,,hints ,,to ,,travellers ,,scientific ,,and ,,general ,,tenth ,,edition ,,revised ,,and ,,corrected ,,from ,,the ,,ninth ,,edition ,,edited ,,for ,,the ,council of the ,royal ,geographical ,society ,,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,reeves1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,map ,curator and ,instructor in ,surveying to the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,meteorology1 ,,photography1 ,,geology1 ,,natural ,,history1 ,,anthropology1 ,,industry ,,and ,,commerce1 ,,arch,,ology1 ,,medical1 ,,etc4 ,,london ,,the ,,royal ,,geographical ,,society ,,kensington ,,gore1 ,s4,w4 #g ,,and ,,at ,,all ,,booksellers #aiba ,price of the two ,volumes1 #bas4 net4 ,to ,fellows1 at the ,office of the ,society1 #aes4 net4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,duke ,,street1 ,,stamford ,,street1 ,s4,e4 #a1 ,,and ,,great ,,windmill ,,street1 ,w4 #a4 ,,preface ,,to ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,the first seven sections of this volume have been carefully revised1 but required no serious alteration4 ,the eighth section required very extensive changes and additions1 due to the great progress of ,tropical ,medicine in the last fourteen years4 ,the ,society is much indebted to ,dr4 ,andrew ,balfour1 ,c4,b41 ,c4,m4,g41 ,director-in-,chief of the ,wellcome ,bureau of ,scientific ,research1 who has very kindly revised and extended the ,medical ,hints in the light of his wide experience in the ,sudan and in the ,east during the ,war4 ,in the instructions for the use of drugs the word 8tablet0 has been used to denote products compressed in the form usually described by a proprietary word that belongs in law only to the products of a particular firm4 ,a4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,section ,i4 ,,meteorology ,,and ,,climatology 7by ,hugh ,robert ,mill1 ,d4,,sc41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 formerly ,president ,royal ,meteorological ,society and ,director ,british ,rainfall ,organization7 #a-ej ,general ,remarks1 #a--;,a ,record of ,weather1 #b--,non-,instrumental ,observations1 #c--;,instrumental ,observations1 #aa--,observations for ,forecasting the ,weather1 #cb--;,extra-,european ,weather ,services1 #db--,table of ,relative ,humidity1 #dd--,table showing ,pressure of ,saturated ,aqueous ,vapour in ,inches of ,mercury at ,lat4 #de for each degree ,fahr4 from -#cj to #aai1 #ej--;,isothermal1 ,isobaric1 and ,rainfall ,maps1 #ej4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,photography 7by ,j4 ,thomson1 formerly ,instructor in ,photography1 ,r4,g4,s4 ,revised by the late ,j4 ,mc,intosh1 ,secretary ,royal ,photographic ,society of ,great ,britain7 #ea-fb ,the ,camera1 #ea--,selecting a ,camera1 #ea--,the ,hand ,camera1 #eb--;,camera ,stand1 #ed--,lenses1 #ed--;,exposure ,tables1 #ef--,sensitive ,plates or ,films1 #eg--;,how to keep ,plates and ,films ,dry1 #eh--;,apparatus and ,chemicals for ,development1 #eh--,photography in ,natural ,colours1 #fa4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,geology 7by the late ,w4 ,t4 ,blanford1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,revised by ,prof4 ,e4 ,j4 ,garwood1 ,f4,r4,s47 #fc-gh ,general ,remarks1 #fc--,outfit1 #fd--;,collections1 #fe--,mountain ,chains1 #gj--;,coasts1 #ga--,rivers and ,river-,plains1 #gb--,lakes and ,tarns1 #gc--;,evidence of ,glacial ,action1 #gd--;,deserts1 #ge--;,early ,history of ,man in ,tropical ,climates1 #gf--,permanence of ,ocean ,basins1 #gf--;,atolls or ,coral-,islands1 #gg4 ,,memorandum ,,on ,,glacier ,,observations4 7,revised by ,alan ,g4 ,ogilvie7 #gh-ha ,,section ,,iv4 ,,natural ,,history 7by the late ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,revised by ,w4 ,r4 ,ogilvie-,grant1 ,british ,museum1 ,natural ,history7 #hb-aje ,outfit1 #hb--,where and ,what to ,collect1 #hi--,mammals and ,birds1 #ia--,preserving ,mammals1 c41 in ,alcohol1 #ib--,preparation of ,skeletons of ,animals1 #id--,reptiles and ,fishes1 #if--,land and ,freshwater ,mollusca1 #ig--;,insects1 #ii--;,botanical ,collecting1 #ii--;,fossils1 #ajd--;,general ,remarks1 #ajd--,observations of ,habits1 c41 #ajd4 ,,section ,v4 ,,anthropology 7by the late ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s47 #ajf-abi ,physical ,characters1 #ajf--,language1 #aaj--;,arts and ,sciences1 #aac--,society1 #aah--,religion and ,mythology1 #abd--;,customs1 #abf4 ,,note ,,by ,,professor ,r4 ,r4 ,,marett #abi ,,queries ,,of ,,anthropology 7by the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s47 #abi-acb ,,anthropological ,,notes 7by ,w4 ,l4 ,h4 ,duckworth1 ,m4,d41 ,,sc4,d41 ,m4,a47 #acb-acg ,,section ,,vi4 ,,industry ,,and ,,commerce 7by ,sir ,john ,scott ,keltie1 ,,ll4,d41 formerly ,secretary ,r4,g4,s47 #ach-adg ,general ,remarks1 #ach--,minerals and ,metals1 #adj--,vegetable ,products1 #ada--;,agriculture1 #adc--;,animal ,products1 #add--,trade1 #add--;,climate1 #ade--;,facilities and ,hindrances to ,commercial ,development1 #adf4 ,,section ,,vii4 ,,arch,,ology 7by ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,d4,,litt47 #adh-aei ,recording1 #adh--;,cleaning and ,conservation1 #aef4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,,medical ,,hints 7by the late ,william ,henry ,cross1 ,m4,d4 ,revised by ,andrew ,balfour1 ,c4,b41 ,g4,m4,g41 ,m4,d47 #afj-bib ,introduction1 #afj--;,general ,hints1 #afh--;,diseases and their ,prevention and ,treatment1 #afi--,medicines1 ,medical ,appliances1 c41 #beb--,treatment of ,wounds and ,injuries1 #bge4 ,,canoeing ,,and ,,boating 7by the late ,j4 ,coles7 #bic-big ,,orthography ,,of ,,geographical ,,names 7by ,maj4-,general ,lord ,edward ,gleichen1 ,k4,c4,v4,o47 #bih-cje ,,on ,,the ,,giving ,,of ,,names ,,to ,,newly-,,discovered ,,places #cjf ,,index #cjg-cah ,,maps ,,and ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,diagram showing how to read ,thermometer ,scale #ac ,mr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,blanford's ,portable ,thermometer ,screen #ae ,hut for ,sheltering ,thermometers #af ,section of ,assmann's ,aspiration ,psychrometer #bj ,diagram showing how to read ,barometer ,vernier #bg ,the ,collie ,barometer1 with the ,deasy ,mounting #cj ,diagram showing ,cyclone ,paths and ,circulation of ,winds in ,cyclones #cc ,charts of the ,world showing ,isothermal ,lines for ,january and ,july #ej ,charts of the ,world showing ,isobaric ,lines for ,january and ,july #ej ,rainfall ,chart of the ,world #ej ,bellows ,camera #eb ,twin-,lens ,camera #ec ,homocentric ,lens #ee ,general ,collecting ,case for ,natural ,history ,specimens #ic ,drying ,press for ,botanical ,specimens #ajj-aja ,diagrams of the ,human ,skull illustrating ,craniological ,descriptions #acd ,diagrams of the ,human ,skull illustrating ,cranial ,measurements #ace ,diagram of ,portion of the ,thigh-,bone for ,measurement of its length #acg ,diagram showing some of the ,principal ,organs of the ,body1 and the ,course of the ,main ,blood-,vessels #afb ,spectacles for ,preventing ,snow-,blindness #aii ,diagram illustrating method of compressing the ,main ,artery of the ,thigh #bgh ,diagrams illustrating methods of ,restoring ,breathing in cases of ,drowning #bhd ,diagram of the ,human ,skeleton1 giving the ,names and ,positions of the ,chief ,bones #bhe ,diagrams showing ,bandaging of ,broken ,jaw #bhi ,,hints ,,to ,,travellers4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,i4 ,,meteorology ,,and ,,climatology4 ,by ,,hugh ,,robert ,,mill1 ,d4,,sc1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,formerly ,president ,royal ,meteorological ,society1 and ,director of the ,british ,rainfall ,organization4 ,the nature of the meteorological observations made by a traveller or by a resident in regions where there is no organised meteorological service will necessarily depend on the object which he has in view1 the time he is able to devote to meteorological work1 his knowledge of meteorology as a science1 and his interest in it4 ,of the many ways in which a traveller may add to the knowledge of atmospheric conditions1 five may be specially mentioned3-- #a4 ,a record of the weather1 observed day by day with regard both to non-instrumental observations and the readings of instruments4 ,this may be taken as the minimum incumbent on all travellers4 #b4 ,observations for forecasting the weather and obtaining warning of storms4 ,this is sometimes of vital importance2 it is always valuable at the time1 and occasionally the results are worth recording4 ,it may1 however be looked upon as a practical application of the systematic observations4 #c4 ,observations with a view to determining the character of the local climate4 ,the traveller passing through a country can do little in this way1 as long continued uniform observations in one place are necessary to fix the annual variations4 ,still1 the recording of such data as may be obtained is always important in a little-known region1 and the work of several travellers at different seasons will allow some fair deductions to be drawn4 ,when a day is spent in camp1 much importance attaches to regular observations made every two hours1 from which the diurnal changes of climate may be ascertained4 #d4 ,special meteorological researches4 ,these usually demand special instruments and skilled observers4 ,observations in the upper air by kites or balloons in particular1 must be an end in themselves4 ,exact measures of radiation in deserts1 of rainfall in forests and on adjacent open ground1 of temperature during land and sea breezes1 or of fogs1 thunderstorms1 tornadoes1 etc41 in places subject to those visitations1 are always of value4 ,as a rule1 however1 the traveller cannot devote much time to these matters1 unless the study of physical geography is the object of his journey4 #e4 ,the collection of existing meteorological records4 ,it sometimes happens that at outlying stations meteorological observations have been taken and recorded for a considerable time4 ,if they have not been already communicated to some meteorological centre1 the traveller should obtain a copy of them1 and also compare the instruments in use with his own4 ,he might in some cases aid in securing a knowledge of local climate by inducing residents at outlying stations to start regular observations4 ,the first two ways of advancing meteorology need alone be considered in detail2 but with regard to all1 it must be clearly understood that the value of the work is greater the more carefully the observations are made and recorded1 and the more remote and less known the region4 #a4 ,a ,,record ,,of ,,weather4--,the traveller who makes his journey for any other purpose than the study of physical geography would be wise to burden himself as little as possible with instruments1 but to understand thoroughly and use faithfully the few he carries4 ,in a rapid march many different climates may be traversed in a few weeks1 and the records of variation of weather so obtained could not have much value2 but when a halt of a few days or of a week or two is made1 systematic observations become valuable4 ,,non-,,instrumental ,,observations4 ,the first place must be given to non-instrumental observations1 which may be made at any time on the march or in camp1 and should always be noted at the time they are made in the rough note-book1 and copied carefully into the journal each evening4 ,these observations in the rough note-book will necessarily be mixed up with others on various subjects2 but the meteorological facts should have a place reserved for themselves in the journal1 say at the end of each day's work4 ,wind4--,observations of the direction and force of the wind at several fixed hours in the day are advisable for comparison with instrumental readings2 but on the march every decided change should be recorded if the nature of the country permits4 ,in the depths of a forest1 or in a narrow valley1 the wind1 if felt at all by the traveller1 gives scarcely any clue to the movement of the air over the open country1 but in most cases the movements of low clouds1 when any are in sight1 may be taken as a fairly satisfactory test4 ,the direction is to be observed by means of the compass1 and it will be sufficient to estimate it by the eight principal points--,north1 ,north-east1 ,east1 ,south-east1 ,south1 ,south-west1 ,west1 and ,north-west4 ,any sudden changes in direction so pronounced as to be noticeable should be recorded1 for1 taken in conjunction with the barometer readings1 if the journey is along a route of nearly constant level1 they are valuable aids in predicting the weather4 ,in some places the direction of the wind undergoes a well-marked regular diurnal change in perfectly settled weather4 ,wind is always named by the direction from which it blows4 ,the force of the wind is best estimated on the scale ,calm1 ,light1 ,moderate1 ,fresh1 ,strong1 and ,gale4 ,it is impossible1 without long experience and the tuition of a trained observer1 to assign relative numbers to these forces which should have any permanent value for comparison with the observations of others4 ,travelling on foot in a strong wind is always uncomfortable1 and in a gale very difficult4 ,if it is impossible to make way against the wind at all1 or to pitch tents1 the force may be put down as ,hurricane after it has passed1 the traveller bearing in mind that if he can write in his note-book at all1 while unsheltered1 a hurricane is not blowing4 ,if a lake or a river without appreciable current is in sight1 wind just sufficient to produce white crests on the waves may be called fresh1 and that sufficient to blow away spray from the crests deserves to be termed strong4 ,at sea1 in a sailing-vessel1 it is possible to acquire great skill in estimating wind-force2 hence ,beaufort's scale1 originally devised with reference to the amount of sail a well-equipped frigate could carry1 has come into extensive use1 and it is as well to know it4 ,by comparison with anemometers1 the approximate velocity in miles per hour corresponding to the numbers on the scale has been estimated3-- ,,beaufort',s ,,scale ,,of ,,wind ,,force4#a ---------------------------------------- ,mean ,velocity in ,no4 ,name4 miles per hour4 ---------------------------------------- #j ,calm #j #a ,light air #a #b ,light breeze #d #c ,gentle breeze #i #d ,moderate breeze #ad #e ,fresh breeze #bj #f ,strong breeze #bf #g ,moderate gale #cc #h ,fresh gale #db #i ,strong gale #ea #aj ,whole gale #fb #aa ,storm #ge #ab ,hurricane #ib --------------------------------------- ,the duration of strong wind should be noted1 as well as the time of any marked change of strength4 ,the land and sea winds of tropical coasts show a well-marked relation to the position of the sun and the hour of sunset1 and in places where these winds blow the hours of calm and change should be noted4 ,on mountain slopes a similar diurnal effect may be noticed2 the wind usually blows uphill during the day and downhill at night1 while in valleys it usually blows either with or against the direction of the river4 ,local winds of peculiar character are sometimes met with in association with mountains such as the ,fhn of the ,alps1 the ,chinook wind of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and the ,helm wind of the ,eden ,valley in ,england and ,adam's ,peak in ,ceylon4 ,whirlwinds and tornadoes are rare phenomena1 but if met with1 it is worth while to take some trouble to put on record at least the hour of their appearance 7local time71 the direction in which the whirl moves onward1 and the breadth of the path of destruction it leaves behind4 ,when a storm of wind has passed over a wooded region and blown down many trees1 the direction in which most of the trunks lie is worth observing4 ,the top of the tree usually falls in the direction in which the wind was blowing1 hence the root usually points to the direction of the wind4 ,waterspouts are closely allied to whirlwinds1 and in any of those phenomena of revolving columns of air it is of much theoretical importance to determine the direction of the whirl about the axis1 i4e41 whether the rotation is in the direction of the hands of a watch or the opposite4 ,the prevailing wind of a district may often be discovered by the slope of trees growing on open ground1 or still better1 by the difference in the degree of wave erosion on small lakes4 ,if the banks are of the same material all round1 the side against which the prevailing wind drives the waves will always be the most worn away4 ,cloud and ,sunshine4--,it would be impossible to keep a record of the countless changes in the cloud-covering of an ,english sky1 but in many parts of the world the absence or presence of cloud is a function of latitude1 altitude1 and season1 of great stability1 and worthy of being attentively studied4 ,the amount of cloud is usually estimated as the number of tenths of the sky covered2 but it is a very difficult thing indeed to compare a tenth of the visible sky near the horizon with a tenth near the zenith4 ,there is no difficulty1 however1 in observing when the sky is completely overcast or quite free of cloud1 and as a matter of convenience the belt round the horizon to the height of thirty degrees may be neglected1 i4e41 the lower third of the distance from the horizon to the zenith4 ,very often it will be found that clouds form and disappear at certain hours of the morning or evening1 and it is useful to get exact information on the subject4 ,of more importance than the amount of cloud is its nature1 elevation1 and movement4 ,distinct species of cloud have been recognised for a long time1 and from more recent studies it would appear that they owe their distinctive appearance to the altitude at which they float in the air4 ,meteorologists distinguish a number of classes and transitional forms of cloud2 it is enough for the traveller to be able to recognise the most definite types1 viz41 ,cirrus1 ,cumulus1 ,stratus1 and ,nimbus4 ,cirrus clouds are the small tufts or wisps of cloud which float very high in the atmosphere1 and to which the popular name of 8mare's tails0 is applied4 ,the transitional form1 ,cirro-,cumulus1 popularly known as 8mackerel scales0 or 8mackerel sky10 is equally easy to identify4 ,cumulus clouds are great woolly-looking heaps of cloud1 the lower surface of which is often nearly horizontal1 while above they well into an exuberant variety of rounded forms4 ,they represent the condensation of moisture in ascending columns of heated air4 ,stratus clouds are low-lying sheets of condensed moisture1 which1 being usually seen at a low angle1 appear like thin layers parallel to the horizon4 ,the transitional type ,cirro-,stratus is usually seen in the form of great feather-like clouds stretching across nearly the whole sky4 ,nimbus is a rather low-lying cloud from which rain is falling even if the rain is re-evaporated before reaching the ground4 ,the lowest clouds of all1 those resting on the surface of the ground and enveloping the observer1 are called mist and fog4 ,the two are distinguished by the fact that a mist wets objects immersed in it1 while a fog does not4 ,all clouds1 except ,cirrus1 are physically the same1 consisting of minute globules of liquid water falling through a portion of air saturated with moisture4 ,the globules being small offer a relatively great surface to friction1 and so fall very slowly1 and in the higher clouds they evaporate on the lower surface before they have time to agglomerate into raindrops4 ,in the highest of all clouds1 the cirrus type1 the particles are spicules of ice and not globules of water4 ,it is a common error to suppose that black clouds differ from white clouds4 ,all clouds are white when they reflect the light of the sun1 and all are black when they come between the eye and the sun in sufficient thickness to cut off a considerable portion of its light4 ,the sudden appearance of a particular kind of cloud is important as a weather sign4 ,it shows that changes are going on in the vertical circulation of the atmosphere4 ,hence if cirrus or cumulus cloud should be observed to be increasing the fact should be noted1 and the direction in which the clouds are moving should be noted also4 ,in observing cloud-motion attention should be given only to the sky overhead2 at any lower angle the parallax due to viewing the clouds obliquely deprives the observation of value4 ,it is also necessary to distinguish between the movement of the upper and of the lower clouds1 as these are floating in very different parts of the atmosphere4 ,it is comparatively rarely that the motion1 say of nimbus and cirrus1 is in the same direction4 ,on a lofty mountain1 strata of cloud which from below were seen to be cumulus may be passed through as layers of mist1 and on emerging from them their upper surface may be seen below one4 ,in many mountains the cloud-belt is as sharply defined as the snow-line1 and its variations should be carefully observed4 ,clouds should occasionally be photographed as a record4 ,this should be done especially when a type of cloud comes to be recognised as a usual one1 for while exceptional forms may prove interesting1 a record of the usual forms is certain to be valuable4 ,in this connection a protest may be made against the horrible custom of some amateur and of many professional photographers of printing in clouds from some stock negative in their pictures of scenery4 ,the cloud is an essential part of a picture1 and it is better to leave an over-exposed sky of natural cloud than to insert a beautiful representation of a cloud-form which may be one never visible in the particular place or at the particular season4 ,mist1 ,fog and ,haze4--,mist or fog at low levels will of course be recorded whenever observed1 and its density and duration noted4 ,a good way to define the density of thick fog is to measure the number of yards at which an object becomes indistinguishable1 and the most convenient object for the purpose is a person4 ,light mists lie over water or marshes at certain hours in particular seasons1 and their behaviour should always be observed4 ,it often happens that the distant view from a height is obscured by a haze not due to moisture1 and this appearance should be noticed with a view to discovering its cause4 ,the smoke from forest or prairie fires in ,canada sometimes produces so thick a haze as to put a stop to surveying operations for weeks at a time4 ,haze is often due to dust blown from deserts1 or ejected from volcanoes1 and sometimes to swarms of insects4 ,rain and ,dew4--,the journals of most travellers fail to give a clear idea of the prevalence of rain during their journeys1 and it is much to be desired that something more explicit than 8a showery day0 or 8fairly dry0 should be recorded4 ,the hour of commencement and cessation of rain during a march should be noted1 and some indication given as to whether the rain fell heavily or lightly4 ,in this way any tendency to a diurnal periodicity of rain would be detected1 and some definite meaning would be given to the terms rainy season and dry season4 ,if rain occurs during the night it should also be recorded1 and the amount of night rains should always be measured by means of a rain gauge in the manner to be described later4 ,the general condition of a country with regard to rain may often be judged from the appearance of vegetation or the marks of former levels of high-water in lakes or rivers4 ,thus on mountain slopes or the sides of a valley any difference in the luxuriance of vegetation according to exposure probably indicates the influence of rainfall as guided by the prevailing wind4 ,so1 too1 the appearance of lines of drifted dbris on the banks some distance from the edge of a lake or river may be taken as indications of the height to which the waters sometimes rise2 and conversely the appearance of rows of trees in the middle of a wide shallow lake may indicate the line of a river which has temporarily flooded the surrounding meadows4 ,such observations have an important bearing on climate4 ,the appearance and amount of dew are also to be recorded4 ,the most important points to notice are the hour in the evening when the deposit commences1 and the hour in the morning when the dew disappears4 ,it should be noted also whether the deposit of dew is in the form of small globules standing apart on exposed surfaces1 or if it is heavy enough to run together into drops and drip from vegetation to the ground4 ,thunderstorms and ,hail4--,the occurrence of thunderstorms should of course be noted1 and here the hour of occurrence is of very great importance1 for thunderstorms frequently show a marked diurnal period4 ,the appearance of lightning without thunder should be recorded when it is observed1 but this will naturally be almost always after sunset4 ,hailstorms usually accompany thunderstorms1 and sometimes take the place of them4 ,the occurrence of hail is most frequent in summer1 and records of the size of hailstones are important4 ,if possible they should1 when very large1 be photographed along with some object of known size1 and their structure described4 ,it might at least be noticed whether they are hard and clear1 like pure ice1 or opaque like compacted snow1 or made up of concentric layers of clear and opaque ice alternately4 ,snow4--,snow falls in all parts of the world1 although in tropical or sub-tropical latitudes only at great elevations above sea-level4 ,the actual limits of snowfall at sea-level are as yet imperfectly known1 and any observations of snow showers in the neighbourhood of the tropics are of importance4 ,it is essential in such a case to record also the approximate elevation of the land4 ,on mountains in all latitudes the position of the snow-line should be noted at every opportunity4 ,this is the line above which snow lies permanently all the year round1 or below which snow completely melts in summer2 and it is a climatic factor of some importance4 ,it may be remarked1 for instance1 that if the traveller finds snow lying on grass1 moss1 or other vegetation1 he is certainly not above the snow-line4 ,it is necessary also to notice that glaciers may descend unmelted a long distance below the level of perpetual snow4 ,while the conditions of snow lying on the ground in the ,arctic regions and above the snow-line in any part of the world are matters pertaining more to geology and mountaineering than to meteorology1 the duration of snow-showers1 the character of the snow1 and the depth to which it lies on ground below the snow-line are too important from their bearing on climatology to be overlooked4 ,the character of the snow as it falls varies from the sleety1 half-melted drops common in warm air to the fine dust of hard1 separate ice-crystals found in the intense cold of a ,polar or ,continental winter4 ,the feathery appearance of lightly-felted flakes is an intermediate type between the two extremes4 ,in measuring the depth of snow as it lies1 care should be taken to select open ground where there is no drifting1 and when the snow is not too deep the measurement can usually be best made with a walking-stick on which a scale of feet and inches 7or of centimetres7 has been cut4 ,such a stick is useful for measuring the depth of shallow streams1 and for many other purposes4 ,the result should be entered as 8depth of fallen snow10 so that there may be no risk of confusing the figures with the amount of snowfall estimated as rain4 ,speaking roughly1 a foot of snow is usually held to represent an inch of rain4 ,a violent storm of wind1 accompanied with falling or driving snow1 is termed a blizzard in the western ,united ,states1 and a buran in ,siberia4 ,the name blizzard has been naturalized in the ,antarctic1 but it is not known that this phenomenon is identical with the ,american storm4 ,frost4--,the appearance of frost in the form of hoar-frost 7the way in which atmospheric water-vapour is deposited in air below the freezing-point71 or of thin ice formed on exposed water1 should always be carefully looked for and noted4 ,in hot1 dry countries the intense radiation from the ground at night often reduces the temperature below the freezing-point1 although1 during the day1 the ground may be very hot4 ,the appearance of frost at sunrise is a valuable check on the readings of a minimum thermometer1 and in most cases is a more trustworthy datum4 ,similarly in cold countries1 where snow is lying on the ground or ice covering the rivers1 the appearance of thaw1 especially in cloudy weather1 is a delicate test of the rise of the air temperature to the freezing-point4 ,the traveller should never fail to record cases of melting and solidifying of any substances due to changes of temperature4 ,the softening of candles and the freezing of mercury or of spirits give information regarding temperature at least as valuable as the readings of thermometers4 ,other ,observations4--,any peculiar atmospheric phenomena1 such as the appearance of the zodiacal light after sunset1 the aurora1 the electrical lights seen on pointed objects1 and known as ,st4 ,elmo's fire1 rainbows1 especially lunar rainbows1 haloes1 the appearance of mock-suns or moons1 meteors or shooting stars1 should be noted on their occurrence1 as many of them are valuable weather prognostics4 ,attention should also be given to any appearances of mirage1 or other effects of irregular distribution of atmospheric density4 ,a mirage is only rarely so perfect as to show ships inverted in the air1 palm-grown islands in the sea1 or distant oases in the desert4 ,the common form is an unusual intensification of refraction1 raising land below the horizon into sight1 or apparently cutting off the edges of headlands or islands at sea or on large lakes4 ,it is worth while observing the temperature of the air and of the water or ground when an unusually clear mirage effect is visible4 ,another interesting series of observations may be made on the colours of the sky and clouds at sunrise and sunset4 ,a phenomenon often observed at sunset1 but the existence of which is still sometimes denied1 should be looked for4 ,this is the appearance of a gleam of coloured light at the moment when the upper edge of the sun dips below a cloudless horizon4 ,a note should be made of the nature of the horizon1 whether land or sea1 and of the colour of the light if it should be observed4 ,when opportunity offers1 the first ray of the rising sun might be similarly observed4 ,the traveller should1 at the end of each day1 give his opinion of the nature of the weather1 saying whether he felt it hot or cold1 relaxing or bracing1 close or fresh4 ,such observations have no necessary relation to degree of temperature or humidity as recorded by instruments2 but the human body is the most important of all instruments1 and everything which affects it should be studied4 ,by paying attention to the foregoing instructions1 an observant traveller will bring home a far better meteorological log without instruments than a more careless person could produce by the diligent reading of many scales4 ,yet1 in enforcing the importance of non-instrumental observations1 we must not leave the impression that the readings of instruments are of little value4 ,it is1 in ordinary circumstances1 only by the readings of instruments that the climate of one place can be compared with that of another1 and only the best results of instrumental work are precise enough to form a basis for climatological maps4 ,,instrumental ,,observations4 ,the minimum requirement of instrumental observations by a traveller is the reading twice daily of the barometer and of the dry and wet bulb thermometers1 to ascertain the temperature and humidity of the air1 also the reading once daily1 in the morning1 of the minimum thermometer which has been exposed all night1 and on days in camp of the maximum thermometer also4 ,it is very desirable to expose a rain gauge whenever it is practicable to do so4 ,unless special meteorological researches are to be carried out1 nothing farther in the way of observations need be attempted4 ,a very useful supplement to the necessary observations is the use of a self-recording barograph or thermograph2 but these are delicate instruments1 liable to get out of order unless very carefully handled1 and it will not always be possible to make use of them4 ,the observer must understand what his instruments are intended to measure1 how they act1 and how they should be exposed1 read1 and the reading recorded4 ,he must know enough about all these things to be able to dispense with unnecessary precautions only possible at fixed observatories1 and1 at the same time1 to neglect nothing that is necessary to secure accuracy in the results4 ,thermometer ,corrections4--,all thermometers1 without exception1 should have the degree marks engraved on the stem1 or on a slip of enamel within the outer tube1 and be supplied with a certificate from the ,national ,physical ,laboratory showing the error of the scale at different points4 ,this certificate should be in duplicate1 and a copy ought to be left in a safe place at home4 ,after a long journey the thermometers which have been in use should be sent to have their errors re-determined4 ,the corrections are not1 however1 to be applied by the observer unless he is working out his observations for some special purpose4 ,no thermometer is passed at the ,national ,physical ,laboratory if its error approaches one degree1 so that for all ordinary purposes of description a certificated thermometer may be looked on as correct4 ,but when the readings are being critically discussed and compared with the observations of other people1 the correction is of the greatest importance4 ,it cannot be too strongly impressed upon an observer that1 in reading meteorological instruments1 he must read exactly what they mark1 and record that figure in his observation-book on the spot4 ,the corrections can be applied afterwards by the specialist who discusses the work4 ,for subsequent reference it is necessary to note in the observation-book the registered ,n4,p4,l4 number of the thermometer in use1 and if a thermometer should get broken and another be used instead1 the number of the new instrument must be noted at the date where it is first employed4 ,care should be taken to use the same thermometer for one purpose all the time if possible1 and only an accident to the instrument should necessitate a change being made4 ,thermometers are either direct-reading or self-registering4 ,the former are used for obtaining the temperature at any given moment1 the latter for ascertaining the highest or the lowest temperature in a certain interval of time4 ,they are filled either with mercury1 or a light fluid which freezes less readily1 such as alcohol or creosote4 ,thermometer ,scales4--,the particular system on which the thermometers are graduated is of no importance1 but merely a matter of convenience4 ,the ,fahrenheit scale is used for meteorological purposes in ,english-speaking countries2 but for all other scientific purposes the ,centigrade scale is used everywhere4 ,one can be translated into the other very simply by calculation#b2 but it is convenient for a traveller to have all his thermometers graduated in accordance with one scale only4 ,the graduation1 as marked on the stem of the thermometer1 is usually to single degrees1 but anyone can learn to read to tenths of a degree by a little practice4 ,care must be taken to have the eye opposite the top of the mercury column4 ,suppose it to be between #ej and #ea1 the exact number of tenths above #ej is to be estimated thus3 ,if the mercury is just visible above the degree mark it is #ej4a1 if distinctly above the mark #ej4b1 if nearly one-third of the way to the next mark #ej4c1 if almost half-way #ej4d1 exactly half-way #ej4e1 a little more than half-way #ej4f1 about two-thirds of the way #ej4g1 if nearly up to the next mark #ej4h1 and if just lower than the mark of #ea it is #ej4i4 ,the eye soon becomes accustomed to estimating these distances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,reading ,thermometer ,scale above and below ,zero4 ,in using a thermometer below zero1 the observer must pay attention to the change in the direction of reading the scale1 the fractions of a degree counting downward from the degree mark instead of upward from it1 as in readings above zero4 ,readings below the zero of the scale are distinguished in recording them by prefixing the minus sign4 ,the annexed figure shows the reading of two thermometers graduated to fifths of a degree1 one showing a temperature of #a4d1 the other of -#a4d4 ,the ,british ,meteorological ,office now recommends the use of the ,centigrade thermometer graduated from the absolute zero1 i4e41 the freezing point is shown by #bgc1 the boiling point as #cgc4 ,care of ,thermometers4--,mercurial thermometers will always be employed for ordinary purposes in places where the temperature is not likely to fall to -#dj3 i4e41 everywhere except in the polar regions and the interior of continents north of #ej ,n4 ,these thermometers are very strong and are not easily broken except by violence4 ,the one vulnerable part is the bulb1 which is of thin glass and filled with heavy mercury4 ,hence1 in carrying thermometers1 care has to be taken to protect the bulb from coming in contact with any hard object4 ,the best way to carry an unmounted thermometer is in a closed brass or vulcanite tube with a screw top1 the inside of the tube being lined with india-rubber and provided with a cushion of cotton-wool for the bulb to rest on4 ,if the thermometer is mounted in a wooden frame it should be secured in a box so that the frame is firmly held and the bulb projects into a vacant part of the box1 which may be lightly filled with cotton-wool or provided with a deep and well-padded recess4 ,every thermometer which is not graduated above #abj should have an expansion at the top of the tube which the mercury that may be driven beyond the scale by over-heating will not fill2 otherwise any accidental over-heating will break the bulb4 ,the unavoidable shaking or any sudden shock during travelling is apt to cause the mercury column to separate1 and a portion of it may be driven to the top of the tube1 where it may remain unless looked for and brought back4 ,hence it is important to see that the top of the bore of the tube is visible1 and not covered by any attachment holding the tube to a wooden frame4 ,thermometer readings are absolutely valueless unless the whole of the mercury fills the bulb and forms a continuous column in the stem4 ,to bring a broken column together the best plan is to invert the thermometer1 if necessary shaking it gently1 until the mercury flows from the bulb and entirely fills the tube1 leaving a little vacant dimple in the mass of mercury in the bulb4 ,when this is done1 the thermometer should be brought into its normal position bulb downwards1 and the column will usually be found to have united4 ,if this method does not succeed the thermometer may be held in the hand by the upper end1 raised to the full stretch of the arm1 and swung downwards through a wide arc with a steady sweep4 ,i have never known this method to fail4 ,thermometer ,screens4--,it is usual at fixed stations to expose the thermometer to the air by hanging it in a screen made of louvre-boards so arranged that the air penetrates it freely while the direct rays of the sun are cut off4 ,the ,stevenson screen1 constructed on this plan with a door opening on the side away from the sun1 is well adapted for use in temperate countries2 but it is too cumbrous to carry on a journey and does not afford sufficient ventilation for use in tropical countries4 ,an excellent substitute is the canvas screen devised by the late ,mr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,blanford1 which consists of a bamboo frame carrying the thermometers 7with their bulbs four feet from the ground74 ,the whole structure is five feet high1 and is sufficient for any places where the wind is moderate4 ,it is constructed of bamboos or rods of light wood1 cords1 and canvas1 which may readily be made up before starting1 and it is easily renewed or repaired4 ,the canvas roof should be triple or quadruple according to the thickness of the material4 ,such a screen will afford sufficient protection at night1 or even in the day1 if set up in the shade1 and it will throw off rain2 but in the sun it will require a thick mat as an additional protection on or preferably stretched above the roof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,mr4 ,h4 ,f4 ,blanford's ,portable ,thermometer ,screen4 ,for a more permanent station the form of exposure recommended by a committee of the ,british ,association for use in tropical ,africa will be found very suitable in hot countries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,hut for ,sheltering ,thermometers4 ,the thermometers are placed in a galvanised iron cage1 which is kept locked for safety4 ,this cage is suspended under a thatched shelter1 which should be situated in an open spot at some distance from buildings4 ,it must be well ventilated1 and protect the instruments from being exposed to sunshine or rain1 or to radiation from the ground4 ,a simple hut1 made of materials available on the spot1 would answer this purpose4 ,such a hut is shown in the drawing 7,fig4 #b74 ,a gabled roof with broad eaves1 the ridge of which runs from north to south1 is fixed upon four posts1 standing four feet apart4 ,two additional posts may be introduced to support the ends of the ridge beam4 ,the roof at each end projects about eighteen inches2 in it are two ventilating holes4 ,the tops of the posts are connected by bars or rails1 and on a cross bar is suspended the cage with the instruments4 ,these will then be at a height of six feet above the ground4 ,the gable-ends may be permanently covered in with mats or louvre-work1 not interfering with the free circulation of the air1 or the hut may be circular4 ,the roof may be covered with palm-fronds1 grass1 or any other material locally used by the natives for building4 ,the floor should not be bare but covered with grass or low shrubs4 ,the great object of these precautions is to obtain the true temperature of the air1 and avoid the excessive heating due to the direct rays or reflected heat of the sun falling on the thermometers1 and the excessive cooling due to the radiation of heat from the thermometers to a clear sky at night4 ,such a shelter is absolutely necessary when maximum and minimum thermometers are used2 but can be dispensed with for the simple observation of the temperature of the air at a given time4 ,this may be effected by securing a rapid flow of air over the thermometer1 either by causing the air to flow past the instrument or by causing the instrument to move rapidly through the air4 ,it has been found by experiment that the true temperature of the air is obtainable in this way whether the operation is performed in sunshine or in shade2 but it is preferable to do so in the shade4 ,sling ,thermometer4--,the sling thermometer is the most simple and convenient of all instruments for ascertaining the temperature of the air4 ,it is an unmounted thermometer with a cylindrical bulb1 and the degree-marks engraved on the glass stem4 ,the upper end terminates in a ring to which a silk cord about two feet long is attached4 ,as a precaution it is as well to secure the cord by a couple of clove hitches round the top of the thermometer stem as well as to the ring1 as the thermometer would then be held securely even if the ring broke4 ,the thermometer is used by whirling it in a vertical circle about a dozen times1 the observer taking care1 by having a loop of the string round the wrist or finger1 that it is not allowed to fly off4 ,then the thermometer is read1 swung once more1 and read again4 ,this process is repeated until two consecutive readings are identical2 when this is the case the instrument shows the true temperature of the air4 ,it is sufficient to note the final temperature in the observing book4 ,the risk of breaking a sling thermometer is the only drawback to its use4 ,only a silk cord should be used1 and it should be examined frequently to see that it has not got chafed4 ,in swinging the thermometer1 an open place must be selected where it is not likely to come in contact with a branch or any other object4 ,hygrometers4--,as the humidity or degree of moisture in the atmosphere is a very important climatic factor it is necessary to measure it as carefully and as frequently as the temperature of the air4 ,there are many instruments1 called psychrometers or hygrometers1 for doing this2 but few of them are simple enough for the use of a traveller4 ,the proportion of water-vapour in air is a little difficult to understand at first1 because it is not a constant quantity as in the case of the other constituents of air1 but varies according to the amount of water-surface exposed to the air and according to the temperature4 ,the maximum amount of water-vapour which can be present in air varies with the temperature1 being greater as the temperature is higher and less as the temperature is lower4 ,thus1 if air at #ej ,f4 contains the maximum amount of water-vapour which it can contain at that temperature1 it is said to be saturated1 for it will take up no more and evaporation stops2 and if the temperature were to fall ever so little there would be more water-vapour present in the air than it could hold and some would separate out and condense into dew or rain1 hence the temperature of saturation is called the dew-point4 ,but if air saturated at #ej is warmed up say to #fj it can then contain more water-vapour than it has1 and the temperature would require to fall #aj before dew or rain could form4 ,when the air is not saturated water exposed to it evaporates rapidly until the maximum quantity of water-vapour is again present1 a larger quantity corresponding to the higher temperature4 ,at any given temperature the essential thing to know about the humidity of the air is the additional amount of water-vapour it could take up before becoming saturated1 or in other words the humidity relative to the maximum humidity possible at the existing temperature4 ,the relative humidity is expressed in percentages of the maximum humidity possible 7saturation7 at the actual temperature of observation4 ,it may be measured by two methods1 7#a7 finding the dew-point or temperature at which the amount of vapour present saturates the air2 7#b7 by finding the rate at which the air allows evaporation to proceed2 the farther the air is from saturation the more rapid is the rate4 ,the dew-point may be found directly by means of an instrument by which the air is cooled down until it begins to deposit moisture on a polished surface1 but such an instrument is inconvenient to handle when travelling4 ,it may also be found indirectly by calculation from the relative humidity4 ,the relative humidity is most easily calculated from the rate of evaporation4 ,it is one of the laws of evaporation that heat is required to change liquid into vapour1 and when evaporation is going on heat is being abstracted from surrounding bodies1 and they are growing colder4 ,by allowing evaporation to take place from the bulb of a thermometer the rate of evaporation may be measured by the fall of temperature produced1 and tables have been constructed to convert the differences between the wet and dry bulb readings into relative humidities4 ,the wet-bulb thermometer consists of an ordinary thermometer1 the bulb of which is covered with clean muslin and kept moist by means of a piece of cotton lamp-wick dipping into a small vessel of pure water4 ,care must be taken to have the water quite pure and free from salt1 otherwise the true reduction of temperature will not be observed4 ,hence special precautions are necessary when observing at sea or in an arid country where the ground is covered with incrustations of salt4 ,in any form of wet bulb thermometer when the air is much below the freezing point1 it will usually be found most satisfactory to remove the muslin covering and allow the bulb to become covered with a coating of ice1 by dipping it into water and allowing the water to freeze upon it4 ,evaporation takes place from solid ice sufficiently rapidly to give the true wet-bulb readings at least with a sling thermometer4 ,when the air is saturated1 i4e41 relative humidity #ajj per cent41 there is no difference in the reading of the wet and dry bulb thermometers1 and the greater the difference between the readings at a given air temperature the smaller is the relative humidity of the air4 ,the wet-bulb thermometer has to be exposed to the air with the same precautions as are taken in the case of the dry bulb4 ,the two may be hung side by side--but at least six inches apart--in the screen or cage described on p4 #ae2 or the wet bulb may be employed as a sling thermometer4 ,one way to do this is to tie a muslin cap on the bulb of the sling thermometer with a piece of wet lamp-wick coiled round the upper part of the bulb1 and then whirl it until the reading becomes constant1 taking care to moisten the bulb again if it should become dry4 ,another way is simply to twist a piece of filter-paper or blotting-paper round the bulb1 and dip it in water before swinging4 ,aspiration ,psychrometer4--,perhaps the most convenient form of wet and dry bulb thermometer for use by a traveller is that known as ,assmann's ,aspiration ,psychrometer4 ,it requires no protecting screen1 is not subject to the risk attending the use of the sling thermometer1 and gives an extremely close approximation to the true temperature and humidity4 ,the principle of the instrument is very simple4 ,the wet and dry bulb thermometers are enclosed separately each in an open tube 7see ,fig4 #d7 through which a current of air is drawn by means of a fan1 actuated by clockwork in the upper part of the case4 ,in making an observation1 all that is required is to see that the water vessel for the wet bulb is filled and the bulb properly moist1 and that the dry bulb is free from any condensed moisture4 ,the instrument is then hung to a branch or other support placed in the open air 7or even held in the hand71 preferably in the shade1 although this is not essential1 and the clockwork wound up4 ,air will then be drawn over the bulbs for five minutes or more1 and if the temperature of each thermometer has not become steady by the time the clockwork has run down1 it must be wound up again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,section of ,assmann's ,aspiration ,psychrometer4 ,the thermometers in ,assmann's ,psychrometer are graduated according to the ,centigrade scale1 and each degree is subdivided into fifths on a slip of porcelain enclosed in the outer tube of the thermometer 7see p4 #ac74 ,minimum ,thermometer4--,the minimum temperature of the night can usually be ascertained by a traveller exposing a minimum thermometer when the camp is set up and reading it in the morning before starting on his way4 ,there are several forms of minimum thermometer1 but the only one likely to be used is that known as ,rutherford's4 ,it is very delicate and liable to go out of order4 ,the instrument should be of full size1 as used in meteorological stations at home2 it must be packed so as to be as free as possible from shock or vibration1 and ought to be carried in a horizontal position4 ,the bulb is filled with alcohol or some similar clear fluid1 and within the column of spirit in the stem there is included a little piece of dark glass shaped like a double-headed pin4 ,this is the index which continues pointing to the lowest temperature until the instrument is disturbed or re-set4 ,the thermometer has to be hung in a horizontal position4 ,when the temperature rises1 the column of spirit moves along the tube1 flowing past the index without disturbing it4 ,when the temperature falls1 the spirit returns towards the bulb1 flowing past the index until the end of the column touches the end of the index4 ,the phenomenon known as surface-tension gives to the free surface of any liquid the properties of a tough film1 and the smaller the area of a free surface is1 the greater is this effect of surface-tension4 ,hence it is that the inner surface of the column of alcohol is not penetrated by the glass index1 but draws the index with it backwards towards the bulb4 ,as soon as the temperature begins to rise1 the alcohol once more flows past the index towards the farther end of the tube4 ,the end of the index farthest from the bulb remains opposite the mark on the stem indicating the lowest temperature which had occurred since it was last set1 and this reading must be taken without touching the thermometer4 ,to set the index it is only necessary to tilt the bulb end of the tube upwards1 when the index will slide down by its own weight until it comes in contact with the inner surface of the end of the column of alcohol4 ,care of a ,minimum ,thermometer4--,the chief dangers to which a minimum thermometer are liable are three--7#a7 the index being shaken into the bulb1 7#b7 the index being shaken partly or wholly out of the column of spirit1 and sticking in the tube1 and 7#c7 the column of spirit becoming separated or a portion of the spirit evaporating into the upper end of the tube4 ,the thermometer should be so constructed as to make it impossible for the index to get into the bulb1 or with an index so long as not wholly to leave the tube1 and this should be seen to before purchasing4 ,when any of the other derangements occurs the natural instinct of an observer is to immerse the thermometer in warm water until the spirit entirely fills the tube1 and then allow it to cool4 ,the only drawback to this simple method is the almost inevitable bursting of the bulb and destruction of the thermometer4 ,this method should never be attempted2 but if the warning were not given1 the idea would be sure to occur to the observer some time or other1 and he would proceed to destroy his thermometer with all the fervour of a discoverer4 ,the only satisfactory way to rectify a deranged minimum thermometer is as follows3 ,if the column is separated1 but the index remains in the spirit1 grasp the instrument firmly by the upper end and swing it downwards with a jerk 7as in the case of the mercurial thermometer mentioned on p4 #bc74 ,if the index has been shaken out of the spirit and remains sticking in the upper part of the tube1 or if a little spirit has volatilised into the top of the tube and cannot be shaken down by the first method1 a quantity of spirit should be passed into the upper end of the tube by grasping the thermometer by the bulb end of the frame and swinging in the same way4 ,when the index is immersed or the drop of volatilised spirit joined on to the column1 the first process of swinging by grasping the upper end of the tube will bring the instrument into working order4 ,after any operation of this kind the thermometer should be kept in a vertical position bulb downwards1 to allow the spirit adhering to the sides of the tube to drain back completely4 ,then the thermometer should be brought into the horizontal position and set by allowing the index to slide down to the end of the column of spirit4 ,the end of the column of spirit farther from the bulb should always show the same temperature as the dry-bulb thermometer4 ,if it should be observed to read a degree or two lower1 it will be found that some of the spirit has volatilized and condensed at the end of the tube4 ,the minimum thermometer should be exposed to the air four or six feet from the ground under a screen or roof1 like that described on p4 #ae1 so that it is not exposed to the open sky1 and the ground under the shelter should be covered with grass or leaves1 not on any account left bare4 ,the loss of heat by radiation of the ground to the open sky will produce a night temperature much lower than that of the air a few feet above the ground1 and a radiation thermometer is often employed1 laid on the grass and exposed to the sky to measure this effect4 ,travellers1 however1 can rarely be expected to make observations of such a kind1 as the instrument is one of extreme delicacy4 ,maximum ,thermometers4--,maximum registering thermometers are filled with mercury1 and are less liable to get out of order than spirit-thermometers4 ,the simplest and best form for use by travellers is ,negretti and ,zambra's4 ,its principle is very simple4 ,when the temperature rises and the mercury in the bulb expands1 it forces its way along the stem in the usual manner2 but there is a little constriction in the tube just outside the bulb which breaks the column as the temperature begins to fall1 and so prevents the mercury in the bulb from drawing back the thread of mercury from the tube4 ,the thermometer is hung horizontally1 and the end of the mercury farthest from the bulb always shows the highest temperature since it was last set4 ,before reading the thermometer1 it is well to take the precaution of seeing that the inner end of the thread of mercury is in contact with the constriction in the tube1 and if1 by the shaking of the instrument or otherwise1 the mercury has slipped away from this position1 it should be brought back to it by tilting the thermometer bulb downwards very gently1 then returning it to the horizontal position and reading4 ,to set this thermometer1 it is only necessary to hold it vertically bulb downwards and shake it slightly1 if necessary striking the lower end of the frame carrying the instrument1 gently against the palm of the hand4 ,this causes the mercury to pass the constriction and re-enter the bulb4 ,when set1 the end of the column farther from the bulb should indicate the same temperature as the ordinary dry-bulb thermometer4 ,another form of maximum thermometer is known as ,phillips'4 ,it is an ordinary mercurial thermometer1 but a short length of the upper part of the column in the tube is separated from the rest by a little bubble of air4 ,it is used in the horizontal position1 and as the temperature rises the whole column moves forward1 while1 when the temperature falls1 only that portion behind the air-bubble retires towards the bulb4 ,the tip of the column thus remains to mark the maximum temperature to which its farther end points4 ,the instrument is set by gently tilting the bulb end downwards1 when the detached portion of the column at once runs back until stopped by the air-bubble4 ,this is the most convenient instrument to use at a fixed station2 but in travelling it is apt to get out of order as shaking may have the effect of allowing the air-bubble to escape into the upper part of the tube1 or into the bulb1 and the instrument cannot easily be brought into working order again4 ,rain-,gauge4--,while measurements of rainfall can possess no climatological value unless they are carried on continuously at a fixed station1 some very interesting observations may be made by the traveller both during the night when in camp1 and during heavy showers when compelled to stop on the march4 ,the rain-gauge is in itself the most simple of all scientific instruments1 for it consists essentially of a copper funnel to collect the rain as it falls1 and a bottle to contain what has been collected4 ,a graduated measuring glass is the only accessory required4 ,rain is measured by the depth to which the water would lie on level ground if none soaked in1 evaporated or flowed away4 ,on an emergency1 a rain-gauge can be improvised out of a biscuit tin1 or any vessel with vertical sides and an unobstructed mouth4 ,such a vessel standing level would collect the rain1 the depth of which might be measured by an ordinary inch-rule4 ,it is rare1 however1 to find rain so heavy as to give any appreciable depth when collected in a vessel freely open to evaporation1 and in order to estimate the amount of rainfall to small fractions of an inch1 the device is employed of measuring the water collected in the receiver of the gauge in a glass jar of much smaller diameter than the mouth of the collecting funnel4 ,thus1 if the funnel exposes a surface of fifty square inches1 and the measuring glass has a cross-section of one square inch1 the fall of #a_/ej of an inch of rain on the funnel will give a quantity of water sufficient to fill the measuring glass to the depth of an inch4 ,in this way the actual rainfall may be read to the thousandth part of an inch without trouble4 ,the smallest diameter for a serviceable rain-gauge is five inches1 and this size is well adapted for the traveller4 ,a three-inch rain-gauge might be employed1 but the results obtained with it are not so satisfactory4 ,the rain-gauge should be placed in an open situation1 so that it is not sheltered by any surrounding trees or buildings1 and it ought to be firmly fixed by placing it between three wooden pegs driven securely into the ground4 ,the mouth of the gauge should be level1 and when the instrument is fixed1 the rim of the funnel ought to be one foot above the ground4 ,a spare measuring glass should be carried1 but as there is always a considerable risk of breaking such fragile objects1 it is well to carry also one or two small brass measures of the capacity of half an inch1 two-tenths of an inch1 and one-tenth of an inch of measured rainfall4 ,in this way1 although no satisfactory record could be kept of light rainfall1 a very fair estimate may be made of any torrential showers1 the half-inch measure being used first1 and then the smaller measures1 finally estimating by eye the fraction of the tenth of an inch that remains over4 ,it must1 however1 be distinctly borne in mind that an estimate formed in this way is not an accurate measurement1 and the fact of using the rough method must be stated in the note-book4 ,when snow falls along with rain1 the melted snow is measured as equivalent to rainfall1 and if the funnel of the rain-gauge should contain some unmelted snow at the time of observation1 it should be warmed until the snow melts before a measurement is taken4 ,when snow falls in a strong wind the drift that occurs makes it almost impossible to measure the amount accurately1 but an effort should be made to estimate the average depth of the snow over a considerable area4 ,if the receiving bottle of the rain-gauge should be broken by frost or accident1 any other bottle may be used1 or in default of a bottle1 the copper case itself will act as a receiver1 although the risk of loss by evaporation1 and by the wetting of a large surface in pouring out the water1 is considerably increased4 ,at a fixed station the rain-gauge should be read every morning4 ,the traveller who only exposes his rain-gauge during a halt should be careful to state the hours when it was exposed and when it was read4 ,barometers4--,the barometer is the most delicate1 and at the same time the most important1 instrument which a meteorologist has to employ4 ,it requires particular care in transport1 and must be very carefully mounted and read1 while several accessory observations have to be made at each reading in order to ascertain the corrections required for the subsequent calculation of the results4 ,the function of the barometer is to measure the pressure of the air at the time of observation1 and this purpose may be carried out by the use of two different principles4 ,the oldest and best method is to measure the height at which a column of heavy fluid is maintained in a tube entirely free from air4 ,the weight of this column is equal to the weight of a column of the atmosphere of the same sectional area4 ,mercury being the densest fluid is the only one usually employed1 because the column balancing a column of the atmosphere of equal sectional area is the shortest that can be obtained1 and1 consequently1 a mercurial barometer is the most portable that can be constructed on this principle4 ,the mercurial barometer has come to be recognised as the standard in all parts of the world4 ,the average height of the column of mercury in a barometer is about thirty inches1 and1 consequently1 the whole instrument cannot well be made less than three feet long1 so that when account is taken of the glass tube1 and the amount of mercury it contains1 it is long1 fragile and heavy4 ,to avoid the disadvantages inherent in such an instrument1 the method of measuring the pressure of the air by the compression of a spring holding apart the sides of an air-free flexible metallic box was devised1 and the aneroid barometer invented4 ,the aneroid is graduated on the dial in 8inches10 i4e41 divisions each of which corresponds to a change of atmospheric pressure1 equal to that measured by one inch of mercury in a standard barometer4 ,although a carefully constructed aneroid is a very useful instrument indeed1 it is not to be trusted like a mercurial barometer kept in a proper place4 ,but a good aneroid is likely to be much more serviceable to the ordinary traveller on the march than a standard mercurial barometer1 every packing and unpacking of which exposes it to the risk of breakage1 or to the equally fatal risk of air obtaining access to the vacuous space at the top of the tube4 ,the scale of a barometer may be divided into millimetres1 or1 as now recommended by the ,british ,meteorological ,office1 into millibars or thousandths of a hypothetical 8atmosphere40 ,we shall describe the ,fortin barometer1 which is best adapted for use at a fixed station1 and one devised by ,prof4 ,collie and ,capt4 ,deasy1 which is portable enough for the use of travellers4 ,the ,fortin ,barometer4--,the barometer must be kept in a room with as equable a temperature as possible2 the instrument must be absolutely vertical--hence it should be hung freely and not touched while it is being read2 it must be in a good light1 and yet be sheltered from the direct rays of the sun4 ,the measurement of the height of any mercurial barometer is that of the difference of level between the surface of the mercury in the tube and the surface of the mercury in the cistern4 ,when the mercury rises in the tube it falls in the cistern1 and vice vers1 although when the cistern is much wider than the tube the changes of level there are much less than those in the tube4 ,in most barometers an arbitrary correction is made to allow for this change1 the 8inches0 engraved on the scale not being true inches4 ,in the ,fortin barometer1 however1 the lower end of the measuring rod is brought in contact with the mercury in the cistern before every reading1 and then the scale of inches engraved on the upper part of the measuring rod gives the true height of the column of mercury4 ,in calculating the barometric pressure for purposes of comparison1 five corrections have to be applied3 7#a7 for temperature1 which requires the temperature of the barometer at the time of reading to be observed1 7#b7 for altitude1 which necessitates knowing the elevation of the place of observation above sea-level1 7#c7 for the force of gravity at sea-level1 which requires the latitude to be known1 7#d7 for the capillary attraction between the mercury and the glass tube1 which is a constant for each barometer1 7#e7 for the slight imperfection in engraving the scale 7index error71 which is also a constant for each instrument4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,two ,readings of the ,barometer ,vernier4 ,it is enough for the observer at a fixed station1 and to such alone can the use of a ,fortin barometer be recommended1 to read the temperature on the thermometer attached to the barometer and to read the height of the mercury in the barometer tube4 ,these two figures he is to enter in his note-book1 and unless he is himself discussing the results1 he should apply no correction whatever to them4 ,the rules for observing1 then1 are3-- #a4 ,read the attached thermometer and note the reading4 #b4 ,bring the surface of the mercury in the cistern into contact with the ivory point which forms the extremity of the measuring rod by turning the screw at the bottom of the cistern4 ,the ivory point and its reflected image in the mercury should appear just to touch each other and form a double cone4 #c4 ,adjust the vernier scale so that its two lower edges shall form a tangent to the convex surface of the mercury4 ,the front and back edges of the vernier1 the top of the mercury1 and the eye of the observer are then in the same straight line4 #d4 ,take the reading1 and enter the observation as read without either correcting it to freezing point or reducing it to the sea-level4 ,the scale fixed to the barometer is divided into inches1 tenths1 and half-tenths1 so that each division on this scale is equal to #j4jej inch4 ,the small movable scale or vernier attached to the instrument enables the observer to take more accurate readings2 it is moved by a rack and pinion4 ,twenty-four spaces on the fixed scale correspond to twenty-five spaces on the vernier2 hence each space on the fixed scale is larger than a space on the vernier by the twenty-fifth part of #j4jej inch1 which is #j4jjb4 ,every long line on the vernier 7marked #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e7 thus corresponds to #j4jaj inch4 ,if the lower edge of the vernier coincides with a line on the fixed scale1 and the upper edge with the twenty-fourth division of the latter higher up1 the reading is at once supplied by the fixed scale as in ,a 7,fig4 #e71 where it is #bi4ejj inches4 ,if this coincidence does not take place1 then read off the division on the fixed scale1 above which the lower edge of the vernier stands4 ,in ,b 7,fig4 #e7 this is #bi4gej inches4 ,next look along the vernier until one of its lines is found to coincide with a line on the fixed scale4 ,in ,b this will be found to be the case with the second line above the figure 8#b40 ,the reading of the barometer is therefore3-- ,on fixed scale #bi4gej ,on vernier 7#ab 4#jjb7 4#jbd ------ ,correct reading #bi4ggd ,should two lines on the vernier be in equally near agreement with two on the fixed scale1 then the intermediate value should be adopted4 #e4 ,lower the mercury in the cistern by turning the screw at the bottom until the surface is well below the ivory point2 this is done to prevent the collection of impurities on the surface about the point4 ,the transport of barometers requires very great care in order to prevent the introduction of air into the tube or the fracture of the tube by the impact of the mercury against the top4 ,to reduce the risk of these accidents1 the barometer must be carried with the tube quite full of mercury1 and in an inverted position1 at least with the cistern end kept higher than the top of the tube4 ,the flexible cistern of the ,fortin type of barometer allows of it being screwed up tight so as to fill the tube and close the lower end of it4 ,in case of breakage1 the operation of fitting a new tube is not very difficult1 but unless the tube has been carried out ready filled with mercury1 this cannot well be attempted4 ,in order to drive out the film of air adhering to the glass on the inside1 it is necessary1 after filling the tube1 to raise its temperature to the boiling-point of mercury4 ,no one should attempt either to fill or to change a barometer tube unless he has had practice in doing so under expert supervision beforehand4 ,the ,collie ,portable ,mercurial ,barometer4--,this instrument is not likely to be broken in travelling4 ,it is quickly set up1 and from such tests as have been applied1 it appears to give excellent results4 ,the cistern and vacuum tube at the top are of equal diameter1 and are connected by a flexible tube1 and the difference in level of the mercury may be measured directly by means of a graduated rod1 or as in ,deasy's mounting by means of a vernier4 ,there is no attached thermometer1 but if the instrument be used in the open air1 and is exposed for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour before using1 it will be sufficient to note the temperature of the air in the usual way4 ,the upper end 7,fig4 #g7 is about #b4e inches long1 and contains an air-trap1 into which all the air that may accidentally enter the barometer1 either by the tap leaking1 through the rubber tubing1 or through either of the joints1 must find its way4 ,the lower or reservoir end 7,fig4 #h7 is about #d4e inches long1 and has an air-tight glass tap about an inch below the broad part4 ,these ends are forced into the rubber tubing1 and1 as an additional precaution against leakage1 copper wire is bound round the joints4 ,the scale is cut on an aluminium bar1 along which two carriages1 to which the barometer is attached1 move up and down1 and they can be clamped to the bar at any place 7,fig4 #f74 ,by means of the verniers attached to the carriages1 which are divided to #j4jjb of an inch1 it is easy to estimate the height of the mercury to #j4jja4 ,to use the barometer1 the carriages are put on the scale bar2 the lower one is clamped at the bottom of the bar1 and the upper one some inches higher up2 the barometer is attached to the carriages by clamps which fit over the joints2 the rubber cap is removed from the reservoir end1 the tap opened1 the verniers put in the middle of their runs1 and the upper carriage moved up the bar until there is a vacuum4 ,by means of the screws on the right of the carriages the verniers are moved up or down until the top of the mercury at each end is in line with the edges of the rings attached to the verniers1 which fit round the glass ends4 ,both verniers are then read1 and the difference gives the height of the barometer4 ,the rubber cap on the reservoir end is merely to prevent the small quantity of mercury1 which should be left above the tap when it is closed1 from being shaken out when travelling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,the ,,collie ,,barometer1 ,,with ,,the ,,deasy ,,mounting1 ,,in ,,its ,,normal ,,working ,,position4 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,the ,,upper ,,carriage ,,and ,,vernier ,,on ,a ,,larger ,,scale1 ,,with ,,barometer ,,attached4 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,the ,,lower ,,carriage ,,and ,,vernier1 ,,with ,,reservoir ,,end ,,of ,,barometer ,,attached4 7,same scale as ,fig4 #g47 ,to pack up the barometer1 lower the upper carriage very slowly until the mercury has touched the top of the glass2 then detach the barometer from this carriage1 and either let the upper end hang vertically below the reservoir1 or detach the reservoir end from its carriage and raise it till the barometer hangs vertically4 ,by this means the barometer is completely filled with mercury1 and then the tap must be closed4 ,the tube is then to be coiled away in its padded box4 ,when too much air is found in the trap1 it must be extracted by means of the air-pump4 ,the ,aneroid ,barometer4--,the aneroid barometer is so convenient on account of its portability that1 although much less trustworthy than a mercurial barometer1 it is much more likely to be used by a traveller4 ,care should be taken in using it to see that the pointer has come to a position of equilibrium1 and it should be tapped gently before reading4 ,the eye must be brought directly over the end of the pointer1 and the reading made to one-hundredth of an inch1 the barometer being held in a horizontal position4 ,every opportunity of comparing the aneroid with a standard mercurial barometer should be taken1 and a note made of the readings of both4 ,the mercurial barometer will require to be corrected for temperature before its indications can be used for correcting the aneroid1 as all good aneroids are compensated for changes of temperature4 ,the readings of an aneroid give a very fair idea of the changes of atmospheric pressure1 and are very much better than none at all1 although they cannot in any case be accepted as of the highest order of accuracy4 ,the ,watkin mountain aneroid1 which is so constructed as to be thrown into gear at the moment when it is read1 appears to be free from the worst errors of the ordinary aneroid4 ,for climatological purposes1 it is impossible to make barometric observations of value while travelling unless the altitude of each camping-place is accurately known4 ,this is practically never the case except when travelling along the sea-shore or the margin of a great lake the elevation of which has been determined4 ,but1 meteorology apart1 barometric readings in any little known country are of value1 because by comparing them with simultaneous readings taken at a neighbouring fixed station1 new data as to the altitude of the country may be obtained4 ,while in camp1 it would be an extremely useful thing to make barometer readings1 even with an aneroid1 every two hours1 in order to get some information as to the normal daily range of atmospheric pressure4 ,the ,boiling-point ,thermometer4--,the temperature at which water boils depends on the pressure of the atmosphere1 so that an accurate observation of the boiling-point of water enables the pressure of the atmosphere at the moment of observation to be determined with the utmost accuracy4 ,this method of determining atmospheric pressure having been used hitherto almost solely for the purpose of measuring altitudes1 the boiling-point thermometer is usually known as the ,hypsometer1 but its records are quite as valuable for use at fixed stations as in mountain climbing4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,y4 ,buchanan recommends the use of a boiling-point thermometer with a very open scale graduated to fiftieths of a degree ,centigrade and entirely enclosed in a wide glass tube through which steam from water boiling in a copper vessel is passing4 ,on a thermometer of this kind change of pressure can be measured by the change of boiling-point more accurately than with the aid of a mercurial barometer4 ,see ,table1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bic4 #b4 ,,observations ,,for ,,forecasting ,,the ,,weather4--,the familiar name of 8weather-glass0 is appropriately applied to the barometer1 for in most parts of the world it is the surest indicator of any approaching storm4 ,the scientific prediction of the weather by means of the barometer involves the comparison of the simultaneous readings of barometers over as wide an area as possible1 and can only be carried out where there is a complete telegraph system and a public department charged with the work4 ,the storms of wind and rain which break the more usual steady weather are usually associated with the formation of centres of low atmospheric pressure towards which wind blows in from every side4 ,these atmospheric depressions move1 as a rule1 in fairly regular tracks1 the rate of movement of the centre of the depression having no relation to the rate at which the wind blows or to the direction of the wind4 ,the term cyclone is usually applied to such a moving depression1 because of the rotating winds round the centre2 but the size of a cyclone may vary from a vast atmospheric eddy extending across the whole breadth of the ,atlantic to one only a few miles in diameter4 ,the strength of the wind in a cyclone depends on the barometric gradient2 in other words1 the greater the difference in atmospheric pressure between two neighbouring points the stronger is the wind that blows between them4 ,or1 when a cyclone is passing over an observer1 the more rapidly the barometer falls or rises the stronger may the wind be expected to blow4 ,in direct contrast to the cyclone or depression is the system of high pressure rising to a centre from which the wind blows out on every side4 ,this is called an anticyclone1 and is a condition which1 once established1 may last for many days1 or even weeks1 without change4 ,it is the typical condition for dry calm weather in all parts of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,cyclone ,,paths ,,and ,,circulation ,,of ,,winds ,,in ,,cyclones ,,in ,,the ,,northern ,,and ,,southern ,,hemispheres4 ,the direction of movement of the centres of cyclones in the northern hemisphere is usually westward and northward near the equator1 the path of the centre bending to the right as it proceeds1 and becoming ultimately eastward and southward4 ,in the southern hemisphere the direction of the centre near the equator is westward and southward1 turning towards the left as it proceeds4 ,the rotation of the wind about the centre of a cyclone in the northern hemisphere is inwards towards the centre in the direction opposite to the hands of a watch1 and in the southern hemisphere it is in the direction in which the hands of a watch move 7,fig4 #i74 ,in the centre of a cyclone there is a calm1 a well-known danger to sailing ships caught in such a storm at sea1 because there is no wind to move the vessel1 but a tremendous sea driven in from the gale which rages all round from every point of the compass4 ,the law of storms has been very fully studied1 and rules have been drawn up to enable sailors to ascertain the direction in which the centre of an approaching cyclone lies and the direction in which it is moving4 ,in a work intended mainly for travellers on land it is not necessary to give these rules2 all that is required is to tell how the approach of dangerous storms may be ascertained some time in advance4 ,the fact that the barometer is high or low is in itself of no value for prediction4 ,the important thing to know is the distribution of atmospheric pressure at a given moment over a considerable area4 ,to the isolated observer this is impossible1 and he can only judge of the state of the atmosphere by observing the rate at which the barometer is falling or rising4 ,thus1 if for several days the barometer has been steadily and slowly rising1 he will probably be right in believing that an anticyclonic condition is establishing itself1 and that the weather may be expected to continue fine for many days to come1 even after a gradual fall of the barometer begins4 ,a sudden fall of the barometer1 on the other hand1 is always a sign of wind1 and usually of wet weather as well4 ,this is a particularly valuable sign of approaching storm in those parts of the world where1 as in the tropics1 the normal weather is very uniform and steady4 ,in such places a very sudden fall1 say one-tenth of an inch in an hour1 is a sure precursor of a violent storm4 ,as the barometer continues to fall1 the wind will probably continue to increase in force1 and when the barometer reaches its lowest point it will either fall calm 7if the centre of the cyclone is passing over the observer7 or suddenly change in direction4 ,the rapid rise of the barometer after a great depression is also always accompanied by strong wind1 though not so frequently by rain4 ,it must be clearly understood that these remarks refer only to observations at a fixed station4 ,if a fall of barometer is observed in travelling1 it may be due either to a change in the state of the atmosphere or to a change in the traveller's height above sea-level4 ,this is the reason why it is absolutely essential1 in making barometric estimates of height 7or boiling-point determinations71 to have simultaneous observations going on at a base-station1 or preferably at a series of intermediate stations4 ,the ordinary prognostics of the approach of rain or bad weather differ in different localities1 and require a considerable amount of local knowledge before they can be utilised4 ,the peculiar absorption band in the solar spectrum due to the water vapour of the ,earth's atmosphere1 and called the rain-band1 is a valuable guide to an experienced observer with a spectroscope in predicting rain4 ,the only instrument1 however1 likely to be useful to the ordinary traveller is the wet and dry bulb thermometer4 ,when the two thermometers have the same reading1 indicating saturation of water vapour1 or when they approach at temperatures above #fj ,f4 within two degrees or so1 rain may be expected1 or possibly mist4 ,the appearance of low clouds clinging to the hillsides is an indication that the temperature at the place where they are is below the dew-point4 ,the appearance of the upper clouds1 taken in conjunction with the readings of the barometer1 is a valuable indication of forthcoming weather changes4 ,the increase of cirrus clouds in a clear sky with a falling barometer1 or the appearance of a solar or lunar halo1 may be taken as a sure sign of an approaching cyclone1 the intensity of which may be foreseen by the rate at which the barometer is falling4 ,while the weather of places on the west coasts of temperate continents exposed to the prevailing sea-wind is usually made up of a succession of cyclones of different degrees of intensity1 and of the anticyclonic intervals between them1 over the greater part of the ,earth's surface the climate is much more uniform1 and the seasonal changes are the principal cause of changes of weather4 ,to understand these general conditions it is necessary to consider the elements of climatology4 #c4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,climatology4--,the air is in constant movement on account of the unequal way in which the heat of the sun falls on different parts of the ,earth's surface1 and at different seasons of the year4 ,all the conditions of the atmosphere show a certain diurnal periodicity which is most marked in the regions of steady climate between and near the tropics4 ,thus1 as a rule1 the minimum temperature of the air occurs just before sunrise1 the maximum temperature from two to three hours after noon4 ,the amount of difference between the maximum and minimum temperature of the day 7daily range7 is least near the sea or in wet regions 7a maritime climate7 and greatest in the interior of the continents1 especially where the rainfall is slight 7a continental climate74 ,over the sea itself the daily range of air temperature averages only #c ,fahrenheit degrees2 but in the heart of a continent1 especially in a desert1 it may exceed #fj ,fahrenheit degrees4 ,diurnal changes of pressure are proportionally much smaller in amount than changes of temperature1 and are to be observed as a regular phenomenon only in the tropics1 or elsewhere during very settled weather4 ,there are usually two maxima daily1 about #aj ,a4,m4 and #aj ,p4,m41 and two minima occurring about #d ,a4,m4 and #d ,p4,m4 ,it is only in rare cases that the total barometric range exceeds #j4aj inch1 very frequently it is not greater than #j4jd inch4 ,still it is convenient to remember in the tropics that a fall of the barometer not greater than #j4aj inch between #aj ,a4,m4 and #d ,p4,m4 is to be expected1 and does not indicate either the approach of a storm 7if the observer is at rest7 or the ascent of #ajj feet 7if he is on the march74 ,associated with the diurnal changes of temperature in settled weather are changes of wind due to local configuration of the ground4 ,the wind1 for example1 usually blows up a mountain side1 or up a steep valley1 during the day1 and down a mountain1 or down a steep valley1 during the night4 ,so1 too1 the regular land and sea breezes found on the borders of the sea or of great lakes blow from water to land in the day time and from land to water at night4 ,here the determining cause is the fact that land is warmed and cooled by radiation1 and in turn heats or chills the air much more than water does4 ,in the settled climates of high tropical plateaus a regular diurnal change of wind direction has been observed1 the wind blowing successively from all points of the compass4 ,a similar diurnal periodicity occurs in the amount of cloud1 in the moisture of the air1 the fall of rain1 the occurrence of thunderstorms1 etc4 ,it is also to be noticed in the flow of rivers in mountainous regions where the streams take their rise from glaciers or snow1 the rapid melting of which by the heat of the sun causes the volume of water to increase greatly in the afternoon1 while the cessation or reduction of the rate of melting at night diminishes the volume of the river in the morning and forenoon4 ,periodic changes of greater amount but similar in kind are produced by the alternation of the seasons1 the difference between the mean values of the months in which the phenomena are at a maximum and minimum respectively being termed the annual range4 ,with regard to temperature1 very moderate changes occur in the tropical zones where the altitude of the noon-day sun is always great1 and the length of day and night varies little with the season 7for the most part less than #e ,fahrenheit degrees72 but in the temperate and frigid zones there are strongly marked annual changes4 ,as in the case of daily range1 proximity to the sea is a controlling factor in the annual range of temperature4 ,to take a very characteristic instance1 the annual range between the mean temperature of ,july and ,january is about #bc ,fahrenheit degrees in the ,lofoten islands on the margin of the ,atlantic1 while it is #abj ,fahrenheit degrees at ,verkhoyansk in the same latitude1 but in the centre of the ,asiatic continent4 ,the extreme months for air temperature are ,january and ,july in almost every part of the world1 the maximum occurring north of the equatorial belt in ,july and south of it in ,january4 ,the annual changes in barometric pressure and wind are equally marked4 ,the belt of low pressure which lies nearly under the vertical sun moves northward over the surface of the globe in the northern summer1 coming to its most northerly position in ,july3 returning southward after the sun1 it