,,the ,,useful ,,arts ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,dwelling ,,houses4 ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,,john ,w4 ,,parker1 ,,west ,,strand4 ,,mdcccli4 ,,london3 ,,savill ,,and ,,edwards1 ,,printers1 ,,chandos ,,street4 ,,preface4 ,the dwellings of mankind1 at first rude and simple in the extreme1 increase in complexity as their inhabitants advance in civilization4 ,primitive dwellings are scarcely distinguished by signs of superior skill or sagacity above the holes and nests of the lower animals4 ,the hut of the ,hottentot may be considered as an inverted nest1 and it is certainly not more ingenious than the nests of many birds2 but where man constructs such a habitation for himself1 he is invariably in a low state of civilization4 ,the wants of the bird are few and simple1 and the nest is a temporary abode annually constructed and annually deserted3 the wants of man1 in a state of nature1 are almost as limited1 and thus the ,hottentot's hut affords him as good a nest as he desires4 ,but when he steps forth into the rank which the ,creator has destined him to fill2 when he feels that he is a responsible being1 the creation of an ,almighty ,power to whom worship is due2 when he finds that the productions of the earth are capable of being rendered useful to him by the exercise of his ingenuity1 and that his own mental powers are capable of being developed by communion with1 and by the assistance of his fellow-men2--then the hut--the inverted nest--is no longer equal to his necessities4 ,he makes implements1 and he must have a place to shelter them2 he cultivates grain1 and he requires a store-house for it2 he collects and records the thoughts and the wisdom of his predecessors1 and he must have a roof to cover these precious mementos3 unlike other animals1 he requires fire for the preparation of the greater portion of his food2 and his fire1 as well as his utensils1 must be well defended from without3--in short1 his wants are so multiplied by the cultivation of his reason1 that a house has become necessary to him4 ,the beasts of the field and the birds of the air have certain natural instincts given to them which guide them through life1 and are perpetuated in their offspring2 the same routine goes on race after race without the operation of what we term improvement4 ,not so with man3 he is a progressive being3 he steps forth beyond the limits of mere animal life1 and has a mental existence1 with wants created by it1 and depending on it2 wants which are not known to him when considered as a mere animal4 ,the building of houses has in all ages formed part of the employment of man as he advanced from a state of mere barbarism to one of comparative civilization4 ,in devoting this little volume1 therefore1 to the subject of the ,application of the ,useful ,arts to the construction of ,dwellings1 it is necessary to set a limit to so large a subject4 ,a wigwam is a house1--so is a palace1 and examples of every possible gradation between the two might be given4 ,in order1 then1 to avoid the seeming ambition of grasping the whole of this extensive subject we shall not travel out of our own country2 nor shall we ascend to the very highest1 or descend to the very lowest class of dwellings2 but shall describe the principal arts concerned in building a modern ,english house of moderate rank4 ,in so doing1 we shall treat the subject under a few simple heads1 classified mainly according to the materials employed4 ,illustration ,,contents4 ,,preface p4 iii ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,walls--,,stone ,,and ,,stone-,,work4 ,introduction1 #i--,principal varieties of building stone1 #aj--,on quarrying stone1 #ac--,the application of electricity to the blasting of rocks1 #ag--,sawing the stones for the mason1 #bb--,the processes of stone-masonry1 #bb4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,durability ,,of ,,stone ,,buildings4 ,on the choice of a stone for building purposes1 #bg--;,examination of a variety of buildings as to the durability of the stone employed therein1 #bh--,the stone for the new ,houses of ,parliament--how chosen1 #cb--;,an easy method of determining whether a stone will resist the action of frost1 #cc--;,directions for practising this method1 #ch4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,walls--,,bricks ,,and ,,brick-,,work4 ,early use of bricks1 #dj--;,floating bricks1 #da--,making bricks by hand1 #db--,varieties of bricks1 #dd--,tiles1 #de--,making bricks and tiles by machinery1 #df--,the ,marquis of ,tweeddale's method1 #df--;,another method1 #dg--,the processes of bricklaying1 #dh--,mortar1 #dh--;,defects of modern brick houses1 #eb4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,roof--,,slates ,,and ,,other ,,roof ,,coverings4 ,slate quarries1 #ed--,the process of slating1 #eg--,paper roofs1 #eh--,their advantages1 #fj--,terrace roofs1 #fa--;,asphalte roofs1 #fa--,scotch fir roofs1 #fa--;,iron roofs1 #fb--,zinc and other metallic roofs1 #fc--,thatch roofs1 #fc4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,wood-,,work--,,growth ,,and ,,transport ,,of ,,timber4 ,the oak as a timber tree1 #ff--,the two chief varieties of oak1 #fg--,teak1 #fi--,the fir and pine as timber trees1 #fi--,the ,norway spruce fir1 #gj--,the ,scotch fir1 #gc--,transport of timber from the forests1 #gg--;,historical notices1 #gh--,rafts on the ,rhine1 #hj--,the slide of ,alpnach1 #ha--;,cutting the ,norway deals1 #hc--,the cutting and transport of ,canadian timber1 #hc--,lumberers1 #hc--,saw-mills1 #hd--,rafts on the ,american rivers1 #he--,miscellaneous kinds of timber1 #hf--;,fancy woods1 #hg4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,wood-,,work--,,carpentry4 ,sawing timber1 #hi--,scarfing or joining timber1 #hi--,trussing or strengthening1 #ij--;,details of roof1 #ib--,the mortise and other joints1 #ic--;,distinction between carpentry and joinery1 #ie--,the tools employed1 #if--;,glue1 #ih--;,a window sash1 as an example of joiner's work1 #ii--;,a second example of joiner's work1 #ajj4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,fire-,,place4 ,open fire-places1 #ajb--,philosophy of a chimney1 #ajc--;,defects of open fires1 #ajc--,remedies for some of these defects1 #ajf--,the register stove1 #ajh--,smoky chimneys1 #ajh--;,causes of1 and cure1 #ajh--;,close stoves1 #aaa--,the ,german stove1 #aab--;,dr4 ,arnott's stove1 #aac--,objections thereto1 #aae--,warming buildings by heated air1 #aaf--,the ,russian stove1 #aaf--,other methods1 #aag--,sir ,stewart ,monteith's stove1 #aah--,warming buildings by steam1 #aah--,warming buildings by hot-water1 #aai--,the high-pressure system1 #abj4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,windows ,,and ,,lead-,,work4 ,introduction of glass windows1 #abb--,the manufacture of crown glass1 #abb--,the manufacture of plate glass1 #abi--;,cutting glass1 #acc--,the process of glazing1 #acd--,sheet lead for roofs and cisterns1 #ace--,lead pipes1 #acf--,the process of plumbing1 #acf--,solder or cement for metals1 #aci--;,autogenous soldering1 #adj--;,its advantages1 #add4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,interior--,,plastering ,,and ,,paper-,,hanging4 ,plastering walls and ceilings1 #adh--,plaster and papier-mach ornaments for rooms1 #adi--,whitewashing and stuccoing1 #aej--,origin of paper-hangings1 #aej--,the manufacture of paper-hangings1 #aea--,stencil1 washable1 and flock paper-hangings1 #aec--,the process of paper-hanging1 #aee4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,interior--,,painting ,,and ,,gilding4 ,reasons for painting a house1 #aeh--,materials used in house painting1 #aeh--,preparing the paint1 #afj--,the process of painting1 #afj--;,graining and marbling1 #afb--;,gilding as an interior decoration1 #afd--,the process of burnish-gilding1 #afe--,the process of oil-gilding1 #afg--;,gilding enriched ornaments1 #afh4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,a ,,model ,,dwelling-,,house4 ,the late ,sir ,john ,robison's house at ,edinburgh1 #agj--,the ,interior1 #agj--,warming1 #agj--,ventilating1 #aga--,lighting1 #agb--;,gas cooking apparatus1 #agb--;,flues1 #agc--;,interior decorations by ,mr4 ,hay1 #agc--;,a beau-ideal ,english villa1 #agd--,situation1 #age--,style1 #age--;,arrangement of the interior1 #agf--,the principal apartments1 bed-rooms1 c41 #agg--,the kitchen1 #agi4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,fire-,,proof ,,houses4 ,hartley's method of making houses fire-proof1 #aha--;,earl ,stanhope's methods1 #aha--,pambuf's method1 #ahc--;,fire-proof paint1 #ahd--;,experimental trials1 #ahd--,leconte's method1 #ahe--,varden's method1 #ahf--;,frost's method1 #ahf--,loudon's methods1 #ahg--;,general remarks1 #ahh4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,processes4 ,manufacture of nails1 #ahh--,locks and keys1 #ahh--,stoves and grates1 #aij--;,bells1 #aij--;,brass handles1 ornaments1 c41 #aia--,preservation of timber1 #aia--,various methods1 #aic--,kyanizing1 #aid--,soluble glass1 #aid--;,its uses in preserving timber1 c41 #aig--,veneering1 #aih--;,brunel's method of cutting veneers1 #aih--,russian method1 #aii--,the process of veneering1 #aii--,manufacture of glue1 #bja--,the house decorator of ,italy1 #bja--;,fresco painting as applied to the decoration of houses1 #bjf--,nature and difficulties of the art1 #bjg--,notices of the ancient custom of decorating walls1 #bjh--,the practice of fresco painting1 #bjh--,the ,cartoon1 #bji--,the preparation of the wall1 #baj--,the process of painting1 #baj--,the colours and implements1 #baa--;,a fresco painter at work described1 #bab--;,general remarks on fresco painting1 #bad4 ,,conclusion #bae ,the ,useful ,arts ,employed in the ,construction of ,dwelling-,houses4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,walls4 ,,stone ,,and ,,stone-,,work4 ,the material mainly employed in the construction of buildings depends partly on the purpose for which the buildings are intended1 and still more1 perhaps1 on the prevailing geological character of the surrounding country4 ,in such a place as ,london1 where there is an immense mass of tenacious clay beneath the vegetable soil1 and where solid stone is not to be had1 except by bringing it1 at a great expense1 from a distance of many miles1 clay seems to be the natural material for dwellings2 and thus we find that almost all the ,london houses are built of brick formed of clay4 ,in other parts of ,great ,britain1 such as ,glasgow or ,edinburgh1 the case is very different2 for1 in those places1 clay is scarce1 and stone is plentiful4 ,there are quarries not far from ,edinburgh1 and others within the very precincts of ,glasgow1 where an abundant supply of good building-stone is obtained at a very low rate4 ,hence it follows as a natural consequence1 that the houses in those two cities exhibit a large proportion of stone structures2 so much so1 indeed1 that an inhabitant of ,london1 who is accustomed to see stone appropriated only to large important public buildings1 is apt to imagine that the houses in the two northern cities must necessarily be very costly4 ,this is by no means certain1 however1 for the builders in each city make use of those materials which may be most available4 ,whether stone form the main portion of the walls of a house1 as in the cases just named1 or whether it is only used in smaller degree1 as in ,london houses1 the operations by which it is worked and fitted are pretty much the same2 and we will therefore devote this chapter to a brief description of the principal kinds of building-stone1 followed by an outline of the ,mason's operations4 ,principal ,varieties of ,building-stone4 ,granites are rocks which have been formed by the union of three different minerals in a state of fusion2 these1 on cooling1 have crystallized and become distinct from each other in the mass4 ,it is on the varied proportions in which these three constituents are combined1 that the colour1 hardness1 durability1 and beauty of the various granites depend4 ,the light-red and rose-coloured granites contain the felspar in greatest abundance and in the largest crystals2 but this mineral varies in hue from the purest white to nearly black2 it is the ingredient most acted on by the atmosphere2 the rock1 therefore1 which abounds in it1 though it may be more beautiful to the eye1 and more easily worked at first1 is not so durable as that which contains it in smaller crystals1 and with a larger proportion of quartz4 ,it is to this last-named mineral that granite owes the sparkling appearance which it presents when the sun shines on it2 quartz is the hardest and most imperishable of the three minerals which form the granite-rock4 ,the third1 mica1 is distinguishable from the other two by its satiny1 shining1 dark hue1 and is very apparent in the coarse-grained1 handsome stone of our own country1 brought from ,cornwall4 ,when the felspar is replaced by another mineral called hornblende1 the stone is of a dark-greenish hue1 and the component parts are in a finer form and less distinguishable from each other4 ,the ,aberdeen granite is an example of this kind1 which is more durable than the former1 though not so pleasing to the eye4 ,granite occurs in all the larger mountain-ranges1 and in isolated masses in every country2 not being a stratified rock1 and being excessively hard1 it is difficult to quarry and get out in manageable masses4 ,blasting with gunpowder is the mode usually employed in this country2 the pieces detached by this means are hewn roughly into form on the spot by a small pickaxe4 ,aberdeen granite is quarried by cutting a deep line some yards long1 and placing strong iron wedges at equal distances in this line2 these wedges are struck in succession by heavy hammers till the mass splits down4 ,this1 or analogous modes1 may always be employed when the rock approaches a slaty or stratified structure1 as is the case with some nearly related to granite4 ,another method of detaching masses of rock1 is by driving wooden wedges into a deep fissure1 either natural or artificial2 the wedges are then wetted1 and the consequent expansion of the wood bursts the rock asunder4 ,as granite has always to be brought from a great distance to the spot where it is wanted1 because its natural localities are far from the places where edifices are usually constructed1 and also on account of its hardness1 this rock is only used for important buildings1 such as bridges1 markets1 churches1 c41 and not commonly even for these4 ,london and ,waterloo bridges1 ,covent ,garden and ,hungerford markets1 and the ,york column in ,pall ,mall1 are instances of its use in ,london4 ,the principal kinds of stone used in building are the ,,limestones1 or calcareous rocks of the geologist2 of these it would be useless to describe or enumerate more than a few4 ,in our own country1 the ,portland stone1 so called from its principal quarries being in ,portland ,island1 in ,dorsetshire1 holds the first rank1 and is that almost exclusively used in ,london for building1 and for the ornamental parts of edifices4 ,it unites the qualities of being easily sawn and worked1 when lately quarried1 and of subsequently hardening by exposure to the air2 it is close and even in its texture1 admitting of being wrought into delicate work1 and receiving a very smooth surface1 which it will retain for a considerable period1 though it is surpassed in durability by many other rocks4 ,it is said that the ,banquetting-house1 ,whitehall1 was the first building in ,london in which this stone was employed4 ,st4 ,paul's1 ,westminster and ,blackfriars' bridges1 ,newgate1 and1 indeed1 most of the public buildings of the metropolis1 are examples of its use4 ,bath-stone1 so called from its being entirely used in the neighbourhood of that city1 is softer and far less durable than the preceding4 ,when recently quarried1 it may be sawn with a toothed saw1 like timber1 and can be carved with the greatest facility into the richest ornaments2 hence it is often employed1 and1 if sheltered from the weather1 is well adapted for such purposes1 from its rich1 even cream colour2 but though it hardens considerably by exposure1 it is acted upon1 after a time1 by the air1 so as to render it very perishable4 ,the restoration of ,henry the ,seventh's ,chapel1 ,westminster1 is1 unfortunately1 made with this stone4 ,the two preceding1 and many others1 distinguished by names according to the principal localities1 as ,oxford-stone1 ,ketton-stone1 c41 belong to what geologists term the ,oolitic formation1 from the resemblance of some kinds of the rock to fishes' roe1 which is observable in that we have last mentioned4 ,they all agree in their principal qualities4 ,purbeck-stone1 also from ,dorsetshire1 is used for steps1 paving1 door-sills1 and copings2 it is coarser1 harder1 and less uniform in texture than the foregoing1 and not1 therefore1 calculated for fine buildings1 except for the purposes we have specified4 ,yorkshire-stone resembles the last2 it is used for the same purposes1 but especially for paving4 ,the greatest part of the foot-paths in the streets of ,london are laid with this or the preceding4 ,rag-stone is obtained from quarries on the banks of the ,thames1 ,medway1 c4 ,it was the stone chiefly used for building in ancient ,london1 and a great deal is still used for paving4 ,the lower chalk1 which is of a grey colour1 and contains masses of flint1 was formerly much employed for building in the south-western counties of ,england2 its good qualities are proved by the perfect state of many old churches in that part of the kingdom1 which are known to be from seven to nine hundred years old4 ,it is now only sparingly used in farm-building and cottages1 but it is consumed in vast quantities to burn into lime for mortar and other purposes1 and as a manure4 ,belonging to the same family of calcareous rocks1 and next in utility to those we have just enumerated1 though far surpassing them in beauty and value1 stand the endless varieties of ,marbles1 essentially characterized by their crystalline texture1 superior hardness1 and by the absence of shells or organic remains found so abundantly in all other limestones4 ,the name of marble is1 however1 popularly given to many stones not possessing these characters1 but which are hard enough to be susceptible of a high polish1 and are ornamental when so treated4 ,in this country the finer kinds of real marble are only sparingly employed in the decorative departments of architecture1 such as1 for chimney-pieces1 slabs1 hearths1 capitals of columns in halls1 saloons1 monuments1 c4 ,the secondary kinds are also employed for similar purposes1 but more abundantly4 ,the cold white statuary marble is not adapted for out-of-door use in our foggy and cloudy climate1 under the influence of which it would soon become dingy and disagreeable1 as is proved by the total failure in the effect of the little triumphal arch erected before ,buckingham ,palace4 ,in ,italy many ancient and modern edifices are faced with white marble1 and in that clear and pure atmosphere they retain the beauty of the material for ages4 ,the use to which the finest marbles of ,greece and ,italy are applied in sculpture1 is familiar to every one4 ,the last class of rocks employed in building1 in those localities where they occur1 are the ,sandstones1 silex1 or flint1 in finely-comminuted particles agglutinated together1 being their principal ingredient2 they constitute excellent building-stone1 and are abundantly used as such in the ,west of ,england4 ,on ,quarrying ,stone4 ,a quarry is an excavation made in the ground1 or among rocks1 for the purpose of extracting stone for building1 or for sculpture4 ,the name appears to have originated in the circumstance that the stones1 before they are removed to a distance1 are first quadrated1 or formed into rectangular blocks4 ,the following may be taken as an example of the general operations of quarrying building-stones4 ,if the stone be vertically below the surface of the ground1 the quarrymen first remove the earth and surface soil1 and then dig a perpendicular shaft1 or pit1 to afford access to the stone2 but if1 as frequently happens1 the stone be within the flank of a hill1 or mountain1 the quarrymen excavate horizontal galleries into the hill1 leaving pillars here and there to support the superincumbent mass4 ,supposing a large quarry about to be opened beneath the soil1 the earth is first removed1 and then a sort of inferior stone called 8rag10 which generally lies between the soil and the good stone beneath4 ,large masses of available stone generally consist of distinct strata lying close together in a kind of cemented bulk1 and the contiguous surfaces forming cleavages1 greatly assist the quarrymen in detaching blocks from the mass4 ,the block is always more easily separated in a direction parallel to these planes of cleavage than in any other direction1 and the operations are1 therefore1 guided by this circumstance4 ,the workmen drive a series of iron wedges into the mass of stone parallel to the cleavage-planes2 and1 after a few blows1 a portion of the mass becomes separated in that direction4 ,they then measure off a portion equal to the intended length and breadth of the stone1 and drive their iron wedges similarly in these directions1 by which the piece is entirely severed from the rocky mass4 ,the cleavage-planes vary interminably in direction1 so that the quarrymen have to work in various positions1 according to the direction of stratification4 ,the operations are more easily conducted when the cleavage-planes are vertical1 than in any other direction4 ,after the blocks have been severed1 they are brought to an irregularly square shape1 by means of a tool called a kevel2 and are finally hoisted by cranes on to low trucks1 and conveyed on tram-ways out of the quarry2 or else are hoisted to the surface of the quarry at once1 if the depth render that plan necessary4 ,in quarrying sandstone1 and those rocks which consist of regular layers1 the pick1 the wedge1 the hammer1 and the pinch1 or lever1 are the chief tools4 ,but for many kinds of limestone1 and for greenstone and basalt1 recourse is had to the more violent and irregular effects of gunpowder4 ,indeed1 some of the primitive rocks1 such as granite1 gneiss1 and sienite1 could scarcely be torn asunder by any other means4 ,the great objection to blasting by gunpowder is1 that the blocks are broken irregularly1 and much of the stone is wasted2 but it has the advantage of being simple in its application1 and powerful in its effects4 ,the grains of powder are suddenly converted into a permanently elastic air1 occupying about four hundred and seventy-two times more space than their own bulk4 ,the elastic fluid expands with a velocity calculated at the rate of about ten thousand feet per second2 and its pressure or force1 when thus expanding1 has been estimated as equal to one thousand atmospheres1 that is1 one thousand times greater than the atmospheric pressure upon a base of the same extent4 ,by applying this product to a square inch1 upon which the atmosphere exerts a pressure of about fifteen pounds1 the elastic fluid of the gunpowder will be found1 at the moment of the explosion1 to exert a force equivalent to six tons and a half upon the square inch of surface exposed to it2 and that with a velocity which the imagination can hardly follow4 ,illustration ,in boring a rock preparatory to blasting1 it is necessary to consider the nature of the stone1 and the inclination or dip of the strata1 in order to decide upon the diameter1 the depth1 and direction of the hole for the gunpowder4 ,the diameter of the hole may vary according to the nature of the rock1 from half an inch to two and a half inches2 and the depth from a few inches to as many feet2 the direction may vary to all the angles from the perpendicular to the horizontal4 ,the tools used in this operation are very simple4 ,the chisel1 or jumper1 as it is called1 varies in size according to the work to be performed1 and its edge is more or less pointed to suit the hardness of the rock to be bored4 ,if the hole is to be small and not deep1 it may be bored by a single person2 with one hand he manages the chisel1 which he turns at every blow so as to cross the previous cut1 and with the other hand he strikes it with a hammer of six or eight pounds' weight1 occasionally clearing out the hole by means of a scraper4 ,but when the hole is large and deep1 one man in a sitting posture directs the jumper1 pours water into the hole1 and occasionally cleans it out1 while two or three men1 with hammers of ten or twelve pounds' weight1 strike successive blows upon the jumper1 until the rock is perforated to the required depth4 ,to prevent annoyance to the workmen1 a small rope of straw or hemp is twisted round the jumper1 and made to rest in the orifice of the hole4 ,when the holes are to be made to a greater depth than about thirty inches1 it is common to use a chisel from six to eight feet in length1 pointed at both ends1 having a bulbous part in the middle for the convenience of holding it2 it thus becomes a kind of double jumper1 and is used without a hammer1 with either end put into the hole at pleasure4 ,the workmen holding this jumper by the bulbous part1 lift it1 and allow it to drop into the hole by its own weight1 and by this simple operation1 a hole to the depth of five feet and upwards is perforated with ease and expedition4 ,when the boring is completed1 the fragments are carefully removed1 and the hole is made as dry as possible1 which is done by filling it partially with stiff clay1 and then driving into it a tapering iron rod1 called the claying bar1 which nearly fills it4 ,this1 being forced in with great violence1 drives the clay into all the crevices of the rock1 and secures the dryness of the hole4 ,should this plan fail1 tin cartridges are used3 these are furnished with a stem or tube1 as shown in the following figure1 through which the powder may be ignited4 ,when the hole is dry1 the powder is introduced1 mixed sometimes with quicklime1 which1 it is said1 increases the force of the explosion4 ,a long iron or copper rod1 called the pricker1 is then inserted amongst the powder1 and is afterwards withdrawn1 when the priming powder is introduced4 ,the hole is filled up with burnt clay1 pounded brick1 stone1 or any other substance not likely to produce a spark during the ramming4 ,this is called the tamping4 ,in filling up the hole1 the chief danger is the production of a spark among the materials1 a circumstance which has occasioned the most fatal and distressing accidents to quarriers4 ,prickers and rammers of copper1 or of bronze1 have been employed1 but their greater expense1 and liability to twist and break1 have prevented their general introduction4 ,illustration ,the quarrier is1 of course1 accustomed to suppose that the more firmly he rams in the powder1 the greater will be the resulting effect4 ,it is1 however1 a curious property of sand1 that it fills up all the void spaces in the tube or hole1 and for some rocks entirely supersedes the necessity of ramming and pricking4 ,when the hole is fully charged with the powder and wadding1 the pricker is withdrawn1 and the small tubular space1 or vent-hole1 which it leaves1 is sometimes filled up with powder2 but1 for the sake of economy1 it is more common to insert straws filled with powder1 and joined together1 so as to reach the required depth4 ,the lower straw is one terminating in the root part1 where a natural obstruction occurs1 or it is artificially stopped with clay to prevent the powder from being lost4 ,the lower part of the priming straw is pared quite thin1 so as to insure the inflammation of the charge of powder in the hole4 ,sometimes the fire is conveyed by means of the large and long green rushes1 which grow in marshy ground4 ,a slit is made in one side of the rush1 along which the sharp end of a bit of stick is drawn1 so as to extract the pith1 when the skin of the rush closes again by its own elasticity4 ,this tube is filled up with gunpowder2 it is then dropped into the vent-hole1 and made steady with a bit of clay4 ,this being done1 a slow match1 called a smift1 consisting generally of a bit of soft paper1 prepared by dipping it into a solution of saltpetre1 is carefully applied to the priming powder4 ,when this match is about to be fired1 the quarriers usually blow a horn or ring a bell1 to give notice to all around them to retire4 ,the explosion commonly takes place in about a minute2 the priming first explodes1 attended only with flame2 a short interval of suspense commonly ensues2 the eyes of the bystanders being anxiously directed towards the spot2 the rock is instantly seen to open1 when a sharp report or detonating noise takes place1 and numerous fragments of stone are observed to spring into the air1 and fly about in all directions1 from amidst a cloud of smoke4 ,the quarrier then returns with alacrity to the scene of his operations4 ,illustration ,the accompanying figure shows the plan of blasting the rock1 and a section of the hole ready prepared for firing4 ,the portion of the rock to be dislodged by the explosion is that included between ,a and ,b4 ,the charge of powder is represented as filling the bore to ,c1 from which point to the top1 the hole is filled up with tamping4 ,the smift is represented at ,d4 ,in the year #ahca1 a patent was taken out by ,mr4 ,bickford1 of ,tucking ,mill1 ,cornwall1 for an invention called 8the ,miner's ,safety ,fuse40 ,it consists essentially of a minute cylinder of gunpowder1 or other suitable explosive mixture1 inclosed within a hempen cord1 which is first twisted in a peculiar kind of machine1 then overlaid to strengthen it2 afterwards it is varnished with a mixture of tar and resin to preserve the powder from moisture1 and finally is coated with whitening to prevent the varnish from sticking to the fingers1 or the fuses to one another4 ,these fuses are said to have been used with good effect1 and to have greatly diminished the number of accidents4 ,the application of ,electricity to the ,blasting of ,rocks4 ,perhaps the greatest modern improvement that has been made in blasting rocks has been by the introduction of the galvanic battery4 ,it is well known that by closing the circuit of a voltaic current by means of thin platinum wire1 or by fine iron or steel wire1 the platinum becomes red-hot1 and the iron or steel becomes instantly fused4 ,all1 therefore1 that is necessary is to connect the two terminal wires of a voltaic battery by means of a fine wire of platinum or iron1 and to bury this in gunpowder contained in a tin canister1 or a fuse connected with a deposit of gunpowder4 ,this was the method adopted by ,colonel ,pasley in removing the ,royal ,george1 which lay sunk at the bottom of the water at ,spithead4 ,canisters of gunpowder1 sometimes to the extent of three thousand pounds' weight1 were employed1 and securely deposited in the sunken vessel1 by workmen who descended in the diving-bell2 the terminal wires of the battery1 connected as above stated1 having been previously inserted in the canisters1 and these wires being extended to a great distance1 the explosion took place the instant they were connected with the voltaic battery4 ,after the vessel was thus blown to pieces by repeated explosions1 divers descended to clear away the wreck1 and to attach guns1 c41 to chains let down from a ship above1 and which were then hauled up by means of a crane4 ,mr4 ,morgan1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 describes a fuse or cartridge which he has used with success in connexion with the voltaic battery4 ,this cartridge is prepared by joining two pieces of clean copper wire to the ends of a fine steel wire1 about one quarter of an inch in length1 by means of waxed silk2 a thin piece of wood is then spliced to both copper wires1 to protect the steel wire from accidents1 and to enable the maker to introduce it easily into a quill or small paper tube1 which is to form the cartridge4 ,this tube is filled with fine gunpowder1 and made air and water-tight4 ,another piece of wood is then attached to this arrangement1 and one of the copper wires is bent over so as to form an angle with the straight wire4 ,when it is required to use this cartridge1 the copper wires are rubbed with sand-paper1 and twisted round the wires of the voltaic battery4 ,the cartridge is then placed deep in the hole made to receive the gunpowder1 and the charge is fired from any distance4 ,mr4 ,morgan found this arrangement very useful in removing stumps of trees2 but one of his applications of it was curious and novel3 he exploded some powder in a pond at the depth of ten feet1 with the battery at the distance of two hundred and ten feet2 the explosion1 which was instantaneous1 had the effect of killing a large eel2 and 8,i have no doubt10 says ,mr4 ,morgan1 8that wild-fowl will yet be killed by means of shells placed at low-water on the banks where they feed2 and by means of long connecting wires1 the shells can be made to explode simultaneously among the birds40 ,but the grandest application of gunpowder and the voltaic battery to the blasting of rocks1 was made in the month of ,january1 #ahdc1 at ,dover4 ,it was determined by these means to attempt the removal of an enormous mass of the cliff facing the sea1 which formed an obstruction to the line of railroad4 ,a portion of the cliff which was penetrated by the tunnel made through ,shakspeare's ,cliff gave way1 about two years previously4 ,about fifty yards of the tunnel were carried away1 and a clear space was thus formed for the line of railroad1 with the exception of a projecting point1 which1 prior to the slip alluded to1 was the extremity of the part of the cliff pierced by the tunnel1 and to remove which was the object of the operation in question4 ,to clear away this mass by the tedious process of manual labour1 would have cost above twelve thousand pounds2 and this consideration1 as well as the time that would have been lost1 induced ,mr4 ,cubitt1 the engineer1 to try the bold expedient of blowing it away with gunpowder4 8,it cannot be denied10 remarks ,captain ,stuart1 whose account of this great engineering operation we follow1 8that there was apparent danger in the undertaking1 for the weight of the mass to be removed was estimated at two million tons1 and the quantity of powder used was more than eight tons1 or eighteen thousand pounds4 ,the quantity used in blowing up the fortifications of ,bhurtpore was twelve thousand pounds1 and this is said to have been the greatest explosion that had ever previously taken place for any single specific object40 ,the front of the projection was about one hundred yards wide2 this front was pierced with a tunnel about six feet in height1 and three in breadth2 three shafts1 equidistant from each other1 and from the entrances to the tunnel1 were sunk to the depth of seventeen feet1 and galleries were run1 one from each shaft1 parallel with each other1 and at right angles with the line of the tunnel4 ,these galleries varied in length1 the longest having been twenty-six feet1 and the shortest twelve feet1 and at their extremities chambers were excavated in a direction parallel with the tunnel4 ,this description will be the better understood by reference to the following figure4 #a4 ,the tunnel4 #b4 ,the shafts4 #c4 ,the galleries4 #d4 ,the chambers4 ,illustration ,in the chambers1 the powder was deposited in three nearly equal quantities2 it was done up in fifty-pound bags1 and the proportion in each chamber was contained in a wooden case1 nearly as large as the chamber itself4 ,ignition was communicated by means of a voltaic battery2 the conducting wires1 one thousand feet in length1 were passed over the cliff1 one to each chamber1 and the electricity was communicated in a shed built for the purpose on the top of the cliff1 about fifty yards from the edge4 ,the explosion was conducted by ,lieutenant ,hutchinson1 ,r4,e41 who was engaged with ,general ,pasley in blowing up the wreck of the ,royal ,george4 ,the time appointed for the explosion to take place1 was two o'clock ,p4,m41 #bfth ,january1 #ahdc1 the tide being then at its lowest ebb4 ,the arrangements1 to preserve order and prevent danger1 were good4 ,a space was kept clear by a cordon of artillery1 and the following programme was issued3-- 8,signals1 ,january #bf1 #ahdc4 8#ast4 ,fifteen minutes before firing1 all the signal flags will be hoisted4 8#bnd4 ,five minutes before firing1 one gun will be fired1 and all the flags will be hauled down4 8#crd4 ,one minute before firing1 two guns will be fired1 and all the flags 7except that on the point which is to be blasted7 will be hoisted up again40 ,these signals were given exactly at the specified times1 and when the expected moment arrived1 a deep subterranean sound was heard1 a violent commotion was seen at the base of the cliff1 and the whole mass slid majestically down1 forming an immense dbris at the bottom4 ,tremendous cheers followed the blast1 and a royal salute was fired4 ,the remarks of different intelligent observers1 as to the effects of this explosion1 would of course differ according to their position with respect to the scene of explosion4 ,one observer states that 8the earth trembled to the distance of half a mile2 a stifled report1 not loud1 but deep1 was heard2 the base of the cliff1 extending on either hand to upwards of five hundred feet1 was shot as from a cannon1 from under the superincumbent mass of chalk seaward2 and in a few seconds not less than a million tons of chalk were dislodged by the shock1 and settled gently down into the sea below40 ,but the most eminent observer who has described the effects of this explosion is ,sir ,john ,herschel1 from whose letter to the ,athenum we gather the following particulars4 ,his position was on the summit of the cliff1 next adjoining the scene of operations1 to the southward1 the nearest point to which access was permitted4 ,sir ,john ,herschel was particularly struck with 8the singular and almost total absence of all those tumultuous and noisy manifestations of power1 which might naturally be expected to accompany the explosion of so enormous a quantity 7#ai1jjjlbs47 of gunpowder40 ,he describes the noise which accompanied the immediate explosion as 8a low murmur1 lasting hardly more than half a second1 and so faint1 that had a companion at my elbow been speaking in an ordinary tone of voice1 ,i doubt not it would have passed unheeded40 ,the fall of the cliff1 the ruins of which extended over no less than eighteen acres of the beach1 to an average depth of fourteen feet1 was not accompanied with any considerable noise4 8,the entire absence of smoke was another and not less remarkable feature of the phenomenon4 ,much dust1 indeed1 curled out at the borders of the vast rolling and undulating mass1 which spread itself like a semi-fluid body1 thinning out in its progress2 but this subsided instantly2 and of true smoke there was absolutely not a vestige4 ,every part of the surface was immediately and clearly seen--the prostrate flagstaff 7speedily re-erected in the place of its fall7--the broken turf1 which a few seconds before had been quietly growing at the summit of the cliff--and every other detail of that extensive field of ruin1 were seen immediately in all their distinctness4 ,full in the midst of what appeared the highest part of the expanding mass1 while yet in rapid motion1 my attention was attracted by a tumultuous and somewhat upward-swelling motion of the earth1 whence ,i fully expected to see burst forth a volume of pitchy smoke1 and from which my present impression is1 that gas1 purified from carbonaceous matter in passing through innumerable fissures of cold and damp material1 was still in progress of escape2 but whether so or not1 the remark made at the moment is sufficient to prove the absence of any impediment to distinct vision40 ,the amount of tremor experienced by ,sir ,john ,herschel at the point where he was standing was so slight1 that he thinks he has felt it surpassed by a heavy waggon passing along a paved street4 8,the impression1 slight as it was1 was single and brief1 and must have originated with the first shock of the powder1 and not from the subsequent and prolonged rush of the ruins40 ,we have already noticed the remark of one observer1 that 8the earth trembled to the distance of half a mile20 but this seems to be a mistake2 the writer fancied that it must have been so1 and that he should be suspected if he were to state it otherwise4 ,it is to be regretted that people do not endeavour to describe what they see and hear1 without the embellishment of the imagination4 ,this grand experiment was no less grand from the absence of noise1 smoke1 earthquake1 and fragments hurled to vast distances through the air4 8,i have not heard of a single scattered fragment flying out as a projectile in any direction0--continues ,sir ,john ,herschel--8and altogether the whole phenomenon was totally unlike anything which1 according to ordinary ideas1 could have been supposed to arise from the action of gunpowder4 ,strange as it may seem1 this contrast between the actual and the expected effects1 gave to the whole scene a character rather of sublime composure than of headlong violence--of graceful ease than of struggling effort4 ,how quietly1 in short1 the gigantic power employed performed its work1 may be gathered from the fact1 that the operators themselves who discharged the batteries were not aware that they had taken effect1 but thought the whole affair a failure1 until reassured by the shout which hailed its success40 ,sawing the ,stones for the ,mason4 ,whatever may be the purpose to which the stone is to be applied1 the larger blocks obtained from the quarry must be cut into smaller and more manageable pieces2 this is done by sawing4 ,the saw used is a long blade of steel without teeth1 fixed in a heavy wooden frame1 similar in principle to that which holds the finer spring-saws employed by cabinet-makers4 ,the stone-saw1 from its great size1 however1 requires a more powerful contrivance for drawing it to the proper degree of tension3 this consists of a long screw-bolt fixed to a piece of chain1 which hooks over one of the upright arms of the frame2 a similar chain from the other carries a swivel-joint with a screw-nut to receive the screw3 by turning the swivel by a lever1 the nut on the screw draws up or tightens the chains1 and that draws the blade tight1 which is contained between the other ends of the arms4 ,these huge saws are worked by one or two men1 who1 in ,london stone-yards1 sit in watch-boxes1 in order to be sheltered from the sun and rain4 ,barrels filled with water1 which is allowed to drop out at a tap1 are mounted on the block of stone1 so that the water may drip into the cut and facilitate the motion of the saw by removing some of the friction1 as well as prevent it becoming hot1 and so losing its temper by the same cause4 ,in some large establishments1 the sawing is effected by machinery4 ,the block is fixed in a proper position1 and a group of saws brought to act on it4 ,these saws are all arranged parallel1 according to the thickness of the pieces into which the stone is to be cut2 and a steam-engine being brought to bear on the whole group1 the cutting is effected with great rapidity4 ,the ,processes of ,stone-,masonry4 ,when the stone is sawed to the proper size1 the surfaces which are exposed to view1 have to be made smooth and even4 ,the tools used by the mason for this purpose consist of iron chisels of different widths1 and principally of a sharp-pointed one called a pointer2 these chisels are struck with a mallet made of a conical-formed lump of hard wood1 fixed to a short handle4 ,illustration3 ,stone-,sawyer4 ,the pointer is used for chipping off the principal roughnesses on the face and edges1 and for working the whole face over to bring it level1 the workman trying his work by applying a straight-edge occasionally to it4 ,when the front and edges are made true1 the face is sometimes tooled over1 so as to leave regular furrows in it1 according to certain forms1 by which the different kinds of work are distinguished4 ,but this practice is going out of use1 now that soft free-stone is so much employed in building4 ,in old edifices1 such as ,st4 ,paul's1 ,whitehall1 c41 c41 the stone will be found to be wrought on its face in the manner alluded to4 ,stones in buildings are not only fixed with mortar1 as bricks are1 but are further secured in their places by being clamped together with iron clamps4 ,these are short iron bars1 from seven to twelve inches long1 one and a half wide1 and half an inch thick1 according to the size of the stone2 the ends of the clamps being turned down a little1 to afford a better hold4 ,a channel is cut in the two contiguous stones deep enough for the clamp to lie in1 and the ends of the channel are sunk deeper1 to receive the turned-down ends of the clamp2 when this is put into the channel1 molten lead is poured in to fill up the interstices1 to keep the clamp in its place1 and to prevent it from rusting4 ,from the expense of carrying and working stone1 the walls of buildings at a distance from a quarry1 such for example as those in ,london1 are seldom now built of solid stone1 but a facing of this material is applied only on the external surface of the wall1 which is built of brick4 ,this kind of work is called ashler work1 and both the brick and stone-work must be executed with considerable care1 to enable a wall composed of two materials to preserve its perpendicularity2 it being obvious1 that if the brick part yielded to the weight1 it must1 from its construction1 do so more than the stone facing1 and1 therefore1 the wall would bend inwards and become crippled4 ,the width of the courses of ashlers must1 therefore1 be made equal exactly to a certain number of courses of bricks with the intervening mortar1 and the brick-work must be executed with such care1 that this number of courses may be everywhere of the same width in the whole height of the wall4 ,in every course of ashler there must be solid stones laid quite1 or nearly quite1 across the width of the wall to form a bond to the stone facing1 and all the stones of the ashler must be fixed with iron cramps to one another and to these bond-stones4 ,but1 however carefully a faced wall may be executed1 it is never so firm or durable as one built entirely of either material2 indeed1 if well executed1 of good materials1 and of competent thickness in proportion to its height1 a brick wall is the most durable1 light1 and efficient structure that can be erected4 ,when stone is to be cut into cornices1 mouldings1 c41 the blocks having been sawed1 the ends1 top and bottom1 are worked very true and parallel1 or perpendicular to each other1 and one edge or arris cut to a perfectly straight line2 a thin wooden mould of the section of the cornice is then applied to each end1 and the profile of the mouldings marked out on the stone4 ,the workman being guided by this figure1 cuts away the stone down to the general surface of the mouldings1 and then proceeds to get the flat fillets of the mouldings perfectly straight and true by the rule2 these again guide him in working the curved mouldings1 such as ovolos1 cavettos1 cyma rectas1 and ogees2 when these are cut nearly to their profile1 and perfectly straight on the bed line1 they are finished off by being rubbed down smooth by thin long straight-edges of stone4 ,foliage and carved work is executed by a better kind of workman1 possessing some of the taste of an artist1 and he works on the same general principles as a sculptor when executing a statue2 it would be foreign to our present object1 therefore1 to dwell on this branch of the mason's art4 ,it often1 or even most commonly occurs1 that the distance between two columns of a portico1 is of greater length than a stone can be obtained1 and if the architrave1 or that part of the entablature immediately over the capitals of the columns1 be looked at attentively1 a stone will be perceived between the columns apparently unsupported1 for neither end rests on the column1 and the joints of those ends are upright1 not presenting any character of a voussoir-stone or arch4 ,the contrivance by which such an architrave stone is supported deserves to be described4 ,illustration ,the stone in question has a projecting part1 wrought at each end1 of the form shown in the annexed figure2 this projection is received into a corresponding cavity1 cut in the end of the stone supported by the column1 and the joint is thus really an arched or wedge-shaped one1 though the bevel line is concealed1 and the two stones1 when put together1 present only a vertical joint4 ,the mason uses squares1 levels1 plumb-lines1 and straight-edges to set out his work1 and trowels and mortar to set the stones with2 but the latter is rather used to make the joints water-tight than to keep the stones together1 this being effected by their weight or by iron clamping4 ,formerly the mason required far more accurate and extensive knowledge of geometry than is possessed by persons of the trade at present2 this was when he was called on to construct groined and vaulted roofs1 enriched with carved work and pendent corbels1 where the nicest workmanship was required1 to ensure the stability of the light and graceful columns and vaulting of a ,gothic cathedral4 ,it was this possession of superior skill and knowledge that caused the establishment of the ,society of ,freemasons1 which dates its rise from the tenth or eleventh century4 ,marble1 from its costliness1 and the difficulty of working it1 is seldom1 if ever1 used in solid pieces in buildings2 thin facings of it are set upon stone backings1 much as rare woods are used in veneering by the cabinet-maker4 ,the marble is sawn into thin slabs1 like other stone1 and the face is polished by rubbing on it the surface of another piece1 fine sand1 mixed up with water1 being used to cause abrasion4 ,various contrivances are resorted to for cutting marble1 and building-stones generally1 into curved forms4 ,in some cases a lever is made to work at one end on a pivot1 while at the other end is attached a curved piece of sheet-iron1 which passing backwards and forwards over the stone1 cuts it in a circular form4 ,in other cases a cylinder of sheet-iron is formed2 and this being allowed to fall vertically on the surface of the stone1 and rotated rapidly1 cuts out a piece of stone of the diameter of the cylinder4 ,sometimes1 when a large circular piece of stone is required1 a kind of wheel is employed1 furnished on its under surface with four curved cutting-irons1 and these cutters1 when the wheel revolves1 cut the stone4 ,by a modification of the arrangements1 an oval instead of a circular curve may be given to the piece of stone4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,durability ,,of ,,stone ,,buildings4 ,on the ,choice of a ,stone for ,building ,purposes4 8,everything belonging to the earth1 whether in its primitive state1 or modified by human hands1 is submitted to certain and innumerable laws of destruction1 as permanent and universal as those which produce the planetary motions4 ,the operations of nature1 when slow1 are no less sure2 however man may for a time usurp dominion over her1 she is certain of recovering her empire4 ,he converts her rocks1 her stones1 her trees1 into forms of palaces1 houses1 and ships2 he employs the metals found in the bosom of the earth as instruments of power1 and the sands and clays which constitute its surface as ornaments and resources of luxury2 he imprisons air by water1 and tortures water by fire to change1 to modify1 or destroy the natural forms of things4 ,but in some lustrums his works begin to change1 and in a few centuries they decay and are in ruins2 and his mighty temples1 framed1 as it were1 for divine purposes1 and his bridges formed of granite1 and ribbed with iron1 and his walls for defence1 and the splendid monuments by which he has endeavoured to give eternity even to its perishable remains1 are gradually destroyed2 and these structures which have resisted the waves of the ocean1 the tempest of the sky1 and the stroke of the lightning1 shall yield to the operation of the dews of heaven1 of frost1 rain1 vapour1 and imperceptible atmospheric influences2 and as the worm devours the lineaments of his mortal beauty1 so the lichens and the moss1 and the most insignificant plants1 shall feed upon his columns and his pyramids1 and the most humble and insignificant insect shall undermine and sap the foundations of his colossal works1 and make their habitations amongst the ruins of his palaces1 and the falling seats of his earthly glory40#a ,although it is true that all human works must decay1 yet it is a point of great importance to ourselves and our successors whether that decay be slow or speedy4 ,the causes enumerated in the above eloquent passage1 though sure1 are exceedingly slow in their action1 and provided the building materials have been selected with reference as well to their durability as to their beauty1 the resulting structure may defy the corroding tooth of time for many ages1 and we may thus transmit to a long posterity1 lasting memorials of our wisdom and science1 as well as of our piety4 ,modern science has1 to a very great extent1 enabled the architect and builder to determine beforehand what is the durability of any given stone2 and it is with great pleasure that we now notice the extensive inquiry made at the suggestion of ,mr4 ,barry1 the architect of the new ,houses of ,parliament1 under the ,commission issued by ,her ,majesty's ,government1 to investigate the qualities of stone in various parts of the kingdom1 in order to select that which should best ensure perpetuity to this grand national monument4 ,this commission1 consisting of ,mr4 ,barry1 ,sir ,h4 ,t4 ,de la ,beche1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,smith1 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,smith1 visited one hundred and five quarries1 and examined one hundred and seventy-five edifices2 and their collected specimens were then submitted to tests1 both mechanical and chemical1 by ,professors ,daniell and ,wheatstone1 of ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,in order to leave a permanent record of their labours1 the ,commissioners published a ,report1 and deposited in the ,museum of ,economic ,geology1 a variety of specimens of the stones which they had collected4 ,from this ,report1 we select such details as are calculated to serve the purposes of popular instruction4 ,the ,commissioners did not consider it necessary to extend their inquiries to granites1 porphyries1 and other stones of similar character1 on account of the enormous expense of converting them to building purposes in decorated edifices1 and from a conviction that an equally durable1 and in other respects more eligible material1 could be obtained for the object in view from among the limestones or sandstones of the kingdom4 ,the ,commissioners soon had striking proofs of the necessity and importance of this inquiry in the lamentable effects of decomposition observable in the greater part of the limestone employed at ,oxford2 in the magnesian limestones of the ,minster1 churches1 and other public edifices at ,york2 and in the sandstones of which the churches and other public buildings at ,derby and ,newcastle are constructed2 and numerous other examples4 ,the unequal state of preservation of many buildings1 often produced by the varied quality of the stone employed in them1 although it may have been taken from the same quarry1 showed the propriety of a minute examination of the quarries themselves1 in order to gain a proper knowledge of the particular beds from whence the different varieties have been obtained4 ,an inspection of quarries was also desirable for the purpose of ascertaining their power of supply1 and other important matters2 for it frequently happens1 that the best stone in quarries is often neglected1 or only partially worked1 in consequence of the cost of laying bare1 and removing those beds with which it may be associated2 whence it happens1 that the inferior material is in such cases supplied4 ,stone buildings decay more rapidly in towns than in the open country1 where dense smoke1 fogs1 and vapours1 which act injuriously on buildings1 do not exist4 ,there is also another curious cause which contributes to the durability of stone buildings situated in the country4 ,in the course of time1 the stone becomes covered with minute lichens1 which1 though in themselves decomposing agents1 act with extreme slowness1 and when once firmly established over the entire surface of the stone1 seem to exercise a protective influence1 by defending the surface from the more violent destructive agents2 whereas1 in populous smoky towns1 these lichens are prevented from forming1 and thus the stone is exposed to severer trials than stone of the same kind situated in the country4 ,as a remarkable illustration of the difference in the degree of durability in the same material1 subjected to the effects of the air in town and country1 the appearance is noticed of several frusta of columns1 and other blocks of stone1 that were quarried at the time of the erection of ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 ,london1 and which are now lying in the ,isle of ,portland1 near the quarries from whence they were obtained4 ,these blocks are invariably found to be covered with lichens1 and1 although they have been exposed to all the vicissitudes of a marine atmosphere for more than one hundred and fifty years1 they still exhibit beneath the lichens their original form1 even to the marks of the chisel employed upon them2 whilst the stone which was taken from the same quarries1 7selected no doubt with equal1 if not greater care1 than the blocks alluded to17 and placed in the ,cathedral itself1 is1 in those parts which are exposed to the south and south-west winds1 found1 in some instances1 to be fast mouldering away4 ,colour is more important in the selection of a building-stone to be situated in a populous and smoky town1 than for one to be placed in the open country1 where all edifices become covered with lichens2 for1 although in such towns1 those fronts which are not exposed to the prevailing winds and rains1 will soon become blackened1 the remainder of the building will constantly exhibit a tint depending upon the natural colour of the stone4 ,the chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire matter of the limestones1 and in the cementing substance of sandstones1 according to the amount of surface exposed to it4 ,the particles of the stone first loosened by the action of frost are removed by powerful winds and driving rains4 ,the buildings in this climate were generally found to suffer the greatest amount of decomposition on their south1 south-west1 and west fronts1 arising doubtless from the prevalence of winds and rains from those quarters4 ,those buildings which are highly decorated1 such as the churches of the ,norman and pointed styles of architecture1 generally afford a more severe test of the durability of a building-stone1 than the more simple and less decorated castles of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries2 because1 in the former class of buildings1 the stone is worked into more disadvantageous forms than in the latter1 as regards exposure to the effects of the weather4 ,buildings in a state of ruin1 from being deprived of their ordinary protection of roofing1 glazing of windows1 c41 afford an equally severe test of the durability of the stone employed in them4 ,the durability of various building-stones in particular localities was estimated by examining the condition of the neighbouring buildings constructed of them4 ,among sandstone buildings was noticed the remains of ,ecclestone ,abbey1 of the thirteenth century1 near ,barnard ,castle1 constructed of a stone closely resembling that of the ,stenton quarry1 in the vicinity1 in which the mouldings and other decorations were in excellent condition4 ,the circular keep of ,barnard ,castle1 apparently also built of the same material1 is in fine preservation4 ,tintern ,abbey is noticed as a sandstone edifice1 that has to a considerable extent resisted decomposition4 ,some portions of ,whitby ,abbey are fast yielding to the effects of the atmosphere4 ,the older portions of ,ripon ,cathedral2 ,rievaulx ,abbey2 and the ,norman keep of ,richmond ,castle1 in ,yorkshire1 are all examples of sandstone buildings1 in tolerably fair preservation4 ,of sandstone edifices in an advanced state of decomposition1 are enumerated ,durham ,cathedral1 the churches at ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 ,carlisle ,cathedral1 ,kirkstall ,abbey1 and ,fountain's ,abbey4 ,the sandstone churches of ,derby are also extremely decomposed2 and the church of ,st4 ,peter1 at ,shaftsbury1 is in such a state of decay1 that some portions of the building are only prevented from falling by means of iron ties4 ,the choir of ,southwell ,church1 of the twelfth century1 affords an instance of the durability of a magnesio-calciferous sandstone after long exposure to the influences of the atmosphere4 ,the ,norman portions of this church are also constructed of magnesian limestone1 similar to that of ,bolsover ,moor1 and which are throughout in a perfect state1 the mouldings and carved enrichments being as sharp as when first executed4 ,the following buildings1 also of magnesian limestone1 are either in perfect preservation1 or exhibit only slight traces of decay3 the keep of ,koningsburgh ,castle2 the church at ,hemingborough1 of the fifteenth century2 ,tickhill ,church1 of the same date2 ,huddlestone ,hall1 of the sixteenth century2 ,roche ,abbey1 of the thirteenth century4 ,the magnesian limestone buildings which were found in a more advanced state of decay1 were the churches at ,york1 and a large portion of the ,minster1 ,howden ,church1 ,doncaster ,old ,church1 and buildings in other parts of the county1 many of which are so much decomposed1 that the mouldings1 carvings1 c41 are often entirely effaced4 ,the report speaks in high terms of the preservation of buildings constructed of oolitic and other