,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for
 ,,apprentices--,,part ,,viii1 ,no4 #ej 
,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,typography     
,a ,,brief ,,sketch ,,of ,,the          
,,invention ,,of ,,printing ,,and ,,how 
,,it ,,came ,,about                     
,,by                        ,,frederick 
,w4 ,,hamilton1 ,,ll4,d4                
,,education ,,director                  
,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america    
,illustration                           
,,published ,,by ,,the ,,committee ,,on 
,,education                             
,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america    
#aiah                                   
,copyright1 #aiah                       
,united ,typothetae of ,america         
,chicago1 ,ill4                         
,composition and electrotypes           
contributed by                          
,evans-,winter-,hebb1 ,inc4             
,detroit                                
,,preface      ,the writer of this book 
makes no claim to original              
investigation4 ,the  materials for such 

investigation do not exist to any       
considerable extent  in this country4   
,the results of such an investigation   
would form a book  not suited to this   
series4    ,the writer has attempted to 
set forth briefly the conditions which  
brought about the invention of printing 
and to present the main lines of        
discussion concerning the inventor4 ,he 
has consulted with some care a          
considerable number of authorities and  
has endeavored to present the  results  
in comprehensive shape4    ,the writer  
believes that the history of any        
particular event is a part  of the      
general history of the time in which it 
occurred4 ,he has1  therefore1          
endeavored throughout the historical    
portion of this series  to indicate the 
general historic background of all      
particular historical  events           
sufficiently to set these particular    
events in their relations to  what was  
going on at the time in the world       
generally4    ,in addition to the       

supplementary reading indicated in the  
several  volumes which follow1 the      
writer ventures to hope that the        
students will  familiarize themselves   
with some good general text book on     
modern  history4                        
,,contents                ,,introduction
                                        
#g                                      
,,chapter ,i              ,,conditions  
,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the          
,,fifteenth ,,century #aa               
,,chapter ,,ii              ,,steps     
,,toward ,,typography                   
#ag                                     
,,chapter ,,iii              ,,claims   
,,to ,,the ,,invention                  
#bf                                     
,,chapter ,,iv              ,,the       
,,invention                             
#cb                                     
,,chapter ,v              ,,materials   
,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,the ,,first      
,,printers       #dg                    
,,supplementary ,,reading               

#eb                ,,review ,,questions 
#ec                                     
,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing       
,,introduction      ,many persons and   
many places have claimed the honor of   
the invention of  typographic printing4 
,that these conflicting claims should be
 made is  the most natural thing in the 
world4 ,almost all epoch-making         
inventions  and discoveries are of more 
or less doubtful origin4 ,the reason for
 this  is that such discoveries grow out
 of conditions and needs4 ,at the time  
appointed they appear as inevitably as  
the blossom on the plant4 ,very  likely 
they appear in several places at once4  
,often1 also like the  blossoms on a    
plant1 only one produces what the       
gardener calls a 8set10  that is1 a     
fruit which ripens and matures seed for 
reproduction4 ,the  state of human      
knowledge or the pressure of human need 
may be such that  many students are at  
work at the same time upon problems     
which seem to  demand solution4 ,in this

 way the theory of evolution1 whose     
adoption1  revolutionizing as it did the
 entire system of human thinking1 was   
the  most important event of the        
nineteenth century1 was independently   
discovered by ,darwin and ,wallace1 who 
were working at the same time  along    
independent lines of investigation4     
,the advance in surgery and a keen      
appreciation of the suffering under     
operation which made many operations    
impossible led to the simultaneous      
discovery of anesthesia by at least two 
investigators1 ,william ,t4 ,g4  ,morton
 and ,dr4 ,charles ,t4 ,jackson4        
,investigation of the uses of           
electricity led to the independent      
invention of the telephone by ,bell  and
 ,dolbear4 ,it is certain that          
occasional ,european sailors found their
  way to the western hemisphere through 
several centuries before ,columbus  made
 his famous voyage4 ,these are only a   
few of the most notable  instances of   
such disputed or independent            

discoveries4    ,in some cases the      
judgment of the world has probably      
awarded the glory  incorrectly4 ,in     
other cases the glory has gone1 perhaps 
justly1 to that  one of two or more     
discoverers who succeeded in making his 
invention  practically or commercially  
useful4 ,for instance1 while ,morton was
  probably not the original discoverer  
of anesthesia1 it was he who made  it   
practically useful in surgical          
operations1 and while there appears to  
be no question that ,dolbear antedated  
,bell in the discovery of the           
telephone1 ,dolbear's interest was      
purely scientific while ,bell gave the  
telephone to commerce4    ,the same     
conditions of doubt and obscurity       
surround the invention of  printing4 ,as
 we shall later see1 more at length1 the
 invention of  printing was a           
development of existing processes called
 for by the needs  of the time and      
arising out of the conditions of the    
time4 ,it was  inevitable that          

typographic printing should be          
discovered by somebody in  the middle of
 the fifteenth century4 ,so far as the  
evidence at our  command shows1 the art 
was not invented in several places at   
the same  time1 but was developed by one
 man out of familiar processes4 ,for    
some  reason which is not now clear1 the
 work of this man1 though considerable  
in extent1 appears to have been without 
immediate direct results of much        
importance4 ,at a very early stage the  
invention was seized upon by  another   
who1 with his associates1 established a 
center from which the  art steadily grew
 and developed4 ,so important in its    
practical results  was the work of this 
man and his associates that he has been 
for  centuries hailed as the inventor of
 printing4 ,it is needless to say that  
this man was ,john ,gutenberg4    ,in   
the judgment of the present writer1     
however1 the claim that ,gutenberg      
invented typographic printing cannot be 
maintained4 ,the discussion has  been   

long and sometimes bitter4 ,the         
arguments1 or at least many of them1    
are of a highly technical nature and    
many minor points yet remain to be      
cleared up4 ,in a book of this sort it  
would be obviously out of place to  go  
at length into the details of the       
argument4 ,the writer1 moreover1  lays  
no claim to original investigation4 ,an 
attempt will be made in the  following  
pages to show the conditions out of     
which the discovery arose1  to tell the 
story of the invention1 to place the    
credit both of actual  invention and    
practical application where it belongs1 
and to bring out  certain points which  
may be interesting about the work of the
 very  earliest printers4    ,in taking 
the position which he does with regard  
to the invention the  writer regrets    
that he is obliged to dissent from the  
conclusions of ,de  ,vinne4 ,in his     
,invention of ,printing1 ,de ,vinne ably
 maintains the claims  of ,gutenberg4   
,no one can be more ready than the      

present writer to pay  homage to the    
greatness of ,de ,vinne and to          
acknowledge the immense debt  which the 
printers of ,america owe to him4 ,his   
series of historical and  critical      
essays on the practice of typography are
 still unapproachable4  ,in spite of the
 changes which have taken place in the  
years since they  were written1 their   
substance is not affected excepting in  
some minor  and unimportant details4    
,they are still supreme authority in    
their  field4 ,de ,vinne's historical   
work was also of great importance and   
for  the most part may still be accepted
 without question4 ,under these         
circumstances it is only natural that   
the conclusions of ,de ,vinne should    
carry great weight and that the great   
body of ,american printers should  have 
accepted the ,gutenberg attribution     
without question upon ,de ,vinne's      
authority4    ,it must be remembered1   
however1 that ,de ,vinne's work was     
written nearly  forty years ago4 ,just  

before he wrote1 ,dr4 ,van der ,linde   
had published a  voluminous work in     
which the theory of the ,gutenberg      
invention was  supported at great length
 and with great show of scholarship4    
,this was  later followed by other      
volumes of similar purport4 ,for a      
considerable  time ,van der ,linde's    
books were considered as settling the   
question4 ,de  ,vinne1 as may clearly be
 seen from his preface1 wrote under the 
spell of  ,van der ,linde's influence4  
,later investigations1 however1 have    
shown  that ,van der ,linde's           
scholarship was largely show1 that he   
was not only  uncritical but unskillful 
in his use of authorities1 and that his 
voluminous works are written with the   
sole purpose of bolstering up a         
preconceived theory4 ,most of this      
investigation had not been conducted    
when ,de ,vinne wrote4 ,the discussion  
cannot be said to have swung the        
balance of probability to the other side
 until after ,de ,vinne's literary      

activities ceased4 ,the knowledge we now
 possess1 however1 has forced the       
present writer to abandon the ,de ,vinne
 position and to base the  historical   
part of this series of text-books on    
acceptance of the belief  that          
typographic printing was discovered by  
,coster1 of ,haarlem1 in  ,holland4     
,,chapter ,i             ,,conditions   
,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the          
,,fifteenth ,,century      ,as was      
briefly indicated in the preceding      
volume in this series1 the  conditions  
existing in the world of letters at the 
middle of the  fifteenth century were   
such as to demand imperatively some new 
method of  making books4 ,the slow march
 of civilization had gone on with many  
setbacks and interruptions through the  
centuries1 but was now proceeding  with 
a swiftness hitherto unknown4 ,the      
demands of the human mind were  pressing
 hard against the physical boundaries to
 progress created by the  methods of    
book-making then in use4 ,it must be    

remembered that men were  still making  
books just as they had done for nearly  
two thousand years4  ,a vast store of   
knowledge had been accumulated and      
additions were being  made with         
tremendous rapidity1 but there was no   
adequate means of  getting this         
knowledge before the people4 ,at the    
same time there were  more people       
intensely eager for knowledge than ever 
before4    ,it is worth while to stop   
for a moment to consider the conditions 
of the  period4 ,the ,hundred ,years'   
,war between ,france and ,england1 which
 had  paralyzed the energies of a       
divided ,france and had exhausted the   
powers  of ,england in useless attempts 
at an impossible conquest1 had at last  
come to an end4 ,the ,english had       
withdrawn to their own island4 ,they had
  given up the dreams of a continental  
empire which had danced before  their   
eyes ever since ,william of ,normandy1  
in #ajff1 had added ,england to  his    
possessions4 ,in reading ,english       

history we are liable to forget that    
during a great part1 if not the whole1  
of the four hundred years  succeeding   
the ,conquest1 the ,english kings had   
considered their  continental           
possessions the more important1         
regarding the little island  which they 
shared with the ,scotch1 then an        
independent nation1 as a sort  of       
colonial possession4 ,it is true that   
they maintained their capitals  there   
and took their titles thence1 because in
 ,england they were kings1  whereas they
 governed their broad possessions on the
 continent as dukes  or counts only4    
,from the time of ,henry ,v they had    
claimed to be kings of  ,france4 ,now   
these continental ambitions were        
definitely given up and  ,england was   
free to develop her own nationality1 and
 a much more  vigorous national life    
immediately began4    ,the same events  
mark an era in the development of       
,france4 ,free from the  horrors of war 
and the dread of another conquest1 a new