reaches its most southerly position in ,january4 ,this belt of low pressure is also a belt of calms1 known by sailors as the ,doldrums1 and it is a belt of frequent rains1 so that as it approaches and passes over a place there is a rainy season1 followed by a dry season when it retires4 ,near the mean position of the belt of low pressure1 where it passes over a place twice in the year1 there are two rainy seasons4 ,the low pressure belt is bordered to north and south by belts of high atmospheric pressure1 from which the trade-winds blow towards the equator1 and the westerly anti-trades blow towards the poles4 ,these are also subject to the annual change2 but the different action of land and sea on the distribution of pressure exercises a greater influence than does the difference of latitude4 ,as the greater heating and cooling of the land each day causes the phenomena of daily land and sea breezes1 so the greater heating and cooling of the land between summer and winter causes seasonal land and sea winds1 blowing from land to sea in winter1 from sea to land in summer4 ,generally speaking1 the pressure is greater--in the same latitude--where the air is cooler1 so that outside the frigid zones cold areas are usually areas of high pressure1 from which wind blows out in every direction1 while warm areas are areas of low pressure towards which wind blows in on every side4 ,the distribution of rainfall on the land is dependent on the direction of the rain-bringing wind and the configuration of the surface4 ,thus when the rain-bringing wind meets a mountain range1 it deposits a great rainfall on the exposed slopes1 but passes over as a dry wind which yields little rain to the region beyond4 ,in places where the wind changes with the season1 as in southern ,asia1 the distribution of rainfall is entirely different during the continuance of the different monsoons4 ,all these questions of normal climate can be more easily illustrated on maps than explained by words4 ,but the reader must be cautioned against taking the condensed and generalised representations of small-scale maps as showing all that is known on the subject4 ,even the magnificent plates in the #8,atlas of ,meteorology1' which forms part of ,bartholomew's ,physical ,atlas1 cannot show everything that is known2 and in many parts of the world so little has yet been ascertained as to the climatic conditions that generations of observers will be required to make it possible for meteorologists to draw a uniform trustworthy map of the whole world showing the distribution of any one element of climate4 ,isothermal maps4--,the principle of an isothermal map is that of representing the distribution of temperature by drawing lines through all the places where the temperature is the same at a given time4 ,it is usual to take this time as an average month in an average year4 ,thus in a map of isotherms for ,january 7see p4 #ej71 what is shown is not the temperature of any particular day in any particular ,january1 but that of an average day in a long series of ,januaries4 ,hence it is not likely that the exact distribution of temperature shown in the map will ever be found on any ,january day2 but it is to be expected that most days in every ,january will have a distribution of temperature which is very similar to that shown4 ,the same is of course true of maps showing pressure1 or rainfall1 or any other average condition4 ,again1 the isotherm is necessarily constructed from average temperatures which have been corrected so as to be applicable to the same level4 ,on the equator1 for instance1 the summit of a lofty mountain is seen by the snow on it to have a temperature not exceeding #cb ,f41 while at sea-level the temperature may be #ij4 ,but observations have been made showing the rate at which the temperature of the air diminishes as the height increases1 and although the rate varies in different places and at different seasons1 it may be taken roughly as one ,fahrenheit degree in #cjj feet4 ,now if the mountain top with a temperature of say #cj ,f4 is known to be #ah1jjj feet above the sea1 the addition of #a for every #cjj feet1 or #fj altogether1 would give the temperature of #ij as that corresponding to sea-level4 ,by applying such corrections1 the isothermal maps have been constructed to show the distribution of temperature at the level of the sea4 ,in order to compare the temperature he has observed with that on the map the observer must calculate the average of his daily observations for the month in question1 and then make the correction for the altitude of his station4 ,similarly1 in ascertaining from an isothermal map the mean temperature of a particular place1 care must be taken to subtract from the number of degrees of the isotherm passing through the place one degree for every #cjj feet of elevation4 ,of course it will usually happen that no isotherm as shown on the map runs through the point the mean temperature of which it is desired to obtain4 ,in that case the temperature at the point will be found by considering its relative position between the two nearest isotherms4 ,thus1 if it lie half-way between the lines of #fj and #gj--measured perpendicularly to the isotherms--the temperature of #fe may be assumed2 if it lies one-tenth of the distance from #fj and nine-tenths from #gj1 it is safe to assume #fa2 if three-tenths from #gj and seven-tenths from #fj1 then assume #fg4 ,if the point lie in a loop of a single isotherm1 e4g41 ,cape ,st4 ,roque1 the eastern point of ,south ,america in the map for ,january1 lying within the #hj isotherm1 one can only guess that the temperature is above #hj and it may be assumed to be below #he4 ,the method of representation is unsatisfactory in such a case4 ,these facts being borne in mind1 the study of isotherm maps will be found to give an excellent general idea of the distribution of climate at sea-level1 and if the contour lines of #fjj and #fjjj feet are traced on the maps the areas within which corrections of over -#b and -#bj have to be applied to the isothermal values to get the temperature at the place will be easily recognised4 ,isobaric ,maps4--,isobars are drawn from the data of the height of the barometer corrected to sea-level values and to the temperature of #cb ,f41 exactly in the same way as isotherms are drawn from the data of thermometer readings or contour lines from data of altitude measurements4 ,the practical value of the study of isobars is very great1 because of the importance of assuming a probable value of sea-level pressure in reducing the barometric or boiling-point thermometer readings for determining elevation1 and also because of the intimate relation between the form and proximity of isobars and the direction and force of the winds4 ,barometric gradient is measured by the difference between the isobars per unit of length4 ,for instance1 gradient is frequently expressed in the number of hundredths of an inch difference between barometers fifteen nautical miles apart4 ,the greater the gradient of pressure is1 the more closely together must the isobars be drawn in order to represent it4 ,for example1 in the isobaric map for ,january 7p4 #ej7 a very steep gradient is shown on the east coast of ,asia1 north of ,japan1 and a remarkably gentle gradient in the interior of ,asia from the ,black ,sea eastward4 ,the steeper the gradient the stronger is the wind4 ,the arrows in the isobaric maps 7which are represented flying with the wind7 show the average directions of the wind over the world for the months in question4 ,the relation they bear to the isobars becomes clear on inspection1 although1 on account of the greater number of observations available for some parts of the world than for others1 all the arrows are not drawn with the same amount of certainty1 and the direction of a few contradicts that of most4 ,as a general rule1 the following facts may be taken as absolutely established3 7#a7 ,wherever there is a region of high pressure the wind blows out from it in all directions4 7#b7 ,wherever there is a region of low pressure the wind blows in towards it from every side4 7#c7 ,the wind never blows perpendicularly to the isobars or directly from higher to lower pressure1 but always in a curved or spiral path inclined to the isobars4 7#d7 ,in the northern hemisphere the wind blows out from a high pressure area in the same direction as the hands of a watch move1 but in the southern hemisphere in the opposite direction4 ,also in the northern hemisphere the wind blows into a low-pressure area in the direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch and in the southern hemisphere in the same direction as the hands of a watch move4 7#e7 ,recognising that the wind blows nearly parallel to the direction of the isobars1 the following statement 7known as ,buys ,ballot's ,law7 expresses its direction both for high-pressure and for low-pressure areas3 ,if you stand with the lower pressure on your left hand1 and the higher pressure on your right hand1 in the northern hemisphere the wind will be blowing on your back1 but in the southern hemisphere in your face4 ,rainfall ,maps4--,rainfall is represented on maps by lines of equal precipitation termed ,isohyets4 ,these represent actual figures without reduction for elevation or other local conditions1 and a rainfall map can consequently be studied as a direct record of observed facts4 ,the map 7p4 #ej7 of mean annual rainfall brings out clearly the equatorial zone of heavy rains crossing the ,amazon valley1 the ,congo valley1 the southeastern peninsulas of ,asia and the ,malay archipelago4 ,north and south of this belt are the nearly rainless regions of the tropical deserts1 extended northward and southward over the continents1 and merging nearer the poles into the fairly-watered temperate zones4 ,the rainfall maps for separate months show the intimate relation between rainfall and the direction of the wind taken in conjunction with the configuration of the land4 ,even on the coast1 when the prevailing wind is off shore1 there may be scarcely any rain1 as on the west coast of tropical ,south ,america4 ,in the very heart of a continent the rainfall may be very heavy where the sea-wind blows across a great plain before striking the mountains1 as is illustrated by the eastern slope of the ,andes4 ,rainfall is1 however1 one of the most inconstant elements of meteorology1 and the actual rainfall of any year may differ very widely from the average4 ,the practical value of exact statistics of rainfall is1 however1 greater than that of any other climatological condition2 for the water supply and the fertility of the land depend in every case on the rain that falls either locally or on the heights of the water-sheds4 ,in order to pursue the subject further the chapters on the atmosphere in the writer's #8,realm of ,nature' 7,london1 ,murray2 ,new ,york1 ,scribner7 and ,mr4 ,l4 ,c4 ,w4 ,bonacina's #8,climatic ,control' 7,london1 ,a4 and ,c4 ,black7 may be useful4 ,the most systematic treatment of climatology will be found in ,hann's #8,handbuch der ,klimatologie1' #c vols4 7,stuttgart71 which contains numerous references to special works2 the essential part of this treatise is translated by ,professor ,r4 de ,c4 ,ward1 under the title of #8,handbook of ,climatology1' ,part ,i4 7,macmillan74 ,the most important work of all is the great #8,atlas of ,meteorology' by ,dr4 ,a4 ,buchan and ,dr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,herbertson1 forming ,vol4 ,,iii4 of ,bartholomew's #8,atlas of ,physical ,geography' 7,london1 ,constable71 which gives an unrivalled series of climate and weather-maps with explanatory letterpress4 ,the recent great advances in meteorology have rendered the old textbooks obsolete1 while the new data1 especially those regarding the upper regions of the atmosphere1 have not yet been built into a coherent system4 ,sir ,napier ,shaw's #8,forecasting ,weather' 7,london1 ,constable ,co47 is a pioneer discussion1 and the numerous publications of the ,meteorological ,office1 ,south ,kensington1 ,london1 ,s4,w4#g1 may be consulted with much advantage4 ,daily synoptical weather-maps are published by the ,weather ,service of almost every civilised country4 ,those for the ,united ,kingdom may be obtained from the ,meteorological ,office of the ,air ,ministry4 ,the only weather-maps of large areas produced regularly are the ,pilot ,charts of the ,north ,atlantic and the ,north ,pacific1 published monthly by the ,hydrographic ,office at ,washington1 and those of the ,north ,atlantic and ,mediterranean published monthly by the ,meteorological ,office in ,london4 ,these show the tracks of cyclones1 and give a great deal of information as to the meteorology and currents of the oceans4 ,they are intended primarily for the use of sailors4 ,the following list gives the name of the official weather service of all countries outside ,europe and the town in which the head office is situated4 ,application might be made to any of these offices for information as to the stations where standard instruments are established in the country in question4 ,,extra-,,european ,,weather ,,services4 ,country4 ,name4 ,place4 ,america3-- ,canada ,meteorological ,service of the ,dominion of ,canada ,toronto4 ,united ,states and ,west ,indies ,weather ,bureau ,washington4 ,mexico ,observatorio meteorologico magnetico central ,mexico4 ,salvador ,observatorio ,astronomico y ,san ,salvador4 ,meteorologico ,guatemala ,instituto fisico-geografico ,san ,jos4 ,cuba ,real ,colegio de ,belen de la compania de ,jesus ,havana4 ,brazil ,central ,meteorological ,department of the ,navy ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,uruguay ,observatorio meteorologico del colegio pio de ,villa ,colon ,montevideo4 ,argentina ,oficina meteorologica ,argentina ,buenos ,aires4 ,chile ,oficina meteorologica ,santiago4 ,peru ,harvard ,college ,observatory ,arequipa4 ,africa3-- ,algeria ,service mtorologique ,algiers4 ,british ,central ,africa ,zomba4 ,egypt ,observatory ,helwan4 ,madagascar ,observatoire ,tananarive4 ,mauritius ,royal ,alfred ,observatory ,pamplemousses4 ,union of ,south ,meteorological ,branch1 ,irrigation ,africa ,department ,johannesburg4 ,asia3-- ,india ,meteorological ,department ,calcutta4 ,japan ,central ,meteorological ,observatory ,tokyo4 ,ceylon ,surveyor-,general's ,office ,colombo4 ,hongkong ,observatory ,hongkong4 ,china ,imperial ,maritime ,customs ,peking4 0 ,observatoire de ,zi-ka-wei ,shanghai4 ,philippine ,islands ,weather ,bureau ,manila4 ,dutch ,east ,indies ,magnetic and ,meteorological ,batavia4 ,observatory ,australasia and ,pacific3-- ,australia ,commonwealth ,meteorological ,service ,melbourne4 ,new ,zealand ,meteorological ,office ,wellington4 ,hawaii ,weather ,bureau ,honolulu4 ,in addition to the above1 which are regular government services specially organised for publishing and utilising the data from numerous observing stations1 there are many isolated stations in all parts of the world4 ,there are no colonies which do not possess some meteorological stations1 and at many mission stations meteorological observations are made4 ,it would always be well for a traveller to try to ascertain where in the vicinity of his route meteorological stations have been established and over what period of time their records extend4 ,in the ,table 7pp4 #dd-di71 taken from ,marriott's 8,hints to ,meteorological ,observers10 is given the relative humidity for every #b of temperature from #bj to #hj1 and for every two-tenths of a degree of difference between the dry and wet-bulb readings from #jb to #ahj4 ,to use the ,table3 ,look in the column on the left or right for the nearest degree to the dry-bulb reading2 then carry the eye horizontally along until the column is reached corresponding to the difference between the readings of the dry and wet-bulb thermometers1 when the relative humidity will be found4 ,intermediate readings can be interpolated in the usual way4 ,example3 ,dry-bulb #ehe1 wet-bulb #ebg1 the difference is #eh4 ,having found #eh in the column on the left or right1 run the eye along this line until the column under #eh is reached1 when the relative humidity will be found1 viz41 #fg4 ,,table ,,of ,,relative ,,humidity4 ,dry ,bulb ,reading4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,readings ,,of ,,the ,,dry ,,and ,,wet ,,bulb ,,thermometers4 #j4b #j4d #j4f #j4h #a4j #a4b #a4d #a4f #a4h #b4j #b4b #b4d #b4f #bj #ic #hf #hj #gd #fh #fc #ei #ee #ea #dg #dd #da #cg #bb #id #hh #hb #gf #gj #fe #fj #ef #ec #ej #dg #dd #da #bd #id #hh #hc #gh #gc #fi #fe #fa #eg #ec #ej #dg #dd #bf #ie #ij #he #hj #gf #gb #fh #fd #fa #eg #ed #ea #dh #bh #if #ib #hh #hd #hj #gf #gb #fi #ff #fc #fj #eg #ed #cj #if #ic #ij #hg #hd #ha #gh #ge #gb #gj #fg #fd #fb #cb #ig #id #ia #hi #hg #hd #hb #hj #gh #gf #gc #ga #fi #cd #ig #ie #ic #ia #hi #hg #he #hc #ha #hj #gh #gf #gd #cf #ih #if #id #ic #ia #hi #hg #hf #hd #hb #hj #gi #gg #ch #ih #if #id #ic #ia #hi #hg #hf #he #hc #ha #hj #gh #dj #ih #ig #ie #id #ib #ij #hh #hg #hf #hd #hb #ha #gi #db #ih #ig #ie #id #ib #ij #hh #hg #hf #hd #hc #ha #hj #dd #ih #ig #ie #id #ib #ij #hh #hg #hf #hd #hc #hb #ha #df #ii #ig #ie #id #ib #ia #hi #hh #hg #he #hd #hb #ha #dh #ii #ig #ie #id #ib #ia #hi #hh #hg #he #hd #hb #ha #ej #ii #ig #if #id #ic #ib #ij #hi #hh #hf #he #hc #hb #eb #ii #ig #if #id #ic #ib #ij #hi #hh #hf #he #hc #hb #ed #ii #ig #if #id #ic #ib #ij #hi #hh #hf #he #hc #hb #ef #ii #ig #if #id #ic #ib #ij #hi #hh #hg #hf #hd #hc #eh #ii #ig #if #id #ic #ib #ij #hi #hh #hg #hf #he #hd #fj #ii #ig #if #id #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hh #hf #he #hd #fb #ii #ih #if #ie #id #ic #ia #ij #hi #hh #hf #he #hd #fd #ii #ih #if #ie #id #ic #ia #ij #hi #hh #hf #he #hd #ff #ii #ih #if #ie #id #ic #ia #ij #hi #hh #hg #hf #he #fh #ii #ih #if #ie #id #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hg #hf #he #gj #ii #ih #if #ie #id #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hg #hf #he #gb #ii #ih #if #ie #id #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hg #hf #he #gd #ii #ih #if #ie #id #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hh #hg #he #gf #ii #ih #ig #if #ie #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hh #hg #hf #gh #ii #ih #ig #if #ie #id #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hh #hg #hj #ii #ih #ig #if #ie #id #ic #ib #ia #ij #hi #hh #hg ,dry ,bulb ,reading4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,readings ,,of ,,the ,,dry ,,and ,,wet ,,bulb ,,thermometers4 #b4h #c4j #c4b #c4d #c4f #c4h #d4j #d4b #d4d #d4f #d4h #e4j #e4b #bj #cd #cb #bi #bg #be #bc #ba #ai #ah #ag #af #ae #ad #bb #ch #cf #cc #ca #bi #bg #be #bc #ba #ai #ah #ag #ae #bd #db #ci #cf #cd #cb #cj #bi #bg #be #bc #ba #ai #ah #bf #de #dc #da #ci #cg #ce #cc #ca #bi #bg #bf #be #bc #bh #eb #ej #dh #df #dd #db #dj #ch #cf #cd #cc #cb #cj #cj #fj #eh #ee #ec #ea #di #dg #de #dd #db #dj #ci #cg #cb #fg #fe #fc #fa #fj #eh #ef #ed #ec #ea #ej #dh #dg #cd #gb #ga #fi #fg #fe #fc #fb #fj #ei #eg #ef #ee #ec #cf #gf #gd #gb #ga #fi #fh #ff #fd #fc #fa #fj #ei #eh #ch #gg #gf #gd #gc #ga #gj #fi #fg #ff #fd #fc #fb #fa #dj #gh #gf #ge #gd #gb #ga #gj #fh #fg #fe #fd #fc #fb #db #gh #gg #gf #ge #gc #gb #gj #fi #fh #ff #fe #fd #fc #dd #gi #gh #gg #gf #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj #fh #fg #fe #fd #df #gi #gh #gg #gf #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj #fh #fg #ff #fe #dh #hj #gi #gh #gg #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #fi #fh #fg #ff #ej #hj #gi #gh #gg #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj #fi #fh #ff #eb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj #fi #fg #ed #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gc #gb #ga #gj #fi #fh #ef #hb #ha #hj #gi #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj #fi #eh #hc #hb #ha #hj #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj #fj #hc #hb #ha #hj #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #gj #fb #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #fd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #ga #ff #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #fh #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gb #gj #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gd #gc #gb #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gd #he #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gc #gf #he #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #gh #hf #he #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #ge #gd #hj #hf #he #hd #hc #hb #ha #hj #gi #gh #gg #gf #gf #ge ,dry ,bulb ,reading4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,readings ,,of ,,the ,,dry ,,and ,,wet ,,bulb ,,thermometers4 #e4d #e4f #e4h #f4j #f4b #f4d #f4f #f4h #g4j #g4b #g4d #g4f #g4h #bj #ac #ab #aa #aj #i #h #g #f #f #f #e #e #e #bb #ad #ac #ab #aa #aj #i #i #h #h #g #g #f #f #bd #ag #af #ae #ad #ac #ab #aa #aj #aj #i #i #h #h #bf #ba #bj #ai #ah #ag #af #ae #ad #ad #ac #ab #aa #aj #bh #bi #bg #bf #be #bd #bc #ba #bj #ai #ah #ag #af #ae #cj #cf #ce #cc #cb #ca #cj #bi #bh #bh #bg #bf #be #bd #cb #de #dd #db #da #ci #ch #cg #cf #ce #cd #cc #cb #ca #cd #eb #ea #ej #di #dg #df #de #dd #dc #da #dj #ci #ch #cf #eg #ee #ed #ec #eb #ea #di #dh #dg #df #de #dd #dc #ch #fj #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #eb #ea #ej #di #dh #dg #df #dj #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #ed #ec #eb #ea #ej #di #dh #db #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ec #eb #ea #ej #dd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ec #eb #ea #df #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ec #eb #dh #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ec #ej #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #eb #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ef #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #eh #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #eh #eg #fj #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fb #fa #fj #ei #ei #fb #gj #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #fd #gj #fi #fh #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #ei #ff #ga #gj #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fd #fc #fb #fa #fj #fh #ga #gj #fi #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #gj #gb #ga #gj #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #gb #gb #ga #gj #gj #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #fa #gd #gb #ga #gj #gj #fi #fh #fg #ff #ff #fe #fd #fc #fb #gf #gc #gb #ga #ga #gj #fi #fh #fg #ff #fe #fe #fd #fc #gh #gc #gb #ga #ga #gj #fi #fh #fg #fg #ff #fe #fd #fc #hj #gd #gc #gb #gb #ga #gj #fi #fh #fg #fg #ff #fe #fd ,dry ,bulb ,reading4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,readings ,,of ,,the ,,dry ,,and ,,wet ,,bulb ,,thermometers4 #h4j #h4b #h4d #h4f #h4h #i4j #i4b #i4d #i4f #i4h #aj4j #aj4b #aj4d #bj #e 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bb #e #e #e #e #d #d 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bd #g #g #f #f #f #e #e #e #e #e #d 44 44 #bf #aj #i #i #h #h #g #g #f #f #f #e #e #e #bh #ae #ad #ad #ac #ac #ab #ab #aa #aj #aj #i #i #h #cj #bc #bb #ba #bj #ai #ah #ag #af #ae #ae #ad #ad #ac #cb #cj #bi #bi #bh #bg #bg #bf #be #bd #bc #bc #bb #ba #cd #cg #cf #cf #ce #cd #cc #cc #cb #ca #cj #cj #bi #bh #cf #db #da #dj #ci #ci #ch #cg #cf #ce #cd #cd #cc #cb #ch #de #dd #dc #db #db #da #dj #ci #ch #cg #cf #ce #cd #dj #dg #df #de #dd #dd #dc #db #da #dj #ci #ch #cg #cf #db #di #dh #dg #df #de #dd #dc #db #da #dj #dj #ci #ch #dd #ej #di #dh #dg #df #df #de #dd #dc #db #da #da #dj #df #ea #ej #di #dh #dg #dg #df #de #dd #dc #dc #db #da #dh #eb #ea #ej #di #dh #dh #dg #df #de #dd #dd #dc #db #ej #ec #eb #ea #ej #di #di #dh #dg #df #de #de #dd #dc #eb #ed #ec #eb #ea #ej #ej #di #dh #dg #df #df #de #dd #ed #ee #ed #ec #eb #ea #ea #ej #di #dh #dg #dg #df #de #ef #ef #ee #ed #ec #eb #eb #ea #ej #di #dh #dh #dg #df #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ec #ec #eb #ea #ej #di #di #dh #dg #fj #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ed #ec #eb #ea #ej #ej #di #dh #fb #eh #eg #ef #ef #ee #ee #ed #ec #eb #ea #ea #ej #di #fd #ei #eh #eg #eg #ef #ee #ee #ed #ec #eb #eb #ea #ej #ff #fj #ei #eh #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ec #eb #eb #ea #ea #fh #fj #ei #eh #eh #eg #ef #ef #ee #ed #ec #ec #eb #eb #gj #fa #fj #ei #ei #eh #eg #eg #ef #ee #ed #ed #ec #eb #gb #fa #fj #fj #ei #eh #eh #eg #ef #ee #ed #ed #ec #ec #gd #fb #fa #fa #fj #ei #ei #eh #eg #ef #ee #ee #ed #ed #gf #fc #fb #fa #fa #fj #ei #ei #eh #eg #ef #ef #ee #ed #gh #fc #fb #fa #fa #fj #fj #ei #eh #eg #ef #ef #ee #ee #hj #fd #fc #fb #fb #fa #fj #fj #ei #eh #eg #eg #ef #ee ,dry ,bulb ,reading4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,readings ,,of ,,the ,,dry ,,and ,,wet ,,bulb ,,thermometers4 #aj4f #aj4h #aa4j #aa4b #aa4d #aa4f #aa4h #ab4j #ab4b #ab4d #ab4f #ab4h #ac4j #bj 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bb 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bd 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bf #e #e #d 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bh #h #g #g #g #f #f #f #e #e #e #e #e #d #cj #ac #ab #ab #ab #aa #aa #aj #aj #aj #i #i #i #h #cb #bj #bj #ai #ai #ah #ag #ag #af #af #ae #ae #ae #ad #cd #bg #bg #bf #bf #be #bd #bd #bc #bc #bb #ba #ba #bj #cf #ca #ca #cj #cj #bi #bh #bh #bg #bg #bf #be #be #bd #ch #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #cj #cj #bi #bi #bh #bg #bg #bf #dj #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #bi #bi #bh #db #cg #cf #cf #ce #cd #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #cj #bi #dd #ci #ci #ch #cg #cf #ce #cd #cd #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #df #dj #ci #ci #ch #cg #cf #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #cc #cb #dh #da #dj #dj #ci #ch #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #ej #db #da #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #ch #cg #cf #ce #ce #cd #eb #dd #dc #dc #db #da #dj #dj #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #ed #de #dd #dd #dc #db #da #da #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #cg #ef #df #de #de #dd #dc #db #db #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #ch #eh #dg #df #df #de #de #dd #dd #dc #db #da #dj #dj #ci #fj #dg #df #df #de #de #dd #dd #dc #db #db #da #da #dj #fb #dh #dg #dg #df #df #de #de #dd #dc #dc #db #db #da #fd #di #dh #dh #dg #dg #df #df #de #dd #dd #dc #dc #db #ff #ej #di #di #dh #dh #dg #dg #df #de #de #dd #dd #dc #fh #ea #ej #ej #di #dh #dg #dg #df #de #de #dd #dd #dc #gj #ea #ej #ej #di #di #dh #dh #dg #df #df #de #de #dd #gb #eb #ea #ea #ej #ej #di #di #dh #dg #dg #df #df #de #gd #ec #eb #eb #ea #ej #di #di #dh #dg #dg #df #df #de #gf #ec #eb #eb #ea #ea #ej #ej #di #dh #dh #dg #dg #df #gh #ed #ec #ec #eb #eb #ea #ea #ej #di #di #dh #dh #dg #hj #ed #ec #ec #eb #eb #ea #ea #ej #di #di #dh #dh #dg ,dry ,bulb ,reading4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,readings ,,of ,,the ,,dry ,,and ,,wet ,,bulb ,,thermometers4 #ac4b #ac4d #ac4f #ac4h #ad4j #ad4b #ad4d #ad4f #ad4h #ae4j #ae4b #ae4d #ae4f #bj 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bb 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bd 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bf 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bh 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #cj #h #g #g #g #f #f #f #f #e #e #e #e #e #cb #ad #ac #ac #ac #ab #ab #aa #aa #aa #aj #aj #aj #aj #cd #bj #ai #ah #ah #ag #ag #af #af #ae #ae #ae #ad #ad #cf #bd #bc #bc #bc #bb #bb #ba #ba #bj #bj #ai #ai #ah #ch #bf #be #be #bd #bd #bc #bc #bb #bb #ba #ba #bj #bj #dj #bh #bg #bg #bf #be #be #be #bd #bd #bc #bc #bb #bb #db #bi #bh #bh #bg #bf #bf #bf #be #be #bd #bd #bc #bc #dd #ca #cj #cj #bi #bh #bh #bg #bf #bf #be #be #bd #bd #df #cb #ca #ca #cj #bi #bi #bh #bg #bg #bf #bf #be #be #dh #cc #cb #cb #ca #cj #cj #bi #bi #bi #bh #bg #bg #bf #ej #cd #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #cj #bi #bh #bh #bg #eb #cf #ce #ce #cd #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #bi #bi #bh #ed #cg #cf #cf #ce #cd #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #cj #cj #bi #ef #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #eh #ci #ch #ch #cg #cf #ce #ce #cd #cd #cd #cc #cc #cb #fj #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #fb #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #cd #cd #fd #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #ff #db #da #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #cg #cf #cf #ce #fh #db #da #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #gj #dc #db #db #da #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #gb #dd #dc #dc #db #db #da #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #gd #de #dd #dd #dc #dc #db #db #da #da #dj #dj #ci #ci #gf #df #de #de #dd #dc #dc #dc #db #db #da #dj #dj #ci #gh #dg #df #df #de #dd #dc #dc #db #db #da #da #dj #dj #hj #dg #df #df #de #de #dd #dd #dc #dc #db #da #da #dj ,dry ,bulb ,reading4 ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,readings ,,of ,,the ,,dry ,,and ,,wet ,,bulb ,,thermometers4 #ae4h #af4j #af4b #af4d #af4f #af4h #ag4j #ag4b #ag4d #ag4f #ag4h #ah4j #bj 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bb 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bd 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bf 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #bh 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #cj #d #d 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #cb #i #i #i #h #h #h #g #g #g #g #f #f #cd #ad #ac #ac #ac #ab #ab #ab #aa #aa #aa #aj #aj #cf #ah #ag #ag #af #af #ae #ae #ad #ad #ad #ac #ac #ch #bj #ai #ai #ah #ah #ag #ag #af #af #af #ae #ae #dj #bb #ba #ba #bj #bj #ai #ai #ah #ah #ah #ag #ag #db #bc #bb #bb #ba #ba #bj #bj #ai #ai #ai #ah #ah #dd #bd #bc #bc #bb #bb #ba #ba #bj #bj #bj #ai #ai #df #be #bd #bd #bc #bc #bb #ba #ba #ba #ba #bj #bj #dh #bf #be #bd #bc #bc #bb #bb #bb #ba #ba #bj #bj #ej #bg #bf #bf #be #be #bd #bd #bc #bb #bb #ba #ba #eb #bh #bg #bg #bf #bf #be #be #bd #bd #bd #bc #bc #ed #bi #bh #bh #bg #bg #bf #bf #be #be #be #bd #bd #ef #ca #cj #bi #bi #bh #bh #bg #bg #bf #bf #be #be #eh #cb #ca #ca #cj #cj #bi #bi #bh #bh #bh #bg #bg #fj #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #cj #bi #bi #bh #bh #bg #fb #cc #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #cj #bi #bi #bh #fd #cd #cd #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #cj #bi #bi #bi #ff #ce #cd #cd #cc #cc #cb #cb #cb #ca #ca #cj #cj #fh #cf #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #ca #gj #cf #cf #ce #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #cc #cb #cb #ca #gb #cg #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #cd #cd #cd #cc #cc #cb #gd #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #ce #cd #cd #cc #gf #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #cg #cf #cf #cf #ce #ce #cd #gh #ci #ci #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #cd #hj #dj #ci #ci #ch #ch #cg #cg #cf #cf #ce #ce #ce ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,pressure ,,of ,,saturated ,,aqueous ,,vapour ,,in ,,inches ,,of ,,mercury ,,at ,,latitude #de ,,for ,,each ,,degree ,,fahrenheit ,,from -#cj ,,to #aai4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,inch4 ,inch4 ,inch4 ,inch4 ,inches4 -#cj #j4jjii #j #j4jddj #cj #j4affe #fj #j4eaib #ij #a4dabh -#bi #j4jaje #a #j4jdfa #ca #j4agch #fa #j4ecgi #ia #a4degh -#bh #j4jaaa #b #j4jdhb #cb #j4ahae #fb #j4eegb #ib #a4ejdj -#bg #j4jaag #c #j4jejd #cc #j4ahhh #fc #j4egga #ic #a4eead -#bf #j4jabc #d #j4jebg #cd #j4aifd #fd #j4eigf #id #a4fjja -#be #j4jacj #e #j4jeea #ce #j4bjdc #fe #j4fahg #ie #a4fejb -#bd #j4jacg #f #j4jegg #cf #j4babe #ff #j4fdje #if #a4gjag -#bc #j4jadd #g #j4jfjd #cg #j4bbaj #fg #j4ffcj #ig #a4gedf -#bb #j4jaeb #h #j4jfcb #ch #j4bbig #fh #j4fhfb #ih #a4hjhh -#ba #j4jafj #i #j4jffa #ci #j4bchh #fi #j4gaja #ii #a4hfdf -#bj #j4jafh #aj #j4jfia #dj #j4bdhb #gj #j4gcdg #ajj #a4ibb -#ai #j4jagg #aa #j4jgbc #da #j4begi #ga #j4gfja #aja #a4ihj -#ah #j4jahf #ab #j4jgef #db #j4bfgi #gb #j4ghfb #ajb #b4jda -#ag #j4jaif #ac #j4jgij #dc #j4bghc #gc #j4haca #ajc #b4ajc -#af #j4jbjf #ad #j4jhbe #dd #j4bhij #gd #j4hdji #ajd #b4aff -#ae #j4jbag #ae #j4jhfb #de #j4cjja #ge #j4hfie #aje #b4bca -#ad #j4jbbh #af #j4jija #df #j4caaf #gf #j4hihi #ajf #b4bih -#ac #j4jbci #ag #j4jidb #dg #j4cbce #gg #j4ibib #ajg #b4cff -#ab #j4jbea #ah #j4jihe #dh #j4cceh #gh #j4ifjd #ajh #b4dcg -#aa #j4jbfc #ai #j4ajcj #di #j4cdhe #gi #j4iibe #aji #b4eji -#aj #j4jbgf #bj #j4ajgf #ej #j4cfaf #hj #a4jbee #aaj #b4ehc - #i #j4jbhi #ba #j4aabd #ea #j4cgea #ha #a4jeie #aaa #b4fei - #h #j4jcjc #bb #j4aagd #eb #j4chia #hb #a4jide #aab #b4gcf - #g #j4jcah #bc #j4abbf #ec #j4djcf #hc #a4acje #aac #b4hag - #f #j4jccc #bd #j4abhb #ed #j4dahf #hd #a4afge #aad #b4hih - #e #j4jcdi #be #j4acci #ee #j4dcda #he #a4bjef #aae #b4ihb - #d #j4jcff #bf #j4acii #ef #j4deja #hf #a4bddg #aaf #c4jfg - #c #j4jchc #bg #j4adfa #eg #j4dfff #hg #a4bhej #aag #c4aef - #b #j4jdja #bh #j4aebf #eh #j4dhcf #hh #a4cbfd #aah #c4bdf - #a #j4jdbj #bi #j4aeid #ei #j4ejaa #hi #a4cfij #aai #c4cch ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,illustration3 ,,isothermal ,,lines ,,showing ,,the ,,mean ,,temperature 7,,fahr47 ,,of ,,the ,,globe ,,for ,,january4 ,published by the ,royal ,geographical ,society in 8,hints to ,travellers40 #aiba4 ,illustration3 ,,isothermal ,,lines ,,showing ,,the ,,mean ,,temperature 7,,fahr47 ,,of ,,the ,,globe ,,for ,,july4 ,published by the ,royal ,geographical ,society in 8,hints to ,travellers40 #aiba4 ,illustration3 ,,isobaric ,,lines ,,and ,,prevailing ,,winds ,,of ,,the ,,globe ,,for ,,january4 ,published by the ,royal ,geographical ,society in 8,hints to ,travellers40 #aiba4 ,illustration3 ,,isobaric ,,lines ,,and ,,prevailing ,,winds ,,of ,,the ,,globe ,,for ,,july4 ,published by the ,royal ,geographical ,society in 8,hints to ,travellers40 #aiba4 ,illustration3 ,,mean ,,annual ,,rainfall ,,of ,,the ,,globe4 ,published by the ,royal ,geographical ,society in 8,hints to ,travellers40 #aiba4 ,,ii4 ,,photography4 ,by ,j4 ,,thomson1 formerly ,instructor in ,photography ,r4,g4,s4 ,revised by ,j4 ,,mcintosh1 ,secretary of the ,royal ,photographic ,society of ,great ,britain4 ,the photographic camera should form an essential part of the traveller's outfit1 as it affords the only trustworthy means of obtaining pictorial records of his journey1 and it is also helpful in making the survey of a new region1 delineating its contours1 its geological and botanical features1 and ethnographical types of race4 ,the camera and materials necessary for a journey may be readily obtained1 so designed as to minimise space and weight1 and in every way so perfectly adapted to the traveller's needs as to ensure successful results in every variety of climate1 and render the operation of taking a photograph extremely simple4 ,it is necessary1 however1 that the traveller should make himself master of the principles involved in the production of a successful photograph1 as he will have to depend on his personal effort in exposing and developing the plate1 etc4 ,he should also acquire a knowledge of the construction of the camera1 to enable him to effect slight repairs when necessary4 ,in selecting an outfit he must first decide upon the size of plate to be carried1 and that need not exceed what is termed 8half-plate10 #f #d inches2 which is large enough for the best work4 ,the smallest effective size for scientific work may be 8quarter-plate10 #d #c inches2 in use in many hand-cameras4 ,negatives on this scale1 if perfect1 may be enlarged for book illustration1 or printed as lantern slides4 ,the two sizes given form a very complete outfit when extra weight may be conveniently carried4 ,selecting a ,camera4--,the cameras should have bellows bodies of ,russian leather which folds into small space1 the woodwork must be well seasoned to prevent warping1 or cracking under a hot sun4 ,the framework should be metal-bound at the corners1 and the camera fitted with a rising front and swing back1 although the swing back is not indispensable4 ,a reversible back 7now universal7 is of advantage1 as it enables the operator to take vertical or horizontal views without turning the camera on its side4 ,if the camera is fitted with a swing-front1 the swing-back becomes unnecessary4 ,the swing-front is in all ways preferable to the swing-back4 ,illustration3 ,,bellows ,,camera4 ,the ,hand-camera4--,hand-cameras are designed to carry a dozen or more plates or films in flat sheets or in spools1 so arranged inside the camera as to be changed after each exposure by simply turning a milled head1 or moving a lever4 ,rolled films are not recommended for travellers' use in hot and humid climates4 ,sir ,martin ,conway says3 8,a traveller who carries glass plates and flat films will probably bring home a larger percentage of good negatives from a long mountain journey than one who relies upon spools of films40 ,there can be no question about the force and accuracy of this statement4 ,my own experience goes to prove that a camera arranged for glass plates and flat films is best4 ,illustration3 ,,twin-,,lens ,,camera 7,,open74 ,the twin-lens hand-camera made by ,ross1 of ,new ,bond ,street1 ,london1 offers several advantages in its design4 ,it is fitted with a focal-plain shutter which is in every way simple and effective4 ,the twin lenses are of equal focal length1 enabling the object to be photographed to be seen on the same scale as it will appear in the finished negative1 so that just what is required may be embraced in the field4 ,it consists of a stout body of thoroughly seasoned hardwood1 not easily damaged by rough usage4 ,the principal fittings required for adjusting the instrument are inside1 protected by the outer case4 ,the exception to this arrangement is the milled head by means of which the two lenses are focussed at the same time4 ,the lenses are of uniform focal length1 so that the image transmitted by the 8finder0 is a counterpart of the image which falls upon the sensitive plate4 ,the advantage of this is that the object to be taken is seen on the finder-screen to scale exactly as it will appear in the finished photograph4 ,by this means the operator has it in his power to place the object in the required position on the screen at the moment of exposure4 ,this is of signal importance if the object is moving about4 ,it must also be noted that this form of camera may be used when the operator is facing at right angles to the object to be photographed4 ,i have frequently found that natives of foreign countries resent the liberty taken of pointing a camera at them1 and fly as if they expected to be shot4 ,the slides are each made to hold two plates1 or flat films4 ,they are strong1 serviceable1 and easily managed1 while the body of the camera is so arranged as to carry a roll holder4 ,the camera can also be adapted to stereoscopic work1 and fitted for the use of glass plates1 flat films1 or rolled films4 ,a light tripod stand should be taken for supporting the camera when longer exposures are required than can be given in the hand4 ,a very satisfactory compromise has been adopted by ,sir ,w4 ,abney between using the camera in the hand and on a tripod4 ,he rests the camera on top of a walking-stick when making hand exposures1 with the result that he overcomes all tremor caused by pulsation1 and so secures photographs full of sharp detail4 ,the same object is obtained by the reflex type of camera in which the image formed by the lens is thrown upon a silver-faced mirror and reflected upward to the focussing screen4 ,focussing can be carried out1 and a moving object followed till the moment when the exposure is made4 ,the reflex type of camera is a trifle less bulky than the twin-lens1 and1 of course1 only one high class and expensive lens is required4 ,a ,focussing-cloth4--,this is used for keeping out the light while focussing1 being thrown over the camera and the head of the operator4 ,it is generally made of black velvet1 but waterproof sheeting is much better4 ,it should have rings sewn on to one edge1 or some arrangement by which it may be attached to the camera so as not to be blown away4 ,camera-stand4--,there are many varieties of tripod stands1 with legs either folding or sliding into a small compass4 ,for mountainous country it is of great advantage to have a stand with telescopic legs1 as they can be readily altered in length so as to stand firmly on slopes or rocky ground4 ,the smallest size1 weighing about #c lbs41 and measuring #cc in4 long when closed1 and standing about #d ft4 #f in4 high1 is steady enough to support a #f #d camera without perceptible vibration in a moderate wind4 ,a ,small ,circular ,cup ,level1 let into the wood of the camera1 for levelling the camera on the tripod1 is a useful addition4 ,lenses4--,there are many lenses in the market1 and as it is impossible to do good work with an inferior lens1 it is necessary to exercise great care in selecting this part of a photographic outfit4 ,lenses known as rectilinear or symmetrical are useful to a scientific explorer1 and are well fitted for producing pictorial effect in his work4 ,ordinary portrait lenses are designed specially for rapid work1 and this is attained at the cost of qualities in a lens most useful to an explorer4 ,the so-called portrait combination should therefore be avoided4 ,rectilinear and symmetrical lenses give true images of objects to be photographed free from distortion1 so that straight lines are reproduced as straight lines4 ,in this way they are invaluable where accurate measurements have to be taken from photographs produced by them4 ,illustration3 ,,homocentric ,,lens4 ,ross's homocentric lens is one of the most useful lenses4 ,it has a flat field1 is free from what is called 8coma0 and astigmatism1 and is so perfectly corrected as to fit it for interior and exterior work alike4 ,it is also a rapid hand-camera lens4 ,the homocentric are made in series to suit all cameras4 ,other lenses may also be noted1 viz43 c4 ,dallmeyer's rapid rectilinear1 including about #cg4 d4 ,zeiss's anastigmat1 made by ,ross1 consists of a double front lens and a triple back lens4 ,it is intended for portraits1 groups1 copying1 and general outdoor work4 ,the combinations being brought closely together1 gives them great illuminating power4 ,they have an angular aperture of from #heh to #ijh1 and can therefore be used as wide-angle lenses when desired4 ,in consequence of the peculiar system of correction for oblique pencils adopted in these lenses1 they behave somewhat differently from the usual types with regard to the mode of compensating the effect of the resulting aberrations between centre and margin of the field4 ,this is1 of course1 only possible in the case of perfectly plane objects4 ,in all other cases--landscape1 instantaneous work1 or interiors--the centre should be focussed rather than objects at a distance or foreground4 ,focus4--,it will be sufficient to say that focal length means the distance between the diaphragm of a lens1 and the ground-glass screen when the image of a distant object is seen most distinctly on the screen4 ,exposure ,tables4--,exposure tables are based on the focal length of a lens1 in relation to the diameter of the diaphragm of a lens4 ,thus1 if the focus is eight inches and diameter of diaphragm one inch1 the relationship will be expressed by f_/#h or by the uniform standard number #d1 and so on1 as in table4 ,the diaphragms are so arranged for size of opening that each succeeding number requires double the exposure necessary with the one preceding it4 f_/#aa4c1 for example1 requires double the exposure wanted with f_/#h4 ,u4 ,s4 ,nos4 #d #h #af #cb #fd #abh #bef f f f f f f f ,ratio of ,stops4 --- ---- --- ---- --- --- --- #h #aa4c #af #bb4f #cb #de4b #fd ,such tables are useful guides to the relative duration of exposure with diaphragms of different sizes applied to the same lens4 ,they afford no clue1 however1 to time of exposure to be given with any particular lens or diaphragm4 ,this can be best ascertained by experience1 as duration of exposure of a plate or film in the camera depends on the sensitiveness of the plate1 the time of day1 the sun1 the state of the atmosphere1 the nearness or distance of the object to be photographed1 etc4 ,to take an extreme case of the difference of time required to impress the plate with the image of an exterior view and that of an interior1 a landscape open and well lighted may be taken in the fraction of a second1 while a dimly-lighted interior with the same lens would require an hour1 both being taken with plates coated with the same emulsion4 ,the duration of exposure may be approximately estimated by using an exposure meter such as may be obtained from any photographic dealer's4 ,it is useful to keep an exposure record2 a handy book for this purpose is published by ,messrs4 ,burroughs ,welcome4 ,in this book rules are set down for exposure during different months of the year and for different latitudes4 ,these are apt to prove misleading to the amateur4 ,the simplest method of measuring the actinic power of light in any latitude1 and at any moment1 is by actinometer1 giving plate-speeds1 focus of lens1 etc4 ,watkins 8,bee ,meters0 are excellent for this purpose4 ,sensitive ,plates or ,films4--,gelatine plates are now made commercially by a large number of firms and of great excellence2 they keep indefinitely before exposure1 and for a long time afterwards and before development and under some circumstances 7as for instantaneous pictures1 portraits1 and dimly-lighted interiors7 will give results which could hardly be obtained at all on collodion plates4 ,gelatine plates are made of various degrees of sensitiveness2 the slowest are best for ordinary landscape work4 ,they are generally supplied in parcels of a dozen each1 packed face to face with strips of folded paper between opposite edges4 ,the card boxes in which they are usually packed are an insufficient protection against injury and damp4 ,in all cases it is advisable1 and for sea voyages and damp climates essential1 to have each package of a dozen plates soldered down in a tin case1 and afterwards packed in a light wooden box with tow or cotton wool1 and the box screwed 7not nailed7 down4 ,in packing them up again after exposure or after development1 a good plan 7due to ,sir ,w4 ,abney7 is to provide oneself with a number of cardboard frames exactly the size of the plates1 made of strips of card about in4 wide1 one of which is inserted between every two plates film to film4 ,the packages thus made up should be soldered down again1 and treated with at least as much care as the original plates in packing4 ,should there be no available means of resoldering the boxes1 it will be better to have tin boxes with the lid turned well down1 the joinings to be closed by strong well-gummed paper or medical rubber strapping4 ,it will also be well to be provided with a supply of waterproof paper1 or cloth1 as an additional precaution in packing and in case of emergencies4 ,sensitive films in rolls or spools are made by the ,kodak and other companies1 and may be used successfully in their proper roll-holders when they can be kept perfectly dry in temperate climates4 ,flat films made by ,kodak1 ,ltd41 and others have many advantages for travellers4 ,the celluloid of which they are made is very much lighter than glass1 and in exposure and development may be treated in the same way as a glass plate4 ,when plates can be carried1 the extra weight is compensated for by greater certainty of success1 and general excellence in the photographs4 ,how to ,keep ,plates and ,films ,dry4--,when the traveller has a long journey before him1 and the prospect of storing his plates and films for months both before and after exposure1 it is of the greatest importance that precautions should be taken against the inroads of damp4 ,this applies with full force when the country to be explored has a hot1 humid climate4 ,plates and films that have absorbed moisture1 causing decomposition in the sensitive gelatine coating1 are frequently brought back to this country to be developed1 and are the most fruitful cause of failure4 ,the remedy is simple1 but can only be applied when packing and repacking the plates4 ,some guarantee should be sought from makers of plates and films that they are packed perfectly dry1 and that the packing used is also dry4 ,assuming that work has to be done in a damp climate and that the plates have been exposed in the camera and require to be repacked1 they should be dried in a box containing a small quantity of chloride of calcium4 ,the box used for drying may be also designed to carry the camera and outfit4 ,it should have a lid with a rim of rubber padding1 so that by putting the lid on and a weight on it1 the box would be fairly air-tight4 ,stack the exposed plates1 or films1 in the bottom of box1 so separated as to permit the passage of air between4 ,place a cup or saucer on the bottom of box containing chloride of calcium4 7,the chloride should be first dried on a piece of iron over a fire47 ,put on the lid and allow the plates to remain for an hour or more4 ,dry all the packing materials1 remove the plates from the box and repack4 ,the chloride will have absorbed the moisture in the plates1 and rendered them quite dry and safe for preserving for an indefinite length of time4 ,apparatus and chemicals for development4--,the development of the plates or films after exposure in the camera requires practice and experience in order to secure the best results4 ,instructions for development are sent out with all commercial plates or papers1 but many failures would certainly result from attempting to work by these without some preliminary practice at home4 ,as plates1 c41 will keep after exposure 7if well protected from damp7 for #ah months1 or longer if properly packed1 it is not1 of course1 necessary to develop them en route1 although if the traveller possess sufficient skill1 and if ample water-supply and other facilities can be secured1 it will be advantageous for many reasons to do so4 ,on a long journey1 when the temperature is not too high1 use of convenient resting-places may be made to develop from time to time a few plates selected from the whole1 both as tests for exposure and as proof that all the apparatus is in order4 ,the following list comprises all that is absolutely required for developing #h or #aj dozen gelatine plates3--,three papier-mch dishes1 two #c-ounce glass measures1 three #f-ounce bottles1 containing strong solutions of pyrogallic acid preserved with potassium meta-bisulphite1 potassium bromide1 and sodium carbonate respectively1 #a lb4 hyposulphite of soda1 and lb4 alum1 both in crystals1 #d or #e feet of india-rubber tubing and a spring clip1 to make a syphon for a water supply from a jug or can1 a basin or tub to serve as a sink1 a folding rack for draining the plates4 ,there are several convenient new developing agents in the market3 ,hydro-,kinone1 ,eikonogen1 ,glycin1 ,metol1 ,rodinal1 and ,amidol4 ,some of these were made and named in ,germany1 they are no longer procurable under their ,german names4 ,english manufacturers are however making substitutes quite as good under new names1 and these can be obtained from the dealers4 ,many of them can be obtained in compressed form4 ,the traveller is recommended for advanced study of photography1 such works as ,instructions in ,photography by ,sir ,wm4 ,abney1 ,the ,science and ,art of ,photography by ,chapman ,jones1 and ,the ,manual of ,photographic ,exposure and ,development by ,alfred ,watkins1 which may be had from any photographic dealer's4 ,the aim of the traveller-photographer should be the production of good negatives4 ,it often requires years of study on the part of professional operators 7with advantages impossible to the traveller7 before thoroughly good negatives are habitually produced2 and it must not be supposed that a person taking up photography for the first time1 in a few hurried moments before departure on a journey1 will attain other than very unsatisfactory results4 ,the operations necessary for taking a picture are briefly as follows3--,having selected the position from which the view is to be taken 7for valuable hints as to the artistic production of pictures see ,robinson's #8,pictorial ,effect in ,photography'71 the tripod stand is first set up1 and the head approximately levelled by means of the pocket level1 altering the position or length of the legs as may be necessary4 ,the camera is next screwed on to the stand1 and the lens selected which on trial is found to include the required amount of subject4 ,for groups or portraits a long focus lens with wide aperture1 such as ,dallmeyer's 8,rapid rectilinear10 #aa in4 focus1 should be used4 ,the next operation is to focus the picture accurately on the ground-glass screen of the camera4 ,the focussing-cloth is thrown over the head and the camera1 so as to exclude the light as much as possible1 and while looking at the inverted image on the ground glass1 the milled head of the rack adjustment is turned till the image appears as sharp as possible4 ,the camera is now turned about on its vertical axis till it exactly includes the view intended to be taken1 and the screw is tightened4 ,it may be necessary to raise or lower the front of the camera carrying the lens in order to include objects at a high or low elevation2 if the vertical range of this sliding front is insufficient1 the camera must be tilted2 but1 if this is done1 care must be taken to set the focussing-screen vertical again by means of the swing back1 and to readjust the focus4 ,the full aperture of the lens should always be used for focussing1 and if the image is not sharp all over the plate it will be necessary to insert a diaphragm in the lens1 using the largest that will effect the required object4 ,having then put the cap on the lens1 the hinged frame carrying the focussing-glass is turned over1 and one of the slides carrying the sensitive plates is inserted in its place4 ,the slides should be exposed as little as possible to the light1 especially avoiding direct sunlight2 however carefully constructed1 it is difficult to make them absolutely light-tight4 ,the shutter of the slide is then withdrawn1 and the exposure made by removing the cap from the lens for time exposure1 and by a spring shutter for instantaneous work4 ,the time of exposure must be estimated according to circumstances1 and it requires considerable experience to judge of it accurately4 ,a record should be kept in a note-book of every plate exposed1 giving the number1 date1 time1 exposure1 subject1 c4 ,if the plates cannot be developed the same evening1 and the slides are wanted for fresh plates1 they must be packed up again1 and should be numbered4 ,this is best done by marking the number on the back with a bit of dry soap1 or in the film with a lead pencil4 ,the image on the plate after exposure is latent and invisible1 and has to be developed4 ,this is effected by pouring on the plate1 laid in one of the flat dishes1 a dilute solution containing pyrogallic acid1 soda1 and potassium bromide4 ,the excellence of the result largely depends on the due proportion between these constituents1 and here more experience is perhaps necessary than in any other part of the process4 ,the image having been fully developed1 the plate is well washed1 and then immersed in a solution of alum1 which hardens the film4 ,after another thorough washing it is 8fixed0 by immersion in a solution of sodium hyposulphite1 which dissolves out the unchanged bromide of silver1 and1 being once more well washed1 it is finished1 and must be set up in the rack to dry spontaneously4 ,on no account must heat be applied1 not even the warmth of sunlight1 or the wet film will melt4 ,when dry it must be varnished to protect the film4 ,the printing operations are best deferred till the return home1 as they would involve the carriage of a large amount of extra apparatus4 ,it is generally best to get the printing done by a professional printer2 but if the traveller prefers to print from his own negatives he will find full instructions in each packet of paper which he buys4 ,colour sensitive plates are now much used and1 when a yellow glass filter is placed immediately in front of1 or behind1 the lens1 will give in the print the same variations in depth of tint which the eye sees in the landscape1 or other object4 ,the nearest to perfection among these plates are those known as ,panchromatic1 but they must be developed in total darkness4 ,the subject is a large one and should be studied in the pamphlets on #8orthochromation' published by ,kodak 7,wratten ,division71 and ,ilford1 ,ltd4 ,as regards the expense of a photographic outfit1 at the present time the manufacturing trade is still very unsettled1 some goods cannot be supplied1 and all have been greatly increased in price4 ,quarter plates which used to be sold at a shilling per dozen are now about #cs4 #f;d4 ,application should be made to the dealers for current prices4 ,the camera1 slides and lenses may be arranged to pack into a solid leather case1 conveniently in the form of a knapsack1 measuring about #af in4 wide1 #ab in4 high1 and #e in4 deep4 ,this can easily be carried on the back of one man1 and is of a more convenient shape than the cases generally sold for the purpose4 ,the plates and other apparatus1 with the exception of the knapsack and its contents1 and the tripod stand1 are best packed for travelling in a strong basket1 which is much better than a box1 being more elastic and lighter4 ,it will weigh1 when packed with the apparatus1 and a gross of #g #e plates1 about #fj lbs4 ,photography in ,natural ,colours4 ,it is now possible for the traveller to bring home records of what he has seen in natural colours4 ,there are two or three known methods by which this may be done1 but few are available for the work of exploration4 ,the picture obtained by the method patented by ,mr4 ,ives and named ,krmskp ,photography is produced by three monochrome images4 ,these have however been taken through three tinted glasses in a camera of a special kind4 ,the images may be thrown upon a screen by means of a special lantern2 the light passes through tinted glasses of colours complementary to those employed in making the negatives with the result that the picture on the screen exhibits all the varied hues of nature4 ,the devices however are exceedingly expensive and can be satisfactorily employed only by those who thoroughly understand the apparatus and the problems which have to be solved4 ,simpler processes are the ,autochromic and ,the ,paget ,colour ,plate process4 ,in the ,autochromic process the manufacturers coat a sheet of glass with minute specks of three colours1 blue1 violet green and orange1 irregularly spread1 and lay a coat of panchromatic emulsion on top4 ,the photographer exposes through the glass1 thus obtaining a negative4 ,the developed silver1 the negative image1 is dissolved away and the silver bromide remaining is developed giving a positive image in natural colours4 ,in the ,paget process the glass is coated with points of colour laid in a regular pattern4 ,this is called the screen plate and is placed in the dark slide face to face with a colour-sensitive plate1 and the expression is made through the screen plate4 ,from the negative so obtained a monochrome positive plate is made1 and this is bound up in contact with one of the screen plates4 ,some little experience is necessary to obtain correct register4 ,each process has its difficulties4 ,most photographers consider that the ,autochrome plate gives the nearest approach to natural colours1 but the slides are very dense and require an intense light to show them well4 ,the ,paget plate is much more transparent and possesses the advantage that any number of positives may be made from the negative1 whereas the ,autochrome plate having been converted into a positive cannot be multiplied1 resembling in that particular the earliest form of photography1 the ,daguerrotype4 ,none of these colour processes are suitable for photographing objects in motion4 ,the exposures may be reckoned as from fifteen to twenty times as long as with an ordinary slow plate4 ,,iii4 ,,geology4 ,by ,,the ,,late ,w4 ,t4 ,,blandford1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,revised by ,,prof4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,garwood1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,a traveller who has not devoted some time to studying geology in the field must not be surprised or disappointed if the rocks of any country which he may happen to traverse appear to him a hopeless puzzle4 ,if he desires to investigate the geological structure of an unknown region1 he should previously devote some time to mastering1 with the aid of a good geological map and description1 the details of some well-known tract4 ,under the term 8,geological ,observations10 two very distinct types of inquiry are commonly confounded4 ,the first of these1 to which the name of ,geological ,investigation ought properly to be restricted1 consists in an examination of the rocks of a country as a whole1 so as to enable a geological map1 or1 at all events1 geological sections1 to be constructed4 ,this demands a knowledge of rocks 7petrology71 some acquaintance with the details of geological surveying1 and1 usually1 with the elements of palontology--a science that1 in its turn1 requires a preliminary study of biology1 and especially of zoology4 ,despite all these hard terms1 any intending traveller who has a taste for geology--if he has none he had better not waste time upon the subject--will find that a few months' study in any good museum1 a course of geological lectures1 and1 above all1 a few days in the field with a good geologist1 will start him very fairly equipped with the great requisite to all successful scientific investigation1 a knowledge of how to observe1 and what to observe4 ,the term 8,geological ,observations0 is1 however1 often1 but incorrectly1 used in a second sense1 which implies a restriction of the observations to the useful minerals found in any country1 or to what is termed economic geology4 ,here also a preliminary knowledge of the elements of geological science will be found very useful1 and will frequently enable the traveller to form much more trustworthy conclusions as to the nature and value of mineral deposits than he could without such a guide4 ,but the essential point is to recognise a valuable mineral when seen1 and for this some knowledge of mineralogy is requisite4 ,outfit4--,the essential articles of a geologist's outfit are neither numerous nor cumbrous4 ,a very large proportion of the known geology of the world has been made out with no more elaborate appliances than a hammer1 a pocket compass with a small index to serve as a clinometer1 a pocket-lens1 a note-book and a pencil4 ,no scientific observer has to depend more on his own knowledge and faculty for observation1 and less on instrumental appliances1 than a geologist4 ,the best hammer for general purposes should weigh from #ab to #bd oz4 and should have a square flat end1 and a straight cutting end--the latter should be horizontal1 and the inner face of the hammer a continuous plane surface4 ,the ends should be of steel1 not too highly tempered4 ,the hole for the handle should be as large as possible 7with a small hole the handles are so weak as to be liable to break71 and the handle should be secured in the hole by a wooden wedge1 and an iron one driven into and across the wooden one4 ,it is advisable to take a few spare ash handles and iron wedges4 ,cut a foot-measure in notches on the handle--this is very useful for measuring thickness of beds1 c4 ,it is as well to have more than one hammer in case of loss1 and if fossil-collecting is anticipated1 at least one heavy hammer1 with one end fashioned to serve as a pick1 three or four cold chisels of various sizes1 and a short crow-bar will be found useful4 ,in ,london1 hammers1 chisels1 c41 may be procured of ,messrs4 ,buck1 #bdb1 ,tottenham ,court ,road4 ,a very good pocket compass1 the shape and size of a watch1 with a clinometer arm1 is made by ,troughton and ,simms1 #ach1 ,fleet ,street4 ,the use of the clinometer is for measuring the angle of dip in rocks4 ,if more accuracy of measurement is required than is afforded by looking at a bed1 a section1 or a hill-side1 and holding the straight-edge attached to the compass parallel to the dip1 and if a surface can be found that affords the exact inclination1 it is usually practicable1 by means of a note-book laid on the rock surface1 or1 better still1 a folding two-foot rule with a slot for sliding in the compass-clinometer1 to obtain a plane sufficiently close to that at which the beds dip to enable the angle to be determined with a very short straight-edge4 ,as a rule1 except with very low angles of dip1 the variation in the inclination of the rocks themselves exceeds the limits of error of the instrument4 ,a little care1 however1 is necessary in taking dips2 for the apparent dip seen in a section1 such as is often exposed in a cliff1 may differ widely from the true dip1 which will only be shown if the section runs at right angles to the strike of the beds4 ,dips seen on the sides of hills at a distance are but rarely correct for the same reason4 ,a prismatic compass and an aneroid are frequently of great service3 the former to determine the position on the map1 if one exists1 and to aid in making a rough map1 if there is none2 and the latter to estimate roughly the heights on the road travelled1 especially in mountainous countries1 and also to measure the thickness of horizontal beds4 ,both form a part of the outfit of most modern travellers4 ,a good aneroid gives sufficiently accurate determinations of height for a rough but adequate geological section across any country1 if the distances are known4 ,the ,watkin mountain aneroid of ,hicks and ,co41 ,hatton ,garden1 is the most accurate for considerable heights4 ,collections4--,geological specimens require little more than paper and boxes1 or biscuit tins1 for packing4 ,occasionally fossils or minerals are fragile1 and need tow or grass to protect them from injury2 but there is no risk from the animal and vegetable enemies of zoological or botanical collections4 ,the only important point to be borne in mind is that every specimen should be labelled on the spot1 or1 at all events1 in the course of the day on which it is collected4 ,strong paper is best for labels1 and these should not be put up in contact with the rock-fragments themselves1 or they will be worn by sharp edges and become illegible1 if not rubbed to fragments4 ,always wrap each specimen in paper1 or some substitute1 then add the label1 and then an outer covering4 ,the label1#c if nothing else is written1 should always record the locality distinctly written4 ,a collection of rock specimens may show what kinds of rock occur in a country1 but the information afforded is very meagre1 and1 in general1 of very small value4 ,such collections1 indeed1 unless made by a geologist1 and accompanied by notes1 are scarcely worth the carriage4 ,if such specimens are taken1 care should be used to select them from the rocks in place1 not from loose blocks that may have been transported from a distance4 ,in certain cases1 however1 where the traveller does not intend to penetrate beyond the low ground1 pebbles brought down by streams give some indication of the strata which occur higher in the drainage basin1 and the information may be useful to future explorers1 but they should always be labelled as such4 ,no fragments of spar or crystals should be collected merely because they are pretty4 ,in taking specimens of useful minerals1 such as coal or metallic ores1 the traveller should always endeavour to procure them himself from the place of occurrence1 and if such are brought to him by natives1 he should1 if practicable1 visit the locality whence the samples were procured4 ,the value of all useful minerals depends both on quality and quantity2 the former can to some extent be ascertained from a sample1 but the amount available can only be estimated after a visit to the locality4 ,most metallic ores occur in veins or lodes4 ,these were originally cracks in the rock1 and have been irregularly filled with minerals1 different from those in the neighbourhood4 ,it is1 however1 very difficult1 and often impossible1 to estimate from surface examination whether the quantity of ore occurring in veins is likely to prove large2 some idea may possibly be obtained if underground workings exist4 ,many of the ores of iron and manganese1 some of those of other metals1 and all coal and salt occur in beds1 and here it is important to see what is the thickness1 and to ascertain whether the mineral is equally pure throughout4 ,iron ores occur in most countries1 and unless very pure and within easy reach of water-carriage1 are not likely to be worth transport4 ,the value of salt also depends on facilities for carriage4 ,coal1 however1 may be of value anywhere2 but it is improbable that seams of less thickness than four or five feet can be of much use1 except in countries where there is a skilled mining population and a considerable demand for the mineral4 ,it does not follow because much thinner seams are sufficiently valuable to be worked in ,western ,europe1 that they would pay for extraction in a country where the mechanical arts are less advanced4 ,still the occurrence of thin seams is worthy of record1 as thicker deposits may exist in the neighbourhood4 ,it must not be inferred1 however1 that a seam of small thickness at the surface will become thicker below4 ,the reverse is equally probable4 ,a blow-pipe is extremely useful for ascertaining the nature of ores1 and for determining minerals generally1 and a small blow-pipe case might be added to a traveller's kit1 if he thinks it probable that he may meet with minerals in any quantity4 ,but in general they are not to be found in such profusion as to render it difficult to carry away specimens sufficient for determination at leisure4 ,a blow-pipe1 too1 is of no use to any one unacquainted with the method of employing it1 though this is easy to acquire4#d ,to form a rough idea of the value of iron ore1 see whether it is heavy2 to form some notion of the quality of coal1 pile up a heap and set fire to it4 ,if it does not burn freely1 the prospects of the coal being useful are small4 ,it may be anthracitic1 and very valuable with proper appliances2 but anthracite is not of the same general utility as bituminous coal4 ,good coal should burn freely1 with more or less flame1 and should leave but little ash1 and it is preferable that the ash should be white1 not red1 as the latter colour is often due to the presence of pyrites1 a deleterious ingredient4 ,gold and gems have1 as is well known1 been procured in considerable quantities from the sands of rivers and alluvial deposits4 ,the deposits known to the natives of any country are often of small value1 and the rude methods of washing prevalent in so many lands suffice to afford a fair idea of the wealth or poverty of the sand washed4 ,gold and1 wherever it is found1 platinum occur in grains and nuggets1 easily recognised by their colour and their being malleable2 but gems1 such as diamond1 ruby1 sapphire1 are not so easy to tell from less valuable minerals4 ,they may be recognised by their crystalline form and hardness4 ,a diamond is usually found in some modification of an octahedron1 and the crystalline facets are often curved2 rubies and sapphires are really differently coloured varieties of corundum or emery1 and occur1 when crystalline1 in six-sided pyramids or some modification4 ,a diamond is the hardest of known substances2 nothing will scratch it1 and it will scratch all other minerals4 ,sapphire will scratch everything except diamond4 ,topaz will scratch quartz4 ,in collecting fossils1 it is useless to take many specimens of one kind unless carriage is exceptionally plentiful4 ,two or three good examples of each kind are usually sufficient1 but as many kinds as possible should be collected4 ,great care is necessary that all specimens from one bed be kept distinct from those from another stratum1 even if the bed be thin and the fossils in the two beds chiefly the same species4 ,if there is a series of beds1 one above the other1 all containing fossils1 measure the thickness roughly1 draw a sketch-section in your note-book1 apply a letter or a number to each bed in succession on the sketch1 and label the fossils from that bed with the same number or letter4 ,remains of ,vertebrata1 especially of mammals1 birds and reptiles1 are of great interest2 but it is useless to collect fragments of bones without terminations4 ,skulls are much more important than other bones1 and even single teeth are well worth collecting4 ,after skulls1 vertebr are the most useful parts of the skeleton1 then limb bones4 ,if complete skeletons are found1 they are usually well worth some trouble in transporting4 ,if fossil bones are found abundantly in any locality1 and the traveller has no sufficient means of transport1 he will do well to carry away a few skulls1 or even teeth1 and carefully note the locality for the benefit of future geologists and explorers4 ,the soil of limestone caverns1 and especially the more or less consolidated loam1 rubble1 clay1 or sand beneath the flooring of stalagmite1 if it can be examined1 should always be searched for bones1 and also for indications of man or his works4 ,the foregoing remarks are intended for all travellers1 especially for those who have paid little or no attention to geology4 ,it would be far beyond the object of the present notes to attempt to give instruction in the methods of geological observation2 all who wish to know more fully what questions are especially worthy of attention1 should consult the article on ,geology by the late ,dr4 ,charles ,darwin and ,professor4 ,j4 ,phillips in the #8,admiralty ,manual of ,scientific ,enquiry4' ,but a few hints may be usefully added here for those who have already some knowledge of geology1 who do not require to have such terms as dip1 strike1 fault1 or denudation explained to them1 and who are sufficiently conversant with geological phenomena to be able to distinguish sedimentary from volcanic1 and metamorphic from unaltered rocks1 and to recognise granite1 gneiss1 schist1 basalt1 trachyte1 slate1 limestone1 sandstone1 shale1 c41 in the field4 ,assuming then that a traveller with some knowledge of field geology is making a journey through a tract of the earth's surface1 the geology of which is unknown1 what will be the best method of procedure and the principal points to which he should direct his attention8 ,on the whole1 the most useful record of a journey1 whether intended for publication or merely as a memorandum1 is a sketch geological map of the route followed1 with the dips and strikes of the rocks and approximate boundaries to the formations1 supplemented by notes and sketch-sections4 ,where1 as is commonly the case in mountain-chains1 and frequently in less elevated portions of the country1 the rocks are much disturbed1 and especially if the number of systems exposed is large and the changes frequent1 no traveller can expect to do more than gain a very rough and general idea of the succession of beds in detail1 and of the structure2 but by making excursions in various directions1 whenever a halt is practicable1 by searching for fossils as a guide to the age and for the identification of beds with each other1 and by carefully noting the general dip and strike of the more conspicuous beds1 it is often possible1 especially if an opportunity occurs of retracing the road followed1 or of traversing a parallel route1 to make out the structure of a country that at first appears hopelessly intricate4 ,dense forest is perhaps the worst obstacle to geological exploration2 snow is another1 though not quite so serious a disadvantage4 ,it is always a good plan to climb commanding peaks2 the general direction of beds1 obscure from the lower ground1 not unfrequently becomes much clearer when they are seen from above4 ,in level and undulating regions1 on the other hand1 it frequently happens that enormous tracts of country are occupied by the same formation1 and if the rocks are soft1 and especially if they are horizontal1 or nearly so1 little1 if any1 rock is to be seen in place4 ,in this case water-courses should be searched for sections1 and the pebbles found in the stream-beds examined1 care being taken not to mistake transported pebbles derived from overlying alluvium or drift for fragments of the underlying rock4 ,where the same formation prevails over large tracts1 it is usually easy1 by examining the stones brought down by a stream1 to learn whether any other beds occur4 ,it is astonishing how even a small outcrop of hard rock at a remote spot in the area drained by a stream will almost always yield a few fragments that can be detected by walking two or three hundred yards up the stream-bed and carefully examining the pebbles4 ,not infrequently different rocks support different vegetation1 and by noting the forms that are peculiar1 the constitution of hills at a considerable distance may be recognised4 ,thus some kinds of rock will be found to support evergreen1 others deciduous trees1 others grass1 whilst a fourth kind may be distinguished by the poverty or want of vegetation4 ,it is not well to trust too much to such indications1 but they may show which hills require examination and which do not4 ,the form assumed by the outcrop of some hard beds is often characteristic1 and may be recognised at a considerable distance4 ,one most important fact should never be forgotten2 mineral character1 whether of sedimentary or volcanic rocks1 is absolutely worthless as a guide to the age of beds occurring in distant countries4 ,the traveller should never be led to suppose1 because a formation1 whether sedimentary or volcanic1 in a remote part of the world1 is mineralogically and structurally identical with another in ,europe1 or some country of which the geology is well known1 that the two are of contemporaneous origin4 ,the blunders that have been made from want of knowledge of this important caution are innumerable4 ,there are a few points of geological interest well worthy of the investigation of those who traverse unexplored1 or partially explored1 tracts of the earth's surface4 ,amongst these are the following3-- ,mountain-,chains4--,few1 if any1 geologists now believe that mountains were simply thrust up from below2 all admit that1 at least in the majority of cases1 where great crumpling of the strata has taken place1 there has been lateral movement of the earth's crust4 ,but the causes1 extent and date1 of the lateral movements are still1 to a great degree1 matters of conjecture1 and every additional series of observations bearing on the question is of importance4 ,there are many mountain-chains of which very little is yet known4 ,in every case good sections are required1 drawn as nearly to scale as practicable1 through the range from side to side1 and including the rocks at each base4 ,the nature and distribution of all volcanic and crystalline rocks1 both in the range and throughout the neighbouring areas1 are especially noteworthy1 and also the relations of the later beds1 if any1 on the flanks of the mountains1 to those constituting the range itself4 ,the derivation of the materials of the former from the latter1 and the relative amount of disturbance shown by the two1 and by the different members of each1 will afford a clue to the date of upheaval2 and two or more periods of movement may thus be determined1 where intrusive igneous rocks1 such as granite1 occur1 their relations to the surrounding rocks should be carefully noted1 and specimens at the contact of the two rocks collected4 ,if altered sedimentary rocks are found these should be traced1 if possible1 away from the igneous rock until some indication of their age is obtained from included fossils4 ,the distinction between a contemporaneous lava flow and an intrusive sheet of igneous rock is not always at first sight apparent2 if the latter1 it may pass from one bed to another or send tongues upwards into the overlying strata4 ,search should be made in the beds overlying the igneous rock for signs of alteration by heat4 ,thus limestone may be re-crystallised into marble1 or shales altered into flinty hornstone4 ,volcanoes and ,volcanic ,rocks4--,it is almost needless to say that any additional information on the distribution of volcanic vents1 recent or extinct1 is of interest4 ,in the case of extinct vents1 the geological date of the last eruptions should be ascertained if practicable4 ,this may sometimes be determined by finding organic remains or sedimentary beds of known age interstratified with the ashes or lava-streams near the base of the volcano4 ,coasts4--,the subject of the erosion of coasts is now fairly understood1 and there is no doubt that the relative importance of this form of denudation was greatly overrated by many geological writers1 who took their ideas of geological denudation generally from the phenomena observed in the islands1 and on some of the coasts of ,western ,europe4 ,still1 wherever cliffs occur1 they afford good sections1 and deserve examination4 ,one question will usually present itself to almost every geological observer1 and that is1 whether any coast he may be landing upon affords evidence of elevation or depression4 ,in the former case1 beds of rolled pebbles or of marine shells1 similar to those now living on the shore1 may be found at some elevation above high-water mark4 ,very often the commonest molluscs in raised beds are the kinds occurring in estuaries1 which are different from those inhabiting an open coast4 ,caution is necessary1 however1 that heaps of shells made by man1 or isolated specimens transported by animals 7birds or hermit-crabs71 or by the wind1 be not mistaken for evidence of raised beds4#e ,if the shore is steep1 terraces on the hillsides may mark the levels at which the sea remained in past times1 but some care is necessary not to mistake outcrops of hard beds for terraces4 ,if dead shells of species of mollusca1 only living in salt-water estuaries1 are found in places now beyond the influence of the tide1 it is a reasonable inference that elevation has taken place4 ,the evidence of depression1 on the other hand1 unless there are buildings or trees partly sunk in the water1 is much less readily obtained1 and neither trees nor buildings are available as evidence1 unless the depression is of comparatively recent date4 ,the best proof is the form of the coast4 ,if deep inlets of moderate breadth occur1 with numerous branches1 a little examination will frequently show whether such inlets are valleys of subarial erosion1 as they not unfrequently are1 that have been depressed below the sea4 ,a good and familiar example of such a depressed valley is to be found at ,milford ,haven in ,south ,wales4 ,in higher latitudes1 the coast should be examined for signs of the action of sea ice1 and stones should be collected from icebergs which have drifted from outside the accessible area2 the shape of these stones and the proportion of those having only one smoothed side should be noted4 ,rivers and ,river-,plains4--,at the present time a question of much interest is the antiquity of existing land-areas1 and some light may be thrown upon this1 if the relations of existing river-basins to those of past times can be determined4 ,if a stream cuts its way through a high range1 it is probable that the stream is of greater antiquity than the range1 and either once ran at an elevation higher than the crest of the ridge now traversed1 or else has cut its way through the range gradually during the slow elevation of the latter4 ,where a river traverses a great alluvial plain1 it may fairly be inferred that a long time has been occupied in the accumulation of the deposits to form the plain2 but it remains to be seen whether those deposits are not partly marine or lacustrine4 ,if upheaval has taken place over any portion of the plain1 or if the river has cut its bed deeper1 sections may be exposed1 and these should always be examined for fossil remains4 ,bones of extinct animals are not unfrequently found in such deposits4#f ,lakes and ,tarns4--,the mode of origin of lakes is always a subject of considerable geological interest1 and any evidence which bears on the origin of a particular lake should be carefully noted4 ,lakes may be divided broadly into two classes3 7#a7 ,rock basins1 7#b7 impounded hollows4 ,lakes of the latter class may1 as a rule1 be readily recognised and accounted for4 ,the material forming the barrier may be due to a moraine1 screes1 or a landslip1 or may result from the presence of a glacier in the main valley damming back the drainage of a lateral tributary4 ,when lakes occur near the summit of a pass1 they may often be traced to deposition of delta material on the floor of the valley brought down by a tributary stream4 ,in this case1 the inability of the stream to remove the material may often be traced to the abstraction of the head waters of the valley by the encroachment of the stream on the other side of the watershed4 ,rock basins1 on the other hand1 are frequently difficult to account for4 ,they may occupy volcanic craters1 or lie in areas of special depression 7earthquake districts71 or synclinal folds4 ,they may be due to upheaval of old valley systems1 causing reversal of drainage1 or to subsidence at the upper end of a valley4 ,in special cases they may be due to the solution of soluble rock 7rock-salt1 gypsum1 limestone1 or dolomite74 ,many not otherwise explicable have been attributed to ice erosion during glacial periods1 and it is still a moot point how far these lakes are due to partial changes in the elevation of the country1 some observers having adopted1 while many others dispute1 the views of the late ,sir ,a4 ,ramsay1 who believed all these hollows to have been scooped out by ice moving over the surface in the form of a glacier or an ice-sheet4 ,the origin of any lake met with should1 if possible1 be investigated and assigned to one of these causes4 ,evidence of ,glacial ,action4--,closely connected with the subject of lakes is that of glacial evidence generally4 ,there is probably no geological question which has produced more speculation of late years than the inquiry into the traces of a comparatively recent cold period in the earth's history1 and the former occurrence of similar glacial epochs at regular or irregular intervals of geological time4 ,the evidence of the last glacial epoch may be traced in two ways--by the form of the surface1 which has been modified by the action of ice1 and by changes that have taken place in the fauna and flora of the country in consequence of the alteration in the climate4 ,the effects of an ice-sheet1 like that now occurring in ,greenland1 if such formerly existed in comparatively low latitudes1 must have been to round off1 score and polish the rocks of the country in a peculiar manner1 easily recognised by those familiar with glaciated areas4 ,care should be taken that the peculiar scoring and grooving of rock surfaces produced by the action of sand transported by the wind be not mistaken for glacial evidence4 ,cases also occur where movement among a mass of unconsolidated conglomerate or scree material has produced striation of the pebbles2 in this case1 however1 careful observation will disclose a similar striation in the material of the matrix as well4 ,glaciers1 properly so called1 are confined to hilly or mountainous countries1 and the valleys formerly occupied by them retain more or less the form of the letter ,u instead of taking the shape of the letter ,v1 as they do when they have been cut out by running water4 ,the sides of the valley1 when modified by a glacier1 have a tendency to assume the form of slopes unbroken by ravines1 and with all ridges planed away or rounded1 whilst in ordinary valleys of erosion by water1 the sides consist of a series of side valleys or ravines1 divided from each other by sharp ridges running down to the main valley4 ,large and small masses of rock1 preserving to a considerable extent an angular form1 but frequently polished and grooved by being ground against the sides or bottom of the valley1 are carried down by the ice1 and either left behind1 perched up high on the slopes of the valley1 or accumulated in a vast heap or bank1 known as a terminal moraine1 at the spot where the ice has terminated1 or as lateral moraines on the sides of the valley4 ,the nature of the rock will usually show whether the fragments on the side of a hill or at the bottom of a valley are derived from the higher parts of the drainage area1 or whether they have merely fallen down from the neighbouring slopes4 ,in the latter case1 they may be due to landslips2 in the former1 their shape and the erosion they have undergone will aid in showing whether they have been transported by water or ice4 ,the surfaces that have been modified by earlier glacial epochs must in general have been long since removed by other