limestones2 such are ,byland ,abbey1 of the twelfth century2 ,sandysfoot ,castle1 near ,weymouth1 constructed of ,portland oolite in the time of ,henry the ,eighth2 ,bow-and-,arrow ,castle1 and the neighbouring ruins of a church of the fourteenth century1 in the island of ,portland4 ,the oolite in the vicinity of ,bath does not seem to wear well4 ,the excellent condition of the parts which remain of ,glastonbury ,abbey shows the value of a shelly limestone similar to that of ,doulting2 whilst the stone employed in ,wells ,cathedral1 apparently of the same kind1 and not selected with equal care1 is in parts decomposed4 ,in ,salisbury ,cathedral1 built of stone from ,chilmark1 we have evidence of the general durability of a siliciferous limestone2 for1 although the west front has somewhat yielded to the effects of the atmosphere1 the excellent condition of the building generally is most striking4 ,the materials employed in the public buildings of ,oxford1 afford a marked instance both of decomposition and durability2 for whilst a shelly oolite1 similar to that of ,taynton1 which is employed in the exposed parts of the more ancient parts of the ,cathedral1 in ,morton ,college ,chapel1 c41 is generally in a good state of preservation1 a calcareous stone from ,heddington1 employed in nearly all the colleges1 churches1 and other public buildings1 is in such a deplorable state of decay as1 in some instances1 to have caused all traces of architectural decoration to disappear1 and the ashler itself to be1 in many places1 deeply disintegrated4 ,in ,spofforth ,castle1 two materials1 a magnesian limestone and a sandstone1 have been employed1 the former in the decorated parts1 and the latter for the ashler1 and although both have been equally exposed1 the magnesian limestone has remained as perfect in form as when first employed1 while the sandstone has suffered considerably from the effects of decomposition4 ,in ,chepstow ,castle a magnesian limestone is in fine preservation1 and a red sandstone rapidly decaying4 ,a similar result was observed in ,bristol ,cathedral1 which afforded a curious instance of the effects of using different materials2 for a yellow limestone and a red sandstone have been indiscriminately employed both for the plain and the decorated parts of the building2 not only is the appearance unsightly1 but the architectural effect of the edifice is also much impaired by the unequal decomposition of the two materials4 ,after enumerating these and other examples1 the ,report gives the preference to the limestones1 on account of their more general uniformity of tint1 their comparatively homogeneous structure1 and the facility and economy of their conversion to building purposes2 and1 of this class1 preference is given to those which are most crystalline4 ,professor ,daniell is of opinion that the nearer the magnesian limestones approach to equivalent proportions of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia1 the more crystalline and better they are in every respect4 ,it was considered that this crystalline character1 together with durability1 as instanced in ,southwell ,church1 c42 uniformity in structure2 facility and economy in conversion2 and advantage in colour1 were all comprised in the magnesian limestone1 or dolomite of ,bolsover#b ,moor and its neighbourhood1 and was accordingly recommended as the most fit and proper material to be employed in the ,new ,houses of ,parliament4#c ,this opinion was not arrived at1 nor this recommendation made1 until after a very extensive series of experiments had been completed by ,professors ,daniell and ,wheatstone upon specimens of the stones of the various quarries visited by the ,commissioners4 ,the specimens1 as delivered to these gentlemen1 were in the form of two-inch cubes4 ,these experiments were of a most comprehensive kind4 ,the composition of the stones was determined by chemical analysis3--their specific gravities2 their weights after having been perfectly dried by exposure in heated air for several days2 then their weights after having been immersed in water for several days so as to become saturated2 the object being to ascertain the absorbent powers of the stones1 which was further tested by placing them in water under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump4 ,the stones were also subjected to the process of disintegration1 invented by ,m4 ,brard1 the object of which is to determine1 by easy experiments1 whether a building-stone will or will not resist the action of frost4 ,lastly1 the cohesive strength of each specimen1 or its resistance to pressure1 was tested by the weight required to crush it4 ,this weight was furnished by a hydrostatic press1 the pump of which was one inch in diameter3 one pound at the end of the pump lever produced a pressure on the surface of the cube equal to #bec cwt41 or to #gajf lbs4 on the square inch4 ,these trials were made with caution2 the weight on the lever was successively increased by a single pound2 and1 in order to ensure a gradual action1 a minute was allowed to elapse previous to the application of each additional weight4 ,it was noted for each specimen the pressure at which the stone began to crack1 and also the pressure at which it was crushed4 ,the results of all these experiments 7which are stated for each stone7 gave a decided preference to the ,bolsover magnesian limestone1 which was noticed as being remarkable for its peculiarly beautiful crystalline structure1 while it was the heaviest and strongest of all the specimens1 and absorbed least water4 ,its composition was #ej per cent4 of carbonate of lime1 and #dj of carbonate of magnesia2 the remaining ten parts consisting chiefly of silica and alumina4 ,an easy ,method of determining whether a ,stone will resist the ,action of ,frost4 ,in the choice of a stone for building purposes1 it is of the utmost importance to be able to determine1 by a few prompt and easy experiments1 whether the proposed stone is capable of resisting the destructive action of moisture and frost4 ,the means of ascertaining this were difficult and uncertain1 until ,m4 ,brard1 several years ago1 communicated his method to the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences at ,paris4 ,this learned body having appointed a ,committee of their own members to inquire into the merits of ,m4 ,brard's process1 and to make a report thereon1 the united testimony of engineers1 architects1 masons1 and builders from different parts of ,france1 was received1 and proved so favourable as to its merits and simplicity1 that the ,committee recommended the plan to public notice and general adoption4 ,from their ,report we select a few details1 which hitherto1 we believe1 have not appeared in ,english4 ,when water is converted into ice an increase in bulk suddenly takes place with such amazing force that it appears to be almost irresistible4 ,this is the force which cracks our water-bottles and ewers2 splits asunder the trees of our forests2 and destroys some of the stones of our buildings4 ,but the action of frost upon stone is very gradual2 it is confined to the surface1 and when we see a layer of stone separated from the rock or the building1 we see the result of the action of the frost during several successive winters1 whereby the fragment is gradually thrust out of its perpendicular position1 and at length falls4 ,this natural process is repeated in our buildings3 we rarely see squared stones split into large fragments by the action of frost except there be a cavity of some considerable size1 in which a quantity of water can be collected4 ,the usual action of the frost is at the surface1 which is destroyed by the chipping off of small fragments in consequence of the adhesion of the materials of the stone being partially destroyed4 ,all stones absorb water in greater or less quantities1 and there is no rock that does not contain some humidity4 ,the great difference between stones which is now to be considered is in their power of resisting frost4 ,stones of the same kind1 nay1 stones from different parts of the same quarry1 are acted upon very differently by frost2 for1 while one stone soon begins to show the destructive effects of its action1 another remains uninjured during many centuries4 ,it will1 therefore1 be convenient to call those stones1 of whatever kind1 which withstand the action of frost1 resistant1 and those which yield to its action1 non-resistant4 ,m4 ,brard's first idea1 in order to test these resistant properties in building-stones1 was1 to saturate the stone with water1 and then expose it to cold artificially produced2 but this was found to be impracticable on a large scale1 and the freezing mixtures and other means of producing cold were liable to act chemically upon the stone1 and thus produce other effects than those of cold4 ,m4 ,brard was then led to compare water with those numerous solutions of the chemist1 which1 under certain modes of treatment1 crystallize4 ,the expansive force of salts in crystallizing is very great1 and he saw no reason why water should not be regarded as a crystalline salt similar in its nature to those saline bodies which effloresce at the surfaces of stones1 and in time destroy them and even reduce them to powder4 ,he therefore tried1 in a very large number of experiments1 the action upon building-stones of solutions of nitre1 of common salt1 of ,epsom salts1 of carbonate and sulphate of soda1 of alum and of sulphate of iron1 and found that the stones cracked and chipped1 and in many cases behaved precisely in the same way as when under the influence of freezing water4 ,in the course of these trials1 sulphate of soda 7,glauber's salts7 was found to be the most energetic and active1 and to be the best exponent of the action of freezing water4 ,in order1 therefore1 to determine promptly if a stone be resistant or non-resistant1 the following process was adopted4 ,a saturated solution of sulphate of soda was made in cold water2 the solution being put into a convenient vessel1 the stone was immersed1 and the solution boiled during half an hour3 the stone was then taken out1 and placed in a plate containing a little of the solution4 ,it was then left in a cool apartment1 in order to facilitate the efflorescence of the salt with which the stone was now impregnated4 ,at the end of about twenty-four hours the stone was covered with a snowy efflorescence1 and the liquid had disappeared either by evaporation or by absorption4 ,the stone was then sprinkled gently with cold water until all the saline particles disappeared from the surface4 ,after this first washing the surfaces of the stone were covered with detached grains1 scales1 and angular fragments1 and the stone being one that was easily attacked by frost1 the splitting of the surfaces was very marked4 ,but the experiment was not yet terminated3 the efflorescence was allowed to form1 and the washing was repeated many times during five or six days1 at the end of which time the bad qualities of the stone became fully established4 ,the stone was finally washed in pure water2 all the detached parts were collected1 and by these the ultimate action of the frost upon the stone was estimated4 ,the behaviour of various non-resistant stones under this process was remarkable4 ,some were found to have deteriorated in the course of the third day2 others to have entirely fallen to pieces2 those of which the power of resistance was somewhat greater1 held out till the fifth or sixth day2 but few stones1 except the hard granites1 compact limestones1 and white marbles1 were able to stand the trial during thirty consecutive days4 ,for all useful purposes1 however1 eight days suffice to test the resistant qualities of any building-stone4 ,the explanation of this process is very easy4 ,the boiling solution dilates the stone and penetrates it to a certain depth1 nearly in the same way that rain water by long-continued action introduces itself into stones exposed to the severity of our changeable climate4 ,pure water when frozen occupies a greater bulk than when fluid1 and the pores or cellules of the stone not being able to accommodate themselves to the increased bulk of the water1 great pressure is exerted between and among them1 whereby a portion of the water is driven to the surface1 and in doing so rends and detaches small portions of the stone4 ,the same action takes place with the saline solution2 it is introduced into the stone in a fluid state1 from which passing into the solid it occupies a greater bulk1 and a portion of it appears at the surface4 ,the repeated washings have no other object than to allow the salt to exert its greatest amount of destructive action upon the stone4 ,there is a striking analogy between the effect of congealed water and that of the efflorescence of salts1 in the disintegration of non-resistant stones2 namely1 that pure water acts on the stones destructively only in a state of snowy efflorescence1 which evidently proceeds from the interior to the exterior like the saline efflorescence2 whilst water at the surface of the stones may freeze into hard ice without injuring them1 just in the same way as salts1 which may crystallize upon stones without exerting any injurious action4 ,the experience of several engineers1 extending as it does over several years1 fully proves1 of a large variety of stones whose qualities were well known1 that the action of ,m4 ,brard's process and that of long-continued frost exactly coincide4 ,it is not the least interesting part of the inquiry to know that this process may be applied with perfect success to ascertain the solidity and resistant power of bricks1 tiles1 slates1 and even mortar4 ,from a mass of minute detail1 we will select a few general results4 ,during one winter season ,m4 ,vicat composed seventy-five varieties of mortar1 the difference between any two consisting in the proportion of sand and the method of slaking the lime4 ,in the following ,june these mortars were exposed to the disintegrating process4 ,most of them were attacked in twenty-four hours2 almost all of them in forty-eight hours2 and all except two in three days4 ,this gentleman also found that a mortar made ten years previously1 of one hundred parts lime1 which had been left exposed to the air1 under cover1 during a whole year1 and then mixed up into a paste with fifty parts of common sand1 withstood the trial admirably during seventeen days1 while the best stones of the neighbourhood speedily gave way4 ,in this case the solution was saturated while hot1 which is so powerful in its effects that stones which have resisted the action of the frost for ages1 soon gave way when exposed to it4 ,m4 ,vicat calculates that the effect of the sulphate of soda upon a non-resistant stone after the second day of trial equals a force somewhat greater than that exerted by a temperature of about #ba ,fahrenheit1 on a stone saturated with water4 ,the action of the process upon bricks proved that1 whatever their qualities in other respects1 if imperfectly burnt1 they are speedily acted on4 ,the sharp edges of the brick1 and then the angles1 are first rounded1 and finally the brick is reduced to powder4 ,such is precisely the action of frost often repeated4 ,well-baked bricks1 on the contrary1 retain their colour1 form1 and solidity by this process1 as well as under the influence of frost4 ,ancient ,roman bricks1 tiles1 and mortar1 and hard well-baked pottery resisted the process perfectly2 as did also white statuary marble of the finest quality1 while common white marble was soon attacked4 ,in ,paris1 portions of buildings which had been exposed to the air during twenty years without undergoing the least alteration1 were submitted to this ordeal1 and the experiment agreed with observation4 ,in one extensive series of experiments on stones from different quarries of ,france1 the action of the salt was continued for seven days1 and the results noted down2 it was then continued for fourteen days1 and the results compared with the preceding ones2 which only served to confirm the judgment first given1 for those stones which were noted as of bad quality crumbled to dust or split into fragments1 while those noted for their good qualities had experienced no sensible alteration4 ,one of the great advantages of this process is the power it gives to the architect of choosing a hard1 durable stone for those parts of the building most exposed to the action of the weather1 when the funds are insufficient to admit of the whole building being so constructed4 ,thus the cornices1 the columns1 and their capitals1 are struck in all directions by rain1 and hail1 and damp air1 and are consequently far more exposed to their destructive action than the flat surface of a wall1 which offers but one plane to the air4 ,in the course of this inquiry a very curious case arose4 ,during the erection of a church in ,paris1 the architect required a good durable stone for the ,corinthian capitals2 and many circumstances disposed him to select it from the neighbouring quarry of the ,abbaye du ,val4 ,but1 on seeking the opinion of two brother architects1 he was surprised to find their estimations of the stone to be totally at variance1 for while one declared that he had employed it with the greatest success1 another said that he had seen it yield speedily to the effects of frost4 ,on visiting the quarry it was found that two beds of stone were being worked1 an upper and a lower bed2 specimens of the stone were taken from each1 and on submitting them to a hot saturated solution1 it was ascertained almost immediately that the upper layer furnished excellent stone1 while the lower one supplied that of which the architect had so much reason to complain4 ,but it is remarkable that the stones from the two beds had precisely the same appearance in grain1 colour1 and texture2 so much so1 that when brought into the mason's yard it was impossible by ordinary tests to distinguish the good from the bad stone4 ,at the conclusion of the inquiry of the ,committee1 the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences proved the high estimation in which they held this contribution of science to the useful arts1 by directing to be published the following practical directions for repeating the process1 for the use of architects1 builders1 master masons1 land proprietors1 and all persons engaged in building4 #a4 ,the specimens of stone are to be chosen from those parts of the quarry1 where from certain observed differences in the colour1 grain1 and general appearance of the stone1 its quality is doubtful4 #b4 ,the specimens are to be formed into two-inch cubes1 carefully cut1 so that the edges may be sharp4 #c4 ,each stone is to be marked or numbered with ,indian ink or scratched with a steel point2 and corresponding with such mark or number a written account is to be kept as to the situation of the quarry1 the exact spot whence the stone was detached1 and other notes and information relating to the specimen4 #d4 ,continue to add a quantity of sulphate of soda to rain or distilled water1 until it will dissolve no more4 ,you may be quite sure that the solution is saturated1 if1 after repeatedly stirring it1 a little of the salt remains undissolved at the bottom of the vessel an hour or two after it has been put in4 #e4 ,this solution may be heated in almost any kind of vessel usually put on the fire1 but perhaps an earthen pipkin may be most convenient4 ,when the solution boils1 put in the specimens of stone1 one by one1 so that all may be completely sunk in it4 #f4 ,continue the boiling for thirty minutes4 ,be careful in observing this direction4 #g4 ,take out the cubes one at a time1 and hang them up by threads in such a way that they may touch nothing4 ,place under each specimen a vessel containing a portion of the liquid in which the stones were boiled1 having first strained it to remove all dirt1 dust1 c4 #h4 ,if the weather be not very damp or cold the surfaces of each stone will1 in the course of twenty-four hours1 become covered with little white saline needles4 ,plunge each stone into the vessel below it1 so as to wash off these little crystals1 and repeat this two or three times a day4 #i4 ,if the stone be one that will resist the action of frost1 the crystals will abstract nothing from the stone1 and there will be found at the bottom of the vessel neither grains1 nor scales1 nor fragments of stone4 ,be careful1 in dipping the stone1 not to displace the vessel4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the stone is one that will not resist the action of frost1 this will be discovered as soon as the salt appears on the surface1 for the salt will chip off little particles of the stone1 which will be found in the vessel beneath2 the cube will soon lose its sharp edges and angles2 and by about the fifth day from the first appearance of the salt1 the experiment may be considered at an end4 ,as soon as the salt begins to appear at the surface its deposit is assisted by dipping the stone five or six times a day into the solution4 #aj4 ,in order to compare the resisting powers of two stones which are acted upon by the frost in different degrees1 all that is necessary is1 to collect all the fragments detached from the six faces of the cube1 dry them and weigh them1 and the greatest weight will indicate the stone of least resistance to the frost4 ,thus1 if a cube of twenty-four inches of surface loses #ahj grains1 and a similar cube only #ij grains1 the latter is evidently better adapted than the former to the purposes of building4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,,sir ,,humphry ,,davy4 #b ,bolsover is a small market town in ,derbyshire1 on the borders of the county of ,nottingham1 and about #ade miles from ,london4 #c ,the various quarries visited by the commissioners are noticed in the fullest and fairest manner4 ,they have stated for each quarry its name and situation2 the names and addresses of the freeholder1 of his agent1 and of the quarryman2 the name of the stone2 its composition2 colour2 weight per cubic foot2 entire depth of workable stone2 description of the beds2 size of blocks that can be procured2 prices1 per cubic foot1 of block stone at the quarry2 description and cost of carriage to ,london2 cost1 per cubic foot1 of the stone delivered in ,london2 cost1 per foot of surface1 of plain rubbed work1 as compared with ,portland stone2 and1 finally1 where known or reported to have been employed in building4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,walls4 ,,bricks ,,and ,,brick-,,work4 ,we now come to that material which is1 in ,england1 a more important agent than stone in the construction of dwelling-houses2 namely1 bricks made from clay4 ,there were three millions and a half of houses in ,great ,britain in the year #ahda2 and there can be no doubt that of this number those which were built of brick constituted a vast majority4 ,it is only in a few particular districts that stone is a more available material for houses than bricks4 ,in other countries1 too1 as well as our own1 the arts of brick-making and bricklaying are carried on more extensively than the operations of the stone-mason4 ,bricks and ,brick-work in ,early ,times4 ,it has been observed that 8the art of making bricks is so simple1 that it must have been practised in the earliest ages of the world2 probably before mankind had discovered the method of fashioning stones to suit the purposes of building40 ,it is stated in the ,book of ,genesis that burnt bricks were employed in the construction of the ,tower of ,babel4 ,now1 as this structure appears to have been raised about four hundred years after the ,deluge1 it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the art of making bricks was invented almost as soon as men began to build4 ,bricks seem to have been in common use in ,egypt while the ,israelites were in subjection to that nation2 for the task assigned them was the making of brick1 and we are informed in the ,book of ,exodus1 that the ,israelites built two ,egyptian cities4 ,no particulars are given in ,scripture of the method of making bricks2 but as straw was one of the ingredients1 and as very little rain falls in ,egypt1 it is probable that their bricks were not burned1 but merely baked by the heat of the sun4 ,the same mode of baking bricks seems still to be practised in the ,east4 ,the ruins of the tower near ,bagdad are formed of unburnt bricks4 ,the art of brick-making was carried to considerable perfection among the ,greeks4 ,pliny states that they made use of bricks of three sizes1 distinguished by the following names3 didoron1 or six inches long2 tetradoron1 or twelve inches long2 and pentadoron1 or fifteen inches long4 ,that the ,romans excelled in the art of making bricks there is the amplest evidence1 since brick structures raised at ,rome seventeen hundred years ago1 still remain nearly as entire as when first built4 ,a remarkable kind of floating brick1 used by the ancients1 has been made the subject of investigation in modern times1 with a view to the suggestion of improvements in the making of bricks for particular purposes4 ,pliny states that at various places in ,spain1 in ,asia ,minor1 and elsewhere1 bricks were made which1 besides possessing considerable strength and a remarkable power of enduring heat1 were yet of such small specific gravity1 that they floated on the surface of water4 ,like many of the arts of the ancients1 the method of making these bricks1 as well as the material of which they were made1 were forgotten for many ages4 ,about the year #agij1 however1 an ,italian1 named ,fabbroni1 turned his attention to the subject1 and after various experiments on minerals of small specific gravity1 he came to the conclusion that these bricks must have been composed of a substance called 8mountain-meal20 or1 at least1 he found that he could make of this substance bricks which appeared to agree in every respect with those described by the ancients4 ,this mountain-meal is an earth composed of flint1 magnesia1 clay1 lime1 iron1 and water1 in certain definite proportions4 ,the bricks which ,fabbroni formed of this material had the property of floating in water2 they could not be fused by any ordinary degree of heat2 and so low was their conducting power1 that while one end of the brick was red-hot1 the other could be held in the hand without the smallest inconvenience4 ,it has been supposed that a peculiar kind of earth1 found in some parts of ,cornwall is the same as that with which ,fabbroni experimented on in ,italy1 and that both are analogous to the kind of which the ancients made their floating bricks4 ,proceeding on this supposition1 it has been proposed to make such bricks for the construction of floating houses upon ornamental waters4 ,at present such structures can be made only of timber2 and1 however the owner may decorate them1 they have always a flimsy and unsubstantial appearance1 and they are soon injured by the weather4 ,if1 however1 a platform of good timber were employed as the base of the whole1 and the weight so contrived as to keep this platform constantly under water1 it would last a long time4 ,the upper part of the structure formed of the floating bricks1 might have all the appearance1 and1 indeed1 all the stability of a brick house upon land2 for this description of brick resists the influence of the atmosphere as well as the action of fire2 and although it is not absolutely so strong as the heavy brick in common use1 it is far more so in proportion to its specific gravity4 ,we do not know whether these conjectures have yet been put to the test4 ,that the early inhabitants of many countries in the eastern and central parts of ,asia were acquainted with the use of bricks in building1 we have abundant proof from the descriptions of intelligent travellers2 and there are even grounds for attributing to them a very high degree of mechanical skill both in the making of the bricks and the formation of brick walls4 ,dr4 ,kennedy1 in his ,campaign of the ,indus1 says3--8,nothing ,i have ever seen has at all equalled the perfection of the early brick-making1 which is shown in the bricks to be found in these ruins ancient tombs near ,tatta3 the most beautifully chiselled stone could not surpass the sharpness of edge1 and angle1 and accuracy of form2 whilst the substance was so perfectly homogeneous and skilfully burned1 that each brick had a metallic ring1 and fractured with a clear surface1 like breaking freestone4 ,i will not question the possibility of manufacturing such bricks in ,england1 but ,i much doubt whether such perfect work has ever been attempted40 ,making ,bricks by ,hand4 ,in the mechanical arrangements for making bricks two very different systems are adopted2 the one handicraft1 and the other by machinery4 ,the former has always been and still is far more extensively adopted than the latter4 ,in the selection of materials for brick-making1 a brown loamy clay1 that is1 clay which contains a small quantity of calcareous matter1 is considered best for ordinary bricks1 but the ingredients vary according to the purposes for which the brick is required2 and every one must have remarked the difference in colour between the light yellow marl stocks1 as they are called1 employed in the facing of houses of the better kind1 and the dark red brick used in ,lancashire and other northern counties4 ,the colour also varies with the proportion of ashes or sand employed in the mixture1 and with the degree of heat they are subjected to in drying4 ,the general process is1 however1 much the same everywhere2 and we shall describe that used in ,england1 where bricks are always burnt4 ,the proper kind of clay being found1 the top vegetable mould is removed1 and the earth dug and turned over to expose it as much as possible to atmospheric action1 and for this purpose it is left for the winter4 ,in spring1 a quantity of fine ashes1 varying in proportion to the clay from one-fourth to a fifth1 according to the stiffness of the latter1 is added by degrees1 and well incorporated by digging and raking1 water being poured on to render the mass soft4 ,when the union is effected1 the clay is carried in barrows to a rude mill1 erected near the shed1 in which the brickmaker works4 ,this mill consists usually of a vat1 or circular vessel1 fixed on a timber frame2 an upright iron axle is placed in the centre of the vat1 and carries some iron plates1 or rakes with teeth1 to stir up the soft clay when placed in the mill3 this axle is turned round by a horse harnessed to a horizontal shaft which proceeds from the axle4 ,the clay being put into the vat1 the rakes or knives complete the incorporation of the ashes1 and thoroughly temper the whole mass1 which is gradually squeezed out through a hole in the bottom of the vat4 ,a better kind of mill is used in tempering the material for the better bricks2 it only differs1 however1 in being larger4 ,an iron harrow loaded with weights is dragged round in a circular pit lined with brick-work4 ,the clay in this case is diluted with water sufficiently to allow of the stones sinking to the bottom2 and the fluid is drawn off into pits1 where it is left to settle and thicken1 to the proper consistence4 ,the prepared clay is first separated into masses1 each large enough to make a brick1 by the feeder1 or assistant1 who sands the pieces ready for the moulder2 the mould is an open rectangular box1 the four sides of which are made to separate from the bottom1 to allow of the brick being turned out4 ,the bottom is now made with a lump raised on it1 by which a slight depression is formed on one side of the brick1 to admit a mass of the mortar being received and detained in it when the wall is built4 ,the moulder takes the piece of clay prepared for him1 and dashing each into the mould so as to cause it to fill it1 removes the superfluous quantity by means of a flat piece of wood which he draws across the open side of the mould2 this strike is kept in a bowl of water to wet it1 and prevent the adhesion to it of the clay4 ,the man then lifts off the sides of the mould1 and deposits the brick on a flat pallet-board1 and this is removed by a boy who ranges the bricks on a lattice frame set sloping on the barrow in which they are to be taken to the field to dry2 fine sand is strewed on the frame and over the bricks1 to prevent their adhering together4 ,the bricks are taken to the field1 and piled in long lines called hacks4 ,this is a nice operation1 as the soft bricks1 if handled roughly1 would become twisted1 and rendered useless2 the bottom course of bricks is raised a few inches to keep it from the wet2 and the ground is prepared to receive them by being covered with dry brick-rubbish or ashes1 and raked smooth4 ,the bricks are set alternately in rows lengthwise and crosswise1 with intervals between them of an inch or more1 to allow a thorough circulation of air3 the hack1 when raised about a yard high1 is covered over with straw to throw off the rain4 ,if the weather be favourable1 ten or twelve days are enough to dry the bricks in the hacks sufficiently to prepare them for burning1 but they should be thoroughly dry1 or the subsequent process will fail4 ,ordinary bricks for building are burnt in clamps1 which are large oblong masses1 built up of the unburnt bricks1 laid regularly in layers1 with large flues or passages at intervals1 in which ashes1 cinders1 coal1 and brush-wood are laid2 layers of ashes are strewed over those of the bricks4 ,the object is1 that the fire1 when the fuel is ignited1 may penetrate every part of the mass1 and bake every brick equally2 even the ashes mixed up in the clay are intended to be partly burnt by the heat4 ,in clamps well constructed the outside is coated with clay or plaster to keep in the heat1 and when the fuel is thoroughly lighted1 the external apertures should be stopped up4 ,the clamp when completed contains from #ajj1jjj to #ejj1jjj bricks4 ,the fire will continue burning about three weeks1 if the pile has been well constructed3 when all smoke ceases to rise1 the clamp is taken down when cold1 and the bricks sorted2 for1 even with the utmost care1 it must happen that the bricks are not all equally burnt4 ,the best are those in the centre4 ,the under-burnt ones are reserved to be rebuilt into a new clamp for further baking1 and those which are over-done1 and have run together by partial vitrification1 are sold at a cheap rate for making foundations for houses1 roads1 c4 ,the better or peculiar kinds of bricks1 as well as tiles of all kinds1 are burnt in kilns instead of clamps4 ,these kilns1 though of a peculiar form1 according to the purpose to which they are applied1 yet do not differ in principle from the lime-kiln1 c4 ,in the kiln1 the fire is not intermixed with the bricks1 but is applied beneath2 nor are ashes mingled with the clay of which kiln-burnt bricks are made4 ,as the general principles are the same in making tiles and bricks1 we shall class all these coarse pottery-works together here1 in an enumeration of the most important kinds used in ,britain4 ,place-,bricks are the worst of the clamp-burnt stocks1 and are used for common walls1 and the poorest kinds of work2 they are soft and unequally burnt2 they sell from #bjs4 to #cjs4 a thousand4 ,stock-,bricks are those from the centre of the clamp1 and are regularly burnt1 of an equally hard texture1 and even colour2 they are used for good work of all kinds2 the price varies from #cjs4 to #djs4 a thousand4 ,malm-,stocks are clamp bricks1 but made with more care from clay to which ooze1 chalk1 or marl is added2 and the whole carefully tempered2 they are of a fine clear yellow colour1 and are used for facing the walls of good houses1 and for making arches over doors and windows in general1 where they are to be seen4 ,the softest kind are called cutters1 from their admitting of being cut1 or trimmed1 with the trowel with nicety4 ,the prices of these bricks vary greatly4 ,fire-,bricks are made of a peculiar kind of clay1 found in perfection at ,windsor1 ,stourbridge1 and parts of ,wales1 whence the varieties derive their names4 ,they are formed from the clay without any admixture of ashes1 and are always kiln-burnt4 ,they vary in size1 and are used for building furnaces1 ovens1 boilers1 c4 ,pan-,tiles are tiles1 the cross section of which may be represented thus4 ,illustration3 two overlapping ,they are used for roofing outhouses1 stables1 c41 the edges of one row overlapping those of another next it1 and they are always set in mortar3 the end of the tile is formed with a projecting knob or fillet1 by means of which the tile is hooked on to the batten or lath4 ,these tiles are much larger than the ,plain-,tiles1 which are used in roofing dwellings1 c42 they are flat1 as the name indicates1 and are fixed to the laths of the roof by wooden pegs1 two holes being left in the tile for that purpose4 ,foot and ten-inch tiles are thick square tiles of those dimensions1 used for paving1 hearths1 c41 or for coping walls4 ,all tiles are burnt in a kiln4 ,bricks made in ,great ,britain are charged with a duty1 and as it constitutes an important item in the revenue1 the manufacture is laid under strict surveillance by the ,excise4 ,the duty on tiles was repealed in the year #ahcc4 ,bricks can only be made at certain seasons1 in certain quantities1 and even the screen through which the ashes are sifted1 to be mingled with the clay1 must be made of wire of a certain mesh4 ,bricks made larger than the standard measure of #h inches long1 #d wide1 and #b thick1 pay a higher duty than the common ones2 if the bricks are smaller than the proper size1 the maker is fined heavily4 ,no duty is charged upon bricks made in ,ireland4 ,about #aejj millions of bricks1 #db millions of plain1 #bc millions pan1 and #f millions of other tiles1 are made annually in ,britain4 ,a good moulder can make from #ejjj to #fjjj bricks in a day1 from five ,a4,m4 to eight ,p4,m4 ,within the present century1 the annual use of bricks in ,great ,britain has more than doubled1 owing to the increase of manufactories1 and to the construction of railroads and other public works4 ,making ,bricks by ,machinery4 ,within the last few years the making of bricks and tiles by machinery has occupied much attention4 ,a large number of patents has been taken out for contrivances having this object in view4 ,in some cases the patentee has directed his attention chiefly to the preparation of bricks for houses2 while in others the making of tiles for draining has been the chief object4 ,a description of one or two of these contrivances will give an idea of the general character of the whole4 ,the ,marquis of ,tweeddale1 having his attention drawn to the importance of employing draining tiles in agriculture1 directed his talents to the invention of a machine which should make them so quickly as to enable them to be sold at a low price4 ,after many attempts1 he perfected a machine which worked out this object1 and at the same time possessed all the facilities for making common bricks4 ,the machine is not constructed on the principle of imitating the manual operation1 by forming the bricks in moulds2 but it arrives at the same end in a different and remarkable manner4 ,the principle adopted is1 to form and protrude1 by mechanical means1 a continuous fillet of clay1 of the proper width and thickness for a brick1 and to stop this act of protrusion for a moment1 whilst a length of the fillet equal to that of a brick is cut off4 ,this is effected by the following mechanical arrangements3--,two vertical roller-wheels1 one of them being placed over the other1 and having an interval between them equal to the thickness of the intended bricks or tiles1 are made to revolve in contrary directions2 consequently they draw between them the clay with which they are fed on the one side 7either by hand or by any mechanical contrivance71 and deliver it on the other in a highly compressed state1 and in the form of a straight1 smooth1 and even fillet of the width of the rollers4 ,to provide for the squareness and smoothness of the sides of the fillet1 the sides of the aperture through which the clay passes are made square and neat1 so as to prevent the clay from spreading out laterally4 ,the clay is supported in a horizontal position whilst delivered to and received from the rollers1 upon a short endless band on each side revolving on rollers rather close together2 and in order to facilitate this object the rollers themselves have bands1 which are prolonged in the direction of the endless bands in such a manner as to meet them1 and form one horizontal line of support4 ,these bands are made of fustian1 the nap of which prevents the adhesion of the clay4 ,the rollers are so acted on by the working power that they protrude a length of clay equal to the required length of the brick or tile1 and then stopping1 they allow time for a straight stretched wire to descend and cut off the brick or tile1 after which the motion between the rollers is resumed1 until another length is protruded1 and so on continuously4 ,the fillet of clay is double the width for a brick1 and a wire is kept constantly stretched in the middle of its path1 dividing it into two fillets1 so that two bricks are cut off at once4 ,two boys are sufficient to remove the bricks as fast as they are produced1 which is at the rate of from fifteen to eighteen hundred in an hour4 ,the consistence of the clay is so much stiffer than that used for hand-made bricks1 that only half the time is required in the drying4 ,from there being so little water in the clay1 and from its undergoing so much compression1 the bricks produced are remarkably dense and strong1 weighing half as much again as the ordinary brick1 and absorbing only one-seventh as much water4 ,many machines have been contrived1 having for their object the formation of bricks on a principle somewhat analogous4 ,another class of machines have effected the desired end in a different way1--viz41 by forming each brick separately in a mould4 ,a slight description of one machine of this kind will illustrate all the others4 ,the main part of the machine is a horizontal wheel of large diameter4 ,round the periphery of this wheel is a series of moulds1 the exact size and shape for bricks1 placed nearly close together4 ,each mould has a loose bottom1 incapable of falling below the mould1 but capable of rising to its upper edge4 ,the clay for the bricks1 being properly prepared in vessels at one side of the wheel1 is made to fall into one of the moulds1 and the superfluous quantity is scraped off by a flat edge which passes over the mould4 ,the wheel rotates1 and in its movement it passes over a circular inclined plane1 so constructed as to lift the bottom of the mould up1 so as to protrude the newly-made brick above the mould1 where it can be conveniently taken off by the hand4 ,all the different moulds1 perhaps thirty or forty in number1 are at any given instant in different conditions as to their quota of clay2 one is receiving the clay1 another is having the superfluous clay scraped off1 another has travelled so far round as to have the brick lifted halfway out of it1 another presents the brick wholly out of the mould1 ready to be taken off1 while the others are travelling on empty to receive a new supply of clay1 all the moveable bottoms gradually sinking to their proper position as the wheel proceeds1 so that one rotation of the wheel carries each mould through all its different stages of position4 ,the ,processes of ,bricklaying4 ,when we consider that a wall forty or fifty feet high1 and not more than two feet thick at the bottom1 and fourteen or fifteen inches thick at the top1 is constructed of such small bodies as bricks1 we may well suppose that considerable nicety in workmanship must be requisite to give stability to such a structure4 ,the uniformity in size in the bricks themselves1 arising from their being copies of one mould1 is obviously the first condition that tends to the object2 the next is1 that they should be put together in such a way as to cause them mutually to adhere1 independently of the tenacity of the mortar employed2 and lastly1 the bricks must be set with great attention1 that their surfaces may be perfectly parallel and perpendicular to the direction of gravity1 for otherwise the wall composed of them1 instead of being truly perpendicular1 would lean over on one side and fall4 ,we shall enter into some particulars on these points1 but first we must describe the tools and materials used in ,bricklaying4 ,the trowel is the first and most indispensable of these tools4 ,it is a thin1 flat1 lozenge-shaped blade of steel1 fixed into a handle4 ,it is with the trowel the workman takes up and spreads the layer of mortar put between each brick1 and with it he also cuts the bricks so as to fit into any corner1 or to adapt them to some particular form2 and to enable it to cut1 or rather chip1 such a hard substance as burnt clay1 and yet not break1 it is necessary that the blade should be of well-tempered hard steel4 ,the square and level are made of wooden rules put together2 the first at a true right angle1 to enable the bricklayer to set out his walls correctly perpendicular to each other1--the second is framed like a 1 with a plummet hanging in a slit in the upright piece2 now1 as the two rules are correctly perpendicular to each other1 it is clear that when the first is set by means of the plumb-line perpendicular to the horizon1 the other will be truly horizontal4 ,by means of this important instrument1 the workman guides his work1 so that the wall he is building shall be upright1 and the courses of bricks composing it horizontal4 ,by means of this important instrument1 the workman guides his work1 so that the wall he is building shall be upright1 and the courses of bricks composing it horizontal4 ,mortar is the name given to the composition with which the bricks are put together4 ,good mortar should be made of newly-burnt quicklime from grey limestone1 and of clean river-sand1 in the proportions of one-third lime to two-thirds sand4 ,the lime is slaked by pouring a little clean water on it1 and when it falls to powder by the chemical action1 the sand is added gradually1 and the whole well mixed up with a spade1 more water being used till the mass is of the proper consistence for spreading easily4 ,as the adhesion of the bricks depends on the mortar being applied before it begins to set or harden1 it should not be mixed till it is to be used4 ,when these simple precautions are attended to1 the mortar becomes in time as hard as stone1 and the brick-work constructed with it is nearly as indestructible4 ,it was by taking this care with their materials that our forefathers built walls that have stood uninjured for centuries4 ,in some of the cheap common buildings of the present day1 mortar is too often made from lime which has been so long from the kiln1 that it is nearly reconverted into a hydrate1 and has lost the chemical quality which renders it valuable2 the sand1 too1 is taken from the road with all its impurities1 and the water from the nearest kennel4 ,with such materials a mass of mortar is made1 and suffered to stand for several days before it is used2 the consequence is1 that such buildings are neither safe nor durable4 ,the mortar is made up by an assistant1 called a bricklayers' labourer1 and is taken by him to the spot where the workman wants it in what is called a hod3 this utensil1 which consists of three sides of a rectangular box fixed edgeways at the end of a long handle1 is expressly contrived to be carried on the man's shoulder1 and leave his hands disengaged1 to enable him thus loaded to ascend and descend a long ladder2 the hod being held standing upright on the handle1 the labourer can put bricks into it with his right hand1 or another assistant fills it with mortar4 ,the manner in which the bricks are arranged in the work1 is termed bond1 and is of different kinds1 according to the thickness of the wall1 and the purposes for which it is intended4 ,the bond most generally used is termed ,flemish1 in which the bricks are laid alternately lengthwise and across the thickness of the wall1 the broadest side of the brick being laid horizontal1 and never edgeways1 in building walls of every thickness4 ,it was formerly usual to lay a whole course of bricks lengthwise1 and that above it across2 this disposition may be seen in old walls1 and was termed ,english-bond4 ,in every kind of bond1 the joints of the bricks of one course are always made to fall over a brick in that beneath1 or so that one joint may never be immediately over another4 ,the site of a wall1 or the walls of a building1 being set out or marked on the ground1 a trench is dug in the earth for the foundations1 the width and depth being determined on from the thickness and height of the superstructure1 and from the nature of the soil4 ,if this be loose or soft1 and the edifice be an important one1 it is often necessary to drive piles into the bottom of the trench1 and lay a course of oak planking on the tops of these timbers1 to form a firm foundation for the wall2 but if the nature of the ground do not require such precautions1 it is only necessary to level the bottom of the trench carefully1 as on this the stability of the wall will entirely depend4 ,a course of bricks is then laid dry on the earth1 forming a band twice the width of the lowermost thickness of the wall to be built4 ,this and the subsequent courses of the foundations should be constructed of the best bricks2 but unfortunately in common houses this obvious requisite is entirely neglected4 ,when this course is laid1 thin mortar1 or mortar almost fluid and having but little sand in it1 is poured over the bricks1 so as to flow into the joints and bind them together by hardening3 a second course is then laid on the first1 only narrower in width1 and each subsequent course diminishes in the same regular manner on each side1 till the width is reduced to the thickness at which it is proposed that the lower part of the wall should be built4 ,a cross section of these foundations thus constructed would present the outline of a truncated pyramid1 diminishing by regular sets-off or steps2 this part of a wall is called the footings4 ,for garden walls1 or such as have no weight to carry1 the footings need not be made of so many courses1 nor so broad1 but every wall must have two courses at least for a foundation4 ,the bricklayer makes use of a string stretched between two pins1 to enable him to keep his work straight2 and he lays the outermost bricks1 those forming the face of the wall1 carefully by this guide1 setting each brick alternately lengthwise and transversely1 and spreading a layer of mortar on the brick beneath1 to form a bed for the new one to lie on1 and also a layer between each upright joint4 ,it is usual only to lay the outer bricks in this manner1 and to fill up the interstices of those forming the interior of the wall by pouring mortar on each course previously laid dry with sufficient interval between them4 ,the workman as he proceeds1 repeatedly makes use of his level and square2 by the former1 he examines whether the face of his wall1 and all the corners1 or arrises1 are correctly perpendicular1 and whether the courses of bricks are laid horizontal4 ,apertures1 such as windows or doors which are to be formed in the wall1 are marked out on the wall when the work is built up to the height where they are to commence2 in carrying up the piers between these windows1 it will frequently happen that the width of the pier is not precisely commensurate with a certain number of bricks or half-bricks1 but that a brick must be cut to bring the work to the correct dimensions4 ,this smaller piece is termed a closure1 and is usually placed within a brick or two of the arris of the window or door1 and preserves its place for the whole height of the pier4 ,the thickness of brick walls is described by the number of bricks' length they contain in that direction3 thus a nine-inch wall is one-brick thick2 a brick-and-a-half wall is fourteen inches2 a two-brick wall is eighteen inches thick1 and so on4 ,the walls of small houses are often only one brick thick1 even when they are two stories high2 but usually a wall to be steady should decrease in thickness half a brick at least every story1 and for a large substantial building of four or five stories1 the main walls should be two-and-a-half bricks at least on the basement story1 and one-and-a-half at the top2 but of course the size of the apartments1 or1 in fact1 the area of wall which is to remain without any lateral support1 must govern the strength of it1 as well as the total height to which it is to be raised4 ,when the wall is raised as high as the tops of the windows1 c41 which were left in it1 these apertures must have arches turned over them1 to support the brick-work above4 ,this leads us to consider the different modes of constructing brick arches4 ,when the width of the opening is not above three or four feet1 the arch over it is frequently straight in its outline1 or but slightly curved in the intrado or lower line4 ,the bricks which are to form the arch are rubbed down on a board till they are brought to the proper wedge form4 ,a piece of wood for a centering is supported in the opening by upright slips3 the upper side of this centering is1 of course1 cut to the true camber or curve the intrado of the arch is to have3 the bricks are set upright on this centre1 and alternately1 so as to break the joints4 ,the face of the arch1 which is seen in the street over the windows and doors1 is constructed of the best bricks1 carefully cut to a mould and set in putty1 or in thin mortar made of lime only3 the rest of the arch behind this face is less carefully constructed1 and the bricks are often not cut at all1 but made to form an arch by the intervening layer of mortar being spread unequally thick1 or in a wedge shape4 ,when1 however1 a large arch is to be built of bricks1 these are cut to the proper level to form the wedge-shaped voussoirs4 ,the construction of groined arches in brick-work is the most difficult operation in the trade4 ,each brick that forms the arris or intersection of the cross vaults requires to be cut to a true form given by a drawing made to the full size on a board4 ,another perhaps still more delicate piece of workmanship for a bricklayer to execute is an oblique arch1 such as are often seen in the bridges over railroads and canals1 which cut established roadways obliquely4 ,these arches are portions of a cylinder1 but the ends of the cylinder1 instead of being perpendicular to the axis1 are oblique to it1 and this requires that the courses of bricks composing the arch shall also not be parallel to the axis1 and therefore not in straight lines3 hence1 every brick has to be cut or rubbed to a wedge form in two directions1 and great nicety in this and the subsequent operations are requisite in these structures4 ,formerly columns1 pilasters1 cornices1 niches1 and similar architectural embellishments1 were constructed in brick-work1 but stone has now superseded brick for all embellishments2 and the bricklayer's greatest skill is only required in the construction of arches1 or occasionally building a circular wall4 ,the best specimens of elaborate brick-work of the old school may be seen at the conservatory of ,kensington ,palace1 at ,burlington ,house1 and many other edifices of the time of ,william and ,mary1 and ,queen ,anne1 throughout the country4 ,the series of arches extending for nearly four miles on the ,greenwich ,railway1 and those for nearly an equal distance on the ,blackwall ,railway1 are perhaps among the best and most imposing specimens of modern brick-work1 and afford1 in many places1 beautiful examples of the oblique arch4 ,there are brick arches of a large span at each end of the new ,london and ,waterloo bridges4 ,brick-work is measured by the rod1 which is a superficial area of sixteen and a half feet each side1 or #bgb square feet1 at a thickness of one-and-a-half brick1 and all plain wall-work is reduced to this standard for valuation4 ,a rod of brick-work contains #dejj bricks1 and together with the mortar required to build it1 weighs about #ae tons #h cwt4 ,it differs in value from #ajl4 to #ael41 according to circumstances4 ,besides building walls1 bricklayers are employed to tile roofs1 set coppers1 pave stables1 c41 build drains1 and1 in short1 on all occasions where bricks or tiles are the materials used4 ,defects of ,modern ,brick ,houses4 ,a writer in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica endeavours1 with much ingenuity1 to show that the quality of ,english bricks and the system of bricklaying are very much influenced by the customary leasehold tenure of land4 ,his remarks are as follow3--8,brick-making has been carried to great perfection by the ,dutch1 who have long been in the habit of forming their floors1 and even1 in some cases1 of paving their streets with bricks4 ,and it is remarkable how long their bricks will continue unimpaired in such situations4 ,though brick-making has long been carried on in ,england1 and especially in the neighbourhood of ,london1 upon a very great scale1 and though the process upon the whole is conducted in this country with very considerable skill1 yet it must be acknowledged that ,english bricks are by no means so durable as ,dutch bricks4 ,we are disposed to ascribe this inferiority not so much to the nature of the materials employed in the manufacture of ,english bricks1 as to the mode most frequently adopted in ,london of building houses4 ,few of the ,london houses1 comparatively speaking1 are freeholds4 ,most of them are built upon ground let for a lease of a certain number of years1 which seldom exceeds ninety-nine years4 ,after the expiration of this period the house becomes the property of the landlord who let the ground4 ,thus it becomes the interest of the builder to construct the house so that it shall last only as long as the lease4 ,hence the goodness of the bricks becomes only a secondary object4 ,their cheapness is the principal point4 ,the object1 therefore1 of the brickmaker is not to furnish durable bricks1 but to make them at as cheap a rate as possible4 ,accordingly1 the saving of manual labour and of fuel has been carried by the makers of ,london bricks to very great lengths4 ,we cannot but consider this mode of proceeding as very objectionable1 and as entailing a much heavier expense upon ,london than would have been incurred had twice the original price been laid out upon the bricks when they were first used1 and had the houses been constructed to last a thousand instead of a hundred years4 ,no doubt certain advantages attend these ephemeral structures4 ,the inhabitants are enabled1 once every century1 to suit their houses to the prevailing taste of the day2 and thus there are no 7few87 antiquated houses in ,london4 ,but as the increase of the price of all the materials of building has more than kept pace with the increase of the wealth of individuals1 it is to be questioned whether the houses are always improved when they are pulled down and rebuilt40 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,roof4 ,,slates1 ,,and ,,other ,,roof ,,coverings4 ,we might1 perhaps1 under the designation of 8,slates and ,slating10 have included the operations usually understood to appertain to the construction of a roof4 ,but modern improvements have rendered such a designation incomplete4 ,we cannot now properly understand the mode of roofing houses without referring to many other substances besides slate4 ,slate-,quarries4 ,slate is the popular name for a variety of rocks which are sufficiently stratified in their structure to allow of their being cleaved into thin plates1 a property which renders them valuable for a variety of purposes4 ,slate has superseded the use of lead for covering roofs1 even of the largest buildings3 from its lightness it is preferable to tile1 but the latter being cheaper1 in flat countries which do not contain rocks1 but which yield brick-clay1 slate in such localities is only used on the better class of houses4 ,in mountainous countries1 a slaty rock1 which admits of being split thin1 though not so much as clay slate1 is used under the name of shingle4 ,besides being employed for roofing1 slate is used in large slabs to form cisterns1 for shelves in dairies1 for pavement1 and similar purposes1 for which its great strength and durability1 coolness1 and the ease with which it can be cleaned1 owing to its non-absorbing property1 adapt it4 ,the latter quality renders it also of great value as a cheap substitute for paper1 in the business of education2 the system of teaching in large classes in ,national and ,sunday-schools would be greatly fettered but for the use of slates4 ,the principal slate-quarries in ,britain are in ,wales1 ,cumberland1 and various parts of ,scotland2 the mode of working them is generally the same4 ,the rock is got out in tabular masses by means of large wedges1 and is then subdivided by smaller to the requisite thinness2 the pieces are roughly squared by a pick1 or axe1 and sorted1 according to their sizes1 for roofing4 ,the largest called imperial1 are about three and a half feet long1 and two and a half wide2 the smallest average half those dimensions4 ,when wanted for paving1 c41 the large blocks are sawn into thinner slabs1 in the same manner as stone or marble is4 ,a few words respecting the position and working of some of the slate-quarries may be appropriate1 as illustrating the nature of this remarkable geological formation4 ,illustration3 ,a ,slate-,quarry4 ,the most extensive slate-quarries in ,great ,britain are those near ,bangor1 in ,wales1 from which slate is shipped to all parts of the world4 ,the slate occupies the greater part of the distance from ,snowdon to the ,menai ,straits4 ,upwards of two thousand men are employed in these quarries2 and the proprietor is said to gain from thirty to forty thousand pounds per annum by them4 ,although this one is the largest1 yet there is one in ,cumberland in which the slate is found more remarkably situated4 ,this is ,hourston ,crag1 a mountain near ,buttermere ,lake1 about two thousand feet above the level of the lake1 and nearly perpendicular4 ,on account of the difficulty of