,,on ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,poetry   ,by       
,ari/otle   ,translat$ ,by ,+ram ,bywat]
   ,) ,a ,preface ,by ,gilb]t ,murray   
,ox=d ,at ,! ,cl>5don ,press      ,fir/ 
,publi%$ #aibj      ,repr9t$ #aibe1     
#aibh1 #aicb1 #aich1 #aide1 #aidg       
#aiea1 #aied1 #aiei4 #aifb ,pr9t$ ,9    
,great ,brita9      ,,preface   ,9 ! t5?
 book ( ! ,republic1 :5 ,plato has      
complet$ 8 f9al burn+ d5unciation (     
,poetry1 ! false ,sir51 ! imitator ( ?+s
 :i* !mselves are %ad[s1 ! ally ( all t 
is l[ & weak 9 ! s\l aga9/ t :i* is high
 & /rong1 :o makes u fe$ ! ?+s we ought 
to />ve & s]ve ! ?+s we ought to rule1  
he ends ) a t\* ( compunction3 ',we w   
give h] *ampions1 n poets !mselves b    
poet-lov]s1 an opportunity to make h]   
def5ce 9 pla9 prose & %[ t %e is n only 
sweet--z we well "k--b also helpful to  
society & ! life ( man1 & we w li/5 9 a 
k9dly _s4 ,= we %all be ga9]s1 ,i take  
x1 if ?is c be prov$4' ,ari/otle c]ta9ly
 knew ! passage1 & x looks z if 8       
treatise on poetry 0 an answ] to        

,plato's *all5ge4  ,few ( ! great works 
( anci5t ,greek lit]ature are easy      
read+4 ,!y ne>ly all ne$ /udy & comm5t1 
& at times help f a good tea*]1 be=e !y 
yield up _! secret4 ,& ! ,poetics _c be 
acc\nt$ an exception4 ,= "o ?+ !        
treatise is fragm5t>y4 ,x orig9ally     
consi/$ ( two books1 "o deal+ ) ,trag$y 
& ,epic1 ! o!r ) ,com$y & o!r subjects4 
,we possess only ! fir/4 ,= ano!r1 ev5 !
 book we h seems to be unrevis$ &       
unf9i%$4 ,! /yle1 ?\gh lum9\s1 vivid1 & 
9 its broad] division sy/ematic1 is n t 
( a book int5d$ = publication4 ,l mo/ ( 
,ari/otle's extant writ+1 x sugge/s !   
,,ms4 ( an exp]i5c$ lectur]1 full (     
jott+s & adscripts1 ) occasional phrases
 writt5 c>efully out1 b nev] revis$ z a 
:ole = ! g5]al read]4 ,ev5 to accompli%$
 s*ol>s ! mean+ is (t5 obscure1 z may be
 se5 by a comp>ison ( ! ?ree editions   
rec5tly publi%$ 9 ,engl&1 all ! "w (    
savants ( ! fir/ em95ce1 7#a7 or1 /ill m
 /rik+ly1 by a /udy ( ! long s]ies (    
misund]/&+s & ov]/atem5ts & corrections 

:i* =m ! hi/ory ( ! ,poetics s9ce !     
,r5aissance4  7#a7 ,pr(4 ,but*]1 #ahie &
 #ahih2 ,pr(4 ,bywat]1 #aiji2 & ,pr(4   
,m>goli\?1 #aiaa4   ,b x is ( ano!r     
cause ( misund]/&+ t ,i wi% pr9cipally  
to speak 9 ?is preface4 ,! great edition
 f :i* ! pres5t translation is tak5 0 ! 
fruit ( prolong$ /udy by "o ( ! greate/ 
,ari/otelians ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & is  
itself a classic among works ( s*ol>%ip4
 ,9 ! h&s ( a /ud5t :o kn[s ev5 a little
 ,greek1 ! translation1 back$ by !      
comm5t>y1 may lead deep into ! m9d (    
,ari/otle4 ,b :5 ! translation is us$1 z
 x d\btless w be1 by read]s :o are q )\t
 ! clue provid$ by a k ( ! g5]al habits 
( ! ,greek language1 !re mu/ arise a    
numb] ( new difficulties or             
misconceptions4  ,to und]/& a great     
=eign book by means ( a translation is  
possible en\gh :]e ! two languages      
conc]n$ op]ate ) a common /ock ( ideas1 
& belong to ! same p]iod ( civilization4
 ,b betwe5 anci5t ,greece & mod]n ,engl&
 !re yawn imm5se gulfs ( human hi/ory2 !

 e/abli%m5t & ! p>tial failure ( a      
common ,european religion1 ! b>b>ian    
invasions1 ! feudal sy/em1 ! regr\p+ (  
mod]n ,europe1 ! age ( me*anical        
inv5tion1 & ! indu/rial revolution4 ,9  
an av]age page ( ,fr5* or ,g]man        
philosophy ne>ly all ! n\ns c be        
translat$ directly into exact equival5ts
 9 ,engli%2 b 9 ,greek t is n s4        
,sc>cely "o 9 t5 ( ! n\ns on ! fir/ few 
pages ( ! ,poetics has an exact ,engli% 
equival5t4 ,e proposition has to be     
r$uc$ to its l[e/ t]ms ( ?\ght & !n     
re-built4 ,?is is a difficulty :i* no   
translation c q deal )2 x mu/ be left to
 a tea*] :o kn[s ,greek4 ,& !re is a    
k9dr$ difficulty :i* fl[s f x4 ,:]e     
words c be translat$ into equival5t     
words1 ! /yle ( an orig9al c be closely 
foll[$2 b no translation :i* aims at be+
 writt5 9 normal ,engli% c reproduce !  
/yle ( ,ari/otle4 ,i h sometimes play$ )
 ! idea t a ru?lessly lit]al            
translation1 help$ out by bold          
punctuation1 might be ! be/4 ,= in/ance1

 premis+ t ! words poesis1 poetes mean  
orig9ally 'mak+' & 'mak]'1 "o might     
translate ! fir/ p>agraph ( ! ,poetics  
?us3--  ,,mak+3 k9ds ( mak+3 function ( 
ea*1 & h[ ! ,my?s ought to be put toge!r
 if ! ,mak+ is to g "r4  ,numb] ( p>ts3 
nature ( p>ts3 re/ ( same inquiry4      
,beg9 9 ord] ( nature f fir/ pr9ciples4 
,epos-mak+1 trag$y-mak+ 7also com$y71   
di?yramb-mak+ 7& mo/ flut+ & h>p+71 tak5
 z a :ole1 are really n ,mak+s b        
,imitations4 ,!y diff] 9 ?ree po9ts2 !y 
imitate 7a7 diff]5t objects1 7b7 by     
diff]5t means1 7c7 diff]5tly 7i4e4      
diff]5t mann]74  ,"s arti/s imitate     
7i4e4 depict7 by %apes & col\rs4 7,obs4 
sometimes by art1 sometimes by habit47  
,"s by voice4 ,simil>ly ! above arts all
 imitate by rhy?m1 language1 & tune1 &  
^! ei!r 7#a7 sep>ate or 7#b7 mix$4      
,rhy?m & tune alone1 h>p+1 flut+1 & o!r 
arts ) same effect--e4g4 panpipes4      
,rhy?m )\t tune3 danc+4 7,danc]s imitate
 *>act]s1 emotions1 & exp]i5ces by means
 ( rhy?ms express$ 9 =m47  ,language    

alone 7:e!r prose or v]se1 & "o =m (    
v]se or _m73 ?is art has no "n up to !  
pres5t 7i4e4 !re is no "n to cov] mimes 
& dialogues & any simil> imitation made 
9 iambics1 elegiacs1 c4 ,commonly p     
atta* ! 'mak+' to ! metre & say         
'elegiac-mak]s'1 'hexamet]-mak]s1' giv+ 
!m a common class-"n by _! metre1 z if x
 0 n _! imitation t makes !m 'mak]s'74  
,su* an exp]im5t w\ld d\btless be a     
little absurd1 b x w\ld give an ,engli% 
read] "s help 9 und]/&+ bo? ,ari/otle's 
/yle & 8 mean+4  ,= example1 _!         
enlight5m5t 9 ! lit]al phrase1 'h[ !    
my?s ought to be put toge!r4' ,! high]  
,greek poetry did n make up fictiti\s   
plots2 its bus9ess 0 to express ! h]oic 
saga1 ! my?s4 ,aga91 ! lit]al           
translation ( poetes1 poet1 z 'mak]'1   
helps to expla9 a t]m t o!rwise seems a 
puzzle 9 ! ,poetics4 ,if we wond] :y    
,ari/otle1 & ,plato be=e him1 %\ld lay  
su* /ress on ! !ory t art is imitation1 
x is a help to realize t common language
 call$ x 'mak+'1 & x 0 cle>ly n 'mak+' 9

 ! ord9>y s5se4 ,! poet :o 0 'mak]' ( a 
,fall ( ,troy cle>ly did n make ! real  
,fall ( ,troy4 ,he made an imitation    
,fall ( ,troy4 ,an arti/ :o 'pa9t$      
,p]icles' really 'made an imitation     
,p]icles by means ( %apes & col\rs'4    
,h5ce we get />t$ ^u a !ory ( art :i*1  
:e!r f9ally satisfactory or n1 is (     
imm5se importance1 & are sav$ f ! error 
( compla9+ t ,ari/otle did n und]/& !   
'creative p[]' ( art4  ,z a rule1 no    
d\bt1 ! difficulty1 ev5 ?\gh m]ely      
v]bal1 lies beyond ! rea* ( s simple a  
tool z lit]al translation4 ,to say t    
trag$y 'imitates good m5' :ile com$y    
'imitates bad m5' /rikes a mod]n read] z
 almo/ mean+less4 ,! tru? is t nei!r    
'good' nor 'bad' is an exact equival5t (
 ! ,greek4 ,x w\ld be ne>] p]haps to say
 t1 relatively speak+1 y look up to !   
*>act]s ( trag$y1 & d[n ^u ^? ( com$y4  
,high or l[1 s]i\s or trivial1 _m o!r   
pairs ( words w\ld h to be call$ 91 9   
ord] to cov] ! wide range ( ! common    
,greek words4 ,& ! po9t is important1   

because we h to consid] :e!r 9 ,*apt]   
,,vi ,ari/otle really lays x d[n t      
trag$y1 s f> f be+ ! /ory ( un-happ9ess 
t we ?9k x1 is prop]ly an imitation (   
eudaimonia--a ^w (t5 translat$          
'happ9ess'1 b mean+ some?+ m l 'high    
life' or 'bless$ness'4 7#a7  7#a7 ,see  
,m>goli\?1 p4 #aba4 ,by wat]1 ) mo/     
editors1 em5ds ! text4  ,ano!r difficult
 ^w :i* con/antly recurs 9 ! ,poetics is
 pratte9 or praxis1 g5]ally translat$   
'to act' or 'action'4 ,b pratte91 l our 
'd'1 also has an intransitive mean+ 'to 
f>e' ei!r well or ill2 & ,pr(essor      
,m>goli\? has po9t$ out t x seems m true
 to say t trag$y %[s h[ m5 'f>e' ?an h[ 
!y 'act'4 ,x %[s _! exp]i5ces or =tunes 
r ?an m]ely _! de$s4 ,b "o mu/ n draw ! 
l9e too bluntly4 ,i %\ld d\bt :e!r a    
classical ,greek writ] 0 ord9>ily       
consci\s ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two     
mean+s4 ,c]ta9ly x is easi] to reg>d    
happ9ess z a way ( f>+ ?an z a =m (     
action4 ,yet ,ari/otle c use ! passive (
 pratte9 = ?+s 'done' or 'gone ?r\gh'   

7e4g4 #eb;a1 #bb1 #bi3 #ee;a1 #be74  ,! 
fact is t mu* misund]/&+ is (t5 caus$ by
 our mod]n attempts to limit too /rictly
 ! mean+ ( a ,greek ^w4 ,greek 0 v mu* a
 live language1 & a language /ill       
unconsci\s ( gramm>1 n1 l ours1 dom9at$ 
by def9itions & tra9$ ^u diction>ies4   
,an in/ance is provid$ by ,ari/otle's   
fam\s say+ t ! typical tragic h]o is "o 
:o falls f high /ate or fame1 n ?r\gh   
vice or depravity1 b by "s great        
ham>tia4 ,ham>tia means orig9ally a 'bad
 %ot' or 'error'1 b is curr5tly us$ =   
'(f5ce' or 's9'4 ,ari/otle cle>ly means 
t ! typical h]o is a great man ) 'some?+
 wrong' 9 8 life or "*2 b ,i ?9k x is a 
mi/ake ( me?od to argue :e!r he means   
'an intellectual error' or 'a moral     
flaw'4 ,! ^w is n s precise4  ,simil>ly1
 :5 ,ari/otle says t a de$ ( /rife or   
disa/] is m tragic :5 x occurs 'amid    
affections' or 'among p :o love ea*     
o!r'1 no d\bt ! phrase1 z ,ari/otle's   
own examples %[1 w\ld prim>ily sugge/ to
 a ,greek feuds betwe5 ne> relations4   

,yet "s ( ! mean+ is lo/ if "o          
translates simply ')9 ! family'4  ,!re  
is ano!r s]ies ( obscurities or         
confusions 9 ! ,poetics :i*1 unless ,i  
am mi/ak51 arises f ! fact t ,ari/otle 0
 writ+ at a "t :5 ! great age ( ,greek  
trag$y 0 long pa/1 & 0 us+ language =m$ 
9 previ\s g5]ations4 ,! words & phrases 
rema9$ 9 ! tradition1 b ! =ms ( art &   
activity :i* !y d5ot$ _h sometimes *ang$
 9 ! int]val4 ,if we date ! ,poetics    
ab\t ! ye> #ccj ,b4,c41 z seems         
probable1 t is m ?an two hundr$ ye>s    
aft] ! fir/ trag$y ( ,!spis 0 produc$ 9 
,a!ns1 & m ?an sev5ty aft] ! dea? ( !   
la/ great ma/]s ( ! tragic /age4 ,:5 we 
rememb] t a tra9+ 9 music & poetry =m$ a
 prom95t "p ( ! education ( e wellborn  
,a!nian1 we _c be surpris$ at f9d+ 9    
,ari/otle1 & to a less ext5t 9 ,plato1  
consid]able traces ( a tradition (      
te*nical language & ev5 ( ae/hetic !ory4
  ,x is d\btless "o ( ,ari/otle's great 
s]vices t he conceiv$ s cle>ly ! tru? t 
lit]ature is a ?+ t gr[s & has a hi/ory4

 ,b no writ]1 c]ta9ly no anci5t writ]1  
is always vigilant4 ,sometimes ,ari/otle
 analyses 8 t]ms1 b v (t5 he takes !m = 
grant$2 & 9 ! latt] case1 ,i ?9k1 he is 
sometimes deceiv$ by !m4 ,?us !re seem  
to be cases :]e he has be5 affect$ 9 8  
conceptions ( fif?-c5tury trag$y by !   
practice ( 8 own day1 :5 ! only liv+ =m 
( drama 0 ! ,new ,com$y4  ,= example1 z 
we h notic$ above1 true ,trag$y _h      
always tak5 its mat]ial f ! sacr$ my?s1 
or h]oic sagas1 :i* to ! classical      
,greek con/itut$ hi/ory4 ,b ! ,new      
,com$y 0 9 ! habit ( inv5t+ its plots4  
,consequ5tly ,ari/otle falls into us+ ! 
^w my?os practically 9 ! s5se ( 'plot'1 
& writ+ o!rwise 9 a way t is unsuit$ to 
! trag$y ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,he says t    
trag$y adh]es to '! hi/orical names' =  
an ae/hetic reason1 because :at has     
happ5$ is obvi\sly possible & !re=e     
conv9c+4 ,! real reason 0 t ! drama & ! 
my? 7 simply two diff]5t expressions ( !
 same religi\s k]nel 7p4 #dd74 ,aga91 he
 says ( ! ,*orus 7p4 #fe7 t x %\ld be an

 integral "p ( ! play1 :i* is true2 b he
 also says t x' %\ld be reg>d$ z "o ( ! 
actors'1 :i* %[s to :at an ext5t !      
,*orus 9 8 day 0 dead & its te*nique    
=gott54 ,he _h lo/ ! s5se ( :at ! ,*orus
 0 9 ! h&s ( ! great ma/]s1 say 9 !     
,bac*ae or ! ,eum5ides4 ,he mi/akes1    
aga91 ! use ( t epiphany ( a ,god :i* is
 frequ5t at ! end ( ! s+le plays (      
,euripides1 & :i* seems to h be5 equally
 s at ! end ( ! trilogies ( ,aes*ylus4  
,hav+ lo/ ! liv+ tradition1 he sees     
nei!r ! ritual orig9 nor ! dramatic     
value ( ^! div9e epiphanies4 ,he ?9ks ( 
! conv5i5t gods & ab/ractions :o        
sometimes spoke ! prologues ( ! ,new    
,com$y1 & imag9es t ! ,god appe>s 9 ord]
 to unravel ! plot4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 9
 "o play :i* he (t5 quotes1 ! ,iphig5ia 
,taurica1 ! plot is actually di/ort$ at 
! v end 9 ord] to give an opportunity = 
! epiphany47#a7  7#a7 ,see my ,euripides
 & 8 ,age1 pp4 #bba-de4  ,"o c see !    
effect ( ! tradition also 9 8 treatm5t (
 ! t]ms ,anagnorisis & ,p]ipeteia1 :i*  