denuding agencies4 ,the most important evidence of former ice action consists in the occurrence1 embedded in fine sediment1 of large boulders1 occasionally preserving marks of polish and striation1 and usually1 though not always1 angular4 ,accumulations of this kind afford evidence of transport by two different agencies1 water1 which has brought the silt1 and ice1 which has carried the boulders4 ,if the water had been in rapid movement1 and thus capable of moving the boulders1 it would have carried away fine silt or sand1 instead of depositing it4 ,evidence of ice action has thus been traced equally in the boulder clay of ,north-,western ,europe1 and in the ,palozoic boulder beds of ,india1 ,south ,africa1 and ,australia1 and probably of ,south ,america4 ,it is well to search in all mountain ranges for traces of glacial action4 ,in many mountain chains1 even in comparatively low latitudes1 proofs have been found of the existence of glaciers1 at a much lower level than at present1 dating from a comparatively recent geological period1 whilst in other mountain regions none have been recognised4 ,the question also whether glacial action has been contemporaneous in the two hemispheres is of the greatest importance1 and the evidence hitherto adduced is of a very conflicting character4 ,deserts4--,the great sandy or salt plains1 with a more or less barren surface1 that occupy a large area in the interior of several continents1 have only of late years received due attention from geologists4 ,a great thickness of deposits must occur in many of these vast1 nearly level1 tracts1 for the underlying rocks are often completely concealed over immense areas4 ,the investigation of the deposits is frequently a matter of great difficulty for want of sections2 but1 where practicable1 a careful examination should be made1 and exact descriptions of the formations exposed recorded4 ,some1 at all events1 of these beds appear to be entirely deposited from the air1 and consist of the decomposed surfaces of rocks and the sand and silt from stream deposits1 carried up by wind and then redeposited on the surface of the country4 ,such deposits are very fine1 formed of well-rounded grains1 and1 as a rule1 destitute of stratification4 ,the geologist who has especially described these formations1 ,baron ,f4 von ,richthofen1 in his work on ,china1 attributes to the loess of the ,rhine and ,danube valleys a similar origin4 ,it is usual to find beds due to water-action1 rain-wash and stream-deposits1 interstratified with the subarial accumulations4 ,further observations on these formations are desirable4 ,the occurrence of blown sands1 the origin of these accumulations1 and the peculiar ridges they assume1 usually at right angles1 but in some remarkable cases parallel to the prevailing winds1 are questions deserving of additional elucidation4 ,early ,history of ,man in ,tropical ,climates4--,very little has been discovered as to the races of men formerly inhabiting tropical regions4 ,it is evident that a race unacquainted with fire could only have existed in a country where suitable food was procurable throughout the year1 and this must have been in a region possessing a climate like that found in parts of the tropics at the present day4 ,it is possible that an investigation of the cave deposits in the tropics may throw some light on this subject4 8,kitchen middens10 as they are termed--the mounds that have once been the refuse heaps of human habitations--are also worthy of careful examination4 ,permanence of ,ocean-,basins4--,within the last few years some geologists have adopted the theory that all the deep-sea area has been the same from the earliest geological times1 and that the distinction between the depressions occupied by the oceans and the remaining undepressed portion of the earth's crust1 constituting the continents and the shallow seas around their coasts1 is permanent4 ,this view is very far from being universally or even generally accepted amongst geologists1 although many who hesitate to accept the theory as a whole admit that parts of the oceans may have been depressions since the earth's crust was first consolidated4 ,the argument on both sides depends upon theories to which travellers can contribute but little except by observations on the geology1 fauna1 and flora of oceanic islands1 and by the investigation of coral-reefs and especially of atolls4 ,in ranges of hills or mountains near the coast both of continents and islands and in all tracts where evidence of recent elevation exists1 search should be made for deep-sea deposits4 ,these are fine calcareous or argillaceous beds1 often containing small ,foraminifera or ,radiolaria1 which1 however1 are generally extremely minute1 and require microscopical examination for detection4 ,if any beds of consolidated calcareous or siliceous ooze or especially if red or gray clay 7in older rocks1 slate1 or even quartzite7 be found associated with pelagic deposits1 such as coral limestone1 a few small fragments of the beds should always be brought away for examination1 and any distinct fossil remains found in such beds1 for instance echinoderms 7sea-urchins or star-fishes7 or sharks' teeth1 should be carefully preserved with some of the matrix4 ,deep-sea deposits have recently been discovered in several parts of the world1 for instance1 the ,west ,indies1 the ,solomon ,islands1 the islands of ,torres ,straits and ,southern ,australia1 as well as in ,europe4 ,atolls or ,coral-,islands4--,each of the remarkable coral-islands of the ,pacific and ,indian oceans consists usually of an irregular ring1 part or the whole of which is a few feet above the sea1 and which encircles an inner lagoon of no great depth4 ,the outer margin of the reef around each island slopes rapidly1 sometimes precipitately1 to a depth of1 usually1 several hundred fathoms4 ,darwin1 taking these facts into consideration1 together with the circumstance that no coral-reefs are known to be formed at a greater depth than about #ae to #bj fathoms 7#ij to #abj feet71 showed that all the facts of the case could be explained by the theory that coral-islands were formed in areas of subsidence4 ,this view was generally accepted until ,prof4 ,a4 ,agassiz1 ,sir ,john ,murray1 and other writers brought forward evidence in favour of coral-islands being founded on shoals that may be areas of elevation4 ,much light has been thrown on this subject by recent exploration4 ,two instances in especial may be mentioned4 ,the examination of ,christmas ,island in the ,indian ,ocean1 ,south of ,sumatra1 by ,mr4 ,andrews1 has shown it to be a raised atoll1 founded on a volcanic base1 whilst1 on the other hand1 borings on the atoll of ,funafuti1 one of the ,marshall ,islands in the ,western ,pacific1 carried to a depth of over #ajjj feet on the ring itself1 and to #bde feet below sea-level in the middle of the lagoon1 have yielded results which1 in the opinion of the geologists engaged1 ,prof4 ,sollas and ,prof4 ,edgeworth ,david1 completely confirm ,darwin's theory4 ,it is probable that atolls originate in more than one way1 some being formed in rising or stationary tracts1 others in areas of depression4 ,the important question1 from a geographical point of view1 is not so much how isolated atolls were formed as whether the great tracts in the ,pacific and ,indian oceans in which no islands occur except atolls1 for instance1 the ,marshall1 ,gilbert and ,low archipelagoes in the former1 and the ,laccadives and ,maldives in the latter1 have been areas of extensive subsidence during the later geological periods4 ,further evidence on this question may perhaps in time be furnished by additional borings1 for one of which an island of the ,maldive group would furnish an excellent locality1 since there is in this case independent evidence to indicate that the archipelago occupies part of a sunken tract4 ,meantime any additional details would be useful1 such as careful soundings around those atolls which have not been fully surveyed1 so as to give an accurate profile of the sea-bottom in the neighbourhood4 ,,memorandum ,,on ,,glacier ,,observations4 ,revised by ,,alan ,g4 ,,ogilvie4 ,the recent movements of glaciers may be noted by the following signs3-- ,when the ice is advancing1 the glaciers generally have a more convex outline1 the icefalls are more broken into towers and spires1 and piles of fresh rubbish are found shot over the grass of the lower moraines4 ,moraines which have been comparatively recently deposited by advancing ice are disturbed1 show cracks1 and are obviously being pushed forward or aside by the glacier4 ,there is a tendency for the glacier to terminate in a vertical front1 or 8,chinese wall10 as distinguished from the sloping snout of a stationary or retreating glacier1 owing to the more rapid advance of the upper layers4 ,if the advance is rapid the overhanging layers will fall1 and an ice talus will collect in front4 ,an inspection of the ice will often disclose horizontal lines of sheering which in a side view are seen to rise towards the terminal wall4 ,search should be made along these sheer planes for included moraine material1 and any proofs of elevation of this material noted4 ,when the ice is in retreat it terminates in a gently sloping snout4 ,the marks of its further recent extension are seen fringing the glacier both at the end and sides in their lower portions1 the glacier fails to fill its former bed1 and bare stony tracts1 often interspersed with pools or lakelets1 lie between the end of the glacier and the mounds of recent terminal moraines4 ,where a glacier has retreated to any considerable extent1 careful observations of the form of its bed are of value4 ,what is the nature of the rock surfaces exposed--convex or concave2 are they rubbed smooth on their leesides2 how far have the contours of the cliffs or slopes1 or the sides of any gorge1 been modified where they have been subjected to ice-friction8 ,is there any evidence that the ice has flowed over large boulders1 or loose soils1 such as gravel1 without disturbing them8 ,how has it affected rocks of different hardness1 for instance1 veins of quartz in a less hard rock8 ,generally1 do the appearances indicate that the glacier has excavated1 or only abraded and polished its bed2 that it has scooped out new rock-basins1 or only cleaned out1 scratched1 and preserved from filling-up by alluvial deposits or earthslips1 existing basins8 ,what is the general character of the valley bottom and the slopes above and below the most conspicuous ancient moraines8 ,with a view to ascertaining the oscillations in length of a glacier1 the traveller or surveyor should1 if possible1 mark on the ground the position of the end of the glacier at the time of his visit1 so that the next visitor will be able to measure the movement that has taken place since his predecessor's visit4 ,leaving out of question elaborate trigonometrical methods1 such1 for instance1 as have been carried out on the ,rhone ,glacier in ,switzerland1 the following means may be adopted for recording the position of the glacier front with considerable accuracy4 ,paint some signs on large boulders1 not too far from the end of the glacier1 and measure their distance from it by a tape 7,richter's system71 or build a low wall of stones of a few yards in length1 and1 say #ae to #bj inches in height1 some distance from the ice-end1 and measure this distance 7,gosset's system74 ,it is to be recommended that the stones of these walls should also be painted4 ,in either case the date and distance should be painted on the stones4 ,if the traveller himself returns after some interval--even after only two or three weeks--he will be able to judge of the movement of the glacier1 and he will have laid down a basis for further observations by future travellers4 ,a plane-table sketch on a fairly large scale with contours or form lines of the ice front and its immediate vicinity is of the greatest value1 as it records not only the position but also the form of the glacier4 ,the sketch should1 of course1 show the position of the painted boulders or other fixed points near the ice4 ,to ascertain the recent retreat of a glacier1 measure the distance from the ice front to the most advanced terminal moraine1 where vegetation first shows itself4 ,the bare ground recently left by glaciers is easily recognisable4 ,the diminution of volume is best measured by ascertaining the height of bare soil left on the sides of the lateral moraines in the portion of the glacier within the zone of vegetation4 ,all photographic representations of the glacier end1 and of the ground which has been freed from the glacier ice1 are of great value4 ,those will be of most service that show the position of the glacier-snout with relation to some conspicuous rock or other feature in the local scenery4 ,each photograph should be dated1 and the bearings and distance of the camera with reference to any such feature accurately noted4 ,neighbouring glaciers often furnish very different results as regards advance or retreat1 owing to the fact that steep glaciers anticipate in their oscillations those the beds of which are less inclined4 ,one of the results most to be desired is an exact knowledge of the dates3 ,i4 ,of the maximum extension of the ice4 ,,ii4 ,of the commencement of retreat4 ,,iii4 ,of the minimum4 ,,iv4 ,of the commencement of fresh increase4 and even information giving approximate dates--say1 to within a decade1 may prove to be of value4 ,in dealing with a mountain group1 therefore1 the traveller should note where he can get the information as to the past1 the date of the commencement of the actual movement of each glacier1 and in all cases whether the ice is in advance1 or retreat1 or stationary4 ,of course the rate of forward movement1 or velocity of the ice1 and the oscillations in the extension of the ice must be kept carefully distinct4 ,observations should also be made on the presence of blue bands1 and their relation to the lines of stratification in the nv noted4 ,should time and circumstances permit1 a series of observations of the velocity of the ice is of value4 ,these may be made after ,tyndall's method1 by planting a line of sticks across the glacier1 or by painting marks on boulders1 the position of which relatively to ascertained points on the mountain-side has been accurately fixed4 ,the size of the glacier that is1 the area of its basin and its length1 also the slope of its bed above1 as well as at the point measured1 should be noted4 ,the rate of movement of the ice appears to be connected both with the volume of the glacier and the inclination of its bed1 and is considerably affected by temperature4 ,thus a rise in temperature may even be accompanied by a temporary advance1 but in this case a sagging will take place higher in the nv1 producing a concave cross-section1 showing that the advance is not due to increased snowfall1 but to a decrease in the viscosity of the ice4 ,the advance or retreat of a glacier are not the only factors to take into account in estimating the decrease or diminution of the volume of ice4 ,the highest level of the transverse convexity of the glacier at various points in its course should also be noted4 ,if the glacier is bounded laterally by rocky walls1 marks may conveniently be painted on these1 opposite one another4 ,the vertical height of the marks above the ice at the sides should be noted1 and the date of the observation recorded4 ,a society1 entitled the ,commission ,internationale des ,glaciers1 has been formed to promote the study of glacial movements and other points of interest and importance4 ,their reports from their inception to #aije were published in the #8,archives des ,sciences1' ,geneva1 the journal of the ,swiss ,alpine ,club1 and from #aijf to #aiac in the #8,zeitschrift fr ,gletscherkunde1' ,berlin4 ,a summary of the reports in ,english appeared throughout these years in the #8,journal of ,geology1' ,washington4 ,the ,european ,war has disorganised this international society1 but steps are being taken to establish some organisation to replace it4 ,,iv4 ,,natural ,,history4#g ,by the late ,h4 ,w4 ,,bates1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,revised by ,w4 ,r4 ,,ogilvie-,,grant1 ,british ,museum 7,natural ,history74 ,in the present state of ,biological ,science1 travellers who intend to devote themselves specially to the zoological or botanical investigation of new or little-known countries1 require to be trained for the work beforehand1 and are consequently well-informed as to methods and appliances4 ,it is not for them that these #8,hints' are drawn up1 but for general travellers and explorers1 who1 whilst engaged chiefly in survey1 wish to know how best to profit by their opportunities of benefiting science by collecting examples of new or rare species1 and how to preserve and safely transmit their specimens4 ,the observations refer only to explorations by land4 ,outfit#h-- ,a magazine sporting rifle1 either ,mannlicher #bef1 or ,lee-,enfield #cjc1 and ammunition 7solid and soft-nosed1 split or hollow-point bullets74 ,double-barrel #ab-;bore gun--for choice a ,keeper's hammerless non-ejector gun and ammunition 7,nos4 #c and #e shot74#i ,double-barrel #daj hammer-gun and ammunition 7,nos4 #h1 #aj and #ab shot74 ,cartridges with a full charge of powder and ,no4 #h shot will kill larger birds at a considerable distance2 those with ,nos4 #aj and #ab shot are specially loaded for collecting smaller birds at closer quarters1 and may be used at distances of from fifteen to twenty-five yards without damaging the specimens4 ,the loads are3 oz4 ,no4 #ab shot1 dr4 black powder1 or #i grains ,schultz2 oz4 ,no4 #aj shot1 dr4 black powder1 or #i grains ,schultz4 ,in damp climates black powder will be found more reliable4 ,if shot larger than ,no4 #h is used with this gun1 the pattern is erratic and the result uncertain4 ,messrs4 ,cogswell and ,harrison1 #bbf ,strand1 ,w4,c41 have had considerable experience in loading cartridges for these guns1 and their ,nos4 #aj and #ab shot is even and carefully screened4 ,no4 #a saloon pistol and ammunition 7turned-over caps with dust shot74 ,this pistol will be found of great value for collecting small birds at very close quarters in thick cover1 or the more active lizards4 ,it can be easily carried in a holster on a belt1 to which is also attached a small pouch for ammunition4 ,small brass turned-over caps1 loaded with a pinch of dust-shot1 can be had of ,messrs4 ,cogswell and ,harrison4 ,telescope4 ,binocular field-glasses4 ,traps can be procured from ,mr4 ,s4 ,j4 ,beckett1 #ci ,dresden ,road1 ,highgate1 ,n4 7apply1 in the first place1 by letter74 ,for catching hynas1 etc41 large traps are supplied2 for smaller mammals1 ,brailsford live-traps and ,cyclone and ,schuyler break-back traps are the best1 and should be procured in several sizes4 ,pitfall-traps made by sinking earthenware jars flush with the ground are also useful4 ,several air-tight zinc-lined collecting boxes1 fitted with light wooden trays4 ,these are made by ,messrs4 ,lovelace and ,co41 #bj ,gloucester ,road1 ,s4,w41 and will be found extremely serviceable for packing1 storing1 and transmitting skins of smaller mammals and birds4 ,when starting they can be packed full of stores4 ,uniform cases may be substituted1 but1 unless protected by wooden travelling-covers1 are liable to get damaged and to admit insects4 ,a set of carpenter's tools2 screws and ,french nails of various sizes4 ,a set of soldering irons and soft solder1 etc4 ,for skinning large ,mammals99-- #b shoemakers' knives4 #c large scalpels4 #a small saw4 #a pair cutting-pincers4 #a pair pliers4 ,for skinning small ,mammals and ,birds99-- ,taxidermist's box containing3 #f scalpels4 #a oil-stone4 #b pairs of scissors 7one short-bladed1 one dissecting74 #b pairs of tow-pliers 7like curling-irons1 for inserting tow or cotton-wool into the necks of bird-skins74 #a pair of forceps4 #a pair of tweezers4 #a pair cutting-pliers4 #a pair compasses4 #a #b-;foot rule marked in tenths of an inch4 #a millimetre rule4 #c darning needles4 ,needles and thread4 #a tin of mixed pins4 ,bundles of galvanized wire 7for inserting in tails of small mammals and in necks of bird-skins74 #c hog-hair brushes for applying arsenical soap4 #b egg-drills 7two sizes74 #b blow-pipes 7two sizes74 #b pencils4 #a small biscuit tin of fine boxwood sawdust4 #a #b-lb4 tin of candle naphthaline4 #a #b-lb4 tin crystal4 #a #b-lb4 tin plaster of ,paris4 #c #a-lb4 tins of arsenical soap 7in treacle tins71 or the same weight of powdered arsenic4 #a #b-lb4 tin burnt alum4 #ajjj labels for bird-skins4 #ejj labels for small mammals4 #b bundles of wool4 ,tow 7which can be used as packing74 #f pieces of fine mesh wire-netting 7for making cages1 etc474 99 ,all the articles mentioned in this list can be best procured from ,mr4 ,s4 ,j4 ,beckett1 #ci ,dresden ,road1 ,highgate1 ,n4 ,apply1 in first place1 by letter4 ,those marked with a cross 77 can be obtained from ,messrs4 ,buck1 #bdb ,tottenham ,court ,road1 ,w4,c4 ,for preserving ,reptiles1 ,batrachians1 and ,fish-- ,these should be preserved in spirits whenever practicable4 ,for larger specimens-- #b or #d four-sided copper tanks with a round opening of six inches diameter1 closed with a screw cover4 ,each tank is fitted into a strong wooden case with a lid secured by hinges and lock1 and furnished on two opposite sides with a rope handle4 ,for smaller specimens liable to be damaged-- #b or #d wooden cases divided into four or six compartments1 each containing a pickle jar1 with glass rubber-edged stopper secured by an adjustable iron fastening4 #c dozen or more corked glass tubes of various sizes4 ,a supply of sheets of zinc1 soldering irons and soft solder 7to make extra tanks74 #ajjj parchment labels bearing numbers4 ,if the above specially constructed zinc tanks cannot be procured1 wide-mouthed earthenware jars1 tightly closed with cork or rubber1 may be used4 ,the glass tubes will be found specially useful for collecting ,arachnida1 ,myriopoda1 small ,mollusca1 etc4 ,for collecting ,insects-- ,store boxes lined with cork-carpet4 ,triangular envelopes of smooth foolscap paper for butterflies and thin-bodied moths4 ,card fly-discs4 ,entomological pins 7boxes of various sizes74 #b zinc oval pocket boxes lined with cork-carpet 7two sizes74 #f or more sets 7four each7 of glass-bottomed pill-boxes covered with jaconet4 #b pairs of entomological forceps4 #d insect killing-bottles 7two sizes7 in leather cases4 7,hinton ,co41 #ch ,bedford ,street1 ,strand1 ,w4,c47 ,a small bottle of oxalic acid1 with stabbing quill fixed in cork1 for killing large insects4 #b flat killing-bottles for beetles1 with glass tube passing through the cork and fitted with a cork plug4 #b small entomological lamps4 #f tins of bicycle oil4 #a dozen #a-lb4 tins of golden syrup or treacle4 #b sugar brushes4 #a #c-oz4 bottle of acetate of amyl 78,essence of ,pear ,drops10 for mixing with treacle7 7,hinton ,co474 #c butterfly-nets 7two round1 one kite-shaped7 with extra bags4#aj #a water-net 7for aquatic insects74 ,several pieces of cork-carpet about a foot square 7for making extra store boxes74 #a pocket lens4 #b large pickle-jars of carbolized sawdust to be used as packing for beetles after they have been killed4 #c dozen corked glass tubes 7three sizes74#aa ,for instructions regarding the collecting and preservation of specimens in all branches of natural history1 travellers and others are recommended to provide themselves with a #8,handbook of ,instructions for ,collectors1' issued by the ,british ,museum 7,natural ,history74 ,with illustrations4 ,second edition1 #aijd4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 ,illustration ,in humid tropical countries1 where the ubiquitous ants are likely to destroy specimens before they are ready to be packed away1 drying-cages1 suspended from the roof of a hut or tent1 are absolutely necessary4 ,these can be readily made from old packing-cases1 but a few square feet of wire gauze must be provided for the back and front of the cages1 and the cord by which they are suspended must be threaded through a small calibash containing oil1 or1 better still1 naphthaline1 to prevent ants from descending from the roof4 ,the cages may be so arranged as to be taken to pieces and put together again readily2 one1 for birds1 should be about #b feet #f inches long by #a foot #f inches high and #a foot broad2 the other1 for insects and other small specimens1 may be about one-third less4 ,they should have folding doors in front1 with panels of wire gauze1 and the backs wholly of the latter material2 the sides fitted with racks to hold six or eight plain shelves1 which in the smaller cage should be covered with cork1 or any soft wood that can be obtained in tropical countries4 ,a strong ring fixed in the top of the cage1 with a cord having a hook attached at the end by which to hang it in an airy place1 will keep the contained specimens out of harm's way until they are quite dry1 when they may be stowed away in suitable close-fitting boxes4 ,an even simpler and perfectly effective plan is to take a number of pieces of stout wire each about #ah inches long1 bend each end into a loop1 and round the middle solder a funnel-shaped piece of tin to contain powdered candle-naphthaline4 ,the upper loop of each wire can be secured with string to a rafter1 and between the lower loops flat boards1 or a series of boards1 can be suspended on which skins may be placed to dry4 ,this method has been proved to be safe1 no ants ever venturing to cross the naphthaline4 ,a few yards of india-rubber waterproof sheeting may be found useful as a temporary covering to collections in wet weather or in crossing rivers4 ,to those who have had little or no experience in field-collecting it may be useful to give some idea of the impedimenta considered absolutely essential for an ordinary day's work when it is desired to collect1 as far as possible1 in all branches of zoology1 and the most convenient means of disposing of such4 ,the collector should be accompanied1 if possible1 by two intelligent natives to act as bearers1 who may1 with patience1 be developed into useful assistant-collectors4 ,a #ab-;bore gun or rifle1 according to circumstances1 with ammunition1 to be carried by the first bearer4 ,a #daj collecting gun and twenty-five cartridges1 including a few cartridges with full loads of #h shot3 the cartridges to be carried by self1 the gun1 when not in use1 to be carried by the second bearer4 ,the #aj shot and #ab shot #daj cartridges should be carried in the two lower waistcoat pockets1 where they are easily accessible1 and the few #h shot cartridges in some other pocket4 ,saloon pistol in holster with pouch for carrying ammunition on belt1 strapped round the waist1 so that it can be easily and quickly made use of4 ,a butterfly-net carried by self1 or by the second bearer if not in use4 ,large oval zinc pocket-box lined with cork carpet1 containing a stock of pins1 both large and small1 stuck in one side of the cork carpet ready for use2 to be carried in the right-hand side-pocket of the coat4 ,entomological forceps1 pointed forceps1 and larger forceps for picking up scorpions1 large spiders1 etc41 and entomological killing-bottle2 to be carried in the left-hand side-pocket of the coat4 ,two larger-sized corked glass tubes half-full of spirits and a camel's-hair brush to be carried in the right and left top waistcoat-pockets1 for collecting small spiders1 etc4 ,it is difficult to pick up the swift-running ground-haunting species without injury1 but1 by dipping the brush in spirits and placing it on them1 they are at once stupefied1 and may then be easily transferred to the tube4 ,the spirit is also required for saturating the small plug of cotton-wool to be pushed down the throat of each bird as soon as it has been killed2 the gape should then be plugged with dry cotton4 ,specimens thus prepared may be carried1 even in a hot climate1 for several hours without deteriorating4 ,a game bag carried by the second bearer1 with a large supply of paper for wrapping up birds when shot4 ,several sets of glass-top pill-boxes carried in the #8hare'-pocket1 or in one of the pockets of the game-bag1 to which they can be transferred when filled4 ,a pickle pot in ,willesden canvas or basket-work cover with handle1 half filled with spirits1 for collecting small snakes1 lizards1 frogs1 scorpions1 etc42 to be carried by the first bearer1 who should be instructed how to hunt for reptiles1 etc4 ,if possible1 a beetle-killing bottle should be added to the above impedimenta1 and may be carried in the left-hand breast-pocket of the coat4 ,a ,norfolk coat is a most useful article of clothing1 and should be provided with a deep #8hare' pocket running round the skirt and divided in the middle4 ,after a very short time the collector will be able to find any article he may require by instinct1 and without loss of time4 ,to have a pocket for each article1 and to know where it is1 saves an infinity of trouble4 ,at daylight the traps should be visited1 and any specimens to be preserved should at once be sent back into camp4 ,collecting should always1 if possible1 be vigorously prosecuted during the early morning hours1 when birds1 etc41 are feeding1 and are much more easily procured4 ,when butterflies and thick-bodied moths are placed in the killing-bottle1 care should be taken to see that they die with their wings turned the #8right way1' i4e41 with the underside outermost4 ,those which die with the upper side outermost should be at once reversed with the aid of a pin or the sharp-pointed forceps1 and then replaced in the bottle4 ,if not attended to at once they become rigid1 and the wings get rubbed and spoilt before they are quite dead4 ,where and what to collect4--,the countries which are now the least known with regard to their natural history are ,new ,guinea and some of the large islands to the east of it1 ,east ,sumatra1 the highlands of ,mindanao and other ,philippine ,islands1 ,formosa1 ,tibet1 ,indo-,china1 and other parts of ,central ,asia1 ,equatorial ,africa1 and ,central ,south ,america4 ,a special interest attaches to the indigenous products of oceanic islands1 i4e41 islands separated by a deep sea from any large tract of land4 ,those who have opportunities could not fail to make interesting discoveries by collecting specimens of the smaller animals 7insects1 molluscs1 etc417 and plants in these isolated localities4 ,both in continental countries and on islands the truly indigenous species will have to be sought for on hills and in the remote parts1 where they are more likely to have escaped extermination by settlers and the domestic animals introduced by them4 ,in most of the better-known countries the botany has been better investigated than the zoology1 and in all these there still remains much to be done in ascertaining the exact station1 and the range1 both vertical and horizontal1 of known species of animals and plants4 ,this leads us to one point which cannot be too strongly insisted on1 namely1 that some effective means should be adopted by the traveller to record the exact locality and date of every specimen he collects4#ab ,a traveller may be puzzled1 in the midst of the profusion of animal and vegetable forms which he sees around him1 to know what to collect and what to leave4 ,books can be of little service to him on a journey1 and he had better at once abandon all idea of encumbering himself with them4 ,a few days study at the principal museums before he starts on his voyage may teach him a great deal1 and the cultivation of a habit of close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will teach him a great deal more4 ,as a general rule all specimens which he may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred to those common near the civilised parts1 and he should bear in mind that the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives1 and are offered for sale to strangers1 are almost sure to be of species well known in ,european museums4 ,he should strive to obtain as much variety as possible1 and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of specimens of one or a few species1 but as some of the rarest and most interesting species closely resemble others which may be more common1 he should avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side by side4 ,in most countries1 as already remarked1 the truly indigenous1 and often the rarest1 species are to be found only in the mountains at considerable elevations and in the primitive forests1 the products of cultivated districts being nearly all widely distributed and well known4 ,in ,botany a traveller1 if obliged to restrict his collecting1 might confine himself to those plants which are remarkable for their economic uses2 always taking care to identify the flowers of the tree or shrub whose root1 bark1 leaves1 wood1 etc41 are used by the natives1 and to preserve a few specimens of them4 ,but if he has the good fortune to ascend any high mountain not previously explored1 he should make as complete a collection of the flowering plants as possible1 at the higher elevations4 ,the same may be said of insects found on mountains1 where they occur in great diversity--on the shady and cold sides rather than on the sunny slopes--under stones1 and about the roots of herbage1 especially near springs1 on shrubs and low trees1 and so forth2 for upon a knowledge of the plants and insects of mountain ranges depend the solution of many curious questions regarding the geographical distribution of forms over the earth4 ,in ,reptiles1 the smaller ,batrachians 7,frogs1 ,salamanders1 etc47 should not be neglected1 especially the extremely numerous family of tree-frogs2 the arboreal1 or rock-haunting species of ,lizards seen out of reach1 and the swift-running forms that inhabit sandy plains may be secured with a charge of dust-shot1 the saloon pistol being especially handy for this purpose4 ,snakes should be taken without injuring the head1 which is the most important part of the body3 a cleft stick may be used in securing them by the neck1 or they may be shot1 and on reaching camp placed in the jars of spirits4 ,as large a collection as possible should be made of the smaller ,fishes and ,tortoises of lakes and rivers4 ,mammals and ,birds4#ac--;,an ordinary geographical expedition will hardly have the means at its disposal for bringing home many specimens of the larger animals1 but many species in regions visited only by adventurous explorers are still desiderata in the large museums of ,europe2 and additional specimens of all genera of which there are numerous closely allied species 7e4g41 ,rodents1 ,antelope1 ,deer1 etc471 and of all the small nocturnal mammals would be welcome to zoologists4 ,if only portions can be obtained1 skulls with horns attached are to be preferred4 ,the smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the game bag1 folded in paper1 the mouth1 anus and any wounds being first plugged with cotton-wool4 ,in a hot climate when the birds have to be carried for some distance before they are skinned1 a plug of cotton-wool dipped in a weak solution of formaline or in spirits should be pushed down the gullet into the stomach1 before the mouth is plugged with dry cotton-wool4 ,this precaution will insure specimens remaining fresh for many hours4 ,small dull-coloured birds are most likely to be new or interesting4 ,immediately after killing a small mammal or bird1 make a note of the colour of its eyes and soft parts1 and1 if time admits1 of the dimensions of its trunk and limbs4 ,full directions for skinning will be found in the ,british ,museum #8,handbook1' pp4 #ae-bi4 ,it should however be mentioned that in large-headed ,parrots1 ,woodpeckers1 ,ducks1 and some other birds1 in which the skin of the head cannot be turned back1 an incision has to be made in the nape1 through which the skull can be pushed and cleansed1 the incision being afterwards closed by two or three stitches4 ,in finishing the skin of a bird the feet should be placed side by side1 with the claws folded and fastened together by means of a pin run transversely through the soles4 ,the protruding ends of the pin can afterwards be cut off close to the feet4 ,this is ,mr4 ,w4 ,foster's plan1 and is by far the best and neatest method4 ,when the skin is dry1 it should be laid on its back in one of the trays fitted into the zinc-lined collecting boxes1 and secured by means of a couple of stout pins passed through the head at the base of the lower mandible and through the root of the tail4 ,by dovetailing the specimens into one another1 they can thus be packed with the least loss of space1 and need not again be moved4 ,they require no wrapping or paper1 and are much more easily looked over to see that no insects have attacked them4 ,preserving ,mammals1 etc41 in ,alcohol4--,when ,mammals cannot be prepared as skins with skulls1 according to the ,british ,museum directions1 they may prove of service if preserved in spirits4 ,indeed1 when a series of skins has been made1 additional specimens may well be placed in spirits1 while in the case of ,bats half the individuals taken of any species should be skinned and half put in spirits4 ,on the subject of the preservation of such spirit specimens1 the late ,dr4 ,g4 ,e4 ,dobson has published the following #8,hints'3-- ,illustration3 ,,general ,,collecting-,,case4 ,the general collecting case should be made of strong block tin1 or1 better still1 of copper1 rectangular in form1 about #b feet #a foot #a foot #h inches in height1 having in the top a circular aperture from #f to #h inches in diameter1 closed by a well-fitting brass screw-cap1 the flange of which is made air-tight by a well-greased leather collar4 ,this should fit accurately into a similarly shaped box of inch boards1 having a simple flat lid 7not projecting beyond the sides71 secured by eight long screws1 and provided with a strong iron handle4 ,this case should be filled with the strongest methylated spirits procurable 7in foreign countries over-proof rum1 brandy1 or arrack will suit equally well74 ,if circumstances admit1 two or more such cases should be taken1 or four wide-mouthed earthenware jars placed in a square wooden case1 separated by light wooden partitions1 and having their mouths closed by well-fitting bungs tied down with bladder and string4 ,on arrival at the collecting station one of the jars should be half filled with spirits from the tin case4 ,into this each specimen1 as it is obtained1 having been slit along the side of the abdomen1 should be put1 and allowed to remain #bd hours before being transferred to the general collecting case4 ,when the latter can hold no more the specimens should be removed one by one and packed in the moist state in the other wide-mouthed jars1 one above the other1 like herrings in a cask1 each rolled in a piece of thin cotton cloth1 in which a label1 having the locality and date written in pencil1 should be placed4 ,when the jar has been thus filled to the mouth a glass or two of the strong spirits 7kept in reserve7 should be poured in so as to fill up the interstices1 but not to appear on the surface1 which should be covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool4 ,a few drops of carbolic acid1 if the spirit be weak1 will greatly aid its preserving powers4 ,the bung should then be replaced1 secured round the margin outside with a mixture of tallow and wax1 and tied down securely with bladder or skin1 and the name of the collector and district written legibly outside4 ,the jar is now ready for transmission to any distance1 for specimens thus treated will keep good in the vapour alone of strong spirits for months4 ,other jars may be filled in like manner1 and finally1 the general collecting case4 ,incisions should invariably be made in the sides 7not in the centre line7 of all animals1 so as to allow the spirits to enter1 and no part of the intestines should be removed4 ,in the case of ,tortoises the opening may be made in the soft parts round the thighs2 if this be not done1 the body soon becomes distended with gases4 ,frogs should always be first placed in weak spirits1 and after being soaked for one or two days1 be removed to strong alcohol4 ,crabs should be rolled up alive in thin cotton-cloths1 secured by thread tied round1 and may then be readily killed by immersion in alcohol2 if this be not done they lose many of their limbs in their dying struggles4 ,preparation of ,skeletons of ,animals4--,in many cases it will be found impossible to preserve the whole animal1 especially if of large size1 but it may advantageously be converted into a skeleton by attention to the following directions of the late ,sir ,w4 ,h4 ,flower1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,if the animal is of small size--say not larger than a ,fox--take off the skin except from the feet below the wrist and ankle joints4 ,if it is intended to preserve the skin as a zoological specimen as well as the skeleton1 the bones of the feet should all be left in the skin2 they can be easily extracted afterwards1 and will be preserved much more safely in their natural covering4 ,remove all the contents of the abdominal and thoracic cavities2 also the larynx1 gullet1 and tongue4 ,in doing this be careful to leave attached to the base of the skull the chain of bones which supports the root of the tongue4 ,these may either be left in connection with the skull1 or cleaned separately and tied to the skeleton4 ,then clear away1 with the aid of a knife1 as much as possible of the flesh from the head1 body1 and limbs1 without cutting or scraping the bones1 or separating them from each other4 ,at any intervals that may be necessary during this process it will be desirable1 if practicable1 to leave the body in water1 so as to wash away as much of the blood as possible from the bones1 and a few days' soaking in water frequently changed will be an advantage4 ,the body1 with all the bones held in connection by their ligaments1 should then be hung up to dry in a place where there is a free current of air1 and out of the way of attacks from animals of prey4 ,before they get hard the limbs may be folded by the side of the body in the most convenient position1 or they may be detached and placed inside the trunk4 ,when thoroughly dry the skeletons may be packed in boxes with any convenient light packing material between them4 ,each should be well wrapped in a separate piece of paper or canvas1 as sometimes insects will attack the ligamentary structures and allow the bones to come apart4 ,if it can be avoided1 skeletons should never be packed up so long as any moisture remains in them1 as otherwise decomposition will go on in the still adhering soft parts1 and cause an unpleasant smell4 ,if the animal is of larger size it will be most convenient to take it partially to pieces before or during the cleaning4 ,the head may be separated from the neck1 the vertebral column divided into two or more pieces1 and the limbs detached from the trunk2 but in no case should the small bones of the feet be separated from one another4 ,the parts should then be treated as above described1 and all packed together in a canvas bag4 ,in the cetacea 7porpoises1 etc471 look for two small bones suspended in the flesh1 just below the vertebral column1 at the junction of the lumbar and caudal regions 7marked externally by the anal aperture74 ,they are the only rudiments of the pelvis1 and should always be preserved with the skeleton4 ,if there is no opportunity of preserving and transporting entire skeletons1 the skulls alone may be kept4 ,they should be treated as above described1 picked nearly clean1 the brain being scooped out through the foramen magnum1 soaked for a few days in water1 and dried4 ,every specimen should be carefully labelled with the popular name of the animal1 if known1 and at all events1 with the sex1 the exact locality at which it was procured1 and the date4 ,for the purpose of making entire skeletons1 select1 if possible1 adult animals2 but the skulls of animals of all ages may be advantageously collected4 ,collectors of skins should always leave the skull intact4 ,it should be taken out1 labelled with a corresponding number to that on the skin1 and dried with as much flesh on it as possible4 ,reptiles and ,fishes4--,full directions for preserving these will be found in the ,british ,museum #8,handbook1' pp4 #cc-dg4 ,the following #8hints' were prepared by the late ,mr4 ,osbert ,salvin1 ,f4,r4,s41 who collected these animals most successfully in ,guatemala3-- ,almost any spirit will answer for this purpose1 its fitness consisting in the amount of alcohol contained in it4 ,in all cases it is best to procure the strongest possible1 as it is less bulky1 and water can always be obtained to reduce the strength to the requisite amount4 ,when the spirit sold retail by the natives is not sufficiently strong1 by visiting the distillery the traveller can often obtain the first runnings 7the strongest7 of the still1 which will be stronger than he requires undiluted4 ,the spirit used should be reduced to about #bj over proof1 and the traveller should always be provided with an alcoholometer4 ,if this is not at hand1 a little practice will enable him to ascertain the strength of the spirit from the rapidity with which the bubbles break when rising to the surface of a small quantity shaken in a bottle4 ,when the spirit has been used this test is of no value4 ,when reptiles or fish are first immersed1 it will be found that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker4 ,large specimens absorb the alcohol very speedily4 ,the rapidity with which this absorption takes place should be carefully watched1 and in warm climates the liquid tested at least every twelve hours1 and fresh spirit added to restore it to its original strength4 ,in colder climates it is not requisite to watch so closely1 but practice will show what attention is necessary4 ,it will be found that absorption of alcohol will be about proportionate to the rate of decomposition4 ,spirit should not be used too strong1 as its effect is to contract the outer surface1 and close the pores1 thus preventing the alcohol from penetrating through to the inner parts of the specimen4 ,the principal point1 then1 is to watch that the strength of the spirit does not get below a certain point while the specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in4 ,it will be found that after a few days the spirit retains its strength3 when this is the case1 the specimen will be perfectly preserved4 ,spirit should not be thrown away1 no matter how often used1 so long as the traveller has a reserve of sufficient strength to bring it back to its requisite strength4 ,in selecting specimens for immersion1 regard must be paid to the means at the traveller's disposal4 ,fishes up to #i inches long may be placed in spirit1 after a slit has been cut in the side of the belly to allow the spirit to enter to the entrails4 ,with larger specimens1 it is better to pass a long knife outside the ribs1 so as to separate the muscles on each side of the vertebr4 ,it is also as well to remove as much food from the entrails as possible1 taking care to leave all these in4 ,the larger specimens can be skinned1 leaving1 however1 the intestines in1 and simply removing the flesh4 ,very large specimens preserved in this way absorb very little spirit4 ,all half-digested food should be removed from snakes and animals4 ,in spite of these precautions1 specimens will often appear to be decomposing2 but1 by more constant attention to restrengthening the spirit1 they can1 in most cases1 be preserved4 ,a case 7copper is the best71 with a top that can be unscrewed and refixed easily1 should always be carried as a receptacle4 ,the opening should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted2 this is to hold freshly-caught specimens4 ,when they have become preserved1 they can all be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes4 ,zinc is best1 as it does not corrode so easily4 ,the traveller will find it very convenient to take lessons in soldering1 and to be able to make his own boxes4 ,if he takes them ready-made1 they had best be arranged so as to fit one into another before they are filled4 ,when moving about1 all specimens should be wrapped in calico or linen or other rags to prevent their rubbing one against the other4 ,this should also be done to the specimens in the copper case when a move is necessary1 as well as to those finally packed for transmission to ,europe4 ,these last should have all the interstices between the specimens filled in with cotton-wool or rags4 ,if a leak should occur in a case1 specimens thus packed will still be maintained moist1 and will keep some time without much injury4 ,proof spirit should be used when the specimens are finally packed1 but it is not necessary that it should be fresh4 ,land and ,freshwater ,mollusca4#ad ,full instructions for collecting these will be found in the #8,british ,museum ,handbook1' pp4 #aac-aae4 ,lieut4-,col4 ,h4 ,h4 ,godwin-,austen1 ,f4,r4,s41 has contributed the following notes on collecting these animals3 ,mollusca are always most abundant on limestone rocks1 and should be searched for under the larger stones lying about the ground1 and under fallen trees and logs in the woods and forests4 ,they may generally be found adhering to the surface of the stone or wood4 ,many species are often only #j4je inch in length1 so that very close examination is necessary4 ,in damp spots1 generally in ravines with a northerly aspect1 the dead leaves when damp with dew in the early morning may be turned over one by one1 and the under surface examined for minute species2 larger species will be found very frequently on the surface of the ground below the layer of decaying vegetable matter4 ,many may also be secured by tearing off the bark of decaying trees4 ,in the drier parts of the country some species are only to be found among the roots of shrubs1 at considerable depth2 by digging these up and shaking the earth on to paper1 small shells may be found on close examination4 ,at a dry place like ,aden1 ,i should expect to find most of the living land-shells in such a habitat4 ,look well in limestone caves on the damp surface of the rock2 some forms hide themselves under a coating of earthy matter4 ,search also on damp moss and rocks near waterfalls4 ,some species will be found high up on the bushes and trees4 ,this is the habit of certain ,african forms especially2 not so in ,india4 ,a very good idea of the land-shells of a country may at first be obtained by the examination of the beds of the streams1 either along the highest flood-line1 or in the fine sand and mud collected in the bed4 ,land-shells found in such situations are usually old and bleached1 but the living specimens will not be far off4 ,the leaves and stems of water plants should be examined1 and ,conferv taken out of the water and well washed in a basin2 in these1 and in the mud of ponds and still rivers1 many minute shells may be found4 ,the best way of preserving minute shells is to put them into glass tubes plugged with wool2 it is better than cork4 ,capital collecting tubes can be made out of the smaller sorts of bamboo and the large grasses4 ,a certain number of every species 7at least a dozen7 should be preserved in spirits for the sake of the anatomy4 ,it is best to kill them first in water and then put them into spirits2 if this is not done they contract1 so that it is impossible to form any idea of the form of the mantle and other parts1 and they become so hard they are difficult to cut up4 ,a good method of keeping the small shells and slugs1 especially in spirits1 is to put them with labels into small tubes plugged with wool1 and then place the tubes in a large jar1 capable of holding three or four dozen4 ,other small shells1 to of an inch in diameter1 may be put into pill-boxes at once1 for in a dry climate they very soon dry up4 ,the very large animals may be removed by boiling them in water1 but when time does not admit of attending to the cleaning of the shells1 species1 such as ,unios1 may be put into empty soup-tins and then filled up with dry sand4 ,it is very important to make a few notes on the colour of the animal1 attaching a number for reference on the box or in the tube1 and the operculum1 when present1 should always be preserved4 ,with respect to slugs1 note the surface of the mantle1 and always the form of the extremity of the foot1 whether pointed or provided with a mucous pore2 and again the lobes of the mantle4 ,preserve them in spirits as above4 ,drawings from the living animal are invaluable1 and should be made if possible4 ,very little is known of the ,asiatic forms2 they are of much interest1 and have been very little collected4 ,insects4--,for the best means of preserving the various orders of insects the traveller should consult the #8,british ,museum ,handbook1' pp4 #dh-hi4 ,botanical ,collecting4--,full instructions will be found in the #8,british ,museum ,handbook1' pp4 #aaf-abe4 ,the following instructions have been prepared by the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,ball1 ,f4,r4,s43-- ,to obtain good specimens of dried plants in a condition serviceable to scientific men1 the following are the chief points to be observed3-- #a4 ,selection of ,specimens4--,the object is to give as much information as possible respecting the plant which it is intended to collect4 ,small plants not exceeding #af inches in height should be collected entire with the roots4 ,slender plants of greater dimensions may be folded to the same length1 and may often be collected entire4 ,of larger plants1 shrubs and trees1 the object is to show as much as possible of the plant within the limit of the size of your drying paper4 ,as an universal rule1 both the flower and fruit 7seed-vessel7 should1 if possible1 be preserved4 ,of those plants whereon the male and female flowers grow separately1 specimens of both should1 if possible1 be collected4 #b4 ,conveyance of ,specimens to ,camp or ,station4--,tin boxes made for the purpose are generally used in ,europe for carrying botanical specimens until they can be placed in the drying press4 ,they answer sufficiently well in cool weather1 but in hot countries specimens are often partly withered before they can be laid out2 and a rough portfolio1 into which the plants can be put when 7or soon after7 they are gathered1 is much to be preferred4 ,such a portfolio is easily prepared with two sheets of millboard connected by an endless tape1 so as to be easily slung over the shoulder2 between these about thirty or forty sheets 7#fj to #hj folds7 of thin soft 7more or less bibulous7 paper may be carried and kept in place by a strap or piece of twine4 ,with two such portfolios a traveller can carry as many plants as it is possible to collect with advantage in a day4 ,as soon as possible after being gathered1 the specimens should be laid roughly between the sheets of paper3 except in the case of delicate flowers1 no special care is needed1 and no harm comes of two or three being put together4 ,illustration #c4 ,the ,drying ,press4--,the great object1 both to secure good specimens and to save labour and weight of paper1 is to get the plants dried quickly1 and for this one of the first conditions is to lose as little time as possible4 ,when practicable1 the specimens should always be put in the press on the same day on which they are gathered4 ,the press should be made with two outer gratings of iron wire2 the outer frame of strong wire1 about a quarter of an inch in diameter--the size being that of the paper used4 ,between these the paper is laid4 ,as to the choice of drying paper1 the general rule is1 that the coarser it is the better1 provided it be quite or nearly quite free from size4 ,to enable the plants to dry quickly1 the traveller should be provided with light wooden gratings of the same size as the drying paper4 ,i think the size #ah inches #ab inches is quite large enough4 ,the iron wire outer gratings may with advantage be a quarter of an inch longer and broader to save the edges of the wooden gratings4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,grating ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,edge4 ,illustration3 ,,grating ,,seen ,,from ,,above4 ,these should be made of light laths fastened with a few nails 7all the better if these are of copper71 the interstices should be rather less than three-quarters of an inch1 at all events not more4 ,their use is to allow the air to circulate through the pile of plants that are being dried4 ,one should be inserted at each interval of about two inches 7counting the drying paper and the plants laid out for drying71 and when this is done the parcel may with advantage be exposed to the sun or placed near a fire1 as the case may be4 ,in dry warm climates1 the majority of plants may be dried in the course of a few days1 and will be fit to pack up1 without any need of changing the drying paper in which they were originally placed2 but in damp weather1 and in regard to plants of thick fleshy foliage1 it is usually necessary to change the paper more than once before the specimens are thoroughly dry4 ,the pile of paper1 with plants between each five or six thicknesses of paper1 and gratings at intervals of about two inches1 should be squeezed between the outer 7iron7 gratings by means of two strong straps4 ,too much pressure is not desirable4 ,for a pile ten or twelve inches thick1 the parcel may be pulled nearly as tight as a moderate man can do it2 but in proportion as the thickness is less1 the pressure should be moderated4 ,plants with fleshy leaves are very difficult to dry well4 ,the best way is to dip them in quite boiling water for a minute or less1 then to lay them between a few sheets of drying paper with slight pressure1 merely to remove the exterior moisture1 and then place them 7when externally dry7 in the drying press4 ,plants collected in rain should be treated in a similar way to remove outer moisture before it is attempted to dry them4 #d4 ,when once dry1 plants may be packed away between paper of almost any kind4 ,old newspapers answer very well4 ,the only precaution needed is to preserve them from insects4 ,the chief trouble in collecting plants is to get the paper already used thoroughly dry before it is again employed4 ,the best resource in dry climates is to stretch cords and hang these papers exposed to sun and air4 ,artificial heat must be resorted to in wet seasons1 but the process is then slow and troublesome4 ,for a traveller wishing to make large collections1 the time consumed in changing the paper in which the plants are dried becomes an important consideration4 ,i have adopted with advantage a suggestion of the late ,professor ,a4 ,gray to use1 instead of ordinary drying paper1 sheets cut to the proper size1 of the paper-felt which is used for laying under carpets4 ,the specimens when originally laid out for drying are placed within sheets of thin paper without size1 such as filtering paper1 and as a rule these do not need to be changed4 ,one sheet of felt-paper is generally sufficient between each layer of plants1 and the operation of changing the paper is very quickly effected4 ,it is an important rule to note the locality where the specimens have been collected1 with the date4 ,if proper care be taken to keep together all the specimens collected at the same time1 it is not necessary to place a separate scrap of paper within each sheet2 but it is advisable to do this when the dried specimens are packed for transmission home4 #e4 ,seeds4--,travellers may easily make valuable contributions to our knowledge of the vegetation of distant countries by preserving seeds of remarkable and unusual plants4 ,the only precautions necessary are1 to select seeds that are fully ripe2 if enclosed in a seed vessel1 or covering of a succulent character1 to take care that this is thoroughly dried before they are packed2 and that they are preserved from moisture during the homeward voyage4 ,small seeds may be enclosed in paper1 the larger kinds in canvas bags1 and the whole wrapped in a piece of oiled cloth4 ,it is very desirable to keep each description of seed separate1 and to note the place where it was gathered1 with indications of altitude1 soil1 and climate4 #f4 ,bulbs4--,these are easily obtained1 but as a rule1 they should be taken only at the end of the growing season1 and kept until the leaves are quite withered4 ,they should be packed dry in a small box with shavings1 or other elastic stuffing4 ,the same treatment will suit the pseudo-bulbs of some orchids4 #g4 ,fleshy ,tubers4--,fleshy and thick tubers are best sent in boxes1 wrapped in slightly moist materials1 such as cocoa-nut fibre1 peat1 or leaf mould4 #h4 ,living ,plants4--,as a general rule1 these require to be established in pots or boxes for some time before being packed for transmission4 ,they travel best in what are called ,wardian cases2 but an ordinary wooden box covered with a glass top1 and with sufficient moisture in the soil and air to prevent excessive evaporation1 is found to answer the purpose4 ,the cases should be kept on deck under some protection from the direct heat of the sun4 ,tropical plants should be despatched so as to reach ,england during the summer months4 ,at other seasons they are liable to perish from cold4 #i4 ,succulent ,plants1 such as cacti1 aloe1 houseleeks1 c41 survive for a long time if packed without earth in a perfectly dry box1 with sufficient openings for ventilation4 #aj4 ,small plants with woody roots and cuttings of larger species of plants from the north or south temperate zones often travel successfully when merely packed with a little soil1 slightly moist1 about the roots1 and a wrapping of damp moss1 or similar substance1 tied up in thick paper or canvas4 ,there is1 however1 much risk of failure in these cases where1 on the homeward voyage1 it is necessary to pass through the tropics4 ,as a general rule1 plants are more often injured by excess of moisture than by being sent too dry4 ,it is desirable to make use of every favourable opportunity for sending botanical collections of all kinds to ,england1 as in hot countries they are always exposed to risk of injury4 ,it is scarcely necessary to mention that living plants1 as well as seeds1 and bulbs1 should be placed in the hands of skilful gardeners after reaching this country4 ,the chance of preserving interesting specimens is commonly much greater when they are sent to botanic gardens than when entrusted to private cultivators4 ,in all cases information as to the soil and climate of the native home of the plant is a necessary guide to proper treatment4 ,fossils4--,the collection of fossils and minerals 7except in the case of the discovery of new localities for valuable metals7 is not to be recommended to the traveller1 if he is not a geologist4 ,fossils from an unexplored country are of little use unless the nature and order of superposition of the strata in which they are found can be at the same time investigated4 ,in the cases1 however1 of recent alluvial strata or the supposed beds of ancient lakes1 or deposits in caves1 or raised sea-beaches containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals1 the traveller will do well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity offers4 ,if the plan of the expedition includes the collection of fossil remains1 the traveller will1 of course1 provide himself with a proper geological outfit1 and obtain the necessary instructions before leaving ,europe4 7,see ,section ,,iii47 ,for suggestions as to the collecting and preserving fossils and minerals1 cf4 ,british ,museum #8,handbook1' pp4 #abf-ace4 ,general ,remarks4--,all collections made in tropical countries should be sent to ,europe with the least possible delay1 as they soon become deteriorated and spoilt unless great care be bestowed upon them4 ,observations of ,habits1 etc4--,travellers have excellent opportunities of observing the habits of animals in a state of nature1 and these #8,hints' would be very deficient were not a few remarks made upon this subject4 ,to know what to observe in the economy of animals is in itself an accomplishment which it would be unreasonable to expect the general traveller to possess1 and without this he may bring home only insignificant details1 contributing but little to our stock of real knowledge4 ,one general rule1 however1 may be kept always present to the mind1 and this is1 that anything concerning animals which bears upon the relations of species to their conditions of life is well worth observing and recording4 ,thus1 it is important to note the various enemies which each species has to contend with1 not only at one epoch in its life1 but at every stage from birth to death1 and at different seasons and in different localities4 ,the way in which the existence of enemies limits the range of a species should also be noticed4 ,the inorganic influences which inimically affect species1 especially intermittently 7such as the occurrence of disastrous seasons71 and which are likely to operate in limiting their ranges1 are also important subjects of inquiry4 ,the migrations of animals1 and especially any facts about the irruption of species into districts previously uninhabited by them1 are well worth recording4 ,the food of each species should be noticed1 and if any change of customary food is observed1 owing to the failure of the supply1 it should be carefully recorded4 ,the use in nature of any peculiar physical conformation of animals1 the object of ornamentation1 and so forth1 should also be investigated whenever opportunity occurs4 ,any facts relating to the interbreeding in a state of nature of allied varieties1 or the converse--that is1 the antipathy to intercrossing of allied varieties--would be extremely interesting4 ,in short1 the traveller should bear in mind that facts having a philosophical bearing are much more important than mere anecdotes about animals4 ,to observe the actions of the larger animals1 a telescope or field-glass will be necessary4 ,the traveller should bear in mind1 if a microscope is needed in his journey1 that by unscrewing the tubes of the telescope in which all the small glasses are contained1 a compound microscope of considerable power may be produced4 ,v4 ,,anthropology4 ,by the late ,,sir ,e4 ,b4 ,,tylor1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,the characters of men's bodies and minds being matters of common observation1 ,europeans not specially trained in anthropology1 who have happened to be thrown among little-known tribes1 often bring home valuable anthropological information4 ,though explorers1 traders1 and colonists have made their way into almost every corner of the earth1 it is surprising to find how many new facts may still be noted down by any careful observer4 ,if familiar with anthropological methods1 he will1 of course1 observe more and better4 ,the hints here given will serve to draw attention to interesting points which might otherwise be overlooked4 ,directions for such investigation1 drawn up in much greater detail1 will be found in the small ,british ,association manual entitled3 #8,notes and ,queries on ,anthropology' 7,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 #ej1 ,great ,russell ,street1 ,w41 #dth edition 7#aiab71 price #es47 ,for fuller details see the international agreement for the ,unification of ,anthropometric ,measurements to be made on the living subject4 ,english translation of the official version1 ,w4 ,l4 ,h4 ,duckworth4 ,physical ,characters4--,on first coming among an unfamiliar race1 such as the ,negroes1 the traveller is apt to think them almost alike1 till after a few days he learns to distinguish individuals more sharply4 ,this first impression1 however1 has a value of its own1 for what he vaguely perceived was the general type of the race1 which he may afterwards gain a more perfect idea of by careful comparison4 ,among tribes who for many generations have led a simple uniform life and mixed little with strangers1 the general likeness of build and feature is very close1 as may be seen in a photograph of a party of ,caribs or ,andamaners1 whose uniformity contrasts instructively with the individualised faces of a party of ,europeans4 ,the consequence is that a traveller among a rude people1 if he has something of the artist's faculty of judging form1 may select groups for photography which will fairly represent the type of a whole tribe or nation4 ,while such portrait-groups are admirable for giving the general idea of a race1 characteristic features belonging to it should be treated separately4 ,for instance1 to do justice to the ,tartar eye or the ,australian forehead1 the individual feature must be carefully sketched or photographed large4 ,how deceptive mere unmeasured impressions of size may be is shown by the well-known example of the ,patagonians1 who1 though really only tall men 7averaging #e feet #aa inches71 long had the reputation of a race of giants4 ,such measurements as any traveller can take with a measuring-tape and a three-foot rule with sliding square are good if taken with proper precautions4 ,as the object of the anthropologist is to get a general idea of a race1 it may be in some respects misleading to measure at random one or two individuals who are perhaps not fair specimens4 ,if only a few can be measured1 they should be selected of ordinary average build1 full-grown but not aged4 ,what is much better is to measure a large number 7never less than thirty7 of persons taken indiscriminately as they come1 and to record the measurements of each with sex1 age1 name1 locality1 etc4 ,such a table can afterwards be so classified as to show not only the average or mean size1 but the proportion of persons who vary more or less from that mean size2 in fact1 it represents on a small scale the distribution of stature1 etc41 in the whole people4 ,gigantic or dwarfish individuals1 if not deformed1 are interesting1 as showing to what extremes the race may run4 ,the most ordinary measurements are height1 girth round chest1 fathom or length of outstretched arms1 length of arm from shoulder and leg from hip1 length of hand and foot4 ,the traveller may find that such measuring of another race shows very different stature and girth from that of his own companions1 who1 if they are well-grown ,europeans1 may stand #e feet #h inches to #f feet1 and measure #cd to #cf inches round the chest4 ,beyond this1 he will find that the relative proportions of parts of the body differ from those he is accustomed to4 ,an example of this is seen by placing ,europeans and negroes side by side1 and noticing how much nearer the knee the negro's finger-tips will reach4 ,it will be found that body measurement needs skill in taking the corresponding points1 and in fact all but the simplest measures require some knowledge of anatomy4 ,this is especially the case with skull measurements4 ,there are instruments for taking the dimensions of the living head1 and with care and practice the untrained observer may get at some of the more conspicuous1 such as the relative length and width of the skull as taken by hatters4 ,this roughly indicates the marked difference between dolichocephalic or long-headed peoples1 like the ,african negro1 and brachycephalic or short-headed peoples1 like the ,kalmuks and other ,tartars4 ,attention should be paid also to the degree of prognathism or projection of jaw1 which in some races1 as the ,australian1 gives a 8muzzle0 unlike the ,english type4 ,where practicable1 native skeletons1 and especially skulls1 should be sent home for accurate examination4 ,how far this can be done depends much on the feeling of the people2 for while some tribes do not object to the removal of bones1 especially if not of their own kinsfolk1 in other districts it is hardly safe to risk the displeasure of the natives at the removal of the dead--a feeling which is not only due to affection or respect1 but even more to terror of the vengeance of the ghosts whose relics have been disturbed4 ,in describing complexion1 such terms as 8brown0 or 8olive10 so often used without further definition in books of travel1 are too inexact to be of use4 ,broca's scale of colours 7see ,final ,report of ,british ,association ,committee on ,anthropometric ,method4 ,r4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 #aiji7 gives means of matching the tints of skin1 hair and eyes2 if this is not forthcoming1 the paint-box should be used to record them4 ,among rude tribes1 the colour of the skin is often so masked by paint and dirt that the subject must be washed to see the real complexion4 ,hair is also an important race-mark1 varying as it does in colour from flaxen to black1 and also in form and size of the hairs2 for instance the ,american ,indian's coarse straight hair seems almost like a horse's tail in comparison with the ,bushman's hair with its natural frizz of tiny spirals4 ,locks of hair should therefore be collected4 ,the traveller1 however1 will often find some difficulty in getting such specimens1 from the objection prevalent in the uncivilised world of letting any part of the body1 such as hair and nail-clippings1 pass into strangers' hands lest they should be used to bewitch their former owner4 ,even in such countries as ,italy1 to ask for a lock of a peasant-girl's hair may lead to the anthropologist being suspected of wishing to practise love-charms on her4 ,differences of temperament between nations are commonly to be noticed2 for instance1 in comparing the shy and grave ,malays with the boisterous ,africans4 ,it is an interesting but difficult problem how far such differences are due to inherited race-character1 and how far to such social influences as education and custom1 and to the conditions of life being cheerful or depressing4 ,nor has it yet been determined how far emotions are differently expressed by different races1 so that it is worth while to notice particularly if their smiling1 laughing1 frowning1 weeping1 blushing1 etc41 differ perceptibly from ours4 ,the acuteness of the senses of sight1 hearing and smell1 among wild peoples is often remarkable1 but this subject is one on which many accounts have been given which require sifting4 ,the skill of savages in path-finding and tracking depends in great measure on this being one of their most necessary arts of life to which they are trained from childhood1 as1 in an inferior degree1 gipsies are with us4 ,the native hunter or guide's methods of following the track of an animal1 or finding his own way home by slight signs1 such as bent twigs1 and keeping general direction through the forest by the sky and the sheltered sides of the trees1 are very interesting1 though when learnt they lose much of their marvellous appearance4 ,the testing of the mental powers of various races is an interesting research1 for which good opportunities now and then occur4 ,it is established that some races are inferior to others in volume and complexity of brain1 ,australians and ,africans being in this respect below ,europeans1 and the question is to determine what differences of mind may correspond4 ,setting aside the contemptuous notions of uneducated ,europeans as to the minds of 8black-fellows0 or 8niggers10 what is required is1 to compare the capacity of two races under similar circumstances4 ,this is made difficult by the fact of different training4 ,for instance1 it would not be fair to compare the ,european sportsman's skill in woodcraft and hunting with that of the native hunter1 who has done nothing else since childhood2 while1 on the other hand1 the ,european1 who has always lived among civilised people1 owes to his education so much of his superior reasoning powers1 that it is mostly impossible to get his mind into comparison with a savage's4 ,one of the best tests is the progress made by native and ,european children in colonial or missionary schools1 as to which it is commonly stated that children of ,african or ,american tribes learn as fast as or faster than ,european children up to about twelve1 but then fall behind4 ,even here it is evident that other causes besides mental power may be at work1 among them the discouragement of the native children when they become aware of their social inferiority4 ,the subject is one of great importance1 both scientifically and as bearing on practical government4 ,both as a matter of anthropology and of practical politics the suitability of particular races to particular climates is of great interest2 sometimes this depends on one race being free from a disease from which another suffers1 as in the well-known immunity of negroes from yellow fever4 ,or it may be evident that tribes have become acclimatised1 so as to resist influences which are deadly to strangers2 for instance1 the ,khonds flourish in the hills of ,orissa1 where not only ,europeans but the ,hindus of the plains sicken of the malaria in the unhealthy season4 ,that such peculiarities of constitution are inherited and pass into the nature of the race1 is one of the keys to the obscure problem of the origins of the various races of man as connected with their spread over the globe4 ,as yet this problem has not passed much beyond the stage of collecting information1 and no pains should be spared to get at facts thus bearing on the history and development of the human species4 ,european medical men in districts inhabited by uncivilised races have often made important observations of this kind1 which they are glad to communicate1 though being occupied with professional work they do not follow them up4 ,in all races there occur abnormal varieties1 which should be observed with reference to their being hereditary1 such as ,albinos1 whose dead-whiteness is due to absence of pigment from the skin4 ,even such tendencies as that to the occurrence of red hair where the ordinary hue is black1 or to melanism or diseased darkening of the skin1 are worth remark4 ,it is essential to discover how far these descend from parents to children1 which is not the case with such alterations as that of the ,chinese feet1 which1 in spite of generations of cramping1 continue of the natural shape in the children4 ,language4--,before coming to actual language1 remark may be made on the natural communication of all races carried on by pantomimic signs without spoken words4 ,this is the 8gesture language0 to which we are accustomed among the deaf-and-dumb1 and which sometimes also comes into practical use between tribes ignorant of one another's languages1 as on the ,american prairies4 ,it is so far the same in principle everywhere1 that the explorer visiting a new tribe1 having to make frequent use of signs to supplement his interpreter1 or to eke out his own scanty knowledge of the native language1 soon adapts himself to the particular signs in vogue4 ,he will observe that1 as to most common signs1 such as asking for food or drink1 or beckoning or warning off a stranger1 he understands and is understood quite naturally4 ,signs which are puzzling at first sight will prove on examination to be intelligible4 ,some are imitative gestures cut short to save trouble1 or they may have a meaning which was once evident1 like the ,american ,indian sign for dog1 made by trailing two forked fingers1 which does not show its meaning now1 but did so in past times1 when one of the principal occupations of the dog was to trail a pair of tent-poles attached to his back4 ,besides its practical use1 the gesture-language has much scientific interest from the perfect way in which it exposes the working of the human mind1 expressing itself by a series of steps which are all intelligible4 ,it will be particularly observed that it has a strict syntax2 for instance1 that the quality or adjective must always follow the subject or substantive it is applied to4 ,thus1 8the white box0 may be expressed by imitating the shape and opening of a box1 and then touching a piece of linen or paper to show its colour2 but if the signs be put in the contrary order1 as in the ,english words1 the native will be perplexed4 ,it is worth while1 in countries where gesture-language is regularly used1 to note down the usual signs and their exact order4 ,in recording a vocabulary of a language not yet reduced to form in a grammar and dictionary1 the traveller may seek for equivalents of the principal classes of words in his own grammar3 verbs1 substantives1 adjectives1 pronouns1 prepositions1 etc4 ,but the structure of the language he is examining will probably differ from any he is familiar with1 the words actually used not coming precisely into these classes4 ,the best method is for the traveller to learn a simple sentence1 such as 8the men are coming10 and to ascertain what changes will convert them into 8the men are going10 8the women are coming40 ,he thus arrives at the real elements of the language and the method of combining them4 ,having arrived at this point1 he will be able to collect and classify current ideas1 such as the following3-- ,actions--as stand1 walk1 sleep1 eat1 see1 make1 etc4 ,natural ,objects and ,elements--as sun1 moon1 star1 mountain1 river1 fire1 water1 etc4 ,man and other ,animals--as man1 woman1 boy1 girl1 deer1 buck1 doe1 eagle1 eagles1 etc4 ,parts of ,body--as head1 arm1 leg1 skin1 bone1 blood1 etc4 ,trees and ,plants4 ,numerals 7noticing how far they extend1 and whether referring to fingers74 ,instruments and ,appliances--as spear1 bow1 hatchet1 needle1 pot1 boat1 cord1 house1 roof1 c4 ,arts and ,pastimes--as picture1 paint1 carving1 statue1 song1 dance1 toy1 game1 riddle1 c4 ,family ,relationships 7as defined by native custom74 ,social and ,legal ,terms--as chief1 freeman1 slave1 witness1 punishment1 fine1 c4 ,religious ,terms--as soul1 spirit1 dream1 vision1 sacrifice1 penance1 c4 ,moral ,terms--as truth1 falsehood1 kindness1 treachery1 love1 c4 ,abstract ,terms1 relating to time1 space1 colour1 shape1 power1 cause1 c4 ,the interjections used in any language can be noted1 whether they are organic expressions of emotion1 like oh6 ugh6 ur-r-r6 or sounds the nature of which is not so evident4 ,also imitative words which name animals from their cries1 or express sounding objects or actions by their sounds1 are common in all languages1 and strike the stranger4 ,examples of such are kah-kah for a crow1 twonk for a frog1 pututu for a shell-trumpet1 haitschu for to sneeze4 ,when such imitative words are noticed passing into other meanings where the connection with sound is not obvious1 they become interesting facts in the development of language2 as1 to take a familiar example from ,english1 the imitative verb to puff becomes a term for light pastry and metaphorically blown-up praise4 ,it is only when the traveller has a long or close acquaintance with a tribe1 that he is able to deal satisfactorily with the vocabulary and structure of their language4 ,to be able to carry on a conversation in broken sentences is not enough1 for an actual grammar and dictionary is required to enable philologists to make out the structure and affinities with other languages4 ,it used to be customary to send out ,english lists of thirty or forty ordinary words to have equivalents put to them in native languages4 ,as every detail of this kind is worth having1 these lists cannot be said to be quite worthless1 but they go hardly any way toward what is really wanted4 ,they are liable to frequent mistakes1 as when the barbarian1 from whom the white man is trying to get the term 8foot10 answers with a word meaning 8my leg10 which is carefully taken down and printed4 ,such poor vocabularies cannot even be relied on to show whether a language belongs to a particular family1 for the very word which seems to prove this may be borrowed4 ,thus1 in various ,african vocabularies1 there appears the word sapun 7or something similar7 with the meaning of soap2 but this is a ,latin word which has spread far and wide from one country to another1 and proves nothing as to original connection between languages which have adopted it4 ,while it is best not to under-rate the difficulty of collecting such information as to a little-known dialect as will be really of service to philology1 it must be remembered that travellers still often have opportunities of preserving relics of languages1 or at any rate special dialects1 which are on the point of dying out unrecorded4 ,where no proper grammar and dictionary has been compiled1 it is often possible to find some ,european or some interpreter fairly conversant with the language1 with whose aid a vocabulary may be written out and sentences analysed grammatically1 which1 when read over to intelligent natives and criticised by them1 may be worked into good linguistic material4 ,it is worth while to pay attention to native names of plants1 minerals1 c41 as well as of places and persons1 for these are often terms carrying significant meaning4 ,thus ipecacuanha is stated by ,martius to be i-pe-caa-gune1 which in the ,tupi language of ,brazil1 signifies 8the little wayside plant which makes vomit40 ,arts and ,sciences4--,the less civilised a nation is1 the ruder are its tools and contrivances2 but these are often worked with curious skill in getting excellent results with the roughest means4 ,stone implements have now been so supplanted by iron that they are not easily found in actual use4 ,if a chance of seeing them occurs1 as1 for instance1 among some ,californian tribe1 who still chip out arrow-heads of obsidian1 it is well to get a lesson in the curious and difficult art of stone-implement making4 ,in general1 tools and implements differing from those of the civilised world1 even down to the pointed stick for root-digging and planting1 are worth collecting1 and to learn their use from a skilled hand often brings into view remarkable peculiarities4 ,this is the case with many cudgel or boomerang-like weapons thrown at game1 slings or spear-throwers for hurling darts to greater distances than they can be sent by hand1 blow-tubes for killing birds1 and even the bow-and-arrow1 which in northern ,asia and ,america shows the ancient ,scythian or ,tartar form1 having to be bent inside out to string it4 ,though fire is now practically made almost everywhere with flint and steel or lucifers1 in some districts1 as ,south ,africa or ,polynesia1 people still know the primitive method of fire-making by rubbing or drilling a pointed stick into another piece of wood4 ,europeans find difficulty in learning this old art1 which requires some knack4 ,as is well known to sportsmen1 different districts have their special devices for netting1 trapping and other ways of taking game and fish1 some of which are well worth notice1 such as spearing or shooting fish under water1 artificial decoys1 and the spring-traps set with bent boughs1 which are supposed to have first suggested the idea of the bow4 ,while the use of dogs in hunting is found in most parts of the world1 there is the utmost variety of breeds and training4 ,agriculture in its lower stages is carried on by simple processes2 but interesting questions arise as to the origin of its grain and fruits1 and the alterations in them by transplanting into a new climate and by ages of cultivation4 ,thus in ,chili there is found wild what botanists consider the original potato2 but while maize was a staple of both ,americas at the time of ,columbus1 its original form has no more been identified than that of wheat in the ,old ,world4 ,the cookery of all nations is in principle known to the civilised ,european2 but there are special preparations to notice1 such as bucaning or drying meat on a hurdle above a slow fire1 broiling kebabs or morsels of meat on the skewer in the ,east1 etc4 ,many peoples have something peculiar in the way of beverages1 such as the chewed ,polynesian kava1 or the ,south ,american mat sucked through a tube4 ,especially fermented liquors have great variety1 such as the kumiss from mares' milk in ,tartary1 the pombe or millet-beer of ,africa1 and the kvass or rye-beer of ,russia4 ,the rudest pottery made by hand1 not thrown on the wheel1 is less and less often met with1 but ornamentation traceable to its being moulded on baskets is to be seen2 and calabashes1 joints of bamboo1 and close-plaited baskets are used for water-vessels1 and even to boil in4 ,among the curious processes of metal-working1 contrasting with those of modern ,europe1 though often showing skill of their own1 may be mentioned the simple ,african smelting-forge by which iron-ore is reduced with charcoal in a hole in the ground1 the draught being supplied by a pair of skins for bellows4 ,in the far ,east a kind of air-pump is used1 of which the barrels are hollowed logs4 ,the ,chinese art of patching cast-iron with melted metal surprises a ,european1 and the ,hindu manufacture of native steel 7wootz7 is a remarkable process4 ,no nation now exists absolutely in the ,bronze ,age1 but this alloy still occupies something of its old place in ,oriental industry4 ,as an example of the methods still to be seen1 may be mentioned the ,burmese bell-founding1 which is done1 not in a hollow mould of sand1 but by what in ,europe is called the cire perdue process1 the model of the bell being made in beeswax and imbedded in the sand-mould1 the wax being melted and the hot metal taking its place4 ,the whole history of machinery is open to the