access1 the workmen take their provisions for the week1 and sleep in temporary huts on the summit4 ,during the winter months they are generally involved in clouds1 and not unfrequently blocked up by the snow4 ,the slate is conveyed on sledges down a zigzag path cut in the rock1 one man attending to prevent the acceleration of the descent4 ,when the slate is emptied at the bottom the sledge is carried back on the man's shoulders to the summit4 ,notwithstanding the value of slate1 few quarries are worked to a very great depth1 or have subterranean galleries like mines4 ,there is one1 however1 near ,charleville1 in ,france1 which is an exception to this rule4 ,the mouth of the mine is near the summit of a hill2 the bed inclines forty degrees to the horizon1 and is about sixty feet in thickness1 but the extent and depth are unknown4 ,it has been worked by a principal gallery to the depth of four hundred feet1 and many lateral galleries have also been driven1 extending about two hundred feet on the side of the main gallery4 ,twenty-six ladders are so placed as to give passage to the workmen and carriage for the slate4 ,of the sixty feet which constitutes the thickness of the bed of slate1 about forty are good slate1 the rest being mixed with quartz4 ,the slate is cut into blocks of about two hundred pounds each1 called faix2 each workman1 in his turn1 carrying them on his back to the very mouth of the pit1 mounting all or part of the twenty-six ladders1 according to the depth of the bed where he may be working4 ,when brought to the surface1 these blocks are split into thick tables called repartons1 by means of a chisel and mallet2 and these repartons are divided by similar means into roofing-slates4 ,another remarkable slate-quarry in ,france1 is situated near ,angers4 ,the bed of slate extends for a space of two leagues1 passing under the town of ,angers1 which is in great part built of slate2 those blocks which are the least divisible being employed in masonry4 ,the quarries actually explored are all in the same line1 from west to east1 as well as the ancient pits1 the bed of the best roof-slate rising to the surface in this direction4 ,immediately under the vegetable earth is found a brittle kind of slate1 which1 to a depth of four or five feet1 splits into rhomboidal fragments4 ,a little lower is the building-stone1 which is a finer but scarcely divisible slate1 and is employed in the construction of houses1 after it has been sufficiently hardened by exposure to the air4 ,at fourteen or fifteen feet from the surface is found the good slate1 which has been quarried to the perpendicular depth of three hundred feet1 without its lower limit being attained4 ,the interior structure of the slaty mass is divided by many veins or seams of calcareous spar and quartz1 fifteen or sixteen feet in length1 by two feet thick2 these veins are parallel1 and proceed regularly from west to east in a position rising seventy degrees to the south2 they are intersected by other veins at intervals of a similar kind1 but whose rise is seventy degrees north2 so that when the two series meet1 they form rhombs or half-rhombs4 ,all the layers or lamin of slate have a direction similar to those of the veins of quartz1 so that the whole mass becomes divided into immense parallel rhomboids4 ,the slate is extracted in blocks of a determinate size1 which are then divided into leaves for roof-slates4 ,when the blocks have been drawn from the quarry1 if they are left exposed to the sun or the open air1 they lose what is called the quarry-water1 and then become hard and untractable1 and can only be employed as building-stone4 ,frost produces a singular effect on these blocks2 while frozen1 they may be broken with more ease than before2 but if thawed rather quickly1 they become no longer divisible2 yet this quality may be restored by exposing them once more to the frost4 ,the ,process of ,slating4 ,when the blocks of slate for roofing have been split1 and the lamin roughly squared1 they are sorted1 according to their size and quality1 and are brought to market under the quaint names of ,imperial slates1 ,duchesses1 ,countesses1 c41 the first variety being the largest4 ,the best roofing-slates come from the celebrated vale of ,festiniog4 ,slates are laid on battens1 or thin narrow deal boards1 which are nailed horizontally on the common rafters of the roof1 at equal distances apart1 which distance is governed by the size of the slate to be employed4 ,an entire board is nailed along the lowest edge of the roof to receive the lead of the gutters1 which are first laid1 and then the lowest course of slates are nailed and pinned down to the lowermost batten2 so that two-thirds the length of the slate1 at least1 shall lie over the lead4 ,the next course of slates is then fixed1 so that every slate shall overlap two-thirds the depth of the course below it1 every slate being also laid over the joint1 between two slates of that undercourse4 ,by this construction the rain that runs through the joint between any two slates is kept from penetrating into the roof by being received on the surface of the slate beneath that joint2 and the bottom course of slates is double1 to continue the same principle down to the lead gutter4 ,illustration ,the slates are fixed to the battens by two copper nails and a wooden pin when the work is well executed2 holes being picked through each slate for the nails to pass through4 ,paper ,roofs4 ,although1 as intimated in a former page1 in covering our imaginary dwelling with tiles or slates1 we may seem to have done all that is necessary in respect to 8roofing10 yet we should leave our subject only half treated if we were to omit mention of other contrivances which have been partially acted on2 such as the use of paper1 of asphaltum1 and various other substances4 ,about thirty years ago1 ,mr4 ,loudon published a pamphlet1 in which he described the mode of preparing paper for roofs1 and discussed the various arguments for and against its adoption4 ,his description had immediate relation to a series of paper roofs in a large farm at ,tew ,lodge1 in ,oxfordshire1 and comprised the following among other particulars4 ,paper roofs may be made very flat1 being raised no higher than just sufficient for throwing off the water4 ,instead of tile1 slate1 or thatch1 they are covered with paper1 prepared by immersion in a mixture of tar and pitch4 ,in the first place1 pieces of wood called 8couples10 are laid across the walls of the building1 rising two inches and a half to the foot to obtain a drainage obliquity2 these couples vary from two or three to six inches square1 according to the size of the roof4 ,on the couples are placed horizontal rafters1 about two inches square2 the distance between the couples being from five to eight feet1 and between the rafters about eighteen inches2 the couples are nailed to the wall plate1 and the rafters to the couples4 ,at ,tew ,lodge1 the rafters used were young larch-trees1 sawn up the middle1 cut to the proper lengths1 and prepared so that the upper surface should be level4 ,on the rafters are placed thin boards1 from a half to five-eighths of an inch in thickness2 these boards are nailed to the rafters1 not horizontally as for slating1 but in a direction from the eaves to the ridge of the roof4 ,in some cases substitutes for thin boards may be used2 such as close copse-wood hurdles1 plastered over2 or common plaster-laths4 ,the paper employed may be any common1 coarse1 strong kind2 that kind used by button-makers being favourable for the purpose4 ,it is prepared as follows3 a boiler or cauldron1 three feet wide by two deep1 placed over a fire1 is filled to within six inches of the top with tar and pitch1 in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the latter2 the fire being applied and the mixture made to boil1 the paper is immersed in it one sheet at a time1 and then laid in a stack or pile with such a slope as to allow it to drain1 a little grease of any kind being placed between the sheets to prevent their adhering2 and when dry the paper is similarly treated a second time4 ,the paper thus prepared is then nailed down to the roof4 ,the workman begins at the eaves1 and allows three inches for being turned down and nailed underneath the end of the board1 which boards project an inch over the first rafter4 ,if the paper be common1 coarse1 wrapping paper1 it is laid on much the same as slate1 so that when finished it will remain in double thickness all over the roof2 but if thicker paper be employed1 it is only made to overlap about three inches in each layer4 ,every sheet is fixed down with four nails about an inch in length1 having broad flat heads4 ,on the paper thus fixed is laid a composition consisting of two parts of tar to one of pitch1 thickened to the consistence of paste1 with equal parts of whiting and powdered charcoal4 ,the composition being well boiled and kept constantly stirred1 it is spread over the roof with a hempen mop as quickly as possible on account of the speedy cooling4 ,when properly laid on and dried1 the composition totally conceals the joints of the paper1 and forms a smooth and glossy black covering an eighth of an inch in thickness4 ,sometimes1 while the composition is yet wet1 sand1 dust1 or ashes are strewed on1 to increase the substance1 and shield the composition from the action of the sun4 ,mr4 ,loudon enumerates as the advantages of this roof--economy1 durability1 and elegance4 ,the economy is shown by the circumstance that1 on account of the lightness of the paper1 less massive walls and timbers are required than for other kinds of roof4 ,the expense at ,tew ,lodge was from fourpence to tenpence per square foot1 everything included4 ,it is one result of the flatness of the roof1 that ten square feet will cover as much as fourteen feet at the usual pitch of slated roofs4 ,as to the durability1 many proofs are adduced to support it4 ,a paper roof to a church at ,dunfermline remained forty years without requiring any repairs2 and several warehouses at ,greenock1 ,deal1 ,dover1 and ,canterbury1 had paper roofs1 which were known to stand from ten to twenty years4 ,mr4 ,loudon considered that1 from the flatness of the roofs1 and from other circumstances connected with the appearance of the prepared sheets1 the paper roofs were more fitted to join harmoniously with certain styles of architecture than slated roofs4 ,objections have been made to this kind of roof1 on the ground that it is liable to be blown off by high wind1 and still more that it is very inflammable4 ,with regard to the former1 ,mr4 ,loudon states that if the roof be properly made there is little danger of its being removed by high wind4 ,in reference to the second objection1 he states3--8,they seem to me not so liable to set fire to as thatch4 ,pitch 7especially if coated over with sand or smithy ashes7 will not be lighted by a spark1 nor even by the application of a slender flame1 as will that material2 though1 on the other hand1 when lighted1 it will unquestionably burn with greater velocity than any species of thatching4444 ,in the steward's house and men's lodge wood is constantly used as fuel1 which1 though more dangerous for emitting sparks than coal1 yet no accident has or is ever likely to happen to the roof4 ,in my house1 where coals were chiefly used1 the chimneys have been repeatedly set on fire to clean them1 without the least accident happening to the roof40 ,many years afterwards1 when ,mr4 ,loudon published his elaborate ,encyclopdia of ,cottage1 ,farm1 and ,villa ,architecture1 he briefly sketched some of the forms of roof which have more or less recently come into use4 ,these we must here notice4 ,terrace ,roofs4 ,terrace roofs have been much used in and about ,london4 ,they are formed of thin arches of tiles and cement1 supported on cast-iron bearers or ribs1 which are placed about three feet apart4 ,the arch is composed of three courses of common plain tiles1 bedded in fine cement without sand4 ,in laying the tiles1 laths or small slips of wood are used1 resting on temporary bearers between the iron ribs2 the laths being shifted as the work advances1 in the course of about half an hour after the tiles are laid4 ,particular attention is required in bonding the tiles both ways2 and they are rubbed down closely upon each other1 much in the same manner as a joiner glues a joint4 ,sometimes these terrace roofs are coated with a layer of coarse gravel1 and then with nine inches of good soil1 so as to form a terrace garden4 ,the roofs of two taverns at ,hungerford ,market are formed of these cemented tiles4 ,asphalte ,roofs4 ,asphalte or bitumen has come into use as a material for roofs4 ,it had been employed for various purposes in ,france for many years1 but did not attract much attention till within the last eight or ten years4 ,it is now in very general use in that country for foot pavements1 flat roofs1 and water-cistern linings2 and in ,england it has also been a good deal used for the same purposes1 and for barn-flooring4 ,the particular modes in which it is employed for floors and pavements we need not here consider1 but it has been used for roofs in the following manner4 ,mr4 ,pocock has patented a 8flexible ,asphaltic roofing10 intended to supersede the use of slates1 tiles1 zinc1 thatch1 c41 in the covering and lining of farm-buildings1 sheds1 cottages1 and other erections2 and it is approved for its durability1 lightness1 and economy4 ,the weight of this material being only sixty pounds to the square of one hundred feet1 the walls and timbers to support it need to be but half the usual substance2 it is also a non-conductor of heat1 impervious to damp1 and will bear a heat of two hundred and twenty degrees without injury4 ,this peculiar material is said to be formed of asphalte mixed with the refuse felt of hat manufactories1 compressed into thin plates4 ,scotch ,fir ,roofs4 ,scotch fir roofs are occasionally made4 ,the method of giving durability to the timber for this purpose consists in first cutting the wood to the required size1 and then steeping it for a fortnight in a pond of lime-water2 it is found that the acid contained in the wood becomes crystallized by combining with the alkali of the lime4 ,sir ,charles ,menteath is said to have some farm buildings which1 although roofed with ,scotch fir forty years ago1 are as well protected now as when the roofs were first laid on2 the wood having been previously steeped in lime-water4 ,the sulphate of copper1 the chloride of zinc1 the corrosive sublimate1 and the various other chemical substances which have been recommended of late years as means for preventing the decay of timber1 will possibly render the use of timber roofs more practicable than it has been hitherto considered4 ,iron ,roofs4 ,roofs of iron are in great request at the present time4 ,one of these sorts of roofs may be formed of three kinds of cast-iron plates4 ,the first1 called the 8roof-plate10 is shaped with three of its sides turned up and one turned down1 and is made tapering narrower towards one end2 the second1 called the 8low-ridge plate10 has two of its sides turned up and the other two turned down2 the third1 called the 8high-ridge plate10 has all its sides turned down1 and is formed with an angle in the middle1 so as to slope each way of the roof4 ,such a roof may be made very flat1 inasmuch1 that for a house twenty feet wide1 the height of the roof in the middle need not exceed two feet2 no boarding is required1 the plates resting without either cement or nails on the rafters4 ,from the manner in which the edges of the plates overlap1 there is no risk of contraction or expansion4 ,some of the iron roofs recently made are on the principle of those used in ,russia1 of which the following description has been given in the ,repertory of ,patent ,inventions3--8,sheet-iron coverings are now universally made use of in all new buildings at ,petersburgh1 ,moscow1 c4 ,in the case of a fire1 no harm can come to a house from sparks falling on a roof of this description4 ,the sheets of this iron covering measure two feet four inches by four feet eight inches1 and weigh twelve pounds and a half avoirdupois per sheet1 or one pound five ounces each superficial square foot4 ,when the sheets are on the roof1 they measure only two feet wide by four feet in length3 this is owing to the overlapping4 ,they are first painted on both sides once1 and1 when fixed on the roof1 a second coat is given4 ,the common colour is red1 but green paint1 it is said1 will stand twice the time4 ,small bits or ears are introduced into the laps1 for nailing the plates to the two-inch square laths on which they are secured4 ,it takes twelve sheets and a half to cover one hundred feet1 the weight of which is one hundred and fifty pounds--the cost only #a #aes41 or about threepence per foot40 ,iron roofs are now often made of corrugated or furrowed sheet-iron4 ,in this form the iron is impressed so as to present a surface of semi-circular ridges with intervening furrows lengthwise of the sheets4 ,by this means1 a piece of sheet-iron1 which1 as a plain flat surface1 has no strength but in its tenacity1 becomes a series of continued arches abutting against each other2 and the metal1 by this new position1 acquires increased strength4 ,iron so furrowed is deemed preferable to common sheet-iron for covering a flat-roof1 because the furrows will collect the water and carry it more rapidly to the eaves4 ,but there are greater advantages than this4 ,if the furrowed sheets be bent into a curved surface1 convex above and concave below1 they will form an arch of great strength1 capable of serving as a roof without rafters or any other support1 except at the eaves or abutments4 ,iron roofs measuring two hundred and twenty-five feet by forty have been constructed in this manner4 ,to increase their durability the iron sheets are coated with paint or tar4 ,zinc and other ,metallic ,roofs4 ,additions are made every year to the number of contrivances for forming metallic roofs1 among which is one now the subject of a patent1 for the use of galvanized iron4 ,in this case the aid of the electric agent is employed to give iron sheets an amount of durability which they do not possess in their natural state4 ,zinc has been much employed within the last few years as a material for roofs4 ,its availability for this purpose rests partly on its superior lightness as compared with lead1 and its superior condition under the action of the atmosphere as compared with iron4 ,the latter quality arises thus2 after the zinc has been covered with a thin film of oxide by the action of the atmosphere1 it suffers no further change from long exposure2 so that the evil of rust checks itself4 ,at the temperature of boiling water1 zinc sheets1 which are brittle when cold1 become malleable1 and their availability for roofs is thereby increased4 ,the property which zinc has1 however1 of taking fire at a temperature of about #gjj ,fahr41 rather detracts from its value as a material for roofs4 ,thatch ,roofs4 ,the most common material employed as thatch is either the straw of wheat1 rye1 or other grain1 or reed1 stubble1 or heather4 ,the straw of wheat and rye1 when well prepared and laid1 forms the neatest and most secure thatching2 the former being preferable to the latter in smoothness1 suppleness1 and durability4 ,barley-straw is placed next to rye in fitness for thatch1 and oat-straw the lowest of the four4 ,the reed is a very durable material for thatch1 but is generally too expensive4 ,it has been stated that1 in ,norfolk1 where the reed is a favourite material for thatch1 a reed roof will lie fifty years without wanting repair1 and that1 with very slight attention1 it will last for a whole century4 ,viewed in this light1 a reed roof may probably be considered economical4 ,the method of thatching with reed1 7which is one of the best and most difficult specimens of the thatcher's art17 has been thus described4 ,no laths being made use of as a support to the thatch1 a few of the longest and stoutest reeds are scattered irregularly across the naked spars as a foundation whereon to lay the main coat2 and thus a partial gauze-like covering is formed1 called the fleaking4 ,on this fleaking the main covering is laid1 and fastened down to the spars by means of long rods called sways1 laid across the middle of the reed1 and tied to the spars with rope-yarn or with brambles4 ,in laying on the reed1 the workman begins at the lower corner of the roof on his right hand1 and keeps an irregular diagonal line until he reaches the upper corner on his left2 a narrow eaves-board being nailed across the feet of the spars1 and some fleaking scattered on4 ,the thatcher begins to 8set his eaves0 by laying a coat of reed1 eight or ten inches thick1 with the heads resting upon the fleaking and the butts upon the eaves-board4 ,he then lays on his sway1 or rod1 about six or eight inches from the lowest point of the reed1 whilst his assistant1 on the inside1 runs a needle threaded with rope-yarn close to the spar and to the upper edge of the eaves-board4 ,the thatcher draws it through on one side of the sway and enters it again on the contrary side both of the sway and of the spar4 ,the assistant1 in his turn1 draws it through1 unthreads it1 and1 with the two ends of the yarn1 makes a knot round the spar1 thereby drawing both the sway and the reed tight down to the roof2 whilst the thatcher above1 beating and pressing the sway1 assists in consolidating the work4 ,the assistant1 having made good the knot below1 proceeds with another length of thread to the next spar1 and so on till the sway is bound down the whole length1 that is1 about eight or ten feet4 ,this being done1 another stratum of reed is laid upon the first1 so as to make the entire coat eighteen or twenty inches thick at the butts2 and another sway is laid on and bound down about twelve inches above the first4 ,when the eaves are completely set they are adjusted and made even by an instrument called a legget4 ,this is made of a board eight or nine inches square1 with a handle two feet long adjusted to its upper surface in an oblique position4 ,the face of the legget is set with large-headed nails1 and these enable the workman1 by using the instrument somewhat as if it were a turf-beating tool1 to lay hold of the butts of the reed and to adjust them in their places4 ,when the eaves are thus shaped1 the thatcher lays on another stratum of reeds1 and binds it down by another sway somewhat shorter than the last1 and placed eighteen or twenty inches above it2 and above this1 others1 in successive rows1 continuing to shorten the sways until they diminish to nothing1 and a triangular corner of thatching be formed4 ,after this the remaining surface of the roof is similarly done4 ,in order to finish the ridge of the roof1 a cap of straw is adjusted to it in a very careful manner4 ,in this operation the workman begins by bringing the ridge to a sharp angle1 by laying straw lengthwise upon it3 and to keep this straw in its place1 he pegs it down slightly with 8double-broaches10 which are cleft twigs about two feet long and half an inch thick1 sharpened at both ends1 bent double and notched1 so as to clasp the straw on the ridge4 ,this done1 the thatcher lays a coat of straight straw six or eight inches thick across the ridge1 beginning on either side at the uppermost butts of the reeds1 and finishing with straight handsful evenly across the top of the ridge4 ,having laid a length of about four feet in this manner1 he proceeds to fasten it firmly down1 so as to render it proof against wind and rain2 this is done by laying a 8broachen-ligger0 7a quarter-cleft rod1 half an inch thick and four feet long7 along the middle of the ridge1 pegging it down at every four inches with a double-broach1 which is first thrust down with the hands1 and afterwards driven with the legget or with a mallet4 ,the middle ligger being firmly laid1 the thatcher smooths down the straw with a rake and his hands1 about eight or nine inches on one side2 and at six inches from the first1 he lays down another ligger1 and pegs it down with a similar number of double-broaches1 thus proceeding to smooth the straw and to fasten on liggers at every six inches1 until he reaches the bottom of the cap4 ,one side being thus finished1 the other is similarly treated2 and the first length being completed1 others are done in like manner1 till the farther end of the ridge is reached4 ,he then cuts off the tails of the straw neatly with a pair of shears1 level with the uppermost butts of the reed4 ,when straw or heather is used for thatching1 the material is laid on in parallel rows1 much the same as the reeds1 but the mode of fastening is generally somewhat different4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,wood-,,work4 ,,growth ,,and ,,transport ,,of ,,timber4 ,the operations of the carpenter and joiner in the preparation of the wood-work of a house are quite as important as those of the mason or bricklayer4 ,it would not be possible in this little volume to trace clearly all the different processes connected with the building of a house as they occur in practice2 for the bricklayer and the carpenter combine their work1 as it were1 step by step4 ,but as the bricklaying and the slating1 or tiling1 relate principally to the exterior of the house1 and the carpentry work to the interior1 we have thus a line of separation1 which will greatly contribute to the clearness of these details4 ,as on a former occasion we noticed the operations of the quarry1 whence the builder is supplied with stone1 slate1 c41 it will now be interesting to give a few details respecting the growth and transport of timber4 ,the ,oak as a ,timber ,tree4 ,it is obvious that in every country native timber is preferred1 provided it can be obtained in sufficient quantity at a cheap rate2 if not1 it is imported from other countries4 ,in ,britain1 the first and most important of all trees is1 of course1 our own oak1 of which we have two species and several varieties1 belonging to the genus ,quercus4 ,the two species of oak natives of ,britain1 though greatly resembling each other in general appearance1 may yet very readily be distinguished1 when once their specific characters are pointed out4 ,as these two species are very commonly confounded together1 and as one of them is believed to afford a far more valuable timber than the other1 it may be useful to note their difference1 and exhibit the characters by which each may be known4 ,the true ,british oak1 ,quercus robur1 7fig4 #a7 bears its acorns on a stalk1 or peduncle 7fig4 #a1 ,a71 and hence it is sometimes called ,quecus pedunculata1 but its leaves grow close to the stem1 without a footstalk1 or at least with a very short one4 ,in the other native species 7fig4 #b71 these two characters are reversed3 the leaves grow upon a footstalk1 while the acorns are produced sessile1 that is1 sitting close to the stem 7fig4 #b1 ,a72 from which latter character this species has acquired the name of ,quercus sessiliflora4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the above characters will1 for the most part1 be found pretty constant4 ,at the same time1 it may be remarked1 that the oak is a tree subject to great variations2 and accordingly individuals of each species occasionally occur1 which in their characters are found more or less to approach those of the other4 ,quercus robur1 for example1 sometimes bears its acorns almost close to the stem1 and sometimes ,quercus sessiliflora will bear them on a short footstalk4 ,the leaves1 too1 of each1 frequently vary in the length of the petiole1 or leafstalk4 ,but in a general way 7as already stated71 each kind may be readily distinguished by the above obvious points of difference4 ,both species are common in ,britain1 though ,quercus sessiliflora appears to be not so generally distributed as the other2 in many districts its growth seems to be principally confined to woods and coppices1 where it sometimes occurs even in greater abundance than the common species4 ,quercus robur is believed to afford the more valuable timber of the two1 owing1 probably1 to its being of slower growth4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether the respective merits of each1 in point of durability of timber1 have yet been fairly put to the test4 ,where oak is grown in coppices1 to be cut down periodically for poles1 ,quercus sessiliflora is at least a valuable1 perhaps a preferable tree1 on account of its more rapid and cleaner growth4 ,no certain specific characters1 we are aware1 can be derived from the mere size or shape of the acorns1 or of the leaves4 ,it may be mentioned1 however1 as a general1 though not a constant rule1 that ,quercus sessiliflora usually bears very small acorns1 and that its leaves are1 for the most part1 larger1 and more regularly laciniated or notched1 and consequently handsomer1 as individual leaves1 than those of ,quercus robur4 ,the foliage of the latter species1 however1 taken as a whole1 is by far the more beautiful2 its leaves1 being smaller1 and growing close to the stem1 and not on footstalks1 combine better1 form more dense and compact masses1 and exhibit to greater perfection those exquisite tufts1 or rosettes1 which constitute one of the peculiar charms of oak foliage4 ,the oak is far less used in civil architecture than formerly1 although there are certain purposes in building to which it is still applied2 but owing to its value and the demand for it for ships1 and to the great labour required to work it1 its place is now supplied by fir4 ,the best oak is that which grows on cold1 stiff1 clayey soils1 and is the slowest in arriving at maturity2 and the colder the climate1 or the higher above the level of the sea the tree grows1 provided it be not stunted from severity of climate1 the better the timber3 hence ,scottish and ,welsh oak is more esteemed than that from the middle or southern counties of ,britain4 ,our own island does not produce this timber in sufficient abundance to supply the demand1 and large quantities of oak are imported from different countries1 especially from ,prussia and ,canada4 ,there are four kinds of oak used in the ,royal ,dock-yards1--,welsh1 ,sussex1 ,adriatic1 and ,baltic1--besides two others1 termed ,african oak1 employed in different parts of the vessels1 according to the qualities requisite for the particular purpose4 ,next to our own oak1 that from the shores of the ,baltic is by far the most esteemed4 ,in domestic architecture1 oak is only used in the largest and best buildings1 occasionally for the principal beams2 but its chief use is for door and window frames1 sills1 sleepers1 king-posts of roofs1 for trussing fir girders1 for sashes1 for gates of locks1 sluices1 posts1 piles1 c4 ,the timber called ,african oak1 used in the navy1 is wood of a different genus4 ,wainscot is the wood of a species of oak1 imported from ,russia and ,prussia in a particular form of log4 ,teak is the produce of a tree of the genus ,tectona4 ,t4 grandis is one of the largest ,indian trees1 and one of the most valuable1 on account of its excellent timber4 ,the trunk is neat1 lofty1 and of an enormous size2 the leaves about twenty inches long and a foot or more wide2 the flowers small1 white1 and fragrant1 and collected into very large panicles4 ,it is a native of various parts of ,india1 and was introduced into ,bengal by ,lord ,cornwallis and ,colonel ,kydd4 ,the wood of this tree has been proved by long experience to be the most useful timber in ,asia2 it is light and easily worked1 and at the same time strong and durable4 ,it is considered equal to oak for ship-building1 and has some resemblance to it in its timber2 many vessels trading between this country and ,india are constructed of it4 ,that which grows near the banks of the ,godavery is beautifully veined1 closer in the grain1 and heavier than other varieties4 8,on the banks of the river ,irrawaddy1 in the ,birman empire1 the teak forests are unrivalled2 and they rise so far over the jungle or brushwood1 by which tropical forests are rendered impenetrable1 that they seem almost as if one forest were raised on gigantic poles over the top of another4 ,the teak has not the broad strength of the oak1 the cedar1 and some other trees2 but there is a grace in its form which they do not possess40 ,a specimen of this tree was introduced into the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew about seventy years ago2 but from the coldness of our climate it can never become a forest-tree in this country4 ,valuable as teak is found to be in ship-building1 it has not yet been used in domestic building to any extent4 ,from sixteen to eighteen thousand loads of teak are annually imported into ,britain from ,india1 principally for the ,royal ,dock-yards1 this wood being used for certain beams and pillars in ships4 ,the ,fir and ,pine as ,timber ,trees4 ,fir1 or ,pine1 ranks next to oak for its valuable qualities1 and if its universal application be taken into consideration1 it might be thought even superior in importance4 ,it is used for every part of houses1 and extensively in ship-building1 in the fittings-up1 while it constitutes the only material for masts1 for which purpose its lightness1 and the great length and straightness of the trunk1 peculiarly fit it4 ,pine1 or fir1 is imported into this kingdom under the various names of timber1 battens1 deals1 laths1 masts1 yards1 and spars1 according to the size or form into which the tree is sawed4 ,it is called timber when the tree is only squared into a straight beam of the length of the trunk1 and from not less than eight or nine inches square1 up to sixteen or eighteen square2 fifty cubic feet is a load of timber4 ,deals vary in length and thickness from eight to sixteen feet1 eleven inches wide1 and from one and a half to three and a half inches thick4 ,four hundred superficial feet of one and a half inch plank make a load4 ,battens are small long pieces of fir about three inches wide and one inch thick4 ,masts1 yards1 and spars1 are the trunks of small trees simply barked and topped4 ,the pine is1 generally speaking1 an evergreen1 and the wood becomes harder and more durable when the situation is cold1 and also when the growth of the tree is slow4 ,norway1 ,sweden1 the shores of the ,baltic1 and ,canada1 are the chief localities of the forests of pine4 ,england is supplied principally from ,canada1 not because the timber from that country is better than that derived from the north of ,europe1 but because our timber duties fall heavily on the ,european pine1 the object of the legislature being to encourage the importation of pine from our ,north ,american colonies4 ,almost the whole of what is now called ,canada was once an immense pine forest4 ,with respect to the ,baltic region1 ,dr4 ,clarke said1 that if we take up a map of ,sweden1 and imagine the ,gulf of ,bothnia to be surrounded by one contiguous unbroken forest1 as ancient as the world1 consisting principally of pine trees1 with a few mingling birch and juniper trees1 we shall have a general and tolerably correct notion of the real appearance of the country4 ,the same writer observed1 that the ,king of ,sweden might travel from sunrise to sunset through some parts of his territories1 without meeting any other of his subjects than pine trees4 ,the ,norway ,spruce ,fir4 ,the species of ,spruce ,fir 7,pinus abies71 represented in the engraving1 has been known as a ,british tree for more than three hundred years1 but ,norway seems1 as far as it can be ascertained1 to be its native country4 ,it differs from the ,scotch fir in general appearance1 as well as in the structure of its leaves and cones4 ,the beautiful feathery appearance of its foliage is very striking1 but the extreme regularity of its form rather detracts from the beauty of a landscape when it is too often repeated2 it is easily known by its long pendulous cones1 as well as by its formal shape4 ,the spruce fir is found in great abundance in all the ,norwegian forests2 it is also spread over the whole of the north of ,europe1 and part of ,asia1 and it occurs on most of the mountain-ranges of both these quarters of the globe2 in favourable situations it attains a great height1 as much at times as #aej feet4 ,illustration3 ,the ,norway ,spruce ,fir4 ,the spruce grows more rapidly than any other of the fir tribes2 its wood is extremely tough and strong1 and answers well for masts and spars1 but it is not so valuable when cut into planks as that of other species4 ,it does not attain the same size in ,britain as in colder climates1 the tree perhaps being weakened by the loss of its sap1 which in hot weather is discharged through the bark in considerable quantities4 ,the more protracted season of growth1 and the greater difference between the temperature of the day and the night1 must have an effect upon it1 and judging from the situations which it prefers on the ,continent1 the summer rains of ,england cannot be by any means favourable4 ,the almost continual day in the ,polar countries1 while vegetation is active1 produces a uniformity of temperature1 and a consequent uninterrupted growth day and night1 while in countries farther south1 the vegetable action is checked every night1 and renewed again every morning1 especially in the early part of the season1 when such alternations are most dangerous4 ,illustration3 #a #a ,male ,catkins1 or ,blossoms4 #b #b #b ,cones containing the ,seed4 ,the ,norway ,spruce is called by the ,french the ,pitch ,spruce1 from its yielding the ,burgundy ,pitch of commerce4 ,to obtain this1 parts of the bark are removed in the spring1 and the resin exudes in greater or smaller quantities1 according to the state of the tree2 this is scraped off from time to time4 ,after a sufficient quantity has been collected1 it is melted in hot water1 and strained through bags to separate the impurities4 ,if the strips of bark which are removed are narrow1 the trees will continue to yield for several years4 ,the ,norway ,spruce1 and all other trees of the fir tribe1 are propagated by means of seeds4 ,these are to be sown rather thinly about the middle of ,march1 in a shady well-sheltered border2 towards the autumn the ground is to be carefully weeded1 and a quantity of rich earth strewed lightly over the whole4 ,during the winter1 if the frosts are very severe1 the young plants ought at times to be protected from the severity of the weather4 ,in the next spring1 and during the months of ,may and ,june1 the young plants will be much assisted by frequent waterings1 and in the autumn the ground must be again cleaned4 ,in the succeeding spring1 when their heads begin to swell1 they may be removed4 ,at four years old they may be transplanted again to a spot of good land1 and placed in rows two and a half feet asunder1 and fourteen or sixteen inches distant in each row4 ,three years after they will again require to be transplanted four feet asunder1 and so on1 increasing the space between the trees at each remove1 until the young ones are fourteen or sixteen feet in height4 ,the ,scotch ,fir4 ,one of the most useful kinds of pine is the ,pinus ,sylvestris 7wild pine71 generally known as ,scotch fir4 ,it is this tree which produces that kind of wood so extensively useful to the carpenter under the name of deal4 ,the term 8deal0 implies timber squared into a convenient size for exportation1 and it is in the form of deals that the wood of which we are now speaking is imported into ,england from ,norway and the ,baltic4 ,the best part of this wood is near the root2 and the roots themselves are valuable for many purposes4 ,it is of this wood that the bodies of violins and the sounding boards of musical instruments generally1 are made3 the grain of the wood formed by the annual layers being very straight and regular4 ,in trees which have not arrived at maturity1 there is a portion of sap-wood next the bark2 this sap-wood is converted into ligneous matter in about two or three years from its formation4 ,illustration3 ,the ,scotch ,fir4 ,the ,scotch ,fir1 or ,pine1 is not peculiar to ,scotland1 but is common to all the mountain-ranges of ,europe2 in low damp situations it never thrives1 but delights in the exposed summits of the loftiest rocks1 over which the earth is but thinly scattered2 there its roots wander afar in the wildest reticulation1 whilst its tall1 furrowed1 and often gracefully-sweeping1 red and gray trunk1 of enormous circumference1 rears aloft its high umbrageous canopy4 ,the fir was a very great favourite with ,gilpin1 who considered it1 as it really is1 to be under favourable circumstances1 a very picturesque object in a landscape3 the earnestness with which he defends its character is peculiarly forcible2 he says1 8,it is a hardy plant1 and1 therefore1 put to every servile office4 ,if you wish to screen your house from the south-west wind1 plant ,scotch firs1 and plant them close and thick4 ,if you want to shelter a nursery of young trees1 plant ,scotch firs1 and the phrase is1 you may afterwards weed them out at your pleasure4 ,this is ignominious4 ,i wish not to rob society of these hardy services from the ,scotch fir1 nor do ,i mean to set it in competition with many trees of the forest1 which1 in their infant state1 it is accustomed to shelter2 all ,i mean is1 to rescue it from the disgrace of being thought fit for nothing else1 and to establish its character as a picturesque tree4 ,for myself1 ,i admire its foliage1 both the colour of its leaf and its mode of growth4 ,its ramification1 too1 is irregular and beautiful40 ,the practice of planting this tree in groups is the cause to which its unfavourable character1 as a picturesque object1 may be attributed1 the closeness of growth causing the stems to run upward without lateral branches4 ,the hilly regions of the whole of ,great ,britain and ,ireland were formerly covered with vast forests1 a great portion of which consisted of fir-trees4 ,of these ancient forests some remains still exist2 in ,scotland1 the relics of the ,rannock forest1 on the borders of the counties of ,perth1 ,inverness1 and ,argyle1 are well known3 these consist of the roots and a few scattered trees1 which are still found in situations of difficult access4 ,this forest appears to have stretched across the country1 and to have been connected with the woody districts of the west of ,scotland4 ,the ,abernethy forest1 in ,perthshire1 still furnishes a considerable quantity of timber4 8,at one time10 we quote ,sir ,thomas ,dick ,lauder1 ,bart41 8the demand for it was so trifling1 that the ,laird of ,grant got only twenty pence for what one man could cut and manufacture in a year4 ,in #agcj a branch of the ,york ,buildings ,company purchased seven thousand pounds' worth of timber1 and by their improved mode of working it1 by saw-mills1 c41 and their new methods of transporting it in floats to the sea1 they introduced the rapid manufacture and removal of it1 which afterwards took place throughout the whole of the sylvan districts4 ,about the year #aghf the ,duke of ,gordon sold his ,glenmore forest to an ,english company for #aj1jjjl4 ,this was supposed to be the finest fir-wood in ,scotland4 ,numerous trading vessels1 some of them above five hundred tons burden1 were built from the timber of this forest1 and one frigate1 which was called the ,glenmore4 ,many of the trees felled measured eighteen and twenty feet in girth1 and there is still preserved at ,gordon ,castle a plank nearly six feet in breadth1 which was presented to the ,duke by the ,company4 ,but the ,rothienmurchus forest was the most extensive of any in that part of the country2 it consisted of about sixteen square miles4 ,alas6 we must indeed say1 it was1 for the high price of timber hastened its destruction4 ,it went on for many years1 however1 to make large returns to the proprietor1 the profit being sometimes #bj1jjjl4 a year40 ,illustration3 ,leaves and ,male ,blossom of ,scotch ,fir4 ,illustration3 ,cone of ,scotch ,fir4 ,besides the forest we have mentioned1 there are still in existence other tracts of land in different parts of ,scotland covered with this timber4 ,the attention which has been drawn to the value of the ,scotch fir has been an inducement to proprietors of land to cause extensive plantations to be formed on suitable spots2 but ,nature herself takes measures to perpetuate her work where the hand of man has carried destruction2 for1 after the old trees have been felled and carried off the ground1 young seedlings come up as thick as in the nurseryman's seed bed4 ,the timber supplied by the ,scotch fir is called ,red ,deal1 and the uses to which it is applied render it necessary that the stem should be straight1 and close planting materially assists in this object1 by preventing the possibility of the trees flinging out their lateral branches2 this1 as we have already noticed1 disfigures the tree in the eye of an artist1 however much it may delight that of a timber merchant4 ,the straightest and cleanest-grown trees are selected for masts1 spars1 scaffold-poles1 c41 while the largest sticks are sawed into planks for various purposes4 ,its wood is very durable1 and resists the action of water excellently4 ,the persons employed at different times in the endeavour to rescue the cargo of the ,royal ,george1 which foundered off ,spithead1 in the year #aghb1 discovered that the fir-planks had suffered little1 if any injury1 while the other timbers of the vessel had been much acted upon by the water and different species of worms4 ,in ,holland this tree has been used for the purpose of preparing the foundations of houses in their swampy soil2 #ac1fei great masts of this timber were driven into the ground for the purpose of forming the foundation of the ,stadthouse at ,amsterdam4 ,but it is not only for its timber that we are indebted to this tree2 those useful articles1 tar1 pitch1 and turpentine1 are all yielded by its sap4 ,transport of ,timber from the ,forests4 ,probably but few of our readers think of the means by which timber is conveyed from the forest where it grows1 to the spots where it is to be applied to the purposes of building4 ,and yet it must be evident that the means of transport form a matter of no small importance4 ,we know that our timber-yards are plentifully supplied with the various kinds of wood necessary for building2 and that the timbers are shaped by the axe and the saw4 ,but1 in most cases1 the wood which we employ is brought from foreign countries1 often many miles inland4 ,it is conveyed across the ocean in ships2 but the mode of transporting it from the forests where it grows to the ports where it is to be shipped1 is a curious subject1 and one well worthy of a little attention4 ,the main circumstance that forms the groundwork of all the plans adopted for this purpose is1 that nearly all kinds of wood are1 bulk for bulk1 lighter than water1 and will consequently swim on its surface4 ,now as all countries are1 more or less intersected by rivers1 which flow from the interior into the sea1 a very simple and economical mode of transport for timber is at once attained1 by causing it to float down running streams1 either by the mere force of the descending water1 or by the aid of mechanical agents4 ,there is no necessity that each piece of wood should be floated separately down the stream2 for they may be fastened together and steered down the middle of the river1 in the form of a long and broad raft4 ,beckmann says3 8,it is probable that the most ancient mode of constructing vessels for the purpose of navigation1 gave rise to the first idea of conveying timber in the like manner2 for the earliest ships or boats were nothing else than rafts1 or a collection of beams and planks bound together1 over which were placed deals4 ,by the ,greeks they were called schedai1 and by the ,latins rates2 and it is known1 from the testimony of many writers1 that the ancients ventured out to sea with them1 on piratical expeditions1 as well as to carry on commerce2 and that after the invention of ships1 they were still retained for the transportation of soldiers1 and of heavy burdens40 ,there are some passages in the ,bible which allude to the floating of wood4 #a ,kings v4 #i3 8,my servants shall bring them down from ,lebanon unto the sea2 and ,i will convey them by sea in floats unto the place that thou shalt appoint me40 #b ,chron4 ii4 #af3 8,and we will cut wood out of ,lebanon1 as much as thou shalt need3 and we will bring it to thee in floats by sea to ,joppa1 and thou shalt carry it up to ,jerusalem40 ,these passages relate to a compact between ,solomon and ,hiram1 king of ,tyre1 by which the latter was to cause cedars for the building of the ,temple to be cut down on the western side of ,mount ,lebanon1 above ,tripoli1 and to be floated to ,jaffa or ,joppa1 probably along by the sea shore4 ,the ,romans transported by water both timber for building and fire-wood4 ,when1 during their wars against the ,germans1 they became acquainted with the qualities of the common larch1 they caused large quantities of it to be carried on the river ,po1 to ,ravenna1 from the ,alps1 particularly the ,rhtian1 and to be conveyed also to ,rome1 for their most important buildings4 ,vitruvius says1 that this timber was so heavy that the waters could not support it1 and that it was necessary to carry it in ships or on rafts4 ,could it have been brought to ,rome conveniently1 says he1 it might have been used with great advantage in building4 ,it has also been supposed that the ,romans procured fire-wood from ,africa1 and that it was brought partly in ships and partly on rafts4 ,but it is in ,germany that the transportation of timber by means of floats has been most extensively carried on1 partly on account of its noble forests1 and partly through the possession of the river ,rhine4 ,there is evidence of the floating of timber-rafts in ,germany so far back as the year #adaj4 ,a letter from the ,landgrave of ,thuringia says1 that on account of the scarcity of wood that existed in their territory1 the landgraves had so far lessened the toll usually paid on the river ,sale as far as ,weissenfels1 that a ,rhenish florin only was demanded for floats brought on that river to ,jena1 and two ,rhenish stivers for those carried to ,weissenfels2 but the proprietors of the floats were bound to be answerable for any injury occasioned to the bridges4 ,in #adch1 ,hans ,munzer1 an opulent citizen of ,freyberg1 with the assistance of the then burgomasters1 put a float of wood upon the river ,mulda1 which runs past the city1 in order that it might be conveyed thither for the use of the inhabitants3 this seems to imply that such a practice was not then uncommon4 ,when the town of ,aschersleben was adorned with a new church1 in #adie1 the timber used for its construction was transported on the ,elbe1 from ,dresden to ,acken1 and from thence on the ,achse to the place of its destination4 ,in the year #aefa1 there was a float-master in ,saxony1 who was obliged to give security to the amount of four hundred florins2 so that at that time the business of floating must have been of considerable importance4 ,when the citizens of ,paris had used all the timber growing near the city1 the enormous expense of land carriage led to the suggestion of an improved mode of transport4 ,john ,rouvel1 a citizen and merchant1 in the year #aedi1 proposed to transport timber1 bound together1 along rivers which were not navigable for large vessels4 ,with this view he made choice of the forests in the woody district of ,morvant1 which belonged to the government of ,nivernois2 and as several small streams and rivulets had their sources there1 he endeavoured to convey into them as much water as possible4 ,this great undertaking1 at first laughed at1 was completed by his successor1 ,ren ,arnoul1 in #aeff4 ,the wood was thrown into the water in single trunks1 and suffered to be driven in that manner by the current to ,crevant1 a small town on the river ,yonne2 where each timber-merchant drew out his own1 which he had previously marked1 and after it was dry1 formed it into floats that were transported from the ,yonne to the ,seine1 and thence to the capital4 ,by this method large quantities of timber were conveyed to the populous towns4 ,a similar mode of transporting timber from the central parts of ,germany to the great towns or to the seaports is practised at the present day4 ,mr4 ,planch1 in his ,descent of the ,danube1 says3 8,below this bridge1 7at ,plattling on the ,danube17 the raft-masters of ,munich1 who leave that city every ,monday for ,vienna1 unite their rafts before they enter the ,danube4 ,they descend the ,isar upon single rafts only2 but upon reaching this point1 they lash them together in pairs1 and in fleets of three1 four1 or six pairs1 they set out for ,vienna4 ,a voyage is made pleasantly enough upon these floating islands1 as they have all the agrmens1 without the confinement of a boat4 ,a very respectable promenade can be made from one end to the other1 and two or three huts erected upon them afford shelter in bad weather1 and repose at night40 ,but the anonymous author of ,an ,autumn near the ,rhine gives a more detailed account of the timber-rafts of ,germany1 of which we will avail ourselves4 ,a little below ,andernach1 on the banks of the ,rhine1 the small village of ,namedy appears on the left bank1 under a wooded mountain4 ,the ,rhine here forms a little bay1 where the pilots are accustomed to unite together the lesser rafts of timber1 floated down the tributary rivers into the ,rhine1 and to construct enormous floats1 which are navigated to ,dordrecht and sold4 ,these machines have the appearance of a floating village1 composed of twelve or fifteen huts1 on a large platform of oak and deal timber4 ,they are frequently eight or nine hundred feet long1 and sixty or seventy in breadth4 ,the rowers and workmen sometimes amount to seven or eight hundred1 superintended by pilots and a proprietor1 whose habitation is superior in size and elegance to the rest4 ,the raft is composed of several layers of trees1 placed one on the other1 and tied together4 ,a large raft draws not less than six or seven feet water4 ,several smaller ones are attached to it1 by way of protection1 besides a string of boats1 loaded with anchors and cables1 and used for the purpose of sounding the river1 and going on shore4 ,the domestic economy of an ,east ,indiaman is hardly more complete4 ,poultry1 pigs1 and other animals1 are to be found on board1 and several butchers are attached to the suite4 ,a well-supplied boiler is at work night and day in the kitchen4 ,the dinner hour is announced by a basket stuck on a pole1 at which signal the pilot gives the word of command1 and the workmen run from their quarters to receive their allowances4 ,the consumption of provisions in the voyage to ,holland is almost incredible1 sometimes amounting to forty or fifty thousand pounds of bread1 eighteen or twenty thousand pounds of fresh meat1 a considerable quantity of salt meat1 and butter1 vegetables1 c41 in proportion4 ,the expenses are so great1 that a capital of three or four hundred thousand florins is considered necessary to undertake a raft4 ,their navigation is a matter of considerable skill1 owing to the abrupt windings1 the rocks and shallows of the river2 and some years ago the secret was thought to be monopolized by a boatman of ,rudesheim and his son4 ,the timber of the spruce firs which grow on the sides of the ,alps1 is considered much finer than that which is produced in other situations2 but the inaccessible nature of these ,alpine forests long prevented those useful trees from being sent in any great quantity to the market4 ,during our long continental war1 however1 a bold and skilful plan was invented1 by which this timber was procured in abundance4 ,m4 ,rupp1 an enterprising foreigner1 constructed an immense inclined plane of wood on the sides of ,mount ,pilatus1 near the ,lake ,lucerne2 its length was eight miles and a half4 ,twenty-five thousand large pine trees were employed in its construction4 ,these were barked and put together very ingeniously1 without the aid of iron4 ,it occupied one hundred and sixty workmen during eighteen months1 and cost nearly a hundred thousand francs1 or #dbejl4 sterling4 ,it was completed in the year #ahab4 ,the following description of the slide appeared in a ,german periodical shortly after its completion3--8,this slide has the form of a trough1 about six foot broad and from three to six foot deep4 ,its bottom is formed of three trees1 the middle one of which has a groove cut out in the direction of its length1 for receiving small rills of water1 which are conducted into it from various places1 for the purpose of diminishing the friction4 ,the whole of the slide is sustained by about two thousand supports2 and in many places it is attached1 in a very ingenious manner1 to the rugged precipices of granite4 8,the direction of the slide is sometimes straight1 and sometimes zig-zag1 with an inclination of from #aj to #ah4 ,it is often carried along the sides of hills and the flanks of precipitous rocks1 and sometimes passes over their summits4 ,occasionally it goes under ground1 and at other times it is conducted over the deep gorges by scaffoldings one hundred and twenty feet in height4 8,the boldness which characterizes this work1 the sagacity and skill displayed in all its arrangements1 have excited the wonder of every person who has seen it4 ,before any step could be taken in its erection1 it was necessary to cut several thousand trees to obtain a passage through the impenetrable thickets4 ,all these difficulties1 however1 were surmounted1 and the engineer had at last the satisfaction of seeing the trees descend from the mountain with the rapidity of lightning4 ,the larger pines1 which were about a hundred feet long1 and ten inches thick at their smaller extremity1 ran through the space of three leagues1 or nearly nine miles1 in two minutes and a half1 and during their descent1 they appeared to be only a few feet in length4 ,the arrangements for this part of the operation were extremely simple4 ,from the lower end of the slide to the upper end1 where the trees were introduced1 workmen were posted at regular distances1 and as soon as everything was ready1 the workman at the lower end of the slide cried out to the one above him1 #8,lachez' 7,let go47 ,the cry was repeated from one to another1 and reached the top of the slide in three minutes4 ,the workman at the top or the slide then cried out to the one below him1 #8,il vient' 7,it comes71 and the tree was instantly launched down the slide1 preceded by the cry which was repeated from post to post4 ,as soon as the tree had reached the bottom1 and plunged into the lake1 the cry of ,lachez was repeated as before1 and a new tree was launched in a similar manner4 ,by these means a tree descended every five or six minutes1 provided no accident happened to the slide1 which sometimes took place1 but which was instantly repaired when it did4 8,in order to show the enormous force which the trees acquired from the great velocity of their descent1 ,m4 ,rupp made arrangements for causing some of the trees to spring from the slide4 ,they penetrated by their thickest extremities no less than from eighteen to twenty-four feet into the earth2 and one of the trees having by accident struck against another1 it instantly cleft it through its whole length1 as if it had been struck by lightning4 8,after the trees had descended the slide1 they were collected into rafts upon the lake1 and conducted to ,lucerne4 ,from thence they descended the ,reuss1 then the ,aar to near ,brugg1 afterwards to ,waldshut by the ,rhine1 then to ,basle1 and even to the sea when it was necessary4 8,it is to be regretted that this magnificent structure no longer exists1 and that scarcely a trace of it is to be seen upon the flanks of ,mount ,pilatus4 ,political circumstances having taken away the principal source of demand for the timber1 and no other market having been found1 the operation of cutting and transporting the trees necessarily ceased40#d ,professor ,playfair1 who visited this singular work1 states1 that six minutes was the usual time occupied in the descent of a tree2 but that in wet weather1 it reached the lake in three minutes4 ,he found it quite impossible to give two successive strokes of his stick to any1 even the largest tree1 as it passed him4 ,the logs entered the lake with such force1 that many of them seemed to penetrate its waters to the very bottom4 ,much of the timber of ,mount ,pilatus was thus brought to market2 but the expense attending the process rendered it impossible for the speculator to undersell the ,baltic merchant1 when peace had opened a market for his timber1 and so the ,slide of ,alpnach fell to ruin4 ,cutting the ,norway ,deals4 ,when the timber is squared before it is exported1 it is effected by saw-mills2 the manner of proceeding may be illustrated by the treatment of ,norway deals4 ,in some cases1 the trees are merely roughly-shaped with the axe2 but those which are to be made into deals are floated down the mountain-streams to a spot where many collect together1 and where a saw-mill is erected4 ,dr4 ,clarke thus speaks of one that he visited3--8,the remarkable situation of the sawing-mills1 by the different cataracts1 are among the most extraordinary sights a traveller meets with4 ,the mill here was as rude and picturesque an object as it is possible to imagine2 it was built with the unplaned trunks of large fir-trees1 as if brought down and heaped together by the force of the river4 ,the saws are fixed in sets parallel to each other1 the spaces between them in each set being adapted to the intended thickness for the planks4 ,a whole tree is thus divided into planks1 by a simultaneous operation1 in the same time that a single plank would be cut by one of the saws4 ,we found that ten planks1 each ten feet in length1 were sawed in five minutes1 one set of saws working through two feet of timber in a single minute40 ,the deals are afterwards transported by river or canal to seaports4 ,the ,cutting and ,transport of ,canadian ,timber4 ,the conveyance of timber to market in ,canada is a very remarkable instance of commercial enterprise4 ,while standing