,pr(essor ,bywat] translates z          
',discov]y & ,p]ipety' & ,pr(essor      
,but*] z ',recognition & ,rev]sal (     
,=tune'4 ,ari/otle assumes t ^! two     
elem5ts are normally pres5t 9 any       
trag$y1 except ^? :i* he calls 'simple'2
 we may say1 r\ghly1 9 any trag$y t     
really has a plot4 ,?is /rikes a mod]n  
read] z a v arbitr>y assumption4        
,rev]sals ( ,=tune ( "s sort are p]haps 
usual 9 any v>i$ plot1 b surely n       
,recognitions8 ,! clue to ! puzzle lies1
 x c sc>cely be d\bt$1 9 ! hi/orical    
orig9 ( trag$y4 ,trag$y1 accord+ to     
,greek tradition1 is orig9ally ! ritual 
play ( ,dionysus1 p]=m$ at 8 fe/ival1 & 
repres5t+1 z ,h]odotus tells u1 !       
'suff]+s' or 'passion' ( t ,god4 ,we are
 nev] directly told :at ^! 'suff]+s' 7  
:i* 7 s repres5t$2 b ,h]odotus rem>ks t 
he f\nd 9 ,egypt a ritual t 0 '9 almo/  
all po9ts ! same'4 7#a7 ,?is 0 !        
well-kn[n ritual ( ,osiris1 9 :i* ! god 
0 torn 9 pieces1 lam5t$1 se>*$ =1       
discov]$ or recogniz$1 & ! m\rn+ by a   

sudd5 ,rev]sal turn$ into joy4 ,9 any   
trag$y :i* /ill reta9$ ! /amp ( its     
,dionysiac orig91 ?is ,discov]y &       
,p]ipety might normally be expect$ to   
occur1 & to occur toge!r4 ,i h tri$ to  
%[ else:]e h[ _m ( our extant trag$ies  
d1 z a matt] ( fact1 %[ ! m>ks ( ?is    
ritual47#b7  7#a7 ,cf4 ,hdt4 ii4 #dh2   
cf4 #db1add4 ,! "n ( ,dionysus mu/ n be 
op5ly m5tion$ 9 connexion ) m\rn+ 7ib4  
#fa1 #acb1 #hf74 ,?is may help to expla9
 ! transf]5ce ( ! tragic %[s to o!r     
h]oes4  7#b7 ,9 ,miss ,h>rison's ,!mis1 
pp4 #cda-fc4  ,i hope x is n ra% to     
surmise t ! mu*-debat$ ^w ka?>sis1      
'purification' or 'purgation'1 may h    
come into ,ari/otle's m\? f ! same      
s\rce4 ,x has all ! appe>ance ( be+ an  
old ^w :i* is accept$ & re-int]pret$ by 
,ari/otle r ?an a ^w freely *os5 by him 
to d5ote ! exact ph5om5on he wi%es to   
describe4 ,at any rate ! ,dionysus      
ritual itself 0 a ka?>mos or ka?>sis--a 
purification ( ! community f ! ta9ts &  
poisons ( ! pa/ ye>1 ! old contagion (  

s9 & dea?4 ,& ! words ( ,ari/otle's     
def9ition ( trag$y 9 ,*apt] ,,vi might h
 be5 us$ 9 ! days ( ,!spis 9 a mu* crud]
 & less metaphorical s5se4 ,accord+ to  
primitive ideas1 ! mimic repres5tation  
on ! /age ( 'incid5ts ar\s+ pity & fe>' 
did act z a ka?>sis ( su* 'passions' or 
'suff]+s' 9 real life4 7,= ! ^w pa!mata 
means 'suff]+s' z well z 'passions'47 ,x
 is wor? rememb]+ t 9 ! ye> #cfa ,b4,c41
 dur+ ,ari/otle's lifetime1 ,greek      
trag$ies 7 introduc$ into ,rome1 n on   
arti/ic b on sup]/iti\s gr\nds1 z a     
ka?>mos aga9/ a pe/il5ce 7,livy vii4    
#b74 ,"o _c b suspect t 9 8 acc\nt ( !  
purpose ( trag$y ,ari/otle may be us+ an
 old traditional =mula1 & consci\sly or 
unconsci\sly inve/+ x ) a new mean+1 mu*
 z he has done ) ! ^w my?os4  ,ap>t f ^!
 hi/orical causes ( misund]/&+1 a good  
tea*] :o uses ?is book ) a class w h>dly
 fail to po9t out num]\s po9ts on :i*   
two equally good ,greek s*ol>s may well 
diff] 9 ! m]e int]pretation ( ! words4  
,:at1 = in/ance1 are ! 'two natural     

causes' 9 ,*apt] ,,iv :i* h giv5 bir? to
 ,poetry8 ,are !y1 z our translator     
takes !m1 7#a7 t man is imitative1 &    
7#b7 t p delight 9 imitations8 ,or are  
!y 7#a7 t man is imitative & p delight 9
 imitations1 & 7#b7 ! in/9ct = rhy?m1 z 
,pr(essor ,but*] pref]s8 ,is x a        
'creature' a ?\s& miles long1 or a      
'picture' a ?\s& miles long :i* raises  
"s tr\ble 9 ,*apt] ,,vii8 ,! ^w zoon    
means equally 'picture' & 'animal'4 ,did
 ! old] poets make _! *>act]s speak l   
'/atesm5'1 politikoi1 or m]ely l ord9>y 
citiz5s1 politai1 :ile ! mod]ns made    
!irs l 'pr(essors ( rhetoric'8 7,*apt]  
,,vi1 p4 #ch2 cf4 ,m>goli\?'s note &    
gloss>y74  ,x may seem z if ! l>ge      
unc]ta9ties :i* we h indicat$ detract 9 
a ru9\s mann] f ! value ( ! ,poetics to 
u z a "w ( criticism4 ,c]ta9ly if any "y
 writ] took ?is book z a manual ( rules 
by :i* to 'comm5ce poet'1 he w\ld f9d   
himself emb>rass$4 ,b1 if ! book is     
prop]ly read1 n z a dogmatic text-book b
 z a fir/ attempt1 made by a man (      

a/\nd+ g5ius1 to build up 9 ! region (  
creative art a rational ord] l t :i* he 
e/abli%$ 9 logic1 rhetoric1 e?ics1      
politics1 physics1 psy*ology1 & almo/ e 
dep>tm5t ( k t exi/$ 9 8 day1 !n !      
unc]ta9ties become r a help ?an a       
disc\ragem5t4 ,!y give u occasion to ?9k
 & use our imag9ation4 ,!y make u1 to ! 
be/ ( our p[]s1 try really to foll[ &   
criticize closely ! bold grop+s ( an    
extraord9>y ?9k]2 & x is 9 ?is process1 
& n 9 any m]e collection ( dogmatic     
results1 t we %all f9d ! true value &   
beauty ( ! ,poetics4  ,! book is (      
p]man5t value z a m]e intellectual      
a*ievem5t2 z a /ore ( in=mation ab\t    
,greek lit]ature2 & z an orig9al or     
fir/-h& /atem5t ( :at we may call !     
classical view ( arti/ic criticism4 ,x  
does n reg>d poetry z a matt] (         
unanalys$ inspiration2 x makes no       
concession to p]sonal :ims or fa%ion or 
ennui4 ,x tries by rational me?ods to   
f9d out :at is good 9 art & :at makes x 
good1 accept+ ! belief t !re is j z     

truly a good way1 & _m bad ways1 9      
poetry z 9 morals or 9 play+ billi>ds4  
,?is is no place to try to sum up its   
ma9 conclusions4 ,b x is *>act]i/ic ( ! 
classical view t ,ari/otle lays 8       
greate/ /ress1 fir/1 on ! ne$ = ,unity 9
 ! "w ( art1 ! ne$ t ea* "p %\ld subs]ve
 ! :ole1 :ile irrelevancies1 h[ev]      
brilliant 9 !mselves1 %\ld be ca/ away2 
& next1 on ! dem& t great art mu/ h =   
its subject ! great way ( liv+4 ,^!     
judgem5ts h (t5 be5 misund]/ood1 b !    
tru? 9 !m is pr(\nd & goes ne> to ! he>t
 ( ?+s4  ,*>act]i/ic1 too1 is !         
obs]vation t diff]5t k9ds ( art gr[ &   
develop1 b n indef9itely2 !y develop    
until !y 'atta9 _! natural =m'2 also !  
rule t ea* =m ( art %\ld produce 'n e   
sort ( pleasure b its prop] pleasure'2 &
 ! sob] language 9 :i* ,ari/otle1 in/ead
 ( speak+ ab\t ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts 9 a    
trag$y be+ 'inevitable'1 z we bomba/ic  
mod]ns d1 m]ely recomm5ds t !y %\ld be  
'ei!r necess>y or probable' & 'appe> to 
happ5 because ( "o ano!r'4  ,conceptions

 & attitudes ( m9d su* z ^! con/itute   
:at we may call ! classical fai? 9      
matt]s ( art & poetry2 a fai? :i* is    
nev] p]haps fully accept$ 9 any age1    
yet1 unlike o!rs1 is nev] =gott5 b lives
 by be+ con/antly criticiz$1 re-ass]t$1 
& rebell$ aga9/4 ,= ! fa%ions ( ! ages  
v>y 9 ?is direction & t1 b !y v>y = !   
mo/ "p f a c5tral road :i* 0 /ruck out  
by ! imag9ation ( ,greece4  ,g4 ,m      
,,ari/otle ,,on ,,! ,,art ,,( ,,poetry  
#a   ,our subject be+ ,poetry1 ,i       
propose to speak n only ( ! art 9 g5]al 
b also ( its species & _! respective    
capacities2 ( ! /ructure ( plot requir$ 
= a good poem2 ( ! numb] & nature ( !   
con/itu5t p>ts ( a poem2 & likewise (   
any o!r matt]s 9 ! same l9e ( inquiry4  
,let u foll[ ! natural ord] & beg9 ) !  
prim>y facts4  ,epic poetry & ,trag$y1 z
 also ,com$y1 ,di?yrambic poetry1 & mo/ 
flute-play+ & lyre-play+1 are all1 view$
 z a :ole1 modes ( imitation4 ,b at !   
same "t !y diff] f "o ano!r 9 ?ree ways1
 ei!r by a diff]5ce ( k9d 9 _! means1 or

 by diff]5ces 9 ! objects1 or 9 ! mann] 
( _! imitations4  ,i4 ,j z =m & col\r   
are us$ z means by "s1 :o 7:e!r by art  
or con/ant practice7 imitate & portray  
_m ?+s by _! aid1 & ! voice is us$ by   
o!rs2 s also 9 ! above-m5tion$ gr\p (   
arts1 ! means ) !m z a :ole are rhy?m1  
language1 & h>mony--us$1 h[ev]1 ei!r    
s+ly or 9 c]ta9 comb9ations4 ,a         
comb9ation ( rhy?m & h>mony alone is !  
means 9 flute-play+ & lyre-play+1 & any 
o!r arts !re may be ( ! same            
description1 e4g4 imitative pip+4 ,rhy?m
 alone1 )\t h>mony1 is ! means 9 !      
danc]'s imitations2 = ev5 he1 by !      
rhy?ms ( 8 attitudes1 may repres5t m5's 
*>act]s1 z well z :at !y d & suff]4 ,!re
 is fur!r an art :i* imitates by        
language alone1 )\t h>mony1 9 prose or 9
 v]se1 & if 9 v]se1 ei!r 9 "s "o or 9 a 
plurality ( metres4 ,?is =m ( imitation 
is to ?is day )\t a "n4 ,we h no common 
"n = a mime ( ,sophron or ,x5>*us & a   
,socratic ,conv]sation2 & we %\ld /ill  
be )\t "o ev5 if ! imitation 9 ! two    

in/ances 7 9 trimet]s or elegiacs or "s 
o!r k9d ( v]se--?\gh x is ! way ) p to  
tack on 'poet' to ! "n ( a metre1 & talk
 ( elegiac-poets & epic-poets1 ?9k+ t !y
 call !m poets n by reason ( ! imitative
 nature ( _! "w1 b indiscrim9ately by   
reason ( ! metre !y write 94 ,ev5 if a  
!ory ( m$ic9e or physical philosophy be 
put =? 9 a metrical =m1 x is usual to   
describe ! writ] 9 ?is way2 ,hom] &     
,emp$ocles1 h[ev]1 h really no?+ 9      
common ap>t f _! metre2 s t1 if ! "o is 
to be call$ a poet1 ! o!r %\ld be t]m$ a
 physici/ r ?an a poet4 ,we %\ld be 9 ! 
same position also1 if ! imitation 9 ^! 
in/ances 7 9 all ! metres1 l ! ,c5taur  
7a rhapsody 9 a m$ley ( all metres7 (   
,*a]emon2 & ,*a]emon "o has to recognize
 z a poet4 ,s mu*1 !n1 z to ^! arts4    
,!re are1 la/ly1 c]ta9 o!r arts1 :i*    
comb9e all ! means enum]at$1 rhy?m1     
melody1 & v]se1 e4g4 ,di?yrambic &      
,nomic poetry1 ,trag$y & ,com$y2 ) ?is  
diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t ! ?ree k9ds ( means  
are 9 "s ( !m all employ$ toge!r1 & 9   

o!rs br\ght 9 sep>ately1 "o aft] ! o!r4 
,^! elem5ts ( diff]5ce 9 ! above arts ,i
 t]m ! means ( _! imitation4     #b     
,,ii4 ,! objects ! imitator repres5ts   
are actions1 ) ag5ts :o are necess>ily  
ei!r good m5 or bad--! div]sities (     
human "* be+ ne>ly always d]ivative f   
?is prim>y di/9ction1 s9ce ! l9e betwe5 
virtue & vice is "o divid+ ! :ole (     
mank9d4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! ag5ts     
repres5t$ mu/ be ei!r above our own     
level ( goodness1 or b5ea? x1 or j su* z
 we are 9 ! same way z1 ) ! pa9t]s1 !   
p]sonages ( ,polygnotus are bett] ?an we
 are1 ^? ( ,pauson worse1 & ^? (        
,dionysius j l ourselves4 ,x is cle> t  
ea* ( ! above-m5tion$ arts w admit ( ^! 
diff]5ces1 & t x w become a sep>ate art 
by repres5t+ objects ) ?is po9t (       
diff]5ce4 ,ev5 9 danc+1 flute-play+1 &  
lyre-play+ su* div]sities are possible2 
& !y are also possible 9 ! nameless art 
t uses language1 prose or v]se )\t      
h>mony1 z its means2 ,hom]'s p]sonages1 
= in/ance1 are bett] ?an we are2        