traveller1 who still meets with every stage of its development1 from savagery upward4 ,he sees1 for instance1 every tilling implement from the stake with fire-hardened point1 and the hoe of crooked branch1 up to the modern forms of plough4 ,in like manner he can trace the line from the rudest stone-crushers or rubbers for grinding seed or grain up to the rotating hand-mills or querns still common in the ,east1 and surviving even in ,scotland4 ,from time to time some special contrivance may be seen near its original home1 as in ,south ,america the curious plaited tube for wringing out the juice from cassava1 or the net hammock which still retains its native ,haitian name hamaca4 ,architecture still preserves in different regions interesting early stages of development1 from the rudest breakwinds1 or beehive huts of wattled boughs1 up to houses of logs and hewn timber1 structures of mud and adobes1 and masonry of rough or hewn stone4 ,even the construction of the bough-hut or the log-house often has its peculiarities in the arrangements of posts and rafters4 ,among the modes of construction which interest the student of architectural history is building with rough unhewn stones4 ,many examples of 8rude stone monuments0 are to be seen on our own moors and hills4 ,the most familiar kinds are dolmens 7i4e41 8table-stones071 formed by upright stones bearing a cap-stone2 they were burial-places1 and analogous to the cists or chambers of rough slabs within burial-mounds4 ,less clearly explicable are the single standing-stones or menhirs 7i4e41 8long-stones071 and the circles of stones or cromlechs4 ,ancient and obscure in meaning as such monuments are in ,europe1 there are regions where their construction or use comes down to modern times1 especially in ,india1 where among certain tribes the deposit of ashes of the dead in dolmens1 the erection of menhirs in memory of great men1 and even sacrifice in stone circles1 are well-known customs4 ,the traveller may also sometimes have opportunities of observing the ancient architectural construction by fitting together many-sided stones into what are sometimes called ,cyclopean walls1 a kind of building which seems to have preceded the use of squared blocks1 fastened together with clamps or with mortar4 ,vaulting or roofing by means of courses of stones projecting inwards one course above the other 7much as children build with their wooden bricks71 so as to form what architects call a 8false arch10 is an ancient mode of construction found in various parts of the world where the 8true arch0 with its keystone has not superseded it4 ,it often appears that rude nations have copied the more artistic buildings of higher neighbours1 or inherited ancient architectural traditions4 ,thus traces of ,indian architecture have found their way into the islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 and hollow squares of mud-built houses round a courtyard in northern ,africa have their plan from the ,asiatic caravanserai4 ,in boat-building some primitive forms1 as the 8dug-out10 hollowed by the aid of fire from a tree-trunk1 and the bark-canoe1 are found in such distant regions that we cannot guess where they had their origin4 ,when1 however1 it comes to the outrigger-canoe1 this belongs to a district which1 though very large1 is still limited1 so that we may at least guess whereabouts it first came into use1 and it is important to note every island to which it has since travelled4 ,so there is much in the peculiar build and rig of ,malay prahus1 ,chinese junks1 etc41 which is worth noting as part of the history of ship-building4 ,this may suffice to give a general idea of the kind of information as to the local arts which it is worth while to collect1 and to illustrate by drawings and photographs of objects too large to bring away4 ,naturally1 nations below the upper levels of culture have little or no science to teach us1 but many of their ideas are interesting as marking stages in the history of the human mind4 ,thus1 in the art of counting1 which is one of the foundations of science1 it is common to find the primitive method of counting by fingers and toes still in practical use1 while in many languages the numeral words have evidently grown up out of such a state of things4 ,thus lima1 the well-known ,polynesian word for five1 meant 8hand10 before it passed into a numeral4 ,all devices for counting are worth notice1 from the ,african little sticks for units and larger sticks for tens1 up to the ball-frames with which the ,chinese and ,russian traders reckon so rapidly and correctly4 ,it is a sign of lowness in a tribe not to use measures and weights1 and where these appear in a rough way1 it is interesting to discover whether vague lengths1 such as finger1 foot1 pace1 are used1 or whether standard measures and weights have come in4 ,if so1 these should be estimated according to our standards with as much accuracy as possible1 as it may thus become possible to ascertain their history4 ,in connection with this comes the question of money1 as to whether commerce is still in the rudimentary stage of exchanging gifts1 or has passed into regular barter1 or risen to regular trade1 with some sort of money to represent value1 even if the circulating medium be only cowries1 or bits of iron1 or cakes of salt1 all which are current money to this day in parts of ,africa4 ,outside the present higher civilisation1 more or less primitive ideas of astronomy and geography will be found to prevail4 ,among tribes like the ,american ,indians the obvious view suggested by the senses still prevails1 that the earth is a flat round disc 7or sometimes square1 with four quarters or winds7 overarched by a solid dome or firmament1 on which the sun and moon travel--in inland countries going in and out at holes or doors on the horizon1 or1 if the sea bounds the view1 rising from and plunging into its waves at sunrise and sunset4 ,these early notions are to us very instructive1 as they enable us to realise the conceptions of the universe which have come down to us in the ancient books of the world1 but which scientific education has uprooted from our own minds4 ,with these cosmic ideas are found among the lowest races the two natural periods of time1 namely1 the lunar month and the solar year1 determined by recurring winters1 summers1 or rainy seasons4 ,such tribes divide the day roughly by the sun's height in the sky1 but among peoples civilised enough to have time-measures and the sun-dial1 there is a tolerably accurate knowledge of the sun's place at the longest and shortest days1 and indeed1 throughout the year4 ,the astronomy of such countries as ,india has been of course described by professional astronomers2 but among ruder nations there is still a great deal unrecorded--for instance1 as to the constellations into which they map out the heavens4 ,this likening stars and star-groups to animals and other objects is almost universal among mankind4 ,savages like the ,australians still make fanciful stories about them1 as that ,castor and ,pollux are two native hunters1 who pursue the kangaroo 7,capella7 and kill him at the beginning of the hot season4 ,such stories enable us to understand the myths of the ,classical ,dictionary1 while modern astronomers keep up the old constellations as a convenient mode of mapping out the sky4 ,as to maps of the earth1 even low tribes have some notion of their principle1 and can roughly draw the chart of their own district1 which they should be encouraged to do4 ,native knowledge of natural history differs from much of their rude science in its quality1 often being of great positive value4 ,the savage or barbarian hunter knows the animals of his own region and their habits with remarkable accuracy1 and inherited experience has taught him that certain plants have industrial and medicinal uses4 ,thus1 in ,south ,america the ,europeans learnt the use of ,india-rubber or caoutchouc1 which the native tribes were accustomed to make into vessels and playing-balls1 and of the ,peruvian bark or cinchona1 which was already given to patients in fever4 ,here a few words may be said of magic1 which1 though so utterly futile in practice1 is a sort of early and unsuccessful attempt at science4 ,it is easy1 on looking into the proceedings of the magician1 to see that many of them are merely attempts to work by false analogy or deceptive association of ideas4 ,the attempt to hurt or kill a person by cutting or piercing a rude picture or image representing him1 which is met with in all the four quarters of the globe1 is a perfect example of the way in which sorcerers mistake mere association of ideas for real cause and effect4 ,examined from this point of view1 it will be found that a large proportion of the magic rites of the world will explain their own meaning4 ,it is true that this is not the only principle at work in the magician's mind2 for instance1 he seems to reason in a loose way that any extraordinary thing will produce any extraordinary effect1 so that the peculiar stones and bits of wood which we should call curiosities become to the ,african sorcerer powerful fetishes4 ,it will often be noticed that arts belonging to the systematic magic of the civilised world1 which has its source in ,babylon and ,egypt1 have found their way into distant lands more readily indeed than useful knowledge1 so that they may even be met with among barbaric tribes4 ,thus it has lately been pointed out that the system of lucky and unlucky days1 which led the natives in ,madagascar to kill many infants as of inauspicious birth1 is adopted from ,arabic magic1 and it is to be expected that many other magical arts1 if their formulas are accurately described1 may in like manner be traced to their origin4 ,society4--,one of the most interesting features of savage and barbaric life is the existence of an unwritten code of moral conduct1 by which families and tribes are practically held together4 ,there may be no laws to punish crime1 and the local religion may no more concern itself directly with men's behaviour to one another than it did in the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,but among the roughest people there is family affection1 and some degree of mutual help and trust1 without which1 indeed1 it is obvious that society would break up1 perhaps in general slaughter4 ,considering the importance of this primitive morality in the history of mankind1 it is unfortunate that the attention of travellers has been so little drawn to it1 that our information is most meagre as to how far family affection among rude tribes may be taken to be instinctive1 like that of the lower animals1 or how far morality is produced by public opinion favouring such conduct as is for the public good1 but blaming acts which do harm to the tribe4 ,it is desirable to inquire what conduct is sanctioned by custom among any people1 whether1 for instance1 infanticide is thought right or wrong1 what freedom of behaviour is approved in youths and girls1 and so on4 ,for though breaches of custom may not be actually punishable1 experience will soon convince any explorer among any rude tribe that custom acts in regulating their life even more strictly than among ourselves4 ,the notion of even savages leading a free and unrestrained life is contradicted by those who know them best2 in fact1 they are bound in every act by ancestral custom4 ,while each tribe thus has its moral standard of right and wrong1 this differs much in different tribes1 and one must become intimately acquainted with any people to ascertain what are really their ruling principles of life4 ,accounts have been often given of the natural virtue and happiness of rude tribes1 as in the forests of ,guiana or the hills of ,bengal1 where the simple native life is marked by truthfulness1 honesty1 cheerfulness1 and kindness1 which contrast in a striking way with the habits of low-class ,europeans4 ,there are few phenomena in the world more instructive than morality thus existing in practical independence either of law or religion4 ,it may still be possible to observe it for a few years before it is altered by contact with civilisation1 which1 whether it raises or lowers on the whole the native level1 must supersede in great measure this simple family morality4 ,the unit of social life is the family1 and the family is based on a marriage-law4 ,travellers who have not looked carefully into the social rules of tribes they were describing1 or whose experience has been of tribes in a state of decay1 have sometimes reported that marriage hardly existed4 ,but this state of things is not confirmed as descriptive of any healthy human society1 however rude2 in fact1 the absence of definite marriage appears incompatible with the continued existence of a tribe4 ,therefore statements of this kind made by former visitors should be carefully sifted1 and marriage-laws in general deserve careful study4 ,the explorer will hardly meet with marriage at so low a stage that the union can be described as little beyond annual pairing2 but where divorce is almost unrestricted1 as in some ,african tribes1 there is more or less approach to this condition1 which is possible1 though unusual1 under such laws as that of ,islam4 ,polygamy1 which exists over a large part of the globe1 is a well-understood system1 but information is less complete as to the reasons which have here and there led to its opposite polyandry1 as among the ,toda hill-tribes and the ,nairs in ,south ,india4 ,among customs deserving inquiry are match-making festivals at spring-tide or harvest1 when a great part of the year's marriages are arranged4 ,this is not only often done among the lower races1 but traces of it remain in ,greece1 where the dances at ,megara on ,easter ,tuesday are renowned for wife-choosing1 and till lately in ,brittany1 where on ,michaelmas ,day the girls sate in a row decked in all their finery on the bridge of ,penz1 near ,morlaix4 ,the custom of bride-capture1 where the bridegroom and his friends make show of carrying off the bride by violence1 is known in ,europe as a relic of antiquity1 as in ancient ,rome1 ,wales within the last century or two1 or ,tyrol at the present day2 but in more barbaric regions1 as on the ,malay peninsula or among the ,kalmuks of ,north ,asia1 it may be often met with1 practised as a ceremony1 or even done in earnest4 ,on the other hand1 restrictions on marriage between kinsfolk or clansfolk are more prominent among the lower races than in the civilised world1 but their motive is even now imperfectly understood4 ,partly these restrictions take the form we are accustomed to of prohibiting marriage between relatives more or less near in our sense1 but among nations at a lower level they are apt to involve also what is called exogamy or 8marrying-out40 ,a tribe or people--for instance1 the ,kamilaroi of ,australia1 or the ,iroquois of ,north ,america--is divided into hereditary clans1 members of which may not marry in their own clan4 ,in various parts of the world these clans are named from some animal1 plant1 or other object1 and anthropologists often call such names 8totems10 this word being taken from the native name among ,algonquin tribes of ,north ,america4 ,for an instance of the working of this custom among the ,iroquois tribes a ,wolf was considered brother to a ,wolf of any other tribe1 and might not marry a ,wolf girl1 who was considered as his sister1 but he might marry a ,deer or a ,heron4 ,in contrast with such rules is the practice of endogamy1 or 8marrying-in10 as among some ,arab tribes1 who habitually marry cousins4 ,but it will be found that the two rules often go together1 as where a ,hindu must practically marry within his own caste1 but at the same time is prohibited from marrying in his own gotra or clan4 ,researches into totem-laws are apt to bring the traveller into contact with other relics of the ancient social institutions in which these laws are rooted1 especially the practice of reckoning descent not on the father's side1 as with us1 but on the mother's side1 after the manner of the ,lycians1 whose custom seemed extraordinary to the ,greeks in the time of ,herodotus1 but may be still seen in existence among native tribes of ,america or in the ,malay islands4 ,even the system of relationship familiar to ,europeans is far different from those of regions where forms of the 8classificatory system0 prevail1 in which father's brothers and mother's sisters are called fathers and mothers4 ,in inquiring into native laws of marriage and descent1 precautions must be taken to ensure accuracy1 and especially such ambiguous ,english words as 8uncle0 or 8cousin0 should be kept clear of4 ,another point on which travellers have great opportunity of seeing with their own eyes the working of primitive society is the holding and inheritance of property1 especially land4 ,notions derived from our modern law of landlord and tenant give place in the traveller's mind to older conceptions1 among which individual property in land is hardly found4 ,in rude society it is very generally the tribe which owns a district as common land1 where all may hunt and pasture and cut fire-wood2 while1 when a family have built a hut1 and tilled a patch of land round it1 this is held in common by the family while they live there1 but falls back into tribe-land if they cease to occupy it4 ,this is further organised in what are now often called 8village communities10 which may be seen in operation in ,russia and ,india1 where the village fields are portioned out among the villagers4 ,those who have seen them can understand the many traces in ,england of the former prevalence of this system in 8common fields10 etc4 ,there is the more practical interest in studying the working of this old-world system from the light it throws on projects of communistic division of land1 which in such villages may be studied1 and its merits and defects balanced4 ,on the one hand it assures a maintenance for all1 while on the other it limits the population of a district1 the more so from the obstinate resistance which the counsel of 8old men0 who manage a village always oppose to any improved method of tillage4 ,not less perfectly do the tenures existing in many countries show the various stages of landholding which arise out of military conquest4 ,the absolute ownership of all the land by a barbaric chief or king1 which may be seen in such a country as ,dahome1 whose subjects hold their lands on royal sufferance1 is an extreme case4 ,in the ,east1 feudal tenures of land granted for military service still have much the same results as in medival ,europe4 ,at low levels of civilisation the first dawning of criminal law may be seen in the rule of vengeance or retaliation4 ,the person aggrieved1 or his kinsfolk if he has been killed1 are at once judges and executioners1 and the vengeance they inflict stands in some reasonable relation to the offence committed4 ,not only is such vengeance the great means of keeping order among such rude tribes as the ,australians1 but even among half-civilised nations like ,abyssinians and ,afghans the primitive law may still be studied in force1 carried out in strict legal order as a lex talionis1 not degraded to mere illegal survival in outlying districts like the 8vendetta0 of modern ,europe1 carried on even now1 in spite of criminal jurisprudence1 which for ages has striven to transfer punishment from private hands to the ,state4 ,whether among savages1 barbarians1 or the lower civilised nations1 the traveller will find everywhere matter of interesting observation in the law and its administration4 ,the law may be still in the state of unwritten custom1 and the senate or council of old men may be the judges1 or the power at once of lawgiver and judge may have passed into the hands of the chief1 who1 as among the modern ,kaffirs1 may make a handsome revenue by the cattle given him as fees by both sides1 a fact interesting as illustrating the times when an ,european judge took gifts as a matter of course4 ,among the nations at higher levels of culture in the ,east1 for instance1 most of the stages may still be seen through which the administration of law1 criminal and civil1 was given over to a trained legal class4 ,one important stage in history is marked by religion taking to itself legal control over the conduct of a nation4 ,the working of this is seen among ,oriental nations1 whether ,mohammedan1 ,brahman1 or ,buddhist1 whose codes of law are of an ecclesiastical type1 and the lawyers theologians4 ,there is much to be learnt from the manner in which such law is administered1 and the devices are interesting by which codes framed under past conditions of society are practically accommodated to a new order of things1 without professedly violating laws held to be sacred1 and therefore unchangeable4 ,ordeals1 which have now disappeared from legal procedure among ,european nations1 are often to be met with elsewhere4 ,thus in ,arabia the ordeal by touching or licking hot iron is still known 7the latter is an easy and harmless trick1 if the iron is quite white-hot74 ,in ,burma1 under native rule1 the ancient trial of witches by 8swimming0 went on till lately4 ,in many countries also symbolic oaths invoking evils on the perjurer are to be met with1 as when the ,ostyaks in ,siberia swear in court by laying their hand on a bear's head1 meaning that a bear will kill them if they lie4 ,it shows the carelessness with which ,europeans are apt to regard the customs of other nations1 that in ,english courts a ,chinese is called upon to swear by breaking a saucer1 under the entirely erroneous belief that this symbolic curse is a ,chinese judicial oath4 ,the most undeveloped forms of government are only to be met with in a few outlying regions1 as among some of the lower ,esquimaux or ,rocky ,mountain tribes1 where life goes on with hardly any rule beyond such control as the strong man may have over his own household4 ,much oftener travellers have opportunity of studying1 in a more or less crude state1 the types of government which prevail in higher culture4 ,it is of especial interest to see men of the whole tribe gathered in assembly 7the primitive agora7 to decide some question of war or migration4 ,not less instructive are the proceedings of the council of old men 7the primitive senate71 who1 among ,american tribes or the hill tribes of ,india1 transact the business of the tribe2 they are represented at a later social stage by the village-elders of the ,hindus or the ,russians4 ,among the problems which present themselves among nations below the civilised level is that of the working of the patriarchal system1 still prevailing among such tribes as the ,bedaween1 while often the balance of power is seen adjusting itself between the patriarchal heads of families and the leaders who obtain authority by success in war4 ,the struggle between the hereditary chief or king and the military despot1 who not only usurps his place but seeks to establish hereditary monarchy in his own line1 is one met with from low to high levels of national life4 ,the traveller's attention may be called to the social forces which do their work independently of men in authority1 and make society possible1 even when there is little visible authority at all4 ,the machinery of government described in books is often much less really powerful than public opinion1 which controls men's conduct in ways which are so much less conspicuous that they have hardly yet been investigated with the care they deserve4 ,religion and ,mythology4--,while great religions1 like ,mohammedanism and ,buddhism1 have been so carefully examined that ,european students often know more about their sacred books than the believers themselves1 yet the general investigation of the religions of the world is very imperfect1 and every effort should be made to save the details from being lost as one tribe after another disappears1 or passes into a new belief4 ,missionaries have done much in recording particulars of native religions1 and some have had the skill to describe them scientifically2 but the point of view of the missionary engaged in conversion to another faith is unfavourable for seeing the reasons of the beliefs and practices he is striving to upset4 ,the object of the anthropologist is neither to attack nor defend the doctrines of the religion he is examining1 but to trace their rational origin and development4 ,it is not only among the rudest tribes that religious ideas which seem of a primitive order may be met with1 but these hold their place also among the higher nations who profess a 8book-religion40 ,thus the ,english or ,german peasant retains many ideas belonging to the ancestral religion of ,thor and ,woden1 and the modern ,burmese1 though a ,buddhist1 carries on much of the old worship of the spirits of the house and the forest1 which belong to a far earlier religious stratum than ,buddhism4 ,it is in many districts possible for the traveller to obtain at first hand interesting information as to the philosophical ideas which underlie all religions4 ,all over the world1 people may be met with whose conception of soul or spirit is that belonging to primitive animism1 namely1 that the life or soul of men1 beasts1 or things1 resides in the phantoms of them seen in dreams and visions4 ,a traveller in ,british ,guiana had serious trouble with one of his ,arawaks1 who1 having dreamt that another had spoken impudently to him1 on waking up went quite naturally to his master to get the offender punished4 ,so it is reported that our officials in ,burma have considered themselves disrespectfully treated when the wife or servant of the person they have come to see has refused to wake him1 the ,englishman not understanding that these people hold early animistic ideas1 believing the soul to be away from the sleeper's body in a dream1 so that it might not find its way back if he were disturbed4 ,as scientific ideas of the nature of life and dreams are rapidly destroying these primitive conceptions1 it is desirable to collect all information about them for its important bearing on the history of philosophy and religion4 ,the same may be said as to the ancient theory of diseases as caused by demons1 and the expulsion and exorcism of them as a means of cure1 which may still be studied everywhere outside the scientific nations4 ,information as to religious rites is of course valuable1 even when the foreign observer does not understand them1 but if possible their exact meaning should be made out by some one acquainted with the language1 otherwise acts may be confused which have really different senses1 as where a morsel of food offered as a pious offering to an ancestral ghost may be taken for a sacrifice to appease an angry wood-demon4 ,a people's idea as to the meaning of their own rites may often be very wrong1 but it is always worth while to hear what they think of the purpose of their prayers1 sacrifices1 purifications1 fasts1 feasts1 and other religious ordinances1 which even among savage tribes have been long since stereotyped into traditional systems4 ,mythology is intimately mixed up with religion1 which not only ascribes the events of the world to the action of spirits1 demons1 or gods1 but everywhere individualises many of these beings under personal names1 and receives as sacred tradition wonder-tales about them4 ,thus1 to understand the religion of some tribes1 we have not only to consider the rude philosophy under which such objects as heaven and earth or sun and moon are regarded as personal beings1 whose souls 7so to speak7 are the heaven-god and earth-god1 the sun-god and moon-god2 but we have to go on further and collect the religious myths which have grown on to these superhuman beings4 ,the tales which such a people tell of their origin and past history may to some extent include traditions of real events1 but mostly they consist of myths1 which are also worth collecting1 as they often on examination disclose their origin1 or part of it4 ,this is seen1 for instance1 in the ,south ,sea ,island tale of the god ,maui1 whose death1 when he plunged into the body of his great ancestress the ,night1 is an obvious myth of the sunset4 ,the best advice as to native mythology is to write down all promising native stories1 leaving it to future examination to decide which are worth publishing4 ,the native names of personages occurring in such stories should be inquired into1 as they sometimes carry in themselves the explanation of the story itself1 like the name of ,great-,woman-,night in the ,polynesian myth just referred to4 ,riddles are sometimes interesting1 as being myths with an explanation attached1 like the ,greek riddle of the twelve black and twelve white horses that draw the chariot of the day4 ,it is not too much to say that everything which a people thinks worth remembering as a popular tradition1 and all the more if it is fixed in rhyme or verse1 is worth notice1 as likely to contain something of historical value4 ,that it may not be historically true is beside the question1 for the poetic fictions of a tribe often throw more light on their history than their recollections of petty chiefs who quarrelled fifty years ago4 ,the myths may record some old custom or keep up some old word that has died out of ordinary talk1 or the very fact of their containing a story known elsewhere in the world may give a clue to forgotten intercourse by which it was learnt4 ,customs4--,it remains to say a few words as to the multifarious customs which will come under the traveller's observation4 ,it does not follow that because these may be mentioned or described in books they need not be further looked into4 ,the fact is that accurate examination in such matters is so new1 that something always remains to be made out1 especially as the motives of so many customs are still obscure4 ,the practice of artificially deforming the infant's skull into a desired shape1 which is not quite forgotten even in ,europe1 may be noticed with respect to the question whether the form to which the child's head is bulged or flattened is the exaggeration of the natural form of an admired caste or race4 ,if not1 what can1 for instance1 have induced two ,british ,columbian tribes1 one to flatten their foreheads and the other to mould them up to a peak8 ,in tattooing1 an even more widespread practice1 it is well to ascertain whether the pattern on the skin seems to have been originally tribe-marks or other signs or records1 or whether the purpose is ornament4 ,in ,south-,east ,asia the two motives are present at once1 when a man has ornamental designs and magical charm-figures together on his body4 ,with regard to ornaments and costumes1 the keeping-up of ancient patterns for ceremonial purposes often affords curious historical hints4 ,thus in the ,eastern ,archipelago1 the old-fashioned garments of bark-cloth are used in mourning by people who have long discarded them in ordinary wear1 and another case is found among some natives of ,south ,india1 whose women1 though they no longer put on an apron of leaves as their real ordinary garment1 wear it over a cotton skirt on festival-days4 ,among the amusements of a people1 songs are often interesting musically1 and it is well to take them down1 not only for the tunes1 but also for the words1 which sometimes throw light on old traditions and beliefs4 ,dancing varies from spontaneous expression of emotion to complex figures handed down by tradition and forming part of social and religious ceremony4 ,the number of popular games in the world is smaller than would be supposed4 ,when really attractive they may be adopted from one people to another till they make their way round the world4 ,any special variety1 as of ball or draughts1 should therefore be noticed1 as it may furnish evidence of intercourse by which it may have come from some distant nation4 ,though the subjects of anthropological interest are not even fully enumerated in the present chapter1 some idea may have been given of the field of observation still open to travellers1 not only in remote countries1 but even in ,europe4 ,in taking notes1 the explorer may be recommended not to be afraid of tedious minuteness1 whereas the lively superficiality of popular books of travel makes them almost worthless for anthropology4#ae 99 99 99 99 99 ,in looking through the above remarks1 written some years since1 alteration has seemed hardly needful4 ,the writer thinks1 however1 that it may be useful to call attention to the increased opportunities of travellers to study and obtain implements of the rudest and most ancient ,stone ,age4 ,up to a few years ago they could only have expected to find proof of the recent use among savages of stone hatchets1 knives1 arrow-heads1 etc41 such as in ,europe are relics of ancient tribes4 ,these1 indeed1 have been known for more than a generation not to be the oldest relics of the kind1 but have been called neolithic or of the ,new-,stone ,age1 to distinguish them from the far older and lower types of the mammoth period1 called palolithic or of the ,old-,stone ,age4 ,implements of this class1 after their discovery in ,europe1 were soon noticed in ,india1 and are now especially recognised as found over a great part of ,africa4 ,of later years1 in the islands of the ,south ,pacific1 stone implements of an even lower class have not only been found in the ground1 but there is evidence that they had remained in use into modern times4 ,in ,tasmania it is on record from ,european eye-witnesses that tools made from chips of hard stone by trimming to an edge on one side1 and which were grasped in the hand without any handle1 were the cutting and hacking instruments of the natives into the last century1 almost up to the time of their extinction4 ,thus apparently the oldest known phase of human life endured in this region untouched by civilisation1 and travellers have the opportunity of studying its recent relics in ,tasmania1 while similar traces of rude ,stone ,age life1 though not reaching up to so late a time1 are making their appearance both in ,west ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,travellers should be careful to consider whether chipping is really artificial1 and not due to natural action of water or wind-blown sand4 ,there is no doubt that many 8implements0 in our museums are freaks of nature1 e4g41 those found in such quantities in the desert plateaux above the lower ,nile4 ,travellers of the present day have still opportunities of observation in the history of culture which will have disappeared in another generation4 ,inquiry in outlying countries should be made for the vanishing survivals of arts and customs1 stories1 and even languages4 ,in ,europe there is much of this kind to be met with by the inquirer1 especially off the beaten track4 ,thus the dug-out canoe1 the monoxyle of ,hippokrates1 need not be sought on ,african lakes1 for it is still the fisherman's craft of ,hungary and ,bosnia2 and in the same region the apparatus for producing the ceremonial need-fire by friction of wood1 which disappeared from ,scotland towards the beginning of last century1 and the 8whithorn0 of coiled bark1 the rustic musical instrument just vanishing from ,english peasant life1 are still in ceremonial use4 ,as for savage tribes which come within the traveller's ken1 though their stone implements have been mostly superseded by the white man's cutlery1 many arts of the remote past may still be seen4 ,the yet simpler means of producing fire by drilling a stick with the hands without further mechanical adaptation may still be seen among savages who have not lost their old arts1 and the twisting of thread with the hands1 which preceded the use of even the spindle1 is not everywhere forgotten4 ,though the study of the religion and folk-lore of the savage and barbaric world must be left to those who are residents rather than visitors1 the passer-by who inquires may see primitive rites of religion or magic4 ,thus in many an ,indian house in ,arizona or ,new ,mexico the traveller is reminded of his classic recollections when he sees the first morsel of the meal thrown into the fire as an offering to the ancestral spirits4 ,,note ,,by ,,professor ,r4 ,r4 ,,marett4 #8,although ,sir ,edward ,tylor's summary account of the task of the field anthropologist was written many years ago1 and is now reproduced in a substantially unaltered form1 one can confidently recommend it as still adequate to the needs of a rapidly progressing science4 ,the general plan of campaign1 so brilliantly sketched here1 remains much the same4 ,on the other hand1 the traveller in these latter days1 instead of opening up fresh fields1 must for the most part be content to work over old ground more carefully than his predecessors4 ,unless1 therefore1 he is prepared to discard superficial modes of observation and devote himself to a critical and intensive study of the available facts1 he had much better leave the subject alone4 ,it will help greatly if he has been through a course of special training1 such as several of the leading ,universities can nowadays provide4'--,r4 ,r4 ,,marett4 ,the following books will be found useful to the traveller1 besides those mentioned above3-- #8,handbook of ,folk-lore'2 published by the ,folk-lore ,society4 ,ed4 ,c4 ,s4 ,burne4 #8,anthropology'3 ,prof4 ,r4 ,r4 ,marett4 ,home ,university ,library4 ,williams ,norgate4 ,,queries ,,of ,,anthropology4 ,by the late ,,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,,franks1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,i4 ,physical ,character4 ,average height of men and women in each tribe4 ,character of hair3 straight1 wavy1 curly1 frizzy1 or woolly4 ,prognathism4 ,strength in lifting and carrying weights1 c4 ,speed in running4 ,accuracy of aim4 ,knowledge of numbers1 weights1 and measures4 ,,ii4 ,mode of ,subsistence4 ,whether mainly by hunting1 or by pastoral or agricultural pursuits4 ,any instances of dwellings in caves4 ,use of boats2 forms of boats and of paddles2 mode of paddling4 ,any particular stratagems used in hunting1 snares and traps2 implements for hunting2 use of dogs and of cross-bows1 as well as bows and arrows4 ,fishing2 nets2 fish-hooks2 spears2 any javelins or arrows with loose heads attached by a cord4 ,modes of cooking1 and implements used2 any particular observances in cooking or at meals2 any separation of sexes at meals4 ,how is fire produced8 and are any persons charged with the preservation of it8 ,forms and construction of houses4 ,separation of the sexes4 ,furniture of houses4 ,plans of towns and fortifications4 ,plants cultivated for food or manufactures2 agricultural implements4 ,,iii4 ,religion and ,customs4 ,birth ceremonies4 ,what are the idols and their names8 ,is there any distinction between them in importance8 ,what worship is paid to them8 and what offerings are made1 and on what occasions8 ,are there any particular superstitions8 ,what fetishes or amulets are used8 by whom are they made8 ,are there any forms of divination1 any use of casting lots with cowries1 ordeals by poison or otherwise8 ,vampire beliefs and ghost beliefs generally4 ,cannibalism1 and motives for the same4 ,funeral rites4 ,belief in a future state4 ,deposit of objects with the dead1 and whether deposited broken or whole1 in or on the graves4 ,are burial customs associated with belief in destiny after death8 ,it is important that the traveller should distinguish between genuine native traditions and those acquired through contact with civilised peoples4 ,peace survivals among newer peoples4 ,,iv4 ,arts and ,manufactures4 ,mode of spinning and weaving2 patterns and materials employed4 ,dyeing and nature of dyes4 ,any mode of preparing and working leather4 ,any knowledge of glass-making4 ,if not acquainted with the manufacture of glass1 do they melt down broken ,european glass and beads to make armlets and other ornaments8 ,musical instruments3 their forms1 nature1 and names4 ,knowledge of pottery and mode of manufacture4 ,use and manufacture of tobacco and other narcotics2 forms of tobacco-pipes2 any ceremonies connected with smoking2 use of snuff2 snuff-bottles4 ,manufacture and trade in salt1 wine1 beer1 or other liquors4 ,knowledge of simple medical remedies1 cupping1 etc4 ,ivory and wood-carving4 ,metallurgy3 working in the various metals1 whether by a special class of people or tribes2 implements used in smelting1 etc4 ,where are the ores obtained8 ,is there any knowledge of precious stones8 ,v4 ,personal ,ornaments1 ,disfigurements1 etc4 ,are there any special marks made by tattooing or cicatrices to distinguish the various tribes8 are they the same in both sexes8 ,drawings of these marks would be very desirable1 distinguishing each tribe4 ,are the teeth filed or knocked out8 ,if the former1 into what shapes are they filed8 when is the filing effected8 and is it the same for both sexes8 ,is antimony used for the eyelids8 and how is it applied8 ,are ear-ornaments worn by either sex8 are they pendent or inserted in the lobe8 ,are there any nose or lip ornaments8 ,is the hair cut into any peculiar shape1 or is its colour altered by dyeing8 ,is any cap or protection worn on the penis1 as by the ,kafirs and other tribes8 ,any peculiarities of dress for men and women8 any distinction between married and unmarried8 ,what protection is worn in battle8 ,what are the forms of the weapons8 and is any missile weapon in use8 ,is there any mutilation of the sex organs8 ,are any marks used as distinctions for bravery1 success in hunting or rank8 ,,vi4 ,ivory and ,wood ,carving4 ,if elephant ivory is not of native origin1 where is it obtained8 ,are any other materials of the same nature employed in carving1 such as walrus-tusk1 cachalot teeth1 etc48 ,are any very hard woods employed2 and if so1 how are they worked8 ,,vii4 ,money4 ,what kinds of money are in use8 ,do the coins pass by weight as bullion1 or have they a recognised value8 ,are any objects such as iron bars or tools1 salt1 pieces of cotton1 cowries1 beads1 wampum1 etc41 employed as a means of exchange8 ,if so employed1 is there any recognised way in which their value is certified1 or is their value the subject of bargain in each case8 ,,anthropological ,,notes4 ,by ,w4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,duckworth1 ,m4,d41 ,,sc4,d41 ,m4,a4 ,the following notes deal in the briefest possible manner with the more important observations to be made on human bones2 and it is conceivable that some such records might be obtained under circumstances precluding the observer from securing or removing the actual specimens1 and even in instances where only a very brief period is available for inspecting them4 ,it is convenient to arrange the observations under the following separate headings3-- #a4 ,the circumstances attending the death of the individual should be first investigated1 and observations concerning the mode and locality of interment should be recorded 7cf4 ,professor ,tylor's ,schedule1 under #8,funeral ,rites'74 #b4 ,the general condition of the specimen next demands attention4 ,this is to some extent dependent upon circumstances referred to in the preceding section4 ,from the texture and preservation of the actual bony substance1 a rough estimate may be formed as to the lapse of time since the death of the individual4 ,the occurrence of the skull alone1 or at a distance from the remainder of the skeleton1 should be noted4 #c4 ,the greater weight and size1 as well as the greater prominence of the brow-ridges and ridges at the back of the skull1 serve to distinguish the male sex1 but in many cases the determination of sex is almost impossible4 ,as regards age1 skulls are conveniently described as immature1 adult or senile4 ,immature skulls lack the full complement of teeth or of sockets for these1 and a deep cleft is seen to cross the base of the skull about an inch in front of the large hole 7foramen magnum7 for the spinal cord4 ,upon the attainment of maturity this cleft is obliterated1 by the fusion of its margins4 ,in senile crania1 the sutural lines on the surface are almost entirely obliterated1 and the jaws are toothless and much reduced in size and prominence4 #d4 ,the skull may be deformed4 ,it is important to attempt to distinguish deformation produced during life 7either artificially or otherwise7 from that determined by the weight of superincumbent soil after interment4 ,artificial deformation is manifested in most cases by flattening of the forehead1 or of the back of the skull1 or of both4 ,but posthumous deformation is quite irregular1 the face is often involved as well as the brain-case1 there is often extreme flattening from side to side1 and the bones are usually fragile and tend to fall apart4 #e4 ,trephine-holes1 indicative of enterprise in operative surgery1 should be noted4 ,the regularity of contour and the size of the hole often gives the clue to its real nature4 ,it must be remembered that1 in the process of exhumation1 injuries closely resembling the foregoing operative wounds may be received by skulls1 and therefore the circumstances of exhumation demand enquiry in this connection4 ,some skulls are found to have been incised or engraved with decorative patterns after death4 #f4 ,craniological descriptions deal with the appearances presented by skulls in each of the five normal positions or aspects depicted in ,fig4 #a4 ,in the first view or aspect 7,fig4 #a1 ,b7 the general form of the skull is shewn1 and in proportions the cranial case may be either elongated or rotund2 or again1 if elongated1 it may be elliptical 7with no great difference in form between front and back71 ovoid 7when the hinder end is the broader71 or rhomboid 7lozenge or diamond-shaped74 ,in ,fig4 #a1 ,c1 the profile line1 and its modification by prominent brow-ridges or jaws1 claims attention4 ,in ,fig4 #a1 ,d1 the general form of the eye 7orbital aperture7 and nose 7nasal aperture71 as well as the relative breadth of the face1 are considered4 ,fig4 #a1 ,e1 shows the palate1 and the number and forms of the teeth are studied from this point of view4 ,in ,fig4 #a1 ,a1 the form of the transverse cranial arc1 and any irregularities1 such as flattening or the production of a keeled 7scaphoid7 appearance1 should be noted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the five norm1 or aspects of the human skull1 viz43--7,b7 ,norma verticalis1 the vertex view2 7,c7 ,norma lateralis2 7,d7 ,norma facialis2 7,e7 ,norma basilaris2 7,a7 ,norma occipitalis4 #g4 ,the lower jaw is studied independently4 ,the prominence of the chin1 the squareness of the angle1 the stoutness of the whole bone1 and the number and characters of the teeth are the chief points to which attention is directed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,measurement of the length of the skull with callipers 7,flower's ,craniometer as modified by ,dr4 ,duckworth74 ,,fig4 #c4--,measurement of the length of the skull with another form of callipers4 #h4 ,cranial measurements are made with callipers and a flexible steel or tape measure4 ,these objects1 as well as a graduated two-meter rod used for measuring stature or long bones1 are supplied in a travelling case by ,messrs4 ,hermann of ,zrich1 who have made them to ,professor ,martin's designs4 ,the whole outfit costs about #d1 but the instruments can be obtained separately4 ,messrs4 ,hermann also make a modified form of the callipers1 known as ,flower's ,craniometer 7cf4 ,fig4 #b74 ,measurements are recorded in millimeters1 in which the various callipers1 etc41 are graduated4 ,the latter instruments may have the forms represented in ,fig4 #b 7,flower's ,craniometer7 or ,fig4 #c1 in which are shown the exact positions of the instruments in measuring the length of the skull4 ,the chief measurements may be now enumerated in order of importance3-- i4 ,the extreme length of the brain-case1 measured as shown in ,figs4 #b and #c4 ii4 ,the maximum breadth of the skull is measured on the brain-case4 iii4 ,the circumference of the brain-case 7as distinct from the face7 is measured with the flexible tape passed round the brow-ridges and the back of the skull4 ,the measurement is that of the greatest circumference of the brain-case obtainable in this way4 iv4 ,measurements illustrative of the degree of prominence of the upper jaw are two in number1 and are made with the callipers4 ,the two measurements start from the same point behind2 this point is the middle of the front edge1 or margin1 of the hole for the spinal cord 7foramen magnum71 shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,e4 ,from this common point1 the upper or basi-nasal measurement passes to the upper border of the nasal bones in the middle line of the face1 and the lower or basi-alveolar measurement passes to the extreme front edge of the upper jaw in the middle line1 just above and between the upper incisor teeth4 #i4 ,measurements of the long bones of the limbs4 ,these are best made by means of a graduated rod with fixed and movable limbs1 resembling a large pair of callipers4 ,such a rod is supplied 7as indicated above7 by ,messrs4 ,hermann4 ,the bones to be measured are six in number for each side of the body1 viz43--those of the upper arm and thigh 7humerus and femur72 then two for the forearm 7called radius and ulna1 the former being the shorter72 and two for the leg 7called tibia and fibula1 the former1 or shin-bone1 being the larger74 ,the extreme or maximum length is measured in each case1 excepting those of the femur and tibia4 i4 ,the femur is measured obliquely1 that is1 from its ball-like head to a line touching both prominences at the lower end1 as shown at ,b in ,fig4 #d4 ,this represents the position of the bone in a person standing erect4 ii4 ,the spiny processes on the upper end of the tibia are not included in the measurement of its length4 ,immature limb-bones are recognised by the line which demarcates the extreme ends1 or epiphyses1 from the shaft 7or diaphysis74 ,sexual differences are chiefly indicated by greater length1 stoutness1 and also by the development of osseous ridges in male bones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,position of the thigh-bone for measurement of its length4 #aj4 ,the measurements of the long bones are used in estimating the stature4 ,special notice is to be paid to individuals of giant or of dwarf stature4 ,in this connection particular mention should be made in the following instances3-- 7a7 ,where the thigh bone measures more than #eb cm41 or less than #cf cm4 7b7 ,where the shin bone measures more than #db cm41 or less than #bh cm4 7c7 ,where the fibula measures more than #da cm41 or less than #bh cm4 7d7 ,where the upper arm bone measures more than #cg cm41 or less than #bf cm4 7e7 ,where the ulna measures more than #bi cm41 or less than #bj cm4 7f7 ,where the radius measures more than #bg cm41 or less than #ai cm4 7only adult bones being considered1 and the sex1 where known1 recorded74 #aa4 ,adult skulls will also excite attention when the horizontal circumference 7measured in accordance with the directions provided above7 is greater than #ef cm41 or less than #dg cm4 ,,vi4 ,,industry ,,and ,,commerce4#af ,by ,,sir ,,john ,,scott ,,keltie1 ,,ll4,d41 formerly ,secretary1 ,r4,g4,s4 ,the kind of information desired under this heading may be summed up in the three following questions1 so far as uncivilised or semi-civilised countries are concerned3-- 7#a47 ,what are the available resources of the country that may be turned to industrial or commercial account8 7#b47 ,what commercial products can find an available market in the country8 7#c47 ,what are the facilities for or hindrances to intercourse between the country and the rest of the world8 ,or1 briefly1 7#a7 ,resources2 7#b7 ,wants2 7#c7 ,accessibility4 ,these include the questions of suitability for immigration and colonisation4 ,what is known as commercial geography is one of several special applications of geographical knowledge4 ,from this practical point of view1 therefore1 the observations collected under other heads in this book will be of service1 especially if the requirements of commerce are kept in view at the same time as the desiderata of science4 ,from this standpoint1 the sections on ,meteorology1 ,geology1 ,natural ,history1 and ,anthropology should be consulted4 ,even general geographical and topographical observations will be of practical service--the general lie of the country1 its altitudes1 and its character at certain altitudes1 its mountains1 hills1 valleys1 plains1 rivers--if regarded from the special standpoint of habitability and possibilities of development4 ,the suggestions contained in this1 as in the other sections of this manual1 are meant both for the ordinary explorer or traveller who may have to pass rapidly through a country and for those who may have more opportunity for making leisurely observations4 ,to the former the following brief hints may prove serviceable3-- ,observe and note-- #a4 ,as regards ,,resources3-- ,the extent or quantity1 quality1 facilities for raising or collecting1 for transport and shipment1 etc41 of 7a7 ,the natural products1 such as minerals and metals1 especially gold1 silver1 coal1 iron1 copper1 tin1 nitre1 guano1 phosphates1 etc42 timber useful for various purposes2 vegetable products1 useful for food1 fibres1 dye-stuffs1 or medicine--gums1 resins1 etc42 animal products useful for food1 skins1 fur1 feathers2 riverine or lacustrine products1 useful for food1 oil1 or other purposes4 7b7 ,substances cultivated for food or for manufacturing purposes4 7c7 ,articles manufactured for clothing1 for domestic1 warlike1 or other purposes4 7d7 ,native methods of developing resources1 of carrying on manufactures1 and of transport4 7e7 ,practicability of developing the resources of the country by ,european methods4 #b4 ,as to ,,wants3-- 7a7 ,what particular things used by the natives could be profitably supplied from the outside8 7b7 ,what do the natives lack that might be introduced and supplied from the outside8 7c7 ,in all cases be particular to note favourite materials1 shapes1 colours1 or other peculiarities1 as of cloths1 implements1 ornaments1 such as beads1 anklets1 etc4 #c4 ,as to ,,accessibility3-- ,note the nearest ports and railways2 the character and connections of native roads1 if any2 the navigability of rivers1 inlets and lakes for various kinds of craft at various seasons of the year2 heights of passes1 whether suitable for animals or only for porters1 whether blocked at any season of year2 routes likely to be suitable for railways4 ,in all cases where practicable1 specimens of products should be obtained1 in order that specialists at home may judge of their industrial or commercial value4 ,for those who may have more leisure for observation1 some or all of the following detailed hints may be useful3-- ,,minerals ,,and ,,metals4--,it is not necessary to add much here to what has been said under ,geology4 ,if the traveller is not himself competent1 or has no opportunity to test the value of these products1 he should bring home specimens2 this1 if possible1 should be done in any case4 ,under this section a look-out should be kept for any indication of naphtha1 asphalt1 or mineral oils4 ,from the commercial point of view the important points are-- ,quality4--,to what extent are minerals or metals1 as gold1 copper1 iron1 phosphates1 mixed up with other matter8 ,what is the yield per ton of ore8 ,in the case of coal1 how does it burn1 and what is the percentage of ash8 ,next-- ,quantity4--,does the substance occur in sufficient quantity to make it worth expenditure of capital and labour8 ,the information must be obtained by personal inspection4 ,finally-- ,locality4--,is the situation of the deposits easily accessible8 ,how are they situated with reference to routes1 existing or practicable8 and how with reference to ports of embarkation8 ,could they be worked with the resources available in the country1 or would labour and machinery require to be introduced8 ,if worked in the country1 is there any neighbouring market for the manufactured products8 ,what are the native processes 7if any7 of obtaining and working minerals8 ,we must again refer to the section on ,geology for further details1 and the intending traveller would do well to take a few lessons before he leaves1 so as to be able to recognise the most common and useful minerals and the conditions under which they usually occur2 he will thus save much time and trouble4 ,,vegetable ,,products4--,the directions for observation and collection given under the ,botanical section should be attended to2 and it is important that the traveller should be able to recognise the chief classes of plants1 so that specialists may be able to pronounce generally on their utility4 ,character of ,surface4--,the general character of the surface of a country1 so far as its vegetation is concerned1 should be clearly grasped4 ,what proportion1 or1 if possible1 what area is under forest8 what under grass8 what desert1 or mountain1 or marsh1 or uncultivable8 what under cultivation8 ,forests4--,if of a generally forest or thickly-wooded character1 are the forests extensive and dense1 with much undergrowth1 as in tropical ,south ,america8 or easily penetrable1 as the forests of ,europe and ,north ,america8 ,or are the trees scattered1 either in clumps1 or singly1 as in a great part of ,central ,africa8 ,do they prevail over the country generally1 or are the river-banks only lined with dense tree vegetation8 ,are the forests only found in the low country1 or do they cover the hills and extend up the mountains8 ,timber4--,ascertain the leading characteristics of the trees of the forests4 ,what are the prevailing families1 and1 if possible1 genera and species8 ,what uses1 if any1 do the natives make of the woods8 ,which do they use for their houses1 their furniture1 their canoes1 their weapons1 their ornaments8 ,how do the woods seem to stand tear and wear1 the climate1 the attack of destructive insects1 immersion in water8 ,are there any woods that would do for such purposes as railway-sleepers or telegraph-poles in the conditions which prevail in the country8 ,any ornamental woods suitable for cabinet purposes8 ,fibres1 ,fruits1 ,chemicals1 etc4--,are there any plants the fibres of which could be turned to account8 ,any fruits adapted to human consumption1 and are they found in any quantity1 or could they be cultivated8 ,are there any trees or other plants suitable for drugs or chemicals--bark1 leaves1 juices1 roots8 ,what medicines1 narcotics1 or stimulants are used by the natives8 how are they obtained and how prepared8 ,are there any species of useful plants growing wild--coffee1 sugar1 cotton1 vanilla1 spices1 etc48 ,any trees producing gums that might be of commercial value1 like gum arabic1 gutta-percha1 or caoutchouc8 ,or any whose fruits yield oil1 like the cocoa-nut and the olive8 ,do the natives make use of these juices8 ,what are the processes of extraction and preparation8 ,other ,vegetation4--,when there is an undergrowth1 its character should be noticed1 and the diseases1 if any1 to which trees are subject4 ,note what other vegetation exists besides that of trees4 ,are there any plants like the turnip1 the potato1 the batata1 which are useful as foods1 or for other purposes8 ,specimens of any herbs likely to be useful should be obtained1 especially if they are used by the natives for medicine1 for dyeing1 for poison1 or other useful purposes4 ,sometimes1 as in ,central and ,western ,australia1 what arboraceous vegetation exists consists mainly of shrubs1 the character of which should be noted4 ,do they hinder locomotion8 ,are their shoots useful for forage8 ,are they injurious to horses and cattle8 ,when there is herbaceous vegetation of any extent1 what is its character8 ,is it tall and coarse and reedy1 like much of the ,african grass8 ,or such as is found on the prairies and pampas8 ,or of a troublesome spinifex character1 as in ,australia8 ,or of a turf-like character1 like the grasses of ,europe8 ,what are the components of this kind of vegetation1 and how far is it likely to prove useful as fodder8 ,what uses do the natives put it to1 either for their animals or for manufactures8 ,do they use it for making mats or cloth8 ,are there any plants mixed with it injurious to animals8 ,what is the condition of the grass at different seasons of the year8 ,when is it at its best1 its strongest1 its densest8 ,is it liable to be parched up at any season8 ,to what extent is its condition affected by the climate1 by rainfall1 by irrigation1 natural or artificial8 ,is it easily removed1 in order to make way for other cultures8 ,does it spread into the forest region1 and has it any special characteristics there8 ,how does it1 as well as other useful vegetation1 vary with altitude or other local conditions8 ,do the products change under different agricultural conditions8 e4g41 some are poisonous under certain conditions1 not others8 ,marshes1 ,deserts1 ,irrigation4--,note if marshes or peat-bogs1 or other special features of the surface exist to any extent1 and whether the drainage of marshes is practicable4 ,where deserts exist1 note their character4 ,are they sandy1 gravelly1 rocky1 salt8 ,what is the prevailing rock8 ,if the desert character of the land 7as is generally the case7 seems due to want of water1 is there any artificial means likely to be available for supplying that want8 ,is there any storage of water and irrigation among the natives8 and1 if so1 how is it accomplished8 and what are the results8 ,are there any sources within reach1 either above or underground1 from whence a supply of water for irrigation purposes could be obtained8 ,indicate any exceptional defects of quality in the supply of water4 ,note if any part of the country is liable to periodical inundations4 ,at what periods of the year do they occur8 ,are these inundations destructive1 or are they utilised for agricultural purposes8 ,would it be possible to regulate these inundations8 ,,agriculture4--,the general outcome of all these observations is the suitability of a country for agricultural development4 ,what articles do the natives cultivate1 if any8 ,has the cultivated land any special character1 or is it simply the ordinary land cleared of trees or grass1 or other wild growth8 ,note the methods and implements of culture used by the natives2 the seasons of sowing and reaping1 and preparing the crops for use4 ,do they depend for water on rainfall or irrigation8 ,to what altitudes is cultivation carried1 and what are the crops that prosper at these altitudes8 ,from the point of view of colonisation and agriculture1 precise information as to the nature of the soil is desirable4 ,the proportion or extent of a country suitable for agriculture might be noted4 ,observe1 as precisely as practicable1 the nature and depth of the upper layer of soil4 ,the depth--it may be a few inches1 or it may be two or three feet--can easily be ascertained4 ,a general idea may also be given of its nature4 ,is it mostly vegetable mould1 as it is likely to be in old forest or grass countries8 or peaty8 or marshy8 ,if possible1 also1 ascertain the depth of the subsoil down to the rock or clay1 or other permanent basis on which it rests4 ,in a general way it might be observed whether the soil is sandy1 gravelly1 stony1 calcareous1 marly1 clayey4 ,also is it compact1 tenacious1 or loose1 and1 above all1 is it permeable or impermeable to water8 ,is the soil very dry or very moist8 or what is its intermediate stage8 ,if the natives carry on cultivation1 ascertain1 if possible1 the yield per acre of what they cultivate4 ,do they cultivate only for their own wants8 ,if not1 where and what is the nature of the market to which they send the surplus8 ,does the country seem suitable for other cultures besides those carried on by the natives8 ,,animal ,,products4--,if there are wild animals in the country1 observe whether the natives hunt them for what they yield in the way of food or other useful products4 ,are there any ivory-yielding animals1 or animals whose skins can be turned to profitable account8 ,could a sufficient supply for mercantile purposes be obtained by means of native hunters1 if properly encouraged2 or how would it be best to work such resources8 ,are there any laws or customs enforced by the natives in hunting wild animals8 ,are there any noxious wild animals1 and to what extent do they affect human comfort and human life8 ,domestic ,animals4--,it is important to know what domestic animals the natives possess1 how they are reared and fed1 and what uses they are put to4 ,also whether the country is good for horses1 cattle1 sheep1 and poultry1 and approximately what is the extent1 situation1 and accessibility of the grazing-lands4 ,are the pastures perennial8 ,to what extent do they depend on rainfall1 or irrigation1 or on intermittent streams8 ,during what months of the year are they available8 ,are there any plants among the pastures injurious to animals8 ,are there any insects 7like the tsetse7 or other animals injurious to cattle or horses8 ,do horses or asses exist among the natives1 and what uses are they put to8 ,if not1 would they be likely to flourish1 if introduced8 ,fisheries4--,information concerning fish and fisheries is desirable2 and among fish1 from the practical standpoint1 are included shell-fish 7especially pearl shells71 sponges1 corals1 and animals of the whale and seal kind4 ,if the natives practise fishing1 either in lakes1 rivers1 or the sea1 ascertain the kinds of fish they capture1 their methods and implements1 and the particular seasons at which fishing is practised4 ,are the fisheries1 whether worked by the natives or not1 likely to be of commercial value8 ,,trade4--,much of the information suggested above will be of service from the special commercial point of view1 especially with reference to export4 ,information should be obtained concerning any manufactures carried on by the natives besides what has been suggested above--manufactures in metal1 in wood1 in clay1 or stone2 in materials derived from the vegetable and animal kingdoms1 what they are1 what uses they are put to1 what processes are used1 and to what extent1 if any1 they form articles of trade4 ,with regard to the import market1 what generally are the wants of the natives and what new wants might be created4 ,if possible1 some approximate estimate of the value of the leading classes of imports1 if there are any1 should be obtained4 ,ascertain if any goods are brought into the country from the outside2 if so1 what they are1 where they come from1 and as accurate an estimate as possible of quantity1 or value1 or both4 ,in the case of imports from civilised countries1 are those of any particular country preferred1 and1 if so1 why8 ,is it owing to anything special in quality1 or pattern1 or cost1 means of communication1 or in quantity available8 ,is there any special tribe of middlemen who prevent the inland people from coming into direct relation with traders8 ,probably a market could be created for outside manufactures which have not as yet been introduced into the country2 or such manufactures might easily obtain a market in preference to those of native make4 ,note especially the patterns of articles of native make1 as these are probably adapted to the conditions of the country1 and should therefore be imitated or improved upon in the case of imported goods1 the quality of the latter being better1 and the cost1 if possible1 lower4 ,british traders1 especially1 often incur serious losses by not ascertaining in advance what particular articles and what special patterns are in demand among natives4 ,note also whether ,european methods might not be introduced with advantage for the manufacture of native goods4 ,native usages as to credit ought to be ascertained1 what safeguards are binding1 what is the medium of exchange1 etc4 ,it would be useful to discover beforehand whether the importation of machinery and explosives is likely to be unimpeded4 ,,climate4--,this is an essential item1 so far as the exploitation of tropical and semi-tropical countries by ,europeans is concerned4 ,its main elements are determined by temperature1 latitude1 altitude1 and rainfall2 the character of the surface should also be taken into account4 ,under ,meteorology1 the main directions on the subject are given4 ,the temperature at different seasons and at different times of the day 7say #i ,a4,m41 #c ,p4,m41 and #i ,p4,m47 should be ascertained1 and that at various altitudes4 ,rainfall observations are not of much service unless they can be obtained over a continuous series of years4 ,ascertain the distribution of rainfall over the year1 and the limits of the rainy period of the year1 when such period exists1 and1 if possible1 the quantity which falls in the different months of the period2 how does the rainfall differ with altitude and other topographical variations8 ,if a country is subject to droughts1 it is important to ascertain if there is any periodicity in these droughts1 and how they affect the resources and prospects of the country1 and the condition of the rivers4 ,would it be possible1 by storage of water or other means1 to counteract to any extent the bad effects of drought8 ,what effect has the rainy period and the drought period on the native inhabitants1 and especially on ,europeans8 ,as far as possible1 ascertain the birth and death rate per annum4 ,,facilities ,,and ,,hindrances ,,to ,,commercial ,,development4--,under this head the first consideration is ,accessibility or ,means of ,communication4 ,generally1 the quickest1 cheapest1 and safest routes to a satisfactory market should be ascertained4 ,water ,communication4--,observe what natural means of communication exist1 what is the nature of communication between the country and the outside world4 ,if communication by sea is of importance1 how is the interior to be reached from the sea8 ,are there any deep inlets8 ,is there practicable river communication8 ,for what sort of vessels is it adapted8 ,are there any obstructions in the river1 and1 if so1 what is their nature1 and how could they be surmounted8 ,what is the width of the river1 the depth of the water1 and the force of the current1 at various distances from the mouth1 and at the periods of the year when the river is at its lowest and highest8 ,are there any lakes that could be utilised for communication8 ,roads4--,if there are native roads1 state precisely what is their nature under various conditions of weather2 their width2 what sort of vehicles1 if any1 they are suited for1 and where they lead to4 ,if the country is mountainous1 ascertain the principal passes1 what places they connect1 their exact heights at the highest point 7not the heights of the mountains71 for what animals or vehicles they are practicable1 or if only for porters1 and what is their condition at various seasons of the year4 ,if the natives have any vehicles1 or vessels1 or other means of transport1 describe them4 ,railway ,routes4--,observe1 as far as possible1 suitable routes for railway or canal communication1 as well as for good roads1 and whether any materials for railway construction are obtainable in the country4 ,possibly the country1 if an inland one1 could be connected by road or rail with some existing railway system4 ,what are the nearest telegraph stations8 ,labour4--,another important consideration under this head is that of labour--labour for the varied enterprises connected with the development of a country's resources4 ,is labour obtainable within the country itself8 ,if so1 to what extent1 and on what terms8 ,are the natives industrious1 and are they likely to labour under foreign superintendence8 ,does slavery or forced labour in any form exist8 ,if not obtainable in the country1 how may labour be most easily and cheaply obtained8 ,is the country suited to manual labour by whites8 ,if there are only certain kinds of labour in which whites may engage1 state what they are4 ,to what extent could machinery be used with advantage8 ,is there any water power available8 or any animal power8 ,currency1 ,tariffs1 etc4--,under this head also questions relating to currency should be included1 or whatever other medium of exchange exists4 ,another important consideration here is the question of tariffs1 which1 in one shape or another1 exist in nearly all uncivilised and semi-civilised countries1 from the hongo of ,central ,africa to the ,customs duties of ,eastern countries4 ,precise information concerning these1 both as to exports and imports1 is important4 ,note1 also1 as precisely as practicable1 the cost of living for ,europeans settling down for a time1 and the expenses involved in travelling through a country4 ,inhabitants4--,is there anything in the character of the natives--physical1 mental1 or moral--likely to affect commercial intercourse or the industrial development of the country8 ,any prejudices or superstitions that should be attended to8 ,anything in the attitude of natives to traders and settlers deserving consideration8 ,is the population nomadic or settled8 ,what material1 if any1 do they use for smoking1 and what is the nature of their intoxicating drinks1 if they have any8 ,estimate1 as nearly as possible1 the population1 the density per square mile1 both for the country as a whole and for the chief centres of population4 ,ascertain the nature of any political or social organisation which exists4 ,what are the terms on which land can be acquired8 ,what are the prevalent crimes8 ,under the ,anthropological section directions are given for ascertaining the leading racial characteristics of the people4 ,,vii4 ,,arch,,ology4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,,hogarth1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,litt4 ,this section is intended1 not for experts1 but for those travellers without special interest or experience in archological work1 who1 finding themselves in districts where unpublished antiquities exist1 feel it incumbent to record or rescue them4 ,general hints1 therefore1 are subjoined on methods of recording1 cleaning1 temporarily conserving1 and conveying monuments and objects of antiquity4 ,a4--,,recording4 ,there are three ways of obtaining a record of a monument1 all of which should be used if possible in cases of importance3-- #a4 ,mechanical reproduction by photography1 moulding1 or rubbing4 #b4 ,reproduction by planning1 drawing1 or otherwise copying4 #c4 ,literary memoranda of characteristics1 e4g41 dimensions1 subject1 etc4 #a4 ,mechanical ,reproduction4 7a7 ,photography4--,this subject has already been dealt with in ,part ,,ii41 and it is only necessary here to add a few hints1 peculiarly applicable to the photography of objects of antiquity4 ,of inscriptions photography does not1 as a rule1 supply a useful reproduction1 and unless time or other opportunity be wanting1 it should not be the only mechanical process applied4 ,if an inscription is at all worn1 or the material on which it is engraved contains superficial faults1 do not rely on a photograph2 but if one is taken1 try to dispose the object so that light falls on it from one side1 with a slight obliquity from above4 ,in the case of rock inscriptions or others still in their place on walls1 etc41 a photograph should be secured to show relative position and surroundings4 ,an inscription on dark material will often need preparation with white chalk before being photographed to any good purpose2 but the traveller who has opportunity to do that1 will probably have equal opportunity to employ the better process of moulding4 ,for sculpture1 photography will often be the only method of reproduction possible to the traveller4 ,when that is the case he may be advised 7#a7 to take his photographs on the largest possible scale2 7#b7 to take the object from all possible points of view2 7#c7 to do what he can to improve the light and relief of the subject4 ,small objects gain enormously by reflected lights carefully arranged to bring out their contours2 if sufficient mirrors are not obtainable1 strips of tin or even white paper will serve as reflectors4 ,backgrounds may be chalked or blacked as the case may be1 but in the case of a relief this should only be done when the outlines are very clear4 ,if a sculpture on rock or other material is much broken or worn1 a good mechanical method of improving relief1 which ,professor ,petrie recommends1 can be used2 this consists in dusting the face with powdery sand and then fanning it4 ,the result1 if carefully done1 is to leave hollows and background in strong contrast to the surface of the relief4 ,highly polished or lucent surfaces should be dulled before photographing4 ,metal objects do not1 as a rule1 photograph very satisfactorily2 and of coins it is much better to take a cast and photograph that4 ,perhaps it is not superfluous to remind the photographer to make notes of all colouring before leaving his subject4 ,on preparing sculpture1 etc41 for photography there are valuable practical hints in ,professor ,petrie's #8,methods and ,aims in ,archology1' ,chapter ,,vii4 ,for small objects of antiquity1 photography is not of much service unless a camera with very long extension can be used4 ,if it be possible1 the best way is to lay the objects on a sheet of glass raised about a foot from the ground on a frame1 and arrange the camera above1 so as to photograph downwards4 ,this process obviates all ground shadows1 and all pins or other supports for the objects1 which appear sharply on the negative as if suspended in air4 ,for buildings photography is1 of course1 the only method of mechanical reproduction possible4 7b7 ,moulding4--,this in almost all cases will have to be done by impressing paper4 ,only in the case of small objects will a traveller ordinarily be able to use either plaster of ,paris 7if he can procure it7 or sealing wax4 ,as to the latter he may be reminded never to heat his wax by putting it in direct contact with a flame1 or the impression will come out so parti-coloured or black as to be of little use2 a card should be held over a candle or lamp1 or1 better1 a spirit burner1 and the wax rubbed upon the gradually heating upper surface till enough has melted on to the card without boiling4 ,a useful impression may be obtained of coins1 gems1 etc41 by pressing ordinary tin foil upon the surface2 but great care must be taken afterwards that the impression does not get flattened out in transport4 ,mr4 ,petrie recommends floating impressed foil on water face downwards1 and dropping hot wax upon it1 as a solidifying agent4 ,as to the use of plaster of ,paris it may be remembered that 7#a7 the proper mixture is just as much plaster as will absorb the water1 leaving none standing on the top2 7#b7 the object must be well cleaned and soaped before being moulded2 7#c7 the plaster must be applied very rapidly1 in a thin coating all over the object at once3 it can be backed with more plaster afterwards2 7#d7 a surface of any size should either be moulded in sections1 or1 if done all at once1 the plaster will probably have to be cut into sections afterwards for transport4 ,to cut it1 it is best to lay strings upon the object before moulding1 which1 later1 can be pulled up through the plaster while still viscous4 ,paper moulding or #8squeezing' is1 however1 the ordinary process employed4 ,any fairly strong unsized paper will serve more or less well1 but a special #8squeeze' paper is procurable in most large cities where there are archological museums 7e4g41 in ,london1 from ,nutt's1 #eg to #ei1 ,long ,acre1 ,w4,c42 in ,paris1 from ,moreau's1 #aa1 ,passage du ,pont ,neuf2 in ,berlin1 from ,ebers ,brothers4 ,it can also be got direct from the maker1 ,papierhndler ,dorr1 ,spiesgasse1 ,strassburg47 ,mr4 ,maudslay recommended in a previous edition a hand-made paper1 used for packing oranges in ,spain1 and to be obtained of ,messrs4 ,batalla1 of ,cacagente1 near ,valencia1 through the agency of ,messrs4 ,h4 ,king ,co41 ,cornhill4 ,failing these1 the paper on which the commoner news-sheets are printed will do4 ,the other implements needed are a sponge1 and close-bristled1 not very hard1 brushes of two or three sizes1 e4g41 an ordinary clothes-brush1 a nail-brush1 and a tooth-brush1 if no others are at hand1 but special brushes with hand-straps on the back1 or curved handles to keep the knuckles of the beater away from the stone1 are preferable4 ,in the case of an ordinary inscription1 of not specially rough or uneven surface1 brush and clean the stone thoroughly1 and pick all accumulation out of the letters2 then wet it thoroughly all over2 lay the dry paper1 cut to size1 as flat on the surface as possible1 and dab it down with a very wet sponge till thoroughly soaked2 take the largest brush and pound the paper rather gently all over1 till it partially adheres2 then take smaller brushes and work the paper into all depressions with the maximum pressure you can exert2 finally1 hammer it with the large brush again1 working systematically from top to bottom or side to side1 not minding the surface becoming mashed1 and driving the air-bubbles1 which collect under the paper1 before you and out at the farthest point4 ,if the stone was thoroughly wetted before the paper was laid on1 these ought not to be numerous or troublesome4 ,then1 if the surface of the stone has penetrated through the paper at any point1 lay a second sheet and1 if necessary1 a third1 or more1 and treat as the first was treated4 ,leave the sheets1 if possible1 to dry on the stone1 and all will come off as one with a perfect reverse impression of the stone's surface4 ,some soak the paper before laying on the stone1 but if that is done and there be any wind1 the paper1 become very tender1 will be apt to tear with its own weight while being laid on1 and will be difficult to lay flat4 ,if for any reason1 e4g41 overhanging of the stone's face1 it is difficult to make the paper adhere1 the task will prove easier with small pieces4 ,but whenever a surface is squeezed by sections1 the operator must be careful to make the edges of his sheets overlap1 so that later all can be gummed together as one sheet2 to number the sheets according to a key-plan1 recorded in his note-book1 and to mark on the sheets themselves the lines of junction4 ,all superfluous edges should be peeled off1 as they are apt to lift in the wind and cause all or a part of the impression to become detached before it is well set1 and weights should1 if possible1 be laid on the drying paper4 ,if for any reason the paper cannot be left to dry in position1 peel off carefully and lay out to dry reverse side uppermost4 ,the impression1 so taken1 will be hardly less good4 ,when dry1 roll the squeeze inside a tin cylinder1 and only very rough usage will harm it4 ,squeezing sculptures is a more difficult matter4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,maudslay gave very full directions in an earlier edition of these 8,hints0 which may be repeated here4 ,after stating that all moulds of sculpture have to be made of many thicknesses of paper1 with a good coating of paste between every few sheets 7not only because of the great inequalities of surface1 which break through the paper1 but also in order that the mould1 when dry1 may be stout enough to keep its shape71 he said3-- #8,paper can only properly be applied for the purpose of moulding when the carving is free from large contours and deep undercutting2 but it is wonderful what accurate results can be obtained even when large curves and some undercutting have to be contended against4 ,where worn or splintered parts of a wood-carving1 or fissures in a stone1 or deep undercutting which is not essential to the design1 occur1 it is often of advantage to fill them up with clay or paper1 to which a smooth surface can be given1 so that the mould will come away free from them when it is dry2 and careful notes and measurements will often enable one to restore the contour to a mould which has suffered some pressure in transport4 ,in a properly-made mould the detail of carving is never lost1 unless the paper itself is destroyed4 #8,a shallow tin bath 7or two made to fit inside one another71 large enough to hold an open sheet of paper1 is useful for soaking the paper in4#ag ,twenty sheets or more may be placed in the water at once1 and left there without harm for an hour or more2 but a few minutes' soaking is quite enough4 #8,i have several times had to mould1 in ,america1 the whole of a monolithic monument--one as much as #be feet in height--covered with carving and hieroglyphic inscription1 and have been perfectly successful in reproducing it in plaster in ,england4 ,each face would be marked out into three or more sections1 and each section would be moulded separately1 great care being taken that each mould should considerably overlap the margin of the other1 so that when each section is cast in plaster the edges of the cast can be cut away until the joint is perfect4 ,and each section should also overlap at the top and sides in ,no4 #a1 and at the sides in ,no4 #b1 c41 for the same reason2 and it is necessary to pay careful attention to the beating in of the paper near the sides and edges1 as it is there that the layers are most likely to come apart when dry4 ,these edges can be trimmed down afterwards1 if found too bulky in packing4 #8,the first sheets of paper should always be put on singly1 and well beaten in4 ,if the carving presents many sharp angles1 the paper will again and again be broken away over them1 and small scraps of paper may be used for covering them up1 until the whole section is covered at least three papers deep in the thinnest place4 ,the coat of paste should then be given4 ,if the paste is laid on when the mould is too thin1 it will penetrate to the stone1 and prevent the mould coming off when dry4 ,the paste may be put on warm1 but if too hot it draws the paper from the stone 7if it is a stone sculpture72 air gets underneath the paper1 and it is very difficult to get rid of it again4 ,avoid1 in putting on the first papers1 doubled edges or creases1 and beat in well1 so that the paper may work into the grain of the stone or wood4 ,it is easy to spoil a mould by scamping the work in it1 but not easy to spoil it by overbeating4 ,after giving a coat of paste with a brush1 it is advisable to work in the paste with the fingers1 so as to be sure1 from the smooth feeling1 that it penetrates the paper over the whole surface4 #8,after the first coat of paste has been applied1 a good deal of time may be saved by employing an assistant to beat out the paper for the further thickening of the mould1 for when thus beaten out1 two or three thicknesses of paper can be laid on at the same time4 ,take about six sheets together from the water1 fold them1 and then double them twice1 and slightly tear the wet doubled edges1 so that when the sheets are laid open again there are a number of small slits in the paper2 then lay them out together on any flat surface1 and beat them out with a brush for a few minutes4 ,it is easy to separate them again into the required number of sheets in thickness4 #8,another method which is equally good1 if not better than the last1 is1 after making the tears in the doubled sheets as before1 to unfold them1 and then to roll them together and twist them up like a rope1 and rub them well between the hands2 then unroll them and beat them out for a moment1 separating as many sheets as are required4 ,either of these processes loosens the fibre of the paper1 whilst the slits prevent it stretching unevenly4 ,after this treatment it feels to the touch more like wet leather than paper4 #8,as the mould grows thicker the pulpy paper will1 from the continual beating1 find its way into1 and fill up1 the deeper cutting2 but it should be most carefully watched that the mould is not left too thin over the more prominent parts of the surface1 and1 with a little practice1 the thickness is easily judged by the touch4 ,it is always well to use the fingers frequently both in pressing the paper into its place and working in the paste4 #8,it is difficult to lay down any rule as to the thickness of a mould and the number of coatings of paste necessary4 ,if the mould is of large size1 and the carving presents prominent angles or large curves1 it may need an average of thirty sheets in thickness to preserve its shape1 and three or four coatings of paste2 but if the carving is in low-relief on a flat surface1 less than half the thickness will suffice4 #8,in hot weather1 out of doors1 a mould will take about twenty-four hours to dry2 but it should be covered up at night from the dew4 ,in damp forests or in bad weather ,i have dried most of my moulds by building up large wood fires at the distance of a few feet from the sculpture4 #8,it is best to take off a mould when it is cool--in the morning or evening4 ,don't be in a hurry about it4 #8,if the mould is torn or broken in taking it off the carving1 mend it with paste at once4 #8,when a mould is taken off1 lay it to dry in the sun on a flat surface1 as there is usually some moisture left in it4 ,if the mould is not flat in shape1 support it carefully1 so as to preserve the contours4 #8,when the mould is quite dry1 it is advisable1 but not necessary1 to give it1 both back and front1 one or more coats of boiled linseed oil4 ,heat this oil before applying it1 and it will then soak in well1 and use either a soft brush1 and be careful1 in oiling