 opportunity was  given for the         
development of the arts of peace4       
,italy was still divided into a great   
number of independent states whose      
quarrels and changing alliances make the
 ,italian history of the period         
extremely difficult to study on its     
political side4 ,there had1 however1    
developed in ,italy a group of strong   
rulers who governed states of           
respectable size and kept them for      
considerable periods in comparative     
stability4 ,the ,italian states had     
rallied more quickly from the  barbarian
 invasions which overthrew the ,roman   
,empire than the rest of  ,europe and   
their progress in civilization had been 
very remarkable when  one considers the 
civil wars and wars between small states
 which had  been almost continuous4     
,for the most part ,germany had lagged  
far behind the rest of ,europe in  the  
development of civilization4 ,the       
greater part of it1 however1 was  now in
 a fairly stable political condition and

 many of the ,german states  had become 
important centers of learning4 ,this was
 especially true of  western and        
southern ,germany1 where the influence  
of ,rome had been  strongest and where  
the influence of ,france and ,italy had 
been most  felt4    ,much of ,spain was 
still in the hands of the ,moors1 who   
were in many  respects more civilized   
than their ,christian neighbors4        
,portugal was  enlightened and advanced4
    ,the great schism known as the      
,babylonish ,captivity which had rent   
the  ,catholic ,church in twain1 with   
rival popes ruling at ,rome and         
,avignon1  had come to an end1 and for  
the time being the unity of ,christendom
 was  undisturbed4    ,the political    
conditions of ,europe were thus more    
favorable than they  had been for a long
 time for the development of the        
intellectual life4  ,they were still far
 from ideal and there were many dark    
days in store1  but the bad old times   
were never fully to come back4    ,this 

political condition1 however1 was only a
 background for the revival  of         
intellectual activity known as the      
,renaissance which distinguishes  this  
remarkable period4    ,this movement may
 perhaps be said to have begun with     
,petrarch1 the  ,italian poet1          
philosopher1 and student1 who died in   
#acgd4 ,by the middle  of the fifteenth 
century1 however1 many men had appeared 
in the world of  letters whose names are
 famous for all time4 ,these great      
thinkers and  writers revived the study 
of the ancient languages1 recast the    
study of  philosophy1 and even ventured 
to discuss the fundamentals of religion4
  ,in so doing they not only revived the
 ancient learning1 but started a  new   
one4    ,new universities sprang up1    
among them ,erfurt in #acib1 ,leipsic in
 #adji1  ,st4 ,andrews1 in ,edinburgh1  
in #adaa1 ,louvain in #adbf4 ,the       
revival of the  study of great          
literature in ,italy may be said to have
 begun about #adjj4  ,about #adej1 there

 were many eminent ,greek scholars and  
their enthusiasm  for ,greek literature 
had led to the revival of the philosophy
 of ,plato4    ,the revival of interest 
in the art of the ancients1 classic     
literature1  and the philosophy of      
,plato brought about the great advance  
of modern  art which marked the second  
half of the century1 ,perugino1 the     
teacher  of ,raphael1 being born in     
#addf4    ,all this intellectual        
activity stirred a new spirit of        
adventure4 ,just  as the men whose      
intellectual energies had been absorbed 
in the petty  quarrels of church and    
state now devoted themselves to         
constructive  thinking1 so those whose  
physical energies had been devoted to   
the  constant succession of small wars  
of which we have spoken now gave        
themselves to exploration4 ,by the      
middle of the century important         
discoveries had been made by the        
exploring expeditions sent out by the   
,portuguese prince1 ,henry the          

,navigator4 ,the known world was to be  
doubled in size by the voyage of        
,columbus before the end of the century4
    ,it is easy to see that all this    
meant the creation of many books4       
,learning without books is a manifest   
impossibility4 ,there was a renewed     
interest in the old books and a great   
call for copies of them4 ,all this  new 
learning and discovery required books   
for record and for  dissemination4 ,it  
is true there were many more books than 
there had been  formerly and many more  
were being made1 but the possibility of 
supply  was hopelessly behind the       
demand4 ,great libraries were being     
formed and  many individuals had        
remarkable collections of books4 ,some  
of these  libraries still exist1 the    
best known probably being the library of
 the  ,vatican1 at ,rome1 which was     
started in #addg4 ,the trade of         
book-making  had long since outgrown the
 monastery4 ,as we saw in the preceding 
volume1 practically all of the          

book-making of the so-called ,dark ,ages
  was in the monasteries and much was   
still done there1 but there was now  in 
existence a regularly organized trade of
 copyists4 ,no really good  book of this
 period was complete without its        
ornamental capitals1  pictures1 and     
other embellishments4 ,these adornments1
 or illuminations1  as they were called1
 extended in some cases to every page of
 a book4  ,they were not generally made 
by the men who did the copying or       
writing  of the text1 but by a class of 
specially trained men who were called   
illuminators4    ,clearly the           
shortcomings of the manuscript books are
 very evident4 ,first  and foremost must
 be placed the absolute impossibility of
 making by the  laborious process of    
writing out by hand anything like the   
number of  books required to meet the   
demand4 ,either some new method of      
making  books must be devised or the new
 learning and the new civilization were 
to be strangled at birth4 ,moreover1 the

 manuscript books were  necessarily very
 costly and they were also very         
inaccurate4 ,any one who  has had any   
experience in the hand-copying of large 
amounts of  manuscript will see how     
impossible it is to avoid errors1 even  
with the  most careful checking over4   
,it is not probable that any two copies 
of  any manuscript book were ever       
exactly alike4 ,it is true that the     
invention of printing did not           
automatically remove errors4 ,indeed    
errors  and inaccuracies1 very common in
 the early books1 are far from unknown  
at present1 but at any rate all the     
copies of one edition are alike and     
errors may be corrected either in       
subsequent editions or by the  insertion
 of errata in the printed book4    ,not 
only was the time ripe for the invention
 of a new method of  book-making1 but   
the materials were ready with the vital 
exception of  type1 and that was within 
a step of discovery4 ,the materials are 
paper1  ink1 presses1 and type4 ,paper  

is supposed to have been invented by the
  ,chinese about the end of the first   
century ,a4 ,d41 and to have been more  
or less known in the ,east for a long   
time before the knowledge of it was     
brought to ,europe4 ,the ,arabs         
conquered ,samarkand in #gea1 and from  
this  conquest it is supposed that the  
knowledge of paper and paper-making     
came to ,europe by way of ,spain1 the   
greater part of which was then in  the  
hands of the ,moors1 who were themselves
 ,arabs4 ,as early as the  eleventh     
century there were paper mills at       
,valencia1 ,xativa1 and other  ,moorish 
towns in ,spain4 ,from ,spain the art of
 paper-making spread to  ,italy where we
 know that there was a paper mill at    
,fabriano before #acdj1  and to ,france 
where there was a mill at ,troyes about 
the same time4 ,not  long after we find 
paper-making at ,nuremberg4 ,by the     
middle of the  century paper was        
familiar throughout ,europe1 but the use
 of it was not  extensive4 ,the paper of

 that time did not lend itself readily  
to writing  and the makers of the       
manuscripts preferred the use of        
parchment4    ,obviously1 printing can  
not be done with writing ink4 ,very     
different  qualities are necessary for  
the two arts1 but as early as the       
beginning  of the century special inks  
were being made for printing from       
blocks4  ,those inks were not exactly   
like those soon to be used for printing 
from  type1 but they were near enough in
 their general character to indicate    
the improvements which were needed to   
produce a true printer's ink4 ,who      
invented these inks is not known1 but it
 is generally supposed that they  were  
invented by artists who were accustomed 
to the handling of color  and pigments4 
,the invention has been attributed by   
some to an unknown  ,italian painter1 by
 others to ,hubert ,van ,eyck1 a great  
,dutch painter of  the period4 ,it is   
not probable1 however1 that the         
invention1 if it can  be said to be the 

invention of an individual1 can ever be 
traced to its  author4    ,the press    
needed was only an adaptation of a very 
simple machine in  common use for many  
different purposes4 ,the use of the     
press in  squeezing grapes for wine1 in 
molding cheese and squeezing out the    
whey1  and for a great number of other  
purposes was so common that the problem 
of the exertion of pressure was already 
solved4 ,everything was ready but  the  
type1 and when one sees how far men had 
gone toward the use of type  one wonders
 that the invention was not made long   
before it really  occurred4 ,probably it
 was only waiting for the imperious     
demand of  necessity to spur some one to
 the making of the necessary            
experiments4                            
,,chapter ,,ii                          
,,steps ,,toward ,,typography           
,typographic printing1 briefly defined1 
is printing from movable types4  ,that  
is to say1 it is the impression of words
 upon paper or other  material by the   

use of movable types which have first   
been covered with  ink1 the inked face  
of the type transferring the characters 
to paper and  producing the printed     
page4 ,this includes any printing from a
 type form  in which movable cuts may be
 locked up with the type1 or in some    
cases  may be used alone on the press as
 in printing full-page illustrations4   
,it was this process which was invented 
in the middle of the fifteenth  century4
    ,the practice of making impressions 
upon various substances by the use of   
various devices prepared for that       
purpose goes back to the dawn of        
civilization4 ,the earliest device of   
this sort appears to have been a  seal  
used for impressing a device which might
 stand for a personal  signature or     
indicate the official authentication of 
a document or other  public act4 ,these 
seals are found in great numbers among  
the most  ancient remains4 ,two early   
ones from the island of ,crete are shown
  herewith4    ,illustration3 ,ancient  

,seals from ,crete    ,there are also in
 existence many ancient ,babylonian     
seals4 ,these seals  were of various    
sorts4 ,sometimes the design was cut in 
the flat surface1  leaving a raised     
impression when stamped upon wax1 clay1 
or some other  yielding substance4 ,such
 seals are said to be made in intaglio4 
,sometimes the surface is cut away      
leaving the designs standing out1 thus  
making a depressed mark in the soft     
surface4 ,these seals are said to be    
cut in relief4 ,sometimes the surface of
 the seal1 instead of being flat1  was a
 cylinder rolling on a pivot so that the
 impression of whichever  sort it might 
be was made by rolling the seal with    
pressure over the  soft substance4 ,it  
is said that the ,romans came very near 
the discovery  of typographic printing4 
,the ,roman potters stamped their names 
letter by  letter in the soft clay of   
their ware before it was fired4 ,the use
 of  dies for stamping coins and metal  
seals is also very ancient4             

