographic descriptions in which ,chinese literature abounds1 and which were examined at my request by ,klaproth and ,stanislaus ,julien4 ,my map marks in prominent characters the mean direction and the height of the mountain-chains1 together with the chief features of the interior of the continent of ,asia from #cj to #fj degrees of latitude1 between the meridians of ,pekin and ,cherson4 ,it differs essentially from any map hitherto published4 ,the ,chinese enjoyed a triple advantage1 by means of which they were enabled to enrich their earliest literature with so considerable an amount of orographic knowledge regarding ,upper ,asia1 and more especially those regions situated between the ,in-schan1 the alpine lake of ,khuku-noor1 and the shores of the ,ili and ,tarim1 lying north and south of the ,celestial ,mountains1 and which were so little known to ,western ,europe4 ,these three advantages were1 besides the peaceful conquests of the ,buddhist pilgrims1 the warlike expeditions towards the west 7as early as the dynasties of ,han and ,thang1 one hundred and twenty-two years before our era1 and again in the ninth century1 when conquerors advanced as far as ,ferghana and the shores of the ,caspian ,sea72 the religious interest attached to certain high mountain summits1 on account of the periodical performance of sacrifices1 in accordance with pre-existing enactments2 and lastly1 the early and generally known use of the compass for determining the direction of mountains and rivers4 ,this use1 and the knowledge of the south-pointing of the magnetic needle1 twelve centuries before the ,christian era1 gave a great superiority to the orographic and hydrographic descriptions of the ,chinese over those of ,greek and ,roman authors1 who treated less frequently of subjects of this nature4 ,the acute observer ,strabo was alike ignorant of the direction of the ,pyrenees and of that of the ,alps and ,apennines4,,be ,to the lowlands belong almost the whole of ,northern ,asia to the north-west of the volcanic ,celestial ,mountains 7,thian-schan72 the steppes to the north of the ,altai and the ,sayanic chain2 and the countries which extend from the mountains of ,bolor1 or ,bulyt-tagh 7,cloud ,mountains in the ,uigurian dialect71 which run in a north and south direction1 and from the upper ,oxus1 whose sources were discovered in the ,pamershian ,lake1 ,sir-i-kol 7,lake ,victoria71 by the ,buddhist pilgrims ,hiuen-thsang and ,song-yun in #eah and #fbi1 by ,marco ,polo in #abgg1 and by ,lieutenant ,wood in #ahch1 towards the ,caspian ,sea2 and from ,lake ,tenghiz or ,balkasch1 through the ,kirghis ,steppe1 towards the ,aral and the southern extremity of the ,ural ,mountains4 ,in the vicinity of mountainous plains1 whose elevation varies from #fjjj to more than #aj1jjj feet above the sea's level1 we may assuredly be allowed to apply the term lowlands to districts which are only elevated from #bjj to #abjj feet4 ,the first of these heights correspond with that of the city of ,mannheim1 and the second with that of ,geneva and ,tbingen4 ,if we extend the application of the word plateau1 which has so frequently been misused by modern geographers1 to elevations of the soil which scarcely present any sensible difference in the character of the vegetation and climate1 physical geography1 owing to the indefiniteness of the merely relatively important terms of high and low land1 will be unable to distinguish the connexion between elevation above the sea's level and climate1 between the decrease of the temperature and the increase in elevation4 ,when ,i was in ,chinese ,dzungarei1 between the boundaries of ,siberia and ,lake ,saysan 7,dsaisang71 at an equal distance from the ,icy ,sea and the mouth of the ,ganges1 ,i might assuredly consider myself to be in ,central ,asia4 ,the barometer1 however1 soon showed me that the elevation of the plains watered by the ,upper ,irtysch between ,ustkamenogorsk and the ,chinese ,dzungarian post of ,chonimailachu 7the sheep-bleating7 was scarcely as much as from #hej to #aagj feet4 ,pansner's earlier barometric determinations of height1 which were first made known after my expedition1 have been confirmed by my own observations4 ,both afford a refutation of the hypotheses of ,chappe ,d',auteroche 7based on calculations of the fall of rivers7 regarding the elevated position of the shores of the ,irtysch1 in ,southern ,siberia4 ,even further eastward1 the ,lake of ,baikal is only #adbj feet above the level of the sea4 ,in order to associate the idea of the relation between lowlands and highlands1 and of the successive gradations in the elevation of the soil1 with actual data based on accurate measurements1 ,i subjoin a table1 in which the heights of the elevated plains of ,europe1 ,africa1 and ,america are given in an ascending scale4 ,with these numbers we may then further compare all that has as yet been made known regarding the mean height of the ,asiatic plains1 or true lowlands4 ,toises4 ,feet4 ,plateau of ,auvergne #agj #a1jhg of ,bavaria #bfj #a1ffc of ,castille #cej #b1bch of ,mysore #dfj #b1idb of ,caracas #dhj #c1jgj of ,popayan #ijj #e1gee of the vicinity of the ,lake of ,tzana1 in ,abyssinia #iej #f1jge of the ,orange ,river 7in ,south ,africa7 #ajjj #f1cie of ,axum 7in ,abyssinia7 #aajj #g1jcd of ,mexico #aagj #g1dhb of ,quito #adij #i1ebh of the ,province de los ,pastos #afjj #aj1bca of the vicinity of the ,lake of ,titicaca #bjaj #ab1hec ,no portion of the so-called ,desert of ,gobi1 which consists in part of fine pasture lands1 has been so thoroughly investigated in relation to its differences of elevations as the zone which extends over an area of nearly #fjj miles1 between the sources of the ,selenga and the ,chinese wall4 ,a very accurate barometrical levelling was executed1 under the auspices of the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburgh1 by two distinguished savans--the astronomer ,george ,fuss1 and the botanist ,bunge4 ,they accompanied a mission of ,greek monks to ,pekin1 in the year #ahcb1 in order to establish there one of those magnetic stations whose construction ,i had recommended4 ,the mean height of this portion of the ,desert of ,gobi amounts hardly to #dbfc feet1 and not to #hjjj or #hejj feet1 as had been too hastily concluded from the measurements of contiguous mountain summits by the ,jesuits ,gerbillon and ,verbiest4 ,the surface of the ,desert of ,gobi is not more than #beeh feet above the level of the sea between ,erghi1 ,durma1 and ,scharaburguna2 and scarcely more than #cbj feet higher than the plateau of ,madrid4 ,erghi is situated midway1 in #de #ca north lat41 and #aaa #bf east long41 in a depression of the land extending in a direction from south-west to north-east over a breadth of more than #bdj miles4 ,an ancient ,mongolian saga designates this spot as the former site of a large inland sea4 ,reeds and saline plants1 generally of the same species as those found on the low shores of the ,caspian ,sea1 are here met with2 while there are in this central part of the desert several small saline lakes1 the salt of which is carried to ,china4 ,according to a singular opinion prevalent among the ,mongols1 the ocean will at some period return1 and again establish its dominion in ,gobi4 ,such geological reveries remind us of the ,chinese traditions of the bitter lake1 in the interior of ,siberia1 of which ,i have elsewhere spoken4,,bf ,the basin of ,kashmir1 which has been so enthusiastically praised by ,bernier1 and too moderately estimated by ,victor ,jacquemont1 has also given occasion to great hypsometric exaggerations4 ,jacquemont found by an accurate barometric measurement that the height of the ,wulur ,lake1 in the valley of ,kashmir1 near the capital ,sirinagur1 was #ecdf feet4 ,uncertain determinations by the boiling point of water gave ,baron ,carl von ,hgel #ehai feet1 and ,lieutenant ,cunningham only #ejeb feet4,,bg ,the mountainous districts of ,kashmir1 which has excited so great an interest in ,germany1 and whose climatic advantages have lost somewhat of their reputation since ,carl von ,hgel's account of the four months of winter snow in the streets of ,sirinagur1,,bh does not lie on the high crests of the ,himalaya1 as has commonly been supposed1 but constitutes a true cauldron-like valley on their southern declivity4 ,on the south-west1 where the rampart-like ,pir ,panjal separates it from the ,indian ,punjaub1 the snow-crowned summits are covered1 according to ,vigne1 by basaltic and amygdaloid formations4 ,the latter are very characteristically termed by the natives schischak deyu1 or devil's pock-marks4,,bi ,the charms of the vegetation have also been very differently described1 according as travellers passed into ,kashmir from the south1 and left behind them the luxuriant and varied vegetation of ,india2 or from the northern regions of ,turkestan1 ,samarkand1 and ,ferghana4 ,moreover1 it is only very recently that we have obtained a clearer view regarding the elevation of ,thibet1 the level of the plateau having long been uncritically confounded with the mountain tops rising from it4 ,thibet occupies the space between the two great chains of the ,himalaya and the ,kuen-ln1 and forms the elevated ground of the valley between them4 ,the land is divided from east to west1 both by the inhabitants and by ,chinese geographers1 into three parts4 ,we distinguish ,upper ,thibet1 with its capital1 ,h'lassa 7probably #ieib feet high72 ,middle ,thibet1 with the town of ,leh or ,ladak 7#iiie feet72 and ,little ,thibet1 or ,baltistan1 called the ,thibet of ,apricots 7,sari-,butan71 in which lie ,iskardo 7#fcjj feet71 ,gilgit1 and south of ,iskardo1 but on the left bank of the ,indus1 the plateau ,deotsuh1 whose elevation was determined by ,vigne 7#aa1igg feet74 ,on carefully examining all the notices we have hitherto possessed regarding the three ,thibets1 and which will have been abundantly augmented during the present year by the brilliant boundary surveying expedition under the auspices of the ,governor-general1 ,lord ,dalhousie1 we soon become convinced that the region between the ,himalaya and the ,kuen-ln is no unbroken table-land1 but that it is intersected by mountain groups1 which undoubtedly belong to perfectly distinct systems of elevation4 ,actual plains are very few in number3 the most considerable are those between ,gertop1 ,daba1 ,schang-thung 7the ,shepherd's ,plain71 the native country of the shawl-goat1 and ,schipke 7#aj1ddi feet72 those round ,ladak1 which attain an elevation of #ac1dbi feet1 and must not be confounded with the depressed land in which the town lies2 and finally1 the plateau of the ,sacred ,lakes1 ,manasa and ,ravanahrada 7probably #ad1ife feet71 which was visited by ,father ,antonio de ,andrada as early as the year #afbe4 ,other parts are entirely filled with compressed mountain masses1 8rising10 as a recent traveller observes1 8like the waves of a vast ocean40 ,along the rivers1 the ,indus1 the ,sutledge1 and the ,yaru-dzangbotschu1 which was formerly regarded as identical with the ,buramputer 7or correctly the ,brahmaputra71 points have been measured which are only between #fgad and #hieb feet above the sea2 and the same is the case with the ,thibetian villages ,pangi1 ,kunawur1 ,kelu1 and ,murung4,,bj ,from many carefully collected determinations of heights1 ,i think that we are justified in assuming that the plateau of ,thibet between #gc and #he east long1 does not attain a mean elevation of #aa1eaj feet3 this is hardly the elevation of the fruitful plain of ,caxamarca in ,peru1 and is #acdi and #baee feet less than the plateau of ,titicaca1 and of the street pavement of the ,upper ,town of ,potosi 7#ac1ffe feet74 ,that beyond the ,thibetian highlands and the ,gobi1 whose outline has been already defined1 ,asia presents considerable depressions1 and indeed true lowlands1 between the parallels of #cg and #dh1 where once an immeasurable continuous plateau was fabulously supposed to exist1 is proved by the cultivation of plants which cannot flourish without a certain degree of temperature4 ,an attentive study of the travels of ,marco ,polo1 in which mention is made of the cultivation of the vine1 and of the production of cotton in northern latitudes1 had long ago directed the attention of the acute ,klaproth to this point4 ,in a ,chinese work1 bearing the title ,information respecting the recently conquered ,barbarians 7,sinkiang-wai-tan-ki-lio71 it is stated that 8the country of ,aksu1 somewhat to the south of the ,celestial ,mountains1 near the rivers which form the great ,tarim-gol1 produces grapes1 pomegranates1 and numberless other fruits of singular excellence2 also cotton 7,gossypium religiosum71 which1 covers the fields like yellow clouds4 ,in summer the heat is extremely great1 and in winter there is here1 as at ,turfan1 neither intense cold nor heavy snow40 ,the neighbourhood of ,khotan1 ,kaschgar1 and ,yarkand still1 as in the time of ,marco ,polo1,,bk pays its tribute in home-grown cotton4 ,in the oasis of ,hami 7,khamil71 above #bjj miles east of ,aksu1 orange trees1 pomegranates1 and the finer vines are found to flourish4 ,the products of cultivation which are here noticed lead to the belief that over extensive districts the elevation of the soil is very slight4 ,at so great a distance from the sea side1 and in the easterly situation which so much increases the degree of winter cold1 a plateau1 as high as ,madrid or ,munich1 might indeed have a very hot summer1 but would hardly have1 in #dc and #dd latitude1 an extremely mild and almost snowless winter4 ,i have seen a high summer heat favour the cultivation of the vine1 as at the ,caspian ,sea1 #hc feet below the level of the ,black ,sea 7at ,astrakhan1 latitude #df #ba72 but the winter cold is there from -#d to -#ac4 ,moreover1 the vine is sunk to a greater depth in the ground after the month of ,november4 ,we can understand that cultivated plants1 which1 as it were1 live only in the summer1 as the vine1 the cotton plant1 rice1 and melons1 may be cultivated with success between the latitudes of #dj and #dd1 on plateaux at an elevation of more than #cjjj;,,bl feet1 and may be favoured by the action of radiant heat2 but how could the pomegranate trees of ,aksu1 and the orange trees of ,hami1 whose fruit ,father ,grosier extolled as excellent1 endure a long and severe winter 7the necessary consequence of a great elevation,,bm78 ,carl ,zimmerman,,bn has shown it to be extremely probable that the ,tarim depression1 or the desert between the mountain chain of ,thian-schan and ,kuen-ln1 where the steppe river ,tarim-gol discharges itself into the ,lake of ,lop1 formerly described as an alpine lake1 is hardly #abhj feet above the level of the sea1 or only twice the elevation of ,prague4 ,sir ,alexander ,burnes also ascribes to ,bokhara only an elevation of #aahh feet4 ,it is most earnestly to be desired that all doubt regarding the elevation of the plateaux of ,central ,asia1 south of #de north latitude1 should finally be removed by direct barometrical measurements1 or by determinations of the boiling point of water1 conducted with greater care than is usual in these cases4 ,all our calculations of the difference between the limits of perpetual snow and the maximum elevation of vine cultivation in different climates1 rest at present on too complex and uncertain elements4 ,in order as briefly as possible to rectify that which has been advanced in the former edition of the present work1 regarding the great mountain systems which intersect the interior of ,asia1 ,i subjoin the following general review3--,we begin with the four parallel chains1 which run1 with tolerable regularity1 from east to west1 and are connected together by means of a few detached transverse lines4 ,differences of direction indicate1 as in the ,alps of ,western ,europe1 a difference in the epoch of elevation4 ,after the four parallel chains 7the ,altai1 the ,thian-schan1 the ,kuen-ln1 and the ,himalaya7 we must consider as following the direction of meridian1 the ,ural1 the ,bolor1 the ,khingan1 and the ,chinese chains1 which1 with the great inflection of the ,thibetian and ,assam-,birmese ,dzangbo-tschu incline from north to south4 ,the ,ural divides a depressed portion of ,europe from a similarly low portion of ,asia4 ,the latter was called by ,herodotus1,,bo and even earlier by ,pherecydes of ,syros1 ,scythian or ,siberian ,europe1 and comprised all the countries to the north of the ,caspian and of the ,iaxartes1 which flows from east to west1 and may therefore be regarded as a continuation of our ,europe1 8as it now exists1 extending lengthwise across the continent of ,asia40 #a4 ,the great mountain system of the ,altai 7the 8gold mountains0 of ,menander of ,byzantium1 an historical writer of the seventh century2 the ,alta-alin of the ,moguls1 and the ,kin-schan of the ,chinese7 forms the southern boundary of the great ,siberian lowlands1 and running between #ej and #eb north latitude1 extends from the rich silver mines of the ,snake ,mountains1 and the confluence of the ,uba and the ,irtysch1 to the meridian of ,lake ,baikal4 ,the divisions and names of the 8,great0 and the 8,little ,altai10 taken from an obscure passage of ,abulghasi1 should be wholly avoided4,,bp ,the mountain system of the ,altai comprehends--7a7 the ,altai proper1 or ,kolywanski ,altai1 which is entirely under the ,russian sceptre3 it lies to the west of the intersecting fissures of the ,telezki ,lake1 which follow the direction of the meridian2 and in ante-historic times probably constituted the eastern shore of the great arm of the sea1 by which1 in the direction of the still existing lakes1 ,aksakal-,barbi and ,sary-,kupa1,,bq the ,aralo-,caspian basin was connected with the ,icy sea2--7b7 ,east of the ,telezki chains1 which follow the direction of the meridian1 the ,sayani1 ,tangnu1 and ,ulangom1 or ,malakha ranges1 all tolerably parallel with each other1 and following an east and west direction4 ,the ,tangnu1 which merges in the basin of the ,selenga1 has1 from very remote times1 constituted the national boundary between the ,turkish race1 to the south1 and the ,kirghis 7,hakas1 identical with 71 to the north4,,br ,it is the original seat of the ,samoieds or ,soyotes4 who wandered as far as the ,icy ,sea1 and were long regarded in ,europe as a race inhabiting exclusively the coasts of the ,polar ,sea4 ,the highest snow-covered summits of the ,kolywan ,altai are the ,bielucha and the ,katunia ,pillars4 ,the latter attain only a height of about #aa1jjj feet1 or about the height of ,etna4 ,the ,daurian highland1 to which the mountain node of ,kentei belongs1 and on whose eastern margin lies the ,jablonoi ,chrebet1 divides the depressions of the ,baikal and the ,amur4 #b4 ,the mountain system of the ,thian-schan1 or the chain of the ,celestial ,mountains1 the ,tengri-tagh of the ,turks 7,tukiu71 and of the kindred race of the ,hiongnu1 is eight times as long1 in an east and west direction1 as the ,pyrenees4 ,beyond1 that is to say1 to the west of its intersection with the meridian chain of the ,bolor and ,kosuyrt1 the ,thian-schan bears the names of ,asferah and ,aktagh1 is rich in metals1 and is intersected with open fissures1 which emit hot vapours luminous at night1 and which are used for obtaining sal-ammoniac4,,bs ,east of the transverse ,bolor and ,kosyurt chain1 there follow successively in the ,thian-schan1 the ,kashgar ,pass 7,kaschgar-dawan71 the ,glacier ,pass of ,djeparle1 which leads to ,kutch and ,aksu in the ,tarim basin2 the volcano of ,pe-schan1 which erupted fire and streams of lava at least as late as the middle of the seventh century2 the great snow-covered massive elevation of ,bogdo-,oola2 the ,solfatara of ,urumtsi1 which furnishes sulphur and sal-ammoniac 7nao-scha71 and lies in a coal district2 the volcano of ,turfan 7or volcano of ,ho-tscheu or ,bischbalik71 almost midway between the meridians of ,turfan 7,kune ,turpan71 and of ,pidjan1 and which is still in a state of activity4 ,the volcanic eruptions of the ,thian-schan chain reach1 according to ,chinese historians1 as far back as the year #hi1 ,a4,d41 when the ,hiongnu were pursued by the ,chinese from the sources of the ,irtysch as far as ,kutch and ,kharaschar,,bt4 ,the ,chinese ,general1 ,teu-hian1 crossed the ,thian-schan1 and saw 8the ,fire ,mountains1 which sent out masses of molten rock that flow to the distance of many ,li40 ,the great distance of the volcanoes of the interior of ,asia from the sea coast is a remarkable and isolated phenomenon4 ,abel ,rmusat1 in a letter to ,cordier,,bu1 first directed the attention of geologists to this fact4 ,this distance1 for instance1 in the case of the volcano of ,pe-schan1 from the north or the ,icy ,sea at the mouth of the ,obi1 is #aebh miles2 and from the south or the mouths of the ,indus and the ,ganges1 #aeab miles2 so central is the position of fire-emitting volcanoes in the ,asiatic continent4 ,to the west its distance from the ,caspian at the ,gulf of ,karuboghaz1 is #acfj miles1 and from the east shores of the ,lake of ,aral1 #ajbj miles4 ,the active volcanoes of the ,new ,world had hitherto offered the most remarkable examples of great distance from the sea coast1 but in the case of the volcano of ,popocatepetl1 in ,mexico1 this distance is only one hundred and thirty-two miles1 and only ninety-two1 one hundred and four1 and one hundred and fifty-six1 respectively in the ,south ,american volcanoes ,sangai1 ,tolima1 and de la ,fragua4 ,all extinct volcanoes1 and all trachytic mountains1 which have no permanent connexion with the interior of the earth1 have been excluded from these statements,,bv4 ,east of the volcano of ,turfat1 and of the fruitful ,oasis of ,hami1 the chain of the ,thian-schan merges into the great elevated tract of ,gobi1 which runs in a ,s4,w4 and ,n4,e4 direction4 ,this interruption of the mountain chain continues for more than #i degrees of longitude2 it is caused by the transversal intersection of the ,gobi1 but beyond the latter1 the more southern chain of ,in-schan 7,silver ,mountains71 proceeding from west to east1 to the shores of the ,pacific near ,pekin 7north of the ,pe-tscheli71 forms a continuation of the ,thian-schan4 ,as we may regard the ,in-schan as an eastern prolongation of the fissure from which the ,thian-schan is upheaved1 so we may also be inclined to consider the ,caucasus as a western prolongation of the same range1 beyond the ,great ,aralo-,caspian basin or of the lowlands of ,turan4 ,the mean parallel or axis of elevation of the ,thian-schan oscillates between #dj #dj and #dc north latitude2 that of the ,caucasus 7inclining1 according to the map of the ,russian ,staff1 from ,e4,s4,e4 to ,w4,n4,w47 between #da and #dd4;,,bw ,of the four parallel chains that traverse ,asia1 the ,thian-schan is the only one of which no summit has as yet been measured4 #c4 ,the mountain system of the ,kuen-ln 7,kurkun or ,kulkun71 including the ,hindoo-,coosh1 with its western prolongation in the ,persian ,elburz and ,demavend1 and the ,american chain of the ,andes1 constitute the longest lines of elevation on our planet4 ,at the point where the meridian chain of the ,bolor intersects the ,kuen-ln at right angles1 the latter receives the name of ,onion ,mountains 7,tchsung-ling71 a term also applied to a portion of the ,bolor at the inner eastern angle of intersection4 ,bounding ,thibet in the north1 the ,kuen-ln runs in a regular direction from east to west1 in the parallel of #cf north latitude2 until the chain is broken in the meridian of ,h'lassa1 by the vast mountain node which surrounds the ,sea of ,stars1 ,sing so-hai 7so celebrated in the mythical geography of the ,chinese71 and the ,alpine lake of ,khuku-noor4 ,the chains of ,nan-schan and ,kilian-schan1 lying somewhat further north1 and extending to the ,chinese wall near ,liang-tsheu1 may almost be regarded as the eastern prolongation of the ,kuen-ln4 ,to the west of the intersection of the ,bolor and the ,kuen-ln 7,tchsung-ling71 the regular direction of the axes of elevation 7inclining from east to west in the ,kuen-ln and ,hindoo-,coosh1 and from south-east to north-west in the ,himalaya7 proves1 as ,i have elsewhere attempted to show1 that the ,hindoo-,coosh is a prolongation of the ,kuen-ln and not of the ,himalaya4,,bx ,from the ,taurus in ,lycia to the ,kafiristan1 the chain follows the parallel of ,rhodes 7the diaphragm of ,dicarchus7 over a distance of #de degrees of longitude4 ,the grand geological views of ,eratosthenes1,,by which were further developed by ,marinus of ,tyre1 and by ,ptolemy1 and according to which 8the prolongation of the ,taurus in ,lycia was continued1 in the same direction1 through all ,asia as far as ,india10 appear in part to be based on representations derived by the ,persians and ,indians from the ,punjaub4 8,the ,brahmins maintain10 says ,cosmas ,indicopleustes1 in his ,christian ,topography,,bz1 8that a line drawn from ,tzinitza 7,thin7 across ,persia and ,romania1 would exactly pass over the centre of the inhabited earth40 ,it is remarkable1 as ,eratosthenes observes1 that this greatest axis of elevation in the old world passes directly through the basin 7the depression7 of the ,mediterranean1 in the parallels of #ce and #cf north latitude1 to the ,pillars of ,hercules4,,ca ,the most eastern portion of ,hindoo-,coosh is the ,paropanisus of the ancients1 the ,indian ,caucasus of the companions of the great ,macedonian4 ,the name of ,hindoo-,coosh1 which is so frequently used by geographers1 does not in reality apply to more than one single mountain pass1 where the climate is so severe1 as we learn from the travels of the ,arabian writer1 ,ibn ,batuta1 that many ,indian slaves frequently perish from the cold4,,cb ,the ,kuen-ln still exhibits active fire-emitting eruptions at the distance of several hundred miles from the sea-coast4 ,flames1 visible at a great distance1 burst from the cavern of the mountain of ,schinkhieu1 as ,i learn from a translation of the ,yuen-thong-ki1 made by my friend ,stanislaus ,julien4,,cc ,the loftiest summit in the ,hindoo-,coosh1 north-west of ,jellalabad1 is #bj1bcb feet above the level of the sea2 to the west1 towards ,herat1 the chain sinks to #beeh feet1 rising again north of ,teheran1 in the volcano of ,demavend1 to the height of #ad1fge feet4 #d4 ,the mountain system of the ,himalaya has a normal direction from east to west1 running more than #ae degrees of longitude 7from #ha to #ig71 or from the colossal mountain ,dhawalagiri 7#bh1jgb feet7 to the intersection of the ,dzangbo-tscheu 7the ,irawaddy of ,dalrymple and ,klaproth71 whose existence was long regarded as problematical1 and to the meridian chains1 which cover the whole of ,western ,china1 and form the great mountain group1 from which spring the sources of the ,kiang1 in the provinces of ,sse-tschuan1 ,hu-kuang1 and ,kuang-si4 ,next to the ,dhawalagiri1 the ,kinchinjinga1 and not the more eastern peak of ,schamalari1 as has hitherto been supposed1 is the highest point of this portion of the ,himalaya1 which inclines from east to west4 ,the ,kinchinjinga1 in the meridian of ,sikhim1 between ,butan and ,nepal1 between the ,schamalari 7#bc1ihj feet7 and the ,dhawalagiri1 is #bh1agd feet in height4 ,it is only within the present year that it has been trigonometrically measured with exactness1 and as ,i learn from ,india through the same channel1 8that a new measurement of the ,dhawalagiri still leaves it the first place among all the snow-crowned summits of the ,himalaya10 this mountain must necessarily have a greater elevation than the #bh1jgb feet hitherto ascribed to it4,,cd ,the point of deflection in the direction of the chain is1 near the ,dhawalagiri1 in #ha #bb1 east longitude4 ,from thence the ,himalaya no longer follows a due west direction1 but runs from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w41 as a vast connecting system of veins between ,mozufer-abad and ,gilgit1 merging into a part of the ,hindoo-,coosh chain in the south of ,kafiristan4 ,such a turn and alteration in the line of the axis of elevation of the ,himalaya 7from ,e4-,w4 to ,s4,e4-,n4,w47 certainly indicates1 as in the western region of our ,european ,alpine mountains1 a different age or period of elevation4 ,the course of the ,upper ,indus1 from the sacred lakes of ,manasa and ,itavana-hrada1 7at an elevation of #ad1ife feet17 in the vicinity of which this great river takes its origin1 to ,iskardo1 and to the plateau of ,deotsuh 7at an elevation of #ab1iid feet71 measured by ,vigne1 follows in the ,thibetian highlands the same north-westerly direction as the ,himalaya4 ,here are situated the ,djawahir1 whose height was long since accurately determined at #bf1ijb feet1 and the ,alpine valley of ,caschmere 7never visited by winds or storms71 where1 at an elevation of only #ecdf feet1 lies the lake of ,wulur1 which freezes every winter1 and whose surface is never broken by a single ripple4 ,after considering the four great mountain systems of ,asia1 which1 in their normal geognostic character1 are true parallel chains1 we must turn to the long series of alternating elevations following a direction from north to south1 and which extend from ,cape ,comorin1 opposite to the island of ,ceylon1 to the ,icy ,sea1 alternating between the parallels of #ff and #gg east longitude1 from ,s4,s4,e4 to ,n4,n4,w4 ,to this system of meridian chains1 whose alternations remind us of faults in veins1 belong the ,ghauts1 the ,soliman chain1 the ,paralasa1 the ,bolor1 and the ,ural range4 ,this interruption of the profile of the elevation is so constituted1 that each new chain begins in a degree of latitude beyond that to which the preceding one had attained1 all alternating successively in an opposite direction4 ,the importance which the ,greeks 7probably not earlier than the second century of our era7 attached to these chains running from north to south1 induced ,agathodmon and ,ptolemy 7,tab4 vii4 et viii47 to regard the ,bolor under the name of ,imaus as an axis of elevation1 which extended as far as #fb north latitude into the basin of the lower ,irtysch and ,obi4,,ce ,as the vertical height of mountain summits above the sea's level 7however unimportant the phenomenon of the more or less extensive folding of the crust of a planetary sphere may be in the eyes of geognosists7 will always continue1 like all that is difficult of attainment1 to be an object of general curiosity1 the present would appear to furnish a fitting place for the introduction of an historical notice relative to the gradual advance of hypsometric knowledge4 ,when ,i returned to ,europe in #ahjd1 after an absence of four years1 not one of the high snow-crowned summits of ,asia 7in the ,himalaya1 the ,hindoo-,coosh1 or the ,caucasus7 had been yet measured with any degree of accuracy4 ,i was unable1 therefore1 to compare my determinations of the heights of perpetual snow in the ,cordilleras of ,quito or the mountains of ,mexico1 with any results obtained in ,india4 ,the important travels of ,turner1 ,davis1 and ,saunders to the highlands of ,thibet1 were indeed accomplished in the year #aghc2 but the intelligent ,colebrooke justly observed that the height of the ,schamalari 7#bh #e north latitude1 #hi #cj east longitude1 somewhat north of ,tassisudan71 as given by ,turner1 rested on a foundation quite as slight as the assumed measurements of the heights seen from ,patna and ,kafiristan by ,colonel ,crawford and ,lieutenant ,macartney4,,cf ,the admirable labours of ,webb1 ,hodgson1 ,herbert1 and the brothers ,gerard1 have indeed thrown considerable light on the question concerning the heights of the colossal summits of the ,himalaya2 but yet1 in #ahjh1 the hypsometric knowledge of the ,east ,indian mountain chains was still so uncertain1 that ,webb wrote to ,colebrooke1 8,the height of the ,himalaya still remains undetermined4 ,it is true that ,i have ascertained that the summits visible from the elevated plains of ,rohilkand are #ba1jjj feet higher than that plateau1 but we are ignorant of their absolute height above the sea40 ,in the year #ahbj it first began to be currently reported in ,europe that there were not only much higher summits in the ,himalaya than in the ,cordilleras1 but that ,webb had seen in the pass of ,niti1 and ,moorcroft in the ,thibetian plateau of ,daba1 and the sacred lakes1 fine corn-fields and fertile pasturelands at elevations far exceeding the height of ,mont ,blanc4 ,this announcement was received in ,england with great incredulity1 and opposed by doubts regarding the influence of the refraction of light4 ,i have shown the unsoundness of such doubts in two printed treatises on the mountains of ,india1 in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique4 ,the ,tyrolese ,jesuit1 ,father ,tiefenthaler1 who in #agff penetrated as far as the provinces of ,kemaun and ,nepal1 had already divined the importance of the ,dhawalagiri4 ,we read on his map3 8,montes ,albi1 qui ,indis ,dolaghir1 nive obsiti40 ,captain ,webb always employs the same name4 ,until the measurements of the ,djawahir 7#cj #bb north latitude1 and #gi #eh east longitude1 #bf1ijb feet in elevation71 and of the ,dhawalagiri 7#bh #dj north latitude1 and #hc #ba east longitude1 #bh1jgb feet in elevation71 were made known in ,europe1 the ,chimborazo1 which1 according to my trigonometrical measurement1 was #ba1dbb feet in height1,,cg was still everywhere regarded as the loftiest summit on the earth4 ,the ,himalaya appeared1 therefore1 at that time1 to be #dcbc feet or #ffbj feet higher than the ,cordilleras1 according as the comparison was made with the ,djawahir or the ,dhawalagiri4 ,pentland's ,south ,american travels1 in the years #ahbg and #ahch1 directed attention to two snow-crowned summits of ,upper ,peru1 east of the lake of ,titicaca1 which were conjectured to be respectively #chbd and #begh feet higher than the ,chimborazo4,,ch ,it has been already observed1,,ci that the most recent computations in the measurements of the ,sorata and ,illimani have shown the error of this hypsometric assertion4 ,the ,dhawalagiri1 therefore1 on whose declivity in the river-valley of ,ghandaki1 the ,salagrana ,ammonites1 so celebrated in the ,brahminical ritual as symbols of the testaceous incarnation of ,vishnu1 are collected1 still indicates a difference of elevation between both continents of more than #ffjj feet4 ,the question has been asked1 whether there may not be still greater heights in the rear of the southernmost chain1 which has been as yet measured with more or less exactitude4 ,colonel ,george ,lloyd1 who in #ahdj edited the important observations of ,captain ,alexander ,gerard and his brother1 entertains the opinion1 that in that part of the ,himalaya1 which he somewhat indefinitely names the 8,tartaric ,chain0 7and consequently in ,northern ,thibet1 in the direction of the ,kuen-ln1 perhaps in the ,kailasa of the sacred lakes or beyond ,leh7 there are mountain-summits which attain an elevation of from #bi1jjj to #cj1jjj feet1 one or two thousand feet higher1 therefore1 than the ,dhawalagiri4,,cj ,no definite opinion can be formed on the subject until we are in the possession of actual measurements1 since the indication which led the natives of ,quito1 long before the arrival of ,bouguer and ,la ,condamine1 to regard the summit of the ,chimborazo as the culminating point--or the highest point within the region of perpetual snow--is rendered very deceptive in the temperate zone of ,thibet1 where the radiation of the table-land is so effective1 and where the lower limit of perpetual snow does not constitute a regular line of equal level as in the tropics4 ,the greatest elevation above the level of the sea that has been reached by man on the sides of the ,himalaya is #ai1dhh feet4 ,this elevation was gained by ,captain ,gerard1 with seven barometers1 as we have already observed1 on the mountain of ,tarhigang1 somewhat to the north-west of ,schipke4,,ck ,this happens to be almost the same height as that to which ,i myself ascended up on the ,chimborazo 7on the #bcrd of ,june1 #ahjb71 and which was reached thirty years later 7#afth of ,december1 #ahca7 by my friend ,boussingault4 ,the unattained summit of the ,tarhigang is1 moreover1 #abee feet higher than the ,chimborazo4 ,the passes across the ,himalaya from ,hindostan to ,chinese ,tartary1 or rather to ,western ,thibet1 especially between the rivers ,buspa and ,schipke1 or ,langzing ,khampa1 are from #ae1cdg to #ah1edd feet in height4 ,in the chain of the ,andes ,i found that the pass of ,assuay1 between ,quito and ,cuenca1 at the ,ladera de ,cadlud1 was also fully #ae1eff feet above the level of the sea4 ,a great part of the ,alpine plains of the interior of ,asia would lie buried throughout the whole year in snow and ice1 if the limits of perpetual snow were not singularly elevated1 probably to about #af1fbf feet1 by the force of the heat radiated from the ,thibetian plain1 the constant serenity of the sky1 the rarity of the formation of snow in the dry atmosphere1 and by the powerful solar heat peculiar to the eastern continental climate1 which characterizes the northern declivity of the ,himalaya4 ,fields of barley 7of ,hordeum hexastichon7 have been seen in ,kunawur at an elevation of #ad1gjj feet and another variety of barley1 called ,ooa1 and allied to ,hordeum cleste1 even much higher4 ,wheat thrives admirably well in the ,thibetian highlands1 up to an elevation of #ab1jjj feet4 ,on the northern declivity of the ,himalaya1 ,captain ,gerard found that the upper limits of the birch woods ascend to #ad1jfi feet2 and small brushwood used by the natives for fuel in their huts is even found within the parallels of #cj #de and #ca north latitude1 at an elevation of #af1idf feet1 and therefore nearly #abhj feet higher than the lower snow-limit in the equatorial regions4 ,it follows from the data hitherto collected that on the northern declivity of the ,himalaya the mean of the lower snow-line is at least #af1fbf feet1 whilst on the southern declivity it falls to #ab1ihj feet4 ,but for this remarkable distribution of heat in the upper strata of the atmosphere1 the mountain plain of ,western ,thibet would be rendered uninhabitable for the millions of men who now occupy it4,,cl ,in a letter which ,i have lately received from ,india from ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker1 who is engaged in meteorological and geological observations1 as well as in the study of the geography of plants1 he says1 8,mr4 ,hodgson1 whom we here consider more thoroughly conversant than any other geographer with the hypsometric relations of the snow ranges1 recognises the correctness of the opinions you have advanced in the third part of your ,asie centrale1 regarding the cause of the unequal height of the limit of perpetual snow on the northern and the southern declivity of the ,himalaya range4 ,in the trans-,sutledge region 7in #cf north latitude7 we often observed the snow limit as high as #bj1jjj feet1 whilst in the passes south of ,brahmaputra1 between ,assam and ,birmah 7in #bg north latitude71 where the most southern snow-capped mountains of ,asia are situated1 the snow limit sinks to #ae1jjj feet40 ,i believe we ought to distinguish between the extreme and the mean elevations1 but in both we find the formerly disputed difference between the ,thibetian and the ,indian declivities manifested in the clearest manner4 ,my result for the mean height of ,extremes according to ,dr4 ,hooker's the snow line as given in ,asie ,letter4 centrale1 t4 iii41 p4 #cbf4 ,feet4 ,feet4 ,northern declivity #af1fbf ,northern declivity #bj1jjj ,southern declivity #ab1iha ,southern declivity #ae1jjj ------------ ------------ ,difference #c1fde ,difference #e1jjj ,the local differences vary still more1 as may be seen from the series of extremes given in ,asie centrale1 t4 iii41 p4 #bie4 ,alexander ,gerard saw the snow-limit ascend to #bj1dfc feet on the ,thibetian declivity of the ,himalaya2 and ,jacquemont found it as low as #aa1ejj feet on the south-,indian declivity1 north of ,cursali on the ,jumnautri4 ,the recent investigations of ,lieutenant ,strachey show that ,m4 ,humboldt has been led astray1 when treating of the ,himalaya1 by the very authorities on whom he placed the most reliance4 ,the results of his inquiries on this point are given in the first volume of the ,,cosmos 7,bohn's ,ed471 pp4 #i and #cch4 ,as the subject is one of considerable interest we give a brief sketch of ,lieutenant ,strachey's,,cm recent labours1 confining ourselves to his own views1 and omitting 7for want of space7 his somewhat lengthy exposition of the errors committed by the authorities quoted by ,humboldt4 ,the following are his personal observations regarding the southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow4 8,in this part of the ,himalaya it is not1 on an average of years1 till the beginning of ,december1 that the snow line appears decidedly to descend for the winter4 ,after the end of ,september1 indeed1 when the rains are quite over1 light falls of snow are not of very uncommon occurrence on the higher mountains1 even down to #ab1jjj feet2 but their effects usually disappear very quickly1 often in a few hours4 ,the latter part of ,october1 the whole of ,november1 and the beginning of ,december1 are here generally characterised by the beautiful serenity of the sky2 and it is at this season1 on the southern edge of the belt1 that the line of perpetual snow is seen to attain its greatest elevation4 8,the following are the results of trigonometrical measurements of the elevation of the inferior edge of snow on spurs of the ,tresl and ,nanddevi groups of peaks1 made1 before the winter snow had begun1 in ,november1 #ahdh4 ,height on face ,point ,height as observed on face exposed to the exposed to observed4 ,east4 ,west4 ,observed from ,almorah4 ,from ,almorah1 ,from ,binsar1 7height1 #eehf 7height1 #gifi ,mean4 ft47 ft47 ,no4 ,feet4 ,feet4 ,feet4 ,feet4 #a #af1eii #af1gfg #af1fhc #ae1hgb #b #af1ifi #ag1jje #af1ihg #c #ag1ahf #ag1ahe #ag1ahe #ad1hgh #d #ae1bic #ae1cfa #ae1cbg 8,the points #a1 #b and #c are in ridges that run in a south-westerly direction4 ,the dip of the strata being to the north-east1 the faces exposed to view from the south are for the most part very abrupt1 and snow never accumulates on them to any great extent4 ,this in some measure will account for the height to which the snow is seen to have receded on the eastern exposures1 that is1 upwards of #ag1jjj feet4 ,on the western exposures the ground is less steep1 and the snow is seen to have been observed at a considerable less elevation2 but it was in very small quantities1 and had probably fallen lately1 so that ,i am inclined to think that its height1 viz41 about #ae1jjj feet1 rather indicates the elevation below which the light autumnal falls of snow were incapable of lying1 than that of the inferior edge of the perpetual snow4 ,it is further to be understood1 that below this level of #ae1jjj feet the mountains were absolutely without snow1 excepting those small isolated patches that are seen in ravines1 or at the head of glaciers1 which1 of course1 do not affect such calculations as these4 ,on the whole1 therefore1 ,i consider that the height of the snow-line on the more prominent points of the southern edge of the belt may be fairly reckoned at #af1jjj feet at the very least4 8,the point ,no4 #d was selected as being in a much more retired position than the others4 ,it is situate not far from the head of the ,pindur river4 ,it was quite free from snow at #ae1cjj feet1 and ,i shall therefore consider #ae1jjj feet as the elevation of the snow-line in the re-entering angles of the chain4 8,i conclude1 then1 that #ae1ejj feet1 the mean of the heights at the most and least prominent points1 should be assigned as the mean elevation of the snow-line at the southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow in ,kumaon2 and ,i conceive that whatever error there may be in this estimate will be found to lie on the side of diminution rather than of exaggeration4 8,this result appears to accord well with what has been observed in the ,bissehir range4 ,the account given by ,dr4 ,gerard of his visit to the ,shtl ,pass on this range1 which he undertook expressly for the purpose of determining the height of the snow-line1 contains the only definite information as to the limit of the perpetual snow at the southern edge of the belt that is to be found in the whole of the published writings of the ,gerards2 and the following is a short abstract of his observations4 ,dr4 ,gerard reached the summit of the ,shtl ,pass1 the elevation of which is #ae1ejj feet1 on the #ith of ,august1 #ahbb1 and remained there till the #aeth of the same month4 ,he found the southern slope of the range generally free from snow1 and he states that it is sometimes left without any whatever4 ,on the top of the pass itself there was no snow2 but on the northern slope of the mountain it lay as far down as about #ad1jjj feet4 ,on his arrival rain was falling1 and out of the four days of his stay on this pass it either rained or snowed for the greater part of three4 ,the fresh snow that fell during this time did not lie below #af1jjj feet1 and some of the more precipitous rocks remained clear even up to #ag1jjj feet4 8,the conclusion to which ,dr4 ,gerard comes from these facts is1 that the snow-line on the southern face of the ,bissehir range is at #ae1jjj feet above the sea4 ,but ,i should myself be more inclined1 from his account1 to consider that #ae1ejj feet was nearer the truth2 and in this view ,i am confirmed by verbal accounts of the state of the passes on this range1 which ,i have obtained from persons of my acquaintance1 who have crossed them somewhat later in the year4 ,the difference1 however1 is after all trifling4 8,such is the direct evidence that can be offered on the height of the snow-line at the southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow3 some additional light1 may1 however1 be thrown on the subject generally by my shortly explaining the state in which ,i have found the higher parts of the mountains at the different seasons during which ,i have visited them4 8,in the beginning of ,may1 on the mountains to the east of the ,rmganga river1 near ,nmik1 ,i found the ground on the summit of the ridge1 called ,champw1 not only perfectly free from snow at an elevation of #ab1jjj feet1 but covered with flowers1 in some places golden with calsha and ranunculus polypetalus1 in others purple with primulus4 ,the snow had in fact already receded to upwards of #ab1ejj feet1 behind which even a few little gentians proclaimed the advent of spring4 8,towards the end of the same month1 at the end of the ,pindur1 near the glacier from which that river rises1 an open spot on which ,i could pitch my tent could not be found above #ab1jjj feet4 ,but here the accumulation of snow1 which was considerable in all ravines even below #aa1jjj feet1 is manifestly the result of avalanches and drift4 ,the surface of the glacier1 clear ice as well as moraines1 was quite free from snow up to nearly #ac1jjj feet2 but the effect of the more retired position of the place in retarding the melting of the snow1 was manifest from the less advanced state of the vegetation4 ,during my stay at ,pinduri the weather was very bad1 and several inches of snow fell2 but1 excepting where it had fallen on the old snow1 it all melted off again in a few hours1 even without the assistance of the sun's direct rays4 ,on the glacier1 at #ac1jjj feet1 it had all disappeared twelve hours after it fell4 8,on revisiting ,pinduri about the middle of ,october1 the change that had taken place was very striking4 ,now not a sign of snow was to be seen on any part of the road up to the very head of the glacier2 a luxuriant vegetation had sprung up1 but had already almost entirely perished1 and its remains covered the ground as far as ,i went4 ,from this elevation1 about #ac1jjj feet1 evident signs of vegetation could be seen to extend far up the less precipitous mountains4 ,the place is not one at which the height of the perpetual snow can be easily estimated1 for on all sides are glaciers1 and the vast accumulations of snow from which they are supplied1 and these cannot always be readily distinguished from snow in situ2 but as far as ,i could judge1 those places which might be considered as offering a fair criterion were free from snow up to #ae1jjj1 or even #af1jjj feet4 8,towards the end of ,august ,i crossed the ,barjikang ,pass1 between ,rlam and ,juhr1 the elevation of which is about #ae1cjj feet4 ,there was here no vestige of snow on the ascent to the pass from the south-east1 and only a very small patch remained on the north-western face4 ,the view of the continuation of the ridge in a southerly direction was cut off by a prominent point1 but no snow lay on that side within #ejj feet of the pass1 while to the north ,i estimated that there was no snow in considerable quantity within #aejj feet or more1 that is1 nearly up to #ag1jjj feet4 ,the vegetation on the very summit of the pass was far from scanty1 though it had already begun to break up into tufts1 and had lost that character of continuity which it had maintained to within a height of #ejj or #fjj feet4 ,species of ,potentilla1 ,sedum1 ,saxifraga1 ,corydalis1 ,aconitum1 ,delphinium1 ,thalictrum1 ,ranunculus ,saussurea1 ,gentiana1 ,pedicularis1 ,primula1 ,rheum1 and ,polygonum1 all evidently flourishing in a congenial climate1 showed that the limits of vegetation and region of perpetual snow were still far distant4 8,in addition to these facts1 it may not be out of place to mention that there are two mountains visible from ,almorah1 ,rigoli-gdri1 in ,garhwal between the ,kailganga and ,nandkni1 and ,chipula1 in ,kumaon1 between the ,gori and ,dauli 7of ,darma71 both upwards of #ac1jjj feet in elevation1 from the summits of which the snow disappears long before the end of the summer months1 and which do not usually again become covered for the winter till late in ,december40 ,these remarks are followed by an exposition of the errors into which ,webb1 ,colebrooke1 ,hodgson1 ,a4 ,gerard1 and ,jacquemont1 have fallen4 ,the heights assigned by these travellers 8must all be rejected2 nor can it be considered at all surprising that any amount of mistake1 as to the height of the snow-line1 should be made1 so long as travellers cannot distinguish snow from glacier ice1 or look for the boundary of perpetual snow at the beginning of the spring40 ,with regard to the northern limit of the belt of perpetual snow1 ,lieutenant ,strachey's observations were made in ,september1 #ahdh1 on his way from ,milam into ,hundes1 vi ,unta-dhra1 ,kyungar-ght1 and ,balch-dhra1 at the beginning of the month2 and on his road back again1 vi ,lakhur-ght1 at the end of the month4 8,of the three passes that we crossed on our way from ,milam1 all of them being about #ag1jjj feet in elevation1 the first is ,wata-dhra1 and we saw no snow on any part of the way up to its top1 which was reached in a very disagreeable drizzle of rain and snow4 ,the final ascent to the pass from the south is about #ajjj feet4 ,the path leads up the side of a ravine1 down which a small stream trickles1 the ground having a generally even and rounded surface4 ,neither on any part of this nor on the summit of the pass itself1 which is tolerably level1 were there any remains of snow whatever4 ,on the ridge to the right and left there were patches of snow a few hundred feet above2 and on the northern face of the pass an accumulation remained that extended about #bjj feet down1 apparently the effect of the drift through the gap in which the pass lies4 ,below this again the ground was everywhere quite free from snow4 ,on the ascent to ,wata-dhra1 at perhaps #ag1jjj feet1 a few blades of grass were seen1 but on the whole it may be said to have been utterly devoid of vegetation4 ,on the north side of the pass1 #cjj or #djj feet below the summit1 a cruciferous plant was the first met with4 8,the ,kyungar pass1 which is four or six miles north of ,wata-dhra1 was found equally free from snow on its southern face and summit1 which latter is particularly open and level4 ,the mountains on either side were also free from snow to some height2 but on the north a large bed lay a little way down the slope1 and extended to about #ejj feet from the top4 ,on this pass a boragineous plant in flower was found above #ag1jjj feet2 a species of ,urtica was also got about the same altitude1 and we afterwards saw it again nearly as high up on the ,lakhur pass4 8,in our ascent to the ,balch pass no snow was observed on any of the southern spires of the range1 and only one or two very small patches could be seen from the summit on the north side4 ,the average height of the top of this range can hardly be more than #ejj feet greater than that of the pass2 and as a whole it certainly does not enter the region of perpetual snow4 ,as viewed from the plains of ,handes1 it cannot be said to appear snowy1 a few only of the peaks being tipped4 8,we returned to ,milam vi ,chirchun4 ,the whole of the ascent to ,the ,lakhur pass was perfectly free from snow to the very top1 i4e4 #ah1cjj feet1 and many of the neighbouring mountains were bare still higher4 ,the next ridge on this route is ,jainti-dhra1 which is passed at an elevation of #ah1ejj feet1 but still without crossing the least portion of snow4 ,the line of perpetual snow is however evidently near2 for though the ,jainti ridge was quite free1 and some of the peaks near us were clear probably to upwards of #ai1jjj feet1 yet in more sheltered situations unbroken snow could be seen considerably below us2 and on the whole ,i think that #ah1ejj feet must be near the average height of the snow-line at this place40 ,a brief recapitulation of the principal results of ,lieutenant ,strachey's inquiries shows us that 8the snow-line or the southern edge of the belt of perpetual snow in this portion of the ,himalaya is at an elevation of #ae1jjj feet1 while on the northern edge it reaches #ah1ejj feet2 and that on the mountains to the north of the ,sutlej1 or still further1 it recedes even beyond #ai1jjj feet4 ,the greater elevation which the snow-line attains on the northern edge of the belt of perpetual snow is a phenomenon not confined to the ,thibetan declivity alone1 but extending far into the interior of the chain2 and it appears to be caused by the quantity of snow that falls on the northern portion of the mountains being much less than that which falls farther to the south along the line where the peaks1 covered with perpetual snow1 first rise above the less elevated ranges of the ,himalaya40 ,the letters of ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker published during the present year 7#ahdi7 in the ,athenum 7pp4 #dca and #ajci7 may also be consulted with advantage4 ,footnote #aa3 p4 #e--8;,a tawny tribe of ,herdsmen40 ,the ,hiongnu 7,hioung-nou71 whom ,deguignes and with him many other historians long believed to be identical with the ,huns1 inhabited the vast ,tartarian tract of land which is bordered on the east by ,uo-leang-ho1 the present territory of the ,mant-schu1 on the south by the ,chinese wall1 on the west by the ,u-sin1 and on the north by the land of the ,eleuthes ,but the ,hiongnu belong to the ,turkish1 and the ,huns to the ,finnish or ,uralian race4 ,the northern ,huns1 a rude people of herdsmen1 unacquainted with agriculture1 were of a blackish brown complexion4 ,the southern ,huns1 or ,hajatehah called by the ,byzantines ,euthalites or ,nephthalites1 and inhabiting the eastern shore of the ,caspian ,sea1 had fairer skins4 ,these pursued agriculture1 and dwelt in towns4 ,they are frequently termed ,white ,huns1 and d',herbelot even regards them as ,indo-,scythians4 ,in ,deguignes,,cn an account will be found of the ,punu1 the leader or ,tanju of the ,huns1 and of the great drought and famine which led to the migration of a portion of the nation northwards about the year #df ,a4,d4 ,all the details1 given in his celebrated work regarding the ,hiongnu1 have been recently submitted by ,klaproth to a rigid and learned scrutiny4 ,from the result of his investigations it would appear1 that the ,hiongnu belong to the widely diffused ,turkish races of the ,altai and ,tangnu mountain districts4 ,the name of ,hiongnu was a general name for the ,ti1 ,thu-kiu or ,turks1 in the north and north-west of ,china1 even in the third century before the ,christian era4 ,the southern ,hiongnu submitted themselves to the ,chinese1 and in conjunction with the latter destroyed the empire of the northern ,hiongnu1 who were in consequence compelled to flee to the west1 and thus appear to have given the first impulse to the migration of nations in ,central ,asia4 ,the ,huns1 who were long confounded with the ,hiongnu 7as the ,uigures were with the ,ugures and ,hungarians7 belonged1 according to ,klaproth1,,co to the ,finnish race of the ,uralian mountains1 which race has been variously intermixed with ,germans1 ,turks1 and ,samoiedes4 ,the ,huns 77 are first mentioned by ,dionysius ,periegetes1 a writer who was able to obtain more accurate information than others regarding the interior of ,asia1 because1 as a learned man and a native of ,charax on the ,arabian ,gulf1 he was sent back to the ,east by ,augustus1 to accompany thither his adopted son1 ,caius ,agrippa4 ,ptolemy1 a century later1 writes the word with a strong aspiration1 which1 as ,st4 ,martin observes1 is again met with in the geographical name of ,chunigard4 ,footnote #ab3 p4 #f--8,no hewn stone40 ,representations of the sun and figures of animals have certainly been found graven in rocks on the banks of the ,orinoco1 near ,caicara1 where the woody region borders on the plain1 but in the ,llanos themselves not a trace of these rough memorials of earlier inhabitants has ever been discovered4 ,it is to be regretted that no accurate account has reached us of a monument which was sent to ,count ,maurepas1 in ,france1 and which1 according to ,kalm1 was discovered in the prairies of ,canada1 #ijj ,french leagues 7about #bgjj ,english miles7 west of ,montreal1 by ,m4 de ,verandrier1 while engaged on an expedition to the coast of the ,pacific ,ocean4,,cp ,this traveller met in the plains with huge masses of stone erected by the hand of man1 on one of which there was an inscription believed to be in the ,tartar language,,cq4 ,how can so important a monument have remained uninvestigated8 ,can it actually have borne an alphabetical inscription1 or are we not rather to believe that it must have been an historical picture1 like the so-called ,phnician inscription1 which has been discovered on the bank of the ,taunton river1 and whose authenticity has been questioned by ,court de ,gebelin8 ,i indeed regard it as highly probable that these plains were once traversed by civilised nations1 and it seems to me that this fact is proved by the existence of pyramidal grave-works or burrows and bulwarks of extraordinary length1 between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,alleghanys1 on which ,squier and ,davis have now thrown new light in their account of the ancient monuments of the ,mississippi valley4,,cr ,m4 de ,verandrier was despatched1 about the year #agdf1 on this expedition by the ,chevalier de ,beauharnois1 ,governor-,general of ,canada2 and several ,jesuits in ,quebec assured ,kalm that they had actually had this so-called inscription in their hands1 and that it was graven on a small tablet which was found inlaid in a hewn pillar4 ,i have in vain requested several of my friends in ,france to make inquiries regarding this monument1 in the event of its being in the ,collection of ,count ,maurepas4 ,i have also found equally uncertain accounts of the alphabetical writing of the ,american aboriginal races1 in a work of ,pedro de ,ciea de ,leon1,,cs in ,garcia1,,ct and in ,columbus's,,cu journal of his first voyage4 ,m4 de ,verandrier maintained also that traces of the ploughshare were observed for days together in travelling over the grassy plains of ,western ,canada2 a circumstance that other travellers1 prior to him1 likewise profess to have noticed4 ,but the utter ignorance of the primitive nations of ,north ,america regarding this implement of agriculture1 the want of beasts of draught1 and the vast extent of surface over which these tracks extend through the prairie1 tend rather to make me adopt the opinion that this singular appearance of furrows is owing to some movement of water over the earth's surface4 ,footnote #ac3 p4 #f--8;,it spreads like an arm of the sea40 ,the great steppe1 which extends from the mouth of the ,orinoco to the snowy mountains of ,merida1 from east to west1 deflects towards the south in the parallel of #h north latitude1 and occupies the whole space between the eastern declivity of the elevated mountains of ,new ,granada and the ,orinoco1 which here flows in a northerly direction4 ,that portion of the ,llanos1 which is watered by the ,meta1 ,vichada1 ,zama1 and ,guaviare1 connects as it were the valley of the ,amazon with that of the ,lower ,orinoco4 ,the word ,paramo1 which ,i have frequently employed in this work1 signifies in the ,spanish colonies all alpine regions which are situated from #aa1jjj to #ad1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 and whose climate is rude1 ungenial1 and misty4 ,in the higher ,paramos hail and snow fall daily for many hours continuously1 and yield a beneficial supply of humidity to the alpine plants1 not from the absolute quantity of vapour in the higher strata of the air1 but by the frequency of the aqueous deposits occasioned by the rapidly changing currents of air1 and the variations of the electric tension4 ,the trees found in these regions are low1 and spread out in an umbrella-like form1 have gnarled branches1 which are constantly covered with fresh and evergreen foliage4 ,they are mostly large-flowering laurel and myrtle-leaved alpine shrubs ,escallonia tubar1 ,escallonia myrtilloides1 ,chuquiraga insignis1 ,arali1 ,weinmanni1 ,frezier1 ,gualtheri1 and ,andromeda reticulata1 may be regarded as the representatives of the physiognomy of this vegetation4,,cv ,to the south of the town of ,santa ,f de ,bogota lies the celebrated ,paramo de la ,suma ,paz1 an isolated mountain group1 in which1 according to ,indian legends1 great treasures are concealed2 and hence issues a small stream or brook1 which pours its foaming waters through a remarkable natural bridge in the rocky ravine of ,icononzo4 ,in my ,latin treatise1 ,de ,distributione geographica ,plantarum secundum cli temperiem et altitudinem montium1 #ahag1 p4 #ajd1 ,i have thus endeavoured to characterise these ,alpine regions3 8,altitudine #agjj-aijj hexapod3 asperri solitudines1 qu a colonis hispanis uno nomine ,paramos appellantur1 tempestatum vicissitudinibus mire obnoxi1 ad quas solut et emollit defluunt nives2 ventorum flatibus ac nimborum grandinisque jactu tumultuosa regio1 qu que per diem et per noctes riget1 solis nubila et tristi luce fere nunquam calefacta4 ,habitantur in hac ipsa altitudine sat magn civitates1 ut ,micuipampa ,peruvianorum1 ubi thermometrum centes4 meridie inter #e et #h1 noctu -#j4d consistere vidi2 ,huancavelica1 propter cinnabaris venas celebrata1 ubi altitudine #ahce hexap4 fere totum per annum temperies mensis ,martii ,parisiis40 ,footnote #ad3 p4 #f--8,the ,cordilleras of ,cochabamba and the ,brazilian mountains approximate to one another by means of separate transverse chains40 ,the immense space between the eastern coasts of ,south ,america and the eastern declivity of the chain of the ,andes is contracted by two mountain masses1 which partially separate from one another the three valleys or plains of the ,lower ,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 and the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,the more northern mountain mass1 called the group of the ,parime1 is opposite to the ,andes of ,cundinamarca1 which1 after extending far towards the east1 assume the form of one elevated mountain1 between the parallels of #ff and #fh west longitude4 ,it is connected by the narrow mountain ridge of ,pacaraima with the granitic hills of ,french ,guiana1 as ,i have clearly indicated in the map of ,columbia which ,i drew up from my own astronomical observations4 ,the ,caribs1 in their long expeditions from the missions of ,carony to the plains of ,rio ,branco1 and even to the ,brazilian frontier1 are obliged to traverse the crests of ,pacaraima and ,quimiropaca4 ,the second group of mountains1 which separates the valley of the ,amazon from that of ,la ,plata1 is the ,brazilian1 which approximates to the promontory of ,santa ,cruz de la ,sierra1 in the province of ,chiquitos1 west of the ,parecis hills4 ,as neither the group of the ,parime1 which gives rise to the cataracts of the ,orinoco1 nor the ,brazilian group1 is directly connected with the chain of the ,andes1 the plains of ,venezuela and those of ,patagonia are directly connected with one another4,,cw ,footnote #ae3 p4 #f--8;,herds of wild dogs40 ,in the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres the traveller meets with ,european dogs1 which have become wild4 ,they live gregariously in holes and excavations1 in which they conceal their young4 ,when the horde becomes too numerous1 several families go forth1 and form new settlements elsewhere4 ,the ,european dog barks as loudly after it has become wild1 as does the indigenous ,american hairy species4 ,garcilaso asserts that1 prior to the arrival of the ,spaniards1 the ,peruvians had a race of dogs called ,perros gozques2 and he calls the indigenous dog ,allco4 ,in order to distinguish this animal from the ,european variety1 it is called in the ,quichua language ,runa-allco1 ,indian dog1 or dog of the natives4 ,the hairy ,runa-allco appears to be a mere variety of the shepherd's dog4 ,it is1 however1 smaller1 has long yellow-ochry coloured hair1 is marked with white and brown spots1 and has erect and pointed ears4 ,it barks continually1 but seldom bites the natives1 however it may attack the whites4 ,when the ,inca ,pachacutec1 in his religious wars1 conquered the ,indians of ,xauxa and ,huanca 7the present valley of ,huancaya and ,jauja71 and compelled them by force to submit to the worship of the sun1 he found that dogs were made the objects of their adoration1 and that the priests used the skulls of these animals as wind instruments4 ,it would also appear that the flesh of this canine divinity was eaten by the believers4,,cx ,the veneration of dogs in the valley of the ,huancaya is probably the reason why the skulls1 and even whole mummies1 of these animals are sometimes found in the ,huacas1 or ,peruvian graves of the most ancient period4 ,von ,tschudi1 the author of an admirable treatise on the ,fauna ,peruana1 has examined these skulls1 and believes them to belong to a peculiar species1 which he calls ,canis ing1 and which is different from the ,european dog4 ,the ,huancas are still1 in derision1 called 8dog-eaters0 by the inhabitants of other provinces4 ,among the natives of the ,rocky ,mountains of ,north ,america1 cooked dog's flesh is placed before the stranger guest1 as a feast of honour4 ,captain ,frmont was present at such a dog-feast in the neighbourhood of ,fort ,laramie1 which is one of the stations of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company for trading in skins and peltries with the ,sioux ,indians4,,cy ,the ,peruvian dogs were made to play a singular part during eclipses of the moon1 being beaten as long as the darkness continued4 ,the ,mexican ,techichi1 a variety of the common dog1 which was called in ,anahuac ,chichi1 was the only completely dumb dog4 ,the literal signification of the word ,techichi is 8stone-dog10 from the ,aztec1 tetl1 a stone4 ,this dog was eaten according to the ancient ,chinese custom1 and the ,spaniards found this food so indispensable before the introduction of horned cattle1 that the race was gradually almost entirely extirpated4,,cz ,buffon confounds the ,techichi with the ,koupara of ,guiana1,,da which is1 however1 identical with the ,procyon or ,ursus cancrivorus1 the ,raton crabier1 or the crab-eating ,aguara-guaza of the coasts of ,patagonia4,,db ,linnus1 on the other hand1 confounds the dumb dog with the ,mexican ,itzcuintepotzotli1 a canine species which has not hitherto been perfectly described1 and which is said to be characterised by a short tail1 a very small head1 and a large hump on the back4 ,the name signifies a hump-backed dog1 and is derived from the ,aztec itzcuintli1 another word for dog1 and tepotzotli1 humped or a humpback4 ,i was much struck in ,america1 especially in ,quito and ,peru1 with the great number of black hairless dogs4 ,they are termed ,chiens turcs by ,buffon1 and are the ,canis gyptius of ,linnus4 ,this species is common amongst the ,indians1 who1 however1 generally despise them1 and treat them ill4 ,all ,european dogs multiply rapidly in ,south ,america2 and if no species are to be met with equal to those of ,europe1 it is partly owing to want of care1 and partly to the circumstance that the finest varieties 7as the elegant greyhound and the ,danish tiger breed7 have never been introduced4 ,von ,tschudi makes the singular remark1 that on the ,cordilleras1 at elevations of more than #ab1jjj feet1 delicate breeds of dogs and the ,european domestic cat are exposed to a particular kind of mortal disease4 8,innumerable attempts have been made to keep cats as domestic animals in the town of ,cerro de ,pasco 7lying at an elevation of #ad1ajj feet above the sea's level72 but such endeavours have invariably been frustrated1 as both cats and dogs have died in convulsions at the end of a few days4 ,the cats1 after being attacked by convulsive fits1 attempt to climb the walls1 but soon fall to the ground exhausted and motionless4 ,i frequently observed instances in ,yauli of this chorea-like disease2 and it seems to arise from insufficient atmospheric pressure40 ,in the ,spanish colonies1 the hairless dog1 which is called ,perro chinesco1 or chino1 is supposed to be of ,chinese origin1 and to have been brought from ,canton1 or from ,manila4 ,according to ,klaproth1 the race has been very common in the ,chinese ,empire from the earliest ages of its culture4 ,among the animals indigenous to ,mexico1 there was a very large1 totally hairless1 and dog-like wolf1 named ,xoloitzcuintli1 from the ,mexican xolo or xolotl1 a servant or slave4,,dc ,the result of ,tschudi's observations regarding the ,american indigenous races of dogs are as follows3--,there are two varieties almost specifically different--#a4 ,the ,canis caraibicus of ,lesson1 totally hairless1 with the exception of a small tuft of white hair on the forehead and at the tip of the tail2 of a slate-gray colour1 and without voice4 ,this variety was found by ,columbus in the ,antilles1 by ,cortes in ,mexico1 and by ,pizarro in ,peru 7where it suffers from the cold of the ,cordilleras72 and it is still very frequently met with in the warmer districts of ,peru1 under the name of ,perros chinos4 #b4 ,the ,canis ing1 which belongs to the barking species1 and has a pointed nose and pointed ears2 it is now used for watching sheep and cattle2 it exhibits many variations of colour1 induced by being crossed with ,european breeds4 ,the ,canis ing follows man up the heights of the ,cordilleras4 ,in the old ,peruvian graves1 the skeleton of this dog is sometimes found resting at the feet of the human mummy1 presenting an emblem of fidelity frequently employed by the medival sculptors4,,dd ,european dogs1 that had become wild1 were found in the island of ,st4 ,domingo1 and in ,cuba1 in the early periods of the ,spanish conquest4,,de ,in the savannahs between the ,meta1 ,arauca1 and ,apure1 dumb dogs 7perros mudos7 were used as food as late as the sixteenth century4 ,the natives called them ,majos or ,auries1 says ,alonzo de ,herrera1 who undertook an expedition to the ,orinoco1 in #aece4 ,the highly intelligent traveller ,gisecke found this variety of non-barking dogs in ,greenland4 ,the dogs of the ,esquimaux live entirely in the open air1 scraping for themselves at night holes in the snow1 and howling like wolves1 in concert with one of the troop1 who sits in the middle1 and takes the lead in the chorus4 ,the ,mexican dogs were castrated1 in order that their flesh might become more fat and delicate4 ,on the borders of the province of ,durango1 and further north1 near the ,slave ,lake1 the natives load the larger dogs with their buffalo-skin tents1 7at all events they did so formerly17 when1 on the change of seasons1 they seek a different place of abode4 ,these various details may all be regarded as characteristic of the mode of life led by the nations of ,eastern ,asia4,,df ,footnote #af3 p4 #g--8,like the greater part of the ,desert of ,sahara1 the ,llanos lie within the ,torrid ,zone40 ,significant denominations1 particularly such as refer to the form of the earth's surface1 and which arose at a period when there was only very uncertain information respecting different regions and their hypsometric relations1 have led to various and long-continued geographical errors4 ,the ancient ,ptolemaic denomination of the 8,greater and ,lesser ,atlas0,,dg has exercised the injurious influence here indicated4 ,there is no doubt that the snow-covered western summits of the ,atlas of ,morocco may be regarded as the ,great ,atlas of ,ptolemy2 but where is the limit of the ,little ,atlas8 ,are we still to maintain the division into two ,atlas chains 7which the conservative tendency of geographers has retained for #agjj years7 in the territory of ,algiers1 and even between ,tunis and ,tlemse8 ,are we to seek a ,greater and a ,lesser ,atlas between the coast and the parallel chains of the interior8 ,all travellers familiar with geognostic views1 who have visited ,algeria since it has been in the possession of the ,french1 contest the meaning conveyed by the generally adopted nomenclature4 ,among the parallel chains1 that of ,jurjura is generally supposed to be the highest of those which have been measured2 but the well-informed ,fournel 7who was long ,ingnieur en chef des ,mines de l',algrie7 affirms that the mountain range of ,aurs1 near ,batnah1 which even at the end of ,march was found covered with snow1 has a greater elevation4 ,fournel contests the existence of a ,little and a ,great ,atlas1 as ,i do that of a ,little and a ,great ,altai,,dh4 ,there is but one ,atlas1 formerly called ,dyris by the ,mauritanians1 8a name that must be applied to the foldings 7rides1 suites de crtes71 which form the division between the waters flowing to the ,mediterranean and towards the lowland of the ,sahara40 ,the lofty ,atlas chain of ,morocco inclines from north-east to south-west1 and not1 like the ,eastern ,mauritanian portion of the ,atlas1 from east to west4 ,it rises into summits which1 according to ,renou1 attain an elevation of #aa1djj feet1 exceeding1 therefore1 the height of ,etna,,di4 ,a singularly formed highland1 of an almost square shape 7,sahab el-,marga71 is situated in #cc north lat41 and is bounded to the south by high elevations4 ,from thence the ,atlas declines in height in a westerly direction towards the sea1 about a degree south of ,mogador4 ,this south-western portion bears the name of ,idrar-,n-,deren4 ,the northern boundaries of the extended low region of the ,sahara in ,mauritania1 as well as its southern limits towards the fertile ,sudan1 have hitherto been but imperfectly investigated4 ,if we take the parallels of #af and #cb north lat4 as the outer limits1 we obtain for the ,desert1 including its oases1 an area of more than #a1hif1jjj square miles2 or between nine and ten times the extent of ,germany1 and almost three times that of the ,mediterranean1 exclusive of the ,black ,sea4 ,the best and most recent intelligence1 for which we are indebted to the ,french observers1 ,colonel ,daumas1 and ,,mm4 ,fournel1 ,renou1 and ,carette1 shows us that the ,desert of ,sahara is composed of several detached basins1 and that the number and the population of the fertile ,oases is very much greater than had been imagined from the awfully desert character of the country between ,insalah and ,timbuctoo1 and the road from ,mourzouk1 in ,fezzan1 to ,bilma1 ,tirtuma1 and ,lake ,tschad4 ,it is now generally affirmed that the sand covers only the smaller portion of the lowlands4 ,a similar opinion had been previously advanced by my ,siberian travelling companion1 the acute observer ,ehrenberg1 from what he had himself seen,,dj4 ,of larger wild animals1 only gazelles1 wild asses1 and ostriches are to be met with4 8,that lions exist in the desert10 says ,m4 ,carette1 8is a myth popularised by the dreams of artists and poets1 and has no foundation but in their imagination4 ,this animal does not quit the mountains where it finds shelter1 food1 and drink4 ,when the traveller questions the natives concerning these wild beasts1 which ,europeans suppose to be their companions in the desert1 they reply1 with imperturbable sang froid1 #8,have you1 then1 lions in your country which can drink air and eat leaves8 ,with us lions require running water and living flesh2 and therefore they only appear where there are wooded hills and water4 ,we fear only the viper 7lefa71 and1 in humid spots1 the innumerable swarms of mosquitoes which abound there4,,dk'0 ,while ,dr4 ,oudney1 in his long journey from ,tripoli to ,lake ,tschad1 estimated the elevation of the ,southern ,sahara at #afcg feet1 and ,german geographers even ventured to add an additional thousand feet1 ,fournel1 the engineer1 has1 by careful barometric measurements1 based on corresponding observations1 made it tolerably probable that a part of the northern desert is below the sea's level4 ,the portion of the desert which is now called 8,le ,zahara d',algrie10 advances to the chains of hills of ,metlili and el-,gaous1 where lies the most northern of all the ,oases1 el-,kantara1 fruitful in dates4 ,this low basin1 which reaches the parallel of #cd lat41 receives the radiant heat of a stratum of chalk1 inclined at an angle of #fe towards the south1 and which is full of the shells of ,inoceramus,,dl4 8,arrived at ,biscara 7,biskra710 says ,fournel1 8an indefinite horizon1 like that of the sea1 lay spread before us40 ,between ,biscara and ,sidi ,ocba the land is only #bdc feet above the sea's level4 ,the inclination increases considerably towards the south4 ,in another work,,dm1 where ,i have brought together all the points that refer to the depression of some portions of continents below the level of the sea1 ,i have already noticed that1 according to ,le ,pre1 the bitter lakes 7lacs amers7 on the isthmus of ,suez1 when they have but little water1 and1 according to ,general ,androssy1 the ,natron lakes of ,fayoum1 are also lower than the level of the ,mediterranean4 ,among other manuscript notices of ,m4 ,fournel1 ,i possess a geognostic vertical profile1 with all the inflexions and inclinations of the strata1 representing the surface the whole way from the coast near ,philippeville to a spot near the ,oasis of ,biscara in the ,desert of ,sahara4 ,the direction of the line on which the barometric measurements were taken is south #bj west2 but the points of elevation determined are projected1 as in my ,mexican profiles1 on a different plane1 one from ,n4 to ,s4 ,ascending uninterruptedly from ,constantine1 whose elevation is #babc feet1 the highest point is found between ,batnah and ,tizur1 at only #ceha feet4 ,in the part of the desert which lies between ,biscara and ,tuggurt1 ,fournel has succeeded in digging a series of artesian wells,,dn4 ,we learn from the old accounts of ,shaw1 that the inhabitants of the country were acquainted with a subterranean supply of water1 and related fabulous tales of a 8sea under the earth 7bahr thl el-erd740 ,fresh waters1 which flow between clay and marl strata of the old chalk and other sedimentary formations1 under the action of hydrostatic pressure1 form gushing fountains when the strata are pierced,,do4 ,the phenomenon of fresh water being often found near beds of rock salt1 need not surprise the geognosist1 acquainted with mining operations1 since ,europe offers many analogous phenomena4 ,the riches of the desert in rock-salt1 and its employment for purposes of building1 have been known since the time of ,herodotus4 ,the salt zone of the ,sahara 7zone salifre du dsert7 is the most southern of the three zones which pass through ,northern ,africa from south-west to north-east1 and is believed to be connected with the beds of rock-salt in ,sicily and ,palestine described by ,friedrich ,hoffman1 and by ,robinson,,dp4 ,the trade in salt with ,sudan1 and the possibility of cultivating the date-tree in the many ,oasis-like depressions1 caused probably by earth-slips in the beds of tertiary chalk or ,keuper-gypsum1 have equally contributed to animate the desert1 at various parts1 by human intercourse4 ,the high temperature of the air1 which renders the day's march so oppressive across the ,sahara1 makes the coolness of the night 7of which ,denham and ,sir ,alexander ,burnes frequently complained in the ,african and ,asiatic deserts7 so much the more remarkable4 ,melloni,,dq ascribes this coolness 7which is probably produced by the radiation of heat from the ground71 not to the great purity of the heavens 7irraggiamento calorifico per la grande serenit di cielo nell' immensa e deserta pianura dell' ,africa centrale71 but to the extreme calm1 and the absence of all movement in the air throughout the whole night,,dr4 ,the river ,quad-,dra 7,wadi ,dra71 which is almost dry the greater part of the year1 and which1 according to ,renou,,ds1 is one-sixth longer than the ,rhine1 flows into the ,sahara in #cb north latitude1 from the southern declivity of the ,atlas of ,morocco4 ,it runs at first from north to south1 until in #bi north lat41 and #e #h west long41 it deflects at right angles to the west1 and traversing the great fresh-water lake of ,debaid1 flows into the sea at ,cape ,nun1 in lat4 #bh #df1 and long4 #aa #h4 ,this region1 which was first rendered celebrated by the ,portuguese discoveries of the fifteenth century1 and whose geography has subsequently been shrouded in the deepest obscurity1 is now known on the coast as the country of the ,scheik of ,beirouk 7whose dominions are independent of the ,emperor of ,morocco74 ,it was explored1 in the months of ,july and ,august1 #ahdj1 by the ,french ,count1 ,captain de ,bouet-,villaumez1 under the orders of his government4 ,from manuscript and official reports it would appear that the mouth of the ,quad-,dra is at present so much blocked up by sand as to have an open channel of only about #aij feet4 ,the ,saguiel-el-,hamra1--still very little known1--which comes from the south1 and is supposed to have a course of at least #fjj miles1 flows into the same mouth at a point somewhat farther eastward4 ,the length of these deep1 but generally dry1 river-beds is astonishing4 ,they are ancient furrows1 similar to those which ,i observed in the ,peruvian desert at the foot of the ,cordilleras1 between the latter and the shores of the ,pacific4 ,in ,bouet's manuscript narrative,,dt1 the mountains which rise to the north of ,cape ,nun are estimated at the great height of #i1ahf feet4 ,it is generally supposed that ,cape ,nun was discovered in #adcc by the ,knight ,gilianez1 despatched under the order of the celebrated ,infante1 ,henry1 ,duke of ,viseo1 and founder of the ,academy of ,sagres1 which was presided over by the pilot and cosmographer1 ,mestre ,jacom1 of ,majorca2 but the ,portulano ,mediceo1--the work of a ,genoese navigator of the year #acea1--;already contains the name of 8,cavo di ,non40 ,the doubling of this ,cape was as much dreaded as has been since then the passage round ,cape ,horn2 although it is only #bc north of the parallel of ,teneriffe1 and might be reached by a few days' sail from ,cadiz4 ,the ,portuguese adage1 8,quem passa o ,cabo de ,num1 ou tornar ou no10 could not intimidate the ,infante1 whose heraldic ,french motto of 8,talent de bien faire10 well expressed his noble1 enterprising1 and vigorous character4 ,the name of this ,cape1 which has long been supposed to originate in a play of words on the negative particle1 does not appear to me to be of ,portuguese origin4 ,ptolemy placed on the north-west coast of ,africa a river ,nuius1 in the ,latin version ,nunii ostia4 ,edrisi refers to a town1 ,nul1 or ,wadi ,nun1 somewhat further south1 and about three days' journey in the interior1 named by ,leo ,africanus ,belad de ,non4 ,several ,european navigators had penetrated far to the south of ,cape ,nun before the ,portuguese squadron under ,gilianez4 ,the ,catalan1 ,don ,jayme ,ferrer1 in #acdf1 as we learn from the ,atlas ,catalan1 published at ,paris by ,buchon1 had advanced as far as the ,gold ,river 7,rio do ,ouro71 in #bc #ef north lat42 while the ,normans1 at the close of the fourteenth century1 reached ,sierra ,leone in #h #cj north latitude4 ,the merit of having been the first to cross the equator in the ,western ,ocean incontrovertibly belongs1 like so many other great achievements1 to the ,portuguese4 ,footnote #ag3 p4 #g4--8;,as a grassy plain1 resembling many of the ,steppes of ,central ,asia40 ,the ,llanos of ,caracas1 of the ,rio ,apure and the ,meta1 which are the abode of numerous herds of cattle1 are1 in the strictest sense of the word1 grassy plains4 ,the two families of the ,cyperace and the ,gramine1 which are the principal representatives of the vegetation1 yield numerous forms of ,paspalum 7,paspalum leptostachyum1 ,p4 lenticulare71 of ,kyllingia 7,kyllingia monocephala 7,rottb471 ,k4 odorata71 of ,panicum 7,panicum granuliferum1 ,p4 micranthum71 of ,antephora1 ,aristida1 ,vilfa1 and ,anthisteria 7,anthisteria reflexa1 ,a4 foliosa74 ,it is only here and there that any herbaceous dicotyledon1 as the low-growing species of ,mimosa intermedia and ,m4 dormiens1 which are so grateful to the wild horses and cattle1 are found interspersed among the ,gramine4 ,the natives very characteristically apply to this group the name of 8,dormideras10 or sleepy plants1 because the delicate and feathery leaves close on being touched4 ,for many square miles not a tree is to be seen2 but where a few solitary trees are found1 they are1 in humid districts1 the ,mauritia ,palm1 and1 in arid spots1 a ,proteacea described by ,bonpland and myself1 the ,rhopala complicata 7,chaparro bobo71 which ,willdenow regarded as an ,embothrium2 also the useful ,palma de ,covija or de ,sombrero2 and our ,corypha inermis1 an umbrella palm allied to ,chamrops1 and used by the natives for the covering of their huts4 ,how much more varied and rich is the aspect of the ,asiatic plains6 ,in a great portion of the ,kirghis and ,kalmuck ,steppes which ,i have traversed 7extending over a space of #dj degrees of longitude71 from the ,don1 the ,caspian ,sea and the ,orenburg-,ural river ,jaik1 to the ,obi and the ,upper ,irtysch1 near the ,lake ,dsaisang1 the extreme range of view is never bounded by a horizon in which the vault of heaven appears to rest on an unbroken sea-like plain1 as is so frequently the case in the ,llanos1 ,pampas1 and ,prairies of ,america4 ,i have1 indeed1 never observed anything approaching to this phenomenon1 excepting1 perhaps1 where ,i have looked only towards one quarter of the heavens1 for the ,asiatic plains are frequently intersected by chains of hills1 or clothed with coniferous woods4 ,the ,asiatic vegetation1 too1 in the most fruitful pasture lands1 is by no means limited to the family of the ,cyperace1 but is enriched by a great variety of herbaceous plants and shrubs4 ,in the season of spring1 small snowy white and red flowering ,rosace and ,amygdale 7,spira1 ,cratgus1 ,prunus spinosa1 ,amygdalus nana71 present a pleasing appearance4 ,i have elsewhere spoken of the tall and luxuriant ,synanthere 7,saussurea amara1 ,s4 salsa1 ,artemisi1 and ,centaure71 and of leguminous plants1 7species of the ,astragalus1 ,cytisus and ,caragana74 ,crown ,imperials 7,fritillaria ruthenica and ,f4 meleagroides71 ,cypripedi and tulips gladden the eye with their varied and bright hues4 ,a contrast is presented to this charming vegetation of the ,asiatic plains by the dreary ,salt ,steppes1 especially by that portion of the ,barabinski ,steppe which lies at the base of the ,altai ,mountains1 between ,barnaul and the ,serpent ,mountain1 and by the country to the east of the ,caspian4 ,here the social ,chenopodi1 species of ,salsola1 ,atriplex1 ,salicorni1 and ,halimocnemis crassifolia,,du1 cover the clayey soil with patches of verdure4 ,among the five hundred phanerogamic species which ,claus and ,gbel collected on the ,steppes1 ,synanthere1 ,chenopodi1 and ,crucifer were more numerous than the grasses2 the latter constituting only th of the whole1 and the two former th and th4 ,in ,germany1 owing to the alternation of hills and plains1 the ,glumace 7comprising the ,gramine1 ,cyperace1 and ,juncace7 constitute th1 the ,synanthere 7,composit7 th1 and the ,crucifer th of all the ,german ,phanerogamic species4 ,in the most northern part of the flat land of ,siberia1 the extreme limit of tree and shrub vegetation 7,conifer and ,amentace7 is1 according to ,admiral ,wrangell's fine map1 #fg #ae north lat41 in the districts contiguous to ,behring's ,straits1 while more to the west1 towards the banks of the ,lena1 it is #ga1 which is the parallel of the ,north ,cape of ,lapland4 ,the plains bordering on the ,polar ,sea are the domain of ,cryptogamic plants4 ,they are called ,tundra 7,tuntur in ,finnish71 and are vast swampy districts1 covered partly with a thick mantle of ,sphagnum palustre and other ,liverworts1 and partly with a dry snowy-white carpet of ,cenomyce rangiferina 7,reindeer-moss71 ,stereocaulon paschale1 and other lichens4 8,these ,tundra10 says ,admiral ,wrangell1 in his perilous expedition to the ,islands of ,new ,siberia1 so rich in fossil wood1 8accompanied me to the extremest ,arctic coast4 ,their soil is composed of earth that has been frozen for thousands of years4 ,in the dreary uniformity of the landscape1 and surrounded by reindeer1 the eye of the traveller rests with pleasure on the smallest patch of green turf that shows itself on a moist spot40 ,footnote #ah3 p4 #g4--8;,a diversity of causes diminishes the dryness and heat of the ,new ,continent40 ,i have endeavoured to compress the various causes of the humidity and lesser heat of ,america into one general category4 ,it will of course be understood1 that ,i can only have reference here to the general hygroscopic condition of the atmosphere1 and the temperature of the whole continent2 for in considering individual regions1 as for instance1 the island of ,margarita1 or the coasts of ,cumana and ,coro1 it will be found that these exhibit an equal degree of dryness and heat with any portion of ,africa4 ,the maximum of heat1 at certain hours of a summer's day1 considered with reference to a long series of years1 has been found to be almost the same in all regions of the earth1 whether on the ,neva1 the ,senegal1 the ,ganges1 or the ,orinoco1 namely1 between #ic and #ajd ,fahr41 and on the whole not higher2 provided that the observation be made in the shade1 far from solid radiating bodies1 and not in an atmosphere filled with heated dust or granules of sand1 and not with spirit-thermometers1 which absorb light4 ,the fine grains of sand 7forming centres of radiant heat7 which float in the air1 were probably the cause of the fearful heat 7#abb to #acc ,fahr4 in the shade7 in the ,oasis of ,mourzouk to which my unhappy friend ,ritchie1 who perished there1 and ,captain ,lyon1 were exposed for weeks4 ,the most remarkable instance of a high temperature1 in an air probably free from dust1 is mentioned by an observer who well knew how to arrange and correct all his instruments with the greatest accuracy4 ,rppel found the temperature #aaj4f ,fahr4 at ,ambukol1 in ,abyssinia1 with a cloudy sky1 a strong south-west wind1 and an approaching thunder-storm4 ,the mean annual temperature of the tropics1 or the actual climate of the region of palms1 is on the main land between #gh4b and #he4e ,fahr41 without any sensible difference between the observations made in ,senegal1 ,pondichery1 and ,surinam,,dv4 ,the great coolness1 one might almost say coldness1 which prevails during a great portion of the year in the tropics1 on the coast of ,peru1 and which causes the mercury to fall to #ei ,fahr41 is1 as ,i hope to show in another place1 not to be attributed to the effect of neighbouring mountains covered with snow1 but rather to the mist 7garua7 which obscures the sun's disk1 and to a current of cold sea-water commencing in the antarctic regions1 and which coming from the south-west1 strikes the coast of ,chili near ,valdivia and ,concepcion1 and is thence propelled with violence1 in a northerly direction1 to ,cape ,paria4 ,on the coast of ,lima1 the temperature of the ,pacific is #fj4b ,fahr41 whilst it is #gi4b ,fahr4 under the same parallel of latitude when outside the current4 ,it is singular1 that so remarkable a fact should have remained unnoticed1 until my residence on the coast of the ,pacific1 in ,october1 #ahjb4 ,the variations of temperature1 of many parts of the earth1 depend principally on the character of the bottom of the arial ocean1 or in other words1 on the nature of the solid or fluid 7continental or oceanic7 base on which the atmosphere rests4 ,seas1 traversed in various directions by currents of warm and cold water 7oceanic rivers71 exert a different action from articulated or inarticulated continental masses or islands1 which may be regarded as the shoals in the arial ocean1 and which1 notwithstanding their small dimensions1 exercise1 even to great distances1 a remarkable degree of influence on the climate of the sea4 ,in continental masses1 we must distinguish between barren sandy deserts1 savannahs1 7grassy plains17 and forest districts4 ,in ,upper ,egypt and in ,south ,america1 ,nouet and myself found1 at noon1 the temperature of the ground1 which was composed of granitic sand1 #aed and #ada ,fahr4 ,numerous careful observations instituted at ,paris1 have given1 according to ,arago1 #abb and #abf4e ,fahr4,,dw ,the ,savannahs1 which1 between the ,missouri and the ,mississippi1 are called ,prairies1 and which appear in the south at the ,llanos of ,venezuela and the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 are covered with small monocotyledons1 belonging to the family of the ,cyperace1 and with grasses1 whose dry pointed stalks1 and whose delicate1 lanceolate leaves radiate towards the unclouded sky1 and possess an extraordinary power of emission4 ,wells and ,daniell,,dx have even seen in our latitude1 where the atmosphere has a much less considerable degree of transparency1 the thermometer fall to #ad4e1 or #ah ,fahr4 on being placed on the grass4 ,melloni has most ably shown,,dy that in a calm1 which is a necessary condition of a powerful radiation1 and of the formation of dew1 the cooling of the stratum of grass is promoted by the falling to the ground of the cooler particles of air1 as being the heavier4 ,in the vicinity of the equator1 under the cloudy sky of the ,upper ,orinoco1 the ,rio ,negro and the ,amazon1 the plains are covered with dense primeval forests2 but to the north and south of this woody district1 there extend1 from the zone of palms and of tall dicotyledonous trees in the northern hemisphere1 the ,llanos of the ,lower ,orinoco1 the ,meta1 and ,guaviare2 and in the south1 the ,pampas of the ,rio de la ,plata and of ,patagonia4 ,the area thus covered by grassy plains1 or ,savannahs1 in ,south ,america1 is at least nine times greater than that of ,france4 ,the forest region acts in a threefold manner1 by the coolness induced by its shade1 by evaporation1 and by the cooling process of radiation4 ,forests uniformly composed in our temperate zone of 8social0 plants1 belonging to the families of the ,conifer or ,amentace 7the oak1 beech1 and birch71 and under the tropics composed of plants not living socially1 protect the ground from direct insolation1 evaporate the fluids they have themselves produced1 and cool the contiguous strata of air by the radiation of heat from their leafy appendicular organs4 ,the leaves are by no means all parallel to one another1 and present different inclinations towards the horizon2 and according to the laws established by ,leslie and ,fourier1 the influence of this inclination on the quantity of heat emitted by radiation is such1 that the radiating power of a given measured surface a1 having a given oblique direction1 is equal to the radiating power of a leaf of the size of a projected on a horizontal plane4 ,in the initial condition of radiation of all the leaves which form the summit of a tree1 and which partially cover each other1 those which are directly presented towards the unclouded sky1 will be first cooled4 ,this production of cold 7or the exhaustion of heat by emission7 will be the more considerable in proportion to the thinness of the leaves4 ,a second stratum of leaves has its upper surface turned to the under surface of the former1 and will give out more heat by radiation towards that stratum than it can receive from it4 ,the result of this unequal exchange will then be a diminution of temperature for the second stratum also4 ,a similar action will extend from stratum to stratum1 till all the leaves of the tree1 by their greater or less radiation1 as modified by their difference of position1 have passed into a condition of stable equilibrium1 of which the law may be deduced by mathematical analysis4 ,in this manner1 in the serene and long nights of the equinoctial zone1 the forest air1 which is contained in the interstices between the strata of leaves1 becomes cooled by the process of radiation2 for a tree1 a horizontal section of whose summit would hardly measure #bjjj square feet1 would1 in consequence of the great number of its appendicular organs 7the leaves71 produce as great a diminution in the temperature of the air as a space of bare land or turf many thousand times greater than #bjjj square feet4,,dz ,i have thus sought to develope somewhat fully the complicated relations which the action of great forest regions exerts on the atmosphere1 because they have so often been touched upon in connection with the important question of the climate of ancient ,germany and ,gaul4 ,as in the old continent1 ,european civilization has had its principal seat on the western coast1 it could not fail to be early remarked that under equal degrees of latitude the opposite eastern littoral region of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america was several degrees colder1 in mean annual temperature1 than ,europe1 which is1 as it were1 a western peninsula of ,asia1 and bears much the same relation to it as ,brittany does to the rest of ,france4 ,the fact1 however1 escaped notice that these differences decrease from the higher to the lower latitudes1 and that they are hardly perceptible below #cj4 ,for the west coast of the ,new ,continent exact observations of the temperature are still almost entirely wanting2 but the mildness of the winter in ,new ,california shows that in reference to their mean annual temperature1 the west coasts of ,america and ,europe under the same parallels1 scarcely present any differences4 ,the annexed table gives the mean annual temperatures1 which correspond to the same geographical latitudes1 on the eastern coast of the ,new ,continent and the western coast of ,europe3-- ,difference between ,similar ,eastern ,western ,mean ,temperature the annual ,degrees of ,coast of ,coast of of the ,year1 of ,temperature of ,latitude4 ,america4 ,europe4 ,winter1 and ,eastern ,america ,summer4 and ,western ,europe4 - #j4d #eg #aj,nain #be4g ---------- #de4g #bj4g #ca4e #eg #da ,gottenburg #df4d ---------- #fb4d #bc #dg #cd,st4 ,john's #ch4a ---------- #ed #ca4a #dg #cj ,buda #ej4e ---------- #ac4f #fi4h #cg4h #dh #ej ,paris #ea4g ---------- #fd4f #bd4a #dd #ci;,halifax #dc4e ---------- #fc4j #ac4g #db4h #dd #ej ,bordeaux #eg4b ---------- #ga4a #cb4b #dj #dc,new ,york #eb4e ---------- #gb4i #cb4b #ci #eg,philadelphia #eb4b ---------- #gb4g #cf4j #ch #ec,washington #ed4i ---------- #i4c #ga4a #di4e #dj #ea ,naples #fa4j ---------- #gd4i #eb4b #ch #eb ,lisbon #fa4e ---------- #ga4a #ei4e #bi #dh,st4 ,agustin #gb4c ---------- #ha4e #j4e #eh4e #cj #b ,cairo #ga4h ---------- #hd4f ,in the preceding table the number placed before the fraction represents the mean annual temperature1 the numerator of the fraction1 the mean winter temperature1 and the denominator the mean summer temperature4 ,besides the more marked difference between the mean annual temperatures1 there is also a very striking contrast between the opposite coasts in respect to the distribution of heat over the different seasons of the year2 and it is indeed this distribution which exerts the greatest influence on our bodily feelings and on the process of vegetation4 ,dove,,ea makes the general remark1 that the summer temperature of ,america is lower under equal degrees of latitude than that of ,europe4 ,the climate of ,st4 ,petersburgh 7lat4 #ei #ef71 or to speak more correctly1 the mean annual temperature of that city1 is found on the eastern coast of ,america1 in lat4 #dg #cj1 or #ab #cj more to the south2 and in like manner we find the climate of ,knigsberg 7lat4 #ed #dc7 at ,halifax in lat4 #dd #ci4 ,toulouse 7lat4 #dc #cf7 corresponds in its thermic relations to ,washington4 ,it is very hazardous to attempt to obtain any general results respecting the distribution of heat in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 since there are three regions to be distinguished--#a1 the region of the ,atlantic ,states1 east of the ,alleghanys2 #b1 the ,western ,states1 in the wide basin between the ,alleghanys and the ,rocky ,mountains1 watered by the ,mississippi1 the ,ohio1 the ,arkansas1 and the ,missouri2 and #c1 the elevated plains between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,coast ,range of ,new ,california1 through which the ,oregon or ,columbia river wends its course4 ,since the commendable establishment by ,john ,calhoun of uninterrupted observations of temperature1 made on a uniform plan1 at thirty-five military stations1 and reduced to diurnal1 mensal1 and annual means1 we have attained more correct climatic views than were generally held in the time of ,jefferson1 ,barton1 and ,volney4 ,these meteorological stations extend from the point of ,florida and ,thompson's ,island 7,west ,key71 lat4 #bd #cc1 to the ,council ,bluffs on the ,missouri2 and if we reckon ,fort ,vancouver 7lat4 #de #cg71 among them1 they include a space extending over forty degrees of longitude4 ,it cannot be affirmed that on the whole the second region has a higher mean annual temperature than the first1 or ,atlantic4 ,the further advance towards the north of certain plants on the western side of the ,alleghanys1 depends partly on the nature of those plants and partly on the different distribution through the seasons of the year of the same annual amount of heat4 ,the broad valley of the ,mississippi enjoys1 at its northern extremity1 the warming influence of the ,canadian lakes1 and at the south1 that of the ,mexican ,gulf-,stream4 ,these five lakes 7,lakes ,superior1 ,michigan1 ,huron1 ,erie1 and ,ontario17 cover an area of #ib1jjj square miles4 ,the climate is so much milder and more uniform in the vicinity of the lakes1 that at ,niagara1 for instance 7in #dc #ae north lat471 the mean annual winter temperature is only half a degree below the freezing-point1 whilst1 at a distance from the lakes1 in #dd #ec north lat4 at ,fort ,snelling1 near the confluence of the river ,st4 ,peter with the ,mississippi1 the mean winter temperature is #ae4h ,fahr4,,eb ,at this distance from the ,canadian lakes1 whose surface is from five to upwards of six hundred feet above the sea's level1 whilst the bottom of ,lakes ,michigan and ,huron is five hundred feet below it1 recent observations have shown that the climate of the country possesses the actual continental character of hotter summers and colder winters4 8,it is proved10 says ,forry1 8by our thermometrical data1 that the climate west of the ,alleghany chain is more excessive than that on the ,atlantic side40 ,at ,fort ,gibson1 on the ,arkansas river1 which falls into the ,mississippi1 in lat4 #ce #dg1 where the mean annual temperature hardly equals that of ,gibraltar1 the thermometer was observed1 in ,august1 #ahcd1 to rise to #aag ,fahr4 when in the shade1 and without any reflected heat from the ground4 ,the statements so frequently advanced1 although unsupported by measurements1 that since the first ,european settlements in ,new ,england1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,virginia1 the destruction of many forests on both sides of the ,alleghanys1 has rendered the climate more equable1--making the winters milder and the summers cooler1--are now generally discredited4 ,no series of thermometric observations worthy of confidence extend further back in the ,united ,states than seventy-eight years4 ,we find from the ,philadelphia observations that from #agga to #ahbd1 the mean annual heat has hardly risen #b4g ,fahr42--an increase that may fairly be ascribed to the extension of the town1 its greater population1 and to the numerous steam-engines4 ,this annual increase of temperature may also be owing to accident1 for in the same period ,i find that there was an increase of the mean winter temperature of #b ,fahr42 but with this exception the seasons had all become somewhat warmer4 ,thirty-three years' observations at ,salem in ,massachusetts show scarcely any difference1 the mean of each one oscillating within #a of ,fahrenheit1 about the mean of the whole number2 and the winters of ,salem1 instead of having been rendered more mild1 as conjectured1 from the eradication of the forests1 have become colder by #d ,fahr4 during the last thirty-three years4,,ec ,as the east coast of the ,united ,states may be compared1 in equal latitudes1 with the ,siberian and ,chinese eastern coasts of ,europe1 in respect to mean annual temperature1 so the western coasts of ,europe and ,america have also very justly been compared together4 ,i will here only adduce a few instances from the western region of the ,pacific1 for two of which1 viz41 ,sitka4 7,new ,archangel17 in ,russian ,america1 and ,fort ,george4 7having the same latitudes respectively as ,gottenburg and ,geneva17 we are indebted to ,admiral ,ltke's voyage of circumnavigation4 ,iluluk and ,danzig are situated in about the same parallel of latitude1 and although the mean temperature of ,iluluk1 owing to its insular climate and the cold sea current contiguous to it1 is lower than that of ,danzig1 the winters of the former are milder than those of the ,baltic city4 #cc4c ,sitka ,lat4 #eg #c ,long4 #ace #af ,w4 #dd4f ---------- #ee4j #ca4f ,gottenburg ,lat4 #eg #da ,long4 #aa #ei ,e4 #df4d ---------- #fb4d #cg4h ,fort ,george ,lat4 #df #ah ,long4 #abc #eh ,w4 #ej4b ---------- #fj4j #cc4f ,geneva ,lat4 #df #ab ,altitude #abih feet #di4h ---------- #fc4e #be4j ,cherson ,lat4 #df #ch ,long4 #cb #ci ,e4 #ec4a ---------- #ga4j ,snow is hardly ever seen on the banks of the ,oregon or ,columbia river1 and ice on the river lasts only a few days4 ,the lowest temperature which ,mr4 ,ball ever observed there 7in #ahch7 was #ah4d ,fahr4,,ed ,a cursory glance at the summer and winter temperatures given above1 suffices to show that a true insular climate prevails on and near the western coasts2 whilst the winter cold is less considerable than in the western part of the old continent1 the summers are much cooler4 ,this contrast is made most apparent when we compare the mouth of the ,oregon with ,forts ,snelling and ,howard1 and the ,council ,bluffs in the interior of the ,mississippi and ,missouri basin1 7#dd-df north lat417 where1 to speak with ,buffon1 we find an excessive or true continental climate1--a winter cold1 which on some days is -#cb or even -#cg ,fahr41 followed by a mean summer's heat1 which rises to #fi and #ga4d ,fahr4 ,footnote #ai3 p4 #h4--8;,as if ,america had emerged later from the chaotic covering of waters40 ,the acute natural inquirer ,benjamin ,smith ,barton1 expresses himself thus accurately3,,ee--8,i cannot but deem it a puerile supposition1 unsupported by the evidence of nature1 that a great part of ,america has probably later emerged from the bosom of the ocean than the other continents40 ,i have already elsewhere treated of this subject in a memoir on the primitive nations of ,america3,,ef--8,the remark has been too frequently made by authors of general and well-attested merit that ,america was in every sense of the word a new continent4 ,the luxuriance of vegetation1 the vast mass of waters in the rivers1 and the continued activity of great volcanoes1 confirm the fact 7say these writers17 that the still agitated and humid earth is in a condition approximating more closely to the chaotic primordial state of our planet than the old continent4 ,such ideas appeared to me1 long before my travels in those regions1 no less unphilosophical than at variance with generally acknowledged physical laws4 ,these imaginary representations of an earlier age and a want of repose1 and of the increase of dryness and inertia with the increased age of our globe1 could only have been framed by those who seek to discover striking contrasts between the two hemispheres1 and who do not endeavour to consider the construction of our terrestrial planet from one grand and general point of view4 ,are we to regard the southern as more recent than the northern part of ,italy1 simply because the former is almost constantly disturbed by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions8 ,how inconsiderable1 moreover1 are the phenomena presented by our volcanoes and earthquakes1 when compared with the convulsions of nature which the geognosist must conjecture to have occurred in the chaotic condition of our globe1 when mountain masses were upheaved1 solidified1 or cleft asunder8 ,different causes must also occasion a diversity of effects in the forces of nature in parts of the earth remote from one another4 ,the volcanoes in the new continent10 7of which ,i still count about twenty-eight17 8may probably have continued longer active1 because the high mountain ridges on which they are erupted in rows upon long fissures are nearer to the sea1 and because this vicinity appears to modify the energy of the subterranean fire1 in a manner which1 with few exceptions1 has not yet been explained4 ,besides1 both earthquakes and fire-erupting mountains act periodically4 ,at present0 7this ,i wrote forty-two years ago17 8physical disquietude and political repose prevail in the new continent1 whilst in the old continent the calm repose of nature is contrasted with the dissensions of different nations4 ,the time may however come1 when this strange contrast between physical and moral forces may change its theatre of action from one quarter of the world to another4 ,volcanoes enjoy centuries of repose between their manifestations of activity2 and the idea that in the older countries nature must be characterized by a certain repose and quietude1 has no other foundation than in the mere caprice of the imagination4 ,there exists no reason for assuming that one side of our planet is older or more recent than the other4 ,islands1 as the ,azores and many flat islands of the ,pacific1 which have been upheaved by volcanoes1 or been gradually formed by coral animals1 are indeed more recent than many plutonic formations of the ,european central chain4 ,small tracts of land1 as ,bohemia and ,kashmeer1 and many of the valleys in the moon1 inclosed by a ring of mountains1 may continue for a long time under the form of a sea1 owing to partial inundations1 and after the flowing off of these inland waters1 the bottom1 on which plants would gradually manifest themselves1 might indeed be figuratively regarded as of more recent origin4 ,islands have been connected together into continental masses by upheaval1 whilst other parts of the previously existing land have disappeared in consequence of the subsidence of the oscillating ground2 but general submersions can1 from hydrostatic laws1 only be imagined as embracing simultaneously all parts of the earth4 ,the sea cannot permanently submerge the vast lowlands of the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 without at the same time destroying our ,baltic lands4 ,moreover the succession and identity of the floetz strata1 and of the organic remains of plants and animals belonging to the primitive world1 inclosed in those strata1 show that several great depositions have occurred almost simultaneously over the whole earth40,,eg ,footnote #bj3 p4 #h4--8,the ,southern ,hemisphere is cooler and more humid than the ,northern40 ,chili1 ,buenos ,ayres1 the southern part of ,brazil1 and ,peru1 enjoy the cool summers and mild winters of a true insular climate1 owing to the narrowness and contraction of the continent towards the south4 ,this advantage of the ,southern ,hemisphere is manifested as far as #dh or #ej south lat41 but beyond that point1 and nearer the ,antarctic ,pole1 ,south ,america is an inhospitable waste4 ,the different degrees of latitude at which the southern extremities of ,australia1 including ,van ,diemen's ,island1 of ,africa1 and ,america1 terminate1 give to each of these continents its peculiar character4 ,the ,straits of ,magellan lie between the parallels of #ec and #ed south lat42 and notwithstanding this1 the thermometer falls to #da ,fahr4 in the months of ,december and ,january1 when the sun is eighteen hours above the horizon4 ,snow falls almost daily in the lowlands1 and the maximum of atmospheric heat observed by ,churruca in #aghh1 during the month of ,december1 and consequently in the summer of that region1 did not exceed #eb4b ,fahr4 ,the ,cabo ,pilar1 whose turret-like rock is only #acid feet in height1 and which forms the southern extremity of the chain of the ,andes1 is situated in nearly the same latitude as ,berlin4,,eh ,whilst in the ,northern ,hemisphere all continents fall1 in their prolongation towards the ,pole1 within a mean limit1 which corresponds tolerably accurately with #gj1 the southern extremities of ,america4 7in ,tierra del ,fuego1 which is so deeply indented by intersecting arms of the sea17 of ,australia1 and of ,africa1 are respectively #cd1 #df #cj and #ef distant from the ,south ,pole4 ,the temperature of the unequal extents of ocean which separate these southern extremities from the icy ,pole contributes essentially towards the modification of the climate4 ,the areas of the dry land of the two hemispheres separated by the equator are as #c to #a4 ,but this deficiency of continental masses in the ,southern ,hemisphere is greater in the temperate than in the torrid zone1 the ratio being in the former at #ac to #a1 and in the latter as #e to #d4 ,this great inequality in the distribution of dry land exerts a perceptible influence on the strength of the ascending atmospheric current1 which turns towards the ,south ,pole1 and on the temperature of the ,southern ,hemisphere generally4 ,some of the noblest forms of tropical vegetation1 as for instance tree-ferns1 advance south of the equator to the parallels of from #df to #ec1 whilst to the north of the equator they do not occur beyond the tropic of ,cancer4,,ei ,tree-ferns thrive admirably well at ,hobart ,town in ,van ,diemen's ,land 7#db #ec lat471 with a mean annual temperature of #eb4b ,fahr41 and therefore on an isothermal line less by #c4f ,fahr4 than that of ,toulon4 ,rome1 which is almost one degree of latitude further from the equator than ,hobart ,town1 has an annual temperature of #ei4g ,fahr42 a winter temperature