,cleophon's are on our own level2 & ^? (
 ,hegemon ( ,?asos1 ! fir/ writ] (      
p>odies1 & ,nico*>es1 ! au?or ( !       
,diliad1 are b5ea? x4 ,! same is true ( 
! ,di?yramb & ! ,nome3 ! p]sonages may  
be pres5t$ 9 !m ) ! diff]5ce exemplifi$ 
9 !444 (444 & ,argas1 & 9 ! ,cyclopses (
 ,timo!us & ,philox5us4 ,?is diff]5ce x 
is t di/+ui%es ,trag$y & ,com$y also2 ! 
"o w\ld make its p]sonages worse1 & !   
o!r bett]1 ?an ! m5 ( ! pres5t day4     
#c   ,,iii4 ,a ?ird diff]5ce 9 ^! arts  
is 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ea* k9d ( object is  
repres5t$4 ,giv5 bo? ! same means & !   
same k9d ( object = imitation1 "o may   
ei!r 7#a7 speak at "o mom5t 9 n>rative &
 at ano!r 9 an assum$ "*1 z ,hom] does2 
or 7#b7 "o may rema9 ! same ?r\gh\t1 )\t
 any su* *ange2 or 7#c7 ! imitators may 
repres5t ! :ole /ory dramatically1 z    
?\gh !y 7 actually do+ ! ?+s describ$4  
,z we said at ! beg9n+1 !re=e1 !        
diff]5ces 9 ! imitation ( ^! arts come  
"u ?ree heads1 _! means1 _! objects1 &  
_! mann]4  ,s t z an imitator ,sophocles

 w be on "o side ak9 to ,hom]1 bo?      
portray+ good m52 & on ano!r to         
,ari/ophanes1 s9ce bo? pres5t _!        
p]sonages z act+ & do+4 ,?is 9 fact1    
accord+ to "s1 is ! reason = plays be+  
t]m$ dramas1 because 9 a play !         
p]sonages act ! /ory4 ,h5ce too bo?     
,trag$y & ,com$y are claim$ by !        
,dorians z _! discov]ies2 ,com$y by !   
,meg>ians--by ^? 9 ,greece z hav+ aris5 
:5 ,meg>a became a democracy1 & by !    
,sicilian ,meg>ians on ! gr\nd t ! poet 
,epi*>mus 0 ( _! c\ntry1 & a good deal  
e>li] ?an ,*ionides & ,magnes2 ev5      
,trag$y also is claim$ by c]ta9 ( !     
,peloponnesian ,dorians4 ,9 support (   
?is claim !y po9t to ! words 'com$y' &  
'drama'4 ,_! ^w = ! outly+ hamlets1 !y  
say1 is comae1 :]eas ,a!nians call !m   
demes--?us assum+ t com$ians got ! "n n 
f _! comoe or revels1 b f _! /roll+ f   
hamlet to hamlet1 lack ( appreciation   
keep+ !m out ( ! city4 ,_! ^w also = 'to
 act'1 !y say1 is dran1 :]eas ,a!nians  
use pratte94  ,s mu*1 !n1 z to ! numb] &

 nature ( ! po9ts ( diff]5ce 9 !        
imitation ( ^! arts4     #d   ,x is cle>
 t ! g5]al orig9 ( poetry 0 due to two  
causes1 ea* ( !m "p ( human nature4     
,imitation is natural to man f *ildhood1
 "o ( 8 advantages ov] ! l[] animals be+
 ?is1 t he is ! mo/ imitative creature 9
 ! _w1 & le>ns at fir/ by imitation4 ,& 
x is also natural = all to delight 9    
works ( imitation4 ,! tru? ( ?is second 
po9t is %[n by exp]i5ce3 ?\gh ! objects 
!mselves may be pa9ful to see1 we       
delight to view ! mo/ reali/ic          
repres5tations ( !m 9 art1 ! =ms =      
example ( ! l[e/ animals & ( dead       
bodies4 ,! explanation is to be f\nd 9 a
 fur!r fact3 to be le>n+ some?+ is !    
greate/ ( pleasures n only to !         
philosoph] b also to ! re/ ( mank9d1    
h[ev] small _! capacity = x2 ! reason ( 
! delight 9 see+ ! picture is t "o is at
 ! same "t le>n+--ga!r+ ! mean+ ( ?+s1  
e4g4 t ! man !re is s-&-s2 = if "o has n
 se5 ! ?+ be=e1 "o's pleasure w n be 9 !
 picture z an imitation ( x1 b w be due 

to ! execution or col\r+ or "s simil>   
cause4 ,imitation1 !n1 be+ natural to   
u--z also ! s5se ( h>mony & rhy?m1 !    
metres be+ obvi\sly species ( rhy?ms--x 
0 ?r\gh _! orig9al aptitude1 & by a     
s]ies ( improvem5ts = ! mo/ "p gradual  
on _! fir/ ef=ts1 t !y creat$ poetry out
 ( _! improvisations4  ,poetry1 h[ev]1  
soon broke up into two k9ds accord+ to !
 diff]5ces ( "* 9 ! individual poets2 = 
! grav] among !m w\ld repres5t noble    
actions1 & ^? ( noble p]sonages2 & !    
mean] sort ! actions ( ! ignoble4 ,!    
latt] class produc$ invectives at fir/1 
j z o!rs did hymns & panegyrics4 ,we "k 
( no su* poem by any ( ! pre-,hom]ic    
poets1 ?\gh !re 7 probably _m su* writ]s
 among !m2 in/ances1 h[ev]1 may be f\nd 
f ,hom] d[nw>ds1 e4g4 8 ,m>gites1 & !   
simil> poems ( o!rs4 ,9 ?is poetry (    
invective its natural fitness br\ght an 
iambic metre into use2 h5ce our pres5t  
t]m 'iambic'1 because x 0 ! metre ( _!  
'iambs' or invectives aga9/ "o ano!r4 ,!
 result 0 t ! old poets became "s ( !m  

writ]s ( h]oic & o!rs ( iambic v]se4    
,hom]'s position1 h[ev]1 is peculi>3 j z
 he 0 9 ! s]i\s /yle ! poet ( poets1 /&+
 alone n only ?r\gh ! lit]>y excell5ce1 
b also ?r\gh ! dramatic "* ( 8          
imitations1 s too he 0 ! fir/ to outl9e 
= u ! g5]al =ms ( ,com$y by produc+ n a 
dramatic invective1 b a dramatic picture
 ( ! ,ridicul\s2 8 ,m>gites 9 fact /&s 9
 ! same relation to our com$ies z !     
,iliad & ,odyssey to our trag$ies4 ,z   
soon1 h[ev]1 z ,trag$y & ,com$y appe>$ 9
 ! field1 ^? naturally drawn to ! "o l9e
 ( poetry became writ]s ( com$ies in/ead
 ( iambs1 & ^? naturally drawn to ! o!r1
 writ]s ( trag$ies in/ead ( epics1      
because ^! new modes ( art 7 gr&] & ( m 
e/eem ?an ! old4  ,if x be ask$ :e!r    
,trag$y is n[ all t x ne$ be 9 its      
=mative elem5ts1 to consid] t1 & decide 
x !oretically & 9 relation to ! !atres1 
is a matt] = ano!r inquiry4  ,x c]ta9ly 
began 9 improvisations--z did also      
,com$y2 ! "o orig9at+ ) ! au?ors ( !    
,di?yramb1 ! o!r ) ^? ( ! phallic songs1

 :i* /ill survive z in/itutions 9 _m (  
our cities4 ,& its advance aft] t 0     
little by little1 ?r\gh _! improv+ on   
:atev] !y _h be=e !m at ea* /age4 ,x 0 9
 fact only aft] a long s]ies ( *anges t 
! movem5t ( ,trag$y /opp$ on its atta9+ 
to its natural =m4 7#a7 ,! numb] (      
actors 0 fir/ increas$ to two by        
,aes*ylus1 :o curtail$ ! bus9ess ( !    
,*orus1 & made ! dialogue1 or spok5     
portion1 take ! lead+ "p 9 ! play4 7#b7 
,a ?ird actor & sc5]y 7 due to          
,sophocles4 7#c7 ,trag$y acquir$ also   
its magnitude4 ,disc>d+ %ort /ories & a 
ludicr\s diction1 ?r\gh its pass+ out ( 
its satyric /age1 x assum$1 ?\gh only at
 a late po9t 9 its progress1 a tone (   
dignity2 & its metre *ang$ !n f tro*aic 
to iambic4 ,! reason = _! orig9al use ( 
! tro*aic tetramet] 0 t _! poetry 0     
satyric & m connect$ ) danc+ ?an x n[   
is4 ,z soon1 h[ev]1 z a spok5 "p came 91
 nature h]self f\nd ! appropriate metre4
 ,! iambic1 we "k1 is ! mo/ speakable ( 
metres1 z is %[n by ! fact t we v (t5   

fall into x 9 conv]sation1 :]eas we     
r>ely talk hexamet]s1 & only :5 we dep>t
 f ! speak+ tone ( voice4 7#d7 ,ano!r   
*ange 0 a plurality ( episodes or acts4 
,z = ! rema9+ matt]s1 ! sup]add$        
embelli%m5ts & ! acc\nt ( _!            
introduction1 ^! mu/ be tak5 z said1 z x
 w\ld probably be a long piece ( "w to g
 ?r\gh ! details4     #e   ,z = ,com$y1 
x is 7z has be5 obs]v$7 an imitation (  
m5 worse ?an ! av]age2 worse1 h[ev]1 n z
 reg>ds any & e sort ( fault1 b only z  
reg>ds "o p>ticul> k9d1 ! ,ridicul\s1   
:i* is a species ( ! ,ugly4 ,!          
,ridicul\s may be def9$ z a mi/ake or   
de=mity n productive ( pa9 or h>m to    
o!rs2 ! mask1 = in/ance1 t excites      
laught]1 is some?+ ugly & di/ort$ )\t   
caus+ pa94  ,?\gh ! successive *anges 9 
,trag$y & _! au?ors are n unkn[n1 we _c 
say ! same ( ,com$y2 its e>ly /ages     
pass$ unnotic$1 because x 0 n z yet tak5
 up 9 a s]i\s way4 ,x 0 only at a late  
po9t 9 its progress t a *orus ( com$ians
 0 (ficially grant$ by ! ar*on2 !y us$  

to be m]e volunte]s4 ,x _h also already 
c]ta9 def9ite =ms at ! "t :5 ! record ( 
^? t]m$ comic poets beg9s4 ,:o x 0 :o   
suppli$ x ) masks1 or prologues1 or a   
plurality ( actors & ! l1 has rema9$    
unkn[n4 ,! inv5t$ ,fable1 or ,plot1     
h[ev]1 orig9at$ 9 ,sicily1 ) ,epi*>mus &
 ,phormis2 ( ,a!nian poets ,crates 0 !  
fir/ to drop ! ,com$y ( invective &     
frame /ories ( a g5]al & non-p]sonal    
nature1 9 o!r words1 ,fables or ,plots4 
,epic poetry1 !n1 has be5 se5 to agree )
 ,trag$y to ?is ext5t1 t ( be+ an       
imitation ( s]i\s subjects 9 a gr& k9d (
 v]se4 ,x diff]s f x1 h[ev]1 7#a7 9 t x 
is 9 "o k9d ( v]se & 9 n>rative =m2 &   
7#b7 9 its l5g?--:i* is due to its      
action hav+ no fix$ limit ( "t1 :]eas   
,trag$y endeav\rs to keep z f> z        
possible )9 a s+le circuit ( ! sun1 or  
some?+ ne> t4 ,?is1 ,i say1 is ano!r    
po9t ( diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 ?\gh at fir/ 
! practice 9 ?is respect 0 j ! same 9   
trag$ies z 9 epic poems4 ,!y diff] also 
7#c7 9 _! con/itu5ts1 "s be+ common to  

bo? & o!rs peculi> to ,trag$y--h5ce a   
judge ( good & bad 9 ,trag$y is a judge 
( t 9 epic poetry also4 ,all ! p>ts ( an
 epic are includ$ 9 ,trag$y2 b ^? (     
,trag$y are n all ( !m to be f\nd 9 !   
,epic4     #f   ,res]v+ hexamet] poetry 
& ,com$y = consid]ation h]eaft]1 let u  
proce$ n[ to ! discussion ( ,trag$y2    
be=e do+ s1 h[ev]1 we mu/ ga!r up !     
def9ition result+ f :at has be5 said4 ,a
 trag$y1 !n1 is ! imitation ( an action 
t is s]i\s & also1 z hav+ magnitude1    
complete 9 itself2 9 language )         
pleasurable accessories1 ea* k9d br\ght 
9 sep>ately 9 ! p>ts ( ! "w2 9 a        
dramatic1 n 9 a n>rative =m2 ) incid5ts 
ar\s+ pity & fe>1 :]e) to accompli% its 
ca?>sis ( su* emotions4 ,"h by 'language
 ) pleasurable accessories' ,i mean t ) 
rhy?m & h>mony or song sup]add$2 & by '!
 k9ds sep>ately' ,i mean t "s portions  
are work$ out ) v]se only1 & o!rs 9 turn
 ) song4  ,i4 ,z !y act ! /ories1 x     
foll[s t 9 ! fir/ place ! ,spectacle 7or
 /age-appe>ance ( ! actors7 mu/ be "s "p

 ( ! :ole2 & 9 ! second ,melody &       
,diction1 ^! two be+ ! means ( _!       
imitation4 ,"h by ',diction' ,i mean    
m]ely ?is1 ! composition ( ! v]ses2 & by
 ',melody'1 :at is too completely       
und]/ood to require explanation4 ,b     
fur!r3 ! subject repres5t$ also is an   
action2 & ! action involves ag5ts1 :o   
mu/ necess>ily h _! di/9ctive qualities 
bo? ( "* & ?\ght1 s9ce x is f ^! t we   
ascribe c]ta9 qualities to _! actions4  
,!re are 9 ! natural ord] ( ?+s1 !re=e1 
two causes1 ,"* & ,?\ght1 ( _! actions1 
& consequ5tly ( _! success or failure 9 
_! lives4 ,n[ ! action 7t :i* 0 done7 is
 repres5t$ 9 ! play by ! ,fable or      
,plot4 ,! ,fable1 9 our pres5t s5se ( ! 
t]m1 is simply ?is1 ! comb9ation ( !    
incid5ts1 or ?+s done 9 ! /ory2 :]eas   
,"* is :at makes u ascribe c]ta9 moral  
qualities to ! ag5ts2 & ,?\ght is %[n 9 
all !y say :5 prov+ a p>ticul> po9t or1 
x may be1 enunciat+ a g5]al tru?4 ,!re  
are six p>ts consequ5tly ( e trag$y1 z a
 :ole1 t is1 ( su* or su* quality1 viz4 

a ,fable or ,plot1 ,*>act]s1 ,diction1  
,?\ght1 ,spectacle & ,melody2 two ( !m  
aris+ f ! means1 "o f ! mann]1 & ?ree f 
! objects ( ! dramatic imitation2 & !re 
is no?+ else besides ^! six4 ,( ^!1 its 
=mative elem5ts1 !n1 n a few ( !        
dramati/s h made due use1 z e play1 "o  
may say1 admits ( ,spectacle1 ,"*1      
,fable1 ,diction1 ,melody1 & ,?\ght4    
,,ii4 ,! mo/ important ( ! six is !     
comb9ation ( ! incid5ts ( ! /ory4       
,trag$y is ess5tially an imitation n (  
p]sons b ( action & life1 ( happ9ess &  
mis]y4 ,all human happ9ess or mis]y     
takes ! =m ( action2 ! end = :i* we live
 is a c]ta9 k9d ( activity1 n a quality4
 ,"* gives u qualities1 b x is 9 our    
actions--:at we d--t we are happy or !  
rev]se4 ,9 a play accord+ly !y d n act 9
 ord] to portray ! ,*>act]s2 !y include 
! ,*>act]s = ! sake ( ! action4 ,s t x  
is ! action 9 x1 i4e4 its ,fable or     
,plot1 t is ! end & purpose ( ! trag$y2 
& ! end is ev]y:]e ! *ief ?+4 ,besides  
?is1 a trag$y is impossible )\t action1 

b !re may be "o )\t ,"*4 ,! trag$ies (  
mo/ ( ! mod]ns are *>act]less--a defect 
common among poets ( all k9ds1 & ) its  
c\nt]p>t 9 pa9t+ 9 ,zeuxis z comp>$ )   
,polygnotus2 = :]eas ! latt] is /rong 9 
"*1 ! "w ( ,zeuxis is devoid ( x4 ,&    
aga93 "o may /r+ toge!r a s]ies (       
*>act]i/ic spee*es ( ! utmo/ f9i% z     
reg>ds ,diction & ,?\ght1 & yet fail to 
produce ! true tragic effect2 b "o w h  
mu* bett] success ) a trag$y :i*1 h[ev] 
inf]ior 9 ^! respects1 has a ,plot1 a   
comb9ation ( incid5ts1 9 x4 ,& aga93 !  
mo/ p[]ful elem5ts ( attraction 9       
,trag$y1 ! ,p]ipeties & ,discov]ies1 are
 p>ts ( ! ,plot4 ,a fur!r pro( is 9 !   
fact t beg9n]s succe$ e>li] ) ! ,diction
 & ,*>act]s ?an ) ! con/ruction ( a     
/ory2 & ! same may be said ( ne>ly all !
 e>ly dramati/s4 ,we ma9ta91 !re=e1 t ! 
fir/ ess5tial1 ! life & s\l1 s to speak1
 ( ,trag$y is ! ,plot2 & t ! ,*>act]s   
come second--comp>e ! p>allel 9 pa9t+1  
:]e ! mo/ beautiful col\rs laid on )\t  
ord] w n give "o ! same pleasure z a    

simple black-&-:ite sket* ( a portrait4 
,we ma9ta9 t ,trag$y is prim>ily an     
imitation ( action1 & t x is ma9ly = !  
sake ( ! action t x imitates ! p]sonal  
ag5ts4 ,?ird comes ! elem5t ( ,?\ght1   
i4e4 ! p[] ( say+ :atev] c be said1 or  
:at is appropriate to ! occasion4 ,?is  
is :at1 9 ! spee*es 9 ,trag$y1 falls "u 
! arts ( ,politics & ,rhetoric2 = ! old]
 poets make _! p]sonages disc\rse l     
/atesm51 & ! mod]ns l rhetoricians4 ,"o 
mu/ n confuse x ) ,"*4 ,"* 9 a play is t
 :i* reveals ! moral purpose ( ! ag5ts1 
i4e4 ! sort ( ?+ !y seek or avoid1 :]e t
 is n obvi\s--h5ce !re is no room = ,"* 
9 a spee* on a purely indiff]5t subject4
 ,?\ght1 on ! o!r h&1 is %[n 9 all !y   
say :5 prov+ or disprov+ "s p>ticul>    
po9t1 or enunciat+ "s univ]sal          
proposition4 ,f\r? among ! lit]>y       
elem5ts is ! ,diction ( ! p]sonages1    
i4e4 z be=e expla9$1 ! expression ( _!  
?\ghts 9 words1 :i* is practically !    
same ?+ ) v]se z ) prose4 ,z = ! two    
rema9+ p>ts1 ! ,melody is ! greate/ ( ! 