in the vast pine forests the timber-trees are common property3 they acquire money-value only when the axe has been applied to them1 and when they have been brought down to a shipping port4 ,the words lumber and lumbering1 which convey no very definite idea to us1 have in ,canada and the ,united ,states a large and important meaning4 ,lumber is the general name for all kinds of timber1 not only while growing in the form of stately trees1 but after it is cut down1 and even after it has been rudely fashioned into such pieces as may be convenient for shipment4 ,so1 in like measure1 lumbering may be taken as a general name for all the operations whereby the timber is brought into a marketable state2 including the cutting down of the trees2 the conveyance to the saw-mills2 the sawing them into boards1 planks1 joists1 and other pieces2 the forming them into rafts3 and the navigating of these rafts down the creeks and rivers to the seaports4 ,all the persons employed in these operations are designated lumberers2 and they are subdivided into smaller groups according to the duties they undertake to perform4 ,as the practice of lumbering has been carried on for a great number of years1 all the forests in the vicinity of seaports have been denuded of their trees3 and the lumberers have therefore to go far inland to obtain their supply of timber4 ,this occasions one circle of operations to last an entire year1 from summer to summer4 ,as the lumberers who dwell in the interior frequently carry on some other occupation1 perhaps an agricultural one1 they cut down trees in the forest just as it suits their convenience1 during the summer and autumn4 ,these trees are either hewn and shaped into balks and beams1 or divided into shorter pieces1 according as they are to be exported whole1 or sawed up into boards and scantlings for the ,american or ,canadian markets4 ,when a large supply of timber has been thus cut down1 and the winter is so far advanced that snow lies on the ground1 preparations are made for conveying the timber to some stream or river which flows down to a commercial port4 ,on the banks of such streams saw-mills worked by water-power are erected1 and these are employed for cutting up such of the 8lumber0 as is to be sold in the form of planks4 ,the conveyance to the saw-mills and the operation of sawing occupy together the entire winter season4 ,when snow is on the ground1 a stout pair of oxen can drag a log from the forest to the saw-mill2 and this method of transport is almost universally adopted1 very few horses being employed in this way4 ,sometimes the saw-mills are constructed in a small creek near the forest1 but in other cases they are lower down1 on the banks of larger streams2 and in this latter case the logs are floated down the smaller streams till they arrive at the larger one1 where a dam or barrier is placed across the stream to prevent them from floating beyond the precincts of the saw-mill4 ,the saws are circular in shape4 ,many of the mills have but one saw in operation2 others have groups of parallel saws capable of cutting the log into eight or ten planks at once4 ,some of the smaller mills are built in so rude and rough a manner1 that their cost does not exceed #cjl4 or #djl42 but if the mill lasts as long as the supply of timber in the neighbourhood1 that is deemed sufficient1 and a new mill is built when it is found advantageous to shift the quarters farther inland4 ,a small mill with one saw1 worked for twenty-four hours1 will cut up three or four thousand superficial feet of timber4 ,men are employed to roll the logs along the gangways to a platform1 and place them in a proper position to be acted on by the saw4 ,during the season of these operations the rivers and streams are frozen up2 but in spring1 when the melting of the ice renders them navigable1 preparations are made for transporting the timber from the mills to the shipping ports4 ,if the mill be on the banks of a small stream1 the lumberers make up the logs and planks into rafts1 the dimensions of which are suited to the capacity of the stream1 and when these reach a larger stream into which the smaller one empties itself1 the small rafts are broken up and re-arranged into larger ones2 but if the mill be on the banks of the larger stream1 the timber is at once made up into the rafts which float down to the shipping port--three or four hundred thousand feet of timber being sometimes conveyed in one raft4 ,sometimes the streams are too small to admit the rafts to float down them3 and in such case they often lie aground for months1 until an accidental flooding increases the body of water2 or else they have to be broken up altogether1 and other means adopted for conveying them to market4 ,the rafts are generally put together very slightly1 the value of labour being high1 and the lumberers regulating the strength of the raft only in proportion to the distance which it has to float4 ,this distance may vary from fifty to three or four hundred miles4 ,some one of the lumberers who may happen to be best acquainted with the stream acts as pilot1 all the others following his directions in the navigation4 ,the raft moves just as fast as the stream will convey it1 be it slow or quick1 no acceleration of speed being attempted by sails or oars2 so that the time which elapses before the raft reaches its destination depends on many different circumstances4 ,in some instances1 where all the circumstances are favourable1 the pilot navigates his cumbrous raft night and day without stopping2 but if there are difficulties1 he directs it into some cove or sheltered place during the night4 ,the men are provided with long poles1 by which they can regulate the position of the raft in the stream1 keeping it either in the middle of the current or near the bank4 ,the men seldom trouble themselves to make huts or cabins on the rafts3 for the weather being spring1 and it being optional to them to go on shore when they please1 they make very few arrangements for their trip except in provisions4 ,on the ,st4 ,lawrence1 however1 where the ,french ,canadians bring down timber-rafts to ,quebec for shipment1 the men erect small huts or temporary dwellings on the rafts1 since the voyage becomes of a more serious character4 ,when the rafts reach their destination1 the lumber is sold1 and the men share the proceeds according to the nature of their stake in the enterprise4 ,this share is one entire year's earnings1 and the final disposal of the timber is therefore a matter of importance4 ,the men then set out on foot to return to the interior1 and as the distance they have to travel is sometimes three or four hundred miles1 and the summer warmth has arrived1 the journey is generally a fatiguing one4 ,the men are not all fellow-labourers in an equal degree1 for--as in almost every other kind of commercial enterprise--there must be some one to act as a capitalist1 to feed the labourers while they are employed1 or others who will supply necessaries in advance4 ,there are storekeepers who purchase an annual supply of provisions1 clothing1 implements1 c41 and retail them out to the lumberers on credit1 to be paid for when the sales are effected in the spring1 and when the mill-owner has been enabled to pay the wages of the men who felled1 transported1 and sawed the timber4 ,if any unforeseen accident prevents the raft from reaching the shipping port in a saleable state1 or if any other mishap occurs1 the whole community share the loss4 ,the lumberers are among the roughest and rudest of the ,canadian and ,american population3 for their occupation takes them so little among the haunts of commercial or cultivated men1 that they are only a few shades superior to the ,american ,indians--in some points far beneath them4 ,miscellaneous kinds of ,timber4 ,deal so completely takes precedence of all other timber in house-building1 that a very slight notice of other varieties will suffice4 ,beech is partially employed in ship-building for the keel and timbers near it2 but it is not at all employed1 in civil architecture4 ,the principal use made of this wood is in the construction of machines1 mill-work1 lock-gates1 c41 and for handles to tools2 it is also a good wood for the turner1 being of a close grain4 ,it will not1 however1 bear alternations of moisture and dryness1 and is liable to be attacked by worms1 so that it is not extensively employed4 ,chestnut belongs to the same tribe as the beech1 but although a valuable wood1 it is now little1 if ever1 used4 ,formerly it was extensively so1 and the roofs of several ancient buildings were constructed of it4 ,from some experiments1 indeed1 it seems to be as durable as oak itself4 ,ash is the wood for the wheelwright and the maker of agricultural implements2 it is one of the most valuable of all timber trees1 combining great strength with elasticity and lightness2 it1 however1 splits easily4 ,ash is not used either by the shipwright or the common carpenter4 ,elm is a coarse-grained wood1 but strong and durable1 it does not work readily1 and is therefore but little used4 ,it is1 however1 employed for certain parts of ships1 and for making casks1 chests1 coffins1 posts for mill-work1 and a few other purposes4 ,next to oak and fir1 the foreign wood ,mahogany is by far the most valuable1 and that most extensively used2 it is the growth of the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america1 and the tree1 the ,swietenia mahogani1 is1 perhaps1 the most majestic of all timber trees from the enormous dimensions to which its trunk attains1 its vast height and size1 and its dark beautiful foliage4 ,the mahogany of the island of ,cuba1 and that from the bay of ,honduras1 is first in estimation4 ,there are two ,east ,indian species1 but they are not imported in any quantities into this country4 ,the best mahogany is that which grows in dry1 cold1 and exposed situations4 ,such wood is fine-grained1 hard1 and dark in colour1 richly variegated1 causing it from its beauty to rank among the most ornamental of fancy woods1 while the light1 coarse-grained wood1 which grows in warm moist climates1 is sufficiently abundant to be used for ordinary purposes1 and yet possesses admirable properties for all1 where no great strength or tenacity is wanted4 ,within the last twenty years the use of this wood has increased amazingly1 and some ships have many of their upper timbers above the water-line constructed of ,honduras mahogany4 ,its use in furniture and cabinet-making is well known1 and1 indeed1 it may be said to be the principal wood used for this purpose1 and to have entirely supplanted our own walnut1 which was formerly in universal use for the same purposes4 ,the woods above enumerated are those most extensively or largely used by the carpenter2 but there are several others employed for small articles1 and for particular purposes1 which deserve mentioning4 ,box is the wood of the ,buxus sempervirens1 a hardy evergreen plant1 indigenous in all the southern parts of ,europe and ,western ,asia1 and long domesticated in our shrubberies4 ,box is especially the wood for turning1 it being closer-grained1 denser1 and tougher than perhaps all others1 except iron-wood1 ,lignum ,vit1 and one or two rarer woods4 ,box is used for rules1 scales1 and for small cabinet works2 but that which gives it particular importance is its universal use for wood-engraving4 ,lance is the name given to the wood of the ,guatteria virgata1 a tree indigenous to ,jamaica1 and one of the most important that are so1 from the valuable qualities of its timber1 lance-wood far exceeding our ash in lightness1 strength1 and elasticity2 hence it is admirably calculated for shafts to carriages1 handles to spears1 and for all purposes where straight1 light1 flexible1 and tough wood is required4 ,it is neither so close-grained nor so hard as box1 but it turns well1 and does not split2 in colour1 it is lighter than box4 ,ebony is the name given to the wood of several different trees1 which agree in being dark-coloured1 dense1 and durable2 it is used for inlaying and for making rules or scales1 as not being liable to warp4 ,it is an excellent wood for turning2 but1 except for these purposes1 it is less in request now than formerly1 when it was much used in cabinet-making4 ,lignum ,vit is the wood of the ,guaiacum officinale1 a large tree indigenous in the ,west ,indies4 ,this wood is the hardest and heaviest known1 and can only be worked in the lathe4 ,it is much used for making the sheaves1 or pulleys of blocks used in shipping1 and for friction-rollers1 c4 ,there are various foreign woods which1 from their beautiful grain and varied tints1 are used in cabinet-making4 ,but as these woods are too valuable to be used solid1 they are sawed into thin leaves1 called veneers1 which are glued down on a backing of ordinary mahogany4 ,the principal of these fancy woods are-- ,rose-wood1 which is produced by a tree a native of ,brazil4 ,this wood is much used for furniture1 both as a veneer1 and solid for legs of tables1 chairs1 c4 ,king-wood is also the produce of ,brazil2 it is a dark chocolate wood1 veined with fine black veins4 ,beef-wood comes from ,new ,holland2 is of a pale-red even tint1 and intensely hard and heavy4 ,it is used for inlaying and bordering4 ,tulip-wood is a wood of a clouded red and yellow colour1 and very hard1 and used for bordering to larger woods4 ,the tree is unknown to our botanists4 ,zebra-wood is a large-sized tree1 and abundant enough to be used as a veneer in large furniture1 like rose-wood3 it is more curious than elegant4 ,satin-wood is well known for its glossy yellowish tint1 from which it derives its name2 there are two varieties4 ,maple1 from our own indigenous tree1 is a very elegant wood1 of a light colour1 or else1 near the root1 variegated with knots and twisted grain4 ,it is much used in fancy work4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,the ,mines of ,bolanos1 in ,mexico1 are supplied with timber from the adjacent mountains by a slide similar to that of ,alpnach4 ,it was constructed by ,m4 ,floresi1 a gentleman well acquainted with ,switzerland4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,wood-,,work4 ,,carpentry4 ,having thus briefly noticed the principal kinds of timber1 and some of the modes of bringing it to market1 we have in the present chapter to trace the wood through the various processes whereby it becomes part and parcel of a house4 ,sawing ,timber4 ,when a timber-tree is felled1 the branches1 arms1 and boughs1 are cut off1 and the bark stripped1 this being valuable for many purposes4 ,the trunk is then sawed square1 and again cut into planks1 deals1 battens1 c41 as the different-sized boards into which it is reduced are called4 ,teak and mahogany are imported into this country in logs1 distinguished from the long beams known technically as timber1 by their width and thickness being considerable in proportion to their length4 ,timber is sawed in countries producing1 or using it1 in great quantities in saw-mills1 in which the tools are worked by water or steam1 as described in the last chapter2 and it is also sawed into battens1 laths1 c41 by circular saws1 turned by machinery1 like a lathe2 but when timber is sawed by hand1 it is done by two men acting in concert in the following manner3--,a pit is generally chosen1 round the margin of which a stout frame is laid4 ,the beam to be sawed is laid along the centre of this frame1 in the direction of the length of the pit4 ,one man stands on the beam while another is in the pit below him1 and each alternately raises or pulls down a large vertical saw1 with which the beam is cut lengthwise into planks4 ,wedges of wood are placed in the fissure as the work proceeds1 to keep the cut open1 and thus allow the saw to play freely4 ,this is very hard labour1 especially to the upper man1 who has not only to raise the weight of the saw in the up-stroke1 but to guide it correctly along the chalked line on the beam4 ,this man gets higher wages1 and is called the top-sawyer1 a term technically given in jest to any one who is1 or fancies himself1 of superior importance4 ,scarfing or ,joining ,timber4 ,when timber is wanted in lengths exceeding those that can be procured from the tree in one piece1 it must be joined by what is called scarfing2 that is1 the ends of the two lengths that are to be united into one1 are cut so that a portion of the one may lap over and fit into a portion of the other1 which is cut so as to receive it4 ,the timber1 when united1 is thus of the same uniform size4 ,the joined ends are secured together by bolts or spikes4 ,the following figures show the more usual modes of scarfing timber for different purposes4 ,illustration ,the last is a mode of scarfing invented by ,mr4 ,roberts1 of the ,royal ,dock ,yards4 ,trussing or ,strengthening4 ,when a beam of timber is long in proportion to its breadth and thickness1 it will bend by its own weight1 and will be incapable of supporting much additional load2 it may be strengthened by trussing1 in different modes1 of which we will only describe that usually adopted for girders1 intended for floors4 ,the beam is sawed longitudinally into two equal beams1 each1 of course1 half the thickness of the original3 these halves are reversed1 end for end1 so that if there were any weak part in the original beam1 this may be divided equally between the ends of the compound beam made up of the two halves when bolted together4 ,a flat truss1 usually of oak1 with iron king-bolts and abutting plates1 resembling in form and principle a timber roof or bridge1 is placed between the two half beams1 and let into a shallow groove cut in each half to receive it2 the compound beam1 with this truss in the middle1 is then bolted together again by means of iron bolts1 with washers and nuts1 and consequently becomes rigid by the construction of the truss4 ,the truss is not entirely let into the double beam1 as the full effect of strength may be obtained without the necessity for cutting the groove in each half beam of half the thickness of the oak truss2 consequently1 when the girder is completed1 there is a slit all along it1 through which the truss is seen lying in its place between the two sides4 ,iron trusses are often used instead of oak1 and beams are frequently strengthened by screwing a thin flat iron truss on one or both sides1 let into the beam for about half the thickness of the metal4 ,illustration ,this mode of strengthening a beam by trussing is only adopted in floors1 where it is necessary to limit the depth of the truss to that of the beam1 to obtain a level surface by means of joists laid across1 and supported by1 the beam4 ,but it is obvious that much greater strength may be imparted to a long beam by making it the base of a triangular frame1 as is done in roofs1 in various manners1 when the slanting sides of the triangular frame carry the battens or laths for supporting the tiles or other covering4 ,the annexed is the simplest form of a roof1 and will help to explain the subject of carpentry in other respects4 ,the beam ,a1 called the tie-beam1 is of such a length as to rest on the side walls of the house at each of its ends1 and is supposed to be of such dimensions in depth and thickness as would render it inadequate to support much more than its own weight4 ,the two sloping rafters ,b ,b1 are called principals2 they are mortised into the tie-beam at their ends by a joint1 shown in the lower figure1 by which they are provided with a firm abutment1 to prevent the ends from slipping outwards2 and in order to prevent the principal from starting upwards out of the mortise1 it is strapped down to the tie-beam by an iron strap1 bolted or screwed to both timbers4 ,illustration ,p is termed a king-post1 and is cut out with a head and foot1 the former to receive the upper ends of the principals1 which1 being cut square1 abut firmly against the sloping face of the head4 ,the sloping principals hold up the king-post1 and the tie-beam is supported from the latter by a stirrup-shaped strap1 that goes under the beam1 and is bolted1 or screwed1 to the post on each side4 ,to prevent the principals from bending by the strain1 or by the weight of the roof covering1 the struts ,c ,c1 are placed1 abutting against the bevelled part of the foot of the king-post1 and are strapped to the principals1 or mortised into them4 ,the number of tie-beams1 with their trusses1 c41 of course depends on the length of the roof1 or the material with which it is to be covered4 ,a longitudinal scantling1 or thin beam1 called a purline1 ,e1 is laid lengthwise1 resting on the principals over the ends of the struts1 and is secured to the former by a spike1 or else by being notched down on to the principal4 ,these purlines support the common rafters ,r1 which abut at their feet against a longitudinal scantling ,s1 lying on1 and halved down on1 the tie-beams2 at their upper ends1 the rafters ,r rest against a ridge-piece1 or thin plank1 let edgeways into the head of the king-post4 ,the rafters are placed about a foot apart1 and on to them are nailed the laths or battens to carry the tiles or slates4 ,the ,mortise and other ,joints4 ,in constructing roofs1 floors1 and other structures of timber1 the various beams are framed1 or fastened together1 by certain processes calculated to insure strength and permanence in the framing1 which ought to be understood1 and their names remembered4 ,the ,mortise and ,tenon joint is used when one beam is to be attached to1 and supported by1 another1 without resting on it1 but so that the beams may be in the same plane4 ,the mortise is a hole cut into1 or through1 the side of the one beam1 into which hole the end of the other1 cut down to fit the form of the hole1 is inserted and fastened4 ,it is obviously necessary to consider two things in determining the size and form of the mortise and tenon4 ,first1 that by the former the one beam may not be too much weakened1 and yet that it should be large enough to give the tenon that fits into it1 sufficient strength to enable the beam to carry the weight intended4 ,illustration ,if the one beam is horizontal1 and the other to stand perpendicularly upon it1 the tenon need only be large enough to retain the upright beam in its place4 ,the foregoing figures are the most usual forms of mortises and tenons1 and will explain their use and principle4 ,it is obvious that two mortises never should come opposite each other on the two sides of the same beam4 ,when the tenon comes through the beam1 it is secured from drawing by a pin or peg put through it4 ,the ,dovetail is used to secure one beam into another1 when they have to resist any strain acting so as to draw them asunder1 rather than to carry any weight2 it is consequently employed to frame wall-plates1 or the timber laid in walls to carry the ends of beams of floors1 roofs1 and so on1 which plates tend to bind the walls together as well as to receive the ends of the beams4 ,the term is derived from the end of one beam being cut into a shape resembling the spreading tail of a bird1 which is pinned down in a corresponding wedge-shaped recess cut in the other beam to receive it4 ,it is clear from this construction that no force1 acting in the direction of its length1 could pull the first beam out of the second without breaking off the dovetail1 which the tenacity of wood-fibre renders nearly impracticable in one of any size4 ,the dovetail is extensively used in all cabinet-making1 and may be seen in almost any mahogany or deal-box4 ,illustration ,when two beams of equal thickness are required to cross one another and to lie in the same plane1 they are halved together2 that is1 a notch is cut in each of half the thickness of the other1 then the uncut part of each lies in the notch of the other respectively1 and the two are pinned together4 ,distinction between ,carpentry and ,joinery4 ,the smaller and better kind of work executed by the carpenter is called ,joiner's work1 such as the making of doors1 windows1 stairs1 wainscotting1 boxes1 tables1 c4 c41 which are usually formed of yellow or ,norway deals1 wainscot1 or mahogany4 ,when a large surface is to be of wood1 it is not formed of planks fixed together side by side till the requisite width is attained1 but it is formed of framing and panelling4 ,a frame-work of the area required to be covered1 is formed of narrow planks1 with cross-bars between to strengthen the frame2 these are called stiles and rails1 according to the directions in which they run1 the former name being given to the upright planks of the frame1 while the horizontal ones are called rails4 ,the rails are mortised into the stiles1 and the tenons1 since they must be comparatively thin1 are made proportionably wide1 nearly as wide as the rail4 ,the tenons are always pinned into the mortise holes by one or two wooden pins driven quite through the stiles and through the inclosed tenon4 ,the edges of the stiles and rails are ploughed1 that is1 a rectangular furrow is cut in the edge by means of a plane1 to receive the ends and sides of the panels4 ,these panels are formed of thinner deals than the stiles and rails1 and are made by glueing the edges of two or more boards together to make the proper width of the panel2 the ends and edges of the panel are thinned off to fit into the groove or furrow in the stiles and rails1 or else the ends and sides of the panel are rebated1 that is1 worked by a plane into the form shown in the following figure1 the projecting part being received into the furrow4 ,as the panels are thinner than the frame1 the former constitute so many recesses1 at least on one side of the framing2 and a small moulding is glued round the edge of the panel to form a finish to the work4 ,or else the same object is attained by working the edge of the stiles and rails with such a moulding1 so that when the panel is put in1 the moulding may finish against it4 ,sometimes the face of the panel is made to lie in the same plane with the face of the stiles and rails1 and the panel is then said to be flush1 and the edges of the stiles1 c41 are finished with a small bead1 also flush with the panel when finished4 ,illustration ,in joiner's work the whole surface of the work is made perfectly smooth by planing the material1 and allowance must be made for the reduction in thickness and width of the wood1 produced by this planing1 in the choice of the rough material4 ,the ,tools employed4 ,all mouldings in wood are worked out by planes made of the proper form1 to leave the moulding in the wood when the plane has been passed over the part4 ,the carpenter and joiner consequently require a vast variety of planes for these purposes1 which constitutes the most expensive part of the expensive tools used by these workmen4 ,these planes receive their names from the form they are intended to produce in the wood1 such as rebating planes1 ,o ,g planes1 ovolo-planes1 beading-planes1 and so on4 ,the next most important tools used by both carpenter and joiner1 are saws1 of different sizes1 for reducing the rough wood to the size adapted for the purpose to which it is to be applied4 ,small1 fine-toothed saws1 both long and thin blades1 termed spring-saws1 are used for cutting out small holes in wood1 and for analogous purposes1 when precision and nicety are required2 these spring-saws are sometimes mounted in a frame on the same principle as that of the stone-mason's saw1 formerly described2 but commonly1 the blade of the saw1 of whatever size it may be1 is only fixed on a convenient handle1 so that the whole blade of the saw may pass through the fissure it makes in the material4 ,all saws are made of the best steel1 highly tempered1 so as to recover their form if bent by the resistance of the wood4 ,next to the planes and saws1 chisels are the most indispensable tool to the carpenter4 ,these chisels are of different widths1 adapted to different uses1 and are not only used with a hammer or mallet1 as the mason employs them1 but also as cutting-tools1 used by hand for finishing the re-entering angles of mortise-holes1 or for finishing the ends of pieces of wood too small to be planed4 ,the carpenter employs gimlets for making holes for screws and nails4 ,the gimlet is a short rod of steel1 finished at one end into a sharp-pointed screw of one or two turns only1 which1 acting on the principle of that mechanical power1 compels the tool to sink deeper and deeper into the wood1 as the tool is turned round3 and to enable the workman to turn the gimlet1 it is fixed into a cross handle1 which1 acting as a lever1 allows the friction of the tool to be overcome4 ,just above the screw point1 the rod or shaft of the gimlet is fluted or hollowed out3 the sharp edges of this fluted part cut the hole made by the screw end larger and smoother1 and the hollow receives the chips or shavings cut off1 and prevents them from clogging the hole and stopping the progress of the tool4 ,augers are large tools shaped like a gimlet1 and1 acting in the same manner1 are employed for making large holes for bolts1 spikes1 c4 ,centre-bits are steel tools of different shapes made to fit into a bent handle something like the letter ,g1 which1 acting as a lever1 allows of the tool being turned round and round by one hand1 while by the other the workman holds the top of the handle steady and vertically over the point of the tool4 ,some of the bits or tools are for cutting out cylindrical holes1 and are shaped at the cutting-edge like a chisel1 with a small point projecting from the centre of the edge1 on which the instrument turns in the wood and acts on the principle of a lathe4 ,on each side this point1 the chisel-edge is bent sideways in opposite directions1 to allow of its ploughing up the wood before it with greater efficacy than it would do if it were not so formed4 ,the brad-awl1 or nail-piercer1 is a short steel wire1 sharpened at the point into a flat chisel-edge1 and put into a plain turned handle4 ,this edge being pushed into the wood1 and the handle turned round1 the tool divides the fibre1 and makes its way on the simple principle of a wedge1 and does not cut away or remove any portion of the material1 as the above-described tools do4 ,the carpenter uses nails and screws to fasten the different parts of his work together1 and it is necessary to make a hole to receive them before they are driven in1 or else the wood would split by the action of forcing the nail or screw into the solid material1 and1 indeed1 it would be impossible to force a screw into the solid wood at all4 ,the screw is forced into the wood by being turned round and round by means of a blunt chisel1 called a screw-driver1 the edge of which is inserted into a notch cut in the head of the screw to receive it4 ,the ,glue employed4 ,joiners fasten one piece of their work to another by glue1 made by boiling down refuse animal matter containing the animal principle called gelatine in abundance1 such as hoofs1 horns1 tendons1 skin1 gristle1 c43 it is a property of gelatine to dissolve in hot water1 and to harden again when cold1 and the water evaporates4 ,accordingly the glue1 which is only concentrated impure gelatine1 is dissolved by heat in a small quantity of water1 and being applied to the clean faces of the wood to be united1 by a coarse brush1 these faces are closely pressed and retained together till the water evaporates1 when such is the tenacity of the glue1 that the wood may be broken in another place as easily as at the glued joint4 ,to enable glue1 however1 to act in this manner well1 the wood should be clean1 the parts to be glued well warmed before the glue is applied1 and the joint should be close1 or the parts accurately brought together4 ,besides the before-mentioned tools and materials1 and some others1 such as hammers1 axes1 c41 which need not be described1 carpenters and joiners use instruments for measuring and setting out their work1 and for drawing on the surface of the material the forms into which it is to be reduced1 or the shape and situations of portions of the material to be removed for the purposes of framing4 ,the instruments are compasses1 squares1 rules1 levels1 plumb-lines1 and so on1 common to all artificers who form their materials into geometrical shapes3 and1 like the mason1 the carpenter and joiner must be conversant with the more elementary problems of practical geometry4 ,a ,window-sash1 as an example of ,joiner's ,work4 ,in illustration of the nature of joiner's work1 we may point out the mode of proceeding in making a window-sash1 which is one of the most delicate operations of the common joiner4 ,the outer part of the sash is made broader and stronger than the intermediate cross-bars which receive the panes of glass1 in order to give strength and rigidity to the sash4 ,this outer part is framed together at the four angles by mortises and tenons1 the latter coming quite through the stuff1 and having a small sharp wedge driven into the middle of the tenon when inserted into the mortise3 by means of this wedge1 the tenon is expanded at its end into a wedge-shaped form1 by which it fits more tightly into the mortise1 and is retained in its place1 the wedge-shape not allowing the tenon to be withdrawn again4 ,but it may be here remarked1 that1 besides this precaution1 all small mortises and tenons are put together with glue1 to ensure the stability of the joint4 ,the inner edge of this frame is formed by a plane into the half moulding1 of which the cross-bars present the entire section1 so that when the sash is completed1 each panel1 as it were1 which is filled in with the glass1 is surrounded on its sides by a continuous moulding1 and on the other side of the frame each panel presents a rebate in which the glass lies4 ,the annexed figure of the section of part of the outer frame and one cross-bar1 will make this clear4 ,illustration ,the cross-bars are made in lengths out of slips of wood1 by a plane1 which first forms the mouldings and rebate on one side1 and then by turning the slip over1 the same plane finishes the other with an exact counterpart of the first4 ,these bars are framed into the outer part of the sash by delicate mortises and tenons put together in the manner before described2 but it will be seen by reference to the figure1 that the moulded part of the bar must unite to that of the outer frame1 or of another bar1 by a mitre-joint1 that is1 by one which allows of the lines of mouldings returning on the second piece1 at right angles to their direction on the first1 without any interruption to the continuity of the surface4 ,this and all analogous mitre-joints are formed by planing the ends of the wood to form a face1 making an angle of #de with the axis or length of the stuff1 and the joiner is provided with a tool called a mitre-box1 consisting of a stock or frame1 in which the stuff being put1 resting against one another's surface1 guides the plane so as to cut off the end obliquely at the requisite angle4 ,it is clear that this mitre must be made on both faces of the bar1 and therefore the two mitre faces form a wedge-shaped termination by meeting at a right angle1 as shown in the last figure4 ,now1 as besides the mitre end1 a tenon is to be left to fit into a mortise in the outer frame1 it is clear that the whole must be a very nice piece of workmanship to be executed on so small a material as the thin bar of a modern sash4 ,the bevelled mitred end of the bar is received into a corresponding-shaped notch cut the depth of the half moulding in the outer frame to receive it1 and at the bottom of this notch is the fine mortise-hole intended to receive the tenon4 ,the bars of the sash can1 of course1 only be made in one length in one direction1 and the cross-bars which divide the long panels1 formed by these continuous bars1 into the sizes of the glass1 are made of similar short pieces with mitred ends2 but these ends1 where they frame into the long bars1 have no tenon1 the thinness of the stuff not admitting of one1 since the cross-bars come1 end for end1 opposite each other1 on the two sides of the upright bars4 ,it is evident that the long bars must be put together with the outside frame1 or else the tenons could not be inserted into the mortises made in this last4 ,a second example of ,joiner's ,work4 ,in further explanation of joiner's work1 we will briefly describe the mode of making a drawing-board1 requiring to be true1 plane1 and square4 ,suppose the board is intended to be so wide as to require three boards side by side to make it3 these three boards being sawn out of the right length1 their edges are first planed perfectly straight and smooth1 so that when any two are placed side by side1 the edges touching1 those edges may touch or fit together accurately for their whole length2 this accuracy of joint is obtained by testing the edge after each time the plane is applied1 by a straight-edge1 or rule1 known to be true4 ,there are two modes of proceeding to make these joints firm3 one by dowelling1 that is1 by inserting short pieces of hard wood1 as oak or wainscot1 let for half their length into a mortise cut in the edges of the boards that are to fit together2 these mortises1 being1 of course1 made opposite each other1 these dowels prevent the boards from rising up or starting from their places when the work is finished4 ,instead of short dowels1 a strip1 the whole length of the boards1 is let into each joint1 half the strip lying in a ploughed groove1 made in the middle of the corresponding edges of the two boards4 ,but1 besides those precautions1 the joints are well glued up4 ,there are two modes by which this board may be strengthened1 to prevent its warping or casting by the drying or shrinking of the wood4 ,a cross-piece of deal1 or better still1 of wainscot1 is fixed across the ends of the boards1 these ends being double rebated or tongued1 to fit into a groove made in the cross-piece to receive the tongue2 these cross-pieces prevent the long boards from warping1 since the cross-pieces would have no tendency to alter their figure in the direction of their grain4 ,if1 however1 the board be larger1 keying is better than this clamping4 ,keying consists in attaching two stout cross-pieces at the back of the boards1 the faces of which pieces are worked so as to fit1 and are glued into a dovetail-shaped groove cut across the direction of the boards at their back to receive the keys1 as will be understood from the annexed sketch4 ,illustration ,when the board is made1 and the glued joints quite dry1 the face is planed perfectly smooth and level1 and the edges made truly square1 or at right angles2 if the board be keyed1 the back must be planed smooth before the keys are put in4 ,the flooring-boards in the better kinds of houses are often dowelled in the manner above described1 and the ends of the flooring-boards are tongued and grooved to fit together1 to prevent the boards from starting up from the joists and becoming uneven4 ,beyond this point1 it will be not necessary to trace the operations of the carpenter and joiner2 for the sawing1 scarfing1 trussing1 and joining large beams for the roof1 and the minuter details connected with the window-sash1 will illustrate pretty accurately the general nature of the whole routine of processes4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,fire-,,place4 ,perhaps no part of the interior fittings of a house is more associated with ideas of cheerfulness and domestic comfort than the fire-place4 ,our abundant supply of coal has probably induced ,englishmen to prefer the cheerful fire and the 8comfortable fire-side0 to any other mode of heating the interior of houses4 ,the steps by which we have arrived at the use of modern grates and stoves1 and the question how far these are likely to give way to the methods of warming houses by hot air1 by hot water1 or by steam1 will form an interesting matter for our consideration2 and we shall be indebted to ,dr4 ,arnott's treatise on ,warming and ,ventilating1 for many illustrative details4 ,open ,fire-places4 ,the manner in which rude nations kindle a fire in or near their huts1 is one of the most wasteful arrangements in which fuel can be used4 ,houseless savages1 because they know no better1 and soldiers at bivouac1 because they must make a virtue of necessity1 kindle a fire in the open air1 and place themselves near it1 benefiting by that portion of the radiant heat which falls on their bodies2 but all the rest of the heat is wastefully dissipated4 ,the next step of improvement is1 to kindle a fire in a place more or less inclosed4 ,under this arrangement1 not only will that part of the radiant heat which falls on the persons be available1 but a portion of the remainder also1 which1 falling on the walls and warming them1 is partially reflected2 and moreover1 heat combined with the smoke will be for a time retained in the place1 and thus still further contribute to the warmth of the interior4 ,by such an arrangement1 nearly the whole of the heat evolved in the combustion is applied to use2 but it is contaminated with the smoke from the fuel4 ,the savages of ,north ,america place fires in the middle of the floor of their huts1 and sit around in the smoke1 of which the excess escapes by the one opening in the hut that serves as a chimney1 window1 and door4 ,a few of the peasantry in the remote parts of ,ireland and ,scotland still place their fires in the middle of their floors1 and leave for the escape of the smoke only a small opening in the roof1 often not directly over the fire4 ,in ,italy and ,spain1 almost the only fires seen in sitting-rooms are large dishes of live charcoal1 or braziers1 placed in the middle1 with the inmates sitting around1 having to breathe the noxious carbonic acid gas which ascends from the fire and mixes with the air of the room3 there is no chimney1 and the windows and doors are the only ventilators4 ,the method of warming with open fires in the middle of the room was adopted in some of the ,english ,colleges1 and some of the ,london ,inns of ,court1 down to a comparatively modern period4 ,a step further in advance is to have a fire1 not only in an inclosed space as a means of keeping in the heat1 but with an aperture over it to act as a chimney or vent for the smoke4 ,this is the form1 under various modifications1 adopted in most ,english houses2 the fire being kindled in a kind of recess under a chimney4 ,by degrees we have become accustomed to the adoption of a grate1 which keeps the fuel at a certain height above the ground2 but the principle involved is just the same4 ,in olden times the fire used to be kindled on the hearth under a huge chimney1 or on a very low grate2 but the general course of modern improvement has tended to lessen the size of the chimney1 and to raise the grate higher from the hearth4 ,the philosophy of a chimney is well explained by ,dr4 ,arnott1 in his ,elements of ,physics4 ,he says3 8,chimneys quicken the ascent of hot air1 by keeping a long column of it together4 ,a column of two feet high rises higher1 or is pressed up with twice as much force as a column of one foot1 and so1 in proportion1 for all other lengths2 just as two or more corks strung together and immersed in water1 tend upwards with proportionally more force than a single cork1 or as a long spear of light wood1 allowed to ascend perpendicularly from a great depth in water acquires a velocity which makes it dart above the surface1 while a short piece under the same circumstances rises very slowly4 ,in a chimney where one foot in height of the column of hot air is one ounce lighter than the same bulk of the external cold air1 if the chimney be one hundred feet high1 the air or smoke in it is propelled upwards with the force of one hundred ounces4 ,in all cases1 therefore1 the draught1 as it is called1 of a chimney is proportioned to its length40 ,defects of ,open ,fires4 ,this being the general arrangement of a fire in a recess on one side of the room1 and an open chimney above it1 ,dr4 ,arnott enumerates a long list of evils and inconveniences consequent on such an arrangement4 #a4 ,waste of fuel4--,it has been found that in a common open ,english fire1 seven-eighths of the heat produced from the fuel ascend the chimney1 and are absolutely lost4 ,this lost fuel is thus accounted for4 ,one half of the heat is carried off in the smoke from the burning mass2 one quarter is carried off by the current of the warmed air of the room1 which is constantly entering the chimney between the fire and the mantel-piece1 and mixing with the smoke2 lastly1 one eighth part of the combustible matter is supposed to form the black and visible part of smoke1 in an unburned state4 ,some writers have even gone so far as to estimate the loss of heat in an open fire at fourteen-fifteenths of the whole4 #b4 ,unequal heating at different distances from the fire4--,this forms a remarkable contrast with the uniform temperature in the air of a summer afternoon4 ,in rooms with a strong fire1 in very cold weather1 it is not uncommon for persons to complain of being 8scorched0 on one side1 and 8pierced with cold0 on the other2 this is particularly the case in large apartments2 for as the intensity of radiating heat 7like light7 is only one-fourth as great at a double distance1 the walls of the room farthest from the fire are but little warmed1 and1 therefore1 reflect but little heat to the backs of persons grouped round the fire4 #c4 ,cold draughts4--,air being constantly required to feed the fire1 and to supply the chimney-draught1 the fresh air which enters by the crevices and defects in the doors1 windows1 floors1 c41 is often felt most injuriously as a cold current4 8,there is nothing more dangerous to health than to sit near such inlets1 as is proved by the rheumatisms1 stiff necks1 and catarrhs1 not to mention more serious diseases1 which so frequently follow the exposure4 ,there is an old ,spanish proverb1 thus translated1 ,if cold wind reach you through a hole1 ,go make your will1 and mind your soul1 which is scarcely an exaggeration40 ,the current of fresh air which enters to feed the fire becomes very remarkable when doors or windows are opened1 for the chimney can take much more than it otherwise receives when the doors and windows are shut2 and thus the room with its chimney becomes like an open funnel1 rapidly discharging its warmed air4 #d4 ,cold to the feet4--,the fresh air which enters in any case to supply the fire1 being colder and specifically heavier than the general mass already in the room1 lies at the bottom of this as a distinct layer or stratum1 demonstrable by a thermometer1 and forming a dangerous cold-bath for the feet of the inmates1 often compelling delicate persons to keep their feet raised out of it by footstools1 or to use unusual covering to protect them4 #e4 ,bad ventilation4--,notwithstanding the rapid change of air in the room1 perfect ventilation is not effected4 ,the breath of the inmates does not tend towards the chimney1 but directly to the ceiling2 and as it must therefore again descend to come below the level of the mantel-piece before it can reach the chimney1 the same air may be breathed over and over again4 ,in a crowded room1 with an open fire1 the air is for this reason often highly impure4 ,as another source of impure air in a house1 it may be noticed that the demand of the chimneys1 if not fully supplied by pure air from about the doors and windows1 operates through any other apertures4 #f4 ,smoke and dust4--,these are often unavoidable from an open chimney1 much affecting the comfort and health of the inhabitants of the house1 and destroying the furniture4 ,householders would make great sacrifices in other respects to be free from the annoyance of smoke4 ,in large mansions1 with many fires lighted1 if the doors and windows fit closely1 and sufficiency of air for so many chimneys cannot therefore enter by them1 not only do the unused chimneys become entrances for air1 but often the longest and most heated of them in use overpower the shorter and less heated1 and cause the shorter chimneys to discharge their smoke into the room4 #g4 ,loss of time4--,during the time every morning while the fires are being lighted1 the rooms cannot be used2 and there are1 besides1 the annoyances of smell1 smoke1 dust1 and noise1 all of which are again renewed if the fire is allowed to go out and to be relighted in the course of the day4 #h4 ,danger to person and to property4--,how numerous are the losses of property by carelessness as to fires is well known to all1 while the loss frequent but more distressing loss of life too well attests the danger to children and to females thinly clad often consequent on an open fire4 ,such are the principal defects which ,dr4 ,arnott enumerates as being inherent in the use of open fires4 ,many of them have been greatly lessened by improved arrangements2 but others are still without an appropriate remedy4 ,the usual construction of a fire-place is tolerably familiar4 ,in most cases1 the vertical or nearly vertical channel for the chimney is inclosed within a casing of brick-work1 which projects into the room at one side4 ,the opening for this chimney gradually narrows upwards1 until only large enough to admit the poor little climbing-boy whose task it was1 until within a recent period1 to sweep down the unburnt fuel which our own ill arrangements have wasted2 but1 happily for humanity and justice1 this system is at an end1 and machines are now employed for the purpose4 ,a hearth of stone is laid whereon to erect the stove or grate1 and this grate is1 as we all know1 composed mainly of an iron receptacle for the fuel1 and of 8hobs10 for supporting culinary vessels4 ,we cause fire to be kindled in the grate1 and then suppose that all will go on well1 without troubling ourselves to inquire whether the arrangements for the supply of cold air1 and the exit of warmed air and smoke1 are such as are best fitted for those purposes4 ,remedies for some of these ,defects4 ,in course of time1 as the evils of this plan became one by one known1 attempts were made to remedy some of them1 and with an approach towards success4 ,in a recent treatise on the subject by ,dr4 ,fyfe1 of ,edinburgh1 various modes are suggested for remedying many of the evils incident to open fire-places4 ,these we must briefly notice4 ,sometimes the rooms of a new house are subject to the nuisance of smoky chimneys simply from deficiency of air4 ,the workmanship of the rooms being all good1 the joints of the flooring-boards and of the wainscot panels are all true and tight1 the more so as the walls1 perhaps1 not yet thoroughly dry1 preserve a dampness in the air of the room1 which keeps the wood-work swelled and close4 ,the doors and the sashes1 too1 work closely and correctly1 so that there is no passage left open for the air to enter except the key-hole1 and even this is often closed over by a little brass cover4 ,thus1 air being denied admission into the room1 there is nothing to feed the fire and to cause a 8draught10 and the smoke cannot ascend the chimney4 ,instances have been known of well-built houses being rendered almost untenantable from this cause1 and several hundred pounds being spent in endeavouring to find a remedy4 ,if1 on opening the door or window of a smoky room1 it be generally found that the smoke disappears1 this may be taken as an indication that the close-fitting joints of the wood-work do not admit air enough for the fire when doors and windows are closed4 ,in such a case1 the opening of the door or window is a poor attempt at a remedy2 for the air proceeds direct to the chimney1 and in its way causes cold to the back and feet of those who may be sitting before the fire4 ,numerous methods have been devised for admitting additional air to the rooms without this inconvenience1 among which ,dr4 ,arnott recommends tubes leading directly from the outer air to the fire-place1 and provided with what are called 8throttle-valves10 for the regulation of the quantity4 ,the following plan has also been recommended as one of the most practicable4 ,as the air in the upper part of a room is warmer than in the lower1 it is desirable that the supply should come in that direction1 so as to be slightly warmed in its progress towards the fire1 and thus produce less chill to those in its immediate vicinity4 ,this may be done by drawing down the upper sash of the window about an inch2 or1 if not moveable1 by cutting such a crevice through its frame2 in both which cases1 a thin shelf of the length of the opening may be placed to conceal it1 sloping upwards1 to direct the air horizontally along and near the ceiling4 ,in some houses1 the air may be admitted in such a crevice made in the wainscot or cornice near the ceiling1 and over the fire-place2 this1 if practicable1 is the better of the two1 since the cold air in entering will there meet with the warmest rising air from before the fire1 and be soonest tempered by the mixture4 ,another contrivance is to take out an upper pane of glass in one of the sashes1 set it in a tin frame1 giving it two springing angular sides1 then replacing it1 with hinges below1 on which it may turn2 by drawing in this pane more or less1 the quantity of air admitted may be regulated1 and its position will naturally direct the admitted air up and along the ceiling4 ,the circular vane or ventilator sometimes fixed in windows admits cold air in a similar manner1 when the supply for the room and fire would be otherwise deficient4 ,the opening or breadth and height of the fire-place1 though we may fancy it leads to the diffusion of more heat into the room1 is really a cause of loss of fuel1 and of smoke4 ,the size of the fire-place opening is often considered in relation to the size of the room1 without regard to the principles on which a fire is maintained in a grate2 a course about as rational 7it has been well observed7 as to proportion the step in a staircase to the height of the story1 instead of to the convenience of our legs in mounting them4 ,as the chimneys of different rooms are unavoidably of different heights1 and as the force of the draught is in proportion to the height of chimney filled with warmed and rarefied air1 it is found that the opening for a tall chimney may be larger than for a lower one4 ,if the opening be unnecessarily large1 there is room not only for the entrance of fresh air1 but also for the exit of smoke driven down by an opposing current from the chimney itself2 and the air1 too1 ascends into the chimney in too cold a state1 because the largeness of the opening enables it to enter without passing very close to the fire4 ,the principal evil attending the use of a fire-place having too small an opening1 is that the fuel is burned away with unnecessary rapidity4 ,when the opening is found by experience to be so large as to lead to the descent of smoke into the room1 the easiest remedy is to place moveable boards or sheets of tin or iron1 so as to lower and narrow it gradually4 ,the effect of which1 by excluding a part of the colder air from the chimney1 is to produce a quicker action1 so that the fire begins to roar as if blown by a bellows4 8,this means is often used to blow the fire instead of bellows1 or to cure a smoky chimney1 by increasing the draught4 ,what is called a register stove is a kindred contrivance4 ,it has a flap placed in the throat of the chimney1 which serves to widen or contract the passage at pleasure4 ,because the flap is generally opened only enough to allow that air to pass which rises directly from the fire1 the chimney receives only very hot air1 and therefore acts well4 ,the register stove often cures smoky chimneys2 and by preventing the too ready escape of the moderately warmed air of the room1 of which so much is wasted by a common fire-place1 it also saves fuel40 ,there does not appear to have been any attempt to determine by experiment the proper opening of the fire-place for a given height of chimney2 and1 indeed1 there are so many disturbing causes1 that it would be scarcely possible to determine this with precision4 ,dr4 ,franklin1 however1 proposed to make the fire-place openings in the lower rooms about thirty inches square and eighteen inches deep2 those in the upper1 eighteen inches square1 and not quite so deep2 and those in the intermediate rooms1 of dimensions between these two extremes4 ,in some cases1 where other matters are properly attended to1 inconvenience results from the chimney being too low2 as1 for instance1 in the case of an attic chimney4 ,in this instance the column of heated and rarified air is not high enough to give a rapid ascensive power within the chimney1 and thus the smoke cannot be carried up4 ,the best method of cure is to add to the length of chimney1 if this can be done1 and if the fire be in a low building near the ground1 this may perhaps be effected2 but in an attic1 the means of supporting a lofty chimney would be inefficient4 ,another recourse is to contract the opening of the fire-place to the smallest available dimensions1 so that all the entering air may pass through or close to the fire before entering the chimney1 and thus acquire an ascensive power which will counterbalance the shortness of the vertical column4 ,it has been recommended that in some cases there may be three chimneys to one room1 so that the united length of the whole may be equal to that of a tall chimney2 but it is not easy to conceive how this can be practically effected1 nor how the desired result would follow1 even if the arrangements were made4 ,in some cases1 the chimney of a room is rendered practically shorter by being bent round and made to enter the chimney of another room2 since1 unless there be a fire in this room also1 the warm air from the shorter chimney has often an adverse current to contend against at the junction with the other chimney4 ,this is one reason why every open fire-place should have its own chimney independently of others4 ,if there be a lofty building or hill near a house1 and over-topping the chimney of one of the rooms1 that room is very likely to become smoky1 on account of a current being driven in at the top of the chimney1 and forcing the smoke down with it4 ,two rival chimneys may produce a similar effect in a remarkable way4 ,suppose that there were two fires in one room1 one burning with more force1 and therefore having a more ascensive column of air above it1 than the other2 if the doors and windows be shut1 the stronger fire will overpower the weaker1 and for its own demand will draw down air from the chimney of the latter1 which air in descending brings down smoke into the room4 ,the same would be observable in a greater degree if one fire-place had a fire in it but the other had none1 both being at the same time open4 ,if1 instead of being in one room1 the chimneys are in two different rooms communicating by a door1 the case is the same whenever that door is open4 ,in a house where all the openings1 such as doors and windows fitted tightly1 a kitchen chimney has been known to overpower every other chimney in the house1 and to draw air and smoke into an upper room as often as the door communicating with the room was open4 ,the remedy for this inconvenience lies in the arrangement of the fire-places1 so that each fire shall have exactly enough air for the consumption of the fuel1 without having to borrow from other rooms4 ,the arrangement of the door of a room influences materially the proper action of a fire in the fire-place4 ,when the door and chimney are on the same side of the room1 and if the door be in the corner1 and is made to open against the wall1 7an arrangement which is often made for the sake of convenience17 it follows1 that when the door is only partly opened1 a current of air rushes along the wall into and across the opening of the fire-place1 and drives some of the smoke out into the room4 ,this acts more certainly when the door is being closed1 for then the force of the current is augmented1 and becomes an annoyance to persons who may happen to be situated in its path4 ,when the door and fire-place of a room have been thus ill-arranged with respect to each other1 the evil may be lessened by placing an intervening screen between the door and the fire1 or by reversing the position of the hinges on the door1 so as to make it open in the opposite direction4 ,sometimes the smoke from a chimney is driven out into the room1 even when the chimney is not commanded by a superior elevation1 it being driven down by strong winds passing over the top of the chimney4 ,dr4 ,franklin mentioned one or two instances of this kind which he had met with3--8,i once lodged at a house in ,london1 which in a little room had a single chimney and funnel4 ,the opening was very small1 yet it did not keep in the smoke1 and all attempts to have a fire in this room were fruitless4 ,i could not imagine the reason1 till at length observing that the chamber over it1 which had no fire-place in it1 was always filled with smoke when a fire was kindled below1 and that the smoke came through the cracks and crevices of the wainscot1 ,i had the wainscot taken down1 and discovered that the funnel which went up behind it had a crack many feet in length1 and wide enough to admit my arm2 a breach very dangerous with regard to fire1 and occasioned probably by an apparent irregular settling of one side of the house40 ,this does not at first thought seem to be an illustration of the effect of wind passing over the top of a chimney2 but the explanation is to be sought for in a similar way2 the air1 by entering this fractured part freely1 destroyed the drawing-force of the chimney4 ,the manner in which the passing of a current of wind over the top of a chimney may produce a 8smoky room0 is this3--the warm air which rises from the fire1 in order to obtain a free issue from the chimney1 must repel the air that is hovering over the chimney-pot4 ,in a time of calm or of little wind1 this is done easily2 but when a violent current is passing over the top of the chimney1 its particles have such a strong horizontal velocity1 that the heated air in ascending has not power to displace it1 and thus the smoke1 not finding a ready exit by that path1 is driven back into the room4 ,the following anecdote1 told by ,dr4 ,franklin1 will show what accidental causes will sometimes occasion a fire to fail in its desired office of yielding