of #df4f ,fahr41 and a summer temperature of #hf ,fahr42 whilst in ,hobart ,town these three means are respectively #eb1 #db4a1 and #fc ,fahr4 ,in ,dusky ,bay1 ,new ,zealand1 tree-ferns thrive in #df #h lat41 and in the ,auckland and ,campbell ,islands in #ec lat4,,ej ,in the ,archipelago of ,tierra del ,fuego1 having a mean winter temperature of #cc ,fahr41 and a mean summer temperature of only #ej ,fahr41 in the same latitude as ,dublin1 ,captain ,king found 8vegetation thriving most luxuriantly in large woody-stemmed trees of ,fuchsia and ,veronica20 whilst this vigorous vegetation1 which1 especially on the western coast of ,america 7in #ch and #dj south lat471 has been so picturesquely described by ,charles ,darwin1 suddenly disappears south of ,cape ,horn1 on the rocks of the ,southern ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands1 and of the ,sandwich ,archipelago4 ,these islands1 but scantily covered with grass1 moss1 and lichens1 ,terres de ,dsolation1 as they have been called by ,french navigators1 lie far to the north of the ,antarctic ,polar ,circle2 whilst in the ,northern ,hemisphere1 in #gj lat41 on the extremest verge of ,scandinavia1 fir-trees reach a height of more than #fj feet4,,ek ,if we compare ,tierra del ,fuego1 and more particularly ,port ,famine1 in the ,straits of ,magellan1 #ec #ch lat41 with ,berlin1 which is situated one degree nearer the equator1 we shall find for ,berlin1 #dg4c #ch4i_/fb4c2 and for ,port ,famine1 #db4f #cd4g_/ej4j ,fahr4 ,i subjoin the few certain data of temperature which we at present possess of the temperate zones of the ,southern ,hemisphere1 and which may be compared with the temperatures of northern regions in which the distribution of summer heat and winter cold is so unequal4 ,i make use of the convenient mode of notation already explained in which the number standing before the fraction indicates the mean annual temperature1 the numerator the winter1 and the denominator the summer temperature4 ,south ,mean ,annual1 ,winter1 ,places4 ,latitude4 and ,summer ,temperatures4 #ed4e ,sydney and ,paramatta 7,new ,holland7 #cc #ej #fd4f ---------- #gg4e #eh4e ,cape ,town 7,africa74 #cc #ee #fe4g ---------- #gc4b #eb4e ,buenos ,ayres #cd #ag #fb4d ---------- #gc4j #eg4d ,monte ,video #cd #ed #fg ---------- #gg4e #db4a ,hobart ,town 7,van ,diemen's ,land7 #db #de #eb4e ---------- #fc4j #cd4g ,port ,famine 7,straits of ,magellan7 #ec #ch #db4f ---------- #ej4j ,footnote #ba3 p4 #i4--8,one connected sea of sand40 ,as we may regard the social ,erica as furnishing one continuous vegetable covering spread over the earth's surface1 from the mouth of the ,scheldt to the ,elbe1 and from the extremity of ,jutland to the ,harz mountains1 so may we likewise trace the sea of sand continuously through ,africa and ,asia1 from ,cape ,blanco to the further side of the ,indus1 over an extent of #e1fjj miles4 ,the sandy region mentioned by ,herodotus1 which the ,arabs call the ,desert of ,sahara1 and which is interrupted by oases1 traverses the whole of ,africa like a dried arm of the sea4 ,the valley of the ,nile is the eastern boundary of the ,lybian desert4 ,beyond the ,isthmus of ,suez and the porphyritic1 syenitic1 and greenstone rocks of ,sinai begins the ,desert mountain plateau of ,nedschd1 which occupies the whole interior of the ,arabian ,peninsula1 and is bounded to the west and south by the fruitful and more highly favoured coast-lands of ,hedschaz and ,hadhramaut4 ,the ,euphrates forms the eastern boundary of the ,arabian and ,syrian desert4 ,the whole of ,persia1 from the ,caspian ,sea to the ,indian ,ocean1 is intersected by immense tracts of sand 7bejaban71 among which we may reckon the soda and potash ,deserts of ,kerman1 ,seistan1 ,beludschistan1 and ,mekran4 ,the last of these barren wastes is separated by the ,indus from the ,desert of ,moultan4 ,footnote #bb3 p4 #i4--8,the western portion of ,mount ,atlas40 ,the question of the position of the ,atlas of the ancients has often been agitated in our own day4 ,in making this inquiry1 ancient ,phnician traditions are confounded with the statements of the ,greeks and ,romans regarding ,mount ,atlas at a less remote period4 ,the elder ,professor ,ideler1 who combined a profound knowledge of languages with that of astronomy and mathematics1 was the first to throw light on this obscure subject2 and ,i trust ,i may be pardoned if ,i insert the communications with which ,i have been favoured by this enlightened observer4 8,the ,phnicians ventured at a very early period in the world's history to penetrate beyond the ,straits of ,gibraltar4 ,they founded ,gades and ,tartessus on the ,spanish1 and ,lixus1 together with many other cities on the ,mauritanian coasts of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,they sailed northward along these shores to the ,cassiterides1 from whence they obtained tin1 and to the ,prussian coasts where they procured amber found there2 whilst southward they penetrated as far as ,madeira and the ,cape de ,verd ,islands4 ,amongst other regions they visited the ,archipelago of the ,canary ,isles1 where their attention was arrested by the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 whose great height appears to be even more considerable than it actually is from the circumstance of the mountain projecting directly from the sea4 ,through their colonies established in ,greece1 especially under ,cadmus in ,botia1 the ,greeks were made acquainted with the existence of this mountain which soared high above the region of clouds1 and with the #8,fortunate ,islands' on which this mountain was situated1 and which were adorned with fruits of all kinds1 and particularly with the golden orange4 ,by the transmission of this tradition through the songs of the bards1 ,homer became acquainted with these remote regions1 and he speaks of an ,atlas to whom all the depths of ocean are known1 and who bears upon his shoulders the great columns which separate from one another the heavens and the earth1,,el and of the ,elysian ,plains1 described as a wondrously beautiful land in the west40,,em ,hesiod expresses himself in a similar manner regarding ,atlas1 whom he represents as the neighbour of the ,hesperides4,,en ,the ,elysian ,plains1 which he places at the western limits of the earth1 he terms the #8,islands of the ,blessed4',,eo ,later poets have still further embellished these myths of ,atlas1 the ,hesperides1 their golden apples1 and the ,islands of the ,blessed1 which are destined to be the abode of good men after death1 and have connected them with the expeditions of the ,tyrian ,god of ,commerce1 ,melicertes1 the ,hercules of the ,greeks4 8,the ,greeks did not enter into rivalship with the ,phnicians and ,carthaginians in the art of navigation until a comparatively late period4 ,they indeed visited the shores of the ,atlantic1 but they never appear to have advanced very far4 ,it is doubtful whether they had penetrated as far as the ,canary ,isles and the ,peak of ,teneriffe2 but be this as it may1 they were aware that ,mount ,atlas1 which their poets had described as a very high mountain situated on the western limits of the earth1 must be sought on the western coast of ,africa4 ,this too was the locality assigned to it by their later geographers ,strabo1 ,ptolemy1 and others4 ,as however no mountain of any great elevation was to be met with in the north-west of ,africa1 much perplexity was entertained regarding the actual position of ,mount ,atlas1 which was sought sometimes on the coast1 sometimes in the interior of the country1 and sometimes in the vicinity of the ,mediterranean1 or further southward4 ,in the first century of the ,christian era1 when the armies of ,rome had penetrated to the interior of ,mauritania and ,numidia1 it was usual to give the name of ,atlas to the mountain chain which traverses ,africa from west to east in a parallel direction with the ,mediterranean4 ,pliny and ,solinus were both1 however1 fully aware that the description of ,atlas given by the ,greek and ,roman poets did not apply to this mountain range1 and they therefore deemed it expedient to transfer the site of ,mount ,atlas1 which they described in picturesque terms1 in accordance with poetic legends1 to the terra incognita of ,central ,africa4 ,the ,atlas of ,homer and ,hesiod can1 therefore1 be none other than the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 while the ,atlas of ,greek and ,roman geographers must be sought in the north of ,africa40 ,i will only venture to add the following remarks to the learned explanations of ,professor ,ideler4 ,according to ,pliny and ,solinus1 ,atlas rises from the midst of a sandy plain 7e medio arenarum71 and its declivity affords pasture to elephants1 which have undoubtedly never been known in ,teneriffe4 ,that which we now term ,atlas is a long mountain ridge4 ,how could the ,romans have recognised one isolated conical elevation in this mountain range of ,herodotus8 ,may the cause not be ascribed to the optical illusion by which every mountain chain1 when seen laterally from an oblique point of view1 appears to be of a narrow and conical form8 ,i have often1 when at sea1 mistaken long mountain ranges for isolated mountains4 ,according to ,hst1 ,mount ,atlas is covered with perpetual snow near ,morocco4 ,its elevation must therefore be upwards of #aa1ejj feet at that particular spot4 ,it seems to me very remarkable that the barbarians1 the ancient ,mauritanians1 if we are to believe the testimony of ,pliny1 called ,mount ,atlas ,dyris4 ,this mountain chain is still called by the ,arabs ,daran1 a word that is almost identical in its consonants with ,dyris4 ,hornius1,,ep on the other hand1 thinks that he recognises the term ,dyris in the word ,ayadyrma1 the name applied by the ,guanches to the ,peak of ,teneriffe4,,eq ,as our present geological knowledge of the mountainous parts of ,north ,africa1 which1 however1 must be admitted to be very limited1 does not make us acquainted with any traces of volcanic eruptions within historic times1 it seems the more remarkable that so many indications should be found in the writings of the ,ancients of a belief in the existence of such phenomena in the ,western ,atlas and the contiguous west coast of the continent4 ,the streams of fire so often mentioned in ,hanno's ,ship's ,journal might indeed have been tracks of burning grass1 or beacon fires lighted by the wild inhabitants of the coasts as a signal to warn each other of threatening danger on the first appearance of hostile vessels4 ,the high summit of the 8,chariot of the ,gods10 of which ,hanno speaks 7the 71 may also have had some faint reference to the ,peak of ,teneriffe2 but farther on he describes a singular configuration of the land4 ,he finds in the gulf1 near the ,western ,horn1 a large island1 in which there is a salt lake1 which again contains a smaller island4 ,south of the ,bay of the ,gorilla ,apes the same conformation is repeated4 ,does he refer to coral structures1 lagoon islands 7,atolls71 and to volcanic crater lakes1 in the middle of which a conical mountain has been upheaved8 ,the ,triton ,lake was not in the neighbourhood of the lesser ,syrtis1 but on the western shores of the ,atlantic4,,er ,the lake disappeared in an earthquake1 which was attended with great fire-eruptions4 ,diodorus,,es says expressly 4 ,but the most wonderful configuration is ascribed to the hollow ,atlas1 in a passage hitherto but little noticed in one of the philosophical ,dialexes of ,maximus ,tyrius1 a ,platonic philosopher who lived in ,rome under ,commodus4 ,his ,atlas is situated 8on the continent where the ,western ,lybians inhabit a projecting peninsula40 ,the mountain has a deep semi-circular abyss on the side nearest the sea2 and its declivities are so steep that they cannot be descended4 ,the abyss is filled with trees1 and 8one looks down upon their summits and the fruits they bear as if one were looking into a well40,,et ,the description is so minute and graphic that it no doubt sprung from the recollection of some actual view4 ,footnote #bc3 p4 #i4--8,the ,mountains of the ,moon1 ,djebel-al-,komr40 ,the ,mountains of the ,moon described by ,ptolemy1,,eu 1 form on our older maps a vast uninterrupted mountain chain1 traversing the whole of ,africa from east to west4 ,the existence of these mountains seems certain2 but their extent1 their distance from the equator1 and their mean direction1 still remain problematical4 ,i have indicated in another work,,ev the manner in which a more intimate acquaintance with ,indian idioms and the ancient ,persian or ,zend teaches us that a part of the geographical nomenclature of ,ptolemy constitutes an historical memorial of the commercial relations that existed between the ,west and the remotest regions of ,southern ,asia and ,eastern ,africa4 ,the same direction of ideas is apparent in relation to a subject that has very recently become a matter of investigation4 ,it is asked1 whether the great geographer and astronomer of ,pelusium merely meant in the denomination of ,mountains of the ,moon 7as in that of 8,island of ,barley10 7,jabadiu1 ,java7 to give the ,greek translation of the native name of those mountains2 whether1 as is most probable1 ,el-,istachri1 ,edrisi1 ,ibn-al-,vardi1 and other early ,arabian geographers1 simply transferred the ,ptolemaic nomenclature into their own language2 or whether similarity in the sound of the word and the manner in which it was written misled them8 ,in the notes to the translation of ,abd-,allatif's celebrated description of ,egypt1 my great teacher1 ,silvestre de ,sacy1,,ew expressly says1 8,the name of the mountains regarded by ,leo ,africanus as furnishing the sources of the ,nile1 has generally been rendered #8,mountains of the ,moon1' and ,i have adhered to the same practice4 ,i do not know whether the ,arabs originally borrowed this denomination from ,ptolemy4 ,it may indeed be inferred that at the present day they understand the word in the sense of moon1 pronouncing it kamar2 ,i do not think however1 that such was the practice of the older ,arabs1 who pronounced it komr1 as has been proved by ,makrizi4 ,aboulfeda positively rejects the opinion of those who would adopt the pronunciation kamar1 and derive the word from the name of the moon4 ,as1 according to the author of ,kamous1 the word komr1 considered as the plural of 1 signifies an object of a greenish or dirty white colour1 it would appear that some authors have supposed that this mountain derived its name from its colour40 ,the learned ,reinaud1 in his recent excellent translation of ,abulfeda 7t4 ii41 p4 i41 pp4 #ha1 #hb71 regards it as probable that the ,ptolemaic interpretation of the name of ,mountains of the ,moon 7 7 was that originally adopted by the ,arabs4 ,he observes that in the ,moschtarek of ,yakut1 and in ,ibn-,said1 the mountain is written al-,komr1 and that ,yakut writes in a similar manner the name of the ,island of ,zendj 7,zanguebar74 ,the ,abyssinian traveller ,beke1 in his learned and critical treatise on the ,nile and its tributaries1,,ex endeavours to prove that ,ptolemy1 in his 1 merely followed the native name1 for the knowledge of which he was indebted to the extensive commercial intercourse which then existed4 ,he says1 8,ptolemy knew that the ,nile rises in the mountainous district of ,moezi1 and in the languages which are spoken over a great part of ,southern ,africa 7as1 for instance1 in ,congo1 ,monjou1 and ,mozambique71 the word moezi signifies the moon4 ,a large tract of country situated in the south-west was called ,mono-,muezi1 or ,mani-,moezi1 i4e41 the land of the ,king of ,moezi 7or ,moon-land72 for in the same family of languages in which moezi or muezi signifies the moon1 mono or mani signifies a king4 ,alvarez,,ey speaks of the #8regno di ,manicongo1' or territory of the king of ,congo40 ,beke's opponent1 ,ayrton1 seeks the sources of the ,white ,nile 7,bahr el-,abiad71 not as do ,arnaud1 ,werne1 and ,beke1 near the equator1 or south of it 7in #ca #bb ,e4 long4 from ,greenwich71 but far to the north-east1 as does ,antoine d',abbadie1 in the ,godjeb and ,gibbe of ,eneara 7,iniara71 therefore in the high mountains of ,habesch1 in #g #bj north lat41 and #ce #bb east long4 from ,greenwich4 ,he is of opinion that the ,arabs1 from a similarity of sound1 may have interpreted the native name ,gamaro1 which was applied to the ,abyssinian mountains lying south-west of ,gaka1 and in which the ,godjeb 7or ,white ,nile7 takes its rise1 to signify a mountain of the moon 7,djebel al-,kamar72 so that ,ptolemy himself1 who was familiar with the intercourse existing between ,abyssinia and the ,indian ,ocean1 may have adopted the ,semitic interpretation1 as given by the descendants of the early ,arab immigrants4,,ez ,the lively interest which has recently been felt in ,england for the discovery of the most southern sources of the ,nile induced the ,abyssinian traveller above referred to1 7,charles ,beke7 at a recent meeting of the 8,british ,association for the advancement of ,science10 held at ,swansea1 more fully to develope his ideas respecting the connection between the ,mountains of the ,moon and those of ,habesch4 8,the ,abyssinian elevated plain10 he says1 8generally above #hjjj feet high1 extends towards the south to nearly #i or #aj north latitude4 ,the eastern declivity of the highlands has1 to the inhabitants of the coast1 the appearance of a mountain chain4 ,the plateau1 which diminishes considerably in height towards its southern extremity1 passes into the ,mountains of the ,moon1 which run not east and west1 but parallel to the coast1 or from ,n4,n4,e4 to ,s4,s4,w41 extending from #aj north to #e south latitude4 ,the sources of the ,white ,nile are situated in the ,mono-,moezi country1 probably in #b #cj south latitude1 not far from where the river ,sabaki1 on the eastern side of the ,mountains of the ,moon1 falls into the ,indian ,ocean1 near ,melindeh1 north of ,mombaza4 ,last autumn 7#ahdg71 the two ,abyssinian missionaries ,rebmann and ,dr4 ,krapf were still on the coast of ,mombaza4 ,they have established in the vicinity1 among the ,wakamba tribe1 a missionary station1 called ,rabbay ,empie1 which seems likely to be very useful for geographical discoveries4 ,families of the ,wakamba tribe have advanced westward five or six hundred miles into the interior of the country1 as far as the upper course of the river ,lusidji1 the great lake ,nyassi or ,zambeze 7#e south lat4871 and the vicinal sources of the ,nile4 ,the expedition to these sources1 which ,friedrich ,bialloblotzky1 of ,hanover1 is preparing to undertake0 7by the advice of ,beke71 8is to start from ,mombaza4 ,the ,nile coming from the west referred to by the ancients is probably the ,bahr-el-,ghazal1 or ,keilah1 which falls into the ,nile in #i north lat41 above the mouth of the ,godjeb or ,sobat40 ,russegger's scientific expedition--undertaken in #ahcg and #ahch1 in consequence of ,mehemet ,ali's eager desire to participate in the gold washings of ,fazokl on the ,blue 7,green7 ,nile1 ,bahr el-,azrek--has rendered the existence of a ,mountain of the ,moon very doubtful4 ,the ,blue ,nile1 the ,astapus of ,ptolemy1 rising from ,lake ,coloe 7now called ,lake ,tzana71 winds through the colossal ,abyssinian range of mountains2 while to the south-west there appears a far extended tract of low land4 ,the three exploring expeditions which the ,egyptian ,government sent from ,chartum to the confluence of the ,blue and the ,white ,nile 7the first under the command of ,selim ,bimbaschi1 in ,november1 #ahci2 the next1 which was attended by the ,french engineers ,arnaud1 ,sabatier1 and ,thibaut1 in the autumn of #ahdj2 and the third1 in the month of ,august1 #ahda71 first removed some of the obscurity which had hitherto shrouded our knowledge of the high mountains1 which between the parallels of #f-d1 and probably still further southward1 extend first from west to east1 and subsequently from north-west to south-east1 towards the left bank of the ,bahr-el-,abiad4 ,the second of ,mehemet ,ali's expeditions first saw the mountain chain1 according to ,werne's account1 in #aa #bj north lat41 where ,gebel ,abul and ,gebel ,kutak rise to the height of #cfbc feet4 ,the high land continued to approach the river more to the south from #d #de north lat4 to the parallel of the ,island of ,tchenker in #d #d1 near the point at which terminated the expedition commanded by ,selim and ,feizulla ,effendi4 ,the shallow river breaks its way through the rocks1 and separate mountains again rise in the land of ,bari to the height of more than #cbjj feet4 ,these are probably a part of the ,mountains of the ,moon1 as they are given in our most recent maps1 although they are not covered with perpetual snow1 as asserted by ,ptolemy4,,fa ,the line of perpetual snow would assuredly not be found in these parallels of latitude below an elevation of nearly #ae1ejj feet above the sea's level4 ,it is not improbable that ,ptolemy extended the knowledge he may have possessed of the high mountains of ,habesch1 near ,upper ,egypt and the ,red ,sea1 to the country of the sources of the ,white ,nile4 ,in ,godjam1 ,kaffa1 ,miecha1 and ,sami1 the ,abyssinian mountains rise from #aj1jjj to nearly #ae1jjj feet1 as we learn from exact measurements2 7not according to those of ,bruce1 who gives to ,chartum an elevation of #ejda feet1 instead of the true height1 #aebd feet67 ,rppell1 who ranks amongst the most accurate observers of the present day1 found ,abba ,jarat 7in #ac #aj north lat47 only #gj feet below the elevation of ,mont ,blanc1,,fb ,the same observer states that a plain1 elevated #ac1idj feet above the ,red ,sea1 was barely covered with a thin layer of freshly fallen snow4,,fc ,the celebrated inscription of ,adulis1 which1 according to ,niebuhr1 is of somewhat later date than the age of ,juba and ,augustus1 speaks of 8,abyssinian snow that reaches to the knee10 and affords1 ,i believe1 the most ancient record in antiquity of snow within the tropics1,,fd as the ,paropanisus is #ab lat4 north of that limit4 ,zimmermann's map of the district of the ,upper ,nile shows the dividing line where the basin of the great river terminates in the south-east1 and which separates it from the domain of the rivers belonging to the ,indian ,ocean1 viz42 from the ,doara which empties itself north of ,magadoxo2 from the ,teb on the amber coast of ,ogda2 from the ,goschop whose abundant waters are derived from the confluence of the ,gibu and the ,zebi1 and which must be distinguished from the ,godjeb1 rendered celebrated since #ahci by ,antoine d',abbadie1 ,beke1 and the ,missionary ,krapf4 ,in a letter to ,carl ,ritter ,i hailed with the most lively joy the appearance of the combined results of the recent travels of ,beke1 ,krapf1 ,isenberg1 ,russegger1 ,rppel1 ,abbadie1 and ,werne1 as ably and comprehensively brought together in #ahdc by ,zimmermann4 8,if a prolonged span of life10 ,i wrote to him1 8bring with it many inconveniences to the individual himself1 and some to those about him1 it yields a compensation in the mental enjoyment1 afforded by comparing the earlier state of our knowledge with its more recent condition1 and of seeing the growth and development of many branches of science that had long continued torpid1 or whose actual fruits hypercriticism may even have attempted to set aside4 ,this genial enjoyment has from time to time fallen to our lot in our geographical studies1 and more especially in reference to those portions of which we could hitherto only speak with a certain timid hesitation4 ,the internal configuration and articulation of a continent depends in its leading characters on several plastic relations which are usually among the latest to be elucidated4 ,a new and excellent work of our friend1 ,carl ,zimmermann1 on the district of the ,upper ,nile and of the eastern portions of ,central ,africa1 has made me more vividly sensible of these considerations4 ,this new map indicates1 in the clearest manner1 by means of a special mode of shading1 all that still remains unknown1 and all that by the courage and perseverance of travellers of all nations 7among which our own countrymen happily play an important part71 has already been disclosed to us4 ,we may regard it as alike important and useful that the actual condition of our knowledge1 should1 at different periods1 be graphically represented by men well acquainted with the existing and often widely scattered materials of knowledge1 and who not merely delineate and compile1 but who know how to compare1 select1 and1 where it is practicable1 test the routes of travellers by astronomical determinations of place4 ,those who have contributed as much to the general stock of knowledge as you have done1 have indeed an especial right to expect much1 since their combinations have greatly increased the number of connecting points2 yet ,i scarcely think that when1 in the year #ahbb1 you executed your great work on ,africa1 you could have anticipated so many additions as we have received40 ,it must be admitted that1 in some cases1 we have only acquired a knowledge of rivers1 their direction1 their branches1 and their numerous synonymes according to various languages and dialects2 but the courses of rivers indicate the configuration of the surface of the earth1 and exert a threefold influence2 they promote vegetation1 facilitate general intercourse1 and are pregnant with the future destiny of man4 ,the northern course of the ,white ,nile1 and the south-eastern course of the great ,goschop1 show that both rivers are separated by an elevation of the surface of the earth2 although we are as yet but imperfectly acquainted with the manner in which such an elevation is connected with the highlands of ,habesch1 or how it may be prolonged in a southerly direction beyond the equator4 ,probably1 and this is also the opinion of my friend ,carl ,ritter1 the ,lupata ,mountains1 which1 according to the excellent ,wilhelm ,peters1 extend to #bf south lat41 are connected by means of the ,mountains of the ,moon with this northern swelling of the earth's surface 7the ,abyssinian ,highlands74 ,lupata1 according to the last-named ,african traveller1 signifies1 in the language of ,tette1 closed1 when used as an adjective4 ,this mountain-range which is only intersected by some few rivers would thus be the closed or barred4 8,the ,lupata chain of the ,portuguese writers10 says ,peters1 8is situated about #ij leagues from the mouth of the ,zambeze1 and has an elevation of little more than #bjjj feet4 ,this mural chain has a direction due north and south1 although it frequently deflects to the east or the west4 ,it is sometimes interrupted by plains4 ,along the coast of ,zanzibar the traders in the interior appear to be acquainted with this long1 but not very high range1 which extends between #f and #bf south lat4 to the ,factory of ,lourenzo-,marques on the ,rio de ,espirito ,santo 7in the ,delagoa ,bay of the ,english74 ,the further the ,lupata chain extends to the south1 the nearer it approaches the coast1 until at ,lourenzo-,marques it is only #ae leagues distant from it40 ,footnote #bd3 p4 #aj4--8,the consequence of the great rotatory movement of the waters40 ,the waters of the northern part of the ,atlantic between ,europe1 ,northern ,africa1 and the ,new ,continent1 are agitated by a continually recurring gyratory movement4 ,under the tropics the general current to which the term rotation-stream might appropriately be given in consideration of the cause from which it arises1 moves1 as is well known1 like the trade wind from east to west4 ,it accelerates the navigation of vessels sailing from the ,canary ,isles to ,south ,america2 while it is nearly impossible to pursue a straight course against the current from ,carthagena de ,indias to ,cumana4 ,this bend to the west1 attributed to the trade winds1 is accelerated in the ,caribbean ,sea by a much stronger movement1 which originates in a very remote cause1 discovered as early as #aefj by ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert1,,fe and confirmed in #ahcb by ,rennell4 ,the ,mozambique current1 flowing from north to south between ,madagascar and the eastern coast of ,africa1 sets on the ,lagullas ,bank1 and bends to the north of it round the southern point of ,africa4 ,after advancing with much violence along the western coast of ,africa beyond the equator to the island of ,st4 ,thomas1 it gives a north-westerly direction to a portion of the waters of the ,south ,atlantic1 causing them to strike ,cape ,st4 ,augustin1 and follow the shores of ,guiana beyond the mouth of the ,orinoco1 the ,boca del ,drago1 and the coast of ,paria4,,ff ,the ,new ,continent from the ,isthmus of ,panama to the northern part of ,mexico forms a dam or barrier against the movements of the sea4 ,owing to this obstruction the current is necessarily deflected in a northerly direction at ,veragua1 and made to follow the sinuosities of the coast-line from ,costa ,rica1 ,mosquitos1 ,campeche1 and ,tabasco4 ,the waters which enter the ,mexican ,gulf between ,cape ,catoche of ,yucatan1 and ,cape ,san ,antonio de ,cuba1 force their way back into the open ocean north of the ,straits of ,bahama1 after they have been agitated by a great rotatory movement between ,vera ,cruz1 ,tamiagna1 the mouth of the ,rio ,bravo del ,norte1 and the ,mississippi4 ,here they form a warm1 rapid current1 known to mariners as the ,gulf ,stream1 which deflects in a diagonal direction further and further from the shores of ,north ,america4 ,ships bound for this coast from ,europe1 and uncertain of their geographical longitude1 are enabled by this oblique direction of the current to regulate their course as soon as they reach the ,gulf ,stream by observations of latitude only4 ,the bearings of this current were first accurately determined by ,franklin1 ,williams1 and ,pownall4 ,from the parallel of #da north lat4 this stream of warm water follows an easterly direction1 gradually diminishing in rapidity as it increases in breadth4 ,it almost touches the southern edge of the ,great ,newfoundland ,bank1 where ,i found the greatest amount of difference between the temperature of the waters of the ,gulf ,stream and those exposed to the cooling action of the banks4 ,before the warm current reaches the ,western ,azores it separates into two branches1 one of which turns at certain seasons of the year towards ,ireland and ,norway1 while the other flows in the direction of the ,canary ,isles and the western coast of ,northern ,africa4 ,the course of this ,atlantic current1 which ,i have described more fully in the first volume of my travels in the regions of the tropics1 affords an explanation of the manner in which1 notwithstanding the action of the trade winds1 stems of the ,south ,american and ,west ,indian dicotyledons have been found on the coasts of the ,canary ,islands4 ,i made many observations on the temperature of the ,gulf ,stream in the vicinity of the ,newfoundland ,bank4 ,this current bears the warmer water of lower latitudes with great rapidity into more northern regions4 ,the temperature of the stream is therefore from about #d to #g ,fahr4 higher than that of the contiguous and unmoved water which constitutes the shore as it were of the warm oceanic current4 ,the flying-fish of the equinoctial zone 7,exocetus volitans71 is borne by its predilection for the warmth of the water of the ,gulf ,stream far to the north of the temperate zone4 ,floating sea-weed 7,fucus natans71 chiefly taken up by the stream in the ,mexican ,gulf1 makes it easy for the navigator to recognize when he has entered the ,gulf ,stream1 whilst the position of the branches of the sea-weed indicate the direction of the current4 ,the mainmast of the ,english ship of war1 the ,tilbury1 which was destroyed by fire in the seven years' war on the coasts of ,saint ,domingo1 was carried by the ,gulf ,stream to the northern coasts of ,scotland3 and casks filled with palm-oil1 the remains of the cargo of an ,english ship wrecked on a rock off ,cape ,lopez in ,africa1 were in like manner carried to ,scotland1 after having twice traversed the ,atlantic ,ocean1 once from east to west between #b and #ab north lat41 following the course of the equinoctial current1 and once from west to east between #de and #ee north lat4 by help of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,rennell1 in the work already referred to1 p4 #cdg1 relates the voyage of a bottle inclosing a written paper which had been thrown from the ,english ship ,newcastle in #ch #eb north lat41 and #fc #eh west long41 on the #bjth of ,january1 #ahai1 and which was first seen on the #bnd of ,june1 #ahbj1 at the ,rosses in the north-west of ,ireland1 near the ,island of ,arran4 ,shortly before my arrival at ,teneriffe a stem of ,south ,american cedar-wood 7,cedrela odorata71 thickly covered with lichens1 was cast ashore near the harbour of ,santa ,cruz4 ,the effects of the ,gulf ,stream in stranding on the ,azorean ,islands of ,fayal1 ,flores1 and ,corvo1 bamboos1 artificially cut pieces of wood1 trunks of an unknown species of pine from ,mexico or the ,west ,indies1 and corpses of men of a peculiar race1 having very broad faces1 have mainly contributed to the discovery of ,america1 as they confirmed ,columbus in his belief of the existence of ,asiatic countries and islands situated in the west4 ,the great discoverer even heard from a settler on the ,cap de la ,verga in the ,azores 8that persons in sailing westward had met with covered barks1 which were managed by men of foreign appearance1 and appeared to be constructed in such a manner that they could not sink1 almadias con casa movediza que nunca se hunden40 ,there are well authenticated proofs1 however much the facts may have been called in question1 that natives of ,america 7probably ,esquimaux from ,greenland or ,labrador71 were carried by currents or streams from the north-west to our own continent4 ,james ,wallace,,fg relates that in the year #afhb a ,greenlander in his canoe was seen on the southern extremity of the ,island of ,eda by many persons1 who could not1 however1 succeed in reaching him4 ,in #afhd a ,greenland fisherman appeared near the ,island of ,westram4 ,in the church at ,burra there was suspended an ,esquimaux boat1 which had been driven on shore by currents and storms4 ,the inhabitants of the ,orkneys call the ,greenlanders who have appeared amongst them ,finnmen4 ,in ,cardinal ,bembo's ,history of ,venice ,i find it stated1 that in the year #aejh a small boat1 manned by seven persons of a foreign aspect1 was captured near the ,english coast by a ,french ship4 ,the description given of them applies perfectly to the form of the ,esquimaux 7homines erant septem mediocri statura1 colore subobscuro1 lato et patente vultu1 cicatriceque una violacea signato74 ,no one understood their language4 ,their clothing was made of fish skins sewn together4 ,on their heads they wore coronam e culmo pictam1 septem quasi auriculis intextam4 ,they ate raw flesh1 and drank blood as we would wine4 ,six of these men perished during the voyage1 and the seventh1 a youth1 was presented to the ,king of ,france1 who was then at ,orleans4,,fh ,the appearance of men called ,indians on the coasts of ,germany under the ,othos and ,frederic ,barbarossa in the tenth and twelfth centuries1 and as ,cornelius ,nepos 7in his ,fragments71,,fi ,pomponius ,mela1,,fj and ,pliny,,fk relate1 when ,quintus ,metellus ,celer was ,proconsul in ,gaul1 may be explained by similar effects of oceanic currents and by the long continuance of north-westerly winds4 ,a king of the ,boii1 or1 as others say1 of the ,suevi1 gave these stranded dark-coloured men to ,metellus ,celer4 ,gomara,,fl regards these ,indian subjects of the ,king of the ,boii as natives of ,labrador4 ,he writes1 ,si ya no fuesen de ,tierra del ,labrador1 y los tuviesen los ,romanos por ,indianos engaados en el color4 ,it may be inferred that the appearance of ,esquimaux on the northern shores of ,europe was more frequent in earlier times1 for we learn from the investigations of ,bask and ,finn ,magnusen1 that this race had spread in the eleventh and twelfth century in considerable numbers1 under the name of ,skrlingers1 from ,labrador as far south as the ,good ,vinland1 i4e4 the shore of ,massachussets and ,connecticut4,,fm ,as the winter cold of the most northern part of ,scandinavia is ameliorated by the action of the ,gulf ,stream1 which carries ,american tropical fruits 7as cocoa-nuts1 seeds of ,mimosa scandens and ,anacardium occidentale7 beyond #fb north lat42 so also ,iceland enjoys from time to time the genial influence of the diffusion of the warm waters of the ,gulf ,stream far to the northward4 ,the sea coasts of ,iceland1 like those of the ,faroe ,isles1 receive a large number of trunks of trees1 driven thither from ,america2 and this drift-wood1 which formerly came in greater abundance1 was used for the purposes of building1 and cut into boards and laths4 ,the fruits of tropical plants collected on the ,icelandic shores1 especially between ,raufarhaven and ,vapnafiord1 show that the movement of the water is from a southerly direction4,,fn ,footnote #be3 p4 #aj4--8,lecide and other ,lichens40 ,in northern regions1 the absence of plants is compensated for by the covering of ,bomyces roseus1 ,cenomyce rangiferinus1 ,lecidea muscorum1 ,lecidea icmadophila1 and other cryptogamia which are spread over the earth1 and which may be said to prepare the way for the growth of grasses and other herbaceous plants4 ,in the tropical world1 where mosses and lichens are only observed to abound in shady places1 some few oily plants supply the place of the lowly lichen4 ,footnote #bf3 p4 #aa4--8,the ,care of ,animals yielding milk4--,ruins of the ,aztek fortress40 ,the two oxen already named1 ,bos americanus and ,bos moschatus1 are peculiar to the northern part of the ,american continent4 ,but the natives-- ,queis neque mos1 neque cultus erat1 nec jungere tauros ,virg4 n4 i4 #caf4 drank the fresh blood1 and not the milk1 of these animals4 ,some few exceptions have indeed been met with1 but only among tribes who at the same time cultivated maize4 ,i have already observed that ,gomara speaks of a people in the north-west of ,mexico who possessed herds of tame bisons1 and derived their clothing1 food1 and drink from these animals4 ,this drink was probably the blood1,,fo for1 as ,i have frequently remarked1 a dislike of milk1 or at least the absence of its use1 appears before the arrival of ,europeans to have been common to all the natives of the ,new ,continent1 as well as to the inhabitants of ,china and ,cochin ,china1 notwithstanding their great vicinity to true pastoral tribes4 ,the herds of tame lamas which were found in the highlands of ,quito1 ,peru1 and ,chili1 belonged to a settled and agricultural population4 ,pedro de ,ciea de ,leon,,fp seems to imply1 although assuredly as a very rare exception to the general mode of life1 that lamas were employed on the ,peruvian mountain plain of ,callao for drawing the plough4,,fq ,ploughing was1 however1 generally conducted in ,peru by men only4,,fr ,barton has made it appear probable that the ,american buffalo had from an early period been reared among some ,west ,canada tribes on account of its flesh and hide4,,fs ,in ,peru and ,quito the lama is nowhere found in its original wild condition4 ,according to the statements made to me by the natives1 the lamas on the western declivity of the ,chimborazo became wild at the time when ,lican1 the ancient residence of the rulers of ,quito1 was laid in ashes4 ,in ,central ,peru1 in the ,ceja de la ,montaa1 cattle have in like manner become completely wild2 a small but daring race that often attacks the ,indians4 ,the natives call them 8,vacas del ,monte0 or 8,vacas ,cimarronas40,,ft ,cuvier's assertion that the lama had descended from the guanaco1 still in a wild state1 which had unfortunately been extensively propagated by the admirable observer1 ,meyen1,,fu has now been completely refuted by ,tschudi4 ,the ,lama1 the ,paco or ,alpaca1 and the ,guanaco are three originally distinct species of animals4,,fv ,the ,guanaco 7,huanacu in the ,quichua language7 is the largest of the three1 and the ,alpaca1 measured from the ground to the crown of the head1 the smallest4 ,the ,lama is next to the ,guanaco in height4 ,herds of ,lamas1 when as numerous as ,i have seen them on the elevated plateaux between ,quito and ,riobamba1 are a great ornament to the landscape4 ,the ,moromoro of ,chili appears to be a mere variety of the lama4 ,the different species of camel-like sheep found still wild at elevations of from #ac1jjj to upwards of #af1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 are the ,vicua1 the ,guanaco1 and the ,alpaca2 of these the two latter species are also found tame1 although this is but rarely the case with the ,guanaco4 ,the alpaca does not bear a warm climate as well as the lama4 ,since the introduction of the more useful horse1 mule1 and ass 7the latter of which exhibits great animation and beauty in tropical regions71 the lama and alpaca have been less generally reared and employed as beasts of burden in the mining districts4 ,but their wool1 which varies so much in fineness1 is still an important branch of industry among the inhabitants of the mountains4 ,in ,chili the wild and the tame guanaco are distinguished by special names1 the former being called 8,luan0 and the latter 8,chilihueque40 ,the wide dissemination of the wild ,guanacos from the ,peruvian ,cordilleras to ,tierra del ,fuego1 sometimes in herds of #ejj heads of cattle1 has been facilitated by the circumstance that these animals can swim with great facility from island to island1 and are not therefore impeded in their passage across the ,patagonian channels or fiords4,,fw ,south of the river ,gyla1 which together with the ,rio ,colorado pours itself into the ,californian ,gulf 7,mar de ,cortes71 lie in the midst of the dreary steppe the mysterious ruins of the ,aztek ,palace1 called by the ,spaniards 8las ,casas ,grandes40 ,when1 about the year #aafj1 the ,azteks first appeared in ,anahuac1 having migrated from the unknown land of ,aztlan1 they remained for a time on the borders of the ,gyla river4 ,the ,franciscan monks1 ,garces and ,font1 who saw the 8,casas ,grandes0 in #aggh1 are the last travellers who have visited these remains4 ,according to their statement1 the ruins extended over an area exceeding sixteen square miles4 ,the whole plain was covered with the broken fragments of ingeniously painted earthenware vessels4 ,the principal palace1 if the word can be applied to a house formed of unburnt clay1 is #ddg feet in length and #bgg feet in breadth4,,fx ,the ,tay of ,california1 a delineation of which is given by the ,padre ,venegas1 appears to differ but inconsiderably from the ,ovis musimon of the ,old ,continent4 ,the same animal has also been seen in the ,stony ,mountains near the source of the ,river of ,peace1 and differs entirely from the small white and black spotted goat-like animal found on the ,missouri and ,arkansas4 ,the synonyme of ,antilope furcifer1 ,a4 tememazama4 7,smith17 and ,ovis montana is still very uncertain4 ,footnote #bg3 p4 #aa4--8,the culture of farinaceous grasses40 ,the original habitat of the farinaceous grasses1 like that of the domestic animals which have followed man since his earliest migrations1 is shrouded in obscurity4 ,jacob ,grimm has ingeniously derived the ,german name for corn1 ,getraide1 from the old ,german 8gitragidi10 8getregede40 8,it is as it were the tame fruit 7fruges1 frumentum7 that has fallen into the hands of man1 as we speak of tame animals in opposition to those that are wild40,,fy 8,it is a most striking fact that on one half of our planet there should be nations who are wholly unacquainted with the use of milk and of the meal yielded by narrow-eared grasses1 7,hordeace and ,avenacec7 whilst in the other hemisphere nations may be found in almost every region who cultivate cereals and rear milch cattle4 ,the culture of different cereals is common to both hemispheres2 but while in the ,new ,continent we meet with only one species1 maize1 which is cultivated from #eb north to #df south lat41 we find that in the ,old ,world the fruits of ,ceres1 7wheat1 barley1 spelt1 and oats17 have been everywhere cultivated from the earliest ages recorded in history4 ,the belief that wheat grew wild in the ,leontine plains as well as in other parts of ,sicily was common to several ancient nations1 and is mentioned as early as ,diodorus ,siculus40,,fz ,cereals were also found in the alpine meadow of ,enna4 ,diodorus says expressly1 8,the inhabitants of the ,atlantis were unacquainted with the fruits of ,ceres1 owing to their having separated from the rest of mankind before those fruits were made known to mortals40 ,sprengel has collected several interesting facts from which he is led to conjecture that the greater number of our ,european cereals originally grew wild in ,northern ,persia and ,india4 ,he supposes for instance that summer wheat was indigenous in the land of the ,musicani1 a province of ,northern ,india2,,ga barley1 antiquissimum frumentum1 as ,pliny terms it1 and which was also the only cereal known to the ,guansches of the ,canaries1 originated1 according to ,moses of ,chorene1,,gb on the banks of the ,araxes or ,kur in ,georgia1 and according to ,marco ,polo in ,balascham1 in ,northern ,india2,,gc and ,spelt originated in ,hamadan4 ,my intelligent friend and teacher1 ,link1 has however shown in a comprehensive and critical treatise1,,gd that these passages are open to much doubt4 ,in a former essay of my own1,,ge ,i expressed doubts regarding the existence of wild cereals in ,asia1 and considered them to have become wild4 ,reinhold ,forster1 who before his voyage with ,captain ,cook made an expedition for purposes of natural history into the south of ,russia by order of the ,empress ,catherine1 reported that the two-lined summer barley 7,hordeum distichon7 grew wild near the confluence of the ,samara and the ,volga4 ,at the end of ,september in the year #ahbi1 ,ehrenberg and myself also herborised on the ,samara1 during our journey from ,orenburg and ,uralsk to ,saratow and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the quantity of wheat and rye plants growing wild on uncultivated ground in this district was certainly very remarkable2 but the plants did not appear to us to differ from the ordinary kinds4 ,ehrenberg received from ,m4 ,carelin a species of rye1 ,secale fragile1 that had been gathered on the ,kirghis ,steppe1 and which ,marshal ,bieberstein for some time conjectured to be the mother plant of our cultivated rye1 ,secale cereale4 ,michaux's herbarium does not show 7according to ,achill ,richard's testimony71 that ,spelt 7,triticum spelta7 grows wild at ,hamadan in ,persia1 as ,olivier and ,michaux have been supposed to maintain4 ,more confidence is due to the recent accounts obtained through the unwearied zeal of the intelligent traveller1 ,professor ,carl ,koch4 ,he found a large quantity of rye 7,secale cereale var4 1 pectinata7 in the ,pontic ,mountains1 at heights of more than #ejjj or #fjjj feet above the level of the sea1 on spots where this species of grain had not within the memory of the inhabitants been previously cultivated4 8,its appearance here is the more important10 he remarks1 8because with us this grain never propagates itself spontaneously40 ,koch collected in the ,schirwan part of the ,caucasus a kind of grain which he calls ,hordeum spontaneum1 and regards as the originally wild ,hordeum zeocriton4 7,linn47,,gf ,a negro slave of the great ,cortes was the first who cultivated wheat in ,new ,spain1 from three seeds which he found amongst some rice brought from ,spain for the use of the troops4 ,in the ,franciscan convent at ,quito ,i saw1 preserved as a relic1 the earthen vessel which had contained the first wheat sowed in ,quito by the ,franciscan monk1 ,fray ,jodoco ,rixi de ,gante1 a native of ,ghent in ,flanders4 ,the first crop was raised in front of the convent1 on the 8,plazuela de ,s4 ,francisco10 after the wood which then extended from the foot of the ,volcano of ,pichincha had been cleared4 ,the monks1 whom ,i frequently visited during my stay at ,quito1 begged me to explain the inscription on the cup1 which according to their conjecture contained some hidden allusion to wheat4 ,on examining the vessel1 ,i read in old ,german the words 8,let him who drinks from me1 ne'er forget his ,god40 ,this old ,german drinking cup excited in me feelings of veneration6 ,would that everywhere in the ,new ,continent the names of those were preserved who1 instead of devastating the soil by bloody conquests1 confided to it the first fruits of ,ceres6 ,there are 8fewer examples of a general affinity of names in terms relating to the different species of corn and objects of agriculture than to the rearing of cattle4 ,herdsmen when they migrated to other regions had still much in common1 while the subsequent cultivators of the soil had to invent special words4 ,but the fact that in comparison with the ,sanscrit1 ,romans and ,greeks seem to stand on the same footing with ,germans and ,slavonians1 speaks in favour of the very early contemporaneous emigration of the two latter4 ,yet the ,indian java 7frumentum hordeum71 when compared with the ,lithuanian jawai1 and the ,finnish jywa1 affords a striking exception40,,gg ,footnote #bh3 p4 #aa4--8,preferring to keep within a cooler climate40 ,throughout the whole of ,mexico and ,peru we find the trace of human civilisation confined to the elevated table-lands4 ,we saw the ruins of palaces and baths on the sides of the ,andes1 at an elevation of from #aj1bcj to #aa1eaj feet4 ,none but northern tribes migrating from the north towards the equator could have remained from preference in such a climate4 ,footnote #bi3 p4 #ab4--8,the history of the peopling of ,japan40 ,i believe ,i have succeeded in showing1 in my work on the monuments of the ,american primitive races1,,gh by an examination of the ,mexican and ,thibetian-,japanese calendars1 by a correct determination of the position of the ,scansile ,pyramids1 and by the ancient myths which record four revolutions of the world and the dispersion of mankind after a great deluge1 that the western nations of the ,new ,continent maintained relations of intercourse with those of ,eastern ,asia1 long before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,these observations have derived additional weight1 since the appearance of my work1 from the facts recently published in ,england1 ,france1 and the ,united ,states1 regarding the remarkable pieces of sculpture carved in the ,indian style1 which have been discovered in the ruins of ,guatimala and ,yucatan4,,gi ,the ancient architectural remains found in the peninsula of ,yucatan testify more than those of ,palenque1 to an astonishing degree of civilization4 ,they are situated between ,valladolid1 ,merida1 and ,campeche1 chiefly in the western portion of the country4 ,but the monuments on the island of ,cozumel1 7properly ,cuzamil17 east of ,yucatan1 were the first which were seen by the ,spaniards in the expedition of ,juan de ,grijalva in #aeah1 and in that of ,cortes in #aeai4 ,their discovery tended to diffuse throughout ,europe an exalted idea of the advanced condition of ancient ,mexican civilization4 ,the most important ruins of the peninsula of ,yucatan 7unfortunately not yet thoroughly measured and drawn by architects7 are those of the 8,casa del ,gobernador0 of ,uxmal1 the ,teocallis and vaulted constructions at ,kabah1 the ruins of ,labnan with its domed pillars1 those of ,zayi which exhibit columns of an order of architecture nearly approaching the ,doric1 and those of ,chiche with large ornamented pilasters4 ,an old manuscript written in the ,maya language by a ,christian ,indian1 which is still in the hands of the 8,gefe politico0 of ,peto1 ,don ,juan ,rio ,perez1 gives the different epochs 7,katunes of #eb years7 at which the ,toltecs settled in different parts of the peninsula4 ,perez would infer from these data that the architectural remains of ,chiche go back as far as the fourth century of our era1 whilst those of ,uxmal belong to the middle of the tenth century2 but the accuracy of these historical deductions is open to great doubt4,,gj ,i regard the existence of a former intercourse between the people of ,western ,america and these of ,eastern ,asia as more than probable1 although it is impossible at the present time to say by what route and with which of the tribes of ,asia this intercourse was established4 ,a small number of individuals of the cultivated hierarchical castes may perhaps have sufficed to effect great changes in the social condition of ,western ,america4 ,the fabulous accounts formerly current regarding ,chinese expeditions to the ,new ,continent refer merely to expeditions to ,fusang or ,japan4 ,it is1 however1 possible that ,japanese and ,sian-,pi may have been driven by storms from the ,corea to the ,american coasts4 ,we know as matters of history that ,bonzes and other adventurers navigated the ,eastern ,chinese seas in search of a remedial agent capable of making man immortal4 ,thus under ,tschin-chi-huang-ti three hundred young couples were dispatched to ,japan in the year #bji before our era1 who1 instead of returning to ,china1 settled on the ,island of ,nipon4,,gk ,may not accident have led to similar expeditions to the ,fox ,islands1 to ,alaschka1 or ,new ,california8 ,as the western coasts of the ,american continent incline from north-west to south-east1 and the eastern coasts of ,asia from north-east to south-west1 the distance between the two continents in the milder zone1 which is most conducive to mental development 7#de lat471 would appear too considerable to admit of an accidental settlement having been made in this latitude4 ,we must therefore assume that the first landing took place in the ungenial climate of #ee and #fe1 and that cultivation1 like the general advance of population in ,america1 progressed by gradual stations from north to south4,,gl ,it was even believed in the beginning of the sixteenth century that the fragments of ships from ,catayo1 i4e4 from ,japan or ,china1 had been found on the coasts of the ,northern ,dorado1 called also ,quivira and ,cibora4,,gm ,we know as yet too little of the languages of ,america entirely to renounce the hope that1 amid their many varieties1 some idiom may be discovered1 that has been spoken with certain modifications in the interior of ,south ,america and ,central ,asia1 or that might at least indicate an ancient affinity4 ,such a discovery would undoubtedly be one of the most brilliant to which the history of the human race can hope to attain6 ,but analogies of language are only deserving of confidence where mere resemblances of sound in the roots are not alone the object of research1 but attention is also directed to the organic structure1 the grammatical forms1 and those elements of language which manifest themselves as the product of the intellectual power of man4 ,footnote #cj3 p4 #ab--8,many other forms of animal life40 ,the ,steppes of ,caracas abound in flocks of the so-called ,cervus mexicanus4 ,this stag when young is spotted1 and resembles the roe4 ,we have frequently met with perfectly white varieties1 which is a very striking fact when the high temperature of this zone is taken into consideration4 ,the ,cervus mexicanus is not found on the declivities of the ,andes in the equatorial region1 at an elevation exceeding from #ddgf to #eaae feet1 but another white deer1 which ,i could scarcely distinguish by any one specific characteristic from the ,european species1 ascends to an elevation of nearly #ac1jjj feet4 ,the ,cavia capybara is known in the province of ,caracas by the name of ,chiguire4 ,this unfortunate animal is pursued in the water by the crocodile1 and on land by the tiger or jaguar4 ,it runs so badly that we were often able to catch it with our hands4 ,the extremities are smoked and eaten as hams1 but have a most unpleasant taste1 owing to the flavour and smell of musk by which they are impregnated2 and on the ,orinoco we gladly ate monkey-hams in preference4 ,these beautifully striped animals--the ,viverra mapurito1 ,viverra zorilla1 and ,viverra vittata--exhale a fetid odour4 ,footnote #ca3 p4 #ab--8,the ,guaranes and the fan-palm ,mauritia40 ,the small coast tribe of the ,guaranes 7called in ,british ,guiana1 the ,warraws1 or ,guaranos1 and by the ,caribs ,u-ara-u7 inhabit not only the swampy delta and the river net-work of the ,orinoco 7more particularly the banks of the ,manamo grande and the ,cao ,macareo71 but also extend1 with very slight differences in their mode of living1 along the sea-shore1 between the mouths of the ,essequibo and the ,boca de ,navios of the ,orinoco4,,gn ,according to the testimony of ,schomburgk1 the admirable observer referred to in the note1 there are still about #agjj ,warraus or ,guaranos living in the vicinity of ,cumaca1 and along the banks of the ,barime river1 which empties itself into the gulf of the ,boca de ,navios4 ,the social habits of the tribes settled in the delta of the ,orinoco were known to the great historian ,cardinal ,bembo1 the cotemporary of ,christopher ,columbus1 ,amerigo ,vespucci1 and ,alonzo de ,hojeda4 ,he says,,go quibusdam in locis propter paludes incol domus in arboribus dificant4 ,it is hardly probable that instead of the ,guaranos at the mouth of the ,orinoco1 ,bembo should here allude to the natives of the country near the mouth of the gulf of ,maracaibo1 where ,alonzo de ,hojeda1 in ,august1 #adii1 7when accompanied by ,vespucci and ,juan de la ,cosa7 found a population having their dwellings fondata sopra l'acqua come ,venezia 78built like ,venice on the water074,,gp ,vespucci1 in the account of his travels1 in which we meet with the first traces of the etymology of the name of the province of ,venezuela 7,little ,venice7 as used for the province of ,caracas1 speaks only of houses built on a foundation of piles1 and makes no mention of habitations in trees4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh bears a subsequent and incontrovertible evidence to the same fact1 for he says expressly in his description of ,guiana1 that on his second voyage in #aeie1 when in the mouth of the ,orinoco1 8he saw the fire of the ,tivitites and ,qua-rawetes0 7so he calls the ,guaranes71 8high up in the trees40,,gq ,there is a drawing of the fire in the ,latin edition of this work1,,gr and ,raleigh was the first who brought to ,england the fruit of the ,mauritia palm1 which he very justly compared1 on account of its scales1 to fir-cones4 ,father ,jos ,gumilla1 who twice visited the ,guaranes as a missionary1 says1 indeed1 that this tribe have their dwelling in the ,palmares 7palm groves7 of the morasses2 but while he speaks more definitely of pendent habitations supported by high pillars1 makes no mention of platforms attached to still growing trees4,,gs ,hillhouse and ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk,,gt are of opinion that ,bembo1 through the relations of others1 and ,raleigh1 by his own observation1 were deceived into this belief in consequence of the high tops of the palm trees being lighted up in such a manner by the fires below them1 that those sailing by thought the habitations of the ,guaranes were attached to the trees themselves4 8,we do not deny10 says ,schomburgk1 8that in order to escape the attacks of the mosquitos1 the ,indian sometimes suspends his hammock from the tops of trees1 but on such occasions no fires are made under the hammock40,,gu ,according to ,martius1 the beautiful ,palm1 ,moriche1 ,mauritia flexuosa1 ,quieteva1 or ,ita ,palm1,,gv belongs1 together with ,calamus1 to the family of the ,lepidocary or ,coryphe4 ,linnus has described it very imperfectly1 as he erroneously considered it to be devoid of leaves4 ,the trunk is #bf feet high1 but it probably does not attain this height in less than #abj or even #aej years4 ,the ,mauritia extends high up the declivity of the ,duida1 north of the ,esmeralda mission1 where ,i found it in great beauty4 ,it forms1 in moist places1 fine groups of a fresh and shining verdure1 reminding us of that of our alders4 ,the trees preserve the moisture of the ground by their shade1 and hence the ,indians believe that the ,mauritia draws water around its roots by some mysterious attraction4 ,in conformity with an analogous theory they advise1 that serpents should not be killed1 because the destruction of these animals is followed by the drying up of the lagoons4 ,thus do the rude children of nature confound cause and effect6 ,gumilla calls the ,mauritia flexuosa of the ,guaranes the tree of life 78arbol de la vida074 ,it is found on the mountains of ,ronaima1 east of the sources of the ,orinoco1 as high as #dbfc feet4 ,on the unfrequented banks of the ,rio ,atabapo1 in the interior of ,guiana1 we discovered a new species of ,mauritia having a prickly stem2 our ,mauritia aculeata4,,gw ,footnote #cb3 p4 #ac4--8;,an ,american ,stylite40 ,the founder of the sect of ,stylites1 the fanatical ,pillar-saint1 ,simeon ,sisanites of ,syria1 the son of a ,syrian herdsman1 is said to have passed thirty-seven years in holy contemplation1 elevated on five columns1 each higher than the preceding4 ,he died in the year #dfa4 ,the last of the pillars which he occupied was #dj ells in height4 ,for seven hundred years there continued to be followers of this mode of life1 who were called ,sancti ,columnares1 or ,pillar-saints4 ,even in ,germany1 in the see of ,treves1 attempts were made to found similar arial cloisters2 but the dangerous practice met with the constant opposition of the bishops4,,gx ,footnote #cc3 p4 #ad4--8,towns on the banks of the ,steppe-rivers40 ,families who live by raising cattle and do not take part in agricultural pursuits have congregated together in the middle of the ,steppe1 in small towns1 which1 in the cultivated parts of ,europe1 would scarcely be regarded as villages4 ,among these are ,calabozo1 which1 according to my astronomical observations1 is situated in #h #ef #ad north lat41 and #fg #dc west long42 ,villa del ,pao 7#h #ch #a north lat41 and #ff #eg west long472 ,saint ,sebastian1 and others4 ,footnote #cd3 p4 #ad4--8;,funnel-shaped clouds40 ,the singular phenomenon of these sand-spouts1 of which we see something analogous on the cross roads of ,europe1 is especially characteristic of the ,peruvian sandy desert between ,amotape and ,coquimbo4 ,such dense clouds of sand may endanger the safety of the traveller who does not cautiously avoid them4 ,it is remarkable that these partial and opposing currents of air should arise only when there is a general calm4 ,the arial ocean resembles the sea in this respect2 for here1 too1 we find that the small currents 7filets de courant7 in which the water may frequently be heard to flow with a splashing sound1 occur only in a dead calm 7calme plat74 ,footnote #ce3 p4 #ad4--8;,increases the stifling oppression40 ,i have observed in the ,llanos de ,apure1 at the cattle farm of ,guadalupe1 that the thermometer rose from #ib4g to #ig4b ,fahr4 whenever the hot wind began to blow from the desert1 which was covered either with sand or short withered grass4 ,in the middle of the sand-cloud the thermometer stood for several minutes together at #aaa ,fahr4 ,the dry sand in the village of ,san ,fernando de ,apure had a temperature of #abf ,fahr4 ,footnote #cf3 p4 #ae4--8,the phantom of a moving undulating surface40 ,the well known phenomenon of the mirage is called in ,sanscrit 8the thirst of the gazelle40,,gy ,all objects appear to float in the air1 while their forms are reflected in the lower stratum of the atmosphere4 ,at such times the whole desert resembles a vast lake1 whose surface undulates like waves4 ,palm trees1 cattle1 and camels sometimes appear inverted in the horizon4 ,in the ,french expedition to ,egypt1 this optical illusion often nearly drove the faint and parched soldiers to distraction4 ,this phenomenon has been observed in all quarters of the world4 ,the ancients were also acquainted with the remarkable refraction of the rays of light in the ,lybian ,desert4 ,we find mention made in ,diodorus ,siculus of strange illusive appearances1 an ,african ,fata ,morgana1 together with still more extravagant explanations of the conglomeration of the particles of air4,,gz ,footnote #cg3 p4 #ae4--8,the ,melocactus40 ,the ,cactus melocactus is frequently from #aj to #ab inches in diameter1 and has generally #ad ribs4 ,the natural group of the ,cactace1 the whole family of the ,nopale of ,jussieu1 belongs exclusively to the ,new ,continent4 ,the ,cactus assumes a variety of shapes1 being ribbed and melon-like 7,melocacti72 articulated 7,opunti72 upright-like columns 7,cerei72 of a serpentine or creeping form 7,rhipsalides72 or provided with leaves 7,pereski74 ,many extend high up the slopes of the mountains4 ,near the foot of the ,chimborazo1 in the sandy table-land around ,riobamba1 ,i found a new species of ,pitahaya 7,cactus sepium71 even at an elevation of #aj1ffj feet4,,ha ,footnote #ch3 p4 #af4--8,the scene suddenly changes in the ,steppe40 ,i have endeavoured to describe the approach of the rainy season1 and the signs by which it is announced4 ,the deep blue of the heavens in the tropics is occasioned by the imperfect solution of vapour4 ,the cyanometer indicates a lighter shade of blue as soon as the vapours begin to fall4 ,the dark spot in the constellation of the ,southern ,cross becomes indistinct in proportion as the transparency of the atmosphere decreases1 and this change announces the approach of rain4 ,the bright radiance of the ,magellanic clouds 7,nubecula major and ,nubecula minor7 then gradually fades away4 ,the fixed stars which had before been shining with a calm1 steady1 planetlike light1 are now seen to scintillate in the zenith4,,hb ,all these phenomena are the result of the increased quantity of aqueous vapour floating in the atmosphere4 ,footnote #ci3 p4 #af4--8,the humid clay soil is seen to rise slowly in a broad flake40 ,drought produces the same phenomena in animals and plants as the abstraction of heat4 ,during the dry season many tropical plants lose their leaves4 ,the crocodile and other amphibious animals conceal themselves in the mud and lie apparently dead1 like animals in cold regions who are thrown into a state of hybernation4,,hc ,footnote #dj3 p4 #ag4--8;,a vast inland sea40 ,nowhere are these inundations on a larger scale than in the net-work of streams formed by the ,apure1 the ,arachuna1 the ,payara1 the ,arauca1 and the ,cabuliare4 ,large vessels sail across the country over the ,steppe for #dj or #ej miles4 ,footnote #da3 p4 #ag4--8,to the mountainous plain of ,antisana40 ,the great mountain plateau which surrounds the volcano of ,antisana is #ac1dgc feet above the level of the sea4 ,the pressure of the atmosphere is so inconsiderable at this height1 that blood will flow from the nostrils and mouth of the wild bull when hunted with dogs4 ,footnote #db3 p4 #ag4--8,the marshy waters of ,bera and ,rastro40 ,i have elsewhere more circumstantially described the capture of the gymnotus4,,hd ,mons4 ,gay ,lussac and myself were perfectly successful in the experiments we conducted without a chain on a living gymnotus1 which was still very vigorous when it reached ,paris4 ,the discharge of electricity is entirely dependent on the will of the animal4 ,we did not observe any electric sparks1 but other physicists have done so on numerous occasions4 ,footnote #dc3 p4 #ah4--8;,awakened by the contact of moist and dissimilar particles40 ,in all organic bodies dissimilar substances come into contact with each other1 and solids are associated with fluids4 ,wherever there is organization and life1 there must be electric tension1 or1 in other words1 a voltaic pile must be brought into play1 as the experiments of ,nobili and ,matteucci1 and more especially the late most admirable labours of ,emil ,dubois1 teach us4 ,the last-named physicist has succeeded in 8manifesting the presence of the electric muscular current in living and wholly uninjured animal bodies30 he shows that 8the human body1 through the medium of a copper wire1 can at will cause the magnetic needle at a distance to deflect first in one direction and then in another40,,he ,i have myself witnessed these movements produced at will1 and have thus unexpectedly seen much light thrown on phenomena1 to which ,i had laboriously and ardently devoted so many years of my earlier life4 ,footnote #dd3 p4 #ai4--8,the myth of ,osiris and ,typhon40 ,respecting the struggle of two human races1 the ,arabian shepherd tribes of ,lower ,egypt and the cultivated agricultural races of ,upper ,egypt2 on the subject of the fair-haired ,prince ,baby or ,typhon1 who founded ,pelusium2 and on the dark-complexioned ,dionysos or ,osiris2 ,i would refer to ,zoga's older and almost universally discarded views as set forth at p4 #egg of his masterly work 8,de origine et usu obeliscorum40 ,footnote #de3 p4 #ai--8,the boundaries of ,european semi-civilization40 ,in the ,capitania ,general de ,caracas1 as well as in all the eastern part of ,america1 the civilization formerly introduced by ,europeans is limited to the narrow strip of land which skirts the shore4 ,in ,mexico1 ,new ,granada1 and ,quito on the other hand1 ,european civilization has penetrated far into the interior of the country and advanced up to the ridges of the ,cordilleras4 ,there existed already in the fifteenth century an earlier stage of civilization among the inhabitants of the last-named region4 ,wherever the ,spaniards perceived this culture they pursued its track1 regardless whether the seat of it was at a distance from the sea1 or in its vicinity4 ,the ancient cities were enlarged and their former significant ,indian names mutilated1 or exchanged for those of ,christian saints4 ,footnote #df3 p4 #ai--8;,huge masses of leaden-coloured granite40 ,in the ,orinoco1 and more especially at the cataracts of ,maypures and ,atures 7not in the ,black ,river or ,rio ,negro71 all blocks of granite1 even pieces of white quartz1 wherever they come in contact with the water1 acquire a grayish black coating1 which does not penetrate beyond #jja of a line into the interior of the rock4 ,the traveller might almost suppose that he was looking at basalt1 or fossils coloured with graphite4 ,indeed1 the crust does actually appear to contain manganese and carbon4 ,i say 8appears0 to do so1 because the phenomenon has not yet been thoroughly investigated4 ,something perfectly analogous to this was observed by ,rozier in the syenitic rocks of the ,nile 7near ,syene and ,phil72 by the unfortunate ,captain ,tuckey on the rocky banks of the ,zaire2 and by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk at ,berbice4,,hf ,on the ,orinoco these leaden-coloured rocks are supposed when wet to give forth noxious exhalations1 and their vicinity is believed to be conducive to the generation of fevers4,,hg ,it is also remarkable that the ,south ,american rivers generally1 which have black waters 7aguas negras71 or waters of a coffee brown or wine yellow tint1 do not darken the granite rocks2 that is to say1 they do not act upon the stone in such a manner as to form from its constituent parts a black or leaden-coloured crust4 ,footnote #dg3 p4 #bj--8,the rain-foreboding howl of the bearded ape40 ,some hours before the commencement of rain1 the melancholy cries of various apes1 as ,simia seniculus1 ,simia beelzebub1 c41 fall on the ear like a storm raging in the distance4 ,the intensity of the noise produced by such small animals can only be explained by the circumstance that one tree often contains a herd of seventy or eighty apes4 ,i have elsewhere spoken of the laryngeal sac1 and the ossification of the larynx of these animals4,,hh ,footnote #dh3 p4 #bj--8;,its uncouth body often covered with birds40 ,the crocodiles lie so motionless1 that ,i have often seen flamingoes 7,phnicopterus7 resting on their heads1 while the other parts of the body were covered1 like the trunk of a tree1 with aquatic birds4 ,footnote #di3 p4 #bj--8;,down its dilating throat40 ,the saliva with which the boa covers its prey tends to promote rapid decomposition4 ,the muscular flesh is rendered gelatinously soft under its action1 so that the animal is able to force entire limbs of its slain victim through its swelling throat4 ,the ,creoles call the giant boa ,tragavenado 7stag-swallower71 and fabulously relate that the antlers of a stag which could not be swallowed by the snake have been seen fixed in its throat4 ,i have frequently observed the boa constrictor swimming in the ,orinoco1 and in the smaller forest streams1 the ,tuamini1 the ,temi1 and the ,atabapo4 ,it holds its head above water like a dog4 ,its skin is beautifully speckled4 ,it has been asserted1 that the animal attains a length of #dh feet1 but the longest skins which have as yet been carefully measured in ,europe do not exceed from #ba to #bc feet4 ,the ,south ,american boa 7a ,python7 differs from the ,east ,indian4,,hi ,footnote #ej3 p4 #bj--8,living on gums and earth40 ,it is currently reported throughout the coasts of ,cumana1 ,new ,barcelona1 and ,caracas 7which the ,franciscan monks of ,guiana are in the habit of visiting on their return from the missions17 that there are men living on the banks of the ,orinoco who eat earth4 ,on the #fth of ,june1 #ahjj1 on our return from the ,rio ,negro1 when we descended the ,orinoco in thirty-six days1 we spent the day at the mission inhabited by these people 7the ,otomacs74 ,their little village1 which is called ,la ,concepcion de ,uruana1 is very picturesquely built against a granite rock4 ,it is situated in #g #h #c north lat42 and according to my chronometrical determination1 in #fg #ah west longitude4 ,the earth which the ,otomacs eat1 is an unctuous1 almost tasteless clay1 true potter's earth1 of a yellowish grey colour1 in consequence of a slight admixture of oxide of iron4 ,they select it with great care1 and seek it in certain banks on the shores of the ,orinoco and ,meta4 ,they distinguish the flavour of one kind of earth from that of another2 all kinds of clay not being alike acceptable to their palate4 ,they knead this earth into balls measuring from four to six inches in diameter1 and bake them before a slow fire1 until the outer surface assumes a reddish colour4 ,before they are eaten1 the balls are again moistened4 ,these ,indians are mostly wild1 uncivilized men1 who abhor all tillage4 ,there is a proverb current among the most distant of the tribes living on the ,orinoco1 when they wish to speak of anything very unclean1 8so dirty that the ,otomacs eat it40 ,as long as the waters of the ,orinoco and the ,meta are low1 these people live on fish and turtles4 ,they kill the former with arrows1 shooting the fish as they rise to the surface of the water with a skill and dexterity that has frequently excited my admiration4 ,at the periodical swelling of the rivers1 the fishing is stopped1 for it is as difficult to fish in deep river water as in the deep sea4 ,it is during these intervals1 which last from two to three months1 that the ,otomacs are observed to devour an enormous quantity of earth4 ,we found in their huts considerable stores of these clay balls piled up in pyramidal heaps4 ,an ,indian will consume from three-quarters of a pound to a pound and a quarter of this food daily1 as we were assured by the intelligent monk1 ,fray ,ramon ,bueno1 a native of ,madrid1 who had lived among these ,indians for a period of twelve years4 ,according to the testimony of the ,otomacs themselves1 this earth constitutes their main support in the rainy season4 ,in addition1 they however eat1 when they can procure them1 lizards1 several species of small fish1 and the roots of a fern4 ,but they are so partial to clay1 that even in the dry season1 when there is an abundance of fish1 they still partake of some of their earth-balls1 by way of a bonne bouche after their regular meals4 ,these people are of a dark1 copper-brown colour1 have unpleasant ,tartar-like features1 and are stout1 but not protuberant4 ,the ,franciscan who had lived amongst them as a missionary1 assured us that he had observed no difference in the condition and well-being of the ,otomacs during the periods in which they lived on earth4 ,the simple facts are therefore as follows3--,the ,indians undoubtedly consume large quantities of clay without injuring their health2 they regard this earth as a nutritious article of food1 that is to say1 they feel that it will satisfy their hunger for a long time4 ,this property they ascribe exclusively to the clay1 and not to the other articles of food which they contrive to procure from time to time in addition to it4 ,if an ,otomac be asked what are his winter provisions--the term winter in the torrid parts of ,south ,america implying the rainy season--he will point to the heaps of clay in his hut4 ,these simple facts do not1 however1 by any means decide the questions3 whether clay can actually be a nutritious substance2 whether earths can be assimilated in the human body2 whether they only serve as ballast2 or merely distend the walls of the stomach1 and thus appease the cravings of hunger8 ,these are questions which ,i cannot venture to decide4,,hj ,it is singular1 that ,father ,gumilla1 who is generally so credulous and uncritical1 should have denied the fact of earth being eaten by and for itself4,,hk ,he maintains that the clay-balls are largely mixed with maize-flour1 and crocodile's fat4 ,but the missionary ,fray ,ramon ,bueno1 and our friend and fellow-traveller1 the lay-brother ,fray ,juan ,gonzales1 who perished at sea off the coast of ,africa 7at the time we lost a portion of our collections71 both assured us1 that the ,otomacs never mix their clay cakes with crocodile's fat1 and we heard nothing in ,uruana of the admixture of flour4 ,the earth which we brought with us1 and which was chemically investigated by ,m4 ,vauquelin1 is quite pure and unmixed4 ,may not ,gumilla1 by confounding heterogeneous facts1 have intended to allude to a preparation of bread from the long pod of a species of ,inga8 as this fruit is certainly buried in the earth1 in order to hasten its decomposition4 ,it appears to me especially remarkable1 that the ,otomacs should not lose their health by eating so much earth4 ,has this tribe been habituated for generations to this stimulus8 ,in all tropical countries men exhibit a wonderful and almost irresistible desire to devour earth1 not the so-called alkaline or calcareous earth1 for the purpose of neutralizing acidity1 but unctuous1 strong-smelling clay4 ,it is often found necessary to shut children up in order to prevent their running into the open air to devour earth after recent rain4 ,the ,indian women who are engaged on the river ,magdalena1 in the small village of ,banco1 in turning earthenware pots1 continually fill their mouths with large lumps of clay1 as ,i have frequently observed1 much to my surprise4,,hl ,wolves eat earth1 especially clay1 during winter4 ,it would be very important1 in a physiological point of view1 to examine the excrements of animals and men that eat earth4 ,individuals of all other tribes1 excepting the ,otomacs1 lose their health if they yield to this singular propensity for eating clay4 ,in the mission of ,san ,borja we found the child of an ,indian woman1 which1 according to the statement of its mother1 would hardly eat anything but earth4 ,it was1 however1 much emaciated1 and looked like a mere skeleton4 ,why is it that in the temperate and cold zones this morbid eagerness for eating earth is so much less frequently manifested1 and is indeed limited almost entirely to children and pregnant women1 whilst it would appear to be indigenous to the tropical lands of every quarter of the earth8 ,in ,guinea the negroes eat a yellowish earth1 which they call caouac2 and when they are carried as slaves to the ,west ,indies they even endeavour there to procure for themselves some similar species of food1 maintaining that the eating of earth is perfectly harmless in their ,african home4 ,the caouac of the ,american islands1 however1 deranges the health of the slaves who partake of it2 for which reason the eating of earth was long since forbidden in the ,west ,indies1 notwithstanding which a species of red or yellowish tuff 7un tuf rouge jauntre7 was secretly sold in the public market of ,martinique in the year #agea4 8,the negroes of ,guinea say that in their own country they habitually eat a certain earth1 the flavour of which is most agreeable to them1 and which does not occasion them any inconvenience4 ,those who have addicted themselves to the excessive use of caouac are so partial to it1 that no punishment can prevent them from devouring this earth40,,hm ,in the island of ,java1 between ,sourabaya and ,samarang1 ,labillardire saw small square reddish cakes publicly sold in the villages4 ,the natives called them tana ampo 7tanah signifies earth in ,malay and ,javanese72 and on examining them more closely1 he found that they were cakes made of a reddish clay1 and intended for eating4,,hn ,the edible clay of ,samarang has recently 7#ahdg7 beep sent1 by ,mohnike1 to ,berlin in the shape of rolled tubes like cinnamon1 and has been examined by ,ehrenberg4 ,it is a fresh-water formation deposited in tertiary limestone1 and composed of microscopic polygastrica 7,gallionella1 ,navicula7 and of ,phytolitharia4,,ho ,the natives of ,new ,caledonia1 to appease their hunger1 eat lumps as large as the fist of friable steatite1 in which ,vauquelin detected an appreciable quantity of copper4,,hp ,in ,popayan and many parts of ,peru calcareous earth is sold in the streets as an article of food for the ,indians4 ,this is eaten together with the ,coca 7the leaves of the ,erythroxylon peruvianum74 ,we thus find that the practice of eating earth is common throughout the whole of the torrid zone among the indolent races who inhabit the most beautiful and fruitful regions of the earth4 ,but accounts have also come from the north1 through ,berzelius and ,retzius1 from which we learn1 that in the most remote parts of ,sweden hundreds of cartloads of earth containing infusoria are annually consumed by the country people as bread-meal1 more from fancy 7like the smoking of tobacco7 than from necessity4 ,in some parts of ,finland a similar kind of earth is mixed with the bread4 ,it consists of empty shells of animalcules1 so small and soft1 that they break between the teeth without any perceptible noise1 filling the stomach without yielding any actual nourishment4 ,chronicles and archives often make mention during times of war of the employment as food of infusorial earth1 which is spoken of under the indefinite and general term of 8mountain meal40 ,such1 for instance1 was the case in the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 at ,camin in ,pomerania1 ,muskau in the ,lausitz1 and ,kleiken in the ,dessau territory2 and subsequently in #agai and #agcc1 at the fortress of ,wittenberg4,,hq ,footnote #ea3 p4 #bj4--8;,images graven in rocks40 ,in the interior of ,south ,america1 between the parallels of #b and #d north lat41 lies a wooded plain inclosed by four rivers1 the ,orinoco1 the ,atabapo1 the ,rio ,negro1 and the ,cassiquiare4 ,here we find granitic and syenitic rocks1 which1 like those of ,caicara and ,uruana1 are covered with colossal symbolical figures of crocodiles1 tigers1 utensils of domestic use1 signs of the sun and moon1 c4 ,this remote portion of the earth is at present wholly uninhabited throughout an extent of more than #hjjj square miles4 ,the neighbouring tribes1 who occupy the lowest place in the scale of humanity1 are naked wandering savages1 who could not possibly have carved hieroglyphics in stone4 ,a whole range of these rocks covered with symbolical signs may be traced from ,rupunuri1 ,essequibo1 and the mountains of ,pacaraima1 to the banks of the ,orinoco and of the ,yupura1 extending over more than eight degrees of longitude4 ,these carvings may belong to very different periods of time1 for ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk even found on the ,rio ,negro representations of a ,spanish galliot1,,hr which must necessarily have been of a date subsequent to the beginning of the sixteenth century1 and that in a wilderness where the inhabitants were probably as rude then as they now are4 ,but it must not be forgotten1 as ,i have already elsewhere observed1 that nations of very different descent1 but in similarly uncivilized conditions1 possessed of the same disposition to simplify and generalize outlines1 and urged by identical inherent mental tendencies1 may be led to produce similar signs and symbols4,,hs ,at the meeting of the ,society of ,antiquaries in ,london a memoir was read on the #agth of ,november1 #ahcf1 by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 8,on the religious traditions of the ,macusi ,indians1 who inhabit the ,upper ,mahu1 and a portion of the ,pacaraima mountains10 and who have therefore not changed their habitation for a century 7since the journey of the intrepid ,hortsmann74 8,the ,macusis10 says ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 8believe that the only being who survived a general deluge1 repeopled the earth by converting stones into human beings40 ,this myth1 which is the fruit of the lively imagination of these tribes1 and which reminds us of that of ,deucalion and ,pyrrha1 shows itself in a somewhat modified form among the ,tamanacs of the ,orinoco4 ,when these people are asked how the human race survived this great flood1 the age of waters of the ,mexicans1 they unhesitatingly reply1 8that one man and one woman were saved by taking refuge on the summit of the lofty mountain of ,tamanacu1 on the banks of the ,asiveru1 and that they then threw over their heads the fruits of the ,mauritia palm1 from the kernels of which sprang men and women1 who again peopled the earth40 ,some miles from ,encaramada there rises in the midst of the savannah the rock of ,tepu-,mereme2 i4e41 the 8painted rock10 which exhibits numerous figures of animals and symbolical signs1 having much resemblance to those which we observed at some distance above ,encaramada1 near ,caycara4 7#g #e to #g #dj north lat41 and #ff #bh to #fg #bc west long47 ,similarly carved rocks are found between the ,cassiquiare and the ,atabapo 7#b #e to #c #bj lat472 and what is most striking1 also #efj miles further eastward in the solitudes of the ,parime4 ,the last-named fact is proved beyond a doubt1 by the journal of ,nicolas ,hortsmann of ,hildesheim1 of which ,i have seen a copy in the handwriting of the celebrated d',anville4 ,that simple and modest traveller wrote down every day on the spot whatever had struck him as worthy of notice2 and his narrative deserves perhaps the more confidence from the fact that the great disappointment he experienced in having failed in the object of his researches1 which was the discovery of the ,lake of ,dorado1 with its lumps of gold and a diamond mine 7which proved to be merely rock crystal of a very pure kind71 led him to look with a certain degree of contempt on all that fell in his way4 ,on the bank of the ,rupunuri1 at the point where the river1 winding between the ,macarana mountains1 forms several small cascades2 and before reaching the country immediately surrounding the ,lake of ,amucu1 he found1 on the #afth of ,april1 #agdi1 8rocks covered with figures10 or1 as he says in ,portuguese1 8de varias letras0 7with various letters or characters74 ,we were shown1 at the rock of ,culimacari1 on the banks of the ,cassiquiare1 signs said to be characters drawn by line and rule3 but they were merely ill-formed figures of the heavenly bodies1 crocodiles1 boa-constrictors1 and utensils used in the preparation of manioc-meal4 ,i found among these painted rocks 7piedras pintadas7 neither a symmetrical arrangement nor any trace of characters drawn with a regard to regularity in space and size4 ,the word 8letras0 in the journal of the ,german ,surgeon 7,hortsmann7 must not1 therefore1 ,i am disposed to think1 be taken in the strictest sense4 ,schomburgk did not succeed in finding the rocks observed by ,hortsmann1 but he has described others which he saw on the bank of the ,essequibo1 near the cascade of ,waraputa4 8,this cascade10 he says1 8is celebrated not only for its height1 but also for the great number of figures hewn in the rock1 which bear a great resemblance to those that ,i have seen on the island of ,st4 ,john1 7one of the ,virgin ,islands17 and which ,i consider to be without doubt the work of the ,caribs1 by whom this part of the ,antilles was peopled in former times4 ,i made the most strenuous efforts to hew away a portion of the rock carved with inscriptions1 which ,i was desirous of taking with me2 but the stone was too hard1 and my strength had been wasted by fever4 ,neither threats nor promises could prevail on the ,indians to aim a single stroke of the hammer against these rocks--the venerable monuments of the culture and superior skill of their forefathers4 ,they regard them as the work of the ,great ,spirit2 and all the different tribes we met were acquainted with them1 although living at a great distance4 ,terror was painted on the faces of my ,indian companions who seemed to expect every moment that the fire of heaven would fall on my head4 ,i now saw clearly that all my efforts were fruitless1 and ,i was therefore obliged to content myself with bringing away a complete drawing of these monuments40 ,the last resolution was undoubtedly the best1 and the editor of the ,english journal1 to my great satisfaction1 subjoins in a note the remark1 8that it is to be wished that others may succeed no better than ,schomburgk1 and that no traveller belonging to a civilized nation will in future attempt the destruction of these monuments of the unprotected ,indians40 ,the symbolical signs which ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk found in the fluvial valley of the ,essequibo1 near the rapids of ,waraputa1,,ht resemble1 indeed1 according to his observation1 the genuine ,carib carvings of one of the smaller ,virgin ,islands 7,st4 ,john72 but notwithstanding the wide extent of the ,carib invasions1 and the ancient power of that fine race1 ,i cannot believe that this vast belt of carved rocks which intersects a great portion of ,south ,america from west to east1 is actually to be ascribed to the ,caribs4 ,these remains seem rather to be traces of an ancient civilization1 which may have belonged to an epoch when the tribes1 whom we now distinguish by various names and races1 were still unknown4 ,the veneration which is everywhere shown by the ,indians for these rude carvings of their predecessors1 proves that the present races have no idea of the execution of similar works4 ,nay1 more than this1 between ,encaramada and ,caycara1 on the banks of the ,orinoco1 many of these hieroglyphic figures are found sculptured on the sides of rocks at a height which can now only be reached by means of extremely high scaffolding4 ,when asked who can have carved these figures1 the natives answer with a smile1 as if it were a fact of which none but a white man could be ignorant1 that 8in the days of the great waters their fathers sailed in canoes at this height40 ,here we find a geological dream serving as a solution of the problem presented by a long extinct civilization4 ,i would here be permitted to subjoin a remark1 which ,i borrow from a letter addressed to me by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 the distinguished traveller already mentioned4 8,the hieroglyphic figures are much more widely extended than you probably have conjectured4 ,during my expedition1 the object of which was the exploration of the river ,corentyn1 ,i not only observed several gigantic figures on the rock of ,timeri 7#d #cj north lat4 and #eg #cj west long471 but ,i also discovered similar ones in the vicinity of the great cataracts of the river ,corentyn 7in #d #ba #cj north lat4 and #eg #ee #cj west long47 ,these figures have been executed more carefully than any others which ,i met with in ,guiana4 ,they are about #ab feet in height and appear to represent human figures4 ,the head-gear is extremely remarkable2 it surrounds the entire head1 spreads far out1 and is not unlike the glory represented round the heads of ,saints4 ,i left drawings of these images in the colony1 which ,i hope some day to be able to lay collectively before the public4 ,i have seen less complete figures on the ,cuyuwini1 a river which1 flowing from the north-west1 empties itself into the ,essequibo in #b #af north lat42 and ,i subsequently found similar figures on the ,essequibo itself in #a #dj north lat4 ,these figures1 therefore1 as appears from actual observations1 extend from #g #aj to #a #dj north lat41 and from #eg #cj to #ff #cj west long4 ,the zone 7or belt7 of the sculptured rocks 7as far as it has yet been investigated7 thus extends over an area of #aib1jjj square miles1 and includes within its circuit the basins of the ,corentyn1 ,essequibo1 and ,orinoco--a circumstance that enables us to judge of the former population of this portion of the continent40 ,remarkable relics of a former culture1 consisting of granitic vessels ornamented with beautiful representations of labyrinths1 and the earthenware forms resembling the ,roman masks1 have been discovered among the wild ,indians on the ,mosquito coast4,,hu ,i had them engraved in the picturesque ,atlas appended to the historical portion of my travels4 ,antiquarians are astonished at the resemblance of these algreco vessels to those which embellish the ,palace of ,mitla 7near ,oaxaca1 in ,new ,spain74 ,the large-nosed race1 who are so frequently sculptured in relief on the ,palenque of ,guatimala and in ,aztec pictures1 ,i have never observed in ,peruvian carvings4 ,klaproth recollects having noticed that the ,chalkas1 a horde of ,northern ,mongolia1 had similar large noses4 ,it is universally known1 that many races of the ,north ,american1 ,canadian1 and copper-coloured ,indians1 have fine aquiline noses1 which constitute an essential physiognomical mark of distinction between them and the present inhabitants of ,new ,granada1 ,quito1 and ,peru4 ,are the large-eyed1 fair-skinned natives of the north-west coast of ,america1 of whom ,marchand speaks as living in #ed and #eh north lat41 descended from the ,usuns1 an ,alano-,gothic race of ,central ,asia8 ,footnote #eb3 p4 #bj4--8;,deal certain death with a poisoned thumb-nail40 ,the ,otomacs frequently poison their thumb-nails with curare4 ,the mere impress of the nail proves fatal1 should the curare become mixed with the blood4 ,we have in our possession the creeping plant1 from the juice of which the curare is prepared1 in the ,esmeralda ,mission1 on the ,upper ,orinoco1 but1 unfortunately1 we did not find the plant when in blossom4 ,from its physiognomy1 it seems to be allied to ,strychnos4,,hv ,since ,i wrote the above notice of the ,curare1 or ,urari1 as the plant and poison were called by ,raleigh1 the brothers ,robert and ,richard ,schomburgk have rendered important service to science by making us accurately acquainted with the nature and mode of preparing this substance1 which ,i was the first to bring to ,europe in any considerable quantity4 ,richard ,schomburgk found this creeping plant in flower in ,guiana1 on the banks of the ,pomeroon and ,sururu1 in the territory of the ,caribs1 who are1 however1 ignorant of the mode of preparing the poison4 ,his instructive work,,hw gives the chemical analysis of the juice of the ,strychnos toxifera1 which1 notwithstanding its name and organic structure1 contains1 according to ,boussingault1 no trace of strychnine4 ,virchow's and ,mnter's interesting physiological experiments show that the curare or urari poison does not appear to destroy by resorption from without1 but chiefly when it is absorbed by the animal substance after the separation of the continuity of the latter2 that curare does not belong to tetanic poisons2 and that it especially produces paralysis1 i4e41 a cessation of voluntary muscular movement1 while the function of the involuntary muscles 7as the heart and intestines7 continues unimpaired4,,hx ,,on ,,the ,,cataracts ,,of ,,the ,,orinoco1 ,near ,atures and ,maypures4 ,in the preceding section1 which ,i made the subject of an ,academical ,lecture1 ,i have delineated those boundless plains1 whose natural character is so variously modified by climatic relations1 that what in one region appear as barren treeless wastes or deserts1 in another are ,steppes or far-stretching ,prairies4 ,with the ,llanos of the southern portion of the ,new ,continent1 may be contrasted the fearful sandy deserts in the interior of ,africa2 and these again with the ,steppes of ,central ,asia1 the habitation of those world-storming herdsmen1 who1 once pouring forth from the east1 spread barbarism and devastation over the face of the earth4 ,while on that occasion 7#ahjf71 ,i ventured to combine many massive features in one grand picture of nature1 and endeavoured to entertain a public assembly with subjects1 somewhat in accordance with the gloomy condition of our minds at that period1 ,i will now1 confining myself to a more limited circle of phenomena1 pourtray in brighter tints the cheerful picture of a luxuriant vegetation1 and fluvial valleys with their foaming mountain torrents4 ,i will describe two scenes of ,nature from the wild regions of ,guiana1--,,atures and ,,maypures1 the far-famed ,,cataracts ,,of ,,the ,,orinoco1--which1 previously to my own travels1 had been visited by few ,europeans4 ,the impression which is left on the mind by the aspect of natural scenery is less determined by the peculiar character of the region1 than by the varied nature of the light through which we view1 or mountain or plain1 sometimes beaming beneath an azure sky1 sometimes enveloped in the gloom of lowering clouds4 ,thus1 too1 descriptions of nature affect us more or less powerfully1 in proportion as they harmonize with the condition of our own feelings4 ,for the physical world is reflected with truth and animation on the inner susceptible world of the mind4 ,whatever marks the character of a landscape3 the profile of mountains1 which in the far and hazy distance bound the horizon2 the deep gloom of pine forests2 the mountain torrent1 which rushes headlong to its fall through overhanging cliffs3 all stand alike in an ancient and mysterious communion with the spiritual life of man4 ,from this communion arises the nobler portion of the enjoyment which nature affords4 ,nowhere does she more deeply impress us with a sense of her greatness1 nowhere does she speak to us more forcibly than in the tropical world1 beneath the 8,indian sky10 as the climate of the torrid zone was called in the early period of the ,middle ,ages4 ,while ,i now1 therefore1 venture to give a delineation of these regions1 ,i am encouraged to hope that the peculiar charm which belongs to them will not be unfelt4 ,the remembrance of a distant and richly endowed land1 the aspect of a free and powerful vegetation1 refreshes and strengthens the mind2 even as our soaring spirit1 oppressed with the cares of the present1 turns with delight to contemplate the early dawn of mankind and its simple grandeur4,,hy ,western currents and tropical winds favour the passage over that pacific arm of the sea#ec which occupies the vast valley stretching between the ,new ,continent and ,western ,africa4 ,before the shore is seen to emerge from the highly curved expanse of waters1 a foaming rush of conflicting and intermingling waves is observed4 ,the mariner who is unacquainted with this region would suspect the vicinity of shoals1 or a wonderful burst of fresh springs1 such as occur in the midst of the ,ocean among the ,antilles#ed4 ,on approaching nearer to the granitic shores of ,guiana1 he sees before him the wide mouth of a mighty river1 which gushes forth like a shoreless sea1 flooding the ocean around with fresh water4 ,the green waves of the river1 which assume a milky white hue as they foam over the shoals1 contrast with the indigo-blue of the sea1 which marks the waters of the river in sharp outlines4 ,the name ,orinoco1 which the first discoverers gave to this river1 and which probably owes its origin to some confusion of language1 is unknown in the interior of the country4 ,for in their condition of animal rudeness1 savage tribes only designate by peculiar geographical names1 those objects which might be confounded with others4 ,thus the ,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 and the ,magdalena1 are each simply termed ,the ,river1 the ,great ,river1 and ,the ,great ,water2 whilst1 those who dwell on the banks of even the smallest streams distinguish them by special names4 ,the current produced by the ,orinoco between the ,south ,american ,continent and the asphaltic island of ,trinidad is so powerful1 that ships1 with all their canvass spread1 and a westerly breeze in their favour1 can scarcely make way against it4 ,this desolate and fearful spot is called the ,bay of ,sadness 7,golfo ,triste71 and its entrance the ,dragon's ,mouth 7,boca del ,drago74 ,here isolated cliffs rise tower-like in the midst of the rushing stream4 ,they seem to mark the old rocky barrier#ee which1 before it was broken through by the current1 connected the island of ,trinidad with the coast of ,paria4 ,the appearance of this region first convinced the bold navigator ,columbus of the existence of an ,american continent4 8,such an enormous body of fresh water10 concluded this acute observer of nature1 8could only be collected from a river having a long course2 the land1 therefore1 which supplied it must be a continent1 and not an island40 ,as1 according to ,arrian1 the companions of ,alexander1 when they penetrated across the snow-crowned summits of ,paropanisus#ef1 believed that they recognized in the crocodile-teeming ,indus a part of the ,nile1,,hz so ,columbus1 in his ignorance of the similarity of physiognomy which characterises all the products of the climate of palms1 imagined that the ,new ,continent was the eastern coast of the far projecting ,asia4 ,the grateful coolness of the evening air1 the ethereal purity of the starry firmament1 the balmy fragrance of flowers1 wafted to him by the land breeze--all led him to suppose4 7as we are told by ,herrera1 in the ,decades#eg17 that he was approaching the garden of ,eden1 the sacred abode of our first parents4 ,the ,orinoco seemed to him one of the four rivers1 which1 according to the venerable tradition of the ancient world1 flowed from ,paradise1 to water and divide the surface of the earth1 newly adorned with plants4 ,this poetical passage in the ,journal of ,columbus1 or rather in a letter to ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 written from ,haiti in ,october1 #adih1 presents a peculiar psychological interest4 ,it teaches us anew1 that the creative fancy of the poet manifests itself in the discoverer of a world1 no less than in every other form of human greatness4 ,when we consider the great mass of water poured into the ,atlantic ,ocean by the ,orinoco1 we are naturally led to ask which of the ,south ,american rivers is the greatest--the ,orinoco1 the ,amazon1 or the ,la ,plata8 ,the question is as indeterminate as the idea of greatness itself4 ,the ,rio de la ,plata has undoubtedly the widest mouth1 its width measuring #ib miles across2 but this river1 like those of ,great ,britain1 is comparatively of but inconsiderable length4 ,its shallowness1 too1 is so great as to impede navigation at ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the ,amazon1 which is the longest of all rivers1 measures #bhhj miles from its rise in the ,lake of ,lauricocha to its estuary4 ,yet its width in the province of ,jaen de ,bracamoros1 near the cataract of ,rentama1 where ,i measured it at the foot of the picturesque mountain of ,patachuma1 is scarcely equal to that of the ,rhine at ,mayence4 ,the ,orinoco is narrower at its mouth than either the ,la ,plata or the ,amazon1 while its length1 according to my astronomical observations1 does not exceed #aabj geographical miles4 ,but in the interior of ,guiana1 #efj miles from its estuary1 ,i found that at high water the width of the river measured upwards of #ag1bfe feet4 ,its periodical swelling here raises the level of the waters every year from #cj to #cf feet above the lowest water-mark4 ,we are still without sufficient data for an accurate comparison between the enormous rivers which traverse the ,south ,american ,continent4 ,for such a comparison it would be necessary to ascertain the profile of the river-bed1 as well as the velocity of the water1 which varies very considerably at different points4 ,if the ,orinoco1 in the ,delta formed by its variously divided and still unexplored branches1 as well as in the regularity of its rise and fall1 and in the number and size of its crocodiles1 exhibits numerous points of resemblance to the ,nile2 there is this further analogy between the two rivers1 that they for a long distance wind their impetuous way1 like forest torrents1 between granitic and syenitic rocks1 till1 slowly rolling their waters over an almost horizontal bed1 skirted by treeless banks1 they reach the sea4 ,an arm of the ,nile 7the ,green ,nile1 ,bahr-el-,azrek71 from the celebrated mountain lake1 near ,gondar1 in the ,gojam ,alps1 in ,abyssinia1 to ,syene and ,elephantis1 winds its way through the mountain range of ,schangalla and ,sennar2 and in like manner the ,orinoco rises on the southern slope of a mountain chain1 which stretches between the parallels of #d and #e north lat41 from ,french ,guiana1 in a westerly direction towards the ,andes of ,new ,granada4 ,the sources of the ,orinoco have never been visited by any ,european#eh1 nor even by any natives who have held intercourse with ,europeans4 ,when1 in the summer of #ahjj1 we ascended the ,upper ,orinoco1 we passed the mission of ,esmeralda1 and reached the mouths of the ,sodomoni and the ,guapo4 ,here soars high above the clouds1 the mighty peak of the ,yeonnamari or ,duida2 a mountain which presents one of the grandest spectacles in the natural scenery of the tropical world4 ,its altitude1 according to my trigonometrical measurement1 is #hbgh 7#hhbc ,english7 feet above the level of the sea4 ,its southern slope is a treeless grassy plain1 redolent with the odour of pine-apples1 whose fragrance scents the humid evening air4 ,among lowly meadow plants rise the juicy stems of the anana1 whose golden yellow fruit gleams from the midst of a bluish green diadem of leaves4 ,where the mountain springs break forth from beneath the grassy covering1 rise isolated groups of lofty fan-palms1 whose leaves1 in this torrid region1 are never stirred by a cooling breeze4 ,to the east of the ,duida mountain1 begins a thicket of wild cacao trees1 among which are found the celebrated almond tree1 ,bertholletia excelsa1 the most luxurious product of a tropical vegetation#ei4 ,here the ,indians collect colossal stalks of grass1 whose joints measure upwards of #ah feet from knot to knot1 which they use as blow-pipes for the discharge of their arrows#fj4 ,some ,franciscan monks have penetrated as far as the mouth of the ,chiguire1 where the river is already so narrow that the natives have suspended over it1 near the waterfall of the ,guaharibes1 a bridge woven of the stems of twining plants4 ,the ,guaicas1 of palish complexion and short stature1 armed with poisoned arrows1 oppose all further progress eastward4 ,therefore1 all that has been advanced to prove that the ,orinoco derives its source from a lake must be regarded as a fable#fa4 ,in vain the traveller seeks to discover the ,lake of ,el ,dorado1 which1 in ,arrowsmith's maps1 is set down as an inland sea measuring upwards of #bj geographical 7#hj ,english7 miles4 ,can the little reed-covered lake of ,amucu1 near which rises the ,pirara 7a branch of the ,mahu71 have given rise to this myth8 ,this swamp lies1 however1 #d to the east of the region in which we may suppose the sources of the ,orinoco to be situated4 ,here tradition placed the island of ,pumacena1 a rock of micaceous schist1 whose shining brightness has played a memorable1 and1 for the deluded adventurers1 often a fatal1 part in the fable of ,el ,dorado1 current since the sixteenth century4 ,according to the belief of many of the natives1 the ,magellanic clouds of the southern sky1 and even the glorious nebul in the constellation ,argo1 are mere reflections of the metallic brilliancy of these silver mountains of the ,parime4 ,it was besides an ancient custom of dogmatising geographers to make all the most considerable rivers of the world originate in lakes4 ,the ,orinoco is one of those remarkable rivers which1 after numerous windings1 first towards the west and then to the north1 finally return towards the east in such a manner as to bring both its estuary and its source into nearly the same meridian4 ,from the ,chiguire and the ,gehette as far as the ,guaviare1 the course of the ,orinoco inclines westward1 as if it would pour its waters into the ,pacific4 ,here branches off to the south1 the ,cassiquiare1 a remarkable river1 but little known to ,europeans1 which unites with the ,rio ,negro1 or as the natives call it1 the ,guainia3 furnishing the only example of a bifurcation which forms in the very interior of a continent a natural connection between two great river valleys4 ,the nature of the soil1 and the junction of the ,guaviare and ,atabapo with the ,orinoco1 cause the latter to deflect suddenly northwards4 ,from a want of correct geographical data1 the ,guaviare1 flowing in from the west1 was long regarded as the true source of the ,orinoco4 ,the doubts advanced since #agig by an eminent geographer1 ,m4 ,buache1 regarding the possibility of a connection with the ,amazon1 have1 ,i trust1 been completely set at rest by my expedition4 ,in an uninterrupted voyage of #ibj miles1 ,i penetrated through a remarkable net-work of rivers1 from the ,rio ,negro1 along the ,cassiquiare1 into the ,orinoco2 across the interior of the continent1 from the ,brazilian boundary to the coast of ,caracas4 ,in the upper portion of this fluvial district1 between #c and #d north lat41 nature has exhibited1 at many different points1 the puzzling phenomenon of the so-called black waters4 ,the ,atabapo1 whose banks are adorned with ,carolinias and arborescent ,melastomas1 the ,temi1 ,tuamini1 and ,guainia1 are all rivers of a brown or coffee colour1 which1 under the deep shade of the palms1 assumes a blackish1 inky tint4 ,when placed in a transparent vessel1 the water appears of a golden yellow colour4 ,these black streams reflect the images of the southern stars with the most remarkable clearness4 ,where the waters flow gently they afford the astronomer1 who is making observations with reflecting instruments1 a most excellent artificial horizon4 ,an absence of crocodiles as well as of fish--greater coolness--less torment from stinging mosquitoes--and salubrity of atmosphere1 characterize the region of the black rivers4 ,they probably owe their singular colour to a solution of carburetted hydrogen1 to the rich luxuriance of tropical vegetation1 and to the abundance of plants on the soil over which they flow4 ,indeed1 ,i have observed that on the western declivity of the ,chimborazo1 towards the shores of the ,pacific1 the overflowing waters of the ,rio de ,guayaquil gradually assume a golden yellow1 approaching to a coffee colour1 after they have covered the meadows for several weeks4 ,near the mouths of the ,guaviare and ,atapabo grows one of the noblest forms of the palm-tree1 the ,piriguao#fb1 whose smooth stem1 which is nearly #gj feet in height1 is adorned with delicate flag-like leaves having curled margins4 ,i know no palm which bears equally large and beautifully coloured fruits4 ,they resemble peaches in their blended tints of yellow and crimson4 ,seventy or eighty of these form one enormous cluster1 of which each stem annually ripens three4 ,this noble tree might be termed the peach-palm4 ,it s fleshy fruit1 owing to the extreme luxuriance of vegetation1 is generally devoid of seed2 and it yields the natives a nutritious and farinaceous article of food which1 like the banana and the potato1 is capable of being prepared in many different ways4 ,to this point1 that is1 as far as the mouth of the ,guaviare1 the ,orinoco flows along the southern declivity of the chain of the ,parime4 ,from its left bank1 across the equator1 and as far us the parallel of #ae south lat41 extends the boundless wooded plain of the river ,amazon4 ,at ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo the ,orinoco1 turning off abruptly in a northerly direction1 intersects a portion of the mountain chain itself4 ,here are the great waterfalls of ,atures and ,maypures1 and here the bed of the river is everywhere contracted by colossal masses of rocks1 which give it the appearance of being divided by natural dams into separate reservoirs4 ,at the entrance of the ,meta stands1 in the midst of an enormous whirlpool1 an isolated rock1 which the natives very aptly term the 8,rock of ,patience10 because when the waters are low1 it sometimes retards for two whole days the ascent of the navigator4 ,here the ,orinoco1 biting deep into its shores1 forms picturesque rocky bays4 ,opposite the ,indian mission of ,carichana1 the traveller is surprised by a most remarkable prospect4 ,involuntarily his eye is arrested by a steep granite rock1 8,el ,mogote de ,cocuyza10 a cubiform mass1 which rises precipitously to a height of more than #bjj feet2 and whose summit is crowned with a luxuriant forest4 ,like a ,cyclopic monument of simple grandeur1 this bold promontory towers high above the tops of the surrounding palms1 cutting the deep azure of the sky with its strongly marked outlines1 and lifting1 as it were1 forest upon forest4 ,on descending beyond ,carichana1 the traveller arrives at a point where the river has opened itself a passage through the narrow pass of ,baraguan4 ,here we everywhere recognise traces of chaotic devastation4 ,to the north1 towards ,uruana and ,encaramada1 rise granite rocks of grotesque appearance1 which1 in singularly formed crags of dazzling whiteness1 gleam brightly from amidst the surrounding groves4 ,at this point1 near the mouth of the ,apure1 the stream leaves the granitic chain1 and flowing eastward1 separates as far as the ,atlantic1 the impenetrable forests of ,guiana from the ,savannahs1 on whose far distant horizon the vault of heaven seems to rest4 ,thus the ,orinoco surrounds on the south1 west1 and north1 the high mountain chain of the ,parime1 which occupies the vast space between the sources of the ,jao and of the ,caura4 ,no cliffs or rapids obstruct the course of the river from ,carichana to its mouth1 excepting1 indeed1 the 8,hell's ,mouth0 7,boca del ,inferno7 near ,muitaco1 a whirlpool occasioned by rocks1 as at ,atures and ,maypures1 which does not1 however1 block up the whole breadth of the stream4 ,in this district1 which is contiguous to the sea1 the only dangers encountered by the boatmen arise from the natural timber-floats1 against which canoes are often wrecked at night4 ,these floats consist of forest trees which have been uprooted and torn away from the banks by the rising of the waters4 ,they are covered1 like meadows1 with blooming water-plants1 and remind us of the floating gardens of the ,mexican lakes4 ,after this brief glance at the course of the ,orinoco and its general features1 ,i pass to the waterfalls of ,maypures and ,atures4 ,from the high mountain-group of ,cunavami1 between the sources of the rivers ,sipapo and ,ventuari1 a granite ridge projects to the far west towards the mountain of ,uniama4 ,from this