the surface of the mould1 not to rub too hard4 ,as the paper easily absorbs moisture1 the moulds need to be carefully packed4' ,plaster casts can be taken very successfully from paper moulds4 ,see directions for casting above4 7c7 ,rubbing can only be practised on a fairly smooth surface1 and has nothing to recommend it except the ease and celerity with which it can be done4 ,the traveller may as well carry a little heel-ball in his kit4 ,any thin1 tough paper will do4 #b4 ,other ,reproductions4 ,planning and drawing are dealt with in ,vol4 ,i4 of these #8,hints4' ,copying1 as distinct from either1 applies to inscriptions4 ,a hand-copy of an inscription as well as a mechanical reproduction should always be made1 partly because it has the better chance of surviving the accidents of travel1 partly because1 if a stone surface is at all perished1 anyone with a keen eye and power of concentration ought to see more lettering on its worn parts than will appear on a photograph or #8squeeze4' ,the copy should be as near a facsimile on a reduced scale as time and other considerations will allow4 ,it should be made on ruled paper1 if possible on paper ruled in squares 7en quadrille71 and the relative position of the letters to one another must be kept as far as possible4 ,all broken parts of letters are to be scrupulously copied 7they can often be distinguished from stone-flaws by feeling along the bottom of the groove with a knife-blade2 if that finds an even line1 the groove is probably part of a letter71 and all intervals where letters have perished beyond the copyist's power to recover them should be measured1 and by comparison of equal intervals containing decipherable letters in other parts of the inscription1 the number of lost letters can be estimated4 ,these should be indicated by dots in a shaded patch4 ,letters1 about which the copyist is not quite certain1 must be dotted or drawn in faint line4 ,if a stone be imperfect at the sides1 and there be any means of estimating its original breadth1 the line of its true centre should be marked on the copy4 ,such an observation will be invaluable to the restorer of the text4 ,all letters that have peculiar forms should be carefully drawn at least once1 as specimens4 ,if the text is grouped about1 among1 or in any relation to1 sculptures1 such relation should be indicated1 even if the whole sculpture be not drawn4 ,marks of punctuation or division1 ligatures of one letter with another1 and ornate initials and finials1 should be looked out for and noted4 ,on beginning a copy it is well to transcribe first the most obviously easy parts of the inscription3 they will give an inkling of the character of the text1 teach the forms of lettering used1 and accustom the eye to the inscribed surface4 ,on finishing a copy1 if there be time1 read it over1 try to translate it1 and in the light of the probable translation1 attack again the harder parts of the inscription4 ,in the case of stones with two or more texts inscribed one over the other 7as frequently happens on ,roman milestones1 which may be geographical documents of great importance71 a #8squeeze' must be got at all costs1 for an untrained copyist will make little or nothing of them1 and find it very difficult to draw an accurate hand facsimile4 #c4 ,literary ,memoranda4 ,it is impossible to make too many notes of a monument1 and quite easy to make too few4 ,the nature of the great majority of such notes must be left to the discretion of the traveller2 but concerning all antiquities1 from buildings to beads1 it may be said that1 at any rate1 material1 colour1 dimensions1 condition of preservation1 arrangement of parts and character of ornament must be jotted down in the ever ready note-book4 ,in the case of buildings1 notes giving all dimensions are especially important1 since the camera can seldom be brought to bear on all parts and details1 and there is often not opportunity to draw out a plan on the spot4 ,of inscriptions certain facts must be recorded1 viz41 form of the stone2 condition of its surface2 the material and colour2 on what sides complete1 and on what not2 actual dimensions2 height of lettering2 general character of lettering2 whether well or ill cut1 plain or ornate4 ,epigraphists' notebooks are procurable in ,germany and ,austria containing divisions for the notes on all these points1 together with a ruled space for the actual inscription4 ,in the case of coins1 the material1 the ancient value1 the weight 7if possible71 the state of preservation1 and the images and superscriptions should be noted2 of sculpture1 the material1 the dimensions1 the degree of finish1 and a minute analysis of the subject1 the dress of the figure or figures1 their gestures1 attributes1 and so forth4 ,b4--,,cleaning ,,and ,,conservation4 ,the traveller will not have occasion to render more than #8,first ,aid' to objects of antiquity1 i4e4 to clean them so that their true character may appear1 and to consolidate them with a view to safe transport4 ,he should do the least that is absolutely necessary1 leaving all elaborate treatment to experts at home4 ,the hints here given are therefore elementary1 and concerned mainly with portable objects4 ,in this connection these are best classified by the materials of which they are made4 7a7 ,gold4--,gold requires no immediate treatment1 unless it be laid over a core of other metal1 e4g4 copper or bronze1 which has oxidised out through cracks4 ,this oxide can usually be removed by picking or by sharp scaling blows with a small hammer and chisel4 ,if it is obstinate1 use dilute hydrochloric acid laid on with a brush4 ,the proportion of pure acid should not be more than one part to ten of water4 7b7 ,silver4--,if in very much corroded condition1 technically known as #8dead1' silver should be left alone4 ,if there is only slight superficial corrosion1 soak in a solution of common salt or lemon juice1 or strong ammonia1 and polish after a few hours4 ,if there is a good deal of chloride on the surface1 but the body of the metal seems sound1 put zinc or iron in the solvent and the chlorine will pass over1 leaving a powdery surface which can be brushed clean4 ,silver should never be packed in a tin box1 even if wrapped up1 or it will be found on arrival at home to be stained with a brown rust1 very difficult to remove4 ,pack in wood or cardboard4 7c7 ,copper and ,bronze4--,both copper and bronze objects are best cleaned1 if possible1 with hammer and burin4 ,bronze1 however1 which the traveller will meet with most often1 is frequently covered with a corrosion which cannot be scaled off at once1 and calls for an acid solvent4 ,diluted hydrochloric 7#a3aj7 will act most quickly and effectually1 but it leaves a white oxy-chloride coat1 not easily got rid of either from the metal or the fingers of the operator1 which it stains deeply4 ,on the whole1 we recommend that 7#a7 if the bronze be badly cracked it be left alone2 7#b7 if not cracked1 but covered with very hard corrosion1 soaking in a weak solvent like lemon-juice be tried2 and 7#c7 after that 7or before1 if the corrosion will yield to a tool at all7 every effort be made to pick or flake off the corrosion1 after which the object should be rubbed well with oil in the palms of the hands4 7d7 ,lead and ,iron1 after oiling1 are both best left alone by the traveller4 7e7 ,stone4--,the traveller will seldom or never be under the necessity to treat stone surfaces1 except in the case of inscribed marbles on which carbonate of lime has formed1 or small objects attacked by salt4 ,the former can be cleaned with strong acid2 the latter must be soaked in water for long periods1 and when drying laid with the most important surface downwards1 so that evaporation into the air may take place through the less important surfaces4 7f7 ,pottery and ,terra-cotta4--,the same enemies1 carbonate of lime and salt1 attack pottery and terra-cotta1 and are met in the same way as in the case of stone2 but the hydrochloric or other acid solvent should be weaker1 and where there is colour be very cautiously used1 if at all4 ,in packing vases1 it should be remembered that if many are put into one case without partitions1 and one collapses1 this will probably entail the breaking of the lot4 ,large vases should be filled with tightly rammed packing4 ,nothing of heavier or more solid material1 e4g41 stone1 should be put in a case with pottery4 7g7 ,wood1 ,ivory1 and ,bone4--,these materials are generally found flaked1 split1 or scaly1 and need consolidation before packing4 ,the methods most likely to be open to the traveller are3 7#a7 if the objects are not excessively tender1 to dip them in melted vaseline1 let this set1 wrap in tissue paper and pack carefully in cotton wool2 7#b7 if the objects are very tender or rotten with salt1 to make a stiff jelly1 drop them in before it sets1 and convey them home in aspic4 ,on the way the jelly will absorb the salt4 ,in addition to either process1 it is often well to bind the object in every direction and part with fine thread to keep it from splitting1 or prevent the sections1 if already split1 falling apart and splintering or warping in different directions4 ,if there is crystalline carbonate of lime on the surface of bone or ivory1 it had better not be touched except by experts4 7h7 ,papyrus4--,papyrus needs damping and flattening out as far as possible without breaking its fibre4 ,lay it between two damp towels1 and after flattening1 pack it between sheets of paper in close tin boxes1 filling each box up tightly4 ,but the traveller will be wise not to try too much4 ,as soon as the edges of his roll or fragment cease to be brittle to the touch he had best leave the papyrus as it is without further unrolling1 and pack very carefully away4 7j7 ,glass1 ,glazed ,objects1 ,pastes1 ,amber1 ,various ,compositions4--,none of these should the traveller try to treat4 ,glass must be left wholly alone if in a flaking state2 other objects1 if flaky or powdery1 will1 at least1 be no worse for having been dipped in melted vaseline than they would be in any case1 after transport4 ,no general hints can be usefully given about either the methods of discovering antiquities or those of detecting forgeries4 ,it is not supposed that the travellers here addressed will undertake regular excavations4 ,should they propose to do so1 they will need special training and much more elaborate instruction4 ,mr4 ,petrie's #8,methods and ,aims' will supply much of the latter1 but the tyro excavator will not have ,mr4 ,petrie's success without serving a long apprenticeship4 ,the above hints will serve for the traveller who takes antiquities by the way and in the day's work1 having other objects more in view4 ,for him the following list of necessities will suffice3-- #a4 ,long extension camera and all photographic requisites1 including1 if possible1 a stand and frame for overhead photography 7v4 p4 #eb74 #b4 #8,squeeze' paper1 brushes with hand-straps or curved handles1 and tin cylinders for carrying the paper and moulds2 heel-ball1 sealing-wax1 tin-foil1 beeswax4 #c4 ,planning and drawing outfit4 #d4 ,notebooks ruled en quadrille1 magnifying-glass and hand-mirror4 #e4 ,small hammer and chisels for metal work1 hydrochloric acid1 ammonia1 emery-paper1 tissue paper1 burin1 plate brushes1 sheet zinc1 vaseline1 cotton-wool 7not raw cotton-waste with hard seeds in it74 ,,viii4 ,,medical ,,hints4 ,by the late ,,william ,,henry ,,crosse1 ,m4,d4 ,revised and brought up to date by ,,andrew ,,balfour1 ,c4,b41 ,c4,m4,g41 ,m4,d4 ,the following hints1 which were compiled by the late ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,crosse1 formerly the experienced medical adviser of the ,royal ,niger ,company1 based upon previous editions of this work1 have been edited so as to bring them up to date4 ,a good deal remains as ,dr4 ,crosse wrote it1 but several sections have been almost entirely re-written1 in order to bring them into line with modern views4 ,new sections have been introduced and there have been numerous additions and corrections4 ,,introduction4 ,in the following pages the chief emphasis has been laid upon the care of the health in the tropics2 but it must be remembered1 that whilst by far the greater proportion of travellers go to the tropics1 most of these hints for the preservation of health apply equally well for all climates4 ,though many subjects have been briefly dealt with1 certain matters have been rather more fully written up1 such as the treatment of wounds4 ,it is1 in the author's opinion1 so important that the traveller should thoroughly understand what is meant by #8surgical cleanliness' that the usual methods observed by surgeons to ensure it have been plainly set forth4 ,the author1 of course1 understands that in many cases it would be quite impossible to carry out the instructions in every detail1 but it is hoped that a thorough knowledge of the principles underlying the correct treatment of wounds will assist the traveller in doing the best possible for his patient in any emergency1 and under even the most unfavourable circumstances4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe that travellers in remote regions1 and especially in tropical climates1 are much more exposed to physical ills and diseases than most residents at home1 and that they are more likely to be placed beyond the reach of skilled medical and surgical aid when it is most required4 ,it is chiefly for the use of the non-professional traveller that the following pages have been written1 and with this aim in view the symptoms and general treatment of the diseases and injuries with which he is most likely to be brought in contact are dealt with in simple1 non-technical language4 ,every traveller should supply himself with either ,bernard ,myer's #8,atlas of ,first ,aid ,treatment' or ,hastings ,young's #8,first ,aid to the ,sick1' books of general utility4 ,travellers visiting countries with hot climates will find ,garry's #8,some ,factors ,influencing ,health in ,tropical and ,sub-tropical ,climates' a useful book1 despite a few errors1 while the small #8,primer of ,tropical ,hygiene' by ,colonel ,r4 ,j4 ,blackham1 is a valuable guide to things hygienic as is ,professor ,simpson's #8,maintenance of ,health in the ,tropics4' ,a few books may be mentioned as specially suitable for those travelling in the countries with which they deal1 such as #8,hints for ,residents and ,travellers in ,persia' by ,a4 ,r4 ,neligan1 #8,health ,preservation in ,west ,africa' by ,j4 ,c4 ,ryan1 #8,hygiene and ,disease in ,palestine' by ,masterman1 and #8,the ,epidemics of ,mauritius' by ,anderson4 ,those who read ,german will find the #8,gesundheitlicher ,ratgeber fr ,auswanderer1' issued under the auspices of the ,institut fr ,schiffs- und ,tropenkrankheiten in ,hamburg1 of considerable service1 and if they intend visiting ,south ,america it is worth noting that from the same source a series of small books to guide the traveller in different parts of that continent will soon be forthcoming4 ,this series will also include works on ,mexico1 ,angola and ,siberia4 ,these ,german guides are obtainable from ,l4 ,friederichsen ,co41 ,hamburg4 ,persons who intend to travel should undergo a thorough medical examination1 in order to ascertain if they are likely to be able to stand the fatigues1 exposures and privations to which they will probably be subjected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,body1 ,,and ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,blood-,,vessels4 ,most people of good constitutions and regular temperate habits can1 with care1 maintain a good state of health in the tropics1 and many of those who have been by no means strong at home are able with some extra caution to do well even in the hottest climates4 ,the intending traveller should attend a course of ambulance lectures in order to prepare himself for the responsibilities which he will have to undertake4 ,as much time as possible should be devoted to discussing with some professional friend the uses1 correct doses1 and proper methods of prescribing and combining the drugs which are to be taken on the journey1 and in becoming familiar with the position of the principal bones1 vessels and other important structures of the human body4 ,a traveller should understand how to use the clinical thermometer1 how to twist or tie a bleeding vessel1 how to use the hypodermic syringe and the syphon stomach tube4 ,he should learn how to cleanse a wound1 how to treat a case of snake-bite1 and should know the best way in which to set a broken limb4 ,such things are not easily learnt from books1 and experience alone will give the necessary skill and confidence4 ,many valuable lives have been saved by travellers who have fairly mastered the rudiments of medical and surgical treatment1 and who have been able in an emergency to give the necessary drugs1 administer an antidote1 or to stop severe bleeding4 ,the ideal traveller is a temperate man1 with a sound constitution1 a digestion like an ostrich1 a good temper1 and no race prejudices4 ,he is capable of looking after details1 e4g41 seeing that drinking water has really been boiled1 and is willing to take advice from those who have made journeys in countries similar to the one in which he is about to travel4 ,a traveller should be supplied with suitable housing1 food and clothing1 and should have a proper supply of medicines1 dressings1 and medical comforts4 ,in selecting the drugs with which the traveller should be provided before leaving home care should be taken to see that only reliable products be purchased4 ,in the tropics1 and in exploration generally1 the medical outfit is subjected to very severe tests1 and it is a mistaken policy to economise on medicines4 ,the latter should be as portable as possible and be properly packed4 ,risks to ,health in a ,tropical ,climate4 ,seeing that these hints will be chiefly required by travellers in tropical or sub-tropical climates1 it may be well to indicate some of the chief risks which are to be met with in warm climates1 and the best methods of meeting them4 ,it will be noted that any detailed reference to questions of outfit1 such as the supply of proper food or clothing1 is omitted1 as these matters have been fully dealt with in #8,hints on ,outfit1' published by the ,royal ,geographical ,society uniformly with this #8,hints to ,travellers1' and it is understood that this work will be consulted by all who read these hints4 ,chill4--,the most prominent feature of a tropical climate is undoubtedly heat1 and yet the greatest risk arises not so much from excessive high temperature as from a risk of chill1 which is due mainly to the excessive perspiration which takes place4 ,this must be guarded against by the use of proper clothing1 the most important point being that the underclothing should be partly of absorbent material4 ,for general use cotton is best1 and the vest or undershirt should in the tropics be of the ,aertex ,cellular type4 ,it is a mistake to wear wool next the skin in hot countries1 for it soon gets sodden with perspiration and is irritating4 ,a light flannel shirt worn over the open cotton mesh is probably the best arrangement though a mixture of wool and cotton may be employed for the shirting4 ,this question is fully dealt with in #8,hints on ,outfit4' ,it is particularly important to avoid sudden changes of temperature1 and if exposed to the cooling sea breeze1 special care must be taken as to proper clothing4 ,parke laid great stress on the importance of avoiding chills1 draughts1 or wettings4 ,he remarked 8,in crossing ,equatorial ,africa the ,relief ,expedition found that every wetting meant an attack of fever40 ,the sea breeze1 which is so refreshing and cool1 by checking the perspiration1 frequently acts as the exciting cause of an attack of fever4 ,there is special liability to chill and subsequent fever when ascending an eminence1 as the exertion causes profuse perspiration1 and the cool breeze encountered on arrival at the top is very likely to produce ill effects4 ,on completing a day's journey1 the underclothing1 at least1 should be changed without delay1 and the skin should be well dried by the free use of a rough towel4 ,if at all possible a warm bath should be taken4 ,the cummerbund is a useful article of clothing1 especially for men in the evening4 ,it does away with the need for a waistcoat1 which often proves hot and uncomfortable1 and yet provides the necessary safeguard against chill to the abdominal organs4 ,a word as to the use of a flannel cholera belt1 about which opinions differ4 ,experience in many tropical countries leads the writer to recommend its use at night1 and at night only4 ,even so1 it is unnecessary and uncomfortable in places where the nights are invariably hot and steamy1 and is chiefly of value in dry1 desert climates where there is a great difference between the day and night temperatures4 ,effects of the ,sun4--,it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the protection of the head from the direct rays of the sun4 ,it is best1 where possible1 to avoid going out in the heat of the day1 but where this is necessary the head should be protected by a suitable helmet1 which should be light in weight and colour1 which should be ventilated1 and which should have a good protection for the back of the head4 ,a large green leaf inside the helmet might be an additional protection1 and a sun umbrella should also be used wherever practicable4 ,a helmet should as a rule be worn when going out during the day-time in the tropics4 ,sometimes1 however1 the helmet is found very troublesome1 as1 for example1 by the sportsman in the bush4 ,he may then have recourse to a double ,terai hat1 or even to an ordinary wide-brimmed felt hat provided he inserts a crumpled-up handkerchief in its crown4 ,this will usually afford a reasonable protection4 ,errors of ,diet4--,the lassitude which is often so much felt by ,europeans resident in the tropics too frequently tempts them to the abuse of alcoholic stimulants and highly-spiced foods4 ,the habit is a most pernicious one1 for such indulgence is one of the most fruitful causes of the permanent ill-health so often wrongly attributed to the mere residence in a hot climate4 ,there is no doubt that food should be taken with greater moderation in hot than in cold climates2 heat-producing articles of diet1 such as fat1 should be taken in far smaller quantity1 but an ample supply of vegetables is essential4 ,the meals should never be heavy1 especially during the heat of the day1 and intervals of about four hours should always separate consecutive meals4 ,cooking should always be conducted with great care in the tropics1 for the stomach and liver are less able to bear any extra strain1 such as would be induced by the attempt to digest imperfectly-cooked food4 ,parasites are often introduced into the system by insufficiently cooked food4 ,natural milk must be boiled2 condensed milk should be mixed with boiled water4 ,excess in the use of alcoholic stimulants is one of the most fatal errors into which the tropical resident can fall1 and their habitual use as beverages is totally unnecessary1 tea1 coffee and cocoa being the best beverages for ordinary use4 ,a small supply of brandy1 champagne1 and port wine may be of service in certain cases of illness1 but they are better regarded as belonging strictly to the medical equipment4 ,avoid native drinks1 as they will probably have been diluted with dirty water1 or prepared in unclean vessels4 ,great moderation in the use of alcohol is quite as necessary in arctic as in tropical climates4 ,in the latter no alcohol should be taken till the sun has set1 and even then the quantity should be strictly limited4 ,there is no reason why a glass of light beer1 a whisky and soda1 or a little light wine should not be drunk with the evening meal4 ,alcohol taken at this time often promotes appetite and aids digestion1 but alcohol between meals is bad1 chiefly perhaps because the habit of exceeding the daily allowance is thereby apt to be engendered4 ,it is largely a question of self-control1 and it must be remembered that in the tropics self-control1 so far as drinks are concerned1 is very apt to weaken4 ,apart from the question of its habitual use alcohol is often of great service as a restorative1 as1 for example1 after a fatiguing march1 and especially if one has got wet and chilled4 ,champagne is possibly the best form to take on such occasions and it should be used as an apritif or drunk along with food4 ,risks due to ,drinking ,water4--,the use of water for drinking purposes must be attended with great care in all tropical climates4 ,as the water of the lakes1 streams and pools of these countries usually contains a large proportion of impurities1 and the germs or parasites of many diseases1 it should be strained and subsequently boiled before being used4 ,as1 however1 it is not always possible or convenient to incur the delay of boiling the drinking water and allowing it to cool1 it is advisable that a reliable filter should be taken4 ,most filters--charcoal or otherwise--are merely death-traps1 as the accumulation of germs and injurious matter within the filtering substance soon renders the water more dangerous than if unfiltered4 ,there are1 however1 a few filters which1 with ordinary care in cleansing1 are in themselves efficient safeguards4 ,the most highly recommended of these are the ,pasteur ,chamberland and the ,doulton filters4 ,in any case1 spare filtering candles should be taken1 and these should be cleaned and boiled at least every three days4 ,it is recommended that the filter-makers should be consulted immediately the probable requirements of any expedition are known4 ,it should be remembered that no filter combines rapid delivery of water with efficient sterilization4 ,a mistake commonly made is to boil water and then filter it4 ,this should never be done4 ,the drinking of very cold water1 to which there is great temptation when one is exhausted by prolonged heat and copious perspiration1 should be carefully avoided2 thirst often induces tropical residents to have recourse to iced water1 which is always apt to be dangerous if taken when one is heated4 ,the drinking of copious draughts of water is also a habit to be deprecated2 it certainly weakens the muscular energy1 and as the water is rapidly lost by perspiration1 the feeling of exhaustion is increased4 ,hot or cold weak tea1 without milk or sugar1 is one of the least injurious of all beverages4 ,precautions on the ,voyage4 ,the traveller should endeavour to land in a perfectly healthy condition1 and to this end he should on the voyage out take plenty of exercise1 drink little or no alcohol1 be moderate as to diet1 and avoid much meat and rich dishes4 ,neglect of these obvious rules frequently ends in the traveller arriving in a flabby1 bilious condition1 in which state he is predisposed to attacks of malaria1 dysentery1 and other diseases4 ,constipation is frequent at sea1 and a seidlitz powder1 a dose of fruit salt1 or one or two cascara tabloids may be necessary4 ,if constipation is severe1 then one or two four-grain blue pills should be taken at bedtime1 followed in the early morning by a seidlitz powder or some other saline aperient4 ,in order to avoid chill the traveller should be properly clothed during the evening or when there is a cool breeze1 and should not stand in draughty doorways and passages on board4 ,if he is proceeding to a country where there is endemic malaria he should begin his course of prophylactic quinine on ship-board1 because even a single night spent ashore in a malarious locality may result in his acquiring infection4 ,it is therefore advisable to begin taking quinine in the manner described on p4 #bjg at least two days before arrival at the place of disembarkation4 ,what is true of the journey out is of even greater importance on the voyage home4 ,there is a serious danger of illness owing to chills contracted on board ship when leaving a hot climate4 ,quinine should be systematically taken as recommended on p4 #bjh4 ,,general ,,hints4 ,never take a cold bath in the ,tropics unless ordered to do so by a doctor4--,in the case of persons who have already suffered from many attacks of fever1 dysentery1 or any disease of the liver or other important organs1 warm bathing should alone be used4 ,bathing should never be resorted to during the period of digestion1 i4e41 three to four hours after meals4 ,wear warm clothes at night4 ,avoid the direct rays of the sun4 ,do not take too much animal food4 ,never begin work on an empty stomach4 ,never neglect a slight attack of fever or diarrha4 ,keep the bowels gently opened--once a day is quite enough--but avoid strong purgatives4 ,vaccination4 ,it is essential that all the members of an expedition should be re-vaccinated if they have not suffered from small-pox or been vaccinated within two years4 ,a proper supply of vaccine should be carried on the journey4 ,heat and bright sunlight are very detrimental to vaccine lymph4 ,hence the proper transport of such lymph in hot climates is a matter of great importance and by no means always easy to arrange4 ,where a thermos flask is available it may be used for storing and carrying the capillary tubes1 or they may be wrapped up in green leaves and inserted into a hollow bamboo1 the ends of which are closed with cotton wool4 ,inoculation4 ,owing to the prevalence of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers in hot countries it is essential that all persons1 and more especially young adults1 proceeding to tropical countries should undergo preventive inoculation4 ,two injections of the so-called triple vaccine1 at ten days' interval1 are necessary1 and both should be given shortly before leaving or1 if arrangements can be made1 one or both may be given on ship-board4 ,isolation4 ,on the outbreak of an infectious complaint1 such as small-pox 7which is very common amongst negro carriers71 the sufferer should be promptly isolated1 and one or more attendants should take charge of the case and not be allowed to come to camp4 ,it is wise to select as attendants those who have either had the disease1 or who are protected 7as by vaccination7 against it4 ,in ,nigeria it was found most convenient to build grass huts1 which were burnt to the ground1 together with the clothing and bedding of the patient and attendants1 on the termination of the outbreak4 ,all vessels which are not destroyed must be boiled thoroughly4 ,the motions1 etc41 of patients suffering from typhoid fever1 cholera and dysentery should be disinfected1 preferably by boiling1 or1 better still1 destroyed by fire4 ,transmission of ,infection4 ,the traveller should remember that of late years the rle of the healthy human 8carrier0 in the transmission of many communicable diseases has been established4 ,this is true of such diseases as enteric fever and cholera1 and when engaging servants1 porters1 and camp followers it is important to inquire into their previous history and1 if necessary1 to make certain that they do not harbour the specific organisms of such diseases4 ,,diseases ,,and ,,their ,,prevention ,,and ,,treatment4 ,in the tropics1 as elsewhere1 the diseases to which the traveller is liable are due to widely differing causes1 but in hot countries climatic conditions and parasites play a predominant part4 ,insects are very frequently to blame for the transference of the latter from the sick to the sound1 both insects which are not themselves parasitic on man1 e4g41 the mosquito and the tsetse fly1 and those which make man their host1 e4g41 lice and fleas4 ,it is useful for the traveller to bear diseases in mind from the standpoint of their etiology1 as in this way he can more readily grasp the measures necessary for their prevention4 ,accordingly1 the following classification is given1 merely as a guide1 together with a few examples4 ,the diseases themselves1 for the sake of convenience of reference1 are grouped alphabetically and are not classified in any way4 ,table of ,diseases ,classed according to ,etiology4 ,a4--,parasitic4 7i47 ,due to 8contact0 either direct or through the agency of clothes1 bedding1 etc4 ,also due to direct inoculation through the skin or mucous membrane4 ,examples3 ,many skin diseases1 venereal diseases1 small-pox1 tetanus1 and blood-poisoning 7septicmia74 7ii47 ,due to 8mouth to mouth0 infection1 through the agency of so-called 8droplet0 infection1 expectoration1 coughing1 sneezing1 etc4 ,examples3 ,influenza1 pneumonia1 and pneumonic plague4 7iii47 ,due to 8droplet0 infection1 as above1 or to infected scales from the skin1 or to infected discharges from the nose1 throat1 or ear4 ,examples3 ,measles1 scarlet fever1 small-pox1 chicken-pox1 diphtheria4 7iv47 ,due to excremental infection through the agency of water1 food1 flies1 fingers1 dust1 and soil4 ,examples3 ,enteric 7typhoid7 fever1 dysentery1 diarrha1 cholera1 worm infections of many kinds4 7v47 ,due to inoculation through the bites of insects1 or the entry through skin abrasions of the infected excreta or infected crushed tissues of insects rubbed or scratched into these lesions4 ,examples3 ,malaria1 yellow fever1 tick fever1 sleeping sickness1 filariasis1 relapsing fever1 typhus fever1 bubonic plague4 7vi47 ,due to invasion of the body by insects in their adult or larval stages4 ,examples3 ,chigger1 myiasis of various kinds4 ,b4--,non-,parasitic4 7i47 ,due to climatic conditions4 ,examples3 ,heat stroke1 diarrha in some instances1 constipation in many cases1 rheumatism1 prickly heat1 chilblains4 7ii47 ,due to errors in diet4 ,examples3 ,diarrha1 beri-beri1 scurvy1 sprue7874 7iii47 ,due to poisons4 ,examples3 ,scorpion sting1 snake-bite1 vegetable poisons4 7iv47 ,miscellaneous4 ,examples3 ,bed-sores1 epilepsy1 apoplexy1 concussion of the brain1 hay fever1 and other conditions into the cause of which a mechanical element frequently enters4 ,it will be seen that some of these diseases1 such as small-pox and diarrha1 come under more than one heading1 but this does not detract from the general utility of the above classification4 ,bed-sore4 ,when a patient is confined to his bed for a long time it is necessary to support the lower part of the back on something soft1 such as a pad of wool1 or an extra pillow1 in order to prevent the formation of a bed-sore2 pillows should also be placed under the hips and heels4 ,to harden the skin it is well to rub it with alcohol or to treat it with oil or white of an egg three parts1 and spirits one part2 zinc ointment is also useful for this purpose4 ,besides pressure1 the most frequent cause of bed-sores is constant moisture from the passage of urine and motions and consequent damping of the sheets4 ,great care must be taken to thoroughly dry the back after any evacuation2 the lower part of the back should be dusted with a powder of boric acid and zinc oxide4 ,if a bed-sore is present the patient should lie on a circular pad with a hole in the middle1 to take pressure off the bed-sore4 ,the sore should be thoroughly cleaned twice a day with some antiseptic lotion1 such as chinosol or permanganate1 and subsequently dressed with zinc ointment or vaseline4 ,if the bed-sore is on the back1 the patient should lie if possible on each side alternately1 to relieve the pressure4 ,beri-beri4 ,in most cases this is a disease due to some deficiency in the dietary1 which leads to a form of what is called peripheral neuritis4 ,the name is possibly derived from a ,cingalese word signifying 8,i cannot40 ,symptoms4--,weakness of the legs and digestive troubles1 abnormal sensations in the legs1 frequently associated with swelling4 ,the gait alters1 and the arms and fingers may be affected4 ,the condition is one of spreading paralysis1 and in bad cases the heart is affected4 ,in so-called wet beri-beri the patient becomes bloated as in dropsy1 while in dry beri-beri he wastes away until he is little better than a skeleton4 ,there is a 8squatting test0 which may enable one to recognize the disease at an early stage4 ,the patient1 with his hands on the top of his head1 is unable to assume a squatting position and to rise from it unaided4 ,if he is squatting and has to rise he accomplishes the act by climbing1 as it were1 up his own legs4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid overcrowding1 as this seems in some cases to predispose to the disease4 ,give the yeast extract known as 8,marmite10 which is supplied in small cubes one-quarter ounce in weight4 ,one should be taken twice a week1 either alone or with bread or biscuit1 or dissolved in warm water in the form of a soup4 ,lentils1 other legumes1 and oatmeal are useful4 ,eggs and fresh meat1 when obtainable1 are very valuable4 ,treatment4--,this is chiefly dietetic4 ,give yeast1 two ounces daily1 along with milk and sugar1 or marmite in one-cube doses twice a day4 ,eggs are specially useful1 while fresh milk1 legumes1 and nourishing soups are all indicated4 ,only small quantities of food should be given at a time4 ,rest in bed is very important1 and the patient must be careful when he is allowed to get up owing to the danger of heart failure4 ,tonics are required during convalescence4 ,blackwater ,fever4 ,blackwater fever is probably a pernicious complication of malarial fever1 and derives its name from the colour of the urine4 ,it must be remembered that dark-coloured urine is usual in all fevers2 it is scanty during the height of the fever1 especially if there is much sweating4 ,if1 however1 it is obviously 8bloody10 the case is more grave1 but as a rule it is only men broken down in health1 and those who have resided in blackwater countries1 e4g41 ,tropical ,africa1 parts of ,india1 the ,west ,indies1 etc41 for at least a year1 especially those who have taken their prophylactic quinine irregularly1 who suffer from this complication4 ,the reason for the occurrence of this condition is not fully known4 ,some have ascribed the symptoms entirely to the taking of quinine1 but as the fever often occurs where no quinine has been given this is impossible4 ,at the same time it appears likely that in certain cases of malaria1 owing perhaps to some idiosyncrasy1 quinine may help to bring on the symptoms4 ,it is possible that chill occurring during the course of a fever may lead to the production of blackwater fever4 ,those who have had one attack are particularly liable to a recurrence1 and after two consecutive attacks return to a temperate climate is required4 ,symptoms4--,in addition to the ordinary symptoms of malarial fever1 the urine is dark1 blood-like1 and eventually porter-coloured2 it is often scanty1 and may become entirely suppressed4 ,the skin is yellow1 often a bright orange1 there is frequent vomiting1 often hiccough1 and the vomited matter is usually of a green colour4 ,prophylaxis4--,with our present knowledge all that can be said is that malaria prophylaxis is also the method to prevent blackwater4 ,such prophylaxis1 so far as quinine is concerned1 must be properly carried out4 ,those who take quinine regularly1 and in sufficient doses1 do not contract blackwater fever4 ,chill and excesses of all kinds must be avoided4 ,treatment4--,much the same treatment should be adopted as that fully described later for malaria4 ,it is especially important to give an aperient at the beginning1 and perhaps five grains of calomel is the best form4 ,in every case1 no matter how slight1 it is essential to ensure1 wherever possible1 absolute rest in bed and skilled and careful nursing4 ,if it can possibly be avoided a blackwater patient should never be moved from the place where he is taken ill4 ,so long as he has a bed to lie on1 a roof to cover him1 and some sensible person to look after him who will carry out the doctor's orders1 he should be treated on the spot4 ,it is better1 when it can be arranged1 for the nurse to go to the patient than for the patient to come to the nurse4 ,the chief aim should be to support the strength by fluid nourishment1 and to secure free action of the kidneys4 ,the former should be maintained by fluid nourishment given in small quantities at frequent intervals1 such as milk1 ,plasmon1 ,benger's food1 ,allenbury's foods1 invalid ,bovril1 ,brand's fever food1 or ,brand's essence1 ,maggi's consomm4 ,a little ,plasmon added to any of the meat preparations would be useful1 while raisin tea is a valuable preparation4 ,in order to maintain free action of the kidneys1 plenty of fluid should be given1 such as barley-water made from ,robinson's prepared barley1 flavoured slightly with lime-juice or lemons4 ,weak tea is useful4 ,diuretics which stimulate the kidneys must be avoided4 ,the most effective method of flushing the kidneys is by giving saline injections by the bowel1 but these1 as a rule1 can be administered only by a medical man or by a trained nurse under a doctor's supervision4 ,it may1 however1 be stated that the amount usually given is six ounces of physiological salt solution 7seven and a half grains of sodium chloride to the ounce of warm water74 ,this is administered every hour1 or even oftener1 if necessary1 in bad cases4 ,in mild cases enemata every four or six hours will suffice4 ,other measures are the application of poultices or hot fomentations to the loins when suppression threatens1 or when there is severe lumbar pain4 ,diaphoretics1 so long as they do not depress the heart1 are useful1 and so is frequent sponging4 ,cold applications to the head and especially behind the ears alleviate headache4 ,the question of giving or of withholding quinine is an important one1 but recent work on the subject indicates that in the absence of a medical man who can carry out blood examinations1 it is advisable to give quinine as in the case of malaria4 ,vomiting is often a serious complication1 and the directions for its treatment1 given under the head of malaria1 should be carefully followed4 ,if it cannot be speedily checked1 feeding by the bowel must be carried out4 ,see ,nutrient ,enema1 p4 #bei4 ,so long as plenty of urine is passed and sufficient nourishment is taken there is little cause for anxiety1 though wherever possible skilled assistance should be obtained at the earliest opportunity4 ,after an attack the patient is very weak and anmic4 ,he requires careful feeding and tonics1 especially iron and arsenic4 ,it is advisable that he should be invalided out of the endemic area1 and he should be specially warned as to the danger of getting chilled or wet4 ,bronchitis1 or ,inflammation of the ,branches of the ,windpipe4 ,symptoms4--,when bronchitis exists1 there is a good deal of coughing--at first dry1 but afterwards accompanied by frothy expectoration--with a sensation of rawness and tenderness at the upper part of the breastbone4 ,treatment4--,in the early stages of this condition1 opium in some form or other will be found beneficial1 and will often cut short an attack2 for this purpose1 ten grains of ,dover's powder1 or fifteen to twenty minims of chlorodyne1 may be given every eight hours for twenty-four hours1 and then be gradually diminished4 ,if the breathing is difficult1 poultices should be applied to the chest and ipecacuanha1 half to two grains1 and ammonia1 should be given three times a day4 ,later1 stimulating expectorants1 such as ammonium carbonate1 should be administered4 ,inhalation of steam often gives great relief2 and the effect is much improved if thirty drops of ,friar's balsam are added to a pint of hot water4 ,in tropical climates even an ordinary feverish cold very often tends to become malarial in character1 therefore the use of quinine1 in addition to the other treatment1 is usually desirable1 and five grains may be given thrice a day4 ,burns and ,scalds4 ,where an extensive burn or scald has occurred1 the clothing of the injured part should be removed by cutting1 so as to cause as little irritation as possible4 ,if the burn is only slight1 the surface may be covered over with lint smeared with zinc or boric ointment1 or oil4 ,if there is much blistering1 or the surface is charred1 the skin should be cleaned up as well as possible with boric acid lotion1 and hot fomentations of the same applied for twenty-four hours4 ,after this1 the burn may be dressed twice a day with boric ointment spread on lint4 ,great cleanliness is an important factor in the successful treatment of burns4 ,in a severe burn1 stimulants must be given1 and the patient put to bed with hot-water bottles1 and active treatment of the burn should be left till the patient has somewhat recovered from the shock4 ,when there is great pain1 chlorodyne or laudanum in full doses will be required4 ,cerebro-,spinal ,fever4 ,this disease1 also known as 8spotted fever10 is of special importance at the present time to the traveller in ,central ,africa1 where it is very prevalent amongst the natives1 especially in ,uganda4 ,it may1 however1 be encountered in all parts of the world1 and in the tropics is very frequently a malady of the dusty months4 ,causes4--,the disease is very often transmitted from some carrier of the causative organism1 which occurs in the throat and nose1 and is distributed by coughing1 spitting1 or sneezing4 ,infected material1 such as handkerchiefs1 may play a part1 and the spread of the disease is greatly favoured by overcrowding1 especially of sleeping quarters4 ,symptoms4--,in very acute cases the onset may be very sudden1 the patient rapidly losing consciousness4 ,as a rule the disease begins with headache1 stiffness of the neck and chilly sensations4 ,there may be vomiting1 and the temperature is raised4 ,the mind is often confused1 and the patient may be delirious4 ,the skin eruption1 which occurs especially on the back and about the joints1 and which is responsible for the name 8spotted fever10 is not very frequently seen1 and can hardly ever be detected on a dark skin4 ,in very bad cases there is violent delirium1 laboured breathing1 and a purulent discharge from the nostrils4 ,one of the most characteristic features is retraction of the head1 while a dislike to light is common4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid unnecessary fatigue and guard against overcrowding1 faulty conditions of ventilation and those which tend to cause naso-pharyngeal catarrh4 ,persons who have been in contact with cases of the disease are probably well advised to wash out their noses with a dilute solution of permanganate of potash #a in #a1jjj4 ,treatment4--,in the absence of a medical man this can merely be symptomatic4 ,hot baths relieve pain and restlessness4 ,ice to the head1 antipyrin1 caffeine or aspirin relieve headache1 and sedatives may be given for the insomnia and delirium4 ,the patient's mouth is foul1 and should be carefully swabbed and kept clean4 ,chicken-,pox4 ,in the tropics this disease is very largely one of adults4 ,incubation period1 a fortnight to three weeks4 ,rash appears first day4 ,rash4--,pink spots1 upon which blebs form after twelve to twenty-four hours4 ,the blebs are at first transparent1 but subsequently become yellowish1 and after two to three days shrivel and separate1 leaving a pink scar4 ,the symptoms are usually very mild1 perhaps only slight fever1 and possibly headache4 ,the appearance of the rash is often the first symptom4 ,treatment4--,isolation1 and light diet4 ,bed may not be necessary4 ,chilblains and ,frostbite4 ,chilblains are usually found on the fingers or toes--after exposure to severe cold--especially when tight gloves or boots have been worn4 ,certainly the best way to promote the formation of chilblains is to toast the semi-frozen fingers or toes at a fire or stove1 before the circulation has been re-established4 ,when chilblains are threatened1 the part should be well rubbed with snow1 or with camphorated spirit4 ,sponging with hot vinegar is very effective4 ,chilblains are checked in the early stages by painting with tincture of iodine4 ,once they have developed a preparation containing carbolic acid is useful in allaying pain and causing them to disappear4 ,ulcerated chilblains should be dressed with boric ointment spread on lint4 ,prolonged exposure to intense cold leads to development of frostbite4 ,if the case is a bad one1 or injudiciously treated1 gangrene or death of the part always follows2 if this is extensive1 amputation may be necessary4 ,frostbite should be treated first by vigorous friction with snow or pounded ice4 ,the affected parts should then be well wrapped with cloths wet with cold water4 ,it is extremely dangerous to bring them near a fire4 ,afterwards1 the part should be wrapped in cotton-wool4 ,cholera4 ,cholera is a serious acute disease1 characterised by frequent watery motions1 vomiting1 cramp and collapse4 ,cause4--,it is often contracted by drinking contaminated water4 ,research has shown the importance of the cholera 8carrier10 that is to say the person1 usually a native1 who harbours in his bowel the specific organism of the disease4 ,he may be perfectly healthy and yet be able to transmit cholera to other people by infecting water or food4 ,the rle of flies1 infected clothes and rags1 and faulty conservancy methods must be kept in mind4 ,symptoms4--,giddiness1 faintness1 persistent vomiting and diarrha1 great prostration1 feeble pulse1 cold perspiration1 colic1 intense thirst1 and constant desire to pass urine4 ,the vomit and motions rapidly become like rice-water in appearance1 and the urine is more or less suppressed4 ,there are severe cramps in the legs1 belly1 and other parts of the body4 ,if then the pulse becomes weak1 the temperature low1 and the countenance dusky1 the patient will probably sink4 ,on the other hand1 reaction may set in1 all the symptoms abating1 and the pulse1 temperature1 and colour becoming natural2 the water is passed more freely1 vomiting is less frequent1 and the motions become more natural in colour4 ,prophylaxis4--,anti-choleraic inoculations are now practised4 ,they not only afford a considerable degree of protection but lessen the risk of a fatal issue in the inoculated4 ,hence it is advisable to be vaccinated against cholera whenever there is risk of infection4 ,the inoculation must be repeated after the lapse of four months if the epidemic still persists1 as the protection afforded is only temporary4 ,persons travelling in regions where cholera is present in an endemic form should take a little lactic acid in tea1 or add a little vinegar or thirty drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to every ounce of drinking water4 ,at times of epidemic prevalence it is essential that all water should be boiled4 ,the practice of hand-shaking should be discouraged1 indigestible diet should be avoided1 and raw fruit1 raw vegetables1 and meat jellies should not be eaten4 ,lettuces and celery1 being moist and eaten uncooked1 are specially dangerous4 ,patients and contact cases must be isolated1 and the former should be protected from flies4 ,it is very necessary to maintain a strict supervision of cooks and cooking arrangements4 ,all kitchen cloths should be washed in permanganate solution or boiled4 ,milk should always be boiled4 ,cholera stools may be disinfected by adding a five per cent4 cresol solution to them and allowing it to remain in contact with the stool for at least one hour4 ,quicklime is excellent as a disinfectant4 ,add together equal parts of fresh quicklime and water1 dilute with three times as much water as previously used1 add a quantity of this slaked lime equal to the amount of stool to be disinfected and allow it to remain in contact with the stool for one hour4 ,when the ground has been fouled by dejecta or vomit1 disinfect with cresol1 or rake hot ashes over it or pour kerosene oil upon it and set the latter alight4 ,cholera-soiled clothing1 bed linen and blankets should be soaked in a two and a half per cent4 cresol solution4 ,treatment4--,isolate the patient1 keep him warm1 and give ice to suck4 ,apply hot bottle to the feet1 and mustard leaves to the pit of the stomach4 ,it is advisable to clear the bowel of irritating material at the outset by giving half an ounce of castor oil with a teaspoonful of brandy4 ,drugs are of little use in cholera1 but some like to give one drop of carbolic acid1 together with twenty drops of spirit of camphor 7or peppermint1 or a little brandy71 five grains of bismuth1 and ten grains of soda1 suspended in one ounce of gum water1 every four hours4 ,chlorodyne may be given to allay severe pain4 ,even in the mildest cases absolute rest in bed is essential1 and a warm bed-pan should be provided4 ,in the early stages no food at all should be given1 but plenty of fluid should be allowed1 though it must be administered only in sips4 ,stimulants may be necessary4 ,later on fluid food such as milk should be given carefully1 and the quantity gradually increased4 ,the special treatment for cholera can only be carried out by a medical man1 and recourse should be had to his help at the earliest possible moment1 as everything depends upon immediate treatment4 ,if1 after the acute symptoms subside1 diarrha continues a dose of bismuth is often useful4 ,colic4 ,this is the name given to the well-known severe twisting or griping pains in the belly1 usually due to excessive flatulence1 and resulting from constipation1 or some error of diet4 ,treatment4--,hot fomentations should be applied to the belly1 or better still1 the ,instra1 which is the best means of applying continuous heat to any part of the body4 ,a turpentine enema 7a tablespoonful to a pint of warm water7 will nearly always cut short the symptoms2 in the absence of turpentine1 give warm water alone4 ,a full dose of opium 7#bj minims7 should also be given if the pain is severe1 preferably in a tablespoonful of castor oil4 ,bicarbonate of soda1 carbonate of ammonia and ginger should be freely given in full doses1 and the bowels should be well opened as soon as the severe pain has passed off4 ,concussion of the ,brain4 ,this term is applied to the partial suspension of the functions of the brain1 produced by the severe shaking of its substance by a fall or blow4 ,symptoms4--,at first the patient lies in an unconscious condition1 skin cold and clammy1 pulse and breathing very feeble1 and temperature extremely low2 he can be slightly roused by shouting2 he cries out if he is moved1 or when painful applications are made1 but quickly relapses into insensibility4 ,the stage of unconsciousness may pass off almost at once1 it may be prolonged for hours or days1 or the patient may never recover from it4 ,the second stage--that of reaction--is marked by returning consciousness and frequently by vomiting1 the skin becomes warm1 and gradually the patient recovers2 on the other hand1 inflammation of the brain may set in1 or he may again become unconscious and die4 ,treatment4--,keep the patient perfectly quiet in bed1 in a darkened room1 give a milk diet1 and if he is much excited1 apply cold cloths or an ice-bag to the head4 ,if there is much prostration apply a hot-water bottle1 and restore the circulation by rubbing the limbs4 ,when reaction sets in1 give five grains of calomel4 ,stimulants should be avoided in cases of concussion of the brain1 unless the collapse is very alarming 7when ammonia should be given71 as they tend to cause too violent reaction1 which might be followed by inflammation of the brain and its coverings4 ,constipation4 ,this condition is very frequent in tropical climates1 where it is associated with sluggishness of the liver4 ,one of the best remedies is the two-grain tablet of cascara1 of which one may be taken three times a day4 ,rhubarb is also a very useful drug4 ,in addition to this1 an occasional dose of a saline purge should be used1 or a large enema of soap and water may be given4 ,five grains of blue pill or three grains of calomel will be found to act as a very efficient aperient1 especially if followed in about six hours by a saline such as fruit salt4 ,castor oil is a valuable remedy1 but it must be remembered that in the tropics its effects are sometimes rather severely felt1 and hence it is well to give it in somewhat smaller doses than those usually employed in temperate climates4 ,three-quarters of an ounce may be given where an ounce would otherwise be employed4 ,as a rule1 the general health of people suffering from simple constipation is not seriously affected4 ,in cases of chronic constipation one of the anti-constipation products1 otherwise known as the ,aloin ,co41 given three times a day and gradually reduced1 will be found useful4 ,in most acute diseases1 such as malaria1 pneumonia1 etc41 if constipation is present1 it should be treated at once by means of suitable aperients4 ,note4--,in peritonitis1 i4e41 inflammation of the bowels1 hernia1 and in some cases of typhoid1 constipation is a leading symptom1 and is accompanied by severe pain in the belly4 ,on no account should an aperient be given by the mouth in these cases4 ,if it is necessary to clear the bowels1 this should be done by means of an enema4 ,coryza1 or ,cold in the ,head4 ,when a cold is confined to the head it can usually be cut short by retiring to bed early1 taking a ten-grain dose of ,dover's powder1 followed by hot drinks to encourage the perspiration which the action of this drug produces1 together with the use of as many additional bed-clothes as can be borne4 ,care must be taken to avoid chill on the following morning4 ,once it is established the condition is difficult to cure1 but marked relief will often be afforded by washing out the nose with a solution made from naso-pharyngeal products4 ,in fact1 a simple nasal glass douche should form part of the traveller's outfit1 at least1 if he is liable to bad colds in the head4 ,in tropical regions five grains of quinine should be added to the dose of ,dover's powder4 ,when there is a liability to colds in the head the use of preventive vaccines is recommended1 but these should not be employed without the advice of a medical man4 ,cystitis1 or ,inflammation of the ,bladder4 ,causes4--,injury or the result of operations1 extension of inflammations such as gonorrha1 retention and decomposition of urine2 debilitated or gouty persons are especially liable to this affection4 ,symptoms4--,intense pain in the lower part of the belly1 and in the crutch1 continual desire to pass water1 with frequent passage of small quantities4 ,the urine is scanty1 high-coloured1 foul-smelling1 and occasionally blood-stained1 and there may be some fever4 ,treatment4--,hot baths1 leeches1 or fomentations to the crutch1 and a sedative1 such as opium 7preferably given by the bowel71 will be required4 ,if the disease continues the bladder should be washed out through a catheter with weak boric acid solution1 five grains to the ounce1 or chinosol 7#a in #bjjj71 twice a day4 ,urotropin1 ten grains1 and copaiba or sandal-wood oil in ten-drop doses4 ,the diet should be restricted to milk4 ,dengue4 ,this disease1 also known as dandy fever and break-bone fever1 occurs in many parts of the world1 and it is most common along littorals1 probably because the ,stegomyia mosquito which carries the infection is usually numerous in sea-coast places4 ,cause4--,the organism of dengue fever is unknown1 but the infection has been proved to be carried by at least one species of mosquito4 ,symptoms4--,the incubation period varies from about five to ten days4 ,the onset is very sudden1 the temperature rising rapidly4 ,within an hour or two an initial rash appears1 which varies in appearance and is transient4 ,the patient suffers from severe headache and pain in the joints and back4 ,indeed1 the condition closely resembles a sharp attack of influenza1 but1 as a rule1 there are no signs of coryza4 ,the eyes are very painful and insomnia is present4 ,the high temperature lasts for three or four days1 then drops1 continues low from twelve hours to three days and rises again sharply4 ,during the interval the patient feels better but the symptoms start again when the temperature rises for the second time4 ,in the second stage the true rash of dengue appears1 which is rather like that of measles1 and it is followed by desquamation of the skin4 ,the disease1 though often causing great weakness1 is very rarely fatal4 ,prophylaxis4--,protect against mosquito bites by using a proper mosquito net or by employing mosquito repellents such as 8sketofax40 ,treatment4--,light diet1 rest in bed1 phenacetin and aspirin for the relief of pain and headache4 ,cold sponging helps the febrile condition and the insomnia4 ,during convalescence there is often much depression1 and the patient benefits by being ordered tonics and a sound wine4 ,diarrha4 ,diarrha1 or looseness of the bowels1 is one of the most common and one of the most serious ailments of the tropics1 and should never be neglected4 ,in many cases it is a sign of enteric fever1 dysentery1 cholera1 or sprue1 the symptoms of which are given below4 ,ordinary attacks are usually due to the presence of some irritant in the bowels1 such as irritating sand1 bad food1 unripe fruit1 or other poisonous material4 ,amongst ,african and other natives diarrha is often due to a faulty or ill-cooked dietary4 ,the importance of flies in fouling food should not be overlooked4 ,treatment4--,begin the treatment by administering castor oil1 fruit salt1 cascara1 or other mild aperient1 to clear out the cause of the diarrha4 ,if castor oil is used the following note as to its administration is likely to be of service4 ,place an ounce of brandy in a glass or cup4 ,carefully pour the oil into the centre of the brandy and then add one ounce of water4 ,the mass of oil will then resemble the yolk of an egg enclosed in the white4 ,lime juice may be used instead of brandy4 ,failing these1 black coffee helps to cover the taste and 8feel0 of the oil4 ,sometimes three grains of calomel with fifteen grains of sodium bicarbonate act better than castor oil4 ,a warm-water enema of about a pint is useful4 ,if the diarrha continues1 give chlorodyne 7#bj minims7 and tincture of ginger 7#aj minims7 in an ounce of water two or three times a day4 ,this treatment should not be persisted in for more than two days4 ,if the diarrha is persistent1 an astringent is needed3 five grains of tannin1 or two or three grains of sulphate of iron may be given three times a day4 ,ten grains of quinine should be given each day4 ,all food should be semi-solid and tepid2 milk diet1 as recommended below for enteric fever1 is the safest food1 but soup thickened with rice or arrowroot is good4 ,the patient should keep in bed and wear a flannel band round the belly4 ,sometimes in the tropics1 as the result of excessive purgation1 diarrha is very acute and may be alarming4 ,in such cases a hot bath1 stimulants and the administration of astringents are indicated4 ,if the trouble continues for more than a few days it is probably due to dysentery1 or typhoid4 ,diphtheria4 ,diphtheria is an acute infectious disease1 the essential feature of which is a peculiar inflammation of the lining membrane of the mouth1 nose1 throat1 and windpipe1 characterised by the formation of a membrane upon the inflamed surface4 ,diphtheria occurs in the tropics but happily does not spread much in hot countries4 ,causes4--,it may be contracted from some person suffering from the disease1 from a healthy 8carrier0 harbouring the specific micro-organism 7,bacillus diphtheri7 in his throat or nose1 or from infected milk1 etc4 ,as the disease is a very grave one1 and skilled treatment is often an absolute necessity1 measures should be immediately taken to summon medical assistance on the first appearance of diphtheria1 or the patient should be sent as speedily as possible to a place where medical aid is likely to be obtained2 for if the breathing becomes so difficult that the patient gets blue in the face1 an operation for opening the windpipe will be necessary4 ,incubation period1 two to six days or even longer4 ,symptoms4--,headache1 discomfort1 loss of appetite1 sore throat1 and sickness1 with swelling of the glands at the angle of the jaw4 ,on examination the palate and tonsils are seen to be swollen1 with a white deposit of membrane upon the surface4 ,the membrane may be thick and tough1 and if stripped off will leave numerous small bleeding points4 ,the temperature may run up1 and is irregular in type4 ,the pulse is rapid and feeble1 and the bodily strength is quickly lost4 ,if the nose be affected there is copious discharge from the nostrils1 with difficulty of breathing and much discomfort4 ,if the windpipe is affected the voice will become hoarse or absent1 and there will be greater difficulty in breathing1 accompanied by a loud crowing noise4 ,diphtheria may be accompanied by cough and pneumonia4 ,treatment4--,isolation4 ,bed4 ,if diphtheria anti-toxin is obtainable1 it should be administered at the earliest opportunity1 but this should only be carried out by a doctor4 ,nourishing foods and stimulants should be given frequently in small quantities4 ,the throat should be thoroughly and frequently washed out with chinosol 7#a in #ajjj7 or other antiseptic lotion4 ,if the difficulty in breathing is marked1 warm baths should be given at intervals of about four hours4 ,a steam kettle should be placed near the bed4 ,the expulsion of the membrane may often be aided and great relief afforded by the administration of emetics1 such as ipecacuanha1 but these must be given with care owing to the risk of heart failure4 ,complications4--,diphtheria may be followed by paralysis of the windpipe with loss of voice1 or paralysis of other parts of the body1 therefore great care should be taken not to allow convalescents to get up too soon1 no matter how well they may appear4 ,dysentery4 ,this disease1 which is due to an inflammatory condition limited as a rule to the lower or large bowel1 may be the result of a variety of causes1 but there are two chief types which must be clearly distinguished3 7#a7 ,ambic dysentery1 due to a protozoon or animal organism1 7#b7 ,bacillary dysentery1 caused by certain micro-organisms belonging to the vegetable world4 ,ambic dysentery is much more of a tropical complaint than is bacillary dysentery1 but the latter is also common both in tropical and temperate climates4 ,both forms are transmitted in much the same way and their symptoms are very similar4 ,hence from the layman's point of view no good purpose is served by considering them separately1 at least so far as methods of transmission and symptoms go4 ,the treatment of the two forms1 however1 differs1 and to carry out such treatment effectively medical skill is required4 ,causes4--,dysentery is conveyed by impure drinking water1 contaminated food1 infected flies1 and possibly also by infected dust4 ,in both forms1 but especially in the ambic variety1 the so-called 8carrier0 plays an important part1 because in the latter case the organism produces cysts which are passed by the bowel1 and these cysts are frequently found in the dejecta of persons who have suffered from ambic dysentery and who are either convalescent or possibly in quite good health4 ,if these cysts find their way into food or water and are then swallowed they are capable of developing in the human intestine and producing dysentery4 ,carriers are also met with in the bacillary form of the disease4 ,dysentery may be provoked by chills1 general debility and exhausting conditions1 such as chronic malaria4 ,symptoms4--,diarrha with pains in the belly1 straining and frequent desire to go to stool4 ,the motions soon become small in amount1 slimy1 lose their natural colour1 and contain more or less blood2 when there is ulceration of the coats of the bowel1 the motions are extremely offensive1 and bleeding may be very free4 ,there is heat1 tenderness1 and bearing down about the outlet of the bowel1 with considerable prostration and probably some fever2 there is frequently a constant desire to pass water4 ,all these symptoms may be due to severe ordinary diarrha2 but in the tropics it is best to treat them as if they were dysenteric4 ,some guide may be obtained as to the form of dysentery from which the patient is suffering by taking his temperature4 ,as a rule there is little or no fever associated with the ambic form1 while in the case of the bacillary type the temperature is always raised and in severe cases may be considerably elevated4 ,it is in this form that the small intestine is apt to become involved and then the condition is more serious4 ,one help in diagnosis1 though not a very reliable one1 is the character of the stool4 ,in ambic dysentery the blood is apt to be mixed with the dejecta and to be dark in colour1 while the whole mass looks brown or greyish green4 ,the stool of bacillary dysentery1 on the other hand1 has a whitish appearance1 the blood in it is bright coloured and is often in the form of streaks or spots4 ,the ambic form is apt1 if not promptly and efficiently treated1 to be followed by inflammation of the liver1 which may go on to liver abscess4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid chill and debilitating causes of all kinds4 ,in countries where there is a great difference between the day and the night temperature wear a cholera belt4 ,carefully protect food and water from contamination of any kind1 and especially from flies4 ,doubtful water should be boiled or rendered sterile by some chemical method4 ,all milk should be boiled4 ,care should be taken not to employ as cooks natives who have recently suffered from dysentery1 and scrupulous cleanliness should be observed in the preparation of food4 ,unripe fruit and other materials apt to cause diarrha should be avoided4 ,camp conservancy methods should be carried out on approved sanitary principles which prevent the access of flies to human excrement and prevent the latter from being disseminated by wind or in any other way4 ,all dysenteric stools should be carefully disinfected or burnt4 ,treatment4--,the general treatment is common to both forms1 the essentials being rest1 warmth and suitable food4 ,put the patient to bed1 apply a cholera belt and get the bowels open by an initial dose of castor oil4 ,if there is much pain ten drops of tincture of opium may be added to the oil4 ,the usual dose of the oil is an ounce1 but if the patient is feeble or exhausted half an ounce will be sufficient4 ,as regards diet do not give any milk at first1 and indeed if the case is recognized as being one of bacillary dysentery milk should not be given at all as it tends to favour putrefaction4 ,albumin water1 rice water1 chicken broth are required during the first twenty-four hours4 ,thereafter in the ambic form milk diluted with barley water or with citrate of soda 7three grains to the ounce7 can be given4 ,soups are often useful1 and at a later period custard1 arrowroot and jellies are indicated4 ,in the bacillary type arrowroot1 meat and fruit jellies and beef-tea can be given from the outset4 ,in both types the food should be given in small quantities frequently1 and it should be neither too hot nor too cold4 ,alcohol is deleterious4 ,fortunately we now have a specific drug for treating ambic dysentery and that is emetine1 which is the active principle of ipecacuanha4 ,it is best given in the form of emetine bismuthous iodide1 which is supplied in capsules and the dose of which is three grains per day for twelve consecutive days4 ,the dose is best given in the evening along with a cup of hot tea on a full stomach when the patient is in bed4 ,if it causes much vomiting it is well to give ten or fifteen drops of tincture of opium before administering the emetine4 ,the latter can also be given by subcutaneous injection1 but this method of treatment should only be carried out by a physician4 ,where emetine is not available ipecacuanha itself may be used and is given as follows3-- ,treatment by ,ipecacuanha4--,when the bowels have been opened1 give twenty grains of ipecacuanha1 either solid or mixed with a wineglass of water1 or less2 arrowroot1 starch1 or gum-water1 which will help to suspend the drug4 ,of course1 ipecacuanha will act more quickly if it can be taken suspended in a liquid1 instead of in the solid form4 ,to prevent vomiting1 put a mustard leaf to the pit of the stomach4 ,absolute quiet must now be observed2 darken the room1 and allow no moving in bed or talking4 ,withhold food and liquid for at least two hours if possible1 but if there is much thirst1 teaspoonful doses of water may be given4 ,if there is no vomiting for an hour1 probably a good part of the ipecacuanha has been digested2 if it has been vomited1 wait for half-an-hour1 and then give another full dose4 ,if vomited again1 wait for two hours1 and give twenty drops of chlorodyne1 followed by twenty grains of ipecacuanha2 the chlorodyne is to quiet the stomach1 enabling it to retain the ipecacuanha4 ,in about twelve hours from the first dose1 repeat it in exactly the same way4 ,if thirty grains are too much at a time1 give twenty1 three times a day1 for not less than sixty grains should be given in twenty-four hours4 ,the drug is not a dangerous one1 and1 if the patient can take it1 too much can hardly be given4 ,between the doses feed the patient1 giving but little at a time4 ,if the ipecacuanha is going to do good1 marked improvement should be apparent in four or five days2 failure of the drug is often due to its not being given or retained in sufficiently large quantities4 ,in addition to the emetine or ipecacuanha treatment it is well1 save in mild or trivial cases1 to give a saline mixture once a day1 for example one ounce of sodium or magnesium sulphate4 ,other methods which are helpful are enemata of warm water1 hot hip baths1 or a soothing injection made by soaking an ounce of linseed for several hours in two pints of warm water4 ,sedatives1 such as laudanum or chlorodyne1 should be used only in cases where there is severe pain1 sickness and great distress4 ,the full dose in ordinary cases is twenty drops three times a day1 but if less is sufficient so much the better1 and it is advisable to avoid these remedies wherever possible4 ,the object of treatment is not to block up the bowel--as might be done by giving large doses of opium or tannin--it is to cure the disease of which the looseness is only one symptom4 ,the most favourable sign during an attack is a return of the colouring matter to the motions2 this shows that the liver is again acting1 and that the treatment is doing good4 ,with the return of colour 7which at first may be intermittent71 the other symptoms1 such as pain and bloody discharge1 will abate1 and the motions will become more solid and healthy4 ,in dysentery1 as in severe diarrha1 the patient should not be allowed to get up to stool4 ,a box cut across obliquely will make a rough slipper bed-pan2 put sand in it1 and pad the edges4 ,in bacillary dysentery emetine is nearly or quite useless1 and recourse should be had to a saline treatment4 ,a mixture containing sixty grains of sodium or magnesium sulphate1 fifteen drops of dilute sulphuric acid1 and five drops of tincture of ginger can be given in half an ounce of peppermint water1 if necessary1 every two hours at first1 and then every four or six hours1 until the stools are watery and bile-stained4 ,an alternative method of treatment1 but one which is not so satisfactory1 is to give half-grain doses of calomel every hour for twelve hours on three successive days4 ,the patient must1 however1 be watched for such symptoms as tenderness of the gums1 salivation 7i4e41 great increase of the saliva71 and a metallic taste in the mouth4 ,should such symptoms arise the doses must be reduced or the drug discontinued4 ,the general treatment is the same as that for ambic dysentery4 ,as colic is often very severe1 turpentine stupes or poultices to the abdomen are often indicated4 ,a specific anti-dysenteric serum is now employed in cases of bacillary dysentery1 but its administration requires medical skill4 ,when the acute dysenteric attack is over1 bismuth may be given1 and various astringent enemata may be tried1 but these should not be administered in the absence of a physician4 ,a simple form of enema1 however1 is one containing a teaspoonful of alum or ten grains of sulphate of iron to the pint4 ,enteric or ,typhoid ,fever1 including the ,paratyphoid ,fevers4 ,it is impossible to give a full account of the enteric fevers here1 and moreover the presence of a medical man1 still more of a good nurse1 is absolutely necessary for their proper treatment4 ,the chief early symptoms1 however1 will be given1 and a few hints as to their treatment4 ,for all practical purposes paratyphoid fever may be considered as a mild variety of typhoid4 ,the disease is characterised by ulceration of the small bowel1 with continued high fever1 and is usually accompanied by diarrha4 ,causes4--,it is generally caused by the drinking of impure water1 but may also be transmitted by all the causes operative in the case of dysentery 7see p4 #ahe74 ,the incubation period is from ten to fifteen days4 ,symptoms4--,the early symptoms of the disease are often so slight that the patient will not believe he is really ill2 he may just feel out of sorts1 or complain of headache1 but still go about his work4 ,there may be diarrha1 or occasionally constipation4 ,after five or six days the patient is generally compelled to give up and go to bed1 headache or diarrha1 or both1 being the chief complaint4 ,the temperature goes up in a characteristic manner1 rising a little more every evening till it eventually reaches #ajc or #ajd ,f4 ,there may be some cough1 and often this symptom is a very troublesome one4 ,the belly is usually distended and slightly tender1 and there may or may not be the characteristic typhoid rash1 consisting of rose-pink circular1 slightly raised spots1 about the size of a large pin's head4 ,they occur chiefly on the chest and abdomen1 and come out on successive days1 often only three or four at a time4 ,these spots are frequently absent1 and then one must be guided by the presence of other symptoms4 ,they are difficult to be seen upon a dark skin4 ,the possibility of enteric fever should always be remembered in cases where there is constant fever1 unaccompanied by any definite symptoms1 such as the recurrent shiverings of malaria1 or the spitting of blood in pneumonia4 ,prophylaxis4--,as for dysentery 7see p4 #ahf74 ,preventive inoculation is very important and confers immunity for a considerable period 7see 8,inoculation10 p4 #afh74 ,treatment4--,absolute quiet in bed4 ,if constipated1 bowels should be kept open by soap and water enema only4 ,milk only 7three to four pints daily7 should be given during the whole course of the illness and till ten days after the temperature has descended to1 and remained1 normal4 ,stimulants1 if pulse is feeble and rapid2 opium only if there is much pain4 ,if bleeding occurs from the bowel1 an ice poultice or cold-water cloths should be applied to the belly2 ice may be given to suck2 opium and an astringent1 such as tannin1 administered by the mouth1 or an opium enema be given4 ,milk should be given in small quantities only1 and to each half-pint five grains of bicarbonate of soda should be added4 ,the motions must be burned1 or carefully disinfected4 ,epilepsy4 ,symptoms4--,this is the most common form of fits4 ,there are three stages4 #ast stage--,the patient falls down completely unconscious and without warning1 the face is pale1 the limbs become stiff and rigid1 and the breathing ceases4 #bnd stage--,convulsive movements take place1 the tongue being often bitten1 the breathing becomes heavy and laboured1 and the motions may be passed unconsciously4 #crd stage--,a confused mental condition1 sometimes acute mania1 usually sleepy for some time4 ,in some cases the fit may only last a few minutes4 ,they almost always recur4 ,treatment4--,during the attack nothing can be done beyond loosening all tight clothing1 and gently preventing the sufferer from injuring himself in his struggles4 ,it is especially important to keep the teeth apart with a piece of cork or rubber to prevent the tongue from being bitten4 ,bromide of potassium 7ten to twenty grains7 may be given three times a day as a preventive4 ,faintness4 ,bending the head firmly down between the knees is the best and most rapid way of dealing with an attack4 ,another method is to lay the patient on a couch1 loosen any clothing which is round the neck1 bathe his face and arms with cold water1 and fan him vigorously4 ,give three grains of carbonate of ammonia in an ounce of water4 ,alcohol may be given if the pulse is very weak1 but sal volatile or carbonate of ammonia is more efficacious4 ,filariasis4 ,this term connotes several pathogenic conditions1 but the most important form of filariasis in man is that due to a small blood-worm which is conveyed by the bite of one or other species of mosquito4 ,the most important symptom of filariasis is the condition known as elephantiasis1 but the presence of filaria in the blood also causes a febrile state and various other symptoms which need not be detailed4 ,prophylaxis4--,protect from the bites of mosquitoes1 especially those which breed in the vicinity of human habitations4 ,the most effective method of doing this is the careful use of a mosquito net4 ,gonorrha4 ,gonorrha1 or clap1 is an acute inflammation of the urethra or pipe1 attended with a discharge of more or less matter4 ,it is nearly always due to direct contagion4 ,symptoms4--,at first there is some itching about the end of the pipe1 which is followed by a yellowish-white discharge4 ,this lasts from three to five days4 ,then great pain is noticed on passing water1 and the discharge becomes thick and yellowish-green in colour1 with redness and swelling about the lips of the opening of the pipe4 ,after a time the pain on making water disappears1 and the discharge becomes thin and watery1 a condition known as 8gleet40 ,treatment4--,forbid alcohol in any form4 ,give large quantities of liquid--water1 weak tea1 or milk--to thoroughly flush the system4 ,light diet and as complete rest as possible4 ,keep bowels well open with saline and other purges4 ,give sandal-wood oil or copaiba1 twenty drops three times a day1 and urotropin1 ten grains twice a day4 ,if there is much pain in the acute stage1 a mixture containing fifteen grains of bicarbonate of soda1 and five drops of chlorodyne or laudanum1 in an ounce of water1 may be given twice a day4 ,except in very acute cases the pipe should be syringed out with a very weak solution of permanganate of potash1 or better1 a solution of protargol 7quarter to two per cent472 later on1 a lotion containing four grains of sulphate of zinc to one ounce of water may be used as an injection4 ,if the glands in the groin become tender and inflamed1 they should be painted with tincture of iodine4 ,if1 in spite of this1 the pain and swelling increase1 they should be poulticed frequently1 and treated as ordinary abscesses4 ,hay ,fever4 ,this is a very severe catarrh which attacks certain individuals yearly1 when grasses and other plants are flowering4 ,it is most probably due to the irritation of the nose by pollen grains in the air4 ,treatment4--,exposure to the irritating substances which are known to provoke an attack should be avoided4 ,the nose may be syringed out with a lotion containing boric acid and bicarbonate of soda 7five grains of each in four ounces of water71 or one containing bicarbonate of soda and salt 7five grains of each in four ounces of water71 to which has been added two to four drops of carbolic acid4 ,the interior of the nostrils may be anointed with vaseline4 ,menthol snuff is of great value4 ,a substance called 8,pollantin0 has a specific action in many cases1 but it should be employed only under medical supervision4 ,influenza4 ,influenza has been introduced into many tropical countries1 in which it has spread rapidly and caused in many instances a very heavy mortality4 ,the actual cause of the disease is still a matter of dispute1 but there can be no doubt that it is chiefly spread by personal contact4 ,symptoms4--,what may be called the respiratory type is pretty well known to everyone1 but it should not be forgotten that sometimes the main stress of the disease falls either on the alimentary or the nervous system1 while there is also a type of what is known as febrile influenza in which the heat-regulating centre is greatly upset4 ,in this latter form the temperature may be intermittent and it is then apt to be mistaken for malaria4 ,the respiratory type is the most important4 ,its incubation period is short1 one or two days4 ,the onset is sudden and is characterized by shivering1 pains in the back and limbs1 severe headache and a feeling of malaise4 ,the patient may be giddy and suddenly collapse1 his throat is often dry and sore and he has an irritating cough4 ,his temperature rises and runs up to #ajb to #ajd ,f4 ,his face becomes flushed1 his eyes reddened and his tongue is furred4 ,constipation is common4 ,uncomplicated influenza1 if promptly attended to1 is not a very serious disease1 and improvement usually sets in about the third day4 ,the most serious complication of influenza is bronchial pneumonia1 and in some forms of the disease the heart is very apt to be affected4 ,prophylaxis4--,isolation of cases2 free ventilation2 treat patients as much as possible in the open air4 ,nurses and those attending the sick should be careful about contracting infection from the patient's invisible mouth spray4 ,indeed in some epidemics the use of face masks has been recommended4 ,treatment4--,rest in bed as soon as possible2 free purgation at the outset2 an early dose of twenty to thirty drops of laudanum 7,tinct4 opii7 is often very beneficial but the drug must be administered with care4 ,aspirin in ten-grain doses thrice daily frequently relieves the more urgent symptoms4 ,in cases where there is vomiting and collapse with high temperature a dose of fifteen grains of aspirin with half to one ounce of brandy and three drachms of liquor ammon4 acetat4 may act like a charm4 ,according to our present knowledge1 however1 it would seem that drugs are of little use in influenza1 and that the important thing is to ensure good nursing and to keep up the patient's strength4 ,quinine in effervescing form is very useful for convalescent cases4 ,insect ,pests4 7,see also ,myiasis and ,skin ,diseases47 ,these are best divided into the ,winged and ,wingless forms4 ,of the winged pests ,mosquitoes are undoubtedly the most important in the tropics1 as they are known to transmit such diseases as malaria1 yellow fever1 dengue fever and filariasis4 ,the anopheline mosquitoes are those responsible for transmitting malaria1 and they can easily be recognized by the facts that their wings are usually spotted and that they appear as it were to stand on their heads when resting on any flat surface4 ,the culicine mosquitoes1 which include ,stegomyia fasciata1 the carrier of yellow fever1 do not as a rule have spotted wings and they rest parallel to the surface on which they alight4 ,there are also marked differences in the water stages of these insects which cannot1 however1 be here considered4 ,the best way of protecting oneself against mosquitoes is the proper use of an effective mosquito net1 the mesh of which should contain at least sixteen holes to the linear inch4 ,mosquito boots or buskins are also useful1 and in certain places hoods for the face and neck1 such as the 8,mosquinette0 variety1 will be found of value4 ,repellent substances applied to the skin may also be employed4 ,cassia oil1 with brown oil of camphor in vaseline1 is useful4 ,vermijelli1 containing a little citronella oil1 is fairly effective but is not so pleasant to use4 ,the irritating effect of mosquito bites may be diminished by the application of tincture of iodine4 ,the same measures are effective in the case of some of the biting midges4 ,the insects generally known as ,sand-flies are really owl midges or moth flies1 tiny and hairy insects which have been proved to transmit sand-fly fever 7see page #bba74 ,these flies breed in damp places where there is rotting vegetation1 dark and damp cellars1 cracks and fissures in the soil1 tunnels1 etc41 and they are often very troublesome4 ,the repellents mentioned above may be used to drive them away1 as may eucalyptus oil1 camphor and tobacco smoke4 ,the ordinary mosquito net is useless against their attacks1 and one containing twenty-two holes to the linear inch is required4 ,buffalo gnats1 which are often called sand-flies1 are insects which breed in running water and amongst cataracts and rapids4 ,they are formidable biters although they are not known to cause any disease4 ,the same protective measures are indicated in their case as in that of owl midges4 ,house ,flies4--,there are several species of these4 ,they are definitely known to distribute certain harmful bacteria and protozoa and to contaminate food by carrying the organisms on their bodies1 wings and legs1 or depositing them by regurgitation or in their droppings4 ,hence it is very important to protect all food and drink from flies and to destroy these insects wherever possible4 ,the subject of their destruction is too large a question to be dealt with here1 so all that need be said is that the traveller should provide himself with wire mesh fly covers to screen food and also with pieces of mesh or calico weighted with beads1 which can be utilized for covering vessels containing milk