,illustration3 ,assyrian ,clay ,tablet  
,the ,assyrians not only inscribed their
 records upon cylinders of soft  clay by
 pressing a sharp stick into them to    
make the curious  wedge-shaped          
characters of their alphabet1 but it is 
evident that they  carved rather long   
inscriptions on plates1 probably of     
wood1 and  transferred these to bricks  
by pressure4 ,the illustration shows an 
,assyrian stamped brick of this sort4   
,wherever we touch the history of       
civilized man we find some form of      
printing by the use of a seal1 a  stamp1
 or even a single letter4 ,some         
manuscripts long before the middle  of  
the fifteenth century seem to have had  
the initial letters put in by  means of 
stamps which were applied either by     
heavy hand pressure or by  the blow of a
 mallet4 ,these initial letters         
certainly show the use of  color in     
making the impression4 ,it is probable  
that such use of color  was early       
thought of as a means of making the     

impression of the seal  more distinct   
and dispensing with the pressure        
necessary to force the  seal into the   
substance of the parchment1 papyrus1 or 
paper which was  being used4 ,thus      
through the ages we slowly grow toward a
 more varied  and extensive use of these
 primitive methods of printing4    ,if  
we turn to ,asia we find that the       
,chinese and their neighbors1 the       
,japanese and the ,coreans1 anticipated 
,europe by many centuries in  printing1 
as well as in other arts4 ,the ,chinese 
appear to have hit upon  the device of  
multiplying books by cutting all the    
characters needed for  a page on a block
 of wood and then applying the inked    
block to the paper  as early as the     
sixth century1 ,a4 ,d4 ,books printed by
 this process1  generally known as block
 books1 were common among the ,chinese  
as early  as the tenth century4 ,the    
,japanese were using blocks for printing
 before  the year #hjj1 ,a4 ,d4 ,the    
,british ,museum contains a ,corean book

 apparently  printed from movable types 
which is supposed to date as far back as
  #acch4    ,all this is very           
interesting1 but there is not the       
slightest evidence  that it had any     
effect whatever on the development of   
printing in  ,europe4 ,chinese and      
,japanese typography is not a           
development from their  own block books1
 but is a recent importation from       
,europe4 ,the ,chinese  characters1     
which are also used by the ,japanese1   
are not letters but  ideograms4 ,instead
 of having a few characters representing
 the  fundamental sounds1 by the        
combination of which words are          
expressed1  they have a vast number of  
characters1 many thousands of them4     
,these  characters represent to the mind
 an idea as a whole4 ,they may be       
vocalized as a word or a syllable1 but  
not as a single sound out of a          
combination of which syllables and words
 may be built up4 ,it was quite         
practicable to carve the characters     

representing a page on a block and      
print from that1 but it was clearly not 
practicable to make movable  types      
representing all these almost           
innumerable characters4 ,typographic    
printing is possible only through the   
selection for common use of a  small    
number of the most essential characters 
and using them as the  basis of a       
working vocabulary4 ,the introduction of
 typography represents  probably a step 
toward the reduction of this great      
number of characters  to a comparatively
 small number representing the sounds or
 syllables  most in use4 ,a font of     
,chinese type is a fearful and wonderful
 thing1  and learning the case for      
,chinese composition is a task which    
very few  western people would care to  
undertake4    ,illustration3 ,modern    
,chinese ,type ,case    ,the            
accompanying illustration shows a       
,chinese compositor at his case in  the 
,lakeside ,press1 ,chicago4 ,the 8frame0
 contains one complete font of          

approximately seven thousand characters4
 ,it is about sixteen feet long  by five
 feet high1 and is made up of a number  
of smaller 8cases0  approximately twelve
 by fifteen inches over all1 each       
holding about two  hundred and forty    
characters4 ,this font is approximately 
ten-point body  according to ,united    
,states standards4 ,it required an      
entire month to  8lay the cases40 ,it   
requires about ten thousand characters  
to print a  ,chinese book1 but some of  
them are made by combinations of primary
  characters1 so that the seven thousand
 in the case will do the work4          
,during the centuries previous to the   
invention of printing the number of     
persons who could read was very small4  
,the common people1 farmers1  soldiers1 
workmen1 and the like1 received but     
little instruction outside  the         
immediate necessities of their lives4   
,that little was largely by  word of    
mouth reinforced by symbol and picture  
or statue4 ,in those days  the churches 

were the poor man's schools and         
libraries4 ,the ,bible  stories were    
told him by the priests and nuns and by 
the old men and  women4 ,the churches   
were elaborately ornamented with        
statues1 stained  glass windows1        
brasses1 paintings1 and carvings4 ,many 
of these painted  or sculptured         
representations were conventionalized4  
,if one saw a figure  with a great key  
in his hand1 no matter what the costume 
of the figure  or the design of the     
face1 he knew it was ,st4 ,peter4 ,if he
 saw another  figure with a book and a  
sword1 he knew that it was ,st4 ,paul1  
and so on4  ,he saw the sacrifice of    
,isaac1 the ,massacre of the ,innocents1
 the  ,crucifixion1 the ,martyrdom of   
,st4 ,stephen1 and all the other ,bible 
stories visibly expressed4 ,he saw the  
statues of kings and bishops and  was   
told the meaning of the scenes in which 
these and other characters  were        
represented in picture or sculpture4 ,he
 thus read and reread the  statues1     

stained glass windows1 and sculptures of
 his church as we read  and reread our  
,bibles and our histories4 ,many        
carvings and pictures were  put into the
 churches which we should today consider
 entirely out of  place4 ,caricature    
began here as well as religious and     
historical  instruction4 ,we find       
represented scenes which recall the     
current fables  of the time and         
sometimes pictures of scenes ridiculous 
or even  indecent1 according to modern  
ideas1 which satirized the vices and    
faults of men and women while they      
warned against them4    ,by and by the  
desire came to bring this instruction   
into the homes of  the people who were  
too poor to have paintings and carvings 
of their  own4 ,this desire was met by  
the production of what is known as image
  prints4 ,the picture of some saint was
 carved on a piece of wood and from     
this block1 or more properly plate1     
because the pictures were carved on  the
 side and not the end of a flat piece of

 wood1 an inked impression  was made on 
parchment or paper4 ,this process seems 
to have come in use  some time in the   
fourteenth century4 ,by the beginning of
 the fifteenth  it was fairly common4   
,the earliest dated woodcut of this     
sort1 bearing  the date #adbc1 is shown 
herewith4 ,it is interesting not only as
 being  the oldest dated work of this   
sort1 but as being typical of the way in
  which these pictures were conceived   
and executed4 ,it represents ,st4       
,christopher4 ,the saint is shown       
fording the river with the ,child ,jesus
  on his shoulder and represents the    
entire legend of ,st4 ,christopher1 the 
,christ ,bearer4    ,illustration3      
,reduced ,facsimile of ,early ,wood-cut 
,at first these images appeared upon    
single sheets bearing only the  picture4
 ,later1 words were carved upon the     
block in addition to the  picture1      
giving us on one page the combination of
 picture and text4 ,very  probably the  
owner could not read the inscription1   

but he could be told  what it meant and 
the very form of it would recall to his 
mind the words  which he had learned4   
,from this single picture there were two
 lines of development4 ,one was  the    
binding up of several pages of such     
pictures and texts into a book4  ,each  
page was printed from a single block and
 the result was a block  book4 ,of these
 there were two especially famous and   
often printed1 ,the  ,biblia ,pauperum1 
or ,poor ,man's ,bible1 and the         
,speculum ,humani  ,salvationis1 or     
,mirror of ,human ,salvation4 ,the ,poor
 ,man's ,bible1 of  course1 was a       
collection of prints recalling the      
biblical stories4 ,the  ,mirror went    
further afield and showed pictures      
representing moral  teaching4 ,great    
numbers of these books were printed and 
circulated1  especially in ,holland and 
,germany4    ,the other development was 
the printing of whole pages of text4    
,certain  books were in great demand4   
,the advantage of being able to         

reproduce  them quickly and cheaply was 
obvious4 ,the two best known are        
alphabet  books for beginners called    
,abecederia1 or ,abecederium in the     
singular1  and the elementary ,latin    
grammars abstracted from the works of an
 old  ,latin grammarian named ,donatus4 
,these grammars were commonly called    
,donatuses4 ,these books1 especially the
 school books1 were printed mostly  on  
vellum1 partly because of its greater   
durability and partly because  the use  
of paper was not yet common4    ,we have
 here the lines of development which led
 directly to the  invention of          
typography4 ,we have already mentioned  
books printed from  plates with pictures
 without text1 pictures with text1 and  
text without  pictures4 ,what would be  
more natural than to cut off the part of
 the  block containing the text and use 
the picture alone1 or to combine the    
text with text cut from another block or
 with another picture from which  the   
text had been removed8 ,if we could do  

this why could we not cut out  a single 
word or a single letter and why not make
 a considerable number  of these single 
letters and combine them into words8 ,if
 parts of two or  more blocks were to be
 used for the same picture1 they must be
 fastened  together in some way1 or as  
we should say today the form must be    
locked  up4 ,why could not separate     
letters be fastened together in the same
 way  so that we could print anything we
 wanted by the simple process of        
putting together the necessary letters  
in the proper relation8 ,as we  shall   
see presently1 this is exactly what     
happened1 and the invention of  printing
 thus considered is the most natural    
thing in the world4    ,before passing  
to the next phase of the discovery1 a   
word should be said  about playing      
cards4 ,until recently playing cards    
were considered as  having a place in   
this development which they probably    
never occupied4  ,playing cards1 like   
many other things good and bad1 were    

invented in the  ,east4 ,they made their
 appearance in ,europe somewhere about  
#acge ,a4 ,d4  and by #adjj they had    
become popular4 ,the first cards were   
hand painted  which1 of course1 made    
them expensive and confined their use to
 the  wealthy4 ,a little later1 however1
 they were painted by the use of        
stencils so that they could be produced 
cheaply and plentifully4 ,later  still  
they were printed from blocks like the  
image prints and colored by  hand4      
,color being essential to playing cards1
 the development thus  outlined was the 
most natural4 ,it has been supposed that
 the  comparatively small playing card  
was first made and that the image print 
was derived from the playing card4      
,there now seems no question that the   
process was the other way about1 as     
there are no printed playing cards      
known as early as the ,st4 ,christopher 
above referred to4 ,the  block-printed  
playing card seems to have been clearly 
an imitation of  the image print1 and   

not the image print an evolution from   
the playing  card4                      
,,chapter ,,iii                         
,,claims ,,to ,,the ,,invention      ,de
 ,vinne mentions fifteen cities or towns
 as having been specified by as  many   
different authors as the true birthplace
 of typography4 ,the names  of these are
 ,augsburg1 ,basle1 ,bologna1           
,dordrecht1 ,feltre1 ,florence1         
,haarlem1 ,lubeck1 ,mainz1 ,nuremberg1  
,rome1 ,russemburg1 ,strasburg1         
,schelestadt1 and ,venice4 ,the various 
authors assign to these towns the  names
 of the following alleged inventors3    
,castoldi1 ,coster1 ,fust1              
,gensfleisch1 ,gresmund1 ,gutenberg1    
,hahn1 ,mentel1 ,jenson1 ,regiomontanus1
  ,schoeffer1 ,pannartz and ,sweynheym1 
and ,louis de ,vaelbaeske4    ,of these 
claims there are only three which       
deserve any consideration  whatever4    
,the first of these claims1 the alleged 
discovery at ,avignon1  is by far the   
most recent and may be quickly disposed 