ridge descend four streams1 which mark1 as it were1 the limits of the cataracts of ,maypures2 two bound ,sipapo and ,sanariapo1 on the eastern shore of the ,orinoco2 and two the ,cameji and ,toparo1 on the western side4 ,at the site of the missionary village of ,maypures the mountains form a wide bay opening towards the south-west4 ,here the stream rushes foaming down the eastern declivity of the mountain1 while far to the west traces remain of the ancient and now forsaken bank of the river4 ,an extensive ,savannah stretches between the two chains of hills1 at an elevation of scarcely #cj feet above the upper water-level of the river1 and here the ,jesuits have erected a small church formed of the trunks of palms4 ,the geognostical aspect of this region1 the insular form of the rocks of ,keri and ,oco1 the cavities worn in the former by the current1 and which are situated at exactly the same level as those in the opposite island of ,uivitari2 all these indications tend to prove that the ,orinoco once filled the whole of this now dried-up bay4 ,it is probable that the waters formed a wide lake1 as long as the northern dam withstood their passage4 ,when this barrier gave way1 the ,savannah now inhabited by the ,guareke ,indians emerged as an island4 ,the river may perhaps long after this have continued to surround the rocks of ,keri and ,oco1 which now picturesquely project1 like castellated fortresses1 from its ancient bed4 ,after the gradual diminution of the waters1 the river withdrew wholly to the eastern side of the mountain chain4 ,this conjecture is confirmed by various circumstances4 ,thus1 for instance1 the ,orinoco1 like the ,nile at ,phil and ,syene1 has the singular property of colouring black the reddish-white masses of granite1 over which it has flowed for thousands of years4 ,as far as the waters reach one observes on the rocky shore a leaden-coloured manganeseous and perhaps carbonaceous coating which has penetrated scarcely onetenth of a line into the stone4 ,this black coloration1 and the cavities already alluded to1 show the former water level of the ,orinoco4 ,these black cavities may be traced at elevations of from #afj to #aib feet above the present level of the river on the rocks of ,keri1 in the islands of the cataracts2 in the gneiss-like hills of ,cumadanimari1 which extend above the island of ,tomo2 and lastly at the mouth of the ,jao4 ,their existence proves1 what indeed we learn from all the river-beds of ,europe1 that those streams which still excite our admiration by their magnitude1 are but inconsiderable remains of the immense masses of water belonging to a former age4 ,these simple facts have not escaped even the rude natives of ,guiana4 ,everywhere the ,indians drew our attention to these traces of the ancient water-level4 ,nay1 in a ,savannah near ,uruana there rises an isolated rock of granite1 which1 according to the testimony of persons worthy of credit1 exhibits at an elevation of between #hj and #ij feet1 a series of figures of the sun and moon1 and of various animals1 especially crocodiles and boa-constrictors1 graven1 almost in rows4 ,at the present day this perpendicular rock1 which well deserves the careful examination of future travellers1 cannot be ascended without the aid of scaffolding4 ,in a similarly remarkable elevated position1 the traveller can trace hieroglyphic characters carved on the mountains of ,uruana and ,encaramada4 ,if the natives are asked how these characters could have been graven there1 they answer that it was done in former times1 when the waters were so high that their fathers' canoes floated at that elevation4 ,such lofty condition of the water level must therefore have been coeval with these rude memorials of human skill4 ,it indicates an ancient distribution of land and water over the surface of the globe widely different from that which now exists2 but which must not be confounded with that condition when the primeval vegetation of our planet1 the colossal remains of extinct terrestrial animals1 and the oceanic creatures of a chaotic world1 found one common grave in the indurating crust of our earth4 ,at the most northern extremity of the cataracts our attention is attracted by what are called the natural representations of the ,sun and ,moon4 ,the rock of ,keri1 to which ,i have more than once referred1 derives its name from a glistening white spot seen at a considerable distance1 and in which the ,indians profess to recognize a striking resemblance to the disc of the full moon4 ,i was not myself able to climb this precipitous rock1 but it seems probable that the white spot is a large knot of quartz1 formed by a cluster of veins in the greyish-black granite4 ,opposite to the ,keri rock1 on the twin mountain of the island of ,uivitari1 which has a basaltic appearance1 the ,indians point1 with mysterious admiration1 to a similar disc1 which they venerate as the image of the ,sun1 ,camosi4 ,the geographical position of these two rocks may have contributed to their respective appellations1 for ,i found that ,keri was turned towards the west1 and ,camosi towards the east4 ,some etymological inquirers have thought they could recognize an analogy between the ,american word ,camosi and the word ,camosh1 a name applied in one of the ,phnician dialects to the sun1 and identical with the ,apollo ,chomeus or ,beelphegor and ,amun4 ,the lofty falls of ,niagara1 which are #aej feet in height1 derive their origin1 as is well known1 from the combined precipitation of one enormous mass of water4 ,such1 however1 is not the case with respect to the cataracts of ,maypures1 nor are they narrow straits or passes through which the stream rushes with increasing velocity1 like the ,pongo of ,manseriche on the ,amazon1 but rather to be regarded as a countless number of small cascades succeeding each other like steps4 ,the ,raudal1 7as the ,spaniards term this kind of cataract17 is formed by an archipelago of islands and rocks1 which so contract the bed of the river that its natural width of more than #hejj feet is often reduced to a channel scarcely navigable to the extent of #bj feet4 ,at the present day the eastern side is far less accessible and far more dangerous than the western4 ,at the mouth of the ,cameji the boatmen unload their cargo that they may leave the empty canoe1 or1 as it is here called1 the ,piragua1 to be piloted by ,indians well acquainted with the ,raudal1 as far as the mouth of the ,toparo1 where all danger is supposed to be past4 ,where the rocks or shelvy ledges1 7each of which has its particular name17 are not above two or three feet in height1 the natives venture to shoot the rapid with their canoes4 ,when1 however1 they have to ascend the stream1 they swim in advance of the piragua1 and after much labour1 and1 perhaps1 many unsuccessful efforts1 succeed in throwing a rope round a point of rock projecting above the breakers1 and by this means draw the canoe against the stream1 which1 in this arduous operation1 is often water-logged1 or upset4 ,sometimes the canoe is dashed to pieces on the rock1 and this is the only danger the natives fear4 ,with bleeding bodies they then strain every nerve to escape the fury of the whirlpool and swim to land4 ,where the rocky ledges are very high and form a barrier by extending across the entire bed of the river1 the light canoe is hauled to land and dragged for some distance along the shore on branches of trees which serve the purpose of rollers4 ,the most celebrated and most perilous ledges are those of ,purimarimi and ,manimi1 which are between nine and ten feet in height4 ,it was with surprise ,i found1 by barometrical measurements1 that the entire fall of the ,raudal1 from the mouth of the ,cameji to that of the ,toparo1 scarcely amounted to more than #cj or #cb feet4 7,a geodesic levelling is not practicable1 owing to the inaccessibility of the locality and the pestiferous atmosphere1 which swarms with mosquitoes47 ,i say with surprise1 for ,i hence discovered that the tremendous roar and wild dashing of the stream arose from the contraction of its bed by numerous rocks and islands1 and the counter-currents produced by the form and position of the masses of rock4 ,the truth of my assertion regarding the inconsiderable height of the whole fall will be best verified by observing the cataracts1 in descending to the bed of the river1 from the village of ,maypures1 across the rocks of ,manimi4 ,at this point the beholder enjoys a most striking and wonderful prospect4 ,a foaming surface1 several miles in length1 intersected with iron-black masses of rock projecting like battlemented ruins from the waters1 is seen at one view4 ,every islet and every rock is adorned with luxuriant forest trees4 ,a perpetual mist hovers over the watery mirror1 and the summits of the lofty palms pierce through the clouds of vapoury spray4 ,when the rays of the glowing evening sun are refracted in the humid atmosphere1 an exquisite optical illusion is produced4 ,coloured bows appear1 vanish1 and reappear1 while the ethereal picture dances1 like an ignis fatuus1 with every motion of the sportive breeze4 ,during the long rainy seasons1 the falling waters carry down quantities of vegetable mould1 which accumulating1 form islands of the naked rocks2 adorning the barren stone with blooming beds of ,melastomes and ,droseras1 silver-leaved ,mimos1 and a variety of ferns4 ,they recal to the mind of the ,european those groups of vegetation which the inhabitants of the ,alps term courtils1 blocks of granite bedecked with flowers which project solitarily amid the ,glaciers of ,savoy4 ,in the blue distance the eye rests on the mountain chain of ,cunavami1 a far-stretching chain of hills which terminates abruptly in a sharply truncated cone4 ,we saw this conical hill1 called by the ,indians ,calitamini1 glowing at sunset as if in crimson flames4 ,this appearance daily returns4 ,no one has ever been in the immediate neighbourhood of this mountain4 ,possibly its dazzling brightness is produced by the reflecting surface of decomposing talc1 or mica schist4 ,during the five days that we passed in the neighbourhood of the cataracts1 we were much struck by the fact that the roar of the rushing torrent was three times as great by night as by day4 ,the same phenomenon is observed in all ,european waterfalls4 ,to what can we ascribe this effect in a solitude where the repose of nature is undisturbed8 ,probably to ascending currents of warm air1 which producing an unequal density of the elastic medium1 obstruct the propagation of sound by displacing its waves2 causes which cease after the nocturnal cooling of the earth's surface4 ,the ,indians showed us traces of ruts caused by wheels4 ,they speak with wonder of the horned cattle1 7oxen17 which at the period of the ,jesuit missions used to draw the trucks1 that conveyed the canoes1 along the left shore of the ,orinoco1 from the mouth of the ,cameji to that of the ,toparo4 ,the canoes at that time were transported without the discharge of their cargoes1 and were not as now injured by being constantly dragged over sharp-pointed rocks1 or stranded4 ,the topographical plan which ,i have sketched of the locality1 shews that a canal might be opened between the ,cameji and the ,toparo4 ,the valley in which these two abundantly watered rivers flow is a gentle level2 and the canal1 of which ,i suggested a plan to the ,governor-,general of ,venezuela1 would become a navigable arm of the ,orinoco1 and supersede the old and dangerous bed of the river4 ,the ,raudal of ,atures is exactly similar to that of ,maypures1 like which it consists of a cluster of islands between which the river forces itself a passage extending from #ah1jjj to #bd1jjj feet4 ,here too a forest of palm trees rises from the midst of the foaming surface of the waters4 ,the most celebrated ledges of the cataract are situated between the islands of ,avaguri and ,javariveni1 between ,suripamana and ,uirapuri4 ,when ,m4 ,bonpland and myself were returning from the banks of the ,rio ,negro1 we ventured to pass the latter1 that is the lower half1 of the ,raudal of ,atures in our loaded canoe4 ,we several times disembarked to climb over rocks1 which1 like dykes1 connected one island with another4 ,at one time the water shoots over these dykes2 at another it falls into their cavities with a deafening hollow sound4 ,in some places considerable portions of the bed of the river are perfectly dry1 in consequence of the stream having opened for itself a subterranean passage4 ,in this solitude the golden-coloured ,rock ,manakin 7,pipra rupicola7 builds its nest4 ,this bird1 which is as pugnacious as the ,east ,india cock1 is one of the most beautiful birds of the tropics1 and is remarkable for its double moveable crest of feathers with which its head is decorated4 ,in the ,raudal of ,canucari the dyke is formed of piled-up granitic boulders4 ,we crept into the interior of a cavern1 whose humid walls were covered with conferv and phosphorescent ,byssus4 ,the river rushed over our heads with a terrible and stunning noise4 ,by accident we had an opportunity of contemplating this grand scene longer than we desired4 ,the ,indian boatmen had left us in the middle of the cataract1 to take the canoe round a small island1 at the other extremity of which1 after a considerable circuit1 we were to re-embark4 ,for an hour and a half we remained exposed to a fearful thunder-storm4 ,night was approaching1 and we in vain sought shelter in the fissures of the rocks4 ,the little apes which we had carried with us for months in wicker cages1 attracted by their plaintive cries large crocodiles1 whose size and leaden-grey colour indicated their great age4 ,i should not have alluded to the appearance of these animals in the ,orinoco1 where they are of such common occurrence1 were it not that the natives had assured us that no crocodiles had ever been seen among the cataracts2 indeed1 on the strength of that assertion1 we had repeatedly ventured to bathe in this portion of the river4 ,meanwhile our anxiety increased every moment1 lest1 drenched as we were and deafened by the thundering roar of the falling waters1 we should be compelled to spend the long tropical night in the midst of the ,raudal4 ,at length1 however1 the ,indians made their appearance with our canoe4 ,their delay had been occasioned by the inaccessibility of the steps they had to descend1 owing to the low state of the water2 which had obliged them to seek in the labyrinth of channels a more practicable passage4 ,near the southern entrance of the ,raudal of ,atures1 on the right bank of the river1 lies the cavern of ,ataruipe1 so celebrated among the ,indians4 ,the surrounding scenery has a grand and solemn character1 which seems to mark it as a national burial-place4 ,with difficulty1 and not without danger of being precipitated into the depths below1 we clambered a steep and perfectly bare granite rock1 on whose smooth surface it would be hardly possible to keep one's footing were it not for large crystals of feldspar1 which1 defying the action of weather1 project an inch or more from the mass4 ,on gaining the summit1 a wide prospect of the surrounding country astonishes the beholder4 ,from the foaming bed of the river rise hills richly crowned with woods1 while beyond its western bank the eye rests on the boundless ,savannah of the ,meta4 ,on the horizon loom like threatening clouds the mountains of ,uniama4 ,such is the distant view2 but immediately around all is desolate and contracted4 ,in the deep ravines of the valley moves no living thing save where the vulture and the whirring goat-sucker wing their lonely way1 their heavy shadows gleaming fitfully past the barren rock4 ,the cauldron-shaped valley is encompassed by mountains1 whose rounded summits bear huge granite boulders1 measuring from #dj to more than #ej feet in diameter4 ,they appear poised on only a single point of their surface1 as if the slightest shock of the earth would hurl them down4 ,the further side of this rocky valley is thickly wooded4 ,it is in this shady spot that the cave of the ,ataruipe is situated2 properly speaking1 however1 it is not a cave1 but a vault formed by a far projecting and overhanging cliff1--a kind of bay hollowed out by the waters when formerly at this high level4 ,this spot is the grave of an extinct tribe#fc4 ,we counted about six hundred well-preserved skeletons1 placed in as many baskets1 formed of the stalks of palm-leaves4 ,these baskets1 called by the ,indians mapires1 are a kind of square sack varying in size according to the age of the deceased4 ,even new-born children have each their own mapire4 ,these skeletons are so perfect1 that not a rib or a finger is wanting4 ,the bones are prepared in three different ways3 some are bleached1 some dyed red with onoto1 the pigment of the ,bixa ,orellana2 others like mummies1 are anointed with fragrant resin and wrapped in banana leaves4 ,the ,indians assured me that the corpse was buried during several months in a moist earth1 which gradually destroyed the flesh2 and that after being disinterred1 any particles of flesh still adhering to the bones were scraped off with sharp stones4 ,this practice is still continued among many tribes of ,guiana4 ,besides these baskets or mapires1 we saw many urns of half-burnt clay1 which appear to contain the bones of whole families4 ,the largest of these urns are upwards of three feet in height and nearly six feet in length1 of an elegant oval form1 and greenish colour2 with handles shaped like crocodiles and serpents1 and the rims bordered with flowing scrolls and labyrinthine figures4 ,these ornaments are precisely similar to those which cover the walls of the ,mexican palace at ,mitla4 ,they are found in every clime and every stage of human culture1--among the ,greeks and ,romans1 no less than on the shields of ,otaheitans1 and other ,south ,sea islanders1--in all regions where a rhythmical repetition of regular forms delights the eye4 ,the causes of these resemblances1 as ,i have explained elsewhere1 are rather to be referred to psychical conditions1 and to the inner nature of our mental qualifications1 than as affording evidence in favour of a common origin and the ancient intercourse of nations4,,ia ,our interpreters could give us no certain information regarding the age of these vessels2 but that of the skeletons did not in general appear to exceed a hundred years4 ,there is a legend amongst the ,guareke ,indians1 that the brave ,atures1 when closely pursued by the cannibal ,caribs1 took refuge on the rocks of the cataracts1--a mournful place of abode1 in which this oppressed race perished1 together with its language6#fd ,in the most inaccessible portion of the ,raudal other graves of the same character are met with2 indeed it is probable that the last descendants of the ,atures did not become extinct until a much more recent period4 ,there still lives and it is a singular fact1 an old parrot in ,maypures which cannot be understood1 because1 as the natives assert1 it speaks the language of the ,atures6 ,we left the cave at nightfall1 after having collected1 to the extreme annoyance of our ,indian guides1 several skulls and the perfect skeleton of an aged man4 ,one of these skulls has been delineated by ,blumenbach in his admirable craniological work2,,ib but the skeleton1 together with a large portion of our natural history collections1 especially the entomological1 was lost by shipwreck off the coast of ,africa on the same occasion when our friend and former travelling companion1 the young ,franciscan monk1 ,juan ,gonzalez1 lost his life4 ,as if with a presentiment of this painful loss1 we turned from the grave of a departed race with feelings of deep emotion4 ,it was one of those clear and deliciously cool nights so frequent beneath the tropics4 ,the moon stood high in the zenith1 encircled by a halo of coloured rings1 her rays gilding the margins of the mist1 which in well defined outline hovered like clouds above the foaming flood4 ,innumerable insects poured their red phosphorescent light over the herb-covered surface1 which glowed with living fire1 as though the starry canopy of heaven had sunk upon the grassy plain4 ,climbing ,bignonia1 fragrant ,vanillas1 and golden-flowered ,banisterias1 adorned the entrance of the cave1 while the rustling palm-leaves waved over the resting-place of the dead4 ,thus pass away the generations of men6--thus perish the records of the glory of nations6 ,yet when every emanation of the human mind has faded--when in the storms of time the monuments of man's creative art are scattered to the dust--an ever new life springs from the bosom of the earth4 ,unceasingly prolific nature unfolds her germs1--regardless though sinful man1 ever at war with himself1 tramples beneath his foot the ripening fruit6 ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions4 ,footnote #ec3 p4 #aed--8;,across that pacific arm of the sea40 ,the ,atlantic ,ocean1 between the parallels of #bc south lat4 and #gj north lat41 has the form of a furrowed longitudinal valley1 in which the advancing and receding angles are opposite to each other4 ,i first developed this idea in my work entitled ,essai d'un ,tableau ,gologique de l',amrique mridionale1 which was published in the ,journal de ,physique1 t4 liii4 p4 #fa4;,,ic ,from the ,canary ,isles1 especially from #ba north lat41 and #bc west long41 to the north-east coast of ,south ,america1 the surface of the ocean is so calm1 and the waves so gentle1 that an open boat might navigate it in safety4 ,footnote #ed3 p4 #aee--8;,fresh springs among the ,islands of the ,antilles40 ,on the southern coast of the island of ,cuba1 south-west of the harbour of ,batabano1 in the ,gulf of ,xagua1 at a distance of eight to twelve miles from the shore1 springs of fresh water gush from the bed of the ocean1 probably from the action of hydrostatic pressure4 ,the jet is propelled with such force that boats use extreme caution in approaching this spot1 which is well known for its counter current producing a heavy swell4 ,trading vessels sailing along the coast1 which do not purpose putting into port1 sometimes visit these springs1 in order to provide themselves1 in the midst of the ocean1 with a supply of fresh water4 ,the freshness of the water increases with the depth from which it is drawn4 ,river cows 7,trichecus manati71 which do not generally inhabit salt water1 are frequently killed here4 ,this singular phenomenon 7the fresh springs71 of which no mention had hitherto been made1 was most accurately investigated by my friend1 ,don ,francisco ,lemaur1 who made a trigonometrical survey of the ,bahia de ,xagua4 ,i did not myself visit ,xagua1 but remained in the insular group situated further to the south 7the so-called ,jardines del ,rey71 to make astronomical determinations of their latitude and longitude4 ,footnote #ee3 p4 #aee--8;,ancient rocky barrier40 ,columbus1 whose unwearied spirit of observation was directed on every side1 proposes in his letters to the ,spanish monarchs1 a geognostic hypothesis regarding the configuration of the larger ,antilles4 ,being fully impressed with the idea of the strength of the ,equinoctial current1 which has often a westerly direction1 he ascribes to it the disintegration of the group of the smaller ,antilles1 and the singularly lengthened configuration of the southern coasts of ,porto ,rico1 ,haiti1 ,cuba1 and ,jamaica1 all of which follow almost exactly the direction of parallels of latitude4 ,on his third voyage 7from the end of ,may1 #adih1 to the end of ,november1 #aejj71 when1 from the ,boca del ,drago to the ,island of ,margarita1 and afterwards from that island to ,haiti1 he felt the whole force of the equinoctial current1 8that movement of the waters which accords with the movement of the heavens--movimiento de los cielos10 he says expressly that the violence of the current has torn the ,island of ,trinidad from the mainland4 ,he refers the sovereigns to a chart which he sends them--a 8pintura de la tierra10 drawn by himself1 to which frequent reference is made in the celebrated lawsuit against ,don ,diego ,colon respecting the rights of the first ,admiral4 8,es la carta de marear y figura que hizo el ,almirante sealando los rumbos y vientos por los quales vino ,paria1 que dicen parte del ,asia40,,id ,footnote #ef3 p4 #aef--8;,across the snow-crowned ,paropanisus40 ,in ,diodorus' description of the ,paropanisus1,,ie we seem to recognise a delineation of the ,peruvian chain of the ,andes4 ,the army passed through inhabited districts in which snow daily fell6 ,footnote #eg3 p4 #aef--8;,herrera in his ,decades40 ,historia general de las ,indias ,occidentales1 ,dec4 i4 lib4 iii4 cap4 #ab 7ed4 #afja1 p4 #ajf72 ,juan ,batista ,muoz1 ,historia del ,nuevo ,mundo1 lib4 vi4 c4 #ca1 p4 #cja2 ,humboldt1 ,examen ,crit41 t4 iii4 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #eh3 p4 #aeh--8,the ,sources of the ,orinoco have never been visited by any ,european40 ,thus ,i wrote respecting these sources in the year #ahjg1 in the first edition of the ,ansichten der ,natur1 and ,i repeat with equal truth the same statement after an interval of forty-one years4 ,the travels of the brothers ,robert and ,richard ,schomburgk1 so important in reference to all departments of natural science and geography1 have established other and more interesting facts2 but the problem of the situation of the sources of the ,orinoco has been only partially solved by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk4 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself advanced from the west as far as ,esmeralda1 or the confluence of the ,orinoco with the ,guapo2 and ,i was enabled1 by the aid of well-attested information1 to describe the upper course of the ,orinoco to above the mouth of the ,gehette1 and to the small waterfall 7,raudal7 de los ,guaharibos4 ,from the east ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 proceeding from the mountains of the ,majonkong ,indians1 the inhabited portion of which he estimated by the boiling point of water to be #ceag feet in height1 succeeded in reaching the ,orinoco by the ,padamo ,river1 which the ,majonkongs and ,guinaus 7,guaynas87 call ,paramu4,,if ,i had placed this confluence of the ,padamo with the ,orinoco in my ,atlas1 in #c #ab ,n4 lat41 and #fe #df ,w4 long4 but ,schomburgk found it by direct observation in #b #ec lat4 and #fe #dh ,w4 long4 ,the main object of this traveller's journey was not #8natural history1' but the solution of the prize question proposed by the ,royal ,geographical ,society of ,london1 in ,november1 #ahcd1--on the connection of the coast of ,british ,guiana with the easternmost point which ,i had reached on the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,after undergoing many sufferings1 this object was thoroughly achieved4 ,robert ,schomburgk reached ,esmeralda1 with his instruments1 on the #bbnd of ,february1 #ahci4 ,his determinations of the latitude and longitude of the place agreed more closely with mine than ,i had anticipated4 ,let us here allow the observer to speak for himself3--8,words are inadequate to describe the feelings which overwhelmed me when ,i sprang on shore4 ,my object was attained2 my observations1 begun on the coast of ,guiana1 were brought into connection with those of ,humboldt at ,esmeralda1 and ,i freely admit that at a time when my physical powers had almost entirely deserted me1 and when ,i was surrounded by dangers and difficulties of no ordinary kind1 the recognition which ,i hoped for from him1 was the sole inducement which inspired me with a fixed determination to press forward towards the goal which ,i had now reached4 ,the emaciated figures of my ,indian companions and my faithful guides proclaimed more fully than any words could do1 what difficulties we had had to surmount1 and had surmounted40 ,after citing expressions so gratifying1 ,i must be permitted to subjoin the opinions ,i expressed regarding this great undertaking promoted by the ,royal ,geographical ,society of ,london1 in my ,preface to the ,german edition of ,robert ,schomburgk's ,account of his ,travels1 published in #ahda4 8,immediately after my return from ,mexico1 ,i indicated the direction and the routes by which the unknown portion of the ,south ,american ,continent between the sources of the ,orinoco1 the mountain chain of ,pacaraima1 and the sea-shore near ,essequibo1 might be explored4 ,these wishes1 so strongly expressed in the personal narrative of my journey1 have at length1 after the lapse of nearly half a century1 been for the most part fulfilled4 ,i rejoice that ,i have been spared to see so important an enlargement of our geographical knowledge2 ,i rejoice too in seeing a courageous and well-conducted enterprise1 requiring the most devoted perseverance1 executed by a young man1 to whom ,i feel bound no less by the ties of similarity of pursuits than those of country4 ,these circumstances were alone able to overcome the aversion and disinclination which ,i entertain1 perhaps unjustly1 for introductory prefaces by a different hand than that of the author himself4 ,but ,i could not resist the impulse of expressing thus publicly my sincere esteem for the accomplished traveller who1 led on by the meritorious idea of penetrating from east to west1 from the ,valley of the ,essequibo to ,esmeralda1 has succeeded1 after five years of efforts and of sufferings 7the extent of which ,i well appreciate from my own experience71 in attaining the object of his ambition4 ,courage for the sudden accomplishment of a hazardous undertaking is easier to find1 and implies less inward strength1 than the resolution to endure with resignation long-continued physical sufferings1 excited by absorbing mental interest2 and still to press forward1 undismayed by the certainty of having to retrace his steps under equally great privations and with enfeebled powers4 ,serenity of mind1 which is almost the first requisite for an enterprise in inhospitable regions1 a passionate love for any department of scientific labour 7be it natural history1 astronomy1 hypsometrics1 or magnetism71 a pure feeling for the enjoyment which nature is capable of imparting1 are elements which1 when they combine together in one individual1 ensure valuable results from a great and important journey40 ,i will preface my consideration of the question of the sources of the ,orinoco with my own conjectures in relation to the subject4 ,the perilous route travelled in #agci by the surgeon ,nicolas ,hortsmann1 of ,hildesheim2 in #agge by the ,spaniard ,don ,antonio ,santos1 and his friend ,nicolas ,rodriguez2 in #agic by the ,lieutenant-,colonel of the #ast ,regiment of the ,line of ,para1 ,don ,francisco ,jos ,rodriguez ,barata2 and 7according to manuscript maps1 for which ,i am indebted to the former ,portuguese ,ambassador in ,paris1 ,chevalier de ,brito7 by several ,english and ,dutch settlers1 who in #ahaa travelled from ,surinam to ,para by the portage of the ,rupunuri and by the ,rio ,branco2--divides the terra incognita of the ,parime into two unequal parts1 and serves to mark the position of a very important point in the geography of those regions--viz41 the sources of the ,orinoco1 which it is no longer possible to remove to an indefinite distance towards the east1 without intersecting the bed of the ,rio ,branco1 which flows from north to south through the fluvial district of the ,upper ,orinoco2 while this portion of the great river itself pursues for the most part a direction from east to west4 ,the ,brazilians1 since the beginning of the present century1 have from political motives manifested a vivid interest in the extensive plains east of the ,rio ,branco4,,ig ,owing to the position of ,santa ,rosa on the ,uraricapara1 whose course appears to have been pretty accurately determined by ,portuguese engineers1 the sources of the ,orinoco cannot be situated east of the meridian of #fc #h west long4 ,this is the eastern limit beyond which they cannot be placed1 and taking into consideration the state of the river at the ,raudal de los ,guaharibos 7above ,cao ,chiguire1 in the country of the strikingly fair-skinned ,guaycas ,indians1 and #eb east of the great ,cerro ,duida71 it appears to me probable that the ,orinoco in its upper part does not extend1 at the utmost1 beyond the meridian of #fd #h west long4 ,this point is1 according to my combinations1 #d #ab west of the little lake of ,amucu1 which was reached by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk4 ,i will now detail the conjectures of that traveller1 after having first given my own earlier ones4 ,according to him the course of the ,upper ,orinoco1 to the east of ,esmeralda1 is directed from south-east to north-west2 my estimations of latitude for the mouths of the ,padamo and the ,gehette appear to be respectively #ai and #cf too small4 ,schomburgk conjectures that the sources of the ,orinoco are situated in lat4 #b #cj1 and the fine 8,map of ,guayana1 to illustrate the route of ,r4 ,h4 ,schomburgk10 which accompanies the splendid ,english work entitled ,views in the ,interior of ,guiana1 places its geographical sources in #fd #ef west long41 i4e41 #a #f west of ,esmeralda1 and only #dh of longitude nearer to the ,atlantic than ,i had determined the position of this point4 ,astronomical combinations led ,schomburgk to place the mountain of ,maravaca1 which is about ten thousand feet high1 in #c #da lat4 and #fe #dh west long4 ,the ,orinoco was scarcely three hundred yards wide near the mouth of the ,padamo or ,paramu1 and more to the west1 where it expands to a width of from four to six hundred yards1 it was so shallow1 and so full of sandbanks1 that the expedition was obliged to dig channels1 as the river bed was only fifteen inches deep4 ,fresh-water dolphins were still to be seen in great numbers everywhere--a phenomenon which the zoologists of the eighteenth century would not have expected to find in the ,orinoco and the ,ganges4 ,footnote #ei3 p4 #aeh--8,the most luxurious product of a tropical climate40 ,the ,bertholletia excelsa 7,juvia71 of the family of ,myrtace 7and placed in ,richard ,schomburgk's proposed division of ,lecythide71 was first described in ,plantes ,equinoxiales1 t4 i4 #ahjh1 p4 #abb1 tab4 #cf4 ,this colossal and magnificent tree offers1 in the perfect development of its cocoa-like1 round1 close-grained1 woody fruit1 inclosing the three-cornered and also woody seed-vessels1 the most remarkable example of luxuriant organic development4 ,the ,bertholletia grows in the forests of the ,upper ,orinoco1 between the ,padamo and the ,ocamu1 in the vicinity of the mountain of ,mapaya1 as well as between the rivers ,amaguaca and ,gehette4,,ih ,footnote #fj3 p4 #aeh--8;,grass stalks1 whose joints measure upwards of eighteen feet from knot to knot40 ,robert ,schomburgk1 when visiting the small mountainous country of the ,majonkongs1 on his route to ,esmeralda1 was fortunate enough to determine the species of ,arundinaria1 which furnishes the material for these blowing-tubes4 ,he says of this plant3 8,it grows in large tufts1 like the bambusa2 the first joint rises1 in the old cane1 without a knot1 to a height of from #af to #ag feet before it begins to bear leaves4 ,the entire height of the ,arundinaria1 growing at the foot of the great mountain-cluster of ,maravaca1 is from #cj to #dj feet1 with a thickness of scarcely half an inch in diameter4 ,the top is always inclined2 and this species of grass is peculiar to the sandstone mountains between the ,ventuari1 the ,paramu 7,padamo71 and the ,mavaca4 ,the ,indian name is ,curata1 and1 therefore1 from the excellence of these celebrated long blowing-tubes1 the ,majonkongs and ,guinaus of these districts have acquired the name of the ,curata nation40,,ii ,footnote #fa3 p4 #aei--8;,fabulous origin of the ,orinoco from a lake40 ,the lakes of these regions 7some of which are wholly imaginary1 while the real size of others has been much exaggerated by theoretical geographers7 may be divided into two groups4 ,the first of these groups comprise those situate between ,esmeralda 7the most easterly mission on the ,upper ,orinoco71 and the ,rio ,branco2 to the second1 belong the lakes presumed to exist in the district between the ,rio ,branco and ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,british ,guiana4 ,this general view1 of which travellers should never lose sight1 proves that the question of whether there is another ,lake ,parime eastward of the ,rio ,branco1 besides the ,lake ,amucu1 seen by ,hortsmann1 ,santos1 ,colonel ,barata1 and ,schomburgk1 has nothing whatever to do with the problem of the sources of the ,orinoco4 ,as the name of my distinguished friend the former ,director of the ,hydrographic ,office at ,madrid1 ,don ,felipe ,bauza1 is of great weight in questions of geography1 the impartiality which ought to influence every scientific investigation makes it incumbent on me to mention that this learned man was inclined to the view that there must be lakes west of the ,rio ,branco1 at no great distance from the sources of the ,orinoco4 ,he wrote to me from ,london shortly before his death1 8,i wish you were here that ,i might converse with you respecting the geography of the ,upper ,orinoco1 which has occupied you so much4 ,i have been fortunate enough to rescue from entire destruction the papers of the ,general of ,marine1 ,don ,jos ,solano1 father of the ,solano who perished in so melancholy a manner at ,cadiz4 ,these documents relate to the settlement of the boundary line between the ,spaniards and ,portuguese1 with which ,solano had been charged since #aged1 in conjunction with the ,escadre ,chef ,yturriaga and ,don ,vicente ,doz4 ,in all these plans and sketches ,i find a ,laguna ,parime sometimes as a source of the ,orinoco1 and sometimes as wholly detached from it4 ,are we then to assume that there is another lake further eastward to the north-east of ,esmeralda80 ,lffling1 the celebrated pupil of ,linnus1 accompanied the last-named expedition to ,cumana in the capacity of botanist4 ,he died on the #bbnd of ,february1 #agef1 at the mission of ,santa ,eulalia de ,murucuri 7somewhat to the south of the confluence of the ,orinoco and ,caroni71 after traversing the missions on the ,piritu and ,caroni4 ,the documents of which ,bauza speaks are the same as those on which the great map of ,de la ,cruz ,olmedilla is based4 ,they have served as the foundation of all the maps of ,south ,america1 which appeared in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 before the end of the last century2 and have also served for the two maps executed in #agef by ,father ,caulin1 the historiographer of ,solano's expedition1 and by ,m4 de ,surville1 ,keeper of the ,archives in the ,secretary of ,state's ,office at ,madrid1 who was but an unskilful compiler4 ,the contradictions abounding in these maps show the little reliance that can be placed on the results of this expedition4 ,nay more1 ,father ,caulin1 above referred to1 acutely details the circumstances which gave rise to this fable of the lake of ,parime2 and the map of ,surville1 which accompanies his work1 not only restores this lake1 under the name of the ,white ,lake1 and the ,mar ,dorado1 but indicates another smaller one1 from which flow partly by means of collateral branches1 the ,orinoco1 ,siapa1 and ,ocamo4 ,i was able to convince myself on the spot of the following facts well known in the missions2 that ,don ,jos ,solano did not do more than cross the cataracts of ,atures and ,maypures2 that he did not reach the confluence of the ,guaviare and the ,orinoco in #d #c north lat41 and #fh #i west long42 and that the astronomical instruments of the boundary expedition were neither carried to the isthmus of the ,pimichin and the ,rio ,negro1 nor to the ,cassiquiare2 and even on the ,upper ,orinoco1 not beyond the mouth of the ,atabapo4 ,this vast extent of territory was not made the scene of any accurate observations before my journey1 and has subsequently to ,solano's expedition been traversed only by some few soldiers who had been sent on exploring expeditions2 while ,don ,apolinario de ,fuente1 whose journal ,i obtained from the archives of the province of ,quixos1 has gathered without discrimination everything from the fallacious narratives of the ,indians that could flatter the credulity of the ,governor ,centurion4 ,no member of the expedition had seen a lake1 and ,don ,apolinario was unable to advance beyond the ,cerro ,yumarique and ,gehette4 ,although a line of separation1 formed by the basin of the ,rio ,branco1 is now established throughout the whole extent of the country1 to which we are desirous of directing the inquiring zeal of travellers1 it must yet be admitted1 that our geographical knowledge of the district west of this valley between #fb and #ff long41 has made no advance whatever for at least a century4 ,the repeated attempts made by the ,government of ,spanish ,guiana since the expeditions of ,iturria and ,solano1 to reach and to pass over the ,pacaraima ,mountains1 have been attended by very unimportant results4 ,when the ,spaniards1 in proceeding to the missions of the ,catalonian capuchins of ,barceloneta1 at the confluence of the ,caroni and the ,rio ,paragua1 ascended the last-named river southward to its junction with the ,paraguamusi1 they founded at this point the mission of ,guirion1 which1 at first1 bore the pompous appellation of ,ciudad de ,guirion4 ,i place it in about #d #cj north latitude4 ,from thence the ,governor ,centurion1 in consequence of the exaggerated accounts given by two ,indian chiefs1 ,paranacare and ,arimuicapi1 respecting the powerful tribe of the ,ipurucotos1 was excited to search for #8,el ,dorado1' and in carrying what were then called spiritual conquests still further1 founded1 beyond the ,pacaraima ,mountains1 the two villages of ,santa ,rosa and ,san ,bautista de ,caudacacla4 ,the former was situate on the upper eastern bank of the ,uraricapara1 a tributary of the ,uraricuera1 which ,i find in the journal of ,rodriguez under the name of the ,rio ,curaricara2 the latter1 at from #bd to #bh miles further east-south-east4 ,the astronomo-geographer of the ,portuguese ,boundary ,commission1 ,captain ,don ,antonio ,pires de ,sylva ,pontes ,leme1 and the ,captain of ,engineers1 ,don ,ricardo ,franco d',almeida de ,serra1 who between #aghg and #ahjd1 surveyed with the greatest care the whole course of the ,rio ,branco and its upper tributaries1 call the most western part of the ,uraricapara1 8,the ,valley of ,inundation40 ,they place the ,spanish mission of ,santa ,rosa in #c #df north lat41 and mark the route that leads from thence northward across the mountain chain to the ,cao ,anocapra1 a branch of the ,paraguamusi1 which forms a connecting passage between the basin of the ,rio ,branco and that of the ,caroni4 ,two maps of these ,portuguese officers1 embracing all the details of the trigonometrical survey of the bends of the ,rio ,branco1 the ,uraricuera1 the ,tacutu1 and the ,mahu1 were most kindly communicated to ,colonel ,lapie and myself by the ,count of ,linhares4 ,these valuable unpublished documents1 of which ,i have availed myself1 are still in the hands of the learned geographer1 who long since began to have them engraved at his own expense4 ,the ,portuguese sometimes call the whole of the ,rio ,branco by the name of ,rio ,parime1 and sometimes limit this appellation to one branch only1 the ,uraricuera1 somewhat below the ,cao ,mayari and above the old mission of ,san ,antonio4 ,as the words ,paragua and ,parime alike imply water1 great water1 lake1 and sea1 we cannot wonder at finding them so often repeated among tribes living at great distances from each other2 as1 for instance1 by the ,omaguas on the ,upper ,maraon1 by the ,western ,guaranis1 and by the ,caribs4 ,in all parts of the world1 as ,i have already remarked1 large rivers are called by those who live on their banks 8the ,river10 without any specific denomination4 ,paragua1 the name of a branch of the ,caroni1 is also the term applied by the natives to the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,the name ,orinucu is ,tamanakish2 and ,diego de ,ordaz first heard it used in the year #aeca1 when he ascended to the mouth of the ,meta4 ,besides the ,valley of ,inundation above mentioned we find other large pieces of water between the ,rio ,xumuru and the ,parime4 ,one of these bays is a branch of the ,tacutu1 and the other of the ,uraricuera4 ,even at the base of the ,pacaraima ,mountains the rivers are subject to great periodical overflowings2 and the ,lake ,amucu1 of which we shall subsequently speak more fully1 exhibits exactly the same character at the commencement of the plains4 ,the ,spanish missions1 ,santa ,rosa and ,san ,bautista de ,caudacacla1 or ,cayacaya1 founded in the years #aggj and #aggc1 by the ,governor ,don ,manuel ,centurion1 were destroy ed before the close of the last century2 and since that time1 no new attempt has been made to advance from the basin of the ,caroni to the southern declivity of the ,pacaraima ,mountains4 ,the territory east of the valley of the ,rio ,branco has of late years been made the subject of several successful explorations4 ,mr4 ,hillhouse navigated the ,massaruni as far as the ,bay of ,caranang1 whence1 as he says1 a path would lead the traveller1 in two days1 to the source of the ,massaruni2 and1 in three days1 to the tributaries of the ,rio ,branco4 ,with respect to the windings of the great river ,massaruni1 described by ,mr4 ,hillhouse1 he himself observes1 in a letter addressed to me from ,demerara1 #ast ,january1 #ahca1 that 8the ,massaruni1 reckoning from its sources1 flows first to the west1 then for one degree of latitude to the north2 afterwards nearly #bjj miles eastward2 and1 finally1 to the north and north-north-east till it merges in the ,essequibo40 ,as ,mr4 ,hillhouse was unable to reach the southern declivity of the ,pacaraima chain1 he was not acquainted with the ,amucu ,lake2 and he says himself1 in his printed report1 that 8from the accounts given him by the ,accaouais1 who are continually traversing the country between the shore and the ,amazon ,river1 he is convinced there is no lake in this district40 ,this assertion occasioned me some surprise1 as it was directly opposed to the views ,i had previously formed regarding the ,lake ,amucu1 from which flows the ,cao ,pirara1 according to the accounts given by the travellers ,hortsmann1 ,santos1 and ,rodriguez 7and which had inspired me with the more confidence1 because they entirely coincide with the recent ,portuguese manuscript charts74 ,finally1 after five years of expectation1 ,schomburgk's journey has removed all farther doubt4 8,it is difficult to believe10 says ,mr4 ,hillhouse1 in his interesting memoir on the ,massaruni1 8that the tradition of a large inland sea is wholly unfounded4 ,according to my views1 the following circumstance may have given rise to the belief in the existence of the fabulous lake of the ,parime4 ,at some distance from the rocky fall of ,teboco the waters of the ,massaruni present to the eye as little motion as the calm surface of a lake4 ,if at a more or less remote period the horizontal granitic strata of ,teboco had been totally compact and without fissures1 the waters must have been at least #ej feet above their present level1 and there would have been formed an immense lake #aj or #ab miles in width1 and #aejj or #bjjj miles in length40,,ij ,the extent of this supposed inundation is not the only reason which prevents me from acceding to this explanation2 for ,i have seen plains 7,llanos71 where1 during the rainy season1 the overflowing of the tributaries of the ,orinoco annually covered a surface of #fdjj square miles4 ,the labyrinth of ramifications between the ,apure1 ,arauca1 ,capanaparo1 and ,sinaruco 7see maps #ag and #ah of my ,physical ,atlas71 is then wholly lost sight of2 the configuration of the river beds can no longer be traced1 and the whole appears like one vast lake4 ,but the locality of the fabulous ,dorado1 and of the ,lake ,parime1 belongs historically to quite a different part of ,guiana1 namely1 that lying south of the ,pacaraima mountains4 ,this myth of the ,white ,sea and of the ,dorado of the ,parime1 has arisen1 as ,i endeavoured thirty years ago to show in another work1 from the appearance of the micaceous rocks of the ,ucucuamo1 the name ,rio ,parime 7,rio ,branco71 the inundations of the tributaries2 and especially from the existence of the lake ,amucu1 which is in the neighbourhood of the ,rio ,rupunuwini 7,rupunuri71 and is connected by means of the ,pirara with the ,rio ,parime4 ,i have had much pleasure in finding that the travels of ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk have fully corroborated these early views4 ,the section of his map which gives the course of the ,essequibo and of the ,rupunuri is quite new1 and of great importance in a geographical point of view4 ,it places the ,pacaraima chain between #c #eb;and #d north lat41 while ,i had given its mean direction from #d to #d #aj4 ,the chain reaches the confluence of the ,essequibo and ,rupunuri in #c #eg north lat41 and #eh #a west longitude2 ,i had placed it half a degree too far to the north4 ,schomburgk calls the last-named river ,rupununi1 according to the pronunciation of the ,macusis2 and gives as the synonymes ,rupunuri1 ,rupunuwini and ,opununy1 which have arisen from the difficulty the ,carib tribes of these districts find in pronouncing the letter 8r40 ,the position of the lake ,amucu and its relations to the ,mahu 7,maou7 and ,tacutu 7,tacoto7 correspond perfectly with my map of ,colombia drawn in #ahbe4 ,we agree equally well regarding the latitude of the lake of ,amucu1 for while he places it in #c #cc1 ,i considered it to be in #c #ce2 the ,cao ,pirara 7,pirarara7 which connects the ,amucu with the ,rio ,branco1 flows from it towards the north1 and not to the west as ,i had marked it4 ,the ,sibarana of my map1 the sources of which ,hortsmann placed to the north of the ,cerro ,ucucuamo near a fine mine of rock crystal1 is the ,siparuni of ,schomburgk's map4 ,his ,waa-,ekuru is the ,tavaricaru of the ,portuguese geographer ,pontes ,leme1 and is the branch of the ,rupunuri which lies the nearest to the lake of ,amucu4 ,the following remarks from the report of ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk throw some light on the subject in question4 8,the lake of ,amucu10 says this traveller1 8is without doubt the nucleus of the ,lake of ,parime and of the supposed ,white ,sea4 ,in ,december and ,january1 when we visited it1 it was scarcely a mile in length1 and was half covered with reeds40 ,the same observation occurs on ,d',anville's map of #agdh4 8,the ,pirara flows from the lake to the ,w4,n4,w4 of the ,indian village of ,pirara and falls into the ,maou or ,mahu4 ,the last-named river rises1 according to the information given me1 north of the ridge of the ,pacaraima mountains1 which in their eastern portion do not attain a greater elevation than about #afjj feet4 ,the sources of the river are on a plateau1 from whence it is precipitated in a beautiful waterfall1 known as the ,corona4 ,we were on the point of visiting this fall1 when on the third day of our excursion to the mountains1 the indisposition of one of my companions compelled me to return to the station at the lake ,amucu4 ,the ,mahu has black coffee-coloured water1 and its current is more impetuous than that of the ,rupunuri4 ,in the mountains through which it pursues its course it is about #fj yards in breadth4 ,its environs are here extremely picturesque4 ,this valley as well as the bank of the ,buroburo1 which flows into the ,siparuni1 are inhabited by the ,macusis4 ,in ,april the whole ,savannahs are overflowed1 and then present the peculiar phenomenon of the waters belonging to two different river basins commingling together4 ,it is probable that the vast extent of this temporary inundation may have given rise to the fable of the lake of ,parime4 ,during the rainy season a water communication is formed in the interior of the country between the ,essequibo1 the ,rio ,branco1 and the ,gran ,para4 ,some groups of trees1 rising like ,oases on the sand-hills of the ,savannahs1 present1 at the time of the inundation1 the appearance of islands scattered over a lake2 and these are without doubt the ,ipomucena islands of ,don ,antonio ,santos40 ,in ,d',anville's manuscripts1 which his heirs kindly allowed me to examine1 ,i find that ,hortsmann of ,hildesheim1 who described these districts with great care1 saw a second ,alpine lake1 which he places two day's journey above the confluence of the ,mahu with the ,rio ,parime 7,tacutu874 ,it is a black water lake1 situated on the summit of a mountain4 ,he explicitly distinguishes it from the lake of ,amucu1 which he describes as 8covered with rushes40 ,the descriptions given by ,hortsmann and ,santos coincide with the ,portuguese manuscript maps of the ,marine ,bureau at ,rio ,janeiro1 in not indicating the existence of an uninterrupted connection between the ,rupunuri and the lake of ,amucu4 ,in ,d',anville's maps of ,south ,america1 the rivers are better drawn in the first edition published in #agdh1 than in the more extensively circulated one of #agfj4 ,schomburgk's travels fully confirm the independence of the basin of the ,rupunuri and ,essequibo2 but he draws attention to the fact that1 during the rainy season1 the ,rio ,waa-,ekuru1 a tributary of the ,rupunuri1 is in connection with the ,cao ,pirara4 ,such is the condition of these river-channels1 which are still but little developed1 and almost entirely without separating ridges4 ,the ,rupunuri and the village of ,anai1 #c #ef north latitude1 #eh #cd west longitude1 are at present recognised as the political boundaries between the ,british and ,brazilian domains in these desert regions4 ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk was compelled by severe illness to make a protracted stay at ,anai4 ,he bases his chronometrical determinations of the position of the lake of ,amucu on the mean of many lunar distances1 east and west1 which he measured during his sojourn at ,anai4 ,his determinations of longitude for these points of the ,parime are in general one degree more east than those in my map of ,colombia4 ,while ,i am far from calling in question the result of these lunar observations taken at ,anai1 ,i may be allowed to observe that the calculation of these distances is of importance1 when it is desired to carry the comparison from the lake of ,amucu to ,esmeralda1 which ,i found in #ff #ai west longitude4 ,thus then we see the great ,mar de la ,parima1 7which it was so difficult to remove from our maps1 that even after my return from ,america it was still supposed to be #afj miles in length17 reduced by recent investigations to the lake of ,amucu1 measuring only two or three miles in circumference4 ,the illusions entertained for nearly two hundred years1 and which in the last ,spanish expedition1 in #agge1 for the discovery of ,el ,dorado1 cost several hundred lives1 have finally terminated by enriching geography with some few results4 ,in the year #aeab thousands of soldiers perished in the expedition1 undertaken by ,ponce de ,leon1 to discover the 8,fountain of ,youth10 on one of the ,bahama ,islands1 called ,binimi1 which is hardly to be found on any of our maps4 ,this expedition led to the conquest of ,florida1 and to the knowledge of the great oceanic current1 or gulf-stream1 which flows through the ,straights of ,bahama4 ,the thirst after gold1 and the desire of rejuvenescence--the ,dorado and the ,fountain of ,youth--stimulated1 to an almost equal extent1 the passions of mankind4 ,footnote #fb3 p4 #afa--8,the ,piriguao1 one of the noblest forms of the ,palm40 ,compare ,humboldt1 ,bonpland1 and ,kunth1 ,nova ,genera ,plantarum1 and ,plant4 quinoct41 t4 i4 p4 #cae4 ,footnote #fc3 p4 #aga--8,the grave of an extinct race40 ,during my stay in the forests of the ,orinoco1 researches were being made1 by royal command1 in reference to these bone-caves4 ,the missionary of the cataracts had been falsely accused of having discovered in these caves treasures which the ,jesuits had concealed there prior to their flight4 ,footnote #fd3 p4 #agb--8,when his language perished with him40 ,the parrot of the ,atures has been made the subject of a charming poem by my friend ,professor ,ernst ,curtius1 the tutor of the promising young ,prince ,friedrick ,wilhelm of ,prussia4 ,the author will forgive me for closing the present section of the 8,views of ,nature0 with this poem1 which was not designed for publication1 and was communicated to me by letter4 ,,the ,,parrot ,,of ,,atures4 ,where1 through deserts wild and dreary1 ,orinoco dashes on1 ,sits a ,parrot old and weary1 ,like a sculptur'd thing of stone4 ,through its rocky barriers flowing1 ,onward rolls the foaming stream2 ,waving palms on high are glowing ,in the sun's meridian beam4 ,ceaselessly the waves are heaving1 ,sparkling up in antic play2 ,while the sunny rays are weaving ,rainbows in the feathery spray4 ,where yon billows wild are breaking1 ,sleeps a tribe for evermore1 ,who1 their native land forsaking1 ,refuge sought on this lone shore4 ,as they lived1 free1 dauntless ever1 ,so the brave ,aturians died2 ,and the green banks of the river ,all their mortal relics hide4 ,yet the ,parrot1 ne'er forgetting ,those who loved him1 mourns them still2 ,on the stone his sharp beak whetting1 ,while the air his wailings fill4 ,where are now the youths who bred him1 ,to pronounce their mother tongue1-- ,where the gentle maids who fed him1 ,and who built his nest when young8 ,all1 alas6 are lifeless lying1 ,stretch'd upon their grassy bed2 ,nor can all his mournful crying1 ,e'er awake the slumbering dead4 ,still he calls with voice imploring1 ,to a world that heeds him not2 ,nought replies but waters roaring-- ,no kind soul bewails his lot4 ,swift the savage turns his rudder1 ,when his eyes the bird behold2 ,none e'er saw without a shudder ,that ,aturian ,parrot old6 ,,the ,,nocturnal ,,life ,,of ,,animals ,,in ,,the ,,primeval ,,forest4 ,if the faculty of appreciating nature1 in different races of man1 and if the character of the countries they now inhabit1 or have traversed in their earlier migrations1 have more or less enriched the respective languages by appropriate terms1 expressive of the forms of mountains1 the state of vegetation1 the appearances of the atmosphere1 and the contour and grouping of the clouds1 it must be admitted that by long use and literary caprice many of these designations have been diverted from the sense they originally bore4 ,words have gradually been regarded as synonymous1 which ought to have remained distinct2 and languages have thus lost a portion of the expressiveness and force which might else have imparted a physiognomical character to descriptions of natural scenery4 ,as an evidence of the extent to which a communion with nature1 and the requirements of a laborious nomadic life1 may enrich language1 ,i would recall the abundance of characteristic denominations employed in ,arabic and ,persian1 to distinguish plains1 steppes1 and deserts#fe1 according as they are entirely bare1 covered with sand1 or intersected by tabular masses of rock2 or as they are diversified by spots of pasture land and extended tracts of social plants4 ,the old ,castilian dialects are no less remarkable#ff for the copiousness of their terms descriptive of the physiognomy of mountains1 especially in reference to those features which recur in all regions of the earth1 and which proclaim afar off the nature of the rock4 ,as the declivities of the ,andes and the mountainous parts of the ,canaries1 the ,antilles1 and the ,philippines1 are all inhabited by races of ,spanish descent2 and as the nature of the soil has there influenced the mode of life of the inhabitants to a greater degree than in other parts of the world1 excepting perhaps in the ,himalaya and the ,thibetian ,highlands2 so also the designations expressive of the forms of mountains in trachytic1 basaltic1 and porphyritic districts1 as well as in schistose1 calcareous1 and sandstone formations1 have been happily preserved in daily use4 ,under such circumstances1 newly formed words become incorporated with the common stock4 ,speech acquires life from everything which bears the true impress of nature1 whether it be by the definition of sensuous impressions received from the external world1 or by the expression of thoughts and feelings that emanate from our inner being4 ,in descriptions of natural phenomena1 as well as in the choice of the expressions employed1 this truth to nature should be especially kept in view4 ,the object will be the best attained by simplicity in the narration of whatever we have ourselves observed and experienced1 and by closely examining the locality with which the subject-matter is connected4 ,generalisation of physical views1 and the enumeration of results1 belong principally to the study of the ,cosmos1 which1 indeed1 must still be regarded as an inductive science2 but the vivid delineation of organic forms 7animals and plants17 in their picturesque and local relations to the multiform surface of the earth1 although limited to a small section of terrestrial life1 still affords materials for this study4 ,it acts as a stimulus to the mind wherever it is capable of appreciating the great phenomena of nature in an sthetic point of view4 ,to these phenomena belongs especially the boundless forest district which1 in the torrid zone of ,south ,america1 connects the river basins of the ,orinoco and the ,amazon4 ,this region deserves1 in the strictest sense of the word1 to be called a primeval forest--a term that has1 in recent times1 been so frequently misapplied4 ,primeval 7or primitive71 as applied to a forest1 a nation1 or a period of time1 is a word of rather indefinite signification1 and generally but of relative import4 ,if every wild forest1 densely covered with trees1 on which man has never laid his destroying hand1 is to be regarded as a primitive forest1 then the phenomenon is common to many parts both of the temperate and the frigid zones2 if1 however1 this character consists in impenetrability1 through which it is impossible to clear with the axe1 between trees measuring from #h to #ab feet in diameter1 a path of any length1 primitive forests belong exclusively to tropical regions4 ,this impenetrability is by no means1 as is often erroneously supposed in ,europe1 always occasioned by the interlaced climbing 8lianes10 or creeping plants1 for these often constitute but a very small portion of the underwood4 ,the chief obstacles are the shrub-like plants which fill up every space between the trees1 in a zone where all vegetable forms have a tendency to become arborescent4 ,if travellers1 the moment they set foot in a tropical region1 and even while on islands1 in the vicinity of the sea-coast1 imagine that they are within the precincts of a primeval forest1 the misconception must be ascribed to their ardent desire of realizing a long-cherished wish4 ,every tropical forest is not primeval forest4 ,i have scarcely ever used the latter term in the narrative of my travels2 although1 ,i believe1 that of all investigators of nature now living1 ,bonpland1 ,martius1 ,pppig1 ,robert and ,richard ,schomburgk1 and myself1 have spent the longest period of time in primeval forests in the interior of a great continent4 ,notwithstanding the striking richness of the ,spanish language in designations1 7descriptive of natural objects1 of which ,i have already spoken71 yet one and the same word monte is employed for a mountain and a forest1 for cerro 7montaa71 and for selva4 ,in a work on the true breadth and the greatest extension of the chain of the ,andes towards the east1 ,i have shown how this twofold signification of the word monte has led to the error1 in a fine and extensively circulated ,english map of ,south ,america1 of marking ranges of high mountains in districts occupied only by plains4 ,where the ,spanish map of ,la ,cruz ,olmedilla1 which formed the basis of so many others1 indicated ,cacao ,woods1 ,montes de ,cacao#fg1 ,cordilleras were supposed to exist1 although the ,cacao-tree affects only the hottest of the low lands4 ,if we comprehend1 in one general view1 the woody region which embraces the whole of ,south ,america1 between the grassy plains of ,venezuela 7los ,llanos de ,caracas7 and the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 lying between #h north and #ai south latitude1 we perceive that this connected ,hyla of the tropical zone is unequalled in extent by any other on the surface of the earth4 ,its area is about twelve times that of ,germany4 ,traversed in all directions by rivers1 some of whose direct and indirect tributary streams 7as well those of the second as of the first order7 surpass the ,danube and ,rhine in the abundance of their waters1 it owes the wonderful luxuriance of its vegetation to the twofold influence of great humidity and high temperature4 ,in the temperate zone1 particularly in ,europe and ,northern ,asia1 forests may be named from particular genera of trees which grow together as social plants 7plant sociales71 and form separate woods4 ,in the ,oak1 ,pine1 and ,birch forests of the northern regions1 and in the ,linden or ,lime ,woods of the eastern1 there usually predominates only one species of ,amentace1 ,conifer or ,tiliace2 while sometimes a single species of ,pinifer is intermixed with trees of deciduous foliage4 ,such uniformity of association is unknown in tropical forests4 ,the excessive variety of their rich sylvan flora renders it vain to ask1 of what do the primeval forests consist4 ,numberless families of plants are here crowded together2 and even in small spaces1 plants of the same species are rarely associated4 ,every day1 and with every change of place1 new forms present themselves to the traveller's attention2 often flowers1 beyond his reach1 although the shape of the leaf and the ramifications of the plant excite his curiosity4 ,the rivers1 with their innumerable branches1 are the only means of traversing the country4 ,astronomical observations1 or in the absence of these1 determinations by compass of the bends of the rivers1 between the ,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 and the ,rio ,negro1 have shewn that two lonely mission-stations might be situated only a few miles apart1 and yet the monks thereof1 in visiting each other would require a day and a half to make the passage in their hollow-tree canoes1 along the windings of small streams4 ,the most striking evidence of the impenetrability of some portions of these forests1 is afforded by a trait in the habits of the ,american tiger1 or panther-like ,jaguar4 ,while the introduction of ,european horned cattle1 horses1 and mules1 has yielded so abundant a supply of food to the beasts of prey in the extensive grassy and treeless plains of ,varinas1 ,meta1 and ,buenos ,ayres2 that these animals1 7owing to the unequal contest between them and their prey17 have considerably increased since the discovery of ,america2 other individuals of the same species lead a toilsome life in the dense forests contiguous to the sources of the ,orinoco4 ,the distressing loss of a large mastiff1 the faithful companion of our travels1 while we were bivouacking near the junction of the ,cassiquiare with the ,orinoco1 induced us on our return from the insect-swarming ,esmeralda1 to pass another night on the same spot 7uncertain whether he was devoured by a tiger7 where we had already long sought him in vain4 ,we again heard in the immediate neighbourhood the cries of the ,jaguar1 probably the very same animal to which we owed our loss4 ,as the cloudy state of the sky rendered it impossible to conduct astronomical observations1 we made our interpreter 7lenguaraz7 repeat to us what the natives1 our boatmen1 related of the tigers of the country4 ,the so called black ,jaguar is1 as we learnt1 not unfrequently found among them4 ,it is the largest and most blood-thirsty variety1 and has a dark brown skin marked with scarcely distinguishable black spots4 ,it lives at the foot of the mountain ranges of ,maraguaca and ,unturan4 8,the love of wandering1 and the rapacity of the ,jaguars10 said our ,indian narrator1 one of the ,durimond tribe2 8often lead them into such impenetrable thickets of the forest1 that they can no longer hunt on the ground1 and then live for a long time in the trees--the terror of the families of monkeys1 and of the prehensile-tailed viverra4 7,cercoleptes470 ,the journal which ,i wrote at the time in ,german1 and from which ,i borrow these extracts1 was not entirely exhausted in the narrative of my travels 7published in ,french74 ,it contains a circumstantial description of the nocturnal life of animals2 ,i might say1 of their nocturnal voices in the tropical forests4 ,and this sketch seems to me to be especially adapted to constitute one of the chapters of the ,views of ,nature4 ,that which is written down on the spot1 or soon after the impression of the phenomena has been received1 may at least claim to possess more freshness than what is produced by the recollection of long passed events4 ,we reached the bed of the ,orinoco by descending from west to east along the ,rio ,apure1 whose inundations ,i have noticed in the sketch of the ,deserts and ,steppes4 ,it was the period of low water1 and the average breadth of the ,apure was only a little more than #abjj feet2 while the ,orinoco1 at its confluence with the ,apure 7near the granite rocks of ,curiquima1 where ,i was able to measure a base-line71 was still upwards of #ab1ahj feet4 ,yet this point 7the rock of ,curiquima17 is #djj miles in a straight line from the sea and from the delta of the ,orinoco4 ,some of the plains1 watered by the ,apure and the ,payara1 are inhabited by ,yaruros and ,achaguas1 who are called savages in the mission-villages established by the monks1 because they will not relinquish their independence4 ,in reference to social culture1 they however occupy about the same scale as those ,indians1 who1 although baptized and living 8under the bell0 7baxo la campana71 have remained strangers to every form of instruction and cultivation4 ,on leaving the ,island del ,diamante1 where the ,zambos1 who speak ,spanish1 cultivate the sugar-cane1 we entered into a grand and wild domain of nature4 ,the air was filled with countless flamingoes 7,phnicopterus7 and other water-fowl1 which seemed to stand forth from the blue sky like a dark cloud in ever-varying outlines4 ,the bed of the river had here contracted to less than #ajjj feet1 and formed a perfectly straight canal1 which was inclosed on both sides by thick woods4 ,the margin of the forest presents a singular spectacle4 ,in front of the almost impenetrable wall of colossal trunks of ,csalpinia1 ,cedrela1 and ,desmanthus1 there rises with the greatest regularity on the sandy bank of the river1 a low hedge of ,sauso1 only four feet high2 it consists of a small shrub1 ,hermesia castanifolia1 which forms a new genus#fh of the family of ,euphorbiace4 ,a few slender1 thorny palms1 called by the ,spaniards ,piritu and ,corozo 7perhaps species of ,martinezia or ,bactris7 stand close alongside2 the whole resembling a trimmed garden hedge1 with gate-like openings at considerable distances from each other1 formed undoubtedly by the large four-footed animals of the forests1 for convenient access to the river4 ,at sunset1 and more particularly at break of day1 the ,american ,tiger1 the ,tapir1 and the ,peccary 7,pecari1 ,dicotyles7 may be seen coming forth from these openings accompanied by their young1 to give them drink4 ,when they are disturbed by a passing ,indian canoe1 and are about to retreat into the forest1 they do not attempt to rush violently through these hedges of ,sauso1 but proceed deliberately along the bank1 between the hedge and river1 affording the traveller the gratification of watching their motions for sometimes four or five hundred paces1 until they disappear through the nearest opening4 ,during a seventy-four days' almost uninterrupted river navigation of #aebj miles up the ,orinoco1 to the neighbourhood of its sources1 and along the ,cassiquiare1 and the ,rio ,negro--during the whole of which time we were confined to a narrow canoe--the same spectacle presented itself to our view at many different points1 and1 ,i may add1 always with renewed excitement4 ,there came to drink1 bathe1 or fish1 groups of creatures belonging to the most opposite species of animals2 the larger mammalia with many-coloured herons1 palamedeas with the proudly-strutting curassow 7,crax ,alector1 ,c4 ,pauxi74 8,it is here as in ,paradise0 7es como en el ,paradiso71 remarked with pious air our steersman1 an old ,indian1 who had been brought up in the house of an ecclesiastic4 ,but the gentle peace of the primitive golden age does not reign in the paradise of these ,american animals1 they stand apart1 watch1 and avoid each other4 ,the ,capybara1 a cavy 7or river-hog7 three or four feet long 7a colossal repetition of the common ,brazilian cavy1 7,cavia ,aguti71 is devoured in the river by the crocodile1 and on the shore by the tiger4 ,they run so badly1 that we were frequently able to overtake and capture several from among the numerous herds4 ,below the mission of ,santa ,barbara de ,arichuna we passed the night as usual in the open air1 on a sandy flat1 on the bank of the ,apure1 skirted by the impenetrable forest4 ,we had some difficulty in finding dry wood to kindle the fires with which it is here customary to surround the bivouac1 as a safeguard against the attacks of the ,jaguar4 ,the air was bland and soft1 and the moon shone brightly4 ,several crocodiles approached the bank2 and ,i have observed that fire attracts these creatures as it does our crabs and many other aquatic animals4 ,the oars of our boats were fixed upright in the ground1 to support our hammocks4 ,deep stillness prevailed1 only broken at intervals by the blowing of the fresh-water dolphins#fi1 which are peculiar to the river net-work of the ,orinoco 7as1 according to ,colebrooke1 they are also to the ,ganges1 as high up the river as ,benares72 they followed each other in long tracks4 ,after eleven o'clock1 such a noise began in the contiguous forest1 that for the remainder of the night all sleep was impossible4 ,the wild cries of animals rung through the woods4 ,among the many voices which resounded together1 the ,indians could only recognise those which1 after short pauses1 were heard singly4 ,there was the monotonous1 plaintive1 cry of the ,aluates 7howling monkeys71 the whining1 flute-like notes of the small sapajous1 the grunting murmur of the striped nocturnal ape#gj 7,nyctipithecus trivirgatus1 which ,i was the first to describe71 the fitful roar of the great tiger1 the ,cuguar or maneless ,american lion1 the peccary1 the sloth1 and a host of parrots1 parraquas 7,ortalides71 and other pheasant-like birds4 ,whenever the tigers approached the edge of the forest1 our dog1 who before had barked incessantly1 came howling to seek protection under the hammocks4 ,sometimes the cry of the tiger resounded from the branches of a tree1 and was then always accompanied by the plaintive piping tones of the apes1 who were endeavouring to escape from the unwonted pursuit4 ,if one asks the ,indians why such a continuous noise is heard on certain nights1 they answer1 with a smile1 that 8the animals are rejoicing in the beautiful moonlight1 and celebrating the return of the full moon40 ,to me the scene appeared rather to be owing to an accidental1 long-continued1 and gradually increasing conflict among the animals4 ,thus1 for instance1 the jaguar will pursue the peccaries and the tapirs1 which1 densely crowded together1 burst through the barrier of tree-like shrubs which opposes their flight4 ,terrified at the confusion1 the monkeys on the tops of the trees join their cries with those of the larger animals4 ,this arouses the tribes of birds who build their nests in communities1 and suddenly the whole animal world is in a state of commotion4 ,further experience taught us1 that it was by no means always the festival of moonlight that disturbed the stillness of the forest2 for we observed that the voices were loudest during violent storms of rain1 or when the thunder echoed and the lightning flashed through the depths of the woods4 ,the good-natured ,franciscan monk who 7notwithstanding the fever from which he had been suffering for many months71 accompanied us through the cataracts of ,atures and ,maypures to ,san ,carlos1 on the ,rio ,negro1 and to the ,brazilian coast1 used to say1 when apprehensive of a storm at night1 8,may ,heaven grant a quiet night both to us and to the wild beasts of the forest60 ,a singular contrast to the scenes ,i have here described1 and which ,i had repeated opportunities of witnessing1 is presented by the stillness which reigns within the tropics at the noontide of a day unusually sultry4 ,i borrow from the same journal the description of a scene at the ,narrows of ,baraguan4 ,here the ,orinoco forms for itself a passage through the western part of the mountains of the ,parime4 ,that which is called at this remarkable pass a ,narrow 7,angostura del ,baraguan71 is1 however1 a basin almost #egjj feet in breadth4 ,with the exception of an old withered stem of ,aubletia 7,apeiba ,tiburbu71 and a new ,apocinea 7,allamanda ,salicifolia71 the barren rocks were only covered with a few silvery croton shrubs4 ,a thermometer observed in the shade1 but brought within a few inches of the lofty mass of granite rock1 rose to more than #abb ,fahr4 ,all distant objects had wavy undulating outlines1 the optical effect of the mirage4 ,not a breath of air moved the dust-like sand4 ,the sun stood in the zenith2 and the effulgence of light poured upon the river1 and which1 owing to a gentle ripple of the waters1 was brilliantly reflected1 gave additional distinctness to the red haze which veiled the distance4 ,all the rocky mounds and naked boulders were covered with large1 thick-scaled ,iguanas1 ,gecko-lizards1 and spotted ,salamanders4 ,motionless1 with uplifted heads and widely extended mouths1 they seemed to inhale the heated air with ecstasy4 ,the larger animals at such times take refuge in the deep recesses of the forest1 the birds nestle beneath the foliage of the trees1 or in the clefts of the rocks2 but if in this apparent stillness of nature we listen closely for the faintest tones1 we detect1 a dull1 muffled sound1 a buzzing and humming of insects close to the earth1 in the lower strata of the atmosphere4 ,everything proclaims a world of active organic forces4 ,in every shrub1 in the cracked bark of trees1 in the perforated ground inhabited by hymenopterous insects1 life is everywhere audibly manifest4 ,it is one of the many voices of nature revealed to the pious and susceptible spirit of man4 ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions4 ,footnote #fe3 p4 #aia4--8;,characteristic denominations in ,arabic and ,persian40 ,more than twenty words might be cited by which the ,arabs distinguish between a ,steppe 7tanufah71 according as it may be a ,desert without water1 entirely bare1 or covered with siliceous sand1 and interspersed with spots of pasture land 7,sahara1 ,kafr1 ,mikfar1 ,tih1 ,mehme74 ,sahl is a depressed plain2 ,dakkah a desolate elevated plateau4 ,in ,persian ,beyaban is an arid sandy waste 7as the ,mongolian ,gobi and the ,chinese ,han-hai and ,scha-mo72 ,yaila is a ,steppe covered with grass rather than with low-growing plants 7like the ,mongolian ,kdah1 the ,turkish ,tala or ,tschol1 and the ,chinese ,huang74 ,deschti-reft is a naked elevated plateau4,,ik ,footnote #ff3 p4 #aia4--8,the old ,castilian dialects40 ,pico1 picacho1 mogote1 cucurucho1 espigon1 loma tendida1 mesa1 panecillo1 farallon1 tablon1 pea1 peon1 peasco1 peoleria1 roca partida1 laxa1 cerro1 sierra1 serrania1 cordillera1 monte1 montaa1 montauela1 cadena de montes1 los altos1 malpais1 reventazon1 bufa1 c4 ,footnote #fg3 p4 #aid4--8,where the map had indicated ,montes de ,cacao40 ,on the range of hills from which the lofty ,andes de ,cuchao have originated1 see my ,relation historique1 t4 iii4 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #fh3 p4 #aig4--8;,hermesia40 ,the genus ,hermesia1 the ,sauso1 has been described by ,bonpland1 and is delineated in our ,plantes quinoxiales1 t4 i4 p4 #afb1 tab4 xlvi4 ,footnote #fi3 p4 #aii4--8,the fresh-water dolphin40 ,these are not sea dolphins1 which1 like some species of ,pleuronectes 7flat fish which invariably have both eyes on one side of the body71 ascend the rivers to a great distance1 as1 for instance1 the ,limande 7,pleuronectes ,limanda71 which is found as far inland as ,orleans4 ,some forms of sea fish1 as the dolphin and skate 7,raia71 are met with in the great rivers of both continents4 ,the fresh-water dolphin of the ,apure and the ,orinoco differs specifically from the ,delphinus gangeticus as well as from all sea dolphins4,,il ,footnote #gj3 p4 #aii4--8,the striped nocturnal monkey40 ,this is the ,douroucouli or ,cusi-cusi of the ,cassiquiare which ,i have elsewhere described as the ,simia trivirgata1,,im from a drawing made by myself of the living animal4 ,we have since seen the nocturnal monkey living in the menagerie of the ,jardin des ,plantes at ,paris4,,in ,spix also met with this remarkable little animal on the ,amazon ,river and called it ,nyctipithecus vociferans4 ,,potsdam1 ,,june #ahdi4 ,,hypsometric ,,addenda4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,pentland1 whose scientific labours have thrown so much light on the geology and geography of ,bolivia1 for the following determinations of position1 which he communicated to me in a letter from ,paris 7,october #ahdh71 subsequent to the publication of his great map4 ,nevado of ,sorata1 ,south ,latitude4 ,longitude4 ,height4 or ,ancohuma4 ,south ,peak #ae #ea #cc #fh #cc #ee #ba1bhf ,north ,peak #ae #di #ah #fh #cc #eb #ba1jdc ,illimani4 ,south ,peak #af #ch #eb #fg #di #ah #ba1ade ,middle ,peak #af #ch #bf #fg #di #ag #ba1jid ,north ,peak #af #cg #ej #fg #di #ci #ba1jfj ,the numbers representing the heights are1 with the exception of the unimportant difference of a few feet in the ,south ,peak of ,illimani1 the same as those in the map of the ,lake of ,titicaca4 ,a sketch of the ,illimani1 as it appears in all its majesty from ,la ,paz1 was given at an earlier date by ,mr4 ,pentland in the ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society4,,io ,but this was five years after the publication of the first measurements in the ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes for #ahcj1 p4 #cbc1 which results ,i myself hastened to disseminate in ,germany4,,ip ,the ,nevado de ,sorata lies to the east of the village of ,sorata or ,esquibel1 and is called in the ,ymarra language1 according to ,pentland1 ,ancomani1 ,itampu1 and ,illhampu4 ,in ,illimani we recognize the ,ymarra word illi1 snow4 ,if1 however1 in the eastern chain of ,bolivia the ,sorata was long assumed to be #cifb feet1 and the ,illimani #bhea feet too high1 there are in the western chain of ,bolivia1 according to ,pentland's map of ,titicaca 7#ahdh71 four peaks east of ,arica between the latitudes #ah #g and #ah #be1 all of which exceed ,chimborazo in height1 which itself is #ba1dbb feet4 ,these four peaks are3-- ,english feet4 ,french feet4 ,pomarape #ba1gjj #bj1cfj ,gualateiri #ba1ifj #bj1fjd ,parinacota #bb1jcj #bj1fgj ,sahama #bb1cej #bj1iga ,berghaus has applied to the chains of the ,andes in ,bolivia1 the investigation which ,i published,,iq regarding the proportion1 which varies extremely in different mountain-chains1 of the mountain ridge 7the mean height of the passes71 to the highest summits 7or the culminating points74 ,he finds1,,ir according to ,pentland's map1 that the mean height of the passes in the eastern chain is #ac1eje1 and in the western chain #ad1dif feet4 ,the culminating points are #ba1bhe and #bb1cej feet2 consequently the ratio of the height of the ridge to that of the highest summit is1 in the eastern chain1 as #a 3 #aeg1 and in the western chain as #a 3 #aed4 ,this ratio1 which is1 as it were1 the measure of the subterranean upheaving force1 is very similar to that in the ,pyrenees1 but very different from the plastic form of the ,alps1 the mean height of whose passes is far less in comparison with the height of ,mont ,blanc4 ,in the ,pyrenees these ratios are as #a 3 #adc1 and in the ,alps as #a 3 #bji4 ,but1 according to ,fitzroy and ,darwin1 the height of the ,sahama is still surpassed by #hdh feet by that of the volcano ,aconcagua 7south lat4 #cb #ci71 in the north-east of ,valparaiso in ,chili4 ,the officers of the expedition of the ,adventure and ,beagle found1 in ,august #ahce1 that the ,aconcagua was between #bc1jjj and #bc1djj feet in height4 ,if we reckon it at #bc1bjj feet it is #aggf feet1 higher than ,chimborazo4,,is ,according to more recent calculations1,,it ,aconcagua is determined to be #bc1ijf feet4 ,our knowledge regarding the systems of mountains1 which1 north of the parallels of #cj and #ca1 are distinguished as the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,sierra ,nevada of ,california1 has been vastly augmented during the last few years in the astronomico-geographical1 hypsometric1 geognostic1 and botanical departments1 by the excellent works of ,charles ,frmont1,,iu of ,dr4 ,wislizenus1,,iv and of ,lieutenants ,abert and ,peck4,,iw ,there prevails throughout these ,north ,american works a scientific spirit deserving of the warmest acknowledgment4 ,the remarkable plateau1 referred to in p4 #cd1 between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,sierra ,nevada of ,california1 which rises uninterruptedly from #djjj to #ejjj ,french 7#dbfj to #eccj ,english7 feet high1 and is termed the ,great ,basin1 presents an interior closed river-system1 thermal springs1 and salt lakes4 ,none of its rivers1 ,bear ,river1 ,carson ,river1 and ,humboldt ,river1 find a passage to the sea4 ,that which1 by a process of induction and combination1 ,i represented in my great map of ,mexico1 executed in #ahjd1 as the ,lake of ,timpanogos1 is the ,great ,salt ,lake of ,frmont's map4 ,it is #fj miles long from north to south1 and #dj miles broad1 and it communicates with the fresh-water ,lake of ,utah1 which lies at a higher level1 and into which the ,timpanogos or ,timpanaozu ,river enters from the eastward1 in lat4 #dj #ac4 ,the fact of the ,lake of ,timpanogos not having been placed in my map sufficiently to the north and west1 arose from the entire absence1 at that period1 of all astronomical determinations of position of ,santa ,f in ,new ,mexico4 ,for the western margin of the lake the error amounts to almost fifty minutes1 a difference of absolute longitude which will appear less striking when it is remembered that my itinerary map of ,guanaxuato could only be based for an extent of #ae of latitude on determinations made by the compass 7magnetic surveys71 instituted by ,don ,pedro de ,rivera4,,ix ,these determinations gave my talented and prematurely lost fellow-labourer1 ,herr ,friesen1 #aje #cf as the longitude of ,santa ,f1 while1 by other combinations1 ,i calculated it at #ajd #ea4 ,according to actual astronomical determinations the true longitude appears to be #ajf4 ,the relative position of the strata of rock salt found in thick strata of red clay1 south-east of the ,great ,salt ,lake 7,laguna de ,timpanogos71 with its many islands1 and near the present ,fort ,mormon and the ,utah ,lake1 is accurately given in my large map of ,mexico4 ,i may refer to the most recent evidence of the traveller who made the first trustworthy determinations of position in this region4 8,the mineral or rock salt1 of which a specimen is placed in ,congress ,library1 was found in the place marked by ,humboldt in his map of ,new ,spain 7northern half71 as derived from the journal of the ,missionary ,father ,escalante1 who attempted 7#aggg7 to penetrate the unknown country from ,santa ,f of ,new ,mexico to ,monterey of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,south-east of the ,lake ,timpanogos is the chain of the ,wha-satch ,mountains2 and in this1 at the place where ,humboldt has written ,montagnes de sel gemme1 this mineral is found40,,iy ,a great historical interest is attached to this part of the highland1 especially to the neighbourhood of the ,lake of ,timpanogos1 which is probably identical with the ,lake of ,teguayo1 the ancestral seat of the ,aztecs4 ,this people1 in their migration from ,aztlan to ,tula1 and to the valley of ,tenochtitlan in ,mexico1 made three stations at which the ruins of ,casas grandes are still to be seen4 ,the first halting-place of the ,aztecs was at the ,lake of ,teguayo1 south of ,quivira1 the second on the ,rio ,gila1 and the third not far from the ,presidio de ,llanos4 ,lieutenant ,abert found on the banks of the ,rio ,gila the same immense quantity of elegantly painted fragments of delf and pottery scattered over a large surface of country1 which1 at the same place1 had excited so much astonishment in the missionaries ,francisco ,garces and ,pedro ,fonte4 ,from these products of the hand of man1 it may be inferred that there was a time when a higher human civilization existed in this now desolate region4 ,repetitions of the singular architectural style of the ,aztecs1 and of their houses of seven stories1 are at the present time to be found far to the east of the ,rio ,grande del ,norte2 as1 for instance1 at ,taos4,,iz ,the ,sierra ,nevada of ,california is parallel to the coast of the ,pacific2 but between the latitudes of #cd and #da1 between ,san ,buenaventura and the ,bay of ,trinidad1 there runs1 west of the ,sierra ,nevada1 a small coast chain whose culminating point1 ,monte del ,diablo1 is #cfgd feet high4 ,in the narrow valley1 between this coast chain and the great ,sierra ,nevada1 flow from the south the ,rio de ,san ,joaquin1 and from the north the ,rio del ,sacramento4 ,it is in the alluvial soil on the banks of the latter river that the rich goldwashings occur1 which are now proceeding with so much activity4 ,besides the hypsometric levelling and the barometric measurements to which ,i have already referred 7see page #cc71 between the mouth of the ,kanzas ,river in the ,missouri and the coast of the ,pacific1 throughout the immense expanse of #bh of longitude1 ,dr4 ,wislizenus has successfully prosecuted the levelling commenced by myself in the equinoctial zone of ,mexico1 to the north as far as to lat4 #ce #ch1 and consequently to ,santa ,f del ,nuevo ,mexico4 ,we learn with astonishment that the plateau which forms the broad crest of the ,mexican ,andes by no means sinks down to an inconsiderable height1 as was long supposed to be the case4 ,i give here1 for the first time1 according to recent measurements1 the line of levelling from the city of ,mexico to ,santa ,f1 which is within #af miles from the ,rio del ,norte4 ,french feet4 ,english feet4 ,mexico #gjjh #gdfi ,ht4 ,tula #fcah #fgcc ,ht4 ,san ,juan del ,rio #fjij #fdij ,ht4 ,queretaro #eigj #fcfb ,ht4 ,celaya #efdf #fjag ,ht4 ,salamanca #edif #egfa ,ht4 ,guanaxuato #fdad #fhcf ,ht4 ,silao #eedf #eiaa ,br4 ,villa de ,leon #egee #facc ,br4 ,lagos #eihc #fcgf ,br4 ,aguas ,calientes #ehge #fbfa ,br4 ,san ,luis ,potosi #egad #fjij ,br4 ,zacatecas #gedd #hjch ,br4 ,fresnillo #fgig #gbdd ,br4 ,durango #fdbf #fhdh 7,oteiza7 ,parras #dfgh #dihe ,ws4 ,saltillo #diag #ebdj ,ws4 ,el ,bolson de ,mapimi from #cfjj #chcf ,ws4 to #dbjj #ddgf ,chihuahua #dceb #dfch ,ws4 ,cosiquiriachi #ehhf #fbgc ,ws4 ,passo del ,norte 7on the ,rio ,grande #cegg #chaj ,ws4 del ,norte7 ,santa ,f del ,nuevo ,mexico #ffab #gjdg ,ws4 ,the attached letters ,ws41 ,br41 and ,ht41 indicate the barometric measurements of ,dr4 ,wislizenus1 ,obergrath ,burkart1 and myself4 ,to the valuable memoir of ,dr4 ,wislizenus there are appended three profile delineations of the country2 one from ,santa ,f to ,chihuahua over ,passo del ,norte2 one from ,chihuahua over ,parras to ,reynosa2 and one from ,fort ,independence 7a little to the east of the confluence of the ,missouri and the ,kanzas ,river7 to ,santa ,f4 ,the calculation is based on daily corresponding observations of the barometer1 made by ,engelmann at ,st4 ,louis1 and by ,lilly in ,new ,orleans4 ,if we consider that in the north and south direction the difference of latitude between ,santa ,f and ,mexico is more than #af1 and that1 consequently1 the distance in a direct meridian direction1 independently of curvatures on the road1 is more than #ifj miles2 we are led to ask whether1 in the whole world1 there exists any similar formation of equal extent and height 7between #ejjj and #gejj feet above the level of the sea74 ,four-wheeled waggons can travel from ,mexico to ,santa ,f4 ,the plateau1 whose levelling ,i have here described1 is formed solely by the broad1 undulating1 flattened crest of the chain of the ,mexican ,andes2 it is not the swelling of a valley between two mountain-chains1 such as the 8,great ,basin0 between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,sierra ,nevada of ,california1 in the ,northern ,hemisphere1 or the elevated plateau of the ,lake of ,titicaca1 between the eastern and western chains of ,bolivia1 or the plateau of ,thibet1 between the ,himalaya and the ,kuen-ln1 in the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,,ideas ,,for ,a ,,physiognomy ,,of ,,plants4 ,when the active spirit of man is directed to the investigation of nature1 or when in imagination he scans the vast fields of organic creation1 among the varied emotions excited in his mind there is none more profound or vivid than that awakened by the universal profusion of life4 ,everywhere--even near the ice-bound poles1--the air resounds with the song of birds and with the busy hum of insects4 ,not only the lower strata1 in which the denser vapours float1 but also the higher and ethereal regions of the air1 teem with animal life4 ,whenever the lofty crests of1 the ,peruvian ,cordilleras1 or the summit of ,mont ,blanc1 south of ,lake ,leman1 have been ascended1 living creatures have been found even in these solitudes4 ,on the ,chimborazo#ga1 which is upwards of eight thousand feet higher than ,mount ,etna1 we saw butterflies and other winged insects4 ,even if they are strangers carried by ascending currents of air to those lofty regions1 whither a restless spirit of inquiry leads the toilsome steps of man1 their presence nevertheless proves that the more pliant organization of animals may subsist far beyond the limits of the vegetable world4 ,the ,condor#gb1 that giant among the vultures1 often soared above us at a greater altitude than the summits of the ,andes1 and even higher than would be the ,peak of ,teneriffe were it piled upon the snow-crowned summits of the ,pyrenees4 ,rapacity and the pursuit of the soft-woolled ,vicunas1 which herd1 like the chamois1 on the snow-covered pastures1 allure this powerful bird to these regions4 ,but if the unassisted eye shows that life is diffused throughout the whole atmosphere1 the microscope reveals yet greater wonders4 ,wheel-animalcules1 brachioni1 and a host of microscopic insects are lifted by the winds from the evaporating waters below4 ,motionless and to all appearance dead1 they float on the breeze1 until the dew bears them back to the nourishing earth1 and bursting the tissue which incloses their transparent rotating#gc bodies1 instils new life and motion into all their organs1 probably by the action of the vital principle inherent in water4 ,the yellow meteoric sand or mist 7dust nebul7 often observed to fall on the ,atlantic near the ,cape de ,verde ,islands1 and not unfrequently borne in an easterly direction as far as ,northern ,africa1 ,italy1 and ,central ,europe1 consists1 according to ,ehrenberg's brilliant discovery1 of agglomerations of siliceous-shelled microscopic organisms4 ,many of these perhaps float for years in the highest strata of the atmosphere1 until they are carried down by the ,etesian winds or by descending currents of air1 in the full capacity of life1 and actually engaged in organic increase by spontaneous self division4 ,together with these developed creatures1 the atmosphere contains countless germs of future formations2 eggs of insects1 and seeds of plants1 which1 by means of hairy or feathery crowns1 are borne forward on their long autumnal journey4 ,even the vivifying pollen scattered abroad by the male blossoms1 is carried by winds and winged insects over sea and land1 to the distant and solitary female plant#gd4 ,thus1 wheresoever the naturalist turns his eye1 life or the germ of life lies spread before him4 ,but if the moving sea of air in which we are immersed1 and above whose surface we are unable to raise ourselves1 yields to many organic beings their most essential nourishment1 they still require therewith a more substantial species of food1 which is provided for them only at the bottom of this gaseous ocean4 ,this bottom is of a twofold kind3 the smaller portion constituting the dry earth1 in immediate contact with the surrounding atmosphere2 the larger portion consisting of water1--formed1 perhaps1 thousands of years ago from gaseous matters fused by electric fire1 and now incessantly undergoing decomposition in the laboratory of the clouds and in the pulsating vessels of animals and plants4 ,organic forms descend deep into the womb of the earth1 wherever the meteoric rain-waters can penetrate into natural cavities1 or into artificial excavations and mines4 ,the domain of the subterranean cryptogamic flora was early an object of my scientific researches4 ,thermal springs of the highest temperature nourish small ,hydropores1 ,conferv and ,oscillator4 ,not far from the ,arctic circle1 at ,bear ,lake1 in the ,new ,continent1 ,richardson saw flowering plants on the ground which1 even in summer1 remains frozen to the depth of twenty inches4 ,it is still undetermined where life is most abundant3 whether on the earth or in the fathomless depths of the ocean4 ,ehrenberg's admirable work on the relative condition of animalcular life in the tropical ocean and the floating and solid ice of the ,antarctic circle1 has spread the sphere and horizon of organic life before our eyes4 ,siliceous-shelled ,polygastrica and even ,coscinodisc1 alive1 with their green ovaries1 have been found enveloped in masses within twelve degrees of the ,pole2 even as the small black glacier flea1 ,desoria ,glacialis1 and ,podurell1 inhabit the narrow tubules of ice of the ,swiss glaciers1 as proved by the researches of ,agassiz4 ,ehrenberg has shown that on some microscopic infusorial animalcules 7,synedra and ,cocconeis71 other species live parasitically2 and that in the ,gallionell the extraordinary powers of division and development of bulk are so great1 that an animalcule invisible to the naked eye can in four days form two cubic feet of the ,bilin polishing slate4 ,in the ocean1 gelatinous sea-worms1 living and dead1 shine like luminous stars#ge1 converting by their phosphorescent light the green surface of the ocean into one vast sheet of fire4 ,indelible is the impression left on my mind by those calm tropical nights of the ,pacific1 where the constellation of ,argo in its zenith1 and the setting ,southern ,cross1 pour their mild planetary light through the ethereal azure of the sky1 while dolphins mark the foaming waves with their luminous furrows4 ,but not alone the depths of ocean1 the waters1 too1 of our own swamps and marshes1 conceal innumerable worms of wonderful form4 ,almost indistinguishable by the eye are the ,cyclidi1 the ,euglenes1 and the host of ,naiads divisible by branches like the ,lemna 7,duckweed71 whose leafy shade they seek4 ,surrounded by differently composed atmospheres1 and deprived of light1 the spotted ,ascaris breathes in the skin of the earth-worm1 the silvery and bright ,leucophra exists in the body of the shore ,nais1 and a ,pentastoma in the large pulmonary cells of the tropical rattle-snake#gf4 ,there are animalcules in the blood of frogs and salmon1 and even1 according to ,nordmann1 in the fluid of the eyes of fishes1 and in the gills of the bream4 ,thus are even the most hidden recesses of creation replete with life4 ,we purpose in the following pages to consider the different families of plants1 since on their existence entirely depends that of the animal creation4 ,incessantly are they occupied in organizing the raw material of the earth1 assimilating by vital forces those elements which after a thousand metamorphoses become ennobled into active nervous tissue4 ,the glance which we direct to the dissemination of vegetable forms1 reveals to us the fulness of that animal life which they sustain and preserve4 ,the verdant carpet which a luxuriant ,flora spreads over the surface of the earth is not woven equally in all parts2 for while it is most rich and full where1 under an ever-cloudless sky1 the sun attains its greatest height1 it is thin and scanty near the torpid poles1 where the quickly-recurring frosts too speedily blight the opening bud or destroy the ripening fruit4 ,yet everywhere man rejoices in the presence of nourishing plants4 ,even where from the depths of the sea1 a volcano bursting through the boiling flood1 upheaves a scoriaceous rock4 7as once happened in the ,greek ,islands72 or1 to instance a more gradual phenomenon1 where the united labours of the coral animal 7,lithophytes7#gg have piled up their cellular dwellings1 on the crests of submarine mountains1 until after toiling for thousands of years their edifice reaches the level of the ocean1 when its architects perish1 and leave a coral island4 ,thus are organic forces ever ready to animate with living forms the naked rock4 ,how seeds are so suddenly transported to these rocks1 whether by birds1 or by winds1 or by the waves of ocean1 is a question that cannot be decided1 owing to the great distance of these islands from the coasts4 ,but no sooner has the air greeted the naked rock1 than1 in our northern countries1 it gradually acquires a covering of velvet-like fibres1 which appear to the eye to be coloured spots4 ,some of these are bordered by single and others by double rows1 while others again are traversed by furrows and divided into compartments4 ,as they increase in age their colour darkens4 ,the bright glittering yellow becomes brown1 and gradually the bluish-grey mass of the ,leprari changes to a dusty black4 ,as the outlines of this vegetable surface merge into each other with increasing age1 the dark ground acquires a new covering of fresh circular spots of dazzling whiteness4 ,thus one organic tissue rises1 like strata1 over the other2 and as the human race in its development must pass through definite stages of civilization1 so also is the gradual distribution of plants dependent on definite physical laws4 ,in spots where lofty forest trees now rear their towering summits1 the sole covering of the barren rock was once the tender lichen2 the long and immeasurable interval was filled up by the growth of grasses1 herbaceous plants1 and shrubs4 ,the place occupied in northern regions by mosses and lichens is supplied in the tropics by ,portulacas1 ,gomphrenas1 and other low and oleaginous marine plants4 ,the history of the vegetable covering and of its gradual extension over the barren surface of the earth1 has its epochs1 as well as that of the migratory animal world4 ,but although life is everywhere diffused1 and although the organic forces are incessantly at work in combining into new forms those elements which have been liberated by death2 yet this fulness of life and its renovation differ according to difference of climate4 ,nature undergoes a periodic stagnation in the frigid zones2 for fluidity is essential to life4 ,animals and plants1 excepting indeed mosses and other ,cryptogamia1 here remain many months buried in a winter sleep4 ,over a great portion of the earth1 therefore1 only those organic forms are capable of full development1 which have the property of resisting any considerable abstraction of heat1 or those which1 destitute of leaf-organs1 can sustain a protracted interruption of their vital functions4 ,thus1 the nearer we approach the tropics1 the greater the increase in variety of structure1 grace of form1 and mixture of colours1 as also in perpetual youth and vigour of organic life4 ,this increase may readily be doubted by those who have never quitted our own hemisphere1 or who have neglected the study of physical geography4 ,when in passing from our thickly foliated forests of oak1 we cross the ,alps or the ,pyrenees and enter ,italy or ,spain1 or when the traveller first directs his eye to some of the ,african coasts of the ,mediterranean1 he may easily be led to adopt the erroneous inference that absence of trees is a characteristic of hot climates4 ,but they forget that ,southern ,europe wore a different aspect1 when it was first colonised by ,pelasgian or ,carthaginian settlers2 they forget too that an earlier civilization of the human race sets bounds to the increase of forests1 and that nations1 in their change-loving spirit1 gradually destroy the decorations which rejoice our eye in the ,north1 and which1 more than the records of history1 attest the youthfulness of our civilization4 ,the great catastrophe by which the ,mediterranean was formed1 when the swollen waters of an inland sea burst their way through the ,dardanelles and the ,pillars of ,hercules1 appears to have stripped the contiguous lands of a large portion of their alluvial soil4 ,the records of the ,samothracian traditions#gh preserved by ,greek writers seem to indicate the recent date of this great convulsion of nature4 ,moreover1 in all the lands bathed by the ,mediterranean1 and which are characterised by the tertiary and cretaceous formations 7,nummulites and ,neocomian rocks71 a great portion of the earth's surface is naked rock4 ,the picturesque beauty of ,italian scenery depends mainly on the pleasing contrast between the bare and desolate rock and the luxuriant vegetation which1 island-like1 is scattered over its surface4 ,where the rock is less intersected by fissures1 so that the water rests longer on its surface1 and where it is covered with earth 7as on the enchanting banks of ,lake ,albano71 there even ,italy has her oak-forests1 as shady and verdant as could be desired by an inhabitant of the ,north4 ,the boundless plains or steppes of ,south ,america1 and the deserts beyond the ,atlas range of mountains1 can only be regarded as mere local phenomena4 ,the former are found to be covered1 at least in the rainy season1 with grasses and low almost herbaceous ,mimos2 while the latter are seas of sand in the interior of the ,old ,continent1--vast arid tracts surrounded by borders of evergreen forests4 ,here and there only a few isolated fan-palms remind the wanderer that these dreary solitudes are a portion of animated nature4 ,amid the optical delusions occasioned by the radiation of heat1 we see the bases of these trees at one moment hovering in the air1 at the next their inverted image reflected in the undulating strata of the atmosphere4 ,to the west of the ,peruvian ,andes1 on the shores of the ,pacific1 ,i have passed weeks in traversing these waterless deserts4 ,the origin of this absence of plants over large tracts of land1 in regions characterised on every side by the most exuberant vegetation1 is a geological phenomenon which has hitherto received but little attention2 it undoubtedly arises from former revolutions of nature1 such as inundations1 or from volcanic convulsions of the earth's surface4 ,when once a region loses its vegetable covering1 if the sand is loose and devoid of springs1 and if vertically ascending currents of heated air prevent the precipitation of vapour#gi1 thousands of years may elapse before organic life can penetrate from the green shores to the interior of the dreary waste4 ,those who are capable of surveying nature with a comprehensive glance1 and abstract their attention from local phenomena1 cannot fail to observe that organic development and abundance of vitality gradually increase from the poles towards the equator1 in proportion to the increase of animating heat4 ,but in this distribution every different climate has allotted to it some beauty peculiar to itself3 to the ,tropics belong variety and magnitude in vegetable forms2 to the ,north the aspect of its meadows and the periodical renovation of nature at the first genial breath of spring4 ,every zone1 besides its own peculiar advantages1 has its own distinctive character4 ,the primeval force of organization1 notwithstanding a certain independence in the abnormal development of individual parts1 binds all animal and vegetable structures to fixed ever-recurring types4 ,for as in some individual organic beings we recognise a definite physiognomy1 and as descriptive botany and zoology are1 strictly speaking1 analyses of animal and vegetable forms1 so also there is a certain natural physiognomy peculiar to every region of the earth4 ,that which the painter designates by the expressions 8,swiss scenery0 or 8,italian sky0 is based on a vague feeling of the local natural character4 ,the azure of the sky1 the effects of light and shade1 the haze floating on the distant horizon1 the forms of animals1 the succulence of plants1 the bright glossy surface of the leaves1 the outlines of mountains1 all combine to produce the elements on which depends the impression of any one region4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that in all latitudes the same kind of rocks1 as trachyte1 basalt1 porphyritic schist1 and dolomite1 form mountain groups of exactly similar physiognomy4 ,thus the greenstone cliffs of ,south ,america and ,mexico resemble those of the ,fichtel mountains of ,germany1 in like manner as among animals1 the form of the ,allco1 or the original canine race of the ,new ,continent1 is analogous to that of the ,european race4 ,the inorganic crust of the earth is as it were independent of climatic influences2 perhaps1 because diversity of climate arising from difference of latitude is of more recent date than the formations of the earth1 or that the hardening crust1 in solidifying and discharging its caloric1 acquired its temperature from internal and not from external causes#hj4 ,all formations are1 therefore1 common to every quarter of the globe and assume the like forms4 ,everywhere basalt rises in twin mountains and truncated cones2 everywhere trap-porphyry presents itself to the eye under the form of grotesquely-shaped masses of rock1 while granite terminates in gently rounded summits4 ,thus1 too1 similar vegetable forms1 as pines and oaks1 alike crown the mountain declivities of ,sweden and those of the most southern portion of ,mexico#ha4 ,but notwithstanding all this coincidence of form1 and resemblance of the outlines of individual portions1 the grouping of the mass1 as a whole1 presents the greatest diversity of character4 ,as the oryctognostic knowledge of minerals differs from geology1 so also does the general study of the physiognomy of nature differ from the individual branches of the natural sciences4 ,the character of certain portions of the earth's surface has been described with inimitable truthfulness by ,george ,forster in his travels and smaller works1 by ,goethe in the descriptive passages which so frequently occur in his immortal writings1 by ,buffon1 ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre1 and ,chateaubriand4 ,such descriptions are not only calculated to yield an enjoyment of the noblest kind1 but the knowledge of the character of nature in different regions is also most intimately associated with the history of the human race and its mental culture4 ,for although the dawn of this culture cannot have been determined solely by physical influence1 climatic relations have at any rate to a great extent influenced its direction1 as well as the character of nations1 and the degree of gloom or cheerfulness in the dispositions of men4 ,how powerfully did the skies of ,greece act on its inhabitants6 ,was it not among the nations who settled in the beautiful and happy region between the ,euphrates1 the ,halys1 and the gean ,sea1 that social polish and gentler feelings were first awakened8 and was it not from these genial climes that our forefathers1 when religious enthusiasm had suddenly opened to them the ,holy ,lands of the ,east1 brought back to ,europe1 then relapsing into barbarism1 the seeds of a gentler civilization8 ,the poetical works of the ,greeks and the ruder songs of the primitive northern races owe much of their peculiar character to the forms of plants and animals1 to the mountain-valleys in which their poets dwelt1 and to the air which surrounded them4 ,to revert to more familiar objects1 who is there that does not feel himself differently affected beneath the embowering shade of the beechen grove1 or on hills crowned with a few scattered pines1 or in the flowering meadow where the breeze murmurs through the trembling foliage of the birch8 ,a feeling of melancholy1 or solemnity1 or of light buoyant animation is in turn awakened by the contemplation of our native trees4 ,this influence of the physical on the moral world--this mysterious reaction of the sensuous on the ideal1 gives to the study of nature1 when considered from a higher point of view1 a peculiar charm which has not hitherto been sufficiently recognised4 ,however much the character of different regions of the earth may depend upon a combination of all these external phenomena1 and however much the total impression may be influenced by the outline of mountains and hills1 the physiognomy of plants and animals1 the azure of the sky1 the form of the clouds1 and the transparency of the atmosphere1 still it cannot be denied that it is the vegetable covering of the earth's surface which chiefly conduces to the effect4 ,the animal organism is deficient in mass1 while the mobility of its individual members and often their diminutiveness remove them from the sphere of our observation4 ,vegetable forms1 on the other hand1 act on the imagination by their enduring magnitude--for here massive size is indicative of age1 and in the vegetable kingdom alone are age and the manifestation of an ever-renewed vigour linked together4 ,the colossal ,dragon ,tree#hb1 which ,i saw in the ,canary ,isles1 and which measured more than sixteen feet in diameter1 still bears1 as it then did1 the blossoms and fruit of perpetual youth4 ,when the ,french adventurers1 the ,bthencourts1 conquered these ,fortunate ,isles in the beginning of the fifteenth century1 the ,dragon ,tree of ,orotava1 regarded by the natives with a veneration equal to that bestowed on the olive tree of the ,acropolis at ,athens1 or the elm at ,ephesus1 was of the same colossal magnitude as at present4 ,in the tropics a grove of ,hymene and ,cesalpini is probably a memorial of more than a thousand years4 ,on taking one general view of the different phanerogamic species which have already been collected into our herbariums#hc1 and which may now be estimated at considerably more than #hj1jjj1 we find that this prodigious quantity presents some few forms to which most of the others may be referred4 ,in determining those forms1 on whose individual beauty1 distribution1 and grouping1 the physiognomy of a country's vegetation depends1 we must not ground our opinion 7as from other causes is necessarily the case in botanical systems7 on the smaller organs of propagation1 that is1 the blossoms and fruit2 but must be guided solely by those elements of magnitude and mass from which the total impression of a district receives its character of individuality4 ,among the principal forms of vegetation there are1 indeed1 some which constitute entire families1 according to the so-called 