or other liquids4 ,it is worth noting that ordinary fish netting hung over a tent door or used to screen the windows or doors of a house will effectively exclude flies1 despite its large mesh4 ,tsetse ,flies4--,these are considered under ,sleeping ,sickness 7see page #bcd74 ,the ,congo ,floor-maggot ,fly4--,it is the maggot or larva of this fly which is important1 as in many parts of ,africa it infests the floors of native huts and it is a blood-sucker feeding at night4 ,so far as is known it does not convey any disease but it is an unpleasant visitor1 and if its numbers are great they may extract comparatively large quantities of blood from their unconscious victims4 ,prophylaxis4--,general cleanliness and enforcement of sanitary measures1 the use of high beds1 the scrutiny of sleeping mats and blankets in which eggs or larv may be concealed4 ,infected huts can be rendered habitable by firing the ground or by removing the surface soil1 which can then be disinfected4 ,wingless ,pests4--,lice4--,these are known to transmit typhus fever4 ,further1 they often cause great cutaneous irritation and are loathsome companions4 ,it is no easy matter to get rid of lice when infection is on a large scale1 but very often this is not the case and it is possible to detect their presence only by careful examination4 ,there is no real difference between head lice and body lice2 they are simply varieties of the same insect4 ,the presence of head lice may be recognized by the discovery of their eggs1 which are known as nits and are minute1 yellowish-white1 goblet-shaped bodies about the size of a full-stop on this page4 ,examination for head lice is much facilitated by the use of a fine tooth comb4 ,persons suspected of harbouring body lice should be examined first for the actual bites of the insect on the skin4 ,their clothes1 and especially their under-garments1 should then be carefully examined1 attention being more particularly directed to the seams and folds where the eggs1 if present1 are most likely to be found4 ,the best preventive measure against lice is strict personal cleanliness4 ,clothes should be frequently changed1 and as frequently washed4 ,the hair should be kept cropped short1 especially at the sides and back of the head1 and in the tropics it is very advisable to shave all hairy parts of the body4 ,space does not permit a full account of how to deal with verminous persons and verminous clothing1 but it may be said that the only reliable methods of destroying lice are by hot air1 steam1 boiling water1 or hydrocyanic acid gas4 ,at the same time it should be noted that the heads of those infested with head lice should be thoroughly combed and treated with paraffin1 petrol1 or white precipitate ointment1 and then well washed with carbolic soap4 ,the nits may be loosened by treatment with warm vinegar or acetic acid4 ,in the case of body lice possibly the most satisfactory grease for application to the underclothing is one composed of crude unwhizzed naphthalene from the coke oven1 four parts1 and soft soap1 one part4 ,it is important that the proper type of naphthalene be used4 ,a useful palliative method is the ironing of clothing1 especially along the seams1 with heavy hot irons4 ,fleas4--,bubonic plague is known to be transmitted by fleas1 and it is possible that they play a part in the transmission of that form of leishmaniasis which is known as kala-azar 7see p4 #bjb74 ,fleas dislike powdered naphthalene and pyrethrum powder1 and either of these may be applied to the clothes to ward them off4 ,a note on the troublesome ,chigger flea or ,jigger will be found under 8,skin ,diseases0 7see p4 #bbh74 ,bed-,bugs4--,the traveller sleeping in hotels or inns abroad is very apt to be attacked by bed-bugs1 which harbour in wooden beds and bedding1 crevices in walls1 floors and ceilings1 and other places which are dark and sheltered4 ,fortunately1 so far as is known1 the bed-bug does not carry any disease1 but its bites are annoying1 and its presence is a sign of insanitary conditions4 ,it is difficult to protect oneself against bed-bugs without instituting a campaign against their hiding-places and breeding-places1 but a skin ointment like vermijelli is useful1 and powdered naphthalene or ,keating's powder may deter the insects to some extent4 ,note4--,keating's powder1 which contains pyrethrum1 is slow in its effects1 and therefore1 if possible1 should be shaken over the sleeping bag or blankets some hours before bedtime4 ,if not1 the pests will struggle through it and find renewed vigour on the sleeper4 ,it is best in very bad quarters to rub the powder on the skin as well as to dust it over the bed4 ,it will not kill a full-grown bug under an hour1 but it is extraordinarily effective with fleas4 ,it is important to obtain a good pyrethrum powder1 as such preparations are frequently adulterated4 ,the ,itch ,insect is the cause of the skin disease known as scabies4 ,it is a mite1 the female of which burrows under the skin to lay her eggs4 ,the favourite site for her operations is between the fingers1 but other parts of the body may be affected1 and the rash produced may assume various forms1 so that it is well in the case of any skin eruption in the tropics to remember the possibility of scabies4 ,treatment4--,its effective treatment is by no means easy1 and would take much too long to detail here4 ,all that can be said is that the skin should be washed well with soap and hot water1 and that thereafter a liberal quantity of sulphur ointment should be thoroughly rubbed into the skin twice daily for three days4 ,on the fourth day recourse should be had again to soap and hot water1 if possible in the form of a hot bath4 ,meanwhile1 clothing and bedding should be boiled or destroyed4 ,ticks4--,the most important tick from the traveller's point of view1 at least1 in ,africa1 is the species responsible for the transmission of tick fever 7see p4 #bdb74 ,it would seem that the fowl tick may occasionally attack man1 and some believe that it may spread the infection of certain kinds of relapsing fever 7see p4 #bah74 ,the larval stages of certain ticks are often very troublesome in many parts of the world1 owing to their habit of burrowing into the skin of persons coming into contact with them4 ,treatment4--,when a larval tick is found half buried in the skin1 force should not be used in an attempt to remove it1 because either the surrounding skin is unnecessarily damaged or1 as is most probable1 the head of the tick is ruptured1 its rostrum or beak remaining buried in the skin4 ,the result is severe irritation which may lead to septic infection4 ,the best way1 therefore1 of dealing with a tick larva lodged in the skin is to dip a small camel's hair brush in turpentine1 benzene1 petrol or paraffin1 and apply it between the skin and the under surface of the tick4 ,in a short time the tick will let go its hold and may be swept from the skin with the brush4 ,vaseline is also effective if smeared over the tick4 ,to remove a rostrum which remains in the skin after a tick has been forcibly ejected1 cocaine should be applied to the spot1 and the rostrum extracted with needle forceps1 iodine being thereafter applied4 ,a special form of tick-case devised for dealing with this condition is upon the market1 and is a useful addition to the traveller's outfit4 ,ants4--,these are often very troublesome owing to their depredations on foodstuffs1 and it must be remembered that experimentally ants have been shown capable of carrying the organisms of typhoid fever and cholera1 though under ordinary conditions they are not likely to be very dangerous in this respect4 ,some form of pyrethrum powder1 such as ,keating's1 will be found useful in checking the depredations of ants1 or they can be prevented from getting at food on tables by tying paraffin-soaked rags round the legs of the latter4 ,powdered borax or paraffin are useful in dealing with so-called 8ant-routes0 into tents or houses4 ,iritis1 or ,inflammation of the ,eyeball ,itself4 ,symptoms4--,in this there is pain1 the vision is dimmed1 and the transparent part of the eye is found to be cloudy4 ,skilled assistance is necessary4 ,treatment4--,apply hot fomentations and boric acid lotion2 leeches or a blister to the temples are of service1 and the pupil1 which is contracted1 should be dilated by dropping two or three drops of a one per cent4 solution of atropine on to the eye twice a day or oftener till it is well dilated2 only enough drops should be applied afterwards to prevent the pupil from contracting4 ,dark glasses may be worn with advantage4 ,the bowels should be kept well open1 and one grain of calomel may be given three times a day for a week1 or longer if it does not cause a coppery taste in the mouth1 with tenderness of the gums and excessive flow of the saliva4 ,as the inflammation subsides a shade may be adopted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,night blindness and snow blindness are due to exposure to the glare either of the sun or of the snow4 ,to avoid these complaints tinted glasses should be worn4 ,travellers in snowy regions should be provided with smoked glasses2 if these get broken or lost1 some opaque substance may be smeared over the surface of an ordinary pair1 leaving a narrow horizontal slit of clear glass--in the ,esquimaux fashion1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,on snow it must be remembered that the perforated wire gauze sides are essential for protection from the reflected rays of the sun4 ,elastic may be substituted with advantage for the ordinary metallic attachments1 between the glasses as well as around the head4 ,jaundice4 ,jaundice1 which is a condition in which the skin and mucous membranes assume a yellow colour1 may be due to various causes4 ,one of the commonest forms is that known as catarrhal jaundice1 which is induced by chill1 exposure1 dietetic disturbances1 etc4 ,it should be treated by calomel and salines4 ,violent purges are to be avoided4 ,bismuth and bicarbonate of soda should be given1 and the diet should be regulated and should consist of simple and bland articles of food1 free1 as far as possible1 from fats4 ,there is a form of jaundice associated with infective conditions1 such as the enteric fevers1 dysentery1 malaria1 relapsing fever and yellow fever4 ,in these cases the jaundice is to be treated like the catarrhal form1 and the accompanying condition requires attention4 ,in addition to the above there is a camp or infectious jaundice1 the nature of which is somewhat obscure1 but which is associated with a considerable degree of illness4 ,symptoms4--,the condition commonly begins with shivering1 a rise of temperature1 headache1 giddiness1 general malaise1 sleeplessness1 loss of appetite1 nausea1 and it may be vomiting4 ,the tongue is coated1 and there may be pains in the back and legs4 ,the jaundice usually lasts from seven to nine days1 and about the fifth day the temperature falls1 though there may be a secondary fever4 ,prophylaxis4--,so far as we know at present this is a question of enforcing good sanitary surroundings1 and paying special attention to the hygiene of food and drinks1 which should be guarded from the access of flies4 ,treatment4--,this is entirely symptomatic and should be that of any ordinary febrile attack1 together with the measures employed in catarrhal jaundice4 ,there is a severe form of jaundice of an infective nature which is associated with the presence of a parasite in the blood1 very like that of yellow fever1 and which apparently is derived from infected rats4 ,this form of jaundice is1 however1 not very common and need not be further considered1 especially as it requires skilled medical attendance4 ,laryngitis1 or ,inflammation of the ,upper ,part of the ,windpipe4 ,the organ of the voice is called the 8larynx40 ,when the windpipe is affected it is somewhat tender on pressure1 there is hoarseness1 cough1 and pain in swallowing4 ,treatment similar to that for cold in the head may be adopted2 in addition1 the upper part of the front of the throat should be kept well poulticed for a day or two1 and then wrapped up in cotton wool for some days longer4 ,a piece of mustard leaf covered with six layers of a handkerchief and secured by a bandage1 can usually be borne for a considerable time1 and is often more efficacious than the poultice2 when the smarting is great the mustard leaf should be removed and the tender part smeared with oil or vaseline4 ,inhalations of steam are of use in promoting expectoration4 ,carbonate of ammonia1 three grains1 or bicarbonate of potash1 five grains1 with half to two grains of ipecacuanha1 will help to promote secretion from the affected part4 ,a teaspoonful of ,friar's balsam in a pint of hot water makes a good inhalation4 ,leeches4 ,persons travelling in ,india1 ,ceylon1 the ,far ,east generally1 and the ,philippine ,islands1 are likely to make the acquaintance of the ,asiatic leech1 which is a very troublesome and indeed dangerous species of vermin4 ,it is very small1 only about an inch long1 and of the thickness of a knitting-needle4 ,it is able to penetrate through the interstices in clothing1 and when in vast numbers it is a foe difficult to combat4 ,the bites of these leeches are painless and much blood may be lost before their presence is discovered4 ,it is very difficult to obtain any kind of boot or puttee which will keep these creatures at bay1 and the traveller in these countries should be provided with a solution of salt or weak acid which1 on application1 causes the leeches to loose their hold4 ,it is a mistake to try and drag them off the skin1 as parts of their biting apparatus are apt to be left behind and set up inflammation and suppuration4 ,tincture of iodine should be applied to the site of a leech bite4 ,in forest regions where these leeches abound protective measures must be taken at night1 the best being the use of a properly adjusted mosquito net of very fine mesh4 ,the tropical water leech is found in the ,azores1 the ,canary ,islands1 ,africa1 ,palestine1 ,syria1 ,armenia and ,turkestan4 ,it may reach a length of four inches1 and if swallowed with drinking water usually fastens on the mucous membrane of the mouth or throat4 ,as a preventive measure drinking water should be passed through a piece of muslin or similar form of sieve4 ,leishmaniasis4 ,this condition is named after ,sir ,william ,leishman1 who discovered the parasite producing it4 ,there is a general and febrile form of the disease and also a form attacking the skin and mucous membrane of the mouth and nose1 which is considered under ,skin ,diseases4 ,the systemic form of the disease is commonly known as kala-azar1 which signifies 8black sickness40 ,it is common in certain parts of ,india1 notably ,assam1 but is found also throughout the ,far ,east1 and it occurs in ,arabia1 in the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan and in the ,mediterranean area4 ,a case has also been described in ,south ,america1 in parts of which it is possibly more common than is generally supposed4 ,cause4--,the parasite1 which lives in the blood and tissues1 is known1 but its exact method of transmission to man is still in the realm of uncertainty4 ,symptoms4--,the disease begins in an indefinite manner and then assumes the form of a continued fever1 associated with enlargement of the spleen and liver and progressive emaciation4 ,bleeding from the nose is not uncommon1 and in ,europeans the peculiar earthy-grey colour of the skin is very striking4 ,the disease lasts for months and even years and is very frequently fatal4 ,prophylaxis4--,as we do not know how the disease is spread it is not easy to recommend preventive measures1 and all that can be said is that every care should be taken to isolate the sick1 to live under healthy conditions and to avoid contact with vermin of all kinds4 ,as dogs may possibly be carriers of the disease they should be destroyed if proved infected4 ,treatment4--,antimony is the best and indeed the sole remedy1 but it can be given only by a medical man1 so that nothing further need be said here regarding it4 ,liver1 ,congestion of3-- ,the ,liver1 which is mainly on the right side1 lies below the right lung1 and is protected by the lower ribs4 ,in health it extends vertically from one-and-a-half inches below the right nipple to the lower edge of the ribs2 in certain diseases it is enlarged1 and its edge can be felt well below the ribs4 ,congestion of the liver is frequent in the tropics1 and is often due to malaria or dysentery4 ,very frequently it is caused by abuse of alcohol1 over-indulgence in food1 and the excessive use of hot condiments1 or by constipation and want of exercise4 ,in the tropics the liver is more easily affected by excesses than in temperate climates4 ,symptoms4--,a furred tongue1 sallowness of the face1 headache1 lassitude1 disinclination for work1 loss of appetite1 tendency to vomit1 occasional slight jaundice1 and a sense of oppression about the region of the liver4 ,treatment4--,light diet1 abstinence from alcohol and spices1 and the use of calomel or other aperient will usually effect a cure4 ,ammonium chloride1 five to ten grains1 three times a day1 should be given4 ,liver1 ,acute ,inflammation of3-- ,in this complaint there is severe pain1 some fever1 and frequently jaundice4 ,the complaint is serious1 as abscess of the liver frequently follows it1 at least if it is due to ambic dysentery4 ,treatment4--,the patient should be put to bed1 hot fomentations applied to the seat of pain1 and the bowels well relieved4 ,emetine should be at once administered as for dysentery1 or ten grains of ipecacuanha should be given three times a day4 ,ammonium chloride in full doses 7twenty grains three times a day7 often does good1 and can be retained when ipecacuanha cannot1 but it is unpleasant to take1 so the dose should be given in one or two ounces of water4 ,the wisest course for one who has had a severe inflammation of the liver is to get away to a healthy climate4 ,liver ,abscess4 ,it is extremely difficult for the traveller to decide if abscess of the liver is present2 it may be suspected if a patient1 convalescent from dysentery1 still remains feeble and ill1 or if he has an irregular temperature1 a muddy complexion1 night sweats1 wasting1 and pain or uneasiness in the right shoulder4 ,sometimes a definite swelling can be made out4 ,a dry cough is not uncommon4 ,treatment4--,emetine is the specific treatment for the prevention of liver abscess1 and it would seem in some cases actually able to bring about a cure even when the abscess has formed4 ,it should be given as for ambic dysentery 7p4 #ahg71 and it is essential that a patient with liver abscess should as soon as possible come under medical control1 as it may be necessary to give emetine by the needle subcutaneously or even to inject it into the abscess cavity4 ,ammonium chloride may be given2 the patient's strength must be supported1 and he should be as quickly as possible placed under the care of a surgeon1 who will probably decide to operate4 ,if this cannot be done1 then the patient should not be interfered with surgically1 for he will have a better chance of recovery if the abscess is allowed to burst naturally than he would if the traveller attempted to operate4 ,malaria4 ,of all diseases in the tropics malaria is the one which is most likely to trouble the traveller4 ,hence it is essential that he should be well posted regarding it4 ,in addition to the books which have already been indicated he will find the recently published #8,malaria at ,home and ,abroad1' by ,colonel ,s4 ,p4 ,james1 a work of much value and interest4 ,it is true it is more especially intended for the medical man1 but any intelligent layman can study it with interest and profit1 and the chapters dealing with prophylaxis and treatment are specially valuable and well up to date4 ,here it is possible to give only a mere outline of the chief facts concerning the disease4 #a4 ,malarial fever is caused by a small animal parasite which lives chiefly in the blood of patients attacked by it4 #b4 ,under ordinary conditions in nature it can be conveyed only from one person to another by the bite of a mosquito which has previously sucked the blood of an infected person4 #c4 ,the parasite undergoes a series of changes in the mosquito's body and eventually finds its way to the salivary glands of the insect whence it is injected through the mosquito's proboscis into another victim4 #d4 ,there are only certain species of mosquitoes1 belonging to the family ,anophelin 7from a ,greek word signifying 8harmful071 which can carry malaria1 and it is only the females of these species which are affected as the males are not blood-suckers4 ,anopheline mosquitoes breed in shallow puddles and in almost all collections of stagnant or gently flowing water4 ,it is therefore very dangerous to pitch camps close to stagnant pools1 sluggish reed-grown streams or marshy places4 #e4 ,in the tropics one of the chief reservoirs of infection is the native1 and more especially the native child1 who frequently harbours the malarial parasite in the form which is adapted for life and reproduction in the mosquito and hence is a distinct source of danger4 ,it is therefore inadvisable to camp in the vicinity of native villages or to spend a night in the neighbourhood of native habitations unless efficiently protected from the bites of mosquitoes4 ,symptoms4--,malarial fever presents itself under two chief forms1 though it should be noted that malaria is one of the most protean of all diseases and may simulate any malady4 7#a7 ,intermittent fever4 ,in this disease the temperature may rise high1 but returns each day to normal or lower2 hence there is1 after each attack1 a period of complete freedom from fever4 ,an intermittent fever or ague is usually less serious than a remittent fever1 but it is harder to cure in the long run4 7#b7 ,remittent fever4 ,in this the temperature1 though it varies1 keeps constantly above the normal1 and the higher the fever1 and the slighter the difference between the extremes of temperature1 the more serious is the condition of the patient4 ,where the temperature is remittent1 and appears to be unaffected by quinine1 the disease is probably not malarial1 but may be a case of enteric fever1 and should be treated as advised below under that heading4 ,the attack may be sudden1 but it is usually preceded by a feeling of languor1 yawning1 and general discomfort2 this is followed by the cold stage1 which1 in the tropics1 is usually short1 and in the more ordinary attacks is ushered in by a violent shivering fit or rigor1 though this is not common in ,central ,africa4 ,the sensation of cold is entirely subjective1 for though the patient feels chilly and piles clothes upon himself his temperature will be found elevated4 ,at this period violent vomiting is not infrequent4 ,then comes the hot stage1 often of long duration1 followed by the sweating stage1 during which the perspiration pours from the patient and soaks everything on and about him4 ,after this there is a period of remission1 or intermission of the feverish symptoms with corresponding relief to the patient4 ,usually1 after some hours1 the attack comes on again1 beginning with the cold stage1 but if the fever is treated very early1 the disease may now pass off4 ,the whole attack lasts as a rule from six to ten hours1 say one hour for the cold stage1 three or four for the hot period1 and two to four for that of defervescence4 ,there is sometimes a feeling of pain and discomfort in the right side owing to the congestion of the spleen1 which enlarges during the rigor4 ,there are three distinct species of malarial parasite1 and each causes a different type of fever4 ,according to the type with which the patient has become infected1 the fever recurs after one1 two1 or three days4 ,at the same time all kinds of febrile irregularities are met with1 so that it is often impossible to diagnose the disease in the absence of blood examination for the detection of the parasite4 ,anmia is a constant feature of the malarial attack1 as is but natural1 considering the great destruction of red blood cells brought about by the parasites which have infected them4 ,prophylaxis4--,only those preventive measures which can be put into operation by the individual will be here considered4 ,this may be called personal prophylaxis4 ,by far the most important means of avoiding malaria is the proper use of an efficient mosquito net4 ,the oblong type is best1 and it should contain sixteen meshes to the linear inch4 ,round the foot of it should be sewn a stout layer of calico #b feet in depth4 ,this will permit of a foot of the material being tucked under the mattress while the upper foot remains in the form of a belt or zone round the bed4 ,it is necessary1 because in its absence the sleeper is very liable to be bitten through the mosquito-net mesh1 with which his arms or legs are apt to come in contact4 ,care must be taken to see that the net is kept in good repair--a most important matter--and in very malarious countries it is advisable to provide every member of an expedition1 native or otherwise1 with a good mosquito net4 ,in what may be called the dry tropics1 the top of the net may be of mesh2 in the moist tropics1 it is best made of calico in order to keep off the heavy dews4 ,the traveller often sleeps out on the deck of river steamers1 and then it is certainly advantageous to have the roof of the net composed of stout calico1 as sparks from the funnel are very apt to alight upon it1 and naturally holes will be burnt much more readily in mesh than in thick cotton4 ,it is foolish to sleep even for one night in a malarious locality unprotected by a net4 ,the net is for use during the period of sleep1 but one is very apt to be bitten by infected mosquitoes just after sunset1 and hence it is well to make use of some form of mosquito canopy4 ,a good type is the so-called mosquito umbrella tent4 ,such a canopy may be arranged so that the evening meal can be taken in it4 ,one servant will be inside the canopy and receive the dishes through a guarded opening from the attendant outside4 ,other methods of protection exist in the shape of mosquito boots or buskins4 ,the best type of mosquito boot is the form which reaches right up the thigh4 ,they may be made of untanned leather or of stout khaki cloth4 ,all mosquito boots and buskins should be provided with soles to protect the feet from wet and damp4 ,in the absence of boots it is well to know that a mosquito will not bite through two pairs of stockings1 one super-imposed over the other4 ,this is a way in which women can protect their legs and ankles1 or they can employ the buskin1 leggings1 gaiters1 or puttees4 ,mosquito veils have been mentioned1 the best type being the 8,mosquinette0 hood4 ,mosquitoes are apt to bite through chairs with cane seats or with perforated seats1 and these should be guarded by a layer of brown paper1 newspaper1 or a cushion4 ,repellent substances may be used1 smeared on the skin4 ,they contain essential oils1 such as oil of cassia or eucalyptus oil4 ,these repellents are effective only for a short time1 but lessen in some degree the liability to infection4 ,the prophylactic use of quinine has recently fallen somewhat into disrepute1 owing to its comparative failure in many of the war areas1 but there can be no doubt that under conditions of civil life it is a valuable auxiliary method1 if properly employed4 ,one of the troubles about it is that quinine is rapidly excreted from the body1 and hence after a dose it remains in the blood only a comparatively short time2 for example1 if the dose be taken at #f p4m4 it is very doubtful if enough quinine will be left in the blood at #b o'clock in the morning to kill any malarial spores which may be introduced into it by an infected mosquito4 ,the ideal method of taking quinine prophylactically would be to take a dose of #e or #f grains with the evening meal shortly before sunset4 ,this will protect until it is time to get under the mosquito net4 ,if for any reason it is impossible to employ the latter1 then a second dose of quinine should be taken at midnight4 ,this is difficult to accomplish1 and hence something may be gained by taking a larger dose of quinine at night on the chance that some of it may remain in the blood for a longer period than would the smaller quantity4 ,as much as #aj grains may therefore be taken under these conditions4 ,some persons1 however1 cannot stand #aj grains of quinine daily for a long period of time4 ,it is clear from what has been said that prophylactic quinine should never be taken in the morning1 and also that it is merely an auxiliary method1 and does not do away with the necessity of using the mosquito net4 ,sugar-coated tablets should be avoided1 and care must be taken to see that the products or tablets which may be used are readily soluble4 ,it is a good plan to crack the products before swallowing them4 ,a good salt of quinine is the bisulphate1 which is soluble and comparatively cheap4 ,when the drug is given in powder1 tablet1 or pill form1 it should be followed by a wine-glassful of water1 and it is advisable to acidify the latter by a few drops of hydrochloric acid4 ,there is no doubt that as a general rule quinine is best taken in solution1 but in the case of persons travelling about this is not always easy to arrange1 and if the above precautions be taken the solid form will generally be found effective4 ,it is better to take prophylactic quinine in daily doses1 because if an interval is allowed to elapse between doses one is apt to forget to take the drug at the proper time4 ,hence it is well to make it a kind of ritual to take the quinine along with the evening meal1 for it is certainly an advantage to do so on a full stomach4 ,it should be remembered that persons who take their quinine regularly do not suffer from blackwater fever1 while the irregular taking of quinine certainly appears to favour the occurrence of the latter4 ,it is better not to take prophylactic quinine at all than to take it in a haphazard and irregular manner4 ,treatment4--,the three great principles of treatment are3 7#a7 ,to open the bowels2 7#b7 to produce perspiration2 7#c7 to give quinine4 ,the routine to be adopted is as follows4 ,put the patient to bed in flannel pyjamas1 and covered up well with blankets2 in all cases1 save where there is diarrha1 give an aperient1 such as four grains of calomel1 or two tabloids of ,cathartic ,co1 or two ,livingstone's ,rousers1 and if this does not act1 repeat the dose in about four hours4 ,if free evacuation is not produced1 a warm-water enema should be given4 ,a hot-water bottle in bed is useful4 ,sponging with warm water often gives relief at the beginning of a fever1 and tends to shorten the cold stage4 ,at the same time hot drinks should be given1 such as weak tea1 in order to promote perspiration and cut short the hot stage1 and at this stage1 i4e41 at the outset of the fever1 #aj grains of ,antipyrin1 or #aj grains of ,phenacetin1 may be found useful for inducing perspiration1 or four tablets of ,warburg's ,tincture1 which contains some quinine1 may be substituted for them4 ,antipyrin and ,phenacetin should not be given except in the earliest stages of the fever4 ,during the hot stage cold applications1 such as cloths wrung out of cold or iced water and sprinkled with eau de cologne1 vinegar or spirit may be applied to the forehead and behind the ears4 ,the bed-clothes should be lightened and drink freely supplied1 unless it seems to promote vomiting4 ,if the temperature shows signs of getting above #aje ,f4 sponge the patient with warm water or cradle the bed-clothes1 as it is called--that is1 remove them from contact with the body by some simple means4 ,in the sweating stage strip off the soaked pyjamas and sheets and get the patient into warm1 well-aired night-clothes and bed-clothes4 ,if there is any tendency to collapse a little stimulant may be given--say1 a dessertspoonful of brandy4 ,in most cases alcohol is better avoided4 ,if vomiting is bad withhold all food1 and give bits of ice to suck if it can be obtained4 ,whilst the above methods of treatment are important1 it should be clearly recognised that the one drug which can alone counteract the malarial affection is quinine1 and it is upon the proper administration of quinine that successful treatment largely depends4 ,this proper administration necessitates at the outset rest in bed1 and it also necessitates a continuance of the drug for a sufficient length of time4 ,for ordinary cases the best way is to give quinine by the mouth1 and here again it is best given in solution1 though it can be administered in solid form if the precautions above indicated are duly observed4 ,various doses have been advocated1 but probably the best quantity to administer is #cj grains every twenty-four hours4 ,this is usually given in three doses of #aj grains each1 but there would appear to be an advantage in giving four doses instead of three1 and ,colonel ,james advocates the following times for administration1 i4e4 #ab midnight1 #f a4m41 #ab noon1 #f p4m4 ,he does so1 because such a method of administration is likely to ensure that there shall be a sufficient concentration of quinine in the blood at the time when the youngest forms of the parasite are present4 ,the patient should remain in bed1 if possible1 for ten days1 or1 if this is impossible1 for at least half that period2 and it is essential that the quinine should be given as soon as possible1 and quite irrespective of the stage of the attack or the height of the fever4 ,if its administration is followed by vomiting1 give a small teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda in warm water4 ,if this is rejected repeat the dose1 and then give some form of stomach sedative1 such as bismuth1 and dilute hydrocyanic acid or #bj drops of chlorodyne4 ,a mustard leaf applied to the pit of the stomach is often helpful4 ,sometimes drop doses of tincture of iodine1 well diluted1 will check these troublesome symptoms4 ,under ordinary conditions this #cj-;grain quinine treatment should be steadily continued for at least five days1 but in troublesome cases it may be necessary to carry on with it for as long as three weeks4 ,thereafter what is called the 8after treatment0 is begun and must be continued for a period of three months1 in order to ensure1 if possible1 an eradication of the infection4 ,there are several ways of carrying out this after treatment1 but one of the simplest and most effective is to administer #aj grains of quinine every day1 the dose being taken an hour or two before the time at which the fever was apt to come on during the attack4 ,if1 despite quinine treatment1 relapses occur1 the patient must go to bed and be treated as for the first attack1 and the after treatment must again be carefully carried out4 ,under certain conditions quinine has to be injected by the needle1 either into the muscles or into a vein2 but1 as a rule1 this should not be done save by the medical attendant4 ,it should1 however1 be remembered that the drug may be given by the bowel1 in which case twice the quantity of quinine which would be administered by the mouth should be given4 ,it is only exceptionally that this procedure will have to be followed1 but it is sometimes useful in the case of children4 ,the feeding of the malaria patient is important4 ,between the attacks of fever1 or during the sweating stage1 he should be given food in fluid form1 such as chicken broth1 eggs beaten up with milk1 raisin tea1 etc42 and as soon as his stomach will stand it1 the diet should be increased4 ,tonics1 such as iron and arsenic1 are required during convalescence4 ,in cases where there is acute malarial poisoning1 with temperature #ajf ,f41 or even higher1 do not wait to undress the patient or get a bath2 but empty gallons of water over him1 one boy keeping the head constantly soused2 while this is being done a bath can be procured and the patient then undressed1 or1 better still1 have his clothes cut off1 because it is dangerous to lift such a patient about too much4 ,remember that when a patient is very ill and weak1 he should not be allowed to stand or sit up suddenly1 as he may faint4 ,delirium with high temperature1 say #ajf ,f4 or over1 is a certain sign that the fever is doing harm1 and must be reduced4 ,the temperature and pulse should be carefully watched when the cold water treatment is employed4 ,malta ,fever4 7,see ,undulant ,fever47 ,measles4 ,incubation period1 ten days4 ,rash occurs on the fourth day4 ,rash4--,pink spots1 round or irregular1 slightly raised above the surface1 tending to run together in patches over the body1 leaving the unaffected skin between them clear4 ,in the early stages often best marked on the face and behind the ears4 ,symptoms4--,fever1 catarrh1 congested eyes1 running from the nose1 sickness and cough4 ,treatment4--,similar to that of scarlet fever 7see p4 #bbb74 ,it is very important to guard against chill2 to ensure plenty of fresh air4 ,complications4--,measles may be followed by pneumonia4 ,mumps4 ,this is an infectious disease1 characterised by swelling of the salivary glands4 ,its chief importance to the traveller is that if once it makes its appearance it may spread rapidly through his native attendants1 and that it is apt to be followed by inflammation of the testicle4 ,symptoms4--,the invasion is accompanied by fever1 which is usually slight1 but is sometimes severe4 ,there is pain just below the ear on one side1 followed by a swelling which gradually increases1 causing great enlargement of the neck and side of the cheek4 ,in a day or two the other side of the face is usually affected1 and sometimes the condition spreads under the lower jaw4 ,it persists from seven to ten days1 then gradually subsides4 ,inflammation of the testicle may be troublesome4 ,it is usually one-sided4 ,treatment4--,rest in bed during the height of the disease4 ,get the bowels freely open and keep the patient on a light diet4 ,no medicine is required unless the fever is high4 ,either cold or hot applications may be made to the swelling4 ,if the testicle is involved it should be treated by rest and protection with cotton wool4 ,myiasis4 ,this is the name applied to the condition in which the larv of flies are found parasitic in the body4 ,it may be cutaneous1 nasal or intestinal4 ,the last named is not of great importance4 ,different species of flies may be concerned2 thus in ,africa1 one of the best known flies producing this condition is called on the ,west ,coast the ,tumbu fly4 ,the fly itself is about the size of a small blue-bottle1 and is yellowish-grey in colour4 ,it has a fat white larva1 which burrows under the skin and produces a small boil or wheal1 in the centre of which there is an opening which1 unless blocked up by discharge1 looks black owing to the presence of excrement from the posterior end of the larva4 ,the skin round the hole becomes inflamed and very itchy4 ,the commonest site is the forearm1 but in ,europeans various parts of the body may be attacked4 ,treatment4--,when small the larv can easily be squeezed out4 ,they are1 however1 best extracted with forceps1 and this is more readily done if a little chloroform is injected into the maggot before it is removed4 ,apply local sedatives1 such as lead and opium and1 after removal of the maggot1 paint the skin with iodine4 ,indeed1 if there is some delay in getting the maggot removed1 it is well to apply tincture of iodine to the skin to prevent the occurrence of suppuration4 ,in ,central and ,south ,america we meet with the so-called ,ver macaque1 which is the larva of another species of fly1 and which gets under the skin in much the same way as does that of the ,tumbu fly4 ,it causes a great deal of pain1 especially when it is moving about4 ,it should be treated on the same lines as above4 ,the ,screw-worm is also met with in ,america1 and is the maggot of a fly which lays its eggs on the surface of wounds and in the ears and nose of persons sleeping in the open air4 ,the maggots burrow into the tissues and may bring about a very serious condition if not detected at an early date and removed4 ,treatment4--,injections of chloroform are one of the best ways of getting rid of maggots in the ear or nose1 but medical attention is required4 ,wounds should be protected and kept clean4 ,if infected they may be treated with turpentine1 a painful but effective method4 ,ophthalmia1 ,simple4 ,simple ophthalmia1 conjunctivitis1 or inflammation of the membrane covering the eye and the inner side of the eyelids1 is usually due to cold or dust4 ,symptoms4--,the affected eye is bloodshot and painful1 waters freely1 and cannot bear a bright light2 there is a feeling of grittiness1 as if the trouble were due to something between the eye and eyelid4 ,treatment4--,the eye should be carefully washed1 the eyelids being opened and clean1 cold water allowed to run over them and over the eye2 any particles of dust must be removed--for this purpose a small clean camel-hair brush will be found useful4 ,a lotion should be made consisting of six grains of boric acid1 or two grains of sulphate of zinc1 to an ounce of water1 and ten drops or more of this should be dropped on to the eyeball six or eight times a day4 ,to prevent the lids sticking together during the night1 they should be smeared with vaseline or a salve containing #d grains of calomel to an ounce of vaseline4 ,sometimes hot fomentations give relief4 ,ophthalmia1 ,purulent4 ,this is a more serious inflammation1 and is caused by some poison1 e4g41 germs carried by flies1 or by the fingers from unhealthy sores and discharges4 ,it may also result from injury1 such as a septic wound4 ,symptoms4--,the symptoms of simple ophthalmia are present1 but are all intensified1 the eyelids are swollen and the eyeballs red1 there is a discharge of yellow matter or pus1 and the patient feels ill4 ,there is great danger of the affected eye infecting the sound one1 therefore warn the patient not to touch the sound eye for fear of infecting it4 ,there is also great danger lest the attendant's own eyes should become infected4 ,treatment4--,the patient should be kept in bed and the eyes should be shielded from bright light4 ,protect the sound eye 7especially when the affected one is being washed7 by placing a pad of wool or lint over it1 kept in its place by strips of strapping so as effectually to close the eye and prevent infection4 ,thoroughly wash out the space between the eyelids and the eye1 and remove any matter or foreign body which may be found4 ,when the inflamed surfaces are clean1 wash them very thoroughly with a solution of corrosive sublimate1 #a in #ejjj1 and finally smear a little vaseline along the edges of the lids1 to prevent them sticking together4 ,this treatment must be repeated as frequently as possible4 ,once a day the inflamed surfaces may be brushed over with a solution of nitrate of silver1 #aj grains to the ounce1 applied with a camel's-hair brush1 followed immediately by the application of a few drops of common salt solution4 ,hot fomentations may give relief4 ,when this is so1 the eye should be kept covered with a pad of moist lint1 which must be changed frequently4 ,benefit has followed the administration of very large doses of salicylate of soda4 ,piles4 ,piles are very common in the tropics1 and are often due to want of exercise1 chronic constipation1 dysentery1 too free use of alcohol1 and over-eating4 ,no one who suffers from piles should become a traveller till skilled advice has been obtained4 ,internal ,piles1 though not usually painful1 are by their frequent bleeding a cause of anmia and debility2 they lie inside the orifice of the bowel1 but sometimes they come down on straining1 and are then nipped by the muscle surrounding the opening1 and may swell up1 become very painful1 and bleed profusely4 ,treatment4--,keep the bowels freely but gently opened by taking cascara regularly2 if the piles come down they should be returned1 and an ointment of galls and opium or an injection of hazeline 7one tablespoonful mixed with seven of water7 used4 ,tannin1 five grains to the ounce1 or sulphate of iron1 three to five grains to the ounce1 may be used instead of hazeline4 ,hazeline suppositories are often of great use for internal piles1 but ordinary suppositories do not keep well in very hot countries2 if they are taken to the tropics they should therefore be specially made and packed4 ,if the piles bleed profusely or cause great pain1 an operation will be necessary4 ,external piles do not bleed1 but from time to time they become inflamed and swollen1 causing great agony4 ,treatment4--,the bowels should be kept well opened2 the sufferer should lie with his hips raised2 hot fomentations should be frequently applied1 and the piles should be well greased4 ,glycerine of belladonna1 smeared on a pad of lint1 is a valuable application1 as is dry calomel powder4 ,some sedative1 such as ,dover's powder1 may be necessary to procure rest and sleep4 ,plague4 ,there are two chief varieties of plague1 the bubonic and the pneumonic4 ,causes4--,bubonic plague1 which is due to a small vegetable organism1 the ,bacillus pestis1 exists primarily as a disease in rats and other rodents1 such as the ,manchurian marmot and the ,californian brown squirrel1 and is transmitted from these animals to man by means of the flea4 ,it is the rat flea that is chiefly concerned in the spread of plague4 ,both the brown and the black rat are affected and1 speaking generally1 the black rat is the more dangerous1 as it lives in closer association with man4 ,it is now known that certain forms of merchandise1 especially grain and1 to a lesser extent1 raw cotton1 are more to be dreaded as vehicles of the bubonic plague infection than the infected human being4 ,the flea does not inoculate the bacillus by its bite4 ,it sucks up blood containing plague bacilli4 ,the latter multiply in the insect to such an extent that they block the entrance of the flea's stomach and prevent it from feeding4 ,the starved flea makes violent efforts to obtain more blood and1 as a result1 the contents of its gullet are discharged1 together with the plague bacilli1 upon the skin of the healthy person on whom it is trying to feed4 ,if there is any little wound in this skin the bacilli gain an entrance and they set up the disease4 ,infection may also occur from the bacilli-containing excreta of the flea being voided on the skin and rubbed into wounds4 ,when rats become ill or die the fleas leave them and attack man4 ,it should be noted that the rat flea may remain infective for #dc days4 ,pneumonic plague1 although due to the same bacillus1 is quite a different kind of disease1 and is transmitted from the sick to the sound by droplets of sputum expelled in coughing1 and probably also by the invisible spray which pneumonia patients discharge from the mouth4 ,when the disease is epidemic domestic animals may suffer from it and become sources of infection4 ,symptoms4--,both forms of plague are characterised by sudden onset1 sharp fever1 giddiness1 great weakness1 a drunken gait1 appearance and speech1 and a tendency to heart failure4 ,in bubonic plague there is lassitude1 headache and shivering1 and the face is pale and anxious4 ,the patient looks haggard1 his eyes are often bloodshot1 and his expression is frequently one of fear or horror4 ,his temperature runs up to #ajb1 #ajd ,f41 or even higher1 and his face gets hot and flushed4 ,there is intense thirst1 the tongue becomes dry and brown1 the urine is scanty1 and there may be delirium4 ,about the second or third day the glandular swellings known as buboes make their appearance1 usually in the groin1 but they may occur in the armpits1 the neck1 and elsewhere4 ,as a rule there is only one bubo1 which varies in size4 ,there may be a good deal of pain associated with the swelling1 and sometimes it is very severe4 ,the bubo1 if not dealt with surgically1 eventually softens and bursts1 discharging matter and sloughs4 ,in cases which are going to recover1 improvement is noted about the fourth or fifth day1 and is heralded by a profuse perspiration4 ,in fatal cases1 death usually takes place between the third and fifth days4 ,pneumonic plague usually begins with shivering and vomiting4 ,there is a cough1 accompanied by breathlessness and blueness of the face1 the sputum is profuse1 watery and blood-stained1 and as it is full of plague bacilli it is exceedingly dangerous4 ,very few cases of pneumonic plague recover4 ,prophylaxis4--,ward off attacks of fleas4 ,a substance called pesterine is good for this purpose1 and consists of kerosene #bj parts1 soft soap #a part1 and water #e parts4 ,powdered naphthalene and tricresol powder are useful4 ,attendants on plague patients should be protected from infection4 ,they should wear puttees or gum-boots1 gloves1 and overalls1 and those looking after pneumonic cases must wear masks1 goggles1 and overalls4 ,there is a protective vaccine for plague1 and those travelling in districts where plague is epidemic should avail themselves of its protective power4 ,treatment4--,the only treatment which is of any value1 and this only in bubonic plague and when given early1 is the administration of plague anti-toxin1 which should only be given by a medical man4 ,the symptoms should be treated in order to relieve the patient's distress4 ,belladonna and glycerine may be applied to the buboes1 and they should be opened and carefully dressed once suppuration is established4 ,morphia is often required for the restlessness and insomnia1 and cardiac stimulants are indicated in nearly every case4 ,pleurisy1 or ,inflammation of the ,membrane ,covering the ,lung4 ,this is more a disease of cold climates1 and is usually the result of chill following severe exertion4 ,symptoms4--,pleurisy is accompanied by less fever and general sickness than pneumonia2 its characteristic symptom is the 8stitch in the side01 which always accompanies it4 ,there is also a short1 dry cough1 without expectoration1 which the patient tries to restrain1 as it 8catches0 in the side1 and causes acute pain4 ,for the same reason the breathing is shallow1 as any attempt to draw a deep breath causes extreme suffering4 ,treatment4--,the patient suffers greatly1 therefore in the early stages treatment must be directed to the pain4 ,if leeches are procurable1 the application of half-a-dozen to the painful region of the chest is advisable4 ,mustard leaves or poultices should be applied over the part1 or it may be painted with tincture of iodine2 opium may be given to relieve the acute pain1 in the form of ,dover's powder1 fifteen grains three times a day4 ,five grains of quinine may be given twice a day4 ,pneumonia1 or ,inflammation of the ,lungs4 ,it has been definitely proved that the black races are specially susceptible to the organism which is the cause of pneumonia1 and it is a frequent source of invaliding amongst the native attendants of travellers in ,africa and elsewhere4 ,causes4--,as predisposing factors may be noted change of climate1 chill1 insanitary conditions of life1 fatigue1 and overwork4 ,malaria1 syphilis1 alcoholism1 and excessive tobacco-smoking also play a part4 ,the disease is believed to be spread by personal contact1 but this has not been definitely established4 ,symptoms4--,these usually begin with a severe attack of shivering2 the temperature rises rapidly1 the pulse and breathing are greatly quickened1 and the patient is completely prostrated4 ,the face is flushed1 the skin feels hot and dry1 and there is a short cough1 dry at first1 but afterwards accompanied by expectoration of a moderate quantity of slimy1 rust-coloured1 blood-stained1 and almost frothless matter4 ,usually there is pain on the affected side1 which in most eases is the right side of the chest1 above the liver4 ,in ,african natives heart failure is very common4 ,prophylaxis4--,in order to prevent the occurrence of pneumonia amongst native followers good food should be provided1 properly cooked2 and it is important to see that they are supplied with sufficient blankets at night if travelling through cold regions4 ,if it can possibly be avoided natives from hot1 humid localities should not be taken to chilly1 elevated and wind-swept places1 as under such conditions they are very apt to contract pneumonia4 ,overcrowding in huts or tents should be avoided1 and any sore throats which develop should be promptly treated4 ,treatment4--,a patient attacked with pneumonia should take to bed at once4 ,the affected side should be surrounded with a large poultice4 ,five grains of quinine should be given every eight hours4 ,if the heart's action is weak1 give some preparation of ammonia1 as a stimulant1 and administer alcohol1 up to half an ounce1 every two hours4 ,opium should only be given to calm the patient1 as large doses do harm by checking free expectoration2 if there is much distress1 then ten or fifteen grains of ,dover's powder may be given4 ,an ice poultice applied to the chest will give great relief by lowering the temperature and diminishing the pain 7see page #bgd74 ,quinsy1 or ,inflammation of the ,tonsils4 ,apply poultices to the neck4 ,gargle with a hot1 weak solution of permanganate of potash1 or a solution of chinosol 7#a in #bjjj71 at least every hour4 ,administer quinine and iron as a tonic4 ,keep the bowels well open4 ,surgical aid is sometimes required in bad cases4 ,relapsing ,fever4 ,this is the old 8famine fever10 and it occurs in various parts of the world4 ,causes4--,it is due to a corkscrew-shaped blood parasite1 which is conveyed from the sick to the healthy by means of lice4 ,some hold that certain forms of this fever in ,palestine1 ,cilicia1 and ,persia are transmitted by means of the common fowl tick1 which often harbours in the cracks in native bedsteads and in crevices in the walls of huts and other dwelling places4 ,the true tick fever of ,africa1 which is also a relapsing fever1 is considered separately4 7,see ,tick ,fever1 p4 #bda47 ,symptoms4--,these differ a little in different parts of the world4 ,the incubation period is usually from five to ten days4 ,the onset is remarkably sudden4 ,the patient has a chill or shivering fit1 becomes giddy1 develops a bad frontal headache1 feels as if he had been beaten all over1 and frequently vomits4 ,he has often a difficulty in walking1 and soon becomes seriously ill4 ,delirium is not infrequent4 ,the tongue1 unlike that in typhus fever1 remains moist throughout the illness4 ,thirst1 restlessness1 and vomiting are very characteristic of the condition1 and the urine is scanty4 ,as a general rule recovery takes place1 but sometimes the patient grows gradually worse and dies4 ,as a rule1 however1 the temperature falls very suddenly1 and the patient is better4 ,after a week or so a relapse occurs4 ,the temperature again shoots up1 and remains up for several days4 ,then there is a second crisis1 another relapse1 and so on for perhaps three or four times4 ,most cases recover1 and once convalescence is established the patient soon gets well4 ,prophylaxis4--,the disease being lice-borne1 it is necessary to take all steps to prevent contact with these insects 7see ,lice1 p4 #aif74 ,the organism has been shown to be capable of passing through intact mucous membranes and unbroken skin4 ,hence it is advisable to be careful when attending a case1 for the organism has been found in sweat and tears1 while the patient's blood is1 of course1 infectious4 ,treatment4--,careful nursing and a light diet4 ,attend to the state of the mouth and of the bowels4 ,the arsenic preparation1 known as salvarsan 7kharsivan71 is a specific remedy1 and can cut the disease short2 but it can be administered only by a medical man4 ,otherwise there is no treatment save the symptomatic4 ,rheumatism4 ,this is a disease which frequently follows exposure to damp and cold1 and is on that account not uncommon in the tropics4 ,it is often hereditary4 ,after one attack1 rheumatism is always liable to recur in the same individual1 and on this account it is necessary that persons liable to the disease should use special precautions4 ,acute rheumatism or ,rheumatic ,fever4--,this is really an infectious disease due to a specific organism1 and is quite different from the ordinary rheumatism of everyday life4 ,symptoms4--,it begins by a shivering fit1 with rise of temperature and general sickness1 and the joints1 usually wrists1 ankles1 or knees1 become painful1 tender1 and afterwards swollen4 ,it resembles other feverish conditions in the rapid pulse and breathing1 the constipation1 scanty and high-coloured urine1 etc41 but it differs from most of them in the presence of a profuse and sour-smelling perspiration1 resembling the odour of butter-milk4 ,treatment4--,the best remedy for acute rheumatism is salicylate of soda1 of which fifteen grains should be given every six hours4 ,the joints should1 at the same time1 be kept wrapped up in cotton wool1 covered with oiled silk and a flannel bandage4 ,this treatment will nearly always correct the acute symptoms in two or three days4 ,if the symptoms subside sooner1 the quantity of the salicylate should be diminished2 if there is delirium1 the dose must be lessened at once1 for many people are very susceptible to salicylates and are easily affected by them1 the delirium being characteristic4 ,dover's powder may be given to relieve pain and to secure sleep4 ,chronic rheumatism4--,in this disease there is chronic pain and tenderness of the joints1 without fever4 ,treatment4--,bicarbonate of potash and salicylate of soda1 each in five-grain doses1 should be given every eight hours4 ,painful joints may be painted with tincture of iodine1 rubbed with turpentine liniment1 or bathed with hot water4 ,the bowels should be kept well open1 and alcohol and much meat avoided4 ,rupture or ,hernia4 ,a rupture or hernia is a protrusion of some portion of the bowels under the skin1 and is usually found in the groin4 ,it is generally reducible1 i4e41 it can be pushed back into the belly4 ,it reappears when the pressure is removed1 especially if the patient coughs or strains4 ,when reduced1 a properly-fitting truss should be applied and worn during the day4 ,it can be taken off at night1 after lying down1 but should be re-adjusted in the morning1 whilst the patient is still in bed4 ,no patient should go abroad without having an operation for the cure of the hernia4 ,the great danger of any rupture is that it may become irreducible--a condition which is very likely to be followed by constriction or 8strangulation0 and subsequent death of the ruptured part of the bowel4 ,if unrelieved1 this constricted condition is always fatal4 ,the existence of strangulation is known by local pain and tenderness1 development of severe colicky pains in the belly 7especially about the navel71 absolute constipation1 vomiting1 hiccough1 and symptoms of collapse4 ,when this condition is observed1 the patient's hips should be raised by supporting them with pillows1 and the tumour should be only very gently kneaded with the view of getting back the protruded bowel4 ,the treatment is considerably aided by immersing the patient in a warm bath1 and giving about twenty drops of laudanum or chlorodyne4 ,ice placed round the swelling for half an hour or so is often very effective4 ,if these means fail1 surgical aid is absolutely necessary4 ,purgatives should not be given4 ,sand-,fly ,fever4 ,this disease1 also known as phlebotomus fever1 is very widespread and probably occurs in most parts of the world where sand-flies are found4 ,cause4--,the organism is unknown1 presumably being too small to be seen by the highest powers of the microscope1 but it is known to be transmitted by what are called sand-flies or pappataci flies1 tiny and very hairy midges which breed in such places as heaps of damp stones1 bricks1 and tiles1 cracks in surface soil1 the walls of old cellars1 cracks and fissures in embankments4 ,these little flies1 which sally forth upon the blood quest towards evening1 are voracious blood-suckers1 and feed principally in the gloaming and at dawn4 ,they chiefly attack the wrists and ankles1 and can easily bite through thin socks or light cotton or linen clothing4 ,it has been proved that the bite of one infected fly can convey fever4 ,during the day they hide in dark places1 and may be found in the dark corners of rooms4 ,their bites are painful1 and when numerous the bitten part may swell badly4 ,an attack by many flies effectually banishes sleep4 ,symptoms4--,the fever is short and sharp--indeed1 it is often called the three-day fever4 ,the incubation period is four to seven days1 and the attack is sudden1 beginning with chilly sensations and a tired feeling4 ,there may be rigors1 but these are never so severe as the shivering fits of malaria4 ,the patient becomes giddy1 has a severe frontal headache with pain at the back of the eyes and pains in the back and legs4 ,the condition1 indeed1 is very like an influenzal attack except that there is1 as a rule1 no coryza4 ,the face is flushed and the eyes may be injected4 ,when the latter is the case one can understand how the disease was originally given the name of the 8dog disease10 as the appearance of the injected conjunctiv resembles that sometimes seen in mastiffs and bloodhounds4 ,there may be some sore throat1 and sometimes there is a little eruption on the throat or palate4 ,the temperature rises rapidly and may attain #ajc ,f4 ,it remains up for about twenty-four hours and then begins to fall1 usually becoming normal on the third or fourth day4 ,sometimes there is a secondary rise of temperature4 ,the patient may speedily recover or convalescence may be tedious1 and the condition is sometimes followed by mental depression and the digestion may be upset4 ,the fever is apparently never fatal but it is troublesome and debilitating4 ,prophylaxis4--,protect from the bites of sand-flies4 ,this is best done by the use of a fine-mesh net containing twenty-two holes to the linear inch4 ,it should be of the same general pattern as the net recommended under malaria 7see p4 #bjf74 ,tobacco smoke keeps the flies away to some extent and repellents are useful1 especially vermijelli1 containing some oil of citronella1 the preparation known as ,sketofax1 oil of cassia and oil of eucalyptus4 ,a lump of camphor as a bed-fellow is also useful as the flies dislike its odour4 ,the patient should always be placed under a fine-mesh net to prevent his being a source of infection to others4 ,treatment4--,rest in bed1 light diet1 and one full dose of laudanum1 i4e41 thirty drops1 given as early as possible4 ,chlorodyne in the same dose may also be used4 ,quinine is useless and may aggravate the symptoms1 but aspirin and the salicylates are helpful4 ,if there is much pain in the muscles the application of hot sand-bags may afford relief4 ,scarlet ,fever1 or ,scarlatina4 ,this fever is very uncommon in hot climates4 ,incubation period1 three to eight days4 ,rash appears second day4 ,symptoms4--,the rash consists of numerous minute red spots1 evenly distributed all over the surface of the body1 upon a general rose-red blush4 ,the area immediately surrounding the mouth is not affected4 ,shivering fits1 sickness1 high temperature1 sore throat1 headache1 pains in the back4 ,the sickness is very characteristic in children4 ,after the rash has subsided1 peeling of the skin takes place1 beginning on the face as a very fine powdery deposit4 ,the process then spreads to other parts of the body1 the last places to peel being the palms of the hands1 the soles of the feet1 and between the fingers and toes4 ,the peeling process takes from four to six weeks1 and the patient is infectious during the whole of this period4 ,treatment4--,isolation4 ,bed in an airy room4 ,light food4 ,if the fever is high 7#ajd ,f471 the body may be sponged with tepid water4 ,if the throat is very inflamed1 an antiseptic gargle should be used4 ,as the course of infectious fevers cannot be cut short1 the chief aim of treatment should be to avert complications and the return of distressing symptoms--over-treatment with drugs must be guarded against4 ,to prevent the spread of infection from the peeling surface1 the body should be rubbed over with boracic ointment1 or carbolic or olive oil4 ,complications4--,as scarlet fever may be followed by heart1 kidney1 or ear trouble1 the patient should not be allowed to get up until at least ten days after the temperature has become normal4 ,scorpion ,sting and ,spider ,bite4 ,scorpion sting is not infrequent in hot countries1 but is very rarely fatal in the case of the adult ,european unless several stings have been received at one time4 ,symptoms4--,the usual symptoms in the adult are a brawny swelling in the region of the sting and more or less collapse4 ,there is often severe pain of a throbbing nature1 and there may be sickness and vomiting4 ,treatment4--,apply a tourniquet above the sting and incise the affected area2 then apply an opium lotion4 ,this is usually sufficient to afford relief and prevent extension of the swelling4 ,a serum suitable for use in ,egypt and the ,sudan only1 has been prepared for treating scorpion stings1 and when it is available it should be used as soon as possible1 as very favourable results have been reported from its employment4 ,it can be obtained in ,cairo or in this country from ,messrs4 ,allen and ,hanbury4 ,spider bite is not so important as scorpion sting1 though poisonous spiders do exist in various parts of the world and belong to a genus found in ,southern ,europe1 ,new ,zealand1 and various parts of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,many of these poisonous spiders are brightly coloured1 their abdomens being spotted with vermilion4 ,in ,peru there is a so-called 8pruning-spider10 which belongs to another genus and is also poisonous4 ,symptoms4--,locally a reddish papule appears1 and there is sharp stinging pain4 ,the papule is followed by a spreading inflammation which sometimes goes on to gangrene1 though this is rare4 ,the general symptoms are those of nervous exhaustion and there is high fever1 rapid pulse1 rapid breathing1 and sometimes blood in the urine4 ,treatment4--,apply a ligature and suck the wound4 ,use permanganate of potash locally as in the case of snake-bite4 ,the permanganate should also be given internally1 one-quarter to one per cent4 solution being given every hour or every two hours4 ,diffusible stimulants such as ammonia1 caffeine1 or camphor are useful as diuretics4 ,a strict milk diet should be enforced during treatment4 ,scurvy4 ,this is one of the deficiency diseases4 ,this is not to say that mere general starvation will produce it1 but that it is due to the lack of certain substances in the diet4 ,these substances are known to exist in fresh fruit and vegetables1 and also to a lesser extent in fresh meat and raw milk1 but their exact nature has not yet been determined4 ,travellers should remember that1 apart from the actual disease1 there is a scorbutic state in which the symptoms are indefinite1 and which1 if not recognized and promptly treated1 will pass on to true scurvy4 ,symptoms4--,scurvy begins insidiously with progressive weakness1 pallor1 loss of weight1 and stiffness in the leg muscles4 ,later the gums become affected1 soft swellings sprouting up between the teeth4 ,as the disease progresses the gums become swollen and spongy1 ulcerate and bleed1 while in bad cases the mouth becomes very offensive and contains large fungating masses4 ,other signs of scurvy are hmorrhages under the skin and mucous membrane and in the muscles4 ,any injury is apt to be followed by hmorrhage4 ,swelling of the legs is an important symptom1 especially in the region of the ankles4 ,if untreated1 the condition becomes worse1 the appetite is impaired1 mental depression sets in1 there is breathlessness on exertion1 and night and day blindness4 ,death results from heart failure or some complication4 ,prophylaxis4--,ensure a good dietary containing sufficient anti-scorbutic elements4 ,wherever possible1 fresh meat1 fresh vegetables1 and fresh fruit should be supplied4 ,lemon juice is valuable4 ,it should be noted that it is four times as efficient as the lime juice which used formerly to be employed4 ,the ration should be one ounce daily served with sugar4 ,germinating peas1 beans1 and other pulses contain the anti-scorbutic elements in large quantity4 ,it is a simple matter to carry a supply of these pulses and to germinate them when required4 ,the dry seeds must be whole1 retaining their original seed-coat4 ,in order to make them germinate they are placed in a clean sack and steeped in a vessel containing clean water1 which should be occasionally stirred4 ,sack and trough should be large enough to allow for the swelling of the pulses to about three times their original size4 ,in a hot climate six to twelve hours is sufficient for this soaking4 ,thereafter1 lift the seeds out of the water and spread them out to a depth not exceeding two or three inches in some vessel which allows free access of air to them4 ,keep them moist by covering with sacking1 which is wetted at intervals4 ,the germination should reach the stage necessary within twenty-four hours in a hot climate1 and the pulses should be cooked and eaten as soon as possible after germination4 ,care should be taken not to overcook them4 ,at a pinch germination may be effected by placing the seeds between wet blankets1 but this is a rough-and-ready method not to be recommended4 ,it is important to attend to oral hygiene1 especially the regular use of the tooth-brush4 ,vegetables should never be overcooked4 ,in the case of ,african native followers ,kaffir beer made from germinated grain is of great value2 one pint should be given daily per head4 ,potatoes and root vegetables are useful1 and the onion is a valuable food in this connexion4 ,fresh meat is not so effective as either fresh fruit or vegetables4 ,treatment4--,this is chiefly dietetic1 and the same foods and substances as are mentioned under prophylaxis are used also for the cure of scurvy4 ,in addition1 scurvy patients should be kept in bed1 given plenty of fresh air1 and have the affected parts massaged4 ,tonics and mouth-washes are indicated1 and a liberal diet with plenty of fat in it should be provided4 ,where fresh fruit cannot be obtained raw meat and raw fresh eggs in milk form a good substitute4 ,sea-,sickness4 ,take a saline aperient on the day before embarking1 and a light plain meal at least three hours before going on board4 ,a cup of good tea or black coffee soon after starting is often of use4 ,those liable to sea-sickness should go to bed directly they get on board3 the head should be kept low and the room darkened4 ,a mustard leaf applied to the pit of the stomach is of value in diminishing the tendency to vomit4 ,an abdominal belt is useful from the gentle support it gives4 ,a hot-water bottle may be applied to the feet4 ,a mixture containing fifteen grains of bromide of soda and five grains of antipyrine to one ounce of water is often of great value4 ,the first dose should be given immediately the patient is in bed1 and may be repeated every six hours if required4 ,whitla states that the best of all remedies is bromide of ammonium4 ,it should be given in twenty-grain doses for a day or two before embarking4 ,morphia may be found necessary3 a third of a grain may be injected under the skin of adults1 but it should on no account be given to children4 ,i have found that three or four drops of chloroform1 dropped on to loaf sugar and sucked1 often prevents vomiting4 ,those who are vomiting severely should take plenty of hot water or milk1 so as to prevent them from straining on an empty stomach4 ,very often raisins or raisin tea can be taken when other nourishment is rejected4 ,a recent method of treatment which has sometimes been found effective is to plug the ears firmly with cotton-wool1 but this should only be done by a medical man4 ,it is1 however1 worth trying4 ,skin ,diseases4 ,boils4--,boils are very common in the tropics and occur especially in people who have been run down4 ,they are most frequent during or after the rains and especially in the course of hot1 damp summers4 ,in ,egypt the so-called ,nile boil is quite a feature of the country4 ,in the tropics boils are often multiple and a very favourite site is the buttocks4 ,any part1 however1 which is apt to be bathed in sweat is liable to infection4 ,a boil on the face may apparently result from the bite of a mosquito or other blood-sucking insect4 ,prophylaxis4--,protect from insect bites and treat even the most trivial of skin lesions with tincture of iodine4 ,keep the skin clean and change the underclothing frequently4 ,if a boil occurs cover it with a small dressing so that other parts of the skin may not be affected4 ,a change of climate is often the only thing that will do good in the case of a person afflicted with crops of boils4 ,treatment4--,it is sometimes possible to abort a boil by dipping a sharpened wooden match or a toothpick into pure carbolic acid and thrusting it repeatedly into the heart of the swelling4 ,if the boil has somewhat developed hot fomentations and moist dressings should be applied and iodine should be painted on the skin round the boil4 ,as a rule it is wiser not to open a boil1 even when it has suppurated4 ,it is best to let it burst and then to dress it carefully with a boric poultice1 which should be frequently changed4 ,treatment with vaccines has come into vogue and is sometimes very helpful4 ,sulphide of calcium pills1 one grain in each1 three times a day1 are often given and are said to have a prophylactic effect1 but a preparation known as stannoxyl and used in the form of tablets is to be preferred4 ,the usual dose is four tablets the first day1 six the second1 and eight on subsequent days4 ,the drug is somewhat constipating4 ,a remedy more easily obtained and which is said to be distinctly beneficial is dilute sulphuric acid4 ,it should be taken in doses of twenty to thirty drops1 well diluted1 every four hours4 ,the general health requires attention and lemon juice1 plenty of green vegetables and tonics should be taken4 ,carbuncles4--,a carbuncle is of the same nature as a boil1 but is a more serious complaint1 and it is distinguished from a boil by the fact that it opens by several mouths4 ,to promote ripening of the carbuncle and the separation of the core or dead piece of tissue1 poultices and hot fomentations should be freely applied1 and if the core can be seen it should be removed1 if possible1 by a pair of forceps4 ,to facilitate removal of the core it is sometimes advisable to cut through the skin separating the openings2 there may be some slight bleeding1 but it will cease after a short time4 ,opium may be given to relieve acute suffering4 ,the bowels should be kept well open4 ,a generous diet must be given2 tonics of iron1 quinine and arsenic are needed1 and alcohol may prove necessary4 ,carbuncles rarely appear except in people much broken down in health1 and their presence is an indication that the sufferer should return to his own country and seek skilled advice4 ,chigger4--,the chigger is not itself a disease but is a sand-flea producing a condition known by the long name of dermatophiliasis4 ,it is a veritable pest in parts of ,south ,america and all over tropical ,africa4 ,the insect is like the common flea but smaller1 lives in dry sandy soil and sucks the blood of mammals1 especially pigs4 ,after impregnation the female burrows into the skin of a mammal or bird1 and1 nourished by blood1 proceeds to ovulation4 ,her abdomen becomes filled with ripe eggs and enormously distended till it looks like a small pea4 ,eventually the eggs escape through the opening of the skin and hatch into larv which in due time become adult fleas4 ,symptoms4--,in man the feet are the part most frequently affected1 the chiggers being found between the toes and under the toe nails4 ,when people sleep on the ground other parts of the body may become affected and large numbers of chiggers may be present at one time4 ,there is itching and irritation at the place of invasion1 and when the latter is examined a little dark dot will be seen4 ,this is the posterior end of the female flea1 which is lying head downwards in her burrow4 ,if not removed suppuration occurs round her distended abdomen and the skin gets much inflamed and swollen4 ,when the eggs have been discharged ulceration takes place and the flea is expelled4 ,a small sore1 however1 is left which is very liable to get contaminated1 and1 if neglected1 may lead to very severe complications4 ,prophylaxis4--,do not camp in the neighbourhood of native villages4 ,clean the camping ground thoroughly and1 if necessary1 fire it4 ,as insecticides flaked naphthalene or a strong infusion of native tobacco are useful4 ,the latter may be used inside boots or shoes4 ,walking bare-foot should be avoided1 as should sleeping unprotected on the ground4 ,in the case of native carriers or porters a daily foot-parade should be instituted4 ,some protection is afforded by smearing the feet1 especially the spaces between and under the toes1 with a preparation like phenofax or with a mixture of five drops of lysol or cresol and an ounce of vaseline4 ,treatment4--,it is usually better to get a native to remove a chigger as long practice makes them very expert in the little operation4 ,the latter consists in widening the skin orifice with a sharp clean needle1 and freeing the flea from the surrounding tissues in order to get it out whole4 ,if it ruptures forceps must be employed1 and this is much more painful and difficult than extracting the entire insect4 ,the infected parts should be carefully treated antiseptically4 ,fungus ,diseases4--,there is a great number of tropical diseases due to fungi but only a few can be considered here1 and these only very briefly4 7#a7 ,dhobie ,itch is one of the best known and is so called because it was thought to be derived from clothes infected by the persons 7dhobies7 who washed them4 ,the parts usually attacked are the groins1 the upper part of the thighs and the armpits4 ,the condition is due to a fungus like that of ringworm and the skin becomes red and raised and somewhat scurfy4 ,dhobie itch causes great irritation and is sometimes associated with considerable pain4 ,treatment4--,mild cases are best treated by using an ointment containing resorcin two drachms1 salicylic acid ten grains1 and vaseline and lanoline1 of each four drachms4 ,the parts may be painted with iodine but this is somewhat irritating4 ,an ointment of ammoniated mercury1 two to five per cent41 is often effective4 ,bad cases require the application of araroba 7chrysarobin7 ointment1 but it should not be used unless recommended by a doctor4 ,goulard water or ,wright's liquor carbonis detergens 7one tablespoonful to two pints of water7 are soothing applications4 7#b7 ,there is a fungus disease of the hairs1 especially of the armpits and the pubis1 which occurs in tropical climates and is often very troublesome4 ,the hairs assume a coated1 beaded or nodular appearance and the deposit on them varies in colour and may be black1 yellow or red4 ,the underclothing in contact with the affected parts becomes stained and when the disease spreads to the skin1 as it often does1 the latter becomes inflamed1 thickened and painful4 ,prophylaxis4--,keep the axillae shaved4 ,it is always well to do so in a tropical climate4 ,failing this1 dust with a mixture of powdered sulphur and fuller's earth1 equal parts4 ,change the underclothing frequently and bathe the parts liable to infection4 ,treatment4--,apply twice daily a lotion containing one drachm of formalin in six ounces of rectified spirit1 and at night rub in a two per cent4 sulphur ointment4 ,if these measures fail apply tincture of iodine1 except in cases where the skin is involved4 ,in such cases bathe with cold water and employ a dusting powder or a soothing lotion4 7#c7 ,ringworm of the head is a disease due to a fungus4 ,the part for some distance round the affected area should be shaved1 and any stumps of hairs pulled out4 ,the skin should be lightly painted with tincture of iodine or strong solution of carbolic acid 7one in ten of water72 or sulphur1 white precipitate1 or mercurial ointment may be gently rubbed in4 ,kraw-,kraw4--,this is a term commonly employed by natives of the ,west ,coast of ,africa to indicate almost any kind of itchy1 papular1 or pustular eruption4 ,many of these appear to be contagious1 and most of them are best treated by opening up any pustules which may be present1 removing crusts by boric poultices1 and scraping ulcers4 ,then scrub thoroughly with sublimate lotion #a in #a1jjj1 dust with boric powder and apply a dressing of medicated vaseline4 ,the application should not be disturbed for a week when1 as a rule1 the skin will be found to have healed up4 ,clothing and any other articles which have been in contact with the affected parts should be destroyed or thoroughly disinfected4 ,prickly ,heat4--,this condition is very frequent1 especially in the moist tropics4 ,it is due to free sweating1 and is accompanied by intense heat and itching4 ,the parts closely covered by clothing are specially apt to be affected4 ,the skin becomes covered with numerous slightly inflamed papules1 set close together1 and the eruption may remain for months at a time1 varying in intensity according to circumstances4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid long drinks1 warm clothing1 too much exercise1 and all conditions producing excessive perspiration4 ,sea-bathing should be avoided1 and soap should not be used in the bath4 ,one should sleep under as hygienic conditions as possible1 with a well-ventilated bed and without unnecessary clothing4 ,a dusting powder of equal parts of boric acid1 oxide of zinc1 and starch is useful4 ,treatment4--,ryan strongly recommends the so-called 8,sulphaqua0 bath charge1 which is sold in packets ready for use4 ,the above-mentioned dusting powder is helpful1 as is the application of a lotion containing salicylic acid and spirit4 ,some prefer oily applications4 ,whatever is used1 care should be taken to see that the bowels are well opened at the beginning of an attack1 preferably by a saline purge4 ,ulcers4--,ulcers are often very troublesome to the traveller1 as the healing process is frequently retarded by exposure1 dirt and dust1 and the chafing of clothes4 ,want of sufficient animal food greatly favours the spread of large ulcers4 ,a simple dressing of iodoform ointment1 or ointment of boric acid1 is effective when the ulcer can be protected1 and rest can be given to the affected part4 ,when the ulcer is deep and large it may be stimulated to heal by the application of lint or cotton-wool1 moistened with carbolic oil1 carbolic lotion1 or other antiseptics4 ,large1 unhealthy ulcers should be well bathed with some antiseptic such as carbolic acid1 one in sixty of water1 or a solution of chinosol 7#a in #fjj72 and after the sore has been cleansed it may be lightly dusted with iodoform and then covered with a piece of lint moistened with carbolic oil or smeared with iodoform ointment and supported by an evenly applied bandage4 ,boric ointment1 lano-creoline1 izal ointment or other antiseptic dressing may take the place of iodoform ointment4 ,in addition to the above general account1 certain conditions leading to ulceration require consideration4 ,oriental ,sore4--,this condition is commonly known as ,baghdad ,boil1 ,aleppo ,button1 ,frontier ,sore1 etc4 ,it occurs in various hot countries1 such as ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,asia ,minor1 ,arabia1 and ,mesopotamia1 and has been met with in ,europe and ,greece4 ,a special form affecting both skin and mucous membranes is widely distributed in ,south ,america4 ,cause4--,the cause is an organism to all appearance identical with that which produces leishmaniasis or kala-azar4 ,indeed1 ,oriental sore is a form of cutaneous leishmaniasis4 ,in all probability infection is conveyed by sand-flies1 but our knowledge is still defective on this point4 ,symptoms4--,the incubation period varies from a fortnight to a year4 ,the sore may occur on any exposed part of the body1 but is most common on the forearm1 hands1 and face4 ,multiple sores are frequent4 ,the first sign is a small red1 scaly papule1 which increases in size and eventually breaks down1 forming a painless ulcer1 with a hard1 dry edge4 ,non-ulcerating forms occur1 but are not common4 ,the condition is very chronic1 but healing usually sets in after six to twelve months4 ,when the ulcer heals a white or pink scar is left1 which is disfiguring4 ,prophylaxis4--,sleep under a sand-fly net1 containing #bb holes to the linear inch4 ,warn against the danger of infection by personal contact and the risk of re-infecting oneself by scratching4 ,it is advisable to paint the sites of all fly and insect bites with iodine as soon as possible4 ,treatment4--,the best treatment at present known is intravenous injection of tartar emetic4 ,this1 of course1 can be carried out only by a medical man4 ,good results have1 however1 been obtained by applying a #b per cent4 ointment of tartarate of antimony1 and this method can be carried out by the patient himself4 ,local injections of emetine have been recommended1 and there are various other ways of treating ,oriental sore1 but they need not be here considered4 ,tropical ,ulcer4--,this is a special and serious form of ulcer found in all parts of the world1 and especially amongst ,east ,african natives4 ,it is found chiefly in the lower third of the leg and in the region of the foot and ankle4 ,cause4--,this is somewhat obscure1 but it is believed to be due to certain organisms possibly acting in association with one another4 ,symptoms4--,the condition starts as a small1 tender1 and often itchy papular bleb1 surrounded by a dense inflammatory zone4 ,an ulcer results1 which is more or less painless1 and one of the characteristics of which is the way it spreads and destroys all the tissues with which it comes in contact4 ,it is often mistaken for a syphilitic ulcer1 but it does not usually yield to anti-syphilitic remedies4 ,treatment4--,the best remedy would appear to be formalin1 though the iodoform ointment mentioned under ulcers may aid the condition4 ,it can be effectually treated only by a medical man4 ,veldt ,sore4--,this condition1 which is also known as ,barcoo ,rot1 is frequently in evidence in countries with hot1 dry climates1 as1 for example1 ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,south ,africa1 ,mesopotamia1 etc4 ,cause4--,it is due to certain bacteriological organisms1 and is apt to occur in persons who are debilitated1 who are not receiving proper food1 or who are living under conditions where it is not easy to keep clean4 ,some think the sores are commonest in men who have to deal with horses4 ,symptoms4--,veldt sores are most common on the hands and forearms4 ,they begin as itchy papules1 which become blebs1 then pustules1 and finally ulcers4 ,they are usually multiple1 and when they heal they leave areas of thin1 glossy skin4 ,prophylaxis4--,as for boils4 ,treatment4--,the spread of ulcers can be checked by removing the hairs from their bases and round their margins4 ,very often the ulcer can be started on its healing process by employing dressings soaked in a solution of #a4e per cent4 sodium citrate and #bj per cent4 common salt4 ,vaccines are often successfully used in this condition1 and the stannoxyl mentioned under boils may be employed1 as may a salicylic acid ointment1 #bj grains to the ounce4 ,sleeping ,sickness4 ,this is the old 8,negro lethargy10 and must not be confounded with what is now called sleeping sickness in the ,british ,isles and on the ,continent1 which is quite a different disease4 ,true sleeping sickness is limited to ,africa1 and there are two chief types3 that occurring in parts of the ,west ,coast and the ,french and ,belgian ,congos1 in ,angola1 in portions of the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 in ,uganda1 and in parts of the ,tanganyika territory2 and that which occurs in ,northern ,rhodesia1 ,nyasaland1 ,portuguese ,west ,africa1 and the region of the ,rovuma ,river4 ,cause4--,the cause is a tiny animal blood parasite conveyed from the sick to the healthy by certain species of tsetse flies4 ,in the tsetse fly the parasite1 which is called a trypanosome1 undergoes a definite development4 ,the two species of tsetse fly meriting special consideration here are ,glossina morsitans and ,glossina palpalis4 ,the former1 as a rule1 occurs in thin1 deciduous bush1 or low1 comparatively open forest1 while the latter haunts the neighbourhood of streams and lakes1 and is rarely found any great distance from the water edge4 ,these flies are about the size of a small blue-bottle1 but are not so stoutly built and1 when closed1 their wings overlap and project beyond the end of the abdomen4 ,glossina morsitans is brownish coloured1 with bands on its abdomen4 ,glossina palpalis is much darker1 indeed almost black-looking4 ,they have a quick and darting flight1 and are attracted by rapidly-moving objects1 like motor-bicycles and motor-cars4 ,once they alight they do not move about4 ,as a rule they bite only during the day1 but they may