heat without smoke3--8,another puzzling case ,i met with at a friend's house near ,london4 ,his best room had a chimney1 in which he told me he never could have a fire1 for all the smoke came out into the room4 ,i flattered myself ,i could easily find the cause1 and prescribe the cure4 ,i opened the door1 and perceived it was not want of air4 ,i made a temporary contraction of the opening of the chimney1 and found that it was not its being too large that made the smoke to issue4 ,i went out and looked up at the top of the chimney3 its funnel was joined in the same stack with others1 some of them shorter1 that drew very well1 and ,i saw nothing to prevent its doing the same4 ,in fine1 after every other examination ,i could think of1 ,i was obliged to own the insufficiency of my skill4 ,but my friend1 who made no pretension to such kind of knowledge1 afterwards discovered the cause himself4 ,he got to the top of the funnel by a ladder1 and looking down1 found it filled with twigs and straw1 cemented by earth1 and lined with feathers4 ,it seems the house1 after being built1 had stood empty some years before he occupied it1 and he concluded that some large birds had taken the advantage of its retired situation to make their nests there4 ,the rubbish1 considerable in quantity1 being removed1 and the funnel cleared1 the chimney drew well and gave satisfaction40 ,from these details it will at once appear1 that that part of the builder's art which relates to the arrangement and building of the fire-place is by no means an unimportant one1 since the comfort of the inmates is seriously affected by want of skill on his part4 ,hence we may also observe1 that chimney doctors are liable to the same kind of errors as quack doctors in another sphere2 for it is almost as absurd to attempt to cure all smoky chimneys by one course of proceeding1 as to cure all kinds of diseases by one medicine4 ,there may be a deficiency of air in the room2 the opening of the fire-place maybe too large2 the chimney may not have height enough2 one chimney may overpower another in its draught2 the chimney may be overtopped by higher buildings or by a hill2 the door of a room may be badly placed with respect to the window2 or1 lastly1 as in ,dr4 ,franklin's 8puzzling case10 the chimney may be nearly stopped up4 ,all these are sources of the much-dreaded 8smoky chimney10 and all require modes of treatment adapted to the nature of the evil4 ,many of these evils have1 to a considerable extent1 been remedied by the use of ,rumford stoves1 and other forms of stove and grate1 in which1 although retaining all the chief characters of an open fire-place1 there is yet a great diminution of the evils to which the latter is liable4 ,there have1 however1 been marked extensions recently made in the construction of close stoves1 intended to obviate the ill effects attendant on open fire-places4 ,these must be briefly noticed4 ,close ,stoves4 ,in a close stove1 no air is admitted but what passes at once through the fire2 and the chimney or funnel is only just large enough to carry off the sulphurous and other vapours1 for there is hardly any smoke from a close stove1 and1 therefore1 it is not necessary to make a chimney large enough to admit a climbing-boy4 ,a small ,german stove1 suitable for a room twenty-four feet by eighteen1 will give an idea of the general character of this kind of close stove4 ,the stove rests on a base about thirty-six inches by fourteen4 ,the fire-place has a bottom to receive the fuel1 but no bars1 and is shut by a door which fits closely to its case4 ,this door has a small wicket at the bottom1 the aperture of which is regulated by a sliding plate1 so as to admit no more air than will suffice for the slow combustion of the fuel4 ,the flame and heated air ascend to the top of the fire-place1 and pass into two hollow pillars or piers1 which rise to a height of five or six feet1 so that the heat is communicated to a large surface1 before the volatilized products of combustion make their exit by a pipe into the chimney4 ,the stove is supplied with fuel and with air by the front door4 ,if it is desired to make the fire visible1 and impart some of that cheerfulness which belongs to an open grate1 the door of the stove maybe thrown open1 for there is no danger of the smoke coming out after the current has once warmed the upper part of the stove4 ,when the stove is of such dimensions that the body of it is about two feet and a half high1 the fire-place may be furnished with a small grate in the ,english style4 ,if the door is so hung that it can not only be thrown back1 but also lifted off its hinges1 it will approach still more to the character of a stove-grate4 ,a cheap form of 8,german stove0 is often made in this country1 and used in workshops and small manufactories1 where the body of the stove is an upright cylinder1 of which the lower part is the ash-pit1 closed or opened by a hinged-door1 the middle part the fire-place1 where the fuel rests on bars1 and the upper part a vacant space1 which becomes filled with flame1 smoke1 and heated air1 so as to impart great heat to a flat iron plate at the top4 ,there is a door at which the fuel is introduced1 and a small flue or funnel of iron pipe1 which conveys the smoke into a chimney or into the open air4 ,many forms of stove have been used more or less resembling this in principle2 but there is one great defect pertaining to them all4 ,the metal of which the stove is formed becomes so highly heated near the stove1 that it acquires a burnt smell1 owing to the decomposition of animal and vegetable particles which are at all times floating about in the air4 ,the air1 too1 in the room1 becomes close and oppressive from another cause2 for as only a small quantity of air is consumed by the stove1 the air does not become renewed in the room so frequently as when an open fire is used1 and thus it is respired over and over again4 ,to remedy the evils resulting from burnt air1 close stoves are made with a double case1 so that there shall be a body of air between the fire and the air of the room4 ,it is on this principle1 modified in various ways1 that a large number of stoves have been constructed2 of which one1 by ,mr4 ,sylvester1 may be briefly described4 ,there is a hollow cast-iron box1 on the outside of which are cast several ribs4 ,those ribs are about three-quarters of an inch thick1 and project three or four inches beyond the surface of the box2 and their object is to increase the heating surface2 for the fire being lighted in the hollow of the box1 the conducting power of the iron causes the whole exterior case of the box1 together with the projecting ribs1 to become heated4 ,the box is placed within an ornamental case1 the sides and top of which are fretted with lattice-work1 to allow free access to the air1 which enters through the lattices at the sides and escapes from the top of the stove1 passing in its passage over the ribbed surface of the heated box4 ,the grating on which the fuel lies is formed of a number of loose bars fitted together into a frame1 and prolonged so as to emit heat into the room as well as to support the fuel4 ,everything is so arranged as to give as much iron surface as possible1 so as to communicate heat to the surrounding air2 while at the same time the extent of the heated surface prevents any one part from being excessively and injuriously heated4 ,dr4 ,arnott's ,stove4 ,to describe all the 8chunk0 stoves1 8,vesta0 stoves1 8,olmsted0 stoves1 and other similar contrivances of modern times1 would fill a volume instead of a few pages4 ,we may1 however1 speak briefly of ,dr4 ,arnott's stoves as a means of showing some of the inconveniences to which close stoves are liable1 if not constructed with care4 ,this stove consists of an external case of iron1 of any ornamental shape4 ,within this case is placed a box made of fire-clay1 to contain the fuel1 having a grating at the bottom2 and there is a space left between the fire-box and the exterior case1 to prevent the communication of too much heat to the latter4 ,thee pedestal of the stove forms the ash-pit2 and there is no communication between the stove and the ash-pit1 except through the grating at the bottom of the fire-box4 ,a small external hole in the ash-pit1 covered by a valve1 admits the air to the fire2 and according as this valve is more or less open1 the vividness of the combustion is increased or diminished1 and thence the greater or less heat produced by the stove4 ,the quantity of air admitted by this valve is governed by a self-regulating apparatus1 either by the expansion and contraction of air confined by mercury in a tube1 or by the unequal expansion of different metals4 ,the smoke escapes through a pipe at the back of the stove2 but the fuel employed is such as to yield very little smoke4 ,by adjusting the regulator so as to admit only a small quantity or air1 the temperature of the stove is kept within the required limits2 and owing to the slow-conducting power of the fire-clay1 of which the fire-box is formed1 the heat of the fuel is concentrated within the fire-box1 and the fuel burns with less air and less rapidity than it would otherwise do4 ,the construction of ,dr4 ,arnott's 8thermometer stove0 will be better understood from the following figure1 which represents the stove with one of its sides removed1 so as to exhibit its interior arrangements3-- ,illustration ,the outlines of the figure1 a a a a1 represent the case or body of the stove1 which might be formed either of cast or sheet iron4 ,it is divided into two chambers by the partition1 b b2 but in such a way that there may be a free communication at the top and bottom4 c is a small furnace1 or1 as it is called by the inventor1 a fire-box1 made of iron1 and lined with fire-bricks4 ,the fire-box is not in contact with the exterior case of the stove4 ,it communicates at the bottom with an ash-pit1 the door of which is at d1--that of the stove1 by which the fuel is introduced1 is at d4 ,both these doors must fit very accurately4 ,above the door of the ash-pit is a bent pipe e1 by which air gains admittance to the fire4 ,a fire being kindled and the doors at d d shut1 the only way in which air has access to the fuel is by the pipe e2 the air so admitted1 passing through the fire before it enters the upper part of the stove4 ,that portion of the air not required to aid the combustion of the fuel having reached the main body of the stove1 and there mixing with the smoke and other products1 they circulate slowly in the directions indicated by the arrows1 and at length pass into the chimney by the pipe f4 ,the slow movement just mentioned as taking place within the stove may well be contrasted with what happens in an open fire-place4 ,in one case the greater part of the heat produced is rapidly carried off by a current of air ascending the chimney--by the thermometer stove it is detained until almost the whole of it has been diffused throughout the apartment4 ,the bent tube g terminating in a cup-shaped opening at g1 is a self-regulating valve4 ,the tube is closed at the end g within the stove1 g g represents mercury which occupies the bend of the tube4 ,when the fire in the stove burns too briskly1 the air in the tube occupying the space between g and g is expanded1 and by expelling some of the mercury from the tube at g into the cup at g1 it closes the aperture of the pipe e2 thus cutting off the supply of air to the fire4 ,in a few minutes 7the fire in the mean time having abated its energy17 the air in the tube will return to its former dimensions1 and the mercury subsiding in the cup1 air is again permitted to enter the ash-pit4 ,the stove1 of which we have thus attempted to convey a general idea1 may be made of any required form or size4 ,instead of the self-regulating air-valve just described1 it is fitted up with others of a very simple construction1 and which admit of being adjusted with the greatest accuracy by the hand4 ,the objections to this form of stove arise chiefly from the formation of deleterious gases1 which are not carried off completely4 ,the slow combustion of the fuel produces a large quantity of carbonic oxide1 which is liable to escape into the room1 and is of an injurious character4 ,carburetted hydrogen gas is also formed in these stoves4 ,many modifications of form have been suggested for the remedy of these evils2 but the slow combustion1 which was one of the merits originally claimed for the stove1 and which it certainly deserves1 seems an unavoidable cause for the production of these gases4 ,all the varieties of open fire-place1 as adopted in ,english houses1 the hearth1 the recess1 and the chimney1 are at one side or at one corner of the room2 but in the adoption of close stoves this arrangement is not necessary2 for the stove may be in any part of the middle of a room1 provided the pipe constituting the flue be long enough4 ,in some cases this pipe is carried upwards to the ceiling1 and thence conveyed to some outlet into the open air2 in other cases it is turned downwards and conveyed under the flooring to a proper place of exit2 while in others the pipe is stretched or extended horizontally from the stove to the regular chimney of the room4 ,warming ,buildings by ,heated ,air4 ,our builders have not yet entered so far into the mechanical contrivances of the age as to dispense with chimneys altogether2 nor could such a thing be done until a total change is effected in the opinion of persons concerning the cheerfulness of an 8open fire40 ,but there are nevertheless three modes1 more or less adopted in the present day1 whereby a house is warmed without the necessity for anything like a fire-place4 ,these methods--in all of which the heating agent is brought from another room into the one to be warmed--are of three kinds2 heating by hot air1 by hot water1 and by steam4 ,when we speak of warming an apartment by heated air1 it is necessary to give precision to the meaning of the term4 ,all rooms are1 in fact1 warmed by heated air1 for the stove or grate must raise the temperature of the air in the room before we can appreciate the sensation of warmth4 ,but what is generally meant by the term as here used is the warming of one apartment by air heated in another4 ,the stoves used in ,russia1 though not coming exactly under this description1 will serve in some degree to illustrate the principle4 ,the ,russian stove is intended as a sort of magazine1 in which a great quantity of heat maybe quickly accumulated1 to be afterwards slowly communicated to the apartment4 ,the stove is therefore made of a massive size4 ,it is formed of brick-work1 clay1 glazed tiles1 which together form a great mass of matter to be heated by the fuel2 and there is in every part a considerable thickness of slow-conducting material between the fuel and the air of the room4 ,the fire is kindled early in the morning1 after which the stove door is shut1 and the air aperture below left open for some time as a means of admitting draught to the fire2 but in the course of a short time the fire-door is opened to check the draught1 so as to prevent the too rapid combustion of the fuel4 ,in this way the combustion is allowed to go on1 and the substance of the stove becomes warmed1 after which the air passages are shut1 so as to prevent any abstraction of heat by the current that would otherwise be occasioned4 ,the stove thus becomes a great mass of heated matter1 which is gradually pouring warmth into the apartment during the whole of the day2 and as the temperature of the surface never becomes very high1 the impurities in the atmosphere are not decomposed1 and it is consequently free from those offensive effluvia1 unavoidable when metal stoves are used4 ,the fuel is allowed to be nearly burnt out before the apertures of the stove are closed2 and therein the stove differs greatly from those hitherto considered2 the heated air within the stove being so completely shut in that it can find no outlet1 except through the substance of the brickwork4 ,the modifications of the arrangements whereby warmed air is conveyed from one room to another1 may next be noticed4 ,in such cases the air either escapes from a heated receptacle outside the fire-case1 or else it merely passes over a heated metallic surface4 ,the following description relates to one variety of the first of these two methods4 ,in the lower part of a house or building is a cast-metal double stove2 the inner part forming the stove1 and the outer one the case or envelope4 ,the fuel is burned in the inner stove1 and the smoke produced during the process of combustion is carried off by a chimney1 which passes through both stoves or cases1 and is conveyed to the outside of the building4 ,the outer case includes not only the furnace or inner stove1 but also a considerable space occupied by the air of the atmosphere1 which is freely admitted through a number of holes placed around it2 and when any current of warmed air is produced1 it passes off from the space between the outer case and the inner stove1 and is conveyed by tubes to any apartment in the building2 so that the rooms are warmed by the air which has passed between the outer case and the inner stove4 ,in another form of arrangement1 having the same end in view by means of heated air1 the air1 instead of passing through an enclosed space between the outer case and the inner stove1 passes over a surface of metal which is heated either by a fire underneath1 or1 which is better1 by steam or hot water contained in pipes4 ,the temporary ,house of ,commons1 the ,reform ,club-house1 and many other buildings1 are warmed in this way4 ,the following simple and cheap form of stove has been erected in the cottages of ,sir ,stewart ,monteath's labourers4 ,the accompanying figure represents a section of the stove1 the principle of which will be understood from the following explanatory notes3-- ,illustration #a4 ,kitchen fire4 #b4 ,chimney4 #c4 ,hot air ,chamber4 ,this is a cast-iron box1 which forms the back of the kitchen grate4 #d4 ,cold air pipe1 or passage2 made with brick1 or stone1 or iron piping1 communicating with the open air for the purpose of feeding the hot air chamber with an ascending current of fresh air4 #e4 ,hot air pipe1 receives the ascending current of air1 which becomes heated by passing over the back of the fire4 ,at the top this pipe branches off at right angles1 and terminates near the floor in the two sleeping rooms above4 #f4 ,gratings to admit the warm air from the hot-air pipe into the bed-rooms4 ,the addition of sliding valves over the face of the gratings would serve to cut off the current of warm air during the summer1 and when not otherwise required4 #g4 ,sitting-room1 into which sufficient heat is radiated from the hot air chamber1 not only to warm the apartment1 but even to dry wet linen4 ,by means of one common fire in a stove of the above description1 a four-roomed cottage can be comfortably warmed1 and kept dry throughout4 ,warming ,buildings by ,steam4 ,the arrangements for warming rooms and buildings by steam are very different from those in which stoves are employed4 ,they are generally such as the following4 ,at a convenient part of the building1 and as low as possible1 there is placed a close steam-boiler of the ordinary construction4 ,from this boiler a small steam-pipe is carried to the parts of the building which are to be warmed2 the pipe being wrapped round with a thick layer of flannel1 to prevent the heat from radiating before it arrives at the destined place4 ,pipes of a larger size are laid round the rooms above the floor1 or under a perforated floor1 or in any other convenient position4 ,the steam issues into these larger pipes1 from the surface of which heat radiates into the room1 and thus the steam is condensed into water4 ,small pipes of lead or tin are provided for convoying the water back into the boiler1 a gentle slope being given to all the pipes to facilitate this object4 ,this water1 again flowing into the boiler1 is again converted into steam1 again ascends to the pipes which surround the apartment1 again gives out heat to the air of those apartments1 and again flows back to the boiler in the form of water4 ,thus the same supply of water circulates over and over again through the pipes1 carrying heat from the fire below to the rooms above4 ,in some cases the steam-pipes in the apartments1 instead of being laid round the sides1 are grouped together in a compact form1 and have an ornamental character imparted to them4 ,instead of pipes1 the steam is sometimes made to circulate between parallel sheets of copper or iron1 in such manner that every sheet of metal shall have steam on one side of it1 and air on the other1 the air in that position receiving heat from the steam through the metal4 ,warming ,buildings by ,hot ,water4 ,lastly we have to notice the method of warming by hot water4 ,in this method there is usually a boiler communicating by an upper and lower pipe1 with an upright pipe the same height as the boiler4 ,on the application of heat to the boiler1 the column of water becomes lighter than that in the upright pipe2 therefore the pressure on the water in the lower pipe being less at the end nearest to the boiler than it is at the other end1 a portion of the water in this lower pipe moves forward towards the boiler1 which causes a corresponding quantity to pass along the upper pipe in a contrary direction4 ,this motion will necessarily continue as long as the column of water in the boiler is hotter1 and therefore lighter than that in the upright pipe2 and this must be the case so long as the boiler continues to receive heat from the fire1 and the pipes to part with their heat to the air1 and thereby cool the water contained in them4 ,in whatever form the hot water apparatus is constructed1 this difference of pressure of the two columns of water is the cause of the circulation4 ,in this form of apparatus some part or other of the water is open to the atmosphere1 either at the top of the boiler or at the top of one of the pipes1 so that there is no danger from the bursting action of water heated above the boiling temperature4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the water cannot well be conveyed to rooms at different elevations in the building4 ,to increase the efficacy of the arrangement in this respect1 the following adaptation has been suggested4 ,a pipe is made to dip into an open boiler1 reaching only an inch or two below the surface of the water1 and passing round the room to be warmed1 returns again to the boiler and dips again into the water1 descending quite to the bottom of the boiler4 ,an air-pump is connected with this pipe by a small tube2 and the air in the pipe being exhausted by this means1 the water rises into the pipes above the level of the boiler by atmospheric pressure1 and the circulation then takes place by the hot water ascending through the pipe at the top of the boiler1 and passing through the whole circuit of the pipe1 it returns through the upper end of the pipe which reaches to the bottom of the boiler4 ,in the last-described form of apparatus the water will rise in the syphon pipe to a height of about thirty feet above the boiler1 being that elevation which is due to the action of the atmosphere on liquid flowing through a vacuum4 ,but when a whole house or building is warmed by hot water in all the different floors or heights1 a modification of the system1 called the high-pressure system1 is adopted4 ,the apparatus on this system consists of a spiral coil of small iron pipe built into a furnace1 the pipe being carried from the upper part of the coil1 and entwined round the room intended to be warmed1 forming a continuous pipe when again joined to the bottom of the coil4 ,the size of the pipe is usually only half an inch in diameter internally1 and an inch externally4 ,a large pipe of about two and a half inches diameter is connected1 either horizontally or vertically1 with the small pipe1 and is placed at the highest point of the apparatus4 ,this1 which is called the 8expansion pipe10 has an opening near its lower extremity1 by which the apparatus is filled with water1 the aperture being afterwards secured by a strong screw2 but the expansion pipe itself cannot be filled higher than this opening4 ,after the water has been introduced1 the screw is securely fastened1 and the apparatus becomes completely closed in all parts4 ,the expansion pipe1 which is thus left empty1 is calculated to hold about one-tenth or one-twelfth as much water as the whole of the small pipes2 this being necessary in order to allow for the expansion that takes place in the volume of the water when heated1 and which otherwise would inevitably burst the pipes1 however strong they might be4 ,in this apparatus the principle of action is different from that in the low-pressure method4 ,here the water is raised to so high a temperature that it wholly overcomes the effect of gravity1 and rises to the highest rooms of a building if required1 the circulation through the system of pipes being more rapid as the heat of the water is greater4 ,but there are inconveniences attending the method4 ,if the pipes be not very strong1 they will be burst by the intense pressure from within2 as they will likewise if the expansion pipe be too small4 ,if1 on the contrary1 this latter pipe be too large1 it occasions the water to be driven up into it so violently as to leave the lower part of the coil of small pipe almost empty1 and therefore liable to be burned by the heat of the fire4 ,and if all these points be properly attended to1 there is still the inconvenience resulting from the decomposition of the floating particles in the air1 by the highly-heated metal of the pipes4 ,in some cases water1 instead of being heated in a coil of small pipes1 passes into and through large flat boxes or chambers1 whose extended surface enables the surrounding air to be heated more rapidly4 ,the details of this chapter will enable the reader to perceive1 that that part of the builder's art which relates to the construction of the fire-place rests on more scientific principles1 and is more liable to change by successive discoveries and inventions1 than most others4 ,it is not simply to make a square opening by the side of a room1 to have a vertical chimney or flue above that opening1 and a few bars within it2 it is not by such means that the object to be answered by a fire-place can be attained2 some knowledge of chemistry1 pneumatics1 and hydraulics1 is required before we can properly regulate the combustion of our fuel1 the ventilation of our apartments1 or effectually warm them by the ascension of hot air1 the circulation of hot water1 or the condensation of steam4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,windows ,,and ,,lead-,,work4 ,we must now give to our dwelling-house those conveniences which call for the services of the glazier and the plumber4 ,these two occupations are so often combined by the same tradesman1 and the two classes of operations thereby resulting are both so necessary to the finishing of the exterior of a house1 that we may conveniently treat of them in one chapter4 ,introduction of ,glass-,windows4 ,among the features which distinguish modern houses from those existing in the early ages of ,english history1 few have been more conducive to comfort than the adoption of ,glass-,windows4 ,before the employment of that invaluable substance--glass--for this purpose1 windows consisted either of uncovered holes in the wall of a house1 whereby in order to admit light1 the cold would also gain admittance2 or else they were holes covered with oiled skin1 oiled paper1 thin horn1 or some other partially transparent material1 which would admit a dim light1 and yet exclude wind and rain4 ,it is only by placing ourselves in a room thus lighted1 that we can form a correct idea of the increase of comfort resulting from the use of glass instead of such imperfectly transparent substances4 ,the slow and imperfect modes of making glass soon after its introduction necessarily gave it a high value1 and it could only be employed by the wealthy2 but its price has gradually so much lessened1 and its claim to a place among the necessaries of life so generally felt and acknowledged1 that there are now but few persons in ,england1 except those moving in the very humblest ranks of society1 who have not a room with a glazed window4 ,the ,manufacture of ,window ,glass4 ,the glass with which windows are generally glazed1 is called ,crown glass4 ,it is formed of different materials in different manufactories4 ,in some instances the materials consist of fine white sand1 carbonate of lime1 carbonate of soda1 and clippings or waste pieces of old glass2 while in other cases they consist of white sand1 pearl-ash1 saltpetre1 borax1 and arsenic1 in certain proportions4 ,on this point we shall not dwell1 for almost every manufacturer has a favourite receipt of his own4 ,whatever substances are employed1 they are intimately mixed before being melted4 ,the melting takes place in large crucibles or melting pots1 made of a particular kind of clay capable of enduring intense heat4 ,several such crucibles are placed in a furnace1 a little door being situate in the furnace opposite to each crucible4 ,through this door the materials are introduced and are suffered to melt2 and as soon as these become melted1 other portions of the materials are added1 until the crucible contains a given amount of melted material4 ,a curious effect is then observable4 ,although most or all of the materials are nearly opaque in their separate states1 it is found that when they are all melted together1 they form a transparent liquid1 which is glass4 ,it requires about forty-eight hours of intense heat to bring the whole contents of the crucible to a liquid state4 ,during this period1 a quantity of dross or impurity1 called sandiver or glass gall1 collects at the surface1 and is carefully removed2 it is afterwards sold to refiners of metals1 who use it as a flux4 ,the temperature of the furnace is then gradually lowered1 by which means the glass loses sufficient heat to assume a pasty consistence1 which is more convenient for the workman than if it were perfectly fluid4 ,the glass maker then stands before the door of the furnace1 exposed to an intensity of heat such as few persons can adequately conceive1 and dips into the pasty mass of glass the end of a hollow iron tube about five feet long4 ,on withdrawing the tube1 a portion of glass is found adhering to it1 and this is made to equalize itself round the circumference of the tube by turning the latter rapidly round4 ,the workman then applies his mouth to the other end1 and blows through the tube1 whereby the pasty mass is made to assume a hollow globular form at the remote end of the tube4 ,this process is continued for some time and with great dexterity1 until the globe has attained a considerable diameter and a proportionably small thickness4 ,the globe is then somewhat flattened at the side opposite to the tube by pressing it upon a hard plane surface2 and a solid iron rod1 called a punt1 having a small quantity of melted glass at the end1 is applied to the centre of the flattened side opposite to the tube1 to which it adheres2 the tube is then removed by wetting the glass near the point of union with the tube1 leaving a small circular hole4 ,during these processes the glass is repeatedly heated by holding it for a few minutes at the door of the furnace1 in order that it may retain the requisite degree of softness4 ,the punt1 with the flattened globe of glass at its end1 is then rapidly whirled round in a manner nearly resembling that in which a mop is twirled4 ,by this motion1 the globe becomes more and more flattened and extended in diameter1 until at length1 not being able longer to retain its shape1 it bursts open1 and spreads out in the form of a flat circular sheet of glass three or four feet in diameter4 ,there is perhaps nothing in the whole range of the mechanical arts more astonishing to a spectator than this process1 and there are few that require1 from the workman1 more of that dexterity of hand which can only be acquired by long practice4 ,the workman continues to whirl the sheet of glass round1--gradually receding from the furnace1--until it is sufficiently set or solidified to retain its form4 ,the punt is then1 by a dextrous movement1 detached from the centre of the sheet1 leaving that bulb which is known as the 8bull's eye10 or the 8knot40 ,the sheet is placed in an annealing oven1 the temperature of which is lowered by slow degrees until cold2 for it is found that glass is less brittle when it has been allowed to cool gradually than when the cooling has been rapid4 ,considerable care is required to regulate the temperature of the annealing oven2 if the heat be too great the softened glass will bend3 if the heat be insufficient the plates are liable to crack1 or they prove so brittle that when they come to be used1 the glazier will not be able to divide the glass so as to suit his purposes4 ,indeed1 the management of the heat in the manufacture of crown glass requires so much care and skill that few workmen produce an article of the same value1 even though working at the same furnace2 hence crown glass is known in the market as firsts1 seconds1 thirds1 and fourths2 the fourth quality producing less than one-half of the price of the first4 ,we have not interrupted this description1 to refer to engravings2 but we may now illustrate it by the following cuts representing the glass in eight different stages of its formation4 #ast4 ,the melted glass attached to the tube1 and worked on a board4 ,illustration #bnd4 ,the workman blowing through the tube1 to expand the glass4 ,illustration #crd4 ,whirling it rapidly at the mouth of the furnace4 ,illustration #dth4 ,transferring it from the hollow tube to the solid punt4 ,illustration #eth and #fth4 ,successive stages of expansion1 by constant and rapid rotation4 ,illustration ,illustration #gth4 ,final expansion into a flat circular sheet4 ,illustration #hth4 ,the sheet of glass1 held on a kind of fork1 being placed into the annealing oven4 ,illustration ,when cold1 the sheets of glass are cut into two unequal pieces1 one of which contains the knot1 and are packed with straw in wooden crates1 in which they are forwarded to the warehouses1 and from thence to the glaziers4 ,as plate glass is sometimes used for windows1 a slight notice of it seems to be necessary in this place1 in order that the reader may have a clear idea of the difference between these two descriptions of window glass4 ,the manufacture of plate glass is confined to very few hands1 and great reluctance is manifested by the proprietors to permit visitors to inspect their works4 ,the late ,mr4 ,parkes1 however1 was permitted to visit the works of the ,british ,plate ,glass ,company1 at ,ravenhead1 and has recorded his observations in one of his valuable chemical essays1 from which the following details are taken4 ,in the preparation of plate glass the materials are selected with greater care than in any other branch of the glass manufacture4 ,the materials employed are sand of the finest and whitest kind1 soda1 and lime4 ,manganese and oxide of cobalt are also used for the purpose of destroying colour1 which they do by the curious1 and at first view1 paradoxical property each has of imparting colour4 ,the manganese has the effect of a slight tinge of red1 the cobalt of blue2 while the sand and alkali produce a slight yellow tinge2 and thus these three colours 7being those which naturally produce white light7 by proper combination in the glass neutralise each other1 and the result is an almost perfectly transparent material4 ,the process of filling the pots and fusing the materials is similar to that already described for crown glass4 ,the crucibles are of two kinds2 the larger ones wherein the glass is melted1 are called pots1 and because these when full of glass are too bulky and heavy to be moved1 smaller ones1 called cuvettes1 are employed4 ,these are kept empty in the furnaces1 exposed to the full degree of heat1 so that when the glass is ready for casting and is transferred to them1 they may not greatly lower its temperature4 ,the subsequent operations are very well described in an abstract of ,mr4 ,parkes's essay1 given by the writer of the volume on ,glass and ,porcelain1 in the ,cabinet ,cyclopdia4 8,when the glass is thoroughly refined1 the cuvette--which must be perfectly clean1 and1 as already mentioned1 of a temperature equal with that of the glass--is filled in the following manner3--,a copper ladle1 ten to twelve inches in diameter1 fixed to an iron handle seven feet long1 is plunged into the glass pot1 and brought up filled with melted glass1 which is transferred to the cuvette2 the ladle during this transference is supported upon a strong iron rest1 placed under its bottom1 and held by two other workmen4 ,this precaution is necessary to prevent the bending and giving way of the red-hot copper under the weight of fluid glass which it contains4 ,when by successive ladlings the cuvette is filled1 it is suffered to remain during some hours in the furnace1 that the air bubbles formed by this disturbance may have time to rise and disperse2 an effect which is ascertained to have ensued by the inspection of samples withdrawn from time to time for the purpose4 8,another essential part of the apparatus consists in flat tables whereon the plates of glass are cast4 ,these tables have perfectly smooth and level metallic surfaces1 of suitable dimensions and solidity1 supported by masonry4 ,at ,st4 ,gobain1 and formerly also at ,ravenhead1 these tables were made of copper2 the reason assigned for preferring this metal being1 that it does not discolour the hot melted glass1 while the use of iron was thought to be accompanied by this disadvantage4 ,these copper tables were very costly1 both from the nature of their material1 and the labour bestowed in grinding and polishing their surfaces2 and as the sudden access of heat that accompanied the pouring over them of such a torrent of melted glass occasioned the metal frequently to crack1 the tables were by such an accident rendered useless4 ,the ,british ,plate ,glass ,company having experienced several disasters of this nature1 its directors determined upon making trial of iron2 and they accordingly procured a plate to be cast1 fifteen feet long1 nine feet wide1 and six inches thick1 which has fully answered the intended purpose--having1 during several years of constant use1 stood uninjured through all the sudden1 and violent alternations of temperature to which it has been exposed4 ,this table is so massive1 weighing nearly fourteen tons1 that it became necessary to construct a carriage purposely for its conveyance from the iron foundry to the glasshouse4 ,it is supported on castors1 for the convenience of readily removing it towards the mouths of the different annealing ovens4 8,the foundry at ,ravenhead wherein this table is used is said to be the largest room under one roof that has ever yet been erected in this kingdom2 it is #cci feet long1 #aee feet wide1 and proportionately lofty4 ,westminster ,hall1 to which the superiority in this respect is so commonly ascribed1 is smaller--its length being #cjj and its breadth only #ajj feet4 ,the melting furnaces1 which are ranged down the centre1 occupy about one-third of the whole area of this apartment4 ,the annealing ovens are placed in two rows1 one on each side of the foundry1 and occupy the greatest proportion of the side walls4 ,each of these ovens is sixteen feet wide and forty feet deep4 ,their floors being level with the surface of the casting table1 the plates of glass may be deposited in them immediately after they are cast1 with little difficulty and without delay4 8,when the melted glass in the cuvette is found to be in the exact state that experience has pointed out as being most favourable for its flowing readily and equably1 this vessel is withdrawn from the furnace by means of a crane1 and is placed upon a low carriage1 in order to its removal to the casting table1 which1 as it is previously placed contiguous to the annealing oven that is to be filled1 may therefore be at a considerable distance from the melting furnace4 ,measures are then taken for cleaning the exterior of the crucible1 and for carefully removing with a broad copper sabre any scum that may have formed upon the surface of the glass1 as the mixture of any of these foreign matters would infallibly spoil the beauty of the plate4 ,these done1 the cuvette is wound up to a sufficient height by a crane2 and then1 by means of another simple piece of mechanism1 is swung over the upper end of the casting table2 and being thrown into an inclined position1 a torrent of melted glass is suddenly poured out on the surface of the table1 which must previously have been heated1 and wiped perfectly clean4 8,the glass is prevented from running off the sides of the table by ribs of metal1 one of which is placed along the whole length of each side1 their depth being the exact measure which it is desired to give to the thickness of the glass4 ,a similar rib1 attached to a cross piece1 is temporarily held1 during the casting1 at the lower end of the table4 ,when the whole contents of the crucible have been delivered1 a large hollow copper cylinder1 which has been made perfectly true and smooth in a turning lathe1 and which extends entirely across the table1 resting on the side ribs1 is set in motion2 and the glass1 during its progress1 is spread out into a sheet of uniform breadth and thickness4 ,its length depends upon the quantity of melted glass contained in the cuvette3 should this be more than is needed for the formation of a plate having the full dimensions of the table1 the metal rib is removed from its lower part1 and the surplus glass is received in a vessel of water placed under the extreme end for the purpose4 8,mr4 ,parkes1 in speaking of this operation1 remarks--#8,the spectacle of such a vast body of melted glass poured at once from an immense crucible1 on a metallic table of great magnitude1 is truly grand2 and the variety of colours which the plate exhibits immediately after the roller has passed over it1 renders this an operation far more splendid and interesting than can possibly be described4' 8,at least twenty workmen are busily employed during this process of casting4 ,from the time that the cuvette is removed from the furnace1 to the completion of the casting by the hardening of the glass1 the apartment must be kept as free as possible from disturbance2 even the opening and shutting of a door might1 by setting the air in motion1 disturb the surface of the glass1 and thus impair the value of the plate4 ,so soon as it is completely set1 the plate is carefully inspected2 and should any flaws or bubbles appear upon any part of its surface1 it is immediately divided by cutting through them40 8,when the plate of glass thus formed has been sufficiently fixed by cooling1 it is slipped from the table gradually and carefully into one of the annealing ovens1 where it remains in a horizontal position2 its treatment differing in this respect from that pursued with crown and broad glass1 which stand on edge during the annealing process4 ,as each oven in this manner becomes filled1 it is closed up by an iron door1 the crevices of which are carefully stopped with mortar or clay1 to prevent an access of external air to the oven2 and thus to provide as far as possible for the gradual cooling of the plates1 the necessity for which has already been sufficiently explained4 ,when the glass has remained during about fifteen days in these ovens1 they are opened1 and the contents withdrawn40 ,the plates have then to undergo the operations of squaring1 grinding1 and polishing1 which need not be described in this place4 ,the various kinds of glass manufactured in ,great ,britain amount every year to the enormous quantity of #cjj1jjj cwt41 which is valued at two millions sterling4 ,glass ,cutting4 ,such1 then1 being a few details as to the mode of manufacturing glass2 we will next suppose that the glass has reached the hands of the glazier or glass-cutter2 and that the window-frame or sashes are ready to receive the panes of glass4 ,one of the earlier operations of the glazier is to prime the sash1 that is1 to give it a coat of thin paint1 for the purpose of making the putty adhere more firmly to the wood4 ,he next takes the dimensions1 in inches and eighths of an inch1 of the groove or rebate in which each square of glass is to be fixed1 and then proceeds to cut squares of those sizes from the semicircular pieces in his crate4 ,this requires much tact and judgment1 since to procure square or rectangular panes necessarily entails a loss of some of the circular portions4 ,the circular sheets are made of diameters varying from forty-eight to sixty-four inches1 and these are cut at various distances from the central knot1 so that the glazier is enabled to choose that piece which experience teaches him will entail least waste3 sometimes it is better to cut the pane from a table 7the half which contains the knot71 sometimes from a slab 7the remaining portion of the disc74 ,in order to cut a table or slab1 so as to procure a pane of the proper size1 the straight edge of the table is placed near the glazier1 and he cuts at right angles to it1 by means of a diamond1 and of an instrument called a square2 and two other cuts1 at the proper distances1 are sufficient to give a pane of the required size4 ,with respect to the power by which a diamond is enabled to cut glass1 we may explain it by saying1 that it is a general rule among mineralogists1 lapidaries1 and others concerned with stony or crystalline bodies1 that the hardest among a certain number of bodies will cut1 or at least scratch1 any of the others3--in fact1 tables of the hardness of different substances are formed from the determination of what substances will mark or scratch others1 that one being reckoned hardest which will scratch all others1 without being equally affected by them in return4 ,now the diamond is the hardest body in nature1 and cannot be cut by any substance but its own dust2 but it can cut glass and other bodies1 which are not so hard as itself4 ,the ,process of ,glazing4 ,the glass having been cut to the right size1 it is next to be fitted into the sash2 and among the many kinds of cement which might be suggested for this purpose1 oil putty is found to be the most advantageous1 since it is conveniently soft when used1 but hardens afterwards to the consistence of stone4 ,putty is made of whiting and linseed oil4 ,the whiting is purchased in lumps1 which are well dried1 and then pounded and sifted4 ,the linseed oil is poured into a tub1 and the powdered whiting added to it1 and stirred up with a stick4 ,when some degree of stiffness is attained1 the mass is taken out of the tub and placed upon a board1 where more whiting is added1 and the whole mixed up by hand4 ,the mass is then beaten for a long time with a wooden mallet1 until it attains a perfectly smooth and uniform consistency4 ,a portion of putty is taken up on a knife1 and inserted in the groove of the window sash4 ,the pane of glass is then laid in the groove1 and gently pressed down in every part1 so as to lie on the putty4 ,as the sheets of glass are never perfectly flat1 it is a rule among glaziers to let the concave side of a pane be within doors and the convex side without4 ,after the glass is laid in1 the edge is carefully coated with putty1 to the extent of about an eighth of an inch3 if this be carefully done1 it is sufficient to secure the glass in its place1 without presenting an unsightly appearance from the interior of a room4 ,the opposite side of the glass now requires a little attention1 since the bed of putty originally laid in the groove has been partially squeezed out by the pane of glass3 a little trimming and finishing are all that are required in this matter4 ,when a broken pane is to be replaced in a window1 it is done generally without taking out the sash2 but in the case of glazing the sashes of a new house1 such as we have been supposing1 it is done before the sashes are fitted into their places4 ,if sashes are glazed with plate instead of crown glass1 the only difference in the glazier's method of proceeding is1 that the pane being heavier1 must be fixed in with greater attention to security4 ,sometimes a small beading or fillet of wood is used instead of putty1 in which case it is either nailed or screwed to the sash4 ,where skylights are used instead of windows1 a different plan must be observed1 since there are no cross bars to the sashes4 ,in this case the squares of glass are fixed in somewhat in the way adopted in slating a roof1 that is1 the lower pieces are puttied in first1 and the upper ones are lapped over them1 so that each pane projects about three-quarters of an inch over the one next below it4 ,this is to effect two objects1--to prevent the necessity of puttying the joints1 and to exclude rain4 ,ground1 fluted1 painted1 stained1 and embossed glass1 are occasionally employed for windows4 ,these need not be noticed1 since the processes by which they are fluted1 stained1 c41 would carry us to details of too extensive a nature4 ,so far as the glazier is concerned1 rather more care and delicacy are required in proportion as the kind of glass employed is more costly or more ornamental4 ,in some of the better kinds of houses1 rooms are provided with double windows1 separated a few inches from one another4 ,the object of this is1 to prevent the room from being affected by rigorous cold from without2 for a mass of air when stationary1 conducts heat very slowly2 the stratum of air between the two windows1 therefore1--being stationary1--is slow to conduct the cold from without1 or1 more correctly1 to conduct the warmth from within4 ,sheet ,lead for ,roofs and ,cisterns4 ,whether the glazier precedes the plumber or the plumber the glazier1 or whether the labours of both alternate during the building of a house1 is a question of no great importance to our present object4 ,we will therefore proceed to notice the kind of material employed by the plumber4 ,the comparative cheapness of lead1 its admirable qualities1 and the facility with which it can be cast and rolled into thin sheets1 and drawn into pipes1 cause it to be extensively used in building4 ,the most productive mines of this metal in our own country are situated in ,derbyshire1 ,devonshire1 ,cornwall1 in ,wales1 and in the ,north2 in short1 the ore from which lead is generally obtained1 called ,galena1 or ,sulphuret of ,lead1 is found in all countries where the primary rocks appear at the surface4 ,the ore greatly resembles the pure metal in brilliancy2 but it is brittle1 and not so easily fused4 ,it frequently contains a sufficient quantity of silver to make it worth while to adopt a peculiar process in the reduction of it1 in order to separate this more valuable metal4 ,the ore is first broken into small pieces1 and is then roasted in a reverberatory furnace1 to drive off the sulphur4 ,when this object is attained1 the heat is increased1 till the metal is fused1 and then it is drawn off into moulds1 which give it the form of blocks or slabs1 called sows and pigs4 ,sheet lead is made thus3--,a large furnace is provided1 into which pig-lead is thrown1 and heat applied4 ,when the lead is melted1 a valve or cock is opened in the side of the furnace1 and the glistening liquid metal pours forth1 and falls on a large table1 covered over with an even surface of fine sand1 and having a ledge of an equal height above the sand all round it4 ,when the melted metal is poured on the sand1 two men1 holding each end of a stiff wooden rule1 called a strike1 draw it along the table1 resting on each side ledge3 the liquid lead is pushed onwards by the strike1 till it covers the whole surface of an even thickness1 which of course is governed by the depth of the ledge round the table4 ,milled sheet lead is formed by rolling a cast plate of the metal between large iron rollers1 turned by machinery4 ,these rollers are set closer and closer together1 till the lead is reduced by rolling to the requisite degree of thinness4 ,by this process1 the lead is rendered more dense and more equally so1 than it ever is by simply casting3 milled lead1 consequently1 is more durable than cast-lead4 ,it should be here noticed that lead1 when it is used for roofing1 or for lining cisterns and gutters1 is always laid on an even boarded surface1 and not on battens or laths1 like slate and tiles4 ,lead ,pipes4 ,lead pipe is either formed by bending thin sheet lead round a cylindrical mould1 and soldering the joint2 or when the pipe is less than four or five inches in diameter1 it is formed by casting a thick cylinder of lead with a small bore1 and about five or six feet long4 ,a long smooth iron rod1 a little larger than the bore of the cylinder1 is forced into this1 and then the cylinder is gradually drawn through a succession of circular holes1 decreasing in diameter1 in a steel plate1 by means of a powerful draw-mill1 worked by a steam-engine4 ,the lead is by this process extended out over the iron rod1 which preserves the bore of the pipe of an equal diameter1 and when the pipe is sufficiently reduced in thickness1 the rod1 or triblet1 is forcibly drawn out1 and the pipe left with a smooth bore1 ready for use4 ,attempts have been made to form lead pipes wholly by casting2 an outer mould and an inner core being so adjusted as to leave a space between them1 into which lead might be forced while in a melted state2 but this method has not been practically worked out to any great extent4 ,the ,process of ,plumbing4 ,when a roof is to be covered1 or a cistern lined1 with lead1 the sheet of the metal is unrolled on a level floor1 and made free from creases and undulations1 by beating them down with a heavy wooden flogger1 formed like a roller with a flattened side1 and a handle to it4 ,the plumber then draws on the lead the form into which it must be cut to fit the surface it is intended to cover1 and afterwards cuts through the lines described with a strong sharp knife4 ,the piece is then rolled up again for facility of carriage1 and raised by tackle into its intended situation1 it being placed there so that when again unrolled1 it may lie in the proper situation and position on the boarding4 ,the sheet is then again beat out flat as before4 ,the next sheet being put into its place1 and so that the edges of the two may overlap about one and a half or two inches1 the workman proceeds to make the joint1 or to solder the two sheets together4 ,the first step for this purpose is to scrape the two edges or borders of the sheets that are to come in contact quite clean and bright1 with a tool constructed for this purpose1 consisting of a small triangular bit of steel ground sharp at its edges1 and fastened at right angles on an iron socket1 fixed in a handle4 ,when these borders of the lead are quite clean1 they are painted over with black-lead paint1 to prevent their tarnishing1 or oxidising again1 as the solder will only adhere to a clean pure metallic surface4 ,the paint also serves as a flux to cause the solder and lead to melt together1 and thus make a close joint4 ,the solder is melted in an iron ladle1 on a rude temporary fire-place1 built as near the spot where the solder is wanted as possible4 ,the plumber having turned back the edge of the upper sheet at the joint1 an assistant carefully pours the solder on the lower edge4 ,the workman then spreads it evenly along the joint1 by means of soldering irons1 which are irregularly-shaped iron bars1 swelling at their ends into rounded forms of different sizes and shapes1 according to the particular purpose for which they are intended4 ,these irons are used in a red-hot state in order to keep the solder melted4 ,as soon as the workman has spread the solder1 he presses and hammers down the upper edge upon the lower1 and spreads the solder forced out of the joint1 along the seam4 ,the outermost edge of the lead covering is nailed down to the boarding or cistern-frame by nails1 with their heads leaded over to prevent the corrosion of the metal1 by the chemical or voltaic action that takes place when two metals in contact are exposed to moisture4 ,the situation of the soldered joints depends on the size and form of the surface to be covered over2 and a good workman considers well how he can cut out the lead so as to have the fewest joints1 and these in the most favourable situations4 ,if he has to line a cistern1 he will cover the bottom in one piece1 cutting the lead large enough to admit of its turning up for an inch or two at two of the sides1 the joint consequently being made at these angles4 ,when a large roof1 like that of a church1 is covered with lead1 this is laid on in parallel bands as wide as the sheet will admit of1 the edge of one sheet being turned over a wooden roller or fillet1 nailed down on the boarding to receive it1 while the edge of the next sheet is turned over the former lead again2 the double thickness being well flogged down to render the joint water-tight3 and in this case no solder is used4 ,the edges of lead gutters that turn up against the inside of the parapet are either laid as flat against the brick-work as possible1 and secured so by iron holdfasts1 so as to prevent rain from getting in2 or to effect the same object1 they are in all the better kind of buildings1 turned into a joint1 in the brick-work1 between two courses4 ,when the plumber has to join two lengths of lead pipe into one1 he opens out the end of one length into a funnel-shaped aperture1 by gently driving a wooden cone into it1 so as to avoid splitting the pipe4 ,the end of the other length is then scraped down a little by the triangular tool before mentioned1 not only to obtain a clean surface for soldering1 but to allow of the end fitting into the funnel-shaped aperture alluded to4 ,the two pipes being thus put together1 the workman holds a thick wadding of old woollen cloth1 well greased1 under the joint1 while a labourer gently pours melted solder over the joint1 which the plumber smoothes and shapes down by his soldering-iron and the cloth into a regular smooth rounded swelling1 all round the joint1 making this perfectly close and water-tight4 ,we observed in the chapter on 8,roofs10 that within the last few years1 the metal zinc has been much used instead of lead for all the purposes of the latter1 and many others beside1 for which the admirable qualities of zinc particularly qualify it4 ,this metal is lighter than lead1 and equally durable in the open air4 ,it bears water almost equally well2 but it is not so flexible or manageable1 being neither so fusible nor malleable4 ,zinc only admits of being rolled or hammered when it is heated to about two hundred and twenty degrees of ,fahrenheit4 ,when cold it is too brittle to bear much bending2 nevertheless1 pipes1 gutters1 cisterns1 chimney-pots1 c41 are made out of sheet zinc2 and roofs1 c4 covered with it4 ,solder or ,cement for ,metals4 ,the solder alluded to above1 as being the means of joining two pieces of sheet lead or of lead pipe1 is an alloy of lead and tin1 in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter4 ,this mixed metal is fusible at a lower temperature than either the tin or the lead separately2 and may therefore be applied in a melting state to tin or lead1 which still remains solid1 even at the same temperature3 this it is which constitutes the principle of soldering4 ,the solder is cast into triangular bars1 weighing from thirty to fifty pounds each4 ,there has1 however1 been a method recently introduced which seems likely to effect considerable changes in the mode of joining pieces of metal1 whether for buildings or for other purposes2 and we may here give some account of it4 ,the great object of soldering is of course to form joints or seams in pipes1 and other articles1 so perfectly1 that they shall be subject to no leakage or flaw4 ,but this object is not easily obtained by the old method of soldering2 the chances of flaw are numerous1 and have been enumerated thus3--#ast1 the difference of expansion between the lead and its alloys with tin1 a difference which is particularly experienced in very cold or very elevated temperatures2 #bnd1 the electro-chemical actions which are developed under certain circumstances by the contact of two different metallic substances2#e #crd1 the very powerful reaction which a number of chemical agents exert on alloys of lead and tin1 though not upon lead alone2 #dth1 the extreme fragility of these alloys1 which1 particularly when heated1 often break on the slightest blow2 #eth1 the difficulty of making the solder adhere to the surface of the lead2#f #fth1 the use of rosin1 which frequently conceals fractures for a time4 ,all of these objections are removed by a new method of soldering1 invented by ,m4 ,e4 ,desbassays de ,richemont1 who has recently obtained1 at the ,national ,exhibition of ,arts at ,paris1 a gold medal for his invention4 ,the committee on whose recommendation the medal was awarded1 included some of the most distinguished chemists and men of science in ,france2 and in their report on the subject1 they say3--8,we consider this invention of the highest importance2 it is applicable to many branches of industry1 and will render great service to a large number of manufactures4 ,its efficacy has not only been proved by experiment1 but is confirmed by the fact1 that most of our eminent manufacturers and tradesmen have taken out licences for the use of it40 ,this invention 7which is patented in ,france1 ,great ,britain1 and ,ireland7 is called autogenous soldering1 and consists of a method of uniting two pieces of metal without the use of solder4 ,the parts to be joined are united by the fusion of the metal at the points or lines of junction2 so that the pieces when joined form one homogeneous mass1 no part of which can be distinguished from the rest4 ,this result is obtained by means of jets of flame1 produced by the combustion of hydrogen gas1 mixed with atmospheric air2 these jets are so ingeniously managed1 that they can be used and directed with as much1 or even