8natural system0 of botanists4 ,bananas and ,palms1 ,casuarine and ,conifer1 form distinct species in this mode of arrangement4 ,the systematising botanist1 however1 separates into different groups many plants which the student of the physiognomy of nature is compelled to associate together4 ,where vegetable forms occur in large masses1 the outlines and distribution of the leaves1 and the form of the stems and branches lose their individuality and become blended together4 ,the painter--and here his delicate artistical appreciation of nature comes especially into play--distinguishes between pines or palms and beeches in the background of a landscape1 but not between forests of beech and other thickly foliated trees4 ,the physiognomy of nature is principally determined by sixteen forms of plants4 ,i merely enumerate such as ,i have observed in my travels through the old and new world during many years' study of the vegetation of different latitudes1 between the parallels of #fj north and #ab south4 ,the number of these forms will no doubt be considerably increased by travellers penetrating further into the interior of continents1 and discovering new genera of plants4 ,we are still wholly ignorant of the vegetation of the south-east of ,asia1 the interior of ,africa and ,new ,holland1 and of ,south ,america from the ,amazon to the province of ,chiquitos4 ,might not a region be some day discovered in which ligneous fungi1 ,cenomyce rangiferina1 or mosses1 form high trees8 ,neckera dendrodes1 a ,german species of moss1 is in fact arborescent1 and the sight of a wood of lofty mosses could hardly afford greater astonishment to its discoverers than that experienced by ,europeans at the aspect of arborescent grasses 7bamboos7 and the tree-ferns of the tropics1 which are often equal in height to our lindens and alders4 ,the maximum size and degree of development attainable by organic forms of any genus1 whether of animals or plants1 are determined by laws with which we are still unacquainted4 ,in each of the great divisions of the animal kingdom1 as insects1 reptiles1 crustacea1 birds1 fishes1 or mammalia1 the dimensions of the body oscillate between certain extreme limits4 ,but these limits1 based on the observations hitherto contributed to science1 may be enlarged by new discoveries of species with which we are at present unacquainted4 ,in land animals a high degree of temperature1 depending on latitude1 appears to have exercised a favourable influence on the genetic development of organization4 ,thus the small and slender form of our lizards expands in the south into the colossal1 unwieldy1 and mail-clad body of the formidable crocodile4 ,in the huge cats of ,africa and ,america1 the tiger1 lion1 and jaguar1 we find1 repeated on a larger scale1 the form of one of the smallest of our domestic animals4 ,but if we penetrate into the recesses of the earth1 and search the tombs of plants and animals1 the fossil remains thus brought to light not only manifest a distribution of forms at variance with the present climates1 but they also reveal colossal structures1 which exhibit as marked a contrast with the small types that now surround us1 as does the simple yet dignified heroism of the ancient ,greeks1 when compared with what is recognized at the present day as 8greatness of character40 ,if the temperature of the earth has undergone considerable1 perhaps periodically recurring changes1 and1 if even the relations between sea and land1 and the height and pressure of the atmospheric ocean#hd1 have not always been the same1 then the physiognomy of nature1 and the magnitude and forms of organic bodies1 must also have been subject to many variations4 ,enormous ,pachydermata1 elephantine ,mastodons1 ,owen's ,mylodon robustus1 and the ,colossochelys1,,ja a land tortoise upwards of six feet in height1 once inhabited forests of colossal ,lepidodendra1 cactus-like ,stigmari1 and numerous genera of ,cycade4 ,unable accurately to delineate the physiognomy of our aging and altering planet according to its present features1 ,i will only attempt to bring prominently forward those characteristics which specially appertain to each individual group of plants4 ,notwithstanding all the richness and adaptability of our language1 the attempt to designate in words1 that which1 in fact1 appertains only to the imitative art of the painter1 is always fraught with difficulty4 ,i would also wish to avoid that wearying effect which is almost unavoidably inseparable from a long enumeration of individual forms4 ,we will begin with ,palms#he1 the loftiest and most stately of all vegetable forms4 ,to these1 above all other trees1 the prize of beauty has always been awarded by every nation2 and it was from the ,asiatic palm-world1 or the adjacent countries1 that human civilization sent forth the first rays of its early dawn4 ,marked with rings1 and not unfrequently armed with thorns1 the tall and slender shaft of this graceful tree rears on high its crown of shining1 fan-like1 or pinnated leaves1 which are often curled like those of some gramine4 ,smooth stems of the palm1 which ,i carefully measured1 rose to a height of #aij feet4 ,the palm diminishes in size and beauty as it recedes from the equatorial towards the temperate zones4 ,europe owns amongst its indigenous trees only one representative of this form of vegetation1 the dwarfish coast palm 7,chamops71 which1 in ,spain and ,italy1 is found as far north as #dd lat4 ,the true palm climate has a mean annual temperature of #gh to #ha4e ,fahr41 but the date-palm1 which has been brought to us from ,africa1 and is less beautiful than other species of this family1 vegetates in the south of ,europe in districts whose mean temperature is only from #ei to #fb4d ,fahr4 ,stems of palms and skeletons of elephants are found buried in the interior of the earth in ,northern ,europe2 their position renders it probable that they were not drifted from the tropics towards the north1 but that1 in the great revolutions of our planet1 climates1 and the physiognomy of nature which is regulated by climate1 have been1 in many respects1 altered4 ,in all regions of the earth the palm is found associated with the plantain or banana2 the ,scitamine and ,musace of botanists1 ,heliconia1 ,amomum1 and ,strelitzia4 ,this form has a low1 succulent1 and almost herbaceous stem1 the summit of which is crowned with delicately striped1 silky1 shining leaves of a thin and loose texture4 ,groves of bananas form the ornament of humid regions2 and on their fruit the natives of the torrid zone chiefly depend for subsistence4 ,like the farinaceous cereals or corn-yielding plants of the north1 the banana has accompanied man from the earliest infancy of his civilization#hf4 ,by some ,semitic traditions the primitive seat of these nutritious tropical plants has been placed on the shores of the ,euphrates1 and by others1 with greater probability1 in ,india1 at the foot of the ,himalaya mountains4 ,greek legends cite the plains of ,enna as the home of the cereals4 ,whilst1 however1 the cereals1 spread by culture over the northern regions1 in monotonous and far extending tracts1 add but little to the beauty of the landscape2 the inhabitant of the tropics1 on the other hand1 is enabled1 by the propagation of the banana1 to multiply one of the noblest and most lovely of vegetable productions4 ,the form of the ,malvace#hg and ,bombace1 represented by ,ceiba1 ,cavanillesia1 and the ,mexican hand tree 7,cheirostemon71 has immensely thick stems1 with lanuginous1 large1 cordate1 or indented leaves1 and magnificent flowers1 frequently of a purple-red4 ,to this group belongs the ,baobab1 or monkey bread-tree1 ,adansonia digitata1 which1 with a moderate height1 has occasionally a diameter of #cb feet1,,jb and may probably be regarded as at once the largest and most ancient organic memorial of our planet4 ,the ,malvace already begin to impart to the vegetation of ,italy a peculiarly southern character4 ,the temperate zone in our old continent unfortunately is wholly devoid of the delicately pinnate ,mimosas#hh1 whose predominating forms are ,acacia1 ,desmanthus1 ,gleditschia1 ,porleria1 and ,tamarindus4 ,this beautiful form occurs in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 where1 under equal parallels of latitude1 vegetation is more varied and luxuriant than in ,europe4 ,the ,mimosas are generally characterised1 like the ,italian pine1 by an umbellate expansion of their branches4 ,an extremely picturesque effect is produced by the deep blue of a tropical sky gleaming through the delicate tracery of their foliage4 ,heaths#hi1 which more especially belong to an ,african group of plants1 include1 according to physiognomic character and general appearance1 the ,epacride and ,diosme1 many ,proteace1 and the ,australian ,acacias1 which have no leaves but mere flattened petioles 7phyllodia74 ,this group bears some resemblance to acicular-leaved forms1 with which it contrasts the more gracefully by the abundance of its campanulate blossoms4 ,the arborescent heaths1 like some few other ,african plants1 extend as far as the northern shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,they adorn the plains of ,italy1 and the ,cistus groves of southern ,spain1 but ,i have nowhere seen them growing more luxuriantly than on the declivities of the ,peak of ,teyde at ,teneriffe4 ,in the countries bordering on the ,baltic1 and further northward1 the appearance of this form of plants is regarded with apprehension1 as the precursor of drought and barrenness4 ,our heaths1 ,erica 7,calluna7 vulgaris1 and ,erica tetralix1 ,e4 carnea and ,e4 cinerea1 are social plants1 against whose extension agricultural nations have contended for centuries1 with but little success4 ,it is singular that the principal representative of this family should be peculiar to one side of our planet alone4 ,there is only one of the three hundred known species of ,erica to be met with in the new continent1 from ,pennsylvania and ,labrador to ,nootka ,sound and ,alaschka4 ,the ,cactus form#ij1 on the other hand1 is almost peculiar to the new continent2 it is sometimes globular1 sometimes articulated1 sometimes rising in tall polygonal columns not unlike organ-pipes4 ,this group forms the most striking contrast with the ,lily and ,banana families1 and belongs to that class of plants which ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre felicitously terms vegetable fountains of the ,desert4 ,in the parched arid plains of ,south ,america1 the thirsting animals eagerly seek the ,melon-cactus1 a globular plant half-buried in the dry sand1 whose succulent interior is concealed by formidable prickles4 ,the stems of the columnar cactus attain a height of more than #cj feet2 their candelabra-like ramifications1 frequently covered with lichens1 reminding the traveller1 by some analogy in their physiognomy1 of certain of the ,african ,euphorbias4 ,while these plants form green ,oases in the barren desert1 the ,orchide#ia shed beauty over the most desolate rocky clefts1 and the seared and blackened stems of those tropical trees which have been discoloured by the action of light4 ,the ,vanilla form is distinguished by its light green succulent leaves1 and by its variegated and singularly shaped blossoms4 ,some of the orchideous flowers resemble in shape winged insects1 while others look like birds1 attracted by the fragrance of the honey vessels4 ,an entire life would not suffice to enable an artist1 although limiting himself to the specimens afforded by one circumscribed region1 to depict the splendid ,orchide which embellish the deep alpine valleys of the ,peruvian ,andes4 ,the form of the ,casuarine#ib1 leafless1 like almost all the species of ,cactus1 comprises a group of trees having branches resembling the ,equisetum1 and is peculiar to the islands of the ,pacific and to the ,east ,indies4 ,traces of this type1 which is certainly more singular than beautiful1 may however be found in other regions of the earth4 ,plumier's ,equisetum altissimum1 ,forskl's ,ephedra aphylla of ,north ,africa1 the ,peruvian ,colletia1 and the ,siberian ,calligonum ,pallasia1 are nearly allied to the form of the ,casuarinas4 ,while the ,banana form presents us with the greatest degree of expansion1 the ,casuarinas and the acicular-leaved#ic trees exhibit the greatest contraction of the leaf-vessels4 ,pines1 ,thujas1 and ,cypresses constitute a northern form but rarely met with in the tropics and in some conifer 7,dammara ,salisburia71 the leaves are both broad and acicular4 ,their evergreen foliage enlivens the gloom of the dreary winter landscape1 while it proclaims to the natives of the polar regions that1 although snow and ice cover the surface1 the inner life of plants1 like the ,promethean fire1 is never wholly extinct on our planet4 ,besides the ,orchide1 the ,pothos tribe of plants#id also yields a graceful covering to the aged stems of forest trees in the tropical world1 like the parasitic mosses and lichens of our own climes4 ,their succulent herbaceous stalks are furnished with large leaves1 arrow-shaped1 digitate1 or elongated1 and invariably furnished with thick veins4 ,the blossoms of the ,aroide are inclosed in spathes1 by which their vital heat is increased2 they are stemless1 and send forth arial roots4 ,pothos1 ,dracontium1 ,caladium1 and ,arum are all kindred forms2 and the last-named extends as far as the coasts of the ,mediterranean1 contributing1 together with succulent ,tussilago 7,coltsfoot71 high thistles1 and the ,acanthus1 to give a luxuriant southern character to the vegetation of ,spain and ,italy4 ,this ,arum form is associated1 in the torrid regions of ,south ,america1 with the tropical ,lianes or creeping plants#ie1 which exhibit the utmost luxuriance of vegetation in ,paullinias1 ,banisterias1 ,bignonias1 and ,passion-flowers4 ,our tendrilled hops and vines remind us of this tropical form4 ,on the ,orinoco the leafless branches of the ,bauhinia are often upwards of #dj feet in length1 sometimes hanging perpendicularly from the summit of lofty ,swieteni1 7,mahogany trees71 sometimes stretched obliquely like ropes from a mast2 along these the tiger-cat may be seen climbing to and fro with wonderful agility4 ,the self-sustaining form of the bluish-flowered ,aloe tribe#if presents a marked contrast to the pliant climbing lianes with their fresh and brilliant verdure4 ,when there is a stem it is almost branchless1 closely marked with spiral rings1 and surrounded by a crown of succulent1 fleshy1 long-pointed leaves1 which radiate from a centre4 ,the lofty-stemmed aloe does not grow in clusters like other social plants1 but stands isolated in the midst of dreary solitudes1 imparting to the tropical landscape a peculiar melancholy 7one might almost say ,african7 character4 ,to this aloe form belong1 in reference to physiognomic resemblance and the impression they produce on the landscape3 the ,pitcairnias1 from the family of the ,bromeliace1 which in the chain of the ,andes grow out of clefts in the rock2 the great ,pournetia pyramidata 7the ,atschupalla of the elevated plateaux of ,new ,grenada72 the ,american aloe 7,agave71 ,bromelia ,ananas and ,b4 ,karatas2 those rare species of the family of the ,euphorbiace1 which have thick1 short1 candelabra-like divided stems2 the ,african aloe1 and the ,dragon tree1 ,dracna ,draco1 of the family of the ,asphodele2 and lastly the tall flowering ,yucca1 allied to the ,liliace4 ,while the ,aloe form is characterised by an air of solemn repose and immobility1 the grass form#ig1 especially as regards the physiognomy of the arborescent grasses1 is expressive of buoyant lightness and flexible slenderness4 ,in both the ,indies1 bamboo groves form arched and shady walks4 ,the smooth and often inclined and waving stem of the tropical grasses exceeds in height our alders and oaks4 ,as far north as ,italy1 this form already begins1 in the ,arundo ,donax1 to raise itself from the ground1 and to determine1 by height as well as mass1 the natural character of the country4 ,the form of ,ferns#ih1 like that of grasses1 also assumes nobler dimensions in the torrid regions of the earth1 and the arborescent ferns1 which frequently attain the height of above forty feet1 have a palm-like appearance1 although their stem is thicker1 shorter1 and more rough and scaly1 than that of the palm4 ,the leaf is more delicate1 of a loose and more transparent texture1 and sharply serrated on the margins4 ,these colossal ferns belong almost exclusively to the tropics1 but there they prefer the temperate localities4 ,as in these latitudes diminution of heat is merely the consequence of an increase of elevation1 we may regard mountains that rise #bjjj or #cjjj feet above the level of the sea as the principal seat of these plants4 ,arborescent ferns grow in ,south ,america1 side by side with that beneficent tree whose stem yields the febrifuge bark1 and both forms of vegetation are indicative of the happy region where reigns the genial mildness of perpetual spring4 ,i have now to mention the form of the ,liliaceous plants#ii1 ,amaryllis1 ,ixia1 ,gladiolus1 and ,pancratium1 with their flag-like leaves and splendid blossoms1 the principal home of which is ,southern ,africa2 also the ,willow form#ajj1 which is indigenous in all latitudes1 and is represented in the plateaux of ,quito1 not by the shape of its leaves1 but in the form of its ramification1 in ,schinus ,molle2 also the ,myrtle-form#aja 7,metrosideros1 ,eucalyptus1 ,escallonia myrtelloides72 ,melastomace#ajb2 and the ,laurel form#ajc4 ,it would be an undertaking worthy of a great artist to study the character of all these vegetable groups1 not in hothouses1 or from the descriptions of botanists1 but on the grand theatre of tropical nature4 ,how interesting and instructive to the landscape painter#ajd would be a work that should present to the eye accurate delineations of the sixteen principal forms enumerated1 both individually and in collective contrast6 ,what can be more picturesque than the arborescent ,ferns1 which spread their tender foliage above the ,mexican laureloak6 what more charming than the aspect of banana-groves1 shaded by those lofty grasses1 the ,guadua and ,bamboo6 ,it is peculiarly the privilege of the artist to separate these into groups1 and thus the beautiful images of nature1 if we may be permitted the simile1 resolve themselves beneath his touch1 like the written works of man1 into a few simple elements4 ,it is beneath the glowing rays of a tropical sun1 that the noblest forms of vegetation are developed4 ,in the cold ,north the bark of trees is covered only with dry lichens and mosses1 while beneath the tropics the ,cymbidium and the fragrant ,vanilla adorn the trunks of the ,anacardias and the gigantic ,fig-tree4 ,the fresh green of the ,pothos leaves and of the ,dracontias contrast with the many coloured blossoms of the ,orchide2 climbing ,bauhinias1 ,passion-flowers and golden flowered ,banisterias encircle every tree of the forest4 ,delicate blossoms unfold themselves from the roots of the ,theobroma1 and from the thick and rough bark of the ,crescentia and ,gustavia#aje4 ,amid this luxuriant abundance of flowers and foliage1 amid this exuberance and tangled web of creeping plants1 it is often difficult for the naturalist to recognise the stems to which the various leaves and blossoms belong4 ,a single tree1 adorned with ,paullinias1 ,bignonias1 and ,dendrobias1 forms a group of plants1 which1 separated from each other1 would cover a considerable space of ground4 ,in the tropics1 plants are more succulent1 of a fresher green1 and have larger and more glossy leaves1 than in the northern regions4 ,social plants1 which give such a character of uniformity to ,european vegetation1 are almost wholly absent in the equatorial zone4 ,trees1 almost twice as high as our oaks1 there bloom with flowers as large and splendid as our lilies4 ,on the shady banks of the ,magdalena ,river1 in ,south ,america1 grows a climbing ,aristolochia1 whose blossoms1 measuring four feet in circumference1 the ,indian children sportively draw on their heads as caps#ajf4 ,in the ,south ,indian ,archipelago1 the flower of the ,rafflesia is nearly three feet in diameter1 and weighs above fourteen pounds4 ,the extraordinary height to which not only individual mountains but even whole districts rise in tropical regions1 and the consequent cold of such elevations1 affords the inhabitant of the tropics a singular spectacle4 ,for besides his own palms and bananas1 he is surrounded by those vegetable forms which would seem to belong solely to northern latitudes4 ,cypresses1 pines1 and oaks1 barberry shrubs and alders 7nearly allied to our own species7 cover the mountain plains of ,southern ,mexico and the chain of the ,andes at the equator4 ,thus nature has permitted the native of the torrid zone to behold all the vegetable forms of the earth without quitting his own clime1 even as are revealed to him the luminous worlds which spangle the firmament from pole to pole#ajg4 ,these and many other of the enjoyments which nature affords are denied to the nations of the ,north4 ,many constellations and many vegetable forms1 including more especially the most beautiful productions of the earth 7palms1 tree-ferns1 bananas1 arborescent grasses1 and delicately feathered mimosas71 remain for ever unknown to them2 for the puny plants pent up in our hothouses1 give but a faint idea of the majestic vegetation of the tropics4 ,but the rich development of our language1 the glowing fancy of the poet1 and the imitative art of the painter1 afford us abundant compensation2 and enable the imagination to depict in vivid colours the images of an exotic ,nature4 ,in the frigid ,north1 amid barren heaths1 the solitary student may appropriate all that has been discovered in the most remote regions of the earth1 and thus create within himself a world as free and imperishable as the spirit from which it emanates4 ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions4 ,footnote #ga3 p4 #baj--8,on the ,chimborazo1 upwards of eight thousand feet higher than ,etna40 ,small singing birds1 and even butterflies1 7as ,i have myself witnessed in the ,pacific17 are often met with at great distances from the shore1 during storms blowing off land4 ,in a similar manner insects are involuntarily carried into the higher regions of the atmosphere1 to an elevation of #ag1jjj to #ai1jjj feet above the plains4 ,the light bodies of these insects are borne upwards by the vertically ascending currents of air caused by the heated condition of the earth's surface4 ,m4 ,boussingault1 an admirable chemist1 who ascended the ,gneiss ,mountains of ,caracas1 while holding the appointment of ,professor in the newly established ,mining ,academy at ,santa ,f de ,bogot1 witnessed1 during his ascent to the summit of the ,silla1 a phenomenon which confirmed in a most remarkable manner this vertical ascent of air4 ,he and his companion1 ,don ,mariano de ,rivero1 observed at noon a number of luminous whitish bodies rise from the valley of ,caracas to the summit of the ,silla1 an elevation of #egee feet1 and then sink towards the adjacent sea coast4 ,this phenomenon was uninterruptedly prolonged for a whole hour1 when it was discovered that the bodies1 at first mistaken for a flock of small birds1 were a number of minute balls of grass-haums4 ,boussingault sent me some of this grass1 which was immediately recognised by ,professor ,kunth as a species of ,vilfa1 a genus of grass which together with ,agrostis is of frequent occurrence in the provinces of ,caracas and ,cumana4 ,it was the ,vilfa tenacissima of our ,synopsis ,plantarum quinoctialium ,orbis ,novi1 t4 i4 p4 #bje4 ,saussure found butterflies on ,mont ,blanc1 and ,ramond observed them in the solitudes around the summit of ,mont ,perdu4 ,when ,,mm4 ,bonpland1 ,carlos ,montufar1 and myself1 on the #bcrd of ,june1 #ahjb1 ascended the eastern declivity of ,mount ,chimborazo1 to a height of #ai1bhf feet1 and where the barometer had fallen to #adhd inches1 we found winged insects buzzing around us4 ,we recognised them to be ,diptera1 resembling flies1 but it was impossible to catch these insects standing on the rocky ledges 7cuchilla71 often less than a foot in breadth1 and between masses of snow precipitated from above4 ,the elevation at which we observed these insects was almost the same as that in which the naked trachytic rock1 which projected from the eternal snows around1 exhibited the last traces of vegetation in ,lecidea geographica4 ,these insects were flying at an elevation of #ah1bbe feet1 or nearly #bffj feet higher than the summit of ,mont ,blanc3 and somewhat below this height1 at an elevation of #af1fbf feet1 and therefore also above the region of snow1 ,m4 ,bonpland saw yellow butterflies flying close to the ground4 ,the mammalia which live nearest to the region of perpetual snow1 are1 in the ,swiss ,alps1 the hybernating marmot1 and a very small field-mouse1 7,hypudus nivalis17 described by ,martius1 which on the ,faulhorn lays up1 almost under the snow1 a store of the roots of phanerogamic alpine plants4,,jc ,the opinion prevalent in ,europe1 that the beautiful rodent1 the ,chinchilla1 whose soft and glossy fur is so much esteemed1 is found in the highest mountain regions of ,chili1 is an error4 ,the ,chinchilla laniger 7,gray7 lives only in a mild lower zone1 and does not advance further south than the parallel of #ce4;,,jd ,whilst among our ,european ,alps1 ,lecideas1 ,parmelias1 and ,umbilicarias but scantily clothe with a few coloured patches those rocks that are not wholly covered with snow1 we found in the ,andes1 at elevations of #ac1gjj to nearly #ae1jjj feet1 some phanerogamic plants which we were the first to describe2 as for instance1 the woolly species of ,fraylejon4 7,culcitium nivale1 ,c4 rufescens1 and ,c4 reflexum1 ,espeletia grandiflora1 and ,e4 argentea71 ,sida pichinchensis1 ,ranunculus nubigenus1 ,r4 ,gusmanni with red or orange-coloured flowers1 the small moss-like umbelliferous plant1 ,myrrhis andicola1 and ,fragosa arctioides4 ,on the declivity of the ,chimborazo1 the ,saxifraga ,boussingaulti1 described by ,adolph ,brongniart1 grows beyond the limits of perpetual snow on loose blocks of stone at an elevation of #ae1ggj feet above the level of the sea1 and not at #ag1jjj as has been stated in two admirable ,english journals4,,je ,this ,saxifrage1 discovered by ,boussingault1 must therefore be regarded as the highest growing phanerogamic plant in the world4 ,the vertical height of ,chimborazo is1 according to my measurement1 #ba1dbb feet4,,jf ,this result is a mean between those which have been given by the ,french and ,spanish ,academicians4 ,the principal differences do not here depend on different assumptions for the refraction1 but on a difference in reducing the measured line to the level of the sea4 ,this reduction can only be made in the ,andes by the barometer1 and hence every so-called trigonometric measurement must also necessarily be a barometric one1 whose result will vary according to the different formul employed4 ,owing to the enormous mass of the mountain chain1 we can only obtain very small angles of altitude1 when the greater portion of the whole height has to be measured trigonometrically1 and the observation is made at some low and distant point near the plain or the level of the sea4 ,it is on the other hand extremely difficult to obtain a convenient base line1 as the space that is to be determined barometrically increases with every step we advance towards the mountain4 ,these obstacles have to be encountered by every traveller who on the high table-lands1 which surround the summit of the ,andes1 selects a spot for performing a geodetic operation4 ,on the pumice-covered plain of ,tapia1 to the west of the ,rio ,chambo1 at a height of #idgg feet1 barometrically determined1 ,i measured the ,chimborazo4 ,the ,llanos de ,luisa1 and more especially the plain of ,sisgun1 whose elevation is #ab1aej feet1 would yield greater angles of altitude4 ,i had on one occasion made every preparation necessary for the measurement of ,mount ,chimborazo1 from the plain of ,sisgun1 when the summit of the mountain was suddenly shrouded in a dense cloud4 ,some hypothetical suggestions1 regarding the probable derivation of the name of the far-famed 8,chimborazo10 may not be wholly unwelcome to etymologists4 ,the district in which the mountain is situated is called ,chimbo1 a word which ,la ,condamine,,jg derives from chimpani1 to cross a river4 8,chimborao0 means1 according to him1 8the snow of the opposite bank10 from the fact of a brook being crossed at the village of ,chimbo1 in sight of the huge snow-covered mountain4 7,in the ,quichua language chimpa signifies the opposite bank or side2 chimpani to cross a river1 bridge1 c47 ,several natives of the province of ,quito assured me that ,chimborazo meant simply the snow of ,chimbo4 ,in ,carguairazo we meet with the same termination1 and it would appear that 8razo0 is a provincial word4 ,the ,jesuit ,holguin1 whose excellent vocabulary,,jh ,i possess1 is not acquainted with the word razo4 ,the genuine term for snow is ritti4 ,on the other hand1 my friend1 ,professor ,buschmann1 an admirable linguist1 remarks that in the ,chinchaysuyo dialect1 7employed north of ,cuzco as far as ,quito and ,pasto7 raju1 the j being apparently guttural1 signifies snow4,,ji ,as chimpa and chimpani do not well suit on account of the a1 we may seek a definite meaning for the first portion of the name of the mountain and of the village ,chimbo1 in the ,quichua word 8chimpu10 which is used to express a coloured thread or fringe 7seal de lana1 hilo borlilla de colores72 the redness of the sky 7arreboles71 and the halo round the sun and moon4 ,the name of the mountain might be thus derived from this word1 without reference to the district or village4 ,at all events1 whatever may be the etymology of the word ,chimborazo1 it should be written in the ,peruvian manner ,chimporazo1 as the ,peruvians have no b in their alphabet4 ,may not the name of this colossal mountain be wholly independent of the ,inca language1 and have come down from a bygone age8 ,the ,inca or ,quichua language had not been introduced long prior to the ,spanish invasion into the kingdom of ,quito1 where the now wholly extinct ,puruay language had been previously used4 ,the names of other mountains1 as ,pichincha1 ,ilinissa1 and ,cotopaxi1 are wholly devoid of meaning in the language of the ,incas1 and are therefore undoubtedly of higher antiquity than the introduction of the worship of the sun1 and of the court-language of the rulers of ,cuzco4 ,the names of mountains and rivers belong in all regions of the earth to the most ancient and authentic relics of languages2 and my brother1 ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 in his investigations into the former distribution of the ,iberian races1 has made ingenious use of these names4 ,a singular and unexpected statement has recently been made1,,jj 8that the ,incas1 ,tupac ,yupanqui1 and ,huayna ,capac1 were astonished on their first conquest of ,quito1 to find a dialect of their ,quichua language in use among the natives40 ,prescott1 however1 seems to regard this as a very bold assertion4,,jk ,if we could suppose the pass of ,st4 ,gothard1 ,mount ,athos1 or the ,rigi1 piled on the summit of the ,chimborazo1 we should have the elevation which is at present ascribed to the ,dhawalagiri in the ,himalaya4 ,the geologist who regards the interior of our planet from a more general point of view1 and to whom not the directions1 but the relative heights of the rocky projections1 which we designate mountain chains1 appear but as phenomena of little importance1 will not be astonished if at some future period mountain summits should be discovered between the ,himalaya and the ,altai1 which should surpass in height those of ,dhawalagiri and ,djawahir as much as these exceed that of ,chimborazo4,,jl ,the great height to which the snow-line recedes in summer on the northern declivity of the ,himalaya1 owing to the heat radiated from the elevated plateaux in ,central ,asia1 renders the mountain1 notwithstanding that it is situated in #bi to #cj north lat41 as accessible as are the ,peruvian ,andes in the region of the tropics4 ,captain ,gerard has moreover recently ascended the ,tarhigang as high1 if not #aag feet higher1,,jm than ,i ascended the ,chimborazo4 ,unfortunately1 as ,i have elsewhere more fully shown1 these mountain ascents1 beyond the line of perpetual snow1 however they may engage the curiosity of the public1 are of very little scientific utility4 ,footnote #gb3 p4 #baj--8,the ,condor1 that giant among vultures40 ,i have elsewhere,,jn given the natural history of the ,condor1 which before my travels had been variously misstated4 ,the name is properly ,cuntur in the ,inca language2 ,maque among the ,araucanes in ,chili2 ,sarcoramphus ,condor according to ,dumril4 ,i sketched the head of this bird from life1 of the natural size1 and had my drawing engraved4 ,next to the ,condor1 the ,lmmergeier of ,switzerland1 and the ,falco destructor 7,daud471 probably ,linnus' ,falco ,harpyia1 are the largest of all flying birds4 ,the region which may be regarded as the common resort of the ,condor1 begins at the elevation of ,mount ,etna4 ,it embraces atmospheric strata which are from #aj1jjj to #ai1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,humming birds also1 which in their summer flights advance as far as #fa north lat4 on the western coast of ,america1 and are on the other hand found in the ,archipelago of the ,tierra del ,fuego1 were seen by ,von ,tschudi in ,puna at an elevation of #ad1fjj feet4,,jo ,there is a pleasure in comparing the largest and the smallest of the feathered inhabitants of the air4 ,the largest among the ,condors found in the ,cordilleras1 near ,quito1 measure nearly #ae feet across the expanded wings1 and the smaller ones #h feet4 ,this size1 and the visual angle at which the birds are seen vertically above one's head1 afford an idea of the enormous height to which the ,condor soars in a clear sky4 ,a visual angle of four minutes1 for instance1 would give a vertical elevation of #gccj feet4 ,the cavern 7,mackay7 of ,antisana1 opposite the mountain of ,chussulongo1 and where we measured the birds soaring over the chain of the ,andes1 lies at an elevation of nearly #af1jjj feet above the surface of the ,pacific2 the absolute height which the ,condor reached must therefore be #bc1bgc feet1 a height at which the barometer scarcely stands at #abg inches2 but which1 however1 does not exceed that of the loftiest summit of the ,himalaya4 ,it is a remarkable physiological phenomenon that the same bird1 which wheels for hours together through these highly rarefied regions1 should be able suddenly1 as for instance on the western declivity of the volcano of ,pichincha1 to descend to the sea-shore1 and thus in the course of a few hours traverse1 as it were1 all climates4 ,at heights of #bc1jjj feet and upwards the membranous air-sacs of the ,condor must undergo a remarkable degree of inflation after being filled in lower regions of the atmosphere4 ,ulloa1 more than a hundred years ago1 expressed his astonishment that the ,vulture of the ,andes could soar at heights where the pressure of the atmosphere was less than fifteen inches4,,jp ,an opinion was at that time entertained1 from the analogy of experiments made with the air-pump1 that no animal could exist under this slight amount of atmospheric pressure4 ,i have myself1 as has already been mentioned1 seen the barometer fall to #adhe inches on the ,chimborazo2 and my friend1 ,m4 ,gay-,lussac1 breathed for a quarter of an hour an atmosphere in which the pressure was only #abi inches4 ,it must be admitted that man1 when wearied by muscular exertion1 finds himself in a state of painful exhaustion at such elevations2 but in the ,condor1 the respiratory process seems to be performed with equal facility under a pressure of #cj or of #ac inches4 ,this bird probably raises itself voluntarily to a greater height from the surface of our earth than any other living creature4 ,i use the expression 8voluntarily10 since small insects and siliceous-shelled infusoria are frequently borne to greater elevations by a rising current of air4 ,it is probable that the ,condor flies even higher than the above calculations would appear to show4 ,i remember observing near the ,cotopaxi1 in the pumice plain of ,suniguaicu1 at an elevation of #ad1dga feet above the level of the sea1 this bird soaring at such a height above my head that it appeared like a black speck4 ,but what is the smallest angle under which faintly illumined objects can be distinguished8 ,their form 7linear extension7 exercises a great influence on the minimum of this angle4 ,the transparency of the mountain air is so great under the equator1 that in the province of ,quito1 as ,i have elsewhere stated1 the white cloak 7poncho7 of a horseman may be distinguished with the naked eye at a horizontal distance of #hi1ffd feet1 and therefore under an angle of thirteen seconds4 ,it was my friend ,bonpland whom we observed1 from the pleasant country-seat of the ,marques de ,selvalegre1 moving along a black rocky precipice on the volcano of ,pichincha4 ,lightning conductors1 being thin elongated objects1 are visible1 as ,arago has observed1 from the greatest distances and under the smallest angles4 ,the account ,i have given in my ,monograph of the ,condor 7,zoologie1 pp4 #bf-de7 of the habits of this powerful bird in the mountain districts of ,quito and ,peru has been confirmed by a more recent traveller1 ,gay1 who has explored the whole of ,chili1 and described it in his admirable work1 ,historia fisica y politica de ,chile4 ,this bird which1 singularly enough1 like the ,lamas1 ,vicuas1 ,alpacas and ,guanacos1 is not found beyond the equator in ,new ,granada1 penetrates as far south as the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,in ,chili1 as in the elevated plateaux of ,quito1 the ,condors1 which usually live in pairs1 or even alone1 congregate in flocks for the purpose of attacking lambs and calves1 or seizing on young ,guanacos 7,guanacillos74 ,the havoc annually committed by the ,condor among the herds of sheep1 goats and cattle1 as well as among the wild vicuas1 alpacas and guanacos of the chain of the ,andes is very considerable4 ,the ,chilians assert that this bird when in captivity can endure hunger for forty days2 when in a free state1 however1 its voracity is excessive1 and it then1 like the vulture1 feeds by preference on carrion4 ,the mode of catching these birds1 by an inclosure of palisades such as ,i have already described1 is as successful in ,chili as in ,peru1 for the bird after being rendered heavy from excess of food is obliged to run a short distance with half-extended wings before it can take flight4 ,a dead ox which is already in an incipient state of decomposition1 is strongly inclosed with palisades1 within which narrow space the ,condors throng together2 being unable1 as already observed1 to fly on account of the excess of food which they have devoured1 and impeded in their run by the palisades1 these birds are either killed by the natives with clubs1 or are caught alive by the lasso4 ,the ,condor was represented as a symbol of strength on the coinage of ,chili immediately after the first declaration of political independence4,,jq ,the different species of ,gallinazos1 which are much more considerable in point of numbers than the ,condors1 are also far more useful than the latter in the great economy of ,nature for destroying and removing animal substances that are becoming decomposed1 and thus purifying the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of human dwellings4 ,in tropical ,america1 ,i have sometimes seen seventy or eighty of these creatures collected round a dead ox2 and ,i am able1 as an eye-witness1 to confirm the fact that has of late erroneously been called in question by ornithologists1 that the appearance of one single king-vulture 7who is not larger than the ,gallinazos7 is sufficient to put a whole assemblage of these birds to flight4 ,no contest ever takes place2 but the ,gallinazos 7two species of which1 7,cathartes urubu and ,c4 aura17 have been confounded together by an unfortunately fluctuating nomenclature7 are intimidated by the sudden appearance and the courageous demeanour of the richly coloured 8,sarcoramphus ,papa40 ,as the ancient ,egyptians protected the ,percnopteri1 which purified the atmosphere1 so also the wanton destruction of ,gallinazos is punished in ,peru by a fine 7multa7 which1 according to ,gay1 amounts in some cities to #cjj piastres for every bird4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that this species of vulture1 as was already testified by ,don ,felix de ,azara1 if trained early1 will so accustom themselves to the person who has reared them1 that they will follow him on a journey for many miles1 flying after his carriage across the ,pampa4 ,footnote #gc3 p4 #baa--8;,encloses their rotating bodies40 ,fontana1 in his admirable treatise 8on the poison of the viper10 vol4 i4 p4 #fb1 mentions that he succeeded in restoring to animation1 after two hours' immersion in a drop of water1 a wheel-animalcule which had lain in a dried and motionless condition for the space of two years and a half4,,jr ,the so-called reanimation of ,rotifera has very recently again been made a subject of lively discussion1 since observations have been conducted with more exactness and subjected to a stricter criticism4 ,baker affirmed that in #agga1 he had revived paste-eels which ,needham had given him in the year #agdd6 ,franz ,bauer saw his ,vibrio tritici1 which had lain four years in a dry state1 move on being moistened4 ,the remarkably careful and experienced observer1 ,doyre1,,js draws the following conclusions from his beautiful experiments3 that ,rotifera revive1 i4e4 pass from a motionless state to one of motion1 after being exposed to a cold of #aa4b ,fahr41 or to a heat of #aac ,fahr42 that they preserve the property of reviving in dry sand up to a temperature of #aei ,fahr42 but that they lose this property and remain immoveable if warmed in moist sand to #aca ,fahr4 only2,,jt and that the possibility of this so-called revivification is not prevented by their being exposed to desiccation for twenty-eight days in barometric tubes1 in vacuo1 even should chloride of lime or sulphuric acid be employed4,,ju ,doyre has also seen ,rotifera slowly revive after being dried without sand1 7desschs nu17 a fact which ,spallanzani denies4,,jv 8,desiccation conducted in an ordinary temperature might be open to many objections which are not perhaps wholly obviated by the employment of a dry vacuum2 but when we observe that the ,tardigrades irrevocably perish in a temperature of #aca ,fahr4 if their tissues are permeated with water1 whereas they can1 when dried1 support a temperature that may be estimated at #bdh ,fahr41 we are disposed to admit that the sole condition required for animal revivification is the perfect integrity of organic structure and continuity40 ,in like manner1 the sporules1 or germinating cells of cryptogamic plants1 which ,kunth compares to the propagation of certain phanerogamic plants by buds 7bulbill71 retain their power of germination in the highest temperature4 ,according to the most recent experiments of ,payen1 the sporules of a small fungus 7,odium aurantiacum71 which invests the crumb of bread with a reddish feathery coating1 do not even lose their vegetative powers by being exposed in closed tubes for half an hour to a temperature of #ahc to #bjh ,fahr4 before being strewn on fresh1 unspoilt dough4 ,may not the newly discovered and wonderful monad 7,monas prodigiosa71 which causes blood-like spots in mealy substances1 have been mixed with this fungus8 ,ehrenberg1 in his great work on ,infusoria 7p4 #dib-dif71 has given the most complete history of all the observations instituted on the so-called revivification of ,rotifera4 ,he believes1 that notwithstanding all the means of desiccation employed1 the organization-fluid still remains in the apparently dead animal4 ,he contests the hypothesis of 8latent life02 for death1 he says1 8is not life in a torpid state1 but the absence of life40 ,the hybernation or winter-sleep of both warm and coldblooded animals1 as dormice1 marmots1 sand-martins 7,hirundo riparia1 according to ,cuvier7,,jw1 and of frogs and toads1 affords us evidence of the diminution1 if not of the complete suspension1 of the organic functions4 ,frogs awakened from their winter-sleep by warmth1 can remain eight times longer under water1 without drowning1 than frogs in the breeding season4 ,it seems as if the respiratory functions of the lungs require a less degree of activity after the long suspension of their excitability4 ,the circumstance of the sand-martin burying itself during the winter in marshes1 is a phenomenon which1 while it scarcely admits of a doubt1 is the more remarkable1 because in birds1 the function of respiration is so extremely energetic1 that1 according to ,lavoisier's experiments1 two sparrows in an ordinary condition will1 in the same time1 decompose as much atmospheric air as a ,guinea-pig4,,jx ,winter-sleep is not supposed to be general to the whole species of these sand-martins1 but only to some few individuals4,,jy ,as in the frigid zone deprivation of warmth produces winter-sleep in some animals1 so in the torrid regions1 within the tropics1 an analogous phenomenon is manifested that has not hitherto been sufficiently regarded1 and to which ,i have applied the term summer-sleep4,,jz ,drought and a continuous high temperature act like the cold of winter in reducing excitability4 ,madagascar1 excepting a very small portion of its southern extremity1 lies within the tropics1 and here1 as was already observed by ,bruguire1 the hedgehog-like ,tenrecs 7,centeres1 ,illiger71 one species of which 7,c4 ecaudatus7 was introduced into the ,isle of ,france 7#bj #i1 latitude71 sleep during excessive heat4 ,the objection advanced by ,desjardins1 that the time of their sleep falls within the season of winter in the southern hemisphere1 can scarcely be regarded as applicable in reference to a country1 where the mean temperature of the coldest month is nearly #g ,fahr4 above that of the hottest month in ,paris2 and this circumstance cannot therefore change the three months' summer-sleep of the ,tenrec in ,madagascar and ,port ,louis 7,isle of ,france7 into actual hybernation4 ,in a similar manner1 the ,crocodile in the ,llanos of ,venezuela1 the land and water ,tortoises on the ,orinoco1 and the colossal ,boa1 and many of the smaller species of serpents1 lie torpid and motionless in the hardened ground1 throughout the hot and dry season of the year4 ,the missionary ,gilij relates1 that the natives1 in seeking the dormant ,terekai 7land-tortoises71 which lie buried in dry mud to the depth of #af or #ag inches1 are often bitten by serpents suddenly awakened1 and which had buried themselves with the tortoises4 ,an admirable observer1 ,dr4 ,peters1 who has only just returned from the eastern coast of ,africa1 writes to me as follows3 8,i could not obtain any certain information regarding the ,tenrec during my short stay in ,madagascar1 but ,i am1 on the other hand1 well aware1 that in the portion of eastern ,africa where ,i spent several years1 different species of tortoises 7,pentonyx and ,trionices7 remain enclosed for months together1 without food1 in the parched and indurated ground1 during the dry season of this tropical country4 ,the ,lepidosiren also remains motionless and coiled up in the hardened earth1 from ,may to ,december1 wherever the swamps have been dried up40 ,we thus meet with an enfeeblement of certain vital functions in numerous and very different classes of animals1 and1 what is peculiarly striking1 without the same phenomenon presenting itself in organisms nearly allied1 and belonging to one and the same family4 ,the northern glutton 7,gulo71 allied to the badger 7,meles71 does not1 like the latter1 sleep during the winter2 whilst1 according to ,cuvier1 8a ,myoxus 7,dormouse of ,senegal1 ,myoxus ,coupeii7 which had probably never experienced a winter-sleep in its tropical home1 fell into a state of hybernation at the beginning of winter1 the first year it was brought to ,europe40 ,this enfeeblement of the vital functions and vital activity passes through several gradations1 according as it extends to the processes of nutrition1 respiration and muscular movement1 or induces a depression of the cerebral and nervous systems4 ,the winter-sleep of the solitary bear and of the badger is not attended with rigidity1 and hence the awakening of these animals is easy1 and1 as ,i frequently heard in ,siberia1 very dangerous to the hunters and country people4 ,the recognition of the gradation and connection of these phenomena leads us to the so-called vita minima of the microscopic organisms1 which occasionally fall in the ,atlantic in showers of meteoric dust1 and some of which have green ovaries and are engaged in a self-generating process4 ,the apparent revivification of the ,rotifera and of the siliceous-shelled ,infusoria is only the renewal of long enfeebled vital functions--a condition of vitality never entirely extinguished1 but merely revived by excitation4 ,physiological phenomena can only be comprehended by being traced through the entire series of analogous modifications4 ,footnote #gd3 p4 #baa--8,winged ,insects40 ,the fructification of dicious plants was at one time principally ascribed to the agency of the wind4 ,it has been shown by ,klreuter1 and also with much ingenuity by ,sprengel1 that bees1 wasps and numerous small winged insects1 are the main agents in this process4 ,i use the phrase 8main agents01 since ,i cannot regard it as consonant to nature that fructification should be impossible without the intervention of these insects1 as ,willdenow has also fully shewn4,,ka ,on the other hand dichogamy1 sap-marks1 7macul indicantes71 coloured spots indicating the presence of honey-vessels1 and fructification by insects1 appear to be almost inseparable from one another4,,kb ,the statement often repeated since ,spallanzani1 that the dicious common hemp 7,cannabis sativa71 which was introduced into ,europe from ,persia1 bears ripe seeds without being in the neighbourhood of pollen-tubes1 has been entirely refuted by more recent investigations4 ,when seeds have been obtained1 anthers in a rudimentary state have been found near the ovarium1 and these may have been capable of yielding some grains of fructifying pollen4 ,such hermaphrodism is frequent in the whole family of ,urtice1 but a singular and hitherto unexplained phenomenon is manifested in the forcing-houses at ,kew by a small ,new ,holland shrub1 the ,clebogyne of ,smith4 ,this phanerogamic plant brings forth seeds in ,england without exhibiting any trace of male organs1 and without the bastard introduction of the pollen of any other plant4 8,a species of ,euphorbiace10 787 writes the distinguished botanist1 ,jussieu1 8the ,clebogyne1 which1 although but recently described1 has been cultivated for many years in ,english conservatories1 has several times borne seeds1 which were evidently perfect1 since the well-formed embryos they contained have produced similar plants4 ,the most careful observations have hitherto failed in discovering the slightest trace of anthers or even pollen in the flowers1 which are dicious4 ,no male plants of this kind are known to exist in ,england4 ,the embryo cannot therefore have come from the pollen1 which is wholly deficient1 but must have been formed entirely in the ovule40,,kc ,in order to obtain a fresh and confirmatory explanation of this important and isolated physiological phenomenon1 ,i lately addressed myself to my young friend1 ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker1 who after having accompanied ,sir ,james ,ross in his ,antarctic voyage1 has now joined the great ,thibeto-,himalayan expedition4 ,dr4 ,hooker wrote to me as follows from ,alexandria1 at the close of ,december1 #ahdg1 prior to his embarkation at ,suez3 8,our ,clebogyne still flowers with my father at ,kew1 as well as in the ,gardens of the ,horticultural ,society4 ,it ripens its seeds regularly4 ,i have repeatedly examined it with care1 but have never been able to discover a penetration of pollen utricles into the stigma1 nor any traces of their presence in the latter or in the style4 ,in my herbarium the male blossoms are in small catkins40 ,footnote #ge3 p4 #bab--8,like luminous stars40 ,the phosphorescence of the ocean is one of those splendid phenomena of nature which excite our admiration1 even when we behold its recurrence every night for months together4 ,the ocean is phosphorescent in all zones of the earth1 but he who has not witnessed the phenomenon in the tropics1 and especially in the ,pacific1 can form but a very imperfect idea of the majesty of this brilliant spectacle4 ,the traveller on board a man-of-war1 when ploughing the foaming waves before a fresh breeze1 feels that he can scarcely satisfy himself with gazing on the spectacle presented by the circling waves4 ,wherever the ship's side rises above the waves1 bluish or reddish flames seem to flash lightning-like upwards from the keel4 ,the appearance presented in the tropical seas on a dark night is indescribably glorious1 when shoals of dolphins are seen sporting around1 and cutting the foaming waves in long and circling lines1 gleaming with bright and sparkling light4 ,in the ,gulf of ,cariaco1 between ,cumana and the ,peninsula of ,maniquarez1 ,i have spent hours in enjoying this spectacle4 ,le ,gentil and the elder ,forster ascribed these flames to the electrical friction of the water on the vessel as it glides forward--an explanation that must1 in the present condition of our physical knowledge1 be regarded as untenable4,,kd ,there are probably few subjects of natural investigation which have excited so many and such long-continued contentions as the phosphorescence of sea-water4 ,all that is known with certainty regarding this much disputed question may be reduced to the following simple facts4 ,there are many luminous mollusca which possess the property when alive of emitting at will a faint phosphoric light2 which is of a bluish tinge in ,nereis noctiluca1 ,medusa pelagica var4 1,,ke and in the pipe-like ,monophora noctiluca1 discovered in ,baudin's expedition4,,kf ,the luminosity of sea-water is in part owing to living light-bearing animals1 and in part to the organic fibres and membranes of the same1 when in a state of decomposition4 ,the first-named of these causes of the phosphorescence of the ocean is undoubtedly the most common and the most widely diffused4 ,the more actively and the more efficiently that travellers engaged in the study of nature have learnt to employ powerful microscopes1 the more our zoological systems have been enriched by new groups of mollusca and infusoria1 whose property of emitting light either at will or from external stimulus has been recognised4 ,the luminosity of the sea1 as far as it depends on living organisms1 is principally owing1 among zoophytes1 to the ,acaleph 7the families of ,medus and ,cyane71 to some ,mollusca1 and to an innumerable host of ,infusoria4 ,among the small ,acaleph 7,sea-nettles71 the ,mammaria scintillans presents us1 as it were1 with the glorious image of the starry firmament reflected in the surface of the sea4 ,when full-grown this little creature scarcely equals in size the head of a pin4 ,the existence of siliceous-shelled luminous infusoria was first shown by ,michaelis at ,kiel4 ,he observed the coruscation of the ,peridinium4 7a ciliated animalcule17 of the ,cuirass-monad 7,prorocentrum micans71 and of a rotifer1 which he named ,synchata baltica1,,kg the same that ,focke subsequently found in the lagoons of ,venice4 ,my distinguished friend and fellow traveller in ,siberia1 ,ehrenberg1 succeeded in keeping two luminous ,infusoria of the ,baltic alive for nearly two months at ,berlin4 ,i examined them with him in #ahcb2 and saw them coruscate in a drop of sea-water on the darkened field of the microscope4 ,when these luminous ,infusoria 7the largest of which was only and the smallest from to of a of a ,parisian line in length7 were exhausted1 and ceased to emit sparks1 they would renew their flashing on being stimulated by the addition of acids or by the application of a little alcohol to the sea-water4 ,by repeatedly filtering fresh sea-water1 ,ehrenberg succeeded in procuring a fluid in which a large number of these light-emitting animalcules were accumulated4,,kh ,this acute observer has found in the organs of the ,photocharis which give off flashes of light 7either voluntarily or when stimulated71 a cellular structure of a gelatinous character in the interior1 and which manifests some similarity with the electric organ of the ,gymnotus and the ,torpedo4 8,when the ,photocharis is irritated1 in each cirrus a kindling and a gleaming of separate sparks may be observed1 which gradually increase and at length illuminate the whole cirrus2 until the living flame runs also over the back of this nereid-like animalcule1 making it appear under the microscope like a burning thread of sulphur with a greenish-yellow light4 ,in the ,oceania 7,thaumanthias7 hemisphrica1 the number and position of the sparks correspond accurately1 at the thickened base1 with the larger cirri or organs which alternate with them1 a circumstance that merits special attention4 ,the manifestation of this wreath of fire is an act of vitality1 and the whole development of light an organic vital process1 which exhibits itself in ,infusorial animals as a momentary spark of light1 and is repeated after short intervals of rest40,,ki ,the luminous animals of the ocean appear1 from these conjectures1 to prove the existence of a magneto-electric light-generating vital process in other classes of animals besides fishes1 insects1 mollusca1 and acaleph4 ,is the secretion of the luminous fluid which is effused in some animalcules1 and which continues to shine for a long period without further influence of the living organism 7as1 for instance1 in ,lampyrides and ,elaterides1 in the ,german and ,italian glow-worms1 and in the ,south ,american ,cucuyo of the sugar-cane71 merely the consequence of the first electric discharge1 or is it simply dependent on chemical composition8 ,the luminosity of insects surrounded by air assuredly depends on physiological causes different from those which give rise to a luminous condition in aquatic animals1 fishes1 ,medus1 and ,infusoria4 ,the small ,infusoria of the ocean1 being surrounded by strata of salt-water which constitutes a powerful conducting medium1 must be capable of an enormous electric tension of their flashing organs to enable them to shine so vividly in the water4 ,they strike like the ,torpedo1 the ,gymnotus1 and the ,electric ,silurus of the ,nile1 through the stratum of water3 whilst electric fishes which1 in connection with the galvanic circuit1 are capable of decomposing water1 and of imparting magnetic power to steel needles4 7as ,i showed more than half a century ago1,,kj and as ,john ,davy has more recently confirmed1,,kk7 yield no indications of electricity through the smallest intervening stratum of flame4 ,the considerations which we have here developed render it probable that one and the same process operates1 alike in the smallest living organisms invisible to the naked eye1 in the contests of the serpent-like ,gymnoti1 in the flashing luminous ,infusoria which impart such glorious brilliancy to the phosphorescence of the sea1 in the thunder-cloud and in the terrestrial or polar light 7the silent magnetic flashes71 which1 caused by an increased tension of the interior of the earth1 are announced1 for some hours previously1 by the sudden variations of the magnetic needle4,,kl ,sometimes one cannot1 even with high magnifying powers1 discover any animalcules in the luminous water2 and yet1 wherever a wave breaks in foam against a hard body1 and1 indeed1 wherever water is violently agitated1 flashes of light become visible4 ,the cause of this phenomenon depends probably on the decomposing fibres of dead ,mollusca1 which are diffused in the greatest abundance throughout the water4 ,if this luminous water be filtered through finely woven cloths1 the fibres and membranes appear like separate luminous points4 ,when we bathed at ,cumana1 in the gulf of ,cariaco1 and walked naked on the solitary beach in the beautiful evening air1 parts of our bodies remained luminous from the bright fibres and organic membranes which adhered to the skin1 nor did they lose this light for some minutes4 ,if we consider the enormous quantity of ,mollusca which animate all tropical seas1 we can hardly wonder that sea-water should be luminous1 even where no fibres can be visibly separated from it4 ,from the endless subdivision of the masses of dead ,dagys and ,medus the whole ocean may1 in fact1 be regarded as a fluid containing gelatine1 and1 as such1 luminous and of a nauseous taste2 unfit for the use of man1 but capable of affording nourishment to many species of fish4 ,on rubbing a board with a portion of the ,medusa hysocella1 the surface thus rubbed recovers its phosphorescence when friction is applied by means of the dry finger4 ,during my voyage to ,south ,america ,i occasionally placed a ,medusa on a tin plate1 and ,i then observed that if ,i struck the plate with another metallic substance the slightest vibrations of the tin were sufficient to cause the animal to emit light4 ,how do the blow and the vibrations here act8 ,is the temperature momentarily augmented1 or are new surfaces presented8 or1 again1 does some gaseous matter such as phosphuretted hydrogen1 exude in consequence of this impulse1 and burn when it comes in contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere1 or with that dissolved in the sea-water1 and by which the respiration of the ,mollusca is maintained8 ,this light-exciting effect of the blow is most remarkable in a cross or sugar-loaf sea1 7mer clapoteuse17 where the waves1 clashing from opposite directions1 rise in a conical form4 ,i have seen the ocean1 in the tropics1 luminous in the most opposite kinds of weather1 but most strongly so before a storm1 or in a sultry and hazy atmosphere with thick clouds4 ,heat and cold appear to exercise but little influence on this phenomenon1 for1 on the ,bank of ,newfoundland1 the phosphorescence is frequently very brilliant in the severest winter4 ,occasionally1 too1 the sea will be highly luminous one night1 and not at all so on the following1 notwithstanding an apparent identity of external conditions4 ,does the atmosphere favour this development of light8 or do all the differences observed during this phenomenon depend on the accidental circumstance of the sea being more or less impregnated1 in some parts1 with the gelatinous portions of mollusca8 ,perhaps these phosphorescent social animalcules only rise to the surface under certain conditions of the atmosphere4 ,it has been asked1 why our fresh-water swamps which are filled with polyps are not phosphorescent4 ,it would appear that1 both in animals and plants1 a peculiar mixture of organic particles favours this development of light2 thus1 for instance1 the wood of the willow is more frequently found to be luminous than that of the oak4 ,in ,england1 salt-water has been rendered luminous by mixing herring-brine with it2 indeed1 it will be easy for any one to convince himself by galvanic experiments1 that the luminosity of living animals depends on nervous irritation4 ,i have observed strong phosphorescence emitted from a dying ,elater noctilucus1 on touching the ganglion of its fore leg with zinc and silver4 ,medus also occasionally emit a stronger light at the moment the galvanic circuit is completed4,,km ,footnote #gf3 p4 #bac--8,which inhabits the lungs of the ,rattlesnake of the tropics40 ,the animal which ,i formerly named an ,echinorhynchus1 and to which ,i even applied the term ,porocephalus1 appears1 on a closer inspection1 according to ,rudolphi's better grounded opinion1 to belong to the division of ,pentastoma4,,kn ,it is found in the abdominal cavity and the wide-celled lungs of a species of ,crotalus1 which1 in ,cumana1 occasionally infests even the interior of houses1 and preys on mice4 ,the ,ascaris lumbrici,,ko lives beneath the skin of the common earth-worm1 and is the smallest of all the species of ,ascaris4 ,leucophra nodulata1 ,gleichen's pearl animalcule1 has been observed by ,otto ,friedrich ,mller in the interior of the reddish ,nais littoralis4,,kp ,it is probable that these microscopic animals are1 in their turn1 inhabited by others4 ,all are surrounded by air1 deficient in oxygen1 and copiously charged with hydrogen and carbonic acid4 ,it is extremely doubtful whether any animal could exist in pure nitrogen1 although such an opinion did1 formerly indeed1 seem warranted with reference to ,fischer's ,cistidicola farionis1 since1 according to ,fourcroy's experiments1 the swimming-bladder of fish was presumed to contain air wholly devoid of oxygen4 ,but the experiments made by ,erman1 and confirmed by myself1 prove that the swimming-bladder of fresh-water fish never contains pure nitrogen4,,kq ,in sea fish as much as #jhj parts of oxygen have been found1 while1 according to ,biot's views1 the purity of the air depends on the depth at which the fishes live4,,kr ,footnote #gg3 p4 #bad--8,the united ,lithophytes40 ,according to ,linnus and ,ellis the calcareous ,zoophytes1 7among which ,madrepores1 ,meandrin1 ,astr1 and ,pocillopor especially produce mural coral-reefs17 are inhabited and invested by animalcules1 which were long supposed to be allied to the ,nereids belonging to ,cuvier's ,annelida 7jointed worms74 ,the anatomy of these gelatinous animalcules has been made known by the acute and comprehensive researches of ,cavolini1 ,savigny1 and ,ehrenberg4 ,we have learned that1 in order to understand the whole organism of the 7so-called7 rock-building animals1 we must not consider the scaffolding which remains after their death1 namely1 the layers of lime formed into delicate lamell by a vital function of secretion1 as foreign to the soft membranes of the food-receiving animal4 ,besides our increased knowledge of the wonderful formation of the living coral-stocks1 a more correct view has gradually gained ground respecting the extensive influence which the coral world has exercised on the appearance of low island groups above the level of the sea1 on the migration of land-plants1 and the successive extension of the domain of the ,floras1 and1 indeed1 in some parts of the ocean1 on the distribution of the human race and of languages4 ,as minute social organisms the corals play an important part in the general economy of nature1 although they do not1 as people began to believe after ,capt4 ,cook's voyages of discovery1 build up islands or enlarge continents from almost unfathomable depths of the ocean4 ,they excite the liveliest interest1 whether regarded as physiological objects1 and as illustrating the various gradations of animal form1 or in connection with the geography of plants1 and the geognostic relations of the earth's crust4 ,according to the comprehensive views of ,leopold von ,buch1 the whole ,jura-formation consists of 8large elevated coral-banks of the ancient world1 surrounding at a certain distance the old mountain chains40 ,according to ,ehrenberg's classification1,,ks coral-animals1 7in ,english works often incorrectly termed coral-insects17 are separable into the monostomous ,anthozoa1 which are either free and with the power of detaching themselves1 as ,animal-corals2 or are attached in the manner of plants1 as ,phyto-corals4 ,to the first order 7,zoocorallia7 belong the ,hydras or ,armpolyps of ,trembley1 the ,actini1 radiant with the most splendid colours1 and the mushroom-corals2 and to the second order belong the ,madrepores1 the ,astr1 and the ,ocellin4 ,the ,polyps of the second order are those which from their cellular1 wave-resisting1 wall-works are the principal subject of this illustration4 ,the wall-work is composed of the aggregate of the coral-trunks1 which1 however1 do not suddenly lose their combined vitality1 like a dead forest tree4 ,every coral-trunk arises by a process of gemmation in accordance with certain laws1 and forms one complete structure1 each portion being formed by a great number of organically distinct individual animals4 ,in the group of ,phyto-corals these cannot separate themselves spontaneously1 but remain united with one another by lamell of carbonate of lime4 ,hence each coral-trunk by no means possesses a central point of common vitality4,,kt ,the propagation of coral-animals1 according to the difference of the orders1 is by eggs1 spontaneous division or gemmation4 ,this last kind of propagation presents the greatest variety of forms in the development of individuals4 ,the ,coral-reefs 7or1 as ,dioscorides designates them1 sea-plants1 a forest of stony-trees1 ,lithodendra71 are of three kinds2 namely1 ,coast-reefs1 7shore-reefs1 fringing-reefs71 which are directly connected with continental or insular coasts1 as on the north-east coast of ,new ,holland1 between ,sandy ,cape and the dreaded ,torres ,straits1 and almost all the coral-banks of the ,red ,sea examined for eighteen months by ,ehrenberg and ,hemprich2 ,island-surrounding reefs 7barrier-reefs1 encircling-reefs71 as at ,vanikoro in the small archipelago of ,santa ,cruz1 north of the ,new ,hebrides1 and at ,puynipete1 one of the ,carolinas2 and ,coral-banks surrounding lagoons 7,atolls or ,lagoon-islands74 ,this very natural division and nomenclature have been introduced by ,charles ,darwin1 and are most intimately connected with the very ingenious explanation which this intellectual naturalist has given of the gradual origin of these wonderful forms4 ,while1 on the one hand1 ,cavolini1 ,ehrenberg1 and ,savigny have completed the scientific anatomical knowledge of the organization of coral-animals1 on the other1 the geographical and geological relations of coral-islands have been investigated1 first by ,reinhold and ,george ,forster in ,cook's second voyage1 and then1 after a long interval1 by ,chamisso1 ,pron1 ,quoy and ,gaimard1 ,flinders1 ,ltke1 ,beechey1 ,darwin1 d',urville1 and ,lottin4 ,the coral-animals and their stony cellular scaffoldings belong1 for the most part1 to the warm tropical seas2 and the reefs occur most frequently in the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,thus we find the ,atolls or ,lagoon ,islands crowded together in the so-called coral-sea between the north-east coast of ,new ,holland1 ,new ,caledonia1 ,solomon's ,islands1 and the ,louisiade ,archipelago2 in the group of the ,low ,islands 7,low ,archipelago71 eighty in number2 in the ,fidji1 ,ellice1 and ,gilbert ,islands2 and in the ,indian ,ocean1 north-east of ,madagascar1 under the name of the ,atoll group of ,saya de ,malha4 ,the great ,chagos ,bank1 whose structure and dead coral-trunks have been thoroughly investigated by ,captains ,moresby and ,powell1 is the more interesting to us1 because we may regard it as a prolongation of the more northern ,laccadive and ,maldive ,islands4 ,i have previously directed attention in another work,,ku to the importance of the order of succession of the ,atolls1 which are exactly in the direction of a meridian as far as #g south lat41 in reference to the general mountain system1 and the form of the earth's surface1 in ,central ,asia4 ,the meridian-chains1 which mark the intersection of many mountain-systems running from east to west at the great bend of the ,thibetian river ,tzang-bo1 correspond with the great meridian mountain rampart of the ,ghauts and of the more northern ,bolor in further or trans-,gangetic ,india4 ,here lie the parallel chains of ,cochin ,china1 ,siam1 and ,malacca1 as well as those of ,ava and ,arracan1 which1 after courses of unequal length1 all terminate in the gulfs of ,siam1 ,martaban1 and ,bengal4 ,the bay of ,bengal appears like an arrested effort of nature to produce an inland sea4 ,a deep inbreak of the waters1 between the simple western system of the ,ghauts1 and the very complex eastern trans-,gangetic system1 has swallowed up a great part of the eastern lowlands1 but met with an impediment not so easily overcome in the early existing and extensive table-land of ,mysore4 ,an oceanic inbreak of this nature has given rise to two almost pyramidal peninsulas of very different length and narrowness2 and the prolongation of two opposing meridian systems1 the mountain system of ,malacca in the east1 and the ,ghauts of ,malabar in the west1 manifests itself in submarine1 symmetrical series of islands1 on the one side in the ,andaman and ,nicobar ,islands1 which are poor in corals1 and on the other in three long-extended archipelagos of ,atolls--the ,laccadives1 the ,maldives1 and ,chagos4 ,the last1 called by mariners the ,chagos ,bank1 forms a lagoon1 belted by a narrow1 and already much broken coral-reef4 ,the length of this lagoon is #hh1 and its breadth #gb miles4 ,whilst the enclosed lagoon is only from #ag to #dj fathoms deep1 bottom was scarcely found at a depth of #baj fathoms at a small distance from the outer margin of the coral wall1 which appears to be now sinking4,,kv ,at the coral-lagoon1 known as ,keeling-,atoll1 south of ,sumatra1 ,captain ,fitz-,roy states1 that at only #bjjj yards from the reef1 no soundings were found with #gbjj feet of line4 8,the forms of coral1 which in the ,red ,sea rise in thick wall-like masses1 are ,mandrin1 ,astr1 ,favia1 ,madrepores 7,porites71 ,pocillopora 7,hemprichii71 ,millepores1 and ,heteropores4 ,the latter are among the most massive1 although they are branched4 ,the deepest coral trunks1 which magnified by the refraction of light1 appear to the eye to resemble the dome of a cathedral1 belong1 as far as could be determined1 to ,mandrin and ,astr40,,kw ,a distinction must be made between single and in part free polyp-trunks1 and those which form wall-like rocks4 ,if the accumulation of building polyp-trunks in some regions is so striking1 it is no less astonishing to observe the perfect absence of these structures in other and often adjacent regions4 ,their presence or absence must be determined by certain1 still uninvestigated1 relations of currents1 by the partial temperature of the water1 and by the abundance or deficiency of nutriment4 ,that certain delicate-branched corals1 with less calcareous deposition on the side opposite to the mouth1 prefer the stillness of the interior lagoons1 is not to be denied2 but this preference for still water must not1 as has too often happened1,,kx be regarded as a peculiarity of the whole class of these animals4 ,according to the experiences of ,ehrenberg and ,chamisso in the ,red ,sea and in the ,marshall ,islands1 which abound in ,atolls and lie east of the ,caroline ,islands1 and according to the observations of ,captains ,bird ,allen and ,moresby in the ,west ,indies and in the ,maldives1 we find that living ,madrepores1 ,millepores1 ,astras1 and ,mandrinas1 can support 8a tremendous surf20,,ky and indeed seem to prefer localities the most exposed to the action of storms4 ,the vital forces of the organism regulating the cellular structure1 which with age acquires a rocky hardness1 resist most triumphantly the mechanical forces1--the shock of moving waters4 ,in the ,south ,pacific there is a perfect absence of coral-reefs at the ,galapagos and along the whole of the west coast of the ,new ,continent1 notwithstanding their vicinity to the numerous ,atolls of the ,low ,islands1 and the ,archipelago of ,mendaa or the ,marquesas4 ,it is true that the current of the ,south ,pacific1 which washes the coasts of ,chili and ,peru4 7and whose low temperature ,i observed in the year #ahjb17 is only #fj4a ,fahr41 while the undisturbed water at the sides of the cold current is from #ha4e to #hc4g ,fahr4 at ,punta ,parima1 where it deflects to the west4 ,moreover at the ,galapagos there are small currents between the islands1 having a temperature of only #eh4c ,fahr4 ,but this lower temperature does not prevail further northwards along the coasts of the ,pacific from ,guayaquil to ,guatimala and ,mexico1 neither does it prevail in the ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 on the whole west coast of ,africa1 or at the small islands of ,st4 ,paul1 ,st4 ,helena1 ,ascension1 and ,san ,fernando ,noronha2 yet in none of these are there coral-reefs4 ,if this absence of reefs characterises the western coasts of ,america1 ,africa1 and ,new ,holland1 they are1 on the other hand1 of frequent occurrence on the eastern coasts of tropical ,america1 on the ,african coast of ,zanzibar1 and on the southern coast of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the best opportunities ,i have enjoyed for personally examining coral banks have been in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and south of the ,island of ,cuba1 in the so-called 8,gardens of the ,king and ,queen0 7,jardines y ,jardinillos del ,rey y de la ,reyna74 ,it was ,christopher ,columbus himself who1 on his second voyage1 in ,may1 #adid1 gave this name to this little group of islands1 because from the pleasant association of the silver-leaved arborescent ,tournefortia gnapholoides1 of flowering species of ,dolichos1 of ,avicennia nitida1 and mangrove-thickets 7,rhizophora71 the coral-islands formed as it were an archipelago of floating gardens4 8,son ,cayos verdes y graciosos llenos de arboledas10 says the admiral4 ,on my voyage from ,batabano to ,trinidad de ,cuba1 ,i remained for several days in these gardens1 which lie to the east of the great ,isle of ,pines1 abounding in mahogany1 for the purpose of determining the longitude of the different ,cayos4 ,the ,cayos ,flamenco1 ,bonito1 de ,diego ,perez1 and de ,piedras1 are coral islands1 rising only from #h to #ae inches above the level of the sea4 ,the upper edge of the reef does not consist merely of dead polyp-trunks1 but is rather formed of a true conglomerate1 in which angular pieces of coral1 lying in various directions1 are embedded in a cement composed of granules of quartz4 ,in ,cayo de ,piedras ,i saw such embedded masses of coral1 some of them measuring upwards of three cubic feet4 ,several of the ,west ,indian smaller coral islands have fresh water1 a phenomenon which merits a careful investigation wherever it occurs 7as for instance near ,radak in the ,south ,sea71,,kz since it has sometimes been ascribed to hydrostatic pressure1 acting from a distant coast 7as in ,venice1 and in the ,bay of ,xagua1 east of ,batabano71 and sometimes to the filtration of rain-water4,,la ,the living gelatinous covering of the calcareous fabric of the coral-trunks attracts fishes and even turtles in search of food4 ,in the time of ,columbus the now desolate district of the ,jardines del ,rey was animated by a singular branch of industry pursued by the inhabitants of the sea-coasts of ,cuba1 who availed themselves of a little fish1 the ,remora1 or sucking-fish 7the so-called ,ship-holder71 probably the ,echeneis naucrates1 for catching turtles4 ,a long and strong line1 made of the fibres of the palm1 was attached to the tail of the fish4 ,the ,remora 7called in ,spanish ,reves1 or reversed1 because at first sight the back and abdomen might easily be mistaken for each other71 attaches itself by suction to the turtle through the indented and moveable cartilaginous plates of the upper shell that covers the head4 ,the ,remora1 says ,columbus1 would rather let itself be torn to pieces than relinquish its prey1 and the little fish and the turtle are thus drawn out of the water together4 8,nostrates10 says ,martin ,anghiera1 the learned secretary of ,charles ,v1 8piscem ,reversum appellant1 quod versus venatur4 ,non aliter ac nos canibus gallicis per quora campi lepores insectamur1 illi 7incol ,cub insul7 venatorio pisce pisces alios capiebant40,,lb ,we learn from ,dampier and ,commerson1 that this artifice of employing a sucking-fish to catch other fishes is very common on the eastern coasts of ,africa1 near ,cape ,natal and ,mozambique1 as well as on the island of ,madagascar4,,lc ,an acquaintance with the habits of animals1 and the same necessities1 lead to similar artifices and modes of capture amongst tribes having no connection with one another4 ,although1 as we have already remarked1 the actual seat of the ,lithophytes who build calcareous walls1 lies within a zone extending from #bb to #bd degrees on either side of the equator1 yet coral-reefs1 favoured1 it is supposed1 by the warm ,gulf ,stream1 are met with around the ,bermudas in #cb #bc lat41 and these have been admirably described by ,lieutenant ,nelson4,,ld ,in the southern hemisphere corals 7,millepores and ,cellepores7 are found singly as far as ,chiloe and even to the ,chonos-,archipelago and ,tierra del ,fuego1 in #ec lat41 while ,retepores have even been found as far as #gb lat4 ,since ,captain ,cook's second voyage1 the hypothesis advanced by him as well as by ,reinhold and ,george ,forster1 that the flat coral islands of the ,south ,pacific have been built up by living agents from the depths of the sea's bottom1 has found numerous advocates4 ,the distinguished naturalists ,quoy and ,gaimard1 who accompanied ,captain ,freycinet on his voyage of circumnavigation in the frigate 8,uranie10 were the first who expressed themselves1 in #ahbc1 with much freedom against the views advanced by the two ,forsters 7father and son71 by ,flinders1 and ,pron4,,le 8,in directing the attention of naturalists to coral-animalcules10 they say1 8we hope to be able to prove that all which has been hitherto affirmed or believed up to the present time1 regarding the immense structures they are capable of raising1 is for the most part inexact1 and in all cases very greatly exaggerated4 ,we are rather of opinion that coral-animalcules1 instead of rearing perpendicular walls from the depths of the ,ocean1 only form strata or incrustrations of some few toises in thickness40 ,quoy and ,gaimard 7p4 #bhi7 have also expressed an opinion1 that ,atolls 7coral walls inclosing a lagoon7 owe their origin to submarine volcanic craters4 ,they have undoubtedly underrated the depth at which animals who construct coral-reefs 7as for example the ,astra7 can exist1 as they place the extreme limits at from #bf to #cb feet below the level of the sea4 ,charles ,darwin1 a naturalist1 who has known how to enhance the value of his own observations by a comparison with those of others in many parts of the world1 places the region of living coral-animals at a depth of #bj or #cj fathoms1,,lf which corresponds with that in which ,professor ,edward ,forbes found the greatest number of corals in the gean ,sea4 ,this is ,professor ,forbes's fourth region of marine-animals1 as given in his ingenious memoir on the ,provinces of ,depth1 and the geographical distribution of ,mollusca at perpendicular distances from the surface4,,lg ,it would appear1 however1 that the depth at which corals live is very different in the different species1 especially in the more delicate ones which do not form such considerable structures4 ,sir ,james ,ross1 in his ,antarctic expedition1 brought up corals from a great depth with the lead2 and these he remitted for accurate examination to ,mr4 ,stokes and ,professor ,forbes4 ,westward of ,victoria ,land1 in the neighbourhood of the ,coulman ,island1 in #gb #ca south lat41 and at a depth of #bgj fathoms1 ,retepora cellulosa1 a ,hornera1 and ,prymnoa ,rossii4 7the latter very similar to a species common to the coasts of ,norway17 were found alive and in a perfectly fresh condition4,,lh ,in the far north too1 the ,greenland ,umbellaria ,grnlandica has been brought up alive by whale fishers from a depth of #bcf fathoms4,,li ,the same relation between species and locality is met with among sponges1 which however are now regarded as belonging more to plants than to zoophytes4 ,on the shores of ,asia ,minor1 the common marine sponge is brought up from depths varying from #e to #cf fathoms1 although one very small species of the same genus is only found at a depth of at least #ahj fathoms4,,lj ,it is difficult to divine what hinders the ,astras1 ,madrepores1 ,mandrinas1 and the whole group of tropical phyto-corals1 which are capable of constructing large cellular calcareous walls1 from living in very deep strata of water4 ,the decrease of temperature is very gradual1 the diminution of light nearly the same1 and the existence of numerous ,infusoria at great depths of the ,ocean proves that there cannot here be any deficiency of food for polyps4 ,in opposition to the hitherto generally adopted opinion respecting the absence of all organisms and living creatures in the ,dead ,sea1 it is worthy of notice that my friend and fellow-labourer1 ,m4 ,valenciennes1 has received1 through the ,marquis ,charles de l',escalopier1 and through the ,french ,consul ,botta1 beautiful specimens of ,porites elongata from the ,dead ,sea4 ,this fact is the more interesting1 because this species is not found in the ,mediterranean1 but only in the ,red ,sea1 which1 according to ,valenciennes1 has but few organisms in common with the ,mediterranean4 ,as a sea-fish1 a species of ,pleuronectes1 advances far into the interior of ,france1 and accustoms itself to gill-respiration in fresh water1 so also does a remarkable flexibility of organization exist in the above-mentioned coral-animal 7,porites elongata of ,lamarck71 as the same species lives both in the ,dead ,sea1 which is supersaturated with salt1 and in the open ocean near the ,schelles ,islands4,,lk ,according to the most recent chemical analyses of the younger ,silliman1 the genus ,porites1 like many other cellular coral-trunks 7,madrepores1 ,astras1 and ,mandrinas of ,ceylon and the ,bermudas71 contains besides from #ib to #ie per cent4 of carbonate of lime and magnesia1 a portion of fluorine and phosphoric acid4,,ll ,the presence of fluorine in the hard skeleton of the polyps reminds us of the fluoride of calcium found in fish bones according to ,morechini's and ,gay-,lussac's experiments at ,rome4 ,silex is mixed only in very small quantities1 with the fluoride of calcium and phosphate of lime found in the coral-trunks2 but one coral animal allied to the ,horn corals 7,gray's ,hyalonema1 ,glass thread7 has an axis of fibres of pure silex1 resembling a hanging tuft of hair4 ,professor ,forchhammer1 who has recently been engaged in a thorough analysis of sea-water in the most opposite parts of the earth's surface1 finds the quantity of lime in the ,caribbean ,sea remarkably small1 it being only 1 whilst in the ,cattegat it amounts to 4 ,he is disposed to ascribe this difference to the numerous coral-banks near the ,west ,india ,islands1 which appropriate the lime to themselves1 and thus exhaust the sea-water4,,lm ,charles ,darwin has with great ingenuity developed the genetic connection between shore-reefs1 island-encircling reefs1 and lagoon islands1 i4 e41 narrow1 annular coral banks which surround inner lagoons4 ,according to his views1 these three kinds of structure depend upon the oscillating condition of the bottom of the sea1 or on periodical elevations and subsidences4 ,the often-advanced hypothesis1 according to which the lagoon-islands1 or atolls1 mark by their circularly enclosed coral-reefs1 the outline of a submarine crater1 raised on a volcanic crater-margin1 is opposed by the great extent of their diameters1 which are in some instances upwards of #cj1 #dj1 or even #fj miles4 ,our fire-emitting mountains have no such craters1 and if we would compare the lagoon1 with its submerged mural surface and narrow encircling reef1 with one of the annular lunar mountains1 we must not forget that these annular mountains are not volcanoes1 but tracts of land enclosed by walls4 ,according to ,darwin1 the following is the process of formation4 ,an island mountain closely encircled by a coral reef subsides1 while the fringing reef that had sunk with it1 is constantly recovering its level owing to the tendency of the coral animals to regain the surface by renewed perpendicular structures2 these constitute first a reef encircling the island at a distance1 and subsequently1 when the inclosed island has wholly subsided1 an atoll4 ,according to this view1 which regards islands as the most prominent parts1 or the culminating points of the submarine land1 the relative position of the coral islands would disclose to us what we could scarcely hope to discover by the sounding line1 viz41 the former configuration and articulation of the land4 ,this attractive subject 7to the connection of which with the migrations of plants and the distribution of the races of men we drew attention at the beginning of this note71 can only be fully elucidated when we shall succeed in acquiring further knowledge of the depth and nature of the different rocks which serve as a foundation for the lower strata of the dead polyp-trunks4 ,footnote #gh3 p4 #baf--8,of the ,samothracian ,traditions40 ,diodorus has preserved to us these remarkable traditions1 the probability of which has invested them with almost historical certainty in the eyes of geologists4 ,the island of ,samothrace1 once also named ,ethiopea1 ,dardania1 and ,leucania or ,leucosia in the ,scholiast of ,apollonius ,rhodius1 the seat of the ancient mysteries of the ,cabiri1 was inhabited by the remnant of an aboriginal people1 several words of whose vernacular language were preserved in later times in sacrificial ceremonies4 ,the position of ,samothrace1 opposite to the ,thracian ,hebrus1 and near the ,dardanelles1 explains why a more circumstantial tradition of the great catastrophe of an outburst of the waters of the ,pontus 7,euxine7 should have been especially preserved in this island4 ,sacred rites were here performed at altars erected on the supposed limits of this inundation2 and among the ,samothracians1 as well as the ,betians1 a belief in the periodical destruction of the human race 7a belief which also prevailed among the ,mexicans in their myth of the four destructions of the world7 was associated with historical recollections of individual inundations4,,ln ,according to ,diodorus1 the ,samothracians related that the ,black ,sea had been an inland lake1 which1 swelled by the influx of rivers 7long prior to the inundations which had occurred among other nations7 had burst1 first through the straits of the ,bosphorus1 and subsequently through those of the ,hellespont4,,lo ,these ancient revolutions of nature have been considered in a special treatise1 by ,dureau de la ,malle1 and all the facts known regarding them collected by ,carl von ,hoff1 in an important work on the subject4,,lp ,the ,samothracian traditions seem reflected as it were in the ,sluice-theory of ,strato of ,lampsacus1 according to which the swelling of the waters in the ,euxine first formed the passage of the ,dardanelles1 and next the opening through the ,pillars of ,hercules4 ,strabo1 in the first book of his ,geography1 has preserved among the critical extracts from the works of ,eratosthenes1 a remarkable fragment of the lost work of ,strato1 which presents views that embrace almost the whole circumference of the ,mediterranean4 8,strato of ,lampsacus10 says ,strabo1,,lq 8enters more fully than the ,lydian ,xanthus 7who has described the impressions of shells far from the sea7 into a consideration of the causes of these phenomena4 ,he maintains1 that the ,euxine had formerly no outlet at ,byzantium1 but that the pressure of the swollen mass of waters caused by the influx of rivers had opened a passage1 whereupon the water rushed into the ,propontis and the ,hellespont4 ,the same thing also happened to our sea 7the ,mediterranean71 for here too a passage was opened through the isthmus at the ,pillars of ,hercules1 in consequence of the filling of the sea by currents1 which in flowing off left the former swampy banks uncovered and dry4 ,in proof of this1 ,strato affirms1 first1 that the outer and inner bottoms of the sea are different2 then that there is still a bank running under the sea from ,europe to ,lybia1 which shows that the inner and outer sea were formerly not united2 next that the ,euxine is extremely shallow1 while the ,cretan1 the ,sicilian and the ,sardinian seas are1 on the contrary1 very deep2 the cause of this being that the former is filled with mud from the numerous large rivers flowing into it from the north4 ,hence too the ,euxine is the freshest1 and the streams flowing from it are directed towards the parts where the bottom is deepest4 ,it would also appear that if these rivers continue to flow into the ,euxine1 it will some day be completely choked with mud1 for even now1 its left side is becoming marshy in the direction of ,salmydessus 7the ,thracian ,apollonia71 at the part called by mariners #8,the ,breasts1' before the mouth of the ,ister and the desert of ,scythia4 ,perhaps1 therefore1 the ,lybian ,temple of ,ammon may also have once stood on the sea-shore1 its present position in the interior of the country being in consequence of such off-flowings of rivers4 ,strato also conjectures that the fame and celebrity of the ,oracle 7of ,ammon7 is more easily accounted for1 on the supposition that the temple was on the sea-shore1 since its great distance from the coast would otherwise make its present distinction and fame inexplicable4 ,egypt also was in ancient times overflowed by the sea as far as the marshes of ,pelusium1 ,mount ,casius1 and ,lake ,serbonis2 for whenever in digging it happened that salt-water was met with1 the borings passed through strata of sea-sand and shells1 as if the country had been inundated1 and the whole district around ,mount ,casius and ,gerrha had been a marshy sea1 continuous with the ,gulf of the ,red ,sea4 ,when the sea 7the ,mediterranean7 retreated1 the country was uncovered1 leaving1 however1 the present ,lake ,serbonis4 ,subsequently the waters of this lake also flowed off1 converting its bed into a swamp4 ,in like manner the banks of ,lake ,mris resemble more the shores of a sea than those of a river40 ,an erroneous reading introduced as an emendation by ,grosskurd1 in consequence of a passage in ,strabo1,,lr gives in place of ,mris1 8the ,lake ,halmyris10 but the latter was situated near the southern mouth of the ,danube4 ,the ,sluice-theory of ,strato led ,eratosthenes of ,cyrene 7the most celebrated in the series of the librarians of ,alexandria7 to investigate the problem of the uniformity of level in all external seas flowing round continents1 although with less success than ,archimedes in his treatise on floating bodies4,,ls ,the articulation of the northern coasts of the ,mediterranean as well as the form of its peninsulas and islands had given origin to the geognostic myth of the ancient land of ,lyctonia4 ,the origin of the lesser ,syrtis1 of the ,triton ,lake1,,lt and of the whole of ,western ,atlas1,,lu had been embodied in an imaginary scheme of fire-eruptions and earthquakes4,,lv ,i have recently entered more fully into this question1,,lw in a passage with which ,i would be allowed to close this note3 8,the northern shore of the ,mediterranean possesses the advantage of being more richly and variously articulated than the southern or ,lybian shore1 and this was1 according to ,strabo1 already noticed by ,eratosthenes4 ,here we find three peninsulas1 the ,iberian1 the ,italian1 and the ,hellenic1 which1 owing to their various and deeply indented contour1 form1 together with the neighbouring islands and the opposite coasts1 many straits and isthmuses4 ,such a configuration of continents and of islands that have been partly severed and partly upheaved by volcanic agency in rows1 as if over far-extending fissures1 early led to geognostic views regarding eruptions1 terrestrial revolutions1 and outpourings of the swollen higher seas into those below them4 ,the ,euxine1 the ,dardanelles1 the ,straits of ,gades1 and the ,mediterranean with its numerous islands1 were well fitted to originate such a system of sluices4 ,the ,orphic ,argonaut1 who probably lived in the ,christian era1 has interwoven old mythical narrations in his composition4 ,he sings of the division of the ancient ,lyctonia into separate islands1 #8when the dark-haired ,poseidon in anger with ,father ,kronion struck ,lyctonia with the golden trident4' ,similar fancies1 which may often certainly have sprung from an imperfect knowledge of geographical relations1 were frequently elaborated in the erudite ,alexandrian school1 which was so devoted to everything connected with antiquity4 ,whether the myth of the breaking up of ,atlantis be a vague and western reflection of that of ,lyctonia1 as ,i have elsewhere shown to be probable1 or whether1 according to ,otfried ,mller1 #8the destruction of ,lyctonia 7,leuconia7 refers to the ,samothracian tradition of a great flood1 which changed the form of that district1' is a question which it is here unnecessary to decide40 ,footnote #gi3 p4 #bag--8,precipitation from the clouds40 ,the vertical ascent of currents of air is one of the principal causes of the most important meteorological phenomena4 ,where a desert or a sandy surface devoid of vegetation is surrounded by a high mountain-chain1 the sea-wind may be observed driving a dense cloud over the desert1 without any precipitation of vapour taking place before it reaches the crest of the mountains4 ,this phenomenon was formerly very unsatisfactorily referred to an attraction supposed to be exercised by the mountain-chain on the clouds4 ,the true cause appears to lie in the ascent from the sandy plain of a column of warm air1 which prevents the condensation of the vesicles of vapour4 ,the more barren the surface1 and the greater the degree of heat acquired by the sand1 the higher will be the ascent of the clouds1 and the less readily will the vapour be precipitated4 ,over the declivities of mountains these causes cease4 ,the play of the vertical column of air is there weaker2 the clouds sink1 and their disintegration is effected by a cooler stratum of air4 ,thus deficiency of rain and absence of vegetation in the desert stand in a reciprocal action to one another4 ,it does not rain because the barren and bare surface of sand becomes more strongly heated and radiates more heat2 and the desert is not converted into a steppe or grassy plain because without water no organic development is possible4 ,footnote #hj3 p4 #bah--8,the indurating and heat-emitting mass of the earth40 ,if according to the hypothesis of the ,neptunists 7now long since obsolete71 the so-called primitive rocks were also precipitated from a fluid1 the transition of the earth's crust from a condition of fluidity to one of solidity1 must have been followed by the liberation of an enormous quantity of caloric1 which would have given rise to new evaporation and new precipitations4 ,the more recent these precipitations1 the more rapid1 the more tumultuous1 and the more uncrystalline would they have been4 ,such a sudden liberation of caloric from the indurating crust of the earth1 independent of the latitude1 and the position of the earth's axis1 might indeed occasion local elevations of temperature in the atmosphere1 which would influence the distribution of plants4 ,the same cause might also occasion a kind of porosity which seems to be indicated by many enigmatical geological phenomena in floetz rocks4 ,i have developed my conjectures on this subject in detail in a small memoir on primitive porosity4,,lx ,according to the views ,i have more recently adopted1 it appears to me that the variously shattered and fissured earth1 with its fused interior1 may long have continued in the primeval period1 to impart to its oxidised surface a high degree of temperature1 independent of its position with respect to the sun and to latitude4 ,what an influence would not1 for instance1 be exercised for ages to come on the climate of ,germany by an open fissure a thousand fathoms in depth1 extending from the ,adriatic ,gulf to the northern coast8 ,although in the present condition of the earth1 long-continued radiation has almost entirely restored the stable equilibrium of temperature first calculated by ,fourier in his ,thorie analytique de la ,chaleur1 and the outer atmosphere is now only brought into direct communication with the molten interior of the earth1 by means of the insignificant openings of a few volcanoes2 yet in the primitive condition of our planet1 this interior emitted hot streams of air into the atmosphere through the various clefts and fissures formed by the frequently recurring foldings 7or corrugations7 of the mountain strata4 ,this emission was wholly independent of latitude4 ,every newly formed planet must thus in its earliest condition have regulated its own temperature1 which was1 however1 subsequently changed and determined by its position in relation to the central body1 the sun4 ,the moon's surface also exhibits traces of this reaction of the interior upon the crust4 ,footnote #ha3 p4 #bah--8,the mountain-declivities of the most southern parts of ,mexico40 ,the spherical greenstone in the mountain district of ,guanaxuato is perfectly similar to that of the ,fichtelberg in ,franconia4 ,both form grotesque domes1 which break through and are superimposed on transition argillaceous schists4 ,in the same manner pearl-stone1 porphyritic schist1 trachyte1 and pitch-stone porphyry present analogous forms in the ,mexican mountains1 near ,cinapecuaro and ,moran1 in ,hungary1 ,bohemia1 and in ,northern ,asia4 ,footnote #hb3 p4 #bbj--8,the ,colossal ,dragon-tree of ,orotava40 ,this colossal dragon-tree 7,dracna draco7 stands in the garden of ,m4 ,franqui1 in the little town of ,orotava1 called formerly ,taoro1 one of the most charming spots in the world4 ,in ,june1 #agii1 when we ascended the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 we found that this enormous tree measured #dh feet in circumference4 ,our measurement was made at several feet above the root4 ,nearer to the ground ,le ,dru found it nearly #gi feet4 ,sir ,g4 ,staunton asserts that at an elevation of ten feet from the ground1 its diameter is still #ab feet4 ,the height of the tree is not much more than #fi feet4 ,according to tradition it would appear that this tree was venerated by the ,guanches 7as was the ash-tree of ,ephesus by the ,greeks1 the ,plantain of ,lydia1 which ,xerxes decorated with ornaments1 also the sacred ,banyan-tree of ,ceylon71 and that in the year #adjb1 which was the period of ,bthencourt's first expedition1 it was as large and as hollow as in the present day4 ,when it is remembered that the dragon-tree is everywhere of very slow growth1 we may conclude that the one at ,orotava is of extreme antiquity4 ,berthollet says1 in his description of ,teneriffe1 8,on comparing the young dragon-trees which grows near this colossal tree1 the calculations we are led to make on the age of the latter strike the mind with astonishment40,,ly ,the ,dragon-tree has been cultivated from the most ancient times in the ,canary isles1 in ,madeira1 and ,porto ,santo1 and that accurate observer1 ,leopold von ,buch1 found it growing wild near ,iguesti in ,teneriffe4 ,its original habitat is not therefore the ,east ,indies1 as has long been believed2 and its appearance does not afford any refutation of the opinion of those who regard the ,guanches as a wholly isolated primitive ,atlantic race1 having no intercourse with ,african or ,asiatic nations3 ,the form of the ,dracn is repeated on the southern extremity of ,africa1 in the ,isle of ,bourbon1 in ,china1 and in ,new ,zealand4 ,in these remotely distant regions we recognise species of the same genus1 but none are to be found in the ,new ,continent1 where this form is supplied by the ,yucca4 ,the ,dracna borealis of ,aiton is a true ,convallaria1 the nature of both being perfectly identical4,,lz ,i have given a representation1 in the last plate of the ,picturesque ,atlas of my ,american journey1,,ma of the dragon-tree of ,orotava1 taken from a drawing made in #aggf by ,f4 d',ozonne1 and which ,i found among the posthumous papers of the celebrated ,borda1 in the still unprinted journal entrusted to me by the ,dpt de la ,marine1 and from which ,i have borrowed important astronomically-determined geographical1 data besides many barometrical and trigonometrical notices4,,mb ,the measurement of the dragon-tree in the ,villa ,franqui was made in ,borda's first voyage with ,pingr in #agga1 and not in the second1 made #aggf with ,varela4 ,it is asserted1 that in the fifteenth century1 during the early periods of the ,norman and ,spanish conquests1 mass was performed at a small altar erected in the hollow trunk of this tree4 ,unfortunately1 the ,dracna of ,orotava lost one side of its leafy top in the storm of the #bast of ,july1 #ahai4 ,there is a fine large ,english copper-plate engraving1 which gives an exceedingly true representation of the present condition of the tree4 ,the monumental character of these colossal living forms1 and the impression of reverence which they have created among all nations1 have led1 in modern times1 to a more careful study of the numerical determination of their age1 and of the size of their trunks4 ,the results of such investigations induced the elder ,decandolle1 7the author of the important treatise1 entitled ,de la ,longvit des ,arbres17 ,endlicher1 ,unger1 and other distinguished botanists to conjecture1 that the age of many existing vegetable forms may extend to the earliest historical times1 if not to the records of the ,nile1 at least to those of ,greece and ,italy4 ,in the ,bibliothque ,universelle de ,genve 7t4 xlvii4 #ahca1 p4 #ej7 we find the following passage3 8,numerous examples seem to confirm the idea1 that there still exist1 on our planet1 trees of a prodigious antiquity--the witnesses1 perhaps1 of one or more of its latest physical revolutions4 ,if we consider a tree as the combination of as many individual forms as there have been buds developed on its surface1 one cannot be surprised if the aggregate resulting from the continual addition of new buds to the older ones1 should not necessarily have any fixed termination to its existence40 ,in the same manner1 ,agardh says3 8,if in each solar year new parts be formed in the plant1 and the older hardened ones be replaced by new parts capable of conducting sap1 we have a type of growth limited by external causes alone40 ,he ascribes the short duration of the life of herbaceous plants1 8to the preponderance of the production of blossoms and fruit over the formation of leaves40 ,unfruitfulness in a plant insures a prolongation of its life4 ,endlicher adduces the instance of an individual plant of ,medicago sativa1 var4 versicolor1 which lived eighty years because it bore no fruit4,,mc ,to the dragon-trees1 which1 notwithstanding the gigantic development of their closed vascular bundles1 must be classed1 in respect to their floral parts1 in the same natural family as ,asparagus and the garden onion1 belongs the ,adansonia1 7the monkey bread-tree1 ,baobab71 undoubtedly among the largest and most ancient inhabitants of our planet4 ,in the earliest voyages of discovery made by ,catalans and ,portuguese1 the sailors were accustomed to carve their names on these two species of trees2 not always from a mere wish of perpetuating their memory1 but also as 8marcos10 or signs of possession1 and of the rights which nations assume in virtue of first discovery4 ,the ,portuguese mariners often selected for carving on the trees1 as a 8marco10 or mark of possession1 the elegant ,french motto talent de bien faire1 so frequently employed by the ,infante ,don ,henrique1 the ,discoverer4 ,thus ,manuel de ,faria y ,sousa says expressly2,,md 8,era uso de los primeros ,navegantes de dexar inscrito el motto del ,infante1 talent de bien faire1 en la corteza de los arboles40,,me 7,it was the custom of the early navigators to inscribe the motto of the ,infante in the bark of the trees47 ,the above-named motto1 cut on the bark of two trees by ,portuguese navigators in the year #adce1 and therefore twenty-eight years before the death of the ,infante ,don ,henrique1 ,duke of ,viseo1 is singularly connected1 in the history of discoveries1 with the discussions that have arisen from a comparison of ,vespucci's fourth voyage with that of ,gonzalo ,coelho 7#aejc74 ,vespucci relates1 that the ,admiral's ship of ,coelho's squadron was wrecked on an island which was sometimes supposed to be that of ,san ,fernando ,noronha2 sometimes1 ,peedo de ,san ,pedro2 and sometimes1 the problematical island of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,the last-named island was discovered on the #aeth of ,october1 #aebe1 by ,garcia ,jofre de ,loaysa in #b south lat41 in the meridian of ,cape ,palmas1 and almost in the ,gulf of ,guinea4 ,he remained there eighteen days at anchor1 and found crosses1 orange-trees that had become wild1 and two trunks of trees having inscriptions that bore the date of ninety years back4,,mf ,i have in another place1,,mg in an inquiry regarding the trustworthiness of ,amerigo ,vespucci1 more fully considered this problem4 ,the oldest description of the ,baobab 7,adansonia digitata7 is that of the ,venetian1 ,aloysius ,cadamosto4 7whose real name was ,alvise da ,ca da ,mosto7 in #aded4 ,he found at the mouth of the ,senegal4 7where he joined ,antoniotto ,usodimare71 trunks1 whose circumference he estimated at #ag fathoms1 or #aab feet4,,mh ,he might have compared them to dragon-trees1 which he had already seen4 ,perrottet says1,,mi that he had seen monkey-bread fruit trees1 which had a diameter of about thirty-two feet1 with a height of only from seventy to eighty-five feet4 ,the same dimensions had been given by ,adanson in his voyage1 #agdh4 ,the largest trunks of the monkey bread-fruit trees1 which he himself saw1 in #agdi1 some on one of the small ,magdalena islands near ,cape de ,verd1 and others at the mouth of the ,senegal1 were from #bf to nearly #bi feet in diameter1 with a height of little more than #gj feet1 and a top measuring upwards of #ahj feet across4 ,adanson1 however1 makes the remark that other travellers had found trunks having a diameter of about #cb feet4,,mj ,french and ,dutch sailors had carved their names on the trunks in characters six inches in length4 ,one of these inscriptions was of the fifteenth century1,,mk while all the others were of the sixteenth4 ,from the depth of the cuts1 which are covered with new layers of wood1,,ml and from a comparison of the thickness of trunks1 whose various ages were known1 ,adanson computed the age of trees having a diameter of #cb feet at #eaej years4,,mm ,he however cautiously subjoins the following remarks1 in a quaint mode of spelling which ,i do not alter3 8le calcul de l'aje de chake couche n'a pas d'exactitude gometrike40 ,in the village of ,grand ,galarques1 also in ,senegambia1 the negroes have adorned the entrance of a hollow ,baobab with carvings cut out of wood still green4 ,the inner cavity serves as a place of general meeting in which the community debate on their interests4 ,this hall reminds us of the hollow 7specus7 in the interior of a plantain in ,lycia1 in which the ,roman ex-consul1 ,lucinius ,mutianus1 entertained twenty-one guests4 ,pliny 7xii4 #c7 gives to a cavity of this kind the somewhat ample breadth of eighty ,roman feet4 ,the ,baobab was seen by ,ren ,cailli in the valley of the ,niger near ,jenne1 by ,cailliaud in ,nubia1 and by ,wilhelm ,peters along the whole eastern coast of ,africa1 where this tree1 which is called ,mulapa1 i4e4 ,nlapa-tree1 or more correctly muti-nlapa1 advances as far as ,lourenzo ,marques1 almost to #bf south lat4 ,the oldest and thickest trunks seen by ,peters 8measured from #fj to #ge feet in circumference40 ,although ,cadamosto observed1 in the fifteenth century1 eminentia non quadrat magnitudini2 and although ,golberry,,mn found1 in the 8,valle des deux ,gagnacks10 trunks only #fd feet in height whose diameter was #cf feet1 this disproportion between thickness and height must not be assumed to be general4 8,very old trees10 says the learned traveller1 ,peters1 8lose their crowns by gradual decay1 while they continue to increase in circumference4 ,on the eastern coast of ,africa one not unfrequently meets with trees having a diameter of more than #aj feet which reach the height of nearly #gj feet40 ,while therefore the bold calculations of ,adanson and ,perrottet assign to the ,adansonias measured by them1 an age of #eaej or even #fjjj years1 which would make them coeval with the builders of the ,pyramids1 or even with ,menes1 and would place them in an epoch when the ,southern ,cross was still visible in ,northern ,germany2,,mo the more certain estimations yielded by annular rings1 and by the relation found to exist between the thickness of the layer of wood and the duration of growth1 give us1 on the other hand1 shorter periods for our temperate northern zone4 ,decandolle finds that of all ,european species of trees1 the yew attains the greatest age2 and according to his calculations1 #cj centuries must be assigned as the age of the ,taxus baccata of ,braburn in ,kent1 from #be to #bf to the ,scotch yew of ,fortingal1 and #ad and #ab respectively to those of ,crowhurst in ,surrey and ,ripon 7,fountains ,abbey7 in ,yorkshire4,,mp ,endlicher remarks that 8another yew-tree in the churchyard of ,grasford1 ,north ,wales1 which measures more than #ej feet in girth below the branches1 is more than #adjj years old1 whilst one in ,derbyshire is estimated at #bjif years4 ,in ,lithuania linden trees have been felled which measured #hg feet round1 and in which #hae annular rings have been counted40,,mq ,in the temperate zone of the southern hemisphere some species of the ,eucalyptus attain an enormous girth1 and as they at the same time attain a height of nearly #bej feet1 they afford a singular contrast to our yew trees1 which are colossal only in thickness4 ,mr4 ,backhouse found in ,emu ,bay1 on the shore of ,van ,diemen's ,land1 ,eucalyptus trunks which1 with a circumference of #gj feet at the base1 measured as much as #ej feet at a little more than #e feet from the ground4,,mr ,it was not ,malpighi1 as has been generally asserted1 but the intellectual ,michel ,montaigne1 who had the merit of first showing1 in #aeha1 in his ,voyage en ,italie1 the relation that exists between the annual rings and the age of the tree4,,ms ,an intelligent artisan1 engaged in the preparation of astronomical instruments1 first drew ,montaigne's attention to the significance of the annual rings1 asserting that the part of the trunk directed towards the north had narrower rings4 ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau entertained the same opinion2 and his ,emile1 when he loses himself in the forest1 is made to direct his course in accordance with the deposition of the layers of wood4 ,recent phyto-anatomical observations,,mt teach us1 however1 that the acceleration of vegetation as well as the remission of growth1 and the varying production of the circles of the ligneous bundles 7annual deposits7 from the cambium cells1 depend on other influences than position with respect to the quarter of the heavens4 ,trees which in the case of some examples attain a diameter of more than #bj feet1 and an age of many centuries1 belong to very different natural families4 ,we may here instance ,baobabs1 ,dragon trees1 various species of ,eucalyptus1 ,taxodium distichum4 7,rich417 ,pinus ,lambertiana4 7,douglasii17 ,hymena ,courbaril1 ,csalpinie1 ,bombax1 ,swietenia ,mahagoni1 the ,banyan tree 7,ficus religiosa71 ,liriodendron tulipifera7871 ,platanus orientalis1 and our ,lindens1 ,oaks1 and ,yews4 ,the celebrated ,taxodium