attack man on bright moonlight nights4 ,symptoms4--,the incubation period is probably about three weeks4 ,the fly bite may be painful2 and causes a slight local irritation4 ,the disease begins insidiously1 with an irregular fever1 and there may be a skin eruption4 ,the fever comes and goes1 and the patient gets weaker and suffers from headache4 ,the glands in his neck and possibly in other parts of his body become enlarged and may be tender4 ,the first stage of the disease is called trypanosome fever1 and may end in recovery4 ,more usually the central nervous system becomes affected1 and then the symptoms of true sleeping sickness develop1 slowly or with considerable rapidity4 ,the patient becomes dull and drowsy4 ,both his speech and movements are affected4 ,his face gets puffy1 and he shuffles when he walks4 ,he still has fever1 continues to lose flesh1 and gradually passes into a sleepy condition1 which may be associated with convulsions4 ,saliva dribbles from the lips1 and half-masticated food may remain in the mouth4 ,the patient becomes helpless and indifferent to his surroundings1 and either dies from coma or from some intercurrent disease1 such as pneumonia or dysentery4 ,prophylaxis4--,personal prophylaxis consists in avoiding being bitten by tsetse flies4 ,when passing through fly belts in affected areas veils and gloves may be worn4 ,treatment4--,if taken in time sleeping sickness can be readily cured by the use of the arsenical preparation atoxyl1 combined with antimony4 ,the course of treatment1 however1 extends over a considerable period1 and it must be carried out under the supervision of a medical man4 ,sleeplessness4 ,this is common in those broken down by malaria1 dysentery or debilitating diseases2 it is also induced by the irritation caused by mosquitoes and other pests1 such as the itch parasite4 ,it is at times due to errors of diet1 prickly heat1 mental worry and exhaustion1 abuse of tea and coffee1 coldness of the feet and indigestion1 and as most acute diseases are worse at night1 sleeplessness is very common amongst sick people4 ,treatment4--,as far as possible remove the cause2 kneading the feet and legs1 or the application of a hot-water bottle to the feet1 will often be of service4 ,a cup of hot milk or soup should be taken at bedtime1 and again on waking in the night4 ,the bowels must be regulated and alcohol taken very sparingly4 ,the taking of sedative drugs should be avoided as much as possible4 ,the least harmful of these is sulphonal in doses of from twenty to thirty grains1 given several hours before bedtime1 or bromide of potassium in twenty or thirty-grain doses given at bedtime4 ,a warm bath at night often acts more satisfactorily than any other remedy4 ,only very rarely should chloral1 chlorodyne1 or opium be resorted to4 ,regular habits and plenty of work are potent factors in the production of that healthy condition which predisposes to natural refreshing sleep4 ,the unfortunate man who has no hard work to do1 who is without even a hobby to occupy him1 and has no interest in life but the torpid condition of his liver1 is a constant sufferer from insomnia4 ,he should be purged and put on a light plain diet4 ,alcohol must be forbidden and plenty of exercise must be taken4 ,a tumblerful of hot water is to be taken the first thing in the morning and the last thing at night4 ,small-pox4 ,very prevalent in the tropics1 hence the importance of revaccination before going abroad4 ,incubation period1 twelve days4 ,rash appears third day4 ,rash4--,before the appearance of the typical rash there are occasionally earlier rashes1 viz41 a diffuse blush covering the whole body1 resembling scarlet fever1 or a dark purple rash of effused blood beneath the skin of the lower part of the belly1 or occasionally in the armpit4 ,the small-pox rash proper consists of small red raised spots which first appear on the face1 forehead1 and scalp1 subsequently coming out over the rest of the body1 commencing at the top and working downwards4 ,these spots become prominent1 and have a characteristic 8shotty0 feeling under the finger4 ,on the third day after their appearance a small bleb forms in the centre of each spot2 it is transparent at first1 but subsequently becomes yellowish1 from the formation of matter in its interior4 ,the centre becomes depressed on the sixth day1 then the bleb breaks down1 and discharges matter4 ,two or three days later the spot begins to dry up1 and ultimately heals under a scab4 ,during the period of most active inflammation the face may be very swollen and sodden4 ,the spots and pustules are not confined to the skin1 but may occur on the roof of the mouth and in the throat4 ,prophylaxis4--,this consists in efficient vaccination1 and as travellers may themselves have to carry out the technique of vaccination1 it is important they should know something about it4 ,the usual faults in technique are a lack of cleanliness1 resulting in sepsis1 the use of too strong an antiseptic when cleaning the skin1 over-heating of the lancet1 needle or scarifier when purifying it1 drawing too much blood1 which washes away the lymph1 exposure of the recently vaccinated area to the hot sun1 and charring of the lymph in the capillary tube when sealing4 ,all that is necessary is to clean the part to be vaccinated with soap and water1 using a nail-brush1 then rub the skin with alcohol1 and when the latter dries proceed with the little operation4 ,there should be four incisions1 and the total area which will eventually be occupied by the vaccine vesicles should not be less than half a square inch4 ,it may be noted that the vesicle is fully ripe on the seventh day after vaccination4 ,treatment4--,isolation1 similar to that of scarlet fever4 ,the body may be sponged and vaseline applied if there is much itching4 ,the eyelids and eyes should be frequently washed with weak boric acid solution4 ,snake ,bite 7see p4 #bha74 ,sprue4 ,this is a chronic form of tropical diarrha1 often called 8white diarrha10 the leading symptom of which is the frequent passage of large1 frothy1 and pale-coloured motions2 dyspepsia1 and soreness of the tongue and mouth1 are also present1 and there is marked anmia and advancing debility4 ,the disease may follow attacks of diarrha or dysentery4 ,cause4--,the actual cause of sprue is unknown1 but the disease usually develops in persons who have been for some considerable time in the tropics1 and it is commoner in ,india1 ,ceylon1 and the ,far ,east than elsewhere4 ,treatment4--,put the patient to bed1 give a simple aperient such as castor-oil1 to clear out the bowels2 allow only a milk diet1 to which1 as the symptoms begin to abate1 meat juices and jellies should be cautiously added4 ,if any other disease1 such as scurvy1 is present1 it must be treated4 ,drugs are not usually of much service2 however1 a mixture containing bismuth1 soda1 and one drop of carbolic acid in an ounce of gum-water may be given three times a day for a week4 ,the soreness of the mouth and tongue may be treated by the application of borax and glycerine1 or mild antiseptic mouth washes1 such as a weak solution of permanganate of potash1 or a lotion of boric acid4 ,special symptoms1 such as pain and collapse1 must be treated as they arise4 ,as soon as the patient is strong enough1 he should be removed to a temperate climate4 ,stroke1 or ,apoplexy4 ,this disease is caused by the rupture or blocking up of one of the blood-vessels in the brain4 ,symptoms4--,the person attacked falls down suddenly1 and is unable to move one or more of his limbs4 ,he may be quite insensible1 or soon become so1 or perhaps he is unable to talk4 ,the mouth may be drawn to one side1 and the tongue1 when protruded1 be pushed to the right or left4 ,the condition is serious4 ,treatment4--,tight clothing must be removed4 ,six grains of calomel powder should be placed on the back of the tongue1 and the patient kept lying on his back with the head slightly raised4 ,cold should be applied to the head and a hot-water bottle to the feet1 the room darkened1 and absolute quiet observed4 ,an enema of hot water may be given1 and while the patient is insensible the lips should be moistened only with water4 ,food may be given by the bowel on the second or third day4 ,stimulants are absolutely forbidden4 ,if the patient gets over the attack he ought to be sent home4 ,note4--,it must not be forgotten that many of the above symptoms might be caused by injury or poison4 ,sun-,stroke and ,heat-,stroke4 ,these conditions are distinct4 ,sun-stroke1 which is comparatively rare1 is due to the direct action of the sun on the brain and spinal cord4 ,heat-stroke1 on the other hand1 would appear to be due to the lack of escape of heat from the body1 owing to insufficient evaporation from the skin1 and to the effect of muscular fatigue4 ,as a result1 poisonous substances accumulate and act detrimentally upon the nerve cells4 ,there is also a deficient supply of oxygen to the blood4 ,high relative humidity plays a very important part in producing attacks of heat-stroke4 ,the milder forms are known as ,heat exhaustion and ,heat prostration2 the severe form is often associated with true sun-stroke4 ,symptoms4--,heat exhaustion is really a form of faintness1 and recovery soon takes place after a rest4 ,the symptoms of heat prostration are giddiness1 often associated with nausea4 ,the patient is bathed in a clammy sweat1 his pulse is thready1 his breathing shallow1 and1 it may be1 sighing4 ,the condition may pass into unconsciousness1 but the temperature is not raised1 and death rarely results4 ,there are two kinds of true ,heat-stroke2 one a form with high temperature1 the other what is called ,heat cramp1 which is common amongst ships' firemen in the tropics4 ,an early warning sign of heat-stroke is a desire for frequent micturition1 and other premonitory symptoms are a dry skin1 giddiness1 drowsiness1 headache1 and intolerance of light4 ,the pulse becomes quick and irregular1 the skin is hot and dry1 and the temperature elevated4 ,the patient may become comatose1 or exhibit delirium or convulsions4 ,there is an asphyxial type1 in which the face becomes cyanosed and the breathing is in abeyance4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid severe exercise in a hot sun4 ,wear suitable clothing1 which should be loose and easy1 and protect the head1 and especially the nape of the neck1 from the sun's rays4 ,dark or tinted glasses are useful4 ,water should be taken freely1 and the bowels kept open2 but alcohol must be avoided4 ,sniffing a mixture of water and vinegar and damping the face are helpful measures4 ,treatment4--,in the case of ,heat prostration the patient should be laid in the shade on his back1 his clothes should be loosened1 his limbs massaged1 and1 if he is collapsed1 stimulants in the form of ammonia or camphor should be administered4 ,the asphyxial type of heat-stroke can only be treated by means of artificial respiration1 which may have to be continued for as long as a couple of hours4 ,the ordinary form1 which has been called the paralytic type1 must be treated promptly and vigorously4 ,one must aim at reducing the temperature1 getting rid of the toxic material in the body and preventing heart failure4 ,probably the best way of treating the condition as an emergency is to lay the patient naked on an inclined plane and drench him with cold water4 ,when doing so it is well to take the rectal temperature1 and to stop this chilling process when the thermometer registers #ajb ,f4 ,after the drenching wrap the patient in blankets and apply hot bottles to the trunk and limbs4 ,an ice bag1 if available1 should be applied to the head1 which in any case should be swathed in cold cloths4 ,it should be noted that in the absence of ice1 a sheet soaked in cold water or dilute alcohol1 over which a draught of air plays1 is a useful substitute4 ,a fan may be used to create the air draught4 ,auxiliary methods of treatment can be efficiently carried out only under medical supervision4 ,as soon as the patient has recovered somewhat1 a dose of calomel should be given1 followed by salines4 ,syphilis4 ,syphilis1 or the ,pox1 is an infectious venereal disease1 nearly always communicated by direct contagion4 ,the course of the disease is marked by a primary sore1 the chancre2 early constitutional 7secondary7 symptoms1 and late constitutional 7tertiary7 symptoms4 ,in primary syphilis the disease is limited to the part or organ originally infected1 and the glands connected with that spot4 ,after an incubation period of from three to six weeks a small painless pimple appears at the seat of infection2 it breaks down1 and forms a small ulcer from which oozes a little watery fluid4 ,the base of the ulcer and the skin surrounding it are hard like gristle4 ,the nearest glands1 usually those of the groin1 enlarge and occasionally become tender4 ,unless badly neglected1 the original sore gradually heals and the glands resume their normal size4 ,secondary symptoms now make their appearance4 ,these are fairly definite1 and comprises 7a7 ,a skin rash1 consisting of numerous irregularly shaped copper-coloured spots1 spread over the face1 upper part of the chest1 the loins and the back of the arms4 ,they do not itch4 7b7 ,moist lumps and warts form in the crutch1 around the scrotum 7purse7 and the outlet of the bowel4 7c7 ,ulcerated sore throat4 ,large deep ulcers form on each tonsil1 having ragged undermined edges4 7d7 ,iritis or inflammation of the eye may also occur4 ,these symptoms1 even if untreated1 tend to heal1 but always leave more or less marked traces behind4 ,the discharge from either primary or secondary sores is infectious and may convey the disease1 so that great care needs to be taken in handling such sores4 ,after an interval of apparent health1 lasting perhaps only a few months1 but often for a year or two1 the tertiary symptoms or 8reminders0 make their appearance4 ,these take the form of localised swellings1 which soon break down1 forming deep ulcers1 and if untreated1 produce extensive destruction of the part involved1 with much deformity4 ,prophylaxis4--,the methods available are now so well known that they need not be discussed in a work of this kind4 ,mention need merely be made of the fact that in some foreign countries1 owing to unhygienic conditions1 there is a greater liability to contract the disease by what may be called unusual methods1 and therefore every care should be taken to prevent such sources of infection1 as1 for example1 the contaminated seats of closets1 etc4 ,treatment4--,as soon as the disease is recognised1 the treatment must be commenced4 ,local treatment4--,keep the sore perfectly clean by washing it with an antiseptic solution such as chinosol 7#a in #ajjj74 ,between the washings1 dress it with a piece of lint soaked in 8black wash10 or dust it with iodoform powder and cover it with a piece of lint smeared with boric ointment4 ,for the sore throat1 use an antiseptic gargle 7see ,ulceration of ,throat1 p4 #bdd74 ,general treatment4--,the patient must be put on a course of mercury at once4 ,calomel1 one grain twice a day1 or grey powder1 one grain three times a day1 must be administered1 and continued until skilled advice can be obtained4 ,the effect of the mercury must be carefully watched1 and if the patient complains of soreness of the gums1 a coppery taste in the mouth and excessive flow of saliva1 the dose must be reduced or the administration of the drug stopped until these symptoms have disappeared4 ,if the calomel or grey powder causes looseness of the bowels1 five grains of ,dover's powder may be added to each dose4 ,in some cases1 the addition of three grains of the iodide of potash to each grain of calomel does good from the very first4 ,for the later symptoms1 continue the mercurial treatment1 and give at least five grains of the iodide of potassium three times a day4 ,since the above was written the whole treatment of syphilis has been revolutionized by the introduction of certain organic arsenic compounds as therapeutic agents4 ,of these the best known is the ,german salvarsan1 represented in this country by kharsivan1 the so-called 8#fjf40 ,treatment with arsenic has now largely replaced the old method with mercury2 but it cannot be carried out except by one having medical training1 and so need not be further considered4 ,tick ,fever4 ,one of the diseases which may be produced by the bites of insects is a form of fever1 conveyed by the bite of a tick1 which is common in many parts of ,africa4 ,this produces a series of symptoms which are similar to those found in the disease known as relapsing fever1 which has been known to occur even in the ,united ,kingdom1 and which used to be called 8famine fever0 7see p4 #bah74 ,cause4--,the cause is a corkscrew-shaped organism found in the blood1 and its vector is the tick above mentioned1 which in its adult state and unfed is roughly about the length of a finger-nail1 that is1 four-tenths of an inch4 ,it is of a greenish brown colour1 and is covered by a leathery integument1 which looks as if it was spotted all over and which is grooved in several places4 ,when the tick is gorged1 these grooves disappear4 ,a gorged female tick may be well over half an inch in length1 and very nearly of an equal breadth4 ,the tick lives in native houses and in rest houses1 especially along caravan routes4 ,at night it sallies forth in search of blood1 but during the day it conceals itself in cracks and corners in the walls and floors1 and sometimes in cracks in native wooden bedsteads4 ,its bite is painful1 but the infection takes place not through the bite1 but as a result of the infected excreta of the tick contaminating the tick bite4 ,one tick is sufficient to cause infection4 ,symptoms4--,the chief symptoms are those of a severe attack of fever1 ushered in by a shivering fit and acute symptoms such as are usually found in cases of fever1 for example1 pains in the back and limbs1 rapid pulse1 and sometimes severe vomiting and diarrha1 frontal headache1 and painful bloodshot eyes are rather characteristic4 ,the fever1 which is of the relapsing type1 generally keeps up for about a week1 after which there may be an interval without fever for a few days1 to be followed later on by another attack of fever4 ,there are usually several relapses4 ,as many as eleven have been noted4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid sleeping in native huts and rest houses which have been occupied by natives4 ,do not sleep on the ground or on wooden native bedsteads4 ,if the latter have to be used1 their legs should be smoothed to prevent ticks from climbing up them4 ,in badly infested places1 it is well to employ a hammock4 ,a mosquito-net is useful1 as it excludes the ticks2 and it is well to make use of a night-light1 which also keeps them away4 ,packs and blankets should be periodically inspected to see that they do not harbour ticks4 ,if one has to camp on an infected area1 the ground should be fired and the floors of huts dug up and thereafter removed and buried or treated with fire1 care being taken that the ticks do not escape during the process4 ,wandering ticks can be kept away from a tent to some extent by digging round it a trench and filling it with wood ashes4 ,treatment4--,this is mainly symptomatic4 ,careful nursing is required together with a light diet4 ,in some cases the arsenic preparation known as salvarsan 7kharsivan7 is found of value1 but the specific treatment of this malady can only be carried out by a medical man4 ,in many cases digitalis or strophanthus is required1 owing to the risk of heart failure4 ,typhus ,fever4 ,this disease is not so common in the tropics1 but in certain sub-tropical countries1 such as ,egypt1 it frequently occurs1 and it is of course closely associated with military operations in the field4 ,cause4--,the exact nature of the infection is as yet unknown1 but the disease is transmitted by lice1 both the head and the body louse having been proved to be carriers of the virus4 ,symptoms4--,incubation period #e to #ad days1 as a rule #ab days4 ,symptoms vary1 but at first somewhat resemble those of an influenzal attack without the cold in the head4 ,the patient is feverish and uncomfortable1 but not until the third day do the typical symptoms of typhus make their appearance4 ,then the patient's face becomes flushed and his eyes congested1 his pulse rate increases1 and very soon his temperature rises and runs up to #ajc or #ajd ,f4 ,the rash1 which varies in type1 generally appears on the fifth day1 being found first on the upper part of the abdomen4 ,it does not occur upon the face1 but is usually very profuse on the back4 ,if the rash develops the patient becomes seriously ill1 and all his symptoms are intensified4 ,he becomes dull and lethargic1 his mouth is foul1 and his general aspect is somewhat like that of a drunken man4 ,his voice becomes husky1 his hands are tremulous1 and his breathing is rapid4 ,in the second week1 in most cases1 he becomes delirious or comatose1 and lies in bed more or less like a log4 ,in cases that recover1 improvement sets in about the fourteenth day1 and is usually rapid and complete4 ,in cases which die the temperature remains high or rises1 the general condition becomes worse1 and death usually takes place from heart failure4 ,prophylaxis4--,get rid of lice according to the methods detailed on page #aif4 ,those attending typhus patients should be protected from lice by wearing overalls1 etc4 ,patients suffering from typhus should be thoroughly cleansed1 their hair cut or shaved1 and completely cleared of lice4 ,bedding and clothing must be disinfected4 ,treatment4--,good nursing is of more importance in this disease than the administration of drugs4 ,the mouth must be kept in a good condition1 and the food must be strengthening1 nourishing soups being indicated4 ,it is important to give the patient as much fresh air as possible1 and as a rule he will require stimulants1 especially heart tonics such as digitalis or strophanthus4 ,other measures can be carried out only under medical supervision4 ,ulceration of the ,throat4 ,gargle with a weak antiseptic solution such as permanganate of potash or chinosol4 ,an astringent gargle may be made by dissolving five grains or more of tannin in two ounces of hot water4 ,sulphate of iron can be used for the same purpose1 two grains or more to an ounce of water4 ,if there is much pain1 apply poultices to throat4 ,if due to syphilis give one grain of calomel and three grains of iodide of potassium1 twice a day1 in addition to the local treatment4 ,kharsivan1 or similar treatment1 is also indicated 7see p4 #bdj74 ,undulant 7,malta7 ,fever4 ,the term ,undulant ,fever is applied to ,malta ,fever partly because the latter is not a good name1 as the disease occurs in various parts of the world1 and partly because the term ,undulant affords a good description of the type of the temperature curve4 ,cause4--,the organism is a small bacterium1 which is found in the blood and tissues4 ,although theoretically the disease can be spread like enteric fever or dysentery1 in practice it is found that it is nearly always conveyed by infected goats' milk4 ,goats are apt to harbour the organism and excrete it in their milk4 ,it is also found in certain milk products1 such as cream and cheeses which are not allowed to ripen4 ,in addition to man and goats1 cows1 sheep1 horses1 mules and dogs1 are all liable to natural infection4 ,symptoms4--,incubation period #e to #ae days4 ,the disease begins with headache1 malaise1 anorexia1 and sleeplessness4 ,the patient is usually constipated1 and there is tenderness in the splenic region1 the spleen being enlarged at an early date4 ,the temperature rises gradually for three or four days in a step-like manner1 and then falls by a similar descent1 reaching the normal on or about the tenth day4 ,at this early stage bleeding from the nose may occur1 and profuse night sweats are not uncommon4 ,the tongue is flabby and coated4 ,when the temperature falls the patient feels better for a few days1 but is still apt to suffer from night sweats1 and continues to lose flesh4 ,a relapse occurs1 and is usually accompanied by joint troubles and sometimes neuralgic pains4 ,a series of febrile waves continues to follow each other at short intervals1 and the illness is a very wearisome one1 running an average course of #fj to #gj days4 ,it may1 however1 extend for nearly a year1 and in some cases terminates fatally4 ,the long course of the illness results in the patient becoming anmic1 and he often suffers from mental depression4 ,there are irregular forms of the fever which are apt to be puzzling1 and it is always well to remember that any cases of prolonged pyrexia from tropical or sub-tropical regions may be ,malta fever4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid drinking goats' milk and eating the local products of such milk4 ,if goats' milk must be drunk it should be boiled4 ,general hygienic measures are also important1 and it should not be forgotten that the organism of the disease is found in urine1 which should therefore be disinfected4 ,treatment4--,this is for the most part entirely symptomatic4 ,medical attention and good nursing are essential4 ,a vaccine has been introduced and is worth trying1 but vaccine treatment is best left to an expert4 ,it is sometimes necessary to give morphia for the joint pains and the neuralgia1 but there is a distinct risk of the patient's acquiring the morphia habit4 ,sleeplessness1 which is often troublesome1 should be treated as indicated on page #bce4 ,urine1 ,retention of4 ,retention of1 or inability to pass the water may be caused by stricture1 injury1 shock1 spasm1 inflammation of some part of the passage1 the effects of drinking1 or by chill4 ,symptoms4--,the bladder is unable to expel its contents and it gets fuller and fuller2 it can be felt in its distended condition as a painful1 soft swelling in the lower part of the belly1 below the navel1 underneath the skin and muscles4 ,there may be fever1 great pain and constant desire to pass water1 with inability to do so4 ,when the bladder becomes greatly distended1 there is usually slight dribbling of water1 which is somewhat misleading1 as the case may be considered1 not one of retention but rather of too frequent passing of urine4 ,treatment4--,give a saline purge such as ,epsom salts1 three or four teaspoonfuls1 and let the patient sit in a bath of hot water4 ,if not relieved very quickly1 then pass a clean catheter into the bladder1 and allow it to empty itself 7see ,catheters1 p4 #bgb74 ,after the bladder has been emptied put the patient to bed and give a dose of opium or bromide of potassium to procure rest4 ,when he desires to pass water again let him have another bath1 and if this is not effectual1 again withdraw the water through a catheter4 ,patient should be careful to ward off further attacks by avoiding chills1 over-drinking1 and other exciting causes4 ,if there is inflammation of the bladder1 copaiba or sandal-wood capsules should be used2 if the urine is irritating1 bicarbonate of soda must be given4 ,urine1 ,suppression of4 ,in this serious condition no urine is secreted by the kidneys1 so that on passing a catheter the bladder will be found to be empty4 ,causes4--,shock from injury1 inflammation and blocking up of the kidneys4 ,suppression of the urine is a common complication of severe cases of blackwater fever4 ,treatment4--,hot baths1 hot poultices to the loins1 free use of aperients1 especially ,epsom salts and other saline purges4 ,bicarbonate of soda in full doses4 ,keep the skin acting freely by means of sweet nitre1 or ,warburg's tincture1 or five-grain doses of antipyrine4 ,injections of hot water into the lower bowel4 ,worms4 ,worms are introduced into the system chiefly by means of dirty water or imperfectly cooked food4 ,in the case of hook worms 7ankylostomes71 contaminated soil is the chief medium of infection4 ,of the worms which live in the bowels the most important are the following3 ,tape ,worms4--,these worms may measure many feet in length2 and their presence in the body can only be certainly known by the appearance of some of the segments or portions of the worm in the motions although hunger and dyspepsia may be complained of4 ,treatment4--,administer a good aperient overnight so as to empty the bowels2 after the aperient nothing should be given by the mouth for eight hours1 then give sixty to one hundred and twenty drops of the liquid extract of male fern in one ounce of thin gruel1 milk1 or gum water1 and follow this up in four hours by a good meal1 and an aperient to remove the worm1 which should now be dead4 ,when the extract of male fern is not available1 one tablespoonful of the oil of turpentine may be used in its place4 ,if later on fresh segments appear in the motions1 then the treatment must be repeated4 ,round ,worm4--,the round worm resembles the garden worm and is several inches in length2 it may be observed in the vomit but more commonly is seen in the motions4 ,the symptoms are similar to those caused by the tape worm and the treatment is the same1 except that1 instead of the male fern1 two to five grains of santonin should be given in a little milk2 and the treatment repeated every other day for a week4 ,threadworm4--,the threadworm is a small round worm usually measuring less than half an inch in length2 it inhabits the lower end of the bowel and causes great heat and itching about the outlet1 especially at night4 ,treatment4--,wash out the lower bowel and inject into it about a third of a pint of tea1 or a similar quantity of water containing one teaspoonful of salt1 tannin1 or alum2 then apply a little mercurial ointment around the outlet to diminish irritation4 ,this should be done every third day till the worms have disappeared from the motions4 ,the ,guinea ,worm4--,the guinea worm often measures several feet in length2 it chiefly causes trouble in the feet1 ankles1 and legs1 where in order to obtain an exit from the body it penetrates the skin1 causing a small ulcer at its point of exit4 ,usually the presence of the guinea worm is attended with inflammation and the formation of matter4 ,prophylaxis4--,infected persons should be kept away from water supplies1 and such sources of water supply as wells and water holes should be protected4 ,in areas where guinea worm occurs1 all water should be boiled4 ,if this cannot be managed1 it should be filtered through a piece of clean cotton cloth1 as this will remove from it the small crustacean in which the larva of the guinea worm develops4 ,another method of treating infected water is by means of permanganate of potash1 one ounce to every #b1jjj gallons of well water4 ,caustic potash and quicklime are also effective4 ,treatment4--,when the worm can be seen at the base of the little ulcer1 it may be secured to a piece of match and a small portion may be wound on to the match daily4 ,if attempts are made to forcibly draw it out1 it will probably break and violent inflammation will result4 ,during the time that the worm is being wound out1 the part should be kept very clean and an antiseptic ointment applied4 ,there are other methods of treatment1 but these can only be carried out under medical supervision4 ,the ,hook ,worm4--,this is the ,american name for one or other of the species of ankylostomes which infect man4 ,the disease they cause is known as ankylostomiasis1 and it is common in many parts of the world1 especially in the tropics4 ,it chiefly affects natives1 owing to their habits2 but it occurs also in ,europeans4 ,cause4--,hook worms are small1 almost cylindrical worms1 which inhabit the human small intestine1 to the wall of which they attach themselves by means of their mouths1 which are furnished with formidable hooks and lancets4 ,they suck blood1 and the symptoms they produce are due in part to loss of blood1 in part to the destruction of the lining membrane of the bowel1 and possibly also in part to the effects of a poison which they are believed to excrete4 ,their eggs are passed in the excrement1 and develop in the infected soil into larv1 which are able to penetrate the unbroken skin if they come in contact with it4 ,this is the most important route of infection1 but it may occur also by means of infected drinking water and from contaminated food4 ,symptoms4--,the most marked feature of the disease is anmia1 which is often associated with digestive troubles4 ,palpitation of the heart and shortness of breath are frequently met with4 ,in bad cases the appetite is disordered or depraved4 ,the patient becomes pot-bellied1 and there is swelling1 chiefly about the face and ankles4 ,the face is frequently puffy1 and the skin assumes a peculiar earthy hue4 ,it should be noted that a very early symptom is what is called ground itch4 ,this is a skin eruption1 usually on the feet and legs1 due to the irritation caused by the larv penetrating the epidermis4 ,prophylaxis4--,the chief measure consists in preventing contamination of the soil by infected excrement4 ,it is therefore important when camping to make proper provision in the way of latrines4 ,care must also be taken to prevent the fouling of water and food stuffs1 such as vegetables1 which are eaten uncooked4 ,it is very dangerous to go about bare-foot in regions where the disease occurs1 and camping sites should always be thoroughly cleansed4 ,treatment4--,efficient treatment can only be carried out in association with microscopic examination of the stools1 and hence all that need here be said is that various worm medicines are employed1 of which the most effectual are thymol and oil of chenopodium4 ,these should be administered only under careful medical supervision4 ,the anmia has to be treated1 and in the case of natives a nutritious and easily-digested diet is indicated2 for example1 for native coolies the following has been recommended3 bread #a pound1 milk #b pints1 sugar #b ounces1 #b eggs1 and #d bananas daily4 ,ground itch should be treated by an ointment containing zinc oxide and salicylic acid4 ,the ,bilharzia ,worm4--,this worm1 of which there are two species1 produces the disease known as ,bilharziasis or ,schistosomiasis1 which occurs in one or other1 or both forms1 in various parts of the world1 but is specially prevalent in ,egypt4 ,cause4--,the worms1 which produce either urinary or rectal bilharziasis1 live in parts of the human vascular system1 where they produce their eggs4 ,these eggs are furnished with spines1 and hence cause irritation when lodged in the tissues4 ,in the urinary form the eggs have a terminal spine1 in the intestinal form the spine is lateral4 ,these eggs are passed either in the urine or in the excreta and reach water1 where they develop into larv4 ,the larv enter special species of water snails1 in which they develop1 producing eventually tiny forms known as cercari4 ,these cercari escape into the water and can penetrate the unbroken skin or intact mucous membrane4 ,they thus get access to the bodies of persons who are bathing in the infected water1 or who may drink it4 ,once in the human body1 the blood carries them to the place where they develop into the adult worms1 which eventually unite1 and then the females begin producing the spined eggs4 ,symptoms4--,in the urinary form the chief symptom is the passage of bloody urine1 which usually shows itself about three months after infection1 and is often associated with a good deal of irritation of the bladder and the pipe4 ,the intestinal form may produce various symptoms4 ,sometimes a condition resembling enteric fever occurs1 sometimes one like dysentery4 ,diarrha is common4 ,the condition is chronic and1 if untreated1 sets up all kinds of secondary effects1 which need not be discussed4 ,prophylaxis4--,carefully avoid any kind of personal contact with water which may by any possibility be infected from urine or fces4 ,bathing1 wading1 washing in1 or drinking any such waters1 are all dangerous4 ,wherever possible1 water which may be infected should be boiled4 ,if this cannot be done1 sodium bisulphate tablets may be used2 two of the #af-;grain water-purifying tablets in a quart water-bottle full of water are efficient4 ,filtration through a ,pasteur-,chamberland or ,doulton candle is efficient1 as it excludes the cercari4 ,bathing water can be rendered safe for immediate use by the addition of undiluted ,army cresol in a dilution of #a in #aj1jjj4 ,if the water is kept overnight1 #a in #ij1jjj is sufficient1 as the storage of water tends to diminish infection4 ,treatment4--,certain forms of antimony have been found to cure the condition1 but can only be administered by a medical man4 ,indeed1 either form of bilharziasis can be properly treated only under medical supervision4 ,if this is not obtainable1 some relief can be afforded by the use of urotropin and sedative drugs4 ,there are many other worm diseases which afflict man1 but no good object would be served by mentioning them in detail4 ,most of them can be diagnosed with certainty only by a medical man using the microscope1 and they all require scientific treatment which is beyond the scope of the ordinary traveller4 ,yellow ,fever4 ,this disease1 the 8,yellow ,jack0 of naval historians1 occurs1 so far as is known1 only in parts of the ,new ,world and on the ,west ,coast of ,africa4 ,one attack usually protects permanently against a second4 ,cause4--,quite recently the organism has apparently been discovered4 ,it is a corkscrew-shaped parasite which exists in the blood1 and which is allied to1 though not identical with1 the parasites of relapsing fever and tick fever4 ,the infection is conveyed from one patient to another by the mosquito ,stegomyia fasciata1 which is a black and white insect1 commonly known from its striped legs as the tiger mosquito4 ,incubation period two to five days4 ,symptoms4--,the onset of the disease is very sudden1 the highest temperature being reached almost at once2 then follows a period of remission or calm1 the pulse becomes abnormally slow1 and this stage is usually either succeeded by convalescence1 or the symptoms become worse and the patient dies4 ,some of the symptoms much resemble malaria1 but the rapidity of the onset1 severe pain in the forehead1 eyes1 and loins1 the early scantiness of the urine1 the marked jaundice1 the bright eyes1 the narrow red tongue1 and the absence of pain about the spleen are fairly characteristic4 ,there is considerable thirst and vomiting1 and in bad cases the vomit becomes black1 the colour being due to the presence of blood4 7,in ordinary malaria the vomit is yellow1 or in severe cases1 such as blackwater fever1 it may be of a bright or dark-green colour47 ,in yellow fever1 jaundice is developed about the third day1 and tends to increase1 whilst in blackwater fever it comes on very early and soon begins to abate4 ,an important diagnostic sign in yellow fever is found in the fact that the pulse does not increase in rapidity as the temperature rises4 ,prophylaxis4--,avoid being bitten by mosquitoes1 employing the methods mentioned on pages #bjf1 #bjg4 ,it must be remembered that ,stegomyia fasciata1 unlike the anopheline mosquitoes1 bites during the day1 and therefore it is more difficult to avoid its unwelcome attentions4 ,it usually breeds in the neighbourhood of houses1 being what may be called a domestic mosquito2 and it is of the greatest importance to abolish all potential breeding places or to protect them from the mosquito4 ,practically any vessel holding water may become a nursery for ,stegomyia1 and it is remarkable in what small quantities of water this mosquito will lay her eggs4 ,patients suffering from the disease must be isolated and kept under a mosquito net or in a mosquito-proof chamber1 in order to prevent them from infecting mosquitoes1 which they are capable of doing in the early part of the disease4 ,treatment4--,open the bowels well by means of calomel1 six grains1 followed by a saline purge and hot-water enema4 ,some prefer castor oil in large doses4 ,give ten grains of bicarbonate of soda three times a day4 ,give cooling drinks1 such as fruit salt4 ,make the skin act4 ,apply hot fomentations to the back and mustard leaves to the pit of the stomach4 ,the question of feeding is very important4 ,during the first two or three days of the fever the patient is better without any food at all4 ,as he recovers his appetite returns1 and great care must be exercised about gratifying it4 ,only the plainest foods in very small quantities should be permitted1 the amounts being gradually increased1 as otherwise relapses may occur4 ,stimulants are usually required in the later stages of the fever1 but they must be carefully employed as they may tend to increase the vomiting4 ,it is possible that the discovery of the parasite may lead to new and more efficient methods of treating the disease4 ,,medicines1 ,,medical ,,appliances1 ,,etc4 ,,weights ,,and ,,measures4 ,solids4 ,a ,grain ,symbol ,gr4 #bj ,grains #a ,scruple weights now 0 #fj ,grains #a ,drachm rarely used 0 #dcg4e ,grains #a ,ounce 0 #af ,ounces #a ,pound 0 ,note4--,an ounce weighs not #h but rather under #g drachms4 #a ,gramme about #ae grains4 #a ,kilogramme 0 #b lbs4 #c ozs4 ,liquids4 #a ,minim ,about #a drop1 or #j4jf c4c4 ,symbol #fj ,minims ,one fluid drachm 0 #h ,fluid drachms 7#dhj ,minims7 ,one fluid ounce 0 #bj ,fluid ounces ,one pint 0 ,o #a ,cubic centimetre #ag ,minims4 ,a teaspoonful ,about one fluid drachm4 ,a dessertspoonful ,about two fluid drachms4 ,a tablespoonful ,about half a fluid ounce4 ,a wine-glassful ,about two fluid ounces4 ,a tumblerful ,about half a pint4 ,a litre ,about a pint and three quarters4 ,all bottles containing drugs should be doubly labelled1 and the labels should be varnished1 otherwise they will probably come off in a damp climate4 ,poisons should be kept in bottles of a special shape4 ,drugs in a liquid state are inconvenient for travellers4 ,they are bulky1 and require very careful packing and handling4 ,as far as possible1 therefore1 compressed drugs should be selected4 ,these must be of good quality4 ,tablets are often taken in the solid form1 but they will act more quickly and certainly if dissolved or suspended in about an ounce of water4 ,some preparations1 chiefly those used for preparing lotions1 etc41 e4g41 of chinosol1 are also made in compressed form4 ,in regard to drugs1 ,i have kept well within the maximum dose1 so that there may be no trouble on that account4 ,for instance1 in certain cases a medical man would give sixty drops of laudanum for a dose1 but ,i advise travellers rarely to give more than sixty drops in twenty-four hours4 ,the urgency of the case must be the guide as to the quantity of the drug to be given4 ,the smallest dose which is effective is the best4 ,a supply of antiseptic gauze1 wool and lint is necessary4 ,the compressed forms are very convenient4 ,all antiseptic gauzes and other dressings should be very carefully protected from the air in order that their properties may be preserved4 ,they should be wrapped in oiled paper or india-rubber tissue1 and kept in a tin box4 ,a supply of bandages will also be needed4 ,each bandage should be two inches in width by six feet in length4 ,dressing case4--,the traveller should provide himself with a surgical dressing case4 ,a suitable one should contain #a pair of scissors1 #a pair of ,spencer ,wells' artery forceps1 #a probe1 #a scoop and grooved director1 #a knife with two blades1 #a small saw with a detachable handle1 and a packet containing silk1 wire1 needles1 and pins4 ,all active poisons mentioned in the following pages are marked with an asterisk 79974 ,aloin ,co4 tablets4--,one taken three times a day after meals1 in chronic constipation1 gradually reduced as bowels become regular4 ,alum4--,dose1 five to ten grains4 ,is occasionally used as an internal astringent in the treatment of diarrha4 ,a solution containing five grains to the ounce of water may be used as a mouth wash for bleeding or inflamed gums1 as a gargle for relaxed and sore throats1 or as a lotion for inflamed eyes4 ,ten to twenty ounces of a solution containing five grains to the ounce is sometimes used as an enema to check the diarrha in chronic dysentery4 ,the tablet of alum weighs ten grains4 ,ammonia4--,three preparations of ammonia1 viz41 ,sal volatile1 ,carbonate of ammonia1 and ,liquor ammoni1 are extremely valuable as stimulants1 and in this respect they are to be preferred to alcohol4 ,all three are similar in their action1 and are useful on account of their stimulating effect upon the heart in cases of fainting1 or collapse caused by snake-bite1 bullet-wound1 or other injury2 they relieve spasm1 and promote sweating in feverish states4 ,they also cause free expectoration1 and are therefore useful in the later stages of bronchitis4 ,the chief objection to these drugs is that their strength is rapidly lost1 unless they are kept in well-stoppered bottles1 and in the dark4 ,all preparations of ammonia should be administered in about one ounce of water4 ,sal volatile1 or aromatic spirit of ammonia4--,dose1 twenty to sixty drops for a single administration1 or up to thirty drops if repeated frequently4 ,this is the most convenient and pleasant preparation of ammonia1 but is bulky4 ,as a local application1 it is of service in relieving the pain caused by the bites of certain insects1 e4g41 mosquitoes and fleas4 ,carbonate of ammonia4--,dose1 three to ten grains4 ,liquor ammoni1 or solution of ammonia4--,dose1 five to twenty drops4 7,note4--,this is not the strong solution1 which is always labelled 8,liq4 ,ammon4 ,fort410 and which is three times stronger than liquor ammoni47 ,ammonium chloride4--,dose1 five to twenty grains4 ,this drug is chiefly used in congestion of the liver1 especially where acute inflammation or abscess is threatened2 at times it is useful in neuralgia and chronic bronchitis4 ,it is also used for inflamed and relaxed sore throat1 in the form of a gargle1 five to ten grains to the ounce of water4 ,antipyrine4--,dose1 five to ten grains4 7,uses as ,phenacetin47 99 ,araroba1 ,chrysarobin1 or ,goa powder4--,is not for internal use4 ,one part of the powder mixed with one of acetic acid and fourteen of lard makes what is known as araroba ointment4 ,araroba ointment is useful in many skin diseases1 such as psoriasis2 it easily destroys the parasites in ringworm1 dhobie itch1 or kraw kraw4 ,it is a powerful drug1 and should be used only in small amounts1 for if applied too freely it will cause some inflammation and pain4 ,care must be taken that it is not rubbed into the eyes4 99 ,aromatic chalk with opium tablets4--,ten grains three times a day in severe cases of diarrha4 99 ,arsenic4--,dose1 one-sixtieth to one-fifteenth of a grain4 ,is a powerful and poisonous drug1 and should be taken with caution4 ,it is useful in chronic malaria1 and in anmia and debility1 especially that following an attack of fever4 ,it is best combined with iron in tablet form--iron and arsenic tablet--two of which may be taken twice a day1 after food1 for a week4 ,this is a good general tonic4 ,aspirin4--,dose #e to #ae grains4 ,should be taken with a drink of water4 ,useful in rheumatic and febrile conditions2 often relieves headache and the feeling of discomfort associated with chill4 ,it is apt to be depressing in large doses1 and some persons do not tolerate it well4 ,speaking generally it may be used in those conditions in which salicylate of soda is indicated4 ,bismuth carbonate4--,dose1 five to twenty grains4 ,useful in dyspepsia1 pain in the stomach1 vomiting and diarrha4 ,the drug is heavy1 and therefore gum or starch water should be used to suspend it4 ,it is often combined with opium and bicarbonate of soda to check vomiting and diarrha4 ,bismuth may also be used as a dusting powder4 ,boric acid1 or boracic acid4--,chiefly used in solution1 for its mild antiseptic properties1 as a gargle1 injection1 eye lotion1 or mouth wash4 ,on the same account1 it is used for washing wounds1 or syringing out ulcers1 or sore and inflamed ears4 ,it is practically non-poisonous4 ,lotions should contain from five to ten grains to the ounce4 ,boric ointment is a useful dressing for sores1 burns1 or wounds2 it may be made by adding one part of powdered boric acid to nine of vaseline or fat4 ,equal parts of finely-powdered boric acid1 zinc oxide and starch makes a good dusting powder for moist eczema1 bed-sores1 chafes1 and perspiring feet4 ,boric lint 7lint impregnated with boric acid7 is useful as a dressing for wounds1 ulcers1 and abrasions4 ,boric wool is absorbent cotton-wool impregnated with boric acid1 and is the most generally useful antiseptic wool4 ,bromides4--,the bromides generally used are those of potassium1 or ammonium4 ,dose in either case1 five to twenty-five grains4 ,they are sedatives1 and are used in convulsions1 epilepsy1 and delirium2 they relieve headache1 especially if taken with sal volatile1 and may be combined with chloral 7see ,chloral74 ,the bromide of ammonium is less depressing than the bromide of potassium4 ,calcium sulphide1 i4e41 sulphurated lime4--,dose1 a quarter to one grain three times a day4 ,useful for those who are suffering from boils or carbuncles4 99 ,calomel1 or subchloride of mercury4--,dose1 two to five grains4 ,calomel may be used in almost all cases requiring an aperient2 its action will be assisted by giving fruit salt1 or citrate of magnesia1 four hours later4 ,in cases of insensibility or delirium it is specially useful1 for the powder may be placed on the back of the tongue1 and it will be swallowed unconsciously4 ,four grains of calomel may usually be given with advantage1 at the beginning of a malarial attack4 ,in syphilis1 one grain may be given two or three times a day2 but its action should be watched1 and if it causes salivation1 tenderness of the gums1 and a coppery taste in the mouth1 it should be discontinued until these symptoms disappear4 ,camphor4--,dose1 two to five grains4 ,is a stimulant1 and an antispasmodic2 it helps to calm the nervous system4 ,it is used in cholera and in fevers1 and is taken for colds in the head4 ,camphor is slightly soluble in water1 and this solution makes a cooling lotion1 which is useful for inflamed or painful parts4 ,a lump of camphor is a good repellent for sand-flies4 ,spirit of camphor consists of one part of camphor in ten of alcohol2 the dose is ten to twenty drops4 ,camphorated oil consists of one ounce of camphor in four ounces of olive oil1 and makes a stimulating liniment for stiff and painful parts4 ,a stronger liniment may be made by adding to this an ounce of spirit1 and half to one ounce of solution of ammonia or oil of turpentine4 99 ,carbolic acid1 or phenol4--,dose1 one or two grains may be given internally1 well diluted1 for acute diarrha1 dysentery1 and cholera4 ,is mostly used as an external application4 ,carbolic acid acts as a caustic1 and may be applied on the end of a match in the case of boils 7p4 #bbg74 ,a drop on a piece of cotton-wool applied to a hollow tooth quickly relieves pain4 ,it is much used as an antiseptic lotion for wounds and foul sores1 and for cleansing hands and instruments before operation4 ,one part in twenty of water makes a strong solution for cleansing instruments and disinfecting dysenteric and other stools4 ,one part in sixty may be used for sponging or syringing sores and wounds4 ,one part added to nineteen of olive1 or other oil1 makes carbolic oil1 which is a handy dressing for all kinds of wounds4 ,one part to nineteen parts of vaseline1 or fresh lard1 makes carbolic ointment4 ,cascara sagrada1 extract of4--,dose1 two to six grains4 ,is a valuable aperient1 especially in chronic constipation4 ,cascara tablets1 two grains each1 are convenient1 and one or two should be taken at night4 ,cathartic ,co4 ,tablets4--,a useful purge in cases of fever or liver derangement4 ,two or three for a dose when required4 ,castor oil4--,dose1 one to three tablespoonfuls4 ,it is a good aperient1 but is not very convenient for the traveller1 as it takes up much space1 which could be better used for aperients which are not so bulky1 e4g41 calomel or cascara4 ,the usual dose of castor oil should be somewhat reduced in the tropics1 where it is often not so well borne as in temperate climates4 ,note4--,the seeds of the castor oil plant should not be eaten1 as they are poisonous4 ,chinosol is a drug which has many of the advantages of carbolic acid without its poisonous or caustic properties4 ,it is so generally useful that1 at any rate for explorers1 it will largely replace carbolic acid4 ,it is antiseptic and disinfectant in its action1 can be used as a mouth wash or gargle1 for sore gums and ulcerated throats2 it makes a good lotion for washing the hands1 instruments1 or wounds1 and may be syringed into fresh wounds or into chronic ulcers4 ,it is put up in the compressed form1 each tablet weighing eight and three-quarter grains1 and the strength of the solutions here given are calculated strictly from this weight4 ,one tablet dissolved in a pint of water makes a solution of #a in #ajjj 7equal to about #a in #dj1 carbolic lotion71 which is the most useful for general purposes1 such as an antiseptic wash for the hands or for disinfecting surgical instruments4 ,a tablet in two pints of water makes a solution of #a in #bjjj4 ,this may be used for washing fresh wounds1 burns1 and suppurating surfaces1 or as a gargle for sore throat4 ,as a healing dusting powder1 one part of chinosol may be mixed with ten of boric acid1 and used in the same manner as iodoform powder4 ,to disinfect typhoid or dysenteric stools1 dissolve four tablets in one pint of water and add the mixture to the vessel containing the motions4 99 ,chloral4--,dose1 five to twenty grains4 ,relieves restlessness and delirium1 and produces sleep4 ,larger doses than twenty grains should not be given4 ,in severe convulsions1 due to certain poisons1 e4g41 strychnine1 twenty grains or more of bromide of potassium may be added to the full dose of chloral1 and given either by the mouth or bowel4 99 ,chloroform4--,dose1 one to five drops4 ,two to four drops can be given with advantage with almost any drug1 as a flavouring agent1 and on account of its antispasmodic action4 ,from two to four drops put on a piece of loaf sugar and sucked will often stop sea-sickness or other vomiting4 ,spirits of ,chloroform1 or ,chloric ,ether1 consisting of one part of chloroform in twenty parts of alcohol1 is a convenient form in which to administer the drug4 ,it is useful in sea-sickness1 cramps and colic1 and should be given in doses of twenty drops added to a teaspoonful of water every quarter of an hour1 until six such doses have been given4 99 ,cocaine4--,a one per cent4 solution may be used to diminish pain in the eye caused by injury or a piece of grit lodging under the lids4 ,two drops should be applied to the eyeball1 and in about two minutes the application may be repeated2 in another minute the sensibility of the part will be diminished1 and a careful examination may be made for dust or other foreign bodies1 which should of course be cautiously removed4 ,creosote4--,dose1 one to two drops2 is best given in a capsule4 ,in many cases of indigestion it gives great relief if administered immediately after food4 ,creosote applied to a hollow tooth1 upon a piece of cotton-wool1 will usually relieve the pain4 ,cresol4--,this is a valuable disinfectant which is found on the market under several names4 99 ,croton ,oil4--,dose1 half to one or two drops1 mixed with bread crumb or in a pill4 ,is a powerful purgative not usually given to ,europeans4 ,native carriers like it4 ,useful in the case of unconscious patients1 given in butter4 ,copaiba1 ,balsam of4--,dose1 five to twenty drops three times a day4 ,is best taken in capsules4 ,it increases the expectoration1 and is therefore useful in bronchitis2 is a stimulating disinfectant to the urine1 bladder and pipe1 and is used in gonorrha and inflammation of the bladder4 ,it may produce an irritating rash on the skin if taken in too large quantities4 ,emetics4--,the following are the usual emetics3-- ,common salt1 two tablespoonfuls in half a pint of water4 ,mustard1 one tablespoonful 0 0 ,ipecacuanha1 thirty grains 0 0 ,zinc sulphate1 thirty grains 0 0 ,in the absence of any of the above1 give copious draughts of tepid water1 followed by tickling the back of the throat with the finger or a feather4 ,emetine4--,the active principle of ipecacuanha4 ,of great value in ambic dysentery 7p4 #ahg74 ,enema4--,nutrient enema3 ,two eggs1 ,half teaspoonful of salt1 ,a wine-glassful of milk4 ,beat up the eggs1 then add the salt and milk1 and mix well4 ,raise the hips and inject slowly through the long tube well up into the bowel4 ,nutrient enema3 ,benger's beef jelly1 two tablespoonfuls1 ,milk1 about three ounces4 ,warm-water enema4 ,to relieve uneasiness of lower bowel1 as in dysentery1 piles1 etc41 half a pint or more of warm water1 by the short tube4 ,soothing enema4 ,laudanum1 thirty drops2 warm water about two ounces4 ,a little thin starch water or gum may be added4 ,inject through the short tube1 and repeat the injection in three hours if patient is not easier4 ,quinine enema4 ,quinine1 twenty grains or more2 warm water1 about two ounces4 ,if the patient does not retain the injection1 give a second one within an hour4 ,select a soluble preparation of quinine1 such as the bisulphate or the hydrobromide4 ,aperient enema4 ,lather soap in thirty ounces of warm water1 using plenty of soap to make a good solution2 or use plain warm water or weak gruel2 the addition of one or two tablespoonfuls of oil is of advantage4 ,inject slowly into the bowel with short tube2 if it does not cause uneasiness1 inject the whole amount4 ,the injection should be retained as long as possible4 ,epsom salts1 or sulphate of magnesia4 ,dose1 two teaspoonfuls or more4 ,is a saline purgative1 giving a copious watery motion1 rapid in its action1 and useful in fevers or congestion of the liver4 ,it also increases the flow of urine4 ,recently has been much used in dysentery 7p4 #ahi74 ,friar's ,balsam4--7,tinct4 ,benzoin ,co47 ,dose1 thirty drops or more4 ,internally is useful as an expectorant in bronchitis4 ,can also be employed as an inhalation4 ,externally1 lint soaked with it is an efficient dressing for wounds and sores4 ,when first applied it causes a good deal of smarting1 but this soon passes off4 ,gall and opium ointment is a useful application for piles4 ,gauze1 antiseptic4 ,the best dressing for wounds is some form of antiseptic gauze4 ,cyanide gauze1 which is impregnated with cyanide of mercury1 is the most generally used4 ,ginger1 essence of4--,dose1 five to twenty drops4 ,it is useful in cases of cramp1 colic1 and indigestion1 especially if combined with five or ten grains of bicarbonate of soda and two or three drops of chloroform4 ,if there is much pain1 ten drops or more of chlorodyne or laudanum may be added4 99 ,goa powder4--,see ,araroba4 99 ,goulard water4--,for external use only4 ,is astringent1 and may be used as a lotion for inflamed joints4 ,is also useful as an injection in gonorrha and gleet1 as a soothing lotion in herpes1 shingles1 eczema1 discharge from the ear1 and itching and chafes of all kinds4 ,it should not be used as an eye lotion4 ,goulard water is made by adding one part of ,liquor ,plumbi ,subacetatis ,fortis1 or ,goulard ,extract1 and one of alcohol to seventy-eight of water4 ,one of the tablets of the subacetate of lead added to a quarter of a pint of water 7distilled when convenient7 makes a solution similar to ,goulard water4 ,gum acacia is used for forming a mucilage with which to suspend such drugs as carbonate of bismuth4 ,one part of gum to three of water should be made and strained before use4 ,starch may be used for the same purpose4 ,hazeline4--,dose1 thirty to one hundred and twenty drops4 ,it is a powerful astringent4 ,may be applied freely to bleeding parts1 such as the nose1 gums1 piles1 or small wounds4 ,one tablespoonful of hazeline to five of water may be injected into the bowel for bleeding piles4 ,hazeline snow is an elegant preparation for sunburn and other skin affections4 ,ichthyol4--,an ointment containing twenty per cent4 of ichthyol is very soothing in most skin diseases1 such as eczema and psoriasis4 ,the ointment is of service in reducing the pain and swelling of mosquito bites4 ,iodide of potassium4--,dose1 five to ten grains in the later stages of syphilis4 99 ,iodine1 tincture of4--,dose1 two drops in a teaspoonful of water2 given every hour1 is most valuable for obstinate vomiting4 ,used externally1 it acts as a counter-irritant1 and should not be painted on too freely as it may cause blistering4 ,does good if painted over swollen joints or enlarged glands1 but should not be applied if the skin there is broken4 ,tincture of iodine may be painted on the chest or over the liver or spleen if there is pain4 ,it is a valuable application for all open1 recent wounds1 and may be painted freely over and round the raw surface4 ,it relieves the irritation of mosquito bites4 ,is very useful in certain diseases of the skin1 such as ringworm1 kraw kraw1 and dhobie itch4 ,iodoform powder is a valuable antiseptic1 and is used for all kinds of sores1 or wounds1 in which it rapidly promotes healing4 ,one part of iodoform to eight parts of vaseline makes a good healing ointment4 ,ipecacuanha4--,dose1 expectorant1 half to two grains4 0 emetic1 fifteen to thirty grains4 0 for dysentery1 twenty to forty grains or more4 ,in small doses1 e4g41 a quarter to half a grain1 is a stomachic and may check vomiting4 ,was formerly much used in ambic dysentery 7p4 #ahg74 ,its active principle1 emetine1 is now employed4 ,by causing free expectoration1 it is very useful in bronchitis1 and is then usually combined with ammonia4 ,is contained in ,dover's powder1 and in this form is useful in coughs and colds1 as it helps to cause sweating4 ,iron4--,iron is much used on account of its tonic and blood-forming properties4 ,it is especially useful in anmia following fevers and other exhausting diseases1 and it also gives tone to the nervous system4 ,most preparations of iron are astringent in their action1 some such as the sulphate and perchloride being more so than others2 these are1 therefore1 useful in diarrha and in bleeding from the gums and bowel4 ,iron by its astringent action may cause constipation1 and it may be necessary to add a small amount of an aperient1 such as ,epsom salts1 to each dose4 ,the following preparations are those generally used3-- ,tincture or perchloride of iron1 or tincture of steel4--,dose1 five to fifteen drops in at least an ounce of water4 ,good blood tonic4 ,is very astringent1 and is therefore useful in internal bleeding and looseness of the bowels4 ,it is of value in erysipelas4 ,sulphate of iron4--,dose1 one to three grains4 ,is a powerful astringent and blood tonic1 and often does good in checking the looseness of the bowels which remains after an attack of dysentery4 ,iron pill or ,blaud's pill4--,dose1 five to fifteen grains4 ,is one of the best tonic preparations of iron1 as it is not very astringent4 ,it is put up in tablet form4 ,solution of dialysed iron4--,dose1 ten to thirty drops4 ,is a good blood tonic1 and1 unlike most preparations1 is not astringent4 ,parrish's food4--,dose1 thirty to a hundred and twenty drops in water4 ,is a good preparation of iron for children4 ,iron and arsenic compound tablets4--,a useful tonic in convalescence from malaria1 one taken three times a day after meals4 ,mercurial ointment forms a useful application in certain skin diseases4 ,as it is rather strong1 it should be diluted with two parts of vaseline4 ,white precipitate1 or ammoniated mercurial ointment4--,useful in the case of head lice and several parasitic skin diseases4 ,naso-pharyngeal ,tablets4--,useful in nasal catarrh and pharyngitis4 99 ,opium4--,is a valuable drug1 but it is also a poison1 and great care should be observed in using it4 ,opium is narcotic and sedative in its action2 it relieves pain of all kinds4 ,useful in diarrha1 dysentery1 cramp and colic4 ,promotes perspiration and checks vomiting4 ,sometimes it will cut short a cold or mitigate an attack of malaria4 ,no preparation containing opium should be given to children without medical advice1 and the same is true as regards persons suffering from kidney disease4 ,the chief preparations containing opium are3-- 99 ,chlorodyne4--,the ordinary dose is ten to fifteen drops1 but if there is great pain1 then even thirty or forty drops may be given1 but a second dose should not be administered for three or four hours2 if two full doses have been given1 do not give a third within at least twelve hours of the second dose1 and do not give it at all if the patient is drowsy4 ,it is best not to give more than forty to sixty drops in twenty-four hours1 unless there are very special reasons for giving a larger quantity4 ,is to be preferred to laudanum1 as it is more palatable and more readily stops vomiting4 99 ,laudanum1 or tincture of opium4--,the doses and uses are precisely similar to those of chlorodyne4 ,laudanum has been put up in the compressed form1 and is very convenient for transport4 99 ,dover's powder1 or compound ipecacuanha powder4--,dose five to fifteen grains4 ,it contains opium and a small amount of ipecacuanha4 ,ten grains of ,dover's powder are equal to about fifteen drops of chlorodyne or laudanum4 ,the tablet is an extremely handy preparation4 ,dover's powder is especially useful in coughs and colds1 the ipecacuanha it contains assisting the action of the opium4 ,if a patient who is chilled is put to bed at once1 kept warm with blankets and hot-water bottles1 and is given ten or fifteen grains with a hot drink1 he will perspire1 and possibly the cold will be cut short4 ,peppermint1 spirits of4--,dose1 five to twenty drops4 ,is a valuable drug in cases of flatulence and dyspepsia1 especially if combined with bicarbonate of soda2 it also masks the taste of unpleasant medicines4 ,for children1 one drop of the spirit and one grain of bicarbonate of soda may be added to one teaspoonful of water1 and this dose may be frequently repeated4 ,pepsin tablets1 a useful digestive product1 taken with food when digestion is weak1 or may be used to predigest it4 99 ,perchloride of mercury tablets1 for making lotions for disinfecting wounds1 etc4 ,phenacetin4--,dose1 three to eight grains4 ,phenacetin is used for headaches1 or for reducing the temperature in malaria and other febrile diseases1 and to cause sweating4 ,as it is very insoluble1 it is best taken in the form of a powder1 or in alcohol and hot water4 ,potassium1 bromide of4 ,see ,bromides4 99 ,potassium permanganate in solid form is a mild caustic1 and is the active principle of ,condy's fluid1 which contains about eight grains of the drug in one ounce4 ,it is disinfectant1 deodorant1 and antiseptic4 ,one part of this drug is soluble in about twenty parts of water4 ,one grain gives a purple colour to a gallon of water4 ,impure water turns the purple rapidly to a brown colour1 therefore the permanganate is a rough test for the presence of organic matter in water4 ,a pale purple solution is useful as a gargle or mouth wash1 also as an injection in gonorrha2 wounds may be cleansed with a similar solution4 ,it is especially useful in poisoned wounds1 such as snake-bites1 and should in these cases be injected hypodermically 7p4 #bha74 ,is an antidote to poisoning by opium4 ,of late years it has been extensively used in the treatment and prevention of cholera4 ,the two-grain tablet is a convenient form for medication4 ,purgatives may be divided into the following classes3-- #a4 ,laxatives4 #b4 ,simple purgatives4 #c4 ,drastic purgatives or cathartics4 #d4 ,saline purges4 #a4 ,laxatives slightly stimulate the movements of the bowel1 but cause practically no increase of the intestinal secretion4 ,examples of this class are fruit1 wholemeal bread1 small doses of castor oil1 figs1 prunes1 etc4 ,these may be given regularly in slight cases of chronic constipation4 #b4 ,simple purges are more powerful than laxatives1 and in addition to stimulating the movements of the bowel increase the secretion4 ,the result is a soft1 easy motion4 ,examples3 rhubarb1 senna1 cascara sagrada4 #c4 ,drastic purgatives or cathartics4 ,the drugs cause a profuse flow of the intestinal secretions1 and1 occasionally1 of the bile1 with greatly increased bowel movements4 ,they cause a copious watery evacuation1 accompanied by a good deal of griping4 ,examples3 calomel1 colocynth1 aloes1 podophyllin1 croton oil1 jalap and oil of turpentine2 of these1 podophyllin and aloes cause an increase in the flow of bile1 with increased intestinal movements1 so they may be said to act directly upon the liver4 ,the result is a profuse1 watery1 bile-stained motion4 ,calomel does not act directly upon the liver1 but stimulates the upper part of the bowel1 so that its contents are hurried along before the bile can be reabsorbed1 and a loose1 watery1 bile-stained motion ensues4 ,the most useful purgative of this class is the pill containing colocynth1 calomel1 and hyoscyamus1 of which five to ten grains should be given when there is a furred tongue1 constipation1 heaviness or weight over the liver1 and dyspepsia and loss of appetite4 #d4 ,saline purgatives4 ,these cause a free secretion of the intestinal juices1 and a copious motion1 proportionate to the size of the dose1 is the result4 ,the principal saline purges are ,epsom salts 7i4e41 sulphate of magnesia71 ,glauber's salts 7i4e41 sulphate of soda71 seidlitz powder1 the various forms of fruit salts1 and the aperient mineral waters1 such as ,rubinat1 ,hunyadi ,janos1 etc4 ,a saline purgative may be given in the morning1 to assist the action of an aperient pill administered the previous night4 ,saline purgatives are useful1 too1 in many cases of habitual constipation1 and1 if necessary1 a small dose may be given every morning in a tumbler of warm water4 ,quinine4--,quinine is chiefly used for malarial fever1 and the urgency of the case must be the guide as to the amount to be administered4 ,it is seldom necessary to give more than ten grains three times a day2 at times enormous doses1 such as thirty grains three times a day1 have been given with advantage1 but such doses are rarely necessary1 and in the absence of a medical man should never be given4 ,the administration of quinine sometimes causes headache1 deafness1 delirium1 and partial or even complete blindness4 ,in such cases the dose should be reduced or the drug withheld until these symptoms have disappeared4 ,it has been stated that quinine causes blackwater fever2 this1 ,i believe1 is absolutely untrue4 ,i have seen cases of blackwater fever1 apparently resulting from the neglect of malarious attacks1 which date the commencement of their recovery from the first administration of quinine4 ,quinine is best given in solution2 the nauseous taste can be somewhat disguised by adding chloroform water or essence of ginger or lime juice to the solution4 ,many men take the drug in a little beer or spirit for the same purpose4 ,quinine pills are1 as a rule1 very insoluble1 therefore they are not suitable for explorers4 ,quinine in the form of a tablet1 or in a capsule1 or wrapped in tissue paper1 acts well1 but even tablets should be cracked or crushed4 ,sugar-coated products are inadmissible in the tropics4 ,sometimes1 owing to frequent vomiting or other cause1 the quinine administered by the mouth cannot be retained4 ,it must then be given by means of an enema or by injection into the muscles4 ,if the traveller decides to give an intra-muscular injection of quinine1 he should only give five grains at a time4 ,the dose should be added to about a teaspoonful of water which should then be boiled and allowed to cool4 ,the amount of water is of little importance so long as enough is used to dissolve the drug1 and keep it in solution when the water is cool enough to be injected4 ,the less fluid1 however1 injected the better4 ,injections are best made deeply into the muscles of the buttock4 ,this is a method best left to a medical man1 as there is danger of injuring the sciatic nerve4 ,the preparations of quinine4--,many preparations of quinine are made2 they are all popularly known as quinine1 their uses are similar1 and the doses are as follows3-- ,dose1 one to five grains1 as a tonic4 0 five or more grains as a preventive of malaria4 0 five to twenty grains1 in fevers4 ,sulphate of quinine4--,this is the preparation most commonly used2 but it is very insoluble in water1 and should be given along with a little dilute acid4 ,acid sulphate of quinine1 sometimes called bisulphate1 soluble or neutral sulphate of quinine4 ,the acid sulphate is much more soluble than the sulphate1 and is a more suitable preparation for administration by the mouth or for injection into the bowel4 ,hydrochloride of quinine4--,is a very soluble preparation1 and contains a large percentage of quinine4 ,quinine hydrobromide4--,is more soluble than the sulphate1 and less liable to cause headache and other quinine symptoms4 ,acid quinine hydrobromide4--,very soluble and non-irritating4 ,solubility1 one in six of water4 ,tannate of quinine4--,is a weak preparation1 but suitable for children4 ,solubility1 one in ten of water4 ,acid quinine hydrochloride1 or quinine bihydrochloride4--,is a very soluble preparation1 and is suitable for hypodermic injection1 but is somewhat expensive4 ,it is soluble in less than its own weight of water4 ,for administration by the mouth or bowel1 the traveller is advised to take either the hydrochloride or the bisulphate of quinine4 ,for intra-muscular administration the acid quinine hydrochloride is generally used4 ,rhubarb1 either in form of compound rhubarb pill1 one of the most useful of ordinary aperients1 two to four for a dose4 ,compound ,rhubarb ,powder1 otherwise known as ,gregory's ,powder4 ,sandal-wood oil4--,uses and doses as for balsam of copaiba4 ,soda1 bicarbonate of4--,dose1 five to ten grains or more4 ,five to ten grains dissolved in water may be given twice a day for acidity1 flatulence1 heartburn4 ,useful in dysentery to allay irritation of stomach2 for this purpose five or ten grains may be given an hour before each dose of ipecacuanha4 ,if the urine is acid and scalding1 give twenty grains three times a day4 ,bicarbonate of soda is given in cases of blackwater fever when the urine is not sufficient in quantity2 in such cases at least twenty grains should be given every six hours4 ,soda mint tablets1 useful for relieving flatulence1 one or two being taken after meals4 ,sodium salicylate4--,dose1 ten to twenty grains4 ,relieves pain in rheumatic fever4 ,lowers temperature4 ,its action must be carefully watched1 as too large doses may cause headache1 buzzing in the ears1 and even delirium4 ,sulphur4--,an ointment containing one part of sulphur to nine of lard1 grease1 or vaseline1 makes a useful application for itch and other skin diseases4 ,tannin4--,tannin is a powerful astringent1 and may be used internally or externally4 ,in five to ten grain doses it helps to stop diarrha1 bleeding from stomach1 bowel1 piles1 and bladder4 ,if there is continued bleeding1 increase the dose to twenty grains1 and repeat it as often as necessary4 ,voice tablets1 consisting of chlorate of potash1 borax and cocaine are useful in cases of sore throat4 ,warburg's tincture4--,one tablet is equal to thirty drops of the ordinary tincture4 ,stronger tablets are also available4 ,to produce sweating1 first open the bowels1 then give four to eight of the tablets with a little hot spirit and water4 ,if necessary1 repeat the dose in three hours1 and in either case withhold if possible food or drink till after this period has elapsed1 but if the patient is very thirsty give hot drinks of weak tea or spirit and water4 ,keep him covered up and put a hot-water bottle in the bed4 ,urgency of the case is a guide as to how many tablets ought to be given4 ,zinc oxide alone or mixed with an equal quantity of boric acid or starch makes a useful drying dusting powder4 ,zinc ointment contains three parts of zinc oxide to seventeen parts of lard or vaseline4 ,this is a most useful application for burns1 eczema1 chafes and sores4 ,sulphate of zinc4--,as a prompt emetic1 give twenty to thirty grains in half a pint of warm water4 ,if patient does not vomit give a pint or more of warm water and tickle the back of the throat4 ,a second dose of the drug may be given4 ,two grains to an ounce of water makes a valuable astringent lotion for gonorrha1 raw surfaces1 ulcers1 and inflamed eyes and ears4 ,the strength of this solution may be gradually increased to six grains to the ounce of water4 ,,temperature ,,taking1 ,,hypodermic ,,injection1 ,,baths1 ,,catheters1 ,,stomach ,,tubes1 ,,enemas1 ,,and ,,poultices4 ,pulse1 ,respiration and ,temperature4 ,normal pulse rate 7adult7 about #gb per minute4 ,normal respiration rate 7adult71 #ae to #ah per minute4 ,normal temperature1 #ih4d ,f41 but varying in health between #ig4e and #ii4 ,temperature ,taking4 ,the temperature of the body may be taken in the armpit1 the mouth1 or the lower part of the bowel4 ,in the ,armpit4--,dry armpit well1 put the bulb of the thermometer into it1 and press the arm tightly against the body1 so that the thermometer will be in close contact with the skin on either side for at least five minutes4 ,in the ,mouth4--,wash the thermometer in an antiseptic solution1 dry it and place the bulb well under the tongue and close the lips on the stem2 at least three minutes should be allowed4 ,this is a more reliable way of taking the temperature than in the armpit4 ,in the ,bowel4--,if the patient is very ill and light-headed1 it is not advisable to place the thermometer in the mouth1 and when a patient is having a cool bath to reduce his temperature a reading will be needed at least every quarter of an hour2 in these cases it is best to pass the end of the thermometer1 which has been previously greased1 about two inches up the bowel1 and to leave it there for at least two and a half minutes4 ,do not trust in half-minute or minute thermometers1 always allow the full time given above4 ,before taking a patient's temperature see that the mercury in the thermometer is shaken down at least as low as #ig ,f4 ,after the temperature has been taken1 note it down carefully1 wash the thermometer1 and shake the mercury down to #ig ,f4 ,if the thermometer is washed in hot water1 the expanding mercury may break it4 ,hypodermic ,injection4 ,the best place to inject is under the skin of the back or chest4 ,the forearm is usually selected1 but there are many objections to it4 ,if the injection is made into the leg or arm1 the point of the needle should be directed towards the body4 #a4 ,surgical cleanliness must be observed4 ,the hands of the operator and the skin of the patient at the spot chosen for injection must be properly cleaned with an antiseptic lotion1 e4g41 chinosol 7#a in #ajjj7 or carbolic acid 7#a in #fj74 ,the site of injection may1 as an alternative1 be painted with iodine which1 indeed1 is the preferable method4 #b4 ,the hypodermic syringe and needle must be perfectly cleaned2 if possible they should be boiled1 or an antiseptic lotion1 or alcohol 7brandy or whisky7 may be syringed through them4 #c4 ,the solution to be injected should be made in a clean1 i4e41 boiled1 spoon1 by adding the drug to boiled water4 #d4 ,draw solution into the syringe1 hold the syringe with the needle end pointing upwards1 so as to allow any air to rise above the fluid1 and push the piston up till all air has been driven out and the solution begins to come through the needle4 #e4 ,pinch up the skin where the injection is to be made1 push the needle well through and then under it1 keeping the point slightly away from the skin until the needle is almost entirely covered4 ,the point of the needle will now lie in the loose tissue--between the skin and the muscle--into which the fluid is to be injected4 #f4 ,holding the needle firmly1 slowly press the piston until the required amount has been injected2 withdraw the needle slowly1 keep the finger over the minute opening in the skin1 so as to close it at once1 and with another finger rub for a few seconds1 where the fluid has been injected1 in a direction away from the opening1 to assist its absorption4 ,after giving an injection1 wash out the syringe as before1 dry needle well1 and pass a piece of thin wire through it to keep it open4 ,the needles are sent out with wire in them to keep the fine channel open2 of course the wire must be removed before the needle is put on to the syringe4 ,as strong solutions of permanganate of potash attack the plunger of the piston1 when this drug has been injected1 the syringe should be well washed with water directly after its use4 ,hypodermic tablets4--,solutions for injection are best made from tablets which are specially prepared for the purpose4 ,a hypodermic tablet should be dissolved in about ten drops of hot water1 but as each contains a definite amount of the drug1 it does not matter in exactly how much water the dose is dissolved4 ,in injecting certain preparations of quinine1 which are not easily soluble1 so much water may be required that two or three separate injections are necessary2 there is no objection to this1 the important thing is to have the quinine really dissolved4 ,usually only medical men should administer hypodermic injections4 ,frequently it is not necessary to give a hypodermic injection1 for the hypodermic tablet will be absorbed1 and act almost as quickly if placed under the tongue4 ,the traveller may be called upon to use one of the following hypodermic injections3-- ,permanganate of potassium4 ,see ,snake-bite1 p4 #bha4 ,morphia4 ,an injection of a quarter of a grain of morphia may be necessary when there is much pain4 ,the soothing action of opium and chlorodyne is due to this substance4 ,strychnine4 ,see ,snake-bite1 p4 #bhb4 ,baths1 etc4 ,cool ,bath4--,lift the patient gently in a blanket into a long bath containing water at about #ij ,f41 add water as cold as can be obtained1 keep the water circulating and running out2 one boy must pour water on to the head all the time4 ,if a long bath is not at hand1 put a blanket over a waterproof sheet1 and let the patient lie on it2 get six or eight boys to hold up the edges1 and give patient his bath in that way4 ,a good plan is to dig a shallow trench in the sand and to spread a waterproof in it2 it is less difficult then to keep the edges of waterproof up as the patient is lying in a groove4 ,it is not necessary to make the bath really cold if the cool water can be kept running4 ,i have hardly ever been able1 in ,africa1 to get the water below #hj ,f4 ,note the bowel temperature1 and as soon as it falls to #aja ,f41 remove the patient from the bath and put him between warm blankets1 and feed with some hot soup4 ,if there are any signs of faintness1 ammonia1 or equal parts of strong spirit and water1 must be given4 ,weak spirit and water has little or no stimulating effect on the heart1 therefore1 in cases of fainting1 shock1 exhaustion1 or collapse from any cause1 give a little spirit1 and give it strong4 ,wet ,pack4--,slip a waterproof under patient1 wring a sheet out of cold water and pass it under him and wrap him in it1 cover with three or four blankets1 and tuck him in4 ,at first he will feel cold and chilly1 but soon the surface vessels will dilate1 and he will begin to feel hot1 and very likely will sweat2 keep him in the wet pack with the clothes carefully tucked in round the neck1 feet and sides for about half an hour4 ,then partially dry the patient1 and put him into bed between warm blankets and with hot-water bottles1 and give hot drinks to encourage perspiration4 ,catheters4 ,at least six silk-webbed catheters should be taken as part of the equipment4 ,the most suitable sizes are1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #aj4 ,they should be packed in a separate box1 and should be kept dry with ,french chalk or any other dusting powder4 ,before use the catheter should lie for at least a quarter of an hour in an antiseptic solution such as chinosol 7#a in #ajjj71 and the solution should be frequently syringed through it4 ,the catheter should then be lubricated with eucalyptus1 vaseline1 or carbolic oil1 or1 better1 with boric acid ointment4 ,let the patient lie down1 and thoroughly wash the genitals1 especially the opening of the pipe1 with an antiseptic solution1 the operator having carefully cleaned his own hands4 ,then pass the catheter gently down the pipe and into the bladder4 ,the silk-web catheters are so flexible that unless force is used they can do no harm2 begin with a ,no4 #h size1 and if this cannot be passed1 try a ,no4 #d4 ,after use1 wash the catheter as before1 dry with a soft handkerchief1 and dust it with powder4 ,on no account should the catheters be greased when they are being put away4 ,neglect of cleanly precautions in passing catheters may lead to inflammation of the bladder and even more serious mischief4 ,stomach ,tube4 ,the stomach tube consists of a piece of india-rubber tubing about three feet long1 with a funnel at one end4 ,the method of passing it is as follows3--,the patient's jaws should be kept apart by a gag such as a piece of stick wrapped in lint placed between the back teeth on either side4 ,the left forefinger should be passed into the patient's mouth as far as possible and the tongue drawn forward2 the rubber tube1 oiled or smeared with vaseline or glycerine1 should then be passed by the side of the finger and down the throat for about twenty inches1 taking care to use no great force4 ,the funnel is then raised and slowly filled with water2 when all the water has run down1 the funnel is lowered and the liquid in the stomach is drawn out by the syphon action of the tube4 ,the process should be repeated till the water returning from the stomach is clear4 ,if the patient is unconscious the tube should not be passed except by a doctor4 ,enemas4 ,enema ,syringe4--,this is fitted with long and short tube4 ,to use the long tube1 slip it over the short one1 which will hold it firmly4 ,after use hang it up to drain1 dry it well1 but do not oil it2 carry it loose rather than coiled up1 so as to avoid risk of the rubber kinking at the flexed portions of the tube4 ,to give an enema1 the patient should be placed on his left side1 and brought close to the edge of the bed1 with his knees slightly drawn up towards the belly4 ,the pipe or nozzle of the syringe should be well oiled or smeared with vaseline1 and then carefully introduced into the outlet of the bowel1 and passed gently upwards for about three inches1 great care being taken not to exert any force4 ,the higher up into the bowel a nutrient or medicinal injection is passed1 the more rapidly will it be absorbed2 therefore the long tube is to be preferred1 and the hips should be raised on a pillow1 to assist the patient in retaining the injection4 ,a nutrient or medicinal enema is usually small in quantity1 about two to four ounces1 in order to prevent its being rejected by the bowel1 and is administered by means of a small ball syringe provided with a long nozzle4 ,before giving a medicinal or nutrient enema1 it is best to wash the lower bowel with warm water1 and always see that the mixture to be injected is warmed to 8blood heat40 ,poultices4 ,linseed-meal poultice4--,mix four ounces of linseed meal into about half a pint of boiling water1 constantly stirring until the mixture is smooth and even4 ,a piece of tow1 teased out to the required size1 or a piece of linen or thin cloth1 is placed upon a table1 and the poultice turned out upon it2 then spread evenly in a layer about three-quarters of an inch thick1 leaving a margin of tow or linen about an inch wide all round4 ,this margin should be folded over1 and the poultice applied to the affected part--with the meal next the body4 ,an ,ice poultice is made by mixing pounded ice and sawdust1 and enclosing the mixture in a waterproof material such as a mackintosh or gutta-percha4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,wounds ,,and ,,injuries4 ,by the late ,,william ,,henry ,,crosse1 ,m4,d4 ,in treating wounds1 whether large or small1 the great essential is absolute cleanliness1 not simple cleanliness in the ordinary acceptance of the word1 but absolute surgical cleanliness4 ,in the first place1 it is as well to lay down the axiom that all inflammation and other complications of wounds1 as suppuration and blood-poisoning1 are due to germs1 and germs alone4 ,all cleansing operations and antiseptic processes are instituted with the sole idea of preventing the entrance of germs into the wound1 either from the hands of the operator1 the dressings1 instruments1 or the skin of the patient4 ,antiseptics are chemical substances which have the power of killing germs outright1 or so checking their growth that the cells in the blood can easily cope with them4 ,the antiseptics that are mentioned in these notes are carbolic acid1 chinosol1 permanganate of potash1 and boric acid4 ,given the antiseptic properties of the substance1 it seems a simple thing1 by its application1 to prevent germs either entering a wound or multiplying there1 but in actual practice the germ-free cleanliness of a wound is a difficult thing to procure4 ,the germs are everywhere--on the