more facility1 than the common tools of the solderer4 ,the apparatus employed in this new process consists of a peculiarly constructed vessel for producing hydrogen gas1 to which vessel a variety of tubes and jets can be attached1 so as to meet the various demands of the solderer4 ,a section of the gas-producer is shown in fig4 #a3 a is a leaden tank1 for containing dilute sulphuric acid2 b1 a pipe which passes from the acid vessel to another similar leaden vessel1 c1 which is to contain cuttings of zinc2 d is a conical plug1 with a stalk and handle covered with lead1 by the opening of which the acid is allowed to flow through the pipe b1 to the zinc cuttings1 and thus hydrogen gas is produced2 e is an opening by which zinc is put into the vessel c4 ,the opening1 e1 has a cover furnished with screws and nuts1 by which it may be firmly secured2 f is an opening by which acid and water are poured into the vessel a4 ,when the hydrogen gas is produced1 it has to pass through the safety chamber g2 h is a bent tube or pipe1 which conducts the gas from the vessel c to the bottom of the safety chamber1 the mouth of the pipe dipping into an inch or two of water in the safety chamber4 ,this water is introduced by the pipe i1 which is furnished with a stopple4 ,the cock1 k1 cuts off the flow of gas from the vessel c1 to the safety chamber1 g4 ,a flexible tube1 m1 is screwed to the top of the safety chamber1 and conveys the gas to the working instrument1 or jet1 in the hands of the solderer4 ,as long as the dilute acid is allowed to flow upon the zinc1 hydrogen gas will be produced3 the gas will also be formed as long as the cock is open1 which allows the gas to issue as it is produced2 but as soon as the cock is shut1 a small quantity of gas accumulates1 and interferes with the further action of the liquid on the zinc4 ,consequently there is no danger of an explosion1 because the production of the gas is never more than is required for working2 and when the work ceases1 the production of the gas ceases also4 ,when the dilute acid has become saturated with oxide of zinc1 and gas ceases to be produced1 the discharging pipe is opened1 and the liquid withdrawn4 ,by spontaneous evaporation1 this liquid furnishes sulphate of zinc 7white vitriol71 which may be sold at a price which will more than cover the first and daily cost of the apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,we now proceed to describe the part of the apparatus with which the workman operates4 ,in fig4 #b1 the flexible tube1 m1 is attached to one arm of the forked tube1 o2 the other arm of o is attached to a pipe1 q1 proceeding from a bellows1 or other means for supplying air4 ,the solderer may work a bellows with his foot to supply his apparatus with air1 or the men in a whole factory may be supplied from a blowing apparatus4 ,a cock1 n1 regulates the supply of gas2 p is a cock for regulating the supply of air2 r is the pipe or tube in which the gas and air are mixed2 s1 the beak or tool1 from which issues the jet of flame1 t1 with which the workman operates4 ,the forked tube1 o1 is attached to the girdle of the workman1 and the regulating cocks1 n and p1 are so placed1 that by using one hand1 the man can allow the exact proportions of air and gas to issue4 ,by stopping both cocks1 the flame is of course extinguished4 ,the beak1 s1 may be exchanged for others of every variety of form1 so as to produce jets of flame adapted to any kind of work4 ,fig4 #c is a tool formed like the rosette of a watering-pot1 capable of producing a most intense flame of jets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #d allows a length of flame instead of a point to be produced2 n is the hydrogen gas-pipe and cock2 p1 the air-pipe and cock2 r1 the tube1 in which air and gas mingle2 u1 a pipe with a longitudinal slit on one side of it2 and v1 another pipe covering u1 and exactly fitting over it4 ,gas and air escaping from the slit1 on being ignited1 will produce a long strip of flame1 which may be lengthened or shortened by sliding off or on the covering tube1 v1 on the slit tube u4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #e is a soldering tool1 to be used where a jet of flame is not available1 as in joining zinc4 ,in this arrangement1 the hydrogen and air flame heats apiece of copper1 y1 with which the work is performed4 w is the tool1 with a hollow handle and stalk2 air being supplied by the pipe p1 passes through the hollow handle and stalk2 x is a small tube which passes down the hollow handle and stalk1 w1 and conveys gas from the pipe n to the extremity of w1 where it mingles with the issuing air1 and1 on being ignited1 the flame will heat the piece of copper1 y1 7which1 of course1 may be of the shape of any soldering tool required17 held by the arms1 z4 ,advantages of the ,improved ,method of ,soldering ,metals4 ,one great advantage to the public at large to be derived from the general introduction of 8autogenous soldering10 will be the diminution of the number of cases of the escape of water and gas1 which every day occasion so much inconvenience and even danger as regards the stability of buildings1 the maintenance of the public thoroughfares1 and the security of life4 ,the disuse of charcoal and tin by plumbers will have the important effect of rendering their trade less unhealthy1 the fumes from their brasiers1 and the arsenical vapours emanating from impure tin1 being a very common cause of serious maladies4 ,by the old method of soldering1 there is great danger of setting fire to houses and public buildings3 the destruction of the corn market of ,paris1 and of the ,cathedrals of ,chartres and of ,bruges1 by fire1 was partly owing to the negligence of plumbers2 a negligence for which there could be no reason1 if the new method of soldering had been introduced1 since it is only necessary to turn a cock in order to extinguish or rekindle1 at any moment1 the jet of gas which serves for the plumber's tool4 ,by means of the new apparatus1 a soldering flame can be conducted to a distance of several fathoms without the dangerous necessity of lighting a brasier to heat irons1 to melt masses of solder1 and to carry the whole into the midst of complicated carpentry work4 ,the disuse of solder will also greatly reduce the price of plumber's work1 without1 however1 diminishing the demand for the services of the workmen4 ,the disuse of seams or overlapping1 which from this new mode of connecting lengths of lead will almost entirely be given up1 will alone occasion a considerable saving in the quantity of lead employed4 ,the ease with which lead of from one-thirtieth to one-tenth of an inch in thickness may be soldered1 and defects repaired1 will permit of the substitution of this1 in many cases1 for thicker lead1 and thus diminish the expense2 perhaps1 also1 it will give rise to the use of lead for purposes to which it has not yet been applied1 or the return to others1 in which from motives of economy it has been superseded by other metals4 ,the plumber will also be indebted to ,m4 de ,richemont's method for several important improvements4 ,he will be able in future to make internal joints wherever a jet of flame can be introduced and directed2 to reconstruct on the spot1 of pure lead1 any portion of a pipe1 a vase1 or a statue1 that may have been removed or destroyed2 to execute in rapid succession any number of solderings2 to repair in a few minutes all dents1 cracks1 and flaws1 in sheets or pipes of new lead2 to remove entirely the enormous edges or knots left by the old-fashioned joints1 and that without weakening them2 to give1 in short1 to works of lead a precision of execution1 and a solidity1 unattainable up to this time4 ,autogenous soldering will also be of great assistance to several chemical manufactures1 where it is so important to have large vessels of lead without alloy4 ,by uniting a number of sheets into one1 vessels of pure lead of any size may be formed for the process of acidification and concentration of saline solutions2 for the formation of scouring vats employed by so many artisans who work metals2 for vessels of every kind used to contain liquids which act upon tin solder4 ,in the repair of leaden vessels exposed to the action of heat1 peculiar advantages are offered by autogenous soldering4 ,by the old method1 the holes which are so often caused in the bottoms of these vessels1 either by the action of sudden flames1 or by deposits that form on their surface1 can be stopped only when they are not of too large dimensions1 by making what are called weldings of pure lead4 ,the cases in which this mode of repair is available1 are very limited1 and whenever it is impracticable1 the boilers must be taken down1 the lead changed1 and then reset2 thus occasioning considerable expense and an interruption to business4 ,by the new method1 nothing is easier than to apply pieces to the bottom or sides of the vessels1 whatever be the size of the holes1 and thus the whole of a boiler may be renewed piecemeal4 ,by this plan1 too1 the old lead remains uncontaminated with solder1 and consequently will yield a pure metal to the melting-pot4 ,the great ductility of lead1 which1 in many cases1 is one of its most valuable qualities1 is1 however1 an inconvenience when instruments or utensils are required of considerable strength4 ,at the same time1 there are circumstances where this metal alone can be employed1 on account of the manner in which it resists chemical action4 ,by constructing vessels or instruments of iron1 zinc1 or wood1 and covering them with lead1 utensils can be formed that will resist pressure and blows1 and most chemical agents1 as well as if they were made of solid lead4 ,such vessels are required in the preparation of soda1 and other gaseous waters2 in the distillation or evaporation of acid or alkaline solutions2 and for many other purposes4 ,another application that deserves especial notice is that of lining common barrels with thin sheet-lead4 ,these vessels would be of great utility in chemical factories1 more particularly in the construction of ,woulf's apparatus1 and other pneumatic instruments1 to which greater dimensions could be given by this means2 but they could be employed with singular advantage in the transport of acid and alkaline liquids by sea and land4 ,sulphuric and muriatic acids are transported in stone bottles1 or glass carboys placed in baskets1 which1 however carefully packed1 are liable to be broken1 not only with the loss of the acids1 but with danger to surrounding bodies4 ,we are told of two ,french ships that perished at sea on a voyage to the colonies1 in consequence of the breaking of some bottles of sulphuric acid4 ,in the manufacture of sulphuric acid1 the use of ordinary solder is impracticable1 since it would soon be corroded4 ,the following method was introduced some years ago for forming sulphuric acid chambers1 and the concentration pans4 ,two edges of lead being placed in contact1 were flattened down into a long wooden groove1 and secured in their situation by a few brass pins driven into the wood4 ,the surfaces were next brightened by a triangular scraper1 rubbed over with candle-grease1 and then covered with a stream of hot melted lead4 ,the riband of lead thus applied1 was finally equalized by being brought into partial fusion with the plumber's conical iron1 heated to redness2 the contact of air being prevented by sprinkling rosin over the surface4 ,the autogenous soldering apparatus will greatly simplify the above method4 ,the advantages to be derived from the new process1 are by no means confined to lead3 the apparatus may be employed in using for solder either the common alloys1 or pure lead1 to unite zinc1 and iron1 and lead1 with iron1 copper1 and zinc4 ,it may be substituted also with advantage for the common blow-pipe and lamp of the enameller in all their applications to the soldering and joining performed by the aid of these instruments by jewellers1 goldsmiths1 tinmen1 manufacturers of plated goods1 of buttons1 c4 ,the flame produced by the combustion of the gas may be most economically employed for heating soldering irons4 ,a few seconds suffice to bring the iron to the desired temperature1 and it can be kept at that temperature for many hours without being liable to burn1 nothing more being necessary than to regulate the flame by means of cocks1 and the workman need not be obliged to change his iron1 or even to leave it for a single moment4 ,hence there is not only a considerable saving in manual labour1 but also in fuel1 which in most cases is of greater consequence4 ,such are a few only of the advantages of this simple and beautiful invention1 which is now very extensively adopted in ,france1 and will doubtless get into extensive use in this country1 when its merits are more generally known4 ,it may be here stated1 in justice to some of our own ingenious countrymen1 that after this method had become extensively known1 ,m4 ,richemont's claim to the invention was disputed4 ,we have been informed1 that previously to the year #ahcc1 a ,mr4 ,mallet had employed an apparatus constructed on the same principle1 and used in a similar manner1 as that already described as the invention of ,m4 de ,richemont4 ,in ,,loudon',s ,encyclopdia of ,cottage ,architecture1 published in #ahcc1 the following passage occurs3--8,mr4 ,daniell1 of ,king's ,college1 ,london1 has since published the same thing as new1 and of his invention3 however1 ,i can establish priority by my laboratory journal40 ,,footnotes3 #e ,messrs4 ,vauquelin and ,d',arcet state that they have seen in soap-works the soldering of vats lined with lead crumble in a few days to a powder4 ,the same has been remarked of leaden pipes passing through certain soils4 #f ,the solder often sticks without uniting and the workman may be quite ignorant of his imperfect work2 and thus gas1 water1 or dangerous liquids1 may be allowed to escape4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,interior--,,plastering ,,and ,,paper-,,hanging4 ,as men rise above the rude condition of uncivilized nations1 they are not satisfied with the mere necessaries of life4 ,their standard of comfort becomes elevated4 ,those things which are luxuries to the lowest class are comforts to the next higher class1 and necessaries to the class which is higher still in the social scale2 so that the interpretation given to the words1 8luxuries10 8comforts10 and 8necessaries10 becomes a sort of index whereby to mark the grade which an individual occupies4 ,a roof to cover the dwelling1 a glass window which may exclude the wind and the rain1 while it admits light1--a fire-place1 with appliances for carrying off smoke and the products of combustion--however far above the standard of the uncivilized man--are not sufficient for the ,englishman of middle station4 ,he must have his rooms nicely squared and neatly fitted2 the roof must be concealed from view by a smooth white ceiling2 the rough brick walls must be covered not only with plaster1 but with an ornamental covering of paper or paint4 ,hence arises occupation for many artisans whose sole business is to make the dwelling agreeable to the eye1 after the more necessary and indispensable parts of the structure have been finished4 ,plastering ,walls and ,ceilings4 ,the occupation of the plasterer is generally united with that of the bricklayer4 ,the business of the plasterer1 as such1 is to cover over the rough walls and ceilings of a building with plaster1 which is the name given to a better kind of mortar1 made of lime only4 ,when this plaster is of the coarser kind for the under or first coating1 cow-hair is mixed with it to make it bind better4 ,when a plain brick wall is to be plastered1 the surface is at once covered with the plaster1 this adhering readily to the rough brick-work3 but for ceilings or partitions1 a groundwork of laths is required to receive the first coating4 ,laths are of different sizes and qualities1 according to the various work for which they are intended4 ,those used by the plasterer are termed single1 and are about from two to three feet long1 an inch broad1 and a quarter of an inch thick4 ,they are split out of a coarse kind of deal4 ,double laths are considerably longer and thicker1 and are sawn out3 they are therefore regular in their size4 ,they are used for better work in plastering1 but chiefly by tilers or slaters4 ,the single laths are nailed up to the joists of the ceiling1 or to the quartering of partitions1 with but a small interval between each1 so as entirely to cover the surface4 ,the workmen then proceed to cover the lathing with coarse plaster1 a labourer supplying them with a small quantity at a time on a square board1 held in the plasterer's left hand by means of a short thick handle stuck upright into the back of the board4 ,the man uses a rectangular flat wooden trowel1 with a bridge-shaped handle1 to transfer the stuff from the board to the wall1 and to spread it evenly over the surface4 ,when the room of which the walls are being plastered is of a better description1 the work is floated1 that is1 a regular surface is obtained by drawing a long straight-edge over the wet plaster1 so as to scrape off the inequalities and reduce the whole to a plane surface4 ,a thinner coating of finer plaster is spread over the first to finish the plastering1 and this is again floated in drawing-rooms1 and so on4 ,plaster and ,papier-,mach ,ornaments for ,rooms4 ,the mouldings of cornices in rooms are formed by a wooden mould drawn along a straight-edge to guide the mould1 acting like the carpenter's plane1 when forming analogous mouldings in wood4 ,when such cornices are of sufficient size and depth to require it1 wooden brackets1 shaped something like the profile of the cornice1 are fixed up against the wall1 and laths are nailed on these brackets1 to serve as a foundation for the mouldings4 ,by this means the necessity for a heavy mass of plaster1 to get the requisite projection in the cornice is avoided2 which mass would be unwieldly to manage1 and liable to fall down by its weight4 ,foliage and ornamental work in plaster is made by modelling the ornaments by hand1 in a proper kind of clay1 worked by steel or wooden tools1 resembling small spatulas in form4 ,to do this requires a taste and skill in drawing or designing in the workman1 which raises him to the rank of an artist4 ,when the model is finished and dry1 the surface of it is covered with a thin coat of oil1 and a mould of fine plaster is taken from it in separate pieces4 ,to allow of the plaster mould being taken off the model1 the edges of these separate pieces of the mould are made smooth so as to fit accurately together4 ,from this mould any number of casts may be taken by pouring fluid plaster into the mould when it is put together2 and as soon as each cast has set1 or become hard1 the mould is taken off it1 to be put together again for a new cast4 ,there has been recently an improvement introduced1 which leads to a diminution of the use of plaster for ornaments2 this is by the substitution of papier-mach4 ,the material so named is formed chiefly of paper1 brought to the state of a paste1 and then compressed in moulds4 ,there is to every ornament so made a counter-mould1 following the general contour of the ornament1 so that the piece is made about equally thick in every part4 ,the resulting ornament is very much less ponderous than those made of plaster1 and much less liable to fracture4 ,the interior decorations of many buildings are now made of this material4 ,whitewashing and ,stuccoing4 ,old plaster ceilings1 walls1 c41 are cleaned by being whitewashed4 ,the plaster is first washed over with clean water1 by means of broad flat brushes1 to remove the dirt4 ,all cracks and defects in the plaster are then stopped by filling them up with new plaster1 and it is frequently necessary to cut away the plaster in such places to obtain a clean new surface to enable the new plaster to adhere4 ,when the surface is dry1 the whitewash1 made of whiting mixed up in water1 is laid on with the same form of brushes1 and two or three times gone over1 so as effectually to cover all stains and marks on the surface4 ,instead of being whitewashed1 walls are frequently coloured by mixing ochre1 of the proper tint1 in the water along with the whiting4 ,the outside of walls of houses1 c41 are now frequently covered with stucco1 a kind of plaster made with a lime that resists the action of water1 when set1 and which1 if well managed1 causes the wall to look as if built of stone4 ,the mode of stuccoing walls is exactly the same as that of covering them with common plaster4 ,origin of ,paper-hangings4 ,in early times1 wealthy people were accustomed to have the walls of their rooms covered with tapestry1 which was a combination of woven cloth and needlework1 somewhat mid-way between the sampler work and the carpet work of our own day4 ,these specimens of tapestry frequently represented some historical events1 and were often worked by the hands of the lady of the mansion and her maids2 but at other times were the work of men following that line of occupation4 ,the walls of those rooms which were not thus covered1 were usually of panelled wainscot1 or oak4 ,but when tapestry went out of fashion1 and a more lively covering for a wall than oak was wished for1 a custom arose of printing or stamping certain coloured devices on sheets of paper1 and of pasting those sheets against the wall4 ,we believe that it is in ,england more than in any other country that this covering for walls is employed2 and since the removal of the duty which was formerly laid on paper-hangings1 they have become so very cheap as to be almost universally employed in houses of every class2 indeed1 it may be regarded as a circumstance not a little conducive to the comfort and neatness of humble dwellings1 that a yard of printed wall-paper can now be purchased for one halfpenny4 ,from this trifling price up to five or even ten shillings per yard1 paper-hangings are now manufactured2 so great are the improvements gradually made in the modes of manufacture4 ,the ,manufacture of ,paper-hangings4 ,it will be interesting to give a brief description of the mode of making1 or rather printing1 paper-hangings1 before we speak of the employment of the paper-hanger2 for all that devolves upon him is to fix up the paper when printed4 ,the paper employed is a sort of cartoon or cartridge paper manufactured for the purpose1--rough1 but strong4 ,until recently1 every piece of such paper was stamped1 and the excise duty paid on it1 before the process of printing commenced4 ,in general1 the paper is printed in 8distemper10 that is1 in colours mixed with melted size1 but sometimes in varnish4 ,the pigments or colouring substances employed1 are principally these3--,red or crimson1--lake1 vermilion1 rose-pink1 and red ochre3--,blue1--,prussian blue1 verditer1 and indigo3--,yellow1--,dutch pink1 yellow ochre1 and chrome yellow3--,green1--verdigris1 and various mixtures of the blues and yellows just mentioned3--,orange1--vermilion1 or red lake1 mixed with ,dutch pink3--,purple1--a wash made of logwood1 and various mixtures of lake with ,prussian blue1 or with indigo3--,black1--ivory black and lamp black3--,white1--whiting and white lead4 ,there are other substances occasionally used1 according as improvements or discoveries are made in the manufacture of colours2 but various combinations of those which we have mentioned will yield almost every tint that can be desired4 ,these colours are mixed with water1 together with a little size or gum1 by which the colours are made adhesive without being too stiff for working4 ,if the paper is to be glossy when completed1 or if any one of the colours with which it is printed is desired to be glossy1 the pigment for that colour is mixed with oil of turpentine and certain gums and resins which will give a glossy surface to the paint when dry4 ,before the printing commences1 the piece of paper 7which is about twelve yards long7 is coated all over with that colour which is to form the ground4 ,powdered whiting is mixed with melted size to a proper consistence1 and laid on with a large brush1 in the same manner as a ceiling is whitewashed3 the piece of paper is then left to dry4 ,if the ground is to be white1 nothing more is required before the printing2 but if it is to be coloured1 a second ground is laid on1 made of melted size1 and of such colouring substances as will give the required tint3 this1 when dry1 is the ground which is to receive the ornamental pattern4 ,if the ground is to be glossy1 the colouring substance is mixed with varnish1 gum1 resin1 c41 instead of size and water4 ,when the ground is thoroughly dried1 the device is laid upon it1 and this is1 in most cases1 done by a process almost exactly corresponding with wood-cut printing1 in the fine arts4 ,an impression is taken from wooden blocks1 which are cut in such a manner that the figure to be expressed is made to project from the surface1 by cutting away all the other parts4 ,but this raised device only represents that portion of the whole figure which is to be of one colour2 so that if the pattern is to be ultimately represented in four colours1 as is frequently the case1 there must be four differently-carved blocks or stamps to represent these1 and the blocks must be so carefully carved with reference to one another1 that though the sizes of them are all exactly alike1 the devices occupy different parts1 and do not interfere with one another3 the whole beauty and correctness of the figures depend on the accuracy with which the blocks are carved4 ,suppose1 now1 that the paper is properly painted with the ground colour1 dried and spread out on a flat board1--the carved blocks ready for use1--and the colours mixed and melted in a warm state1--the process is then conducted as follows4 ,a piece of leather or of oilskin is stretched over a flat block1 and a boy lays a coating of one of the colours to be used--say green--on the leather1 with a brush4 ,a man then takes that one of the carved blocks which is to stamp the green part of the device1 and lays it down flat on the wet colour1 by which a coating is transferred to all the raised parts of the block4 ,this is then stamped down1 with a firm and steady pressure1 upon the piece of paper1 by which the green device is permanently impressed4 ,as the carved block is only large enough to stamp a small portion at a time1 an adjoining portion of the long piece of paper is taken1--a fresh coating of colour laid on the leather by the boy1--this coating again transferred to the carved block1--and again from thence to the paper4 ,this continues until the whole length of the paper is printed with the green device1 care being taken that the different impressions shall accurately join one another at the proper parts4 ,the paper is then laid aside to dry1 and preparations are made for printing the second colour upon it4 ,let us suppose this colour to be pink4 ,the proper ingredients are mixed with size1 and melted1 and a coating of this laid on a block covered with leather1 as in the former case4 ,the proper carved block is then taken1 and an impression stamped by its means in precisely the same manner as before1 with the exception of the colour being pink instead of green4 ,but in laying the wet stamp on the piece of paper1 great care is requisite in adjusting the two colours so that they shall not interfere with each other3--for instance1 if the green represents leaves and the pink represents flowers1 it is important that the pink should not1 by a misadjustment of the second stamp1 go over a part already occupied by green1 so as to give a confused mixture of green leaf and pink flower at the same spot4 ,if we closely examine the pattern of paper-hangings on the walls of our rooms1 particularly the inferior papers1 we shall frequently see instances of the bad adjustment to which we here allude4 ,the pink stamping proceeds from end to end of the piece of paper1 until the whole is done2 after which it is laid aside to dry4 ,a process precisely similar in every respect is followed with all the subsequent colours1 be they few or many4 ,the more complicated the figure is1 or the greater the number of colours it contains1 the greater is the degree of care required in impressing the successive colours on the papers4 ,in order that no time should be lost1 directly the workman has taken a supply of colour on to his block1 the boy lays on another coating on the leather4 ,indeed1 the whole process very much resembles the rudest kind of printing1 with the exception of the use of different colours4 ,the description we have here given is such as will afford a general idea of the nature of the process4 ,various improvements have been from time to time introduced for facilitating the printing2 but it is hardly necessary to dwell upon them4 ,stencil1 ,washable1 and ,flock ,paper-hangings4 ,in some of the cheaper papers1 the preparation of the carved wooden block1 and the time and attention necessary in using them1 would be incompatible with the charge made for the finished article3 an alteration is therefore made in the mode of proceeding4 ,the principal outline is printed on the paper by means of a carved block in the usual way2 but the remaining colours are put in by stencilling4 ,a stencil1 or stencil-plate1 is a piece of leather1 oil-cloth1 or thin sheet metal1 with any required device cut in it4 ,such a stencil is laid down flat on the paper1 and is covered with the required colour by means of a brush4 ,this colour of course passes through the holes in the stencil1 and falls on the paper1 while the uncut parts of the stencil prevent the colour from falling on any other part of the paper4 ,a device is thus painted on the paper in a much easier manner than by the use of a carved block4 ,but from the nature of the process it is found that the delicate parts of the pattern cannot be represented by this means1 as it is difficult to ensure the passage of the colour through small perforations4 ,but for the purposes to which stencilling is applied--viz41 the preparation of cheap paper-hangings1 this delicacy is not required4 ,one or more carved blocks are used with the stencil plates according to circumstances1 the choice between blocks and stencils depending both on the nature of the pattern1 and on the value of the paper when finished4 ,some of the more costly kinds of paper-hangings have gold as one of the materials forming the device4 ,this is effected by using a wash of gold powder1 instead of a pigment1 on one of the carved blocks4 ,there are also washable paper-hangings1 in which the surface is of a glossy or varnished nature1 by which it may be washed free from dirt and grease without removing the colours with which the paper is printed4 ,there is likewise a kind of paper-hangings called flock paper1 which has been much in use1 and of which the following description has been given4 ,the flock is woollen cloth reduced to great fineness1 and laid on with varnish4 ,after the coloured portions of the paper are finished1 a carved block representing the device which is to be flocked1 is laid down on a flat place coated with wet varnish1 and an impression of the varnish is transferred to the paper1 just as if it had been a coloured pigment4 ,a quantity of the powdered flock is then strewed over the whole paper1 and pressed on it by a flat board1 a roller1 or some other convenient means4 ,the paper is then left to dry1 after which the dry flock is brushed off from those parts where no varnish had been applied1 leaving an appearance much resembling that of coarse woollen cloth1 which our readers may frequently have noticed4 ,the flock is prepared in various ways4 ,sometimes pieces of woollen cloth of the proper colour are taken1 and chopped up by means of a bill or knife2 but this is a rude and imperfect way1 now probably out of use4 ,another mode is1 to place the pieces of cloth in a flat box1 and cause a sharp knife1 moved by machinery1 to pass rapidly1 with a chopping motion in every direction over the various pieces of cloth4 ,in some cases1 also1 the cloth is reduced to flock by a kind of grinding process4 ,the ,process of ,paper-hanging4 ,this1 then1 is an outline of the mode by which paper-hangings are prepared2 and we must next speak of the method of pasting them against the walls of a room4 ,as the long pieces or strips of paper do not average more than two feet in width1 it is obvious that a great many joints must be made in covering the side of a room with paper4 ,these joints proceed not crosswise1 but perpendicularly from the ceiling downwards2 and considerable care is necessary to insure the continuance of the pattern on the two sides of a joint3 it is in this that the principal art of the paper-hanger consists4 ,a strip of printed paper twelve yards long is called technically a piece4 ,this piece has ragged unfinished edges1 and the edges are to be cut away in a straight even line until a proper part of the pattern is reached2 for the blocks are so carved1 that one edge always corresponds exactly with the opposite edge4 ,the wall1 which is generally plastered1 is washed or sized1 and made fit to receive the paper4 ,the cement with which the paper is fixed up is thin paste2 and when that paste is ready1 the paper-hanger proceeds as follows4 ,supposing the height of the papered part of a room to be twelve feet1 he cuts on four yards from his piece of paper1 with the two ends accurately at right angles to the long edges4 ,he then lays it down on a flat board or bench1 face downwards1 and coats the whole of the back of the paper with liquid paste1 by means of a brush4 ,he then slightly folds the paper over1 so as to prevent it from dragging on the ground1 and1 mounting a ladder or a pair of steps1 applies one end of the paper to the upper part of the wall1 close to the cornice3 then1 by letting the paper unfold itself1 it falls to its full length1 and extends down to the bottom of the room1 close to the wall4 ,the workman has now to judge1 by the eye1 whether the edges of the paper are perfectly vertical1 for the whole beauty of the work depends in a great measure on this circumstance4 ,when he has ascertained that the paper hangs perpendicularly1 he proceeds to press it firmly to the wall1 by means of cloths2 and the paste has so far softened the paper1 that wrinkles of every kind disappear4 ,this done1 he cuts off another piece twelve feet1 or four yards long1 and pastes it against the wall in precisely the same manner4 ,but here great precautions are necessary2 for the workman has to attend to three particulars in fixing the second piece by the side of the first3--to cause it to hang vertically1--to make an accurate joining of the pattern1--and to refrain from soiling the surface of the first piece by the paste of the second4 ,all these are precautions which can only be properly attended to after considerable practice4 ,when the workman is approaching an angle or corner of the room1 he must cut his paper to such a width as will just reach the corner1 for it is generally difficult to bring the paper round both sides of the angle4 ,in the case which we have supposed1 the height of the room is just one-third the length of the piece of paper1 so that there need be no joints at any intermediate part of the height4 ,but if the height were any other amount1--say ten feet--three pieces of that length would leave a fourth only six feet long2 and as such a piece is not likely to be wasted1 it follows that there must be a joint at some intermediate point between the floor and the ceiling4 ,such a joint requires especial care1 as the pattern has to be attended to both in a vertical and a horizontal direction4 ,when the side of a room is broken by recesses1 projections1 c41 a good workman will so arrange his pieces of paper as to give a symmetrical appearance to the two sides of a projection of a recess1 so that the same part of the pattern which comes to the right hand edge shall also be seen at the left hand4 ,in papering a staircase1 when the upper and lower edges are oblique and not horizontal1 it is of course necessary that the ends of the paper should be cut in a corresponding manner1 in order that the long joints should be vertical4 ,as it is difficult to bring the ends of the paper precisely to the cornice at the top and to the skirting-board at the bottom1 it is usual to hide those ends by pasting a narrow strip of paper along the top and bottom of a room1 which gives a neat finish to them4 ,this strip of paper is printed in colours with some pleasing device2 and as a broad piece is printed as quickly as one two or three inches wide1 it is customary to carve a block with twelve or twenty repetitions of the same narrow pattern1 side by side2 so that the whole are printed on one sheet4 ,the paper-hanger has therefore carefully to cut the strips one from another1 and paste them round the wall at the parts which we have mentioned1 and sometimes up the corners of the room likewise4 ,it is sometimes preferred1 instead of papering the walls of a room1 to stencil them4 ,in this case the plaster of the wall is prepared in a smooth manner to receive the distemper colour1 and the pattern is stamped or printed on the wall in a manner almost exactly the same as that which we have described respecting stencilling paper-hangings4 ,this mode is not susceptible of so much neatness as the use of printed or stamped paper1 and is only employed for common apartments4 ,there is occasionally a kind of work which falls into the hands of the paper-hanger very different from those we have mentioned--viz41 fixing gilt wood mouldings round the top and bottom of a room1 instead of pasting a paper bordering in the same place4 ,what little we shall have to say on this subject will be contained in the following chapter4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,interior--,,painting ,,and ,,gilding4 ,reasons for ,painting a ,house4 ,the love of neatness and elegance which distinguishes the cultivated from the rude man in the decoration of his dwelling1 is not the only motive for these interior fittings of a modern house4 ,there are in many instances manifest advantages1 in relation to dryness and durability1 resulting from such arrangements4 ,such is the case with respect to one of the two processes which will occupy the present chapter4 ,in noticing the services of the house-painter1 it will be found that they are conducive to something more than our love of colours and tasteful decoration1 for they greatly promote the durability of wood and iron work4 ,wood of almost every kind is liable to injury from the effects of the atmosphere1 if left unprotected2 but when coated with oil-paint1 its power of resisting those effects is much increased4 ,cleanliness is also more easily preserved where paint is employed4 ,if a room door1 for instance1 were not painted1 it would require the same scouring and cleaning which an uncarpeted floor so often receives1 though perhaps not so frequently4 ,when we consider1 therefore1 that durability1 cleanliness1 neatness1 and pleasing decoration1 are all derived from the judicious employment of oil-paint in a house1 we shall conclude that a painter renders important service in the preparation of a dwelling-house4 ,materials used in ,house-painting4 ,house-painting1 in most cases1 consists in laying on several coats of some mineral substances mixed up to a fluid consistence with oil4 ,there is no other liquid body which is found to have so many advantages for this purpose as oil2 for although turpentine1 milk1 beer1 spirit1 and other liquids are occasionally employed1 oil is the standard material with which the colouring substances are mixed4 ,the colouring substances1 as well as the oils1 employed in painting1 are very numerous2 and we can only offer a brief description of the principal among them4 ,white lead is the most valuable of all the colouring bodies1 since it enters into the composition of almost every other4 ,it is made by exposing sheet-lead to the action of vinegar1 by which a white substance is procured4 ,bougival white1 and ,spanish white1 are mineral substances procured from abroad4 ,chrome yellow1 ,turner's yellow1 ,massicot1 ,naples yellow1 ,king's yellow1 ,orpiment1 and ,ochres1 are various bodies of a yellow colour1 some derived from earths1 others from ores1 and others from chemical treatment of metals4 ,vermilion1 ,carmine1 ,cochineal lake1 ,madder lake1 ,red lead1 ,indian red1 ,venetian red1 c41 produce various tints of red and crimson2 but the materials themselves are derived from very different sources4 ,vermilion is a compound of sulphur and mercury2 ,carmine and ,cochineal lake are prepared from an animal substance2 ,madder lake from a vegetable2 ,red lead is an oxide of that metal2 while the others are derived from various kinds of earth4 ,for a blue colour1 the painter employs ,prussian blue1 which is a compound of prussic acid and iron2 ,indigo1 derived from a plant growing in the ,east ,indies2 ,blue ,verditer1 a nitrate of copper2 and some other substances4 ,most green paints are made of salts of copper1 such as ,verdigris1 which is an acetate of copper2 ,scheele's green1 an arseniate of copper2 ,green ,verditer1 a nitrate of copper1 and ,brunswick green1 a muriate of copper2 together with two or three earths1 such as ,italian green1 ,saxon green1 c4 ,browns are generally produced by a mixture of black and red2 but there are several earths which yield a brown colour4 ,these are the principal colouring materials employed by the house-painter1 for almost every intermediate tint or grade of colour can be produced by mixtures of two or more of the above-mentioned materials1 in certain proportions4 ,the liquid principally employed to mix with these dry colours is ,linseed oil4 ,this is obtained by beating1 pressing1 or heating1 from the seed of the flax plant1 the ,linum usitatissimum1 which grows in most parts of ,europe4 ,this oil has so much fatness or unctuousness1 that it would dry with extreme slowness were not some further precautions taken4 ,it is boiled with litharge and white vitriol1 in certain proportions1 by which it has a drying quality imparted to it4 ,nut oil is sometimes used in painting3 this is procured from the kernels of walnuts1 beech nuts1 hazel nuts1 and other kinds of nut1 by a process similar to that by which linseed oil is obtained4 ,oil of turpentine1 or turps1 is largely used by painters1 as it has a drying quality which counteracts the fatty nature of linseed oil1 in combination with which it is generally used4 ,it is obtained from a liquid or sap exuding from a species of pine tree1 in ,north ,america3 the sap is crude1 or common turpentine2 and by a process of distillation1 the oil of turpentine is obtained from it1 leaving a substance behind which constitutes yellow resin4 ,oil of spike1 oil of lavender1 and oil of poppies1 are sometimes used by the painter2 but not very frequently1 on account of their expense2 they are vegetable preparations4 ,pilchard oil1 7obtained from the fish17 common tar1 coal tar1 and oil of tar1 are used occasionally for rough exterior work4 ,varnish1 size1 beer1 milk1 and one or two other liquids are used to a small extent in some processes to which the painter has to direct his attention4 ,varnishes are mixtures of various resinous bodies with spirit2 and size is a jelly obtained by boiling parchment1 leather1 parings of hoofs1 or of horn1 or some similar animal substance1 in water4 ,preparing the ,paint4 ,such being the principal materials from which the painter prepares his paint1 we proceed to speak of the mode by which he mixes them4 ,the colours are mostly purchased in that form which is called dry colours1 that is1 in coarse powder or small lumps2 and they have to be reduced to fine powder before they are mixed with the oils1 c4 ,if they contain gritty particles of sand1 c41 the colour is put into a tub or pan1 and water thrown upon it1 and mixed up with it4 ,the gritty particles soon fall to the bottom1 and the remainder is poured into another vessel1 where1 in a short time1 the colouring substance falls to the bottom1 and can be obtained by pouring off the water2 after which the powder is dried4 ,but if the substance is one which will dissolve in water1 or if it is not very gritty1 it is ground up to powder in a dry state4 ,when the substance is reduced to fine powder1 the painter begins to incorporate the oil with it4 ,he has a grindstone of marble or porphyry1 on which he places a small quantity of the dry colour1 and moistens it with a little oil4 ,with a large flattened pebble1 called a muller1 he then grinds up the powder with the oil1 until both form a perfectly smooth paste4 ,that portion is then removed by a palette knife1 7which is a broad thin knife17 and placed in an earthen paint-pot4 ,another small portion of powder and oil is ground up in a similar manner1 and put into the paint-pot2 and so on1 until a sufficient quantity has been obtained4 ,when this is done1 the pot contains paint1 which is too thick for use2 to liquefy it1 therefore1 a given quantity1 which is determined by experience1 of oil or turpentine1 or a mixture of both1 is added1 until the paint has acquired a consistence--thick enough to prevent it from running into drops when laid on the work--and thin enough to make it work with ease4 ,the ,process of ,painting4 ,supposing the carpenter to have left the doors1 the windows1 c41 in a clean and smooth state1 the painter's first office is knotting4 ,knots are round places in a plank1 in which the grain of the wood runs through the thickness of the board1 so as to show the ends of the pores at the surface4 ,these ends absorb a greater quantity of paint than the other portion of the wood1 so that if the same number of coats were given to all alike1 the knots would have an ugly1 dead appearance1 in consequence of the absorption4 ,the painter1 therefore1 gives the knots more paint than the rest of the wood-work2 and the preparatory coat1 which is laid on the knots only1 is called the knotting4 ,the paint used is generally red lead1 and boiled oil2 or sometimes red lead and size4 ,when this knotting is dry1 the priming is applied1 consisting of a thin coat of white paint4 ,white is used for the priming under almost every variety of circumstances1 whatever the subsequent colours may be4 ,this white paint is a mixture of white lead1 linseed oil1 and oil of turpentine1 and is laid on1 as are the subsequent coats1 by means of brushes which are too well known to need a lengthened description4 ,they vary from a quarter of an inch to three inches in diameter1 and are generally made of hog's bristles bound round with string1 or sometimes with tin4 ,when the priming is dry1 the painter proceeds to fill up all the nail holes and other irregularities1 with putty4 ,this he does by means of a pointed knife1 with which he works in small portions of putty wherever they may be needed4 ,it is then ready for the second coat of paint1 which is thicker than the first1 generally white1 but sometimes coloured4 ,painting appears to be a very easy process1 but in common with other trades1 it requires considerable practice before skill can be attained4 ,after having worked the brush over the wood-work in every direction1 so as to completely cover every part with paint1 the 8laying-off0 is effected by drawing the brush smoothly over every part in the direction of the grain1 particularly at the stiles and panels of doors4 ,brushes of various sizes are employed1 by means of which the workman can paint the fine mouldings1 beading1 c41 as well as the broader surfaces4 ,the more skilful the workman is in the use of his tools1 the less do the marks of the brush remain visible when the work is done4 ,as each coat of paint dries1 another is laid on1 until sufficient has been applied4 ,the number varies from two to seven1 according to the part which is to be painted1 and the means of those who have to pay the painter2 but in general1 four coats is the average quantity which new wood-work receives4 ,it is the last two coats only which are of the colour selected1 as those which are preparatory are seldom other than white4 ,on some occasions it is desired to have the last coat glossy2 but in others dead4 ,to effect these differences1 all that is necessary is1 to vary the oil with which the colour is mixed4 ,if a glossy surface is required1 linseed oil is principally used2 but if a dead surface1 oil of turpentine predominates4 ,it is frequently seen that the walls of staircases1 and other large surfaces1 are1 when finished painting1 totally without gloss4 ,this is effected by what is called flatting1 that is1 a coat of paint mixed wholly with oil of turpentine3 the turpentine soon evaporates1 and leaves the colour without gloss on the walls2 whereas1 when linseed oil is employed1 the oil dries and hardens1 instead of evaporating1 and assumes much of the character of a varnish4 ,if no linseed oil is employed in flatting1 it is called a dead flat2 but if a little is added1 in order to produce a faint gloss1 it is called a bastard flat4 ,this part of the work forms one of the most unwholesome in which the painter is engaged1 since the oil of turpentine1 which is constantly evaporating during the process1 is found to be extremely prejudicial to health4 ,as we are here speaking of a new house1 we need not detail the process followed in repairing an old one4 ,nor is it necessary so to do even in respect of the processes themselves1 for they are nearly the same for old work and new4 ,the principal points of difference are these3--that in old work1 greasy and dirty spots are washed with pearl-ash and water1 or with turpentine2 that the old paint is rubbed smooth with pumice-stone1 or1 if very rough1 burned off2 that a smaller number of new coats of paint will suffice2 and that a larger proportion of turpentine is used than in new work4 ,graining and ,marbling4 ,we have in the above details confined our attention to that more general and economical kind of house-painting in which a large surface is painted of one uniform colour4 ,but the department of house-painting in which the taste of the workman is more fully developed1 is that in which imitations of various species of wood and marble are attempted2 these processes are called graining and marbling4 ,we may perhaps call this a humble branch of the fine arts1 since the workman prepares a picture of a piece of wood or of a slab of marble2 but whether this be a correct term or not1 it is certain that skill in this branch depends more on taste and observation than on fixed rules4 ,graining and marbling are sometimes done in oil-paint1 but more frequently in distemper1 that is1 with a colour mixed with beer or some other liquid more limpid than oil2 in this latter case1 as the graining would not have a durable character1 it receives one or more coats of varnish4 ,we will endeavour to give a general idea of the mode in which graining and marbling are effected4 ,the kind of wood usually imitated in this way is oak1 or wainscot1 as it is more generally called4 ,when this is imitated in oil1 the last coat of paint previous to the graining is made of rotten stone1 white lead1 and linseed oil1 and is of a light oak colour4 ,on this is laid the graining colour1 which painters call the megilp1 and which is a thin paint composed of oil1 rotten stone1 sugar of lead1 and white wax4 ,when this has set a little1 the painter draws over the surface the teeth of a kind of comb1 called the graining comb1 by which an imitation of the grain of oak is produced2 these grained lines1 to make the imitation more close1 are drawn in a wavy direction4 ,the workman then wraps a little piece of leather round the finger1 and delicately wipes off the colour from small spots of various forms1 by which the light parts of a piece of oak are imitated4 ,in this state1 the grain and the light parts have rather a harsh appearance1 to remove which1 a soft dry brush is worked over the whole in such a manner as to make the various parts blend with one another4 ,a little ,vandyke brown is then mixed up into a smooth paint1 and with this the dark veins are imitated1 by means of a small brush or pencil4 ,but in graining oak in distemper1 the graining colour consists of other materials2 many receipts are given1 but one is ,vandyke brown1 burnt umber1 and raw umber1 mixed into a paint with beer or ale4 ,this is laid on with a brush1 and the subsequent processes of producing the grain1 the light patches1 the dark veins1 c41 are much the same as in oil graining1 with this exception1 that the grain is produced by veining brushes1 instead of graining combs4 ,when the whole is dry1 it receives one or two coats of varnish1 to act as a preservative4 ,by processes very similar to that just described1 mahogany1 rose-wood1 satin-wood1 maple1 pollard oak1 zebra-wood1 walnut-wood1 elm1 and other species of wood1 are imitated4 ,for mahogany1 the ground is ,venetian red and white lead1 and the graining colour is ,sienna1 or ,vandyke brown1 ground in beer4 ,for rose-wood1 the ground is lake1 vermilion1 and flake white1 and the graining colour ,vandyke brown1 ground in ale4 ,for satin-wood1 the ground is the same as for light oak1 and the graining colour is ,oxford ochre1 ground in ale4 ,the other kinds of wood are imitated by grounds and graining colours more or less resembling those now mentioned4 ,the manual use of the tools is more difficult for the variegated woods than for oak4 ,satin-wood1 and some other kinds1 have large spots or patches of a lighter colour than the rest of the wood1 and of a peculiarly soft appearance2 these are imitated by letting a sponge fall on various parts of the wet graining colour1 by which some is wiped off1 and the edges of these parts are then softened by means of a badger-hair brush1 called a soft even1 which is drawn lightly across the light and dark parts1 whereby the sharp edges are softened and blended4 ,the imitation of marble is effected in a similar manner to that of wood4 ,for white marble1 or rather1 that which is slightly marked with dark veins1 the walls are first whitewashed1 and then washed with whiting and milk1 to obtain a fine white surface4 ,lamp black1 damp blue1 ,indian red1 and some other colours1 are then laid on with very fine pencils or brushes1 in fine but irregular lines1 so as to imitate the veins of the marble4 ,sienna marble has a ground of yellow ochre2 ,florentine marble1 one of white1 black1 and ,indian red2 dove-coloured marble1 one of light lead colour2 and black and green marbles have the colours designated by their names4 ,on these grounds are pencilled the light and delicate veins traversing the surface in every direction1 according to the colour and character of the veins in the marble to be imitated4 ,there are then various contrivances made use of1 by which a softness is produced in all the veins2 this is of more importance in marbling than in graining1 since much of the beauty which we acknowledge to exist in marble is undoubtedly due to the exquisite softness with which its colours are blended4 ,the kind of marble called porphyry is imitated in a singular manner4 ,this marble is spotted all over in various colours2 and the imitation is therefore spotted4 ,a ground is laid on of the proper colour1 and a brush is dipped into a mixture of vermilion and white1 and after being allowed to drain nearly dry1 is struck against a piece of wood1 by which a sprinkling of small spots falls on the surface4 ,the brush is then dipped into another colour1 and a similar process gives a second sprinkling4 ,this is done a third and sometimes a fourth time1 according to the colours of the spots in the marble to be imitated4 ,the mica1 quartz1 and feldspar1 in granite1 are sometimes roughly imitated by similar means4 ,whatever be the kind of marble which is imitated1 it is varnished after the marbling is completed1 in order both to give it greater durability1 and to imitate the beautiful polish which can be imparted to marble4 ,gilding1 as an ,interior ,decoration4 ,supposing the internal decorations to have proceeded thus far1 we may next say a few words about the costly material gold1 as applied in furtherance of these embellishments4 ,this is only of limited application1 and in the better class of houses2 but as gilt mouldings frequently form the finishing part of the papering of a room1 and as the houses of most persons contain some articles which are gilt1 we will give a slight description of the processes followed by the gilder1 but without reference to any particular article of furniture1 since that is a department into which we do not profess to enter4 ,a metal gilder1 or water gilder1 is a different workman from the carver and gilder1 who gilds various articles of wood or composition4 ,the former lays a thin coating of gold on articles of metal1 by means of mercury and of heat1 an employment of an extremely unhealthy character4 ,the carver and gilder lays a surface of leaf-gold on ornaments1 frames1 or mouldings1 made of wood1 plaster of ,paris1 papier-mach1 or composition4 ,if the gold were laid on the bare material by any sort of gum or cement1 it would not adhere permanently1 nor would it have that brilliancy of appearance which the natural lustre of the metal is calculated to produce2 above all1 that dazzling surface1 known as burnished gold1 could not be so produced4 ,the gilder1 therefore1 lays on a certain thickness of such substances as experience has taught him will answer the proposed end4 ,there are1 doubtless1 many substances which would answer for this purpose2 but the course which is actually adopted we proceed to describe4 ,the ,process of ,burnish-,gilding4 ,we will take1 as an instance1 a long piece of the moulding which the paper-hanger applies in the way to which we have alluded4 ,this is cut out to the proper hollow or reeded form by a carpenter1 who employs planes suited for the purpose4 ,the wood which he uses is of a kind tolerably free from knots and holes3 and when the moulding is ready1 it passes into the hands of the gilder4 ,the first thing done is to wash it with a mixture of whiting and parchment-size1 made quite hot1 and almost as limpid as water4 ,the size used for this and for other purposes required by the gilder1 is obtained by boiling cuttings of parchment in water until a stiff jelly is produced4 ,when the moulding is dry from the application of this preparatory wash1 any small holes that may exist are stopped up with putty1 and the moulding is ready to receive five or six coatings of a very thick mixture of whiting and size4 ,those coatings are laid on moderately warm1 by means of a brush1 each coat being thoroughly dried before the next is applied4 ,by this means the moulding is coated to the thickness of a sixteenth or twelfth of an inch1 by which the fine squares and hollows produced by the plane 7if there happened to be such in the moulding7 would be liable to be stopped up3 to prevent this1 modelling tools of various forms are drawn along the wet whiting1 so as to preserve the original pattern in tolerable condition4 ,the whole surface is then smoothed by small pieces of pumice-stone worked to fit the various parts of the moulding4 ,the stones and the whiting being kept constantly wetted1 and the former worked steadily over the latter1 a smooth and even surface is attained4 ,when the moulding is dry after this smoothing process1 it is further smoothed with sand or glass paper1 and is then coated with five or six layers of burnish gold size4 ,this is a very peculiar composition of suet1 black lead1 clay1 parchment-size1 and other ingredients1 mixed to a stiff consistency4 ,these successive coats or layers are well dried after each application2 and after one or two other processes by which the gold size is rendered smooth1 the moulding is ready to receive the leaf gold4 ,gold1 in the form in which it is thus used1 is one of the thinnest substances which the art of man has ever prepared in a solid form1 since it would require more than a quarter of a million of the small sheets into which it is beaten1 to make a pile one inch in thickness4 ,a solid piece of gold is rolled into the form of a ribbon by means of a flatting-mill3 and the gold-beater then reduces it to the thickness--or rather thinness--to which we have alluded1 by means of hammering4 ,the gilder receives this leaf gold in the form of sheets or leaves about three inches square1 inclosed between the leaves of a small book4 ,he blows out some of these leaves on a leather cushion surrounded by a parchment border on three sides2 this border1 is to prevent the gold from being blown away1 the fourth side being left open for the future proceedings of the workman4 ,the gilder supports the cushion on his left hand1 and with a knife in the other1 he takes up one of the leaves of gold1 and by dexterous management1 spreads it out smoothly on the cushion4 ,he then considers the width of the moulding1 7which is laid before him17 and determines how he can best cut up the leaf of gold so as to adapt the pieces to the width of the moulding3--if for instance a slip one inch in width will cover the width of the moulding1 he cuts the leaf into three equal pieces4 ,he is next provided with a flat camel-hair brush1 called a tip1 the hairs of which are from one to two inches in length1 and laid parallel with great regularity4 ,his tools being thus ready1 he wets a small portion of the moulding by means of a camel-hair pencil dipped in water1 and1 taking the tip in his right hand1 he lays the hairs on one of the slips of gold1 which slightly adheres to it4 ,this slip of gold he transfers to the moulding1 where it instantly adheres by means of the water with which the latter is wetted4 ,another portion is wetted in a similar manner1 and another slip of gold laid on1 one end of which is made to lap a little way over the one first laid on4 ,a third slip is now laid on in a similar manner2 and by this time the first leaf of gold is all used4 ,a second is therefore laid out smooth by means of the knife1--cut into three pieces1--and laid on the moulding as before4 ,this process continues until the moulding has been gilt in its whole extent4 ,we may remark1 that the moulding is placed in an inclined position1 the higher end being first gilt3 this is