distichon1 the ,ahuahuete of the ,mexicans 7,cupressus disticha1 ,linn41 ,schubertia disticha1 ,mirbel71 of ,santa ,maria del ,tule1 in the ,state of ,oaxaca1 has not a diameter of #fj feet1 as stated by ,decandolle1 but exactly #dj feet4,,mu ,the two beautiful ,ahuahuetes which ,i have frequently seen at ,chapoltepec 7growing in what was probably once a garden or pleasure ground of ,montezuma7 measure1 according to the instructive account in ,burkardt's travels 7bd4 i4 s4 #bfh7 only #cf and #ch feet in circumference1 and not in diameter1 as has often been erroneously maintained4 ,the ,buddhists of ,ceylon venerate the colossal trunk of the sacred fig-tree of ,anurahdepura4 ,the ,banyan1 which takes root by its branches1 often attains a thickness of #cj feet1 and forms1 as ,onesicritus truly expresses himself1 a leafy roof resembling a many-pillared tent4,,mv ,on the ,bombax ,ceiba see early notices from the time of ,columbus in ,bembo4,,mw ,among those oak trees which have been very accurately measured1 the largest in ,europe is undoubtedly the one near ,saintes on the road to ,cozes1 in the ,department de la ,charente infrieure4 ,this tree1 which has an elevation of #fd feet1 measures very nearly #cj feet in diameter near the ground1 while #e feet higher up it is nearly #bc feet1 and where the main branches begin more than #f feet4 ,a little room1 from #aj feet #h inches to #ab feet #i inches in width and #i feet #g inches in height1 has been cleared in the dead part of the trunk1 and a semi-circular bench cut within it from the green wood4 ,a window gives light to the interior1 and hence the walls of this little room1 which is closed by a door1 are gracefully clothed with ferns and lichens4 ,from the size of a small piece of wood that had been cut out over the door1 and in which two hundred ligneous rings were counted1 the age of the oak of ,saintes must be estimated at #ahjj or #bjjj years4,,mx ,with respect to the rose-tree 7,rosa canina7 reputed to be a thousand years old1 which grows in the crypt of the ,cathedral of ,hildesheim1 ,i learn from accurate information1 based on authentic records1 for which ,i am indebted to the kindness of the ,stadtgerichts-,assessor ,rmer1 that the main stem only has an age of eight hundred years4 ,a legend connects this rose-tree with a vow of the first founder of the cathedral1 ,louis the ,pious2 and a document of the eleventh century says1 8that when ,bishop ,hezilo rebuilt the cathedral1 which had been burnt down1 he enclosed the roots of the rose-tree within a vault still remaining1 raised on the latter the walls of the crypt1 which was re-consecrated in #ajfa1 and spread the branches of the rose-tree over its sides40 ,the stem1 still living1 is nearly #bg feet in height1 and only #b inches thick1 and spreads across a width of #hb feet over the outer wall of the eastern crypt4 ,it is undoubtedly of very considerable antiquity1 and well worthy of the renown it has so long enjoyed throughout ,germany4 ,if excessive size1 in point of organic development1 may in general be regarded as a proof of a long protraction of life1 special attention is due1 among the thalassophytes of the submarine vegetable world1 to a species of fucus1 ,macrocystis pyrifera1 ,agardh 7,fucus giganteus74 ,this marine plant attains1 according to ,captain ,cook and ,george ,forster1 a length of #cfj feet1 and exceeds therefore the height of the loftiest ,coniferous trees1 not excepting ,sequoia gigantea1 ,endl4 7,taxodium sempervirens1 ,hook1 and ,arnott7 of ,california4,,my ,captain ,fitz-,roy has confirmed this statement4,,mz ,macrocystis pyrifera grows from #fd south lat4 to #de north lat41 as far as the ,bay of ,san ,francisco on the north-west coast of the ,new ,continent2 indeed ,joseph ,hooker believes that this species of ,fucus advances as far as ,kamtschatka4 ,in the waters of the ,antarctic seas it is even seen floating between the pack-ice4,,na ,the cellular band and thread-like structures of the ,macrocystis 7which are attached to the bottom of the sea by an adhesive organ resembling a claw7 seem to be limited in their length by accidental disturbing causes alone4 ,footnote #hc3 p4 #bbj--8,phanerogamic plants already recorded in herbariums40 ,three questions must be carefully distinguished from one another3 #a4 ,how many species of plants have been described in printed works8 #b4 ,how many of those discovered--that is to say included in herbariums--still remain undescribed8 #c4 ,how many species probably exist on the surface of the earth8 ,murray's edition of the ,linnan system contains1 including cryptogamic plants1 only #aj1jdb species4 ,willdenow1 in his edition of the ,species ,plantarum from #agig to #ahjg1 has described as many as #ag1deg species of phanerogamia1 reckoning from ,monandria to ,polygamia dicia4 ,if to these we add #cjjj species of cryptogamic plants1 we shall bring the number as given by ,willdenow to #bj1jjj4 ,more recent investigations have shown how far this estimate of the species described1 and of those preserved in herbariums1 falls short of the truth4 ,robert ,brown,,nb first enumerated above #cg1jjj phanerogamia1 and ,i at that time attempted to describe the distribution of #dd1jjj species of phanerogamic and cryptogamic plants1 over the different portions of the world already explored4,,nc ,decandolle finds1 on comparing ,persoon's ,enchiridium with his ,universal ,system divided into twelve families1 that more than #ef1jjj species of plants may be enumerated from the writings of botanists and ,european herbariums4,,nd ,if we consider how many new species have been described by travellers since that time1 7my expedition alone afforded #cfjj of the #ehjj collected species of equinoctial plants71 and if we bear in mind that there are assuredly upwards of #be1jjj phanerogamic plants1 cultivated in all the different botanical gardens1 we shall soon see how much ,decandolle's estimate is below the truth4 ,from our complete ignorance of the interior of ,south ,america 7,mato-,grosso1 ,paraguay1 the eastern declivity of the ,andes1 ,santa-,cruz de la ,sierra1 and all the countries lying between the ,orinoco1 the ,rio ,negro1 the ,amazon1 and ,puruz71 of ,africa1 of ,madagascar1 and ,borneo1 and of ,central and ,eastern ,asia1 the idea involuntarily presents itself to the mind that we are not yet acquainted with one third1 or probably even with one fifth part of the plants existing on the earth4 ,drge has collected #gjib phanerogamic species in ,southern ,africa alone2 and he believes that the flora of that region consists of more than #aa1jjj phanerogamic species1 seeing that in ,germany and ,switzerland1 on an equal area 7#aib1jjj square miles17 ,koch has described only #ccjj1 and ,decandolle only #cfde phanerogamia in ,france4 ,i would here also instance the new genera1 consisting partly of high forest trees1 which are still being discovered in the neighbourhood of large commercial towns in the lesser ,antilles1 although they have been visited by ,europeans for the last three hundred years4 ,such considerations1 which ,i purpose developing more fully at the close of this illustration1 seem to verify the ancient myth of the ,zend-,avesta1 that 8the creating primeval force called forth #abj1jjj vegetable forms from the sacred blood of the bull40 ,if therefore no direct scientific solution can be afforded to the question1 how many vegetable forms--leafless cryptogamia 7water alg1 fungi1 and lichens71 charace1 liverworts1 foliaceous mosses1 marsilace1 lycopodiace1 and ferns--exist on the dry land1 and in the wide basin of the sea1 in the present condition of the organic terrestrial life of our planet1 it only remains for us to employ an approximative method for ascertaining with some degree of probability certain 8extreme limits0 7numerical data of minima74 ,since the year #ahae1 ,i have1 in my arithmetical considerations on the geography of plants1 calculated the numbers expressing the ratio which the aggregate of species of different natural families bears to the whole mass of the phanerogamia in those countries where the latter is sufficiently determined4 ,robert ,brown1,,ne the greatest botanist of our age1 had1 prior to my researches1 already determined the numerical proportion of the principal divisions of vegetable forms1 as for instance of acotyledons 7,agam1 cryptogamic or cellular plants7 to cotyledons 7,phanerogamia1 or vascular plants71 and of monocotyledons 7,endogen7 to dicotyledons 7,exogen74 ,he finds the ratio of monocotyledons to dicotyledons in the tropical zone as in the proportion of #a to #e1 and in the frigid zone1 in the parallels of #fj north1 and #ee south lat4 as #a to #b4,,nf ,the absolute numbers of the species are compared together in the three great divisions of the vegetable kingdom1 according to the method developed in ,brown's work4 ,i was the first who passed from these principal divisions to the individual families1 and considered the number of the species contained in each1 in their ratio to the whole mass of phanerogamia belonging to one zone4,,ng ,the numerical relations of the forms of plants1 and the laws observed in their geographical distribution1 admit of being considered from two very different points of view4 ,when we study plants in their arrangement according to natural families1 without regard to their geographical distribution1 the question arises3 ,what are the fundamental forms or types of organization1 in accordance with which the greater number of their species are formed8 ,are there more ,glumace than ,composit on the earth's surface8 ,do these two orders of plants combined1 constitute one-fourth of the phanerogamia8 ,what numerical relation do monocotyledons bear to dicotyledons8 ,these are questions of general phytology1 a science that investigates the organization of plants and their mutual connection1 and therefore has reference to the now existing state of vegetation4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the species of plants that have been connected together according to their structural analogy1 are considered not abstractedly1 but in accordance with their climatic relations1 and their distribution over the earth's surface1 these questions acquire a totally different interest4 ,we then examine what families of plants predominate in the torrid zone more than towards the polar circle over other phanerogamia8 ,we inquire1 whether the ,composit are more numerous in the new than in the old world1 under equal geographical latitudes or between equal isothermal lines8 ,whether the forms which gradually lose their predominance in advancing from the equator to the poles1 follow a similar law of decrease in ascending mountains situated in the equatorial region8 ,whether the relations of the different families to the whole mass of the phanerogamia differ under equal isothermal lines in the temperate zones on either side of the equator8 ,these questions belong to the geography of plants properly so called1 and are connected with the most important problems that can be presented by meteorology and terrestrial physics4 ,thus the predominance of certain families of plants determines the character of a landscape1 and whether the aspect of the country is desolate or luxuriant1 or smiling and majestic4 ,grasses1 forming extended ,savannahs1 or the abundance of fruit-yielding palms1 or social coniferous trees1 have respectively exerted a powerful influence on the material condition1 manners1 and character of nations1 and on the more or less rapid development of their prosperity4 ,in studying the geographical distribution of forms1 we may consider the species1 genera1 and natural families of plants separately4 ,a single species1 especially among social plants1 frequently covers an extensive tract of land4 ,thus we have in the north1 ,pine or ,fir forests1 and ,heaths 7ericeta72 in ,spain1 ,cistus groves2 and in tropical ,america1 collections of one and the same species of ,cactus1 ,croton1 ,brathys1 or ,bambusa ,guadua4 ,it is interesting to study more closely these relations of individual increase1 and of organic development2 and here we may inquire1 what species produces the greatest number of individuals in one certain zone2 or1 merely what are the families to which the predominating species belong in different climates4 ,in a very high northern latitude1 where the ,composit and the ,ferns stand in the ratios of #a 3 #ac and #a 3 #be to the sum of all the phanerogamia 7i4 e41 where these ratios are found by dividing the sum total of all phanerogamia by the number of species included in the family of the ,composit1 or in that of the ,ferns72 one single species of ,fern may1 however1 cover ten times more space than all the species of the ,composit taken together4 ,in this case the ,ferns predominate over the ,composit by their mass1 and by the number of the individuals belonging to the same species of ,pteris1 or ,polypodium2 but they will not be found to predominate1 if we only compare the number of the different specific forms of the ,filices1 and of the ,composit1 with the sum total of all ,phanerogamia4 ,as1 therefore1 multiplication of plants does not follow the same laws in all species1 and as all do not produce an equal number of individuals1 the quotients obtained by dividing the sum of all phanerogamic plants by the species of one family1 do not alone determine the leading features impressed on the landscape1 or the physiognomy of nature peculiar to different regions of the earth4 ,if the attention of the travelling botanist be arrested by the frequent repetition of the same species1 by its mass1 and the uniformity of vegetation thus produced1 it will be still more forcibly arrested by the infrequency of many other species useful to man4 ,in tropical regions1 where the ,rubiace1 ,myrtles1 ,leguminos1 or ,terebinthace1 compose the forests1 one is astonished to meet with so few trees of ,cinchona1 or of certain species of mahogany 7,swietenia71 of ,hmatoxylon1 ,styrax1 or balsamic ,myroxylon4 ,i would also here refer to the scanty and detached occurrence of the precious febrifuge-bark trees 7species of ,cinchona7 which ,i had an opportunity of observing on the declivity of the elevated plains of ,bogota and ,popayan1 and in the neighbourhood of ,loxa1 in descending towards the unhealthy valley of the ,catamayo1 and to the river ,amazon4 ,the febrifuge-bark hunters 7,cazadores de ,cascarilla71 as those ,indians and ,mestizoes are called at ,loxa1 who each year collect the most efficacious of all the medicinal barks1 the ,cinchona ,condaminea1 among the lonely mountains of ,caxanuma1 ,uritusinga1 and ,rumisitana1 undergo considerable danger in climbing to the summits of the highest forest-trees1 in order to obtain an extended view1 from which they may distinguish the scattered1 slender1 and aspiring trunks of the ,cinchona1 by the reddish tint of their large leaves4 ,the mean temperature of this important forest region 7between #d and #d south lat47 varies from #fj to #fh ,fahr41 at an absolute height of from #fdjj to #hjjj feet above the level of the sea4,,nh ,in considering the distribution of species1 we may also1 independently of individual multiplication and mass1 compare together the absolute number which belong to each family4 ,such a mode of comparison1 which was employed by ,decandolle1,,ni has been extended by ,kunth to more than #ccjj of the species of ,composit with which we are at present acquainted4 ,it does not show what family preponderates by individual mass1 or by the number of its species1 over other phanerogamic forms1 but it simply indicates how many of the species of one and the same family are indigenous in any one country or portion of the earth4 ,the results of this method are1 on the whole1 more exact1 because they are obtained by a careful study of the separate families1 without requiring that the whole number of the phanerogamia of every country should be known4 ,thus1 for instance1 the most varied forms of ,ferns are found in the tropical zone1 each genus presenting the greatest number of species in the temperate1 humid1 and shaded mountainous parts of islands4 ,while these species are less numerous in passing from tropical regions to the temperate zone1 their absolute number diminishes still more in approaching nearer to the poles4 ,although the frigid zone1 as1 for instance1 ,lapland1 supports species of the families which are best able to resist the cold1 ,ferns predominate more over other phanerogamia in ,lapland than either in ,france or ,germany1 notwithstanding the absolute inferiority of the gross number of ferns indigenous to the northern zone1 when compared with other countries4 ,these relations are1 in ,france and ,germany1 as and 1 while in ,lapland they are as 4 ,these numerical relations 7obtained by dividing the sum total of all the phanerogamia of the different floras by the species of each family7 were published by me in #ahag1 in my ,prolegomena de distributione geographica ,plantarum1 and corrected in accordance with the great works of ,robert ,brown1 in my ,essay on the ,distribution of ,plants over the earth's surface1 which ,i subsequently wrote in ,french4 ,these relations1 as we advance from the equator towards the poles1 necessarily vary from the ratios obtained by a comparison of the absolute number of the different species belonging to each family4 ,we often see the value of the fractions increase by the decrease of the denominator1 whilst the absolute number of the species is reduced4 ,in the fractional method which ,i have followed as the most applicable to questions relating to the geography of plants1 there are two variable quantities2 for in passing from one isothermal line to another1 we do not find the sum total of the phanerogamia change in the same proportion as the number of the species of one particular family4 ,in proceeding from the consideration of these species to that of the divisions established in the natural system according to an ideal series of abstractions1 we may direct our attention to genera or races1 to families1 or even to still higher classes of division4 ,there are some genera1 and even whole families1 which exclusively belong to certain zones2 not merely because they can only thrive under a special combination of climatic relations1 but also because they first sprang up within very circumscribed localities1 and have been checked in their migrations4 ,the larger number of genera and families have1 however1 their representatives in all regions of the earth1 and at all elevations4 ,the earliest inquiries into the distribution of vegetable forms had reference to genera alone1 and are to be found in the valuable work of ,treviranus4,,nj ,this method is1 however1 less appropriate for yielding general results1 than that which compares the number of the species of each family1 or the great leading divisions 7acotyledons1 monocotyledons1 and dicotyledons71 with the sum total of the phanerogamia4 ,in the frigid zone1 the variety of forms1 or the number of the genera1 does not decrease in an equal degree with that of the species1 there being in these regions relatively more genera and fewer species4,,nk ,the case is almost the same on the summits of high mountain-chains1 where are sheltered individual members of many different genera which one would be disposed to regard as belonging exclusively to the vegetation of the plain4 ,i have deemed it expedient to indicate the different points of view from which the laws of the distribution of vegetable forms may be considered4 ,it is only when these points of view are confounded together1 that we meet with contradictions1 which have been unjustly attributed to uncertainty of observation4,,nl ,when expressions like the following are employed3 8,this form1 or this family diminishes as it approaches towards the cold zone10 or 8the true habitat of this form is in such or such a parallel of latitude20 or 8this is a southern form10 or1 again1 8it predominates in the temperate zone20 it should be definitely stated whether reference is made to the absolute number of the species1 and the proportion of their predominance according to the increase or decrease of latitude2 or whether the meaning conveyed is1 that a family1 when compared with the whole number of the phanerogamia of a flora1 predominates over other families of plants4 ,the impression conveyed to the mind of the predominance of forms1 depends literally on the conception of relative quantity4 ,terrestrial physics have their numerical elements as well as the cosmical system1 and it is only by the united labours of botanical travellers that we can hope gradually to arrive at a knowledge of the laws which determine the geographical and climatic distribution of vegetable forms4 ,i have already observed that in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere1 the ,composit 7,synanthere7 and the ,glumace 7in which latter division ,i place the three families of the ,gramine1 the ,cyperoide1 and the ,juncace7 constitute the fourth part of all phanerogamia4 ,the following numerical relations are the result of my investigations for seven great families of the vegetable kingdom in one and the same temperate zone3 ,glumace 7,grasses alone 7 ,composit ,leguminos ,labiat ,umbellifer ,amentace 7,cupulifer1 ,betuline1 and ,salicine7 ,crucifer ,the forms of organic beings are reciprocally dependent on one another4 ,such is the unity of nature1 that these forms limit each other in obedience to laws which are probably connected with long periods of time4 ,when we have ascertained the number of the species on any particular part of the earth's surface belonging to one of the great families of the ,glumace1 the ,leguminos1 or the ,composit1 we may with some degree of probability1 form approximative conclusions regarding the number of all the phanerogamia1 as well as of the species belonging to the other families of plants growing in the country4 ,the number of the ,cyperoide determines that of the ,composit1 and the number of the latter determines that of the ,leguminos2 and these estimates1 moreover1 enable us to ascertain in what classes and orders the ,floras of a country are still incomplete1 teaching us what harvests may still be reaped in the respective families1 if we guard against confounding together very different systems of vegetation4 ,the comparison of the numerical proportions of families in the different zones which have as yet been well explored1 has led me to a knowledge of the laws which determine the numerical increase or decrease of vegetable forms constituting a natural family1 in proceeding from the equator to the poles1 when compared1 for instance1 with the whole mass of phanerogamia peculiar to each zone4 ,we must here have regard not only to the direction1 but also to the rapidity or measure of the increase4 ,we see the denominator of the fraction1 which expresses the ratio1 increase or diminish4 ,thus1 for instance1 the beautiful family of the ,leguminos diminishes in proportion as it recedes from the equinoctial zone to the north pole4 ,if we find its ratio for the torrid zone 7from #j to #aj of latitude7 1 we shall have for the part of the temperate zone 7lying between #de and #eb7 1 and for the frigid zone 7between #fg and #gj lat47 only 4 ,the direction followed by the great family of the ,leguminos 7viz41 increase towards the equator7 is also that of the ,rubiace1 the ,euphorbiace1 and especially the ,malvace4 ,on the other hand1 the ,gramine and the ,juncace 7the latter more than the former71 the ,erice1 and ,amentace1 diminish towards the torrid zone4 ,the ,composit1 ,labiat1 ,umbellifer1 and ,crucifer1 diminish from the temperate zone towards the pole and the equator1 and the two latter families most rapidly in the direction of the equatorial region2 whilst in the temperate zone the ,crucifer are three times more abundant in ,europe than in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america4 ,in ,greenland the ,labiat are reduced to only one species1 and the ,umbellifer to two1 while the whole number of the phanerogamia still amounts1 according to ,hornemann1 to #cae species4 ,it must at the same time be observed that the development of plants of different families1 and the distribution of their forms1 do not depend alone on the geographical1 or even on the isothermal latitude2 the quotients not being always equal on one and the same isothermal line in the temperate zone1 as for instance in the plains of ,america and in those of the ,old ,continent4 ,within the tropics there is a very marked difference between ,america1 the ,east ,indies1 and the western coast of ,africa4 ,the distribution of organic beings over the surface of the earth does not depend solely on the great complication of thermic and climatic relations1 but also on geological causes which continue almost wholly unknown to us1 since they have been produced by the original condition of the earth1 and by catastrophes which have not affected all parts of our planet simultaneously4 ,the large pachydermata are no longer found in the ,new ,continent1 while they still exist under analogous climates in ,asia and ,africa4 ,these differences1 instead of deterring us from the investigation of the laws of nature1 should rather stimulate us to study them in all their intricate modifications4 ,the numerical laws of families1 the frequently striking agreement between the ratios1 where the species constituting these families are for the most part different1 lead us into that mysterious obscurity which envelopes everything connected with the fixing of organic types in the different species of animals and plants1 and with all that refers to formation and development4 ,i will take as examples two neighbouring countries--,france and ,germany--which have both been long since explored4 ,in ,france many species of ,gramine1 ,umbellifer1 ,crucifer1 ,composit1 ,leguminos1 and ,labiat are wanting1 which are some of the commonest in ,germany1 and yet the ratios of these six large families are almost identical in both countries4 ,their relations1 which ,i here give1 are as follows3 ,families4 ,germany4 ,france4 ,gramine4 ,umbellifer4 ,crucifer4 ,composit4 ,leguminos4 ,labiat4 ,this correspondence in the number of species of one family compared to the whole mass of the phanerogamia of ,germany and ,france would not exist1 if the absent ,german species were not replaced in ,france by other types of the same families4 ,those who delight in conjectures respecting the gradual transformation of species1 and who regard the different parrots1 peculiar to islands situated near each other1 as merely transformed species1 will ascribe the remarkable uniformity presented by the above numerical ratios to a migration of the same species1 which having been altered by climatic influences1 continuing for thousands of years1 appear to replace each other4 ,but why have our common ,heath1 7,calluna vulgaris17 and our ,oaks not penetrated to the east of the ,ural ,mountains1 and passed from ,europe to northern ,asia8 ,why is there no species of the genus ,rosa in the southern1 and scarcely any ,calceolaria in the northern hemisphere8 ,these are points that cannot be explained by peculiarities of temperature4 ,the present distribution of forms 7fixed forms of organization7 is no more explained by thermal relations alone1 than by the hypothesis of migrations of plants radiating from certain central points4 ,thermal relations are scarcely sufficient to explain the phenomenon why certain species have fixed limits beyond which they cannot pass1 either in the plains towards the pole1 or in vertical elevation on the declivities of mountains4 ,the cycle of vegetation of each species1 however different may be its duration1 requires a certain minimum of temperature to enable it to arrive at the full stage of its development4,,nm ,but all the conditions necessary to the existence of a plant1 either within its natural sphere of distribution or cultivation--such as geographical distance from the pole1 and elevation of the locality--are rendered still more complicated by the difficulty of determining the beginning of the thermic cycle of vegetation2 by the influence which the unequal distribution of the same quantity of heat among days and nights succeeding each other in groups1 exerts on the irritability1 the progressive development1 and the whole vital process2 and lastly1 by the secondary influence of the hygrometric and electric relations of the atmosphere4 ,my investigations regarding the numerical laws of the distribution of vegetable forms may1 perhaps1 at some future time1 be applied successfully to the different classes of vertebrate animals4 ,the rich collections of the ,musum d'histoire naturelle in the ,jardin des ,plantes at ,paris1 contained in #ahbj1 at a rough estimate1 above #ef1jjj species of phanerogamic and cryptogamic plants in the herbariums1 #dd1jjj insects 7probably below the actual number1 although they were thus given me by ,latreille71 #bejj species of fishes1 #gjj reptiles1 #djjj birds1 and #ejj mammalia4 ,europe possesses about #hj mammalia1 #djj birds1 and #cj reptiles2 there are1 therefore1 five times as many birds as mammalia in the northern temperate zone1 7as there are in ,europe five times as many ,composit as ,amentace and ,conifer1 and five times as many ,leguminos as ,orchide and ,euphorbiace74 ,in the southern temperate zone the ratio of the ,mammalia bears a sufficiently striking accord with that of ,birds1 being as #a 3 #dc4 ,birds 7and reptiles even to a greater extent71 increase more than mammalia in advancing towards the torrid zone4 ,we might be disposed to believe1 from ,cuvier's investigations1 that this ratio was different in the earlier age of our planet1 and that the number of mammalia that perished by convulsions of nature was much greater than that of birds4 ,latreille has shown the different groups of insects that increase in advancing towards the pole1 or towards the equator1 and ,illiger has indicated the native places of #chjj birds1 according to the quarters of the globe2--a far less instructive method than if they had been given according to zones4 ,we may easily comprehend how1 on a given area1 the individuals of one class of plants or animals may limit each other's numbers1 and how1 after the long-continued contests and fluctuations engendered by the requirements of nourishment and mode of life1 a condition of equilibrium may have been at length established2 but the causes which have determined their typical varieties1 and have circumscribed the sphere of the distribution of the forms themselves1 no less than the number of individuals of each form1 are shrouded in that impenetrable obscurity which still conceals from our view all that relates to the beginning of things and the first appearance of organic life4 ,if1 therefore1 as ,i have already observed at the beginning of this illustration1 we attempt to give an approximative estimate of the numerical limit 78le nombre limite0 of the ,french mathematicians71 below which we cannot place the sum of all the phanerogamia on the surface of the earth2 we shall find that the surest method will be by comparing the known ratios of the families of plants with the number of the species contained in our herbariums1 or cultivated in large botanical gardens4 ,as ,i have just remarked1 the herbariums of the ,jardin des ,plantes at ,paris were1 in #ahbj1 already estimated at #ef1jjj species4 ,i will not hazard a conjecture as to the number that may be contained in the herbariums of ,england1 but the great ,paris herbarium1 which ,benjamin ,delessert with the noblest disinterestedness has given up to free and general use1 was estimated1 at the time of his death1 to contain #hf1jjj species1 a number almost equal to that which ,lindley1 even in #ahce1,,nn regarded as the probable number of all the species existing 8on the whole earth40 ,few herbariums are numbered with care1 according to a complete1 severe1 and methodical separation of the different varieties2 while1 moreover1 we often find no inconsiderable number of plants wanting in the large so-called general herbariums1 which are contained in some of the smaller ones4 ,dr4 ,klotzsch estimates the whole number of ,phanerogamic plants in the ,great ,royal ,herbarium at ,schneberg1 near ,berlin1 of which he is curator1 at #gd1jjj species4 ,loudon's useful work 7,hortus britannicus7 gives a general view of the species which now are or recently have been1 cultivated in ,english gardens4 ,the edition of #ahcb enumerates1 including indigenous plants1 exactly #bf1ffj ,phanerogamia4 ,we must not confound with this large number of plants that either have been1 or still are1 cultivated in ,great ,britain1 8all the living plants which may simultaneously be found in an individual botanic garden40 ,in this last respect the ,botanic ,garden of ,berlin has long been regarded as one of the richest in ,europe4 ,the fame of its extraordinary riches rested formerly on a mere approximative estimate of its contents1 and1 as my old friend and fellow-labourer ,professor ,kunth1 has very correctly remarked1,,no 8it was only by the completion of a systematic catalogue1 based on the most careful examination of the species1 that an actual enumeration could be undertaken4 ,this enumeration gave somewhat more than #ad1jfj species2 and when we deduct from these #cge cultivated ferns1 there remain #ac1fhe ,phanerogamia1 among which there are #afjj ,composite1 #aaej ,leguminos1 #dbh ,labiat1 #cgj ,umbellifer1 #dfj ,orchide1 #fj ,palms1 and #fjj ,grasses and ,cyperace4 ,if we compare with these numbers the number of species given in recent works1 as1 for instance1 ,composit 7according to ,decandolle and ,walpers71 at about #aj1jjj1 ,leguminos #hjgj1 ,labiat 7,bentham7 #baij1 ,umbellifer #afbj1 ,grasses #cedd1 and ,cyperace #bjjj1,,np we shall perceive that the ,botanic ,garden at ,berlin cultivates only 1 1 and of the very large families 7,composit1 ,leguminos1 and ,grasses71 and as many as and of the already described species belonging to the small families 7,labiat and ,umbellifer74 ,if we estimate the number of all the different species of ,phanerogamia simultaneously cultivated in all the botanical gardens of ,europe at #bj1jjj1 we shall find1 as they appear to constitute about the eighth part of those already described and contained in herbariums1 that the whole number of ,phanerogamia must amount to nearly #afj1jjj4 ,this estimate need not be regarded as too high1 since scarcely the hundredth part of many of the larger families1 as1 for instance1 ,guttifere1 ,malpighiace1 ,melastome1 ,myrtace1 and ,rubiace1 belong to our gardens40 ,if we take the number 7#bf1ffj species71 given in ,loudon's 8,hortus ,britannicus10 as the basis1 we shall find1 from the well-grounded series of inferences drawn by ,professor ,kunth1 and which ,i borrow from his manuscript notice above referred to1 that the estimate of #afj1jjj will increase to #bac1jjj species2 and even this is still very moderate1 since ,heynhold1 in his 8,nomenclator botanicus hortensis0 7#ahdf71 estimates the species of ,phanerogamia already cultivated at #ce1fjj4 ,on the whole1 therefore1--and the conclusion is1 at first sight1 sufficiently striking1--the number of species of ,phanerogamia at present known by cultivation in gardens1 by descriptions1 and in herbariums1 is almost greater than that of known insects4 ,according to the average estimates of several of the most distinguished entomologists1 whose opinion ,i have been able to obtain1 the number of insects at present described1 or contained in collections without being described1 may be stated as between #aej1jjj and #agj1jjj species4 ,the rich collection at ,berlin contains fully #ij1jjj1 among which there are about #cb1jjj beetles4 ,travellers have collected an immense quantity of plants in remote regions1 without bringing with them the insects living upon them1 or in the neighbourhood4 ,if1 however1 we limit these numerical estimates to a definite portion of the earth's surface that has been the best explored in regard to its plants and insects1 as1 for instance1 ,europe1 we find the ratio between the vital forms of ,phanerogamic plants and those of insects changed to such a degree1 that while ,europe counts scarcely #gjjj or #hjjj ,phanerogamia1 more than three times that number of ,european insects are at present known4 ,according to the interesting contributions of my friend ,dohrn in ,stettin1 more than #hgjj insects have already been collected from the rich fauna of the neighbourhood1 and yet there are still many ,micro,lepidoptera wanting2 while the number of ,phanerogamia found there scarcely exceeds #ajjj4 ,the ,insect-fauna of ,great ,britain is estimated at #aa1fjj4 ,such a preponderance of animal forms will appear less surprising when we remember that several of the large classes of insects live only on animal substances1 whilst others subsist on agamic plants 7,fungi71 and even on those which are subterranean4 ,bombyx ,pini1 the ,pine ,spider1 the most destructive of all forest-insects1 is infested1 according to ,ratzeburg1 by no less than thirty-five parasitical ,ichneumonid4 ,these considerations have led us to the proportion borne by the number of species growing in gardens to the gross number of those already described and preserved in herbariums2 it now remains for us to consider the proportion of the latter to the conjectural number of species existing on the whole earth1 or1 in other words1 to test their minimum by the relative numbers of the different families--i4 e4 by variable multipla4 ,a test of this kind gives1 however1 such low results for the lower amount1 as plainly to show that even in the large families1 which appear to have been the most strikingly enriched in recent times by the researches of descriptive botanists1 our knowledge is still limited to a very small portion of the treasure actually existing4 ,the ,repertorium of ,walpers which completes ,decandolle's ,prodromus of #ahbe to #ahdf1 gives #hjfh species of the family of the ,leguminos4 ,we may assume the mean ratio to be 2 since it is in the tropical zone1 in the middle temperate zone1 and in the cold northern zone4 ,the described ,leguminos would therefore only lead us to assume that there were #afi1djj species of ,phanerogamia existing on the earth1 whereas the ,composit1 as already shewn1 testify to the existence of more than #afj1jjj known ,phanerogamia1 i4 e4 such as have been described or are contained in herbariums4 ,this discrepancy is instructive1 and will be further elucidated by the following analogous considerations4 ,the larger number of the ,composit1 of which ,linnus knew only #ghe species1 and which have now increased to #ab1jjj1 appear to belong to the ,old ,continent4 ,at least ,decandolle described only #ceij ,american1 while he estimated the ,european1 ,asiatic1 and ,african species at #ejic4 ,this abundance of ,composit in our vegetable systems is however deceptive1 and only apparently considerable2 for the quotient of this family 7which within the tropical zone is 1 in the temperate zone 1 and in the frigid zone 7 shows that more species of ,composit than of ,leguminos have hitherto eluded the diligent research of travellers2 for even when multiplied by #ab we only obtain the improbably small number of #add1jjj for the sum total of the ,phanerogamia6 ,the families of the ,grasses and of the ,cyperace give still lower results1 because a proportionally smaller number of species have been described and collected4 ,we need only cast a glance at the map of ,south ,america1 and remember that the vast extent of country occupied by the grassy plains of ,venezuela the ,apure and the ,meta1 as well as to the south of the woody region of the ,amazon1 in ,chaco1 in ,eastern ,tucuman1 and in the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres and ,patagonia1 has either been very imperfectly or not at all explored in relation to botany4 ,northern and ,central ,asia present an almost equally extensive territory occupied by steppes2 but here a larger proportion of dicotyledonous plants is intermixed with the ,gramine4 ,if we had sufficient grounds for believing that one-half of all the phanerogamic plants existing on the surface of the earth are known1 and if we estimate this number at only #afj1jjj or at #bac1jjj known species2 we must give to the family of grasses1 whose general ratio appears to be 1 in the former case at least #bf1jjj1 and in the latter #ce1jjj different species1 of which in the first case 1 and in the second are known4 ,the following considerations oppose the hypothesis that we are already acquainted with half the ,phanerogamia on the earth's surface4 ,several thousand species of ,monocotyledons and ,dicotyledons1 and among them lofty arborescent forms1 have recently been discovered 7,i would remind the reader of my own expedition7 in districts of a very large extent1 which had already been explored by distinguished botanists4 ,yet that portion of the great continents which has never been visited by botanical observers far exceeds the extent of the parts even superficially traversed4 ,the greatest variety of phanerogamic vegetation1 i4 e4 the greatest number of species on an equal area1 is to be met with in the tropical or subtropical zones4 ,it is therefore the more important to bear in mind that we are almost wholly unacquainted1 north of the equator1 in the ,new ,continent1 with the floras of ,oaxaca1 ,yucatan1 ,guatimala1 ,nicaragua1 the ,isthmus of ,panama1 the ,choco1 ,antioquia1 and the ,province de los ,pastos2 while south of the equator1 we are equally ignorant of the floras of the boundless forest-region between the ,ucayale1 the ,rio de la ,madura1 and the ,toncantin 7three mighty tributaries of the ,amazon71 as well as of those of ,paraguay and the ,province de las ,missiones4 ,in ,africa1 we know nothing of the vegetation of the whole of the interior1 between #ae north and #bj south lat42 and in ,asia we are unacquainted with the floras of the south and south-east of ,arabia1 where the highlands rise to an elevation of #fdjj feet2 as also with the floras between the ,thian-schan1 the ,kuen-,ln1 and the ,himalaya2 those of ,western ,china2 and those of the great portion of the countries beyond the ,ganges4 ,still more unknown to botanists are the interior portions of ,borneo and ,new ,guinea1 and of some districts of ,australia4 ,further to the south the number of the species decreases in a most remarkable manner1 as ,joseph ,hooker has ably shown1 from his own observation1 in his ,antarctic ,flora4 ,the three islands which constitute ,new ,zealand extend from #cd to #dg of latitude1 and as they have besides snow-crowned mountains more than #hhej feet in height1 they must exhibit considerable differences of climate4 ,the most northern island has been explored with tolerable accuracy from the time of ,banks and ,solander's voyage 7with ,capt4 ,cook71 to the visits of ,lesson1 the brothers ,cunningham1 and ,colenso2 and yet in more than seventy years1 the number of ,phanerogamia with which we have become acquainted is below #gjj4,,nq ,this paucity of vegetable species corresponds with the paucity of animal forms4 ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker has observed that 8,iceland1 proverbially barren as it is1 and upon which no tree1 save a few stunted birches1 is to be found1 possesses five times as many flowering plants as ,lord ,auckland's group and ,campbell's ,islands together1 although these are situated at from #h to #aj nearer the equator in the southern hemisphere4 ,the antarctic flora is at once characterised by uniformity and great luxuriance of vegetation1 which is attributable to the influence exerted by an uninterruptedly cool and humid climate4 ,in ,southern ,chili1 ,patagonia1 and ,tierra del ,fuego 7from #de to #ef lat47 this uniformity is strikingly manifested on the mountains and their declivities no less than in the plains4 ,how great is the difference of species when we compare the flora of the south of ,france1 in the same latitude as the ,chonos ,islands off the coast of ,chili1 with the ,scottish flora of ,argyleshire1 in the parallel of ,cape ,horn4 ,in the southern hemisphere the same types of vegetation pass through many degrees of latitude4 ,in the regions near the north pole ten flowering plants have been collected on ,walden ,island 7#hj north lat471 while there is scarcely a solitary grass to be met with in the ,south ,shetland ,islands1 although situated #fc south latitude40,,nr ,these considerations on the distribution of plants prove that the great mass of the still unobserved1 uncollected1 and undescribed phanerogamia belong to the tropical zone1 and to the contiguous regions extending from twelve to fifteen degrees from it4 ,i have deemed it not unimportant to draw attention to the imperfect state of our knowledge in this slightly cultivated department of numerical botany1 and to treat such questions in a more definite manner than has hitherto been possible4 ,in all conjectures regarding relative numbers1 we must first examine the practicability of obtaining the lowest limit2 as in the question1 of which ,i have treated elsewhere1 regarding the ratio of the gold and silver coined to the quantity of the precious metals existing in a wrought state2 or as in the question of how many stars1 from the tenth to the twelfth magnitude1 are scattered over the heavens1 and how many of the smallest telescopic stars may be contained in the ,milky ,way8,,ns ,it is an established fact1 that if it were possible to ascertain completely by observation the number of species of the large phanerogamic families1 we should at the same time obtain an approximate knowledge of the sum-total of all the phanerogamia on the surface of the earth 7that is1 the numbers included in every family74 ,the more therefore we are enabled1 by the progressive exploration of unknown districts1 gradually to determine the number of species belonging to any one great family1 the higher will be the gradual rise of the lowest limit1 and the nearer we shall arrive at the solution of a great numerical vital problem1 since the forms1 in accordance with still unexplained laws of universal organism1 reciprocally limit each other4 ,but is the number of the organisms a constant number8 ,do not new vegetable forms spring from the ground after long intervals of time1 whilst others become more and more rare1 and finally disappear8 ,geology confirms the latter part of this question by means of the historical memorials of ancient terrestrial life4 8,in the primitive world10 to use the expression of the intellectual ,link1,,nt 8elements remote from each other blend together in wondrous forms1 indicating1 as it were1 a higher degree of development and articulation in a future period of the world40 ,footnote #hd3 p4 #bbb--8,whether the height of the arial ocean and its pressure have always been the same40 ,the pressure of the atmosphere has a decided influence on the form and life of plants4 ,this life1 owing to the fulness and abundance of the leafy organs provided with interstitial openings1 is principally directed outwards4 ,plants mainly live in and through their surfaces1 and hence their dependence on the surrounding medium4 ,animals are more dependant on internal stimuli2 they generate and maintain their own temperature1 deriving from muscular movements their electric currents1 and the chemical vital processes which arise from and re-act upon those currents4 ,a kind of cutaneous respiration constitutes an active vital function of plants1 and depends1 so far as it is an evaporation1 inhalation1 and exhalation of fluids1 on atmospheric pressure4 ,hence ,alpine plants are more aromatic and hirsute than others1 and more amply provided with numerous exhalants4,,nu ,zoonomic experiments teach us1 as ,i have shown in another work1 that organs are more abundant and more perfectly developed in proportion to the facility with which their functional requirements are fulfilled4 ,the disturbance occasioned in the respiration of their external integuments1 by increased barometric pressure1 renders it1 as ,i have elsewhere shewn1 very difficult for ,alpine plants to thrive in the plain4 ,whether the arial ocean surrounding the earth has always exerted the same mean pressure is a question wholly undecided4 ,we do not even know for certain whether the mean barometric height has remained the same during a hundred years at any one given spot4 ,according to the observations of ,poleni and ,toaldo1 this pressure appeared variable4 ,doubts were long entertained regarding the accuracy of these views1 but the more recent investigations of the astronomer ,carlini render it almost probable that in ,milan the mean barometric pressure is on the decrease4 ,perhaps the phenomenon is very local1 and dependent on periodic variations in descending currents of air4 ,footnote #he3 p4 #bbc--8,palms40 ,it is remarkable1 that of this majestic form of plants--the ,palms--some of which rise to more than twice the height of the ,royal ,palace at ,berlin1 and which the ,indian1 ,amarasinha1 has very characteristically called 8kings among grasses10--only fifteen species had been described up to the time of the death of ,linnus4 ,the ,peruvian travellers1 ,ruiz and ,pavon1 added only eight2 whilst ,bonpland and myself1 traversing a greater extent of country1 from #ab south lat4 to #ba north lat41 described twenty new species1 and distinguished as many more which we named1 without however being able to procure their blossoms in a perfect state4,,nv ,at present 7forty-four years after my return from ,mexico7 more than #ddj species of palms1 from both continents1 have already been scientifically described1 including the ,east ,indian species arranged by ,griffith4 ,the 8,enumeratio ,plantarum0 of my friend ,kunth1 which appeared in #ahda1 contains no fewer than #cef species4 ,the very few palms belonging1 like our ,conifer1 ,quercine1 and ,betuline1 to social plants1 are the ,mauritian ,palm 7,mauritia flexuosa71 and the two species of ,chamrops1 of which the ,chamrops humilis covers whole tracts of land at the estuary of the ,ebro and in ,valencia1 while the other1 ,chamrops ,mocini1 which we discovered on the ,mexican shore of the ,pacific1 is entirely without prickles4 ,in the same manner as there are some species of palms1 including ,cocos and ,chamrops1 which are peculiar to sea-coasts1 so also is there a certain group of ,alpine palms belonging to the region of the tropics1 which1 if ,i mistake not1 was wholly unknown before my ,south ,american journey4 ,almost all these species of the palm family grow in plains and in a mean temperature of #ha4e and #hf ,fahr41 seldom advancing higher up the sides of the ,andes than to #aijj feet4 ,the beautiful wax palm 7,ceroxylon andicola71 the ,palmetto of ,azufral at the ,pass of ,quindiu1 7,oreodoxa frigida71 and the reed-like ,kunthia montana 7,caa de la ,vibora7 of ,pasto1 all flourish at elevations varying from #fdjj to #ifjj feet above the level of the sea1 where the thermometer frequently sinks in the night to #db4h and #de4e ,fahr41 and the mean temperature is scarcely #eg ,fahr4 ,these ,alpine palms are interspersed with nut-trees1 yew-leaved species of ,podocarpus1 and oaks1 7,quercus granatensis74 ,i have determined1 by accurate barometric measurements1 the upper and lower limits of the wax palm4 ,we began to observe it first on the eastern declivity of the ,cordilleras of ,quindiu1 at an elevation of #gibi feet1 from whence it ascended to the ,garita del ,paramo1 and ,los ,volcancitos1 as high as about #igjj feet4 ,the distinguished botanist1 ,don ,jos ,caldas1 who was long our companion in the mountains of ,new ,granada1 and who fell a victim to ,spanish party hatred1 found1 many years after my departure from the country1 three species of palms in the ,paramo de ,guanacos1 in the immediate vicinity of the limit of perpetual snow1 and therefore1 probably at an elevation of nearly #ad1jjj feet4,,nw ,even beyond the tropical region 7in lat4 #bh71 ,chamrops ,martiana,,nx rises on the advanced spurs of the ,himalaya range to a height of #ejjj feet4 ,when we consider the extreme geographical and1 consequently1 also the climatic limits of palms at spots which are but little elevated above the level of the sea1 we find that some forms 7the ,date ,palm1 ,chamrops humilis1 ,ch4 palmetto1 and ,areca sapida of ,new ,zealand17 advance far within the temperate zone of both hemispheres1 to districts where the mean annual temperature scarcely reaches from #eg to #fj ,fahr4 ,if we form a progressive scale of cultivated plants in accordance with the different degrees of heat they require1 and begin with the maximum1 we have ,cacao1 ,indigo1 ,bananas1 ,coffee1 ,cotton1 ,date ,palms1 ,orange and ,lemon trees1 ,olives1 ,spanish ,chesnuts1 and ,vines4 ,in ,europe1 ,date ,palms1 together with ,chamrops humilis1 grow in the parallels of #dc and #dd1 as1 for instance1 on the ,genoese ,rivera del ,ponente1 near ,bordighera1 between ,monaco and ,san ,stefano1 where there is a palm grove1 numbering more than #djjj trees2 also in ,dalmatia1 near ,spalatro4 ,it is remarkable that the ,chamrops humilis is of frequent occurrence in the neighbourhood of ,nice and in ,sardinia1 whilst it is not found in the ,island of ,corsica1 lying between the two4 ,in the ,new ,continent1 the ,chamrops palmetto1 which is sometimes more than #dj feet high1 does not advance further north than #cd2 a circumstance that may be explained by the inflection of the isothermal lines4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 ,robert ,brown,,ny found that palms1 of which there are only very few 7six or seven7 species1 advance as far as #cd in ,new ,holland2 while ,sir ,joseph ,banks saw an ,areca1 in ,new ,zealand1 as far as #ch4 ,africa1 which1 contrary to the ancient and still extensively diffused opinion1 is poor in species of palms1 exhibits only one palm 7,hyphne coriacea7 which advances south of the equator1 only as far as ,port ,natal1 in #cj lat4 ,the continent of ,south ,america presents almost the same limits4 ,east of the chain of the ,andes1 in the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 and in the ,cis-,plata province1 palms extend1 according to ,auguste de ,st4-,hilaire1,,nz as far as #cd and #ce4 ,the ,coco de ,chile1 7our ,juba spectabilis871 the only species of palm indigenous in ,chili1 advances on the western side of the chain of the ,andes1 according to ,claude ,gay1,,oa to an equal latitude1 viz41 to the ,rio ,maule4 ,i will here subjoin the aphoristic observations which1 in ,march1 #ahja1 ,i noted down while on board ship1 at the moment we were leaving the palm region surrounding the mouth of the ,rio ,sinu1 west of ,darien1 and were setting sail for ,carthagena de ,indias4 8,in the space of two years1 we have seen as many as #bg different species of palms in ,south ,america4 ,how many then must have been observed by ,commerson1 ,thunberg1 ,banks1 ,solander1 the two ,forsters1 ,adanson1 and ,sonnerat1 on their extensive travels6 ,yet1 at the moment ,i am writing1 our vegetable systems recognise scarcely more than from fourteen to eighteen methodically described species of palms4 ,the difficulties of reaching and procuring the blossoms of palms are1 in fact1 greater than can well be conceived2 and1 in our own case1 we were made peculiarly sensible of this in consequence of our having directed our attention especially to palms1 grasses1 cyperace1 juncace1 cryptogamia1 and numerous other subjects hitherto much neglected4 ,most of the palms flower only once a year1 and this period near the equator is generally about the months of ,january and ,february4 ,how few travellers are likely to be in the region of palms precisely during this season6 ,the period of blossoming of particular trees is often limited to a few days1 and the traveller commonly finds1 on his arrival in the region of palms1 that the blossoms have passed away1 and that the trees present only fructified ovaries and no male flowers4 ,in an area of #cb1jjj square miles1 there are often not more than three or four species of palms to be found4 ,who can possibly1 during the brief period of flowering1 simultaneously visit the various palm regions near the ,missions on the ,rio ,caroni1 in the ,morichales at the mouth of the ,orinoco1 in the valley of ,caura and ,erevato1 on the banks of the ,atabapo and the ,rio ,negro1 and on the declivity of the ,duida8 ,there is1 moreover1 great difficulty when the trees grow in thick woods or on swampy shores 7as at the ,temi and ,tuamini71 in reaching the blossoms1 which are often suspended from stems formidably armed with huge thorns1 and rising to a height of between #fj and #gj feet4 ,they who contemplate distant travels from ,europe for the purpose of investigating subjects of natural history1 picture to themselves visions of efficient shears and curved knives attached to poles1 ready for securing anything that comes in their way2 and of boys who1 obedient to their mandates1 are prepared1 with a cord attached to their feet1 to climb the loftiest trees6 ,unfortunately1 scarcely any of these visions are ever realised2 while the flowers are almost unattainable1 owing to the great height at which they grow4 ,in the missionary settlements of the river net-work of ,guiana1 the stranger finds himself amongst ,indians1 who1 rendered rich and independent by their apathy1 their poverty1 and their barbarism1 cannot be induced either by money or presents to deviate three steps from the regular path1 supposing one to exist4 ,this stubborn indifference of the natives provokes the ,european so much the more1 from his being continually a witness of the inconceivable agility with which they will climb any height when prompted by their own inclination1 as1 for instance1 in the pursuit of a parrot1 an iguana1 or a monkey1 which1 wounded by their arrows1 saves itself from falling by its prehensile tail4 ,in the month of ,january the stems of the ,palma ,real1 our ,oreodoxa ,regia1 were covered with snow-white blossoms1 in all the most frequented thoroughfares of the ,havannah1 and in the immediate vicinity of the city2 but1 although we offered1 for several days running1 a couple of piastres for a single spadix of the hermaphrodite blossoms to every negro boy we met in the streets of ,regia and ,guanavacoa1 it was in vain1 for1 in the tropics1 no free man will ever undertake any labour attended by fatigue unless he is compelled to do so by imperative necessity6 ,the botanists and painters of the ,royal ,spanish ,commission of ,natural ,history under ,count ,don ,jaruco y ,mopox 7,estevez1 ,boldo1 ,guio1 ,echeveria71 confessed to us that1 for several years1 they had been unable to examine these blossoms1 owing to the absolute impossibility of obtaining them4 8,after this statement of the difficulties attending their acquisition1 the fact of our being only able1 in the course of two years1 systematically to describe twelve species of palms1 although we had discovered twenty species1 may be understood2 but ,i confess it would hardly have been credible to me before ,i left ,europe4 ,how interesting a work might be written on palms by a traveller1 who could exclusively devote himself to the delineation1 in their natural size1 of the spathe1 spadix1 inflorescence and fruits60 7,thus ,i wrote many years before the ,brazilian travels of ,martius and ,spix1 and the appearance of the admirable work on ,palms by the former47 8,there is much sameness in the form of the leaves1 which are either feathery 7pinnata71 or fan-like 7palmo-digitata72 the leaf-stalk 7petiolus7 is either without thorns or is sharply serrated 7serrato-spinosus74 ,the leaf-form of ,caryota urens and ,martinezia caryotifolia1 which we saw on the banks of the ,orinoco and the ,atabapo1 and subsequently in the ,andes1 at the pass of ,quindiu1 as high as #cbjj feet above the level of the sea1 is almost as peculiar among palms as is the leaf-form of the ,gingko among trees4 ,the habitus and physiognomy of palms are expressive of a grandeur of character which it is difficult to describe in words4 ,the stem 7caudex7 is simple1 and very rarely divided into branches after the manner of the ,dracna1 as in ,cucifera thebaica 7the ,doom ,palm71 and in ,hyphne coriacea4 ,it is sometimes disproportionately thick1 as in ,corozo del ,sinu1 our ,alfonsia oleifera2 of a reed-like feebleness1 as in ,piritu1 7,kunthia montana71 and the ,mexican ,corypha nana2 of a somewhat fork-like and protuberant form towards the lower part1 as in ,cocos2 sometimes smooth and sometimes scaly1 as in the ,palma de ,covija de ,sombrero1 in the ,llanos2 or1 lastly1 prickly1 as in ,corozo de ,cumana and ,macanilla de ,caripe1 having the thorns very regularly arranged in concentric rings4 8,characteristic differences also manifest themselves in the roots1 which1 in some cases1 project about a foot or a foot and a half from the ground1 raising the stem on a scaffolding1 as it were1 or coiled round it in a padded-like roll4 ,i have seen viverras and even very small monkeys pass under the scaffolding formed by the roots of the ,caryota4 ,occasionally the stem is swollen only in the middle1 being smaller above and below1 as in the ,palma ,real of the island of ,cuba4 ,the green of the leaves is either dark and shining1 as in ,mauritia ,cocos1 or of a silvery white on the under side1 as in the slender fan-palm1 ,corypha ,miraguama1 which we saw in the harbour of ,trinidad de ,cuba4 ,sometimes the middle of the fan-like leaf is adorned with concentric yellow and blue stripes1 in the manner of a peacock's tail1 as in the prickly ,mauritia1 which ,bonpland discovered on the ,rio ,atabapo4 8,the direction of the leaves is a no less important characteristic than their form and colour4 ,the leaflets 7foliola7 are either ranged in a comb-like manner close to one another1 with a stiff parenchyma 7as in ,cocos ,phnix71 to which they owe the beautiful reflections of solar light that play over the surface of the leaves1 which shine with a brilliant verdure in ,cocos1 and with a fainter and ashy-coloured hue in the date-palm2 or sometimes the foliage assumes a reed-like appearance1 having a thinner and more flexible texture1 and being curled near the extremity 7as in ,jagua1 ,palma ,real del ,sinu1 ,palma ,real de ,cuba1 and ,piritu del ,orinoco74 ,this direction of the leaves1 together with the lofty stem1 gives to the palms their character of high majesty4 ,it is a characteristic of the physiognomical beauty of the palm that its leaves are directed aspiringly upwards throughout the whole period of its duration1 7and not only in the youth of the tree1 as is the case with the ,date-,palm1 which is the only one introduced into ,europe47 ,the more acute the angle made by the leaves with the upper part of the stem 7that is1 the nearer they approach the perpendicular17 the grander and nobler is the form of the tree4 ,how different is the aspect of the pendent leaves of the ,palma de ,covija del ,orinoco y de los ,llanos de ,calabozo 7,corypha tectorum71 from the more horizontal leaves of the ,date and ,cocoa-nut palms1 and the lofty heavenward-pointing branches of the ,jagua1 the ,cucurito1 and ,pirijao4 8,nature seems to have accumulated all the beauties of form in the ,jagua palm1 which1 intermingled with the ,cucurito or ,vadgihai1 whose stem rises to a height of #hj or even more than #ajj feet1 crowns the granite rocks at the cataracts of ,atures and ,maypures1 and which we also occasionally saw on the lonely banks of the ,cassiquiare4 ,their smooth and slender stems rise to a height of from #fd to #ge feet1 projecting like a colonnade above the dense mass of the surrounding foliage4 ,these arial summits present a marked and beautiful contrast with the thickly-leaved species of ,ceiba1 and with the forest of ,laurine1 ,calophyllum1 and the different species of ,amyris which surround them4 ,their leaves1 which seldom exceed seven or eight in number1 incline vertically upwards to a height of #af or #ag feet1 and are curled at the extremities in a kind of feathery tuft4 ,the parenchyma of the leaf is of a thin grass-like texture1 causing the leaflets to wave with graceful lightness on the gently oscillating leaf-stalk4 ,the floral buds burst forth1 in all species of palms1 from the stem immediately beneath the leaves2 and the mode in which this takers place modifies their physiognomical character4 ,thus in some1 as in ,corozo del ,sinu1 the sheath is perfectly erect1 and the fruit rises like a thyrsus1 resembling the fruits of the ,bromelia4 ,in the greater number1 the sheaths1 which in some species are smooth1 and in others very prickly and rough1 incline downwards4 ,in some1 again1 the male blossoms are of a dazzling white1 and it may then be seen shining from a great distance2 but in most species of palms they are yellow1 closely compressed1 and of an almost faded appearance1 even when they first burst from the spathe4 8,in palms with feathery leaves the leaf-stalks either burst from the dry1 rough1 ligneous portion of the stem 7as in ,cocos1 ,phnix1 ,palma ,real del ,sinu71 or there rises in the rough part of the stem a grass-green1 smooth1 and thinner shaft1 like one column above another1 from which the leaf-stalk springs1 as in ,palma ,real de la ,havana1 ,oreodoxa regia1 which excited the admiration of ,columbus4 ,in the fan-palms 7foliis palmatis71 the leafy crown often rests on a layer of dry leaves1 which imparts to the tree a character of melancholy solemnity and grandeur 7as in ,moriche1 ,palma de sombrero de la ,havana74 ,in some umbrella-palms1 the crown consists of a very few scattered leaves1 raised on slender stalks 7as in ,miraguama74 8,the form and colour of the fruit also present more variety than is generally supposed to be the case in ,europe4 ,mauritia flexuosa has egg-shaped fruits1 whose smooth1 brown1 and scaly surface gives them the appearance of young pine cones4 ,how great is the difference between the large triangular cocoa-nut1 the berry of the date1 and the small stone-fruit of the ,corozo6 ,but of all the fruits of the palm1 none can be compared for beauty with those of the ,pirijao 7,pihiguao7 of ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo and of ,san ,balthasar4 ,they are oval1 and of a golden colour 7one-half being of a purplish red72 are mealy1 without seed1 two or three inches in thickness1 and hang in clusters like grapes from the summits of their majestic palm-trunks40 ,i have already spoken in the earlier part of this work of these beautiful fruits1 of which there are seventy or eighty clustered together in one bunch1 and which can be prepared in a variety of ways like bananas and potatoes4 ,the spathe enclosing the blossom bursts suddenly open in some species of palms1 with an audible report4 ,richard ,schomburgk has like myself observed this phenomenon,,ob in the flowering of the ,oreodoxa oleracea4 ,this first opening of the blossoms of the palm accompanied with noise1 reminds us of ,pindar's ,dithyrambus on ,spring1 and of the moment when in the ,argive ,nema1 8the first opening shoot of the date-palm announces the coming of balmy spring40,,oc ,palms1 bananas1 and arborescent ferns constitute three forms of especial beauty peculiar to every portion of the tropical zone2 wherever heat and moisture co-operate1 vegetation is most exuberant and vegetable forms present the greatest diversity4 ,hence ,south ,america is the most beautiful portion of the palm world4 ,in ,asia the palm form is rare1 in consequence perhaps of a considerable part of the ,indian continent beneath the equator having been destroyed and covered by the ocean in some earlier revolution of our planet4 ,we know scarcely anything of the ,african palms between the ,bay of ,benin and the coast of ,ajan2 and we are1 generally speaking1 as already observed1 acquainted with only a very small number of ,african palm-forms4 ,palms1 next to ,conifer1 and some species of ,eucalyptus belonging to the family of the ,myrtace1 afford examples of the loftiest growth4 ,stems of the ,cabbage-palm 7,areca oleracea7 have been seen from #afj to #agj feet in height4,,od ,the ,wax-palm1 our ,ceroxylon andicola1 which we discovered in the ,montaa de ,quindiu on the side of the ,andes1 between ,ibague and ,carthago1 attains the enormous height of #ahj to #aij feet4 ,i was able to make an accurate measurement of the trunks of some of these trees1 which had been felled in the woods4 ,next to the ,wax-palm1 the ,oreodoxa ,sancona1 which we found in flower in the valley of ,cauca1 and which affords a very hard and admirable wood for building1 appeared to me to be the highest of all ,american palms4 ,the fact1 that notwithstanding the enormous mass of fruit yielded by some single palms1 the number of individuals of each species growing wild is not very considerable1 can only be explained by the frequent abortive development of the fruit1 and by the voracity of the enemies by whom they are assailed from all classes of animals4 ,in the basin of the ,orinoco1 however1 whole tribes find the means of subsistence for many months together in the fruit of the palm4 8,in palmetis1 ,pihiguao consitis1 singuli trunci quotannis fere #djj fructus ferunt pomiformes1 tritumque est verbum inter ,fratres ,s4 ,francisci1 ad ripas ,orinoci et ,guaini degentes1 mire pinguescere ,indorum corpora1 quoties uberem ,palm fructum fundant40,,oe ,footnote #hf3 p4 #bbd--8;,from the earliest infancy of human civilization40 ,we find1 as far as history and tradition extend1 that the ,banana has constantly been cultivated in all continents within the tropical zone4 ,the fact of ,african slaves having1 in the course of centuries1 brought some varieties of the ,banana fruit to ,america is as certain as that of the cultivation of this vegetable product by the natives of ,america prior to its discovery by ,columbus4 ,the ,guaikeri ,indians in ,cumana assured us that on the coast of ,paria1 near the ,golfo ,triste1 the ,banana will occasionally produce germinating seeds1 if the fruit be suffered to ripen on the stem4 ,it is from this cause1 that wild ,bananas are occasionally found in the recesses of the forests1 in consequence of the ripe seeds being scattered abroad by birds4 ,at ,bordones also1 near ,cumana1 perfectly formed and matured seeds have been occasionally found in the fruit of the ,banana4,,of ,i have already remarked1 in another work1,,og that ,onesicritus and other companions of the great ,macedonian1 make no mention of high arborescent ferns1 although they speak of the fan-leaved umbrella palms and of the tender evergreen verdure of the banana-plantations4 ,among the ,sanscrit names given by ,amarasinha for the ,banana 7the ,musa of botanists7 we find bhanu-phala 7sun-fruit71 varana-buscha1 and moko4 ,phala signifies fruit generally4 ,lassen explains ,pliny's words 7xii4 #f71 8,arbori nomen pal1 pomo arien10 to this effect1 that 8,the ,roman mistook the word pala1 fruit1 for the name of the tree1 whilst varana1 changed in the mouth of a ,greek to ouarana1 was transformed into ariena4 ,the ,arabic mauza1 our ,musa1 may have been formed from moko4 ,the ,bhanu fruit seems to approach to ,banana fruit40,,oh ,footnote #hg3 p4 #bbd--8;,form of the ,malvace40 ,larger forms of the ,mallow appear1 as soon as we have crossed the ,alps2 ,lavatera arborea1 near ,nice and in ,dalmatia2 and ,l4 olbia1 in ,liguria4 ,the dimensions of the ,baobab 7monkey bread-tree7 have already been given4 7,see pp4 #bgj-bgb47 ,with the form of the ,malvace are associated the botanically allied families of the ,byttneriace1 7,sterculia1 ,hermannia1 and the blossoms of the large-leaved ,theobroma ,cacao1 whose flowers break forth from the bark of the trunk as well as from the roots72 the ,bombace 7,adansonia1 ,helicteres1 and ,cheirostemon72 and1 lastly1 the ,tiliace 7,sparmannia ,africana74 ,our ,cavanillesia plantanifolia of ,turbaco1 near ,carthagena in ,south ,america1 and the celebrated ,ochroma-like ,hand-tree1 the ,macpalxochiquahuitl of the ,mexicans1 7from ,macpalli1 the flat of the hand17 ,arbol de las manitas of the ,spaniards1 our ,cheirostemon platanoides1 are splendid representatives of the mallow form4 ,in the last named1 the anthers are connected together in such a manner as to resemble a hand or claw rising from the beautiful purplish-red blossoms4 ,there is in all the ,mexican free states only one individual remaining1 one single primval stem of this wonderful genus4 ,it is supposed not to be indigenous1 but to have been planted by a king of ,toluca1 about five hundred years ago4 ,i found that the spot where the ,arbol de las ,manitas stands is #hhbe feet above the level of the sea4 ,why is there only one tree of the kind8 ,whence did the kings of ,toluca obtain the young tree or the seed8 ,it is equally enigmatical1 that ,montezuma should not have possessed one of these trees in his botanical gardens of ,huaxtepec1 ,chapoltepec1 and ,iztapalapan1 which were used as late as by ,philip the ,second's physician1 ,hernandez1 and of which gardens traces still remain2 and it appears no less striking that the ,hand-tree should not have found a place among the drawings of subjects connected with natural history1 which ,nezahual ,coyotl1 king of ,tezcuco1 caused to be made1 half a century before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,it is asserted that the ,hand-tree grows wild in the forests of ,guatimala4,,oi ,we found two ,malvace1 ,sida ,phyllanthos 7,cavan471 and ,sida ,pichinchensis1 rising in the equatorial region to the great height of #ac1dcj1 and #ae1jff feet on the mountain of ,antisana and at the volcano of ,rucu ,pichincha4,,oj ,the ,saxifraga ,boussingaultii rises from #fjj to upwards of #gjj feet higher1 on the declivity of ,chimborazo4 ,footnote #hh3 p4 #bbe--8;,form of the ,mimos40 ,the delicate and feathery foliage of the ,mimos1 ,acaci1 ,schranki1 and ,desmanthus1 may be regarded as peculiarly characteristic of tropical vegetation2 although some representatives of this form may also be found without the tropics4 ,in the ,old ,continent of the northern hemisphere1 and indeed in ,asia1 ,i can instance only one low shrub1 described by ,marshal von ,bieberstein as ,acacia ,stephaniana1 but which1 according to ,kunth's more recent investigations1 is a species of the genus ,prosopis4 ,this social plant covers the arid plains of the province of ,schirvan on the ,kur 7,cyrus71 near ,new ,schamach1 as far as the ancient ,araxes4 ,olivier found it also in the neighbourhood of ,bagdad4 ,it is the ,acacia foliis bipinnatis mentioned by ,buxbaum1 and which extends towards the north as far as #db lat4,,ok ,in ,africa the ,acacia gummifera 7,willd471 extends to ,mogador1 and therefore as far as #cb north lat4 ,in the ,new ,continent1 ,acacia glandulosa 7,michaux71 and ,a4 brachyloba 7,willd471 adorn the banks of the ,mississippi and ,tennessee1 and the ,savannahs of the ,illinois4 ,the ,schrankia uncinata was found by ,michaux to penetrate from ,florida northwards to ,virginia 7therefore as far as #cg north lat474 ,gleditschia triacanthos is met with1 according to ,barton1 to the east of the ,alleghany mountains1 as far as #ch north lat41 and west of the same range even to #da north lat4 ,the extreme northern limit of ,gleditschia monosperma is two degrees further southward4 ,such are the boundaries of the ,mimosa form in the northern hemisphere1 while in the southern hemisphere1 beyond the tropic of ,capricorn1 simple-leaved ,acaci are found as far as ,van ,dieman's ,land2 the ,acacia cavenia described by ,claude ,gay being even found in ,chili between #cj and #cg south lat4,,ol ,chili has no true ,mimosa1 but three species of ,acacia2 and even in the north of ,chili the ,acacia cavenia grows only to a height of #ab or #ac feet1 whilst in the south1 as it approaches the sea-coast1 it scarcely rises a foot above the ground4 ,the most sensitive of the ,mimosas which we saw in the northern portion of ,south ,america1 are 7next to the ,mimosa pudica17 ,m4 dormiens1 ,m4 somnians1 and ,m4 somniculosa4 ,the irritability of the ,african sensitive plant was already noticed by ,theophrastus 7iv4 #c71 and by ,pliny 7xiii4 #aj72 but ,i find the first description of the ,south ,american sensitive plants 7,dormideras7 in ,herrera 7,decad4 ii4 lib4 iii4 cap4 #d74 ,the plant first attracted the attention of the ,spaniards1 in #aeah1 in the ,savannahs on the isthmus round ,nombre de ,dios 78parece como cosa sensible071 and it was pretended that the leaves 78de echura de una pluma de pajaros107 only contracted together when they were touched with the finger1 and not when brought in contact with a piece of wood4 ,in the small swamps which surround the town of ,mompox on the ,magdalena ,river1 we discovered a very beautiful aquatic ,mimosa 7,desmanthus lacustris71 a representation of which is given in our 8,plantes quinoxiales0 7t4 i4 p4 #ee1 pl4 #af74 ,in the chain of the ,andes of ,caxamarca we found two ,alpine ,mimosas 7,mimosa montana and ,acacia revoluta7 growing at elevations of from #ijjj to nearly #ifjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,as yet no true ,mimosa1 7in the meaning of the word as established by ,willdenow17 nor even any ,inga1 has been found in the temperate zone4 ,amongst all the ,acacias the ,oriental ,acacia ,julibrissin1 which ,forskl has confounded with ,mimosa arborea1 endures the greatest degree of cold4 ,in the ,botanical ,garden of ,padua there is a high stem of considerable thickness growing in the open air1 although the mean temperature of ,padua is below #ef ,fahrenheit4 ,footnote #hi3 p4 #bbe4--8;,heaths40 ,we do not1 in these physiognomical considerations1 by any means comprehend1 under the name of ,heaths1 the whole natural family of the ,ericace1 which1 on account of the similarity and analogy in the flowering parts of the plant1 include ,rhododendrum1 ,befaria1 ,gaultheria1 and ,escallonia2 we limit ourselves to the very accordant and characteristic form of the species of ,erica1 including ,calluna 7,erica vulgaris1 ,l474 8,whilst in ,europe ,erica carnea1 ,e4 tetralix1 ,e4 cinerea1 and ,calluna vulgaris1 cover large tracts of country1 extending from the plains of ,germany1 and from ,france and ,england1 to the extremity of ,norway2 ,southern ,africa presents the most varied assortment of species4 ,one single species1 ,erica umbellata1 which is indigenous in the southern hemisphere1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 is again found in ,northern ,africa1 ,spain1 and ,portugal4 ,erica vagans and ,e4 arborea also belong to the opposite coasts of the ,mediterranean4 ,the former is met with in ,northern ,africa1 in the neighbourhood of ,marseilles1 in ,sicily and ,dalmatia1 and even in ,england2 the second in ,spain1 ,istria1 ,italy1 and the ,canaries40,,om ,the common heath1 ,calluna vulgaris 7,salisbury71 which is a social plant1 covers large tracts from the mouth of the ,scheldt to the western declivity of the ,ural4 ,beyond the ,ural both ,oaks and ,heaths disappear4 ,both are wanting in the whole of ,northern ,asia1 and in all ,siberia1 as far as the ,pacific4 ,gmelin,,on and ,pallas,,oo have expressed their astonishment at this disappearance of ,calluna vulgaris2 which1 on the eastern declivity of the ,ural chain is even more decided and more sudden than one might be led to conclude1 from the words of the last-named great naturalist4 ,pallas merely says1 8ultra ,uralense jugum sensim deficit1 vix in ,isetensibus campis rarissime apparet1 et ulteriori ,sibiri plane deest40 ,chamisso1 ,adolph ,erman1 and ,heinrich ,kittlitz collected ,andromedas but no ,calluna in ,kamtschatka and on the north-west coast of ,america4 ,the accurate knowledge which we at present possess of the mean temperature of different portions of ,northern ,asia1 as well as of the distribution of annual heat throughout the different seasons1 in no way explains the non-advance of the ,heath to the east of the ,ural4 ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker has treated with much ingenuity1 in a note to his 8,flora ,antarctica10 of the two contrasting phenomena of the distribution of plants1 8uniformity of surface accompanied by a similarity of vegetation01 and again1 8instances of a sudden change in the vegetation1 unaccompanied with any diversity of geological and other feature40,,op ,is there an ,erica in ,central ,asia8 ,that which ,saunders1 in ,turner's 8,travels to ,thibet10,,oq has described in the highlands of ,nepaul1 besides other ,european plants 7,vaccinium ,myrtillus1 and ,v4 oxycoccus71 as ,erica vulgaris1 is1 according to the opinion communicated to me by ,robert ,brown1 probably the ,andromeda fastigiata of ,wallich4 ,the absence of ,calluna vulgaris and of all species of ,erica1 throughout the whole of the continental part of ,america is an equally striking fact1 since ,calluna is met with in the ,azores and in ,iceland4 ,it has not hitherto been found in ,greenland1 but it was discovered some years ago in ,newfoundland4 ,the natural family of the ,ericace is also almost entirely wanting in ,australia1 where its place is supplied by the ,epacride4 ,linnus described only #ajb species of the genus ,erica1 but1 according to ,klotzsch's observations1 this genus comprises #ddj true species1 after the varieties have been carefully excluded4 ,footnote #ij3 p4 #bbf--8,the ,cactus form40 ,when the natural family of the ,opuntiace is separated from the ,grossulariace 7species ,ribes71 and is confined within the limits indicated by ,kunth1,,or we may regard the whole as exclusively ,american4 ,i am not ignorant1 that ,roxburgh1 in the ,flora indica 7inedita71 mentions two species of ,cactus which he regards as peculiar to the south-east of ,asia1 viz41 ,cactus indicus1 and ,c4 chinensis4 ,both are widely diffused1 originally wild or having become so1 and different from ,cactus opuntia and ,c4 ,coccinellifer2 but it is remarkable that this ,indian plant should have no ancient ,sanscrit name4 ,the so-called ,chinese ,cactus has been introduced by cultivation into the island of ,st4 ,helena4 ,modern investigations1 prosecuted at a period when a more general interest has been awakened in relation to the original distribution of plants1 will unquestionably remove the doubts that have frequently been advanced against the existence of ,asiatic ,opuntiace4 ,we see1 in a similar manner1 certain vital forms appear separately in the animal world4 ,how long did the ,tapir continue to be regarded as a characteristic form of the ,new ,continent6 ,and yet the ,american ,tapir is1 as it were1 repeated in that of ,malacca 7,tapirus indicus1 ,cuv474 ,although the ,cactus form belongs1 properly speaking1 to the tropical regions1 there are some species in the ,new ,continent1 that are indigenous to the temperate zone on the ,missouri and in ,louisiana2 as1 for instance1 ,cactus missuriensis and ,c4 vivipara4 ,back1 in his northern expedition1 saw with astonishment1 the banks of the ,rainy ,lake in lat4 #dh #dj 7long4 #ib #ec7 entirely covered with ,c4 ,opuntia4 ,south of the equator the ,cactus does not advance further than ,rio ,itata 7lat4 #cf7 and ,rio ,biobio 7lat4 #cg7 ,in the part of the chain of the ,andes lying within the tropics1 ,i have found species of ,cactus 7,c4 sepium1 ,c4 chlorocarpus1 ,c4 bonplandii7 on elevated plains from #ijjj to upwards of #aj1fjj feet above the level of the sea2 but in ,chili1 in the temperate zone1 a far more strongly marked ,alpine character is exhibited by ,opuntia ,ovallei1 whose upper and lower limits have been accurately determined through barometric measurements by the learned botanist1 ,claude ,gay4 ,the yellow-flowering ,opuntia ,ovallei1 which has a creeping stem1 does not descend below #fgdf feet1 advancing as high as the line of perpetual snow2 and even above it1 wherever a few masses of rock remain uncovered4 ,these little plants have been gathered at spots lying at an elevation of #ac1ffc feet above the level of the sea4,,os ,some species of ,echinocactus are also true alpine plants in ,chili4 ,a counterpart to the much admired fine-haired ,cactus senilis is presented by the thick-wooled ,cereus lanatus1 called by the natives ,piscol1 which has a fine red fruit4 ,we found it near ,guancabamba1 in ,peru1 on our journey to the ,amazon river4 ,the dimensions of the ,cactace 7a group on which the ,prince of ,salm-,dyck was the first to throw considerable light7 present the most striking contrasts4 ,echinocactus ,wislizeni1 which has a circumference of seven feet and a half1 with a height of four feet and a quarter1 is only third in size1 being surpassed by ,e4 ingens1 7,zucc47 and ,e4 platyceras4 7,lem47,,ot ,the ,echinocactus ,stainesii attains a diameter of from two feet to two and a-half2 ,e4 visnago1 belonging to ,mexico1 has a diameter of upwards of three feet1 with a height of more than four feet1 and weighs as much as from #gjj to #bjjj lbs42 while the ,cactus nanus1 which we collected near ,sondorillo1 in the province of ,jaen1 is so small and so loosely rooted in the sand1 that it gets between the toes of dogs4 ,the ,melocactuses1 which are full of juice even in the driest season1 as the ,ravenala of ,madagascar 7wood-leaf in the language of the country from rave1 raven1 a leaf1 and ala1 the ,javanese halas1 a wood71 are vegetable springs1 which the wild horses and mules open by stamping with their hoofs--a process in which they frequently injure themselves4,,ou ,cactus ,opuntia has spread during the last quarter of a century in a remarkable manner through ,northern ,africa1 ,syria1 ,greece1 and the whole of ,southern ,europe2 penetrating from the coasts of ,africa far into the interior1 where it associates with the native plants4 ,after being accustomed to see ,cactuses only in our hothouses1 we were astonished at the density of the woody fibres in old cactus stems4 ,the ,indians are aware that cactus wood is indestructible1 and admirably adapted for oars and the thresholds of doors4 ,there is hardly any physiognomical character of exotic vegetation that produces a more singular and ineffaceable impression on the mind of the traveller1 than an arid plain densely covered with columnar or candelabra-like stems of cactuses1 similar to those near ,cumana1 ,new ,barcelona1 ,coro1 and in the province of ,jaen de ,bracamoros4 ,footnote #ia3 p4 #bbf--8,orchide40 ,the almost animal-like form occasionally observed in blossoms of the ,orchide is most strongly marked in ,anguloa grandiflora1 celebrated in ,south ,america as the ,torito2 in the ,mosquito 7our ,restrepia antennifera72 in the ,flor del ,espiritu ,santo 7likewise an ,anguloa1 according to ,flor ,peruvian ,prodrom4 p4 #aah1 tab4 #bf72 in the ant-like flower of ,chiloglottis cornuta2,,ov in the ,mexican ,bletia speciosa2 and in the whole host of our remarkable ,european species of ,ophrys3 ,o4 muscifera1 ,o4 apifera1 ,o4 aranifera1 ,o4 arachnites1 c4 ,the taste for these splendidly flowering plants has so much increased1 that the number of species cultivated by ,messrs4 ,loddige1 which1 in #ahac1 was only #aae1 was upwards of #afej in #ahdc1 and in #ahdh1 the number was estimated at no fewer than #bcfj4 ,what a treasure of sumptuously flowering and unknown ,orchide may be inclosed in the interior of ,africa wherever there is an abundant supply of water6 ,lindley1 in his beautiful work1 ,on the ,genera and ,species of ,orchideous ,plants1 #ahdj1 counted exactly #aihj species2 whilst ,klotzsch at the close of the year #ahdh counted #cede4 ,whilst the temperate and cold zone possess only terrestrial ,orchide1 growing close to the ground1 both forms1 the terrestrial1 as well as the parasitical1 growing on the trunks of trees1 are indigenous in the beautiful regions of the tropics4 ,to the former class belong the tropical genera ,neottia1 ,cranichis1 and most ,habenarias4 ,but we have found both these forms as alpine plants on the declivity of the ,andes of ,new ,granada and ,quito1 viz41 the parasitical 7,epidendre7 ,masdevallia uniflora 7at an elevation of #aj1bca feet71 ,cyrtochilum flexuosum 7at #aj1ajc feet71 and ,dendrobium aggregatum 7at #idhe feet72 and the terrestrial forms of ,altensteinia paleacea1 near ,lloa ,chiquito1 at the foot of the volcano of ,pichincha4 ,claude ,gay is of opinion that the ,orchide supposed to have been found growing on trees in the ,island of ,juan ,fernandez and even at ,chiloe1 were probably only parasitical ,pourreti1 which advance as far south at least as #dj4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 the tropical form of ,orchide1 hanging from trees1 is still to be seen as far south as #de4 ,but the ,orchide of ,auckland and ,campbell ,islands 7,chiloglottis1 ,thelymitra1 and ,acianthus71 grow on level ground in moss4 ,in the animal world there is at least one tropical form that penetrates further south4 ,the ,island of ,macquarie 7lat4 #ed #ci7 has an indigenous parrot1 which lives therefore in a region nearer to the south pole than ,danzig is to the north pole4,,ow ,footnote #ib3 p4 #bbf--8;,form of the ,casuarin40 ,acacias1 in which the place of the leaves is supplied by phyllodia1 ,myrtace 7,eucalyptus1 ,metrosideros1 ,melaleuca1 ,leptospermum71 and ,casuarin1 constitute the sole characteristics of the vegetable world of ,australia 7,new ,holland7 and ,tasmania 7,van ,diemen's ,land74 ,casuarin with their leafless1 thin1 thread-like1 articulated branches1 and their joints furnished with membranous1 toothed spathes1 have been compared by travellers1,,ox according to differences of species1 either with arborescent ,equisetace 7,horsetails7 or with our ,scotch firs4 ,i have been much struck with the singular appearance of leaflessness presented by the small thickets of ,colletia and ,ephedra in ,south ,america1 near the coast of ,peru4 ,casuarina quadrivalvis penetrates1 according to ,labillardire1 as far south as #dc in ,tasmania4 ,the mournful form of the ,casuarina is not unknown in the ,east ,indies and even on the eastern coast of ,africa4 ,footnote #ic3 p4 #bbg--8;,acicular-leaved trees40 ,the family of the ,conifer 7including the genera of ,dammara1 ,ephedra1 and ,gnetum of ,java and ,new ,guinea1 which are essentially allied to it1 though distinctly separated by the form of the leaf and the whole conformation71 plays so important a part in consequence of the number of individuals in each species1 and by its geographical diffusion1 while it covers in the northern temperate zone1 as a social plant1 such extensive districts1 that we are almost compelled to wonder at the inconsiderable number of the species4 ,we are not acquainted with so many ,conifer by three-fourths as there are ,palms already described1 nay1 the ,conifer are numerically less than the ,aroide4 ,zuccarini1 in his 8,contributions to the ,morphology of the ,conifer10,,oy enumerates #baf species1 of which #afe belong to the ,northern and #ea to the ,southern hemisphere4 ,these proportional numbers must now1 in consequence of my researches1 be differently expressed1 since1 with the species of ,pinus1 ,cupressus1 ,ephedra1 and ,podocarpus1 which ,bonpland and ,i discovered in the tropical part of ,peru1 ,quito1 ,new ,granada1 and ,mexico1 the number of the cone-bearing trees flourishing between the tropics amounts to #db4 ,the excellent and latest work of ,endlicher,,oz contains #cab species of ,conifer now living1 and #agh of a primeval mundane period which are now buried in the coal formation1 in variegated sandstone1 in keuper1 and in ,jura limestone4 ,the vegetation of the eocene world presents especially to us forms which1 by their coval relationship with several families of the present world1 remind us that with it many intervening members have disappeared4 ,the ,conifer1 so frequent in the primeval world1 accompany1 in particular1 the ligneous remains of ,palms and ,cycade2 but in the most recent beds of lignite or brown coal we again find ,conifer1 our ,pines and ,firs1 associated with ,cupulifer 7or ,mastworts71 ,maples and ,poplars4,,pa ,if the surface of the earth did not rise to great altitudes within the tropics1 the strikingly characteristic form of acicular-leaved trees would have remained wholly unknown to the inhabitants of that zone4 ,i took great pains1 in common with ,bonpland1 to trace out1 in the ,mexican ,highlands1 the lower and upper boundary line of the ,conifer and ,oaks4 ,the heights1 at which both begin to grow 7los ,pinales y ,encinales1 ,pineta et ,querceta71 are hailed with joy by those who come from the sea coast1 because they announce a climate not yet invaded1 as far as experience has hitherto shown1 by that mortal disease called the black vomit 7vomito prieto1 a form of the yellow fever74 ,for the oaks1 especially the ,quercus ,xalapensis 7one of the twenty-two ,mexican species of oak which we first described71 the lower line of vegetation1 on the way from ,vera ,cruz to the capital of ,mexico1 somewhat below the ,venta del ,encero1 is #cjdh feet above the sea4 ,at the western slope of the plateau1 between the ,south ,sea and ,mexico1 the inferior line for oaks is something lower2 it begins near a hut named ,venta de la ,moxonera1 between ,acapulco and ,chilpanzingo1 at the absolute height of #bdha feet4 ,i found a similar difference in the lower boundary line of the pine-forest4 ,this boundary1 towards the ,south ,sea1 in the ,alto de los ,caxones1 north of ,quaxinquilapa1 is for the ,pinus ,montezum 7,lamb471 which we at first had considered to be the ,pinus occidentalis 7,swartz71 at the height of #djib feet2 but towards ,vera ,cruz1 at the ,cuesta del ,soldado1 it rises to #eigi feet4 ,both these kinds of tree1 therefore1 the oaks and firs as specified above1 descended lower towards the ,pacific than towards the ,caribbean ,gulf4 ,during my ascent of the ,cofre di ,perote1 ,i found the superior boundary ,line of the oaks to be #aj1cec feet2 that of the ,pinus ,montezum #ab1icf feet 7about #bjjj feet higher than the summit of ,mount tna7 and here1 in ,february1 considerable masses of snow had already fallen4 ,the greater the heights at which the ,mexican cone-bearing trees begin to show themselves1 the more singular is it1 in the island of ,cuba 7where1 at the border of the tropical zone the air1 it is true1 is cooled down during northerly winds to #df4f ,fahr471 to see another kind of fir 7,p4 ,occidentalis1 ,swartz71 in the plain itself1 or on the gentle hills of the ,isle of ,pines1 growing among palms and mahogany trees 7,swietenia74 ,columbus even makes mention of a fir-wood 7,pinal7 in the journal of his first voyage 7,diario del #be de ,nov41 #adib71 at ,caya de ,moya1 north-east of ,cuba4 ,at ,haiti1 too 7,st4 ,domingo71 the ,pinus occidentalis near ,cape ,samana descends from the mountains down to the very beach4 ,the stems of these firs1 wafted by the gulf-stream to the two ,azores1 ,graciosa and ,fayal1 were among the principal signs that proclaimed to the great discoverer the existence of unknown lands in the ,west4,,pb ,is it positively ascertained that the ,pinus occidentalis is entirely absent from ,jamaica1 notwithstanding its lofty mountains8 ,we may be permitted to inquire also1 what kind of ,pinus grows on the eastern coast of ,guatimala1 since the ,p4 tenuifolia 7,benth47 is assuredly found only on the mountains near ,chinanta4 ,on taking a general view of the species of plants which form the upper tree-boundary in the northern hemisphere from the frigid zone to the equator2 ,i find1 for ,lapland1 according to ,wahlenberg1 in the ,sulitelma ,mountains 7lat4 #fh71 not acicular-leaved trees but birches 7,betula alba71 far above the upper limit of the ,pinus sylvestris2 and for the temperate zone ,i find in the ,alps 7lat4 #de #de7 ,pinus picea 7,du ,roi71 advanced beyond the birches4 ,in the ,pyrenees 7lat4 #db #cj71 we find ,pinus uncinata 7,ram47 and ,p4 sylvestris1 var4 rubra2 within the tropics in ,mexico 7lat4 #ai-bj71 ,pinus ,montezum extends far beyond ,alnus toluccensis1 ,quercus spicata1 and ,q4 crassipes2 and in the snow-crowned mountains of ,quito1 beneath the equator1 ,escallonia myrtilloides1 ,aralia avicennifolia1 and ,drymis ,winteri attain the highest limits4 ,this last species of tree1 identical with the ,drymis granatensis 7,mut471 and the ,wintera aromatica of ,murray1 presents1 as ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker has shown1,,pc the most singular instance of the uninterrupted dissemination of the same species of tree from the southernmost part of ,tierra del ,fuego and ,hermit ,island1 where it was discovered as early as #aegg by ,drake's expedition1 up to the northern ,highlands of ,mexico1 over a meridian extent of #hf of latitude or #eafj miles4 ,where the acicular or needle-leaved trees1 as in the ,swiss ,alps and the ,pyrenees1 and not the birch as in the extreme north1 form the boundary of arborescent vegetation on the loftiest mountains1 which they picturesquely encircle1 they are immediately followed in their ascent towards the snow-crowned summits1 in ,europe and ,western ,asia by the ,alpine roses1 ,rhododendra1 and at the ,silla de ,caracas1 and the ,peruvian ,paramo de ,saraguru1 by the purplish-red blossoms of the graceful ,befari4 ,in ,lapland the ,rhododendron laponicum immediately follows the ,coniferous trees2 in the ,swiss ,alps1 the ,rhododendron ferrugineum and ,r4 hirsutum1 and in the ,pyrenees the ,r4 ferrugineum alone2 and in the ,caucasus the ,r4 caucasicum4 ,but ,r4 caucasicum has also been found isolated by ,de ,candolle in the ,jura mountains 7in the ,creux de ,vent71 #eifh feet lower down1 at the inconsiderable height of from #ccjc to #cgcj feet4 ,if we would trace out the last zone of vegetation near the snow line we must name1 according to our personal observation1 in tropical ,mexico1 ,cnicus nivalis and ,chelone gentianoides2 in the cold mountainous tracts of ,new ,granada1 the woolly ,espeletia grandiflora1 ,e4 corymbosa1 and ,e4 argentea2 in the ,andes chain of ,quito1 ,culcitium rufescens1 ,c4 ledifolium1 and ,c4 nivale2--yellow-blossomed ,composit1 which replace the somewhat more northerly lanose herbs of ,new ,granada1 and the ,epeleti1 with which they have so much physiognomical resemblance4 ,this substitution or repetition of similar and almost identical forms in regions that are separated from each other by seas or wide intervening tracts1 is a wonderful law of nature4 ,it prevails even in the rarest forms of the floras4 ,in ,robert ,brown's family of the ,rafflesi1 separated from the ,cytine1 the two ,hydnor in ,southern ,africa 7,h4 ,africana and ,h4 ,triceps71 described by ,thunberg and ,drege1 have1 in ,south ,america1 their counterpart in the ,h4 ,americana of ,hooker4 ,far above the regions of ,alpine herbs1 of the grasses and the lichens1 nay1 beyond the boundary of perpetual snow1 there occasionally appears a phanerogamic plant1 growing sporadically1 and as it were isolated1 to the astonishment of botanists2 and this occurs both within the tropics and in the temperate zone1 on fragments of rock which remain free from snow and are probably warmed by open fissures4 ,i have already mentioned the ,saxifraga ,boussingaulti1 which is found at a height of #ae1ggc feet on the ,chimborazo2 in the ,swiss ,alps the ,silene acaulis1 a clovewort or caryophyllea1 has been seen at a height of #aa1chb feet4 ,the former vegetates at #fdj1 the latter at #bfba feet above the respective local limits of snow1 heights which were determined when both the plants were discovered4 ,in our ,european ,coniferous woods the ,red ,pine 7or ,norway ,spruce71 and the ,white 7or ,silver7 ,pine show great and remarkable variations as regards their geographical dispersion on the slopes of mountains4 ,whilst in the ,swiss ,alps the ,red ,pine 7,pinus picea1 ,du ,roi1 foliis compressotetragonis2 unfortunately named by ,linnus and by most botanists of our time the ,pinus abies671 forms the limit of tree vegetation at the mean height of #ehhc feet1 and only here and there does the lowly alder 7,alnus viridis1 ,dec41 ,betula viridis1 ,vill471 advance higher towards the snow-limit2 the ,white ,pine 7,pinus abies1 ,du ,roi1 ,pinus picea1 ,linn41 foliis planis1 pectinato-distichis1 emarginatis71 has its limit1 according to ,wahlenberg1 about #ajjj feet lower4 ,the ,red ,pine does not grow at all in ,southern ,europe1 in ,spain1 the ,apennines1 and ,greece2 and1 as ,ramond remarks1 it is only seen on the slope of the northern ,pyrenees at great heights1 and is entirely wanting in the ,caucasus4 ,the ,red ,pine extends further to the north in ,scandinavia than the ,white1 which latter tree appears in ,greece 7on the ,parnassus1 the ,taygetus1 and the ta71 as a variety with long acicular leaves1 foliis apice integris1 breviter mucronatis1 the ,abies ,apollinis of the acute observer ,link4,,pd ,on the ,himalaya the acicular-leaved form of trees is distinguished by the mighty thickness and height of the stem as well as by the length of the leaf4 ,the chief ornament of the mountain range is the ,cedar ,deodwara 7,pinus deodara1 ,roxb471 which word is1 in ,sanscrit1 dwa-dru1 i4e4 timber for the gods1 its stem being nearly from #ac to #ad feet in diameter4 ,it ascends in ,nepaul to more than #aa1gjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,more than #bjjj years ago the ,deodwara cedar near the ,river ,behut1 that is1 the ,hydaspes1 furnished the timber for the fleet of ,nearchus4 ,in the valley of ,dudegaon1 north of the copper mines of ,dhunpoor in ,nepaul1 ,dr4 ,hoffmeister1 so early lost to science1 found in a forest the ,pinus longifolia 7,royle71 or the ,tschelu ,fir1 mixed with the lofty stems of a palm--,chamrops martiana 7,wallich74,,pe ,such an interspersion of the pineta and palmeta had already1 in the new continent1 excited the astonishment of the companions of ,columbus1 as a friend and contemporary of the admiral's1 ,petrus ,martyr ,anghiera1 relates4,,pf ,i myself saw1 for the first time1 this blending of pines with palms on the road from ,acapulco to ,chilpanzingo4 ,the ,himalaya1 like the ,mexican highlands1 besides its genera of pine and cedar1 possesses also forms of the ,cypress 7,cupressus torulosa1 ,don472 of the ,yew 7,taxus ,wallichiana1 ,zuccar472 of the ,podocarpus 7,podocarpus nereifolia1 ,brown72 and the ,juniper 7,juniperus squamata1 ,don41 and ,j4 excelsa1 ,bieberst42 the latter species occurring also at ,schipke in ,thibet1 in ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 and the ,grecian ,islands2 on the other hand1 ,thuja1 ,taxodium1 ,larix1 and ,araucaria1 are forms of the ,new ,continent1 which are wanting in the ,himalaya4 ,besides the twenty species of pine with which we are acquainted in ,mexico1 the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 in their present extension to the ,pacific1 present forty-five described species1 whilst all ,europe can only enumerate fifteen4 ,the same difference between abundance and paucity of forms is shown in the oaks1 in favour of the ,new ,continent 7a quarter of the world the most connected and most elongated in a meridional direction74 ,it has1 however1 been very recently demonstrated by the extremely accurate researches of ,siebold and ,zuccarini to be an erroneous assertion1 that many ,european species of pine1 in consequence of their wide distribution throughout ,northern ,asia1 passed over to the ,japanese islands1 and there mingled with a genuine ,mexican species1 the ,weymouth pine 7,pinus strobus1 ,l471 as ,thunberg asserts4 ,what ,thunberg considered to be ,european species of pine1 are species entirely different4 ,thunberg's ,red ,pine 7,pinus abies1 ,linn47 is ,p4 polita1 ,sieb41 and often planted near ,buddhist temples2 his northern common fir 7,pinus sylvestris7 is ,p4 ,massoniana1 ,lamb42 his ,p4 cembra1 the ,german and ,siberian stone pine-tree1 is ,p4 parviflora1 ,sieb42 his common larch 7,p4 larix7 is the ,p4 leptolepis1 ,sieb42 his ,taxus baccata1 the fruit of which the ,japanese courtiers eat as a precautionary measure when attending long ceremonies1,,pg forms a special genus and is ,cephalotaxus drupacea1 ,sieb4 ,the ,japanese islands1 despite the proximity of the ,asiatic ,continent1 have a very different character of vegetation4 ,thunberg's ,japanese ,weymouth pine1 which would present an important phenomenon1 is moreover a naturalized tree1 that differs entirely from the indigenous pines of the ,new ,world4 ,it is ,pinus korajensis1 ,sieb41 which has migrated from the peninsula of ,corea and ,kamtschatka to ,nipon4 ,of the #aad species now known of the genus ,pinus1 there is not one in the whole southern hemisphere1 for the ,pinus ,merkusii1 described by ,junghuhn and ,de ,vriese1 still belongs to that part of the island of ,sumatra which is north of the equator1 that is1 to the district of the ,battas4 ,the ,p4 insularis1 ,endl41 belongs to the ,philippines1 although at first it was introduced into ,loudon's ,arboretum as ,p4 timoriensis4 ,from our present increasing knowledge of the geography of plants1 we know that there are excluded also from the southern hemisphere1 in addition to the genus ,pinus1 all the races of ,cupressus1 ,salisburia 7,ginkgo71 ,cunninghamia 7,pinus lanceolata1 ,lamb471 ,thuja1 one species of which 7,th4 gigantea1 ,nutt47 at the ,columbia river rises as high as #ahj feet1 ,juniperus1 and ,taxodium 7,mirbel's ,schubertia74 ,i can introduce this last genus here with the greater certainty1 inasmuch as a ,cape plant1 ,sprengel's ,schubertia capensis1 is no ,taxodium1 but forms a special genus1 ,widringtonia1 ,endl41 in quite another division of the ,conifer4 ,this absence from the southern hemisphere of the true ,abietine1 of the ,juniperine1 ,cupressine1 and all the ,taxodine1 as likewise of the ,torreya1 of the ,salisburia adiantifolia1 and of the ,cephalotaxus among the ,taxine1 vividly reminds us of the enigmatical and still obscure conditions which determined the original distribution of vegetable forms4 ,this distribution can by no means be satisfactorily explained either by the similarity or diversity of the soil1 by thermal relations1 or by meteorological conditions4 ,i have long since directed attention to the fact1 that the southern hemisphere possesses1 for instance1 many plants of the natural family of the ,rosace1 but not a single species of the genus ,rosa itself4 ,claude ,gay informs us1 that the ,rosa ,chilensis1 described by ,meyen1 is a variety that has become wild of the ,rosa centifolia1 ,linn41 which has been naturalized in ,europe for thousands of years4 ,such wild-growing varieties occupy large tracts in ,chili near ,valdivia and ,osorno4,,ph ,in the whole tropical region of the northern hemisphere we only found one single indigenous rose1 our ,rosa ,montezum1 and this was on the ,mexican highland1 near ,moran1 at a height of #iccf feet4 ,we may count among the strange phenomena observed in the distribution of plants1 the total absence of the ,agave from ,chili1 though it possesses ,palms1 ,pourretias1 and many species of ,cactus2 and although ,a4 americana flourishes luxuriantly in ,roussillon1 at ,nice1 at ,botzen1 and in ,istria1 where it was probably introduced from the ,new ,continent since the sixteenth century1 and where it forms one connected line of vegetation from the north of ,mexico1 across the isthmus of ,panama1 as far as ,southern ,peru4 ,with respect to the ,calceolarias1 ,i long believed that1 like the roses1 they were only to be found exclusively on the northern side of the equator4 ,in fact1 among the twenty-two species that we brought with us1 not one was gathered to the north of ,quito and the volcano of ,pichincha2 but my friend ,professor ,kunth remarks that ,calceolaria perfoliata1 which ,boussingault and ,capt4 ,hall found near ,quito1 advances also as far as ,new ,granada1 and that this species1 as well as ,c4 integrifolia1 was sent by ,mutis from ,santa ,f de ,bogot to the great ,linnus4 ,the species of ,pinus1 which are so abundant in the wholly inter-tropical ,antilles1 as well as in the tropical mountain regions of ,mexico1 do not cross the isthmus of ,panama1 and are wholly wanting in the equally mountainous parts of tropical ,south ,america1 that lie north of the equator2 they are equally unknown on the elevated plains of ,new ,granada1 ,pasto1 and ,quito4 ,i have advanced in the plains and on the mountains from the ,rio ,sinu1 near the isthmus of ,panama1 as far as #ab south lat42 and in this territorial extent1 of nearly #afjj miles in length1 the only forms of needle-leaved trees that ,i saw1 were the taxoid ,podocarpus 7,p4 taxifolia71 #fd feet high1 in the ,andes pass of ,quindiu and in the ,paramo de ,saraguru1 in #d #bf north and #c #dj south latitude1 and an ,ephedra 7,e4 americana7 near ,guallabamba1 north of ,quito4 ,among the group of the ,conifer1 the following are common to the northern and southern hemispheres3 ,taxus1 ,gnetum1 ,ephedra1 and ,podocarpus4 ,long before l',heritier1 the last genus had been very properly distinguished from ,pinus by ,columbus on the #beth of ,november1 #adib4 ,he says1 8,pinales en la ,serrania de ,haiti que no llevan pias1 pero frutos que parecen azeytunos del ,axarafe de ,sevilla40,,pi ,species of yew extend from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to #fa north lat4 in ,scandinavia1 consequently through more than #ie degrees of latitude4 ,podocarpus and ,ephedra are almost as widely distributed2 and even from among the ,cupulifer1 the species of the oak genus1 usually termed by us a northern form1 though they do not cross the equator in ,south ,america1 reappear in the southern hemisphere1 at ,java1 in the ,indian archipelago4 ,to this latter hemisphere ten genera of the cone-bearing trees exclusively appertain1 of which we will here cite only the most important3 ,araucaria1 ,dammara 7,agathis1 ,sal471 ,frenela 7comprising about #ah ,australian species71 ,dacrydium and ,lybocedrus1 whose habitat is both in ,new ,zealand and the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,new ,zealand possesses one species of the genus ,dammara 7,d4 australis71 but no ,araucaria4 ,the contrary1 by a singular contrast1 is the case in ,new ,holland4 ,in the form of acicular-leaved trees1 ,nature presents us with the greatest length of stem existing in arborescent productions4 ,i use the term arborescent1 for1 as we have already remarked1 among the ,laminari 7the oceanic alg7 ,macrocystis pyrifera1 between the coast of ,california and #fh south lat41 often attains a length of more than #djj feet4 ,if we exclude the six ,araucarias of ,brazil1 ,chili1 ,new ,holland1 the ,norfolk ,islands and ,new ,caledonia1 then those ,conifer are the highest1 whose habitat is the temperate zone of the ,north4 ,as we have found among the family of the palms the most gigantic of all1 the ,ceroxylon andicola1 about #aib feet high1 in the temperate ,alpine climate of the ,andes1 so in like manner do the loftiest cone-bearing trees belong1 in the northern hemisphere1 to the temperate north-western coast of ,america and to the ,rocky ,mountains 7lat4 from #dj to #eb71 in the southern hemisphere to ,new ,zealand1 ,tasmania or ,van ,dieman's ,land1 to ,southern ,chili and ,patagonia1 7where the lat4 is again from #dc to #ej74 ,the most gigantic forms among the genus ,pinus are ,sequoia 7,endl471 ,araucaria1 and ,dacrydium4 ,i only name those species whose height not merely reaches but often exceeds #bjj feet4 ,that the reader may have a standard of comparison1 he is reminded that in ,europe the loftiest ,red and ,white ,pines1 especially the latter1 reach a height of from #afj to #agj feet2 for instance1 in ,silesia1 the pine in the ,lampersdorf forest1 near ,frankenstein1 long famous for its altitude1 is only #aeh feet high1 although #ag feet in girth4,,pj ,we give the following examples3-- ,pinus ,grandis 7,dougl471 in ,new ,california1 attains a height of #bjb-bbd feet4 ,pinus ,frmontiana 7,endl471 also there1 and probably of the same height4,,pk ,dacrydium ,cupressinum 7,solander71 in ,new ,zealand1 above #bac feet4 ,pinus ,lambertiana 7,dougl471 in ,north-western ,america1 #bbc-bcd feet4 ,araucaria ,excelsa 7,r4 ,brown71 the ,cupressus columnaris of ,forster1 in ,norfolk ,island and the surrounding rocks1 #ahb-bbc feet4 ,the six ,araucari hitherto known fall into two groups1 according to ,endlicher3 4 ,the ,american 7,brazil and ,chili71 ,a4 brasiliensis ,rich41 between #ae and #be south lat41 and ,a4 imbricata ,pavon1 between #ce and #ej south lat42 the latter #bcd-bfj feet2 4 ,the ,australian 7,a4 ,bidwilli ,hook4 and ,a4 ,cunninghami ,ait4 on the eastern side of ,new ,holland1 ,a4 excelsa of ,norfolk ,island1 and ,a4 ,cookii ,r4 ,brown of ,new ,caledonia74 ,corda1 ,presl1 ,gppert1 and ,endlicher have already found five fossil ,araucari in lias1 in chalk1 and in lignite4,,pl ,pinus ,douglasii 7,sab47 in the valleys of the ,rocky ,mountains and at the ,columbia ,river 7north lat4 #dc-eb74 ,that meritorious ,scotch botanist1 whose name this tree bears1 suffered a dreadful death in #ahcc1 when he came from ,new ,california to collect plants on the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,he inadvertently fell into a pit1 into which one of the wild bulls of that country1 always viciously disposed1 had previously fallen4 ,this traveller has described from accurate measurements a stem of ,p4 ,douglasii1 which at three feet from the ground was #eg feet round1 and #bde feet high4,,pm ,pinus ,trigona 7,rafinesque71 on the western slope of the ,rocky ,mountains4,,pn ,this 8gigantic fir0 was measured with great care2 the girth of the stem at #f feet above the ground was often from #ch to #de feet4 ,one stem was #cjj feet high1 and without branches for the first #aib feet4 ,pinus ,strobus 7in the eastern part of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 especially on this side of the ,mississippi1 but also again in the ,rocky ,mountains1 from the source of the ,columbia to ,mount ,hood1 from #dc to #ed north lat471 in ,europe called the ,weymouth ,pine1 and in ,north ,america the ,white ,pine1 commonly no more than #afj to #aij feet high1 but several have been seen in ,new ,hampshire of #bej and #bff feet4,,po ,sequoia ,gigantea 7,endl42 the ,condylocarpus1 ,sal471 of ,new ,california1 like the ,pinus trigona1 about #cjj feet high4 ,the nature of the soil and the conditions of heat and moisture1 on which the nourishment of plants simultaneously depends1 promote1 it must be admitted1 the development and the increase of the number of the individuals in a species2 but the gigantic height attained by the stems of a few among the many nearly allied species of the same genus is not dependent on soil and climate but on a specific organization1 on internal natural disposition1 common alike to the vegetable and to the animal world4 ,with the ,araucaria imbricata of ,chili1 the ,pinus ,douglasii of the ,columbia ,river1 and the ,sequoia gigantea of ,new ,california 7#bde-cjj feet7 contrasts most strongly--not the ,willow 7,salix arctica7 stunted by cold or mountain height1 and only two inches high1--but a little phanerogamic plant in the beautiful climate of the southern tropical region1 in the ,brazilian province of ,goyaz4 ,the moss-like ,tristicha hypnoides1 of the ,monocotyledonous family of the ,podosteme1 hardly attains the height of three lines4 8,while crossing the ,rio ,clairo in the province of ,goyaz10 says an excellent observer1 8,i perceived on a stone a plant1 the stalk of which was not more than three lines high1 and which ,i considered at first to be a moss4 ,it was1 however1 a phanerogamic plant1 supplied with sexual organs like our oaks1 and those gigantic trees which raised their majestic heads around40,,pp ,besides the height of the stem1 the length1 breadth1 and position also of the leaves and fruit1 the aspiring or horizontal1 almost umbellate ramification1 the gradation of the colour from fresh or silver-greyish green to dark brown1 give a peculiar physiognomical character to the ,conifer4 ,the acicular leaves of ,pinus ,lambertiana 7,douglas7 in ,north-,western ,america are five1 those of the ,p4 excelsa 7,wallich7 on the southern slope of the ,himalaya near ,katmandu1 seven1 and those of ,p4 longifolia 7,roxb47 on the mountain range of ,cashmere1 more than twelve inches long4 ,moreover1 in one and the very same species1 these acicular leaves vary in the most remarkable manner1 from the combined influence of the nourishment derived from soil and air1 and of the height above the level of the sea4 ,i found these variations in the length of the leaves of our common wild pine 7,pinus sylvestris7 so great1 while travelling in a west and east direction over an extent of #hj of longitude 7more than #cjdj miles7 from the ,scheldt1 through ,europe and ,northern ,asia1 to ,bogoslowsk1 in the ,northern ,ural1 and ,barnaul beyond the ,obi1 that occasionally1 deceived by the shortness and rigidity of the leaves1 ,i have mistaken it for another species of pine1 allied to the mountain fir1 ,p4 rotundata1 ,link1 7,pinus uncinata1 ,ram47 ,these are1 as ,link correctly observes1,,pq transitions to ,ledebour's ,p4 sibirica of the ,altai4 ,the delicate and pleasing green though deciduous foliage of the ,ahuahuete 7,taxodium distichum1 ,rich41 ,cupressus disticha1 ,linn47 on the ,mexican plateau especially delighted me4 ,in this tropical region the tree1 swelling out to a portly bulk1 and the ,aztec name of which signifies 8water-drum0 7from atl1 water1 and huehuetl1 drum71 flourishes from #egej to #gfgj above the level of the sea1 whilst it descends towards the plain in the marshy district 7,cypress swamps7 of ,louisiana as far as #dc lat4 ,in the southern ,states of ,north ,america the ,taxodium distichum 7,cyprs chauve71 as well as in the lofty plains of ,mexico1 attains a height of #abh feet1 with an enormous girth1 the diameter being from #cj to nearly #dj feet1 when measured near the ground4,,pr ,the roots1 too1 present a very remarkable phenomenon1 for they have woody excrescences1 which are sometimes of a conical and rounded1 sometimes of a tabular shape1 and project three and even nearly five feet above the ground4 ,travellers have compared these woody excrescences1 in spots where they are numerous and frequent1 to the grave-tablets of a ,jewish churchyard4 ,auguste de ,st4 ,hilaire remarks1 with much acuteness3 8,these excrescences of the bald cypress1 which resemble boundary-posts1 may be regarded as exostoses1 and like these live in the air2 adventitious buds would doubtless escape from them1 if the nature of the tissue of the coniferous plants did not oppose itself to the development of those concealed germs that give birth to these kinds of buds40,,ps ,in addition to the above1 a remarkably enduring vitality is manifested in the roots of cone-bearing trees by the phenomenon which1 under the name of 8,effervescence10 7aftergrowth87 has attracted1 in many ways1 the attention of botanical physiologists1 and which phenomenon1 it appears1 rarely displays itself in other dicotyledonous plants4 ,the stumps of the felled white ,pine1 left in the ground1 form1 during a succession of several years1 new layers of wood1 and continue to increase in thickness1 without throwing out shoots1 branches1 or leaves4 ,the excellent observer ,gppert believes1 that this takes place solely through nourishment derived from the roots1 which the extremity of the stem receives from a neighbouring living tree of the same species4 ,the roots of the living tree he conceives are organically incorporated with those of the stump4,,pt ,kunth1 in his excellent new ,lehrbuch der ,botanik1 is opposed to this explanation of a phenomenon1 which was even known1 though imperfectly1 to ,theophrastus4,,pu ,according to him1 this process is perfectly analogous to that by which metallic plates1 nails1 carved letters1 nay1 even stags' horns become imbedded within the body of wood4 8,the cambium1 that is1 the thin1 walled cellular tissue1 conducting muco-granular sap1 from which new formations alone proceed1 continues without any relation to the buds 7being perfectly independent of them7 to deposit new layers of wood on the outermost layer40,,pv ,the relation above alluded to1 between the absolute height of the ground and the geographical as well as isothermal latitude1 shows itself often1 no doubt1 when one compares the arborescent vegetation of the tropical part of the ,andes chain with the vegetation of the north-west coast of ,america1 or the banks of the ,canadian lakes4 ,the same remark was made by ,darwin and ,claude ,gay in the southern hemisphere1 when they1 in their descent from the plateau of ,chili1 advanced towards ,eastern ,patagonia1 and the ,archipelago of ,tierra del ,fuego2 here woods of ,drymis ,winteri1 together with ,fagus antarctica and ,fagus ,forsteri1 cover every thing with long uniform rows in a northern and southern direction down to the low lands4 ,trifling deviations from the law of constant station-ratios between mountain height and geographical latitude1 depending or local causes1 not sufficiently investigated1 occur even in ,europe4 ,i would call to mind the limits of altitude for the birch and common fir in a part of the ,swiss ,alps1 on the ,grimsel4 ,the fir 7,pinus sylvestris7 flourishes there up to #fccj2 and the birch 7,betula alba7 up to #fijf feet2 beyond them again there is a belt of stone pines 7,pinus cembra71 whose upper boundary is #gcdc feet4 ,the birch1 in consequence1 lies there between two belts of ,conifer4 ,according to the excellent observations of ,leopold von ,buch1 and the more recent ones of ,martius1 who also visited ,spitzbergen1 the limits of the geographical distribution in the high ,scandinavian north 7in ,lapland7 are as follows3 8,the ,fir extends to #gj2 the ,white ,birch 7,betula alba7 to #gj #dj2 the ,dwarf-,birch 7,b4 nana7 to #ga at least3 ,pinus cembra is entirely wanting in ,lapland40,,pw ,as the length and the position of the acicular leaves define the physiognomic character of the conifer1 this is still more designated by the specific difference of the leaf-breadth1 and the parenchymatous development of the appendicular organs4 ,several species of ,ephedra may be said to be almost leafless2 but in ,taxus1 ,araucaria1 ,dammara1 7,agathis71 and the ,salisburia adiantifolia of ,smith 7,gingko biloba1 ,linn471 the breadth of the leaf gradually increases4 ,i have here arranged the genera morphologically4 ,even the names of the species1 as first chosen by botanists1 indicate such an arrangement4 ,dammara orientalis of ,borneo and ,java1 often #aa feet in diameter1 was at first named loranthifolia3 ,dammara australis 7,lamb471 in ,new ,zealand1 rising to #aej feet high1 was originally named zamfolia4 ,neither of these has acicular leaves1 but 8folia alterna oblongo lanceolata1 opposita1 in arbore adultiori spe alterna1 enervia1 striata40 ,the lower surface of the leaf is densely covered with stomata4 ,these transitions of the appendicular system1 from the greatest contraction to a broad leaf surface1 possess1 like every advance from simple to compound1 both a morphological and a physiognomical interest4,,px ,the short-stalked1 broad1 split leaf of the ,salisburia 7,kmpfer's ,ginkgo71 has also the breathing pores 7stomata7 only on the inferior side4 ,the original habitat of the tree is not known4 ,it became distributed from the ,chinese temples to the gardens of ,japan1 in consequence of the intercourse that existed in olden times between the congregations of ,buddha4 ,i was a witness of the singularly painful impression1 which the first sight of a pine-forest at ,chilpanzingo made on one of our companions in travelling from a port in the ,south ,sea through ,mexico to ,europe4 ,born in ,quito1 under the equator1 he had never seen needle-leaved trees and folia acerosa4 ,the trees appeared to him to be leafless1 and because we were journeying towards the cold north1 he thought he recognised already1 in the extreme contraction of the organs1 the impoverishing influence of the ,pole4 ,the traveller1 whose impressions ,i am here describing1 and whose name neither ,bonpland nor myself can mention without regret1 was an excellent young man1 the son of the ,marquis de ,selvalegre1 ,don ,carlos ,montufar1 whose noble and ardent love of freedom courageously led him1 a few years later1 to a violent1 though not dishonourable1 death1 in the war of independence1 waged by the ,spanish colonies4 ,footnote #id3 p4 #bbg--8,pothos plants1 ,aroide40 ,caladium and ,pothos are forms appertaining exclusively to the tropical world1 whilst the different species of ,arum belong more to the temperate zone4 ,arum italicum1 ,a4 dracunculus1 and ,a4 tenuifolium advance as far as ,istria and ,friuli4 ,no ,pothos has hitherto been discovered in ,africa4 ,the ,east ,indies possess several species of this genus 7,p4 scandens and ,p4 pinnata71 which have a less beautiful physiognomy and are of less luxuriant growth than the ,american ,pothos plants4 ,we discovered a beautiful true arborescent ,aroidea 7,caladium arboreum71 having a stem from #af to more than #ba feet in height1 near the convent of ,caripe1 east of ,cumana4 ,beauvois found a singular ,caladium 7,culcasia scandens7 in the kingdom of ,benin4,,py ,in the ,pothos form the parenchyma occasionally expands to so great a degree that the leaf-surface becomes perforated with holes1 as in ,calla pertusa 7,kunth71 and ,dracontium pertusum 7,jacquin71 which we collected in the forests of ,cumana4 ,it was the ,aroideas which first drew attention to the remarkable phenomenon of the fever-heat evolved by certain plants during the period of their inflorescence1 and which even sensibly affects the thermometer1 and is connected with a great and temporary increase in the absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere4 ,lamarck1 in #aghi1 observed this increase of temperature in the ,arum italicum4 ,according to ,hubert and ,bory de ,st4 ,vincent1 the vital heat of the ,arum cordifolium rises in the ,isle of ,france to #aaj or #abj1 whilst the temperature of the surrounding air is only #ff4b ,fahr4 ,even in ,europe1 ,becquerel and ,breschet found a difference of #ci4d4 ,dutrochet observed a paroxysm1--a rhythmical decrease and increase of vital heat1--which appeared by day to attain a double maximum4 ,thodore de ,saussure remarked analogous augmentations of heat1 although only of #a4a and #a4h ,fahr41 in other families of plants2 as1 for instance1 in ,bignonia radicans and ,cucurbita pepo4 ,in the latter1 the male plant exhibited a greater increase of temperature than the female1 when measured by a very sensitive thermoscopic apparatus4 ,dutrochet--whose early death is greatly to be regretted1 on account of the important services he rendered to physics and vegetable physiology--likewise observed1,,pz by means of thermo-magnetic multiplicators1 a vital heat of #j4be to #j4fg ,fahr4 in many young plants 7,euphorbia lathyris1 ,lilium candidum1 ,papaver somniferum71 and even among funguses1 in many species of ,agaricus and ,lycoperdon4 ,this vital heat disappeared at night1 but not by day1 even when the plants were placed in the dark4 ,the contrast presented by the physiognomy of the ,casuarineas1 acicular-leaved trees1 and the almost leafless ,peruvian ,colletias and ,pothos plants 7,aroideas71 is still more striking when we compare these types of extreme contraction in the leaf form with ,nymphace and ,nelumbone4 ,here we again meet1 as in the ,aroide1 with leaves in which the cellular tissue is excessively expanded upon long1 fleshy1 succulent petioles1--as ,nympha alba1 ,n4 lutea1 ,n4 thermalis 7formerly called ,n4 lotus1 from the hot spring of ,pecze1 near ,groswardein in ,hungary71 the species of ,nelumbo1 ,euryale amazonica 7,pppig71 and ,victoria ,regina1 allied to the prickly ,euryale1 although of a very different genus1 according to ,lindley1 and discovered in #ahcg by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk in the river ,berbice1 in ,british ,guiana4 ,the round leaves of this splendid aquatic plant are from #e to #f feet in diameter1 and surrounded by upright margins from #c to #e inches in height1 which are light green on the inner side1 but of a bright crimson on the outside4 ,these agreeably perfumed flowers1 of which #bj or #cj may be seen together in a small space1 are about #ae inches in diameter1 of a white or rose colour1 and have many hundred petals4,,qa ,pppig also gives to the leaves of his ,euryale amazonica1 which he found at ,tef1 a diameter of about #f feet4,,qb ,whilst ,euryale and ,victoria present a greater parenchymatous expansion of the leaf-form in all its dimensions than other genera1 the most gigantic development of the blossoms occurs in a parasitical ,cytinea1 which ,dr4 ,arnold discovered in ,sumatra in #ahah4 ,this flower1 ,rafflesia ,arnoldi 7,r4 ,brown71 has a stemless blossom measuring three feet in diameter1 surrounded by large leaf-like scales4 ,like funguses1 it has an animal odour1 and smells something like beef4 ,footnote #ie3 p4 #bbg--8,lianes1 ,creeping ,plants1 7,span4 ,vejuccos470 ,according to ,kunth's division of ,bauhinias1 the true genus ,bauhinia belongs to the ,new ,continent4 ,the ,african ,bauhinia1 ,b4 rufescens 7,lam471 is a ,pauletia 7,cav471 a genus of which we also discovered some new species in ,south ,america4 ,in the same manner the ,banisterias of the ,malpighiace are actually an ,american form4 ,two species are indigenous to the ,east ,indies1 and one--described by ,cavanilles as ,b4 leona--to ,western ,africa4 ,in the tropical zone1 and in the ,southern hemisphere1 species of the most different families belong to the climbing plants which in those regions render the forests so impenetrable to man and so accessible and habitable to the whole monkey family 7,quadrumana71 the ,cercoleptes1 and the small tiger cats4 ,the ,lianes thus afford whole flocks of gregarious animals an easy means of rapidly ascending high trees1 passing from one tree to another1 and even of crossing brooks and rivulets4 ,in the south of ,europe and in the north of ,america1 ,hops from the ,urtice1 and the species of ,vitis from the ,ampelide1 belong to ,climbing ,plants2 while this form is represented in the tropics by climbing and trailing grasses4 ,we found on the elevated plains of ,bogota1 in the pass of ,quindiu in the ,andes1 and in the ,cinchona forests of ,loxa1 a ,bambusa allied to ,nastus1 our ,chusquea scandens1 twined round powerful trunks of trees1 adorned at the same time with flowering ,orchide4 ,bambusa scandens 7,tjankorreh71 which ,blume found in ,java1 belongs probably to ,nastus1 or to the grass-genus ,chusquea1 the ,carrizo of the ,spanish settlers4 ,in the pine forests of ,mexico1 ,climbing ,plants seem to be entirely wanting2 but in ,new ,zealand a fragrant ,pandanus1 ,freycinetia ,banksii1 together with one of the ,smilace1 ,ripogonum parviflorum 7,r4 ,brown71 which renders the forests almost impenetrable1 winds round a gigantic fir-tree more than #bjj feet high1 ,podocarpus dacryoides 7,rich471 called ,kakikatea in the language of the country4,,qc ,a striking contrast to these ,climbing ,grasses and ,creeping ,pandaneas is afforded by the splendid many-coloured blossoms of the ,passion flowers 7among which1 however1 we ourselves found one arborescent1 upright1 species 7,passiflora glauca7 in the ,andes of ,popayan1 at an elevation of nearly #aj1ejj feet1 and by the ,bignoniace1 ,mutisi1 ,alstrmeri1 ,urville1 and ,aristolochi4 ,among the latter1 our ,aristolochia cordata has a coloured 7purplish red7 calyx1 about seventeen inches in diameter2 8flores gigantei1 pueris mitr instar inservientes40 ,owing to the quadrangular form of their stalks1 their flattening1 which is not occasioned by any external pressure1 and a band-like undulatory motion1 many of these climbing plants have a peculiar physiognomy4 ,the diagonal intersections of the stems of ,bignonias and ,banisterias form1 by means of furrows in the ligneous substance1 and through its clefts1 where the bark penetrates to some depth1 cruciform or mosaic-like figures4,,qd ,footnote #if3 p4 #bbh--8,the form of ,aloes40 ,to this group of plants1 which is characterised by a great similarity1 belong ,yucca aloifolia1 which penetrates as far north as ,florida and ,south ,carolina2 ,y4 angustifolia 7,nutt471 which advances to the banks of the ,missouri2 ,aletris arborea2 the ,dragon-tree of the ,canaries1 and two other ,dracnas belonging to ,new ,zealand2 arborescent ,euphorbias2 and ,aloe dichotoma1 ,linn41 7formerly the genus ,rhipidodendrum of ,willdenow71 the celebrated ,koker-boom1 whose stem is four feet in thickness1 about twenty feet high1 and has a crown measuring #dbf feet round4,,qe ,the forms which ,i have here associated together belong to very different families3 as1 for instance1 to the ,liliace1 ,asphodele1 ,pandane1 ,amaryllide1 and ,euphorbiace2 and are therefore1 with the exception of the last named1 all included under the great division of ,monocotyledons4 ,one of the ,pandane1 ,phytelephas macrocarpa 7,ruiz71 which we found on the banks of the ,magdalena river in ,new ,granada1 exactly resembles with its feathery leaves a small palm-tree4 ,the ,tagua 7as it is called by the ,indians7 is moreover1 as ,kunth has observed1 the only ,pandanea of the ,new ,continent4 ,the singular ,agave-like and high-stemmed ,doryanthes excelsa of ,new ,south ,wales1 which the intelligent ,correa de ,serra was the first to describe1 belongs to the ,amaryllide1 like our low-growing ,narcissuses and ,jonquils4 ,in the candelabra-like form of ,aloes1 the branches of the main-trunk must not be confounded with the flower-stalks4 ,in the ,american aloe1 ,agave ,americana 7,maguey de ,cocuyza71 which is entirely wanting in ,chili1 and in the ,yucca acaulis 7,maguey de ,cocuyza71 the leaf-stalks present a candelabra-like arrangement of the blossoms during the excessively rapid and gigantic development of the inflorescence1 which1 as is well known1 is but too transient a phenomenon4 ,in some arborescent ,euphorbias the physiognomical character depends1 however1 on the branches and their arrangement4 ,lichtenstein describes1,,qf with much animation1 the impression made upon him by the appearance of an ,euphorbia officinarum which he saw in the 8,chamtoos ,rivier10 near ,cape ,town4 ,the form of the tree was so symmetrical1 that it repeated itself on a small scale1 like a candelabrum1 to a height of more than #cj feet4 ,all the branches were furnished with sharp thorns4 ,palms1 ,yucca and ,aloe plants1 arborescent ,ferns1 some ,aralias1 and the ,theophrasta1 where ,i have seen it in a state of luxuriant growth1 present to the eye a certain physiognomical resemblance of character by the nakedness of the stems 7there being no branches7 and the beauty of their summits or crowns1 however they may otherwise differ in the structure of the inflorescence4 ,melanoselinum decipiens1 7,hofm471 which has been introduced into our gardens from ,madeira1 and is sometimes from #aj to #ab feet high1 belongs to a peculiar group of arborescent umbellifer allied to the ,araliace1 to which other species1 as yet undiscovered1 will undoubtedly at some future time be added4 ,ferula1 ,heracleum1 and ,thapsia likewise attain a considerable height1 but they are still herbaceous shrubs4 ,melanoselinum stands almost entirely alone as an arborescent umbelliferous plant2 ,bupleurum 7,tenoria7 fruticosum1 ,linn41 of the shores of the ,mediterranean1 ,bubon galbanum of the ,cape1 and ,crithmum maritimum of our sea-coasts1 are only shrubs4 ,tropical countries1 where1 as ,adanson long since very correctly remarked1 ,umbellifere and ,crucifere are almost wholly wanting in the plains1 exhibit1 as we ourselves observed1 the most dwarfish of all the umbelliferous family on the lofty mountain ridges of the ,south ,american and ,mexican ,andes4 ,among the thirty-eight species which we collected on elevations whose mean temperature was below #ed4e ,fahr41 we found ,myrrhis andicola1 ,fragosa arctiodes1 and ,pectophytum pedunculare1 interspersed with an equally dwarfish ,alpine ,draba1 growing moss-like close to the rock and the frequently frozen earth1 at a height of #ac1dbh feet above the level of the sea4 ,the only tropical umbelliferous plants which we found on the plain in the ,new ,continent were two species of ,hydrocotyle 7,h4 umbellata and ,h4 leptostachya7 between the ,havannah and ,batabano1 and therefore at the extreme limit of the torrid zone4 ,footnote #ig3 p4 #bbh--8,the form of ,grasses40 ,the group of the arborescent grasses which ,kunth has collected under the head of ,bambusace1 in his great work on the plants collected by ,bonpland and myself1 constitutes one of the most beautiful adornments of tropical vegetation4 ,bambu1 called also ,mambu1 occurs in the ,malay language1 although according to ,buschmann merely as an isolated expression1 the ordinary term in use being buluh1 whilst the only name for this species of cane in ,java and ,madagascar is wuluh1 voulou4 ,the numbers of the genera and species included in this group have been extraordinarily increased by the industry of botanical travellers4 ,it has been found that the genus ,bambusa is entirely wanting in the ,new ,continent1 to which region1 however1 the gigantic ,guaduas1 discovered by us1 and which attain a height of from #ej to #fd feet1 together with the ,chusquea1 exclusively belong2 that ,arundinaria 7,rich47 occurs in both continents1 although differing specifically in each2 that ,bambusa and ,beesha 7,rheed471 occur in ,india and the ,indian ,archipelago2 and that ,nastus grows in the islands of ,madagascar and ,bourbon4 ,with the exception of the high-climbing ,chusquea1 these forms morphologically replace each other in different parts of the earth4 ,in the northern hemisphere far beyond the limits of the torrid region1 in the valley of the ,mississippi1 the traveller is gladdened by the sight of a species of ,bamboo1 the ,arundinaria macrosperma1 formerly called also ,miegia and ,ludolfia4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 in the south of ,chili1 between the parallels of #cg and #db1 ,gay found one of the ,bambusace more than #bj feet high 7not a climbing1 but a still undescribed arborescent self-supporting ,chusquea71 growing1 mingled with ,drymis ,chilensis1 in a region clothed with an uniform forest-covering of ,fagus obliqua4 ,whilst in ,india the ,bambusa flowers so frequently that in ,mysore and ,orissa the seeds are mixed with honey1 and eaten like rice1,,qg in ,south ,america the ,guadua blossoms so very seldom that in the course of four years we were only twice able to procure the flowers2 once on the solitary banks of the ,cassiquiare1 the arm connecting the ,orinoco with the ,rio ,negro and the ,amazon1 and again in the province of ,popayan1 between ,buga and ,quilichao4 ,it is a very striking fact that some plants grow with the greatest vigour in certain localities without flowering2 as is the case with the ,european olive-trees introduced into ,america centuries ago1 and growing between the tropics1 near ,quito1 at elevations of about #ifjj feet above the level of the sea2 and in like manner the walnuts1 hazel-nut bushes1 and the fine olive-trees 7,olea ,europea7 of the ,isle of ,france4,,qh ,as some of the ,bambusace 7arborescent grasses7 advance into the temperate zone1 so also they do not suffer in the torrid zone from the temperate climate of mountain districts4 ,they are certainly more luxuriant as social plants between the sea-shore and elevations of about #beeh feet in the ,province de las ,esmeraldas1 west of the volcano of ,pichincha1 where ,guadua angustifolia 7,bambusa ,guadua of our ,plantes quinoxiales1 t1 i4 tab4 xx7 generates in its interior large quantities of the siliceous ,tabaschir 7,sanscrit tvakkschira1 cow-milk74 ,we saw the ,guadua advance in the pass of ,quindiu1 in the chain of the ,andes1 to a height of #egee feet above the level of the sea1 as determined by barometric measurements4 ,nastus borbonicus has been called a true ,alpine plant by ,bory de ,st4 ,vincent1 and according to him it does not descend lower than #chdj feet on the declivity of the volcano in the island of ,bourbon4 ,this appearance or the repetition at great elevations of certain forms belonging to torrid plains calls to mind the group of ,alpine palms 7,kunthia montana1 ,ceroxylon andicola1 and ,oreodoxa frigida7 of which ,i have already spoken1 and a grove of ,musace 7,heliconia1 perhaps ,maranta71 #af feet high1 which ,i found growing isolated on the ,silla de ,caracas1 at a height of more than #gjjj feet above the level of the sea4,,qi ,while the form of gramine1 with the exception of some few herbaceous dicotyledons1 constitutes the highest phanerogamic zone on the snow-crowned summits of mountains1 so the grasses mark the boundary of phanerogamic vegetation in a horizontal direction1 towards the northern and southern polar regions4 ,many admirable general results1 no less than a great mass of important materials1 have been yielded to the geography of plants by my young friend1 ,joseph ,hooker1 who1 after having but recently returned with ,sir ,james ,boss from the frozen antarctic regions1 is now engaged in exploring the ,thibetian ,himalaya4 ,he draws attention to the fact that phanerogamic flowering plants 7grasses7 advance #ag nearer to the north than to the south pole4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands1 near the thick knots of ,tussac grass1 ,dactylis cspitosa1 ,forster4 7a ,festuca1 according to ,kunth71 and in ,tierra del ,fuego1 under the shade of the birch-leaved ,fagus antarctica1 there grows the same ,trisetum subspicatum1 which spreads over the whole range of the ,peruvian ,andes1 and across the ,rocky ,mountains1 to ,melville ,island1 ,greenland1 and ,iceland1 and is also found in the ,swiss and ,tyrolese ,alps as well as in the ,altai1 in ,kamtschatka1 and in ,campbell's ,island1 south of ,new ,zealand1 extending therefore over #abg degrees of latitude1 or from #ed south to #gb #ej north lat4 8,few grasses10 says ,joseph ,hooker1,,qj 8have so wide a range as ,trisetum subspicatum 7,beauv471 nor am ,i acquainted with any other arctic species which is equally an inhabitant of the opposite polar regions40 ,the ,south ,shetland ,islands1 which are separated by ,bransfield ,straits from d',urville's 8,terre de ,louis-,philippe0 and from ,peak ,haddington1 a volcano1 #gjdf feet high1 and situated in #fd #ab south lat41 have recently been visited by ,dr4 ,eights1 a botanist from the ,united ,states4 ,he found there 7probably in #fb or #fb south lat47 a small grass1 ,aira antarctica1,,qk which is 8the most antarctic flowering plant hitherto discovered40 ,even in ,deception ,island1 belonging to the same group1 #fb #ej1 only lichens are met with1 and no longer any species of grass2 and in like manner further south-east1 in ,cockburn's ,island 7#fd #ab7 near ,palmer's ,land1 only ,lecanoras1 ,lecideas1 and five foliaceous ,mosses1 among which is our ,german ,bryum argenteum1 were gathered4 8,this appears to be the ,ultima ,thule of antarctic vegetation10 for further south even terrestrial cryptogamia are wanting4 ,in the great bay formed by ,victoria ,land1 on a small island lying opposite to ,mount ,herschel 7in #ga #di lat471 and on ,franklin ,island1 #ib miles north of the volcano1 ,erebus1 7#ab1cff feet in height71 and in #gf #g south lat41 ,hooker found no trace of vegetation4 ,in extreme northern latitudes1 the distribution of even the higher organisms is very different2 for here phanerogamic plants advance #ah nearer to the pole than in the southern hemisphere4 ,walden ,island 7#hj north lat47 possesses still ten species of phanerogamia4 ,antarctic phanerogamic vegetation is also poorer in species at equal distances from the pole2 thus ,iceland has five times more phanerogamia than the southern group of ,auckland and ,campbell ,islands1 but the uniform vegetation of the antarctic regions is1 from climatic causes1 both more succulent and more luxuriant4,,ql ,footnote #ih3 p4 #bbi--8;,ferns40 ,if we estimate the whole number of the cryptogamia hitherto described at #ai1jjj species1 as has been done by ,dr4 ,klotzsch1 a naturalist possessing a profound acquaintance with the ,agamic plants1 we shall have for ,fungi #hjjj 7of which ,agarici constitute the eighth part72 for ,lichens1 according to ,j4 von ,flotow of ,hirschberg1 and ,hampe of ,blankenburg1 at least #adjj2 for the ,alg #behj2 for ,mosses and ,liverworts1 according to ,carl ,mller of ,halle1 and ,dr4 ,gottsche of ,hamburgh1 #chjj2 and for ,ferns #cbej4 ,for this last important result we are indebted to the profound investigations made by ,professor ,kunze of ,leipzig1 on this group of plants4 ,it is a striking fact that the family of the ,polypodiace alone includes #bafe of the whole number of described ,filices1 whilst other forms1 as the ,lycopodiac and ,hymenophyllace1 number only #cej and #bjj4 ,there are therefore nearly as many described species among ,ferns as among ,grasses4 ,it is singular that no mention of the beautiful arborescent ferns is to be found in the classic authors of antiquity1 ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,pliny2 while1 from the information given by the companions of ,alexander1 ,aristobulus1 ,megasthenes1 and ,nearchus1 reference is made,,qm to ,bamboos1 8qu fissis internodiis lembi vice vectitabant navigates20 to the ,indian trees 8quarum folia non minora clypeo sunt20 to the ,fig-tree which takes root from its branches1 and to ,palms1 8tant proceritatis1 ut sagittis superjici nequeant40 ,i find the first mention of arborescent ferns in ,oviedo4,,qn 8,among ferns10 says this experienced traveller1 who had been appointed by ,ferdinand the ,catholic1 ,director of the ,goldwashings in ,haiti1 8there are some which ,i class with trees1 because they are as thick and high as ,pine-trees4 7,helechos que yo cuento por arboles1 tan gruesos como grandes pinos y muy altos74 ,they mostly grow among the mountains and where there is much water40 ,this estimate of their height is exaggerated1 for in the dense forests near ,caripe even our ,cyathea speciosa only attains a height of #cb to #cg feet2 and an admirable observer1 ,ernst ,dieffenbach1 did not see in the most northern of the three islands of ,new ,zealand any trunks of ,cyathea dealbata exceeding #db feet4 ,in the ,cyathea speciosa and the ,meniscium of the ,chaymas missions1 we observed in the midst of the most shady part of the primeval forest1 that the scaly stems of some of the most luxuriantly developed of these trees were covered with a shining carbonaceous powder1 which appeared to be owing to a singular decomposition of the fibrous parts of the old leaf stalks4,,qo ,between the tropics1 where1 on the declivities of the ,cordilleras1 climates are superimposed in strata1 the true region of arborescent ferns lies between about #cbjj and #ecej feet above the level of the sea4 ,in ,south ,america and in the ,mexican highlands they seldom descend lower towards the plains than #abhj feet4 ,the mean temperature of this happy region is between #fd4f and #gj4h ,fahr4 ,it reaches the lowest stratum of clouds 7which floats the nearest to the surface of the sea and the plain71 and it therefore enjoys uninterruptedly a high degree of humidity1 together with a great equality in its thermal relations4,,qp ,the inhabitants1 who are of ,spanish descent1 call this region 8,tierra templada de los helechos40 ,the ,arabic designation for ferns is feledschun1 filix1 7from which the f has been changed1 according to ,spanish usage1 into h17 and perhaps the term may be connected with the verb faladscha1 8it divides10 from the finely cut margin of the frond4,,qq ,the conditions of genial mildness in an atmosphere charged with aqueous vapour and of great uniformity in respect to moisture and warmth1 are fulfilled on the declivities of the mountains in the valleys of the ,andes1 and more especially in the southern milder and more humid hemisphere1 where arborescent ferns advance not only to ,new ,zealand and ,van ,diemen's ,land 7,tasmania71 but even as far as the ,straits of ,magellan and ,campbell ,island1 and therefore to a southern latitude almost identical in degrees with the parallel in which ,berlin is situated north of the equator4 ,from among the family of arborescent ferns there flourishes the vigorous ,dicksonia squarrosa1 in #df south lat4 in ,dusky ,bay1 ,new ,zealand2 ,d4 antarctica of ,labillardire in ,tasmania2 a ,thyrsopteris in the ,island of ,juan ,fernandez2 an undescribed ,dicksonia1 whose stem is from #ab to #af feet high1 near ,valdivia in ,southern ,chili2 and a ,lomaria1 somewhat less in height1 in the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,campbell ,island is still nearer to the south pole1 in #eb lat41 but even there the leafless stem of the ,aspidium venustum rises to a height of more than four feet4 ,the climatic relations under which ,ferns 7,filices7 in general flourish1 are manifested in the numerical laws of their quotients of distribution4 ,in the plains within the tropical regions of large continents this quotient is1 according to ,robert ,brown1 and from more recent investigations on the subject1 of all the phanerogamia1 and in mountainous districts of large continents to 4 ,this ratio is quite different on the small islands scattered over the ocean2 for here the proportion borne by the number of ferns to the sum total of all the phanerogamic plants increases so considerably1 that in the ,south-,sea ,islands the quotient rises to 1 while in the sporadic islands1 ,st4 ,helena and ,ascension1 the number of ferns is almost equal to half of the whole phanerogamic vegetation4,,qr ,in receding from the tropics 7where on the large continents d',urville estimates the proportional number at 71 the relative frequency of ferns decreases rapidly as we advance into the temperate zone4 ,the quotients are for ,north ,america and the ,british ,islands 1 for ,france 1 for ,germany 1 for the dry parts of ,southern ,italy 1 for ,greece 4 ,the relative frequency again increases considerably towards the frigid north4 ,here the family of ferns decreases much slower in the number of its species than does that of phanerogamic plants4 ,the luxuriantly aspiring character of the species1 and the number of individuals contained in each1 augment the deceptive impression of absolute frequency4 ,according to ,wahlemberg's and ,hornemann's catalogues1 the relative numbers of the ,filices are for ,lapland 1 for ,iceland 1 for ,greenland 4 ,such are1 according to our present knowledge1 the natural laws that manifest themselves in the distribution of the graceful form of ,ferns4 ,but it would seem as if in the family of ,ferns1 which have so long been regarded as cryptogamic1 we had lately acquired evidence of the existence of another natural law1--the morphological law of propagation4 ,count ,leszczyc-,suminski1 who happily combines the power of microscopic investigation with a very remarkable artistic talent1 has discovered an organisation capable of effecting fructification in the prothallium of ferns4 ,he distinguishes two sexual apparatuses1 of which the female portion is situated in hollow ovate cells in the middle of the sporangium1 and the male in the ciliated antheridia1 or the organs producing spiral threads1 which have already been examined by ,ngeli4 ,fructification is supposed to be effected by means of moveable ciliated spiral threads and not by pollen tubes4,,qs ,according to this view1 ,ferns would be1 as ,ehrenberg remarks1,,qt products of a microscopic fructification taking place on the prothallium1 which here serves as a fertilizing receptacle1 while throughout the whole course of their often arborescent development they would be flowerless and fruitless plants1 having a bud-formation4 ,the spores lying as sori on the under side of the frond are not seeds but flower-buds4 ,footnote #ii3 p4 #bbi--8,the ,liliace40 ,africa is the principal seat of this form2 there the greatest diversity obtains2 there they form masses and determine the natural character of the region4 ,the ,new ,continent exhibits also1 it is true1 magnificent ,alstrmeri and species of ,pancratium1 ,hmanthus1 and ,crinum4 ,we have enriched the first of these genera with nine1 and the second with three species2 but these ,american liliaceous plants are more diffused and of less social habits than the ,european ,iride4 ,footnote #ajj3 p4 #bbi--8,the ,willow ,form40 ,nearly #aej different species of the main representatives of this form1 or rather of the ,willow itself1 are already known4 ,they cover the northern parts of the earth from the equator to ,lapland4 ,their number and their varieties of form increase between the #dfth and #gjth degrees of latitude1 more especially in that part of northern ,europe which has been so remarkably indented by the early revolutions of our planet4 ,i am acquainted with ten or twelve species of inter-tropical ,willows1 and these1 like the ,willows of the southern hemisphere1 are deserving of special attention4 ,as nature appears to delight in all zones in a wondrous multiplication of certain animal forms1 as for instance1 ,anatid 7,lamellirostres71 and ,pigeons2 so likewise are ,willows1 ,pines1 and ,oaks1 widely diffused2 the latter always exhibiting a similarity in their fruit1 although various differences exist in the form of the leaves4 ,in ,willows belonging to the most widely different climates the similarity of the foliage1 of the ramification1 and of the whole physiognomical conformation1 is almost greater than in ,conifer4 ,in the more southern part of the temperate zone1 north of the equator1 the number of the species of ,willows decreases considerably2 although 7according to the 8,flora atlantica0 of ,desfontaines7 ,tunis has still its own species1 resembling ,salix caprea2 whilst ,egypt1 according to ,forskl1 numbers five species1 from the catkins of whose male blossoms is distilled the remedial agent ,moie chalaf 7aqua salicis71 so much used in the ,east4 ,the ,willow which ,i saw in the ,canaries is also1 according to ,leopold von ,buch and ,christian ,smith1 a peculiar species 7,s4 canariensis71 although common to those islands and to ,madeira4 ,wallich's catalogue of the plants of ,nepaul and the ,himalaya already gives #ac species belonging to the subtropical zone of the ,east ,indies1 and which have in part been described by ,don1 ,roxburgh1 and ,lindley4 ,japan has its own species1 of which one1 ,s4 japonica4 7,thunb471 is also met with in ,nepaul as an ,alpine plant4 ,there was not1 as far as ,i am aware1 any species of ,willow known as belonging to the tropical zone before my expedition1 with the exception of ,s4 tetrasperma4 ,we collected seven new species1 three of them on the plateaux of ,mexico1 at an elevation of #hejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,still higher1 as for instance on the ,alpine plains1 between #ab1jjj and #ae1jjj feet1 which we frequently visited1 we saw nothing in the ,andes of ,mexico1 ,quito1 and ,peru1 to remind us of the many small creeping ,alpine ,willows of the ,pyrenees1 the ,alps1 or of ,lapland 7,s4 herbacea1 ,s4 lanata1 and ,s4 reticulata74 ,in ,spitzbergen1 whose meteorological relations have so much analogy with those of the snow-crowned summits of ,switzerland and ,scandinavia1 ,martius described two ,dwarf-,willows1 whose small woody stems and branches trail along the ground1 and are so concealed in the turf-bogs that it is with difficulty their diminutive leaves can be discovered under the moss4 ,the ,willow species which ,i found in #d #ab south lat41 at the entrance of the ,cinchona or ,peruvian ,bark forests1 near ,loxa in ,peru1 and which has been described by ,willdenow as ,salix ,humboldtiana1 is most widely diffused over the western part of ,south ,america4 ,a ,beach-,willow 7,s4 falcata71 which we discovered on the sandy shores of the ,pacific1 near ,truxillo1 is1 according to ,kunth1 probably a mere variety of the former4 ,in like manner the beautiful and frequently pyramidal ,willow1 which we constantly saw on the banks of the ,magdalena river1 from ,mahates to ,bojorque1 and which1 according to the report of the natives1 had only spread thus far within a few years1 may also be identical with ,s4 ,humboldtiana4 ,at the confluence of the ,magdalena with the ,rio ,opon1 we found all the islands covered with ,willows1 many of which had stems #fd feet high1 with a diameter of from only #h to #aj inches4,,qu ,lindley has made us acquainted with a species of ,salix belonging to ,senegal1 and therefore to the equinoctial region of ,africa4,,qv ,blume also found two species of ,willow near the equator in ,java1 one wild and indigenous in the island 7,s4 tetrasperma71 and another cultivated 7,s4 ,sieboldiana74 ,i am only acquainted with the two ,willows belonging to the south temperate zone1 which have been described by ,thunberg 7,s4 hirsuta and ,s4 mucronata74 ,they grow interspersed with ,protea argentea1 which has the same physiognomy as the ,willow1 and their leaves and young branches constitute the food of the hippopotamus of the ,orange ,river4 ,the family of ,willows is entirely wanting in ,australia and the neighbouring islands4 ,footnote #aja3 p4 #bbi--8,the ,myrtle ,form40 ,the ,myrtle is a graceful plant1 with stiff1 shining1 crowded1 and generally entire and small leaves marked with dots4 ,myrtles impart a peculiar character to three regions of the earth1 viz41 to southern ,europe1 more especially to the islands composed of calcareous rocks and trachytic stone1 which project from the basin of the ,mediterranean2 to the continent of ,new ,holland1 which is adorned with ,eucalyptus1 ,metrosideros1 and ,leptospermum2 and to an inter-tropical region in the ,andes of ,south ,america1 part of which is a low plain1 while the remainder lies at an elevation of from #ijjj to more than #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,this ,alpine region1 called in ,quito the ,paramos1 is entirely covered with trees having a ,myrtle-like aspect1 even though they may not all belong to the ,myrtace4 ,at this elevation grow ,escalonia myrtilloides1 ,e4 tubar1 ,simplocos ,alstonia1 species of ,myrica1 and the lovely ,myrtus microphylla1 of which we have given a drawing in our ,plantes quinoxiales1 t4 i4 p4 #ba1 pl4 iv42 it grows on micaceous schist1 at an elevation of #aj1jjj feet on the ,paramo de ,saraguru1 7near ,vinayacu and ,alto de ,pulla17 which is adorned with so many beautiful flowering ,alpine plants4 ,m4 myrsinoides ascends in the ,paramo de ,guamani as high as #aa1bjj feet4 ,by far the greater number of the #dj species of the genus ,myrtus which we collected in the equinoctial zone1 and of which #cg were undescribed1 belong to the plains and the less elevated mountain spurs4 ,we brought only a single species 7,m4 xalapensis7 from the mild tropical climate of the mountains of ,mexico2 but the ,tierra templada1 in the direction of the ,volcano of ,orizaba1 no doubt possesses many yet undescribed varieties4 ,we found ,m4 maritima near ,acapulco1 on the very shore of the ,pacific4 ,the ,escalloni1--among which ,e4 myrtilloides1 ,e4 tubar1 ,e4 floribunda are the ornaments of the ,paramos1 and remind us strongly 7by their physiognomical aspect7 of the myrtle-form1--formerly constituted1 together with the ,european and ,south ,american ,alpine roses 7,rhododendrum and ,befaria71 with ,clethra1 ,andromeda1 and ,gaylussacia buxifolia1 the family of the ,erice4 ,robert ,brown,,qw has arranged them in a special family1 which ,kunth has placed between the ,philadelphi and ,hamamelide4 ,escallonia floribunda affords by its geographical distribution one of the most striking examples of the relation existing between distance from the equator and vertical elevation above the level of the sea4 ,i would here again borrow support from the testimony of the accurate observer1 my friend ,auguste de ,st4 ,hilaire4,,qx 8,,mm4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland in their expedition discovered ,escallonia floribunda in #d south lat4 at an elevation of #hieb feet4 ,i found the same plant in #ba south lat4 in ,brazil1 which although elevated is very much less so than the ,andes of ,peru4 ,this plant is of common occurrence between #bd #ej and #be #ee in the ,campos ,geraes1 and ,i also met with it again on the ,rio de la ,plata in about #ce lat41 on a level with the sea40 ,the group of the ,myrtace1--to which belong ,melaleuca1 ,metrosideros1 and ,eucalyptus1 commonly classed under the general denomination of ,leptosperme1--produce partially1 wherever the true leaves are supplied by phyllodia 7petiole-leaves71 or where the direction of the leaves is inclined towards the unexpanded petiole1 a distribution of streaks of light and shade wholly unknown in our deciduous-leaved forest4 ,we find that the earliest botanical travellers who visited ,new ,holland were astonished at the singular effect thus produced4 ,robert ,brown was the first to show that this phenomenon depends on the vertical direction of the expanded petioles 7the phyllodia of ,acacia longifolia and ,acacia suaveolens71 and on the circumstance1 that the light1 instead of falling on horizontal surfaces1 passes between vertical ones4,,qy ,morphological laws in the development of the leaves determine the peculiar character of the varying light and shade4 8,phyllodia10 says ,kunth1 8can in my opinion merely occur in families which have compound pinnate leaves2 and in fact they have as yet only been met with in ,leguminos 7in the ,acacias74 ,in ,eucalyptus1 ,metrosideros1 and ,melaleuca1 the leaves are simple 7simplicia71 and their edgewise position depends on a half-turn of the leaf-stalk 7petiolus72 moreover1 it must be remarked1 that both surfaces of the leaves are of a similar character40 ,in the scantily shaded forests of ,new ,holland the optical effects here alluded to are the more frequent1 since two groups of ,myrtace and ,leguminos1 species of ,eucalyptus and ,acacia1 there constitute nearly one-half of all the greyish-green tree vegetation4 ,moreover1 between the bast-layers of ,melaleuca1 there are formed easily soluble membranes1 which force their way outwards1 and by their whiteness reminds us of our birch bark4 ,the sphere of distribution of the ,myrtace is very different in the two continents4 ,in the ,new ,continent1 and especially in its western parts1 this family1 according to ,joseph ,hooker1,,qz scarcely extends beyond the parallel of #bf north lat41 while in the ,southern ,hemisphere1 there are in ,chili1 according to ,claude ,gay1 ten species of ,myrtle and twenty-two of ,eugenia1 which mixed with ,proteace 7,embothrium and ,lomatia7 and with ,fagus obliqua1 there constitute forests4 ,the ,myrtace become more frequent from the #chth degree of south lat42 in the island of ,chiloe1 where a metrosideros-like species 7,myrtus stipularis7 forms almost impenetrable underwood1 which is there named ,tepuales2 and in ,patagonia to the extremity of ,tierra del ,fuego in #ef lat4 ,while in ,europe the ,myrtace do not extend northward further than #df lat41 they penetrate in ,australia1 ,tasmania1 ,new ,zealand and the ,auckland ,islands to #ej south latitude4 ,footnote #ajb3 p4 #bbi--8,melastomace40 ,this group comprises the genera ,melastoma 7,fothergilla and ,tococa ,aub4 and ,rhexia 7,meriana and ,osbeckia71 of which we have collected no less than sixty new species in tropical ,america alone1 on both sides of the equator4 ,bonpland has published a splendid work on the ,melastomace1 in two volumes1 with coloured plates4 ,there are species of ,rhexia and ,melastoma which ascend in the chain of the ,andes1 as ,alpine or ,paramos shrubs1 to #ifjj and even more than #aa1jjj feet above the level of the sea2 as for instance ,rhexia cernua1 ,r4 stricta1 ,melastoma obscurum1 ,m4 aspergillare1 and ,m4 lutescens4 ,footnote #ajc3 p4 #bbi--8,the ,laurel-form40 ,to this form belong ,laurus1 ,persea1 the ,ocote1 so numerous in ,south ,america1 and1--on account of their physiognomic similarity1--,calophyllum1 also the splendidly aspiring ,mammea from the ,guttifer4 ,footnote #ajd3 p4 #bbi--8;,how instructive to the landscape-painter would be a work which should illustrate the leading forms of vegetation40 ,in order to define with more distinctness what ,i have here only briefly referred to1 ,i may be permitted to incorporate the following considerations from my sketch of a history of landscape painting1 and of a graphical representation of the physiognomy of plants4,,ra 8,all that relates to the expression of the passions and the beauty of the human form has perhaps attained its fullest development in the temperate northern zone under the skies of ,greece and ,italy4 ,the artist1 drawing from the depths of imagination1 no less than from the contemplation of beings of his own species1 derives the types of historical painting alike from unfettered creation and from truthful imitation4 ,landscape painting1 though scarcely a more imitative art1 has a more material basis1 and a more earthly tendency4 ,it requires for its development a greater amount of various and distinct impressions1 which1 when imbibed from external contemplation1 must be fertilized by the powers of the mind in order to be presented to the senses of others as a creative work of art4 ,the grander style of heroic landscape-painting is the combined result of a profound appreciation of nature1 and of this inward process of the mind4 8,everywhere1 in every separate portion of the earth1 nature is indeed only a reflex of the whole4 ,the forms of organization recur again and again in different combinations4 ,even the icy north is cheered for months together by the presence of herbs and large ,alpine blossoms covering the earth1 and by a mild azure sky4 ,hitherto landscape painting among us has pursued her graceful labours familiar only with the simpler forms of our native floras1 but not therefore without depth of feeling and richness of creative fancy4 ,dwelling only on the native and indigenous form of our vegetation1 this branch of art1 notwithstanding that it has been circumscribed by such narrow limits1 has yet afforded sufficient scope for highly-gifted painters1 such as the ,caracci1 ,gaspar ,poussin1 ,claude ,lorraine1 and ,ruysdael1 to produce the happiest and most varied creations of art1 by their magical power of managing the grouping of trees1 and the effects of light and shade4 ,that progress which may still be expected in art1 from a more animated intercourse with the tropical world1 and from ideas engendered in the mind of the artist by the contemplation of ,nature in her grandest forms1 will never diminish the fame of the old masters4 ,i have alluded to this1 to recal the ancient bond which unites a knowledge of ,nature with poetry and a taste for art4 ,for in landscape painting1 as in every other branch of art1 a distinction must be drawn between the elements generated by a limited field of contemplation and direct observation1 and those which spring from the boundless depth of feeling1 and from the force of idealising mental power4 ,the grand conceptions which landscape painting1 as a more or less inspired branch of the poetry of nature1 owes to the creative power of the mind1 are1 like man himself1 and the imaginative faculties with which he is endowed1 independent of place4 ,these remarks especially refer to the gradations in the form of trees from ,ruysdael and ,everdingen1 through the works of ,claude ,lorraine1 to ,poussin and ,annibal ,caracci4 ,in the great masters of art there is no indication of local limitation4 ,but an extension of the visible horizon1 and an acquaintance with the nobler and grander forms of nature1 and with the luxuriant fulness of life in tropical regions1 afford the advantage of not simply enriching the material groundwork of landscape-painting1 but also of inducing more vivid impressions in the minds of less highly gifted painters1 and thus heightening their powers of artistic creation40 ,footnote #aje3 p4 #bcj--8;,from the thick and rough bark of the ,crescenti and ,gustavi40 ,in ,crescentia ,cujete 7the ,tutuma tree1 whose large fruit-shells are so indispensable to the natives as household utensils71 in ,cynometra1 the ,cacao-tree 7,theobroma71 and the ,perigara ,gustavia 7,linn471 the tender blossoms burst forth from the half-carbonized bark4 ,when children eat the fruit of the ,pirigara speciosa 7the ,chupo71 their whole bodies become tinged with yellow2 and this jaundice1 after a continuance of from twenty-four to thirty-six hours1 disappears without the use of medicine4 ,an indelible impression was produced on my mind by the luxuriant power of vegetation in the tropical world1 when1 on entering a ,cacao plantation 7,caca hual71 in the ,valles de ,aragua1 after a damp night1 ,i saw for the first time large blossoms springing from the root of a ,theobroma1 deeply imbedded in the black soil4 ,this is one of the most instantaneous manifestations of the activity of the vegetative force of organisation4 ,northern nations speak of 8the awakening of ,nature at the first genial breath of ,spring20--expressions that strongly contrast with the imaginative complaint of the ,stagirite1 who regarded vegetable forms as buried in a 8still sleep1 from which there is no awakening1 and free from the desires that excite to spontaneous motion40,,rb ,footnote #ajf3 p4 #bcj--8;,draw on their heads as caps40 ,these are the flowers of our ,aristolochia cordata1 to which reference has been made in ,illustration #be4 ,the largest flowers in the world1 besides those belonging to the ,composit 7the ,mexican ,helianthus annuus71 are produced by ,rafflesia ,arnoldi1 ,aristolochia1 ,datura1 ,barringtonia1 ,gustavia1 ,carolinea1 ,lecythis1 ,nympha1 ,nelumbium1 ,victoria ,regina1 ,magnolia1 ,cactus1 the ,orchide1 and the ,liliaceous forms4 ,footnote #ajg3 p4 #bca--8,the luminous worlds which spangle the firmament from pole to pole40 ,the more magnificent portion of the southern sky1 in which shine the constellations of the ,centaur1 ,argo1 and the ,southern ,cross1 where the ,magellanic clouds shed their pale light1 is for ever concealed from the eyes of the inhabitants of ,europe4 ,it is only under the equator that man enjoys the glorious spectacle of all the stars of the southern and northern heavens revealed at one glance4 ,some of our northern constellations1--as1 for instance1 ,ursus ,major and ,ursus ,minor1--owing to their low position when seen from the region of the equator1 appear to be of a remarkable1 almost fearful magnitude4 ,as the inhabitant of the tropics beholds all stars1 so too1 in regions where plains1 deep valleys1 and lofty mountains are alternated1 does ,nature surround him with representatives of every form of vegetation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the foregoing sketch of a 8,physiognomy of ,plants10 ,i have endeavoured to keep in view three nearly allied subjects1--the absolute diversity of forms2 their numerical relations1 i4e4 their local preponderance in the whole number of phanerogamic floras2 and their geographical and climatic distribution4 ,if we would rise to a general view regarding vital forms2--the physiognomy1 the study of the numerical relations 7the arithmetic of botany71 and the geography of plants 7the study of the local zones of distribution71 cannot1 as it seems to me1 be separated from one another4 ,the study of the physiognomy of plants must not be exclusively directed to the consideration of the striking contrasts of form which the larger organisms present1 when considered separately2 but it must rise to the recognition of the laws which determine physiognomy of nature generally1 the picturesque character of vegetation over the whole surface of the earth1 and the vivid impression produced by the grouping of contrasted forms in different zones of latitude and elevation4 ,it is when concentrated into this focus that we first clearly perceive the close and intimate connection existing between the subjects treated of in the preceding pages4 ,we have here entered upon a field of inquiry hitherto but little cultivated4 ,i have ventured to follow the method first propounded with such brilliant results in ,aristotle's zoological works1 and which is so especially adapted to establish scientific confidence1--a method in which the incessant effort to arrive at a generalisation of ideas supported by individual illustrations1 is associated with an endeavour to penetrate to the specialities of phenomena4 ,the enumeration of forms is1 from the physiognomical difference of their nature1 incapable of any strict classification4 ,here1 as everywhere in the consideration of external forms1 there are certain main types which present the strongest contrasts1--as the groups of the ,arborescent ,grasses1 the ,aloe form and the species of ,cactus1 ,palms1 ,acicular-leaved trees1 ,mimosace1 and ,bananas4 ,even scantily dispersed individuals belonging to these groups determine the character of a district1 and produce a lasting impression on the mind of the unscientific but susceptible beholder4 ,other forms1 perhaps more numerous and preponderating1 may not appear equally marked either by the shape or position of the leaves2 the relation of the stem to the branches1 luxuriant vigour1 animation1 and grace2 or even by the melancholy contraction of the leaf-organs4 ,as1 therefore1 a physiognomical classification1 or a distribution into groups according to external appearance1 does not admit of being applied to the whole vegetable kingdom collectively1 the basis on which such a classification should be grounded must necessarily be wholly different from that which has been so happily chosen for the establishment of our comprehensive systems of the natural families of plants4 ,vegetable physiognomy grounds its divisions and the choice of its types on all that possesses mass1--as the stem1 branches1 and appendicular organs 7the form1 position1 and size of the leaf1 the character and brilliancy of the parenchyma71 and consequently on all that is now included under the special term1 the organs of vegetation1 and on which depend the preservation 7nourishment and development7 of the individual2 while systematic botany1 on the other hand1 bases the arrangement of the natural families of plants on a consideration of the organs of propagation1 on which depends the preservation of the species4,,rc ,it was already taught in the school of ,aristotle1,,rd that the generation of seed is the ultimate aim of the being and life of a plant4 ,the process of development in the organs of fructification has become1 since ,caspar ,fried4 ,wolf1,,re and our great poet ,gothe1 the morphological basis of all systematic botany4 ,this science and that also of vegetable physiognomy proceed1 ,i would here again observe1 from two different points of view2 the former depending upon an accordance in the inflorescence and in the reproduction of the delicate sexual organs2 the latter on the conformation of the parts constituting the axes 7the stem and branches7 and on the outline of the leaves1 which are mainly determined by the distribution of the vascular bundles4 ,as1 moreover1 the stem and branches1 together with their appendicular organs1 predominate by mass and volume1 they determine and strengthen the impression we receive1 while they individualize the physiognomical character of the vegetation1 as well as that of the landscape or the zone in which some distinguished types occur4 ,the law is here expressed by the accordance and affinity in the marks appertaining to the vegetative1 i4e4 the nutritient organs4 ,in all ,european colonies the inhabitants have been led by resemblances of physiognomy 7habitus1 facies7 to apply the names of ,european forms to certain tropical plants1 which bear wholly different flowers and fruits from the genera to which these designations originally referred4 ,everywhere in both hemispheres1 the northern settler has believed he could recognise ,alders1 ,poplars1 ,apple and ,olive trees2 being misled for the most part by the form of the leaves and the direction of the branches4 ,the charm associated with the remembrance of native forms has strengthened the illusion1 and ,european names of plants have thus been perpetuated from generation to generation in the slave colonies1 where they have been further enriched by denominations borrowed from the negro languages4 ,a remarkable phenomenon is presented by the contrast frequently observed to arise from a striking accordance in physiognomy1 coupled with the greatest difference in the organs of inflorescence and fructification--between the external form as determined by the appendicular or leaf-system1 and the sexual organs on which are based the various groups of the natural systems of botany4 ,one would be disposed priori to believe that the aspect of vegetative organs 7leaves7 exclusively so called1 must depend upon the structure of the organs of reproduction1 but this dependence has only been observed in a very small number of families1 as ,ferns1 ,grasses1 ,cyperace1 ,palms1 ,conifer1 ,umbellifer1 and ,aroide4 ,in the ,leguminos this accordance between the physiognomical character and the inflorescence can scarcely be recognized1 excepting where they are separated into groups 7as ,papilionace1 ,csalpinine1 and ,mimosace47 ,the types which exhibit1 when compared together1 a very different structure of inflorescence and fructification1 notwithstanding external accordance in physiognomy1 are ,palms and ,cycade1 the latter being most nearly allied to the ,conifer2 ,cucusta1 belonging to the ,convolvulace1 and the leafless ,cassytha1 a parasitical ,laurinea2 ,equisetum 7from the division of the ,cryptogamia7 and ,ephedra 7a coniferous tree74 ,the ,grossulare 7,ribes7 are so nearly allied by their efflorescence to ,cactuses1 i4 e4 the family of the ,opuntiace1 that it is only very lately that they have been separated from them6 ,one common family 7that of the ,asphodele7 comprises the gigantic tree1 ,dracna ,draco1 the ,common ,asparagus1 and the coloured flowering ,aletris4 ,simple and compound leaves frequently belong not only to the same family1 but even to the same genus4 ,we found in the elevated plateaux of ,peru and ,new ,granada among twelve new species of ,weinmannia1 five with simple1 and the remainder with pinnate leaves4 ,the genus ,aralia exhibits yet greater independence in the leaf-form1 which is either simple1 entire1 lobed1 digitate1 or pinnate4,,rf ,pinnate leaves appear to me to belong especially to those families which occupy the highest grade of organic development1 as for instance1 the ,polypetal2 among perigynic plants1 the ,leguminos1 ,rosace1 ,terebinthace1 and ,juglande2 among hypogynic plants the ,aurantiace1 ,cedrelace1 and ,sapindace4 ,the elegant form of the doubly pinnate leaf1 which constitutes so great an adornment of the torrid zone1 is most frequently met with among the ,leguminos2 among the ,mimosace1 and also among some ,csalpinias1 ,coulterias and ,gleditschias2 but never1 as ,kunth has observed1 among the ,papilionace4 ,the form of pinnate1 and more especially of compound leaves1 is unknown in ,gentiane1 ,rubiace1 and ,myrtace4 ,in the morphological development presented by the richness and varied aspect of the appendicular organs of dicotyledons1 we are only able to recognize a very small number of general laws4 ,,on ,,the ,,structure ,,and ,,mode ,,of ,,action ,,of ,,volcanos ,,in ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 7,this ,memoir was read at a ,public ,meeting of the ,academy1 at ,berlin1 on the #bdth ,january1 #ahbc47 ,when we consider the influence exerted on the study of nature during the last few centuries1 by the extension of geographical knowledge and by means of scientific expeditions to remote regions of the earth1 we are at once made sensible of the various character of this influence1 according as the investigations have been directed to the forms of the organic world1 the study of the inorganic crust of the earth1 or to the knowledge of rocks1 their relative ages1 and their origin4 ,different vegetable and animal developments exist in every division of the earth1 whether it be on the plains1 where1 on a level with the sea1 the temperature varies with the latitude and with the various inflections of the isothermal lines1 or on the steep declivity of mountain ranges1 warmed by the direct rays of the sun4 ,organic nature imparts to every region of the globe its own characteristic physiognomy4 ,but this does not apply to the inorganic crust of the earth divested of its vegetable covering1 for everywhere1 in both hemispheres1 from the equator to the poles1 the same rocks are found grouped with some relation to each other1 either of attraction or repulsion4 ,in distant lands1 surrounded by strange forms of vegetation1 and beneath a sky beaming with other stars than those to which his eye had been accustomed1 the mariner often recognises1 with joyful surprise1 argillaceous schists and rocks familiar to him in his native land4 ,this independence of geological relations on the actual condition of climates does not diminish the beneficial influence exercised on the progress of mineralogy and physical geognosy by the numerous observations instituted in distant regions of the earth1 but simply gives a particular direction to them4 ,every expedition enriches natural history with new genera of plants and animals4 ,at one time we acquire a knowledge of new organic forms which are allied to types long familiar to us1 and which not unfrequently1 by furnishing links till then deficient1 enable us to establish1 in all its original perfection1 an uninterrupted chain of natural structures4 ,at another time we become acquainted with isolated structures1 which appear either as the remains of extinct genera1 or members of unknown groups1 the discovery of which stimulates further research4 ,it is not1 however1 from the investigation of the earth's crust that we acquire these manifold additions to our knowledge1 for here we meet rather with an uniformity in the constituent parts1 in the superposition of dissimilar masses1 and in their regular recurrence1 which cannot fail to excite the surprise and admiration of the geologist4 ,in the chain of the ,andes1 as in the mountains of ,central ,europe1 one formation appears1 as it were1 to call forth another4 ,masses identical in character assume the same forms2 basalt and dolerite compose twin mountains2 dolomite1 sandstone1 and porphyry form abrupt rocky walls2 while vitreous trachyte1 containing a large proportion of feldspar1 rises in bell-shaped and high-vaulted domes4 ,in the most remote regions large crystals are separated in a similar manner from the compact texture of the fundamental mass1 and1 blending and grouping together into subordinate strata1 frequently announce the commencement of new and independent formations4 ,it is thus that the inorganic world may be said to reflect itself1 more or less distinctly1 in every mountain of any great extent4 ,it is necessary1 however1 in order perfectly to understand the most important phenomena of the composition1 relative age1 and origin of formations1 to compare together the observations made in regions of the earth most widely remote from each other4 ,problems which have long baffled the geologist in his own northern region1 find their solution in the vicinity of the equator4 ,if1 as we have already observed1 remote regions do not present us with new formations1 that is to say1 with unknown groupings of simple substances1 they at least help us to unravel the great and universal laws of nature1 by showing how different strata of the crust of the earth are mutually superimposed on1 and intersect1 each other in the form of veins1 or rise to different elevations in obedience to elastic forces4 ,although our geological knowledge may be thus extensively augmented by researches over vast regions1 it can hardly be a matter of surprise that the class of phenomena constituting the principal subject of this address should have been so long examined in an imperfect manner1 since the means of comparison were of difficult1 and almost1 it may be said1 of laborious access4 ,until towards the close of the eighteenth century all that was known of the form of volcanos and of the action of their subterranean forces was derived from observations made on two volcanic mountains of ,southern ,italy1 ,vesuvius and ,etna4 ,as the former of these was the more accessible1 and 7like all volcanos of slight elevation7 had frequent eruptions1 a hill became to a certain degree the type according to which a whole world--the mighty volcanos of ,mexico1 ,south ,america1 and the ,asiatic ,islands--was supposed to be formed4 ,such a mode of reasoning involuntarily calls to mind ,virgil's shepherd1 who believed that in his own humble cot he saw the image of the eternal city1 ,imperial ,rome4 ,this imperfect mode of studying nature might indeed have been obviated by a more attentive examination of the whole ,mediterranean1 and especially of its eastern islands and littoral districts1 where mankind first awoke to intellectual culture and to a higher standard of feeling4 ,among the ,sporades1 trachytic rocks have risen from the bottom of the sea1 and have formed lands similar to those of the ,azores1 which in the course of three centuries have appeared periodically at three almost equal intervals of time4 ,between ,epidaurus and ,trzene1 near ,methone1 in the ,peloponnesus1 there is a ,monte ,nuovo1 described by ,strabo and since by ,dodwell4 ,its elevation is greater than that of the ,monte ,nuovo of the ,phlegran fields near ,bai1 and perhaps even than that of the new volcano of ,xorullo1 in the plains of ,mexico1 which ,i found to be surrounded by many thousand small basaltic cones1 upheaved from the earth1 and still emitting smoke4 ,it is not only in the basin of the ,mediterranean1 that volcanic fires escape from the permanent craters of isolated mountains having a constant communication with the interior of the earth1 as ,stromboli1 ,vesuvius1 and ,etna2 for at ,ischia1 and on ,mount ,epomeus1 and also1 according to the accounts of the ancients1 in the ,lelantine plain1 near ,chalcis1 lavas have flowed from fissures which have suddenly opened on the surface of the earth4 ,besides these phenomena1 which fall within historical periods1 that is1 within the narrow bounds of authentic tradition1 and which ,ritter purposes collecting and explaining in his masterly work on geography1 the shores of the ,mediterranean present numerous remains of the earlier action of fire4 ,the south of ,france exhibits in ,auvergne a distinct and peculiar system of volcanos1 linearly arranged1 trachytic domes alternating with cones of eruption1 emitting lava streams in the form of bands4 ,the plains of ,lombardy1 which are on a level with the sea1 and constitute the innermost bay of the ,adriatic1 inclose the trachyte of the ,euganean ,hills1 where rise domes of granular trachyte1 obsidian1 and pearl-stone4 ,these masses are developed from each other1 and break through the lower chalk formations and nummulitic limestone1 but have never been emitted in narrow streams4 ,similar evidence of former revolutions of our earth1 is afforded in many parts of the ,greek ,continent and in ,western ,asia1 countries which will undoubtedly some day yield the geologist ample materials for investigation1 when the light of knowledge shall again shine on those lands whence it first dawned on our western world1 and when oppressed humanity shall cease to groan beneath the weight of ,turkish barbarism4 ,i allude to the geographical proximity of such numerous and various phenomena in order to show that the basin of the ,mediterranean1 with its series of islands1 might have enabled the attentive observer to note all those phenomena which have recently been discovered under various forms and structures in ,south ,america1 ,teneriffe1 and in the ,aleutian islands1 near the ,polar region4 ,the materials for observation were1 no doubt1 accumulated within a narrow compass2 but it was yet necessary that travels in distant countries and comparisons between extensive tracts of land1 both in and out of ,europe1 should be undertaken1 in order to obtain a correct idea of the resemblance between volcanic phenomena and of their dependence on each other4 ,language1 which so frequently imparts permanence and authority to first1 and often also erroneous views1 but which points1 as it were1 instinctively to the truth1 has applied the term volcanic to all eruptions of subterranean fire and molten matter2 to columns of smoke and vapour which ascend sporadically from rocks1 as at ,colares1 after the great earthquake of ,lisbon2 to ,salses1 or argillaceous cones emitting moist mud1 asphalt1 and hydrogen1 as at ,girgenti in ,sicily1 and at ,turbaco in ,south ,america2 to hot ,geyser springs1 which rise under the pressure of elastic vapours2 and1 in general1 to all operations of impetuous natural forces which have their seat deep in the interior of our planet4 ,in ,central ,america 7,guatimala7 and in the ,philippine ,islands1 the natives even formally distinguish between ,volcanes de agua y de fuego1 volcanos emitting water1 and those emitting fire2 designating by the former appellation1 mountains from which subterranean waters burst forth from time to time1 accompanied by a dull hollow sound and violent earthquakes4 ,without denying the connection1 which undoubtedly exists among the phenomena just referred to1 it would seem advisable to apply more definite terms to the physical as well as to the mineralogical portion of the science of geology1 and not at one time to designate by the word volcano a mountain terminating in a permanent fire-emitting mouth1 and at another to apply it to any subterranean cause1 be it what it may1 of volcanic action4 ,in the present condition of our earth1 the form of isolated conical mountains 7as those of ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 ,tunguragua and ,cotopaxi7 is certainly the shape most commonly observed in volcanos4 ,i have myself seen such volcanos varying in height from the most inconsiderable hill to an elevation of more than #ai1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,besides such conical forms1 however1 we continually meet with permanent fire-emitting mouths1 in which the communication with the interior of the earth is maintained on far-extended jagged ridges1 and not even always from the centre of their mural summits1 but at their extremity towards their slope4 ,such1 for instance1 is ,pichincha1 situated between the ,pacific and the city of ,quito1 which has acquired celebrity from ,bouguer's earliest barometric formul1 and such are the volcanos on the ,steppe de los ,pastos1 situate at more than #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,all these variously shaped summits consist of trachyte1 formerly known as trap-porphyry2 a granular stone full of narrow fissures1 composed of different kinds of feldspar 7labradorite1 oligoklase1 and albite71 augite1 hornblende1 and sometimes interspersed mica1 and even quartz4 ,wherever the evidences of the first eruption1 the ancient structures--if ,i may use the expression--remain complete1 the isolated cone is surrounded1 circus-like1 with a high wall of rock consisting of different superimposed strata1 encompassing it like an outer sheath4 ,such walls or circular inclosures are termed craters of elevation1 and constitute a great and important phenomenon1 upon which that eminent geologist1 ,leopold von ,buch1 from whose writings ,i have borrowed many facts advanced in this treatise1 presented so remarkable a paper to our ,academy five years ago4 ,volcanos which communicate with the atmosphere by means of fire-emitting mouths1 such as conical basaltic hills1 and dome-like craterless trachytic mountains1 7the latter being sometimes low1 like the ,sarcouy1 and sometimes high1 like the ,chimborazo17 form various groups4 ,comparative geography draws our attention1 at one time1 to small ,archipelagos or independent mountain-systems1 with craters and lava streams1 like those in the ,canary ,isles and the ,azores1 and without craters or true lava streams1 as in the ,euganean hills1 and the ,siebengebirge near ,bonn2 at another time1 it makes us acquainted with volcanos arranged in single or double chains1 and extending for many hundred miles in length1 either running parallel with the main direction of the range1 as in ,guatimala1 ,peru1 and ,java1 or intersecting its axis at right angles1 as in tropical ,mexico4 ,in this land of the ,aztecs fire-emitting trachytic mountains alone attain the high snow limit3 they are ranged in the direction of a parallel of latitude1 and have probably been upheaved from a chasm extending over upwards of #dbj miles1 intersecting the whole continent from the ,pacific to the ,atlantic4 ,this crowding together of volcanos1 either in rounded groups or double lines1 affords the most convincing proof that their action does not depend on slight causes located near the surface1 but that they are great and deep-seated phenomena4 ,the whole of the eastern portion of the ,american continent1 which is poor in metals1 has in its present condition no fire-emitting openings1 no trachytic masses1 and perhaps no basalt containing olivine4 ,all the volcanos of ,america are united in the portion of the continent opposite to ,asia1 along the chain of the ,andes1 which runs nearly due north and south over a distance of more than #gbjj miles4 ,the whole elevated table-land of ,quito1 which is surmounted by the high mountains of ,pichincha1 ,cotopaxi1 and ,tunguragua1 constitutes one sole volcanic hearth4 ,the subterranean fire bursts sometimes from one and sometimes from another of these openings1 which have generally been regarded as independent volcanos4 ,the progressive movement of the fire has1 for three centuries1 inclined from north to south4 ,even the earthquakes1 which so fearfully devastate this portion of the globe1 afford striking evidence of the existence of subterranean communications1 not only between countries where there are no volcanos--as has long been known--but likewise between volcanic apertures situated at a distance from each other4 ,thus the volcano of ,pasto1 east of the river ,guaytara1 continued during three months of the year #agig1 to emit1 uninterruptedly1 a lofty column of smoke1 until it suddenly ceased at the moment of the great earthquake of ,riobamba1 7at a distance of #bdj miles17 and the mud eruption of the 8,moya10 in which from thirty to forty thousand ,indians perished4 ,the sudden appearance1 on the #cjth of ,january1 #ahaa1 of the island of ,sabrina1 in the group of the ,azores1 was the precursor of the dreadful earthquakes which1 further westward1 shook1 from ,may1 #ahaa1 to ,june1 #ahac1 almost uninterruptedly1 first the ,antilles1 then the plains of the ,ohio and ,mississippi1 and lastly1 the opposite coasts of ,venezuela or ,caracas4 ,thirty days after the total destruction of the beautiful capital of the province1 there was an eruption of the long inactive volcano of ,st4 ,vincent1 in the neighbouring islands of the ,antilles4 ,a remarkable phenomenon accompanied this eruption3 at the moment of this explosion1 which occurred on the #cjth of ,april1 #ahaa1 a terrible subterranean noise was heard in ,south ,america1 over a district of more than #ce1jjj square miles4 ,the inhabitants of the banks of the ,apure1 at the confluence of the ,rio ,nula1 and those living on the remote sea-coast of ,venezuela1 agreed in comparing this sound to the noise of heavy artillery4 ,the distance from the confluence of the ,rio ,nula with the ,apure 7by which ,i entered the ,orinoco7 to the volcano of ,st4 ,vincent1 measured in a straight line1 is no less than #fbh miles4 ,this noise was certainly not propagated through the air1 and must have arisen from some deep-seated subterranean cause2 its intensity was1 moreover1 hardly greater on the shores of the ,caribbean sea1 near the seat of the raging volcano1 than in the interior of the country in the basin of the ,apure and the ,orinoco4 ,it would be useless to multiply examples of this nature1 by adducing others which ,i have collected3 ,i will therefore only refer to one further instance1 namely1 the memorable earthquake of ,lisbon1 an important phenomenon in the annals of ,europe4 ,simultaneously with this event1 which took place on the #ast of ,november1 #agee1 not only were the ,lakes of ,switzerland and the sea off the ,swedish coasts violently agitated1 but in the eastern portion of the ,antilles1 near the islands of ,martinique1 ,antigua1 and ,barbadoes1 the tide1 which never exceeds thirty inches1 suddenly rose upwards of twenty feet4 ,all these phenomena prove1 that subterranean forces are manifested either dynamically1 expansively1 and attended by commotion1 in earthquakes2 or possess the property of producing1 or of chemically modifying substances in volcanos2 and they further show1 that these forces are not seated near the surface in the thin crust of the earth1 but deep in the interior of our planet1 whence through fissures and unfilled veins they act simultaneously at widely distant points of the earth's surface4 ,the more varied the structure of volcanos1 that is to say1 of elevations inclosing a channel through which the molten masses of the interior of the earth reach the surface1 the more important it is to form a correct idea of these structures by careful measurement4 ,the interest derived from measurements of this kind1 which ,i made a special subject of inquiry in the western hemisphere1 is increased by the consideration1 that the objects to be measured vary in magnitude at different points4 ,a philosophical study of nature seeks1 in considering the changes of phenomena1 to connect the present with the past4 ,in order to ascertain the periodic recurrence1 or the laws of the progressive changes in nature1 we require certain fixed points1 and carefully conducted observations1 which1 by their connection with definite epochs1 may serve as a basis for numerical comparisons4 ,if the mean temperature of the atmosphere and of the earth in different latitudes1 or the mean height of the barometer at the sea level1 had been determined only once in every thousand years1 we should know to what extent the heat of climates has increased or diminished1 and whether any changes have taken place in the height of the atmosphere4 ,such points of comparison are especially required to determine the inclination and declination of the magnetic needle1 and the intensity of those electro-magnetic forces on which ,seebeck and ,erman1 two admirable physicists belonging to this ,academy1 have thrown so much light4 ,if it be a meritorious undertaking on the part of learned societies to investigate with perseverance the cosmical changes in the heat and pressure of the atmosphere1 and particularly the magnetic direction and intensity1 it is no less the duty of the travelling geologist to direct attention to the varying height of volcanos in determining the inequalities of the earth's surface4 ,the observations which ,i formerly made in the ,mexican mountains1 at the volcano of ,toluca1 at ,popocatepetl1 at the ,cofre de ,perote1 or ,nauhcampatepetl1 and ,xorullo1 and in the ,andes of ,quito at ,pichincha1 ,i have had opportunities since my return to ,europe of repeating1 at different periods1 on ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,where complete trigonometric or barometric measurements are wanting1 their place may be supplied by angles of altitude laid down with precision1 and taken at points accurately determined4 ,the comparison of such determinations1 made at different periods of time1 may sometimes be even preferable to the complication of more complete operations4 ,saussure measured ,vesuvius in #aggc1 and at that time both the north-western and south-eastern margins of the crater appeared to him to be equal in height4 ,he found their elevation above the level of the sea to be #chid feet4 ,the eruption of #agid occasioned a falling in towards the south1 and an inequality in the margins of the crater1 which may be distinguished from a considerable distance even by the most unpractised eye4 ,leopold von ,buch1 ,gay ,lussac1 and myself1 measured ,mount ,vesuvius three times in the year #ahje1 and found that the elevation of the northern margin1 la ,rocca del ,palo1 opposite the ,somma1 was exactly as it had been given by ,saussure1 while the southern margin was #dgi feet lower than it had been in #aggc4 ,the elevation of the volcano itself towards ,torre del ,greco 7the side towards which1 for thirty years1 the volcanic action has been principally directed7 had1 at that time1 decreased one-eighth4 ,the cone of cinders bears to the total height of ,vesuvius the relation of #a 3 #c2 in ,pichincha1 the ratio is as #a 3 #aj1 and at the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 as #a 3 #bb4 ,of these three volcanic mountains1 ,vesuvius has1 therefore1 comparatively1 the highest cone of cinders2 probably because1 being a volcano of inconsiderable height1 it has chiefly acted through its summit4 ,a few months ago1 in the year #ahbb1 ,i succeeded not only in repeating my earlier barometric measurements of ,mount ,vesuvius1 but also in determining more completely all the margins of the crater#ajh during three ascents of the mountain4 ,these determinations are1 perhaps1 deserving of some degree of attention1 since they embrace the long period of the great eruptions between #ahje and #ahbb1 and are probably the only measurements hitherto published of any volcano which admit of comparison in all their parts4 ,they prove1 that the margins of the crater should be regarded as a much more permanent phenomenon than has hitherto been supposed1 from the hasty observations made on the subject2 and that this character appertains to them everywhere1 and not merely in those instances where1 as at the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 and in all the volcanos of the ,andes1 they evidently consist of trachyte4 ,according to my latest determinations it would seem1 that since the time of ,saussure1 a period of forty-nine years1 the north-western margin of ,vesuvius has probably not changed at all1 and that the south-eastern one1 in the direction of ,bosche ,tre ,case1 which in #agid had become #dbf feet lower1 has since then only altered about #fd feet4 ,if1 in the newspaper reports of great eruptions1 we often find assertions made of an entire change of form in ,mount ,vesuvius1 and if these assertions appear to be confirmed by the picturesque views of the volcano made at ,naples1 the cause of the error arises from the outlines of the margins of the crater having been confounded with those of the cones of eruption accidentally formed in its centre1 the bottom of which has been raised by the force of vapours4 ,a cone of eruption of this kind1 formed by the accumulation of masses of rapilli and scori1 gradually came to view1 above the south-eastern margin of the crater1 between the years #ahaf and #ahah4 ,the eruption in the month of ,february1 #ahbb1 increased this cone to such an elevation1 that it projected from #ajg to #aag feet above the north-western margin of the crater 7the ,rocca del ,palo74 ,this remarkable cone1 which was at length regarded at ,naples as the actual summit of ,vesuvius1 fell in with a fearful crash at the last eruption1 on the night of the #bbnd of ,october2 in consequence of which1 the bottom of the crater1 which had continued uninterruptedly accessible from the year #ahaa1 is now nearly #hjj feet below the northern and #bac feet below the southern margin of the volcano4 ,the varying form and relative position of the cones of eruption1 the apertures of which must not1 as they sometimes are1 be confounded with the crater of the volcano1 give to ,vesuvius at different epochs a peculiar physiognomy2 so much so1 that the historiographer of this volcano1 by a mere inspection of ,hackert's landscapes in the ,palace of ,portici1 might guess the exact year in which the artist had made his sketch1 by the outline of the summit of the mountain1 according as the northern or southern side is represented in respect to height4 ,twenty-four hours after the fall of the cone of scori1 which was #dbf feet high1 and when the small but numerous streams of lava had flowed off1 on the night between the #bcrd and #bdth of ,october1 there began a fiery eruption of ashes and rapilli1 which continued uninterruptedly for twelve days1 but was most violent during the first four days4 ,during this period the explosions in the interior of the volcano were so loud that the mere vibrations of the air caused the ceilings to crack in the ,palace of ,portici1 although no shocks of an earthquake were then or had previously been experienced4 ,a remarkable phenomenon was observed in the neighbouring villages of ,resina1 ,torre del ,greco1 ,torre del' ,annunziata1 and ,bosche ,tre ,case4 ,here the atmosphere was so completely saturated with ashes that the whole region was enveloped in complete darkness during many hours in the middle of the day4 ,the inhabitants were obliged to carry lanterns with them through the streets1 as is often done in ,quito during the eruptions of ,pichincha4 ,never had the flight of the inhabitants been more general1 for lava streams are less dreaded even than an eruption of ashes1 a phenomenon unknown here in any degree of intensity1 and one which fills the imaginations of men with images of terror from the vague tradition of the manner in which ,herculaneum1 ,pompeii1 and ,stabi were destroyed4 ,the hot aqueous vapour which issued from the crater during the eruption1 and diffused itself through the atmosphere1 formed1 on cooling1 a dense cloud1 which enveloped the column of ashes and fire1 that rose to an elevation of between #ijjj and #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,so sudden a condensation of vapour1 and1 as ,gay ,lussac has shown1 the formation of the cloud itself1 tended to increase electric tension4 ,flashes of forked lightning darted in all directions from the column of ashes1 while the rolling thunder might be clearly distinguished from the deep rumbling sounds within the volcano4 ,in no other eruption had the play of the electric forces been so powerfully manifested as on this occasion4 ,on the morning of the #bfth of ,october the strange report was circulated that a stream of boiling water was gushing from the crater1 and pouring down the cone of cinders4 ,monticelli1 the zealous and learned observer of the volcano1 soon perceived that this erroneous report originated in an optical illusion1 and that the supposed stream of water was a great quantity of dry ashes which issued like drift sand from a crevice in the highest margin of the crater4 ,the long drought1 which had parched and desolated the fields before this eruption of ,vesuvius1 was succeeded1 towards the termination of the phenomenon1 by a continued and violent rain1 occasioned by the volcanic storm which we have just described4 ,a similar phenomenon characterizes the termination of an eruption in all zones of the earth4 ,as the cone of cinders is usually wrapped in clouds at this period1 and as the rain is poured forth with most violence near this portion of the volcano1 streams of mud are generally observed to descend from the sides in all directions4 ,the terrified peasant looks upon them as streams of water that rise from the interior of the volcano and overflow the crater1 while the deceived geologist believes that he can recognise in them either sea-water or muddy products of the volcano1 the so-called eruptions boueuses1 or1 in the language of the old ,french systematisers1 products of an igneo-aqueous liquefaction4 ,where1 as is generally the case in the chain of the ,andes1 the summit of the volcano penetrates beyond the snow-line1 attaining sometimes an elevation twice as great as that of ,mount ,etna1 the inundations we have described are rendered very frequent and destructive1 owing to the melting and permeating snow4 ,these are phenomena which have a meteorological connection with the eruptions of volcanos1 and are variously modified by the heights of the mountains1 the circumference of the summits which are perpetually covered with snow1 and the degree to which the walls of cinder cones become heated2 but they cannot be regarded in the light of true volcanic phenomena4 ,subterranean lakes1 communicating by various channels with the mountain streams1 are frequently formed in deep and vast cavities1 either on the declivity or at the base of volcanos4 ,when the whole mass of the volcano is powerfully shaken by those earthquakes which precede all eruptions of fire in the ,andes1 the subterranean vaults open1 and pour forth streams of water1 fishes1 and tuffaceous mud4 ,this singular phenomenon brings to mind the ,pimelodes ,cyclopum1 or the ,silures of the ,cyclops1 which the inhabitants of the plateau of ,quito call ,preadilla1 and of which ,i gave a circumstantial account soon after my return to ,europe4 ,when1 on the night between the #aith and #bjth of ,june1 #afih1 the summit of ,mount ,carguairazo1 situated to the north of ,chimborazo1 and having an elevation of more than #ai1jjj feet1 fell in1 all the country for nearly #cb square miles was covered with mud and fishes4 ,a similar eruption of fish from the volcano of ,imbaburu was supposed to have caused the putrid fever1 which1 seven years before this period1 raged in the town of ,ibarra4 ,i refer to these facts because they throw some light on the difference between the eruption of dry ashes and mud-like inundations of tuff and trass1 investing fragments of wood1 charcoal1 and shells4 ,the quantity of ashes recently erupted from ,mount ,vesuvius1 like every phenomenon connected with volcanos and other great and fearful natural phenomena1 has been greatly exaggerated in the public papers2 and two ,neapolitan chemists1 ,vicenzo ,pepe and ,guiseppe di ,nobili1 even asserted that the cinders were mixed with given proportions of gold and silver1 notwithstanding the counter-statements of ,monticelli and ,covelli4 ,according to my researches the stratum of ashes which fell during the twelve days was only three feet in thickness in the direction of ,bosche ,tre ,case1 on the declivity of the cone1 where they were mixed with rapilli1 while in the plains its greatest thickness did not exceed from #af to #ai inches4 ,measurements of this kind must not be made at spots where the ashes have been drifted by the wind1 like snow or sand1 or where they have been accumulated in pulp-like heaps by means of water4 ,the times are passed in which1 after the manner of the ancients1 nothing was regarded in volcanic phenomena save the marvellous1 and when men would believe1 like ,ctesias1 that the ashes from ,etna were borne as far as the ,indian peninsula4 ,a portion of the ,mexican gold and silver veins is certainly found in trachytic porphyry1 but in the ashes of ,vesuvius which ,i myself collected1 and which were1 at my request1 examined by that distinguished chemist ,heinrich ,rose1 no trace of either gold or silver was to be discovered4 ,however much these results1 which perfectly correspond with the more exact observations of ,monticelli1 may differ from those recently announced1 it cannot be denied that the eruption of ashes1 which continued from the #bdth to the #bhth of ,october1 is the most memorable that has been recorded1 on unquestionable evidence1 in reference to ,mount ,vesuvius1 since the death of the elder ,pliny4 ,the quantity of ashes erupted on this occasion was probably three times as great as the whole quantity which has fallen since volcanic phenomena have been observed with attention in ,italy4 ,a stratum from #af to #ai inches in thickness does certainly1 at first sight1 seem very inconsiderable1 when compared with the mass with which we find ,pompeii covered4 ,but1 without taking into account the heavy rains and the inundations which must have increased the bulk of this stratum in the course of ages1 and without reviving the animated contention maintained with much scepticism on the other side of the ,alps1 regarding the causes of the destruction of the ,campanian cities1 it may1 at any rate1 be here observed that the eruptions of a volcano1 at widely remote epochs1 cannot be compared with respect to their intensity4 ,all conclusions must be insufficient that are based on mere analogies of quantitative relations of the lava and ashes1 the height of the column of smoke1 and the intensity of the explosions4 ,we learn from the geographical description of ,strabo1 and from the opinion expressed by ,vitruvius on the volcanic origin of pumice1 that1 until the year of ,vespasian's death1 that is to say1 until the eruption which buried ,pompeii1 ,vesuvius appeared more like an extinct volcano than a ,solfatara4 ,when1 after a long-continued repose1 subterranean forces suddenly opened for themselves new channels1 penetrating through strata of primitive rock and trachyte1 effects must have been produced to which no analogy is afforded by those of subsequent occurrence4 ,we clearly learn from the well-known letter in which ,pliny the younger informs ,tacitus of the death of his uncle1 that the renewal of the eruptions1 or1 one might almost say1 the revival of the slumbering volcano1 began with an outbreak of ashes4 ,the same phenomenon was observed at ,xorullo1 when the new volcano1 in the month of ,september1 #agei1 breaking through strata of syenite and trachyte1 was suddenly upheaved in the plain4 ,the country people fled in terror on finding their cottages covered with ashes thrown up from the earth1 which was bursting in every direction4 ,in the ordinary periodical manifestations of volcanic activity a shower of ashes usually terminates each partial eruption4 ,the letter of the younger ,pliny contains1 moreover1 a passage which clearly shows that the dry ashes falling from the air immediately attained a height of four or five feet1 independent of accumulation by drifts4 8,the court10 the narrative continues1 8which led to the apartment in which ,pliny took his siesta1 was so filled with ashes and pumice that1 had the sleeper tarried longer1 he would have found the passage wholly blocked up40 ,within the inclosed limits of a court the wind cannot have exercised any very considerable influence on the drifting of the ashes4 ,i have interrupted my comparative view of volcanos by different observations in relation to ,vesuvius1 partly on account of the great interest excited by its recent eruption1 and partly because every great outpouring of ashes almost involuntarily recalls to mind the classic soil of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum4 ,in a note1 not adapted to be read to the audience to whom this lecture is addressed1 ,i have collected all the elements of the barometric measurements which ,i made during the close of last year at ,mount ,vesuvius1 and in the ,campi ,phlegri4 ,we have hitherto considered the form and effects of those volcanos which are permanently connected1 by means of a crater1 with the interior of the earth4 ,the summits of such volcanos are upheaved masses of trachyte and lava intersected by numerous veins4 ,the permanency of their effects indicates a highly complex structure4 ,they have1 so to say1 a certain individuality of character1 which remains unaltered for long periods of time4 ,contiguous mountains generally yield wholly different products2 for instance3 leucitic and feldspathic lavas1 obsidian with pumice1 and basaltic masses containing olivine4 ,they belong to the more recent phenomena of the earth1 usually breaking through all the strata of the floetz formation1 and their lava currents and products are of subsequent origin to our valleys4 ,their life1 if ,i may be permitted to use a figurative expression1 depends upon the mode and the duration of their connection with the interior of the earth4 ,after continuing for centuries in a state of repose1 their activity is often suddenly revived1 and they then become converted into ,solfataras1 emitting aqueous vapours1 gases1 and acids4 ,occasionally1 as at the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 their summits have already become a laboratory of regenerated sulphur1 while considerable lava currents1 being basaltic near the base1 and mixed with obsidian and pumice at greater elevations1 where the pressure is less1 continue to flow from the sides of the mountain#aji4 ,besides volcanos which have permanent craters1 there is another kind of volcanic phenomena less frequently observed than the former1 but especially instructive to the geologist1 as they remind us of the primitive world1 that is1 of the earliest revolutions of our planet4 ,trachytic mountains suddenly open1 and after throwing up ashes and lava1 close again never perhaps to re-open4 ,such has been the case with the mighty volcano of ,antisana in the chain of the ,andes1 and with ,mount ,epomus in ,ischia1 in the year #acjb4 ,occasionally such an eruption has occurred even in the plains1 as on the table-land of ,quito1 in ,iceland at a distance from ,hecla1 and in the ,lelantine plains of ,euba4 ,many upheaved islands belong to this class of transitory phenomena4 ,in these cases1 the connection with the interior of the earth is not permanent1 the action ceasing as soon as the fissure1 or channel of communication1 is again closed4 ,veins of basalt1 dolerite1 and porphyry1 which traverse almost all formations in different parts of the earth2 and the masses of syenite1 augitic porphyry1 and amygdaloid1 which characterise the most recent strata of transition rock1 and the oldest stratum of the floetz formation2 have all probably been formed in a similar manner4 ,in the youthful period of our planet1 the substances that had continued in a fluid condition within the earth1 broke through its crust1 everywhere intersected with fissures1 and became solidified as granular veins1 or were spread out in broad superimposed strata4 ,the products that may be termed exclusively volcanic1 which have come down to us from the primitive ages of the world1 have not flowed in streams or bands like the lava of our isolated conical mountains4 ,the mixtures of augite1 titanic iron1 feldspar1 and hornblende1 may have been the same at different periods1 sometimes allied to basalt1 sometimes to trachyte2 while chemical substances1 7as we learn from ,mitscherlich's important labours and the analogies presented by artificial igneous products17 may have ranged themselves in layers according to some definite laws of crystallization4 ,in all cases we perceive that substances similarly composed have come to the surface of the earth by very different means1 either by being simply upheaved1 or escaping through temporary fissures2 and that breaking through the older rocks1 that is to say1 through the earlier oxidized earth's crust1 they have flowed in the form of lava streams from conical mountains having a permanent crater4 ,if we do not sufficiently distinguish between these various phenomena1 our knowledge of the geology of volcanos will again be shrouded in that obscurity1 from which numerous comparative experiments are now beginning gradually to release it4 ,the questions have often been asked1 what is it that burns in volcanos1 what generates the degree of heat capable of mixing earths and metals together in a state of fusion8 ,modern chemistry has attempted to reply that it is the earths1 metals1 and alkalies themselves1 that is to say1 the metalloids of these substances1 which burn4 ,the solid and already oxidized crust of the earth separates the surrounding atmosphere1 with the oxygen it contains1 from the combustible unoxidized substances in the interior of our planet4 ,by the contact of these metalloids with the atmospheric oxygen the disengagement of caloric ensues4 ,the celebrated and talented chemist1 who advanced this explanation of volcanic phenomena1 soon himself relinquished it4 ,the experiments which have been made in mines and caverns in all parts of the earth1 and which ,m4 ,arago and myself have collected in a separate treatise1 prove that even at an inconsiderable depth1 the temperature of the earth is much higher than the mean temperature of the atmosphere at the same place4 ,this remarkable1 and almost universally confirmed fact1 is connected with what we learn from volcanic phenomena4 ,the depth at which we might regard the earth as a fused mass1 has been calculated4 ,the primitive cause of this subterranean heat is1 as in all planets1 the formative process itself1 the separation of the spherically conglomerating mass from a cosmical ariform fluid1 and the cooling of the terrestrial strata at different depths by the radiation of heat4 ,all volcanic phenomena are probably the result of a permanent or transient connection between the interior and the exterior of our planet4 ,elastic vapours press the fused oxidizing substances upwards through deep fissures4 ,volcanos therefore are intermittent earth-springs1 from which the fluid mixtures of metals1 alkalies1 and earths1 which become consolidated into lava currents1 flow gently and calmly1 when being upheaved they find a vent4 ,in a similar manner1 according to ,plato's ,phdon1 the ancients regarded all volcanic streams of fire as effusions of the ,pyriphlegethon4 ,i would fain be permitted to add one yet bolder observation to those ,i have already ventured to advance4 ,may not the cause of one of the most wonderful phenomena presented by the study of petrifactions1 be dependent on the condition of the inner heat of our planet1 which is indicated by thermometric experiments on springs#aaj rising from different depths1 and by observations on volcanos8 ,we find tropical animals1 arborescent ferns1 palms1 and bamboos1 buried in the cold north1 and everywhere the primitive world presents a distribution of organic structures wholly at variance with existing climatic relations4 ,many hypotheses have been advanced in elucidation of so important a problem1 such as the approximation of a comet1 the altered obliquity of the ecliptic1 and the increased intensity of the sun's light2 but none of these have satisfied at once the astronomer1 the physicist1 and the geologist4 ,i1 for my part1 would willingly leave undisturbed the axis of the earth or the light of the sun's disk1 7from whose spots a celebrated astronomer explained fruitfulness and failure of crops17 yet it appears to me that in every planet there exist1 independently of its relations to a central body and its astronomical position1 numerous causes for the development of heat1 in processes of oxidation1 in precipitation1 in the chemically altered capacity of bodies1 the increase of electro-magnetic tension1 and in the channels of communication opened between its internal and external parts4 ,wherever1 in the primitive world1 heat was radiated from the deeply fissured crust of the earth1 palms1 arborescent ferns1 and all the animals of the torrid zone1 could perhaps have flourished for centuries over extensive tracts of land4 ,according to this view1 which ,i have already published in my work entitled ,geognostischer ,versuch ber die ,lagerung der ,gebirgsarten in beiden ,hemisphren1,,rg the temperature of volcanos would be that of the interior of our earth itself1 and the same causes which now occasion such fearfully devastating results1 may have been able to produce1 in every zone1 the most luxuriant vegetation on the newly oxidized crust of the earth and on the deeply fissured strata of rocks4 ,should it be assumed1 for the purpose of explaining the wonderful distribution of tropical forms in their ancient mausolea1 that the long-haired elephantine animals1 which are now found embedded in ice1 were once indigenous to northern latitudes1 and that animals of similar forms1 belonging to the same type1 as1 for instance1 lions and lynxes1 were capable of living in wholly different climates1 such a mode of explanation would at all events not admit of being extended to vegetable products4 ,from causes developed by the physiology of vegetation1 palms1 bananas1 and arborescent monocotyledons1 are unable to endure the deprivation of their appendicular organs1 by the northern cold2 and in the geological problem which we are here considering1 it seems to me a matter of difficulty to admit any distinction between vegetable and animal structures4 ,one and the same mode of explanation must be applied to both forms4 ,in concluding this treatise1 ,i have added some uncertain and hypothetical conjectures to the facts which have been collected in widely remote regions of the earth4 ,the philosophical study of nature rises above the requirements of mere delineation1 and does not consist in the sterile accumulation of isolated facts4 ,the active and inquiring spirit of man may therefore be occasionally permitted to escape from the present into the domain of the past1 to conjecture that which cannot yet be clearly determined1 and thus to revel amid the ancient and ever-recurring myths of geology4 ,,explanatory ,,additions4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,p4 #cfc4--8;,a more complete determination of the margins of the ,crater of ,mount ,vesuvius40 ,my astronomical fellow-labourer1 ,oltmanns1 who was unhappily too early lost to science1 has re-calculated the barometric measurements ,i made on ,mount ,vesuvius 7from the #bbnd to the #beth of ,november1 and on the #ast of ,december1 #ahbb71 and compared the results with those yielded by the measurements given to me in manuscript by ,lord ,minto1 ,visconti1 ,monticelli1 ,brioschi1 and ,poulett ,scrope4 ,a4 ,rocca del ,palo1 the highest northern margin of the ,crater of ,vesuvius1 was estimated by-- ,feet4 ,saussure1 in #aggc1 barometrically1 probably according to ,deluc's formula #chid ,poli 7#agid71 barometrically #chge ,breislak 7#agid71 barometrically1 although1 as in the case of ,poli1 it is uncertain what formula was used #cibj ,gay-,lussac1 ,leopold von ,buch1 and ,humboldt 7#ahje71 barometrically1 according to the formula of ,laplace1 as in all the following barometric results #chef ,brioschi 7#ahaj71 trigonometrically #djgi ,visconti 7#ahaf71 trigonometrically #cigg ,lord ,minto 7#ahbb71 barometrically1 and frequently repeated #ciga ,poulett ,scrope 7#ahbb74 ,this calculation is somewhat uncertain1 owing to the unknown relation of the diameters of the tubes to those of the cistern #chfb ,monticelli and ,covelli 7#ahbb7 #ciij ,humboldt 7#ahbb7 #djbb ,the most probable final result is #bjbf feet above the hermitage1 or #ciif feet above the level of the sea4 ,b4 ,the lowest south-eastern margin of the ,crater1 opposite ,bosche ,tre ,case4 ,after the eruption of #agid1 this margin was #dbf feet lower than the ,rocca del ,palo1 consequently1 if the latter be estimated at #ciif feet1 it would be #cegj ,gay-,lussac1 ,leopold von ,buch1 and ,humboldt 7#ahje71 barometrically #cdad ,humboldt 7#ahbb71 barometrically #cdia ,c4 ,the elevation of the cone of scori that fell into the ,crater on the #bbnd ,october1 #ahbb4 ,lord ,minto1 barometrically #daef ,brioschi1 trigonometrically1 according to different combinations-- ,either #djfg ,or #djii ,the most probable final result for the height of the cone of scori that fell in during the year #ahbb1 is #daca feet4 ,d4 ,punta ,nasone1 the highest summit of the ,somma4 ,shuckburgh 7#agid71 barometrically1 probably according to his own formula #cgcd ,humboldt 7#ahbb71 barometrically1 according to the formula of ,laplace #cgdg ,e4 ,plain of the ,atrio del ,cavallo4 ,humboldt 7#ahbb71 barometrically #begg ,f4 ,base of the cone of ashes4 ,gay-,lussac1 ,leopold von ,buch1 and ,humboldt 7#ahje71 barometrically #bcff ,humboldt 7#ahbb71 barometrically #bdhb ,g4 ,hermitage of ,salvatore4 ,gay-,lussac1 ,leopold von ,buch1 and ,humboldt 7#ahje71 barometrically #aiah ,lord ,minto 7#ahbb71 barometrically #aifi ,humboldt 7#ahbb71 again barometrically #aigd ,some of my measurements have appeared in ,monticelli's ,storia de' fenomeni del ,vesuvio1 avvenuti negli anni #ahba-ahbc1 p4 #aae1 but owing to the correction of the height of the mercury in the cistern having been omitted1 the numbers are not given with perfect exactness4 ,when it is remembered that the results contained in the above table were obtained with barometers of very different construction1 at different hours of the day1 during the prevalence of various winds1 and on the unequally heated declivity of a volcano1 in a locality where the decrease of the atmospheric temperature differs very considerably from that assumed in our barometrical formul1 the amount of correspondence between the various results will appear sufficiently satisfactory4 ,my measurements of #ahbb1 at the time of the ,congress of ,verona1 when ,i accompanied the late ,king to ,naples1 were conducted with more care and under more favourable circumstances than those of #ahje4 ,differences of elevations are moreover always preferable to absolute elevations4 ,these differences show1 that since #agid1 the relative condition of the margins of the ,rocca del ,palo and of that towards ,bosche ,tre ,case had remained almost the same4 ,i found1 in #ahje1 for the height1 #dda1 and in #ahbb1 nearly #ebd feet4 ,a distinguished geologist1 ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope1 obtained #dgc feet1 although his absolute heights for these two margins of the crater appear somewhat too low4 ,so inconsiderable a variation in a period of twenty-eight years1 and during violent disturbances in the interior of the mountain1 is undoubtedly a remarkable phenomenon4 ,the height to which the cones of scori rise from the bottom of the crater at ,vesuvius also deserves special attention4 ,shuckburgh found in #aggf a cone of this nature to be #cicb feet above the level of the ,mediterranean2 and1 according to ,lord ,minto--a remarkably exact observer--the cone of scori which fell in on the #bbnd of ,october1 #ahbb1 was even #daef feet high4 ,on both occasions therefore the cone of scori in the crater exceeded the highest point of the margin of the crater4 ,on comparing the measurements of ,rocca del ,palo from #aggc to #ahbb1 one is almost involuntarily led to hazard the bold conjecture that the northern margin of the crater has been gradually upheaved by subterranean forces4 ,the correspondence of the three measurements made between #aggc and #ahje is almost as striking as in those between #ahaf and #ahbb4 ,no doubt can be entertained as to the height being from #cigj to #djba feet during the latter period4 ,ought less confidence to be attached to the measurements made thirty or forty years previously1 and which only gave from #chge to #chid feet8 ,after a longer lapse of time the question may be decided1 as to how much is attributable to errors of measurement1 and how much to the upheaval of the margin of the crater4 ,there is here no accumulation of loose masses from above2 if therefore the solid trachytic lava strata of the ,rocca del ,palo actually rise1 we must assume that they are upheaved from below by volcanic forces4 ,my learned and indefatigable friend1 ,oltmanns1 has published the details of all these measurements with critical remarks4,,rh ,would that this work might incite geognosists to enter upon a series of hypsometric observations1 by which1 in the course of time1 ,vesuvius1 which is1 excepting ,stromboli1 the most accessible of all ,european volcanos1 may be thoroughly understood in all periods of its development4 ,footnote #aji3 p4 #cga--8;,at elevations where the pressure is less40 ,compare ,leopold von ,buch on the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 in his ,physikalische ,beschreibung der canarischen ,inseln1 #ahbe1 s4 #bac1 and in the ,abhandlungen der knigl4 ,akademie zu ,berlin1 aus den ,j4 #ahbj-ba1 s4 #ii4 ,footnote #aaj3 p4 #cgc--8,springs which rise from different depths40 ,compare ,arago in the ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes pour #ahce1 p4 #bcd4 ,the increase of the