instruments which cause the wounds1 on the skin of the patient1 in the sweat glands of the skin1 at the roots of the hairs1 and on the hands of the operator1 especially under the nails4 ,again1 a great obstacle to the free action of antiseptics is grease or oil of all kinds4 ,a fine coating of grease enveloping a germ offers great resistance to the action of antiseptics1 and the object of the process of cleansing a wound described below is1 first1 to remove all the grease1 and then to apply the antiseptic to destroy the germs4 ,with care1 a clean-cut wound should heal kindly1 without the formation of matter4 ,to clean and dress a ,wound4 ,first cover the wound itself with a small piece of cotton-wool or lint1 wrung out in an antiseptic solution2 then thoroughly scrub the surrounding skin with warm water and soap 7soft soap for preference71 using a nail brush which has been previously boiled4 ,shave the skin in every case1 whether thickly covered with hair or not4 ,this shaving is most important1 as it removes all fine grease-coated hairs which might favour the growth of germs1 and also scrapes off the surface dirt and dead scales of skin4 ,after shaving1 again scrub with soap and water1 and wash the skin with an antiseptic lotion1 such as carbolic 7#a in #fj71 or chinosol 7#a in #ajjj74 ,having cleansed the skin1 now clean up the wound itself4 ,thoroughly wash the wound with an antiseptic lotion1 either rubbed in with lint or wool1 or injected with a glass syringe4 ,all instruments1 ligatures and needles should be boiled for at least five minutes in water 7to which a little washing-soda may be added with advantage71 and should then be dropped into an antiseptic solution4 ,when boiling is not possible1 they should be soaked in carbolic lotion1 #a in #cj1 for ten minutes1 and then transferred to #a in #fj4 ,the hands of the operator must be scrubbed for some minutes with soap and warm water1 and then in an antiseptic solution1 particular attention being paid to the nails1 which should have been cut quite short4 ,cleanliness of the operator's hands is the first essential of successful treatment of wounds4 ,the edges of small1 clean-cut wounds may be brought together with adhesive plaster1 but larger wounds will need antiseptic silk or gut ligatures to keep the edges applied evenly4 ,large ragged wounds1 with much bruising2 wounds containing dirt1 sand1 etc41 or deep wounds such as those caused by bullets or spears1 should not be completely closed4 ,they should be cleansed1 as above1 dusted with iodoform powder1 and a strip of antiseptic gauze arranged so as to reach from the surface of the skin to the deepest part of the wound4 ,this1 which serves as a drain for the discharges1 should be renewed every day until healing is fairly established4 ,if necessary1 a few stitches may be inserted in the more superficial parts of the wound to bring the edges of the skin into contact4 ,the wound should be dressed with strips of antiseptic gauze1 slightly moistened with whichever antiseptic solution is used1 and over this should be placed a pad of antiseptic wool1 which should be kept firmly and evenly in place by a well-applied bandage4 ,a wounded limb should be kept at rest1 as far as possible1 either by sand-bags or a splint4 7,in the absence of other antiseptics1 the wound1 after thorough washing1 may be dressed with carbolic oil or ,friar's balsam1 or boric or iodoform ointment applied on lint47 ,bleeding or ,hmorrhage4 ,general oozing from small vessels may be stopped by means of a pad made of a piece of antiseptic wool or gauze1 firmly bandaged over the bleeding area4 ,when a large vessel1 whether an artery or a vein1 is cut across1 profuse bleeding will take place1 and immediate steps must be taken to stop this whilst suitable instruments are being obtained4 7,in bleeding from an artery1 the blood spurts out in quick jerking jets2 if coming from a vein1 the blood flows in a steady continuous stream47 ,pressure should therefore be applied1 by means of the thumb or thumbs1 or a tourniquet1#ah in the course of the vessel1 either above or below the injury--nearer to the body than the wound if the bleeding is from an artery 7,fig4 #c71 and beyond the wound if the bleeding is from a vein4 ,it will be found that the bleeding can be controlled more effectually1 and with greater ease1 if the vessel is compressed against a neighbouring bone4 ,no more pressure should be exerted than is just sufficient to stop the flow of blood4 ,whilst pressure is being applied1 the wound should be cleansed with some antiseptic lotion1 and a wedge-shaped pad of antiseptic gauze applied and firmly held in position by a bandage4 ,bleeding from the hand or forearm can generally be immediately arrested by forcibly bending up the forearm at the elbow-joint4 ,if these measures effectually control the bleeding1 the pressure should be kept up for an hour or two1 after which time it may be cautiously relaxed4 ,if1 after the removal of the pressure1 the hmorrhage seems to have ceased 7as judged by the pad which has been kept in position not trickling with blood71 apply a large pad of wool over the original dressing1 and bandage this firmly4 ,dress the wound very carefully on the third day4 ,if1 on the other hand1 in spite of the treatment1 the bleeding continues1 the pressure must be re-applied1 and the cut ends of the bleeding vessel looked for in the wound itself1 and either twisted or tied with a silk ligature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,method ,,of ,,compressing ,,the ,,main ,,artery ,,of ,,the ,,thigh4 ,to twist a vessel1 seize the bleeding point between the blades of the artery forceps1 then1 by twisting the instrument round three or four times1 the vessel will become blocked or closed1 and the forceps may be taken off in the course of ten minutes4 ,the other method is to tie the vessel with a silk ligature 7previously boiled71 making a reef or sailor's knot1 to cut short the ends of the ligature1 remove the forceps1 and let the vessel fall back into the wound4 ,in any case cleanse the wound1 and dress in the manner previously described4 ,the traveller who has taken the trouble to learn something about the treatment of wounds and severe hmorrhage will1 before his journeys are ended1 probably have opportunities of saving the life of a comrade by his skill4 ,nothing can be more distressing than to see a man die from a hmorrhage which anyone who has studied the subject a little would be able to control in nine cases out of ten without much difficulty4 ,i therefore earnestly urge all travellers to gain as practical a knowledge of this subject as is possible1 before leaving a civilised country4 ,after-,treatment of ,wounds4 ,a clean-cut wound1 which has been completely closed and properly dressed1 need not be dressed again until the fourth day2 and the stitches need not be removed for seven days4 ,on the other hand1 a ragged or dirty wound1 or one in which it has been necessary to insert a piece of gauze for the purpose of drainage1 should be syringed out and dressed daily from the first4 ,the important index to the state of a wound is the patient's temperature4 ,if1 on the third day after the wound was first dressed1 the temperature is normal1 and subsequently remains so1 the wound is probably healing well2 but if the patient's temperature is up to or beyond #ajj ,f41 and the part is painful1 there is probably some inflammatory change going on in the wound4 ,the dressings should be taken off1 and the wound examined4 ,if the surrounding skin is red and shiny1 and the limb swollen and tender1 some of the stitches should be taken out1 and the wound well syringed with an antiseptic lotion4 ,this1 with a good purge1 such as calomel or ,epsom salts1 will probably remove all signs of inflammation2 but still the wound must be dressed daily4 ,if1 however1 the temperature still remains high1 #ajj to #aja ,f41 or more1 and the patient is restless and light-headed1 all the stitches should be taken out1 the wound opened up1 and hot fomentations1 prepared with an antiseptic lotion1 applied every four hours till the temperature comes down4 ,tonics of quinine and iron should be given4 ,erysipelas4 ,erysipelas is a diffusely-spreading inflammation of the skin1 caused by the presence and activity of germs1 which enter through a wounded surface4 ,it is most frequently due to want of cleanliness in the treatment of wounds4 ,bright's disease and gout predispose to this complaint4 ,symptoms4--,the disease begins with a vivid red blush1 usually starting from a wound1 and which has a great tendency to spread or to move from one part of the limb to another4 ,the edge of the blush is sharply defined1 and slightly raised above the surrounding skin2 there is stiffness and heat in the part1 with fever #ajc-ajd ,f41 not varying much2 rapid pulse1 headache1 loss of appetite1 furred tongue and constipation4 ,treatment4--,isolate the patient and administer a good purgative4 ,give twenty drops of tincture of steel1 with five grains of quinine in two ounces of water4 ,light diet4 ,stimulants will be necessary4 ,local treatment3 flour1 starch1 or zinc oxide may be used to dust over the part1 or zinc ointment applied on lint4 ,the healthy skin just beyond the advancing edge may be painted with tincture of iodine4 ,cellulitis4--,occasionally the infection of the skin by the germs spreads to the tissue beneath1 and is then called cellulitis1 or phlegmonous erysipelas4 ,in this condition there is more swelling than in simple erysipelas1 and the skin is very boggy or doughy1 and retains the imprint of a finger pressed upon it4 ,the red blush is not so vivid1 being darker and more purple1 and there is no well-defined edge4 ,if left untreated1 the skin will break down and die1 causing extensive destruction of the part4 ,treatment4--,general treatment the same as for erysipelas4 ,locally1 several incisions1 each at least one inch in length1 should be made into the swollen tissue where it is most boggy1 and right through the skin1 care being taken to avoid the larger blood-vessels2 then hot fomentations of boric acid 7five grains to the ounce7 or other antiseptic should be applied1 every two or three hours1 till the swelling has subsided4 ,the important point in the treatment of swollen and inflamed parts following wounds1 when accompanied by continued or rising high temperature1 is to relieve tension by making free incisions4 ,some knowledge of the anatomy of the parts is essential before using the knife4 ,in any case1 incisions in the arm or leg should be made parallel to and not across the limb4 ,blood-,poisoning4 ,if a poisoned wound is left without thorough local treatment1 the poisons and germs contained in the tissues are taken up by the blood1 and cause blood-poisoning4 ,the symptoms of this condition are high temperature1 delirium1 headache1 loss of appetite1 vomiting1 and occasionally bronchitis and pneumonia4 ,severe forms of blood-poisoning may lead to the formation of abscesses all over the body1 with fatal result4 ,treatment4--,the general treatment is the same as that described for erysipelas4 ,the local treatment is to thoroughly open up and disinfect the poisoned part4 ,bruises4 ,a bruise should be treated by bathing with cold water1 or the frequent application of wet cloths4 ,the addition of ,goulard water1 gin1 methylated spirits1 eau de cologne1 or vinegar1 to the water1 is beneficial4 ,sprains4 ,the affected joint should be raised on pillows1 and treated in the manner advised for bruises1 but if seen immediately after the injury1 firm strapping with adhesive plaster and bandaging of the part is often equally serviceable4 ,if inflammation develops1 warm fomentations will be found soothing1 leeching may be necessary1 and free purgation always has a good effect4 ,the troublesome stiffness which often remains is relieved by friction and kneading with the hand4 ,to regain the use of the joint1 it should be gently moved each day2 this movement is less painful if it is performed with the joint in hot water4 ,poisoned ,wounds from ,snakes1 ,animals1 and ,arrows1 etc4 ,in cases of poisonous snake-bite1 the marks of two fangs will usually be found4 ,treatment4--,tie a piece of tape1 bandage1 or cord a couple of inches above the wound1 i4e41 between the wound and the body2 tie another piece still nearer the body1 say three inches from the first4 ,cut across the wound or wounds to encourage free bleeding4 7,if a medical man is present1 he may think fit to inject anti-venomous serum as an antidote to snake poison47 ,dissolve as much permanganate of potash as possible in about a teaspoonful of water1 stirring well to hasten its solution4 ,inject about five drops of this underneath the skin1 on either side of the cut1 by means of a hypodermic syringe4 ,some of the solution may be injected into the wound itself1 or even a crystal of the drug may be pressed into the cut1 or part of a crushed tablet of the drug4 ,it is best to keep a small bottle of the strong solution of permanganate always ready4 ,give spirits strong1 that is1 one tablespoonful to one of water2 at least four such doses in the first hour4 ,ammonia may also be given4 ,if the patient is heavy and stupid1 give two tablets of strychnine 7one-hundredth of a grain in each7 in half a wine-glassful of water1 by the mouth2 or dissolve two in twenty drops of water1 and inject well beneath the skin into the muscles of the back4 ,if there is no improvement within an hour1 give two more tablets2 and if necessary1 one or two more in another hour4 ,after tying up a limb for a poisonous bite1 there will be great pain if the ligatures have been applied tightly2 the parts will swell1 become very dusky1 and if the ligatures are left on too long1 the blood supply will be cut off1 and the parts will die4 ,therefore1 when the ligatures begin to cause much pain1 loosen the one next the injured part for ten seconds1 then tie again at or near the same place1 and loosen the other one for a similar period1 and then re-tie2 repeat this about every fifteen minutes4 ,in the course of two hours1 both tapes may be taken off4 ,the object of tying up is to prevent much of the poison getting into the system at once4 ,the first thing is to tie up tightly2 next cut freely1 and suck or squeeze out as much blood as possible1 then treat with drugs4 7,it is usually safe to suck a poisoned wound unless there are any abrasions or cracks in the mouth1 tongue1 gums1 or lips1 taking care to spit out the poison at once2 but the mouth should be washed out immediately afterwards with a light purple solution of permanganate of potash47 ,if the wounds are on the face1 neck1 or other spot which cannot be tied up1 then it is best to cut out the part at once and wipe the wound well with the strong solution of permanganate4 ,in the treatment of snake-bite1 pure carbolic acid1 ordinary caustic1 a red-hot wire1 or even a burning stick may be applied to the wounds when permanganate of potash cannot be obtained4 ,in some cases1 where no other treatment is available1 it is advisable to explode a pinch of gun-powder over the place of injury1 or even to blow the parts away with one's gun4 ,if a finger or toe is bitten by a snake which is certainly poisonous1 and neither drugs nor fire are at hand1 it would be best to amputate at once4 ,wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows or other weapons1 mad dogs1 jackals1 etc41 should be treated in a similar manner to those caused by poisonous snakes4 ,drowning4 ,death from drowning usually occurs in from two to three minutes after submersion1 although people have been revived after a period of five or six minutes under water4 ,in treating cases of apparent death from drowning1 the points to be aimed at are3-- ,first and immediately1 the restoration of the breathing4 ,secondly1 and after breathing is restored1 the promotion of warmth and circulation4 #a4 ,to restore the breathing4 ,roll the patient on to his face for a few seconds1 placing one of his arms under the forehead2 wipe away all weeds1 mud1 etc41 from the mouth4 7,in this position water will more easily escape from the mouth1 whilst at the same time the tongue will fall forward1 and leave the entrance to the windpipe clear47 ,turn the patient on his back1 on a flat surface1 with the head a little higher than the feet4 ,place a small hard pillow 7or a rolled-up coat7 under the shoulder-blades4 ,draw the patient's tongue forward1 and keep it projecting beyond the lips4 ,remove all tight clothing from about the patient's neck and chest2 also braces1 belt1 etc4 ,kneel at the patient's head1 grasp his arms just above the elbows1 draw them gently and steadily upwards above his head1 and keep them stretched in that position for two seconds 7,fig4 #d74 7,by this means air is drawn into the lungs47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,reverse the movement1 and press the patient's arms gently but firmly against the sides of the chest1 keeping them in this position for two seconds 7,fig4 #e74 7,by this means air is pressed out of the lungs47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,repeat these movements alternately and regularly1 about fifteen times a minute1 until natural breathing takes place1 or as long as there is any hope of saving the patient4 ,it may be necessary to continue the movements for as long as an hour4 ,while these movements are being carried out the wet clothing may be removed1 the body gently dried1 and the patient wrapped up in dry blankets4 #b4 ,to promote warmth and circulation4 ,rub the limbs and body vigorously with dry towels and flannels1 always rubbing from the extremities towards the heart4 ,apply hot-water bottles1 hot flannels1 or hot bricks to the feet1 armpits1 the pit of the stomach1 and between the thighs4 ,immediately the power of swallowing returns1 administer hot coffee1 spirits and warm water1 etc4 ,put the patient to bed between hot blankets as soon as possible4 ,fractures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,skeleton1 ,,giving ,,the ,,names ,,and ,,positions ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,bones4 ,a simple fracture is one in which1 though the bone or bones are broken1 the protecting skin is not broken4 ,a compound fracture is one in which the skin1 etc41 is broken or cut across1 so that the fracture is more or less exposed to the air4 ,the end of either fragment of the broken bone may protrude through the skin4 ,a comminuted fracture is one in which the bone is broken into several pieces2 such a fracture may be either simple or compound4 ,in a simple fracture great gentleness should be used in handling the parts1 so as not to convert it into a compound fracture2 therefore1 do not undress the part2 rather cut away the clothing4 ,a fracture which is compound is usually serious1 for dirt and germs are liable to be carried into the wound and cause great mischief2 in gunshot wounds1 dirt or pieces of clothing may be carried into the wound4 ,the signs of a fracture are1 firstly1 the patient's own feelings1 e4g41 the pain which is caused on handling the part1 sudden loss of power1 and the sensation of grating4 ,secondly1 on examination1 most if not all of the following signs will be observed3 inability of patient to move the part below the injury1 swelling1 unnatural movement below the site of fracture1 alteration in appearance of the limb4 ,in fractures of the upper or lower limb there is usually shortening1 the spasmodic action of the muscles causing the broken ends to ride over each other1 and the greater the obliquity of the line of fracture the greater will be the shortening and alteration in appearance4 ,a sensation of grating is usually conveyed to the operator when he attempts to move the parts2 sometimes this grating can be heard1 as well as felt4 ,comparison of the injured with the sound limb is of the greatest importance in detecting fractures4 ,treatment of ,simple ,fractures4 ,directly a fracture of a limb is made out1 a splint or splints of some kind should be applied to keep the parts fairly in position1 and to prevent a broken end from being pushed through the skin4 ,cloths and bandages may be applied firmly round the injured part1 and then extemporised splints1 such as boards1 straight sticks1 umbrellas1 or bayonets1 should be applied and kept in position till the patient is in bed4 ,splints suitable to the injury should be now made and well covered with wool1 lint1 or cloth1 special care being taken to pad them well where they are likely to press upon bony prominences1 such as the inner or outer ankle4 ,the limb must next be straightened1 and any deformity caused by overriding of the fragments must be remedied by steady pulling upon the parts above and below the fracture1 in opposite directions1 and the parts brought into good position by manipulating the bones at the seat of fracture4 ,the prepared splints1 extending well below and above the fracture1 are then fitted to the limb with cotton-wool or lint1 and secured by bandages4 ,if there is great swelling and tenderness of a limb1 then it is advisable not to apply splints at once4 ,sand pillows should be made1 or stockings nearly filled with sand and their mouths tied1 and applied one on either side of the limb1 to keep it absolutely still2 the painful swelling may be reduced by applying ice or evaporating lotions4 ,when the swelling is somewhat reduced1 splints may be applied after proper manipulation4 ,whilst the bandages should be firmly applied so as to keep the splints in position1 they must not be bound too tightly1 otherwise swelling and ulceration may be caused4 ,if there is much pain and swelling after a fracture has been set1 it will be necessary to loosen the bandages4 ,union of the fractured bones is generally completed in about six weeks4 ,collar-bones4--,fracture of the collar-bone should be treated by placing a large wedge-shaped pad 7about six inches long1 by three in thickness at the upper end7 in the armpit1 and securing it with tapes tied over the opposite shoulder4 ,the elbow should then be brought forward1 and raised and well supported by a broad triangular bandage or handkerchief1 used as a sling1 and with the ends tied over the opposite shoulder4 ,a flannel or other bandage should then be wound round the chest1 so as to secure the arm from accidental movements4 ,ribs4--,fracture of the ribs may be treated by wrapping a flannel bandage round the chest pretty tightly1 so as to limit the movements of breathing1 which are very painful4 ,the flannel should be secured by stitching1 and the upper turns should be fixed by broad tapes passed over the shoulders and firmly stitched4 ,firm strapping of the side with adhesive plaster is still better4 ,for this purpose about six strips of plaster one to two inches wide and eighteen inches long should be applied evenly round the side of the chest2 each piece should be overlaid by the next piece above it for about half an inch4 ,to secure rest for the affected side of the chest1 the strapping should not only cover the broken bone1 but should extend to about three inches above and below it1 and should reach well beyond the middle line both in front and behind4 ,upper ,arm4--,fracture of the upper arm may be treated by the application of several narrow splints reaching from the armpit to the elbow1 well padded1 and supported in position by a bandage carried from the fingers to the armpit4 ,care must be taken that the splints on the inner side do not chafe the folds of the armpit4 ,the hand and wrist should then be supported in a sling1 but the elbow must be allowed to hang free4 ,forearm4--,fractures of the forearm must be treated by two splints1 each wider than the limb4 ,the injured limb is allowed to hang down by the side1 palm forwards4 ,one splint reaching from the elbow to the finger-tips is applied to the back of the limb2 the other is placed on the front1 and only reaches from the bend of the elbow to the level of the ball of the thumb4 ,the splints are secured temporarily by a couple of slip knots4 ,now bend the arm to a right angle1 thumb uppermost1 and bandage securely from the tips of the fingers up to the elbow4 ,thigh4--,fractures of the thigh are serious2 they require the patient to be kept in bed till union has been effected1 and they are more likely to lead to shortening and permanent lameness if not very carefully treated1 and the assistance of a skilled surgeon is urgently needed4 ,a long splint is applied to the outside of the limb1 reaching from the armpit to beyond the foot1 and secured above by a bandage passing round the body1 whilst the foot and leg are firmly bandaged to it below4 ,leg4--,fractures of the leg should be treated by applying a splint on each side1 long enough to reach from the knee to a little below the sole of the foot4 ,they should be carefully applied with bandages1 keeping the great toe in a line with the inner border of the knee-cap4 ,when the accident occurs in the open air1 the injured limb should be tied to the sound one1 till the patient is brought to a place of security1 the toes being prevented from pointing inwards4 ,lower ,jaw4--,manipulate the parts into their normal position and mould a splint of gutta percha1 or other material1 as accurately as possible to the lower jaw4 ,if a tooth is loose and prevents the two jaws meeting properly it should be taken out4 ,apply the splint and keep it in position by a bandage1 which should be split at the chin so as to encircle the point of the jaw2 the ends of the bandage are also split as far forward as the angle of the jaw2 two ends are tied behind the neck and two over the top of the head1 as in the diagram1 and these tied ends should be united by a bandage or tapes to keep them in position 7,fig4 #h74 ,in the absence of suitable material for making a splint1 this bandage alone will have to suffice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,fig4 #h4 ,the patient must be fed on slops through a tube passed behind the teeth1 or through a passage resulting from the loss of a tooth4 ,compound ,fractures4--,clean up thoroughly as described in the treatment of wounds4 ,wash out with an antiseptic solution1 dust with iodoform1 apply an antiseptic pad4 ,set the limb in such a manner that the wound can be dressed daily without interfering with the splints4 ,if the bone is protruding through the wound1 it must1 if possible1 be got back into position4 ,if this cannot be done it may be necessary to saw off the end of the bone to enable the wound to be closed4 ,if the wound is large1 deep1 or dirty1 it should be stuffed with antiseptic gauze so that free drainage may be allowed1 and the gauze should be changed each day4 ,after-treatment of ,fractures4--,gentle movements may be cautiously begun1 in the joints above and below the injury1 in about three weeks4 ,while these are being carried out1 the limb must be firmly supported to avoid interfering with the healing processes going on between the ends of the bones4 ,dislocations4 ,dislocations nearly always require skilled aid to reduce them4 ,shoulder-joint4--,patient cannot raise the arm to his head or perform any other shoulder movements freely4 ,the shoulder is flattened1 the elbow sticks out1 and the limb is usually lengthened4 ,treatment4--,the patient should lie down4 ,the operator removes his own boot on the same side as that of the patient's dislocation1 inserts his heel into the patient's armpit and draws the arm steadily down1 at the same time pressing the heel in an outward direction2 the dislocated bone should slip back into its proper position4 ,put a pad in the armpit and bandage the arm to the side for a week2 support arm in a sling for another week or two4 ,elbow-joint4--,dislocation of the bones of the forearm backwards at the elbow-joint is fairly common4 ,treatment4--,this dislocation can usually be reduced by placing the knee in front of the patient's elbow1 and making firm traction on the forearm--which is at the same time bent a little around the operator's knee4 ,the patient can be kept sitting in a chair while this is done1 and the operator can get his knee into the required position by placing his foot on the side of the chair4 ,hip-joint4--,is the most common form of dislocation4 ,the limb is shortened1 bent at the knee and twisted inwards1 the great toe of the injured limb resting on the instep of foot of the opposite limb4 ,the outer side of the hip is swollen and distorted4 ,treatment4--,grasp the ankle with one hand and the knee with the other4 ,lift up the leg and bend it at the hip1 then carry it as a whole away from the other limb as far as possible1 rotate the toes and foot firmly outwards1 and in that position bring the limb back parallel to the sound one4 ,after-treatment of ,dislocations4--,after dislocations1 gentle movement of the joints should be begun in two weeks1 so as to prevent them becoming fixed4 ,,poisons4 ,it is impossible1 in the small space available1 to give anything like a detailed scheme of the treatment of the various poisons1 but a few hints on the essential points must not be omitted4 ,i have therefore arranged a list of the commoner poisons1 together with the special treatment appropriate to each4 ,following this are a few hints more especially adapted to the requirements of travellers4 ,poison should be suspected 7a7 when severe and alarming symptoms of illness suddenly attack a person apparently in good health2 7b7 if the symptoms closely follow the taking of food1 drink1 or medicines2 7c7 if several people are attacked after having partaken of the same food or drink4 ,the points to be attended to in the treatment of cases of poisoning are3-- a4 ,remove as much of the poison as possible from the stomach4 ,to do this1 it is usual to give an emetic1 such as mustard and water1 or zinc sulphate1 thirty grains2 or to pass the soft rubber tube down the gullet1 and wash out the stomach with water4 b4 ,counteract the effect of the poison by an antidote4 c4 ,keep up the patient's strength till the poison is removed from the system4 d4 ,relieve pain4 ,travellers may be poisoned in the following ways3-- #a4 ,by poisonous bites1 arrow wounds1 etc4 #b4 ,by eating food poisoned by natives4 #c4 ,by eating poisonous plants1 etc4 #d4 ,by eating bad meat or fish4 ,the treatment of snake-bites and arrow wounds has already been dealt with4 ,poisoned food and poisonous plants4--,food is occasionally poisoned by natives1 either by adding strophanthus leaves or other poisons4 ,the eating of such articles may be followed by severe pain1 colic1 vomiting1 diarrha or other symptoms4 ,the general line of treatment should consist in giving emetics promptly1 washing out the stomach by means of the stomach tube1 and administering large quantities of water1 milk1 or gruel4 ,distressing symptoms should be treated as they arise2 thus1 if convulsions occur1 large doses of chloral or potassium bromide should be given2 if stupor or drowsiness comes on1 the patient should be forced to take hot coffee1 stimulants1 etc41 and made to walk about4 ,if collapse supervenes1 stimulants should be freely given1 the patient wrapped in blankets1 and hot bottles applied to the feet4 ,poisoning by bad meat1 fish1 etc4--,the symptoms of poisoning by bad meat1 etc41 are severe pains in the belly1 cramps1 and shivering fits1 followed by vomiting and diarrha coming on soon after its consumption1 occasionally within an hour or two4 ,the vomiting and diarrha are usually alarming and very severe1 causing great collapse1 and unless urgent remedies are applied1 death may occur4 ,the bodies of patients may be covered all over with irritating blotches1 red rashes or with nettle rash4 ,treatment4--,give an emetic at once4 ,administer a sharp purge to clear out the bowels4 ,use stimulants freely4 ,apply hot-water bottles and blankets4 ,give opium or chlorodyne1 fifteen drops every four hours until the pain is relieved4 ,milk and gruel or arrowroot4 ,,canoeing ,,and ,,boating4 ,by ,j4 ,,coles4 ,canoeing4 ,choice of a ,canoe4--,in making choice of a canoe the traveller must bear in mind that1 in all probability1 there will be rapids in the river1 which will necessitate a portage being made1 and that the canoe may have to be carried over rough ground for a considerable distance4 ,for this reason1 it is far better to take two canoes of moderate size than one large one1 besides which1 a small canoe is much more easily handled in bad water1 and even should it become necessary to carry a large load1 this can easily be done by lashing two small canoes together1 at about one yard apart1 and laying a platform across them1 on which to place the stores1 c4 ,this1 however1 should not be done in dangerous and rapid rivers4 ,the following remarks do not1 therefore1 apply to large canoes1 which1 having nearly the stability of a boat1 may be handled in the same manner4 ,paddles4--,it will generally be found that the native paddles will be best suited for the work4 ,the double-bladed paddle1 such as is used with the ,rob ,roy canoe1 is quite useless on a rapid and dangerous river4 ,sail4--,the sail should be made of duck1 or some such light material1 fastened to a light yard at each end1 and its hoist should be about twice its breadth2 its size must be in proportion to the canoe1 the hoist being about one-fourth of the canoe's length4 ,the mast should be as light as possible1 with a hole at the top for the halliards to pass through freely4 ,the end should be stepped in a chock in the bottom of the canoe 7when in use71 and it should be lashed to one of the stays1 or cross-pieces of the canoe4 ,the sail should never be used unless the wind is steady and abaft the beam1 and the halliards should be taken to the after part of the canoe in order to stay the mast1 and secured in such a manner that it can be instantly let go1 when the sail will at once fall1 and undue pressure on the canoe relieved4 ,the ,tow-line4--,too much attention cannot be paid to this important article4 ,it should be light1 but of the best material 7such as the rope used by the ,alpine ,club71 as its giving way at a critical moment in a rapid is sure to be attended with most serious results4 ,loading the ,canoe4--,the packages should not exceed #ej lbs4 in weight1 as they may have to be carried long distances over portages1 and care must be taken not to overload the canoe4 ,natives1 who are all good swimmers1 and have nothing to lose by a capsize1 are very apt to put more into a canoe than is safe1 so that it is a matter in which the traveller should use his own discretion4 ,in ascending a rapid river1 keep close to one of its banks1 and endeavour to take advantage of eddies4 ,it will often happen that1 owing to the strength of the stream1 no headway can be made with the paddles1 in which case recourse must be had to poling or tracking4 ,in the event of the former1 the poles should be straight and tough1 and as long as can be conveniently carried in the canoe4 ,natives generally stand up to pole1 but this the traveller should not attempt to do1 or he will in all probability either fall overboard1 or capsize the canoe1 or both4 ,in tracking1 as great a length of line as possible should be used1 as a sheer of the canoe in a rapid1 with a short line1 will often end in a capsize4 ,only two men should remain in the canoe1 one in the bow with a pole1 and the other in the stern with a paddle to steer2 this man should also have his pole handy4 ,the line should be made fast to one of the stays in the bow of the canoe1 and never to a towing mast1 as in a boat2 as in passing round bad corners1 or places where there are snags1 and where it is necessary to give the canoe a wide sheer1 the leverage of the mast1 if the line were fastened to the top of it1 would pull the canoe over4 ,the man in the bow1 however1 should always have his knife handy to cut the tow-line1 should necessity arise for his doing so4 ,in tracking1 when a river passes through sandy soil1 the men on the line should keep at some little distance from the edge of the bank1 as it is likely to give way under their weight1 and precipitate them into the river4 ,several men lost their lives in ,fraser ,river1 in the early days of the gold discovery1 by neglecting this precaution4 ,in crossing from one bank of a river to the other above a rapid1 be careful to ascend the river for a considerable distance before attempting to do so2 and then make the crew paddle as hard as they can1 keeping the head of the canoe1 if anything1 rather down the stream1 as in the case of a rapid river you would only lose ground by trying to fight against it4 ,in descending a river1 the traveller should keep a look-out ahead for snags and places where the river is narrowed in between hills1 as in such places there is nearly sure to be a rapid which may be so bad as to render navigation impossible4 ,in all cases before descending an unknown rapid1 he should land and inspect it throughout its entire length before attempting to run it in the canoe4 ,when descending a rapid1 care must be taken to keep steerage way on the canoe1 as this will be needed to avoid rocks1 or whirlpools4 ,these latter are very serious dangers1 as they generally do not remain fixed in one spot1 but move about within a certain distance of a centre4 ,there are1 however1 in most cases1 short intervals when they break up1 and that is the time to make a dash past them4 ,to attempt this when they are in full swing could only end in the loss of the canoe and its occupants4 ,boating4 ,when a traveller has to proceed for some distance overland before reaching a river or lake he purposes to navigate1 he must of necessity provide himself with a boat constructed in such a manner as to be easily transported1 either by being built in sections1 that can be put together and taken to pieces at pleasure1 or by taking one of the collapsible boats1 such as ,berthon's4 ,if the former1 he cannot do better than to have one built of ,spanish cedar1 on the same plan as that which was constructed for ,sir ,h4 ,m4 ,stanley1 by ,mr4 ,james ,messenger1 of ,teddington1 with such modifications as may be necessary1 when the means of transport1 and the nature of his journey1 have been duly considered4 ,collapsible boats1 though very useful for ferrying across lakes or rivers1 cannot1 where a boat of other construction is available1 be recommended for a continued exploration4 ,if the exploration is to be commenced at the mouth of the river1 a whale-boat will be found to be the best form of boat for the following reasons4 ,being steered by an oar1 it is more easily handled in surf or a rapid2 it is generally faster than boats of the same size of ordinary build2 it will carry a good cargo1 sail well off the wind1 and is the best boat built for crossing the bars of rivers1 or landing through a surf4 ,such a boat can generally be purchased at foreign ports1 with oars and sail1 and should be well overhauled before starting4 ,boat-sailing cannot be taught by any book1 and certainly not by a few short notes of this description4 ,the traveller1 therefore1 who intends using a boat for exploration1 should gather some experience before starting1 which can be done at any fishing village on the coast4 ,this will be the more necessary if he intends to use his boat on a lake1 or for sailing along the coast1 from the mouth of one river to another1 and the following hints may1 it is hoped1 be useful to those who have had but small experience in boat-sailing4 ,when under sail1 never1 under any circumstances1 allow the sheet to be made fast2 a turn should be taken round a cleat1 and it should be held by one of the crew ready to let go at any moment4 ,do not let the crew stand up1 or sit on the gunwale4 ,when about to round-to1 remember that you cannot carry the same canvas on a wind that you can before it4 ,if caught in a squall1 put down the helm at once1 ease the sheet1 and if the squall is a bad one1 lower the sail while it is still shaking4 ,when approaching a danger1 such as a rock1 do not stand on if you are in doubt about weathering it1 but go about in time1 and have an oar ready to help the boat round if she appears likely to miss stays4 ,never carry too much sail1 as there is considerable danger in doing so1 and a boat will often sail faster with a reef taken in1 than she will when unduly pressed4 ,if necessary to take in a reef when sailing on a wind1 do not luff1 but check the sheet1 lower the sail sufficiently to shift the tack1 gather the sheet aft so that the men may take in the reef without leaning over the gunwale1 shift the sheet1 hoist the sail1 while the sheet is slack1 and do not haul the sheet aft until the men are again in their places4 ,rowing4--,this can only be acquired by practice1 and though the traveller will seldom be called on to take an oar himself1 circumstances may arise when he may have to do so1 and we would1 therefore1 advise him to learn how to handle an oar before leaving ,england4 ,under ordinary circumstances1 rowing on a river is sufficiently simple1 and calls for no special instructions4 ,the case1 however1 is very different when a river bar has to be crossed1 or a landing made on a beach where a surf is breaking1 and in either case it will be well to remember the following hints4 ,on approaching the shore1 a surf when seen from seaward never looks so bad as it really is4 ,where possible1 a landing should not be attempted until opposite a village where the natives will be ready to assist the moment the boat touches the beach4 ,when the surf is heavy1 the boat should be backed in1 pulling a few strokes to meet each heavy sea1 and then backing in again until the shore is reached4 ,the great thing to avoid is1 letting the boat get broadside to the sea1 as she will then capsize2 a steer-oar should always be used1 as a rudder is of little use in a surf1 when backing in4 ,in crossing a bar1 if there is a good1 strong1 fair wind1 it will generally be best to cross under sail2 but if the wind is light or variable1 this should never be attempted4 ,when rowing1 the crew should be cautioned to keep their oars out of the water when the sea breaks round the boat1 and to commence rowing again as quickly as possible afterwards4 ,as even in the most experienced hands a boat will often be swamped on a bad bar1 it will be well1 before attempting to cross it1 to prepare for a swim by removing all superfluous clothing1 and see that everything that will float in the boat should be left free to float1 while things that will sink1 such as fire-arms1 c41 should be securely fastened to the thwarts4 ,the remarks given on canoeing with regard to loading1 to ascending and descending rapid rivers1 are equally applicable to boating under similar circumstances1 with the following exceptions4 ,in towing1 a short mast should be used to which the line is made fast2 this is stepped in the same place as the mast1 and should be stayed1 so as to resist the strain of the tow-line4 ,paddles will often be found useful in reedy rivers where the oars get entangled4 ,as a whale-boat empty will weigh about five hundredweight1 more care must be taken at portages than in the case of a canoe1 which can be lifted bodily over obstacles4 ,the stems of small trees1 or the oars should be laid down under the boat1 and1 where possible1 sharp rocks must be avoided or moved out of the way4 ,in a rapid1 two men should be in the bow with poles ready to fend off from rocks1 and the most experienced man of the crew should be in the stern with the steer-oar4 ,although in the foregoing remarks special reference has been made to whale-boats1 the hints given are equally applicable to boats of other construction1 which should1 however1 for river work1 crossing a bar1 or landing through a surf1 be fitted with a steer-oar in addition to the rudder4 ,awnings should be taken1 but in rapid rivers1 and when under sail1 they cannot be used4 ,,orthography ,,of ,,geographical ,,names4 ,by ,,maj4-,,gen4 ,,lord ,,edward ,,gleichen1 ,k4,c4,v4,o41 ,c4,b41 ,c4,m4,g41 ,d4,s4,o4 ,chairman of the ,permanent ,committee on ,geographical ,names4 ,in #ahgh the ,council of the ,r4,g4,s41 impressed with the necessity of endeavouring to reduce the confusion existing in ,british maps with regard to the spelling of geographical names1 in consequence of the variety of systems of orthography used by travellers and others to represent the sound of native place-names in different parts of the world1 formally adopted the general principle which had been long used by many1 and the recognition of which had been steadily gaining ground1 viz41 that in writing geographical native names vowels should have their ,italian significance1 and consonants that which they have in the ,english language4 ,this broad principle required elucidation in its details1 and a system based upon it was consequently drawn up with the intention of representing the principal syllabic sounds3 this has long been known as the ,r4,g4,s4 system4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the system thus drawn up was largely adopted by the ,war ,office1 the ,admiralty1 and other ,government ,departments and private societies4 ,but it was never officially sanctioned1 for ,india1 ,china1#ai ,egypt1 and many of our ,colonies had already their own system 7or want of system7 for spelling foreign words2 added to this1 the private firms of map-makers had their own views on the subject1 and still spelt their names in a bewildering variety of ways4 ,the matter came to a head in #aiai1 when the ,admiralty approached the ,royal ,geographical ,society with a request for the authoritative spelling of names4 ,a committee was accordingly formed1 with representatives from all ,government ,departments1 each of which bound itself to adopt the spelling recommended4 ,this 8,permanent ,committee on ,geographical ,names10 under the chairmanship of a ,member of ,council1 ,r4,g4,s41 at once got to work and proceeded to draw up3 #a4 ,a revised system of ,rules and ,alphabet1 termed the ,r4,g4,s4 ,,ii system1 amplifying and improving on the old ,r4,g4,s4 system of #ahgh4 7,this is given in the succeeding pages47 #b4 ,lists of doubtful names1 with their correct spelling and other details concerned4 7,these will be published periodically1 in the form of leaflets1 in the #8,geographical ,journal4'7 #c4 ,tables of ,foreign ,alphabets transcribed into the ,r4,g4,s4 ,,ii system4 7,these will be published shortly in the ,r4,g4,s4 ,technical ,series47 ,it is hoped that the above procedure will gradually result in the correct and uniform spelling of foreign ,place-,names throughout the ,empire4 ,it must also be noted that the ,government of the ,united ,states of ,america1 after an exhaustive enquiry1 has adopted a system in close conformity with that of the ,r4,g4,s41 and has directed that the spelling of all names in their vast territories should1 in cases where the orthography is at present doubtful1 be settled authoritatively by a ,board appointed for the purpose4 ,the two great ,english-speaking nations are thus working in harmony4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,spelling ,,of ,,geographical ,,names ,,for ,,british ,,official ,,use4 7,termed the ,r4,g4,s4 ,,ii system47 #a4 ,the spelling of every place-name in an independent country or self-governing dominion using the ,latin alphabet#bj shall be that adopted by the country or dominion1 except in the case in which certain important localities have also1 in addition to the official name1 another customary name1 notably different1 in which case the name customary in ,british use 7i4e41 8conventional07 may be adopted 7e4g41 ,geneva1 ,warsaw1 etc41 for ,genve1 ,warszawa1 etc474 #b4 ,the spelling of such place-names in colonial possessions as belong to languages coming under ,rule 7#a7 will be spelt in accordance with that rule4 #c4 ,the accents and diacritical marks in official use by the above countries will be retained4 ,wherever it appears desirable1 the pronunciation will be shown by giving the name as transliterated on the system below4 #d4 ,all other place-names throughout the world will 7with the exception of 8,conventional0 names and some others7 be spelled in general accordance with the following system1 which is based upon1 and differs only slightly from1 the system long used by the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 from which are derived the ,war ,office system1 #aijf1ba and the system of the ,intelligence ,division1 ,naval ,staff1 #aiag4bb ,the broad features of this system are-- 7a7 ,that vowels are pronounced as in ,italian and consonants as in ,english2 7b7 ,that every letter is pronounced1 and no redundant letters are used4 ,the system aims at giving a close approximation to the local pronunciation2 but it is recognised that in some languages1 notably ,russian1 ,greek1 and ,arabic1 the necessity for letter-for-letter transliteration often renders this impossible4 ,,table ,,of ,,spelling ,,and ,,pronunciation ,r4,g4,s4 ,,ii4 a ,long and short1 as in lv ,somli1 ,bukhr499 ,as in fat2 rare2 chiefly in ,teutonic languages4 ai ,the sound of the two ,italian vowels2 frequently slurred over1 almost as in ,eng4 aisle1 ice ,wadai2 ,shanghai4 au ,the two ,italian vowels2 frequently slurred1 almost as ou in out ,sakau2 ,bauchi4 aw ,when followed by a consonant1 or when terminal1 as in awl1 law ,dawna1 ,saginaw4 b ,as in ,english4 c ,not to be used1 but always replaced by ,kandahar1 ,serang4 k or s2 except in the compound ch1 and in many conventionally spelt words1 as ,calcutta1 ,celbes4 ch ,as in church2 never tch or tsch for this sound ,chad1 ,maroch4 d ,as in ,english4 dh ,soft th as in they3 a slight d sound preceding it in ,semitic languages ,dhuvu1 ,riyadh4 e ,long as in eh2 short as in bet4 7,for the e sound in the ,french je1 see note at end on the 8neutral vowel07 ,glo2 ,mafking499 7ee7 ,used for i 7q4v47 only in a few conventional names ,darjeeling1 ,keelung4 ei ,the two ,italian vowels1 frequently slurred ,beirut1 ,raheita4 7eu7 ,not used as a single sound4 f ,as in ,english2 ph must not be used for this sound 7except in ,greek2 see ph7 ,mustafa1 ,maidan-i-,naftun4 g ,hard1 as in get1 gift2 never as in gem1 gin ,gedref1 ,gilgit4 gh ,soft guttural1 the ,arabic ghain ,dagh1 ,baghdad4 h ,used only when sounded2 or in the compounds ch1 dh1 gh1 kh1 sh1 th1 zh ,vrh1 ,ahmadabad4 i ,long as in marine2 short as in piano 7not as in pin7 ,fiji2 ,kibonde499 j ,as in ,english2 except in transliteration of ,russian1 ,bulgarian1 and ,chinese1 where it equals zh1 or the ,french j ,japan1 ,ujiji 7,eng4 j72 but ,jitmir1 ,jelezna1 ,jao-ping 7,fr4 j74 k ,as in ,english3 hard c should never be used 7except in conventionally-spelt words7--thus1 not ,corea1 ,cabul1 but ,korea1 ,kabul4 kh ,hard aspirated guttural1 as in the ,scottish loch 7not as in lock7 ,khan1 ,sebkha4 l m ,as in ,english4 n ng ,has three separate sounds1 as in vanguard1 finger1 and singer4 ,if necessary to distinguish1 a hyphen may be placed1 as in van-guard1 sing-er ,in-gssana2 ,bongo2 ,ng-ami1 ,tong-a4 o ,long as in both2 short as in rotund ,angla1 ,kigma2 ,angra1 ,hnlulu499 ,as in ,german2 equals the ,french eu in peu2 or nearly the ,english sound in fur ,gmle1 ,yeniki4 7oo7 ,used for u 7q4v47 only in a few conventional names1 chiefly ,chinese ,poona1 ,foochow4 oi ,the ,italian vowels3 sometimes slurred as in oil4 ,if necessary for pronunciation1 a hyphen may be inserted as in ,tro-itskoi4 ou ,dissyllabic1 and not as ,french or ,english ou ,zlatoust4 ow ,represents1 as a diphthong1 nearly the au sound 7above7 only in the romanisation of ,chinese4 ,conventional4 p ,as in ,english4 ph ,as in loophole2 not to be used for the f-sound1 except in ,greek or conventionally ,chemulpho2 ,paphos1 ,haiphong4 q ,represents only the ,arabic ,qaf 773 i4e4 a guttural k ,qena1 ,iraq4 qu ,should never be employed to represent the sound of kw3 thus1 not ,namaqua1 ,quorra1 but ,namakwa1 ,kworra4 r ,as in ,english2 should be distinctly pronounced4 s ,as ,english ss in boss1 not as in these or pleasure ,rosario1 ,masikesi4 sh t ,as in ,english4 th ,hard th as in thick1 not as in this ,tharmida4 u ,long as in rude1 or as oo in boot2 short as in pull ,zl2 ,randa499 ,represents the ,french u1 as in tu 7,fr47 skb4 v w ,as in ,english4 x y ,always a consonant1 as in yard2 it should ,kikuyu1 ,maya4 not be used as a terminal vowel1 e or i being substituted2 e4g41 not ,kwaly or ,wady1 but ,kwale1 ,wadi4 z ,as in gaze1 not as in azure4 zh ,as the s in treasure1 the z in azure1 or the ,french j in je2 but for the sound in ,russian1 ,bulgarian1 and ,chinese use j 7vide note above under j7 ,zhob1 ,azhdaha4 ,,notes4 ,the doubling of a vowel or a consonant is only necessary when there is a distinct repetition of the single sound1 and should otherwise be avoided ,nuulua1 ,loolmalasin1 ,jidda1 ,muhammad4 ,accents should not generally be employed2 but in order to indicate or emphasise the stress1 an acute accent may be used ,sarwak1 ,qntara1 ,tong-atbu1 ,paran4 ,a long or short mark over a vowel 7e4g4 1 7 should only be used 7and that sparingly7 when without it there would be danger of mispronunciation ,kt1 ,hashn1 ,angra4 ,hyphens will not be used except to indicate pronunciation1 and with the ,persian izafat1 -i- ,mus-hil2 ,pusht-i-,kuh4 99 ,the long and short symbols given in this column are merely for explanation1 not for use4 ,see note at end on ,liquid sounds4 ,pronounced differently in ,greek3 see #8,alphabets of ,foreign ,languages transcribed into ,english according to the ,r4,g4,s4 ,,ii system' 7to be published in the ,r4,g4,s4 ,technical ,series74 ,this decision has been arrived at chiefly owing to the large number of ,english 7and ,french7 maps of these countries in which the zh sound appears as j4 ,the true ,italian is broader than this3 almost as in broth4 ,inverted ,comma and ,apostrophe4--,the inverted comma is employed only to represent the ,arabic ain1 1 and the ,hebrew ayin1 4 ,the apostrophe ' in foreign words indicates a liquid sound4 7,see below47 ,liquid ,sounds4--,the occasional 8liquid0 or 8palatalised0 sound of d1 l1 n1 r1 t1 etc4 7as in d'you1 lure1 new1 clarion1 tune71 is as a rule sufficiently represented by a following y2 where1 however1 owing to a following consonant1 or to the letter in question coming at the end of a word1 the y is inapplicable1 the liquid sound will be represented by an apostrophe1 thus3 d'1 l'1 n'1 r'1 t'1 etc4 ,the 8,neutral ,vowel04--,the 8indeterminate0 or 8neutral0 vowel sound 7er71 i4e4 the sound of a in marine1 e in often1 i in stir1 io in nation1 o in connect1 ou in curious1 u in difficult1 etc41 e in ,french je1 or the often unwritten vowel 7 ,fat-ha7 in ,arabic1 etc41 is represented as a rule by a3 as in ,basra1 ,hawiya2 but sometimes by e1 when the sound approximates more to e than to a3 as ,meshed1 ,el ,gezira4 7,in any guide to pronunciation issued by the ,permanent ,committee on ,geographical ,names1 the 8neutral vowel0 is represented generally by the italic e3 occasionally also by italic a or u47 ,this sound must not be confused with e-mute1 where the e is not sounded at all3 as in ,abbeville4 ,,on ,,the ,,giving ,,of ,,names ,,to ,,newly-,,discovered ,,places4 ,the ,council of the ,royal ,geographical ,society would urge upon all travellers that in giving names to any new discoveries which they may make they should be guided by the following restrictions1 which1 until comparatively recent years1 were commonly observed3-- #a4 ,that before putting forward any personal or fanciful name the traveller should do his best to ascertain that no local name exists1 and where none is forthcoming should further consider whether one might not conveniently be derived from the vicinity1 e4g41 from an adjacent stream1 or pasture1 or glacier1 or from some characteristic of the natural object itself4 #b4 ,that no one should commemorate himself in this manner4 #c4 ,that any new nomenclature which a traveller may desire to suggest should be put forward tentatively and subject to the approval 7#a7 of the ,administration of the region or country1 if there is one2 7#b7 of the ,official ,cartographer of the country1 if it possesses a ,survey ,department1 or of the ,state to which the region may belong2 or 7#c7 of the ,council of the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,,footnotes #a ,equivalents obtained by ,mr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,curtis using ,kppen's method4 ,see #8,symons's ,meteorological ,magazine1' #dj 7#aije71 p4 #aeg4 #b ,for comparison of scales see ,table ,,xxvi41 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #ccc4 ,to convert ,centigrade readings into ,fahrenheit the rule is 8,multiply by #a4h and add #cb40 ,this can be done mentally in a moment1 thus3 8,multiply by #b1 subtract one-tenth of the product1 and add #cb40 ,e4g41 to convert #aj ,c4 to ,f43 #aj #b #bj2 one-tenth of #bj #b2 #bj - #b #ah2 #ah #cb #ej ,f4 #c ,travellers in tropical countries will do wisely to poison all their labels before using them1 to preserve them from attacks of insects and mites4 ,washing with a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate is an efficient plan4 ,a large number of labels1 with the collector's name printed on them1 may be taken1 and if made of strong thin paper they will not occupy much space4 ,bank-note paper is well adapted for the purpose4 ,any writing should be1 if possible1 in ink2 if not1 a very hard black pencil should be used4 ,some tie labels should be added1 as paper coverings soon run short4 #d ,there are plenty of good works on the use of the blow-pipe4 ,the best are by ,plattner and ,scheerer1 of both of which ,english translations have been published4 ,of ,von ,kobell's tables for the determination of minerals1 several translations have appeared4 ,brush and ,penfield #aijf edition is a practical work4 ,a very portable outfit may be obtained from ,j4 ,t4 ,letcher1 ,truro1 ,cornwall4 #e ,in high latitudes care must be exercised in distinguishing between true raised beaches and ridges of beach material pushed up by the pressure of shore ice in winter4 #f ,in some valleys the lateral tributaries enter at a higher level than the floor of the main valley1 owing to the overdeepening of the latter2 this overdeepening has been attributed to four different causes3--7#a7 ,inequality in the hardness of the rocks1 especially when the main valley runs along the strike2 7#b7 the presence of joints1 or other lines of weakness2 7#c7 increased erosion of the main valley by river action owing to the elevation of the upper end of the district1 while the lateral valleys were merely tilted sideways1 or were protected by the presence of ice or lakes2 7#d7 erosion of the main valley by ice more rapidly than its tributaries1 owing to the ice being thicker in the former4 ,the problem is complicated by the fact that the upper end of the main valley is frequently a #8hanging' valley4 ,any evidence bearing on the formation of these #8hanging' valleys should be carefully noted4 #g ,travellers who intend to make collections of zoological specimens are advised to call on the ,secretary of the ,british ,museum 7,natural ,history71 ,cromwell ,road1 ,s4,w4 ,he will be happy to supply any information required4 #h ,general travelling outfit can be procured from ,messrs4 ,silver ,co41 #fg ,cornhill1 ,e4,c4 #i ,ejector guns are apt to get out of order in sandy countries4 #aj ,the shafts of old golf-drivers1 when shortened to about #b feet #f inches in length1 make the most perfect handles for nets4 #aa ,all the above-mentioned articles for collecting insects may be procured from ,mr4 ,janson1 #dd ,great ,russell ,street1 ,w41 or from ,messrs4 ,watkins ,doncaster1 #cf ,strand1 ,w4,c41 or from ,miss ,e4 ,m4 ,sharpe1 #d ,barrowgate ,road1 ,chiswick4 #ab ,cf4 ,british ,museum #8,handbook1' p4 #dg4 #ac ,cf4 ,british ,museum #8,handbook1' pp4 #ae-cb4 #ad ,much useful information may be found in the #8,manual of the ,mollusca1' by ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 ,f4,g4,s41 one of ,weale's series2 an admirable book in a small form4 #ae ,more extended accounts of the departments of the ,science of ,man here noticed will be found in ,tylor's #8,anthropology3 an ,introduction to the ,study of ,men and ,civilisation' 7,macmillan and ,co41 ,new edition1 #ahie74 #af ,some useful training under this head can be obtained at the ,london ,school of ,economics4 #ag ,in the case of sculptures1 owing to their deep depressions1 it is best to wet the paper before laying on4--,ed4 #ah ,a tourniquet is a special instrument devised for the purpose of applying pressure to the main vessels of the limbs2 in its absence1 one may be improvised by rolling a handkerchief into a narrow band1 and inserting a stone or a cork between its folds to serve as a pad2 the pad is adjusted over the spot where it is proposed to compress the vessel1 and the ends of the handkerchief knotted loosely round the limb4 ,a stick is now slipped between the knot and the limb1 and twisted round until sufficient pressure is exerted to arrest the bleeding4 #ai ,as far as ,british officials were concerned4 #bj ,including #8,latin' alphabets containing extra or modified letters1 such as esky1 ,croatian1 ,polish1 ,rumanian1 etc4 ,the pronunciation of these letters is given in the #8,alphabets of ,foreign ,languages1' etc41 mentioned below 7p4 #cja74 #ba #8,rules for the ,transliteration of ,place-names occurring on ,foreign ,maps4' ,compiled in the ,topographical ,section1 ,general ,staff1 by ,alexander ,knox1 ,b4,a41 ,map ,curator4 #aijf4 #bb #8,instructions for the ,spelling of ,place-names in ,foreign ,countries4' ,naval ,staff ,intelligence ,division4 #aiag4 ,,index4 ,abney1 ,sir ,w41 ,method of packing sensitive plates or films1 #eg2 method of using camera in hand or on tripod adopted by1 #ed2 reference to his work in photography1 #ei ,accessibility of a country1 the1 #aci ,aertex ,cellular clothing recommended for travellers1 #afd ,africa1 weather services of1 list of1 #db ,agricultural development1 suitability of a country for1 #adc ,algeria1 weather service of1 #db ,alps1 ,fhn of the1 #e ,amber objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeh ,america1 weather services of1 list of1 #db ,aneroid barometer1 #ca ,animal products1 on obtaining information concerning1 #add ,animals1 on observing habits of1 #ajd2 on preparation of skeletons of1 #id ,anthropology1 by ,dr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tyler1 #ajf-abi2 8,notes and ,queries on ,anthropology10 reference to1 #ajf2 ,queries of ,anthropology1 by ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks1 #abi-acb2 ,tylor's 8,anthropology10 reference to1 #abg ,anthropological ,notes by ,dr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,h4 ,duckworth1 #acb-acg ,antiquity1 objects of1 methods of recording1 cleaning and conserving1 #adh-aei2 on literary memoranda of characteristics of1 #aef ,antiseptics1 #bge ,ants1 #aih ,apoplexy1 symptoms and treatment1 #bcg ,apparatus and chemicals for photographic development1 #eh ,archologist's outfit1 #aei ,archology1 article on1 by ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 #adh-aei2 ,petrie's 8,methods and ,aims10 reference to1 #adi1 #aeh ,argentina1 weather service of1 #db ,arm1 fracture of1 treatment of1 #bhh ,arts and sciences1 native1 #aac2 queries on1 #acj ,asia1 weather services of1 list of1 #db ,assmann's aspiration psychrometer1 #bj ,atmosphere1 humidity of1 instruments for measuring1 #ah ,atmospheric conditions1 ways in which a traveller may add to the knowledge of1 #a ,atmospheric phenomena1 on recording observations of1 #aj ,atolls or coral-islands1 on the formation of1 #gg ,australasia and ,pacific1 weather services of1 list of1 #dc ,ball1 ,j41 ,preparation of dried plants1 #ii ,barometer vernier1 diagram showing how to read1 #bg ,barometers1 #be2 aneroid barometer1 #ca2 ,collie portable mercurial barometer1 #bi2 ,fortin barometer1 #bf1 rules for observing with1 #bg ,bartholomew's 8,atlas of ,physical ,geography10 vol4 iii41 ,meteorology1 reference to1 #cg1 #da ,bates1 ,h4 ,w41 and ,w4 ,r4 ,ogilvie-,grant1 article on ,natural ,history1 #hb-aje ,baths1 directions for giving an invalid1 #bga ,baths1 cold1 in ,africa1 dangers of1 #afh ,batrachians1 naturalist's outfit for preserving1 #he ,beaufort's scale of wind force1 #d ,bed-sore1 treatment of1 #aga ,beri-beri1 #aga ,bilharzia worm1 #bdi ,birds1 hints on collecting1 #ia2 instruments for skinning1 #hd ,blackham1 8,primer of ,tropical ,hygiene10 #afa ,blackwater fever1 symptoms and treatment1 #agb ,bladder1 inflammation of1 #aha ,blanford1 ,h4 ,f41 portable thermometer screen devised by1 #ae ,blanford1 ,w4 ,t41 and ,prof4 ,e4 ,j4 ,garwood1 article on ,geology1 #fc-gh ,bleeding or hmorrhage1 treatment of1 #bgg ,blindness1 night and snow1 precautions against1 #aii ,blood-poisoning1 treatment of1 #bhj ,blow-pipe1 reference to ,plattner and ,scheerer's work on the use of1 #fg ,boating and ,canoeing1 note by ,j4 ,coles1 #bic-big ,boils1 treatment of1 #bbf ,bonacina1 8,climatic ,control10 #da ,bone objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeh ,bones of human limbs1 on taking measurements of1 #acf ,botanical collecting1 #ii ,botanical seeds1 on preserving1 #ajb ,botanical specimens1 on the selection of1 #ii2 conveyance of1 to camp or station1 #ii2 drying press for1 #ajj ,brain1 concussion of the1 symptoms and treatment1 #agi ,brazil1 weather service of1 #db ,british ,association manual 8,notes and ,queries on ,anthropology10 reference to1 #ajf ,british ,central ,africa1 weather service of1 #db ,broca's scale of colours of native races1 reference to1 #ajh ,bronchitis1 symptoms and treatment1 #agd ,bronze objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeg ,bruises1 treatment of1 #bha ,bubonic plague1 causes1 symptoms and treatment1 #bae ,buchan1 ,dr4 ,a41 and ,dr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,herbertson1 8,atlas of ,meteorology10 reference to1 #cg1 #da ,buffalo gnats1 #aie ,bugs1 protection against1 #aig ,bulbs1 on collecting and packing1 #ajc ,burns and scalds1 treatment of1 #age ,burroughs and ,welcome's photographic exposure record1 reference to1 #ef ,buys ,ballot's law1 #dj ,camera1 photographic1 #ea2 selection of1 #ea2 hand-camera1 #eb ,camera level1 circular cup form1 #ed ,camera-stand1 #ed ,canada1 weather service of1 #db ,canoeing and ,boating1 note by ,j4 ,coles1 #bic-big ,carbuncles1 treatment of1 #bbg ,catheters1 directions for using1 #bgb ,cellulitis1 symptoms and treatment1 #bhj ,centigrade thermometer readings1 rule for converting into ,fahrenheit1 #ac ,cerebro-spinal fever1 #age ,ceylon1 weather service of1 #db ,charts1 meteorological1 of the ,n4 ,atlantic and ,mediterranean1 and ,n4 ,pacific1 #da ,chemicals for photographic development1 #eh ,chicken-pox1 rash1 symptoms and treatment1 #agf ,chigger1 #bbh ,chile1 weather service of1 #db ,chill in tropical climates1 risks of1 #afd ,chilblains and frostbite1 treatment of1 #agg ,china1 weather service of1 #db ,chinook wind of the ,rocky ,mts41 #e ,cholera1 cause1 symptoms and treatment1 #agg ,clap 7see ,gonorrha7 ,cleaning and conserving monuments and objects of antiquity1 methods of1 #aef ,climate1 hints on recording observations concerning1 #ade ,climatology1 8,handbook of ,climatology10 by ,prof4 ,r4 de ,c4 ,ward1 reference to1 #da2 ,hann's 8,handbuch der ,klimatologie10 reference to1 #da2 ,meteorology and ,climatology1 article on1 by ,dr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,mill1 #a-ej1 list of works on1 #da ,cloud and sunshine1 on keeping record of changes of1 #e ,clouds1 types of1 #f2 on photographing1 #g ,coasts1 geological notes on1 #ga ,cold in the head1 #aha ,coles1 ,j41 his note on ,canoeing and ,boating1 #bic-big ,colic1 treatment of1 #agi ,collar-bone fracture1 treatment of1 #bhg ,collie portable mercurial barometer1 description and illustration of1 #bi-ca ,colour photography1 ,ives' method1 #fb ,colour of native races1 ,broca's scale of1 reference to1 #ajh ,commerce1 ,industry and1 article on by ,sir ,j4 ,s4 ,keltie1 #ach-adg ,commercial development1 on ascertaining facilities and hindrances to1 #adf 8,commission ,internationale des ,glaciers10 reports of the1 reference to1 #ha ,communication between countries1 on observing what natural means exist1 #adf ,concussion of the brain1 symptoms and treatment1 #agi ,conserving monuments and objects of antiquity1 methods of1 #aef ,constipation1 treatment of1 #ahj ,continental climate1 #ce ,copper and bronze objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and 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tropics1 errors of1 #afe ,diphtheria1 causes1 symptoms and treatment1 complications1 #ahd ,diseases1 classification of1 #agj ,diseases and their ,treatment1 #afi-bgd ,disfigurements1 personal1 of native races1 queries on1 #aca ,dislocations1 treatment of1 #bij ,dobson1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,e41 his hints on preserving mammals and birds1 #ib ,doldrums1 #cg ,domestic animals1 on obtaining information concerning1 #add ,drowning1 treatment of cases of1 #bhc ,drugs recommended for travellers1 #bec ,drying-press for botanical specimens1 description of1 with illustrations1 #ajj-ajb ,duckworth1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,h41 his ,anthropological ,notes1 #acb-acg ,dutch ,east ,indies1 weather service of1 #db ,dwarfs1 native1 on the measurements of bones and skulls of1 #acg ,dysentery1 symptoms and treatments1 #ahe ,eikonogen photographic developing powder1 #ei ,elbow-joint dislocation1 treatment of1 #bij ,emetics1 list of1 #bei ,enemas1 #bei1 #bgc ,enteric or typhoid fever1 causes1 symptoms and treatment1 #ahi ,epilepsy1 symptoms and treatment1 #aia ,erysipelas1 symptoms and treatment1 #bgi ,exposure tables1 photographic1 #ef ,extra-,european weather services1 list of1 #db ,eyeball1 inflammation of the1 #aih ,fahrenheit thermometer readings1 rule for converting ,centigrade into1 #ac ,faintness1 treatment of1 #aia ,fibres1 on observing the nature of1 #ada ,filariasis1 cause of1 #aia ,filters recommended for travellers1 #aff ,first aid treatment1 works on1 #afa ,fisheries1 on obtaining information concerning1 #add ,fishes1 hints on collecting and preserving1 #if2 outfit for preserving1 #he ,fleas and bugs1 protection against1 #aif ,flies1 house2 tsetse2 ,congo floor-maggot1 #aie ,flower1 ,sir ,w4 ,h41 his directions for the preparation of skeletons of animals1 #id ,flower's craniometer1 #ace ,focus of camera lens1 #ef ,focussing cloth of camera1 #ed ,fog1 on recording density and duration of1 #g ,fhn of the ,alps1 #e ,folk-,lore ,society1 ,handbook1 #abi ,forests1 on observing the character of1 #ada ,fortin barometer1 #bf2 rules for observing with1 #bg ,fossils1 hints on collecting1 #fh1 #ajd ,fractures1 #bhf2 simple1 treatment of1 #bhf2 compound1 treatment of1 #bhi ,franks1 ,sir ,a4 ,w41 ,queries of ,anthropology1 #abi-acb ,frost1 on recording appearance of1 #i ,frostbite1 treatment of1 #agg ,fruits1 on observing the nature of1 #ada ,fungus diseases1 #bbi ,garry1 8,health in ,tropical ,climates10 #afa ,garwood1 ,prof4 ,e4 ,j4 7see ,blanford1 ,w4 ,t47 ,geographical ,names1 ,r4,g4,s4 system of orthography of1 #cjj ,geography1 ,physical1 ,bartholomew's ,atlas of1 vol4 iii41 ,meteorology1 reference to1 #cg1 #da ,geological collections1 hints on making1 #fe ,geological observations1 #fc ,geologist's outfit1 #fd ,geology1 article on1 by ,w4 ,t4 ,blanford and ,prof4 ,e4 ,j4 ,garwood1 #fc-gh2 ,dr4 ,charles ,darwin and ,prof4 ,j ,phillips' article on1 in the 8,admiralty ,manual of ,scientific ,enquiry10 reference to1 #fh ,giants1 native1 on the measurements of bones and skulls of1 #acg ,glacial action1 on the evidence of1 #gd ,glacier movements1 ,gosset's and ,richter's systems of measuring1 #gi ,glacier observations1 memorandum on1 #gh-ha ,glaciers1 8,commission ,internationale des ,glaciers0 reports1 reference to1 #ha ,glass objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeh ,glazed objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeh ,gleet1 #aib ,gleichen1 ,maj4-,gen4 ,lord ,edward1 ,orthography of ,geographical ,names1 #bih ,godwin-,austen1 ,lt4-,col4 ,h4 ,h41 his notes on collecting mollusca1 #ig ,gonorrha1 symptoms and treatment1 #aib ,gosset's system of measuring glacier movements1 #hj ,guatemala1 weather service of1 #db ,guinea worm1 treatment for1 #bdg ,hmorrhage1 treatment of1 #bgg ,hail1 on recording occurrence of1 #h ,hand-camera1 the1 #eb ,hann's 8,handbuch der ,klimatologie10 reference to1 #da ,hawaii1 weather service of1 #dc ,hay fever1 symptoms and treatment1 #aib ,haze1 on recording density and duration of1 #g ,health in a tropical climate1 risks to1 #afc ,health in the tropics1 ,simpson's 8,maintenance of ,health in the ,tropics10 reference to1 #afh ,heat-stroke1 #bch ,helm wind of the ,eden ,valley1 ,england1 and of ,adam's ,peak1 ,ceylon1 #e ,herbertson1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,j4 7see ,buchan1 ,dr4 ,a47 ,hernia1 #bbj ,hip-joint dislocation1 treatment of1 #bij ,hogarth1 ,d4 ,g41 his article on ,archology1 #adh-aei ,hongkong1 weather service of1 #db ,hook-worm1 #bdh ,human body1 diagram showing some of the principal organs of the1 and the course of the main blood-vessels1 #afb ,human limbs1 on making measurements of bones of1 #acf ,human skeleton1 diagram of the1 #bhe ,humidity1 table of relative1 #dd-di2 explanation1 #dc ,hut for sheltering thermometers1 description of1 with illustration1 #af ,hygrometers1 #ah ,hypodermic injections1 directions for giving1 #bfi2 different injections to use1 #bga ,india1 weather service of1 #db ,individuals of giant and dwarf stature1 on the measurements of bones and skulls of1 #acg ,industry and ,commerce1 article on1 by ,sir ,j4 ,s4 ,keltie1 #ach-adg ,infectious fevers1 #afi ,influenza1 #aic ,inhabitants1 native1 on observing the character of1 #adg ,injuries1 treatment of1 #bge-bib ,inoculation1 #afh ,insect pests1 #aid ,insects1 outfit for collecting1 #hf2 hints on preserving1 #ii ,instrumental meteorological observations1 #aa ,iritis1 symptoms and treatment1 #aih ,iron objects of antiquity1 on1 #aeg ,irrigation1 on1 #adb ,isobaric maps1 #ej1 note on1 #ci ,isohyets1 #dj ,isolation of an infectious complaint1 importance of1 #afi ,isothermal maps1 #ej1 note on1 #ch ,itch1 #aig ,ives' method of natural colour photography1 #fb ,ivory and wood carving of native races1 queries on1 #aca ,ivory objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeh ,jaundice1 #aii ,jaw1 lower1 fracture of1 treatment of1 #bhh ,jigger or sand-flea1 prevention against and treatment1 #bbh ,kala-azar1 #bjb ,keltie1 ,sir4 ,j4 ,s41 his article on ,industry and ,commerce1 #ach-adg ,kraw ,kraw1 symptoms and treatment1 #bcj ,krmskp photography1 #fb ,labels for geological specimens1 how to preserve1 #fe ,labour connected with development of a country's resources1 on obtaining information concerning the1 #adg ,lakes and tarns1 geological notes on1 #gc ,languages1 native1 on1 #aaj2 on recording vocabularies of1 #aaa ,laryngitis1 symptoms and treatment1 #bjj ,lead and iron objects of antiquity1 on1 #aeg ,leeches1 treatment for removing1 #bja ,leg fracture1 treatment of1 #bhh ,leishmaniasis1 #bjb ,lenses1 camera1 #ed ,level1 camera1 #ed ,lice1 treatment for destroying1 #aif ,literary memoranda of characteristics of monuments and objects of antiquity1 #aef ,liver1 abscess of1 treatment of1 #bjc2 acute inflammation of1 treatment of1 #bjc2 congestion of1 symptoms and treatment1 #bjb ,loess deposits1 #gf ,lungs1 inflammation of the 7see ,pleurisy and ,pneumonia7 ,madagascar1 weather service of1 #db ,malaria1 #bjd2 methods of prevention1 #bjf2 symptoms and treatment1 #bje ,malta fever1 #bdd ,mammals1 instruments for skinning1 #hd ,mammals and birds1 hints on collecting1 #ia2 on preserving1 #ib ,man1 early history of1 in tropical climates1 notes on1 #gf ,manufactures of native races1 queries on1 #acj ,maps1 isobaric1 #ej1 note on1 #ci2 isothermal1 #ej1 note on1 #ch2 rainfall1 #ej1 note on1 #dj2 weather1 daily synoptical1 #da ,maritime climate1 #ce ,marett1 ,r4 ,r41 ,note on ,anthropology1 #abi ,marriott's 8,hints to ,meteorological ,observers10 reference to1 #dc ,marshes1 on observing special features of1 #adb ,masterman1 8,hygiene and ,disease in ,palestine10 #afa ,maudslay1 ,a4 ,p41 directions for making squeezes of sculptures1 #aea ,mauritius1 weather service of1 #db ,maximum thermometers1 #bc ,mc,intosh1 ,j43 ,hints on ,photography1 revised by1 #ea ,measles1 rash1 symptoms1 treatment1 complications1 #baa ,medical appliances1 medicines1 c41 #beb-bgd ,medical guides suitable for travellers1 list of1 #afa ,medical ,hints1 by ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,crosse1 and ,dr4 ,a4 ,balfour1 #afj-bgd ,medicines1 medical appliances1 c41 #beb-bgd ,metals of a country1 hints on observing1 #adj 8,meteorological ,observers1 ,hints to10 by ,w4 ,marriott1 reference to1 #dc ,meteorology1 ,bartholomew's ,atlas of1 reference to1 #cg1 #da ,meteorology and ,climatology1 article on1 by ,dr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,mill1 #a-ej2 list of works on1 #da 8,methods and ,aims in ,archology10 by ,prof4 ,petrie1 reference1 #adi1 #aeh ,mexico1 weather service of1 #db ,mill1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,r41 his article on ,meteorology and ,climatology1 #a-ej2 8,realm of ,nature10 reference to1 #da ,minerals1 ,von ,kobell's tables for determination of1 reference to1 #fg ,minerals and metals of a country1 hints on observing the1 #adj ,minimum thermometer1 #bj2 care of1 #ba ,mist1 fog and haze1 on recording density and duration of1 #g ,mode of subsistence of native races1 queries on1 #abi ,mollusca1 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward's 8,manual of the ,mollusca10 reference to1 #ig ,mollusca1 land and freshwater1 hints on collecting1 #ig ,money of native races1 queries on1 #aca ,monuments and objects of antiquity1 methods of recording1 cleaning and conserving1 #adh-aei2 on literary memoranda of characteristics of1 #aef ,mosquito curtains1 #bjf ,mosquitoes1 propagation of malaria by1 #bjd2 protection from1 #bjf ,mosquitoes and midges1 protection against1 and treatment of bites of1 #aid ,moulding1 on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of1 #adi ,mountain-chains1 geological notes on1 #gj ,mumps1 #baa ,myer1 8,atlas of ,first ,aid ,treatment10 #afa ,myiasis1 #bab ,mythology of native races1 #abd2 queries on1 #acj ,names1 on the giving of1 to newly-discovered places1 #cjf ,names1 geographical1 ,r4,g4,s4 system of orthography of1 #cjj ,native races1 physical character of1 #ajf1 queries on1 #abi2 ,broca's scale of colours of1 reference to1 #ajh2 language of1 #aaj2 arts and sciences of1 #aac1 queries on1 #acj2 social life of1 #aah2 religion and mythology of1 #abd1 queries on1 #acj2 customs of1 #abf1 queries on1 #acj2 mode of subsistence of1 queries on1 #abi2 ivory and wood carving of1 queries on1 #aca2 money of1 queries on1 #aca2 personal ornaments1 disfigurements1 c41 of1 queries on1 #aca2 skulls of1 observations on1 #acb-acf ,natives1 wants of1 hints on observing1 #aci ,natural ,history1 article on1 by ,h4 ,w4 ,bates and ,w4 ,r4 ,ogilvie-,grant1 #hb-aje2 8,handbook of ,instructions for ,collectors10 reference to1 #hg2 where and what to collect1 #hi ,natural history specimens1 hints on collecting and preserving1 #hg2 outfit for1 #hh ,naturalist's outfit1 #hb-hf ,negretti and ,zambra's maximum thermometers1 #bc ,neligan1 8,hints for ,travellers in ,persia10 #afa ,new ,zealand1 weather service of1 #dc ,night-blindness1 protection against1 #aii 8,notes and ,queries on ,anthropology10 ,british ,association manual of1 reference to1 #ajf ,ocean-,basins1 on the permanence of1 #gf ,ogilvie1 ,a4 ,c41 ,memorandum on glacier observations1 #gh ,ogilvie-,grant1 ,w4 ,r41 and ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 article on ,natural ,history1 #hb-aje ,ophthalmia1 simple1 symptoms and treatment1 #bac ,oriental sore1 #bca ,organs of the human body1 diagram showing some of the principal1 #afb ,ornaments1 personal1 of native races1 queries on1 #aca ,orthochrome plates1 #fb ,orthography of ,geographical ,names1 ,r4,g4,s4 system of1 #cjj 8,outfit1 ,hints on10 reference to1 #afd ,pacific1 weather service of the1 #dc ,paget colour plate1 #fb ,papyrus1 on conserving1 #aeh ,parasites1 diseases produced by1 #agj ,paratyphoid fevers1 #ahi ,paste objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeh ,pasteur-,chamberland filter1 #aff ,peru1 weather service of1 #db ,petrie's 8,methods and ,aims in ,archology10 reference to1 #adi1 #aeh ,philippine ,islands1 weather service of1 #db ,phillips' maximum thermometers1 #bc ,phillips1 ,prof4 ,j4 7see ,darwin1 ,dr4 ,charles7 ,photographic apparatus and chemicals for development1 #eh ,photographic exposure record1 #ef ,photographic outfit1 list of1 with prices1 #fa-fb ,photography1 article on1 by ,j4 ,thomson and ,j4 ,mc,intosh1 #ea-fb2 ,sir ,w4 ,abney's work on1 reference to1 #ei2 ,w4 ,k4 ,burton's work on1 reference to1 #ei2 ,robinson's 8,pictorial ,effect in ,photography10 reference to1 #fj2 photography in natural colours1 #fa2 photography of object of antiquity1 #adh ,physical characters of natives1 on observing the1 #ajf2 queries on1 #abi ,piles1 internal and external1 treatment of1 #bad ,plague1 bubonic1 causes1 symptoms and treatment1 #bae ,plants1 living and succulent1 on packing1 #ajc ,plattner and ,scheerer's work on the use of the blow-pipe1 reference to1 #fg ,pleurisy1 symptoms and treatment1 #bag ,pneumonia1 symptoms and treatment1 #bag ,poisons1 treatment of the various1 #bia ,pottery and terra-cotta objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeg ,poultices1 directions for making1 #bgd ,pox1 #bci ,precautions on the voyage1 #afg ,prickly heat1 treatment for1 #bcj ,psychrometer1 ,assmann's ,aspiration1 description of1 with illustration1 #bj ,pulse1 normal rate of1 #bfi ,purgatives1 #ahj1 #bfd ,queries of ,anthropology1 by ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks1 #abi-acb ,quinine1 use of1 for malaria1 #bfe ,quinsy1 treatment of1 #bah ,railways1 inquiry as to routes suitable for1 in new country1 #adf ,rain and dew1 on recording prevalence of1 #g ,rainfall maps1 #ej1 note on1 #dj ,rain-gauge1 #bd ,raised beaches1 #gb ,ramsay1 ,sir ,a41 reference to his views on the formation of rock-basins1 #gd 8,realm of ,nature10 by ,dr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,mill1 reference to1 #da ,recording monuments and objects of antiquity1 methods of1 #adh-aef ,relapsing fever1 #bah ,religion and mythology of native races1 #abd2 queries on1 #acj ,reptiles1 naturalist's outfit for preserving1 #he ,reptiles and fishes1 on collecting and preserving1 #if ,resources of a country1 inquiry into1 #aci ,respiration1 normal rate of1 #bfi ,rheumatism1 #bai ,ribs1 fracture of1 treatment of1 #bhg ,richter's system of measuring glacier movements1 #hj ,richthofen1 ,baron ,f4 von1 reference to his description of loess formations1 #gf ,ringworm1 treatment of1 #bcj ,rivers and river-plains1 geological notes on1 #gb ,roads1 native1 on observing the nature of1 #adf ,robinson's 8,pictorial ,effect in ,photography10 reference to1 #ei ,rock-basins1 on the formation of1 #gc2 reference to ,sir ,a4 ,ramsay's views on1 #gd ,round worm1 treatment for1 #bdg ,royal ,geographical ,society1 on the giving of names to newly-discovered places1 #cjf2 system of orthography of geographical names1 #cjj ,rubbings1 on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of1 #aed ,rupture1 treatment of1 #bbj ,ryan1 8,health ,preservation in ,west ,africa10 #afa ,salvador1 weather service of1 #db ,salvin1 ,o41 hints on collecting reptiles and fishes1 #if ,sand-flea 7see ,jigger7 ,sand-fly fever1 #bba ,scabies1 symptoms and treatment1 #aig ,scalds1 treatment of1 #age ,scarlet fever1 or scarlatina1 symptoms1 treatment1 complications1 #bbb ,scheerer 7see ,plattner7 ,sciences of native races1 #aac ,scorpion sting1 #bbc ,screw worm1 #bab ,scurvy1 symptoms and treatment1 #bbd ,sea-sickness1 treatment of1 #bbf ,sensitive plates or films1 #eg2 ,sir ,w4 ,abney's method of packing1 #eg2 how to keep dry1 #eh2 slides for holding1 #ed ,shaw1 ,sir ,napier3 8,forecasting ,weather10 #da ,shoulder-joint dislocation1 treatment of1 #bij ,simpson1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,j41 8,the ,maintenance of ,health in the ,tropics10 reference to1 #afa ,skeleton1 human1 diagram of the1 #bhe ,skeletons of animals1 on the preparation of1 #id ,skin diseases1 #bbf ,skulls1 human1 observations on1 #acb-acf ,sleeping sickness1 symptoms and treatment1 #bcc ,sleeplessness1 treatment for1 #bce ,slides for holding sensitive plates1 #ed ,sling thermometer1 #ag ,small-pox1 rash1 symptoms and treatment1 #bcf ,snow1 on recording falls of1 #i ,snow-blindness1 protection against1 #aii ,social life of native races1 #aah ,spectacles for preventing snow-blindness1 illustration of1 #aii ,spider bite1 #bbc ,sprains1 treatment of1 #bha ,sprue1 symptoms and treatment1 #bcg 8,squeezes10 on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of1 #aej ,stevenson thermometer screen1 #ad ,stomach tube1 directions for using1 #bgc ,stone objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeg ,stroke1 #bcg ,sun in the tropics1 effects of the1 upon the human body1 #afe ,sunshine1 cloud and1 on keeping record of changes of1 #e ,sun-stroke1 symptoms and treatment1 #bch ,surface of a country1 on observing the character of1 #ada ,surgical cleanliness1 importance of1 #bge ,surgical dressing case recommended to travellers1 #bec ,syphilis1 symptoms and treatment1 #bci ,table of relative humidity1 #dd-di1 explanation1 #dc2 showing pressure of saturated aqueous vapour in inches of mercury at latitude #de for each degree ,fahrenheit from -#cj to #aai1 #ej ,tape-worms1 treatment for1 #bdf ,tarns1 geological notes on1 #gc ,tariffs existing in a country1 on obtaining information concerning1 #adg ,temperature of human body1 normal1 #bfi2 taking the1 different ways of1 #bfi ,terra-cotta objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeg ,thermometer corrections1 #ab ,thermometer scales1 #ab2 rule for converting ,centigrade readings into ,fahrenheit1 #ac ,thermometer screens1 #ad2 ,blanford's portable1 #ae2 for permanent station in hot countries1 form recommended by ,british ,association most suitable1 #ae2 ,stevenson's1 #ac ,thermometers1 on the care of1 #ac2 boiling-point1 #ca2 dry and wet bulb1 table showing difference between readings of1 #dd-di1 explanation1 #ac2 maximum1 #bc1 ,negretti and ,zambra's form1 #bc1 ,phillips' form1 #bc2 minimum1 #bj1 care of1 #ba2 sling1 #ag ,thigh fracture1 treatment of1 #bhh ,threadworm1 treatment for1 #bdg ,thomson1 ,j41 article on ,photography1 #ea-fb ,throat1 ulceration of the1 treatment of1 #bdd ,thunderstorms and hail1 on recording the occurrence of1 #h ,tick fever1 symptoms and treatment1 #bda ,ticks1 treatment for1 #aig ,timber of a country1 on ascertaining the characteristics of1 #ada ,tonsils1 inflammation of the 7see ,quinsy7 ,tornadoes1 making record of1 #e ,tourniquet1 description and use of1 #bgg ,trade1 on obtaining information concerning1 #add ,trephine-holes in human skulls1 #acc ,tropical ulcer1 #bcb ,tubers1 on packing1 #ajc ,tumbu fly1 #bab ,tylor1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,b41 his article on ,anthropology1 #ajf-abi2 his 8,anthropology3 an ,introduction to the ,study of ,men and ,civilisation10 reference to1 #abg ,tyndall's method of ascertaining velocity of glacier movements1 #ha ,typhoid fever1 #ahi ,typhus fever1 #bdc ,ulceration of the throat1 treatment of1 #bdd ,ulcers1 treatment of1 #bca1 #bcb ,underclothing recommended for tropical climates1 #afd ,undulant fever1 #bdd ,united ,states1 weather service of1 #db ,urine1 retention of1 symptoms and treatment1 #bde2 suppression of causes and treatment1 #bdf ,uruguay1 weather service of1 #db ,vaccination essential to travellers1 #afh ,vegetable products of a country1 hints on observing1 #ada ,vegetation1 on observing character of1 #adb ,ver macaque1 #bab ,vocabularies1 native1 on recording1 #aaa ,volcanic rocks1 on1 #ga ,volcanoes and volcanic rocks1 on1 #ga ,von ,kobell's tables for determination of minerals1 reference to1 #fg ,voyage1 precautions on the1 #afg ,ward1 ,prof4 ,r4 de ,c41 8,handbook of ,climatology10 reference to1 #da ,water1 risks due to drinking1 #aff ,water communication of a country1 inquiry as to1 #adf ,waterspouts1 on the theoretical importance to determine direction of the whirl about the axis of1 #e ,weather1 hints on keeping a record of1 #b2 observations for forecasting the1 #cb-ce4 ,weather-maps1 daily synoptical1 #da ,weather services1 extra-,european1 list of1 #db-dc ,west ,indies1 weather service of1 #db ,wet pack for invalid1 directions for giving1 #bgb ,whirlwinds1 usefulness of making records of1 #e ,wind1 observations of direction and force of1 #c2 ,beaufort's scale of wind force1 #d ,windpipe1 inflammation of the1 #agd1 #bjj ,wood1 ivory1 and bone objects of antiquity1 on cleaning and conserving1 #aeh ,wood carving of native races1 queries on1 #aca ,woodward1 ,s4 ,p41 8,manual of the ,mollusca10 reference to1 #ig ,worms producing disease1 different kinds of1 treatment1 #bdf ,wound1 directions to clean and dress a1 #bge ,wounds1 after-treatment of1 #bgi ,wounds1 poisoned1 treatment of1 #bha ,wounds and injuries1 treatment of1 #bge-bib ,yellow fever1 symptoms and treatment1 #bej ,young1 ,hastings3 8,first ,aid to the ,sick10 #afa ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,duke ,,street1 ,,stamford ,,street1 ,s4,e4 #a1 ,,and ,,great ,,windmill ,,street1 ,w4 #a4