pleasurable accessories ( ,trag$y4 ,!   
,spectacle1 ?\gh an attraction1 is !    
lea/ arti/ic ( all ! p>ts1 & has lea/ to
 d ) ! art ( poetry4 ,! tragic effect is
 q possible )\t a public p]=mance &     
actors2 & besides1 ! gett+-up ( !       
,spectacle is m a matt] = ! co/umi] ?an 
! poet4     #g   ,hav+ ?us di/+ui%$ !   
p>ts1 let u n[ consid] ! prop]          
con/ruction ( ! ,fable or ,plot1 z t is 
at once ! fir/ & ! mo/ important ?+ 9   
,trag$y4 ,we h laid x d[n t a trag$y is 
an imitation ( an action t is complete 9
 itself1 z a :ole ( "s magnitude2 = a   
:ole may be ( no magnitude to speak (4  
,n[ a :ole is t :i* has beg9n+1 middle1 
& end4 ,a beg9n+ is t :i* is n itself   
necess>ily aft] any?+ else1 & :i* has   
naturally some?+ else aft] x2 an end is 
t :i* is naturally aft] some?+ itself1  
ei!r z its necess>y or usual consequ5t1 
& ) no?+ else aft] x2 & a middle1 t :i* 
is by nature aft] "o ?+ & has also ano!r
 aft] x4 ,a well-con/ruct$ ,plot1 !re=e1
 _c ei!r beg9 or end at any po9t "o     

likes2 beg9n+ & end 9 x mu/ be ( ! =ms j
 describ$4 ,aga93 to be beautiful1 a    
liv+ creature1 & e :ole made up ( p>ts1 
mu/ n only pres5t a c]ta9 ord] 9 its    
arrangem5t ( p>ts1 b also be ( a c]ta9  
def9ite magnitude4 ,beauty is a matt] ( 
size & ord]1 & !re=e impossible ei!r    
7#a7 9 a v m9ute creature1 s9ce our     
p]ception becomes indi/9ct z x approa*es
 in/antaneity2 or 7#b7 9 a creature (   
va/ size--"o1 say1 #a1jjj miles long--z 
9 t case1 in/ead ( ! object be+ se5 all 
at once1 ! unity & :ol5ess ( x is lo/ to
 ! behold]4  ,j 9 ! same way1 !n1 z a   
beautiful :ole made up ( p>ts1 or a     
beautiful liv+ creature1 mu/ be ( "s    
size1 a size to be tak5 9 by ! eye1 s a 
/ory or ,plot mu/ be ( "s l5g?1 b ( a   
l5g? to be tak5 9 by ! memory4 ,z = !   
limit ( its l5g?1 s f> z t is relative  
to public p]=mances & spectators1 x does
 n fall )9 ! !ory ( poetry4 ,if !y _h to
 p]=m a hundr$ trag$ies1 !y w\ld be tim$
 by wat]-clocks1 z !y are said to h be5 
at "o p]iod4 ,! limit1 h[ev]1 set by !  

actual nature ( ! ?+ is ?is3 ! long] !  
/ory1 consi/5tly ) its be+ compreh5sible
 z a :ole1 ! f9] x is by reason ( its   
magnitude4 ,z a r\gh g5]al =mula1 'a    
l5g? :i* all[s ( ! h]o pass+ by a s]ies 
( probable or necess>y /ages f mis=tune 
to happ9ess1 or f happ9ess to mis=tune'1
 may suffice z a limit = ! magnitude ( !
 /ory4     #h   ,! ,unity ( a ,plot does
 n consi/1 z "s suppose1 9 its hav+ "o  
man z its subject4 ,an inf9ity ( ?+s    
befall t "o man1 "s ( :i* x is          
impossible to r$uce to unity2 & 9 l     
mann] !re are _m actions ( "o man :i* _c
 be made to =m "o action4 ,"o sees1     
!re=e1 ! mi/ake ( all ! poets :o h      
writt5 a ,h]acleid1 a ,!seid1 or simil> 
poems2 !y suppose t1 because ,h]acles 0 
"o man1 ! /ory also ( ,h]acles mu/ be "o
 /ory4 ,hom]1 h[ev]1 evid5tly und]/ood  
?is po9t q well1 :e!r by art or in/9ct1 
j 9 ! same way z he excels ! re/ 9 e o!r
 respect4 ,9 writ+ an ,odyssey1 he did n
 make ! poem cov] all t ev] befell 8    
h]o--x befell him1 = in/ance1 to get    

w\nd$ on ,p>nassus & also to feign      
madness at ! "t ( ! call to arms1 b !   
two incid5ts _h no probable or necess>y 
connexion ) "o ano!r--in/ead ( do+ t1 he
 took an action ) a ,unity ( ! k9d we   
are describ+ z ! subject ( ! ,odyssey1 z
 also ( ! ,iliad4 ,! tru? is t1 j z 9 ! 
o!r imitative arts "o imitation is      
always ( "o ?+1 s 9 poetry ! /ory1 z an 
imitation ( action1 mu/ repres5t "o     
action1 a complete :ole1 ) its sev]al   
incid5ts s closely connect$ t !         
transposal or )drawal ( any "o ( !m w   
disjo9 & dislocate ! :ole4 ,= t :i*     
makes no p]ceptible diff]5ce by its     
pres5ce or abs5ce is no real "p ( !     
:ole4     #i   ,f :at we h said x w be  
se5 t ! poet's function is to describe1 
n ! ?+ t has happ5$1 b a k9d ( ?+ t     
might happ51 i4e4 :at is possible z be+ 
probable or necess>y4 ,! di/9ction      
betwe5 hi/orian & poet is n 9 ! "o writ+
 prose & ! o!r v]se--y might put ! "w ( 
,h]odotus into v]se1 & x w\ld /ill be a 
species ( hi/ory2 x consi/s really 9    

?is1 t ! "o describes ! ?+ t has be51 & 
! o!r a k9d ( ?+ t might be4 ,h5ce      
poetry is some?+ m philosophic & ( grav]
 import ?an hi/ory1 s9ce its /atem5ts   
are ( ! nature r ( univ]sals1 :]eas ^? (
 hi/ory are s+ul>s4 ,by a univ]sal      
/atem5t ,i mean "o z to :at su* or su* a
 k9d ( man w probably or necess>ily say 
or d--:i* is ! aim ( poetry1 ?\gh x     
affixes prop] names to ! *>act]s2 by a  
s+ul> /atem5t1 "o z to :at1 say1        
,alcibiades did or _h done to him4 ,9   
,com$y ?is has become cle> by ?is "t2 x 
is only :5 _! plot is already made up ( 
probable incid5ts t !y give x a basis ( 
prop] names1 *oos+ = ! purpose any names
 t may occur to !m1 in/ead ( writ+ l !  
old iambic poets ab\t p>ticul> p]sons4  
,9 ,trag$y1 h[ev]1 !y /ill adh]e to !   
hi/oric names2 & = ?is reason3 :at      
conv9ces is ! possible2 n[ :]eas we are 
n yet sure z to ! possibility ( t :i*   
has n happ5$1 t :i* has happ5$ is       
manife/ly possible1 else x w\ld n h come
 to pass4 ,nev]!less ev5 9 ,trag$y !re  

are "s plays ) b "o or two kn[n names 9 
!m1 ! re/ be+ inv5tions2 & !re are "s   
)\t a s+le kn[n "n1 e4g4 ,aga?on's      
,an!ns1 9 :i* bo? incid5ts & names are (
 ! poet's inv5tion2 & x is no less      
delightful on t acc\nt4 ,s t "o mu/ n   
aim at a rigid adh]5ce to ! traditional 
/ories on :i* trag$ies are bas$4 ,x w\ld
 be absurd1 9 fact1 to d s1 z ev5 ! kn[n
 /ories are only kn[n to a few1 ?\gh !y 
are a delight none ! less to all4  ,x is
 evid5t f ! above t1 ! poet mu/ be m !  
poet ( 8 /ories or ,plots ?an ( 8 v]ses1
 inasmu* z he is a poet by virtue ( !   
imitative elem5t 9 8 "w1 & x is actions 
t he imitates4 ,& if he %\ld come to    
take a subject f actual hi/ory1 he is   
none ! less a poet = t2 s9ce "s hi/oric 
occurr5ces may v well be 9 ! probable & 
possible ord] ( ?+s2 & x is 9 t aspect (
 !m t he is _! poet4  ,( simple ,plots &
 actions ! episodic are ! wor/4 ,i call 
a ,plot episodic :5 !re is nei!r        
probability nor necessity 9 ! sequ5ce ( 
episodes4 ,actions ( ?is sort bad poets 

con/ruct ?r\gh _! own fault1 & good ones
 on acc\nt ( ! play]s4 ,8 "w be+ =      
public p]=mance1 a good poet (t5 /ret*es
 out a ,plot beyond its capabilities1 & 
is ?us oblig$ to twi/ ! sequ5ce (       
incid5t4  ,trag$y1 h[ev]1 is an         
imitation n only ( a complete action1 b 
also ( incid5ts ar\s+ pity & fe>4 ,su*  
incid5ts h ! v greate/ effect on ! m9d  
:5 !y occur unexpect$ly & at ! same "t 9
 consequ5ce ( "o ano!r2 !re is m ( !    
m>vell\s 9 !m !n ?an if !y happ5$ (     
!mselves or by m]e *ance4 ,ev5 matt]s ( 
*ance seem mo/ m>vell\s if !re is an    
appe>ance ( design z x 7 9 !m2 z =      
in/ance ! /atue ( ,mitys at ,argos kill$
 ! au?or ( ,mitys' dea? by fall+ d[n on 
him :5 a look]-on at a public spectacle2
 = incid5ts l t we ?9k to be n )\t a    
mean+4 ,a ,plot1 !re=e1 ( ?is sort is   
necess>ily f9] ?an o!rs4     #aj        
,plots are ei!r simple or complex1 s9ce 
! actions !y repres5t are naturally (   
?is tw(old description4 ,! action1      
proce$+ 9 ! way def9$1 z "o cont9u\s    

:ole1 ,i call simple1 :5 ! *ange 9 !    
h]o's =tunes takes place )\t ,p]ipety or
 ,discov]y2 & complex1 :5 x involves "o 
or ! o!r1 or bo?4 ,^! %\ld ea* ( !m     
arise out ( ! /ructure ( ! ,plot itself1
 s z to be ! consequ5ce1 necess>y or    
probable1 ( ! antec$5ts4 ,!re is a great
 diff]5ce betwe5 a ?+ happ5+ propt] hoc 
& po/ hoc4     #aa   ,a ,p]ipety is !   
*ange f "o /ate ( ?+s )9 ! play to its  
opposite ( ! k9d describ$1 & t too 9 !  
way we are say+1 9 ! probable or        
necess>y sequ5ce ( ev5ts2 z x is =      
in/ance 9 ,o$ipus3 "h ! opposite /ate ( 
?+s is produc$ by ! ,mess5g]1 :o1 com+  
to gladd5 ,o$ipus & to remove 8 fe>s z  
to 8 "m1 reveals ! secret ( 8 bir?4 ,& 9
 ,lynceus3 j z he is be+ l$ (f =        
execution1 ) ,danaus at 8 side to put   
him to dea?1 ! incid5ts prec$+ ?is br+ x
 ab\t t he is sav$ & ,danaus put to     
dea?4 ,a ,discov]y is1 z ! v ^w implies1
 a *ange f ignorance to k1 & ?us to ei!r
 love or hate1 9 ! p]sonages m>k$ = good
 or evil =tune4 ,! f9e/ =m ( ,discov]y  

is "o att5d$ by ,p]ipeties1 l t :i* goes
 ) ! ,discov]y 9 ,o$ipus4 ,!re are no   
d\bt o!r =ms ( x2 :at we h said may     
happ5 9 a way 9 ref]5ce to inanimate    
?+s1 ev5 ?+s ( a v casual k9d2 & x is   
also possible to discov] :e!r "s "o has 
done or n done some?+4 ,b ! =m mo/      
directly connect$ ) ! ,plot & ! action (
 ! piece is ! fir/-m5tion$4 ,?is1 ) a   
,p]ipety1 w ar\se ei!r pity or          
fe>--actions ( t nature be+ :at ,trag$y 
is assum$ to repres5t2 & x w also s]ve  
to br+ ab\t ! happy or unhappy end+4 ,! 
,discov]y1 !n1 be+ ( p]sons1 x may be t 
( "o p>ty only to ! o!r1 ! latt] be+    
already kn[n2 or bo? ! p>ties may h to  
discov] !mselves4 ,iphig5ia1 = in/ance1 
0 discov]$ to ,ore/es by s5d+ ! lett]2 &
 ano!r ,discov]y 0 requir$ to reveal him
 to ,iphig5ia4  ,two p>ts ( ! ,plot1 !n1
 ,p]ipety & ,discov]y1 are on matt]s (  
?is sort4 ,a ?ird "p is ,suff]+2 :i* we 
may def9e z an action ( a de/ructive or 
pa9ful nature1 su* z murd]s on ! /age1  
tortures1 w\nd+s1 & ! l4 ,! o!r two h   

be5 already expla9$4     #ab   ,! p>ts (
 ,trag$y to be treat$ z =mative elem5ts 
9 ! :ole 7 m5tion$ 9 a previ\s ,*apt]4  
,f ! po9t ( view1 h[ev]1 ( its quantity1
 i4e4 ! sep>ate sections into :i* x is  
divid$1 a trag$y has ! foll[+ p>ts3     
,prologue1 ,episode1 ,exode1 & a *oral  
portion1 di/+ui%$ into ,p>ode &         
,/asimon2 ^! two are common to all      
trag$ies1 :]eas songs f ! /age & ,commoe
 are only f\nd 9 "s4 ,! ,prologue is all
 t prec$es ! ,p>ode ( ! *orus2 an       
,episode all t comes 9 betwe5 two :ole  
*oral songs2 ! ,exode all t foll[s aft] 
! la/ *oral song4 ,9 ! *oral portion !  
,p>ode is ! :ole fir/ /atem5t ( ! *orus2
 a ,/asimon1 a song ( ! *orus )\t       
anapae/s or tro*ees2 a ,commas1 a       
lam5tation sung by *orus & actor 9      
conc]t4 ,! p>ts ( ,trag$y to be us$ z   
=mative elem5ts 9 ! :ole we h already   
m5tion$2 ! above are its p>ts f ! po9t (
 view ( its quantity1 or ! sep>ate      
sections into :i* x is divid$4     #ac  
,! next po9ts aft] :at we h said above w

 be ^!3 7#a7 ,:at is ! poet to aim at1 &
 :at is he to avoid1 9 con/ruct+ 8      
,plots8 & 7#b7 ,:at are ! conditions on 
:i* ! tragic effect dep5ds8  ,we assume 
t1 = ! f9e/ =m ( ,trag$y1 ! ,plot mu/ be
 n simple b complex2 & fur!r1 t x mu/   
imitate actions ar\s+ pity & fe>1 s9ce t
 is ! di/9ctive function ( ?is k9d (    
imitation4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t !re are  
?ree =ms ( ,plot to be avoid$4 7#a7 ,a  
good man mu/ n be se5 pass+ f happ9ess  
to mis]y1 or 7#b7 a bad man f mis]y to  
happ9ess4  ,! fir/ situation is n       
fe>-inspir+ or pite\s1 b simply odi\s to
 u4 ,! second is ! mo/ untragic t c be2 
x has no "o ( ! requisites ( ,trag$y2 x 
does n appeal ei!r to ! human feel+ 9 u1
 or to our pity1 or to our fe>s4 ,nor1  
on ! o!r h&1 %\ld 7#c7 an extremely bad 
man be se5 fall+ f happ9ess into mis]y4 
,su* a /ory may ar\se ! human feel+ 9 u1
 b x w n move u to ei!r pity or fe>2    
pity is occasion$ by undes]v$ mis=tune1 
& fe> by t ( "o l ourselves2 s t !re w  
be no?+ ei!r pite\s or fe>-inspir+ 9 !  

situation4 ,!re rema9s1 !n1 ! int]m$iate
 k9d ( p]sonage1 a man n pre-em95tly    
virtu\s & j1 ^: mis=tune1 h[ev]1 is     
br\ght ^u him n by vice & depravity b by
 "s error ( judgem5t1 ( ! numb] ( ^? 9 !
 enjoym5t ( great reputation &          
prosp]ity2 e4g4 ,o$ipus1 ,?ye/es1 & ! m5
 ( note ( simil> families4 ,! p]fect    
,plot1 accord+ly1 mu/ h a s+le1 & n 7z  
"s tell u7 a d\ble issue2 ! *ange 9 !   
h]o's =tunes mu/ be n f mis]y to        
happ9ess1 b on ! contr>y f happ9ess to  
mis]y2 & ! cause ( x mu/ lie n 9 any    
depravity1 b 9 "s great error on 8 "p2 !
 man himself be+ ei!r su* z we h        
describ$1 or bett]1 n worse1 ?an t4     
,fact also confirms our !ory4 ,?\gh !   
poets began by accept+ any tragic /ory t
 came to h&1 9 ^! days ! f9e/ trag$ies  
are always on ! /ory ( "s few h\ses1 on 
t ( ,alemeon1 ,o$ipus1 ,ore/es1         
,meleag]1 ,?ye/es1 ,telephus1 or any    
o!rs t may h be5 involv$1 z ei!r ag5ts  
or suff]]s1 9 "s de$ ( horror4 ,!       
!oretically be/ trag$y1 !n1 has a ,plot 