temperature is in our latitudes #a ,fahr4 for nearly every #ed feet4 ,in the ,artesian boring at the ,new ,salt-works 7,oeynhausen's ,bath7 near ,minden1 which is the greatest known depth that has been reached below the surface of the sea1 the temperature of the water at #bbca feet1 is fully #ia ,fahrenheit1 whilst the mean upper temperature of the air may be assumed at #dic ,fahr4 ,it is very remarkable that1 even in the third century1 ,saint ,patricius1 bishop of ,pertusa1 should have been led1 from the thermal springs near ,carthage1 to form a very correct view of such an increase of heat4,,ri ,,vital ,,force1 ,,or ,,the ,,rhodian ,,genius4 ,the ,syracusans1 like the ,athenians1 had their ,poecile1,,rj where representations of gods and heroes1 the works of ,grecian and ,italian art1 adorned the richly decorated halls of the ,portico4 ,incessantly the people streamed thither2 the young warrior to feast his eyes upon the deeds of his forefathers1 the artist to contemplate the works of the great masters4 ,among the numerous paintings which the active enterprise of the ,syracusans had collected from the mother country1 there was but one which for full a century had continued to attract the attention of every visitor4 ,even when1 the ,olympian ,jupiter1 ,cecrops1 the founder of cities1 and the heroic courage of ,harmodius and ,aristogiton1 failed to attract admirers1 a dense crowd still pressed round this one picture4 ,whence this preference8 ,was the painting a rescued work of ,apelles1 or did it bear the impress of the school of ,callimachus8 ,no6 although it possessed both grace and beauty1 yet neither in the blending of the colours1 nor in the character and style of its composition1 could it be compared with many other paintings in the ,poecile4 ,the crowd--and how numerous are the classes included in this denomination--ever admires and wonders at what it does not understand6 ,for more than a century had that painting been publicly exhibited1 and yet1 although ,syracuse contained within its narrow limits more artistic genius than all the rest of sea-girt ,sicily1 the riddle of its meaning still remained unsolved4 ,it was not even known to what temple it had formerly belonged1 for it had been saved from a stranded vessel1 which was only conjectured1 from the freight it carried1 to have come from ,rhodes4 ,the foreground of the picture was occupied by a numerous group of youths and maidens1 whose uncovered limbs1 although well formed1 were not cast in that slender mould which we so much admire in the statues of ,praxiteles and ,alcamenes4 ,the fuller development of their limbs1 which bore indications of laborious exercise1--the human expression of passion and of care stamped on their features1--all seemed to divest them of a heavenly or ,god-like type1 and to fix them as creatures of the earth4 ,their hair was simply adorned with leaves and wild flowers4 ,their arms were extended towards each other with impassioned longing1 but their earnest and mournful gaze was rivetted on a ,genius1 who1 surrounded by a brilliant halo1 hovered in the midst of the group4 ,on his shoulder was a butterfly1 and in his right hand he held aloft a flaming torch4 ,his limbs were moulded with child-like grace2 his eye radiant with celestial light4 ,he looked imperiously upon the youths and maidens at his feet4 ,no other characteristic traits could be distinguished in the picture4 ,some1 however1 thought they could perceive at his foot the letters and 1 and as antiquarians were then no less bold than they are now1 they inferred1 though far from happily1 that the artist was called ,zenodorus1 the name borne at a later date by the modeller of the ,colossus of ,rhodes4 8,the ,rhodian ,genius10 for so this mysterious painting was called1 did not however want for interpreters in ,syracuse4 ,virtuosi1 especially the younger of them1 on their return from a flying visit to ,corinth or ,athens1 would have deemed themselves deficient in all pretensions to connoisseurship1 had they not immediately advanced some new explanation4 ,some regarded the ,genius as the personification of spiritual ,love1 forbidding the enjoyment of sensual pleasures2 others were of opinion that the dominion of ,reason over the ,passions was here signified4 ,the wiser preserved silence1 and while they conjectured that the painting was intended to represent something of a sublimer character1 delighted to linger in the ,poecile to admire the simple composition of the group4 ,the question continued to remain undecided4 ,copies of the painting1 with various additions1 were sent to ,greece1 but without eliciting any explanation respecting its origin4 ,at length1 however1 when at the early rising of the ,pleiades the gean ,sea was again opened to navigation1 ships from ,rhodes entered the port of ,syracuse4 ,they contained a treasure of statues1 altars1 candelabras1 and pictures1 which a love of art had caused the ,dionysii to collect in ,greece4 ,among the paintings there was one which was instantly recognised as the companion to the 8,rhodian ,genius40 ,it was of the same size1 and exhibited a similar tone of colouring1 although in a better state of preservation4 ,the ,genius stood as before in the centre1 but without the butterfly2 his head was drooping1 his torch extinguished and reversed4 ,the group of youths and maidens thronged simultaneously around him in mutual embrace2 their looks were no longer sad and submissive1 but announced a wild emancipation from restraint1 and the gratification of long-nourished passion4 ,the ,syracusan antiquaries had already begun to accommodate their former explanations of the 8,rhodian ,genius0 to the newly arrived painting1 when the ,tyrant ordered it to be conveyed to the house of ,epicharmus4 ,this philosopher of the school of ,pythagoras dwelt in the remote part of ,syracuse called ,tyche4 ,he seldom visited the court of the ,dionysii1 not but that learned men from all the ,greek colonies assembled there1 but because proximity to princes is apt to rob the most intellectual of their spirit and freedom4 ,he occupied himself unceasingly in studying the nature of things and their forces1 the origin of plants and animals1 and those harmonious laws by which the celestial bodies on a large1 and the snow-flake and the hail-stone on a small scale1 assume a globular form4 ,decrepid with age1 he caused himself to be carried daily to the ,poecile1 and thence to the harbour of ,nasos1 where1 as he said1 the wide ocean presented to his eye an image of the ,boundless and the ,infinite1 which his mind strove in vain to comprehend4 ,he was honoured alike by the lower classes and by the tyrant1 but he avoided the latter1 while he joyfully cultivated and often assisted the former4 ,epicharmus lay weak and exhausted on his couch1 when the newly arrived work of art was brought to him by the command of ,dionysius4 ,he was furnished at the same time with a faithful copy of the 8,rhodian ,genius10 and the philosopher now caused both paintings to be placed before him4 ,he gazed on them long and earnestly1 then called together his scholars1 and in accents of emotion thus addressed them3 8,remove the curtain from the window1 that ,i may once more feed my eyes with the sight of the richly animated and living earth4 ,sixty years long have ,i pondered on the internal springs of nature and on the differences inherent in matter1 but it is only this day that the #8,rhodian ,genius' has taught me to see clearly that which before ,i had only conjectured4 ,while the difference of sexes in all living beings beneficently binds them together in prolific union1 the crude matters of inorganic nature are impelled by like instincts4 ,even in the darkness of chaos1 matter was accumulated or separated according as affinity or antagonism attracted or repelled its various parts4 ,the celestial fire follows the metals1 the magnet1 the iron2 amber when rubbed attaches light bodies2 earth blends with earth2 salt separates from the waters of the sea and joins its like1 while the acid moisture of the stypteria 7 7 and the fleecy salt ,trichitis1 love the clay of ,melos4 ,everything in inanimate nature hastens to associate itself with its like4 ,no earthly element 7and who will dare to class light as such87 can therefore be found in a pure and virgin state4 ,everything as soon as formed hastens to enter into new combinations1 and nought1 save the disjoining art of man1 can present in a separate state ingredients which ye would vainly seek in the interior of the earth1 or in the moving oceans of air and water4 ,in dead inorganic matter absolute repose prevails as long as the bonds of affinity remain unsevered1 and as long as no third substance intrudes to blend itself with the others2 but even after this disturbance unfruitful repose soon again succeeds4 8,different1 however1 is the blending of the same substances in animal and vegetable bodies4 ,here vital force imperatively asserts its rights1 and1 heedless of the affinity and antagonism of the atoms asserted by ,democritus1 unites substances which in inanimate nature ever flee from each other1 and separates that which is incessantly striving to unite4 8,draw nearer to me1 my disciples1 and recognise in the #8,rhodian ,genius1' in the expression of his youthful vigour1 in the butterfly on his shoulder1 in the commanding glance of his eye1 the symbol of vital force as it animates every germ of organic creation4 ,the earthly elements at his feet are striving to gratify their own desires and to mingle with one another4 ,imperiously the ,genius threatens them with upraised and high-flaming torch1 and compels them1 regardless of their ancient rights1 to obey his laws4 8,look now on the new work of art which the ,tyrant has sent me to explain2 and turn your eyes from the picture of life to the picture of death4 ,the butterfly has soared upwards1 the extinguished torch is reversed1 and the head of the youth is drooping4 ,the spirit has fled to other spheres1 and the vital force is extinct4 ,now the youths and maidens join their hands in joyous accord4 ,earthly matter again resumes its rights4 ,released from all bonds they impetuously follow their sexual instincts1 and the day of his death is to them a day of nuptials4--,thus dead matter1 animated by vital force1 passes through a countless series of races1 and perchance enshrines in the very substance in which of old a miserable worm enjoyed its brief existence1 the divine spirit of ,pythagoras4,,rk 8,go1 ,polycles1 and tell the ,tyrant what thou hast heard6 ,and ye1 my beloved1 ,euryphamos1 ,lysis1 and ,scopas1 come nearer--and yet nearer to me6 ,i feel that the faint vital force within me can no longer retain in subjection the earthly matter1 which now reclaims its freedom4 ,lead me once more to the ,poecile1 and thence to the wide sea-shore4 ,soon will ye collect my ashes40 ,,illustration ,,and ,,note4 ,in the ,preface to the ,second and ,third ,editions of this work 7,see preliminary pages of this translation7 ,i have already noticed the republication of the preceding tale1 which was first printed in ,schiller's ,horen 7for the year #agie1 part #e1 pages #ij-if74 ,it embodies the development of a physiological idea in a semi-mythical garb4 ,in the year #agic1 in the ,latin ,aphorisms from the ,chemical ,physiology of ,plants1 appended to my ,subterranean ,flora1 ,i had defined the vital force as the unknown cause which prevents the elements from following their original attractive forces4 ,the first of my aphorisms ran thus3-- 8,rerum naturam si totam consideres1 magnum atque durabile1 quod inter elementa intercedit1 discrimen perspicies1 quorum altera affinitatum legibus obtemperantia1 altera1 vinculis solutis1 varie juncta apparent4 ,quod quidem discrimen in elementis ipsis eorumque indole neutiquam positum1 quum ex sola distributione singulorum petendum esse videatur4 ,materiam segnem1 brutam1 inanimam eam vocamus1 cujus stamina secundum leges chymic affinitatis mixta sunt4 ,animata atque organica ea potissimum corpora appellamus1 qu1 licet in novas mutari formas perpetuo tendant1 vi interna quadam continentur1 quominus priscam sibique insitam formam relinquant4 8,vim internam1 qu chymic affinitatis vincula resolvit1 atque obstat1 quominus elementa corporum libere conjungantur1 vitalem vocamus4 ,itaque nullum certius mortis criterium putredine datur1 qua prim partes vel stamina rerum1 antiquis juribus revocatis1 affinitatum legibus parent4 ,corporum inanimorum nulla putredo esse potest40,,rl ,these opinions1 against which the acute ,vicq d',azyr has protested in his ,trait d',anatomie1 vol4 i4 p4 #e1 but which are still entertained by many eminent persons among my friends1 ,i have placed in the mouth of ,epicharmus4 ,reflection and prolonged study in the departments of physiology and chemistry have deeply shaken my earlier belief in peculiar1 so-called vital forces4 ,in the year #agig1 at the conclusion of my ,versuche ber die gereizte ,muskel- und ,nervenfaser1 nebst ,vermuthungen ber den chemischen ,process des ,lebens in der ,thier- und ,pflanzenwelt 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #dcj-dcf71 ,i already declared that ,i by no means regarded the existence of these peculiar vital forces as established4 ,since that period ,i have not applied the term peculiar forces to that which may possibly be produced only by the combined action of the separate already long known substances and their material forces4 ,we may1 however1 deduce a more certain definition of animate and inanimate substances from the chemical relations of the elements1 than can be derived from the criteria of voluntary movement1 the circulation of fluid in solid parts1 and the inner appropriation and fibrous arrangement of the elements4 ,i call that substance animate 8whose voluntarily separated parts change their composition after separation has taken place1 the former external relations still continuing the same40 ,this definition is merely the expression of a fact4 ,the equilibrium of the elements is maintained in animate matter by virtue of their being parts of one whole4 ,one organ determines another1 one gives to another the temperature1 the tone as it were1 in which these1 and no other affinities operate4 ,thus in organisation all is reciprocal1 means and end4 ,the rapidity with which organic parts change their compound state1 when separated from a complex of living organs1 differs greatly according to the degree of their dependence1 and the nature of the component materials4 ,the blood of animals1 which is variously modified in the different classes1 undergoes a change earlier than the juices of plants4 ,fungi generally decompose more rapidly than the leaves of trees2 and muscle more readily than the cutis4 ,bone1 the elementary structure of which has only been understood of late years1 the hair of animals1 the ligneous part of vegetable substances1 the shells or husks of fruit1 and the feathery calix 7pappus7 of plants1 are not inorganic and devoid of life2 but approximate1 even in life1 to the condition which they manifest after their separation from the rest of the organism4 ,the higher the degree of vitality or irritability of an animate substance1 the more striking or rapid will be the change in its compound state after separation4 8,the aggregate of the cells is an organism1 and the organism lives as long as its parts continue actively subservient to the whole4 ,considered antithetically to inanimate nature1 the organism appears to be self-determining40,,rm ,the difficulty of satisfactorily referring the vital phenomena of organism to physical and chemical laws1 depends chiefly 7and almost in the same manner as the prediction of meteorological processes in the atmosphere7 on the complication of the phenomena1 and on the great number of the simultaneously acting forces1 as well as the conditions of their activity4 ,i have faithfully adhered in the ,cosmos to the same mode of representing and considering the so-called vital forces1 and affinities1,,rn the formative impulse and the principle of organising activity4 ,i there wrote as follows3,,ro 8,the mythical ideas long entertained of the imponderable substances1 and vital forces1 peculiar to each mode of organization1 have complicated our views generally1 and shed an uncertain light on the path we ought to pursue4 8,the most various forms of intuition have thus1 age after age1 aided in augmenting the prodigious mass of empirical knowledge1 which in our own day has been enlarged with ever-increasing rapidity4 ,the investigating spirit of man strives1 from time to time1 with varying success1 to break through those ancient forms and symbols invented to subject rebellious matter to rules of mechanical construction40 ,further in the same work1,,rp ,i have said1 8,it must1 however1 be remembered1 that the inorganic crust of the earth contains within it the same elements that enter into the structure of animal and vegetable organs4 ,a physical cosmography would therefore be incomplete1 if it were to omit a consideration of these forces1 and of the substances which enter into solid and fluid combinations in organic tissues1 under conditions which1 from our ignorance of their actual nature1 we designate by the vague term of vital forces1 and group into various systems1 in accordance with more or less perfectly conceived analogies40,,rq ,,the ,,plateau1 ,,or ,,table-,,land1 ,,of ,,caxamarca1 ,,the ,,ancient ,,capital ,,of ,,the ,,inca ,,atahuallpa1 ,,and ,,the ,,first ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,ocean1 ,from the ,ridge of the ,andes4 ,after having sojourned for a whole year on the ridge of the ,andes1 or ,antis1#aaa1 between #d north and #d south latitude1 amidst the table-lands of ,new ,granada1 ,pastos1 and ,quito1 and consequently at an elevation varying between #h1ejj and #ac1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 it is delightful to descend gradually through the more genial climate of the ,cinchona or ,quina ,woods of ,loxa1 into the plains of the ,upper ,amazon4 ,there an unknown world unfolds itself1 rich in magnificent vegetation4 ,the little town of ,loxa has given its name to the most efficacious of all fever barks1--the ,quina1 or the ,cascarilla fina de ,loxa4 ,this bark is the precious produce of the tree1 which we have botanically described as the ,cinchona ,condaminea2 but which1 7from the erroneous supposition that all the ,cinchona known in commerce was obtained from one and the same tree17 had previously been called ,cinchona officinalis4 ,the fever bark first became known1 in ,europe1 about the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,sebastian ,badus affirms1 that it was brought to ,alcala de ,henares in the year #afcb2 but according to other accounts1 it was brought to ,madrid in #afdj1 when the ,countess de ,chinchon#aab1 the wife of the ,peruvian ,viceroy1 arrived from ,lima1 7where she had been cured of an intermittent fever17 accompanied by her physician1 ,juan del ,vego4 ,the finest kind of ,cinchona is obtained at the distance of from eight to twelve miles southward of the town of ,loxa1 among the mountains of ,uritusinga1 ,villonaco1 and ,rumisitana4 ,the trees which yield this bark grow on mica slate and gneiss1 at the moderate elevations of #egee and #gfgc feet above the level of the sea1 nearly corresponding1 respectively1 with the heights of the ,hospital on the ,grimsel1 and the ,pass of the ,great ,st4 ,bernard4 ,the ,cinchona ,woods in these parts are bounded by the little rivulets ,zamora and ,cachyacu4 ,the tree is felled in its first flowering season1 or about the fourth or seventh year of its growth1 according as it may have been reared from a strong shoot or from seed4 ,at the time of my journey in ,peru we learned1 with surprise1 that the quantity of the ,cinchona ,condaminea annually obtained at ,loxa by the ,cascarilla gatherers1 or ,quina hunters 7,cascarilleros and ,caadores de ,quina71 amounted only to #aaj hundred weight4 ,at that time none of this valuable product found its way into commerce2 all that was obtained was shipped at ,payta1 a port of the ,pacific1 and conveyed round ,cape ,horn to ,cadiz1 for the use of the ,spanish ,court4 ,to procure the small supply of #aa1jjj ,spanish pounds1 no less than #hjj or #ijj ,cinchona trees were cut down every year4 ,the older and thicker stems are becoming more and more scarce2 but1 such is the luxuriance of growth1 that the younger trees1 which now supply the demand1 though measuring only six inches in diameter1 frequently attain the height of from #ec to #fd feet4 ,this beautiful tree1 which is adorned with leaves five inches long and two broad1 seems1 when growing in the thick woods1 as if striving to rise above its neighbours4 ,the upper branches spread out1 and when agitated by the wind the leaves have a peculiar reddish colour and glistening appearance which is distinguishable at a great distance4 ,the mean temperature of the woods of the ,cinchona ,condaminea varies between #fj and #ff ,fahrenheit2 that is to say1 about the mean annual temperature of ,florence and the ,island of ,madeira3 but the extremes of heat and cold experienced at those points of the temperate zone1 are never felt in the vicinity of ,loxa4 ,however1 comparisons between climates in very different degrees of latitude1 and the climate of the table-lands of the tropical zone1 must1 from their very nature1 be unsatisfactory4 ,descending from the mountain node of ,loxa1 south-south-east1 into the hot valley of the ,amazon ,river1 the traveller passes over the ,paramos of ,chulucanas1 ,guamani1 and ,yamoca4 ,these ,paramos are the mountainous deserts1 which have been mentioned in another portion of the present work2 and which1 in the southern parts of the ,andes1 are known by the name of ,puna1 a word belonging to the ,quichua language4 ,in most places1 their elevation is about #aj1abe feet4 ,they are stormy1 frequently enveloped for several successive days in thick fogs1 or visited by terrific hail-storms2 the hail-stones being not only of different forms1 generally much flattened by rotation1 but also run together into thin floating plates of ice called papa-cara1 which cut the face and hands in their fall4 ,during this meteoric process1 ,i have sometimes known the thermometer to sink to #dh and even #dc ,fahrenheit1 and the electric tension of the atmosphere1 measured by the voltaic electrometer1 has changed1 in the space of a few minutes1 from positive to negative4 ,when the temperature is below #dc ,fahrenheit1 snow falls in large flakes1 scattered widely apart2 but it disappears after the lapse of a few hours4 ,the short thin branches of the small leaved myrtle-like shrubs1 the large size and luxuriance of the blossoms1 and the perpetual freshness caused by the absorption of the moist atmosphere--all impart a peculiar aspect and character to the treeless vegetation of the ,paramos4 ,no zone of ,alpine vegetation1 whether in temperate or cold climates1 can be compared with that of the ,paramos in the tropical ,andes4 ,the solemn impression which is felt on beholding the deserts of the ,cordilleras1 is increased in a remarkable and unexpected manner1 by the circumstance that in these very regions there still exist wonderful remains of the great road of the ,incas1 that stupendous work by means of which1 communication was maintained among all the provinces of the empire along an extent of upwards of #ajjj geographical miles4 ,on the sides of this road1 and nearly at equal distances apart1 there are small houses1 built of well-cut free-stone4 ,these buildings1 which answered the purpose of stations1 or caravanseries1 are called ,tambos1 and also ,inca-,pilca1 7from ,pircca1 the ,wall74 ,some are surrounded by a sort of fortification2 others were destined for baths1 and had arrangements for the conveyance of warm water3 the larger ones were intended exclusively for the family of the sovereign4 ,at the foot of the volcano ,cotopaxi1 near ,callo1 ,i had previously seen buildings of the same kind in a good state of preservation4 ,these ,i accurately measured1 and made drawings from them4 ,pedro de ,ciea1 who wrote in the sixteenth century1 calls these structures ,aposentos de ,mulalo#aac4 ,the pass of the ,andes1 lying between ,alausi and ,loxa1 called the ,paramo del ,assuay1 a much frequented route across the ,ladera de ,cadlud1 is at the elevation of #ae1ebf feet above the level of the sea1 and consequently almost at the height of ,mont ,blanc4 ,as we were proceeding through this pass1 we experienced considerable difficulty in guiding our heavily laden mules over the marshy ground on the level height of the ,pullal2 but whilst we journeyed onward for the distance of about four miles1 our eyes were continually rivetted on the grand remains of the ,inca ,road1 upwards of #bj feet in breadth4 ,this road had a deep under-structure1 and was paved with well-hewn blocks of black trap porphyry4 ,none of the ,roman roads which ,i have seen in ,italy1 in the south of ,france and in ,spain1 appeared to me more imposing than this work of the ancient ,peruvians2 and the ,inca road is the more extraordinary1 since1 according to my barometrical calculations1 it is situated at an elevation of #ac1beh feet above the level of the sea1 a height exceeding that of the summit of the ,peak of ,teneriffe by upwards of #ajjj feet4 ,at an equal elevation1 are the ruins said to be those of the palace of the ,inca ,tupac ,yupanqui1 and known by the name of the ,paredones del ,inca1 situated on the ,assuay4 ,from these ruins the ,inca road1 running southward in the direction of ,cuenca1 leads to the small but well-preserved fortress of the ,caar#aad1 probably belonging to the same period1 viz43 the reign of ,tupac ,yupanqui1 or that of his warlike son ,huayna ,capac4 ,we saw still grander remains of the ancient ,peruvian ,inca road1 on our way between ,loxa and the ,amazon1 near the baths of the ,incas on the ,paramo of ,chulucanas1 not far from ,guancabamba1 and also in the vicinity of ,ingatambo1 near ,pomahuaca4 ,the ruins at the latter place are situated so low1 that ,i found the difference of level between the ,inca road at ,pomahuaca1 and that in the ,paramo del ,assuay1 to be upwards of #igjj feet4 ,the distance in a direct line1 as determined by astronomical latitudes1 is precisely #ahd miles2 and the ascent of the road is about #cgcj feet greater than the elevation of the ,pass of ,mont ,cenis1 above the ,lake of ,como4 ,there are two great causeways1 paved with flat stones1 and in some places covered with cemented gravel#aae1 on ,macadam's plan4 ,one of these lines of road runs through the broad and barren plain lying between the sea-coast and the chain of the ,andes1 whilst the other passes along the ridge of the ,cordilleras4 ,stones1 marking the distances at equal intervals1 are frequently seen4 ,the rivulets and ravines were crossed by bridges of three kinds2 some being of stone1 some of wood1 and others of rope4 ,these bridges are called by the ,peruvians1 ,puentes de ,hamaca1 or ,puentes de ,maroma4 ,there were also aqueducts for conveying water to the ,tambos and fortresses4 ,both lines of road were directed to ,cuzco1 the central point and capital of the great ,peruvian empire1 situated in #ac #ca south lat41 and according to ,pentland's ,map of ,bolivia1 at the elevation of #aa1cgh feet above the level of the sea4 ,as the ,peruvians had no wheeled carriages1 these roads were constructed for the march of troops1 for the conveyance of burthens borne by men1 and for flocks of lightly laden ,lamas2 consequently1 long flights of steps#aaf1 with resting-places1 were formed at intervals in the steep parts of the mountains4 ,francisco ,pizarro and ,diego ,almagro1 in their expeditions to remote parts of the country1 availed themselves with much advantage of the military roads of the ,incas2 but the steps just mentioned were formidable impediments in the way of the ,spanish cavalry1 especially as in the early period of the ,conquista1 the ,spaniards rode horses only1 and did not make use of the sure-footed mule1 which1 in mountainous precipices1 seems to reflect on every step he takes4 ,it was only at a later period that the ,spanish troops were mounted on mules4 ,sarmiento1 who saw the ,inca roads whilst they were in a perfect state of preservation1 mentions them in a ,relacion which he wrote1 and which long lay buried in the ,library of the ,escurial4 8,how10 he asks1 8could a people1 unacquainted with the use of iron1 have constructed such great and magnificent roads1 7caminos tan grandes1 y tan sovervios71 and in regions so elevated as the countries between ,cuzco and ,quito1 and between ,cuzco and the coast of ,chili80 8,the ,emperor ,charles10 he adds1 8with all his power1 could not have accomplished even a part of what was done by the well-directed ,government of the ,incas1 and the obedient race of people under its rule40 ,hernando ,pizarro1 the most educated of the three brothers1 who expiated his misdeeds by twenty years of captivity in ,medina del ,campo1 and who died at #ajj years of age1 in the odour of sanctity 7en olor de ,santidad71 observes1 alluding to the ,inca roads3 8,throughout the whole of ,christendom1 no such roads are to be seen as those which we here admire40 ,cuzco and ,quito1 the two principal capitals of the ,incas1 are situated in a direct line south-south-east1 north-north-west in reference the one to the other4 ,their distance apart1 without calculating the many windings of the road1 is #ajjj miles2 including the windings of the road1 the distance is stated by ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 and other ,conquistadores1 to be 8#ejj ,spanish leguas40 ,notwithstanding this vast distance1 we are informed1 on the unquestionable testimony of the ,licentiate ,polo de ,ondegardo1 that ,huayna ,capac1 whose father conquered ,quito1 caused certain materials to be conveyed thither from ,cuzco1 for the erection of the royal buildings1 7the ,inca dwellings74 ,in ,quito1 ,i found this tradition still current among the natives4 ,when1 in the form of the earth1 nature presents to man formidable difficulties to contend against1 those very difficulties serve to stimulate the energy and courage of enterprising races of people4 ,under the despotic centralizing system of the ,inca ,government1 security and rapidity of communication1 especially in relation to the movement of troops1 were matters of urgent state necessity4 ,hence the construction of great roads1 and the establishment of very excellent postal arrangements by the ,peruvians4 ,among nations in the most various degrees of civilization1 national energy is frequently observed to manifest itself1 as it were by preference1 in some special direction2 but the advancement consequent on this sort of partial exertion1 however strikingly exhibited1 by no means affords a criterion of the general cultivation of a people4 ,egyptians1 ,greeks#aag1 ,etruscans1 and ,romans1 ,chinese1 ,japanese1 and ,indians1 present examples of these contrasts4 ,it would be difficult to determine1 what space of time may have been occupied in the execution of the ,peruvian roads4 ,those great works1 in the northern part of the ,inca ,empire1 on the table-land of ,quito1 must certainly have been completed in less than thirty or thirty-five years2 that is to say1 in the short interval between the defeat of the ,ruler of ,quito1 and the death of the ,inca ,huayna ,capac4 ,with respect to the southern1 or those specially styled the ,peruvian roads1 the period of their formation is involved in complete obscurity4 ,the date of the mysterious appearance of ,manco ,capac is usually fixed #djj years prior to the arrival of ,francisco ,pizarro1 7who landed on the ,island of ,pun in the year #aecb71 consequently1 about the middle of the twelfth century1 and full #bjj years before the foundation of the city of ,mexico 7,tenochtitlan72 but instead of #djj years1 some ,spanish writers represent the interval between ,manco ,capac and ,pizarro to have been #ejj1 or even #eej years4 ,however the history of the ,peruvian empire records only thirteen reigning princes of the ,inca dynasty1 which1 as ,prescott justly observes1 is not a number sufficient to fill up so long a period as #eej1 or even #djj years4 ,quezalcoatl1 ,botchia1 and ,manco ,capac1 are the three mythical beings1 with whom are connected the earliest traces of cultivation among the ,aztecs1 the ,muyscas1 7properly ,chibchas71 and the ,peruvians4 ,quezalcoatl1 who is described as bearded and clothed in black1 was ,high ,priest of ,tula1 and afterwards a penitent1 dwelling on a mountain near ,tlaxapuchicalco4 ,he is represented as having come from the coast of ,panuco2 and1 therefore1 from the eastern part of ,anahuac1 on the ,mexican table-land4 ,botchia1 or rather the bearded1 long-robed ,nemterequeteba#aah1 7literally messenger of ,god1 a ,buddha of the ,muyscas71 came from the grassy steppes eastward of the ,andes chain1 to the table-lands of ,bogot4 ,before the time of ,manco ,capac1 some degree of civilization already existed on the picturesque shores of the ,lake of ,titicaca4 ,the fortress of ,cuzco1 on the hill of ,sacsahuaman1 was built on the model of the more ancient structures of ,tiahuanaco4 ,in like manner1 the ,aztecs imitated the pyramidal buildings of the ,toltecs1 and the latter copied those of the ,olmecs 7,hulmecs72 and thus1 by degrees1 we arrive at historic ground in ,mexico as early as the sixth century of the ,christian era4 ,according to ,siguena1 the ,toltecic ,step ,pyramid of ,cholula1 was copied from the ,hulmecic ,step ,pyramid of ,teotihuacan4 ,thus1 through every stage of civilization1 we pass into an earlier one1 and as human intelligence was not aroused simultaneously in both continents1 we find that in every nation the imaginative domain of mythology immediately preceded the period of historical knowledge4 ,the early ,spanish ,conquistadores were filled with admiration on first beholding the roads and aqueducts of the ,peruvians2 yet not only did they neglect the preservation of those great works1 but they even wantonly destroyed them4 ,as a natural consequence of the destruction of the aqueducts1 the soil was rendered unfertile by the want of irrigation4 ,nevertheless1 those works1 as well as the roads1 were demolished for the sake of obtaining stones ready hewn for the erection of new buildings2 and the traces of this devastation are more observable near the sea-coast1 than on the ridges of the ,andes1 or in the deeply cleft valleys with which that mountain-chain is intersected4 ,during our long day's journey from the syenitic rocks of ,zaulac to the valley of ,san ,felipe1 7rich in fossil remains and situated at the foot of the icy ,paramo of ,yamoca71 we had no less than twenty-seven times to ford the ,rio de ,guancabamba1 which falls into the ,amazon4 ,we were compelled to do this on account of the numerous sinuosities of the stream1 whilst on the brow of a steep precipice near us1 we had continually within our sight the vestiges of the rectilinear ,inca road1 with its ,tambos4 ,the little mountain stream1 the ,rio de ,guancabamba1 is not more than from #abj to #aej feet broad2 yet so strong is the current1 that our heavily laden mules were in continual danger of being swept away by it4 ,the mules carried our manuscripts1 our dried plants1 and all the other objects which we had been a whole year engaged in collecting2 therefore1 every time that we crossed the stream1 we stood on one of the banks in a state of anxious suspense until the long train of our beasts of burthen1 eighteen or twenty in number1 were fairly out of danger4 ,this same ,rio de ,guancabamba1 which in the lower part of its course has many falls1 is the channel for a curious mode of conveying correspondence from the coast of the ,pacific4 ,for the expeditious transmission of the few letters that are sent from ,truxillo to the province of ,jaen de ,bracamoros1 they are despatched by a swimming courier1 or1 as he is called by the people of the country1 8el correo que nada40 ,this courier1 who is usually a young ,indian1 swims in two days from ,pomahuaca to ,tomependa2 first proceeding by the ,rio de ,chamaya1 7the name given to the lower part of the ,rio de ,guancabamba7 and then by the ,amazon river4 ,the few letters of which he is the bearer1 he carefully wraps in a large cotton handkerchief1 which he rolls round his head in the form of a turban4 ,on arriving at those parts of the rivers in which there are falls or rapids1 he lands1 and goes by a circuitous route through the woods4 ,when wearied by long-continued swimming1 he rests by throwing one arm on a plank of a light kind of wood of the family of the ,bombace1 called by the ,peruvians ,ceiba1 or ,palo de balsa4 ,sometimes the swimming courier takes with him a friend to bear him company4 ,neither troubles himself about provisions1 as they are always sure of a hospitable reception in the huts which are surrounded by abundant fruit-trees in the beautiful ,huertas of ,pucara and ,cavico4 ,fortunately1 the river is free from crocodiles1 which are first met with in the upper course of the ,amazon1 below the cataract of ,mayasi2 for the slothful animal prefers to live in the more tranquil waters4 ,according to my calculation1 the ,rio de ,chamaya has a fall#aai of #aggh feet1 in the short distance of #eb geographical miles2 that is to say1 measuring from the ,ford 7,paso7 de ,pucara1 to the point where the ,chamaya disembogues in the river ,amazon1 below the village of ,choros4 ,the ,governor of the province ,jaen de ,bracamoros assured me1 that letters sent by the singular water post conveyance just mentioned1 are seldom either wetted or lost4 ,after my return from ,mexico1 ,i myself received1 when in ,paris1 letters from ,tomependa1 which had been transmitted in this manner4 ,many of the wild ,indian tribes1 who dwell on the shores of the ,upper ,amazon1 perform their journeys in a similar manner2 swimming sociably down the stream in parties4 ,on one occasion1 ,i saw the heads of thirty or forty individuals1 men1 women1 and children1 of the tribe of the ,xibaros1 as they floated down the stream on their way to ,tomependa4 ,the ,correo que nada returns by land1 taking the difficult route of the ,paramo del ,paredon4 ,on approaching the hot climate of the basin of the ,amazon1 the aspect of beautiful and occasionally very luxuriant vegetation delights the eye4 ,not even in the ,canary ,islands1 nor on the warm coasts of ,cumana and ,caracas1 had we beheld finer orange-trees than those which we met with in the ,huertas de ,pucara4 ,they consisted chiefly of the sweet orange-tree 7,citrus aurantium1 ,risso72 the bitter orange-tree 7,citrus vulgaris1 ,risso7 was less numerous4 ,these trees1 laden with their golden fruit in thousands1 attain there a height of between #fj and #gj feet2 and their branches1 instead of growing in such a way as to give the trees rounded tops or crowns1 shoot straight up like those of the laurel4 ,near the ford of ,cavico a very unexpected sight surprised us4 ,we saw a grove of small trees1 about #ah or #ai feet high1 the leaves of which1 instead of being green1 appeared to be of a rose colour4 ,this proved to be a new species of ,bougainvilla1 a genus first determined by ,jussieu the elder1 from a ,brazilian specimen in ,commerson's ,herbarium4 ,but on a nearer approach we found that these trees were really without leaves1 properly so called1 and that what1 from a distant view1 we had mistaken for leaves1 were bright rose-coloured bracts4 ,owing to the purity and freshness of the colour1 the effect was totally different from that of the hue which so pleasingly clothes many of our forest-trees in autumn4 ,the ,rhopala ferruginea1 a species of the ,south ,african family of the ,proteace1 has found its way hither1 having descended from the cool heights of the ,paramo de ,yamoca into the warm plains of the ,chamaya4 ,we likewise frequently saw here the beautifully pinnated ,porlieria hygrometrica1 one of the ,zygophylle1 which1 by the closing of its leaves1 indicates change of weather1 generally the approach of rain4 ,this plant is more certain in its tokens than any of the ,mimosace1 and it very rarely deceived us4 ,at ,chamaya we found rafts 7balsas7 in readiness to convey us to ,tomependa1 where we wished to determine the difference of longitude between ,quito and the mouth of the ,chinchipe2 a point of some importance to the geography of ,south ,america on account of an old observation of ,la ,condamine#abj4 ,we slept as usual in the open air1 and our resting-place was on the sandy shore called the ,playa de ,guayanchi1 at the confluence of the ,rio de ,chamaya and the ,amazon4 ,next morning we proceeded down the latter river as far as the ,cataract and the ,narrows1 or the ,pongo of ,rentema4 ,pongo1 the name given to ,river ,narrows by the natives1 is a corruption of the word ,puncu1 which1 in the ,quichua language1 signifies a door or gate4 ,in the ,pongo de ,rentema huge masses of rock consisting of coarse-grained sandstone 7conglomerate71 rise up like towers and form a rocky dam across the stream4 ,i measured a base line on the flat sandy shore1 and found that the ,amazon ,river1 which1 further eastwards1 spreads into such mighty width1 is1 at ,tomependa1 scarcely #adjj feet broad4 ,in the celebrated ,river ,narrows1 called the ,pongo de ,manseriche1 between ,santiago and ,san ,borja1 the breadth is less than #afj feet4 ,the ,pongo de ,manseriche is formed by a mountain ravine1 in some parts of which the overhanging rocks1 roofed by a canopy of foliage1 permit only a feeble light to penetrate1 and by the force of the current all the drift-wood1 consisting of trunks of trees in countless numbers1 is broken and dashed to atoms4 ,the rocks by which all these ,pongos are formed1 have1 in the course of centuries1 undergone many changes4 ,the ,pongo de ,rentema1 which ,i have mentioned above1 was1 a year before my visit to it1 in part broken up by a high flood2 indeed the inhabitants of the shores of the ,amazon still preserve by tradition a lively recollection of the sudden fall of the once lofty masses of rock along the whole length of the ,pongo4 ,this fall took place in the early part of the last century1 and the debris suddenly dammed up the river and impeded the current4 ,the consequence was1 that the inhabitants of the village of ,puyaya1 situated at the lower part of the ,pongo de ,rentema1 were filled with alarm on beholding the dry bed of the river2 but1 after the lapse of a few hours1 the waters recovered their usual course4 ,there appears to be no reason for believing that these remarkable phenomena are occasioned by earthquakes4 ,the river1 which has a very strong current1 seems1 as it were1 to be incessantly labouring to improve its bed4 ,of the force of its efforts some idea may be formed from the fact that1 notwithstanding its vast breadth1 it sometimes rises upwards of #bf feet above its ordinary level in the space of #bj or #cj hours4 ,we remained seventeen days in the hot valley of the ,maraon or the ,amazon ,river4 ,to proceed from thence to the coast of the ,pacific it is necessary to cross the chain of the ,andes1 between ,micuipampa and ,caxamarca 7in #f #eg ,s4 lat41 and #gh #cd ,w4 long471 at a point where1 according to my observations1 it is intersected by the magnetic equator4 ,at a still higher elevation are situated the celebrated silver mines of ,chota4 ,then1 after having passed the ancient ,caxamarca 7the scene1 #caf years ago1 of the most sanguinary drama in the history of the ,spanish ,conquista71 and also ,aroma and ,guangamarca1 the route descends1 with some interruptions1 into the ,peruvian lowlands4 ,here1 as in nearly all parts of the ,andes1 as well as of the ,mexican ,mountains1 the highest points are picturesquely marked by tower-like masses of erupted porphyry and trachyte1 the former frequently presenting the effect of immense columns4 ,in some places these masses give a rugged cliff-like aspect to the mountain ridges2 and in other places they assume the form of domes or cupolas4 ,they have here broken through a formation1 which1 in ,south ,america1 is extensively developed on both sides of the equator1 and which ,leopold von ,buch1 after profound research1 has pronounced to be cretaceous4 ,between ,guambos and ,montan1 nearly #ab1hjj feet above the level of the sea1 we found marine fossils#aba 7,ammonites about #ae inches in diameter1 the large ,pecten alatus1 oyster-shells1 ,echini1 ,isocardias1 and ,exogyra polygona74 ,a species of ,cidaris1 which1 in the opinion of ,leopold von ,buch1 does not differ from one found by ,brongniart in the old chalk at the ,perte du ,rhone1 we collected in the basin of the ,amazon at ,tomependa1 and likewise at ,micuipampa2 that is to say1 at elevations differing the one from the other by no less than #aj1eej feet4 ,in like manner1 in the ,amuich chain of the ,caucasian ,daghestan1 the chalk of the banks of the ,sulak1 scarcely #ecj feet above the level of the sea1 is again found on the ,tchunum1 at the elevation of full #i1fjj feet1 whilst1 on the summit of the ,shadagh ,mountain1 #ac1iej feet high1 the ,ostrea diluviana 7,goldf471 and the same chalk1 present themselves4 ,abich's admirable ,caucasian observations furnish the most decided confirmation of ,leopold von ,buch's geognostic views respecting the cretaceous ,alpine development4 ,from the solitary farm of ,montan1 surrounded with flocks of ,lamas1 we ascended further southward the eastern declivity of the ,cordilleras1 until we reached the level height in which is situated the argentiferous mountain ,gualgayoc1 the principal site of the far-famed mines of ,chota4 ,night was just drawing in1 and an extraordinary spectacle presented itself to our observation4 ,the ,cerro de ,gualgayoc is separated by a deep cleft-like valley 7,quebrada71 from the limestone mountain ,cormolache4 ,the latter is an isolated hornstone rock1 presenting1 on the northern and western sides1 almost perpendicular precipices1 and containing innumerable veins of silver1 which frequently intersect and run into each other4 ,the highest shafts are #aedj feet above the floor of the stoll or groundwork1 called the ,socabon de ,espinachi4 ,the outline of the mountain is broken by numerous tower-like points and pyramidal notches2 and hence the summit of the ,cerro de ,gualgayoc bears the name of ,las ,puntas4 ,this mountain presents a most decided contrast to that smoothness of surface which miners are accustomed to regard as characteristic of metalliferous districts4 8,our mountain10 said a wealthy mine-owner whom we visited1 8looks like an enchanted castle 7como si fuese un castillo encantado740 ,the ,gualgayoc bears some resemblance to a cone of dolomite1 but it is still more like the notched ridges of the ,mountain of ,monserrat in ,catalonia1 which ,i have also visited1 and which has been so pleasingly described by my brother4 ,not only is the silver mountain ,gualgayoc perforated on every side1 and to its very summit1 by many hundred large shafts1 but the mass of the siliceous rock is cleft by natural openings1 through which the dark blue sky of these elevated regions is visible to the observer standing at the foot of the mountain4 ,the people of the country call these openings windows 7,las ventanillas de ,gualgayoc74 ,on the trachytic walls of the volcano of ,pichincha similar openings were pointed out to us1 and there1 likewise1 they were called windows1 7,ventanillas de ,pichincha47 ,the singular aspect of the ,gualgayoc is not a little increased by numerous sheds and habitations1 which lie scattered like nests over the fortress-looking mountain wherever a level spot admits of their erection4 ,the miners carry the ore in baskets1 down steep and dangerous footpaths1 to the places where it is submitted to the process of amalgamation4 ,the value of the silver obtained from the mines of ,gualgayoc during the first thirty years of their being worked1 from #agga to #ahjb1 is supposed to have amounted to upwards of thirty-two millions of piastres4 ,notwithstanding the hardness of the quartzose rock1 the ,peruvians1 even before the arrival of the ,spaniards1 extracted rich argentiferous galena from the ,cerro de la ,lin1 and also from the ,chupiquiyacu2 of this fact many old shafts and galleries bear evidence4 ,the ,peruvians also obtained gold from the ,curimayo1 where also natural sulphur is found in the quartz rock as well as in the ,brazilian ,itacolumite4 ,we took up our temporary abode1 in the vicinity of the mines1 in the little mountain town of ,micuipampa1 situated at an elevation of #aa1hgc feet above the sea1 and where1 though only #f #dc from the equator1 water freezes within doors1 at night1 during a great part of the year4 ,this wilderness1 almost devoid of vegetation1 is inhabited by #cjjj or #djjj persons1 who are supplied with articles of food from the warm valleys1 as they themselves can grow nothing but some kinds of cabbage and salad1 the latter exceedingly good4 ,here1 as in all the mining towns of ,peru1 ennui drives the richer inhabitants1 who1 however1 are not the best informed class1 to the dangerous diversions of cards and dice4 ,the consequence is1 that the wealth thus quickly won is still more quickly spent4 ,here one is continually reminded of the anecdote related of one of the soldiers of ,pizarro's army1 who complained that he had lost in one night's play1 8a large piece of the sun10 meaning a plate of gold which he had obtained at the plunder of the ,temple of ,cuzco4 ,at ,micuipampa the thermometer1 at eight in the morning1 stood at #cd4b1 and at noon1 at #dg4h ,fahrenheit4 ,among the thin ,ichhu-grass 7possibly our ,stipa eriostachya71 we found a beautiful ,calceolaria 7,c4 ,sibthorpioides71 which we should not have expected to see at such an elevation4 ,near the town of ,micuipampa there is a high plain called the ,llano or the ,pampa de ,navar4 ,in this plain there have been found1 extending over a surface of more than four ,english square miles1 and immediately under the turf1 immense masses of red gold ore and wire-like threads of pure silver4 ,these are called by the ,peruvian miners remolinos1 clavos1 and vetas manteadas1 and they are overgrown by the roots of the ,alpine grasses4 ,another level plain1 to the west of the ,purgatorio1 and near the ,quebrada de ,chiquera1 is called the ,choropampa 7the ,muscle-,shell ,plain71 the word churu signifying in the ,quichua language a muscle or cockle1 particularly a small eatable kind1 which the people of the country now distinguish by their ,spanish names hostion or mexillon4 ,the name ,choropampa refers to fossils of the cretaceous formation1 which in this plain are found in such immense numbers that at an early period they attracted the attention of the natives4 ,in the ,choropampa there has been found near the surface of the earth1 a rich mass of pure gold1 spun round1 as it were1 with threads of silver4 ,this fact proves how slight may be the affinity between many of the ores upheaved from the interior of the earth1 through fissures and veins1 and the nature of the adjacent rock1 and how little relative antiquity exists between them and that of the formation they have broken through4 ,the rock of the ,gualgayoc1 as well as that of the ,fuentestiana1 is very watery1 whilst in the ,purgatorio perfect dryness prevails4 ,in the ,purgatorio1 notwithstanding the height of the strata above the sea-level1 ,i found to my astonishment1 that the temperature in the mine was #fg4d ,fahr41 whilst in the neighbouring ,mina de ,guadalupe the water in the mine was about #eb4b ,fahr4 ,in the open air the thermometer indicates only #db4a ,fahr41 and the miners1 who labour very hard1 and who work almost without clothing1 say that the subterranean heat in the ,purgatorio is stifling4 ,the narrow path from ,micuipampa to the ancient ,inca city ,caxamarca is difficult even for mules4 ,the original name of the town was ,cassamarca or ,kazamarca1 that is to say1 the ,city of ,frost4 ,marca1 in the signification of a district or town1 belongs to the northern dialect of the ,chinchaysuyo1 or the ,chinchasuyu1 whilst in the common ,quichua language the word means the story of a house1 and also a fortress and place of defence4 ,for the space of five or six miles1 the road led us through a succession of ,paramos1 where we were without intermission exposed to the fury of a boisterous wind and the sharp angular hail peculiar to the ridges of the ,andes4 ,the height of the road is for the most part between #ifjj and #aj1gjj feet above the sea-level4 ,there ,i had the opportunity of making a magnetic observation of general interest1 viz41 for determining the point where the north inclination of the needle passes into the south inclination1 and also the point at which the traveller has to cross the magnetic equator#abb4 ,having at length reached the last of these mountain wildernesses1 the ,paramo de ,yanaguanga1 the traveller joyfully looks down into the fertile valley of ,caxamarca4 ,it presents a charming prospect1 for the valley1 through which winds a little serpentine rivulet1 is an elevated plain of an oval form1 in extent from #if to #aab square miles4 ,the plain bears a resemblance to that of ,bogota1 and like it is probably the bed of an ancient lake2 but in ,caxamarca there is wanting the myth of the miracle-working ,botchia1 or ,idacanzas1 the ,high ,priest of ,iraca1 who opened a passage for the waters through the rocks of ,tequendama4 ,caxamarca lies #fdj feet higher than ,santa ,f de ,bogota1 and consequently its elevation is equal to that of the city of ,quito2 but being sheltered by surrounding mountains1 its climate is much more mild and agreeable4 ,the soil of ,caxamarca is extraordinarily fertile4 ,in every direction are seen cultivated fields and gardens1 intersected by avenues of willows1 varieties of the ,datura 7bearing large red1 white1 and yellow flowers71 ,mimosas1 and beautiful ,quinuar trees 7our ,polylepsis villosa1 a ,rosacea approximating to the ,alchemilla and ,sanguisorba74 ,the wheat harvest in the ,pampa de ,caxamarca is1 on the average1 from fifteen to twenty-fold2 but the prospect of abundant crops is sometimes blighted by night frosts1 caused by the radiation of heat towards the cloudless sky1 in the strata of dry and rarefied mountain air4 ,these night frosts are not felt within the roofed dwellings4 ,small mounds1 or hillocks1 of porphyry 7once perhaps islands in the ancient lake7 are studded over the northern part of the plain1 and break the wide expanse of smooth sandstone4 ,from the summit of one of these porphyry hillocks1 we enjoyed a most beautiful prospect of the ,cerro de ,santa ,polonia4 ,the ancient residence of ,atahuallpa is on this side1 surrounded by fruit gardens1 and irrigated fields of lucern 7,medicago sativa71 called by the people here ,campos de alfalfa4 ,in the distance are seen columns of smoke1 rising from the warm baths of ,pultamarca1 which still hear the name of ,baos del ,inca4 ,i found the temperature of these sulphuric springs to be #aef4b ,fahr4 ,atahuallpa was accustomed to spend a portion of each year at these baths1 where some slight remains of his palace have survived the ravages of the ,conquistadores4 ,the large deep basin or reservoir 7el tragadero7 for supplying these baths with water1 appeared to me1 judging from its regular circular form1 to have been artificially cut in the sandstone rock1 over one of the fissures whence the spring flows4 ,tradition records that one of the ,inca's sedan-chairs1 made of gold1 was sunk in this basin1 and that all endeavours to recover it have proved vain4 ,of the fortress and palace of ,atahuallpa1 there also remain but few vestiges in the town1 which now contains some beautiful churches4 ,even before the close of the sixteenth century1 the thirst for gold accelerated the work of destruction1 for1 with the view of discovering hidden treasures1 walls were demolished and the foundations of buildings recklessly undermined4 ,the ,inca's palace is situated on a hill of porphyry1 which was originally cut and hollowed out from the surface1 completely through the rock1 so that the latter surrounds the main building like a wall4 ,portions of the ruins have been converted to the purposes of a town jail and a ,municipal ,hall 7,casa del ,cabildo74 ,the most curious parts of these ruins1 which however are not more than between #ac and #af feet in height1 are those opposite to the monastery of ,san ,francisco4 ,these vestiges1 like the remains of the dwelling of the ,caciques1 consist of finely-hewn blocks of free-stone1 two or three feet long1 laid one upon another without cement1 as in the ,inca-,pilca1 or fortress of the ,caar1 in the high plain of ,quito4 ,in the porphyritic rock there is a shaft which once led to subterraneous chambers and into a gallery1 7by miners called a stoll17 from which1 it is alleged1 there was a communication with the other porphyritic rocks already mentioned2--those situated at ,santa ,polonia4 ,these arrangements bear evidence of having been made as precautions against the events of war1 and for the security of flight4 ,the burying of treasure was a custom very generally practised among the ,peruvians in former times2 and subterraneous chambers still exist beneath many private dwellings in ,caxamarca4 ,we were shown some steps cut in the rock1 and the footbath used by the ,inca 7el lavatorio de los pies74 ,the operation of washing the sovereign's feet was performed amidst tedious court ceremonies#abc4 ,several lateral structures1 which1 according to tradition1 were allotted to the attendants of the ,inca1 are built some of free-stone with gable roofs1 and others of regularly shaped bricks1 alternating with layers of siliceous cement4 ,the buildings constructed in this last-mentioned style1 to which the ,peruvians give the name of ,muros y obra de tapia1 have little arched niches or recesses4 ,of their antiquity ,i was for a long time doubtful1 though ,i am now convinced that my doubts were not well-grounded4 ,in the principal building1 the room is still shown in which the unfortunate ,atahuallpa was confined for the space of nine months1 from the date of ,november1 #aecbabd4 ,the notice of the traveller is still directed to the wall1 on which he made a mark to denote to what height he would fill the room with gold1 on condition of his being set free4 ,this height is variously described4 ,xerez in the ,conquista del ,peru 7which ,barcia has preserved to us71 ,hernando ,pizarro in his letters1 and other writers1 all give different accounts of it4 ,the captive monarch said1 8that gold in bars1 plates1 and vessels should be piled up as high as he could reach with his hand40 ,the dimensions of the room1 as given by ,xerez1 are equivalent to #bc feet in length and #ah in breadth4 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 who quitted ,peru in #aefj1 in his twentieth year1 estimates that the treasures brought from the temples of the ,sun in ,cuzco1 ,huaylas1 ,huamachuco1 and ,pachacamac1 up to the fatal #bith of ,august1 #aecc1 the day of the ,inca's death1 amounted to #c1hch1jjj ducados de oro#abe4 ,in the chapel of the town jail1 which1 as ,i have mentioned above1 is erected on the ruins of the ,inca ,palace1 a stone1 stained1 as it is alleged1 with 8indelible spots of blood10 is viewed with horror by the credulous4 ,it is placed in front of the altar1 and consists of an extremely thin slab1 about #ac feet in length1 probably a portion of the porphyry or trachyte of the vicinity4 ,to make an accurate examination of this stone1 by chipping a piece off1 would not be permitted4 ,the three or four spots1 said to be blood stains1 appear in reality to be nothing but hornblende and pyroxide run together in the fundamental mass of the rock4 ,the ,licentiate ,fernando ,montesinos1 though he visited ,peru scarcely a hundred years after the taking of ,caxamarca1 gave currency to the fabulous story that ,atahuallpa was beheaded in prison1 and that traces of blood were still visible on a stone on which the execution had taken place4 ,there appears no reason to question the fact1 since it is borne out by the testimony of many eye-witnesses1 that the ,inca willingly allowed himself to be baptized by his cruel and fanatical persecutor1 the ,dominican monk1 ,vicente de ,valverde4 ,he received the name of ,juan de ,atahuallpa1 and submitted to the ceremony of baptism to avoid being burnt alive4 ,he was put to death by strangulation 7el garrote71 and his execution took place publicly in the open air4 ,another tradition relates that a chapel was erected above the stone on which ,atahuallpa was strangled1 and that the remains of the ,inca repose beneath that stone4 ,supposing this to be correct1 the alleged spots of blood are not accounted for4 ,the fact is1 however1 that the body was never deposited under the stone in question4 ,after the performance of a mass for the dead and other solemn funeral ceremonies1 at which the brothers ,pizarro were present in deep mourning7671 the body was conveyed first to the cemetery of the ,convento de ,san ,francisco1 and afterwards to ,quito1 ,atahuallpa's birthplace4 ,this removal to ,quito was in compliance with the wish expressed by the ,inca prior to his death4 ,his personal enemy1 the crafty ,rumiavi1 from artful political motives1 caused the body to be interred in ,quito with great solemnity4 ,rumiavi 7literally the stone-eye7 received this name from a defect in one of his eyes1 occasioned by a wart4 7,in the ,quichua language rumi signifies stone1 and avi eye47 ,descendants of the ,inca still dwell in ,caxamarca1 amidst the dreary architectural ruins of departed splendour4 ,these descendants are the family of the ,indian ,cacique1 or1 as he is called in the ,quichua language1 the ,curaca ,astorpilca4 ,they live in great poverty1 but nevertheless contented and resigned to their hard and unmerited fate4 ,their descent from ,atahuallpa1 through the female line1 has never been a doubtful question in ,caxamarca2 but traces of beard would seem to indicate some admixture of ,spanish blood4 ,huascar and ,atahuallpa1 two sons of the great ,huayna ,capac 7who for a child of the ,sun was somewhat disposed to free-thinking7#abf1 reigned in succession before the invasion of the ,spaniards4 ,neither of these two princes left any acknowledged male heirs4 ,in the plains of ,quipaypan1 ,huascar was made prisoner by ,atahuallpa1 by whose order he was shortly after secretly put to death4 ,atahuallpa had two other brothers4 ,one was the insignificant youth ,toparca1 who in the autumn of #aecc ,pizarro caused to be crowned as ,inca2 and the other was the enterprising ,manco ,capac1 who was likewise crowned1 but who afterwards rebelled3 neither of these two princes left any known male issue4 ,atahuallpa indeed left two children2 one a son1 who received in ,christian baptism the name of ,don ,francisco1 and who died young2 the other a daughter1 ,doa ,angelina1 who became the mistress of ,francisco ,pizarro1 with whom she led a wild camp life4 ,doa ,angelina had a son by ,pizarro1 and to this grandson of the slaughtered monarch the ,conqueror was fondly attached4 ,besides the family of ,astorpilca1 with whom ,i became acquainted in ,caxamarca1 the families of ,carguaraicos and ,titu-,buscamayca were1 at the time ,i visited ,peru1 regarded as descendants of the ,inca dynasty4 ,the race of ,buscamayca has since that time become extinct4 ,the son of the ,cacique ,astorpilca1 an interesting and amiable youth of seventeen1 conducted us over the ruins of the ancient palace4 ,though living in the utmost poverty1 his imagination was filled with images of the subterranean splendour and the golden treasures which1 he assured us1 lay hidden beneath the heaps of rubbish over which we were treading4 ,he told us that one of his ancestors once blindfolded the eyes of his wife1 and then1 through many intricate passages cut in the rock1 led her down into the subterranean gardens of the ,inca4 ,there the lady beheld1 skilfully imitated in the purest gold1 trees laden with leaves and fruit1 with birds perched on their branches4 ,among other things1 she saw ,atahuallpa's gold sedan-chair 7una de las andas7 which had been so long searched for in vain1 and which is alleged to have sunk in the basin at the ,baths of ,pultamarca4 ,the husband commanded his wife not to touch any of these enchanted treasures1 reminding her that the period fixed for the restoration of the ,inca empire had not yet arrived1 and that whosoever should touch any of the treasures would perish that same night4 ,these golden dreams and fancies of the youth were founded on recollections and traditions transmitted from remote times4 ,golden gardens1 such as those alluded to 7,jardines huertas de oro71 have been described by various writers who allege that they actually saw them2 viz41 by ,cieza de ,leon1 ,parmento1 ,garcilaso1 and other early historians of the ,conquista4 ,they are said to have existed beneath the ,temple of the ,sun at ,cuzco1 at ,caxamarca1 and in the lovely valley of ,yucay1 which was a favourite seat of the sovereign family4 ,in places in which the golden ,huertas were not under ground1 but in the open air1 living plants were mingled with the artificial ones4 ,among the latter1 particular mention is always made of the high shoots of maize and the maize-cobs 7mazorcas7 as having been most successfully imitated4 ,the son of ,astorpilca assured me that underground1 a little to the right of the spot on which ,i then stood1 there was a large ,datura tree1 or ,guanto1 in full flower1 exquisitely made of gold wire and plates of gold1 and that its branches overspread the ,inca's chair4 ,the morbid faith with which the youth asserted his belief in this fabulous story1 made a profound and melancholy impression on me4 ,these illusions are cherished among the people here1 as affording them consolation amidst great privation and earthly suffering4 ,i said to the lad1 8,since you and your parents so firmly believe in the existence of these gardens1 do you not1 in your poverty1 sometimes feel a wish to dig for the treasures that lie so near you80 ,the young ,peruvian's answer was so simple and so expressive of the quiet resignation peculiar to the aboriginal inhabitants of the country1 that ,i noted it down in ,spanish in my ,journal4 8,such a desire 7tal antojo710 said he1 8never comes to us4 ,my father says that it would be sinful 7que fuese pecado74 ,if we had the golden branches1 with all their golden fruits1 our white neighbours would hate us and injure us4 ,we have a little field and good wheat 7buen trigo740 ,few of my readers will ,i trust be displeased that ,i have recalled here the words of young ,astorpilca and his golden dreams4 ,an idea generally spread and firmly believed among the natives is1 that it would be criminal to dig up and take possession of treasures which may have belonged to the ,incas1 and that such a proceeding would bring misfortune upon the whole ,peruvian race4 ,this idea is closely connected with that of the restoration of the ,inca dynasty1 an event which is still expected1 and which in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was looked forward to with especial confidence4 ,oppressed nations always fondly hope for the day of their emancipation1 and for the re-establishment of their old forms of government4 ,the flight of ,manco ,inca1 the brother of ,atahuallpa1 who retreated into the forests of ,vilcapampa1 on the declivity of the ,eastern ,cordillera2 and the abode of ,sayri ,tapac and ,inca ,tupac ,amaru in those wildernesses1 are events which have left lasting recollections in the minds of the people4 ,it is believed that descendants of the dethroned dynasty settled still further eastward in ,guiana1 between the rivers ,apurimac and ,beni4 ,these notions were strengthened by the myth of el ,dorado and the golden city of ,manoa1 which popular credulity carried from the west and propagated eastward4 ,so greatly was the imagination of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh inflamed by these dreams1 that he raised an expedition in the hope of conquering 8the imperial and golden city40 ,there he proposed to establish a garrison of three or four thousand ,english1 and to levy from 8the ,emperor of ,guiana1 a descendant of ,huayna ,capac1 and who holds his ,court with the same magnificence1 an annual tribute of #cjj1jjj sterling1 as the price of the promised restoration to the throne in ,cuzco and ,caxamarca40 ,wherever the ,peruvian ,quichua language prevails1 traces of the expected restoration of the ,inca rule#abg exist in the minds of many of the natives possessing any knowledge of their national history4 ,we remained five days in the capital of the ,inca ,atahuallpa1 which1 at that time1 numbered only #gjjj or #hjjj inhabitants4 ,our departure was delayed by the necessity of obtaining a great number of mules to convey our collections1 and of selecting careful guides to conduct us across the chain of the ,andes to the entrance of the long but narrow ,peruvian sandy desert called the ,desierto de ,sechura4 ,our route across the ,cordilleras lay from north-east to south-west4 ,having passed over the old bed of the lake1 on the pleasant level height of ,caxamarca1 we ascended an eminence at an elevation of scarcely #aj1bcj feet3 and we were then surprised by the sight of two strangely-shaped porphyritic mounds called the ,aroma and the ,cunturcaga4 ,the latter is a favourite haunt of the gigantic vulture1 which we call the ,condor2 kacca1 in the ,quichua language1 signifying the rocks4 ,the porphyritic heights just mentioned are in the form of columns having five1 six1 or seven sides1 from #cg to #db feet in height1 and some of them are crooked and bent as if in joints4 ,those which crown the ,cerro ,aroma are remarkably picturesque4 ,the peculiar distribution of the columns1 which are ranged in rows one above another1 and frequently converging1 presents the appearance of a two-storied building1 roofed by a dome of massive rock1 which is not columnar4 ,these erupted masses of porphyry and trachyte are1 as ,i have on a former occasion remarked1 characteristic of the ridges of the ,andes1 to which they impart a physiognomy totally different from that of the ,swiss ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 and the ,siberian ,altai4 ,from ,cunturcaga and ,aroma we descended1 by a zigzag route1 a steep declivity of #fdjj feet into the cleft-like valley of the ,magdalena1 the lowest part of which is #dbfj feet above the sea level4 ,here there is an ,indian village consisting of a few miserable huts1 surrounded by the same species of cotton-trees 7,bombax discolor71 which we first observed on the banks of the ,amazon4 ,the scanty vegetation of the valley of ,magdalena somewhat resembles that of the province of ,jaen de ,bracamoros1 but we missed1 with regret1 the red groves of ,bougainvilla4 ,magdalena is one of the deepest valleys ,i have seen in the chain of the ,andes4 ,it is a decided cleft1 running transversely from east to west1 and bounded on each side by the ,altos of ,aroma and ,guangamarca4 ,here recommences the same quartz formation which was so long enigmatical to me4 ,we had previously observed it in the ,paramo de ,yanaguanga1 between ,micuipampa and ,caxamarca1 at an elevation of #aa1gbb feet1 and on the western declivity of the ,cordillera it attains the thickness of many thousand feet4 ,since ,leopold von ,buch has proved that the cretaceous formation is widely extended1 even in the highest chains of the ,andes1 and on both sides of the isthmus of ,panama1 it may be concluded that the quartz formation1 of which ,i have just made mention 7perhaps transformed in its texture by the action of volcanic power71 belongs to the free sandstone intervening between the inner chalk and the gault and greensand4 ,from the genial valley of the ,magdalena we again proceeded westward1 and1 for the space of two hours and a half1 we ascended a steep wall of rock #eaaf feet high1 which rises opposite to the porphyritic groups of the ,alto de ,aroma4 ,in this ascent we felt the change of temperature the more sensibly1 as the rocky acclivity was frequently overhung with cold mist4 ,after having travelled for eighteen months without intermission1 within the restricted boundaries of the interior of a mountainous country1 we felt an ardent desire to enjoy a view of the open sea1 a desire which was heightened by repeated disappointments4 ,looking from the summit of the volcano of ,pichincha1 over the thick forests of the ,provincia de las ,esmeraldas1 no sea horizon is distinctly discernible owing to the great distance and the height of the point of view4 ,it is like looking down from a balloon into empty space2 the fancy divines objects which the eye cannot distinguish4 ,afterwards1 when1 between ,loxa and ,guancabamba1 we arrived at the ,paramo de ,guamani 7where there are many ruins of buildings of the times of the ,incas71 our mule-drivers confidently assured us that1 beyond the plain1 on the other side of the low districts of ,piura and ,lambajeque1 we should have a view of the sea4 ,but a thick mist overhung the plain and obscured the distant coast4 ,we beheld only variously-shaped masses of rock1 now rising like islands above the waving sea of mist1 and now vanishing4 ,it was a view similar to that which we had from the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,we experienced a similar disappointment whilst proceeding through the ,andes ,pass of ,guangamarca1 which ,i am now describing4 ,whilst we toiled along the ridges of the mighty mountain1 with expectation on the stretch1 our guides1 who were not very well acquainted with the way1 repeatedly assured us that1 after proceeding another mile1 our hopes would be fulfilled4 ,the stratum of mist1 in which we were enveloped1 seemed sometimes to disperse for a moment1 but whenever that happened1 our view was bounded by intervening heights4 ,the desire which we feel to behold certain objects is not excited solely by their grandeur1 their beauty1 or their importance4 ,in each individual this desire is interwoven with pleasing impressions of youth1 with early predilections for particular pursuits1 with the inclination for travelling1 and the love of an active life4 ,in proportion as the fulfilment of a wish may have appeared improbable1 its realization affords the greater pleasure4 ,the traveller enjoys1 in anticipation1 the happy moment when he shall first behold the constellation of the ,cross1 and the ,magellanic clouds circling over the ,south ,pole2 when he shall come in sight of the snow of the ,chimborazo1 and of the column of smoke ascending from the volcano of ,quito2 when1 for the first time1 he shall gaze on a grove of tree-ferns1 or on the wide expanse of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the days on which such wishes are fulfilled mark epochs in life1 and create indelible impressions2 exciting feelings which require not to be accounted for by any process of reasoning4 ,the longing wish ,i felt to behold the ,pacific from the lofty ridges of the ,andes was mingled with recollections of the interest with which1 as a boy1 ,i had dwelt on the narrative of the adventurous expedition of ,vasco ,nunez de ,balboa#abh4 ,that happy man1 whose track ,pizarro followed1 was the first to behold1 from the heights of ,quarequa1 on the isthmus of ,panama1 the eastern part of the great 8,south ,sea40 ,the reedy shores of the ,caspian1 viewed from the point whence ,i first beheld them1 viz41 from the ,delta formed by the mouths of the ,volga1 cannot certainly be called picturesque1 yet the delight ,i felt on first beholding them1 was enhanced by the recollection that1 in my very earliest childhood1 ,i had been taught to observe1 on the map1 the form of the ,asiatic inland sea4 ,the impressions aroused within us in early childhood1 or excited by the accidental circumstances of life#abi1 frequently1 in after years1 take a graver direction1 and become stimulants to scientific labours and great enterprises4 ,after passing over many undulations of ground1 on the rugged mountain ridges1 we at length reached the highest point of the ,alto de ,guangamarca4 ,the sky1 which had so long been obscured1 now suddenly brightened4 ,a sharp south-west breeze dispersed the veil of mist2 and the dark blue canopy of heaven was seen between the narrow lines of the highest feathery clouds4 ,the whole western declivity of the ,cordillera 7adjacent to ,chorillos and ,cascas71 covered with huge blocks of quartz #ac or #ae feet long2 and the plains of ,chala and ,molinos1 as far as the sea coast near ,truxillo1 lay extended before our eyes1 with a wonderful effect of apparent proximity4 ,we now1 for the first time1 commanded a view of the ,pacific4 ,we saw it distinctly2 reflecting along the line of the coast an immense mass of light1 and rising in immeasurable expanse until bounded by the clearly-defined horizon4 ,the delight which my companions1 ,bonpland and ,carlos ,montufar1 shared with me in viewing this prospect1 caused us to forget to open the barometer on the ,alto de ,guangamarca4 ,according to a calculation which we made at a place somewhat lower down 7an isolated farm called the ,hato de ,guangamarca71 the point at which we first gained a view of the ocean1 must have been at no greater an elevation than between #ichj and #ifjj feet4 ,the view of the ,pacific was solemnly impressive to one1 who1 like myself1 was greatly indebted for the formation of his mind1 and the direction given to his tastes and aspirations1 to one of the companions of ,captain ,cook4 ,i made known the general outline of my travelling schemes to ,john ,forster1 when ,i had the advantage of visiting ,england under his guidance1 now more than half a century ago4 ,forster's charming pictures of ,otaheite had awakened throughout ,northern ,europe a deep interest 7mingled with a sort of romantic longing71 in favour of the islands of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,at that period1 when but few ,europeans had been fortunate enough to visit those islands1 ,i cherished the hope of seeing them1 at least in part2 for the object of my visit to ,lima was twofold3 first1 to observe the transit of ,mercury over the solar disc1 and secondly1 to fulfil a promise ,i had made to ,captain ,baudin1 on my departure from ,paris4 ,this promise was to join him in the circumnavigatory voyage which he was to undertake as soon as the ,french ,republic could furnish the necessary funds4 ,american papers circulated in the ,antilles announced that the two ,french corvettes1 ,le ,gographe and ,le ,naturaliste1 were to sail round ,cape ,horn1 and to touch at ,callao de ,lima4 ,this information1 which ,i received when in the ,havannah1 after having completed my ,orinoco journey1 caused me to relinquish my original plan of proceeding through ,mexico to the ,philippines4 ,i lost no time in engaging a ship to convey me from ,cuba to ,carthagena de ,indias4 ,but ,captain ,baudin's expedition took quite a different course from that which had been expected and announced4 ,instead of proceeding by the way of ,cape ,horn1 as had been intended at the time when it was agreed that ,bonpland and ,i should join it1 the expedition sailed round the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,one of the objects of my visit to ,peru1 and of my last journey across the chain of the ,andes1 was thus thwarted2 but ,i had the singular good fortune1 at a very unfavourable season of the year1 in the misty regions of ,lower ,peru1 to enjoy a clear bright day4 ,in ,callao ,i observed the passage of ,mercury over the sun's disc1 an observation of some importance in aiding the accurate determination of the longitude of ,lima#acj1 and of the south-western part of the new continent4 ,thus1 amidst the serious troubles and disappointments of life1 there may often be found a grain of consolation4 ,,illustrations ,,and ,,additions4 ,footnote #aaa3 p4 #cij--8,on the ,ridge of the ,andes or ,antis40 ,the ,inca ,garcilaso1 who was well acquainted with the native language of his country1 and who loved to trace etymologies1 invariably calls the chain of the ,andes1 8las ,montaas de los ,antis40 ,he states positively that the great mountain-chain1 eastward of ,cuzco1 derives its name from the race of the ,antis and from the province ,anti1 which was situated to the east of the capital of the ,incas4 ,the quaternary divisions of the ,peruvian empire1 according to the four cardinal points1 reckoning from ,cuzco1 did not derive their names from the very circumstantial words 7having reference to the sun7 which in the ,quichua language signify east1 west1 north1 and south 7intip llucsinanpata1 intip yaucunanpata1 intip chaututa chayananpata1 intip chaupunchau chayananpata74 ,those divisions were named from provinces and races of people 7,provincias llamadas ,anti1 ,cunti1 ,chincha y ,colla7 situated to the east1 west1 north1 and south1 with reference to the city of ,cuzco1 which was the centre of the empire4 ,the four divisions of the ,inca theocracy were accordingly named ,antisuyu1 ,cuntisuyu1 ,chinchasuyu1 and ,collasuyu2 the word ,suyu signifying strip or part4 ,notwithstanding the great distance between them1 ,quito belonged to ,chinchasuyu2 and in proportion as the ,incas1 by their religious wars1 extended their faith1 their language1 and their despotic government1 these ,suyus acquired greater dimensions and became more unequal in magnitude4 ,with the names of the provinces was thus associated an indication of their position2 and 8to name those provinces10 observes ,garcilaso1 8was the same as to say to the east or to the west40 7,nombrar aquellos ,partidos era lo mismo que decir al ,oriente1 al ,poniente47 ,the snow-chain of the ,andes was regarded as an eastern chain4 8,la ,provincia ,anti da nombra las ,montaas de los ,antis4 ,llamron la parte del ,oriente ,antisuyu1 por la qual tambien llaman ,anti toda aquella gran ,cordillera de ,sierra ,nevada que pasa al ,oriente del ,peru1 por dar entender1 que est al ,oriente40 7,commentarios ,reales1 p4 i4 pp4 #dg1 #abb47,,rr ,later writers have supposed the name of the ,andes chain to be derived from the word ,anta1 which1 in the ,quichua language1 signifies copper4 ,that metal was indeed of the highest importance to a people who for their edged-tools or cutting instruments1 employed not iron1 but a sort of copper mixed with tin2 but still the name of copper mountains would scarcely have been extended over so vast a chain4 ,professor ,buschmann has justly observed1 that the final 8a0 is retained in the word anta when it forms part of a compound2 and ,garcilaso expressly adduces as an example anta1 copper1 and antamarca1 province of copper4 ,moreover in the ancient language of the ,inca empire 7the ,quichua71 words and their compounds are so simple in formation that the conversion of 8a0 into 8i0 out of the question2 so that ,anta1 copper1 and ,anti or ,ante 7the country or an inhabitant of the ,andes or the mountain-chain itself7 must be regarded as words totally distinct from each other4 ,in dictionaries of the ,quichua language1 with explanations in ,spanish1 the word ,anti or ,ante has the following interpretations3 la tierra de los ,andes2--el ,indio1 hombre de los ,andes2--la ,sierra de los ,andes4 ,the original signification or derivation of the word is buried in the darkness of past ages4 ,besides ,antisuyu1 some other compounds of which ,anti or ,ante forms a part1 are1 ,anteruna 7the native inhabitant of the ,andes71 ,anteunccuy or ,antionccoy 7the sickness of the ,andes2 mal de los ,andes pestifero47 ,footnote #aab3 p4 #cij--8,the ,countess de ,chinchon40 ,this lady was the wife of the ,viceroy ,don ,geronimo ,fernandez de ,cabrera1 ,bobadilla y ,mendoza1 ,conde de ,chinchon1 who governed ,peru from #afbi to #afci4 ,the cure of the ,vice-,queen took place in the year #afch4 ,a tradition which is current in ,spain1 but which ,i have frequently heard contradicted in ,loxa1 names ,juan ,lopez de ,caizares1 ,corregidor of the ,cabildo de ,loxa1 as the person by whom the ,quina 7,cinchona7 bark was first brought to ,lima1 and universally recommended as a medicine4 ,in ,loxa1 ,i have heard it affirmed that the salutary properties of the tree were long previously1 though not generally1 known in the mountainous regions4 ,immediately after my return to ,europe1 ,i expressed doubts whether the discovery had really been made by the natives in the vicinity of ,loxa1 for the ,indians in the neighbouring valleys1 where intermittent fevers are very prevalent1 have an aversion to the ,quina bark4,,rs ,the story which sets forth that the natives learned the virtues of the ,cinchona from the lions1 8who cure themselves of intermittent fever by gnawing the bark of the ,quina tree10,,rt appears to be merely a monkish fiction1 and wholly of ,european origin4 ,no such disease as the lion's fever is known in the ,new ,continent2 for the so-called great ,american lion 7,felis concolor7 and the small mountain lion 7the ,puma1 whose footmarks ,i have seen on the snow7 are never tamed1 consequently never become the subjects of observation4 ,nor are the various species of the feline race1 in either continent1 accustomed to gnaw the bark of trees4 ,the name 8,countess's ,powder0 7,pulvis ,comitiss7 originated in the circumstance of the bark having been dealt out as a medicine by the ,countess de ,chinchon4 ,but this name was subsequently metamorphosed into 8,cardinal's0 or 8,jesuit's0 ,powder1 because ,cardinal de ,lugo1 ,procurator-,general of the ,order of the ,jesuits1 made known the medicine1 whilst he was on a journey through ,france1 and recommended it the more urgently to ,cardinal ,mazarin1 as the brethren of the ,order were beginning to carry on a profitable trade in the ,south ,american ,quina bark1 which they contrived to obtain through their missionaries4 ,it is scarcely necessary to mention that ,protestant physicians suffered themselves sometimes to be influenced by religious intolerance and hatred of the ,jesuits1 in the long controversy that was maintained1 respecting the good or evil effects of the fever bark4 ,footnote #aac3 p4 #cic--8;,aposentos de ,mulalo40 ,the ,aposentos are dwellings or inns4 ,they are called in the ,quichua language ,tampu1 whence the ,spanish term ,tambo 7an inn74 ,on the subject of these ,aposentos see ,ciea's ,chronica del ,peru 7cap4 #da ed4 de #aedd1 p4 #ajh71 and my ,vues des ,cordillres 7,pl4 xxiv74 ,footnote #aad3 p4 #cid--8,the fortress of the ,caar40 ,this fortress is situated near ,turche1 and at an elevation of about #aj1fdj feet4,,ru ,not far distant from the ,fortaleza del ,caar is situated the celebrated ravine of the sun1 called the ,inti-,guaycu 7in the ,quichua language huaycco74 ,in this ravine there are some rocks on which the natives imagine they see the image of the sun1 and a bench called the ,inga-,chungana 7,incachuncana71 the ,inca's play4 ,i made drawings of both4 7,vues des ,cord41 pl4 xviii4 et xix47 ,footnote #aae3 p4 #cid--8;,causeways covered with cemented gravel40 ,see ,velasco's ,historia de ,quito1 #ahdd1 7t4 i4 p4 #abf-abh71 and ,prescott's ,history of the ,conquest of ,peru1 7vol4 i4 p4 #aeg47 ,footnote #aaf3 p4 #cie--8;,flights of ,steps40 ,see ,pedro ,sancho in ,ramusio1 vol4 iii4 fol4 #djd1 and the ,extracts from ,manuscript ,letters of ,hernando ,pizarro1 of which ,mr4 ,prescott1 the great historical writer1 now at ,boston1 has so advantageously availed himself 7vol4 i4 p4 #ddd74 8,el camino de las sierras es cosa de ver1 porque en verdad en tierra tan fragosa en la cristiandad no se han visto tan hermosos caminos1 toda la mayor parte de calzada40,,rv ,footnote #aag3 p4 #cif--8;,greeks1 ,romans1 c41 present examples of these contrasts40 8,the ,greeks10 says ,strabo1 7lib4 v4 p4 #bce1 ,casaub17 8in building their cities sought to produce a happy result by aiming at the union of beauty and solidity2 but1 on the other hand1 the ,romans directed particular attention to objects which the ,greeks neglected2 paving the streets with stone1 building aqueducts to provide a plentiful supply of water1 and constructing drainage for carrying all the uncleanliness of the city into the ,tiber4 ,they likewise paved all the roads in the country1 so that the merchandize brought by trading vessels might be conveniently transported from place to place40 ,footnote #aah3 p4 #cig--8,nemterequeteba1 the messenger of ,god40 ,civilization in ,mexico 7the ,aztec country of ,anahuac71 and in that country which1 in the ,peruvian theocracy1 was called the ,empire of the ,sun1 has so rivetted the attention of ,europe1 that a third point of dawning civilization1 the mountainous regions of ,new ,granada1 was long totally lost sight of4 ,i have already treated this subject in some detail4,,rw ,the government of the ,muyscas of ,new ,granada bore some resemblance to the constitution of ,japan3 the temporal ruler corresponded with the ,cubo or ,seogun at ,jeddo1 and the spiritual ruler was like the sacred ,dari at ,meaco4 ,the table-land of ,bogota was called by the natives of the country ,bacata1 i4 e41 the utmost limit of the cultivated plains considered with reference to the mountain wall4 ,when ,gonzalo ,ximenez de ,quesada advanced thither he found the country ruled by three powers1 whose relative subordination one to another is not now clearly understood4 ,the spiritual chief was the electoral high priest of ,iraca or ,sogamoso 7,sugamuxi1 the place at which ,nemterequeteba is said to have disappeared71 the temporal princes were the ,zake 7,zaque of ,hunsa or ,tunja71 and the ,zipa of ,funza4 ,the last-named prince seems to have been1 in the feudal constitution1 originally subordinate to the ,zake4 ,the ,muyscas had a regular system of computing time1 with intercalation for the amendment of the lunar year4 ,for money they made use of small circular gold plates1 cast1 and all equal in diameter1 7a circumstance worthy of remark1 as traces of coinage even among the ancient and highly civilized ,egyptians have hitherto been sought in vain74 ,their temples of the ,sun were built with stone columns1 some vestiges of which have recently been discovered in ,leiva4,,rx ,the race of the ,muyscas should properly be distinguished by the denomination ,chibchas2 for ,muysca1 in the ,chibcha language1 merely signifies men or people4 ,the origin and the elements of civilization1 introduced among the ,muyscas1 were attributed to two mythical beings1 ,bochica and ,nemterequeteba1 who are frequently confounded one with another4 ,bochica was the most mythical of the two2 having been in some degree regarded as divine and even equal to the ,sun4 ,his fair companion ,chia or ,huythaca occasioned1 through her magical art1 the submersion of the beautiful valley of ,bogota1 and for that reason she was banished from the earth by ,bochica1 and made to revolve round it as the moon4 ,bochica struck the rocks of ,tequendama1 and thereby opened a passage through which the waters flowed off in the neighbourhood of the ,giants' ,field 7,campo de ,gigantes71 where1 at the elevation of #hgib feet above the level of the sea1 the bones of elephant-like ,mastodons have been discovered4 ,it is stated by ,captain ,cochrane1,,ry and by ,mr4 ,john ,ranking1,,rz that animals like the ,mastodon still live in the ,andes1 and that they cast their teeth4 ,nemterequeteba1 surnamed ,chinzapogua1 7el enviado de ,dios1 the envoy of ,god17 was regarded as a human being4 ,he is represented as a bearded man1 who came from the ,east1 from ,pasca1 and who disappeared at ,sogamoso4 ,the foundation of the sanctuary of ,iraca is sometimes ascribed to ,nemterequeteba and sometimes to ,bochica4 ,the latter1 it would appear1 also bore the name of ,nemterequeteba1 and1 therefore1 that the one should have been confounded with the other1 on such unhistoric ground1 is a circumstance easily accounted for4 ,my old friend ,colonel ,acosta1 in his admirable work entitled ,compendio de la ,historia de la ,nueva ,granada1 endeavours to show1 through the evidence of the ,quichua language1 that ,new ,granada is the native land of the potato plant4 ,in the ,compendio 7p4 #ahe71 he observes1 8that as the potato 7,solanum tuberosum7 is known in ,usm by the indigenous name ,yomi1 and not by the ,peruvian name1 and as it was found by ,quesada1 cultivated in the province of ,velez in #aecg1 a period when its introduction from ,chile1 ,peru1 and ,quito must have been improbable1 the plant may be regarded as indigenous to ,new ,granada40 ,it must1 however1 be borne in mind that the ,peruvians had invaded ,quito1 and made themselves completely masters of it before #aebe1 in which year the death of the ,inca ,huayna ,capac occurred4 ,indeed1 the southern provinces of ,quito fell under the dominion of ,tupac ,inca ,yupanqui at the close of the fifteenth century4,,sa ,the history of the first introduction of the potato into ,europe is1 unfortunately1 involved in much obscurity1 but the merit of the introduction is still very generally supposed to be due to ,sir ,john ,hawkins1 who is said to have brought the plant from ,santa ,f in the year #aefc or #aefe4 ,but a fact1 which appears to be better authenticated1 is1 that the first potatoes grown in ,europe were those planted by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh on his estate at ,youghal in ,ireland1 from whence they were conveyed to ,lancashire4 ,the ,banana-tree 7,musa71 which1 since the arrival of the ,spaniards1 has been cultivated in all the warmer parts of ,new ,granada1 is believed1 by ,colonel ,acosta 7p4 #bje71 to have been known only in ,choco before the ,conquista4 ,the name ,cundinamarca1 which by affected erudition was applied to the young republic of ,new ,granada in the year #ahaa1 a name suggestive of golden dreams 7sueos dorados71 would properly be ,cundirumarca1 not ,cunturmarca4,,sb ,luis ,daza1 who accompanied the small invading army commanded by the ,conquistador ,sebastian de ,belalcazar1 who advanced from the south1 mentions having heard of a distant country1 rich in gold1 and inhabited by the race of the ,chicas4 ,this country1 ,daza states1 was called ,cundirumarea1 and its prince solicited auxiliary troops from ,atahuallpa in ,caxamarca4 ,the ,chichas have been confounded with the ,chibchas or ,muyscas of ,new ,granada2 and by a similar mistake the name of the unknown more southerly region has been transferred to this country4 ,footnote #aai3 p4 #djj--8;,fall of the ,rio de ,chamaya40 ,see my ,recueil des ,observ4 ,astron41 vol4 i4 p4 #cjd2 ,nivellement ,baromtrique1 ,no4 #bcf-bdb4 ,i made a drawing of the swimming courier1 representing him in the act of winding round his head the handkerchief containing the letters4 ,see ,vues des ,cordillres1 pi4 xxxi4 ,footnote #abj3 p4 #dja--8;,a point of some importance to the geography of ,south ,america1 on account of an old observation of ,la ,condamine40 ,my object was to connect chronometrically1 ,tomependa1 7the starting-point of ,la ,condamine's journey7 and other places on the ,amazon river1 geographically determined by him1 with the town of ,quito4 ,la ,condamine was in ,tomependa in ,june1 #agdc2 consequently1 #ei years before ,i visited that place1 which ,i found1 after astronomical observations made during three consecutive nights1 to be situated in south lat4 #e #ca #bh1 and west long4 #gh #cd #ee74 ,by my observations1 and a laborious recalculation of all those previously made1 ,oltmanns has shewn that until the time of my return to ,france the longitude of ,quito had been erroneously determined1 and that the error made a difference of full #ej arc-minutes4,,sc ,jupiter's satellites1 lunar distances1 and occultations afford a satisfactory accordance1 and all the elements of the calculation are before the public4 ,the too easterly longitude which had been determined for ,quito was1 by ,la ,condamine1 carried to ,cuenca and the ,amazon river4 8,je fis10 says ,la ,condamine1 8mon premier essai de navigation sur un radeau 7balsa7 en descendant la rivire de ,chinchipe jusqu' ,tomependa4 ,il fallut me contenter d'en dterminer la latitude et de conclure la longitude par les routes4 ,j'y fis mon testament politique en rdigeant l'extrait de mes observations les plus importantes40,,sd ,footnote #aba3 p4 #djc--8;,at the elevation of nearly #ab1hjj feet above the sea1 we found marine fossils40 ,see my ,essai gognostique sur le ,gisement des ,roches1 #ahbc1 p4 #bcf2 and for the first zoological determination of the fossils contained in the cretaceous formation of the ,andes chain1 see ,leopold de ,buch1 ,ptrifications recueillies en ,amrique par ,alex4 de ,humboldt et ,charles ,degenhardt1 #ahci 7in fol471 pp4 #b1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ah1 #bb4 ,pentland found fossil shells of the ,silurian formation in ,bolivia1 and on the ,nevado of ,antakana at the elevation of #ag1dhj feet4 7,see ,mary ,somerville's ,physical ,geography1 #ahdi1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahe47 ,footnote #abb3 p4 #djg--8,the point at which the ,andes-chain is intersected by the magnetic equator40 ,see my ,rlation ,hist4 du ,voyage aux ,rgions ,equinoxiales1 t4 iii4 p4 #fbb2 and ,cosmos1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aia1 #dcb2 where1 through errors of the press1 the longitude is in one place marked #dh #dj1 and in another #hj #dj1 whereas it ought to be #hj #ed4 ,footnote #abc3 p4 #dji--8,tedious court ceremonies40 ,conformably with an ancient ceremonial1 ,atahuallpa spat1 not on the ground1 but into the hand of a distinguished lady of the ,court circle4 8,this was done10 observes ,garcilaso1 8by reason of his majesty40 8,el ,inca nunca escupia en el suelo1 sino en la mano de una ,seora mui principal1 por ,magestad40 7,garcilaso1 ,comment4 ,reales1 p4 ii4 p4 #df47 ,footnote #abd3 p4 #daj--8;,captivity of ,atahuallpa40 ,the captive ,inca was1 at his own desire1 a short time before he was put to death1 conducted into the open air1 for the purpose of seeing a large comet1 described to have been of a greenish black hue1 and nearly as thick as a man's body2 78una cometa verdinegra1 poco menos gruesa que el cuerpo de un hombre10 ,garcilaso1 p4 ii4 p4 #dd74 ,this comet1 which ,atahuallpa saw shortly before his death1 7therefore1 in ,july or ,august1 #aecc71 he supposed to be the same comet of evil omen1 which had appeared at the death of his father ,huayna ,capac1 and was certainly identical with that observed by ,appian4,,se ,the comet was seen by ,appian1 on the #bast of ,july1 standing high in the north1 near the constellation of ,perseus2 and it appeared like a sword held by ,perseus1 in his right hand4,,sf ,the year in which the ,inca ,huayna ,capac died1 is considered by ,robertson not to be satisfactorily determined2 but the investigations of ,balboa and ,velasco shew1 that the event must have occurred about the end of #aebe4 ,the statements of ,hevelius 7,comtographie1 p4 #hdd71 and of ,pingr 7vol4 i4 p4 #dhe71 obtain additional confirmation from the testimony of ,garcilaso4 7p4 i4 p4 #cba17 and the traditions preserved among the ,amautas 78que son los filosofos de aquella republica074 ,i may here add the remark1 that ,oviedo is certainly incorrect in stating in the yet unpublished continuation of his 8,historia de las ,indias10 that the name of the ,inca was not ,atahuallpa1 but ,atabaliva4 ,see ,prescott's ,conquest of ,peru1 vol4 i4 p4 #dih4 ,footnote #abe3 p4 #daj--8;,ducados de ,oro10 7#c1hch1jjj golden ducats47 ,the sum mentioned in the text is that stated by ,garcilaso de la ,vega4,,sg ,on this subject1 however1 ,padre ,blas ,valera and ,gomera give different accounts4,,sh ,moreover1 it is difficult to ascertain the precise value of the ,ducado ,castellano or ,peso de ,oro4,,si ,the intelligent historian1 ,prescott1 has had the opportunity of consulting a manuscript1 bearing the promising title of 8,acta de ,reparticion del ,rescate de ,atahuallpa10 7,act of assessment for the ransom of ,atahuallpa74 ,the ,peruvian booty shared by the brothers ,pizarro and by ,almagro1 appears to be too highly estimated by ,prescott1 who says it amounted to #c1ejj1jjjl4 sterling1 but the ransom money1 the treasures of the different temples of the ,sun1 and of the ,huertas de ,oro1 were all included in that amount4,,sj ,footnote #abf3 p4 #dab--8,the great ,huayna ,capac1 who1 for a ,child of the ,sun1 was somewhat disposed to free-thinking40 ,the nightly disappearance of the sun excited1 in the mind of the ,inca1 many philosophic doubts respecting the government of the world by that luminary4 ,among the ,inca's remarks on this subject1 as recorded by ,padre ,bias ,valera1 are the following3--8,many maintain that the sun lives and is the creator and maker of all things 7el hacedor de todas las cosas72 but whosoever desires to do a thing completely must continue at his task without intermission4 ,now many things are done when the sun is absent1 therefore1 he cannot be the creator of all4 ,it may also be doubted whether the sun be really living1 for1 though always moving round in a circle1 he is never weary 7no se cansa74 ,if the sun were a living thing he would1 like ourselves1 become weary2 and if he were free1 he would1 doubtless1 sometimes move into parts of the heavens in which we never see him4 ,the sun is like an ox bound by a rope1 being obliged always to move in the same circle 7como una ,res atada que siempre hace un mismo cerco71 or like an arrow which can only go where it is sent1 and not where it may itself wish to go40 7,garcilaso1 ,comment4 ,reales1 p4 i4 lib4 viii4 cap4 #h1 p4 #bgf47 ,the ,inca's simple comparison of the circling movement of a heavenly body to that of an ox fastened by a rope is very curious1 owing to a circumstance which may be explained here4 ,huayna ,capac died at ,quito in #aebe 7seven years prior to the invasion of the ,spaniards71 and his empire was divided between ,huascar and ,atahuallpa4 ,now1 in the native language of ,peru1 the name ,huascar signifies rope1 and ,atahuallpa means a cock or a fowl4 ,instead of res ,huayna ,capac probably used the word signifying1 in his native language1 animal generally2 but1 even in ,spanish1 the word res is not applied exclusively to oxen1 but is employed to denote cattle of all kinds4 ,how far the ,padre1 with the view of weaning the natives from the dynastic service of the ,inca1 may have mingled passages from his own sermons with the heresies of the ,inca1 we need not here inquire4 ,that it was deemed very important to keep these doubts from the knowledge of the lower classes of the people is evident1 from the very conservative policy and the state maxims of the ,inca ,roca1 the conqueror of the province of ,charcas4 ,this ,inca founded schools exclusively for the higher classes1 and1 under heavy penalties1 prohibited instruction being given to the common people1 lest it should render them presumptuous1 and cause them to disturb the ,state4 7,no es licito que enseen los hijos de los ,plebeios las ,ciencias1 porque la gente baja no se eleve y ensobervezca y menoscabe la ,republica2 ,garcilaso1 p4 i4 p4 #bgf47 ,thus the theocracy of the ,incas may be said to have resembled the ,slave ,states in the free land of the ,north ,american ,union4 ,footnote #abg3 p4 #dae--8;,expected restoration of the ,inca rule40 ,i have treated this subject at length in another work4,,sk ,sir ,walter ,raleigh had heard of an old prophecy current in ,peru1 which foretold 8that from ,inglaterra those ,ingas shoulde be againe in time to come restored and deliuered from the seruitude of the said conquerors4 ,i am resolued that if there were but a small army afoote in ,guiana marching towards ,manoa1 the chiefe citie of ,inga1 he would yield her ,majesty by composition1 so many hundred thousand pounds yearely1 as should both defend all enemies abroad and defray all expenses at home1 and that he woulde besides pay a garrison of #cjjj or #djjj soldiers very royally to defend him against other nations4 ,the ,inca will be brought to tribute with great gladnes40,,sl ,a restoration project1 which promised to be highly satisfactory to both parties1 but1 unfortunately for the success of the scheme1 the dynasty which was to be restored and which was to pay for the restoration was wanting4 ,footnote #abh3 p4 #dah--8,the adventurous expedition of ,vasco ,nuez de ,balboa40 ,i have1 in another work1 mentioned the fact that ,columbus1 long before his death1 full ten years prior to ,balboa's expedition1 was aware of the existence of the ,south ,sea1 and its near proximity to the eastern coast of ,veragua4,,sm ,columbus was led to the knowledge of this fact1 not by theoretical speculations on the configuration of ,eastern ,asia1 but by positive and local information obtained from the inhabitants themselves1 information which he collected on his fourth voyage 7#aath ,may1 #aejb1 to the #gth ,november1 #aejd74 ,this fourth voyage led the ,admiral from the coast of ,honduras to the ,puerto de ,mosquitos1 and even as far as the western extremity of the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,the natives reported 7and ,columbus commented on their reports in the ,carta rarissima of the #gth of ,july1 #aejc71 8that not far from the ,rio de ,belen1 the other sea 7the ,south ,sea71 turns 7boxa7 to the mouths of the ,ganges2 so that the countries of the ,aurea 7i4e41 the ,chersonesus ,aurea of ,ptolemy7 are situated1 in relation to the eastern shores of ,veragua1 as ,tortosa 7at the mouth of the ,ebro7 is in relation to ,fuentarabia 7on the ,bidassoa7 in ,biscay1 or as ,venice in respect to ,pisa40 ,but1 although ,balboa first saw the ,south ,sea from the heights of the ,sierra de ,quarequa1 on the #beth of ,september1,,sn it was several days later before ,alonzo ,martin de ,don ,benito1 who had discovered a passage from the mountains of ,quarequa to the gulf of ,san ,miguel1 embarked on the ,south ,sea in a canoe4,,so ,the recent acquisition of the western coast of the ,new ,continent by the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 and the fame of the golden treasures of ,new 7now called ,upper7 ,california1 have rendered the question of forming a direct communication between the shores of the ,atlantic and the western regions1 by the isthmus of ,panama1 more urgent than ever4 ,i1 therefore1 consider it my duty here once more to direct attention to the fact1 that the shortest route to the shores of the ,pacific1 as pointed out by the natives to ,alonzo ,martin de ,don ,benito1 is in the eastern part of the ,isthmus1 and led to the ,golfo de ,san ,miguel4 ,we know that ,columbus,,sp sought for a narrow pass 7estrecho de tierra firme72 and in the official documents extant1 of the dates of #aeje1 #aejg1 and especially in that of #aead1 mention is made of the sought-for opening 7abertura71 and of the pass 7passo71 which1 in this district1 should lead directly to the 8,indian ,land of ,spices40 ,a channel of communication between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific1 is a subject which has more or less occupied my attention for the space of forty years2 and in my published works1 as well as in the several memoirs which1 with honourable confidence1 the ,free ,states of ,spanish ,america have requested me to write1 ,i have constantly recommended a hypsometrical survey of the ,isthmus throughout its whole length1 but more especially at two points1 viz41 where at ,darien and what was formerly the deserted province of ,biruquete1 it joins the ,south ,american ,continent1 and where1 between ,atrato and the ,bay of ,cupica1 on the shore of the ,pacific1 the mountain chain of the ,isthmus almost entirely disappears4,,sq ,in the year #ahbh and #ahbi1 ,general ,bolivar1 at my request1 caused the ,isthmus between ,panama and the mouth of the ,rio ,chagres to be accurately levelled by ,lloyd and ,falmarc4,,sr ,since that time1 other measurements have been executed by intelligent and experienced ,french engineers1 and plans have been drawn out for canals and railways with locks and tunnels4 ,but these measurements have invariably been made in the meridian direction between ,porto-bello and ,panama1 or westward from thence1 towards ,chagres and ,cruces4 ,the most important points of the eastern and south-eastern parts of the ,isthmus1 on both shores1 have in the meantime been overlooked4 ,until those parts shall be described geographically1 according to accurate 7but easily obtained7 chronometrical determinations of latitude and longitude2 and hypsometrically1 with reference to their superficial conformation1 by barometrical measurements and elevations1 ,i see no reason to alter the views ,i have always entertained on this subject4 ,accordingly1 at the present time 7#ahdi71 ,i here repeat the opinion ,i have often before expressed2 viz41 that the assertion is groundless and altogether premature1 that the ,isthmus of ,panama is unsuited to the formation of an ,oceanic ,canal--one with fewer sluices than the ,caledonian ,canal--capable of affording an unimpeded passage1 at all seasons of the year1 to vessels of that class which sail between ,new ,york and ,liverpool1 and between ,chili and ,california4 ,according to examinations1 the results of which the ,directors of the ,deposito ,hidrografico of ,madrid have caused to be inserted in all their maps since #ahji1 it appears that on the ,antillean shore of the ,isthmus1 the creek called the ,ensenada de ,mandinga1 stretches so far to the south that its distance from the ,pacific shore1 eastward of ,panama1 appears to be only between #d and #e ,german geographical miles 7#ae to an equatorial degree7 or #af to #bj ,english geographical miles4 ,on the ,pacific coast also1 the deep ,golfo de ,san ,miguel1 into which falls the ,rio ,tuyra1 with its tributary the river ,chuchunque 7,chucunaque71 runs far into the ,isthmus4 ,the river ,chuchunque too1 in the upper part of its course1 runs within #af geographical miles of the ,antillean shore of the ,isthmus1 westward of ,cape ,tiburon4 ,for upwards of twenty years ,i have been repeatedly consulted on the problem of the ,isthmus of ,panama1 by companies having ample pecuniary means at their disposal2 but in no instance has the simple advice ,i have given been followed4 ,every engineer who has been scientifically educated knows the fact that between the tropics1 even without corresponding observations1 good barometrical measurements 7horary variations being taken into account7 may be relied on as correct1 within from #ge to #if feet4 ,besides it would be easy to establish1 for the space of a few months1 one on each shore1 two fixed barometric stations2 and frequently to compare the portable instruments used in the preliminary levelling with each other1 and with those at the fixed stations4 ,the point demanding the most attentive examination is that where the range of mountains between the ,isthmus and the main continent of ,south ,america sinks into hills4 ,considering the importance of this subject to the commercial interests of the whole world1 the examination should not1 as heretofore1 be restricted within narrow bounds4 ,a complete comprehensive survey1 including the whole eastern part of the ,isthmus--the results of which would be alike useful in facilitating every possible scheme1 whether of canals or railroads--can alone decide the much discussed problem1 either affirmatively or negatively4 ,this work will in the end be undertaken1 but had my advice been adopted1 it would have been done at first4 ,footnote #abi3 p4 #dah--8;,impressions excited by the accidental circumstances of life40 ,in ,cosmos ,i have adverted to the incitements to the ,study of ,nature4 7,vol4 ii4 p4 #cga1 ,bohn's edition47 ,footnote #acj3 p4 #dbj--8,of importance in determining the longitude of ,lima40 ,at the time of my expedition the longitude of ,lima1 as determined by ,malaspina and marked in the maps published by the ,deposito ,hidrografico de ,madrid1 was #e;h #af #ec4 ,the transit of ,mercury over the ,sun's disc1 on the #ith of ,november1 #ahjb 7which ,i observed at ,callao1 the port of ,lima1 from the ,round ,tower of the ,fort of ,san ,felipe71 gave for ,callao1 by the mean of the contact of both limbs1 #e;h #ah #af #e2 by the external contact only1 #e;h #ah #ah 7#gi #cd #cj74 ,this result1 obtained from the transit of ,mercury1 has been confirmed by ,lartigue and ,duperrey2 and by observations made during ,capt4 ,fitzroy's expeditions of the 8,adventurer0 and the 8,beagle40 ,lartigue fixed the longitude of ,callao at #e;h #ag #eh2 ,duperrey made it #e;h #ah #af2 and ,capt4 ,fitzroy #e;h #ah #ae4 ,after having calculated the longitudinal difference between ,callao and the ,convent of ,san ,juan de ,dios at ,lima1 by carrying chronometers from the one place to the other during four journeys1 ,i found that the observations of the transit of ,mercury determined the longitude of ,lima to be #e;h #ag #ea 7#gi #bg #de ,w4 from ,paris1 or #gg #f #c ,w4 from ,greenwich47 ,see my ,recueil d'observations astron41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cig1 and ,relation hist41 t4 iii4 p4 #eib4 ,,potsdam1 ,june1 #ahdi4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,index4 ,abyssinia1 elevation of the mountains of1 #aaf1 #aah4 ,acaci1 various species of1 in ,south ,america1 #cjg2 of ,australia1 #cac4 ,accaouais1 tribe of the1 #ahd4 ,achaguas1 savage tribe of1 #aig4 ,acicular1 or needle-leaved trees1 natural history of1 and their extensive geographical diffusion1 #cad1 et seq42 varieties of1 #cbe1 #cbh4 ,aconcagua1 elevation of the volcano of1 #bje4 ,actini1 the1 #beb4 ,adansonia1 a colossal species of dragon-tree 7known as the ,baobab or monkey-bread tree71 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgc4 ,arial ,ocean1 the influence of its pressure on plants1 #bib1 #bie1 #bif4 ,africa1 extensive barren plains in the interior of1 #b2 deserts of1 uninhabitable by man1 #c2 ,oasis of1 #b2 deserts of described by ,herodotus1 #i2 causes of excessive heat1 #i2 mountains of1 #i2 ,northern ,africa one connected sea of sand1 #i1 #aaj2 character of its vegetation1 #aj2 two races of men separated by the great north desert1 #ai1 #adj2 nomadic tribes of1 #ej4 ,agouti1 the antelope of ,south ,america1 #ab4 ,aguas ,calientes1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,ahuahuetes1 a colossal species of tree1 #bgd4 ,air1 currents of1 on the vertical ascent of1 #bff2 influence of its pressure on plants1 #bib1 #bie1 #bif4 ,alders1 #bca4 ,allco1 a ,peruvian dog1 #bah4 ,alleghanys1 temperature of the1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,almond tree1 the ,bertholletia excelsa1 #aeh1 #agi4 ,aloes1 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbh1 #ccb2 various species of1 #ccd4 ,alpine regions1 elevation and temperature of1 #hd4 ,altai1 mountain plateau of1 #ec2 the mountain-chain of1 #fc1 #fd4 ,aluates1 the plaintive cry of the1 #aii4 ,amazon1 plain of the1 #f2 the wild luxuriance of its regions1 #ai2 called the 8,great ,river0 by the natives1 #aee2 its extent1 #aeg2 boundless wooded plain of the1 #afa4 ----1 ,upper1 plains of1 #cij2 breadth of1 at ,tomependa1 #dja4 ,amentace1 #aid1 #bhe4 ,america1 migrations to1 through ,northern ,asia1 #aa1 #aca2 absence of cereal food in1 #ab2 pastoral life unknown to the aborigines1 #ab2 on the cosmological origin of1 #aje2 the southern hemisphere cooler than the northern1 #ajg4 ----1 ,north1 inclination of the eastern shore1 #bi2 natural features and configuration of1 #ca-dj2 no pastoral tribes discovered among the aborigines1 #db2 on the climate and distribution of heat in1 #ajb et seq4 ----1 ,south1 the vast ,steppes of1 #f1 #h1 #he2 physical causes of the diminution of heat1 #g1 #if et seq42 presents a remarkable similarity to the south-western continent of the old world1 #h1 #aje2 character of its vegetation1 #aj2 aborigines of1 #aa2 cattle of1 #aa2 quadrupeds of1 #ab1 #acc2 the regions by which the ,steppes of1 are bounded1 #ai2 the wild luxuriance of nature1 #ai2 various races of man1 #bj2 mountain systems of1 #cj1 #ca2 forests of1 #ih2 general disquisition on the climate of1 #if-aji2 vast savannahs of1 #ih2 early civilization of1 #acj1 #aca2 limits of ,european civilization in1 #adj2 carved rocks found in1 #adg-aea2 the great rivers of1 #aee et seq42 different routes proposed in the unknown portions of1 #agg2 ,schomburgk's journey across the continent of1 #agf1 #agg2 the early maps of1 #aha2 their uncertainty1 #ahb2 immense extent of the woody region between the plains of ,venezuela1 and the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 #aid2 the vegetable kingdom of1 as yet imperfectly explored1 #bib-bid2 ,humboldt's journey across1 from ,caxamarca to the ,pacific1 #cic-dbj4 ,ammon1 temple of1 #b2 nomos of1 #dd2 the probability of its having stood on the sea-shore1 #bfd4 ,ammonites1 found on the ,andes1 #djc4 ,amucu1 lake of1 #aei1 #agi1 #ahd1 #ahe2 where situated1 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,amygdale1 #ie4 ,anai1 village of1 #ahg4 ,andes1 chain of the1 #ca2 the seat of active volcanos1 #dc2 inhabited by the ,spanish race1 #aib2 chain of1 in ,bolivia1 various elevations of the1 #bje2 sojourn on the ridge of the1 #bij2 paramos of the1 #bib2 ,humboldt's journey across1 from ,caxamarca to the ,pacific ,ocean1 #cij-dbj2 elevation of1 at the ,paramo del ,assuay1 #cic2 succession of ,paramos1 #djg2 picturesquely marked by masses of erupted porphyry and trachyte1 #djc2 marine fossils found #ab1hjj feet above the level of the sea1 #djc2 illustrative notes of the1 #dba2 derivation of1 #dbc2 the point where they are intersected by the magnetic equator1 #djg1 #dbi4 ,animal kingdom1 great divisions of the1 #bbb4 ,animal life existing in the solitudes of the loftiest mountains1 #baj2 in the atmosphere1 in the waters1 and the earth1 #baa-bad4 ,animalcules of the atmosphere1 the water1 and the earth1 #baa-bad4 ,animals which yield milk1 #aa1 #abe1 #abf2 of ,south ,america1 #ab1 #acc2 struggles and conflicts of1 #ag2 on the hybernation of1 #bdb1 #bdc2 domestic1 inquiry respecting the origin of1 #eb2 nocturnal life of1 in the primeval forests of ,south ,america1 #aia et seq42 traits of1 #aih1 #aii2 various cries of1 #aii1 #bjj2 illustrative notes1 #bjb4 ,antilles1 sea of the1 #bc2 springs among the islands of the1 #aee1 #agd2 inhabited by the ,spanish race1 #aia4 ,antisana1 mountainous plain of1 #ag2 great elevation of1 #aci2 cavern of1 its great elevation1 #bcg2 volcano of1 #cga4 ,anurahdepura1 the sacred fig-tree of1 #bge4 ,aparecidas las islands so called1 #bd4 ,apes1 the foreboders of rain1 #bj1 #ada2 nocturnal cry of1 #aii1 #bjc4 ,aposentos de ,mulalo1 of the ,andes1 #cic1 #dbc4 ,apure1 ,river1 steppes of the1 #f2 observations on1 #aid4 ----1 ,llanos de1 temperature of1 #acg4 ,aqueducts1 of the ,peruvians1 #cih4 ,aragua1 valley of1 #bd4 ,arborescent vegetation1 #cbb4 ,aristolochia1 immense blossoms of the1 #bcj1 #cdh4 ,armadillo1 of ,south ,america1 #ab4 ,arum cordifolium1 vital heat of the1 #ccj4 ,arundinaria1 #ahj4 ,ascaris1 #bac1 #bea4 ,asia1 ,central1 contains the largest steppes in the world1 #c1 #d1 #id2 the mountain plateaux of1 #ec-fb2 table of elevations1 #eh2 general review of the mountain chains of1 #fc-gc2 the volcanos of1 distant from the sea1 #fe2 vegetation of the steppes of1 #ie4 ,astr1 the1 #bec4 ,atabapo1 the river1 #aei2 blackness of its water1 #afj4 ,atahuallpa1 the ancient fortress and palace of1 #djh-daa2 his captivity1 #daj1 #dbi2 historical notices of1 #daa et seq42 death of1 and the appearance of a comet1 #dbi2 his descendants at ,caxamarca1 #aa1 #daa-dac4 ,ataruipe1 cave of1 the tomb of an extinct tribe1 #aga1 #ahh2 numerous skeletons found1 #aga1 #agb4 ,atlantic ,ocean1 northern waters of1 agitated by a gyratory movement1 #abj-abb2 form of a longitudinal furrowed valley1 #aed1 #agd2 calmness of its surface in certain latitudes1 #aed1 #agd4 ,atlantic and ,pacific1 immense advantages to be derived from a communication1 #dcc4 ,atlantis1 ,island of1 #ee4 ,atlas1 ,mount1 covered with perpetual snow1 #i2 inhabitants to the north of1 #ai2 ,greater and ,lesser1 remarks on1 #hh1 #hi2 elevation of1 #hi2 on the position of the ,atlas of the ancients1 #aaj-aac4 ,atmosphere1 animalcules of the1 #baa2 the influence of its pressure on plants1 #bbb1 #bie1 #bif4 ,atolls 7coral-walls71 situation of1 #bed2 origin of1 #bei2 process of formation of1 #bfb4 ,atures1 cataracts of the1 #aec et seq42 general account of1 #afb et seq4 ----1 the brave ,indian tribe1 melancholy legend of1 #agb2 verses on the parrot of1 #ahi4 ,australia1 ,acacias1 ,myrtace1 and ,casuarin1 the principal vegetable forms of1 #cac4 ,auvergne1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,avars1 early migration of the1 #e4 ,avenacec1 #abh4 ,axum1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,azteks1 ruins of the fortress of the1 #abg2 seat of the1 #bjg2 relics of civilization found1 #bjg2 pyramidal buildings of the1 #cih4 ,badger1 hybernation of the1 #bdd4 ,balboa1 ,vasco de1 his adventurous expedition over the ,south ,american ,continent1 #dah1 #dcb4 ,balch ,pass1 elevation of the1 #gi4 ,bambusace1 one of the most beautiful ornaments of tropical climates1 #ccd1 #cce4 ,bananas1 #bba2 one of the plants by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbd1 #bbg2 cultivated from the earliest infancy of civilization1 #cje4 ,banisterias1 #agc4 8,banks10 of steppes1 probably the marine shoals of the primeval world1 #a1 #bf2 phenomena of1 explained1 #bg2 composed of floetz strata1 #bh2 immense tracts of1 in the deserts of ,africa and ,asia1 #bh4 ,banyan-tree1 colossal size of1 #bge4 ,baobab1 colossal dimensions of the1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,baraguan1 narrow pass of1 #afb4 ,barjikang ,pass1 elevation and vegetation of the1 #gh4 ,basalt1 formation of1 #bah4 ,bats of the ,south ,american steppes1 #ae4 ,bavaria1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh4 8,bay of ,sadness10 #aee4 ,bear1 hybernation of the1 #bbd4 ,bees1 discovered at the summit of the ,rocky ,mountains1 #cc4 ,befaria1 the purple-flowering1 #bc4 ,beke1 on the ,mountains of the ,moon1 #aae1 #aaf4 ,bengal1 bay of1 an arrested effort of ,nature to form an inland sea1 #bed4 ,bertholletia excelsa1 colossal size of1 #aeh1 #agi4 ,bignonia1 #agc4 ,binimi1 fatal expedition to1 #ahh4 ,birds1 hybernation of1 #bdb2 the ratio of their numerical distribution1 #bhh4 ,bison1 of ,north ,america1 #dj-db4 ,bixa ,orellana1 pigment of1 #aga4 ,black ,sea4 ,see ,euxine4 ,boa-constrictor of the ,orinoco1 #bj1 #adb2 periodic torpidity of1 #bdc4 ,bolivia1 geographical observations on1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,bolson de ,massimi1 el1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,bombace1 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbd4 ,botany4 ,see ,plants and ,vegetation4 ,bougainvilla1 new and beautiful species of1 #djj1 #dja4 ,brahmins1 geographical notions of the1 #fg4 ,branco ,river1 #agh1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,buenos ,ayres1 situation and temperature of1 #aji4 ,buffalo1 of ,south ,america1 #aa1 #abe1 #abf2 of the ,mississippi1 #dj-db4 ,butterflies1 on the summit of ,mont ,blanc and on the ,chimborazo1 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,cacao1 ,montes de1 #aid-bjb4 ,cactus1 the1 #ae1 #ach2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbe2 indigenous to ,america1 #caj2 its natural history1 #caa1 #cab4 ,caladium1 belongs exclusively to tropical climates1 #cbi4 ,california1 mountain coast-range of1 #cf1 #cg2 volcanos still active in1 #cg2 its golden treasures1 and the advantages of the discovery1 #dcc4 ,cameji1 on the ,orinoco1 #afc2 mouth of the1 #aff4 ,camel1 8the ship of the desert10 #c1 #ea2 great utility of the1 #ea2 natural history of the1 #eb1 #ec4 ,camosi1 rock of1 #afe4 ,canada1 monument discovered in the prairies of1 #hb4 ,caar1 fortress of1 #cid1 #dbd4 ,canaries1 inhabited by the ,spanish race1 #aia4 ,caouac1 the food of the ,indians1 #ade4 ,cape ,nun1 situation of1 #ic4 ,cape ,town1 situation and temperature of1 #aci4 ,capybara1 of the ,orinoco1 #aih4 ,caracas1 alpine valleys of #a1 #b1 #d2 the vast steppes of1 #f2 littoral chain of1 #bb2 a mountainous region1 #bc2 sugar-cane of1 #bf2 ,llanos of1 #bf1 #id2 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,carguairazo1 volcano of1 falling in of the summit from an eruption1 and curious phenomenon1 #cfg4 ,caribbean ,gulf1 #a4 ---- ,islands1 disintegration of the1 #bc4 ,carichana1 ,indian mission of1 #afa4 ,carolinias1 #afj4 ,carpathian ,mountains1 general features of the1 #dj4 ,casas ,grandas1 ruins of an ,aztek palace1 #abf4 ,caschmere1 valley of1 #fi4 ,cassiquiare1 the river of1 #aei1 #afj4 ,cactace1 #ach4 ,castille1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,casuarine1 #bba2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbf2 the principal vegetable form of ,australia1 #cac1 #cad2 physiognomy of the1 #ccj4 ,cataracts of the ,orinoco1 dissertation on the1 #aci et seq42 illustrative notes to1 #agd-aij4 ---- of ,maypures and ,atures1 general account of1 #afb et seq4 ,cattle of ,south ,america1 #aa1 #abe2 vast quantities of1 in the ,pampas of1 #ad1 #acg4 ,caura1 sources of the1 #afb4 ,causeways of the ,inca road over the ,andes1 #cid1 #dbd4 ,caxamarca 7the ancient capital of the ,inca ,atahuallpa71 ,humboldt's journey over the plateau or table-land of1 #cij-dbj2 the scene of the sanguinary history of the ,spanish conquest1 #djc2 originally called ,cassamarca1 the 8,city of ,frost10 #djg2 fertile valley of1 #djg2 general description of1 #djh2 ancient fort and palace of ,atahuallpa1 #djh-daa2 descendants of the ,inca resident at1 #daa-dae2 ,humboldt's departure from1 #dae2 and arrival at the ,pacific1 #dai2 illustrative notes on1 #dba-dcf4 ,cayos ,flamenco1 ,bonito1 c4 coral islands of1 #beg4 ,celaya1 elevation of the1 #bjh4 ,central fire of the earth connected with volcanic eruptions1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #cfj1 #cfa1 #cgb4 ,cereals1 on the culture of1 #abh1 #abi4 ,cerro ,duida ,river1 #agh4 ,cervus ,mexicanus1 #acc4 ,cesalpine1 #bbj4 ,chagos ,bank1 formed of coral1 #bed1 #bee4 ,chamaya1 ,rio de1 #cii1 #djj1 #dja2 fall of its waters1 #djj1 #dbg4 ,chasars1 early migration of the1 #e4 ,cherson1 situation and temperature of1 #ajd4 ,chiguires1 herds of1 in ,south ,america1 #ab1 #ace4 ,chihuahua1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,chimborazo1 elevation of1 #dc2 butterflies and other winged insects found on the summit of1 #baj1 #bcb2 peculiar colour of the water flowing from1 #afj2 elevation of the four peaks1 ,pomarape1 ,gualateiri1 ,parinacota1 and ,sahama1 #bjd2 the vertical height1 #bcd2 probable derivation of the name1 #bcd2 defined as 8the snow of ,chimbo10 #bce2 the name probably transmitted from a bygone age1 #bce4 ,chinchilla1 the1 #bcc4 ,chinchon1 ,countess de1 biographical notices of1 #cij1 #dbb4 ,chinese1 ancient orographic knowledge of the1 #ef4 ,choropampa1 plain of1 #djf4 ,chota1 ruins of1 #bjd2 silver mines of1 #djb1 #djc4 ,cidaris1 species of1 #djc4 ,cinchona1 its first discovery and medical virtues1 #cij1 #dbb2 its habitat and natural history1 #cia4 ,cinchona bark hunters1 #bha4 ,civilization1 limits of1 in ,south ,america1 #ai1 #adj2 and remains of1 #bjg2 progressive stages of1 #cih2 in ancient ,mexico and ,peru1 #dbe4 ,climate1 of ,south ,america1 #g2 general disquisition on1 #ie et seq42 of ,north ,america1 #ajj et seq42 forms the various characteristics of nations1 #bai4 ,climbing plants1 #cca1 #ccb4 ,coast ,reefs1 situation of1 #bec4 ,cochabamba1 ,cordilleras of1 #hd4 ,cocuyza1 el ,mogote de1 rock of1 #afa4 ,clebogyne1 germination of the1 #bde4 ,colossochelys1 #bbb4 ,columbia1 cataracts and shores of the1 #cg4 ,columbus1 his voyage through the fucus banks of the ocean1 #di1 #ej2 his first discovery of the new continent1 #aef1 #age1 #dcb2 his observations on the equinoctial currents1 #age4 ,composit1 numerical relations of the1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhf2 numerous species of1 #bia4 ,condor1 the giant among vultures1 #baj1 #bcg2 various names of the1 #bcg2 its native region1 #bcg2 immense altitude to which it soars1 #bcg1 #bch2 its habits1 #bci2 mode of capture1 #bci4 ,conifer1 #aid1 #bba2 on the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbg2 their extensive geographical diffusion1 #cad1 #cbb1 #cbc1 et seq4 ,coral animals1 labours of the1 #bad4 ---- animalcules1 wonderful formation of1 #beb et seq42 depth at which they can exist1 #bei4 ---- ,islands1 #beg4 ---- ,reefs1 natural history of1 #bec1 #beg et seq4 ,corals1 the greatest number in the gean ,sea1 #bei2 various forms of1 in the ,red ,sea1 #bee4 ,cordilleras1 of ,south ,america1 vast extent of1 #db2 names of the highest points1 #dc2 of ,cochabamba1 #hd2 of ,peru1 #baj2 deserts of the1 #cic2 remains of the great road of the ,incas across the1 #cic4 ,corentyn ,river1 exploration of the1 #aej4 ,cormolache1 mountain of1 #djd4 ,cosiquiriachi1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,cosmos1 quoted4 ,see ,humboldt4 ,creeping ,plants1 #bbg1 #cca4 ,crescentia1 delicate blossoms from the rough bark1 #bcj1 #cdh4 ,crocodile1 of the ,orinoco1 #bj1 #adb1 #aih2 periodic torpidity of1 #bdc4 ,crotalus1 the1 #bea4 ,crucifer1 #ie1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,cryptogamia1 #bae2 wonderful regermination of the1 #bda2 numerical distribution of1 #ccg4 ,cumadanimari1 hills of1 #afd4 ,cumana1 expedition to1 #aha4 ,cunabami1 mountain group of1 #afb4 ,cupilifer1 their geographical distribution1 #cbb4 ,curata1 the ,indian name of the colossal grass of ,south ,america1 #ahj4 ,curare1 an ,indian poison1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,curtius1 ,professor1 his verses on the ,parrot of the ,atures1 #ahi4 ,cuzco1 the capital of the ,incas of ,peru1 #cie2 ancient fortress of1 #cig1 #cih4 ,cyathea speciosa1 #cch4 ,cyclidi1 the1 #bac4 ,cynometia1 delicate blossoms spring from the rough bark1 #cdh4 ,cyperace 7,cypresses71 #id1 #ie1 #bca1 #bhd2 gigantic forms of1 #cbf4 ,date ,palms1 geographical situation of1 #big1 #cjb4 ,dead1 ,indian method of preserving the1 #aga4 ,dead ,sea1 specimens of the ,porites elongata from the1 #bfj4 ,delf and ,pottery1 remains of1 found in ,south ,america1 #bjg4 ,deserts1 general view of1 #a et seq42 of ,africa1 #b1 #c2 probable causes of their sterility1 #aj2 of ,northern ,africa1 #aaj4 ,see ,steppes4 ,dhawalagiri1 elevation of the1 #fh1 #ga1 #bcf4 ,dicotyledons1 numerous species of1 #bib4 ,diodorus1 his traditions respecting the primeval formation of the ,mediterranean and of ,samothrace1 #bfb1 #bfc4 ,dicious ,plants1 fructification of1 #bdd1 #bdf4 ,djawahir1 elevation of the1 #fi1 #ga4 ,djebel-al-,komr1 the ,mountains of the ,moon1 #i4 ,dogs1 wild1 herds of1 in ,south ,america1 #he2 objects of ,indian adoration1 #he2 natural history of1 #hf-hh4 ,dolphins of the ,orinoco1 #aii1 #bjb4 ,dorado1 fabulous1 #ahe1 #ahh4 8,dormideras10 the name of1 applied to certain plants1 #id4 ,dormouse1 hybernation of the1 #bdc4 ,dragon ,tree1 colossal dimensions of the1 #bbj1 #bfh et seq42 its habitats1 #bfh2 its prodigious age1 #bfi1 #bgj4 ,dragon's ,mouth1 at the entrance of the ,orinoco1 #aee1 #age4 ,drought of the ,steppes1 #ad1 #ae2 effects of the change from1 #af1 #aci4 ,duida1 the mountain of1 described1 #aeh4 ,durango1 in ,mexico1 elevation of1 #bfh4 ,earth1 the food of the ,otomaks and other ,indians1 #adb-adf2 on the indurating and heat-emitting mass of the1 #bah1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,earthquake1 submersion of a forest by an1 #bh2 evidence of subterranean fire communications1 #cfj2 of #ahaa and #ahac1 which shook the various parts of the ,new ,continent1 #bfj4 ,eels1 electric1 #ag2 mode of capturing1 #ah2 experiments on1 #aac4 ,egypt1 once overflowed by the sea1 #bfd2 left uncovered by the retreat of the ,mediterranean1 #bfd4 ,el ,dorado1 the fable of1 #aei4 ,elater ,noctilucus1 phosphorescence emitted from the1 #bej4 ,elbow ,lake1 situation of1 #dj4 ,electric ,fishes1 #bdh4 ,electricity1 operations and extent of1 #ai1 #adj4 ,elements1 perpetual struggle of the1 #chg4 ,elias1 ,mount1 an active volcano1 #cg4 ,elysian ,plains1 of the ancients1 #aaa4 ,encaramada1 engravings on the rock of1 #afd4 ,engravings on the rocks of central ,america1 #adg1 #adh2 on the rocks of ,uruana and ,encaramada1 #afd4 ,ephedra1 the different species of1 #cbh4 ,epicharmus1 the philosopher of ,syracuse1 his illustrations of vital force from the painting of the 8,rhodian ,genius10 #chc-che4 ,equinoctial ,current1 observations on the1 #age4 ,eratosthenes1 geographical views of1 #fg4 ,ericace1 #cjh1 #caj2 the vegetable covering of the earth's surface1 #aaj1 #bbe4 ,see ,heaths4 ,escalloni1 of the family of the ,eriace1 geographical distribution of1 #cdd4 ,esmeralda1 town of1 #agf1 #agi4 ,esquimaux4 ,see ,indians4 ,euglenes1 the1 #bac4 ,euphorbiace1 #aig1 #bde1 #bhe4 ,euxine1 primeval outburst of the waters of1 #bfb2 originally an inland lake1 #bfc2 forced the passage of the ,dardanelles1 #bfc2 extract from ,strabo1 recording the primeval convulsion of its waters on the authority of ,strato1 #bfc4 ,fan ,palms of ,south ,america1 #ab1 #ac1 #ace1 #acf4 ,fair ,weather1 ,mount1 an active volcano1 #ch4 ,ferns1 growth of1 in different climates1 #ajh2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbi1 #ccg-cdj2 numerical relation and geographical distribution of1 #bhj1 #ccg2 climatic relations under which they flourish1 #cci1 #cdj4 ,fish1 the swimming-bladder of1 #bea4 ,flamingoes1 multitudes of1 #aig4 ,floetz1 strata of1 #a4 ,flora ,japonica1 curious properties of the1 #cbj4 ,forests of ,south ,america1 #ai1 #ih2 plants composing the1 #bhj4 ---- primeval1 on the nocturnal life of animals in the1 #aia et seq42 between the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 #aic2 definition and description of1 #aic2 the ,spanish word ,monte applied both to a forest and a mountain1 #aic2 between the plains of ,venezuela and ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 immense extent of1 #aid2 of ,europe and ,northern ,asia1 #aid2 impenetrability of some portions of1 #aie2 illustrative notes1 #bjb4 ,fort ,george1 situation and temperature of1 #ajd4 ,fossils1 ,marine1 found on the ,andes1 #djc1 #dbh4 8,fountain of ,youth10 fatal expedition to discover the1 #ahh4 ,frmont1 ,captain1 geographical investigations of1 #bi1 #cb2 lofty peak called after his name1 #cb1 #cc4 ,fresnillo1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,frogs1 vitality of1 under water1 #bdb4 ,fucus1 immense size of the marine ,macrocystis pyrifera1 #bgf2 banks of the ocean1 #dg-ej4 ,galapagos1 the1 #bef4 ,gallinazos1 different species of1 #bci2 appreciated for their utility1 #bdj4 ,gallionell1 #bab4 ,gambia1 the river1 #c4 ,gebette ,river1 #agi4 ,geneva1 situation and temperature of1 #ajd4 ,geognostic 7or ,geological7 profiles1 #cc4 ,gerard1 ,dr41 his visit to ,shahil ,pass1 #gf4 ,gila ,river1 delf and pottery found on the banks of1 #bjg4 ,globe1 primeval1 distribution of land and water different from the present1 #afd4 ,glumace1 #ie2 numerical relation of the1 #bgi1 #bhc1 #bhd4 ,gobi1 ,steppe of1 #e1 #eh2 elevation of1 #ei4 ,gomphrenas1 #bad4 ,gonzales1 ,juan1 shipwrecked1 #agb4 ,gothard1 ,mont1 height of1 #ce4 ,gottenburg1 situation and temperature of1 #ajd4 ,gramine1 #id1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,granite1 masses of leaden-coloured1 #ai1 #ada2 turned black by the waters of the ,orinoco1 #afc1 #afd4 ,grasses of the ,steppes1 #af2 farinaceous1 culture of1 #abh2 colossal stalks of a species of1 #aeh1 #ahj2 arborescent1 #bba2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbh1 #ccd-ccg4 ,greeks1 extent of their maritime discoveries1 #aaa4 ,grossulariace1 #caj4 ,guaharibes1 waterfall of the1 #aeh4 ,guaicas1 tribe of the1 #aeh4 ,guainia1 the river1 #aei1 #afj4 ,gualgaya1 argentiferous mountain of1 #djd2 value of silver obtained from1 #dje4 ,guamani1 ,paramo de1 #dag4 ,guanaco1 of ,south ,america1 #abf4 ,guanaxuato1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,guancabamba1 ,rio de1 #cih2 the swimming couriers of1 #cii1 #djj4 ,guanches1 race of the1 #ea4 ,guangamarca1 ,andes pass of1 #dag1 #dah4 ,guaranes1 a tribe of ,south ,america1 #ab1 #ac1 #acd1 #ace4 ,guareke ,indians1 savannahs inhabited by the1 #afc2 melancholy legend of the1 #agb2 their extinction1 #agb2 skeletons and skulls of1 #agb4 ,guaviare1 the river1 #aei1 #afj4 ,guayaquil1 ,rio de1 peculiar blackness of its water1 #afj4 ,guaycas1 ,indians1 #agh4 ,guiana1 the granitic stones of1 #aee2 impenetrable forests of1 #afa2 method of preserving the dead among the tribes of1 #aga2 observations on the coast of1 #agf4 ,guinea1 negroes of1 eat earth1 #ade4 ,guirion1 mission of1 #ahb4 ,gulf-stream of ,mexico1 #aba-abd4 ,gustavia1 delicate blossoms spring from the rough bark1 #bcj1 #cdh4 ,gymnotus1 the electric eel1 #ag2 mode of capturing1 #ah2 experiments on1 #aci4 ,hami1 oasis of1 #fb4 ,hanno1 ,periplus of1 #aac4 ,harudsch1 desert near the mountains of1 #b2 basaltic mountains of1 #dd2 geological features of1 #de4 ,heat1 physical causes for the diminution of in ,south ,america1 #g2 general disquisition on1 #if et seq42 of ,north ,america1 #ajc et seq42 of the interior of the earth1 #cgc1 #cgi4 ,heaths1 of northern ,europe1 may be regarded as steppes1 #b4 ----1 7,ericace71 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of nature is principally determined1 #bbe2 the habitats and natural history of1 #cjh1 #cji4 ,hedgehog1 hybernation of the1 #bab4 8,hell's ,mouth10 the whirlpool so called1 #afb4 ,hermesia castanifolia1 #aig1 #bjb4 ,herodotus1 has described the deserts of ,northern ,africa1 #i4 ,herrera1 his observations on the voyage of ,columbus1 #aef1 #age4 ,hesperides1 of the ancients1 #aaa4 ,hillhouse1 ,mr41 navigates the ,massaruni1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,himalaya1 estimated height of the1 #cb2 mountain plateau of the1 #ed2 the mountain chain of1 #fc1 #fh2 observations of various travellers1 #gj2 general elevation of1 #ga2 on the perpetual snow-line of the1 #gd4 ,hindoo-,coosh1 situation of the1 #fg4 ,hiongnu1 a tribe of ,eastern ,asia1 #eb1 #hj1 #ha4 ,hobart ,town1 situation and temperature of1 #aji4 ,hordace1 #abh4 ,horse1 the constant attendant of man1 #ag2 everywhere exposed to attack1 #ag4 ,huancaya1 canine worship of the ,indians of1 #he4 ,huayna ,capac1 of the family of the ,incas1 #dab1 #dcj1 #dca4 ,humboldt1 ,alexander von1 his journey over the plateau or table-land of ,caxamarca to the shores of the ,pacific1 #cij-dbj 7see ,caxamarca72 illustrative notes of the journey1 #dba-dcf4 ----1 works of1 referred to in various notes2-- ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 #aeb1 #bgh4 ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 #bje1 #bee1 #beh1 #cbh4 ,asie ,centrale1 #ei1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi1 #ga1 #gc1 #hi1 #ia1 #ig1 #ii1 #aac1 #bcd1 #bfj4 ,cosmos1 #da1 #di1 #ec1 #gc1 #aad1 #aah1 #abd1 #bfe1 #bgc1 #cjc1 #cje1 #cdf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,de ,distributione geographica plantarum1 #bgh1 #bif1 #cjd1 #cch1 #cdc4 ,essai ,politique sur la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 #ca1 #cd1 #cg1 #dc1 #hh1 #bjf1 #beg1 #cje1 #cjf1 #dcj1 #dcd4 ,essai sur la ,gographie des ,plantes1 #hd1 #abi1 #acf1 #ach1 #bgg1 #bha1 #cje1 #cjf4 ,examen ,critique de l',histoire de la ,gographie1 #cb1 #dh1 #ej1 #hh1 #acd1 #bcf1 #bfe1 #bga1 #caf1 #cbb4 ,fragment d'un tableau gologique de l',amrique ,mridionale1 #bc4 ,letter to the ,editor of the ,annalen der ,physik und ,chemie1 #bdi4 ,mmoire sur les ,montagnes de l',inde1 #ec4 ,mmoire sur les ,lignes ,isothermes1 #hg4 ,nouvelles ,annales des ,voyages1 #ahe4 ,recueil d',observations ,astronomiques1 #bcd1 #bch1 #dbh4 ,recueil d',observations de ,zoologie et d',anatomie ,compare1 #bd1 #aci1 #ada1 #bjc1 #bcg1 #bea4 ,relation ,historique du ,voyage aux ,rgions quinoxiales1 #bi1 #bi1 #df1 #dh1 #hb1 #he1 #acc1 #acd1 #acg1 #aci1 #ada1 #add1 #adg1 #aeb1 #ahj1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bdb1 #bej1 #bfi1 #cje1 #ccf1 #cch1 #dcb1 #dcd4 ,sur la ,fixation des limites des ,guyanes ,franaise et ,portuguaise1 #agh4 ,treatise on the ,quina ,woods1 #dbc4 ,uber die gereizte ,muskel- und ,nervenfaser1 #bie4 ,vues des ,cordillres et ,monumens des ,peuples indignes de l',amrique1 #aca1 #bcf1 #bfi1 #dbd1 #dbe4 ,humming-birds1 seen at an elevation of #ad1fjj feet1 #bcg4 ,huns1 early migration of the1 #e2 various races of1 #hj1 #ha4 ,hybernation of animals1 #bdb1 #bdc4 ,hydras1 the1 #beb4 ,hyla1 of the ,amazon1 #f4 ,hymene1 #bbj4 ,hypsometric observations on the heights of mountains and their peaks1 #bjd-bji4 ,illimani ,peaks1 situation and elevation of1 #bjd4 ,inca roads of ,peru1 remains of1 #cic-cig1 #dbd2 flights of steps1 #cie1 #dbd4 ,inca ,roca1 ,state policy of1 #dca4 ,incas of ,peru1 their early conquest of ,quito1 #bcf2 ancient fort and palace of the1 at ,caxamarca1 #djh-daa2 descendants of1 #daa-dac2 treasures taken from their temples by the ,spaniards1 #daj1 #dcj2 their worship of the ,sun1 #dcj1 #dca2 expected restoration of their ancient rule1 #dae1 #dcb4 ,see ,atahuallpa4 ,india1 mountain plateaux of1 #ee4 ,indians1 driven on the coast of ,germany1 #abd2 of the ,orinoco1 method of preserving their dead1 #aga4 ,infusoria1 vital tenacity of1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdd2 marine1 luminosity of the1 #bdg et seq4 ,insect life in the atmosphere1 the ocean1 and the earth1 #baa-bad4 ,insects1 carried to an elevation of #ai1jjj feet above the plains1 #bcb1 #bcc4 8,inundation1 the ,valley of10 #ahc4 ,ipomucena ,islands1 #ahg4 ,ipurucotos1 tribe of the1 #ahb4 ,islands formed of coral reefs1 #beg4 ,italian scenery1 #baf2 sky1 #bag4 ,jagua ,palm1 beauties of the #cib4 ,jaguar1 of ,south ,america1 #ab2 traits of the1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig4 ,jainti-dhra1 elevation of the1 #hj4 ,jao1 sources of the1 #afb2 mouth of1 #afd4 ,japan1 history of the peopling of1 #ab1 #aca2 the character of its vegetation different from that of the ,asiatic continent1 #cbj4 ,jardin des ,plantes1 at ,paris1 rich collections of the1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,jardines del ,rey1 #beg4 ,jarures1 race of the1 #bj4 ,juncace1 #ie1 #bhe4 ,kalmuck-,kirghis tribes1 extensive steppes occupied by1 #c4 ,kashmir1 valley of1 its elevation1 #ei4 ,keeling-,atoll1 a coral lagoon1 #bee4 ,keri1 rocks of1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe4 ,kinchinjinga1 the highest point of the ,himalaya1 #fh4 ,kuen-ln1 the mountain plateau of1 #ec2 the mountain chain of1 #fc1 #ff1 #fg4 ,kyllyngi1 the steppes covered with1 #af4 ,kyungar ,pass1 elevation and vegetation of1 #gi4 ,labiat1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,lagoon ,islands1 #bed2 hypothesis respecting1 #bfa4 ,lagos1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,lake ,istaca1 sources and elevation of1 #dj4 ---- ,superior1 its elevation1 #ci4 ,lakhur ,pass1 ascent to the1 #hj4 ,lama1 of ,south ,america1 #abf4 ,landscape-painters1 leading forms of vegetation1 instructions to1 #cdf4 ---- painting1 on the beauties of1 as derived from the vegetable kingdom1 #cdf1 #cdg4 ,languages1 variety of1 in the ,south ,american wilds1 #bj2 changes in the terms of1 #aia2 in language truth to nature should be the chief object1 #aib4 ,latent life1 disquisition on1 #bdb1 #bdc4 ,lecide1 #aj1 #abe4 ,leguminos1 #bhj1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,lemaur1 ,don ,f41 his trigonometrical survey of the ,bahia de ,xagua1 #agd4 ,lepidosiren1 periodic torpidity of1 #bdc4 ,leprari1 the1 #bad4 ,leucopria1 #bac2 modulata1 #bea4 ,lianes1 or creeping plants1 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbg1 #cca4 ,lichens1 #aj1 #abe4 ,liliace1 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is chiefly determined1 #bbi1 #cda4 ,lima1 observations for determining the longitude of1 #dbj1 #dce1 #dcf4 ,limande1 of the ,orinoco1 #bjc4 ,lions1 of ,south ,america1 #ab2 nocturnal roar of1 #aii2 not to be found in the ,sahara1 #ij4 ,lithodendra1 the1 #bec4 ,lithophytes1 the1 #bad1 #bea et seq4 ,llanos of ,south ,america1 #b2 the great plains of the1 #g2 extent of1 #h2 adapted for breeding cattle1 #aj2 have become habitable to man1 #ac1 #ad2 extension of1 #bb2 of ,caracas1 #bf1 #bg1 #id2 elevation of1 #bg2 of ,barcelona1 #bh2 effect of1 on the mind1 #bh2 general observations on1 #bi2 of the valley of the ,amazon1 #hc2 situated in the torrid zone1 #hh2 de ,apure1 temperature of1 #acg2 extensively overflowed by the ,orinoco1 #ahe4 ,lffling's expedition to ,cumana1 #aha4 ,london's ,arboretum1 c41 quoted1 #bgc4 ,loxa1 town of1 #cij4 ,luminosity of sea-water1 #bdf2 attributed to ,mollusca1 #bdg et seq4 ,lupata1 ,cordilleras of1 covered with eternal snow1 #i2 mountain range of1 #abj4 ,lyctonia1 ancient land of1 #bfe1 #bff4 ,macos1 race of the1 #bj4 ,macrocystis pyrifera1 a species of marine fucus1 colossal size of1 #bgf4 ,macusi ,indians1 religious traditions of the1 #adg4 ,madagascar ,river1 hedgehogs and tortoises of1 #bdb1 #bdc4 ,madrepores1 the1 #bec4 ,magdalena ,river1 called 8,the ,great ,water10 by the natives1 #aee2 valley of1 #daf4 ,magellan1 straits of1 the temperature of1 #ajg4 ,magnetic needle1 physical effects of the sudden variations of the1 #bdi4 ,mahu ,river1 description of the1 #ahf4 ,majonkong ,indians1 mountainous country of the1 #agf1 #ahj4 ,malvace 7,mallows71 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbd2 its various families1 #cje1 #cjf2 on the natural history of the1 #cjf4 ,mammalia1 the ratio of their numerical distribution1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,man1 various races of1 in the ,south ,american wilds1 #bj1 #adb2 his ferocity in a savage state1 #bj1 #aea2 discordant elements of1 even in civilized life1 #ba2 everywhere is man opposed to man1 #ba2 the monuments of his creative genius pass away1 while the life-springs of ,nature remain eternal1 #agc4 ,manco ,capac1 his mysterious appearance in ,peru1 #cig4 ,manimi1 perilous cataract ledges of1 #aff4 ,mapires1 the coffins of the ,indians1 #aga4 ,maps1 of ,south ,america1 #aha4 ,maquitares1 race of the1 #bj4 ,mar de ,sargasso1 geographical situation of1 #dh4 ,maraon1 valley of1 #djb4 ,maravaca1 mountain of1 #agi4 ,marmot1 the1 #bcc4 ,massaruni ,river1 navigated1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,mastodons1 elephantine1 #bbb4 ,matter1 vital force of1 affinitive and repulsive1 #chc2 various combinations of1 #chd1 #che4 ,mauritia-palms of ,south ,america1 #ab2 useful and nutritious properties of1 #ac1 #ace1 #acf4 ,maypures1 cataracts of1 #aec et seq42 general account of the waterfalls of1 #afb1 et seq42 missionary village of1 #afc2 ,parrot of1 #agb4 ,mediterranean1 great catastrophe by which it was formed1 #baf1 #bfb-bfe2 ,strato's account of1 #bfc4 ----1 three peninsulas of the1 ,iberian1 ,italian1 and ,hellenic1 #bfe4 ,medusa hysocella1 electric light struck from the1 #bdi4 ,mehemet ,ali1 his exploring expeditions to the ,mountains of the ,moon1 #aag4 ,melastomace1 #afj2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbi1 #cdf4 ,melocactuses1 the1 #ae1 #ach1 #bbf2 vegetable springs1 #cab4 ,meta1 whirlpool and rock at the entrance of the1 #afa4 ,mexican ,gulf1 rotatory stream of the1 #aba-abd2 coral islands in the1 #bef4 ,mexico1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh2 elevation of1 in the equinoctial zone1 #bjh2 general elevation of1 #bji2 the ,conifer and oaks of1 #cae et seq4 ,microscope1 wonderful discoveries of the1 #baa4 ,migrations1 through northern ,asia to the western coast of ,america1 #aa1 #aca4 ,mimosas1 the steppes of ,south ,america covered with1 #af1 #baf2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbd2 the habitat and natural history of1 #cjg1 #cjh4 ,mirage1 deceptive appearances of the1 #ac1 #acg4 ,mississippi1 its sources and elevation1 #ci2 the forest1 prairies of1 #dj2 temperature of the valley of the1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,missouri1 deposits of the1 #ch4 ,mris1 ,lake1 probably once connected with the sea1 #bdd4 ,mollusca1 marine luminosity of the1 #bdf1 #bdg et seq4 ,monad1 question respecting the1 #bda4 ,mongolian ,steppe1 in ,central ,asia1 #d1 #ai ,monkeys of ,south ,america1 cries of1 #aii1 #bjc4 ,monocotyledons1 numerous species of1 #bab4 ,moon1 natural representations of1 #afe4 ----1 ,mountains of the1 #i2 disquisition on1 #aad1 #aae4 ,mont ,blanc1 #baj4 ,monte1 the term1 in ,spanish1 applied both to mountain and forest1 #aid4 ,monte ,video1 situation and temperature of1 #ajd4 ---- ,nuovo1 in the ,peloponnesus1 #cef4 ,mouflon1 the long-horned1 of ,south ,america1 #aa4 ,mountains1 of ,south ,america1 system of1 #cj1 #ca2 plan for measuring the heights of1 #cc2 vast range in ,north ,america1 #ce-ch2 the ,cordilleras the longest chain in the world1 #db1 #dc2 plateaux of ,asia1 #ec-fb2 table of elevations1 #fh2 general view of the great mountain chains of ,asia1 #fc-gc2 on the snow-lines of1 #gc et seq42 masses of1 in ,south ,america1 #hd2 numerous terms for1 in the ,castilian dialects1 #aia1 #bjb2 the names of1 derived from the most ancient relics of languages1 #bcf2 transparency of the atmosphere of1 #bch2 process of their formation1 #bfb4 ,mule1 instinctive cunning of the1 for allaying his thirst1 #ae4 ,musk ,ox1 of ,south ,america1 #aa1 #abe2 of the ,mississippi1 #dj4 ,muyscas1 the ancient inhabitants of ,new ,granada1 #dbe2 civilization of1 #dbf4 ,mylodon robustus1 #bbb4 ,myrtace 7,myrtles71 #agi1 #bhj2 of ,australia1 #cab2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbi1 #cdc-cde4 ,mysore1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,naiads1 the1 #bac4 ,nations1 characteristics of1 formed by climate1 #bai4 ,natron ,lakes1 of ,egypt1 #dd4 ,nature1 the study of1 conducive to intellectual repose1 #ba2 her powerful influence in the regions of the tropics1 #aed1 #bae2 the life-springs of1 ever prolific and eternal1 #agc2 the many voices of1 revealed in animal existence1 #bjj-bja2 periodic stagnation of #bae2 great convulsion of1 in the ,mediterranean1 #baf1 #bfb-bfe2 general physiognomy of1 #bah1 #bai2 principally determined by sixteen forms of plants1 #bba2 vital force of1 illustrated by ,epicharmus1 #chc-che4 ,negroes1 various hordes of1 in ,africa1 #ai4 ,nemterequeteba1 the ancient ,peruvian 8messenger of ,god10 #cig1 #dbe1 #dbf4 ,nevado de ,sorata1 immense elevation of1 #dc4 ---- de ,illimani1 elevation of1 #dc4 ---- situation and elevation of peaks1 #bjd4 ,new ,granada1 the ancient seat of civilization1 #dbe1 #dbf2 the native land of the potato1 #dbf1 #dbg4 ,niagara1 origin of the falls of1 #afe4 ,nile1 on the sources of the1 #aae-abi2 windings of1 in ,abyssinia1 #aeg4 ,noon-day1 the stillness of in the tropics1 contrasted with the night1 #bjj2 all larger animals then take refuge in the forest1 #bja4 ,oaks1 cover the mountain plains of the equator in ,south ,america1 #bca2 immense size and age of an oak in the department of ,charente1 #bge2 elevated situation of1 growing in ,mexico1 #ace4 ,oases1 of the ,african desert1 #b1 #c2 number of1 in ,egypt1 #dd2 the name of1 ,egyptian1 #de4 ,ocean1 vegetation of the1 #dh1 #di2 phosphorescence of the1 #bab1 #bde4 ,ocellin1 the1 #bec4 ,oco1 rock of1 #afc4 ,opuntiace1 #caj4 ,orange ,river1 its elevation1 #eh4 ---- trees1 number and magnitude of1 in the ,huertas de ,pucara1 #djj4 ,orchide1 natural history of the1 #cab1 #cac2 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbf1 #bbg4 ,oregon1 territory of1 #ce2 temperature of1 #ajd4 ,orinoco1 the wild luxuriance of its regions1 #ai2 rock engravings on the banks of1 #hb2 the great steppe extending from the mouth of the1 #ha2 accounts of the cataracts of1 #aec et seq42 the name unknown in the interior of the country1 #aee2 simply called 8the river10 #aee2 current produced by the1 #aee2 the mighty waters of poured into the ,atlantic1 #aef2 general description of1 #aeg et seq42 its general course and remarkable windings1 #aei2 picturesque rocky vales of1 #afa2 its course along the chain of the ,parime1 #afa1 #afb2 separates the forest of ,guiana from the extensive savannahs1 #afb2 danger to boatmen from floating forest trees1 #afb2 possesses the singular property of colouring black the reddish masses of granite1 #afc1 #afd2 on the sources of the1 #aeh1 #age1 #agf1 #agh1 #ahj2 the ancient water level considerably depressed1 #afd2 illustrative notes1 #agd-aij2 passes through the mountains of the ,parime1 #bjj4 ,orotava1 colossal dragon-tree of1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,orphic ,argonaut1 mythical narrations of1 #bfe4 ,otaheiti1 sugar cane of1 #be4 ,otomacs1 or ,ottomaks1 a tribe of ,indians who eat earth1 lizards1 c41 #bj1 #adb1 #adc2 observations on1 #add1 #ade2 the poison curare used by1 #aea4 ,ox1 the constant attendant of man1 #ag2 everywhere exposed to attack1 #ag4 ,pacaraima ,mountains1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ----1 latitude of1 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,pachydermata1 #bbb4 ,pacific ,ocean1 first view of1 from the ,guangamarca of the ,andes1 #dai2 immense advantages to be derived from a direct communication with the ,atlantic1 #dcc4 ,paco1 of ,south ,america1 #abf4 ,padano ,river1 #agf1 #agi4 ,padurello1 #bab4 ,palms of ,south ,america1 #ab1 #ac1 #ace1 #acf1 #bih2 the ,piriguao1 one of the noblest forms of the1 #afa1 #ahe2 the family of1 #bba2 the most stately of all vegetable forms1 by which the aspect of nature is principally determined1 #bbc2 on the habitat and natural history of1 #big-cjd2 form and colour of the fruit1 #cjc4 ,pampa de ,navar1 #djf4 ,pampas of ,south ,america1 #b2 general observation on1 #bi4 ,panama1 ,isthmus of1 various measurements of1 #dcd1 #dce4 ,paragua1 a general name for water or sea1 #aic4 ,paraguamusi ,river1 #ahc4 ,paramo de la ,suma ,paz1 the mountain group of the ,caracas1 its elevation1 vegetation1 c41 #d1 #hd2 the highest ,alpine regions1 #hc1 #id2 of the ,andes1 in ,peru1 elevation and description of1 #cib1 #djg4 ,paramu ,river1 #agf4 ,parasitic vermes1 #bea4 ,parime1 mountain chain of the1 #afa1 #afb1 #bjj2 the terra incognita of ,south ,america1 #agh2 the lake of1 alleged to be the source of the ,orinoco1 #aha1 ,zabulon1 #ahg2 a general name for water or sea1 #ahc2 the great ,mar de la1 proved to be the ,lake ,amucu1 #ahh4 ,paropanisus1 the snow-crowned summits of #aee1 #age4 ,parras1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,paspalum1 the steppes covered with1 #af4 ,passo del ,norte1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,pastos1 ,province de los1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,peccary1 tracts of the1 #aig4 ,pentastoma1 #bac2 a division of the parasitic vermes1 #bea4 ,peru1 remains of the great road formed by the ,incas1 #cic-cig4 ,periplus of ,scylax1 #df4 ,peru1 ,pizarro's invasion of1 #cie1 #cig2 historical notions of1 #cig2 treasures taken from the temples of1 by the ,spaniards1 #daj1 #dcj2 ancient worship of the sun1 #dcj1 #dca4 ,petrifactions1 wonderful phenomena presented by the study of1 #cgc4 ,phanerogamic plants1 #bbj1 #bcc1 #bgf2 immense variety of1 #bgf-bgh2 numerical relations of #bgi et seq4 ,philippines1 inhabited by the ,spanish race1 #aia4 ,phnicians1 extent of their discoveries1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,phosphorescence of the ocean1 #bab1 #bde4 ,photocharis1 luminosity of the1 #bdg4 ,phyllodia1 #cde4 ,phyto-corals1 #beb1 #bec4 ,pinduri1 perpetual snow-line of the1 #gg4 ,pine forest at ,chilpanzingo1 #cbh1 #cbi2 of ,south ,america1 #aid1 #bca2 elevated situation of some growing in ,mexico1 #cae2 various species of1 in ,europe1 #cah2 their geographical distribution1 #cba2 gigantic forms of1 #cbc-cbe4 ,pinnate leaves1 physiognomy of1 #ceb4 ,piragua1 mouth of the1 #aff4 ,pirara ,river1 course of the1 #ahf4 ,pirigara1 singular properties of the1 #cdh4 ,piriguao1 one of the noblest species of palm-trees1 #afa1 #ahe4 ,pizarro's invasion of ,peru1 #cie1 #cig4 ,plains1 desert1 of ,africa1 #b2 vast extent of1 #c2 of ,asia1 #d4 ,plains4 ,see ,steppes1 ,llanos1 c4 ,plantains1 one of the plants by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbd1 #bbg2 immense one in ,lycia1 #bgb4 ,plants1 various species of1 in the great ,asiatic ,steppes1 #d2 different characteristics of1 in ,africa and ,south ,america1 #aj2 on the cultivation of1 in elevated plateaux1 #fb2 in the ,llanos of the ,caracas1 #id2 the farinaceous grasses1 #abh2 ideas on the physiognomy of1 #baj-bca2 illustrative notes1 #bcb-ceb2 universality of their existence1 #bad2 causes of the absence of1 over large tracts of land1 #baf1 #bag2 sixteen forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bba-bbi et passim2 ,palms1 #bbc2 ,plantains1 or ,bananas1 ,malvace and ,bombace1 #bbd2 ,mimosas1 ,heaths1 #bbe2 ,cactuses1 ,orchide1 ,casuarine1 #bbf2 ,conifer1 ,pothos1 ,lianes1 #bbg2 ,aloes1 ,grasses1 #bbh2 ,ferns1 ,liliace1 ,willows1 ,myrtace1 ,melastomace1 and ,laurine1 #bbi2 on the numerous species of ,phanerogamia1 and their extensive geographical distribution1 #bgf-bid2 illustrative notes on the various forms of plants which principally determine the aspect of ,nature1 #bif-cdf et passim2 as yet imperfectly explored in ,south ,america1 #bib-bid2 gigantic pines and cypresses1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbf2 beauties of the aspect of1 #cdf1 #cdi2 general view of the physiognomy of1 #cdi-ceb2 on the similarity of vegetative forms1 #cea4 ,in addition to the plants above enumerated1 the following which occur passim1 are referred to under their respective alphabetical entries3-- ,acaci1 ,alders1 ,amentace1 ,amygdale1 ,aristolochias1 ,arundaria1 ,bambusace1 ,banyans ,bignonias1 ,carolinas1 ,caladiums1 ,csalpina1 ,composit1 ,crescentia1 ,crucifer1 ,cryptogamia1 ,cupulifer1 ,custace1 ,cyace1 ,cynometia1 ,cyperace1 ,dici1 ,dicotyledons1 ,ephidi1 ,ericace1 ,escallone1 ,euphorbiace1 ,fucus1 ,glumace1 ,gustavia1 ,hymene1 ,juncace1 ,labiat1 ,leguminos1 ,melastomas1 ,melocactus1 ,monocotyledons1 ,oaks1 ,opuntiace1 ,phyllodia1 ,pinifer1 ,polypodiace1 ,portulace1 ,rosace1 ,rubrace1 ,saxifrage1 ,synanthere1 ,terebinthace1 ,theobroma1 ,tiliace1 ,umbellifer1 ,urtice1 ,yews1 c4 ,plata1 ,steppes of1 #f4 ,plateaux1 mountain1 of ,mexico1 general elevation of1 #bji2 of ,caxamarca1 ,humboldt's journey over the1 #cij-dbj2 of ,asia1 #ec-fb2 table of elevations1 #eh4 ,pleuronectes1 a species of sea-fish1 #bfj4 ,pliny's account of the eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius1 #cfi1 #cgj4 ,podocarpus taxifolia1 its geographical distribution1 #cbb4 ,poison1 used by the ,otomaks1 #aea1 #aeb4 ,polygastrica1 #bab4 ,polypodiace1 family of the1 #cch4 ,polyps1 natural history of the1 #bec4 ,pompeii buried by an eruption of ,vesuvius1 #cfi4 ,pongo ,river1 #dja1 #djb4 ,pontus4 ,see ,euxine4 ,popayan1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,popocatepetl1 volcano of1 #fe4 ,porites elongata1 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,porlieria hygrometrica1 #dja4 ,port ,famine1 situation and temperature of1 #aji4 ,portulacas1 #bad4 ,potato plant1 the native produce of ,new ,granada1 #dbf1 #dbg4 ,pothos1 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbg1 #cbi2 belongs exclusively to tropical climates1 #cbi4 ,prairies on the ,missouri1 #b4 ,primeval ,forest4 ,see ,forest4 ,pumacena1 the island of1 #aei4 ,pumice1 volcanic origin of1 #cfi4 ,purimarimi1 perilous cataract ledge of1 #aff4 ,quad-,dra1 the river1 its course through the ,sahara1 #ib4 ,quadrupeds of ,south ,america1 #ab1 #acc2 of the ,mississippi1 #dj4 ,queretaro1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,quina ,bark and ,tree1 notices of1 #dbc4 ,quito1 plateau of1 its elevation1 #eh2 the first conquest of1 by the ,incas of ,peru1 #bcf2 the table-land of1 one volcanic hearth1 #cfj2 one of the capitals of the ,incas1 #cif4 ,rafflesia1 immense flowers of the1 #bca4 ,rain1 general effects of1 after drought in the ,steppes1 #af1 #ach4 ,rattlesnake1 vermes which inhabit the lungs of the1 #bea4 ,raudal1 the cataract of1 #afe2 dangerous navigation of1 #aff4 ,red ,sea1 coral reefs in the1 #bee4 ,reinaud1 ,m41 on the ,mountains of the ,moon1 #aae4 ,remora1 the sucking fish1 an agent for catching turtle1 #beg1 #beh4 8,rhodian ,genius10 dissertation on the mysterious painting so called1 #chj-che2 the principles of vital force illustrated from1 by ,epicharmus1 #chc2 illustrative note1 #chf-chi4 ,rhopala ferruginea1 #dja4 ,rio de la ,plata1 its magnitude1 #aef4 ,rivers1 effects of1 overflowing their banks1 #ag2 of ,south ,america1 #aef2 of the ,caracas1 the peculiar blackness of the water1 #afj2 a generic name for1 usually adopted by those inhabiting their banks1 #ahc2 the only means of traversing the continent of ,south ,america1 #aie2 the names of1 derived from the most ancient relics of languages1 #bcf4 ,roads1 remains of the great road of the ,incas1 #cic-cig4 ,rocca del ,palo1 the highest northern margin of the crater of ,vesuvius1 #cgf4 8,rock of ,patience10 at the entrance of the ,river ,meta1 #afa4 ,rocks of ,south ,america1 images graven in1 #bj1 #adg1 #adh4 ,rocky ,mountains1 estimated height of1 #cb2 extent of1 #ce2 observations on the1 #bje1 #bjf4 ,rome1 temperature of1 #ajh4 ,rose ,tree1 great size and longevity of one in the ,cathedral of ,hildesheim1 #bge1 #bgf4 ,rosace1 growing in the ,asiatic ,steppes1 #d1 #ie2 ratio of their distribution1 #cba4 ,rotation ,stream of the ,atlantic1 #abj-abb4 ,rotifera1 wonderful revivification of the1 #baa1 #bdj1 et seq4 ,rubiace1 #bhj1 #bhe4 ,rupunuri1 ,lake of1 #ahg4 ,sabrina1 sudden appearance of1 attributed to volcanic subterranean fire1 #cfj4 ,sacramento ,river in ,california1 #bjg4 ,sahama1 elevation of the1 #bje4 ,sahara1 the great desert of1 two races of men separated by the1 #ai1 #adj2 disquisition on1 #hi-ic2 traverses ,africa like a dried-up arm of the sea1 #aaj4 ,st4 ,bernard1 ,mount1 height of1 #ce4 ,salamanca1 in ,mexico1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,salt ,lake1 ,great1 #bjf4 ,saltillo1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,samarang1 edible clay of1 #adf4 ,samothrace1 traditions of1 #baf1 #bfb1 #bfe2 aborigines of1 #bfb2 position of1 #bfb4 ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo1 #afa4 ,san ,juan del ,rio1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,san ,luis ,potosi1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,sanariapo1 on the ,orinoco1 #afc4 ,sand-martin1 hybernation of the1 #bdb4 ,sand-spouts1 fury of1 when passing over the steppes1 #ad1 #acg1 #bff4 ,santa ,barbara de ,arichuna1 mission of1 #aih4 ,santa ,f del ,nueva ,mexico1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,sapajous1 nocturnal cry of the1 #aii4 ,sarcoramphus ,papa1 the1 #bdj4 ,saussure1 growing on the ,asiatic steppes1 #d4 ,savannahs of ,south ,america1 #ih2 on the borders of the ,orinoco1 #afb2 inhabited by the ,guareke ,indians1 #afc2 overflowed in ,april1 #ahg4 ,saxifrage1 #bcc4 ,schomburgk1 ,sir ,r41 his antiquarian researches in ,south ,america1 #adg-aea2 his observations on the sources of the ,orinoco1 #agf2 his journey across the continent of ,south ,america1 #agg2 his account of the ,lake of ,amucu1 #ahf4 ,sculptured rocks1 in ,south ,america1 #adg-aea4 ,sea1 on the uniformity of its level1 #bfd1 #bfe4 ,sea-coasts1 length of time before vegetation appears on the1 #aj4 ,sea-water1 on the phosphorescence of1 #bde2 attributed to luminous mollusca1 #bdf1 #bdg4 ,sea-weeds1 phenomenon of their accumulation on the western coast of ,africa1 #ef2 of the ocean1 #dg-ej4 ,seeds1 transferred to barren rocks1 #bad4 ,senegal1 inhabitants to the south of1 #ai4 ,serpents1 periodic torpidity of1 #bdc4 ,shtl ,pass1 elevation of1 #gf4 ,sierra ,nevada of ,california1 observations on the1 #bje1 #bjf2 situation of1 #bjg4 ,sierra ,parime1 mountain-chain of the1 #bb4 ,silao1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,silla1 ascent to the summit of the1 #bcb4 ,silver1 value of1 obtained from the mines of ,gualgayoc and other ,peruvian mountains1 #dje4 ,simplon1 ,mount1 height of1 #ce4 ,sipapo1 on the ,orinoco1 #afc4 ,sisgun1 elevation of the plain of1 #bcd4 ,sitka1 situation and temperature of1 #ajd4 ,siwah1 oasis of1 #dd4 ,snow1 mountains eternally covered with1 #i4 ,snow-line of mountains1 #gc et seq42 of the ,himalaya1 #bcf4 ,solano1 ,don ,jos1 documents of1 #aha4 ,spanish race1 inhabitants of parts of the ,andes1 the ,canaries1 the ,antilles1 and the ,philippines1 #aib4 ,springs from the bed of the ocean1 #aee1 #agd2 which rise from different depths1 dependent on internal heat1 #cgc-cgi4 ,stag1 a native of ,south ,america1 #acc4 ,stars1 glorious spectacle of the1 at the ,equator1 #bca1 #cdi4 ,steppes and ,deserts1 general view of1 #a-ba2 in the ,caracas1 #a2 sterility and monotony of1 #b2 the heaths of northern ,europe may be regarded as such1 #b2 in the interior of ,africa1 #c1 #i2 in central ,asia the largest in the world1 #c2 covered with various plants and herbs1 #d2 have retarded civilization1 #e2 of ,south ,america1 #f et seq42 of ,africa1 causes of their sterility1 #aj2 towns sprung up on the rivers of1 in ,south ,america1 #ad1 #acg2 fury of the whirlwinds passing over the1 #ad2 drought of the1 and mirage1 #ae2 genial effects of rain after drought1 #af1 #ach2 like a vast inland sea1 #ag1 #aci2 the view of the regions by which they are bounded in ,africa and ,america1 #ai1 #adj2 illustrative notes to the article on1 #bb-abe2 tracts of1 covered with naked rock1 #bh2 of northern ,asia1 #eg2 extending from the mouth of the ,orinoco1 #hc2 of ,central ,africa1 #id1 #ie2 vegetation of1 #ie2 the different features of1 in ,africa and ,asia1 #aec2 various terms for expressing in the ,arabic and ,persian languages1 #aia1 #bjb2 of ,south ,america1 may be regarded as mere local phenomena1 #baf4 ,strachey1 ,lieut41 his observations on the snow-line of the ,himalaya1 #gd4 ,strato1 his statement respecting the primeval convulsion of the waters of the ,mediterranean and the ,euxine1 #afc4 ,strychnos1 an ,indian poison1 #aeb4 ,stylites1 seat of the1 #ac1 #acf4 ,sugar-cane1 varieties of the1 #bd1 #be1 #bf4 ,sun1 worship of1 by the ,peruvians1 #dcj1 #dca4 ,sun and ,moon1 representations of1 on the rocks of the ,orinoco1 #afe4 ,swimming couriers of the ,rio de ,guancabamba1 #cii1 #djj4 ,swiss scenery1 #bag4 ,sydney1 situation and temperature of1 #aji4 ,synanthere1 #ie4 ,syracuse1 the painting of 8,the ,rhodian ,genius0 at1 #chj-che4 ,tacarigua1 lake of1 #a2 its surrounding scenery and vegetation1 #bb4 ,tapir1 traits of the1 #aig4 ,tartar steppes1 #d4 ,tay1 an animal of ,california1 #abg4 ,taxus baccata1 peculiar properties of1 #cbj4 ,teboco1 rocky falls of1 #ahe4 ,teguayo1 ,lake of1 #bjg4 ,temi1 the river1 blackness of its water1 #afj4 ,temperatures1 mean annual1 of ,south ,america and ,europe1 tables of1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,teneriffe1 ,peak of1 the volcano1 #cga1 #cgi4 ,tepu-mereme1 carved rock of1 #adh4 ,terebinthiace1 #bhj4 ,terra del ,fuego1 temperature of1 #ajh4 ,terra-firma1 coast of1 #bc4 ,theobroma1 delicate blossoms spring from the roots1 #bcj1 #cdh4 ,theobroma ,cacao1 of ,south ,america1 #bf4 ,thian-schan1 the mountain-chain of1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff4 ,thibet1 mountain plateau of1 #ee2 elevation and geographical situation of1 #fj plains of1 #fa4 ,tibbos1 nomadic tribes of ,africa1 #ej4 ,tiger1 ,american1 traits of the1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig2 its nocturnal roar1 #aii4 ,tiliace1 #aid4 ,timpanogo1 ,lake of1 supposed to be the ,great ,salt ,lake1 #ce2 longitude of1 #bjf4 ,titicaca1 ,lake of1 elevation of the plateau of1 #eh4 ,tomependa1 town of1 on the ,andes1 #dja1 #dbh4 ,tomo1 island of1 #afd4 ,toparo1 on the ,orinoco1 #afc2 mouth of the1 #aff4 ,tortoises1 periodic torpidity of1 #bdc4 ,trees1 immense size and antiquity of1 #bga-bgf2 on the relation existing between the annular rings and their age1 #bgd2 natural families of1 #bgd2 heights to which they grow1 #cbg4 ,trinidad1 asphaltic island of1 #aee2 originally torn from the mainland1 #age4 ,tropical winds favourable to the mariner1 #aed1 #agd4 ,tropics1 beauties of evening scenery1 #agc2 contain every variety and magnitude of vegetable forms1 #bag1 #bca4 ,tuamini1 the river1 blackness of its water1 #afj4 ,tuaryks1 nomadic tribes of ,africa1 #ej4 ,tukiuish1 an ,asiatic tribe1 #e4 ,tula1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,tundra1 the name of cryptogamic plants in the arctic regions1 #ie1 #if4 ,turtle1 curious mode of catching1 by means of the sucking-fish1 #beg1 #beh4 ,tuyu1 a bird of ,south ,america1 #f4 ,tzana1 lake of1 its elevation1 #eh4 ,uivitari1 island of1 #afc1 #afe4 ,umbellaria ,grnlandica1 #bff4 ,umbellifera1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,ummibida1 ruins of1 #dd4 ,uniami1 mountain of1 #afc4 ,ural chain of mountains1 #fc4 ,uraricapara river1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,urns used for preserving the ashes of the dead1 #aga1 #agb4 ,urtice1 #bde4 ,uruana1 engraving on the rocks of1 #afd4 ,valencia1 lake of1 #bd4 ,vanilla form of the ,orchide1 #agc1 #bbf1 #bcj2 the fragrant1 #bcj4 ,vapour1 the precipitation of1 #bag1 #bff4 ,vegetation1 length of time before it fixes itself on the sea coast1 #aj2 different characters of1 in ,africa and ,south ,america1 #aj2 natural history of the vegetable covering of the earth1 #bad2 vegetation most exuberant in the tropics1 #bag1 #bbj1 #bca2 entire families of1 #bba2 the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bba-bbi2 their numerical relations and geographical distribution1 #bgf et seq42 ratio of distribution1 #bhe2 as yet imperfectly explored in ,south ,america1 #bib-bid2 the leading vegetable forms instructive to the landscape painter1 #cdf2 general view of1 #cdi-ceb2 similarity of vegetable forms1 #cea4 ,see ,plants4 ,venezuela1 littoral chain of1 #bb2 its extent and elevation1 #bb2 description of1 #bc4 ,vermes1 parasitical1 #bea4 ,vesuvius1 elevation of1 and various measurements of the margins of the crater1 #cfc1 #cgf1 #cgg2 great eruptions of1 #cfd-cff1 #cfh et seq42 ,rocca del ,palo1 the highest northern margin of the crater of1 #cgf1 #cgg2 measurement of the ,punta ,nasone1 and of the ,hermitage of ,salvatore1 #cgg2 height to which the scori rise from the bottom of the crater1 #cgh4 ,vilfa1 species of1 #bcb4 ,villa de ,leon1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,vital force1 dissertation on1 #chj-chi2 illustrated by ,epicharmus from the painting of the 8,rhodian ,genius10 #chc2 symbols of its existence and extinction1 #chd2 definition of1 #chf2 illustrative note1 #chf-chi4 ,viverr1 a native of ,south ,america1 #ab1 #acd4 ,volcanos1 still active in the ,californian chain of mountains1 #cg1 #ch2 of ,aconcagua1 #bje2 of the interior of ,asia and of the ,new ,world1 #fe2 general view of their structure and mode of action in different parts of the earth1 #cec-cge2 previous to the eighteenth century1 all our knowledge derived from observations of ,vesuvius and ,etna1 #cee2 sudden volcanic fissures in various parts of the earth1 #cef1 #ceg2 various heights of1 #ceh2 craters of elevation1 the importance of1 #cei2 various groups of1 with fire-emitting mouths1 #cei2 the table-land of ,quito one immense volcanic hearth1 #cfj2 the subterranean fire progressive from north to south1 #cfj2 earthquakes evidence of subterranean volcanic communication1 #cfj1 #cfa2 elevation of ,vesuvius1 and various measurements of the margins of the crater1 #cgc1 #cgf1 #cgg2 great eruptions of1 #cfd-cff1 #cfh et seq42 in the chain of the ,andes1 penetrate above the snow-line1 #cfg2 caused the lofty summit of ,mount ,carguairazo to fall in1 when the whole surrounding country was covered with mud and fishes1 #cfg2 volcanic origin of pumice1 #cfi2 ,pompeii buried by an eruption of ,vesuvius1 #cfi2 ,pliny1 account of1 #cfi1 #cgj2 the summits of upheaved masses of trachyte and lava1 #cgj2 ,peak of ,teneriffe1 #cga2 sudden appearance and disappearance of1 #cga2 what generates the heat of1 #cgb-cgd2 volcanic phenomena the result of connection between the interior and exterior of our planet1 #cgc2 illustrative notes of1 #cgf-cgh4 ,waraputa1 cascade of1 #adi4 ,wada-dhra1 elevation and vegetation of1 #gi4 ,water1 peculiar blackness of some of the ,south ,american rivers1 #afj4 ,west wind1 phenomenon of its prevalence on the ,african coast1 #df4 ,western currents of the ocean favourable to the mariner1 #aed1 #agd4 ,wha-satch mountains1 #bjg4 ,wheat1 first culture of1 in ,new ,spain1 #acj4 ,wheel animalcules1 wonderful revivification of the1 #baa1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,white ,sea1 myth of the1 #ahe4 ,willows1 one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of ,nature is principally determined1 #bbi1 #cca1 #cdb4 ,words1 changes in the meaning of1 #aia4 ,worms1 immense variety in the depth of the waters1 #bab4 ,xagua1 gulf of1 springs of fresh water in the1 #agd4 ,yanaguanga1 paramo of1 #djg4 ,yaruros1 savage tribe of1 #aig4 ,yew1 its geographical distribution1 #cbb2 its great longevity1 #bgc4 ,yucatan1 architectural remains in1 #aca1 #acb4 ,zacatecas1 elevation of1 #bjh4 ,zahara1 phenomenon of the west winds on the ,african coast attributable to1 #df4 ,zambos1 tribe of the1 #aig4 ,zoophytes1 the calcareous1 #bea4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,harrison ,,and ,,son1 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,lane4 ----- ,footnote ,a3 ,to instance a few1 see pp4 #bda1 #bde1 #bee1 #bei1 #cjd1 #cbj1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #chf1 #dbb1 #dbd4 ,footnote ,b3 ,these lines are from ,schiller's ,bride of ,messina1 as translated by ,a4 ,lodge1 ,esq4 ,see ,schiller's works 7,bohn's ed47 vol4 iii4 p4 #eji4 ,footnote ,c3 ,it is not intended in every instance to trouble the reader with duplicate measurements2 but they will be introduced occasionally4 ,wherever only one measurement is given1 it must be understood as ,english4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,d3 ,the ,huns1 on being driven from their ancient pastures by the ,chinese1 traversed ,asia1 7#acjj leagues17 and1 swelled by the numerous hordes they conquered en route1 entered ,europe1 and gave the first impulse to the great migration of nations4 ,deguires traces their progress with geographical minuteness1 and ,gibbon tells their story with his usual eloquence in ,chap4 ,,xxvi4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,e3 ,this effect is well represented in ,grindlay's ,scenery of the ,western ,side of ,india1 plate #ah4--;,,ed4 ,footnote ,f3 ,modern naturalists affirm that all bats are insectivorous4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,g3 ,ipsa su meminit stirpis1 seseque ,deisque ,mens fruitur felix1 et novit in astra reverti4 ,barclaii ,argenis1 lib4 v4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,h3 ,examen critique de l',hist4 de la ,gographie1 t4 iii41 pp4 #ajd-ajh4 ,footnote ,i3 ,see my ,observations de ,zoologie et d',anatomie compare1 t4 ii41 pp4 #agi-aha4 ,footnote ,j3 ,relation ,hist41 t4 ii41 p4 #bgi4 ,footnote ,k3 ,see my ,essai ,politique sur la ,nouvelle ,espagne4 #bme dit41 t4 i41 pp4 #hb and #aji4 ,footnote ,l3 ,see ,long's ,expeditions1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #cf1 #cfb1 #chb4 ,ap4 p4 xxxvii4 ,footnote ,m3 ,critical ,researches on ,philology and ,geography1 #ahbd1 p4 #add4 ,footnote ,n3 ,report of the ,exploring ,expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains in the year #ahdb1 and to ,oregon and ,north ,california1 in the years #ahdc-ahdd1 p4 #gh4 ,footnote ,o3 ,chappe d',auteroche1 ,voyage en ,sibrie1 fait en #agfa4 #d vols41 #dto41 ,paris1 #agfh4 ,footnote ,p3 ,frmont1 ,report of the ,exploring ,expedition1 pp4 #aed1 and #bgc-bgf4 ,footnote ,q3 ,humboldt1 ,atlas ,mexicain1 pl4 ch4 #b2 ,essai politique sur la ,nouv4 ,esp41 t4 i4 p4 #bca2 t4 ii4 pp4 #bdc1 #cac1 and #dbj4 ,frmont1 ,upper ,california1 #ahdh1 p4 #i4 ,see also ,duflot de ,mofras1 ,exploration de l',orgon1 #ahdd1 t4 ii4 p4 #adj4 ,footnote ,r3 ,in the ,archologia ,americana1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adj4 ,footnote ,s3 ,frmont's ,report1 pp4 #c1 #fj1 #gj1 #ajj1 and #abi4 ,footnote ,t3 ,compare ,erman's ,reise um die ,erde1 ,abth4 i4 ,bd4 #c1 s4 #h1 ,abth4 ii4 ,bd4 #a4 s4 #chf1 with his ,archiv fr ,wissenschaftliche ,kunde von ,russland1 ,bd4 vi4 s4 #fga4 ,footnote ,u3 ,see my ,essai polit4 sur la ,nouv4 ,espagne1 t4 ii4 p4 #cad4 ,footnote ,v3 ,frmont1 ,geographical ,memoir upon ,upper ,california1 #ahdh1 p4 #f4 ,footnote ,w3 ,report1 p4 #bgd 7or ,narrative1 p4 #cjj74 ,footnote ,x3 ,compare ,frmont's ,report1 pp4 #afd1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #aic1 and #bii1 with ,nicollet's ,illustration of the ,hydrographical ,basin of the ,upper ,mississippi ,river1 #ahdc1 pp4 #ci-da4 ,footnote ,y3 ,compare my ,relation ,historique1 t4 iii4 p4 #bcd1 and ,nicollet1 ,report to the ,senate of the ,united ,states1 #ahdc1 pp4 #g1 #eg4 ,footnote ,z3 ,nicollet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ii1 #abe1 #abh4 ,footnote ,,aa3 ,maximilian1 ,prinz zu ,wied1 ,reise in das innere ,nord-,amerika1 bd4 i41 #ahci1 s4 #ddc4 ,footnote ,,ab3 ,see ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fgd 7,bohn's edition74 ,footnote ,,ac3 ,historia general de las ,indias1 cap4 #bad4 ,footnote ,,ad3 ,archologia ,americana1 vol4 ii41 #ahcf1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote ,,ae3 ,darwin1 ,journal of ,researches into the ,geology and ,natural ,history of the ,countries visited #ahcb-ahcf by the ,ships ,adventure and ,beagle1 p4 #bff4 ,footnote ,,af3 ,humboldt1 ,essai politique1 t4 ii4 p4 #agc4 ,footnote ,,ag3 ,cailliaud1 ,voyage ,syouah1 p4 #ad2 ,ideler1 ,fundgruben des ,orients1 bd4 iv4 s4 #cii-daa4 ,footnote ,,ah3 ,strabo1 lib4 ii4 p4 #acj1 lib4 xvii4 p4 #hac1 ,cas42 ,herod1 lib4 iii4 cap4 #bf4 p4 #bjg1 ,wessel4 ,footnote ,,ai3 ,see ,ritter's ,afrika1 #ahbb1 s4 #hhe1 #ihh1 #iic1 and #ajjc4 ,footnote ,,aj3 ,humboldt1 ,relat4 hist41 t4 ii4 p4 #adb1 and ,long's ,expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains1 v4 ii4 pp4 #ia and #dje4 ,footnote ,,ak3 ,compare ,scyl4 ,caryand4 ,peripl41 in ,hudson1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ec1 with ,aristot4 de ,mirab4 ,auscult4 in ,op4 omnia1 ex rec4 ,bekkeri1 p4 #hhd1 #acf4 ,footnote ,,al3 ,see also ,edrisi1 ,geogr4 ,nub41 #afai1 p4 #aeg4 ,footnote ,,am3 ,ora ,maritima1 v4 #aji1 #abb1 #chh1 and #djh4 ,footnote ,,an3 ,aristot4 ,meteorol41 ii4 #a1 #ad4 ,footnote ,,ao3 ,acosta1 ,historia natural y moral de las ,indias1 lib4 iii4 cap4 #d4 ,footnote ,,ap3 ,compare ,humboldt1 ,relation historique1 t4 i4 p4 #bjb1 and ,examen ,critique1 t4 iii4 pp4 #fh-fi1 with ,rennell's ,investigation of the ,currents of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 #ahcb1 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote ,,aq3 ,see ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fca1 and note2 ,bohn's edition4 ,footnote ,,ar3 ,see my ,examen ,critique1 t4 iii4 pp4 #fd-ii2 and ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fee4 ,bohn's edition4 ,footnote ,,as3 ,exploration scientifique de l',algrie1 t4 ii4 p4 #cdc4 ,footnote ,,at3 ,chardin1 ,voyages1 nouv4 d4 par ,langls1 #ahaa1 t4 iii4 p4 #cgf4 ,footnote ,,au3 ,asien1 ,bd4 viii41 ,abth4 #a1 #ahdg1 s4 #faj1 #geh4 ,footnote ,,av3 ,historia ,regionum ,occidentalium1 qu ,si-yu vocantur1 visu et auditu cognitarum4 ,footnote ,,aw3 ,rgne animal1 t4 i4 p4 #beg4 ,footnote ,,ax3 ,ritter1 ,asian1 ,bd4 viii4 s4 #fgj1 #fgb1 and #gdf4 ,footnote ,,ay3 ,humboldt1 ,cosmos1 ,bohn's ed41 vol4 i4 p4 #bha4 ,footnote ,,az3 ,singapore ,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1 #ahdg1 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote ,,ba3 ,sartorius von ,waltershausen1 ,physisch-geographische ,skizze von ,island1 #ahdg1 s4 #da4 ,footnote ,,bb3 ,humboldt1 ,premier ,mmoire sur les ,montagnes de l',inde1 in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 t4 iii4 #ahaf1 p4 #cjc2 ,second ,mmoire1 t4 xiv4 #ahbj1 pp4 #e-ee4 ,footnote ,,bc3 ,de ,are et ,aquis1 xcvi4 p4 #gd4 ,footnote ,,bd3 ,strabo1 lib4 ii4 p4 #ajb2 and lib4 xiii4 p4 #eih1 ,casaub4 ,footnote ,,be3 ,compare ,strabo1 lib4 ii4 pp4 #ga1 #abh2 lib4 iii4 p4 #acg2 lib4 iv4 pp4 #aii1 #bjb2 lib4 v4 p4 #baa1 ,casaub4 ,footnote ,,bf3 ,humboldt1 ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 p4 #ada2 ,klaproth1 ,asie polyglotta1 p4 #bcb4 ,footnote ,,bg3 ,compare my ,asie centrale1 t4 iii4 p4 #caj1 with the ,journal of the ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1 vol4 x4 #ahda1 p4 #aad4 ,footnote ,,bh3 ,see his ,kashmir1 ,bd4 ii4 s4 #aif4 ,footnote ,,bi3 ,vigne1 ,travels in ,kashmir1 #ahdb1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bcg-bic4 ,footnote ,,bj3 ,humboldt1 ,asie centrale1 t4 iii4 pp4 #bha-cbe4 ,footnote ,,bk3 ,il ,milione di ,marco ,polo1 pubbl4 dal ,conte ,baldelli1 t4 i4 pp4 #cb and #hg4 ,footnote ,,bl3 #ejj toises in the ,german1 accurately #caig feet4 ,,tr4 ,footnote ,,bm3 ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 pp4 #dh-eb and #dbi4 ,footnote ,,bn3 ,in the learned ,analysis of his ,karte von ,inner ,asien1 #ahda1 s4 #ii4 ,footnote ,,bo3 ,ed4 ,schweighaser1 t4 v4 p4 #bjd4 ,footnote ,,bp3 ,asie centrale1 t4 i4 p4 #bdg4 ,footnote ,,bq3 ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 p4 #ach4 ,footnote ,,br3 ,jacob ,grimm1 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,sprache1 #ahdh1 ,th4 i4 s4 #bbg4 ,footnote ,,bs3 ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 pp4 #ah-bj4 ,footnote ,,bt3 ,klaproth1 ,tableau hist4 de l',asie1 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote ,,bu3 ,annales des ,mines1 t4 v4 #ahbj1 p4 #acg4 ,footnote ,,bv3 ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 pp4 #af-ee1 #fi-gg1 #cda1 #cef4 ,footnote ,,bw3 ,baron von ,meyendorff in the ,bulletin de la ,socit ,gologique de ,france1 t4 ix4 #ahcg-ahch1 p4 #bcj4 ,footnote ,,bx3 ,asie centrale1 t4 i4 pp4 xxiii et #aah-aei2 t4 ii4 pp4 #dca-dcd1 #dfe4 ,footnote ,,by3 ,strabo1 lib4 ii4 p4 #fh2 lib4 xi4 pp4 #dij1 #eaa2 lib4 xv4 p4 #fhi4 ,footnote ,,bz3 ,montfaucon1 ,collectio nova ,patrum1 t4 ii4 p4 #acg4 ,footnote ,,ca3 ,compare ,asie centrale1 t4 i4 pp4 xxiii et #abb-ach2 t4 ii4 pp4 #dcj-dcd1 with ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #edc1 ,bohn's ed4 ,footnote ,,cb3 ,travels1 p4 #ig4 ,footnote ,,cc3 ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 pp4 #dbg1 #dhc4 ,footnote ,,cd3 ,from a letter of ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker1 the learned botanist to the last ,antarctic expedition1 dated ,darjeeling1 #beth of ,july1 #ahdh4 ,footnote ,,ce3 ,asie centrale1 t4 i4 pp4 #ach1 #aed1 #aih2 t4 ii4 p4 #cfg4 ,footnote ,,cf3 ,compare ,turner in the ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 xii4 p4 #bcd1 with ,elphinstone1 ,account of the ,kingdom of ,caubul1 #ahae1 p4 #ie1 and ,francis ,hamilton1 ,account of ,nepal1 #ahai1 p4 #ib4 ,footnote ,,cg3 ,recueil d',observations astronomiques1 t4 i4 p4 #gc4 ,footnote ,,ch3 ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes pour #ahcj1 pp4 #cbj1 #cbc4 ,footnote ,,ci3 ,see ,illustration 7#e71 p4 #dd4 ,footnote ,,cj3 ,see ,lloyd and ,gerard1 ,tour in the ,himalaya1 #ahdj1 vol4 i41 pp4 #adc1 #cab1 and ,asie centrale1 t4 iii41 p4 #cbd4 ,footnote ,,ck3 ,colebrooke1 in the ,transactions of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 vi4 p4 #daa4 ,footnote ,,cl3 ,compare my investigation regarding the snow-limit on both declivities of the ,himalaya in my ,asie centrale1 t4 ii41 pp4 #dce-dcg2 t4 iii41 pp4 #bha-cbf2 and in ,cosmos1 vol4 i41 p4 #ccg1 ,bohn's ed4 ,footnote ,,cm3 ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal4 ,new ,series4 ,no4 xxviii4 p4 #bhg4 ,footnote ,,cn3 ,hist4 gn4 des ,huns1 des ,turcs1 etc41 #agef1 t4 i4 ,p4 #a1 p4 #bag1 ,p4 #b1 pp4 #aaa1 #abe1 #bbc1 #ddg4 ,footnote ,,co3 ,see ,klaproth1 ,asia ,polyglotta1 pp4 #ahc1 #baa2 ,tableaux ,historiques de l',asie1 pp4 #ajb1 #aji4 ,footnote ,,cp3 ,see ,kalm's ,reise1 ,th4 iii4 p4 #daf4 ,footnote ,,cq3 ,archologia1 or ,miscellaneous ,tracts published by the ,society of ,antiquarians of ,london1 vol4 viii4 #aghg1 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote ,,cr3 ,relat4 hist4 t4 iii4 p4 #aee4 ,footnote ,,cs3 ,chronica del ,peru1 ,p4 #a1 cap4 #hg4 7,losa con letras en los edificios de ,vinaque47 ,footnote ,,ct3 ,origen de los ,indios1 #afjg1 lib4 iii4 cap4 #e1 p4 #beh4 ,footnote ,,cu3 ,navarrete1 ,viages de los ,espaoles1 t4 i4 p4 #fg4 ,footnote ,,cv3 ,humboldt et ,bonpland1 ,plant quinoctiales1 fasc4 ii4 ,footnote ,,cw3 ,see ,humboldt's geognostic view of ,south ,america1 in his ,relation historique1 t4 iii4 pp4 #ahh-bdd4 ,footnote ,,cx3 ,garcilaso de la ,vega1 ,commentarios ,reales1 ,p4 i41 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote ,,cy3 ,frmont's ,exploring ,expedition1 #ahde1 p4 #db4 ,footnote ,,cz3 ,clavigero1 ,storia antica del ,messico1 #aghj1 t4 i4 p4 #gc4 ,footnote ,,da3 ,buffon1 t4 xv41 p4 #aee4 ,footnote ,,db3 ,azara1 ,sur les ,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1 t4 i4 p4 #cae4 ,footnote ,,dc3 ,on the dogs of ,america1 see ,smith ,barton's ,fragments of the ,natural ,history of ,pennsylvania1 p4 i41 p4 #cd4 ,footnote ,,dd3 ,j4 ,j4 von ,tschudi1 ,untersuchungen ber die ,fauna ,peruana1 s4 #bdg-bea4 ,footnote ,,de3 ,garcilaso1 ,p4 i4 #agbc1 p4 #cbf4 ,footnote ,,df3 ,humboldt1 ,essai polit41 t4 ii4 p4 #ddh1 and ,relation hist41 t4 ii4 p4 #fbe4 ,footnote ,,dg3 ,geogr41 lib4 iii4 cap #a4 ,footnote ,,dh3 ,humboldt1 ,asie centrale1 t4 i4 pp4 #bdg1 #beb4 ,footnote ,,di3 ,exploration scientifique de l',algrie1 de #ahdj #ahdb1 publie par ordre du ,gouvernement2 ,sciences hist4 et gogr41 t4 viii41 #ahdf1 pp4 #cfd1 #cgc4 ,footnote ,,dj3 ,exploration scientif4 de l',algrie1 ,hist4 et gogr41 t4 ii4 p4 #ccb4 ,footnote ,,dk3 ,ibid4 t4 ii4 pp4 #abf-abi1 and t4 vii4 pp4 #id1 #ig4 ,footnote ,,dl3 ,fournel1 ,sur les ,gisemens de ,muriate de ,soude en ,algrie1 p4 #f1 in the ,annales des ,mines1 #dme serie1 t4 ix4 #ahdf1 p4 #edf4 ,footnote ,,dm3 ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 p4 #cbj4 ,footnote ,,dn3 ,comptes rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 t4 xx4 #ahde1 pp4 #agj1 #hhb1 #acje4 ,footnote ,,do3 ,see ,shaw1 ,voyages dans plusieurs parties de la ,berbrie1 t4 i4 p4 #afi1 and ,rennel1 ,africa1 ,append4 p4 lxxxv4 ,footnote ,,dp3 ,fournel1 ,sur les ,gisemens de ,muriate de ,soude en ,algrie1 pp4 #bh-da2 and ,karsten1 ,ueber das ,vorkommen des ,kochsalzes auf der ,oberflche der ,erde1 #ahdf1 s4 #dig1 #fdh1 #gda4 ,footnote ,,dq3 ,memoria sull' abbassamento di temperatura durante le notti placide e serene1 #ahdg1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote ,,dr3 ,consult1 also1 on ,african ,meteorology1 ,aim1 in the ,explor4 de l',algrie1 ,phys4 ,gner4 t4 ii41 #ahdf1 p4 #adg4 ,footnote ,,ds3 ,explor4 de l',alg41 ,hist4 et ,gogr4 t4 viii1 pp4 #fe-gh4 ,footnote ,,dt3 ,relation de l',expedition de la ,malouine4 ,footnote ,,du3 ,gbel1 ,reise in die ,steppe des sdlichen ,russlands1 #ahch1 th4 ii4 s4 #bdd1 #cja4 ,footnote ,,dv3 ,humboldt1 ,mmoire sur les ,lignes ,isothermes1 #ahag1 p4 #ed4 ,asie centrale1 t4 iii4 ,mahlmann1 ,table ,,iv4 ,footnote ,,dw3 ,asie centrale1 t4 iii4 p4 #agf4 ,footnote ,,dx3 ,meteor4 ,essays1 #ahbg1 pp4 #bcj1 #bgh4 ,footnote ,,dy3 ,sull' ,abbassamento di ,temperatura durante le ,notti placide e serene1 #ahdg1 pp4 #dg1 #ec4 ,footnote ,,dz3 ,asie centrale1 t4 iii4 pp4 #aie-bje4 ,footnote ,,ea3 ,temperatur-tafeln nebst ,bemerkungen ber die ,verbreitung der ,wrme auf der ,oberflche der ,erde1 #ahdh1 s4 #ie4 ,footnote ,,eb3 ,see the admirable treatise by ,samuel ,forry1 on ,the ,climate of the ,united ,states1 #ahdb1 pp4 #cg1 #ci1 #ajb4 ,footnote ,,ec3 ,forry1 ,op4 ,cit41 pp4 #ig1 #aja1 #ajg4 ,footnote ,,ed3 ,message from the ,president of the ,united ,states to ,congress1 #ahdd1 p4 #afj1 and ,forry1 ,op4 ,cit41 pp4 #di1 #fg1 #gc4 ,footnote ,,ee3 ,fragments of the ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,pennsylvania1 ,p4 ,i41 p4 #d4 ,footnote ,,ef3 ,see ,neue ,berlinische ,monatschrift1 ,bd4 xv41 #ahjf1 #aij4 ,footnote ,,eg3 ,on the vegetable remains found in the lignite formations of the north of ,america and of ,europe1 compare ,adolph ,brongniart1 ,prodrome d'une ,hist4 des ,vgtaux ,fossiles1 p4 #agi1 and ,charles ,lyell's ,travels in ,north ,america1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bj4 ,footnote ,,eh3 ,relacion del ,viage al ,estrecho de ,magallanes 7,apendice1 #agic71 p4 #gf4 ,footnote ,,ei3 ,see ,robert ,brown1 ,appendix to ,flinders' ,voyage1 pp4 #ege1 #ehd2 and ,humboldt1 ,de ,distribution ,geographica ,plantarum1 pp4 #ha-he4 ,footnote ,,ej3 ,jos4 ,hooker1 ,flora ,antarct41 #ahdd1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote ,,ek3 ,compare ,darwin in the ,journal of ,researches1 #ahde1 p4 #bdd1 with ,king in vol4 i4 of the ,narr4 of the ,voyages of the ,adventure and the ,beagle1 p4 #egg4 ,footnote ,,el3 ,od41 i4 #eb4 ,footnote ,,em3 ,il41 iv4 #efa4 ,footnote ,,en3 ,theog41 v4 #eag4 ,footnote ,,eo3 ,op4 et ,dies1 v4 #afg4 ,footnote ,,ep3 ,de ,originibus ,americanorum1 p4 #aie4 ,footnote ,,eq3 ,on the connexion of purely mythical ideas and geographical traditions1 and on the manner in which the ,titan ,atlas gave occasion to the image of a mountain beyond the ,pillars of ,hercules supporting the heavens1 see ,letronne1 ,essai sur les ,ides cosmographiques qui se rattachent au nom d',atlas1 in ,frussac's ,bulletin universel des ,sciences1 ,mars #ahca1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote ,,er3 ,asie centrale1 t4 i41 p4 #agi4 ,footnote ,,es3 ,lib4 iii41 #ec1 #ee4 ,footnote ,,et3 ,maximus ,tyrius1 viii41 #g1 ed4 ,markland4 ,footnote ,,eu3 ,lib4 iv41 cap4 #i4 ,footnote ,,ev3 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii41 p4 #eei4 ,bohn's ed4 ,footnote ,,ew3 ,edition de #ahaj1 pp4 #g1 #cec4 ,footnote ,,ex3 ,see ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society of ,london1 vol4 xvii41 #ahdg1 pp4 #gd-gf4 ,footnote ,,ey3 ,viaggio nella ,ethiopia 7,ramusio1 vol4 i41 p4 #bdi74 ,footnote ,,ez3 ,compare ,ayrton1 in the ,journal of the ,royal ,geog4 ,soc41 vol4 xviii41 #ahdh1 pp4 #ec1 #ee1 #ei-fc1 with ,ferd4 ,werne's instructive ,exped4 zur ,entd4 der ,nil-,quellen1 #ahdh1 s4 #ecd-ecf4 ,footnote ,,fa3 ,lib4 iv41 cap4 #i4 ,footnote ,,fb3 ,see ,rppell1 ,reise in ,abyssinien1 bd4 i41 s4 #dad2 bd4 ii41 s4 #ddc4 ,footnote ,,fc3 ,humboldt1 ,asie centrale1 t4 iii41 p4 #bgb4 ,footnote ,,fd3 ,op4 cit41 t4 iii41 p4 #bce4 ,footnote ,,fe3 ,hakluyt1 ,voyages1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ad4 ,footnote ,,ff3 ,rennell1 ,investigation of the ,currents of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 #ahcb1 pp4 #if1 #acf4 ,footnote ,,fg3 ,account of the ,islands of ,orkney 7#agjj71 p4 #fj4 ,footnote ,,fh3 ,bembo1 ,histori ,venet1 ed4 #agah1 lib4 vii4 p4 #beg4 ,footnote ,,fi3 ,ed4 ,van4 ,staveren1 cur4 ,bardili1 t4 ii4 #ahbj1 p4 #cef4 ,footnote ,,fj3 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 #e1 #h4 ,footnote ,,fk3 ,hist4 ,nat4 ii4 #fg4 ,footnote ,,fl3 ,historia ,gen4 de las ,indias4 ,saragossa1 #aeec1 fol4 vii4 ,footnote ,,fm3 ,see ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fjd 7,bohn's ed47 and ,examen critique de l',hist4 de la ,gographie1 t4 ii4 pp4 #bdg-bgh4 ,footnote ,,fn3 ,sartorius von ,waltershausen1 ,physisch-geographische ,skizze von ,island1 #ahdg1 s4 #bb-ce4 ,footnote ,,fo3 ,prescott1 ,conquest of ,mexico1 vol4 iii4 p4 #daf4 ,footnote ,,fp3 ,chronica del ,peru1 ,sevilla1 #aeec1 cap4 #aaj1 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote ,,fq3 ,see ,gay1 ,zoologia de ,chili1 ,mamiferos1 #ahdg1 p4 #aed4 ,footnote ,,fr3 ,see the ,inca ,garcilaso1 ,commentarios ,reales1 ,p4 #a1 lib4 v4 cap4 #b1 p4 #acc2 and ,prescott1 ,hist4 of the ,conquest of ,peru1 #ahdg1 vol4 i4 p4 #acf4 ,footnote ,,fs3 ,fragments of the ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,pennsylvania1 ,p4 #a1 p4 #d4 ,footnote ,,ft3 ,tschudi1 ,fauna ,peruana1 s4 #bef4 ,footnote ,,fu3 ,reise um die ,erde1 th4 iii4 s4 #fd4 ,footnote ,,fv3 ,tschudi1 s4 #bbh4 #bcg4 ,footnote ,,fw3 ,see the pleasing descriptions in ,darwin's ,journal1 #ahde1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote ,,fx3 ,see a rare work printed at ,mexico1 in #agib1 and entitled ,cronica serfica y ,apostlica del ,colegio de ,propaganda ,fide de la ,santa ,cruz de ,quertaro1 por ,fray ,juan ,domingo ,arricivita4 ,footnote ,,fy3 ,jacob ,grimm1 ,gesch4 der ,deutschen ,sprache1 #ahdh1 th4 i4 s4 #fb4 ,footnote ,,fz3 lib4 v4 pp4 #aii1 #bcb4 ,wessel4 ,footnote ,,ga3 ,strabo1 xv4 #ajag4 ,footnote ,,gb3 ,geogr4 ,armen41 ed4 ,whiston1 #agcf1 p4 #cfj4 ,footnote ,,gc3 ,ramusio1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aj4 ,footnote ,,gd3 ,abhandl4 der ,berl4 ,akad4 #ahaf1 s4 #abc4 ,footnote ,,ge3 ,essai sur la ,gographie des ,plantes1 #ahje1 p4 #bh4 ,footnote ,,gf3 ,carl ,koch1 ,beitrge zur ,flora des ,orients4 ,heft4 #a1 s4 #aci1 #adb4 ,footnote ,,gg3 ,jacob ,grimm1 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,sprache1 th4 i4 s4 #fi4 ,footnote ,,gh3 ,vues des ,cordillres et ,monuments des peuples indignes de l',amrique1 #b tomes4 ,footnote ,,gi3 ,compare the work of ,d4 ,antonio del ,rio1 entitled ,description of the ,ruins of an ,ancient ,city discovered near ,palenque1 #ahbb1 translated from the orig4 manuscr4 report by ,cabrera1 p4 #i1 tab4 #ab-ad 7,rio's researches were made in the year #aghg72 with ,stephens1 ,incidents of ,travel in ,yucatan1 #ahdc1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cia1 #dbi-dcd1 and vol4 ii4 pp4 #ba1 #ed1 #ef1 #cag1 #cbc2 with the magnificent work of ,catherwood1 ,views of ,ancient ,monuments in ,central ,america1 ,chiapas1 and ,yucatan1 #ahdd2 and lastly with ,prescott1 ,the ,conquest of ,mexico1 vol4 iii4 ,append4 p4 #cfj4 ,footnote ,,gj3 ,stephens1 ,incid4 of ,travel in ,yucatan1 vol4 i4 p4 #dci1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #bgh4 ,footnote ,,gk3 ,klaproth1 ,tableaux historiques de l',asie1 #ahbd1 p4 #gi2 ,nouveau ,journal asiatique1 t4 x4 #ahcb1 p4 #cce2 and ,humboldt1 ,examen critique1 t4 ii4 pp4 #fb-fg4 ,footnote ,,gl3 ,rlat4 hist4 t4 iii4 pp4 #aee-afj4 ,footnote ,,gm3 ,gomara1 ,hist4 general de las ,indias1 p4 #aag4 ,footnote ,,gn3 ,compare my ,relation historique1 t4 i4 p4 #dib1 t4 ii4 pp4 #fec1 #gjc1 with ,richard ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,britisch ,guiana1 th4 i4 #ahdg1 s4 #b1 #abj1 #agc1 #aid4 ,footnote ,,go3 ,histori ,venet1 #aeea1 p4 #hh4 ,footnote ,,gp3 ,see text of ,riccardi in my ,examen crit4 t4 iv4 p4 #dif4 ,footnote ,,gq3 ,raleigh1 ,discovery of ,guiana1 #aeif1 p4 #ij4 ,footnote ,,gr3 ,brevis et admiranda ,descriptio regni ,guian 7,norib4 #aeii71 tab4 #d4 ,footnote ,,gs3 ,gumilla1 ,historia natural1 civil y geografica de las ,naciones situadas en las riveras del ,rio ,orinoco1 nueva impr41 #agia1 pp4 #adc1 #ade1 #afc4 ,footnote ,,gt3 ,see ,journal of the ,royal ,geogr4 ,society1 vol4 xii4 #ahdb1 p4 #age1 and ,description of the ,murichi1 or ,ita ,palm1 read in the meeting of the ,british ,association held at ,cambridge1 ,june #ahde 7published in ,simond's ,colonial ,magazine74 ,footnote ,,gu3 ,see also ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk's new edition of ,raleigh's ,discovery of ,guiana 7#ahdh71 p4 #ej4 ,footnote ,,gv3 ,bernau1 ,missionary ,labours in ,british ,guiana1 #ahdg1 pp4 #cd1 #dd4 ,footnote ,,gw3 ,humboldt1 ,bonpland1 et ,kunth1 ,nova genera et species ,plantarum1 t4 i4 p4 #caj4 ,footnote ,,gx3 ,mosheim1 ,institut4 ,hist4 ,eccles41 #agee1 p4 #bae4 ,footnote ,,gy3 ,see my ,rlat4 hist41 t4 i4 pp4 #bif1 #fbe2 t4 ii4 p4 #afa4 ,footnote ,,gz3 ,lib4 iii4 p4 #ahd1 ,rhod41 p4 #bai1 ,wessel4 ,footnote ,,ha3 ,humboldt1 ,bonpland1 et ,kunth1 ,synopsis ,plantarum quinoct4 ,orbis ,novi1 t4 iii4 p4 #cgj4 ,footnote ,,hb3 ,compare ,arago in my ,rlation hist41 t4 i4 p4 #fbc4 ,footnote ,,hc3 ,see my ,rlat4 histor41 t4 ii4 pp4 #aif1 #fbf4 ,footnote ,,hd3 ,observations de ,zoologie et d',anatomie compare1 t4 i4 pp4 #hc-hg1 and ,rlat4 hist41 t4 ii4 pp4 #agc-aij4 ,footnote ,,he3 ,untersuchungen ber thierische ,electricitt1 von ,emil du ,bois-,raymond1 #ahdh1 bd4 i4 s4 xv4 ,footnote ,,hf3 ,reisen in ,guiana und am ,orinoko1 s4 #bab4 ,footnote ,,hg3 ,see my ,rlat4 hist4 t4 ii4 pp4 #bii-cjd4 ,footnote ,,hh3 ,see my anatomical treatise in ,recueil d',observations de ,zoologie1 vol4 i4 p4 #ah4 ,footnote ,,hi3 ,on the ,ethiopian ,boa1 see ,diodor4 ,sicul41 lib4 iii4 p4 #bjd1 ed4 ,wesseling4 ,footnote ,,hj3 ,rlat4 hist41 t4 ii4 pp4 #fah-fbj4 ,footnote ,,hk3 ,historia del ,rio ,orinoco1 nueva impr41 #agia1 t4 i4 p4 #agi4 ,footnote ,,hl3 ,this was also observed by ,gilj1 ,saggio di ,storia ,americana1 t4 ii4 p4 #caa4 ,footnote ,,hm3 ,thibault de ,chanvalon1 ,voyage la ,martinique1 p4 #he4 ,footnote ,,hn3 ,voyage la ,recherche de ,la ,prouse1 t4 ii4 p4 #cbb4 ,footnote ,,ho3 ,bericht ber die ,verhandl4 der ,akad4 d4 ,wiss4 zu ,berlin aus dem ,j4 #ahdh1 s4 #bbb-bbe4 ,footnote ,,hp3 ,voy4 la ,rech4 de ,la ,prouse1 t4 ii4 p4 #bje4 ,footnote ,,hq3 ,see ,ehrenberg1 ,ueber das unsichtbar wirkende organiche ,leben1 #ahdb1 s4 #da4 ,footnote ,,hr3 ,reisen in ,guiana und am ,orinoko bersetzt von ,otto ,schomburgk1 #ahda1 s4 #ejj4 ,footnote ,,hs3 ,compare ,rlation historique1 t4 ii4 p4 #ehi1 with ,martius1 ,ueber die ,physiognomie des ,pflanzenreichs in ,brasilien1 #ahbd1 s4 #ad4 ,footnote ,,ht3 ,richard ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,britisch ,guiana1 th4 i4 s4 #cbj4 ,footnote ,,hu3 ,archologia ,britannica1 vol4 v4 #aggi1 pp4 #cah-cbd2 and vol4 vi4 #aghb1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote ,,hv3 ,see my ,rlat4 historique1 t4 ii4 pp4 #edg-eef4 ,footnote ,,hw3 ,reisen in ,britisch ,guiana1 th4 i4 s4 #dda-dfa4 ,footnote ,,hx3 ,compare also the older chemical analysis of ,boussingault1 in the ,annales de ,chimie et ,physique1 t4 xxxix4 #ahbh1 pp4 #bd-cg4 ,footnote ,,hy3 ,humboldt1 in this and other pages of his lecture1 addressed1 it should be remembered1 to the citizens of ,berlin1 in #ahjf1 evidently alludes to the troubles of the times4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,hz3 ,hist41 lib4 vi41 initio4 ,footnote ,,ia3 ,this subject is elaborately discussed in ,heeren's various works4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,ib3 ,blumenbach1 ,collectiones su ,craniorum diversarum gentium1 c41 #dto1 ,gtting41 #agih-ahbh4--;,,ed4 ,footnote ,,ic3 ,gilbert's ,annalen der ,physik1 bd4 xvi4 #ahjd1 s4 #cid-ddi4 ,footnote ,,id3 ,navarrete1 ,viages y ,descubrimientos que hiciron por mar los ,espaoles1 t4 i4 pp4 #bec1 #bfj2 t4 iii4 pp4 #eci1 #ehg4 ,footnote ,,ie3 ,diodor4 ,sicul41 lib4 xvii4 p4 #eec 7,rhodom474 ,footnote ,,if3 ,reisen in ,guiana1 #ahda1 s4 #ddh4 ,footnote ,,ig3 ,see the ,memoir which ,i drew up at the request of the ,portuguese ,government1 in #ahag1 8,sur la fixation des limites des ,guyanes ,franaise et ,portuguaise40 ,schoell1 ,archives historiques et politiques1 ou ,recueil de ,pices officielles1 ,mmoires1 c4 t4 i4 #ahah1 pp4 #dh-eh4 ,footnote ,,ih3 ,relation historique1 t4 ii4 pp4 #dgd-dif1 #eeh-efb4 ,footnote ,,ii3 ,reisen in ,guiana und am ,orinoko1 #dea4 ,footnote ,,ij3 ,nouvelles ,annales des ,voyages1 #ahcf1 ,sept4 p4 #caf4 ,footnote ,,ik3 ,humboldt1 ,relation historique1 t4 ii4 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote ,,il3 ,see my ,relation historique1 t4 ii4 pp4 #bbc1 #bci1 #djf-dac4 ,footnote ,,im3 ,recueil d',observations de ,zoologie et d',anatomie compare1 t4 i4 pp4 #cjf-caa1 tab4 xxviii4 ,footnote ,,in3 ,op4 cit41 t4 ii4 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote ,,io3 ,vol4 v4 7#ahce71 p4 #gg4 ,footnote ,,ip3 ,hertha1 ,zeitschrift fr ,erd und ,vlkerkunde1 von ,berghaus1 bd4 xiii4 #ahbi1 s4 #c-bi4 ,footnote ,,iq3 ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 t4 iv4 #ahbe1 pp4 #bbe-bec4 ,footnote ,,ir3 ,berghaus1 ,zeitschrift fr ,erdkunde1 band4 ix4 s4 #cbb-cbf4 ,footnote ,,is3 ,fitzroy1 ,voyages of the ,adventure and ,beagle1 #ahci1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dha2 ,darwin1 ,journal of ,researches1 #ahde1 pp4 #bec and #bia4 ,footnote ,,it3 ,mary ,somerville1 ,physical ,geogr41 #ahdi1 vol4 ii4 #dbe4 ,footnote ,,iu3 ,geographical ,memoir upon ,upper ,california1 an illustration of his ,map of ,oregon and ,california1 #ahdh4 ,footnote ,,iv3 ,memoir of a ,tour in ,northern ,mexico1 connected with ,col4 ,doniphan's ,expedition1 #ahdh4 ,footnote ,,iw3 ,expedition on the ,upper ,arkansas1 #ahde1 and ,examination of ,new ,mexico in #ahdf and #ahdg4 ,footnote ,,ix3 ,humboldt1 ,essai polit4 sur la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 t4 i4 pp4 #abg-acf4 ,footnote ,,iy3 ,frmont1 ,geogr4 ,mem4 of ,upper ,california1 #ahdh1 pp4 #h and #fg2 see also ,humboldt1 ,essai politique1 t4 ii4 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote ,,iz3 ,compare ,abert's ,examination of ,new ,mexico1 in the ,documents of ,congress1 ,no4 #da1 pp4 #dhi and #eha-fje1 with my ,essai pol41 t4 ii4 pp4 #bda-bdd4 ,footnote ,,ja3 ,fossil remains of this gigantic antediluvian tortoise are now in the ,british ,museum4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,jb3 ,the weight of the lower branches bends them to the ground1 so that a single tree forms a hemispherical mass of verdure sometimes #aej feet in diameter4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,jc3 ,actes de la ,socit ,helvtique1 #ahdc1 p4 #cbd4 ,footnote ,,jd3 ,claudio ,gay1 ,historia fisica y politica de ,chile1 ,zoologia1 #ahdd1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote ,,je3 ,compare my ,asie centrale1 t4 iii4 p4 #bfb1 with ,hooker1 ,journal of ,botany1 vol4 i4 #ahcd1 p4 #cbg1 and the ,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal1 vol4 xvii4 #ahcd1 p4 #chj4 ,footnote ,,jf3 ,recueil d',observ4 astron41 t4 i4 ,intr4 p4 lxxii4 ,footnote ,,jg3 ,voyage l',equateur1 #agea1 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote ,,jh3 ,vocabulario de la ,lengua general de todo el ,peru llamada ,lengua ,quichua del ,inca1 ,lima1 #afjh4 ,footnote ,,ji3 ,see the word in ,juan de ,figueredo's vocabulary of ,chinchaysuyo words appended to ,diego de ,torres ,rubio1 ,arte1 y ,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,quichua1 reimpr4 en ,lima1 #agea1 fol4 #bbb1 b4 ,footnote ,,jj3 ,velasco1 ,historia de ,quito1 t4 i4 p4 #ahe4 ,footnote ,,jk3 ,hist4 of the ,conquest of ,peru1 vol4 i4 p4 #abe4 ,footnote ,,jl3 ,see my ,vues des ,cordillres et ,monumens des peuples indignes de l',amrique1 t4 i4 p4 #aaf2 and the ,memoir entitled ,ueber zwei ,versuche den ,chimborazo zu besteigen1 #ahjb and #ahca1 in ,schumacher's ,jahrbuch fr #ahcg1 ,s4 #agf4 ,footnote ,,jm3 ,critical ,researches on ,philology and ,geography1 #ahbd1 p4 #add4 ,footnote ,,jn3 ,see my ,recueil d',observations de ,zoologie et d',anatomie compare1 vol4 i4 p4 #bf-de4 ,footnote ,,jo3 ,fauna ,peruana1 ,ornithol4 p4 #ab4 ,footnote ,,jp3 ,voyage de l',amrique mridionale1 t4 ii4 p4 #b4 #ageb2 ,observations astronomiques et physiques1 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote ,,jq3 ,claudio ,gay1 ,historia fisica y politica de ,chile1 publicada bajo los auspicios del ,supremo ,gobierno2 ,zoologia1 pp4 #aid-aih4 ,footnote ,,jr3 ,on the action of water1 see my ,versuche ber die gereizte ,muskel-und ,nervenfaser1 ,bd4 ii4 ,s4 #bej4 ,footnote ,,js3 ,see his ,mmoire sur les ,tardigrades et sur leur proprit de revenir la vie 7#ahdb74 ,footnote ,,jt3 ,doyre1 ,op4 cit4 p4 #aai4 ,footnote ,,ju3 ,doyre1 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #acj-acc4 ,footnote ,,jv3 ,doyre1 ,op4 cit4 pp4 #aag and #abi4 ,footnote ,,jw3 ,rgne animal1 #ahbi1 t4 i4 p4 #cif4 ,footnote ,,jx3 ,lavoisier1 ,mmoires de ,chimie1 t4 i4 p4 #aai4 ,footnote ,,jy3 ,milne ,edwards1 ,elments de ,zoologie1 #ahcd1 p4 #edc4 ,footnote ,,jz3 ,relat4 hist41 t4 ii4 pp4 #aib1 #fbf4 ,footnote ,,ka3 ,grundriss der ,kruterkunde1 #dte ,aufl4 ,berl4 #ahje4 s4 #dje-dab4 ,footnote ,,kb3 ,auguste de ,st4 ,hilaire1 ,leons de ,botanique1 #ahdj1 pp4 #efe-ega4 ,footnote ,,kc3 ,adrien de ,jussieu1 ,cours lmentaire de ,botanique1 #ahdj1 p4 #dfc4 ,footnote ,,kd3 ,joh4 ,reinh4 ,forster1 ,bemerkungen auf seiner ,reise um die ,welt1 #aghc1 s4 #eg2 ,le ,gentil1 ,voyage dans les ,mers de l',inde1 #aggb1 t4 i4 pp4 #fhe-fih4 ,footnote ,,ke3 ,forskaal1 ,fauna gyptiaco-arabica1 s4 ,descriptiones animalium qu in itinere orientali observavit1 #agge1 p4 #aji4 ,footnote ,,kf3 ,bory de ,st4-,vincent1 ,voyage dans les ,iles des ,mers d',afrique1 #ahjd t4 i4 p4 #ajg1 pl4 vi4 ,footnote ,,kg3 ,michaelis1 ,ueber das ,leuchten der ,ostsee bei ,kiel1 #ahcj1 s4 #ag4 ,footnote ,,kh3 ,abhandlungen der ,akad4 der ,wiss4 zu ,berlin aus dem ,j4 #ahcc1 s4 #cjg1 #ahcd1 s4 #ecg-ege1 #ahch1 s4 #de1 #beh4 ,footnote ,,ki3 ,ehrenberg1 ,ueber das ,leuchten des ,meeres1 #ahcf1 s4 #aaj1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afc4 ,footnote ,,kj3 ,versuche ber die gereizte ,muskel- und ,nervenfaser1 bd4 i4 s4 #dch-dda2 see also ,obs4 de ,zoologie et d',anatomie compare1 vol4 i4 p4 #hd4 ,footnote ,,kk3 ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #ahcd1 part ii4 pp4 #ede-edg4 ,footnote ,,kl3 ,see my letter to the editor of the ,annalen der ,physik und ,chemie1 bd4 xxxvii4 #ahcf1 s4 #bab-bad4 ,footnote ,,km3 ,humboldt1 ,relat4 hist41 t4 i4 pp4 #gi1 #ecc4 ,respecting the wonderful development of mass and power of increase in the ,infusorial animalcules1 see ,ehrenberg1 ,infus41 s4 xiii4 #bia and #eab4 8,the galaxy of the smallest organisms10 he says1 8passes through the genera ,monas 7where they are often only of a line71 ,vibrio1 and ,bacterium10 7s4 xix4 #bdd47 ,footnote ,,kn3 ,rudolphi1 ,entozoorum ,synopsis1 pp4 #abd1 #dcd4 ,footnote ,,ko3 ,see ,gzen's ,eingeweidewrmer1 tab4 iv4 fig4 #aj4 ,footnote ,,kp3 ,mller1 ,zoologia danica1 ,fasc4 ii4 tab4 lxxx4 a-e4 ,footnote ,,kq3 ,humboldt et ,provenal1 ,sur la respiration des ,poissons1 in ,rec4 d',obs4 de ,zoologie1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aid-baf4 ,footnote ,,kr3 ,mmoires de ,physique et de ,chimie de la ,socit d',arcueil1 t4 i4 #ahjg1 pp4 #beb-bha4 ,footnote ,,ks3 ,abhandlungen der ,akad4 der ,wiss4 zu ,berlin aus dem ,j4 #ahcb1 s4 #cic-dcb4 ,footnote ,,kt3 ,ehrenberg1 ,op4 cit41 s4 #dai4 ,footnote ,,ku3 ,asie centrale1 t4 i4 p4 #bah4 ,footnote ,,kv3 ,darwin1 ,structure of ,coral ,reefs1 pp4 #ci1 #aaa1 and #ahc4 ,footnote ,,kw3 ,ehrenberg's ,manuscript ,notes4 ,footnote ,,kx3 ,annales des ,sciences naturelles1 t4 vi41 #ahbe1 p4 #bgg4 ,footnote ,,ky3 ,darwin1 ,coral ,reefs1 p4 #fc-fe4 ,footnote ,,kz3 ,chamisso1 in ,kotzebue's ,entdeckungsreise1 bd4 iiiv s4 #ajh4 ,footnote ,,la3 ,see my ,essai ,politique sur l',ile de ,cuba1 t4 ii4 p4 #acg4 ,footnote ,,lb3 ,petr4 ,martyr1 ,oceanica1 #aecb1 ,dec4 #a1 p4 #i2 ,gomara1 ,hist4 de las ,indias1 #aeec1 fol4 xiv4 ,footnote ,,lc3 ,lacpde1 ,hist4 nat4 des ,poissons1 t4 i4 p4 #ee4 ,footnote ,,ld3 ,transactions of the ,geological ,soc41 #bnd ,ser4 vol4 v4 ,p4 #a1 #ahcg1 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote ,,le3 ,annales des ,sciences naturelles1 t4 vi41 #ahbe1 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote ,,lf3 ,see ,darwin's ,journal1 #ahde1 p4 #dfg1 also his ,structure of ,coral ,reefs1 pp4 #hd-hg2 and ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 ,hist4 of ,barbadoes1 #ahdh1 p4 #fcf4 ,footnote ,,lg3 ,report on gean ,invertebrata in the ,report of the ,thirteenth ,meeting of the ,british ,association1 held at ,cork in #ahdc1 pp4 #aea1 #afa4 ,footnote ,,lh3 ,see ,ross1 ,voyage of ,discovery in the ,southern and ,antarctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ccd1 #ccg4 ,footnote ,,li3 ,ehrenberg1 in the ,abhandl4 der ,berl4 ,akad4 aus dem ,j4 #ahcb1 s4 #dcj4 ,footnote ,,lj3 ,forbes and ,spratt1 ,travels in ,lycia1 #ahdg1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abd4 ,footnote ,,lk3 ,see my ,asie centrale1 t4 ii4 p4 #eag4 ,footnote ,,ll3 ,compare ,james ,dana 7geologist in the ,united ,states' ,exploring ,expedition under the command of ,captain ,wilkes71 ,on the ,structure and ,classification of ,zoophytes1 #ahdf1 pp4 #abd-aca4 ,footnote ,,lm3 ,report of the ,sixteenth ,meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held in #ahdf1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote ,,ln3 ,otfr4 ,mller1 ,geschichten ,hellenischer ,stmme und ,stdte1 bd4 i4 s4 #fe1 #aai4 ,footnote ,,lo3 ,diodor4 ,sicul4 lib4 v4 cap4 #dg1 p4 #cfi4 ,wesseling4 ,footnote ,,lp3 ,geschichte der natrlichen ,vernderungen der ,erdoberflche1 ,th4 i4 #ahbb1 s4 #aje-afb1 and ,creuzer's ,symbolik1 #bte ,aufl4 th4 ii4 s4 #bhe1 #cah1 #cfa4 ,footnote ,,lq3 ,lib4 i4 p4 #di1 #ej4 ,casaub4 ,footnote ,,lr3 ,lib4 xvii4 p4 #hji4 ,casaub4 ,footnote ,,ls3 ,strabo1 lib4 i4 p4 #ea-ef1 lib4 ii4 p4 #ajd4 ,casaub4 ,footnote ,,lt3 ,diod4 iii4 #ec-ee4 ,footnote ,,lu3 ,maximus ,tyrius1 viii4 #g4 ,footnote ,,lv3 ,compare my ,examen critique de l'hist4 de la ,gographie1 t4 i4 p4 #agi1 t4 iii4 p4 #acf4 ,footnote ,,lw3 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dha4 7,bohn's edition74 ,footnote ,,lx3 ,see my work1 ,versuche ber die chemische ,zersetzung des ,luftkreises1 #agii1 p4 #agg2 and ,moll's ,jahrbcher der ,berg- und ,httenkunde1 #agig1 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote ,,ly3 ,nova ,acta ,acad4 ,leop4 ,carol4 ,natur ,curiosorum1 t4 xiii4 #ahbg1 p4 #gha4 ,footnote ,,lz3 ,humboldt1 ,rlat4 hist41 t4 i4 pp4 #aah1 #fci4 ,footnote ,,ma3 ,vues des ,cordillres et ,monumens des peuples indignes de l',amrique1 pl4 lxix4 ,footnote ,,mb3 ,rlat4 hist41 t4 i41 p4 #bhb4 ,footnote ,,mc3 ,grundzge der ,botanik1 #ahdc1 #ajjc4 ,footnote ,,md3 ,asia ,portuguesa1 t4 i41 cap4 #b41 pp4 #ad1 #ah4 ,footnote ,,me3 ,compare also ,barros1 ,asia1 dec4 i4 liv4 ii41 cap4 #b1 t4 i4 7,lisboa1 #aggh17 p4 #adh4 ,footnote ,,mf3 ,navarrete1 t4 v1 pp4 #h1 #bdg1 #dja4 ,footnote ,,mg3 ,examen critique de l',hist4 de la ,gographie1 t4 v4 pp4 #abi-acb4 ,footnote ,,mh3 ,ramusio1 vol4 i4 p4 #aji4 ,footnote ,,mi3 ,flore de ,sngambie p4 #gf4 ,footnote ,,mj3 ,this tree was formerly called 8the ,ethiopian sour gourd20 ,julius ,scaliger1 who gave it the name of ,guanabanus1 instances one1 which seventeen men with outstretched arms could not encompass4 ,the wood is very perishable1 and the negroes place in the hollow of these trees the corpses of their conjurors1 or of such persons who they suppose would enchant or desecrate the ground1 if buried in the usual way4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,mk3 ,familles des ,plantes d',adanson1 #agfc1 ,p4 ,i4 pp4 ccxv-ccxviii4 ,the fourteenth century is here stated1 but this is no doubt an error4 ,footnote ,,ml3 ,adrien de ,jussieu1 ,cours de ,botanique1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote ,,mm3 ,voyage au ,sngal1 #ageg1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote ,,mn3 ,fragmens d'un voyage en ,afrique1 t4 ii4 p4 #ib4 ,footnote ,,mo3 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ffb4 7,bohn's ,edition47 ,footnote ,,mp3 ,decandolle1 de la ,longvit des ,arbres1 p4 #fe4 ,fine engravings of the venerable yew at ,fortingal1 ,fountains ,abbey1 ,ankerwyke1 c41 will be found in ,strutt's magnificent work on forest trees4 ,a very full account of the ,yew-tree1 with engravings1 will also be found in ,loudon's ,arboretum ,britannicum4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,mq3 ,endlicher1 ,grundzge der ,botanik1 s4 #cii4 ,footnote ,,mr3 ,gould1 ,birds of ,australia1 vol4 i4 ,introd4 p4 xv4 ,footnote ,,ms3 ,adrien de ,jussieu1 ,cours lmentaire de ,botanique1 #ahdj1 p4 #fa4 ,footnote ,,mt3 ,kunth1 ,lehrbuch der ,botanik1 th4 i4 #ahdg1 s4 #adf1 #afd2 ,lindley1 ,introduction to ,botany1 #bnd ed4 p4 #ge4 ,footnote ,,mu3 ,mhlenpfordt1 ,versuch einer getreuen ,schilderung der ,republik ,mexico1 bd4 i4 s4 #aec4 ,footnote ,,mv3 ,lassen1 ,indische ,alterthumskunde1 bd4 i4 s4 #bfj4 ,see an interesting account of the ,banyan tree in ,forbes' ,oriental ,memoirs1 vol4 i4 pp4 #be-bh4 ,the tree there described 7the famous ,cubbeer-,burr7 comprises #cej large trunks and more than #cjjj small ones1 and extends over an area of several thousand feet4 ,milton alludes to the ,banyan tree in his ,paradise ,lost1 book ix4 line #aajj1 c4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,mw3 ,histori ,venet1 #aeea1 fol4 #hc4 ,footnote ,,mx3 ,annales de la ,socit d',agriculture de la ,rochelle1 #ahdc1 p4 #chj4 ,footnote ,,my3 ,darwin1 ,journal of ,researches into ,nat4 ,hist41 #ahde1 p4 #bci4 ,footnote ,,mz3 ,voyages of the ,adventure and ,beagle1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfc4 ,footnote ,,na3 ,flora ,antarctica1 p4 vii1 #a and #agh2 and ,camille ,montague1 ,botanique cryptogame du ,voyage de la ,bonite1 #ahdf1 p4 #cf4 ,footnote ,,nb3 ,general ,remarks on the ,botany of ,terra ,australis1 p4 #d4 ,footnote ,,nc3 ,humboldt1 de distributione geographica ,plantarum1 p4 #bc4 ,footnote ,,nd3 ,essai lmentaire de ,gographie botanique1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote ,,ne3 ,formerly librarian to ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 now ,president of the ,linnan ,society4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,nf3 ,robert ,brown1 ,general remarks on the botany of ,terra ,australis1 in ,flinders' ,voyage1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cch4 ,footnote ,,ng3 ,compare my essay1 ,de distributione geographica ,plantarum secundum cli temperiem et altitudinem montium1 #ahag1 pp4 #bd-dd2 and see the farther development of numerical relations as given by me in the ,dictionnaire des ,sciences naturelles1 t4 xviii4 #ahbj1 pp4 #dbb-dcf2 and in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 t4 xvi4 #ahba1 pp4 #bfg-bib4 ,footnote ,,nh3 ,humboldt et ,bonpland1 ,plantes quinoxiales1 t4 i4 p4 #cc1 tab4 #aj4 ,footnote ,,ni3 ,see his work1 ,regni ,vegetabilis ,systema naturale1 t4 i4 pp4 #abh1 #cif1 #dci1 #dfd1 #eaj4 ,footnote ,,nj3 ,biologie1 bd4 ii4 s4 #dg1 #fc1 #hc1 #abi4 ,footnote ,,nk3 ,decandolle1 ,thorie lmentaire de la ,botanique1 p4 #aij2 ,humboldt1 ,nova genera et species ,plantarum1 t4 i4 pp4 xvii4 #a4 ,footnote ,,nl3 ,jahrbcher der ,gewchskunde1 bd4 i4 ,berlin1 #ahah1 s4 #ah1 #ba1 #cj4 ,footnote ,,nm3 ,playfair1 in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,soc4 of ,edinb41 vol4 v4 #ahje1 p4 #bjb2 ,humboldt1 on the sum total of the thermometric degrees required for the cycle of vegetation of the ,cereals1 in ,mm4 sur des lignes isothermes1 p4 #if2 ,boussingault1 ,economie rurale1 t4 ii4 p4 #fei1 #ffc1 #ffg2 and ,alphonse ,decandolle1 ,sur les causes qui limitent les espces vgtales1 #ahdg1 p4 #h4 ,footnote ,,nn3 ,introduction to ,botany1 #bnd ed4 p4 #ejd4 ,footnote ,,no3 ,manuscript notice communicated to the 8,gartenbau-,verein0 in ,dec4 #ahdf4 ,footnote ,,np3 ,kunth1 ,enumeratio ,plantarum4 ,footnote ,,nq3 ,ernest ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 #ahdc1 vol4 i4 p4 #dai4 ,footnote ,,nr3 ,joseph ,hooker1 ,flora ,antarctica1 pp4 #gc-ge4 ,footnote ,,ns3 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 ,results of ,astron4 ,observ4 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #ahdg1 p4 #cha4 ,footnote ,,nt3 ,abhandl4 der ,akad4 der ,wiss4 zu ,berlin aus dem ,j4 #ahdf1 s4 #cbb4 ,footnote ,,nu3 ,see my work1 ,ueber die gereizte ,muskel-und ,nervenfaser1 bd4 ii4 s4 #adb-ade4 ,footnote ,,nv3 ,humboldt1 ,de distributione geographica ,plantarum1 pp4 #bbe-bcc4 ,footnote ,,nw3 ,semanario de ,santa ,f de ,bogot1 #ahji1 ,no4 #ba1 p4 #afc4 ,footnote ,,nx3 ,wallich1 ,plant asiatic1 vol4 iii4 tab4 #baa4 ,footnote ,,ny3 ,general remarks on the ,botany of ,terra ,australis1 p4 #de4 ,footnote ,,nz3 ,voyage au ,brsil1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote ,,oa3 ,compare also ,darwin1 ,journal1 ,ed4 of #ahde1 pp4 #bdd1 #bef4 ,footnote ,,ob3 ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,britisch ,guiana1 ,th4 i4 ,s4 #ej4 ,footnote ,,oc3 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgf4 7,bohn's ,edition47 ,footnote ,,od3 ,aug4 de ,saint-,hilaire1 ,morphologie vgtale1 #ahdj1 p4 #agf4 ,footnote ,,oe3 8,in the ,palm groves at ,pihiguao1 single trees annually bear as #djj fruit of an apple shape2 and it is well known among the ,brothers of ,san ,francisco1 who live on the banks of the ,orinoco and ,guania1 that the ,indians become very fat at the time that the ,palms put forth their unctuous fruit40--,humboldt1 de distrib4 geogr4 ,plant41 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote ,,of3 ,compare my ,essai sur la ,gographie des ,plantes1 p4 #bi1 and my ,rlat4 hist4 t4 i4 pp4 #ajd1 #ehg1 t4 ii4 pp4 #cee1 #cfg4 ,footnote ,,og3 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebd 7,bohn's ,edition74 ,footnote ,,oh3 ,compare ,lassen1 ,indische ,alterthumskunde1 bd4 i4 s4 #bfb1 with my ,essai politique sur la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 t4 ii4 p4 #chb1 and ,rlat4 hist41 t4 i4 p4 #dia4 ,footnote ,,oi3 ,humboldt et ,bonpland1 ,plantes quinoxiales1 t4 i4 p4 #hb1 pi4 #bd2 ,essai polit4 sur la ,nouv4 ,esp4 t4 i4 p4 #ih4 ,footnote ,,oj3 ,see our ,plantes quin4 t4 ii4 p4 #aac1 pl4 #aaf4 ,footnote ,,ok3 ,see his ,tableau des ,provinces situes sur la cte occidentale de la ,mer ,caspienne1 entre les fleuves ,terek et ,kour1 #agih1 pp4 #eh1 #abj4 ,footnote ,,ol3 ,see ,molina's ,storia naturale del ,chili1 #aghb1 p4 #agd4 ,footnote ,,om3 ,klotzsch1 ,ueber die geographische ,verbreitung der ,erica-,arten mit bleibender ,blumenkrone4 ,manuscr4 ,footnote ,,on3 ,flora ,sibirica1 t4 iv41 p4 #abi4 ,footnote ,,oo3 ,flora ,rossica1 t4 i41 pars #b1 p4 #ec4 ,footnote ,,op3 ,botany of the ,antarctic ,voyage of the ,erebus and ,terror1 #ahdd1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote ,,oq3 ,philos4 ,transact41 vol4 lxxix4 p4 #hf4 ,footnote ,,or3 ,handbuch der ,botanik1 s4 #fji4 ,footnote ,,os3 ,claudio ,gay1 ,flora ,chilensis1 #ahdh1 p4 #cj4 ,footnote ,,ot3 ,wislizenus1 ,tour to ,northern ,mexico1 #ahdh1 p4 #ig4 ,footnote ,,ou3 ,see p4 #ae4 ,footnote ,,ov3 ,hooker1 ,flora antarctica1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote ,,ow3 ,compare the section ,orchide in my work1 ,de distrib4 geogr4 ,plant41 pp4 #bda-bdg4 ,footnote ,,ox3 ,see ,darwin1 ,journal of ,researches1 p4 #ddi4 ,footnote ,,oy3 ,see his ,abhandl4 der ,wiss4 zu ,mnchen1 bd4 iii4 #ahcg-ahdc1 ,s4 #geb4 ,footnote ,,oz3 ,synopsis ,coniferarum1 #ahdg4 ,footnote ,,pa3 ,see ,cosmos1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bhb-bhg 7,bohn's edition74 ,footnote ,,pb3 ,see my ,examen crit41 t4 ii4 pp4 #bdf-bei4 ,footnote ,,pc3 ,flora ,antarctica1 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote ,,pd3 ,see ,linna1 bd4 xv4 #ahda1 s4 #ebi1 and ,endlicher's ,synopsis ,coniferarum1 p4 #if4 ,footnote ,,pe3 ,see ,hoffmeister's ,briefe aus ,indien whrend der ,expedition des ,prinzen ,waldemar von ,preussen1 #ahdg1 s4 #cea4 ,footnote ,,pf3 ,dec4 iii4 lib4 x4 p4 #fh4 ,footnote ,,pg3 ,thunberg1 ,flora ,japonica1 p4 #bge4 ,the allusion is somewhat amusing2 we annex a translation of ,thunberg's note3--8,this fruit resembles acorns1 and is of an astringent nature4 ,for this reason the ,japanese interpreters1 when constrained to remain in the royal presence longer than usual1 chew it1 as an antidiuretic4 ,it is brought to table at the second course with ,acrodrya1 and is said to be very wholesome1 and to relax the bowels although it constricts the mouth4 ,the expressed oil is in request for the kitchen1 especially among the ,chinese monks who live at ,nagasacca40--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,ph3 ,gay1 ,flora ,chilensis1 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote ,,pi3 ,see my ,examen crit4 t4 iii4 p4 #bd4 ,footnote ,,pj3 ,see ,ratzeburg1 ,forstreisen1 #ahdd1 s4 #bhg4 ,footnote ,,pk3 ,torrey and ,frmont1 ,report of the ,exploring ,expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains in #ahdd1 p4 #cai4 ,footnote ,,pl3 ,endlicher1 ,conifer fossiles1 p4 #cja4 ,footnote ,,pm3 ,see ,journal of the ,royal ,institution1 #ahbf1 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote ,,pn3 ,see description in ,lewis and ,clarke's ,travels to the ,source of the ,missouri ,river and across the ,american ,continent to the ,pacific ,ocean 7#ahjd-f71 #ahad1 p4 #def4 ,footnote ,,po3 ,dwight1 ,travels1 vol4 i4 p4 #cf1 and ,emerson1 ,report on the ,trees and ,shrubs growing naturally in the ,forests of ,massachusetts1 #ahdf1 p4 #fj-ff4 ,footnote ,,pp3 ,auguste de ,st4 ,hilaire1 ,morphologie vgtale1 #ahdj1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote ,,pq3 ,linna1 bd4 xv4 #ahda1 s4 #dhi4 ,footnote ,,pr3 ,emerson1 ,report on the ,forests1 pp4 #di1 #aja4 ,footnote ,,ps3 ,morphologie vgtale1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote ,,pt3 ,gppert1 ,beobachtungen ber das sogenannte ,umwallen der ,tannenstcke1 #ahdb1 s4 #ab4 ,footnote ,,pu3 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 iii4 cap4 #g1 pp4 #ei1 #fj4 ,schneider4 ,footnote ,,pv3 ,th4 i4 s4 #adc1 #aff4 ,footnote ,,pw3 ,compare ,unger1 ,ueber den ,einfluss des ,bodens auf die ,vertheilung der ,gewchse1 s4 #bjj2 ,lindblom1 ,adnot4 in geographicam plantarum intra ,sueciam distributionem1 p4 #hi2 ,martius1 in the ,annales des ,sciences naturelles1 t4 xviii4 #ahdb1 p4 #aie4 ,footnote ,,px3 ,link1 ,urwelt1 ,th4 i4 #ahcd1 s4 #bja-baa4 ,footnote ,,py3 ,palisot de ,beauvois1 ,flore d',oware et de ,benin1 t4 i4 #ahjd1 p4 #d1 pl4 ,,iii4 ,footnote ,,pz3 ,comptes rendus de l',institut1 t4 viii4 #ahci1 p4 #ded1 t4 ix4 pp4 #fad-gha4 ,footnote ,,qa3 ,robert ,schomburgk1 ,reisen in ,guiana und am ,orinoko1 #ahda1 s4 #bcc4 ,footnote ,,qb3 ,pppig1 ,reise in ,chile1 ,peru1 und auf dem ,amazonenstrome4 ,bd4 ii4 #ahcf1 s4 #dcb4 ,footnote ,,qc3 ,ernest ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 #ahdc1 vol4 i4 p4 #dbf4 ,footnote ,,qd3 ,see the very correct delineations in ,adrien de ,jussieu1 ,cours de ,botanique1 pp4 #gg-gi1 figs4 #aje-ajh4 ,footnote ,,qe3 ,patterson1 ,reisen in das ,land der ,hottentotten und der ,kaffern1 #agij1 s4 #ee4 ,footnote ,,qf3 ,see his ,reisen im sdlichen ,afrika1 th4 i4 s4 #cgj4 ,footnote ,,qg3 ,buchanan1 ,journey through ,mysore1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cda2 and ,stirling1 in the ,asiat4 ,res4 vol4 xv4 p4 #bje4 ,footnote ,,qh3 ,see ,bojer1 ,hortus ,mauritianus1 #ahcg1 p4 #bja4 ,footnote ,,qi3 ,relat4 hist4 t4 i4 pp4 #fje-fjf4 ,footnote ,,qj3 ,flora antarctica1 p4 #ig4 ,footnote ,,qk3 ,hooker1 ,icon4 plant4 vol4 ii4 tab4 #aej4 ,footnote ,,ql3 ,compare ,hooker1 ,flora antarctica1 pp4 vii4 #gd1 #bae1 with ,sir ,james ,ross1 ,voyage in the ,southern and ,antarctic ,regions1 #ahci-ahdc1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cce-cdb4 ,footnote ,,qm3 ,humboldt1 de distrib4 geogr4 ,plant41 pp4 #agh1 #bac4 ,footnote ,,qn3 ,historia de las ,indias1 #aece1 fol4 xc4 ,footnote ,,qo3 ,humboldt1 ,relat4 hist41 t4 i4 p4 #dcg4 ,footnote ,,qp3 ,robert ,brown1 ,in ,expedition to ,congo1 ,append4 p4 #dbc4 ,footnote ,,qq3 ,abu ,zacaria ,ebn el ,awam1 ,libro de ,agricultura1 traducido por ,j4 ,a4 ,banqueri1 t4 ii4 ,madr4 #ahjb1 p4 #gcf4 ,footnote ,,qr3 ,see a valuable ,treatise by d',urville1 ,distribution gographique des fougres sur la surface du ,globe1 in the ,annales des ,sciences nat41 t4 vi4 #ahbe1 pp4 #ea1 #ff1 #gc4 ,footnote ,,qs3 ,count ,suminski1 ,zur ,entwickelungs-,geschichte der ,farrnkruter #ahdh1 ,s4 #aj-ad4 ,footnote ,,qt3 ,monatl4 ,berichte der ,akad4 zu ,berlin1 ,januar1 #ahdh1 ,s4 #bj4 ,footnote ,,qu3 ,humboldt et ,kunth1 ,nova ,gen4 ,plant41 t4 ii4 p4 #bb1 ,tab4 #ii4 ,footnote ,,qv3 ,lindley1 ,introd4 to the ,natural ,system of ,botany1 p4 #ii4 ,footnote ,,qw3 ,see the additions to ,franklin's ,narrative of a ,journey to the shores of the ,polar ,sea1 #ahbc1 p4 #gfe4 ,footnote ,,qx3 ,morphologie vgtale1 #ahdj1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote ,,qy3 ,adrien de ,jussieu1 ,cours de ,botanique1 pp4 #ajf1 #abj1 and #gjj2 ,darwin1 ,journal of ,researches1 #ahdf1 p4 #dcc4 ,footnote ,,qz3 ,flora antartica1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote ,,ra3 ,cosmos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dec 7,bohn's edition47 ,footnote ,,rb3 ,aristot4 ,de ,generat4 ,animal4 v4 i4 p4 #ggh1 and ,de ,somno et ,vigil4 cap4 i4 p4 #dee1 ,bekker4 ,footnote ,,rc3 ,kunth1 ,lehrbuch der ,botanik1 #ahdg4 ,th4 i4 s4 #eaa2 ,schleiden1 ,die ,pflanze und ihr ,leben1 #ahdh1 s4 #ajj4 ,footnote ,,rd3 ,probl4 #bj1 #g4 ,footnote ,,re3 ,theoria ,generationis1 #e-i4 ,footnote ,,rf3 ,see ,kunth1 ,synopsis ,plantarum quas in itinere collegerunt1 ,al4 de ,humboldt et ,am4 ,bonpland1 t4 iii4 pp4 #hg1 #cfj4 ,footnote ,,rg3 ,geognostical ,essay on the superposition of ,rocks in both ,hemispheres4 #hvo4 ,lond4 #ahjc4 ,footnote ,,rh3 ,see ,abhandl4 der ,knigl4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften zu ,berlin4 ,jahr #ahbb und #ahbc1 s4 #c-bj4 ,footnote ,,ri3 ,acta ,s4 ,patricii1 p4 #eee1 ed4 ,ruinart2 ,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbj1 7,bohn's edition74 ,footnote ,,rj3 ,a ,portico in ,athens containing a picture gallery painted chiefly by ,polygnotus1 with the assistance of ,micon and ,pannus4 ,zeno taught his doctrines there1 and was in consequence called the ,stoic1 from stoa1 a portico1 and his school the ,stoic-school--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,rk3 ,the very same idea is expressed in ,schiller's ,walk under the ,linden ,trees4--,,ed4 ,footnote ,,rl3 ,see ,aphorismi ex doctrina ,physiologi chemic ,plantarum1 in ,humboldt1 ,flora ,fribergensis subterranea1 #agic1 pp4 #acc-acf4 ,translation2--8,if you attentively consider the whole nature of things1 you will discover a great and permanent difference amongst elements1 some of which obeying the laws of affinity1 others independent1 appear in various combinations4 ,this difference is by no means inherent in the elements themselves and in their nature1 but seems to be derived solely from their particular distribution4 ,we call that matter inert1 brute1 and inanimate1 the particles of which are combined according to the laws of chemical affinity4 ,on the other hand1 we call those bodies animate and organic1 which1 although constantly manifesting a tendency to assume new forms1 are restrained by some internal force from relinquishing that originally assigned them4 ,that internal force1 which dissolves the bonds of chemical affinity1 and prevents the elements of bodies from freely uniting1 we call vital4 ,accordingly1 the most certain criterion of death is putrescence1 by which the first parts1 or stamina of things1 resume their pristine state1 and obey the laws of affinity4 ,in inanimate bodies there can be no putrescence40 ,footnote ,,rm3 ,henle1 ,allgemeine ,anatomie1 #ahda1 pp4 #baf-bai4 ,footnote ,,rn3 ,pulteney ,alison1 in the ,transact4 of the ,royal ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #cje4 ,footnote ,,ro3 ,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #eh4 7,bohn's ,edition47 ,footnote ,,rp3 ,vol4 i4 p4 #cdi4 7,bohn's ,edition47 ,footnote ,,rq3 ,compare also the critique on the acceptation of special vital forces in ,schleiden's ,botanik als inductive ,wissenschaft1 part i4 pp4 #fj1 and the lately published and admirable treatise of ,emil du ,bois-,reymond1 ,untersuchungen ber thierische ,elektricitt1 vol4 i4 pp4 xxxiv-#a4 ,footnote ,,rr3 ,translation4--8,from the ,province ,anti the ,montaas of the ,antis received their name4 ,antisuyu signified the eastern direction1 and for that reason the name ,anti was given to all that part of the great ,cordillera of ,sierra ,nevada which runs along the east of ,peru1 to denote that it was situated in the east40 7,commentarios ,reales1 pt4 i4 pp4 #dg1 #abb47--;,,ed4 ,footnote ,,rs3 ,see my ,treatise on the ,quina ,woods1 inserted in the ,magazin der ,gesellschaft naturforschender ,freunde zu ,berlin1 ,jahrg4 i4 #ahjg1 s4 #ei4 ,footnote ,,rt3 ,histoire de l',acad4 des ,sciences1 anne #agch4 ,paris1 #agdj1 p4 #bcc4 ,footnote ,,ru3 ,i have given a drawing of it in the ,vues des ,cordillres1 pl4 xvii42 see also ,ciea1 cap4 #dd1 ,p4 i4 p4 #abj4 ,footnote ,,rv3 ,translation4--8,the road of the ,sierras is wonderful to behold2 for truly1 throughout all ,christendom1 there are not to be seen such beautiful roads on such rugged ground1 and1 for the most part they are paved40 ,footnote ,,rw3 ,see ,vues des ,cordillres et ,monumens des peuples indignes de l',amrique1 ed4 in #hvo4 t4 ii4 pp4 #bbj-bfg4 ,footnote ,,rx3 ,joaquin ,acosta1 ,compendio historico del ,descubrimiento de la ,nueva ,granada1 #ahdh1 pp4 #ahh1 #aif1 #bjf1 and #bjh2 ,bulletin de la ,socit de ,gographie de ,paris1 #ahdg1 p4 #aad4 ,footnote ,,ry3 ,journal of a ,residence in ,columbia1 #ahbe1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cij4 ,footnote ,,rz3 ,historical ,researches on the ,conquest of ,peru1 #ahbg1 p4 #cig4 ,footnote ,,sa3 ,prescott's ,conquest of ,peru1 vol4 i4 p4 #ccb4 ,footnote ,,sb3 ,see ,garcilaso1 lib4 viii4 cap4 #b2 also ,joaquin ,acosta1 p4 #ahi4 ,footnote ,,sc3 ,see ,humboldt1 ,recueil des ,observ4 ,astron4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cji-cei4 ,footnote ,,sd3 ,journal du ,voyage fait l',equateur1 #agea1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote ,,se3 ,pingr1 ,comtographie1 t4 i4 p4 #dif2 and ,galle's ,verzeichniss aller bisher berechneten ,cometenbahnen1 in ,olbers' ,easiest method of calculating the course of a ,comet1 #ahdg1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote ,,sf3 ,mdler's ,astronomie1 #ahdf1 p4 #cjg2 also ,schnurrer's ,chronik der ,seuchen in ,verbindung mit gleichzeitigen ,erscheinungen1 #ahbe1 part ii4 p4 #hb4 ,footnote ,,sg3 ,commentaries reales de las ,incas1 parte ii4 #agbb1 pp4 #bg1 #ea4 ,footnote ,,sh3 ,historia de las ,indias1 #aecc1 p4 #fg4 ,see my ,essai ,politique sur la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 ed4 #b1 t4 iii4 p4 #dbd4 ,footnote ,,si3 ,see the ,essai politique1 t4 iii4 p4 #cga1 #cgg2 and also ,joaquin ,acosta's ,descubrimiento de la ,nueva ,granada1 #ahdh1 p4 #ad4 ,footnote ,,sj3 ,prescott's ,conquest of ,peru1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dfd-dgg4 ,footnote ,,sk3 ,relation hist41 t4 iii4 pp4 #gjc1 #gje1 #gac4 ,footnote ,,sl3 ,raleigh1 ,the ,discovery of the large1 rich1 and beautiful ,empire of ,guiana1 performed in #aeie4 ,edition published by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 #ahdh1 pp4 #aai and #acg4 ,footnote ,,sm3 ,examen critique de l'histoire de la ,gographie du ,nouveau ,continent et des progrs de l',astronomie nautique aux #aeme et #afme sicles1 t4 i4 p4 #cdi4 ,footnote ,,sn3 ,peter ,martyr's ,epist4 dxl4 p4 #bif4 ,footnote ,,so3 ,joaquin ,acosta1 ,compendio hist4 del ,descubrimiento de la ,nueva ,granada1 p4 #di4 ,footnote ,,sp3 ,vida del ,almirante por ,don ,fernando ,colon1 cap4 #ij4 ,footnote ,,sq3 ,see my ,atlas gographique et physique de la ,nouv4 ,espagne1 pi4 iv4 and ,atlas de la ,relation historique1 pl4 xxii4 xxiii42 also my ,voyage aux regiones quinoxiales du ,nouveau ,continent1 t4 iii4 pp4 #aag-aed1 and ,essai politique sur la royaume de la ,nouvelle ,espagne1 t4 i4 #bnd ed4 #ahbe1 pp4 #bjb-bdh4 ,footnote ,,sr3 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,soc4 of ,london for the year #ahcj1 pp4 #ei-fh4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,p4 #ed1 changed 8,plateau de la ,tartaric0 to 8,plateau de la ,tartarie04 #b4 ,p4 #acd1 changed 8,compare my ,relation historique1 t4 i4 p4 #dib1 t4 ii4 pp4 #fec1 #gjc1 #f;ith ,richard ,schomburgk0 to 8,compare my ,relation historique1 t4 i4 p4 #dib1 t4 ii4 pp4 #fec1 #gjc1 with ,richard ,schomburgk04 #c4 ,pp4 #chj and #dcb1 added missing footnote anchors4 #d4 ,silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #e4 ,retained archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings as printed4 #f4 ,re-indexed symbol designated footnotes using letters and collected together at the end of the last chapter4 #g4 ,numbered footnotes were re-indexed and left in place4 #h4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 #i4 ,enclosed bold font in equals4