of4 ,in #ahij the  ,abb ,requin         
discovered five curious documents in the
 notarial records of  ,avignon1 in      
southern ,france4 ,these papers deal    
with the business  dealings of the      
silversmith ,procopius ,waldfoghel with 
certain other  persons regarding the art
 of writing artistically1 instruction   
therein1  and certain tools therefor4   
,there are mentioned in these papers two
  steel alphabets in ,latin1 one iron   
alphabet in ,hebrew1 two iron frames1   
one steel screw1 forty-eight forms of   
tin1 and divers other forms  belonging  
to the art of writing4 ,there is also   
mention of instruments or  tools of     
iron1 steel1 copper1 latten1 lead1 tin1 
and wood for writing  artistically4     
,these documents date from #addd and    
#addf1 before ,gutenberg  had produced  
any results4 ,on the evidence of these  
documents attempts  have been made to   
show that printing was being done at    
,avignon several  years before the      
earliest date that can be assigned to   

the #db-line  ,bible1 the ,letters of   
,indulgence1 or even the somewhat       
doubtful ,latin  ,grammar4    ,a careful
 study of the documents1 however1 hardly
 bears out this claim4  ,it is said that
 the writing was to be done on 8stuffs0 
7cloth71 but  nothing is said of paper1 
ink1 or other materials needed for      
printing1  and it is a stretch of the   
imagination to see punches and matrices 
in  the iron and steel alphabets and the
 forty-eight forms4    ,the probability 
is that ,waldfoghel cut letters of      
ornamental and  artistic forms on dies  
to be used as initials and the like on  
manuscripts or on cloth and other       
materials and devised or borrowed a     
method of printing from them by the     
application of power through some  sort 
of screw press4 ,this is in harmony with
 much that we know to have  been done at
 that time1 but is quite apart from     
anything like typography  as we are     
considering it4    ,the second is the   
so-called ,coster legend4 ,this story in

 its legendary  form says that ,lourens 
,janssoen ,coster invented printing from
 the chance  trifling of an idle hour4  
,he is said to have been strolling in   
the woods  near ,haarlem one day and to 
have cut some pieces of birch bark in   
the  form of letters4 ,with some of     
these letters dipped in ink he made     
marks  on parchment or paper and found  
that he could combine them and recombine
  them so as to make words and          
sentences4 ,he then began experimenting 
in  earnest4 ,his first letters were    
carved out of wood1 then he made them   
out of lead1 and at last out of tin4    
,finding the ink used by the  copyists  
unsatisfactory he invented an ink of    
more viscous kind better  suited to the 
work in hand4 ,the story runs that his  
new invention  attracted much attention 
and that he made many books which he    
sold at  good profit4 ,the work grew    
beyond his personal capacity to do it   
and he  took servants or apprentices4   
,among them was a young fellow named    

,john4  ,john had more brains than      
honesty1 and one day while the family   
were at  church ,john packed up the type
 and the matrices and left ,haarlem4    
,from  ,haarlem1 the story goes on to   
say1 he went to ,mainz where he set up  
in  business for himself and prospered  
exceedingly4 ,it is from this act1  says
 the story1 that all the ,mainz printing
 proceeded4 ,in this form the  story is 
obviously legendary4 ,we shall examine  
it later in another  connection when we 
shall see this point more clearly1 some 
of the  details being evidently         
introduced to fill the gaps in what may 
be  regarded as history4    ,the third  
claim is the commonly accepted          
,gutenberg legend4 ,concerning          
,gutenberg himself we know very little1 
although somewhat more than we  know    
about ,coster4 ,what we do know of him  
rests almost entirely upon  public      
registers and the records of law suits4 
,no authentic record of  his birth      
exists1 but it is supposed to have taken

 place at ,mainz about  #acii4 ,mainz1  
like many other cities of the time1 was 
a prey to internal  disputes and as a   
result of some such political overturn  
,gutenberg's  family went to ,strasburg 
some time before #adcj4 ,in a legal     
document in  existence at ,strasburg we 
find mention of ,john ,gensfleisch1     
otherwise  known as ,gutenberg1 of      
,mainz4 ,his name occurs in a           
proclamation issued  in #adcj granting  
political amnesty to the ,mainz exiles4 
,in the same year  he negotiated with   
the authorities of ,mainz for a pension 
for his mother  and in #adcb he was in  
,mainz4 ,he next appears in the         
,strasburg court  records in #adci1 when
 he was defendant in a suit brought     
against him by  his business partners4  
,in these records are obscure references
 which  have been interpreted as        
referring to printing4 ,in the light of 
the  clearer reference of later law     
suits it is not probable that this      
interpretation is correct4    ,gutenberg

 was then1 as for all his life1 in      
financial difficulty4  ,whatever the    
outcome of the #adci suit1 he borrowed a
 hundred pounds in  #adda and in #addb  
sold an annual income of four pounds for
 eighty pounds  cash4 ,the ,strasburg   
tax books show that he was in arrears   
for taxes  between #adcf and #addj4 ,by 
some writers these financial            
difficulties are  supposed to have      
arisen out of ,gutenberg's devotion to  
his experiments  in typography4 ,it is  
more probable1 however1 that they were  
owing to  lack of business ability and  
possibly to lack of business integrity4 
,the  shifts to which he had recourse in
 his financial difficulties run at      
times perilously near the line of       
dishonesty4    ,in #addh ,gutenberg was 
back in ,mainz and again borrowing      
money4 ,what  happened next can best be 
read back from what is known as the     
,helmasperger document1 a notarial      
instrument relating to a law suit  which
 ,john ,fust brought against ,gutenberg 

in #adee4 ,from this document it        
appears that about #adej1 or slightly   
before1 ,gutenberg became acquainted    
with ,john ,fust1 who was a prosperous  
business man in ,mainz4 ,the two        
entered into a contract of partnership  
for five years4 ,fust was to  advance   
#hjj guilders to ,gutenberg at six per  
cent interest for use in  procuring     
tools and materials1 said tools to      
remain mortgaged to ,fust  until the    
loan was paid4 ,in addition ,fust was to
 advance to ,gutenberg  #cjj guilders   
every year to provide for servant's     
wages1 house rent1  vellum1 paper1 ink1 
etc4 ,in return ,fust was to receive one
 half of the  profits1 but was to be    
responsible for no debts and was to take
 no  personal part in the business4     
,it is reasonably clear from this       
contract that while ,gutenberg had hopes
  in #adej1 and we shall probably see   
later upon what they were founded1 he   
had not even made the necessary tools   
for printing1 much less printed         

anything4 ,things did not1 however1 go  
smoothly under the new  partnership4    
,instead of ,fust paying the eight      
hundred guilders at once1  he spread the
 payments over two years4 ,gutenberg1 on
 his part1 did not  find the three      
hundred guilders a year sufficient4     
,fust1 therefore1  proposed that instead
 of paying the three hundred guilders a 
year for  the remaining three years of  
the partnership1 he should pay eight    
hundred guilders down1 and remit the    
interest on the first eight hundred     
guilders as an offset for the one       
hundred guilders which ,gutenberg would 
lose under this modification of the     
original contract4    ,these            
arrangements seem to have been carried  
out but in #adee the results  were so   
unsatisfactory that ,fust brought suit  
to recover the money  advanced4 ,the    
court decided at least in part in favor 
of ,fust4 ,gutenberg  was unable to     
return the money which the court awarded
 to ,fust1 and in  consequence ,fust    

took possession of the business and     
equipment4  ,gutenberg appears to have  
saved something out of the wreck and    
found a  new financial backer in the    
person of ,conrad ,humery1 a physician  
and  town clerk of ,mainz4 ,to this new 
office are attributed a number of books 
and pamphlets1 the most important one   
being a ,catholicon1 #adfj1 nearly      
eight hundred pages large folio4 ,in    
#adfb the city of ,mainz was besieged   
and sacked and the printing industry    
therein was broken up4 ,in #adff1       
however1 we find printing done in       
,eltville1 a suburb of ,mainz1 with type
  which is supposed to have been        
,gutenberg's4 ,as this was the          
birthplace  of ,gutenberg's mother and  
there was a family estate there it is   
quite  probable that the                
,gutenberg-,humery office was set up in 
that place4 ,in  #adfe we find          
,gutenberg appointed one of the officers
 of the court of  ,adolph ,,ii1 the     
militant prince-bishop who had captured 

and looted ,mainz  three years before4  
,the patent states that this appointment
 is made on  account of 8agreeable and  
voluntary service rendered to us and our
  bishopric40 ,this is the last we hear 
of ,gutenberg except the record of  his 
death in ,february1 #adfh4    ,in brief1
 this legend tells us that ,gutenberg   
was for years a patient  but            
disappointed seeker after an invention  
which he had dreamed of but  could not  
make practical1 that he finally         
succeeded only to be robbed of  the     
fruits of his success by an unscrupulous
 money lender1 that in his  old age he  
began again with undaunted courage1     
struggling always against  financial    
difficulties and always failing to make 
a wordly success of  his great          
invention1 reaping his only reward in   
the tardy favor of the  prince-bishop4  
,that ,fust and his son-in-law1         
,schoeffer1 did make a  financial       
success of printing1 and that further   
success was made by  ,bechtermntz1 who  

is said to have been a relative of      
,gutenberg and to  have inherited type  
and material from his second shop1 and  
that from  ,mainz as a center the art of
 printing spread over the civilized     
world  are beyond question4 ,these are  
the legends of the invention4 ,now let  
us  see if we can find out what really  
happened4                               
,,chapter ,,iv                          
,,the ,,invention      ,the study of the
 question of the invention of printing1 
like that of any  other historical      
question1 must deal with the examination
 of three  classes of evidence or so    
many of them as may be available4 ,these
 three  classes of evidence1 in order of
 their importance1 are first1 remains1  
second1 contemporary documents1 and     
third1 documents or evidence of a  later
 period4 ,for example1 there may be     
tradition widely current and  running   
backward in literary form to within a   
hundred years of the death  of the      
person referred to1 that a certain king 

ruled in a certain  country and did     
certain things4 ,that is evidence of the
 third class4  ,there may be extant     
contemporary works of travelers1        
histories of other  countries1 or even  
the published recollections of old men1 
which said  that at a certain period    
that king lived and did certain things4 
,that is  evidence of the second class4 
,there may be coins1 official           
inscriptions1  public documents1        
emanating directly from this king or    
even bearing his  signature4 ,this is   
evidence of the first class4 ,this class
 of evidence  is conclusive4 ,the second
 class is strong1 but not conclusive1   
the third  class is very uncertain4     
,now it happens that with regard to the 
invention of printing we have  evidence 
of all three classes4 ,all of it is     
conflicting1 but the  conflicts1 it is  
to be noted1 are mainly in the evidence 
of the third  class4 ,the evidence of   
the second class exists mainly in       
,mainz1 but is  not nearly as conclusive