( ?is description4 ,! critics1 !re=e1   
are wrong :o blame ,euripides = tak+ ?is
 l9e 9 8 trag$ies1 & giv+ _m ( !m an    
unhappy end+4 ,x is1 z we h said1 ! "r  
l9e to take4 ,! be/ pro( is ?is3 on !   
/age1 & 9 ! public p]=mances1 su* plays1
 prop]ly work$ out1 are se5 to be ! mo/ 
truly tragic2 & ,euripides1 ev5 if 8    
elecution be faulty 9 e o!r po9t1 is se5
 to be nev]!less ! mo/ tragic c]ta9ly ( 
! dramati/s4 ,aft] ?is comes !          
con/ruction ( ,plot :i* "s rank fir/1 "o
 ) a d\ble /ory 7l ! ,odyssey7 & an     
opposite issue = ! good & ! bad         
p]sonages4 ,x is rank$ z fir/ only ?r\gh
 ! weakness ( ! audi5ces2 ! poets m]ely 
foll[ _! public1 writ+ z its wi%es      
dictate4 ,b ! pleasure "h is n t (      
,trag$y4 ,x belongs r to ,com$y1 :]e !  
bitt]e/ enemies 9 ! piece 7e4g4 ,ore/es 
& ,aegi/hus7 walk (f good fri5ds at !   
end1 ) no slay+ ( any "o by any "o4     
#ad   ,! tragic fe> & pity may be ar\s$ 
by ! ,spectacle2 b !y may also be ar\s$ 
by ! v /ructure & incid5ts ( ! play--:i*

 is ! bett] way & %[s ! bett] poet4 ,!  
,plot 9 fact %\ld be s fram$ t1 ev5 )\t 
see+ ! ?+s take place1 he :o simply he>s
 ! acc\nt ( !m %all be fill$ ) horror & 
pity at ! incid5ts2 :i* is j ! effect t 
! m]e recital ( ! /ory 9 ,o$ipus w\ld h 
on "o4 ,to produce ?is same effect by   
means ( ! ,spectacle is less arti/ic1 & 
requires extrane\s aid4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o  
make use ( ! ,spectacle to put be=e u t 
:i* is m]ely mon/r\s & n productive (   
fe>1 are :olly out ( t\* ) ,trag$y2 n e 
k9d ( pleasure %\ld be requir$ ( a      
trag$y1 b only its own prop] pleasure4  
,! tragic pleasure is t ( pity & fe>1 & 
! poet has to produce x by a "w (       
imitation2 x is cle>1 !re=e1 t ! causes 
%\ld be includ$ 9 ! incid5ts ( 8 /ory4  
,let u see1 !n1 :at k9ds ( incid5t /rike
 "o z horrible1 or r z pite\s4 ,9 a de$ 
( ?is description ! p>ties mu/          
necess>ily be ei!r fri5ds1 or enemies1  
or indiff]5t to "o ano!r4 ,n[ :5 enemy  
does x on enemy1 !re is no?+ to move u  
to pity ei!r 9 8 do+ or 9 8 m$itat+ !   

de$1 except s f> z ! actual pa9 ( !     
suff]] is conc]n$2 & ! same is true :5 !
 p>ties are indiff]5t to "o ano!r4      
,:5ev] ! tragic de$1 h[ev]1 is done )9 !
 family--:5 murd] or ! l is done or     
m$itat$ by bro!r on bro!r1 by son on    
fa!r1 by "m on son1 or son on "m--^! are
 ! situations ! poet %\ld seek aft]4 ,! 
traditional /ories1 accord+ly1 mu/ be   
kept z !y are1 e4g4 ! murd] (           
,clytaemne/ra by ,ore/es & ( ,eriphyle  
by ,alcmeon4 ,at ! same "t ev5 ) ^! !re 
is some?+ left to ! poet himself2 x is =
 him to devise ! "r way ( treat+ !m4    
,let u expla9 m cle>ly :at we mean by '!
 "r way'4 ,! de$ ( horror may be done by
 ! do] kn[+ly & consci\sly1 z 9 ! old   
poets1 & 9 ,m$ea's murd] ( h] *ildr5 9  
,euripides4 ,or he may d x1 b 9         
ignorance ( 8 relation%ip1 & discov] t  
aft]w>ds1 z does ! ,o$ipus 9 ,sophocles4
 ,"h ! de$ is outside ! play2 b x may be
 )9 x1 l ! act ( ! ,alcmeon 9 ,a/ydamas1
 or t ( ! ,telegonus 9 ,ulysses ,w\nd$4 
,a ?ird possibility is = "o m$itat+ "s  

deadly injury to ano!r1 9 ignorance ( 8 
relation%ip1 to make ! discov]y 9 "t to 
draw back4 ,^! exhau/ ! possibilities1  
s9ce ! de$ mu/ necess>ily be ei!r done  
or n done1 & ei!r kn[+ly or unkn[+ly4   
,! wor/ situation is :5 ! p]sonage is ) 
full k on ! po9t ( do+ ! de$1 & leaves x
 undone4 ,x is odi\s & also 7?r\gh !    
abs5ce ( suff]+7 untragic2 h5ce x is t  
no "o is made to act ?us except 9 "s few
 in/ances1 e4g4 ,haemon & ,creon 9      
,antigone4 ,next aft] ?is comes ! actual
 p]petration ( ! de$ m$itat$4 ,a bett]  
situation ?an t1 h[ev]1 is = ! de$ to be
 done 9 ignorance1 & ! relation%ip      
discov]$ aft]w>ds1 s9ce !re is no?+     
odi\s 9 x1 & ! ,discov]y w s]ve to a/\nd
 u4 ,b ! be/ ( all is ! la/2 :at we h 9 
,cresphontes1 = example1 :]e ,m]ope1 on 
! po9t ( slay+ h] son1 recognizes him 9 
"t2 9 ,iphig5ia1 :]e si/] & bro!r are 9 
a l position2 & 9 ,helle1 :]e ! son     
recognizes 8 "m1 :5 on ! po9t ( giv+ h] 
up to h] enemy4  ,?is w expla9 :y our   
trag$ies are re/rict$ 7z we said j n[7  

to su* a small numb] ( families4 ,x 0   
accid5t r ?an art t l$ ! poets 9 que/ ( 
subjects to embody ?is k9d ( incid5t 9  
_! ,plots4 ,!y are /ill oblig$1         
accord+ly1 to h rec\rse to ! families 9 
:i* su* horrors h occurr$4  ,on !       
con/ruction ( ! ,plot1 & ! k9d ( ,plot  
requir$ = ,trag$y1 en\gh has n[ be5     
said4     #ae   ,9 ! ,*>act]s !re are   
f\r po9ts to aim at4 ,fir/ & =emo/1 t !y
 %all be good4 ,!re w be an elem5t ( "* 
9 ! play1 if 7z has be5 obs]v$7 :at a   
p]sonage says or does reveals a c]ta9   
moral purpose2 & a good elem5t ( "*1 if 
! purpose s reveal$ is good4 ,su*       
goodness is possible 9 e type (         
p]sonage1 ev5 9 a woman or a slave1 ?\gh
 ! "o is p]haps an inf]ior1 & ! o!r a   
:olly wor?less be+4 ,! second po9t is to
 make !m appropriate4 ,! ,"* be=e u may 
be1 say1 manly2 b x is n appropriate 9 a
 female ,"* to be manly1 or clev]4 ,!   
?ird is to make !m l ! reality1 :i* is n
 ! same z _! be+ good & appropriate1 9  
our s5se ( ! t]m4 ,! f\r? is to make !m 

consi/5t & ! same ?r\gh\t2 ev5 if       
inconsi/5cy be "p ( ! man be=e "o =     
imitation z pres5t+ t =m ( "*1 he %\ld  
/ill be consi/5tly inconsi/5t4 ,we h an 
in/ance ( bas5ess ( "*1 n requir$ = !   
/ory1 9 ! ,m5elaus 9 ,ore/es2 ( !       
incongru\s & unbefitt+ 9 ! lam5tation ( 
,ulysses 9 ,scylla1 & 9 ! 7clev]7 spee* 
( ,melanippe2 & ( inconsi/5cy 9         
,iphig5ia at ,aulis1 :]e ,iphig5ia !    
suppliant is utt]ly unlike ! lat]       
,iphig5ia4 ,! "r ?+1 h[ev]1 is 9 !      
,*>act]s j z 9 ! incid5ts ( ! play to   
endeav\r always aft] ! necess>y or !    
probable2 s t :5ev] su*-&-su* a p]sonage
 says or does su*-&-su* a ?+1 x %all be 
! probable or necess>y outcome ( 8 "*2 &
 :5ev] ?is incid5t foll[s on t1 x %all  
be ei!r ! necess>y or ! probable        
consequ5ce ( x4 ,f ?is "o sees 7to      
digress = a mom5t7 t ! ,d5\em5t also    
%\ld arise out ( ! plot itself1 arid n  
dep5d on a /age-artifice1 z 9 ,m$ea1 or 
9 ! /ory ( ! 7arre/$7 dep>ture ( !      
,greeks 9 ! ,iliad4 ,! artifice mu/ be  

res]v$ = matt]s outside ! play--= pa/   
ev5ts beyond human k1 or ev5ts yet to   
come1 :i* require to be =etold or       
ann\nc$2 s9ce x is ! privilege ( ! ,gods
 to "k ev]y?+4 ,!re %\ld be no?+        
improbable among ! actual incid5ts4 ,if 
x be unavoidable1 h[ev]1 x %\ld be      
outside ! trag$y1 l ! improbability 9 ! 
,o$ipus ( ,sophocles4 ,b to return to ! 
,*>act]s4 ,z ,trag$y is an imitation (  
p]sonages bett] ?an ! ord9>y man1 we 9  
our way %\ld foll[ ! example ( good     
portrait-pa9t]s1 :o reproduce !         
di/9ctive features ( a man1 & at ! same 
"t1 )\t los+ ! lik5ess1 make him h&som] 
?an he is4 ,! poet 9 l mann]1 9 portray+
 m5 quick or sl[ to ang]1 or ) simil>   
infirmities ( "*1 mu/ "k h[ to repres5t 
!m z su*1 & at ! same "t z good m51 z   
,aga?on & ,hom] h repres5t$ ,a*illes4   
,all ^! rules "o mu/ keep 9 m9d ?r\gh\t1
 & fur!r1 ^? also = su* po9ts (         
/age-effect z directly dep5d on ! art ( 
! poet1 s9ce 9 ^! too "o may (t5 make   
mi/akes4 ,en\gh1 h[ev]1 has be5 said on 

! subject 9 "o ( our publi%$ writ+s4    
#af   ,discov]y 9 g5]al has be5 expla9$ 
already4 ,z = ! species ( ,discov]y1 !  
fir/ to be not$ is 7#a7 ! lea/ arti/ic  
=m ( x1 ( :i* ! poets make mo/ use ?r\gh
 m]e lack ( inv5tion1 ,discov]y by signs
 or m>ks4 ,( ^! signs "s are cong5ital1 
l ! 'lance-head :i* ! ,e>?-born h on    
!m'1 or '/>s'1 su* z ,c>c9us br+s 9 9 8 
,?ye/es2 o!rs acquir$ aft] bir?--^!     
latt] be+ ei!r m>ks on ! body1 e4g4     
sc>s1 or ext]nal tok5s1 l necklaces1 or 
to take ano!r sort ( in/ance1 ! ark 9 ! 
,discov]y 9 ,tyro4 ,ev5 ^!1 h[ev]1 admit
 ( two uses1 a bett] & a worse2 ! sc> ( 
,ulysses is an in/ance2 ! ,discov]y (   
him ?r\gh x is made 9 "o way by ! nurse 
& 9 ano!r by ! sw9eh]ds4 ,a ,discov]y   
us+ signs z a means ( assurance is less 
arti/ic1 z inde$ are all su* z imply    
reflection2 :]eas "o br++ !m 9 all ( a  
sudd51 z 9 ! ,ba?-/ory1 is ( a bett]    
ord]4 ,next aft] ^! are 7#b7 ,discov]ies
 made directly by ! poet2 :i* are       
in>ti/ic = t v reason2 e4g4 ,ore/es'    

,discov]y ( himself 9 ,iphig5ia3 :]eas 8
 si/] reveals :o %e is by ! lett]1      
,ore/es is made to say himself :at !    
poet r ?an ! /ory dem&s4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is
 n f> remov$ f ! fir/-m5tion$ fault1    
s9ce he might h pres5t$ c]ta9 tok5s z   
well4 ,ano!r in/ance is ! '%uttle's     
voice' 9 ! ,t]eus ( ,sophocles4 7#c7 ,a 
?ird species is ,discov]y ?r\gh memory1 
f a man's consci\sness be+ awak5$ by    
some?+ se5 or he>d4 ,?us 9 ,! ,cyprioe (
 ,dicaeog5es1 ! sight ( ! picture makes 
! man bur/ into te>s2 & 9 ! ,tale (     
,alc9\s1 he>+ ! h>p] ,ulysses is rem9d$ 
( ! pa/ & weeps2 ! ,discov]y ( !m be+ ! 
result4 7#d7 ,a f\r? k9d is ,discov]y   
?r\gh reason+2 e4g4 9 ,! ,*oephoroe3    
',"o l me is "h2 !re is no "o l me b    
,ore/es2 he1 !re=e1 mu/ be "h4' ,or t   
:i* ,polyidus ! ,sophi/ sugge/$ =       
,iphig5ia2 s9ce x 0 natural = ,ore/es to
 reflect3 ',my si/] 0 sacrific$1 & ,i am
 to be sacrific$ l h]4' ,or t 9 !       
,tydeus ( ,!odectes3 ',i came to f9d a  
son1 & am to die myself4' ,or t 9 ,!    

,ph9idae3 on see+ ! place ! wom5 inf]r$ 
_! fate1 t !y 7 to die !re1 s9ce !y _h  
also be5 expos$ !re4 7#e7 ,!re is1 too1 
a composite ,discov]y aris+ f bad       
reason+ on ! side ( ! o!r p>ty4 ,an     
in/ance ( x is 9 ,ulysses ! ,false      
,mess5g]3 he said he %\ld "k ! b[--:i*  
he _h n se52 b to suppose f t t he w\ld 
"k x aga9 7z ?\gh he _h once se5 x7 0   
bad reason+4 7#f7 ,! be/ ( all          
,discov]ies1 h[ev]1 is t aris+ f !      
incid5ts !mselves1 :5 ! great surprise  
comes ab\t ?r\gh a probable incid5t1 l t
 9 ! ,o$ipus ( ,sophocles2 & also 9     
,iphig5ia2 = x 0 n improbable t %e %\ld 
wi% to h a lett] tak5 home4 ,^! la/ are 
! only ,discov]ies indep5d5t ( !        
artifice ( signs & necklaces4 ,next aft]
 !m come ,discov]ies ?r\gh reason+4     
#ag   ,at ! "t :5 he is con/ruct+ 8     
,plots1 & engag$ on ! ,diction 9 :i* !y 
are work$ out1 ! poet %\ld rememb] 7#a7 
to put ! actual sc5es z f> z possible   
be=e 8 eyes4 ,9 ?is way1 see+ ev]y?+ ) !
 vividness ( an eye-witness z x 71 he w 

devise :at is appropriate1 & be lea/    
likely to ov]look incongruities4 ,?is is
 %[n by :at 0 c5sur$ 9 ,c>c9us1 ! return
 ( ,amphi>aus f ! sanctu>y2 x w\ld h    
pass$ unnotic$1 if x _h n be5 actually  
se5 by ! audi5ce2 b on ! /age 8 play    
fail$1 ! incongruity ( ! incid5t (f5d+ !
 spectators4 7#b7 ,z f> z may be1 too1 !
 poet %\ld ev5 act 8 /ory ) ! v ge/ures 
( 8 p]sonages4 ,giv5 ! same natural     
qualifications1 he :o feels ! emotions  
to be describ$ w be ! mo/ conv9c+2      
di/ress & ang]1 = in/ance1 are portray$ 
mo/ tru?fully by "o :o is feel+ !m at ! 
mom5t4 ,h5ce x is t poetry dem&s a man )
 special gift = x1 or else "o ) a t\* ( 
madness 9 him2 ! =m] c easily assume !  
requir$ mood1 & ! latt] may be actually 
beside himself ) emotion4 7#c7 ,8 /ory1 
aga91 :e!r already made or ( 8 own mak+1
 he %\ld fir/ simplify & r$uce to a     
univ]sal =m1 be=e proce$+ to l5g!n x out
 by ! ins]tion ( episodes4 ,! foll[+ w  
%[ h[ ! univ]sal elem5t 9 ,iphig5ia1 =  
in/ance1 may be view$3 ,a c]ta9 maid5   

hav+ be5 (f]$ 9 sacrifice1 & spirit$    
away f h] sacrific]s into ano!r l&1 :]e 
! cu/om 0 to sacrifice all /rang]s to ! 
,goddess1 %e 0 made !re ! prie/ess ( ?is
 rite4 ,long aft] t ! bro!r ( ! prie/ess
 happ5$ to come2 ! fact1 h[ev]1 ( !     
oracle hav+ = a c]ta9 reason bidd5 him g
 ?i!r1 & 8 object 9 go+1 are outside !  
,plot ( ! play4 ,on 8 com+ he 0 arre/$1 
& ab\t to be sacrific$1 :5 he reveal$ :o
 he 0--ei!r z ,euripides puts x1 or 7z  
sugge/$ by ,polyidus7 by ! n improbable 
exclamation1 ',s ,i too am doom$ to be  
sacrific$1 z my si/] 0'2 & ! disclosure 
l$ to 8 salvation4 ,?is done1 ! next ?+1
 aft] ! prop] names h be5 fix$ z a basis
 = ! /ory1 is to "w 9 episodes or       
accessory incid5ts4 ,"o mu/ m9d1 h[ev]1 
t ! episodes are appropriate1 l ! fit ( 
madness 9 ,ore/es1 :i* l$ to 8 arre/1 & 
! purify+1 :i* br\ght ab\t 8 salvation4 
,9 plays1 !n1 ! episodes are %ort2 9    
epic poetry !y s]ve to l5g!n out ! poem4
 ,! argum5t ( ! ,odyssey is n a long "o4
  ,a c]ta9 man has be5 abroad _m ye>s2  