done in order that the water should gradually flow off from beneath the pieces of gold after they are laid on1 to facilitate the drying4 ,when the gold--or rather the wetted gold size which is beneath it--has attained a certain degree of dryness known only by experience1 and which occurs in a time varying from one to twelve hours according to the state of the atmosphere1 the gold is burnished by means of a burnisher made of flint1 agate1 or bone4 ,this1 if carefully done1 produces a brilliant gloss1 but could not be at all attained without the layers of whiting and gold size under the gold4 ,sometimes a portion of the moulding is preferred1 for relief and contrast1 to be left dead or matt1 as it is termed4 ,in this case the burnisher is not used2 but the gold1 after it is dried1 is merely secured by a thin clear cement or varnish of parchment size4 ,the ,process of ,oil-,gilding4 ,sometimes no burnishing at all is required1 while a degree of durability which cannot be conveniently obtained with burnish-gilding is desired4 ,in this case the moulding is gilt in oil gold1 by a process differing in many respects from that which we have mentioned4 ,for oil-gilding a ground of whiting and size is required1 as in burnish-gilding1 but not in so great quantity4 ,after the application of a few coats of whiting and size1 the moulding is smoothed in the manner before described2 and in some cases a few coats of burnish gold size are applied1 but not always4 ,the next process is to wash the moulding with two or three coatings of strong size1 by which it acquires a gloss somewhat similar to that produced by varnish1 and which has the effect of preventing the absorption of the substance next employed4 ,the moulding is now ready to receive the oil gold size1 which is an exceedingly smooth mixture of ochre and oil4 ,this is laid on in a stratum as thin and smooth as possible2 and after being set aside for some hours1 it acquires a peculiar degree of clamminess between wet and dry2 when it is ready to receive the coating of gold4 ,the gold is blown into the cushion1 spread out1 cut into slips1 taken up by the tip1 and applied to the work1 in the same manner as in burnish-gilding2 but the moulding is not wetted with water1 the partially dry oil gold size serving that purpose4 ,the gold is1 in this case1 pressed down into the hollows and crevices of the moulding1 by means of a piece of cotton wool2 and when the whole is gilt1 a soft brush is lightly applied1 by which the gold is worked into small depressions1 which it would not otherwise have reached1 and the superfluous gold is rubbed off4 ,the gold is now left as it is1 or is washed with transparent size1 or receives a coat of varnish4 ,in either case it becomes in a short time so far hardened as to be susceptible of washing without being rubbed off4 ,gilding ,enriched ,ornaments4 ,the description which has been given of the process with reference to the mouldings used by the paper-hanger will also apply to most other articles with which the gilder is concerned4 ,but in proportion to the elaborate nature of the article must be the care bestowed by the gilder4 ,this particularly applies in the case of an elegant carved looking-glass frame4 ,the richly ornamented frames1 window-cornices1 mouldings1 c41 which form a great part of the work of the gilder1 are in general not carved in wood1 but are cast in moulds1 and are made of a tough and durable composition formed principally of glue and whiting4 ,the ornaments1 when cast1 are fixed on wood frame-work or foundation1 and in that state pass into the hands of the gilder4 ,his mode of treating them is somewhat different from that required by a straight plain piece of moulding3--the material itself does not require so many layers of whiting and size as those articles which are made wholly of wood2 and the difficulty of smoothing intricate and ornamental surfaces renders many precautions necessary4 ,sometimes the cornice of a room1 or a portion of it1 and also the central ornament of the ceiling1 are gilt4 ,this is generally done in oil gold2 and as the material of which they are made1 viz41 plaster of ,paris1 very much resembles whiting1 scarcely any of the last-mentioned substance is required to be applied by the gilder4 ,we may here state1 in connexion with what has been said about gilt mouldings for rooms1 that the paper-hanger fixes them to the wall by means of broken needles1 or headless brittle needles made for the purpose4 ,the pieces of moulding are cut to the required length1 and mitred1 so as to join accurately at the corner2 after which they are fastened to the wall by driving in some of the needles at distances of two or three feet4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,a ,,model ,,dwelling-,,house4 ,the late ,sir ,john ,robison's ,house at ,edinburgh4 ,the various contrivances for rendering a dwelling-house complete in all that respects the comfort of the inmates1 could not perhaps be better illustrated than by taking some actual instance1 and showing what has really been effected4 ,the late ,sir ,john ,robison1 an enlightened man of science at ,edinburgh1 erected a house in the north-west part of that city1 and fitted it up with a care which has been rarely observed in other places4 ,so much has this house been regarded as a model1 that a full description of it has been given in the ,supplement to ,,loudon',s ,encyclopdia of ,cottage and ,villa ,architecture2 and we propose to give an abstract of such portions of this description as can be understood without the aid of elaborate drawings4 ,the distribution of the internal space of the house is so managed1 that1 with the exception of two partitions in the first chamber-floor1 which cross the floors without resting on them1 all the internal walls reach from the foundation to the roof4 ,the two partitions here mentioned are of stone1 and are supported on cast-iron beams isolated from the floors1 the joists of which are supported by wooden beams placed alongside1 but not connected with the iron beam4 ,the movements of the flooring1 therefore1 are not communicated to the partitions1 and do not consequently affect them by vibration4 ,the arrangement of the rooms1 staircases1 and passages1 has especial reference to the ventilation of the whole house4 ,while the mass of air in the rooms and passages is constantly undergoing renewal by the escape of the vitiated air above1 and the admission of large supplies of fresh air from below1 no currents are perceived in the apartments1 which1 even when crowded with company1 and amply lighted1 preserve a remarkable degree of freshness4 ,cylindrical flues of earthenware1 nine inches in diameter1 are built into the gables1 in close proximity to the smoke flues of each room2 and the lower ends of these ventilating flues open into the spaces between the ceilings of the respective rooms and the floors of those above them2 and there is one or more of these exit air-flues in each room1 according to its size and use4 ,the heated and vitiated vapours pass upwards through the ceiling by a continuous opening of about one inch and a half wide 7behind one of the fillets of the cornice7 all round each room2 and having thus passed into the space between the ceiling and the floor immediately above1 they ascend by the flues in the wall1 and are discharged by them into the vacant space between the ceilings of the attics and the roof1 from whence they find their way through the slates to the open air4 ,the passage for the air through the cornice is not visible from the floor of any of the rooms1 an ornamental moulding being so arranged as to conceal it4 ,the air flues are made to terminate above the ceilings of the attics1 and below the roof of the house1 rather than at the chimney heads1 in order to prevent the possibility of smoke being over brought down by reverse currents2 and an advantage is likewise gained in protecting the attic story from the cold which would otherwise be communicated from the roof during winter4 ,the continued supply of fresh air to the lower part of the house1 to replace that which is carried off by the ventilators and by the chimneys1 is brought in from the garden behind the house by a passage1 the sectional area of which is eight square feet4 ,the cold air admitted by this passage 7or by another similar one from the front of the house7 is made to pass over a stove in a lower chamber having a surface of nearly ninety square feet1 so that a temperature of from #fd to #gj ,fahr41 can thus be imparted to the air4 ,in very cold weather1 #gj is occasionally given to compensate the cooling effect of the walls and glass windows1 so as to preserve an equable temperature of #fj throughout the house2 but the usual temperature of the air issuing from the stove is as low as #fd4 ,the whole of this air is discharged into the well of the staircase1 which forms a reservoir from whence the rooms draw the quantity required to maintain the upward currents in the chimneys and in the ventilating flues4 ,the air in the staircase finds its way into the apartments by masked passages1 of four or five inches wide1 and four feet long1 over the doors1 and by openings an inch in width left under each door4 ,the sectional areas of these passages are more than equal to the areas of the chimney and ventilating flues2 there is1 therefore1 no rarefaction of the air within the rooms1 nor any tendency of the external air to enter at chinks of windows or other irregular apertures4 ,the course of the air1 from the great aperture over the stove1 through the staircases1 over and under the doors1 into the rooms1 thence through the ceilings1 and upwards by the escape flues1 forms a continuous series1 in which all the air for all the rooms comes from one central point1 and is raised at that centre to the precise temperature required4 ,the quantity of escape is regulated by hand1 by means of throttle-valves at the mouth of each escape flue2 hence1 by opening or shutting each throttle-valve1 the rate of the ventilating current is augmented or diminished4 ,the kitchen is ventilated on the same principle as the upper rooms4 ,one flue proceeds from the ceiling over the fire-place1 and another from over a gas-cooking apparatus4 ,the first of these is built in the gable1 close to the smoke flue2 and the second passes up near the back of the water cistern1 so that the constant ascent of the warmed air may by its vicinity prevent the water in the cistern from freezing in the winter4 ,the house is lighted by gas in every part2 but no offensive vapour or inconvenience of any kind appears ever to be felt from it4 ,the distribution pipes are of greater diameter than are generally employed1 and the pressure or current is thereby so equalized1 that no sinkings or flutterings of the flame are caused by the opening and shutting of doors4 ,the forms and proportions of the ,argand burners and glass chimneys are also so arranged as to effect nearly a maximum development of light 7of an agreeable hue7 from the gas1 and to prevent any disengagement of sooty vapour2 and the white and gold ceilings of the drawing-room are said to attest the complete success with which this latter object has been attained4 ,the mirrors over the chimney-pieces have statuary marble frames1 and each chimney-piece has two gas lights4 ,but the use of gas in the kitchen is perhaps the most remarkable4 ,here there is a gas-cooking apparatus4 ,in the application of gas for cooking1 the arrangements are generally as follow3--,a metallic ring1 pierced on its upper side with a great number of holes of very small size1 is attached to the pipe communicating with the gas main1 and is placed within a double drum or cylinder of iron1 raised an inch or two from the floor on short legs4 ,this double cylinder is so constructed as to leave a space between the inner and the outer cylinder of about two inches2 and in this space near to the bottom1 the pierced ring is fixed4 ,a stop-cock in the pipe connecting the pierced ring with the gas main shuts off the supply of gas when the stove is not in use4 ,on opening the cock1 and applying the gas to the pierced ring1 a brilliant ring of flame is immediately produced1 which soon heats both cylinders4 ,the air within the inner cylinder ascends into the room1 which it helps to warm2 the outer surface of the outer cylinder also performs a similar service2 while the space between the two cylinders contains the products of combustion1 which are allowed to escape into the room1 if the heating power of the whole is required2 but which are carried off by an inclosed channel1 if it be wished to protect the air of the room from deleterious mixture4 ,in this house1 the gas-cooking stoves are eight in number1 the mouth of each being four inches in diameter1 a size which experience has shown to be the most useful4 ,the kitchen fire-place is no larger than is requisite for roasting2 all the other processes being performed either in the oven1 the steaming vessels1 or at the gas stoves4 ,these stoves are placed in the bay of a large window1 thus giving the cook the advantage of a good light above the level of the pans4 ,a close boiler at the back of the grate affords steam for the cooking utensils and for a hot closet2 it also contains a coil of iron tubing1 through which the water of a bath1 placed in a dressing-room on the chamber floor1 is made to circulate when a hot bath is wanted4 ,the flues for carrying off heated vapours1 c41 are of two kinds4 ,it has already been stated1 that the vitiated air of the rooms is convoyed by apertures just below the ceiling into pipes which find an exit at the top of the house4 ,these flues are made of cylinders of red earthenware1 eight or nine inches in diameter4 ,those by which the smoke of the fires is carried away1 are cylinders of fire-brick clay1 from two to three inches thick1 and from seven to ten inches in diameter4 ,in each fire-place1 where the throat of the chimney is contracted over the grate1 there is a valve made of rolled iron plate1 which fits into a cast-iron seat fixed in the brick-work2 when this valve is in its seat1 neither soot nor smoke can pass2 and when it is thrown back1 the passage to the flue is unobstructed4 ,after describing the mortise locks for the doors1 and the arrangements of some ,french windows for opening into a balcony1 both of which exhibit ingenious and novel features1 ,mr4 ,loudon quotes a letter from ,mr4 ,hay1 of ,edinburgh1 the author of a ,treatise on ,harmonious ,colouring1 and who superintended the interior decorations of the house4 ,the drawing-rooms are first spoken of thus3--,the walls have been prepared with several coats of white lead1 grained to imitate morocco leather2 on this a pattern of gilded rosettes has been laid1 and the whole varnished with copal4 ,another pattern has then been superadded in flat white1 so that the whole has been compared in appearance to a lace-dress over satin and spangles4 ,mr4 ,hay says3 8,there is nothing very much out of my usual practice in the painting done in ,sir ,john ,robison's house in ,randolph ,crescent1 except the walls of the drawing-rooms and staircase4 ,the bed-rooms were done in the usual way2 namely1 ceilings sized on two coats of oil paint2 walls papered with a white embossed satin-ground paper1 with small brown sprigs2 and the wood-work painted white1 and finished with copal varnish4 ,the dining-room and ,sir ,john's own room were both done in imitation of wainscot1 with white ceilings1 varnished4 ,the staircase ceilings and cornices painted white and flatted2 and the walls and wood-work painted also white1 and varnished with copal4 ,the drawing-rooms and ante-rooms were all painted white2 the ceilings and cornices1 as well as the wood-work1 being finished flat1 and heightened with gilding4 ,the walls are1 as ,i have already said1 rather peculiar in their style of painting4 ,the ground work is rendered regularly uneven by being granulated--by working it over with the point of a dry brush1 immediately applying the two last coats of paint4 ,this is partly varnished and partly flat1 the flat parts forming large rosettes4 ,between these rosettes are smaller ones1 gilded1 not in the base-metal used upon paper-hangings1 but in sterling gold leaf4 ,this style of decorative painting1 from the great body of paint employed in producing the granulated surface1 the copal varnish1 and the gold leaf1 must be of the most durable description4 ,i may here mention1 that during the last two or three years1 ,i have painted a very great number of drawing-rooms in various styles1 some with rich borders1 others in my patent imitation of damask1 and a few in styles similar to that employed upon ,sir ,j4 ,robison's2 and have papered very few4 ,i feel very sure1 that as the advantages of painting over papering1 especially in the public rooms of a mansion1 become generally known1 the latter style of decoration will be entirely given up4 ,as to the colouring of ceilings1 that must be left in a great measure to the taste of the proprietor2 as some like pure white1 others delicate tints1 and a few go the length of the most intense colours1 or polychrome4 ,with this last class ,i myself agree2 but ,i am at the same time aware1 that if this be not done with the most strict attention to the laws of harmonious colouring1 the effect must be bad2 it would be like a person unacquainted with the science of music1 running his fingers at random over the keys of a powerful organ4 ,in the one case1 white1 or a light tint1 is better than colours2 and in the other1 silence better than such an attempt at music40 ,a ,beau-ideal ,english ,villa4 ,the work from which the above has been derived1 viz41 ,,loudon',s ,encyclopdia of ,cottage1 ,farm1 and ,villa ,architecture1 contains a chapter contributed by an anonymous writer1 but devoted to a singular and interesting subject4 ,the object is to lay down rules for the construction and furnishing of a villa which should be the beau-ideal--the standard of excellence--of this class of dwelling-house4 ,he describes the characteristics of the old ,english country-house2 and1 taking that as his model1 shows how modern improvements may be brought to bear on the general arrangements of the building4 ,the description is too long to be given here in full1 even if it were right so to do2 but we will condense into a few paragraphs those details which relate to the construction and fittings of the house1 omitting all those matters which relate only to furniture4 ,the residence here described1 or rather imagined1 is the country house of an ,english gentleman of ample means1 but partaking much more of the manorial than of the palatial character4 ,the term villa is not perhaps so fixed in meaning as to convey to every one the same idea of the kind of building alluded to4 ,the word was originally used by the ,romans to denote a farm-house1 with the offices requisite for the accommodation of a husbandman4 ,afterwards1 when luxury increased1 the term villa was applied to the country residence of an opulent ,roman citizen4 ,it is in a somewhat similar style that the word is here to be used4 ,the villa being a place of agreeable retirement1 but not one of seclusion from the world1 it should be situated within reach of a public road1 at an easy distance from the metropolis4 8,i should prefer a situation removed about a mile from the great public road1 and about ninety miles or a day's journey from the metropolis4 ,here ,i would inclose a park of #ajj or #aej acres2 bounded on the north and west sides by lofty wooded hills2 on another side by a road2 and elsewhere by the inclosed country of the district2 the surface of the park varied1 but gently inclining to the south1 with a rapid stream of water passing through it at no great distance from the site of the house40 ,a villa 7the writer proceeds to say7 should always form part of a village1 and be placed if possible on rather higher ground4 ,the old ,english style of architecture is preferred2 as being more picturesque and ornamental2 as according best with rural scenery2 as1 by admitting great irregularity of form1 it affords space for the various offices and conveniences necessary in a country house2 and as being better suited to our climate than the ,grecian style1 which1 by requiring porticoes1 projecting cornices1 and windows of rather small size1 tends to intercept the light and make the house gloomy4 ,the old style also allows more variety of ornament upon the roof1 such as the stacks of chimneys1 gables1 pinnacles1 turrets1 and other appendages to the general effect of a building when seen at a distance2 whereas in the ,grecian style1 which requires perfect symmetry of form1 and the prevalence of straight lines1 these arrangements could not be admissible4 ,for these reasons an old ,english or 8,elizabethan0 house is selected4 ,the front of the house would present a centre and two projecting wings4 ,the centre would contain the hall and dining-room1 with a gallery and staircase behind them4 ,one wing would be occupied by the drawing-room and library1 with the saloon between them4 ,the other wing might contain a sitting-room1 and superior offices for servants2 the inferior offices being on the basement1 or in a separate building in the kitchen-court4 ,the principal part should be highly ornamented1 and form a symmetrical whole4 ,in the centre would be the porch of two stories1 with its rich gable1 small pillars1 escutcheons1 c42 the wall on either side 7broken into compartments by pilasters1 or handsome buttresses1 and proper string-courses7 would contain large mullioned windows2 the whole supporting a battlement or parapet1 with its appropriate ornaments4 ,the ends of the projecting windows would present each a bay window of two stories1 square or semicircular in form1 with balustrade or stone covering above2 the gables of the wings corresponding with that of the porch4 ,the high and steep roof should be varied by ornamental chimneys of different patterns1 placed in their proper situations2 and1 rising above them1 the tower1 containing the grand staircase1 appearing at a short distance behind the porch2 its waving cupola roof terminating in a rich lantern1 and supporting a weathercock or dwarf spire4 ,after giving his reasons for thinking that a country residence in the ,elizabethan style should have a kind of rich framework of courts and gateways1 balustraded terraces1 and architectural gardens1 the writer proceeds to describe the interior of his supposed edifice1 beginning with the porch4 ,this should be ascended by a flight of stone steps2 it should be floored with stone2 and the ceiling1 the door1 and the door-way1 highly enriched4 ,the entrance-hall1 which succeeds the porch1 would vary in its character according to the size of the house4 ,in the large old ,english mansions it was formerly the dining-room and place of rendezvous for the servants and retainers2 but in a smaller house1 such as might be termed a villa1 and especially under the altered habits of ,english society1 a smaller hall1 and one more nearly resembling a mere entrance1 would be fitting4 ,an ,english hall admits of much picturesque embellishment1 such as a carved oak roof or ceiling1 either flat or semicircular1 enriched with highly-wrought bosses or coats of arms2 a music gallery across the end1 supported by pillars or a carved screen2 a chimney-piece reaching to the cornice of the roof2 and a carved wainscot covering half the height of the walls4 ,having entered the porch-door1 and crossed the lower end of the hall1 entrance would be gained to the gallery1 a sort of an in-door promenade1 between the hall and the staircase2 having one door leading to the saloon1 another to the billiard-room1 and another to the domestic offices4 8,the staircase is an important convenience in every house2 and it should always be a striking feature in a mansion of any elegance4 ,the tower1 which ,i suppose to contain the staircase1 would be square1 as high as the ceiling of the upper floor1 where it would take a sort of octagon form2 the roof coned1 and ending in a lantern3 in the centre of the lantern a boss would support a lamp4 ,in the side1 opposite to the arch by which you enter1 would be a tall mullioned window filled with stained glass4 ,advancing a few steps1 you would reach the first flight in the middle of the tower1 and ascend to the first landing-place2 you would find a flight of stairs on the right and left leading to the second landing1 in the centre of which is the upper gallery door1 immediately over the arch below4 ,as the house is to be in the old ,english style1 the stairs might be either of oak or stone2 but the balusters must be of oak handsomely carved1 and rather heavy4 ,they might begin at the foot of the stairs with a richly-carved sort of pedestal1 and the same at each corner as they ascend4 ,in old staircases there was frequently an animal of some sort sculptured in wood1 supporting the family arms1 placed on these pedestals1 especially at the foot of the stairs2 or the animal had a substitute in a ball or pine-apple40 ,the chief apartments on the ground floor are described as being the saloon1 the drawing-room1 the library1 the dining-room1 and the study4 ,the saloon is generally a sort of vestibule to the dining-rooms2 and1 supposing it to be such in this case1 and of a parallelogram form1 its arrangement is thus sketched3--,the entrance door is in the centre of the side next the gallery2 in the centre of the end on the right hand would be the drawing-room door1 and in the centre of the other end the library door4 ,on the other side should be two windows1 with a glass door between them opening to the terrace and garden4 ,the drawing-room would be larger than the saloon4 ,on entering from the saloon the opposite end would present a square or circular bay-window1 commanding a view of the park and the distant country beyond it4 ,on the right side would be the fire-place1 and on the opposite side two windows looking over the terrace4 ,crossing the saloon from the drawing-room we should arrive at the library4 ,this would be about the same size as the drawing-room1 and would1 like it1 have a bay window opposite the entrance1 and two other windows opposite the fire-place4 ,this room1 it is supposed1 would be the family sitting-room when there is no company in the house2 and would be the forenoon resort of the gentlemen when guests are stopping at the house2 and hence arises a very minute and curious detail of the manner in which the library should be fitted up1 in order to answer this double purpose4 ,these1 however1 we cannot enter upon2 but the following will give an idea of the manner in which this imaginative house-builder fills up the rooms of his villa3--8,as to the smaller ornaments to be placed around the room1 they should be curious and interesting1 and on no account frivolous4 ,handsome silver inkstands1 a few curious fossils1 or models of celebrated buildings2 all sorts of writing-cases and implements1 taper stands of silver1 boxes of coins1 old china in large jars1 and anything of these kinds1 with handsome books1 might decorate the tables2 and1 as nothing gives a room a more dismal effect than an appearance of idleness1 everything should be so arranged1 both here and in the drawing-room1 as if the persons using the rooms had been employed in some way or other4 ,this effect would be produced by the daily papers1 and some periodical works1 and open letters received in the morning1 on the principal tables2 and1 on other tables1 some of the blotting-books might be open2 the inkstands not thoroughly in order1 with some unfinished writing and open books or portfolios1 would give at least the appearance of industry4 ,i do not recommend such foolish tricks1 which are1 ,i know1 often used by idle people1 who have sense enough to feel the bad taste of indolence2 and in a sensible family1 who spent their time rationally1 this would be1 in fact1 the usual state of the room1 at least during the morning40 ,the dining-room of the beau-ideal villa is contiguous to the hall1 whence entrance is obtained by double doors4 ,the walls are covered with old oak wainscot4 ,the fire-place should be very large1 reaching nearly to the ceiling1 and all the fittings and arrangements of a massive1 solid1 and handsome kind4 ,the gentleman's study1 or business room1 would be a smaller1 plainer1 and more strictly private room1 on the same floor1 and used for writing1 reading1 and transacting business4 ,having disposed of the principal apartments1 the writer proceeds to describe the rooms on the next floor above1 occupied chiefly as bed-rooms4 ,the grand staircase leads up to a second gallery1 over the lower one2 and in this gallery are the doors of all the best sleeping-rooms4 ,the sitting and sleeping nurseries are also on this floor2 as is likewise the governess's sitting-room1 8in a quiet part of the house40 ,the bed-rooms for the servants are on the upper floor1 approached by the back staircase4 ,then we descend to the basement of the house1 where the various servants' rooms are situated4 ,the housekeeper's room should be a spacious comfortable room1 furnished as a respectable parlour2 and so situated that the other offices may be overlooked by the housekeeper4 ,a door in this room should open into the still-room1 which is the common sitting-room of the under female servants1 and where portions of the ordinary operations are carried on4 ,a store-closet opens conveniently into the still-room1 and has conveniences for arranging the stores and provisions as they are unpacked4 ,the butler's pantry1 being the room in which the plate is lodged1 should be placed in a part secluded from the back entrance to the house1 and should have strong doors and window-shutters to prevent depredation4 ,the servants' hall would be near the back entrance to the house1 and easy of access4 ,here all the under servants would dine1 and it would be the common sitting-room for the males4 ,the larders1 if the house were large1 would be four in number2 the wet larder for undressed meat1 the dry larder for cold meat1 the game larder1 and the pastry4 ,the kitchen1 as being one of the most important rooms in a hospitable mansion1 is treated with due importance4 ,the writer describes the arrangements in the kitchen of a mansion in ,warwickshire1 as being fitted to serve as a model4 8,the kitchen1 scullery1 larder1 c41 formed a range of building on one side of the kitchen-court1 separate from the house1 but there was a covered way between them4 ,the building was of two stories1 the kitchen occupying the centre4 ,it was a large lofty room1 of good proportions1 as high as two stories of the building4 ,you entered it at one end1 by large folding-doors1 from a passage through the building2 at the opposite end was the fire-place1 with the screen before it2 on one side of which was the door to the scullery and bakehouse1 on the other a range of set coppers of different sizes4 ,on one side of the room were two rows of windows1 and under the lower row a range of charcoal stoves and hot plates3 the latter to keep things warm4 ,the other side had only the upper row of windows1 and against the wall was a dresser1 above which the copper cooking utensils1 c41 were ranged in a very ornamental way4 ,a long table was in the centre of the room1 and over the door a dial-clock4 ,the ceiling had a very handsome cornice1 and a boss in the centre1 from which hung a brass lamp4 ,opposite the entrance door another door admitted you to a passage1 on one side of which were the larders1 on the other salting-rooms1 c42 and at the end a staircase led to the cook's apartment over4 ,there was a sort of turret in the centre of the roof1 containing a capital clock1 which struck upon the dinner bell4 ,the other offices were in the basement of the house1 and the kitchen was detached1 to prevent the annoyance of the smell of cooking1 which commonly ascends from a kitchen beneath the house4 ,i thought the arrangement particularly convenient1 and the kitchen was really an elegant apartment4 ,as1 in a large establishment1 there is cooking going on through the whole day1 it is of importance to the comfort of the family1 to place the kitchen in such a situation that the smell of cooking1 which is particularly offensive1 may not be an annoyance to the principal apartments4 ,a house with the kitchen in the basement story is generally subject to this inconvenience1 and it is usually avoided by having the kitchen and offices in a separate building adjoining the house40 ,the writer continues his remarks and descriptions in a similar manner1 treating of all the various parts of the building in succession2 then of the riding-house1 the stable-yard1 the coach-houses1 the harness and saddle rooms1 and the dog-kennel2 then of the kitchen garden1 the pleasure garden1 the dairy1 the farm buildings for a 8gentleman farmer20 and1 lastly1 of the village and the village church1 so far as regards the relation between them and the mansion4 ,in short1 this writer seems to have proposed to himself this question--8,what are the excellencies to be desired and attained in the mansion of an ,english country gentleman80 and he appears to have solved it by putting together the scattered fragments of his experience in various quarters1 and building up an ideal mansion therefrom4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,fire-,,proof ,,houses4 ,the attempts which have been made to render houses fire-proof are so intimately connected with the construction of dwellings1 that it will be proper to give a few brief details on the subject4 ,there are many difficulties attending these attempts2 for so long as wood forms the chief inner frame-work of a house1 there will always be considerable liability to destruction by fire4 ,most of the proposed plans have had relation to the coating of the wood with some substance which should render it less inflammable1 while others have been directed rather to the rejection of combustible substances from the list of those used in house-building4 ,so long back as #agge1 ,mr4 ,hartley made several trials in order to test the efficacy of a method invented by him for that purpose4 ,thin iron plates were nailed to the top of the joists2 the edges of the sides and ends being lapped over1 folded close1 and hammered together4 ,partitions1 stairs1 and floors were proposed to be defended in the same manner4 ,the plates were so thin as not to prevent the floor from being nailed on the joists in the same manner as if the iron were not used2 and the plates were kept from rust by being painted or varnished with oil and turpentine4 ,mr4 ,hartley had a patent for this invention2 and ,parliament voted a sum of money towards defraying the expense of his numerous experiments4 ,it does not1 however1 appear that the plan was permanently adopted4 ,about the same period1 ,lord ,mahon1 afterwards ,earl ,stanhope1 a nobleman possessing a highly inventive tact in mechanical matters1 brought forward another method having the same object in view4 ,this method was of a three-fold character1 comprising under-flooring1 extra-lathing1 and inter-securing4 ,the method of under-flooring is either single or double4 ,in single under-flooring1 a common strong lath of oak or fir1 about one-fourth of an inch thick1 should be nailed against each side of every joist1 and of every main timber1 supporting the floor which is to be secured4 ,other similar laths are then to be nailed along the whole length of the joists1 with their ends butting against each other4 ,the top of each of these laths or fillets ought to be at an inch and a half below the top of the joists or timbers against which they are nailed2 and they will thus form a sort of small ledge on each side of all the joists4 ,these fillets are to be well bedded in a rough plaster when they are nailed on1 so that there may be no interval between them and the joists2 and the same plaster ought to be spread with a trowel upon the tops of all the fillets1 and along the sides of that part of the joists which is between the top of the fillets and the upper edge of the joints4 ,in order to fill up the intervals between the joists that support the floor1 short pieces of common laths1 whose length is equal to the width of these intervals1 should be laid in the contrary direction to the joists1 and close together in a row1 so as to touch one another2 their ends must rest upon the fillets1 and they ought to be well bedded in the rough plaster1 but are not to be fastened with nails4 ,they must then be covered with one thick coat of the rough plaster1 which is to be spread over them to the level of the tops of the joists2 and1 in a day or two this plaster should be trowelled over1 close to the sides of the joists1 without covering the tops of the joists with it4 ,in the method of double-flooring1 the fillets and short pieces of laths are applied in the same manner as here noticed2 but the coat of rough plaster ought to be little more than half as thick as that in the former method4 ,whilst the rough plaster is being laid on1 some more of the short pieces of laths must be laid in the intervals between the joists upon the first coat1 and be dipped deep in it4 ,they should be laid as close as possible to each other1 and in the same direction with the first layer of short laths4 ,over this second layer of short laths there must be spread another coat of rough plaster1 which should be trowelled level with the tops of the joists1 without rising above them4 ,the rough plaster may be made of coarse lime and hair2 or1 instead of hair1 hay chopped to about three inches in length may be substituted with advantage4 ,one measure of common rough sand1 two measures of slaked lime1 and three measures of chopped hay1 will form in general a very good proportion1 when sufficiently beaten up together in the manner of common mortar4 ,the hay should be put in after the two other ingredients are well mixed up together with water4 ,this plaster should be made stiff2 and when the flooring boards are required to be laid down very soon1 a fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder1 formed by dropping a small quantity of water on the limestone shortly before it is used1 and well mixed with this rough plaster1 will cause it to dry quickly4 ,if any cracks appear in the rough plaster work near the joists1 when it is thoroughly dry1 they ought to be closed by washing them over with a brush wet with mortar wash3 this wash may be prepared by putting two measures of quicklime and one of common sand into a vessel1 and stirring the mixture with water till the water becomes of the consistence of a thin jelly4 ,before the flooring boards are laid1 a small quantity of very dry common sand should be strewed over the plaster work1 and struck smooth with a hollow rule moved in the direction of the joists1 so that it may lie rounding between each pair of joists4 ,the plaster work and sand should be perfectly dry1 before the boards are laid1 for fear of the dry rot4 ,the method of under-flooring may be applied to a wooden staircase1 but no sand is to be laid upon the rough plaster work4 ,the method of extra-lathing maybe applied to ceiling joists1 to sloping roofs1 and to wooden partitions4 ,the third method1 which is that of inter-securing1 is very similar to that of under-flooring2 but no sand is afterwards to be laid on4 ,inter-securing is applicable to the parts of a building as the method of extra-lathing4 ,such is a general outline of the modes proposed by ,lord ,mahon for rendering houses fire-proof2 in which it will be seen that the safeguard consists in the use of a non-combustible material1 with1 and among1 and between the pieces of wood forming the frame-work of a house4 ,the more recent attempts to gain the same object by means somewhat similar have been very numerous2 some of which we may here notice as examples of the whole4 ,an ,american patent was granted in #ahcg to a ,mr4 ,louis ,pambuf1 for the invention of a fire-proof paint4 ,the mode of preparing it is thus described4 ,a quantity of the best quicklime is selected1 and slacked with water in a covered vessel2 when the slacking is complete1 water1 or skimmed milk1 or a mixture of both1 is added to the lime1 and mixed up with it to the consistence of cream4 ,when milk is not used a solution of rice paste is employed1 obtained by boiling eight pounds of rice to every hundred gallons of paint4 ,when the creamy liquor is prepared1 alum1 potash1 and common salt are added1 in the proportion of twenty pounds of alum1 fifteen pounds of potash1 and a bushel of salt1 to every hundred gallons of the paint4 ,if the paint is to be white1 six pounds of prepared plaster of ,paris and the same quantity of fine white clay are added to the above proportions of the other ingredients4 ,all these ingredients being mingled1 the mixture is strained through a fine sieve1 and then ground in a colour-mill4 ,when roofs are to be covered1 or when crumbling brick walls are to be coated1 fine white sand is mixed with the paint1 in the proportion of one pound to ten gallons of paint2 this addition being made with a view to giving the ingredients a binding or petrifying quality4 ,in applying this paint1 except in very warm weather1 it is prepared in a hot state2 and in very cold weather precautions are necessary to prevent it from freezing4 ,three coats of this paint are deemed in most cases sufficient4 ,in another variety of this paint oil is the chief liquid ingredient4 ,to prepare it forty gallons of boiled linseed oil are mixed with slacked lime to the consistence of a paint2 and to this are added two pounds of alum1 one pound of potash1 and eight pounds of common salt2 or good wood-ashes may be substituted for the potash4 ,this paint is used in the same manner as other paint2 and any colour may be obtained by adding the usual pigments to the composition4 ,the preparation of a kind of paint containing alkalies seems to have been a favourite measure among inventors of 8fire-proof0 composition2 for many of the modern projects have had this for its basis4 ,but in most cases there have not been means for determining the degree of efficacy possessed by these compositions4 ,there were1 however1 a few years ago trials made of rather an interesting character1 which were described in the public journals1 and which were of the following nature4 ,in #ahch1 a company was formed for the sale and use of a composition of this kind1 and an experiment was made in the ,clapham ,road to show its efficacy4 ,the house1 which was a small one1 had been built in the usual way1 with the intention of being fitted up in the ordinary style4 ,while yet a mere shell1 all the boards1 timbers1 floors1 ceilings1 stairs1 and wood-work generally1 were coated thickly with a greyish or slate-coloured composition1 which dried to a state of great hardness4 ,on a particular day the upper floor was covered with shavings in great abundance1 to which a number of deal planks were subsequently added4 ,the first floor front room was fitted up as a chamber1 with bed and furniture1 chairs1 tables1 c41 as nearly as possible in the usual style4 ,the shavings and wood on the upper floor were then kindled1 as were also planks and shavings placed on the floor of the furnished room4 ,the consequence of this was that the two rooms speedily exhibited a blaze of light3 the whole of the furniture 7purposely selected of an inexpensive kind7 being ignited4 ,the flames burst from the windows2 but although the entire contents of the room were consumed1 the fire did not communicate to the floor above1 nor to that beneath1 nor even to the other room on the same floor4 ,several small parcels of gunpowder were introduced between the ceiling of the burning room and the floor of the room above it2 but they did not ignite2 nor were the other parts of the house injured in any material degree4 ,another trial took place at the ,white ,conduit ,gardens2 where two close wooden buildings1 of the size and shape of sentry boxes1 were placed in the grounds4 ,one of them was coated on the inside to the thickness of about an eighth of an inch with the composition1 and was also partially covered on the outside2 while the other was left in the plain wood state4 ,a flooring was placed at about the centre of each of these1 and through the holes in front shavings were put and then ignited4 ,the box which was not coated with the composition was soon in flames2 while the fire in the other went out without having had any effect upon the general structure4 ,the building which was in flames was then placed contiguous to the partially-coated outside of the other1 and although it was not materially injured1 the exterior coating peeled off in some places1 and the wood became charred2 the interior1 however1 appeared perfectly uninjured by the flame4 ,if the results of these experiments were really such as the description would seem to imply1 it might excite surprise how it happens that no practical results have followed4 ,but there are always numerous reasons why an experiment1 which succeeds under circumstances made for the occasion1 should not be available in practice2 and it is probable that some such discordance may exist here4 ,perhaps the mode in which we may more consistently look for the practical attainment of the object in view is by the adoption of some improved mode of building1 in which either wood is not employed at all1 or1 where sparingly used1 measures are taken to shield it from the action of fire4 ,one such method is ,leconte's1 described as follows4 ,this plan consists in the employment of iron frames to receive concrete matter for forming the walls4 ,the basement story of the building is constructed according to the ordinary methods up to one foot or more above the ground4 ,on the basement so constructed is to be erected the patent wall1 formed of frames entirely of cast-iron1 in one or more pieces1 or a combination of cast-iron and wrought-iron plates4 ,these frames are to be set one on the other until the required height is attained1 the necessary stability being obtained by means of steady pins at the corners of one frame fitting into holes made in the corners of the frame which is opposed to it4 ,suitably-shaped frames are employed for the internal partition walls1 and for doorways1 window-frames1 c4 ,the flues of the chimneys are formed of iron or other metal pipes1 placed in the thickness of the walls4 ,when the required elevation is obtained1 a concrete of any suitable material is poured into the framing1 and fills up the vacant space1 giving firmness and solidity to the structure2 the concrete being made of gravel and lime4 ,to give steadiness1 lead is to be introduced between the joinings of the iron-work4 ,the doors and window-frames are to be fastened to the walls by any of the usual known methods4 ,the main beams and cross beams of floors and roofs may be of cast-iron1 or formed of iron and wood2 or they maybe formed of one or more pieces of plate-iron1 bent up into an oval form1 and straightened by an iron or wooden bar passing through them lengthwise1 the upper edges of the metal being turned over to increase the strength4 ,in the interval between the beams there are to be iron rods running in various directions1 and supporting a metallic wire-work1 which forms the foundation for the ceiling4 ,similar wire-work is to be employed in lieu of laths for plaster surfaces4 ,all the iron-work is to be painted over with some suitable composition to prevent oxidation4 ,a plan for the same purpose has been proposed by ,mr4 ,varden as follows3--8,it appears probable that common fir or oak joists with their lower edges chamfered1 and coated over with a mixture of alum1 black lead1 clay1 and lime1 or some similar composition1 would 7if closely floored above with earthenware tiles1 bedded all round into the plastering1 the joists being made air-tight7 resist the action of flames1 at least for a considerable time4 ,fire could not descend through such a flooring so as to communicate with the rooms below1 till the tiles used in it had become red-hot2 neither could it ascend until the tiled floor above gave way1 from the burning of the joists2 which1 if coated as proposed1 would not take fire from below till the tiling over them acquired a sufficient heat to cause the distillation of the turpentine from the wood4 ,in general1 there is not furniture enough of a combustible nature in any room to do this4 ,the battening against the outer walls might be of larch1 as that wood burns less freely than most others2 but if the walls were brick1 or lined with brick1 battening of any kind will be unnecessary4 ,if this plan should be thought likely to answer the end proposed1 houses built in the common manner might be altered at a moderate expense1 by taking up the boarded floors1 and substituting earthenware tiles40 ,another ,plan1 proposed by ,mr4 ,frost1 consists in forming the floors of rooms of hollow earthenware tubes embedded in cement1 combined so as to form a sort of flag-stone1 covering the whole floor4 ,these hollow tubes are square in section1 about an inch and a half on the side externally1 with a tubular space of an inch and a quarter on the side internally2 they are formed of brick earth1 prepared in a superior manner1 and pressed through moulds by machinery2 and their length is about two feet4 ,in forming a floor of these tubes1 the centering1 after being prepared and fixed in the usual manner1 is first covered with a coating of cement of a quality sufficiently fine to form the ceiling of the apartment to be floored over2 and if it is desired that there should be mouldings or ornaments in this ceiling or its cornices1 moulds for them can be placed in the centering1 so as to form a part of it4 ,one or two coats of cement having ,i then been laid over the centering1 a stratum of the square tubes laid side by side1 and breaking joint1 is next embedded in fine cement1 and the interstices between them also filled in with that material4 ,one thin coating of cement is then laid over the whole stratum2 and in a week1 when this is dry1 another stratum of tubes is laid over the first in a contrary direction1 bedded and filled in with cement as before1 and finished by a coating of the same material4 ,this1 when dry1 may have a second coating to serve as the floor of an upper apartment1 or the covering of a roof1 as the case might be4 ,mr4 ,loudon gives descriptions of two methods1 the one for building houses in general fire-proof1 and the other for imparting that property to houses already built4 ,he considers the two main points for consideration to be1 to have staircases of iron or stone1 or both combined1 and to avoid having any hollow partitions or floors4 ,a house having a stone or iron staircase1 and having all the partitions either of four-inch brick-work1 or of brick nogging1 in whatever way it might be set on fire1 could hardly be burned down1 if ordinary exertions were made to extinguish the flames4 ,one apartment might be set on fire1 but before the flames could spread to the one under or over it1 or to a staircase adjoining it1 the fire might be extinguished4 ,in a house so constructed1 there would be no piece of timber that was not in close contact with mortar1 at least on one side2 and all the strong pieces of timber1 such as joists1 rafters1 quartering in partitions1 c41 would be closely embedded in mortar on two sides4 ,where the partition could not be made entirely of brick1 the interstices might be filled up with a mortar prepared of clay with a small proportion of lime4 ,the same material might be filled in between the joists1 and where it was desired to render the roof fire-proof1 the rafters might be made of iron1 or the space between wooden rafters might be filled in with thin mortar4 ,this mode of proceeding would lengthen the time required for the drying of a newly-built house1 and would also add somewhat to the expense2 but it is conceived that the increased safety would more than counterbalance these inconveniences4 ,in respect to the means of giving a fire-proof quality to a house already built1 ,mr4 ,loudon remarks3--8,all the interstices between the floors1 in the partitions1 and in the roof1 where there was a ceiling formed to the rafters1 might perhaps be filled in with earthy matter in a state of powder4 ,this powder might be clay or loam mixed with a small proportion of ,roman cement2 it might be injected into the vacuities1 through small orifices1 by some description of forcing-pump or bellows1 which1 while it forced in the powder1 would permit the escape of the air2 and1 while this operation was going forward steam might be injected at the same time1 so as to mix with the mortar and be condensed by it2 by which means the whole mass would be solidified with a minimum of moisture4 ,in short1 in rendering houses fire-proof1 the next important object to using fire-proof materials1 is that of having all the walls and partitions1 and even the steps of wooden staircases1 filled in-with such materials as will render them in effect solid4 ,on examining into the causes of the rapidity of the spread of the flames in ,london houses when on fire1 it will almost invariably be found1 that whatever may have occasioned the fire to break out1 the rapidity of its progress has been in proportion to the greater or less extent of the lath and plaster partitions1 the hollow wooden floors1 and the wooden staircases4 ,were the occupiers of houses sufficiently aware of the danger from lath and plaster partitions1 especially when inclosing staircases1 they would never occupy such houses1 or1 if they did1 they would not give such rents for them1 as they would for houses with brick-nogging partitions4 ,it appears to us to be the duty either of the general or local government or police to see that no houses whatever are built without stone or iron staircases2 and that no partitions and floors are made hollow2 or1 if they are1 that the materials should be iron and tiles1 or slates1 or stones1 or cement1 or other earthy composition40 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,processes4 ,the various processes and details which have occupied the preceding chapters1 are for the most part necessary to the production of every house4 ,there are1 however1 many articles of iron and a few of brass employed in the interior and exterior fittings2 but were we to enter into details respecting the iron manufacture1 in order to show the modes of producing these articles1 it would be difficult to confine this volume within reasonable limits4 ,a few miscellaneous processes and details may1 however1 be collected in this chapter4 ,the principal metallic articles employed in the construction or permanent fittings of a house1 are nails and screws2 hinges2 locks and keys2 stoves and grates2 bells1 and the mechanism for hanging them2 iron railings and bars2 brass handles1 plates1 and other decorations2 latches and fastenings1 c4 ,nails4 ,nails are made of iron1 either cut by means of a machine into the tapering form which we call cut brads1 or wrought by means of hammers into the various forms of flooring nails1 tacks1 c4 ,screws are made by forcing a piece of iron wire into a cavity1 the surface of which is cut into a spiral or screw-like form2 this spiral cuts a similar spiral on the surface of the iron wire1 which then becomes a screw2 and one end of the wire is hammered or pressed down so as to form the head of the screw4 ,hinges of the commoner kinds are made by two flat pieces of iron1 with a kind of projecting tube at one edge4 ,these tubes are partially cut away1 so that the two pieces may lap into each other2 and a spindle or pin being passed down through both tubes1 acts as an axis1 on which both parts of the hinges turn4 ,the more costly hinges require elaborate workmanship in their construction4 ,locks and ,keys4 ,locks and ,keys form a curious part of the hardware manufacture4 ,the lock is made of a great many pieces1 put together with screws4 ,one part of it is always a moveable latch or bolt1 which is capable1 by tolerable force1 of being thrust partially out through a hole in the side of the lock2 and it is this bolt which1 catching in a box or cell fixed to the door-post1 secures the door to which the lock is attached4 ,the object of the key is to act as a lever which shall move the bolt2 and the great point of attention in the matter is1 that no key or lever but one of a particular size and shape shall be able to move the bolt2 herein is the security which we feel in a good lock4 ,wolverhampton and its neighbourhood is the great seat of the lock manufacture4 ,stoves and ,grates4 ,stoves and ,grates are made in a variety of forms4 ,their employment is obviously greatly dependent on the kind of fuel employed4 ,in the kitchens of the old baronial residences1 large logs of wood were thrown upon an immense stone or brick hearth1 and there kindled4 ,but when coals became commonly used in ,london and other great towns of ,england1 about the year #adjj1 the use of some kind of stove or grate began to be felt1 since the fuel was too valuable to be scattered on a wide-spreading hearth4 ,from that time to the present1 one continual series of improvements has taken place1 having for their objects1 to add to the elegance and neatness of a room1 to facilitate culinary occupations1 and to derive the greatest possible heat from a given quantity of fuel4 ,it is only within a very few years that the principles regulating the last-mentioned circumstance have been at all well understood4 ,some parts of the metal for a grate or stove are produced by casting1 others by forging1 and others by rolling or pressing2 and they are put together principally by rivets4 ,for further details on this subject we refer to our seventh chapter4 ,bells4 ,bells are1 generally speaking1 made of an alloy of copper and tin1 which possesses more resonant qualities than most others4 ,there is also a little ball or clapper suspended in the bell1 which1 by striking against it1 produces the same effect as the hammer which strikes the outside of a church bell4 ,the bell is generally fixed in a different part of the house from the handle with which it is rung1 and the connexion between them is made by means of copper wire4 ,as the wire has to turn round many corners and angles1 it is fixed1 at each corner to a crank1 which is a kind of hinge or lever1 so contrived as to transfer motion in a new direction at right angles to the former4 ,considerable care is required on the part of the bell-hanger1 to prevent the wire from becoming entangled or interrupted in its free communication from the handle to the bell4 ,brass ,handles1 ,ornaments1 c4 ,those are produced by turning1 by casting1 by stamping1 or by drawing4 ,in the first mode1 the article is placed in a lathe1 and turned by tools made of hard steel3 in the second mode1 melted brass is poured into moulds formed generally of sand1 by which any desired form is produced3 in the third mode1 two stamps1 one called a matrass and the other a die1 are cut or moulded to similar figures2 a piece of sheet brass is laid on the matrass or lower stamp1 the die or upper stamp is laid on the brass1 and a powerful blow1 either from a hammer1 or from machinery1 forces the brass to assume the form given to the two stamps4 ,by the last mode1 a slip of thin brass is forcibly drawn between two rollers1 whose surfaces are indented with the requisite device1 which device is thereby impressed on the bars4 ,in one or other of these ways1 most of the brass-work in our houses is made4 ,iron railings and bars of various kinds are made either by forging or casting1 and do not call for further notice here4 ,preservation of ,timber4 ,in our notices of the timber which enters into the construction of a house1 no mention was made of the existing methods of preparing it so as to resist the action of dry rot and other decomposing agencies4 ,timber so prepared is not in very general use in house-building1 and hence the notice of it occupies a more fitting place in the present chapter4 ,vegetable matter1 in common with all organic substances1 is subject to decomposition and decay1 as soon as life becomes extinct2 and although the process is comparatively slower in its commencement and progress in vegetable than in animal matter1 it is not1 under ordinary circumstances1 the less certain4 ,during the existence of a plant1 its various organs1 under the influence of the mysterious principle of life1 perform their respective functions in a manner similar to that of which we are more readily conscious in the animal frame4 ,the plant absorbs its food from the soil and the surrounding air2 it digests that food under the influence of respiration1 and prepares rich and nutritive juices which circulate throughout its whole vegetable frame1 and deposit materials of growth wherever they are wanted2 it sheds its leaves in autumn1 undergoes a season of torpor1 and again becomes active and vigorous2 thus it is clad in fresh leafy honours in the following spring4 ,all this is the effect1 or rather the result1 of vitality4 ,the plant dies1 and then its constituent parts gradually assert their individual existence1 and resume their original affinities4 ,some pass into the air2 some form new compounds2 and others1 which during the life of the plant ministered to its healthy action1 now work energetically and destructively on each other2 so that the original mass gradually decomposes under the influence of various causes4 ,the first step to decay is a process of fermentation1 which is more or less rapid in proportion as heat and moisture are more or less present4 ,in the absence of damp air1 even the vegetable mass will of itself supply moisture2 for1 according to ,count ,rumford1 the best-seasoned timber retains one-fourth of its weight of water4 ,a certain extent of moisture is essential to vegetable fermentation2 but a complete saturation appears inimical to it4 ,a temperature not so low as to produce freezing1 nor so high as to produce rapid evaporation1 is also favourable to it4 ,the humidity of the air in ships1 and in houses built on clay or in moist situations1 and the difficulty of obtaining a free circulation of air1 contribute greatly to this fermentative process4 ,the chemical constitution of the vegetable kingdom yields to analysis only three or four ultimate elements1 viz41 