 as has been supposed4 ,evidence of the 
first  class comes entirely from        
,haarlem1 and is there supported by one 
or two  important pieces of evidence of 
the second class4 ,with this brief      
introduction perhaps it will be easier  
to understand the argument which        
follows4    ,of course1 the material of 
the first class1 namely1 remains1 would 
be  the earliest known pieces of        
printing4 ,if these pieces of printing  
were  dated as books are today1 they    
could not be questioned1 but as they are
  not so dated1 but must be placed by   
other evidence1 they have been          
questioned4 ,there exist1 in whole or in
 part1 forty-seven distinct  pieces of  
printing each bearing evidence of being 
among the first pieces  of printing     
produced4 ,these forty-seven works in   
their present condition  run all the way
 from an entire book to a fragment of a 
single page4 ,a  group of three or four 
of them may be identified by reference  
to  officials whose official dates were 

known as being either in #adgd or       
immediately preceding it4 ,this1        
however1 does not date the whole group4 
,these few specimens are much more      
advanced in their appearance and        
workmanship than the rest of the        
forty-seven4 ,several other editions of 
some at least of these better books     
appear in this interesting lot of       
remains4 ,the other editions are of a   
much more primitive appearance1  showing
 that the period covered by the         
forty-seven works ended not later  than 
#adgd4    ,of these forty-seven works1  
forty-five are in ,latin1 which1 as we  
know1  was the language of schools1     
courts1 and churches at this period in  
all  nations4 ,one1 an edition of a book
 of which there are several editions  in
 ,latin1 was in ,dutch4 ,one was in     
,french4 ,that these forty-seven books  
all came from ,haarlem is pretty clearly
 shown by certain internal  evidence4   
,one of them is clearly placed in       
,holland by the fact that it  was       

printed in ,dutch4 ,nobody at the very  
outset of printing would print  books in
 ,dutch except a ,dutchman4 ,all the    
rest of the forty-seven are  closely    
related to these1 as is shown by the    
similarity but not identity  of their   
types4    ,the earliest printers were   
imitators of the copyists4 ,they made   
their  pages look as much like a        
manuscript page as they could1 not      
perhaps  with intent to deceive1 but    
because nothing else occurred to them4  
,you  will find that all the earliest   
types are modeled upon the handwriting  
current among the copyists of the place 
where the printing was done4  ,certainly
 these books did not come from ,mainz4  
,nobody has ever claimed  that they did4
 ,almost equally certainly they did come
 from ,holland and  from ,haarlem4 ,the 
handwriting is the handwriting of the   
,haarlem copyists  of the period4 ,an   
attempt was made at one time to assign  
these books to  ,utrecht1 but it is not 
only true that each country had its     

prevailing  copyist's hand1 but that    
each important center had its own system
  variously developed in the local      
schools in which copying was taught4    
,the ,utrecht hand is not the ,haarlem  
hand4 ,the books resemble the ,haarlem  
hand and not the ,utrecht4    ,while the
 forty-seven books show a considerable  
number of varieties of  type1 the       
editions being identified by these type 
differences1 all the  type faces show a 
strong family resemblance4 ,they are    
designed from a  common model1 but not  
at the same time1 and consequently they 
show  marked resemblances and marked    
differences4 ,the question may be asked 
why the same printer should use eight or
 nine different fonts of type  for only 
forty-seven books4 ,the answer is found 
in the fact that  type-making was as yet
 in an experimental stage and that      
durable  material had not yet been found
 for that purpose4 ,when we come to the 
discussion of evidence of another class 
we shall find confirmation of  this4    

,there is no evidence of the second or  
third class connecting early  printing  
with any ,dutch town except ,haarlem4   
,there is1 however1  important evidence 
of the other classes which does connect 
printing with  ,haarlem4 ,there are not1
 however1 forty-seven different works4  
,twenty of  the forty-seven books are   
different editions of the ,donatus1 that
 is to  say they are ,donatuses showing 
such typographic differences as to show 
that no two of them could have been     
printed from the same type form4  ,four 
of them are editions of the ,speculum   
and eight are different  editions of the
 ,doctrinale4 ,the ,doctrinale was a    
brief compend to  ,christian doctrine   
approved by the church and widely       
circulated among  the faithful4         
,nearly all of the fragments of these   
forty-seven books have been found  in   
,haarlem or in the neighborhood4 ,it is 
evident that the publications  of this  
press1 whatever its date1 were locally  
sold and that neither its  fame nor its 

product went far from the place of      
production4    ,having thus shown the   
reasons for believing that these        
forty-seven  pieces of early printing   
came from ,haarlem1 let us see what they
 have to  say for themselves as to the  
time of their production4 ,it has       
already  been pointed out that a small  
group of the best of them dated         
themselves  no later than #adgd1 as is  
shown by their contents4 ,so far as the 
contents themselves are concerned we    
have nothing to date the others4  ,there
 are certain things about the books     
themselves1 however1 which show  that   
their production must have begun long   
before #adgd4    ,for one thing1 there  
are twenty editions of the ,donatus4 ,we
 have no way  of knowing how near       
together the editions were1 but when we 
compare them  with the editions of the  
,donatus later published we shall see   
that it is  not unreasonable to suppose 
that they run back some thirty years4   
,there  were also four editions of the  

,speculum and eight editions of the     
,doctrinale4 ,in each case the evidence 
of other printers shows that even  one  
of the small editions usually published 
at that time lasted for a  considerable 
period4 ,the appearance of the books    
themselves bears out  this conclusion4  
,good as the later ones are1 they are   
inferior to ,mainz  workmanship of their
 period and the earlier ones are far    
inferior to  ,mainz workmanship of any  
period4 ,they are not only without      
signatures1  initial directors1 hyphens1
 and catch words1 all of which had come 
into  use before #adgd1 but they show   
certain other remarkable peculiarities4 
,many of these editions were printed on 
vellum1 which is not in itself          
remarkable1 as vellum continued to be   
used for a good many years for  some    
books and for special copies of certain 
editions4 ,some of them show  a further 
peculiarity of having vellum and paper  
combined together1 some  of the pages   
being printed on sheets of vellum and   

some being printed on  sheets of paper4 
,a considerable number of these books   
are printed only  on one side of the    
page4 ,none of the early ,mainz books   
show this  peculiarity4 ,some of these  
books not only show the curious         
combination  of paper and vellum just   
noted1 but curious combinations of the  
use of  block and type4 ,in some cases  
the upper part of the page shows a      
picture  printed from a block while the 
lower part is printed from type4    ,the
 blocks thus used are the old familiar  
blocks of the ,speculum but  with no    
text carved on the block4 ,some of the  
books show the peculiarity  of certain  
pages of text printed from blocks and   
other pages of text  printed from type4 
,the accompanying illustrations show a  
reproduction of a page of a  ,donatus   
printed from blocks1 and a reproduction 
of a ,donatus printed  from type by     
,coster4 ,they are taken from ,holtrop's
 ,monuments  ,typographiques des        
,pays-,bas4 ,two pages1 not consecutive1

 of the printed  ,donatus1 were found in
 the binding of a book published in     
,delft in #adhd4  ,the leaves are of    
vellum1 printed on one side only4 ,the  
ink is pale and  is soluble in water4   
,there is no punctuation and there are  
no hyphens at  the ends of lines where  
words are divided1 showing that the font
  contained only letters4 ,the lines are
 fairly regular in length and end  with 
either a complete word or a syllable4   
,the form is well locked up  and the    
presswork is fair4 ,the letters are of  
slightly varying size and  are not in   
perfect alignment4 ,apparently each     
letter was cut  independently on the end
 of the type body and the cutter was not
  sufficiently skillful to center them  
perfectly4    ,compare this page with   
the reproductions of the ,mazarin1 or   
forty-two  line ,bible1 shown on pages  
#dh and #di4 ,we know that the ,mazarin 
,bible was  printed not later than      
#adef4 ,by some it has been attributed  
to  ,gutenberg1 or at least to his      

types1 but it is now considered the work
  of ,schoeffer4 ,the ,mazarin ,bible is
 one of the most perfect and splendid   
pieces of typography that has ever been 
produced4 ,other work attributed  to    
,gutenberg shows a high degree of       
excellence4 ,it has always been one  of 
the wonders of invention that so        
difficult and complicated an art as     
typography should have sprung into being
 fully perfected1 without trace  of     
imperfect experiment4 ,in the rough page
 of ,coster's ,donatus we  clearly see  
the imperfect beginning--the missing    
link4    ,these peculiarities are       
exactly what we should expect to find in
 the  missing links between the printing
 of block books and the printing of     
books from type4 ,the printer is        
experimenting4 ,he cuts the lettering   
off  his blocks and combines them with  
type4 ,he uses type and blocks for the  
same edition4 ,he experiments with      
paper4 ,he is very primitive in his     
methods4 ,a block book could be printed 

only on one side4 ,he is not yet  sure  
that the type-set book can be printed on
 both sides4 ,not improbably  he began  
by using for his type page the same     
method of printing that he  used with   
his wooden block4 ,it seems pretty clear
 that in this mass of  material1 known  
collectively as the ,costeriana1 we have
 the records of  the course of          
experimentation which led from the      
printing of the image  print1 with its  
legend cut on the same block1 by placing
 a sheet of  paper or vellum on the     
inked surface of the block and pressing 
it down  with a frotten1 to the         
production of the book from type-set    
pages  impressed upon both sides of the 
paper by means of a press4    ,we have  
thus gone through the evidence of the   
first class which exists  for the       
invention of printing4 ,we have seen    
that there exists  indisputable evidence
 that forty-seven editions were printed 
at ,haarlem  before #adgd by an         
experimenter who seems to have gone over

 the road from  the block book to the   
type-set book4    ,illustration3        
,reduced ,facsimile of ,type ,page by   
,coster4    ,illustration3 ,reduced     
,facsimile of ,block ,printing    ,we   
have a few bits of evidence of the      
second and third class which bear  upon 
this subject and confirm our            
conclusions4 ,jean ,le ,robert1 ,abbot  
of  ,cambray1 says in his diary that he 
bought in #addf and #adea copies of the 
,doctrinale of ,alexander ,gallus       
printed from type4 ,certainly no        
,doctrinales were printed from type in  
,mainz as early as #addf1 although  we  
know that the ,costeriana include       
,doctrinales in eight editions which    
may well have gone back to #adea4 ,the  
opponents of the ,haarlem theory  claim 
that the ,abbot refers to ,doctrinales  
printed from blocks but we  have no     
knowledge of the existence of any       
,doctrinales so made1 and the  term by  
which he describes them is a term which 
from the beginning has  been            

specifically applied to the making of   
type and could not be applied  to the   
making of blocks4 ,presumably the ,abbot
 knew what he was talking  about and    
told the truth4    ,hadrianus ,junius1  
in #aefh1 tells the story of ,coster and
 the birch bark  letters as we have     
previously told it4 ,it is not necessary
 to repeat the  story1 but it is        
interesting to note certain features of 
it4 ,junius says  that ,coster printed  
his leaves on one side1 pasting two     
together to  avoid the recurrence of    
alternate blank pages4 ,he further says 
that he  saw one or two of ,coster's    
books thus made4 ,he claims that he got 
the  story in his youth from his tutor1 
,nicholas ,gaal1 a very aged man1 but   
of good memory1 who said that in his    
boyhood he had heard a certain          
,cornelis1 a book binder1 then eighty   
years old1 tell the story of  ,coster's 
invention and his struggles to perfect  
it1 including the use of  one side of   
the paper and of several different      