,poseidon is ev] on ! wat* = him1 & he  
is all alone4 ,matt]s at home too h come
 to ?is1 t 8 sub/ance is be+ wa/$ & 8   
son's dea? plott$ by suitors to 8 wife4 
,!n he arrives !re himself aft] 8       
griev\s suff]+s2 reveals himself1 &     
falls on 8 enemies2 & ! end is 8        
salvation & _! dea?4 ,?is be+ all t is  
prop] to ! ,odyssey1 ev]y?+ else 9 x is 
episode4     #ah   7#d7 ,!re is a fur!r 
po9t to be borne 9 m9d4 ,e trag$y is 9  
"p ,complication & 9 "p ,d5\em5t2 !     
incid5ts be=e ! op5+ sc5e1 & (t5 c]ta9  
also ( ^? )9 ! play1 =m+ !              
,complication2 & ! re/ ! ,d5\em5t4 ,by  
,complication ,i mean all f ! beg9n+ ( !
 /ory to ! po9t j be=e ! *ange 9 ! h]o's
 =tunes2 by ,d5\em5t1 all f ! beg9n+ ( !
 *ange to ! end4 ,9 ! ,lynceus (        
,!odectes1 = in/ance1 ! ,complication   
includes1 toge!r ) ! presuppos$         
incid5ts1 ! seizure ( ! *ild & t 9 turn 
( ! p>5ts2 & ! ,d5\em5t all f !         
indictm5t = ! murd] to ! end4 ,n[ x is  
"r1 :5 "o speaks ( a trag$y z ! same or 

n ! same z ano!r1 to d s on ! gr\nd be=e
 all else ( _! ,plot1 i4e4 z hav+ ! same
 or n ! same ,complication & ,d5\em5t4  
,yet !re are _m dramati/s :o1 aft] a    
good ,complication1 fail 9 ! ,d5\em5t4  
,b x is necess>y = bo? po9ts (          
con/ruction to be always duly ma/]$4    
7#e7 ,!re are f\r di/9ct species (      
,trag$y--t be+ ! numb] ( ! con/itu5ts   
also t h be5 m5tion$3 fir/1 ! complex   
,trag$y1 :i* is all ,p]ipety &          
,discov]y2 second1 ! ,trag$y ( suff]+1  
e4g4 ! ,ajaxes & ,ixions2 ?ird1 !       
,trag$y ( "*1 e4g4 ,! ,ph?iotides &     
,peleus4 ,! f\r? con/itu5t is t (       
',spectacle'1 exemplifi$ 9 ,!           
,phorcides1 9 ,prome!us1 & 9 all plays )
 ! sc5e laid 9 ! ne!r _w4 ,! poet's aim1
 !n1 %\ld be to comb9e e elem5t (       
int]e/1 if possible1 or else ! m        
important & ! major "p ( !m4 ,?is is n[ 
especially necess>y ow+ to ! unfair     
criticism to :i* ! poet is subject$ 9 ^!
 days4 ,j because !re h be5 poets be=e  
him /rong 9 ! sev]al species ( trag$y1 !

 critics n[ expect ! "o man to surpass t
 :i* 0 ! /rong po9t ( ea* "o ( 8        
pr$ecessors4 7#f7 ,"o %\ld also rememb] 
:at has be5 said m ?an once1 & n write a
 trag$y on an epic body ( incid5t 7i4e4 
"o ) a plurality ( /ories 9 x71 by      
attempt+ to dramatize1 = in/ance1 !     
entire /ory ( ! ,iliad4 ,9 ! epic ow+ to
 its scale e "p is treat$ at prop] l5g?2
 ) a drama1 h[ev]1 on ! same /ory !     
result is v disappo9t+4 ,?is is %[n by !
 fact t all :o h dramatiz$ ! fall (     
,ilium 9 its entirety1 & n "p by "p1 l  
,euripides1 or ! :ole ( ! ,niobe /ory1  
in/ead ( a portion1 l ,aes*ylus1 ei!r   
fail utt]ly or h b ill success on !     
/age2 = t & t alone 0 en\gh to ru9 a    
play by ,aga?on4 ,yet 9 _! ,p]ipeties1 z
 also 9 _! simple plots1 ! poets ,i mean
 %[ wond]ful skill 9 aim+ at ! k9d (    
effect !y desire--a tragic situation t  
ar\ses ! human feel+ 9 "o1 l ! clev]    
villa9 7e4g4 ,sisyphus7 deceiv$1 or !   
brave wrongdo] wor/$4 ,?is is probable1 
h[ev]1 only 9 ,aga?on's s5se1 :5 he     

speaks ( ! probability ( ev5            
improbabilities com+ to pass4 7#g7 ,!   
,*orus too %\ld be reg>d$ z "o ( !      
actors2 x %\ld be an integral "p ( !    
:ole1 & take a %>e 9 ! action--t :i* x  
has 9 ,sophocles r ?an 9 ,euripides4 ,) 
! lat] poets1 h[ev]1 ! songs 9 a play ( 
!irs h no m to d ) ! ,plot ( t ?an ( any
 o!r trag$y4 ,h5ce x is t !y are n[ s++ 
int]cal>y pieces1 a practice fir/       
introduc$ by ,aga?on4 ,& yet :at real   
diff]5ce is !re betwe5 s++ su* int]cal>y
 pieces1 & attempt+ to fit 9 a spee*1 or
 ev5 a :ole act1 f "o play into ano!r8  
#ai   ,! ,plot & ,*>act]s hav+ be5      
discuss$1 x rema9s to consid] ! ,diction
 & ,?\ght4 ,z = ! ,?\ght1 we may assume 
:at is said ( x 9 our ,art ( ,rhetoric1 
z x belongs m prop]ly to t dep>tm5t (   
inquiry4 ,! ,?\ght ( ! p]sonages is %[n 
9 ev]y?+ to be effect$ by _! language--9
 e ef=t to prove or disprove1 to ar\se  
emotion 7pity1 fe>1 ang]1 & ! l71 or to 
maximize or m9imize ?+s4 ,x is cle>1    
also1 t _! m5tal proc$ure mu/ be on !   

same l9es 9 _! actions likewise1 :5ev]  
!y wi% !m to ar\se pity or horror1 or h 
a look ( importance or probability4 ,!  
only diff]5ce is t ) ! act ! impression 
has to be made )\t explanation2 :]eas ) 
! spok5 ^w x has to be produc$ by !     
speak]1 & result f 8 language4 ,:at1    
inde$1 w\ld be ! good ( ! speak]1 if ?+s
 appe>$ 9 ! requir$ light ev5 ap>t f    
any?+ he says8  ,z reg>ds ! ,diction1 "o
 subject = inquiry "u ?is head is !     
turns giv5 to ! language :5 spok52 e4g4 
! diff]5ce betwe5 comm& & pray]1 simple 
/atem5t & ?reat1 "q & answ]1 & s =?4 ,! 
!ory ( su* matt]s1 h[ev]1 belongs to    
,elocution & ! pr(essors ( t art4 ,:e!r 
! poet kn[s ^! ?+s or n1 8 art z a poet 
is nev] s]i\sly criticiz$ on t acc\nt4  
,:at fault c "o see 9 ,hom]'s ',s+ ( !  
wra?1 ,goddess'8--:i* ,protagoras has   
criticiz$ z be+ a comm& :]e a pray] 0   
meant1 s9ce to bid "o d or n d1 he tells
 u1 is a comm&4 ,let u pass ov] ?is1 !n1
 z app]ta9+ to ano!r art1 & n to t (    
poetry4     #bj   ,! ,diction view$ z a 

:ole is made up ( ! foll[+ p>ts3 !      
,lett] 7or ultimate elem5t71 !          
,syllable1 ! ,conjunction1 ! ,article1 !
 ,n\n1 ! ,v]b1 ! ,case1 & ! ,spee*4 7#a7
 ,! ,lett] is an indivisible s\nd ( a   
p>ticul> k9d1 "o t may become a factor 9
 an intelligible s\nd4 ,indivisible     
s\nds are utt]$ by ! brutes also1 b no  
"o ( ^! is a ,lett] 9 our s5se ( ! t]m4 
,^! elem5t>y s\nds are ei!r v[els1      
semiv[els1 or mutes4 ,a v[el is a ,lett]
 hav+ an audible s\nd )\t ! addition (  
ano!r ,lett]4 ,a semiv[el1 "o hav+ an   
audible s\nd by ! addition ( ano!r      
,lett]2 e4g4 ,s & ,r4 ,a mute1 "o hav+  
no s\nd at all by itself1 b becom+      
audible by an addition1 t ( "o ( !      
,lett]s :i* h a s\nd ( "s sort ( _! own2
 e4g4 ,d & ,g4 ,! ,lett]s diff] 9 v>i\s 
ways3 z produc$ by diff]5t con=mations  
or 9 diff]5t regions ( ! m\?2 z         
aspirat$1 n aspirat$1 or sometimes "o & 
sometimes ! o!r2 z long1 %ort1 or (     
v>iable quantity2 & fur!r z hav+ an     
acute grave1 or int]m$iate acc5t4  ,!   

details ( ^! matt]s we mu/ leave to !   
metricians4 7#b7 ,a ,syllable is a      
nonsignificant composite s\nd1 made up (
 a mute & a ,lett] hav+ a s\nd 7a v[el  
or semiv[el72 = ,,gr1 )\t an ,a1 is j z 
mu* a ,syllable z ,,gra1 ) an ,a4 ,!    
v>i\s =ms ( ! ,syllable also belong to !
 !ory ( metre4 7#c7 ,a ,conjunction is  
7a7 a non-significant s\nd :i*1 :5 "o   
significant s\nd is =mable out ( sev]al1
 nei!r h9d]s nor aids ! union1 & :i*1 if
 ! ,spee* ?us =m$ /&s by itself 7ap>t f 
o!r ,spee*es7 mu/ n be ins]t$ at !      
beg9n+ ( x2 e4g4 m51 de1 toi1 de4 ,or   
7b7 a non-significant s\nd capable (    
comb9+ two or m significant s\nds into  
"o2 e4g4 amphi1 p]i1 etc4 7#d7 ,an      
,article is a non-significant s\nd m>k+ 
! beg9n+1 end1 or divid+-po9t ( a       
,spee*1 its natural place be+ ei!r at ! 
extremities or 9 ! middle4 7#e7 ,a ,n\n 
or "n is a composite significant s\nd n 
involv+ ! idea ( "t1 ) p>ts :i* h no    
significance by !mselves 9 x4 ,x is to  
be rememb]$ t 9 a comp\nd we d n ?9k ( !

 p>ts z hav+ a significance also by     
!mselves2 9 ! "n ',!odorus'1 = in/ance1 
! doron means no?+ to u4  7#f7 ,a ,v]b  
is a composite significant s\nd involv+ 
! idea ( "t1 ) p>ts :i* 7j z 9 ! ,n\n7 h
 no significance by !mselves 9 x4 ,:]eas
 ! ^w 'man' or ':ite' does n imply :51  
'walks' & 'has walk$' involve 9 addition
 to ! idea ( walk+ t ( "t pres5t or "t  
pa/4  7#g7 ,a ,case ( a ,n\n or ,v]b is 
:5 ! ^w means '( or 'to' a ?+1 & s =?1  
or = "o or _m 7e4g4 'man' & 'm5'72 or x 
may consi/ m]ely 9 ! mode ( utt]ance1   
e4g4 9 "q1 comm&1 etc4 ',walk$8' &      
',walk6' are ,cases ( ! v]b 'to walk' ( 
?is la/ k9d4 7#h7 ,a ,spee* is a        
composite significant s\nd1 "s ( ! p>ts 
( :i* h a c]ta9 significance by         
!mselves4 ,x may be obs]v$ t a ,spee* is
 n always made up ( ,n\n & ,v]b2 x may  
be )\t a ,v]b1 l ! def9ition ( man2 b x 
w always h "s "p ) a c]ta9 significance 
by itself4 ,9 ! ,spee* ',cleon walks'1  
',cleon' is an in/ance ( su* a "p4 ,a   
,spee* is said to be "o 9 two ways1 ei!r

 z signify+ "o ?+1 or z a union ( sev]al
 ,spee*es made into "o by conjunction4  
,?us ! ,iliad is "o ,spee* by           
conjunction ( sev]al2 & ! def9ition (   
man is "o ?r\gh its signify+ "o ?+4     
#ba   ,n\ns are ( two k9ds1 ei!r 7#a7   
simple1 i4e4 made up ( non-significant  
p>ts1 l ! ^w ge1 or 7#b7 d\ble2 9 !     
latt] case ! ^w may be made up ei!r ( a 
significant & a non-significant "p 7a   
di/9ction :i* disappe>s 9 ! comp\nd71 or
 ( two significant p>ts4 ,x is possible 
also to h triple1 quadruple or high]    
comp\nds1 l mo/ ( our amplifi$ names2   
e4g4' ,h]mocaicoxan?us' & ! l4  ,:atev] 
its /ructure1 a ,n\n mu/ always be ei!r 
7#a7 ! ord9>y ^w = ! ?+1 or 7#b7 a      
/range ^w1 or 7#c7 a metaphor1 or 7#d7  
an ornam5tal ^w1 or 7#e7 a co9$ ^w1 or  
7#f7 a ^w l5g!n$ out1 or 7#g7 curtail$1 
or 7#h7 alt]$ 9 =m4 ,by ! ord9>y ^w ,i  
mean t 9 g5]al use 9 a c\ntry2 & by a   
/range ^w1 "o 9 use else:]e4 ,s t ! same
 ^w may obvi\sly be at once /range &    
ord9>y1 ?\gh n 9 ref]5ce to ! same p2   

sigunos1 = in/ance1 is an ord9>y ^w 9   
,cyprus1 & a /range ^w ) u4 ,metaphor   
consi/s 9 giv+ ! ?+ a "n t belongs to   
some?+ else2 ! transf]5ce be+ ei!r f    
g5us to species1 or f species to g5us1  
or f species to species1 or on gr\nds ( 
analogy4 ,t f g5us to species is        
e,xemplified 9 ',"h /&s my %ip'2 = ly+  
at an*or is ! '/&+' ( a p>ticul> k9d (  
?+4 ,t f species to g5us 9 ',truly t5   
?\s& good de$s has ,ulysses wr\ght'1 :]e
 't5 ?\s&'1 :i* is a p>ticul> l>ge      
numb]1 is put 9 place ( ! g5]ic 'a l>ge 
numb]'4 ,t f species to species 9       
',draw+ ! life ) ! bronze'1 & 9 ',sev]+ 
) ! endur+ bronze'2 :]e ! poet uses     
'draw' 9 ! s5se ( 'sev]' & 'sev]' 9 t ( 
'draw'1 bo? words mean+ to 'take away'  
some?+4 ,t f analogy is possible :5ev]  
!re are f\r t]ms s relat$ t ! second    
7,b7 is to ! fir/ 7,a71 z ! f\r? 7,d7 to
 ! ?ird 7,c72 = "o may !n metaphorically
 put ,b 9 lieu ( ,d1 & ,d 9 lieu ( ,b4  
,n[ & !n1 too1 !y qualify ! metaphor by 
add+ on to x t to :i* ! ^w x supplants  