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and carbon1 and sometimes nitrogen4 ,the most active agent in the process of decomposition is the oxygen contained in the dead plant1 whether such decomposition proceed under the rapid influence of fermentation1 or be produced more slowly by the operation of the law which renders decay the necessary consequence of organization4 ,as soon as the tree is felled1 the oxygen begins to be liberated and to act upon the woody fibre1 combining with its carbon1 and producing carbonic acid gas4 ,the tenacity of the several parts is thus gradually destroyed4 ,after timber is felled1 and during the process of seasoning1 a gradual diminution of strength may be remarked4 ,the effect1 however1 of seasoning is to deprive the wood of superabundant moisture1 and of those vegetable juices which would otherwise induce a rapid decomposition4 ,in addition to the natural decay of timber1 the decomposition is often accompanied by the apparently spontaneous vegetation of parasitical fungi1 inducing a species of decay to which the term 8dry rot0 is applied1 probably in consequence of the attendant phenomena2 the wood being converted into a dry friable mass1 destitute of fibrous tenacity4 ,it is uncertain whether the seeds of these fungi exist in a dormant state in the juices of the timber1 and wait only until the first stages of decomposition furnish them with a nidus favourable to their growth2 or whether they float in the atmosphere and settle in places favourable to their vegetation4 ,it is found1 however1 that badly-seasoned timber is peculiarly subject to this species of decay2 and hereby the former of the two suppositions is favoured4 ,from the moment when timber is felled1 the process of decay commences1 and although so slowly in many cases that we are not conscious of it1 yet there is a limit to the existence of the most durable articles of wood1 however carefully preserved4 ,dryness1 cleanliness1 a free circulation of air1 or the entire exclusion of it1 are among the best checks to vegetable decomposition3 while damp accumulations1 and a vitiated atmosphere1 rapidly induce it4 ,unseasoned timber should never be used in carpentry1 and the best-seasoned timber should be used only in a dry state4 ,diseased and decayed portions of the wood should be cut out1 together with the sap-wood1 which1 being more soft and porous than the spine1 is more liable to fermentation4 ,the iron fastenings used about timber frequently cause its premature decay4 ,iron1 under the influence of moisture becomes rusty1 that is1 oxygen1 either from the air or from the wood itself1 unites with the metal1 forming an oxide1 which1 in its turn acts upon the woody fibre1 and gradually destroys its tenacity4 ,the iron is further subject to attack from the acid juices of the wood2 this effect1 however1 varies in different woods4 ,oak contains a smaller proportion of oily or resinous particles than many other kinds of wood2 and1 in addition to the usual vegetable acid common to most woods1 oak contains an acid peculiar to itself1 called gallic acid4 ,in teak1 on the contrary1 the quantity of acid is not only smaller1 but the resinous particles are very abundant1 and these form a sort of protecting covering to the iron fastenings4 ,maconochie states1 on the authority of the shipping built in ,india and used in the ,india trade1 that the average duration of an iron-fastened teak ship is thirty years2 and that it is a misapplication of expense to use copper fastenings with teak1 as the additional advantage gained is not at all commensurate with the additional expense4 ,but it is different with oak2 the action of oak on copper is by no means so destructive as on iron1 and the reaction of the metal on the wood is not so destructive4 ,the methods which have been from time to time adopted for the preservation of timber are so numerous1 that a slight sketch of them would probably fill a good-sized volume4 ,we will name a few of the most successful1 and terminate this notice with a description of the method now in practice4 ,maconochie recommends all the iron fastenings to be provided with a protecting paint1 and to impregnate the timber with some oily preparation1 which he proposes to effect thus3 the wood is to be placed in a steam-tight chamber1 and subjected to the action of steam1 by which the air will be expelled from the timber4 ,then by condensing the steam1 and repeating the process until all the elastic fluids are withdrawn from the wood1 and its juices converted into vapour1 the wood becomes freed from them1 and if plunged into oil1 and subjected to atmospheric pressure1 all the internal cavities of the wood will be filled with oil4 ,in this way1 ,maconochie had in daily use a steam-chamber capable of containing twenty or thirty planks of timber forty feet long1 in which1 while the planks were steaming1 to render them flexible1 they were impregnated with teak oil4 ,he says the oil may easily be procured from the chips and saw-dust used for the fuel of the steam-boilers2 for it has been ascertained that ,malabar teak contains such a quantity of oleaginous 7oily7 or terebinthinous 7turpentine7 matter1 that the chips from the timber and planks of a ship built of it will yield1 by a proper process1 a sufficient quantity of tar for all its own purposes1 including the rigging2 and that1 although oak timber does not contain so much of these substances1 the chips of the fir alone consumed in the ,royal ,navy1 would be more than sufficient to supply tar to saturate the oak4 ,there have been many other proposals to saturate timber with different substances2 the most successful of which1 up to the process of ,mr4 ,kyan1 was that of ,m4 ,pallas1 whose plan was to saturate the timber in a solution of sulphate of iron1 and then precipitate the salt by means of lime-water4 ,about the year #ahbb1 ,mr4 ,bill produced samples of timber impregnated throughout with a substance resembling asphaltum4 ,these samples were subjected to a trial of five years in the dry-rot pit at ,woolwich1 and withstood the fungus-rot perfectly4 ,sir ,john ,barrow recommends kreosote1 which he says1 8in a vaporous form1 penetrates every part of the largest logs1 and renders the wood almost as hard as iron--so hard as not easily to be worked40 ,mr4 ,kyan's plan1 now so universally adopted1 is to soak the timber in a solution of bichloride of mercury1 commonly called corrosive sublimate4 8,aware of the established affinity of corrosive sublimate for albumen1 ,mr4 ,kyan applied that substance to solutions of vegetable matter1 both acetous and saccharine1 on which he was then operating1 and in which albumen was a constituent1 with a view to preserve them in a quiescent and incorruptible state2 and obtaining a confirmation of his opinions by the fact1 that during a period of three years1 the acetous solution1 openly exposed to atmospheric air1 had not become putrid1 nor had the saccharine decoction yielded to the vinous or acetous stages of fermentation1 but were in a high state of preservation1 he concluded that corrosive sublimate1 by combination with albumen1 was a protection against the natural changes of vegetable matter4 ,he conceived1 therefore1 if albumen made a part of wood1 the latter would be protected by converting that albumen into a compound of protochloride of mercury and albumen2 and he proceeded to immerse pieces of wood in this solution1 and obtained the same result as that which he had ascertained with regard to the vegetable decoctions40--,,birkbeck4 ,it having been found that the precipitate caused by the ,kyanization was soluble in salt water1 ,sir ,william ,burnett has lately substituted chloride of zinc for corrosive sublimate1 and the resulting compound which this forms with the albuminous portion of the wood1 effectually resists the action of salt water4 ,soluble ,glass4 ,a remarkable method of preserving wood-work1 and rendering it fire-proof1 was invented some years ago by ,m4 ,fuchs1 in consequence of his discovery of a kind of glass which could be prepared and kept in a liquid state1 and hardened only on being exposed in a thin layer to the air4 ,soluble glass is a union of silica and an alkali1 which has1 in addition to some of the properties of common glass1 the property of dissolving in boiling water4 ,the preparation of soluble glass does not greatly differ in its early stages from that of common glass1 an account of the manufacture of which will be found in the eighth chapter4 ,when sand and carbonate of potash are heated together1 the carbonic acid is not entirely driven off1 unless the sand be in excess1 but the whole of the gas may be expelled by the addition of powdered charcoal to the mixture4 ,carbonate of potash and pure sand being taken in the proportion of two to three1 four parts of charcoal are added to every ten parts of potash and fifteen of sand4 ,the charcoal accelerates the fusion of the glass1 and separates from it all the carbonic acid1 a small quantity of which would otherwise remain1 and exert an injurious effect4 ,in other respects the same precautions that are employed in the manufacture of common glass are to be observed4 ,the materials must first be well mixed1 then fritted1 and finally melted at a high heat1 until a liquid and homogeneous mass be obtained4 ,this is removed by means of an iron ladle1 and the glass pot filled with fresh frit4 ,the crude glass thus obtained is usually full of bubbles3 it is as hard as common glass3 it is of a blackish gray1 and more or less transparent at the edges4 ,sometimes it has a whitish colour1 and at others is yellowish or reddish1 indicating thereby that the quantity of charcoal has been too small4 ,exposed to the air for several weeks1 it undergoes slight changes1 which tend rather to improve than injure its qualities4 ,it attracts a little moisture from the air1 which slowly penetrates its mass without changing its aggregation or appearance1 except that it cracks1 and a slight efflorescence appears at its surface4 ,if after this it be exposed to heat1 it swells up1 owing to the escape of the moisture it has absorbed4 ,in order to prepare the glass for solution in water it must be reduced to powder by stampers4 ,one part of the glass requires from four to five of water for its solution4 ,the water is first boiled in an open vessel1 the powdered glass is added gradually1 and is continually stirred1 to prevent its adhesion to the vessel4 ,the boiling must be continued for three or four hours1 until no more glass is dissolved4 ,if the boiling be checked before the liquor has thus attained the proper degree of concentration1 carbonic acid will be absorbed by the potash from the air1 and produce an injurious effect4 ,when the solution has acquired the consistence of syrup1 and a density of #abd1 it is fit for use4 ,it is then allowed to repose1 in order that the insoluble parts may be deposited3 while it is cooling a film forms on the surface1 which after some time disappears1 or may be dissolved by depressing it in the liquor4 ,soluble glass being employed only in the liquid state1 it is preserved for use in solution4 ,no particular care is necessary to preserve the liquid1 as1 even after a long space of time1 it undergoes no perceptible change1 if the solution have been properly prepared4 ,the only precaution is not to allow too free an access of air to it4 ,soluble glass may be prepared by using carbonate of soda1 instead of that of potash4 ,this glass has the same properties as the other1 but is more valuable in its applications4 ,the solutions of these two kinds of glass may be mixed in any proportion1 and the mixture is sometimes more useful than either of the solutions separately4 ,the solution of soluble glass is viscid1 and when concentrated becomes turbid or opalescent4 ,the solution unites with water in all proportions4 ,at a density of #abh it contains nearly #bh per cent4 of glass1 and if the concentration be carried beyond this point1 it becomes so viscid that it may be drawn out in threads like molten glass4 ,when the solution is applied to other bodies1 it dries rapidly in the air1 and forms a coat like a varnish2 a property which leads us to notice some of the numerous and varied applications of this curious preparation4 ,it is well known that all sorts of vegetable matter1 such as wood1 cotton1 hemp1 linen1 paper1 c41 are combustible1 but in order to burn them1 two conditions are necessary1--an elevated temperature1 and free access of air to supply the oxygen necessary to their conversion into water and carbonic acid4 ,when once inflamed their own combustion supplies the heat necessary to the chemical action1 provided they be in contact with the air4 ,if deprived of such contact1 and made red-hot1 they will yield inflammable volatile products1 but the residual carbon will not burn1 because deprived of air2 and thus the combustion will cease of itself4 ,such is the property of all the fixed fusible salts1 if they be composed of substances incapable of yielding their oxygen at a low red heat1 either to carbon or hydrogen4 ,such salts melt as the vegetable matter becomes healed3 they form upon it a coating impermeable by air1 and either prevent or limit the combustion4 ,the phosphate and borate of ammonia have such a character1 but they are so readily soluble in cold water as to be liable to objections which are not found in soluble glass4 ,this last-named substance forms a solid and durable coating1 which suffers no change by exposure to the air 7since soluble glass possesses the valuable properly of being almost entirely unaffected by cold water73 it does not involve any great expense1 and is easy of application4 ,but in order that it may not fail1 particular care must be taken1 both in preparing and employing it4 ,to cover wood and other bodies with it the solution must be made of a pure glass1 otherwise it would effloresce and fall off4 ,but still a slight degree of impurity is not injurious1 although after a few days a slight efflorescence will appear3 this may be washed off by water1 and will not occur a second time4 ,when a durable coating is to be applied to wood1 the first solution must not be too strong1 for if it be it will not be absorbed3 it will not displace the air from the pores1 and consequently will not adhere strongly4 ,a more concentrated solution may be employed for the after-coats1 but each coat must be dry before another is applied1 and the drying1 in the most favourable weather1 will occupy at least twenty-four hours4 ,when the glass is made with potash the coating is liable to crack3 this defect does not apply to glass made with soda4 ,although soluble glass is of itself a good preservative from fire1 yet it fulfils the object better when mixed with incombustible powders1 such as those procured from clay1 whiting1 calcined bones1 powdered glass1 c4 ,in applying soluble glass to the wood-work of a public building at ,munich1 ten per cent4 of yellow clay or yellow earth was added4 ,after six months the coating had suffered but little change3 it was damaged only in a few places1 where it had need of some repair4 ,this arose from the very short time allowed for the preparation and application of the glass4 ,on ,veneering4 ,in our notice of the interior fittings of houses of the better class1 it was stated that the process of veneering is sometimes adopted for wainscoting4 ,this process is most generally used for articles of furniture1 and deserves to be noticed on account of its ingenuity4 ,the employment of wood for articles of domestic use or ornament1 gives rise to many departments of mechanical labour1 according to the manner in which the grain of the wood is to be made conspicuous or visible4 ,in the antique pieces of furniture still existing in old mansions1 the wood employed1 such as oak1 walnut-wood1 mahogany1 c41 was always solid2 but in modern times1 the desire of making a respectable appearance1 at as small an outlay as possible1 has led to the method of veneering1--that is1 making some article of furniture of some cheap wood1--such as deal1--and then covering it with thin leaves or sheets of some more expensive and beautiful wood1 such as rose-wood1 maple1 satin-wood1 zebra-wood1 pollard oak1 c4 ,so very prevalent has this custom become1 that almost every house now contains some article of domestic furniture1 whose surface is covered with a kind of wood more valuable than that of which the bulk of the article is made4 ,it must be obvious1 that the mode of procuring or preparing the thin leaves of veneer calls for great care and nicety1 since they are seldom thicker than a shilling4 ,when the method of veneering was first introduced1 the sawing was effected by hand1 in a manner more rude than the necessities of the case warranted2 but when circular saws became introduced1 they were found very efficacious for cutting veneers4 ,mr4 ,brunel1 in #ahje1 took out a patent for improvements in the machinery for sawing timber1 in which he employed a large circular saw1 composed of several pieces fitted together1 and placed in a frame at such an elevation that the lower edge was a little below the lower side of the timber4 ,the timber was placed in a carriage1 and moved towards the saw by a rack4 ,in such a manner as this veneers are now cut from the timber in this country4 ,but it is stated that the ,russians have devised a very curious and effective method of cutting veneers1 without the use of a saw1 and without making any waste of material4 ,it is a planing machine1 the action of which is so accurate1 that veneers thin enough for the covering of books1 and for lithographic and other engravings1 have been produced2 thus serving the place of paper4 ,the operation is begun by placing the timber from which the leaf is to be cut upon a square axle1 where it is revolved1 and made circular by a turner's gouge4 ,the blade of a plane of highly-tempered steel1 and rather longer than the cylinder of wood1 is fixed at the extremity of a frame six or seven feet in length1 in such a manner as to exert a constant pressure upon the cylinder1 and pare off a sheet of equable thickness1 which folds upon another cylinder like a roll of linen4 ,the frame to which the blade is attached is moveable at its lower extremity1 and by the action of a weight it depresses in proportion as the mass diminishes in substance4 ,that this depression may be progressive and perfectly regular1 the inventor has appended a regulator to the machine consisting of a flat brass plate1 preserved in an inclined direction1 upon which the frame descends as the regulator itself is advanced4 ,the motion is communicated to the cylinder of wood by several cog-wheels1 which are turned by a crank4 ,one hundred feet in length of veneering may be cut by this machine in the space of three minutes4 ,when veneers are produced by the action of circular saws1 as is now almost universally the case in ,england1 it is evident that both surfaces must be rough1 from the marks of the serrated edge of the cutting instrument2 and it is in this rough state that they are purchased by cabinet-makers or others who employ them in veneering articles of furniture4 ,the operations which are then to be performed are1 to bring the surface of the veneer to a tolerable level1 to fix the veneer to the article of furniture1 and to clean and polish it when so fixed4 ,supposing the top of a sideboard to be the article which is to be veneered4 ,the workman cuts out a piece of veneer1 a little larger than is actually required1 to allow for waste2 and then lays it flat on his work-bench4 ,with a veneering plane--which is a small-sized plane1 having an iron jagged with notches like the teeth of a very fine saw--he works steadily over the whole surface of the veneer1 carrying the plane in the direction of the grain of the wood4 ,the action of this plane-iron removes all the saw marks1 which were irregular in their course1 and gives instead of them a series of regular parallel channels from end to end of the piece of veneer2 these channels are but small in depth1 and their object is to retain the glue which is afterwards used in the process of veneering4 ,the surface of the deal or other wood on which the veneer is to be laid1 is in like manner planed with these parallel indentations2 and then the process of veneering proceeds4 ,the wood1 having been well warmed before a fire1 is coated with warm melted glue2 and the piece of veneer is laid down flat on the veneered surface1 and rubbed backwards and forwards1 in order that the glue which is between the veneer and the under-wood may be pressed into all the little grooves produced by the plane4 ,when the glue begins to get cool1 the veneer can no longer be pressed to and fro1 and is then left4 ,this glueing has the general effect of making the veneer adhere to the foundation beneath2 but there are parts where1 from the accumulation of too much glue in one part1 or from the presence of air which had not been expelled by the pressure of the hands1 the veneer rises up as a kind of blister1 convex on the upper surface4 ,the workman employs a veneering hammer to level these protuberances4 ,this veneering hammer is a piece of wood three or four inches long1 and an inch in thickness1 having a straight strip of iron plate fixed to one edge4 ,the workman1 placing the iron edge down upon the veneer1 presses on the block of wood with his hand1 and works all over the surface of the veneer1 expressing all the superfluous glue from the parts which had formed the protuberances4 ,as this redundant glue must have some place from whence to escape1 the workman begins rubbing at the centre1 and thence proceeds towards the edge1 at which the glue finally exudes4 ,there is a curious plan adopted for ascertaining whether there are any parts1 imperceptible to the eye1 where the veneer does not adhere closely to the foundation--viz41 by sound4 ,the workman strikes the veneer all over with a wooden or other hammer2 and if the sound be distinct and solid1 he knows that the proper degree of adhesion has taken place2 but if the sound be hollow and dull1 it indicates the existence of a vacant space between the veneer and the foundation2 and a greater degree of rubbing or pressing is consequently necessary4 ,if the surface of the piece of veneer be of large dimensions1 two workmen are required to level all parts of the veneer before the glue gets cold and loses its fluidity4 ,but this operation--however good the glue may be1 or however well the veneer may be pressed down--is not sufficient to cause the veneer to adhere permanently to the foundation1 especially at the edges1 where the air is liable to enter1 and to cause the veneer to rise4 ,to prevent this inconvenience1 the veneer1 at and near the edges1 is kept down1 either by the pressure of heavy weights1 or1 still better1 by the action of screw-presses4 ,these screw-presses consist of two pieces of wood or clamps1 which are brought to any degree of closeness by means of two wooden screws1 each screw passing through holes in both clamps1 the handles of the two screws being1 respectively to each other1 outside the opposite clamps4 ,the clamps are opened1 by means of the screws1 to such a width as to admit the edge of the veneered wood between them2 and the screws are then worked up till the clamps grasp the wood tightly1 where they remain till the glue is quite cold1 and the veneer closely adhering to the foundation4 ,but even all this care is not in every case sufficient to produce a firm adhesion of the veneer to the foundation4 ,it frequently happens that1 when the hardened veneered surface is tried with the hammer1 a hollow sound indicates that there is yet a place where the veneer has a vacancy beneath it4 ,in such a case1 the only remedy is one of a curious kind--viz41 to lay a hot iron on the defective part of the veneer1 by which the glue beneath is remelted4 ,a small part of the veneer1 reaching from the defective part to the edge1 is also similarly heated1 and the glue beneath remelted4 ,then1 by means of the veneering hammer1 the superfluous glue which had caused the defect is squeezed out1 and pressed to the edges of the veneer through the kind of channel which had been prepared for it by the heated iron4 ,where the surface of the wood to be veneered is more or less cylindrical1 such as a pillar1 the front of a drawer1 c41 the piece of veneer has a curvature given to it1 corresponding in some degree to that of the surface on which it is laid1 by the action of hot water1 before the glueing is effected4 ,by sponging one side of the veneer with hot water1 it causes that side to swell1 while the other side remains dry2 the consequence of which is1 that the wetted surface rises into a convex form1 leaving the other side hollow or concave3--this is1 in fact1 an instance of warping1 where a thin piece of wood is either unequally heated or damped on opposite sides4 ,the hollow side is then laid on the glued foundation4 ,when the veneered surface is dry1 its edges are trimmed1 and its surface scraped and sand-papered1 preparatory to the finishing processes which the piece of furniture is to undergo4 ,manufacture of ,glue4 ,the preparation of this useful article forms a curious and important branch of national industry4 ,the chief use of glue is for binding or cementing pieces of wood together1 as practised by the carpenter and cabinet-maker1 in which trades very large quantities are constantly employed4 ,glue 7which is nothing more than gelatine in a dry state7 is obtained from the hides1 hoofs1 and horns of animals2 the refuse of the leather-dresser1 and the offal of the slaughter-house2 ears of oxen1 calves1 sheep2 parings of parchment1 old gloves2 and1 in short1 animal skin and 7by a late improvement7 bones1 are all employed for making glue4 ,the first process in this manufacture is to free the materials from dirt1 blood1 and other matters which do not afford glue4 ,for this purpose they are steeped in lime and water1 and then placed in baskets1 and rinsed by the action of a stream of water4 ,they are then removed to a sloping surface1 and allowed to drain1 and whatever lime remains is deprived of its caustic property by the reabsorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere1 since the presence of lime would prove injurious in the subsequent processes4 ,the gelatine is removed from the animal matter by boiling4 ,this process is effected in a somewhat shallow boiler1 which is provided with a false bottom1 pierced with holes1 and elevated a few inches1 thus serving as a support to the animal matter1 and preventing it from burning by the heated bottom of the boiler4 ,the boiler is filled about two-thirds with soft water1 and then the animal substances are added3 these are piled up above the brim of the boiler1 because soon after boiling commences1 they sink down below the level of the liquid4 ,the contents of the boiler are occasionally stirred up and pressed down1 while a steady boiling is maintained throughout this part of the process4 ,as the boiling proceeds1 small portions of the gelatine are drawn off into egg-shells1 when1 in the course of a few minutes1 if the liquid gelatine becomes1 by exposure to the cool air1 a clear mass of jelly1 the boiling process is complete1--the fire is smothered up1 and the contents of the boiler left to settle for ten or twenty minutes4 ,the stop-cock is then turned1 and the gelatine flows into a deep vessel1 kept hot by being surrounded with hot water1 and thus it remains for several hours1 during which time it deposits any solid impurities4 ,it is then drawn off into congealing boxes1 and prepared as we shall soon explain4 ,the undissolved matter in the boiler is treated with boiling water a second1 and even a third time1 and the above process continued until nothing more can be extracted4 ,the subsequent solutions are often too weak to be made into glue1 but they are economically used with fresh portions of animal matter4 ,a clear idea may be formed of this part of the manufacture by the annexed illustration1 which represents a section of three vessels1 on different levels4 ,the uppermost vessel1 which is heated by the waste heat of the chimney1 supplies warm water to the animal matter contained in the second vessel3 the third vessel receives the liquid gelatine1 and retains it in a fluid state1 while the solid impurities are being deposited4 ,illustration ,the gelatine is drawn off from this third vessel into buckets1 and conveyed to the congealing boxes4 ,these boxes are of deal1 of a square form1 but somewhat narrower at bottom than at top4 ,the liquid glue is poured through funnels1 provided with filter-cloths1 into the boxes until they are entirely filled4 ,this process is conducted in a very cool and dry apartment1 paved with stone and kept very clean1 so that any glue which may be spilt may be recovered4 ,in twelve or eighteen hours the liquid glue becomes sufficiently firm for the next process1 which is performed in an upper story1 furnished with ventilating windows1 so as to admit air on all sides4 ,the boxes are inverted on a moistened table1 so that the cake of jelly may not adhere to it3 this cake is cut into horizontal layers1 by means of a brass wire1 stretched in a frame1 and is guided by rulers1 so disposed as to regulate the thickness of the cake of glue4 ,the slices thus formed are carefully lifted off1 and placed on nets stretched in wooden frames4 ,as these frames are filled they are placed over each other1 with an interval of about three inches between every two frames1 so that the air may have free access4 ,each frame is so arranged as to slide in and out like a drawer1 to allow the cakes to be turned1 which is done two or three times every day4 ,an experienced writer on manufactures thus observes1 concerning this part of the process3--8,the drying of the glue is the most precarious part of the manufacture4 ,the least disturbance of the weather may injure the glue during the two or three first days of its exposure4 ,should the temperature of the air rise considerably1 the gelatine may turn so soft as to become unshapely1 and even to run through the meshes upon the pieces below1 or it may get attached to the strings and surround them1 so as not to be separable without plunging the net into boiling water4 ,if frost supervene1 the water may freeze1 and form numerous cracks in the cakes4 ,such pieces must immediately be remelted and reformed4 ,a slight fog even produces upon glue newly exposed a serious deterioration1 the damp condensed upon its surface occasioning a general mouldiness4 ,a thunder-storm sometimes destroys the coagulating power in the whole lamin at once1 or causes the glue to turn on the nets1 in the language of the manufacturer4 ,a wind too dry or too hot may cause it to dry so quickly as to prevent it from contracting to its proper size1 without numerous cracks and fissures4 ,in this predicament the closing of all the flaps of the windows is the only means of abating the mischief4 ,on these accounts it is of importance to select the most temperate season of the year1 such as spring and autumn1 for the glue manufacture40 ,when the glue is properly dried a gloss is imparted to each cake1 by dipping it in hot water1 and passing over it a brush1 also wetted with hot water4 ,the cakes are then placed on a hurdle1 dried in the stove-room1 or in the open air1 if the weather be sufficiently dry and warm4 ,it is then packed in casks for sale4 ,it has been found by experiment that when two cylinders of dry ash1 one inch and a half in diameter1 were glued together1 and after twenty-four hours torn asunder1 a force of #abfj pounds was required to produce the separation1 thus making the force of adhesion equal to #gae pounds per square inch4 ,another experiment made the force of adhesion to equal #djjj pounds on the square inch4 ,the ,house-,decorator of ,italy4 ,in an interesting notice1 by ,mr4 ,wilson1 of the present state of the arts in ,italy1 read before the ,society of ,arts1 in ,scotland1 in ,november1 #ahdj1 a few details are given of the skill with which the house-builder converts the commonest materials into tasteful decorations4 ,the following is an abstract of that part of the notice which relates to the subject of the present volume3-- ,notwithstanding the comparatively small employment afforded to ,italian architects in the present day1 yet there can be no question as to the skill displayed in erecting their designs4 ,the masonry is excellent1 and the ancient ,roman brick-work is rivalled by that of the present generation2 houses are built of brick1 in which all the exterior decorations are moulded in that material as perfectly as if executed in stone4 ,the skill with which the ,italian workmen build in brick1 may be exemplified by the ,florentine practice of arching over rooms without centering of any description4 ,two thin moulds of board1 the shape of the intended arch1 alone are used3 these are placed at each end of the apartment which it is intended to cover in1 and pieces of string are stretched from the one to the other1 guiding the workman as he advances in the formation of his arch1 which he builds1 uniting the bricks by their thin edges 7greatly thinner than those we use71 and trusting entirely to the tenacity and quick-setting of the cement4 ,plastering is also carried to a perfection in ,italy1 of which we have very little idea in this country2 rooms are so exquisitely finished1 that no additional work in the shape of house-painting is required2 but the polish of the plaster1 and its evenness of tint1 are such as to rival those of the finest porcelain4 ,sometimes the plaster is fluted1 or various designs are executed in intaglio upon it1 in the most beautiful manner4 ,scagliola1 a very fine preparation from gypsum1 is the material chiefly used4 ,an instance of the cheap rate at which this work is done1 is afforded in the new ball-room in the ,palazzo ,pitti grand-ducal residence at ,florence1 which1 including mouldings1 figures1 bas-reliefs1 and ornaments1 was executed at a cost of two crowns for every four square feet4 ,a most beautiful art among the ,italians1 and one which might be advantageously introduced into this country1 is that of making what are termed ,venetian pavements4 ,this method of finishing the floors of rooms is conducted in the following manner4 ,in the first place a foundation is made of lime mixed with pozzolana1 and small pieces of broken stone2 this is1 in fact1 a sort of concrete1 which must be well beaten and levelled4 ,when this is perfectly dry1 a fine paste1 as it is termed by the ,italians1 must be made of lime1 pozzolana1 and sand2 a yellow sand is used which tinges the mixture2 this is carefully spread to a depth of one or two inches1 according to circumstances4 ,over this is laid a layer of irregularly broken minute pieces of marble of different colours1 and if it is wished these can be arranged in patterns4 ,after the paste is completely covered with pieces of marble1 men proceed to beat the floor with large and heavy tools made for the purpose2 when the whole has been beaten into a compact mass1 and the paste appears above the pieces of marble1 it is left to harden4 ,it is then rubbed smooth with fine-grained stones1 and is finally brought to a high polish with emery powder1 marble dust1 and lastly1 with boiled oil rubbed on with flannel4 ,this makes a durable and very beautiful floor1 which in this country would be well adapted for halls1 conservatories1 and other buildings4 ,the carpentry of the ,italians1 as observable in ordinary houses1 displays little skill and indifferent workmanship1 but in the roofs and floors of important buildings1 they satisfactorily prove their knowledge of scientific principles1 and several of their designs are well known to ,british architects4 ,with regard to the working of iron1 in comparison with our system1 the ,italian is primitive indeed2 yet at times he can and does produce very good specimens of workmanship1 but at a heavy cost2 consequently they are generally content with very ordinary productions4 ,a manufactory of wire1 and of driving and screw nails1 by means of machinery1 now occupies the villa of ,mecnas at ,tivoli2 the articles produced are very well made4 ,copper is extensively used in ,italy1 and there are productive mines in the ,maremma ,toscana4 ,the workmanship of articles made of this metal is respectable2 various utensils are made of brass in a neat and satisfactory manner1 but in the interior finishing of houses1 if much nicety is required1 articles of foreign manufacture are used4 ,house-painters may be mentioned in the last place1 and these display much taste and skill2 and there is a class of them who greatly excel those in this country1 having more the feeling and taste of artists4 ,surrounded by the finest models in this art1 the ,italian decorator enjoys every advantage in its study1 and he inherits besides from the best periods of art1 or rather from antiquity1 taste1 and a good system of workmanship4 ,he is not a mere machine1 employed in the use of the moulds1 stamps1 and other mechanical contrivances1 which too often keep the decorative arts within such narrow limits4 ,fresco ,painting4 ,the proposed introduction of ,fresco ,painting into our public buildings will1 it is hoped and expected1 have the effect of employing the artist in fresco upon the walls of our dwelling-houses4 ,already have a few of the mansions of our nobility been thus decorated1 and in anticipation of its general introduction it may not be out of character with this little work to describe the process in detail4 ,respecting the origin of the term fresco there are two opinions2 according to some the term is said to have been adopted because the practice of it is used in the open air4 ,thus in the ,italian language1 andare al fresco signifies 8to take the air20 or 8to walk abroad in the air20 but a more probable explanation is to be found in another meaning of the word fresco1 viz41 8new10 or 8fresh10 as applied to the state of the plaster in which it is wrought4 ,the artist traces his design1 colours it1 and completely finishes in one day so much of his picture as will occupy the wet plaster ground that has been prepared for him1 so that when the ground is dry1 he may not retouch any part of his work4 ,this is the characteristic distinction of painting in fresco--a method by which the painting is incorporated with the mortar1 and drying along with it becomes extremely durable1 and brightens in its tones and colours as it dries4 ,it will therefore be readily conceived that the artist in fresco has to encounter difficulties of no ordinary kind2 a few of them are thus noticed by a writer in ,,rees',s ,cyclopdia3--8,from the necessity there is in the progress of this style of art1 that it should be executed with rapidity1 and from the impossibility of retouching it without injuring the purity of the work1 the artist1 unless he be endowed with very extraordinary powers of imagination and execution indeed1 is obliged to prepare a finished sketch of the subject1 wrought to its proper hue and tone of colour1 and so well digested1 that there may be no necessity for making any essential alterations in the design4 ,this1 which is a very useful mode of proceeding in all fine works of painting1 is absolutely indispensable in fresco1 to those who are not determined to give the rein to their ideas1 and leave as perfect whatever may first present itself4 ,there is no beginning in this1 by drawing in the whole of the parts at one time1 and correcting them at leisure1 as is the custom with oil-painters1 who may therefore proceed to work without a sketch2 here all that is begun in the morning must be completed in the evening2 and that almost without cessation of labour1 while the plaster is wet2 and not only completed in form1 but also1 a difficult1 nay1 almost impossible task1 without a well-prepared sketch1 must be performed1 viz41 the part done in this short time must have so perfect an accordance with what follows1 or has preceded1 of the work1 that when the whole is finished1 it may appear as if it had been executed at once1 or in the usual mode1 with sufficient time to harmonize the various forms and tones of colour4 ,instead of proceeding by slow degrees to illuminate the objects1 and increase the vividness of the colours1 in a manner somewhat similar to the progress of nature in the rising day1 till at last it shines with all its intended effect1 which is the course of painting in oil1 the artist working in fresco must at once rush into broad daylight1 at once give all the force in light1 and shade1 and colour1 which the nature of his subject requires1 and this without the assistance 7at least in the commencement7 of contrast to regulate his eye2 so that here1 as has been said1 a well digested and finished sketch seems indispensably requisite40 ,the custom of decorating walls with paintings is very ancient4 ,those discovered by ,belzoni1 among the royal tombs of ,egypt1 prove the existence of the art among the ,egyptians many centuries before the ,christian era4 ,there is also abundant evidence that it was practised by the ,etruscans and ,romans4 ,but the more common practice up to the time of ,augustus seems to have been to paint the walls of houses of one single colour1 and to relieve this with fantastic ornaments4 ,according to ,pliny1 ,augustus was the first to suggest the covering of whole walls with pictures and landscapes4 ,about the same time a painter named ,ludius invented that style of decoration1 now called arabesque or grotesque1 many beautiful examples of which have been discovered at ,pompeii and other places4 ,the invention of the ,arabesque style1 as its name implies1 has been improperly claimed for the ,arabians of ,spain2 whose religion forbidding the representation of animals1 they employed foliage1 stalks1 stems1 tendrils1 flowers1 and fruit1 in a variety of forms and combinations1 with which they adorned the surfaces of their buildings4 ,hence the fanciful combinations of natural objects occupying a flat surface came to be called ,arabesque1 although it differed so much from the ,mohammedan compositions as to contain animals real or fabulous4 ,that the term is badly chosen1 especially as applied to the fanciful enrichments on the walls of ,pompeii1 c41 will be seen from the fact that such ornaments were invented and executed long before the sons of ,ishmael had learned to draw4 ,the term grotesque is less objectionable3 it is derived from the subterranean rooms 7grotte7 in the baths of ,rome1 in which those specimens of ancient art were found1 from which ,raphael derived the plan of the beautiful frescos which adorn the piers and pilasters of the arcaded gallery of the palace of the ,vatican1 called1 in honour of the artist1 8,le ,logge di ,raffaelle40 ,the practice of ,fresco ,painting may be conveniently considered under the following heads3--#a4 ,the cartoon4 #b4 ,the preparation of the wall4 #c4 ,the process of painting4 #d4 ,the colours and implements4 ,the methods as adopted by different artists are of course subject to variation2 but as general principles are not altered by variations in those details which conduce to the same end1 so the following may be taken as an accurate exposition of the practice of the art4 #a4 ,the ,cartoon4 ,since the artist cannot without injury retouch a fresco painting1 it is necessary that every part of the design be decided on by preparatory sketches finished of the full size1 from which the fresco may be transferred1 by tracing to the wall4 ,when the painting is very large1 the whole composition of the full size is sometimes divided into two or more cartoons4 ,in the preparation of a cartoon1 a strong cloth is stretched on a frame1 as if to be prepared for painting2 paper is then firmly glued on the cloth4 ,when this is dry1 a second layer of paper is attached by glue4 ,the edges of the separate sheets1 where they overlap1 are scraped1 so as to preserve an even surface4 ,the surface is then prepared for drawing with size and alum4#g ,the drawing is made with charcoal1 and when finished is fixed by wetting the cloth at the back with cold water1 and then steaming the drawing in front4 ,the steaming is performed with a tea-kettle with two or three spouts1 kept boiling by the flame of a spirit lamp2 by this means the charcoal is incorporated with the melted glue1 and a solid surface like that of a picture is produced4 ,from this finished drawing the outline is traced on oiled paper4 ,as much of this working outline as can be finished in one painting is then nailed to the wet wall1 and the forms are again traced with a sharp point1 whereby an indented outline is produced on the soft plaster4 ,according to another method1 the paper to be applied to the wall is placed behind and in close contact with the finished cartoon2 the outlines of the latter are then pricked1 and a similar pricked outline is thus produced on the paper behind4 ,this pricked paper is then made the working drawing3 it is fastened to the wall1 and dusted with a little bag filled with black or red dust2 this leaves a dotted outline on the wall4 ,this method is sometimes adopted for small works1 and the advantage of it is that it leaves the surface of the plaster undisturbed4 ,the first mode is1 however1 generally preferred2 since it insures the best and most decided outline1 and preserves the finished cartoon uninjured4 ,cartoons prepared for fresco may be seen in the ,national ,gallery3 those at the head of the staircase are by ,agostino ,caracci4 ,in one of these 7the ,triumph of ,galatea7 the pricked outline is very apparent2 as also in the fragment of the ,cartoon by ,raphael1 7the ,murder of the ,innocents17 also in the ,national ,gallery4 ,in many celebrated ,italian frescos the indented outline1 produced by tracing1 is apparent4 ,in addition to the cartoon it is desirable to have a coloured sketch of the whole composition4 #b4 ,the preparation of the ,wall4 ,the greatest obstacle to the permanence of fresco painting is damp3 hence1 if the wall to be painted is covered with old mortar1 the ingredients of which are unknown1 this coat should be entirely removed until the solid brick or stone is laid bare4 ,the rough coat then applied is composed of river-sand and lime1 and of such thickness as is generally used in preparing the walls of dwelling-houses4 ,the surface of this coat should be rough1 but not uneven4 ,thus prepared1 the wall should be suffered to become perfectly dry and hard2 the longer it remains in this state the safer it will be1 especially if the lime used was in the first instance fresh4 ,in that case two or three years should elapse before the process of painting is commenced4 ,the preparation and seasoning of the lime is one of the essential conditions of fresco painting4 ,at ,munich it is made and kept as follows3--,a pit is filled with clean burnt limestone1 which is slaked1 and then stirred continually till it is reduced to an impalpable consistence4 ,the surface having settled to a level1 clean river-sand is spread over it to the depth of a foot or more1 so as to exclude the air1 and1 lastly1 the whole is covered with earth4 ,it is allowed to remain thus for at least three years before it is used1 either for the purposes of painting 7lime being the white pigment7 or for coating the walls4 ,the last preparation for painting on the mortar1 is as follows3--,the surface is wetted with pure water1 till it ceases to absorb4 ,a thin coat of plaster is then spread over that portion only which is to be painted3 the surface of this coat should be moderately rough4 ,as soon as it begins to set 7i4 e41 in about ten minutes or so1 according to the temperature7 a second thin coat is laid on1 and the surfaces are smoothed with a wooden trowel4 ,some painters like to work on a perfectly smooth surface1 in which case the last coat is polished by applying a piece of paper on the surface1 and passing the trowel over it4 ,when a small amount of roughness is required1 a dry brush1 or a piece of beaver nap attached to the trowel1 is passed over the plaster in all directions4 #c4 ,the process of ,painting4 ,the wall being properly prepared1 the outline of the figures is to be traced with a sharp point on the plaster1 as before described4 ,the artist commences his work when the surface is in such a state that it will barely receive the impression of the finger1 and not so wet as to allow the colours to run or to be liable to be stirred up by the brush4 ,if the wall has been previously well wetted1 it will in general not dry too rapidly2 but if in warm weather the surface becomes too hard to imbibe the colour properly1 a small quantity of water is from time to time sprinkled over the surface4 ,the colours being ground fine in water1 and the most useful tints abundantly supplied1 they are arranged in pots or basins1 and several palettes with raised edges are ready at hand to work from4 ,a few pieces of tile or some absorbent material are provided to prove the tints upon1 because all colours ground in water become much lighter when dry than they appear when wet4 ,the brick absorbs the water1 and leaves the colour nearly in the state in which it will appear upon the wall4 ,the first tints that are applied sink in and have a faint appearance2 it is therefore necessary to go over the work several times before the full effect is produced3 but after some time the last edition of colour will not unite with that already applied unless the part be again wetted4 ,at the close of a day's work1 any portion of the prepared plaster which remains over and above the finished part is to be cut away1 care being taken to make the divisions at a part where drapery1 or some object or its outline1 forms a boundary1 for if this be not attended to1 the work will appear patchy4 ,the next day1 in preparing a new surface1 the edges of the previously painted portion must be carefully wetted so as to ensure a perfect junction of all the parts of the painted surface4 ,at ,munich the artists have a contrivance for arresting the drying of the work should they be unable to finish the day's allotted portion4 ,a piece of fine linen is wetted and spread over the fresh plaster and painting1 and pressed to the surface by means of a cushion covered with waxed cloth4 ,defects are sometimes remedied by cutting out the objectionable portion1 and painting it anew upon a fresh surface of plaster4 ,in the finished fresco1 shadows are sometimes deepened1 parts are rounded1 subdued1 or softened by hatching in lines of the colour required1 mixed up with vinegar and white of egg4 ,crayons made of pounded egg-shells are sometimes used to heighten the lights4 ,but all these additional amendments are highly objectionable2 they impair the durability of the fresco1 and in the open air these retouchings are useless1 because the rain washes them away1 whereas it has no influence upon frescos painted without retouching4 #d4 ,the ,colours and ,implements4 ,the colours employed in fresco painting are few and simple4 ,they consist chiefly of earths and a few metallic oxides variously prepared4 ,no animal and vegetable substances can be used1 because the lime would destroy them4 ,the brushes are of hog's hair1 but longer than those used in oil painting4 ,small pencils of otter hair are also used2 no other hair being found to resist the lime4 ,pure distilled water ought to be employed in all the operations of this art4 ,such is the process of fresco painting1 the details of which1 after the above statement1 will be rendered more intelligible by the following abridged account of a visit1 by ,mr4 ,andrew ,wilson1 to the royal palace at ,genoa1 to see the ,signor ,pasciano paint a ceiling in fresco3-- ,the artist had prepared his tints upon a table with a large slate for the top3 they consisted of terra vert1 smalt1 vermilion1 yellow ochre1 ,roman ochre1 darker ochre1 ,venetian red1 umber1 burnt umber1 and black4 ,these colours were all pure1 mixed with water only1 and rather stiff4 ,he mixed each tint as he wanted it1 adding to each from a pot of pure lime1 or from one containing a very pale flesh tint4 ,a lump of umber served to try his colours on4 ,he used a resting-stick with cotton on the top to prevent injury to the prepared wall1 or intonaco1 as the ,italians call it4 ,the moment this surface would bear touching1 the artist began to work upon the figure1 the outline of which had just been traced4 ,the head was that of the ,virgin4 ,the artist began with a pale tint of yellow round the head for the glory3 he then laid in the head and neck with a pale flesh colour1 and the masses of drapery round the head and shoulders with a middle tint1 and with brown and black in the shadows4 ,he next1 with terra vert and white1 threw in the cool tints of the face2 then with a pale tint of umber and white1 modelled in the features1 covered with the same tint the part where the hair was to be seen1 and also indicated the folds of the white veil4 ,all this time he used the colours as thin as we do in water colours2 he touched the intonaco with great tenderness1 and allowed ten minutes to elapse before touching the same spot a second time4 ,he now brought his coloured study1 which stood on an easel near him1 and began to model the features1 and to throw in the shades with greater accuracy4 ,he put colour in the cheeks1 and put in the mouth slightly1 then shaded the hair and drapery1 deepening always with the same colours1 which became darker and darker every time they were applied1 as would be the case on paper for instance4 ,having worked for half an hour1 he made a halt for ten minutes1 during which time he occupied himself in mixing darker tints1 and then began finishing1 loading the lights1 and using the colours much stiffer1 and putting down his touches with precision and firmness3 he softened with a brush with a little water in it4 ,another rest of ten minutes2 but by this time he had nearly finished the head and shoulders of his figure1 which being uniformly wet1 looked exactly like a picture in oil1 and the colours seemed blended with equal facility4 ,referring again to the oil study1 he put in some few light touches in the hair1 again heightened generally in the lights1 touched too into the darks1 threw a little white into the yellow round the head1 and this portion of his composition was finished1 all in about an hour and a half4 ,this was rapid work1 but it will be noticed that the artist rested four times1 so as to allow the wet to be sufficiently absorbed into the wall to allow him to repass over his work4 ,he now required an addition to the intonaco2 the tracing was again lifted up to the ceiling1 and the space to be covered being marked by the painter1 the process was repeated1 and the body and arms of the figure were finished4 ,on the occasion of a second visit1 ,mr4 ,wilson remarked that the artist had cut away from his tracing or cartoon those parts which he had finished upon the ceiling3 that the tracing was in fact cut into several portions1 but always carefully divided by the outline of figures1 clouds1 or other objects4 ,these pieces are nailed to the plaster1 so as to fold inwards or outward for the convenience of tracing the outlines4 ,the artist was now about to proceed with a group of figures4 ,having gone over the outline carefully with a steel point1 he waited till the intonaco became a little harder1 and in the mean time mixed up a few tints2 he then commenced with a large brush1 and went over the whole of the flesh2 he next worked with a tint which served for the general mass of shadow1 for the hair1 and a slight marking out of the features4 ,he now applied a little colour to the cheeks1 mouth1 nose1 and hands1 and all this time he touched as lightly as possible4 ,he then paused for ten minutes1 examined his oil study1 and watched the absorption of the moisture4 ,the intonaco would now bear the gentle pressure of his fingers1 and with the same large brush1 but with water only1 he began to soften and unite the colours already laid on4 ,he had not as yet used any tint thicker than a wash of water-colour1 and he continued to darken in the shadows without increasing the force or depths of colour4 ,the artist now increased the number of his tints2 he made them of a much thicker consistence1 and he now began to paint in the lights with a greater body of colour1 softening them into the shades with a dry brush1 or with one a little wet1 as was required4 ,in drying1 the water comes to the surface and actually falls off in drops1 but this does no harm1 although1 as ,mr4 ,wilson remarks1 it sometimes looks alarming4 ,the effect of fresco painting is described as being exceedingly beautiful4 ,it does not require for the production of its general effect those particular and concealed lights which the shining surface of an oil-painting renders necessary4 ,fresco is seen entire in any situation and by any light1 even by artificial light1 which perhaps shows it best4 ,mr4 ,severn was much struck by the increased beauty and power of the ,caracci frescos at ,rome by artificial light4 ,even a dim or diminished light does not destroy their effect4 8,it must have been for this reason that ,raphael adopted fresco in the ,vatican1 after he had made experiments in oil2 for the rooms are so ill-lighted1 that oil pictures could never have been seen at all2 and it is surprising to find such fine works in such a place4 ,three sides of the rooms are illuminated merely by the reflected light from the great wall of the ,sistine chapel1 yet this beautiful and luminous material of fresco is so brilliant in itself1 that the pictures are well seen4 ,nine of them were painted without a ray of real light1 and have always been seen in the same way4 ,i think this is a very important consideration2 for as we have but a diminished light at any time1 it is most necessary to adopt a manner of painting suited to it1 which can be seen at all times40 ,fresco does not seem to be at all understood in this country2 it is generally confounded with scene painting2 it is a common mistake to suppose that the cartoons of ,raphael are the same as his frescos4 ,it is often confounded with distemper painting1 which is done on a dry ground1 and does not admit of richness of colour4 8,this will be clearly understood 7writes ,mr4 ,severn7 by those who have had the good fortune to see ,raphael's and ,guido's frescos at ,rome1 which for colour are exquisitely beautiful1 and even powerful in all the fascinations of this part of the art1 presenting to us still greater varieties than oil painting can pretend to2 excelling in all the delicate effects of atmosphere1 from the gorgeous daylight1 the air of which you seem to breathe in a fresco picture1 down to the silvery flitting charm of twilight4 ,in these particulars1 it reminds us of ,english water-colour effects4 ,then ,i should mention the magnificence of fresco landscape1 and of landscape backgrounds1 particularly by ,domenichino1 in which not only the characters1 but the movements of trees1 are always rendered in a way which ,i have rarely seen in oil colours4444 ,then ,i must remind you of the grandeur of colour and effect in ,michael ,angelo's frescos on the ceiling of the ,sistine chapel4 ,what oil could ever have approached such things8 ,when he said #8that oil painting was only fit for women and children1' he meant on account of the labour and difficulties of the material compared with fresco4 ,we are assured he performed this gigantic labour in twenty months1 without the usual assistance of colour-grinders or plasterers1 but alone with his own hand4 ,there are on this ceiling fourteen figures1 of at least forty feet in stature1 and nearly five hundred figures1 the least of which are double the size of life4 ,while we regard this as the most extraordinary example of individual human power1 we must consider that it was only in the simplicity and ease of the fresco material that ,michael ,angelo could have accomplished such a stupendous work4 ,the preparation of oil colours1 varnishes1 c41 would alone have occupied the twenty months40 ,the small cost and great durability of frescos are not the least of their advantages4 ,it was feared that the smoke of ,london would soon destroy our frescos1 but ,professor ,hess stated that 8if frescos were painted in the open air in ,london1 the rain would be the best picture-cleaner40 ,indeed1 competent authorities agree that pure water and a soft sponge are the best means for cleaning frescos from the effects of smoke4 ,that the change effected by time on the colours is to increase their effect4 ,the great enemy to fresco is a wall constitutionally damp1 in which lime in too new a state has been employed1 or new timber or imperfectly burnt bricks4 ,the nitre which sometimes accumulates on walls is also very destructive4 ,nor are frescos such permanent fixtures as is generally imagined4 ,some ingenious ,italians have succeeded perfectly in removing large frescos from one wall and applying them securely to another4 ,the colours in fresco do not penetrate very deep1 and the thin layer of pigment and lime of which the painting consists1 may be removed by glueing several layers of calico to the wall3 a slight force is then sufficient to detach the painting3 it is removed to its new bed1 and when firmly attached1 the cloths and glue may be removed by warm water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must now leave the ,reader in possession of the dwelling-house which we have endeavoured to build for him4 ,if we have not furnished it1 or described the modes in which the various articles of furniture are made1 it was not because the subject is devoid of interest1 far from it2 but because we were anxious not to injure the completeness and interest of the preceding details by attempting too much within the limits of this little volume4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,the term ,cartoon is derived from curtone1 the augmentative of carta1 the ,italian for paper4 ,,london3 ,,savill ,,and ,,edwards1 ,,printers1 ,,chandos ,,street4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,in a few cases1 obvious errors in punctuation have been fixed4 ,page #bh3 8the standstones of which0 changed to 8the sandstones of which0 ,page #ada3 8the vessel e0 changed to 8the vessel c0 ,page #bac3 8upon the cieling0 changed to 8upon the ceiling0