materials for type4 ,the  ,burgomaster  
of ,haarlem1 ,quirinius ,talesius1      
admitted to ,junius that in  his youth  
,cornelis had told him the same story1  
and it is interesting to  note in this  
connection that some of the ,costeriana 
fragments are found  in bindings made by
 this same ,cornelis4    ,one more      
evidence which1 like that of ,junius1   
falls into the third class  remains to  
be cited4 ,in #adii ,koelhoff published 
the ,cologne ,chronicle in  which he    
speaks of the invention of printing1    
using as his authority  ,ulrich ,zell1 a
 printer of the ,mainz school1 who      
settled in ,cologne4 ,he  says that     
,zell told him that 8the art of printing
 was first found at  ,mainz1 but in the 
manner as it was then 7#adii7 practiced2
 the first  prefiguration1 however1 the 
beginning of that at ,mainz1 was found  
in  ,holland from the ,donatuses which  
had been printed in that country        
before40 ,certainly this is not an      
attribution of the invention of         

printing either to ,mainz or to         
,gutenberg4 ,it is a distinct confession
  that it is only the sort of work then 
being done which was invented at  ,mainz
 and that it was suggested by work      
brought from ,holland4 ,it  entirely    
agrees with the ,junius account above   
quoted4    ,in the ,haarlem ,town       
,library there is a pedigree of the     
,coster family4 ,in  its present form it
 dates from #aeei1 but the earlier part 
was evidently  copied from an old       
document4 ,this pedigree says that      
,lourens ,janssoen  ,coster invented    
printing in #addf4    ,while we have not
 here an exact agreement of dates we    
have one near  enough for all practical 
purposes4 ,the ,costeriana run back for 
a period  which may be conservatively   
stated at thirty years from #adgd1 that 
is to  say1 to #addd or thereabouts4    
,zell says that printed ,donatuses came 
from  ,holland1 but that the art of     
printing as practiced in #adii was      
invented  at ,mainz1 and this invention1

 as we shall presently show1 is fixed as
  subsequently to #adej4 ,junius1       
writing in #aefh1 says that ,coster     
discovered printing #abh years          
previously1 that is to say1 #addj4      
,if we now turn to the examination of   
the evidence in support of the  claim   
for ,gutenberg1 we find that it is      
lacking in material of the first  or    
even of the second class4 ,it is not    
absolutely certain that we have  any    
book printed by ,gutenberg4 ,if1        
however1 for the sake of the argument   
we admit that he printed nearly or quite
 all of the works that are  attributed  
to him we find that they are all much   
better in workmanship  and appearance   
than the ,haarlem books4 ,none of them  
are printed on one  side of the page    
only1 excepting1 of course1 small       
matters which would  not cover more than
 one page1 and there are no signs       
whatever of  transition from any        
previous type of printing to typography4
 ,those who  have accepted the theory of

 ,gutenberg's invention have marveled at
 the  perfection of his work1 as well   
they might4    ,there are only two      
pieces of evidence of the first class4  
,one is the  ,helmasperger document1 a  
notary's document concerning the law    
suit which  ,fust brought against       
,gutenberg in #adee4 ,a close           
examination of this  document would     
appear to show that it tells rather     
against than in favor  of ,gutenberg4   
,it appears to show conclusively that   
,gutenberg had not  done any printing   
before #adej1 and had not at that time  
even made the  tools with which to      
print4 ,in this document ,fust speaks of
 8the work0  and 8our common work40     
,gutenberg speaks of 8tools0 in         
preparation4  ,clearly he is borrowing  
money in order to make tools4 ,he speaks
 further  of 8servants' wages1 house    
rent1 vellum1 paper1 ink1 etc40 and of  
8the  work of the books40 ,the judges   
speak of 8the work to the profit of both
  of them10 8their common use10 and the 

like4 ,there is not a word which  speaks
 distinctly of an invention4 ,it is true
 that the argument from  silence is     
always dangerous and that those who     
believe that ,gutenberg  invented       
printing could easily read between the  
lines of this document  references to   
the invention4 ,to one who approaches   
the subject with an  open mind1 however1
 the language is rather that of one who 
enters into  partnership for the        
carrying on of a business enterprise    
which is  understood by both parties and
 from which both expect to receive      
profit  rather than that of the man who 
undertakes to finance an inventor for a 
share in the invention4    ,the other   
piece of evidence of the first class is 
the letters patent by  which ,adolph    
,,ii appointed ,gutenberg one of the    
officers of his court4  ,the document   
states that the appointment is made for 
8agreeable and  voluntary service       
rendered to us and our bishopric40 ,it  
has been argued  that as ,gutenberg was 

not a soldier this agreeable and        
voluntary service  must have been the   
invention of printing4 ,surely this is a
 violent  assumption4 ,if we believe    
that ,gutenberg invented printing1 we   
may  perhaps see in these words a       
reference to the invention1 although we 
then marvel why so epoch-making an      
accomplishment was not specifically     
mentioned4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to
 see why an unconvinced person  should  
be expected to see in such a statement  
as this any evidence that  ,gutenberg   
had invented printing4 ,certainly there 
are many other kinds of  service which  
might well have been rendered by one of 
whom we know so  little as we do of     
,gutenberg4    ,zell's testimony1       
already referred to1 is of the second   
class4 ,zell's  testimony also counts   
against ,gutenberg4 ,he distinctly does 
not claim  that ,gutenberg invented any 
more than the method of printing in use 
in  #adii1 admitting that he got his    
suggestion from the ,donatuses brought  

out of ,holland4 ,it has been argued    
that these ,donatuses were block books  
and that it was from them that          
,gutenberg got the idea of typography4  
,this argument1 however1 breaks down at 
once when we remember that many  block  
books were printed in ,germany4 ,there  
is no earthly reason why the  suggestion
 of typography should have come from a  
,dutch block book when  everybody was   
familiar with the ,german ones and had  
been so familiar for  many years4    ,a 
careful examination of the documentary  
evidence which will be found  set forth 
in chronological order in the article on
 ,typography in the  eleventh edition of
 the ,encyclopedia ,britannica shows    
several  interesting things4 ,while the 
earlier mentions of printing generally  
attribute the beginnings of the art to  
,mainz1 few of them speak  distinctly of
 its being invented there4 ,they speak  
of its being  practiced there and being 
given to ,germany and the world from    
there1  claims as we shall presently see

 quite consistent with the theory of    
invention elsewhere4 ,nearly1 if not    
quite1 all of the early statements  that
 printing was invented by ,gutenberg are
 traceable either directly to           
,gutenberg himself1 to his family1 or to
 people who would be quoting him  or his
 family4 ,it is not until a             
comparatively late period that we find  
any agreement among writers in          
attributing the invention to ,gutenberg4
    ,we are now perhaps in position to  
form a pretty clear idea of just what   
happened and to award discriminating    
credit where it belongs4 ,the  present  
writer believes that it may be          
considered as settled that ,coster      
invented printing in ,haarlem about     
#addf4 ,coster did not1 however1 found  
a school of printing4 ,he ceased to     
print not far from #adha1 as about  that
 time we find some of his material used 
elsewhere4 ,the later years  of the     
century see a few printers in ,holland4 
,how far they derived their  inspiration

 from ,coster is doubtful4 ,it is       
certain that ,haarlem was not  a center 
from which spread to the rest of ,europe
 and ultimately to the  whole world the 
art preservative of all arts4    ,the   
honor of being this center clearly      
belongs to ,mainz4 ,how did the art  get
 there8 ,probably not through the       
treachery of a dishonest apprentice4    
,that is one of the legendary features  
of the ,junius story1 explained by  the 
fact that in his time everybody knew    
that the center from which  printing    
spread was ,mainz and that the first two
 printers were ,john  ,gutenberg and    
,john ,fust4 ,we may at this point      
accept ,zell's account as  the true one4
 ,some of ,coster's work found its way  
to ,mainz1 together1  probably1 with    
some general1 unscientific statements as
 to how it was  produced4 ,acting on    
this hint and with these models before  
him1  ,gutenberg reinvented the art1    
that is1 he worked out from the finished
  product and a general idea of how it  

was made what was to all intents  and   
purposes an original process superior to
 the one by which the work  in his      
possession had been produced4    ,his   
association with ,fust1 the business    
man1 and ,schoeffer1 the  craftsman1 was
 the means whereby the invention became 
profitable to the  world1 though not to 
,gutenberg4 ,there is no reason to      
suppose that ,fust  was an unprincipled 
schemer who stole ,gutenberg's invention
 and profited  by it4 ,he was a business
 man who made a contract with another   
man for  the carrying on of a certain   
manufacturing process1 setting his      
capital  against the other man's labor  
for an equal share in the profit4 ,there
  was not only no profit1 but the       
working partner did not live up to his  
side of the contract4 ,fust sued1       
obtained a judgment1 and under this     
judgment took over a great part at least
 of the equipment which his  money had  
paid for4 ,while the criminal procedure 
of this age was of a  very harsh and    

primitive sort the judgments of the     
,german courts in  civil cases appear   
generally to have been fairly just4     
,when we consider  ,gutenberg's record  
of financial slipperiness there seems no
 reason to  doubt that it was just in   
this case4 ,on obtaining the business   
,fust  associated with himself the young
 journeyman1 ,peter ,schoeffer1 who had 
learned the business in the ,gutenberg  
and ,fust establishment and had  married
 ,fust's daughter4 ,he was an excellent 
workman and his skill1  backed by       
,fust's capital1 set the new invention  
on a practical basis and  insured its   
future4    ,in deciding against the     
claims of ,gutenberg to the invention we
 by no  means deprive him of all share  
in the glory4 ,the reinvention with     
improvements was nearly if not quite as 
creditable a task as the  invention1    
especially when we remember how simple a
 step the actual  inventor took in going
 from his block book to his type-set    
book4 ,the  invention of ,coster was    

sterile4 ,the reinvention of ,gutenberg 
was  fruitful4 ,it was ,mainz and not   
,haarlem which actually gave printing to
  the world4    ,in view of all this the
 early testimonies are not so           
conflicting as they  seem4 ,we have seen
 that the testimonies of ,junius and of 
,zell supplement  each other4 ,we can   
see that the early authorities were     
right in their  claim that printing was 
given to ,germany and the world by      
,mainz1 and at  the same time that the  
claim is not1 as has been hastily       
supposed1 a  claim that it was invented 
there4 ,we can see that the reinvention 
of  printing might well seem so         
important to ,gutenberg himself and to  
his  family that they should claim that 
he invented it4 ,the statement in the   
letters patent may well refer to the    
service which ,gutenberg rendered to    
the court and bishopric of ,adolph ,,ii 
by the introduction of typography       
because he unquestionably did thus      
render them great service1 and we are   