is relative4 ,?us a cup 7,b7 is 9       
relation to ,dionysus 7,a7 :at a %ield  
7,d7 is to ,ares 7,c74 ,! cup accord+ly 
w be metaphorically describ$ z ! '%ield 
( ,dionysus' 7,d  ,a71 & ! %ield z !    
'cup ( ,ares' 7,b  ,c74 ,or to take     
ano!r in/ance3 ,z old age 7,d7 is to    
life 7,c71 s is ev5+ 7,b7 to day 7,a74  
,"o w accord+ly describe ev5+ 7,b7 z !  
'old age ( ! day' 7,d  ,a7--or by !     
,emp$oclean equival5t2 & old age 7,d7 z 
! 'ev5+' or 'sunset ( life'' 7,b  ,c74  
,x may be t "s ( ! t]ms ?us relat$ h no 
special "n ( _! own1 b = all t !y w be  
metaphorically describ$ 9 j ! same way4 
,?us to ca/ =? se$-corn is call$ 's[+'2 
b to ca/ =? its flame1 z said ( ! sun1  
has no special "n4 ,?is nameless act    
7,b71 h[ev]1 /&s 9 j ! same relation to 
its object1 sunlight 7,a71 z s[+ 7,d7 to
 ! se$-corn 7,c74 ,h5ce ! expression 9 !
 poet1 's[+ ar\nd a god-creat$ flame'   
7,d  ,a74 ,!re is also ano!r =m (       
qualifi$ metaphor4 ,hav+ giv5 ! ?+ !    
ali5 "n1 "o may by a negative addition  

d5y ( x "o ( ! attributes naturally     
associat$ ) its new "n4 ,an in/ance (   
?is w\ld be to call ! %ield n ! 'cup (  
,ares1' z 9 ! =m] case1 b a 'cup t holds
 no w9e'4 99 99 99 ,a co9$ ^w is a "n   
:i*1 be+ q unkn[n among a p1 is giv5 by 
! poet himself2 e4g4 7= !re are "s words
 t seem to be ( ?is orig97 h]nyges =    
horns1 & aret] = prie/4 ,a ^w is said to
 be l5g!n$ out1 :5 x has a %ort v[el    
made long1 or an extra syllable ins]t$2 
e4 g4 polleos = poleos1 ,peleiadeo =    
,peleidon4 ,x is said to be curtail$1 :5
 x has lo/ a "p2 e4g4 kri1 d1 & ops 9   
mia g9etai amphot]on ops4 ,x is an alt]$
 ^w1 :5 "p is left z x 0 & "p is ( !    
poet's mak+2 e4g4 dexit]on = dexion1 9  
dexit]on kata maxon4  ,! ,n\ns !mselves 
7to :atev] class !y may belong7 are ei!r
 mascul9es1 fem99es1 or int]m$iates     
7neut]74 ,all end+ 9 ,n1 ,p1 ,s1 or 9 ! 
two comp\nds ( ?is la/1 ,,ps & ,x1 are  
mascul9es4 ,all end+ 9 ! inv>iably long 
v[els1 ,h & ,o1 & 9 ,a among ! v[els t  
may be long1 are fem99es4 ,s t !re is an

 equal numb] ( mascul9e & fem99e        
t]m9ations1 z ,,ps & ,x are ! same z ,s1
 & ne$ n be c\nt$4 ,!re is no ,n\n1     
h[ev]1 end+ 9 a mute or 9 ei!r ( ! two  
%ort v[els1 ,e & ,o4 ,only ?ree 7meli1  
kommi1 pep]i7 end 9 ,i1 & five 9 ,t4 ,! 
int]m$iates1 or neut]s1 end 9 ! v>iable 
v[els or 9 ,n1 ,p1 ,x4     #bb   ,!     
p]fection ( ,diction is = x to be at    
once cle> & n mean4 ,! cle>e/ inde$ is t
 made up ( ! ord9>y words = ?+s1 b x is 
mean1 z is %[n by ! poetry ( ,cleophon &
 ,/h5elus4 ,on ! o!r h& ! ,diction      
becomes di/+ui%$ & non-prosaic by ! use 
( unfamili> t]ms1 i4e4 /range words1    
metaphors1 l5g!n$ =ms1 & ev]y?+ t       
deviates f ! ord9>y modes ( spee*4--,b a
 :ole /atem5t 9 su* t]ms w be ei!r a    
riddle or a b>b>ism1 a riddle1 if made  
up ( metaphors1 a b>b>ism1 if made up ( 
/range words4 ,! v nature inde$ ( a     
riddle is ?is1 to describe a fact 9 an  
impossible comb9ation ( words 7:i* _c be
 done ) ! real names = ?+s1 b c be ) _! 
metaphorical sub/itutes72 e4g4 ',i saw a

 man glue brass on ano!r ) fire'1 & ! l4
 ,! correspond+ use ( /range words      
results 9 a b>b>ism4--,a c]ta9          
admixture1 accord+ly1 ( unfamili> t]ms  
is necess>y4 ,^!1 ! /range ^w1 !        
metaphor1 ! ornam5tal equival5t1 etc44 w
 save ! language f seem+ mean & prosaic1
 :ile ! ord9>y words 9 x w secure !     
requisite cle>ness4 ,:at helps mo/1     
h[ev]1 to r5d] ! ,diction at once cle> &
 non-prosaic is ! use ( ! l5g!n$1       
curtail$1 & alt]$ =ms ( words4 ,_!      
deviation f ! ord9>y words w1 by mak+ ! 
language unlike t 9 g5]al use give x a  
non-prosaic appe>ance2 & _! hav+ mu* 9  
common ) ! words 9 g5]al use w give x ! 
quality ( cle>ness4 ,x is n "r1 !n1 to  
condemn ^! modes ( spee*1 & ridicule !  
poet = us+ !m1 z "s h done2 e4g4 ! eld] 
,euclid1 :o said x 0 easy to make poetry
 if "o 7 to be all[$ to l5g!n ! words 9 
! /atem5t itself z mu* z "o likes--a    
proc$ure he c>icatur$ by read+          
',epix>hon eidon ,m>a?onade             
,badi--gonta1 & ouk han g' eram5os ton  

eke9\ helle boron z v]ses4 ,a too app>5t
 use ( ^! lic5ces has c]ta9ly a ludicr\s
 effect1 b !y are n alone 9 t2 ! rule ( 
mod]ation applies to all ! con/itu5ts ( 
! poetic vocabul>y2 ev5 ) metaphors1    
/range words1 & ! re/1 ! effect w be !  
same1 if "o uses !m improp]ly & ) a view
 to provok+ laught]4 ,! prop] use ( !m  
is a v diff]5t ?+4 ,to realize !        
diff]5ce "o %\ld take an epic v]se & see
 h[ x reads :5 ! normal words are       
introduc$4 ,! same %\ld be done too ) ! 
/range ^w1 ! metaphor1 & ! re/2 = "o has
 only to put ! ord9>y words 9 _! place  
to see ! tru? ( :at we are say+4 ,! same
 iambic1 = in/ance1 is f\nd 9 ,aes*ylus 
& ,euripides1 & z x /&s 9 ! =m] x is a  
poor l9e2 :]eas ,euripides1 by ! *ange (
 a s+le ^w1 ! sub/itution ( a /range =  
:at is by usage ! ord9>y ^w1 has made x 
seem a f9e "o4 ,aes*ylus hav+ said 9 8  
,philoctetes3   phag$a9a he mon s>kas   
he/hiei podos  ,euripides has m]ely     
alt]$ ! he/hiei "h into ?o9atai4 ,or    
suppose   nun de m' heon holigos te kai 

outidanos kai haeikos  to be alt]$ by ! 
sub/itution ( ! ord9>y words into   nun 
de m' heon mikros te kai ha/h5ikos kai  
haeidos  ,or ! l9e   diphron haeikelion 
kata!is ol+5 te trapexan  into   diphron
 mox!ron kata!is mikran te trapexan  ,or
 heiones boos9 into heiones krax\s94    
,add to ?is t ,ariphrades us$ to        
ridicule ! trag$ians = introduc+        
expressions unkn[n 9 ! language ( common
 life1 doeaton hapo 7= apo domaton71    
se!n1 hego de n91 ,a*illeos p]i 7= p]i  
,a*illeos71 & ! l4 ,! m]e fact ( _! n   
be+ 9 ord9>y spee* gives ! ,diction a   
non-prosaic "*2 b ,ariphrades 0 unaw>e (
 t4 ,x is a great ?+1 inde$1 to make a  
prop] use ( ^! poetical =ms1 z also (   
comp\nds & /range words4 ,b ! greate/ ?+
 by f> is to be a ma/] ( metaphor4 ,x is
 ! "o ?+ t _c be le>nt f o!rs2 & x is   
also a sign ( g5ius1 s9ce a good        
metaphor implies an intuitive p]ception 
( ! simil>ity 9 dissimil>s4  ,( ! k9ds (
 words we h enum]at$ x may be obs]v$ t  
comp\nds are mo/ 9 place 9 ! di?yramb1  

/range words 9 h]oic1 & metaphors 9     
iambic poetry4 ,h]oic poetry1 inde$1 may
 avail itself ( !m all4 ,b 9 iambic     
v]se1 :i* models itself z f> z possible 
on ! spok5 language1 only ^? k9ds (     
words are 9 place :i* are all[able also 
9 an oration1 i4e4 ! ord9>y ^w1 !       
metaphor1 & ! ornam5tal equival5t4  ,let
 ?is1 !n1 suffice z an acc\nt ( ,trag$y1
 ! art imitat+ by means ( action on !   
/age4     #bc   ,z = ! poetry :i* m]ely 
n>rates1 or imitates by means ( v]sifi$ 
language 7)\t action71 x is evid5t t x  
has sev]al po9ts 9 common ) ,trag$y4    
,i4 ,! con/ruction ( its /ories %\ld    
cle>ly be l t 9 a drama2 !y %\ld be bas$
 on a s+le action1 "o t is a complete   
:ole 9 itself1 ) a beg9n+1 middle1 &    
end1 s z to enable ! "w to produce its  
own prop] pleasure ) all ! organic unity
 ( a liv+ creature4 ,nor %\ld "o suppose
 t !re is any?+ l !m 9 our usual        
hi/ories4 ,a hi/ory has to deal n ) "o  
action1 b ) "o p]iod & all t happ5$ 9 t 
to "o or m p]sons1 h[ev] disconnect$ !  

sev]al ev5ts may h be54 ,j z two ev5ts  
may take place at ! same "t1 e4g4 !     
sea-fight (f ,salamis & ! battle ) !    
,c>?ag9ians 9 ,sicily1 )\t conv]g+ to ! 
same end1 s too ( two consecutive ev5ts 
"o may sometimes come aft] ! o!r ) no "o
 end z _! common issue4 ,nev]!less mo/ (
 our epic poets1 "o may say1 ignore !   
di/9ction4  ,h]e91 !n1 to repeat :at we 
h said be=e1 we h a fur!r pro( ( ,hom]'s
 m>vell\s sup]iority to ! re/4 ,he did n
 attempt to deal ev5 ) ! ,trojan w> 9   
its entirety1 ?\gh x 0 a :ole ) a       
def9ite beg9n+ & end--?r\gh a feel+     
app>5tly t x 0 too long a /ory to be    
tak5 9 9 "o view1 or if n t1 too        
complicat$ f ! v>iety ( incid5t 9 x4 ,z 
x is1 he has s+l$ out "o section ( !    
:ole2 _m ( ! o!r incid5ts1 h[ev]1 he    
br+s 9 z episodes1 us+ ! ,catalogue ( ! 
,%ips1 = in/ance1 & o!r episodes to     
relieve ! uni=mity ( 8 n>rative4 ,z = ! 
o!r epic poets1 !y treat ( "o man1 or "o
 p]iod2 or else ( an action :i*1 al?\gh 
"o1 has a multiplicity ( p>ts 9 x4 ,?is 

la/ is :at ! au?ors ( ! ,cypria &       
,little ,iliad h done4 ,& ! result is t1
 :]eas ! ,iliad or ,odyssey supplies    
mat]ials = only "o1 or at mo/ two       
trag$ies1 ! ,cypria does t = sev]al1 & !
 ,little ,iliad = m ?an eight3 = an     
,adjudgm5t ( ,arms1 a ,philoctetes1 a   
,neoptolemus1 a ,eurypylus1 a ,ulysses z
 ,begg>1 a ,laconian ,wom51 a ,fall (   
,ilium1 & a ,dep>ture ( ! ,fleet2 z also
 a ,s9on1 & ,wom5 ( ,troy4     #bd      
,,ii4 ,besides ?is1 ,epic poetry mu/    
divide into ! same species z ,trag$y2 x 
mu/ be ei!r simple or complex1 a /ory ( 
"* or "o ( suff]+4 ,its p>ts1 too1 ) !  
exception ( ,song & ,spectacle1 mu/ be !
 same1 z x requires ,p]ipeties1         
,discov]ies1 & sc5es ( suff]+ j l       
,trag$y4 ,la/ly1 ! ,?\ght & ,diction 9 x
 mu/ be good 9 _! way4 ,all ^! elem5ts  
appe> 9 ,hom] fir/2 & he has made due   
use ( !m4 ,8 two poems are ea* examples 
( con/ruction1 ! ,iliad simple & a /ory 
( suff]+1 ! ,odyssey complex 7!re is    
,discov]y ?r\gh\t x7 & a /ory ( "*4 ,&  

!y are m ?an ?is1 s9ce 9 ,diction &     
,?\ght too !y surpass all o!r poems4    
,!re is1 h[ev]1 a diff]5ce 9 ! ,epic z  
comp>$ ) ,trag$y1 7#a7 9 its l5g?1 &    
7#b7 9 its metre4 7#a7 ,z to its l5g?1 !
 limit already sugge/$ w suffice3 x mu/ 
be possible = ! beg9n+ & end ( ! "w to  
be tak5 9 9 "o view--a condition :i* w  
be fulfill$ if ! poem be %ort] ?an ! old
 epics1 & ab\t z long z ! s]ies (       
trag$ies (f]$ = "o he>+4 ,= ! ext5sion (
 its l5g? epic poetry has a special     
advantage1 ( :i* x makes l>ge use4 ,9 a 
play "o _c repres5t an action ) a numb] 
( p>ts go+ on simultane\sly2 "o is      
limit$ to ! "p on ! /age & connect$ ) ! 
actors4 ,:]eas 9 epic poetry ! n>rative 
=m makes x possible = "o to describe a  
numb] ( simultane\s incid5ts2 & ^!1 if  
g]mane to ! subject1 increase ! body ( !
 poem4 ,?is !n is a ga9 to ! ,epic1 t5d+
 to give x gr&eur1 & also v>iety (      
int]e/ & room = episodes ( div]se k9ds4 
,uni=mity ( incid5t by ! satiety x soon 
creates is apt to ru9 trag$ies on !     

/age4 7#b7 ,z = its metre1 ! h]oic has  
be5 assign$ x f exp]i5ce2 7 any "o to   
attempt a n>rative poem 9 "s "o1 or 9   
sev]al1 ( ! o!r metres1 ! incongruity ( 
! ?+ w\ld be app>5t4 ,! h]oic2 9 fact is
 ! grave/ & weightie/ ( metres--:i* is  
:at makes x m tol]ant ?an ! re/ ( /range
 words & metaphors1 t also be+ a po9t 9 
:i* ! n>rative =m ( poetry goes beyond  
all o!rs4 ,! iambic & tro*aic1 on ! o!r 
h&1 are metres ( movem5t1 ! "o repres5t+
 t ( life & action1 ! o!r t ( ! dance4  
,/ill m unnatural w\ld x appe>1 x "o 7  
to write an epic 9 a m$ley ( metres1 z  
,*a]emon did4 ,h5ce x is t no "o has ev]
 writt5 a long /ory 9 any b h]oic v]se2 
nature h]self1 z we h said1 tea*es u to 
select ! metre appropriate to su* a     
/ory4  ,hom]1 admirable z he is 9 e o!r 
respect1 is especially s 9 ?is1 t he    
alone among epic poets is n unaw>e ( !  
"p to be play$ by ! poet himself 9 !    
poem4 ,! poet %\ld say v little 9       
propria p]sona1 z he is no imitator :5  
do+ t4 ,:]eas ! o!r poets are p]petually

 com+ =w>d 9 p]son1 & say b little1 & t 
only "h & !re1 z imitators1 ,hom] aft] a
 brief preface br+s 9 =?) a man1 a      
woman1 or "s o!r ,"*--no "o ( !m        
*>act]less1 b ea* ) di/9ctive           
*>act]i/ics4  ,! m>vell\s is c]ta9ly    
requir$ 9 ,trag$y4 ,! ,epic1 h[ev]1     
af=ds m op5+ = ! improbable1 ! *ief     
factor 9 ! m>vell\s1 because 9 x ! ag5ts
 are n visibly be=e "o4 ,! sc5e ( !     
pursuit ( ,hector w\ld be ridicul\s on !
 /age--! ,greeks halt+ in/ead ( pursu+  
him1 & ,a*illes %ak+ 8 head to /op !m2 b
 9 ! poem ! absurdity is ov]look$4 ,!   
m>vell\s1 h[ev]1 is a cause ( pleasure1 
z is %[n by ! fact t we all tell a /ory 
) additions1 9 ! belief t we are do+ our
 he>]s a pleasure4  ,hom] m ?an any o!r 
has taught ! re/ ( u ! art ( fram+ lies 
9 ! "r way4 ,i mean ! use ( p>alogism4  
,:5ev]1 if ,a is or happ5s1 a consequ5t1
 ,b1 is or happ5s1 m5's notion is t1 if 
! ,b is1 ! ,a also is--b t is a false   
conclusion4 ,accord+ly1 if ,a is untrue1
 b !re is some?+ else1 ,b1 t on !       

assumption ( its tru? foll[s z its      
consequ5t1 ! "r ?+ !n is to add on ! ,b4
 ,j because we "k ! tru? ( ! consequ5t1 
we are 9 our own m9ds l$ on to !        
errone\s inf]5ce ( ! tru? ( ! antec$5t4 
,"h is an in/ance1 f ! ,ba?-/ory 9 !    
,odyssey4  ,a likely impossibility is   
always pref]able to an unconv9c+        
possibility4 ,! /ory %\ld nev] be made  
up ( improbable incid5ts2 !re %\ld be   
no?+ ( ! sort 9 x4 ,if1 h[ev]1 su*      
incid5ts are unavoidable1 !y %\ld be    
outside ! piece1 l ! h]o's ignorance 9  
,o$ipus ( ! circum/ances ( ,lams' dea?2 
n )9 x1 l ! report ( ! ,py?ian games 9  
,electra1 or ! man's hav+ come to ,mysia
 f ,tegea )\t utt]+ a ^w on ! way1 9 ,! 
,mysians4 ,s t x is ridicul\s to say t  
"o's ,plot w\ld h be5 spoilt )\t !m1    
s9ce x is fundam5tally wrong to make up 
su* ,plots4 ,if ! poet has tak5 su* a   
,plot1 h[ev]1 & "o sees t he might h put
 x 9 a m probable =m1 he is guilty (    
absurdity z well z a fault ( art4 ,ev5 9
 ! ,odyssey ! improbabilities 9 !       

sett+-a%ore ( ,ulysses w\ld be cle>ly   
intol]able 9 ! h&s ( an inf]ior poet4 ,z
 x is1 ! poet conceals !m1 8 o!r        
excell5ces veil+ _! absurdity4          
,elaborate ,diction1 h[ev]1 is requir$  
only 9 places :]e !re is no action1 & no
 ,"* or ,?\ght to be reveal$4 ,:]e !re  
is ,"* or ,?\ght1 on ! o!r h&1 an       
ov]-ornate ,diction t5ds to obscure !m4 
#be   ,z reg>ds ,problems & _!          
,solutions1 "o may see ! numb] & nature 
( ! assumptions on :i* !y proce$ by     
view+ ! matt] 9 ! foll[+ way4 7#a7 ,!   
poet be+ an imitator j l ! pa9t] or o!r 
mak] ( lik5esses1 he mu/ necess>ily 9   
all in/ances repres5t ?+s 9 "o or o!r ( 
?ree aspects1 ei!r z !y 7 or are1 or z  
!y are said or ?\ght to be or to h be51 
or z !y ought to be4 7#b7 ,all ?is he   
does 9 language1 ) an admixture1 x may  
be1 ( /range words & metaphors1 z also (
 ! v>i\s modifi$ =ms ( words1 s9ce ! use
 ( ^! is conc$$ 9 poetry4 7#c7 ,x is to 
be rememb]$1 too1 t !re is n ! same k9d 
( correctness 9 poetry z 9 politics1 or 

inde$ any o!r art4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 )9 ! 
limits ( poetry itself a possibility (  
two k9ds ( error1 ! "o directly1 ! o!r  
only accid5tally connect$ ) ! art4 ,if !
 poet meant to describe ! ?+ correctly1 
& fail$ ?r\gh lack ( p[] ( expression1 8
 art itself is at fault4 ,b if x 0 ?r\gh
 8 hav+ meant to describe x 9 "s        
incorrect way 7e4g4 to make ! horse 9   
movem5t h bo? "r legs ?r[n =w>d7 t !    
te*nical error 7"o 9 a matt] (1 say1    
m$ic9e or "s o!r special sci5ce71 or    
impossibilities ( :atev] k9d !y may be1 
h got into 8 description1 8 error 9 t   
case is n 9 ! ess5tials ( ! poetic art4 
,^!1 !re=e1 mu/ be ! premisses ( !      
,solutions 9 answ] to ! criticisms      
involv$ 9 ! ,problems4  ,i4 ,z to !     
criticisms relat+ to ! poet's art       
itself4 ,any impossibilities !re may be 
9 8 descriptions ( ?+s are faults4 ,b f 
ano!r po9t ( view !y are ju/ifiable1 if 
!y s]ve ! end ( poetry itself--if 7to   
assume :at we h said ( t end7 !y make ! 
effect ( "s portion ( ! "w m a/\nd+4 ,! 

,pursuit ( ,hector is an in/ance 9 po9t4
 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! poetic end might h be5 z 
well or bett] atta9$ )\t sacrifice (    
te*nical correctness 9 su* matt]s1 !    
impossibility is n to be ju/ifi$1 s9ce !
 description %\ld be1 if x c1 entirely  
free f error4 ,"o may ask1 too1 :e!r !  
error is 9 a matt] directly or only     
accid5tally connect$ ) ! poetic art2    
s9ce x is a less] error 9 an arti/ n to 
"k1 = in/ance1 t ! h9d has no horns1 ?an
 to produce an unrecognizable picture ( 
"o4  ,,ii4 ,if ! poet's description be  
criticiz$ z n true to fact1 "o may urge 
p]haps t ! object ought to be z         
describ$--an answ] l t ( ,sophocles1 :o 
said t he drew m5 z !y ought to be1 &   
,euripides z !y 74 ,if ! description1   
h[ev]1 be nei!r true nor ( ! ?+ z x     
ought to be1 ! answ] mu/ be !n1 t x is 9
 accordance ) op9ion4 ,! tales ab\t     
,gods1 = in/ance1 may be z wrong z      
,x5ophanes ?9ks1 nei!r true nor ! bett] 
?+ to say2 b !y are c]ta9ly 9 accordance
 ) op9ion4 ,( o!r /atem5ts 9 poetry "o  

may p]haps say1 n t !y are bett] ?an !  
tru?1 b t ! fact 0 s at ! "t2 e4g4 !    
description ( ! arms3 '_! spe>s /ood    
upright1 butt-end ^u ! gr\nd'2 = t 0 !  
usual way ( fix+ !m !n1 z x is /ill ) ! 
,illyrians4 ,z = ! "q :e!r some?+ said  
or done 9 a poem is morally "r or n1 9  
deal+ ) t "o %\ld consid] n only !      
intr9sic quality ( ! actual ^w or de$1 b
 also ! p]son :o says or does x1 ! p]son
 to :om he says or does x1 ! "t1 !      
means1 & ! motive ( ! ag5t--:e!r he does
 x to atta9 a great] good1 or to avoid a
 great] evil4  ,,iii4 ,o!r criticisms "o
 mu/ meet by consid]+ ! language ( !    
poet3 7#a7 by ! assumption ( a /range ^w
 9 a passage l oureas m5 proton1 :]e by 
oureas ,hom] may p]haps mean n mules b  
s5t9els4 ,& 9 say+ ( ,dolon1 hos p e toi
 eidos m5 he5 kakos1 8 mean+ may p]haps 
be1 n t ,dolon's body 0 de=m$1 b t 8    
face 0 ugly1 z eneidos is ! ,cretan ^w =
 h&some-fac$4 ,s1 too1 gorot]on de k]aie
 may mean n 'mix ! w9e /rong]'1 z ?\gh =
 top]s1 b 'mix x quick]'4 7#b7 ,o!r     

expressions 9 ,hom] may be expla9$ z    
metaphorical2 e4g4 9 halloi m5 ra !oi te
 kai an]es eudon 7hapantes7 pannux z    
comp>$ ) :at he tells u at ! same "t1 e 
toi hot hes p$ion to ,troikon ha?resei51
 aulon suriggon 99te homadon99 ! ^w     
hapantes 'all'1 is metaphorically put = 
'_m'1 s9ce 'all' is a species ( '_m '4  
,s also 8 oie d' ammoros is             
metaphorical1 ! be/ kn[n /&+ 'alone'4   
7#c7 ,a *ange1 z ,hippias sugge/$1 9 !  
mode ( read+ a ^w w solve ! difficulty 9
 didom5 de oi1 & to m5 ou katapu!tai    
hombro4 7#d7 ,o!r difficulties may be   
solv$ by ano!r punctuation2 e4g4 9      
,emp$ocles1 aipsa de ?net ephyonto1 ta  
pr9 ma?on a?anata xora te pr9 kekreto4  
,or 7#e7 by ! assumption ( an equivocal 
t]m1 z 9 p>o*ek5 de pleo nux1 :]e pleo 9
 equivocal4 ,or 7#f7 by an appeal to !  
cu/om ( language4 ,w9e-&-wat] we call   
'w9e'2 & x is on ! same pr9ciple t ,hom]
 speaks ( a knemis neoteukt\ kassit]oio1
 a 'greave ( new-wr\ght t94' ,a work] 9 
iron we call a 'brazi]'2 & x is on !    

same pr9ciple t ,ganym$e is describ$ z !
 'w9e-s]v]' ( ,zeus1 ?\gh ! ,gods d n   
dr9k w9e4 ,?is latt]1 h[ev]1 may be an  
in/ance ( metaphor4 ,b :5ev] also a ^w  
seems to imply "s contradiction1 x is   
necess>y to reflect h[ _m ways !re may  
be ( und]/&+ x 9 ! passage 9 "q2 e4g4 9 
,hom]'s te r' hesxeto xalkeon hegxos "o 
%\ld consid] ! possible s5ses ( '0 /opp$
 !re'--:e!r by tak+ x 9 ?is s5se or 9 t 
"o w be/ avoid ! fault ( :i* ,glaucon   
speaks3 ',!y />t ) "s improbable        
presumption2 & hav+ s decre$ x !mselves1
 proce$ to draw inf]5ces1 & c5sure !    
poet z ?\gh he _h actually said :atev]  
!y happ5 to believe1 if 8 /atem5t       
conflicts ) _! own notion ( ?+s4' ,?is  
is h[ ,hom]'s sil5ce ab\t ,ic>ius has   
be5 treat$4 ,/>t+ )1 ! notion ( 8 hav+  
be5 a ,lac$aemonian1 ! critics ?9k x    
/range = ,telema*us n to h met him :5 he
 w5t to ,lac$aemon4 ,:]eas ! fact may h 
be5 z ! ,cephall5ians say1 t ! wife (   
,ulysses 0 ( a ,cephall5ian family1 & t 
h] fa!r's "n 0 ,icadius1 n ,ic>ius4 ,s t

 x is probably a mi/ake ( ! critics t   
has giv5 rise to ! ,problem4  ,speak+   
g5]ally1 "o has to ju/ify 7#a7 !        
,impossible by ref]5ce to ! requirem5ts 
( poetry1 or to ! bett]1 or to op9ion4  
,= ! purposes ( poetry a conv9c+        
impossibility is pref]able to an        
unconv9c+ possibility2 & if m5 su* z    
,zeuxis depict$ be impossible1 ! answ]  
is t x is bett] !y %\ld be l t1 z !     
arti/ ought to improve on 8 model4 7#b7 
,! ,improbable "o has to ju/ify ei!r by 
%[+ x to be 9 accordance ) op9ion1 or by
 urg+ t at times x is n improbable2 =   
!re is a probability ( ?+s happ5+ also  
aga9/ probability4 7#c7 ,!              
contradictions f\nd 9 ! poet's language 
"o %\ld fir/ te/ z "o does an oppon5t's 
confutation 9 a dialectical argum5t1 s z
 to see :e!r he means ! same ?+1 9 !    
same relation1 & 9 ! same s5se1 be=e    
admitt+ t he has contradict$ ei!r some?+
 he has said himself or :at a man ( s\nd
 s5se assumes z true4 ,b !re is no      
possible apology = improbability ( ,plot

 or depravity ( "*1 :5 !y are n necess>y
 & no use is made ( !m1 l !             
improbability 9 ! appe>ance ( ,aegeus 9 
,m$ea & ! bas5ess ( ,m5elaus 9 ,ore/es4 
,! objections1 !n1 ( critics />t )      
faults ( five k9ds3 ! allegation is     
always t some?+ 9 ei!r 7#a7 impossible1 
7#b7 improbable1 7#c7 corrupt+1 7#d7    
contradictory1 or 7#e7 aga9/ te*nical   
correctness4 ,! answ]s to ^! objections 
mu/ be s\ght "u "o or o!r ( !           
above-m5tion$ heads1 :i* are twelve 9   
numb]4     #bf   ,! "q may be rais$ :e!r
 ! epic or ! tragic is ! high] =m (     
imitation4 ,x may be argu$ t1 if ! less 
vulg> is ! high]1 & ! less vulg> is     
always t :i* addresses ! bett] public1  
an art address+ any & e "o is ( a v     
vulg> ord]4 ,x is a belief t _! public  
_c see ! mean+1 unless !y add some?+    
!mselves1 t causes ! p]petual movem5ts (
 ! p]=m]s--bad flute-play]s1 = in/ance1 
roll+ ab\t1 if quoit-?r[+ is to be      
repres5t$1 & pull+ at ! conductor1 if   
,scylla is ! subject ( ! piece4 ,trag$y1

 !n1 is said to be an art ( ?is ord]--to
 be 9 fact j :at ! lat] actors 7 9 !    
eyes ( _! pr$ecessors2 = ,myrmiscus us$ 
to call ,callippides '! ape'1 because he
 ?\ght he s ov]act$ 8 p>ts2 & a simil>  
view 0 tak5 ( ,p9d>us also4 ,all        
,trag$y1 h[ev]1 is said to /& to ! ,epic
 z ! new] to ! old] s*ool ( actors4 ,!  
"o1 accord+ly1 is said to address a     
cultivat$ 'audi5ce1 :i* does n ne$ !    
accompanim5t ( ge/ure2 ! o!r1 an        
uncultivat$ "o4 ,if1 !re=e1 ,trag$y is a
 vulg> art1 x mu/ cle>ly be l[] ?an !   
,epic4  ,! answ] to ?is is tw(old4 ,9 ! 
fir/ place1 "o may urge 7#a7 t ! c5sure 
does n t\* ! art ( ! dramatic poet1 b   
only t ( 8 int]pret]2 = x is q possible 
to ov]do ! ge/ur+ ev5 9 an epic recital1
 z did ,sosi/ratus1 & 9 a s++ conte/1 z 
did ,mnasi!us ( ,opus4 7#b7 ,t "o %\ld n
 condemn all movem5t1 unless "o means to
 condemn ev5 ! dance1 b only t ( ignoble
 p--:i* is ! po9t ( ! criticism pass$ on
 ,callippides & 9 ! pres5t day on o!rs1 
t _! wom5 are n l g5tlewom54 7#c7 ,t    

,trag$y may produce its effect ev5 )\t  
movem5t or action 9 j ! same way z ,epic
 poetry2 = f ! m]e read+ ( a play its   
quality may be se54 ,s t1 if x be       
sup]ior 9 all o!r respects1 ?is elem5t (
 inf]iority is n a necess>y "p ( x4  ,9 
! second place1 "o mu/ rememb] 7#a7 t   
,trag$y has ev]y?+ t ! ,epic has 7ev5 ! 
epic metre be+ admissible71 toge!r ) a n
 inconsid]able addition 9 ! %ape ( !    
,music 7a v real factor 9 ! pleasure ( !
 drama7 & ! ,spectacle4 7#b7 ,t its     
reality ( pres5tation is felt 9 ! play z
 read1 z well z 9 ! play z act$4 7#c7 ,t
 ! tragic imitation requires less space 
= ! atta9m5t ( its end2 :i* is a great  
advantage1 s9ce ! m conc5trat$ effect is
 m pleasurable ?an "o ) a l>ge admixture
 ( "t to dilute x--consid] ! ,o$ipus (  
,sophocles1 = in/ance1 & ! effect (     
exp&+ x into ! numb] ( l9es ( ! ,iliad4 
7#d7 ,t !re is less unity 9 ! imitation 
( ! epic poets1 z is prov$ by ! fact t  
any "o "w ( !irs supplies matt] = sev]al
 trag$ies2 ! result be+ t1 if !y take   

:at is really a s+le /ory1 x seems curt 
:5 briefly told1 & ?9 & wat]i% :5 on !  
scale ( l5g? usual ) _! v]se4 ,9 say+ t 
!re is less unity 9 an epic1 ,i mean an 
epic made up ( a plurality ( actions1 9 
! same way z ! ,iliad & ,odyssey h _m   
su* p>ts1 ea* "o ( !m 9 itself ( "s     
magnitude2 yet ! /ructure ( ! two       
,hom]ic poems is z p]fect z c be1 & !   
action 9 !m is z ne>ly z possible "o    
action4 ,if1 !n1 ,trag$y is sup]ior 9 ^!
 respects1 & also besides ^!1 9 its     
poetic effect 7s9ce ! two =ms ( poetry  
%\ld give u1 n any or e pleasure1 b ! v 
special k9d we h m5tion$71 x is cle> t1 
z atta9+ ! poetic effect bett] ?an !    
,epic1 x w be ! high] =m ( art4  ,s mu* 
= ,trag$y & ,epic poetry--= ^! two arts 
9 g5]al & _! species2 ! numb] & nature (
 _! con/itu5t p>ts2 ! causes ( success &
 failure 9 !m2 ! ,objections ( !        
critics1 & ! ,solutions 9 answ] to !m4