no longer surprised at the omission of a
 distinct statement that  ,gutenberg was
 rewarded for inventing typography4 ,in 
a word1 the  ,gutenberg monuments need  
not come down1 but the inscriptions on  
them  should be changed4                
,,chapter ,v                ,,materials 
,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,the ,,first      
,,printers      ,our knowledge of       
,coster is much less complete than our  
knowledge of  ,gutenberg4 ,much1        
however1 that could be said of one would
 undoubtedly be  true of the other4 ,it 
is reported that ,coster began with     
wooden type4  ,this would naturally be  
the first step forward from the block   
book1  which was invariably printed from
 wood4 ,finding that wooden type was    
unsatisfactory in the press1 he         
experimented with lead and with tin1 we 
are told4 ,obviously he would not get   
satisfactory results with either of     
these metals unalloyed4 ,the use of     
unsatisfactory material probably        
accounts for the number of fonts of type

 which he employed in his  comparatively
 small output4    ,illustration3        
,showing ,principle of a ,type ,mold    
,gutenberg and his associates invented a
 more satisfactory type metal and  an   
improved method for the making of type4 
,the first types appear to  have been   
carved individually by hand4 ,this was a
 great task1 but not as  great as might 
appear4 ,the early printers printed     
their books page by  page4 ,when one    
page was printed in sufficient numbers  
for the edition  the type was           
distributed and another page set up1 and
 so on4 ,in this way  a comparatively   
small amount of type would suffice for  
the equipment of  a small shop4 ,it was 
not long1 however1 before the           
superiority of  casting was perceived4  
,the first mold was probably two notched
 blocks of brass or copper1 like  those 
shown in the accompanying illustration1 
a method being provided of  accurately  
positioning the matrix under the opening
 in the mold and also  of holding the   

two blocks firmly together4 ,from the   
illustration it will  be noted that when
 the blocks are forced together a square
 opening  remains4 ,still keeping the   
blocks together1 but sliding down the   
one at  the right1 one dimension of the 
opening does not change1 but the other  
can be varied4 ,this mold has been      
improved in detail1 but not greatly     
altered in principle down to this day4  
,a fairly satisfactory form of  matrix  
very similar to the one in use today was
 soon devised4 ,this was  made by       
cutting the letter in relief on the end 
of a soft steel or iron  punch which was
 then hardened and driven into a block  
of soft brass or  copper1 which became  
the matrix4    ,illustration3 ,type of  
the ,mazarin ,bible 7exact size7    ,the
 type1 as has been said1 was cut to     
resemble the handwriting of the  scribes
 in the locality where the book was     
printed4 ,this would be the  obvious    
method because it must be remembered    
that the rapid reproduction  of         

manuscripts was the sole end which the  
first printers had in view4  ,they did  
not think of developing a conventional  
book type different from  handwriting or
 script4 ,they simply imitated the      
script which was  current1 and          
consequently most legible1 in their     
neighborhood4 ,the  school boys of that 
day did not have to learn two alphabets1
 one the  script letter and the other   
the printed letter1 as we do today4 ,the
  device of spacing was immediately     
adopted4 ,the letters were cast1        
however1 upon bodies with wide shoulders
 at top and bottom and used  without    
leads4    ,illustration3 ,page from the 
,mazarin ,bible 7reduced7    ,the types 
of the period were both handsome and    
legible4 ,perhaps they may  not be easy 
for us to read1 but that is because we  
are not familiar with  the forms of the 
letters used and especially with the    
contractions and  abbreviations which   
were common4 ,the beauty of some of     
these early types  will be seen from the

 little specimen of the type of the     
,mazarin ,bible  which is herewith      
reproduced in full size4    ,with the   
example of the illuminators before them 
the early printers paid  much attention 
to the ornamenting of their pages4 ,they
 introduced some  ornaments of their own
 and they occasionally left space for   
the hand  illuminator to use in         
supplementing their work4 ,a full page  
of the  ,mazarin ,bible greatly reduced 
is shown herewith4 ,by comparing that   
with  the specimen of full size type and
 imagining the whole page thrown up to  
natural size one can see what a really  
beautiful book this famous ,bible  was4 
,illustration3 ,an ,early ,printing     
,press    ,the press in use was of the  
most simple form imaginable1 as shown by
 the  accompanying illustration4 ,it was
 an adaptation of a familiar mechanical 
device1 with no originality about it4   
,it was made of wood and was  operated  
by a screw turning through a nut1 the   
moving of the screw  bringing the platen

 and bed into contact4 ,the form was    
released by the  reverse movement of the
 screw4 ,after a while the sliding bed  
and frisket  shown in the accompanying  
illustration were introduced and there  
the  mechanism stopped for a long time4 
,illustration3 ,bed of ,hand ,press     
,showing ,tympan and ,frisket    ,the   
first twenty-five years or so of        
printing have been described as a       
period of stagnation4 ,they have also   
been described as the period of the     
workman4 ,apparently the vast           
possibilities of the new art were slow  
in  obtaining recognition4 ,the earliest
 printers were only mechanics4 ,they    
had not yet got the vision of combining 
scholarship with their art and  so      
unlocking the treasuries of the world to
 mankind generally1 still  less that of 
adding to the sum total of human        
knowledge4 ,they had found  out an art  
by which manuscripts could be rapidly   
produced and money made  by their sale1 
and that was all4    ,they contented    

themselves with a slavish imitation of  
manuscripts1 with  apparently no thought
 of their being anything more than      
manuscript  imitators4 ,this condition  
of things1 however1 could not last long4
 ,it  was inevitable that the scholars  
of the world should become interested   
in this new process and should begin to 
see its advantages4 ,after twenty  or   
twenty-five years of printing this took 
place4 ,the period of sluggish  and     
practically dormant infancy passed and  
the development of the art  began1 as we
 shall see in the next volume of this   
series1 ,no4 #ea1 ,a  ,short ,history of
 ,printing1 ,part ,i4                   
,,supplementary ,,reading      ,,the    
,,story ,,of ,,books4 ,by ,gertrude     
,burford ,rawlings4 ,mc,clure1 ,phillips
       ,co41 ,new ,york4      ,,the     
,,invention ,,of ,,printing4 ,by        
,thedore ,l4 ,de ,vinne4 ,oswald        
,publishing      ,co41 ,new ,york4      
,,haarlem1 ,,not ,,mainz4 ,by ,j4 ,h4   
,hesels4      ,,early ,,printed ,,books4

 ,by ,e4 ,gordon ,duff4      ,,books    
,,and ,,their ,,makers ,,in ,,the       
,,middle ,,ages4 ,vol4 ,i4 by ,george   
,haven      ,putnam4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's  
,sons1 ,new ,york4      ,,encyclopedia  
,,britannica4 ,eleventh ,edition4       
,article on ,typography4    ,pupils who 
have access to large libraries should   
consult ,j4,w4 ,holtrop's  ,monuments   
,typographiques des ,pays-,bas and      
,samuel ,sotheby's ,principia1  both of 
which contain many excellent            
reproductions of very early  printing4  
,sotheby's book is commonly referred to 
as above1 but is  published under       
several different names in editions     
which vary but  little4 ,perhaps the    
best is entitled ,typography of the     
,fifteenth  ,century4                   
,,suggestions ,,to ,,students ,,and     
,,instructors      ,the following       
questions1 based on the contents of this
 volume1 are  intended to serve 7#a7 as 
a guide to the study of the text1 7#b7  
as an aid  to the student in putting the

 information contained into definite    
statements without actually memorizing  
the text1 7#c7 as a means of  securing  
from the student a reproduction of the  
information in his own  words4    ,a    
careful following of the questions by   
the reader will insure full             
acquaintance with every part of the     
text1 avoiding the accidental  omission 
of what might be of value4 ,these       
primers are so condensed that  nothing  
should be omitted4    ,in teaching from 
these books it is very important that   
these questions  and such others as may 
occur to the teacher should be made the 
basis of  frequent written work1 and of 
final examinations4    ,the importance  
of written work cannot be overstated4   
,it not only assures  knowledge of      
material but the power to express that  
knowledge correctly  and in good form4  
,if this written work can be submitted  
to the teacher in printed form it  will 
be doubly useful4                       
,,questions         #a4 ,what           

interesting fact is noted about most    
great inventions and         what is the
 reason for it8         #b4 ,give some  
well known instances4         #c4 ,how  
does this condition apply to the        
invention of printing8         #d4 ,why 
may we question ,de ,vinne's decision8  
#e4 ,why was the discovery of typography
 inevitable about #adej8         #f4    
,what was the condition of ,england and 
,france at this time8         #g4 ,what 
was the condition of ,italy8         #h4
 ,what was the condition of ,germany1   
,spain1 and ,portugal8         #i4 ,what
 was the condition of the church8       
#aj4 ,what important movement was made  
possible by these political             
conditions8         #aa4 ,name some     
important events in the movement4       
#ab4 ,what had all this to do with      
book-making8         #ac4 ,what were the
 shortcomings of manuscript books8      
#ad4 ,what materials were already       
invented and ready for the printer8     
#ae4 ,tell what you can about each4     

#af4 ,what is typography8         #ag4  
,what were the earliest predecessors of 
typography8         #ah4 ,tell of some  
later methods of making impressions4    
#ai4 ,what early attempts at printing   
were made by the ,chinese and           
their neighbors8         #bj4 ,did these
 attempts develop into typography1 and  
why8         #ba4 ,what devices took the
 place of books among the poor before   
the         invention of printing8      
#bb4 ,what were image prints1 and how   
made8         #bc4 ,what were the two   
lines of development from the image     
prints8         #bd4 ,how did these     
developments suggest typography8        
#be4 ,how were early playing cards made1
 and what was their relation         to 
block printing8         #bf4 ,name some 
of the places where and persons by whom 
typography is         said to have been 
invented4         #bg4 ,tell the story  
of ,waldfoghel1 and what we conclude    
about it4         #bh4 ,tell the ,coster
 legend4         #bi4 ,what do we know  

about ,gutenberg before #adej8          
#cj4 ,what was his contract of that year
 with ,fust8         #ca4 ,how did it   
work out8         #cb4 ,what do we know 
of ,gutenberg after #adee8         #cc4 
,give the main points of the ,gutenberg 
legend4         #cd4 ,what are the clear
 facts about early ,mainz printing8     
#ce4 ,what are the three classes of     
historical evidence8         #cf4 ,what 
can you say1 with this distinction in   
mind1 about the         evidence        
concerning the invention of typography8 
#cg4 ,what evidence of the first class  
is there coming from ,haarlem8          
#ch4 ,why do we claim that this evidence
 comes from ,haarlem8         #ci4 ,why 
did the printer use so many fonts of    
type for so few books8         #dj4     
,what internal evidence is there for the
 date of these books8         #da4 ,what
 are the peculiarities of these books8  
#db4 ,what do these peculiarities show8 
#dc4 ,what piece of evidence of the     
second class have we which bears        

on these books8         #dd4 ,what      
pieces of evidence of the third class   
have we which bear         on these     
books8         #de4 ,what does all this 
evidence seem to show as to who invented
         typography1 where1 and when8   
#df4 ,what do the printed pieces        
attributed to ,gutenberg show8          
#dg4 ,what does the ,helmasperger       
document show8         #dh4 ,what does  
the patent of ,adolph ,,ii show8        
#di4 ,what does ,zell's statement show8 
#ej4 ,what can you say of the early     
statements that ,gutenberg              
invented typography8         #ea4       
,compare the results of the work of     
,coster and of ,gutenberg4         #eb4 
,how did the ,haarlem invention get to  
,mainz8         #ec4 ,what did          
,gutenberg really do8         #ed4 ,what
 was the outcome of his work8           
#ee4 ,how does this theory explain the  
doubtful or conflicting                 
evidence8         #ef4 ,what can you say
 about ,coster's type8         #eg4 ,how

 were the first types made8         #eh4
 ,what two important inventions in      
type-making do we owe to                
,gutenberg and his associates8          
#ei4 ,what can you tell about the first 
type faces8         #fj4 ,why are the   
early books so beautiful8         #fa4  
,describe ,gutenberg's press and the    
first improvements upon it4         #fb4
 ,what has the first period of about    
twenty-five years of         typography 
been called1 and why8                   
,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for
 ,,apprentices      ,the following list 
of publications1 comprising the         
,,typographic ,,technical  ,,series     
,,for ,,apprentices1 has been prepared  
under the supervision of the  ,committee
 on ,education of the ,united           
,typothetae of ,america for use in      
trade classes1 in course of printing    
instruction1 and by individuals4        
,each publication has been compiled by a
 competent author or group of  authors1 
and carefully edited1 the purpose being 

to provide the printers  of the ,united 
,states--employers1 journeymen1 and     
apprentices--with a  comprehensive      
series of handy and inexpensive         
compendiums of reliable1  up-to-date    
information upon the various branches   
and specialties of the  printing craft1 
all arranged in orderly fashion for     
progressive study4    ,the publications 
of the series are of uniform size1 #eh  
inches4 ,their  general make-up1 in     
typography1 illustrations1 etc41 has    
been1 as far as  practicable1 kept in   
harmony throughout4 ,a brief synopsis of
 the  particular contents and other     
chief features of each volume will be   
found under each title in the following 
list4    ,each topic is treated in a    
concise manner1 the aim being to embody 
in  each publication as completely as   
possible all the rudimentary            
information and essential facts         
necessary to an understanding of the    
subject4 ,care has been taken to make   
all statements accurate and clear1  with

 the purpose of bringing essential      
information within the  understanding of
 beginners in the different fields of   
study4 ,wherever  practicable1 simple   
and well-defined drawings and           
illustrations have  been used to assist 
in giving additional clearness to the   
text4    ,in order that the pamphlets   
may be of the greatest possible help for
 use  in trade-school classes and for   
self-instruction1 each title is         
accompanied by a list of ,review        
,questions covering essential items of  
the subject matter4 ,a short ,glossary  
of technical terms belonging to the     
subject or department treated is also   
added to many of the books4    ,these   
are the ,official ,text-books of the    
,united ,typothetae of ,america4        
,address all orders and inquiries to    
,,committee ,,on ,,education1 ,,united  
,,typothetae ,,of ,,america1 ,,chicago1 
,,illinois1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4                 
,,part ,i--,types1 ,tools1 ,machines1   
and ,materials    #a4 ,type3 a ,primer  

of ,information ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart    
,relating to the mechanical features of 
printing types2 their sizes1      font  
schemes1 etc41 with a brief description 
of their manufacture4      #dd pp42     
illustrated2 #gd review questions2      
glossary4    #b4 ,compositors' ,tools   
and ,materials ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart     
,a primer of information about composing
 sticks1 galleys1 leads1      brass     
rules1 cutting and mitering machines1   
etc4 #dg pp42      illustrated2 #ej     
review questions2 glossary4    #c4 ,type
 ,cases1 ,composing ,room ,furniture ,by
 ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart        ,a primer of   
information about type cases1 work      
stands1 cabinets1      case racks1      
galley racks1 standing galleys1 etc4 #dc
 pp42      illustrated2 #cc review      
questions2 glossary4    #d4 ,imposing   
,tables and ,lock-up ,appliances ,by ,a4
 ,a4 ,stewart        ,describing the    
tools and materials used in locking up  
forms for the      press1 including some
 modern utilities for special purposes4 

#ei pp42      illustrated2 #gj review   
questions2 glossary4    #e4 ,proof      
,presses ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart        ,a 
primer of information about the         
customary methods and machines for      
taking printers' proofs4 #djpp42        
illustrated2 #da review questions2      
glossary4    #f4 ,platen ,printing      
,presses ,by ,daniel ,baker        ,a   
primer of information regarding the     
history and mechanical      construction
 of platen printing presses1 from the   
original hand      press to the modern  
job press1 to which is added a chapter  
on      automatic presses of small size4
 #ea pp42 illustrated2 #di review       
questions2 glossary4    #g4 ,cylinder   
,printing ,presses ,by ,herbert ,l4     
,baker        ,being a study of the     
mechanism and operation of the principal
 types      of cylinder printing        
machines4 #fd pp42 illustrated2 #dg     
review      questions2 glossary4    #h4 
,mechanical ,feeders and ,folders ,by   
,william ,e4 ,spurrier        ,the      

history and operation of modern feeding 
and folding machines2      with hints on
 their care and adjustments4            
,illustrated2 review      questions2    
glossary4    #i4 ,power for ,machinery  
in ,printing ,houses ,by ,carl ,f4      
,scott        ,a treatise on the methods
 of applying power to printing presses  
and      allied machinery with          
particular reference to electric drive4 
#ec      pp42 illustrated2 #fi review   
questions2 glossary4    #aj4 ,paper     
,cutting ,machines ,by ,niel ,gray1 ,jr4
        ,a primer of information about  
paper and card trimmers1 hand-lever     
cutters1 power cutters1 and other       
automatic machines for cutting          
paper1 #gj pp42 illustrated2 #aae review
 questions2 glossary4    #aa4 ,printers'
 ,rollers ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart        ,a
 primer of information about the        
composition1 manufacture1 and care      
of inking rollers4 #df pp42 illustrated2
 #fa review questions2      glossary4   
#ab4 ,printing ,inks ,by ,philip ,ruxton

        ,their composition1 properties  
and manufacture 7reprinted by           
permission from ,circular ,no4 #ec1     
,united ,states ,bureau of ,standards72 
together with some helpful suggestions  
about the everyday use of      printing 
inks by ,philip ,ruxton4 #hj pp42 #ajj  
review questions2      glossary4    #ac4
 ,how ,paper is ,made ,by ,william ,bond
 ,wheelwright        ,a primer of       
information about the materials and     
processes of      manufacturing paper   
for printing and writing4 #fh pp42      
illustrated2      #fb review questions2 
glossary4    #ad4 ,relief ,engravings   
,by ,joseph ,p4 ,donovan        ,brief  
history and non-technical description of
 modern methods of      engraving2      
woodcut1 zinc plate1 halftone2 kind of  
copy for      reproduction2 things to   
remember when ordering engravings4      
,illustrated2 review questions2         
glossary4    #ae4 ,electrotyping and    
,stereotyping ,by ,harris ,b4 ,hatch and
 ,a4 ,a4  ,stewart        ,a primer of  

information about the processes of      
electrotyping and      stereotyping4 #id
 pp42 illustrated2 #abi review          
questions2 glossaries4                  
,,part ,,ii--,hand and ,machine         
,composition    #af4 ,typesetting ,by   
,a4 ,a4 ,stewart        ,a handbook for 
beginners1 giving information about     
justifying1      spacing1 correcting1   
and other matters relating to           
typesetting4      ,illustrated2 review  
questions2 glossary4    #ag4 ,printers' 
,proofs ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart        ,the
 methods by which they are made1 marked1
 and corrected1 with      observations  
on proofreading4 ,illustrated2 review   
questions2      glossary4    #ah4 ,first
 ,steps in ,job ,composition ,by        
,camille ,de ,vze        ,suggestions   
for the apprentice compositor in setting
 his first jobs1      especially about  
the important little things which go to 
make good      display in typography4   
#fc pp42 examples2 #ee review questions2
      glossary4    #ai4 ,general ,job   

,composition        ,how the job        
compositor handles business stationery1 
programs and      miscellaneous work4   
,illustrated2 review questions2         
glossary4    #bj4 ,book ,composition ,by
 ,j4 ,w4 ,bothwell        ,chapters from
 ,de,vinne's 8,modern ,methods of ,book 
,composition10      revised and arranged
 for this series of text-books by ,j4   
,w4 ,bothwell      of ,the ,de,vinne    
,press1 ,new ,york4 ,part ,i3           
,composition of pages4 ,part      ,,ii3 
,imposition of pages4 #bbi pp42         
illustrated2 #ebe review questions2     
glossary4    #ba4 ,tabular ,composition 
,by ,robert ,seaver        ,a study of  
the elementary forms of table           
composition1 with examples      of more 
difficult composition4 #cf pp42         
examples2 #de review      questions4    
#bb4 ,applied ,arithmetic ,by ,e4 ,e4   
,sheldon        ,elementary arithmetic  
applied to problems of the printing     
trade1      calculation of materials1   
paper weights and sizes1 with standard  

tables and rules for computation1 each  
subject amplified with      examples and
 exercises4 #aei pp4    #bc4            
,typecasting and ,composing ,machines   
,a4 ,w4 ,finlay1 ,editor        ,section
 ,i--,the ,linotype ,by ,l4 ,a4         
,hornstein ,section ,,ii--,the ,monotype
 ,by      ,joseph ,hays ,section        
,,iii--,the ,intertype ,by ,henry ,w1   
,cozzens ,section      ,,iv--,other     
,typecasting and ,typesetting ,machines 
,by ,frank ,h4 ,smith        ,a brief   
history of typesetting machines1 with   
descriptions of their      mechanical   
principles and operations4 ,illustrated2
 review questions2      glossary4       
,,part ,,iii--,imposition and ,stonework
    #bd4 ,locking ,forms for the ,job   
,press ,by ,frank ,s4 ,henry            
,things the apprentice should know about
 locking up small forms1 and      about 
general work on the stone4 ,illustrated2
 review questions2      glossary4       
#be4 ,preparing ,forms for the ,cylinder
 ,press ,by ,frank ,s4 ,henry           

,pamphlet and catalog imposition2       
margins2 fold marks1 etc4 ,methods      
of handling type forms and electrotype  
forms4 ,illustrated2 review             
questions2 glossary4                    
,,part ,,iv--,presswork    #bf4 ,making 
,ready on ,platen ,presses ,by ,t4 ,g4  
,mc,grew        ,the essential parts of 
a press and their functions2 distinctive
      features of commonly used         
machines4 ,preparing the tympan1        
regulating      the impression1         
underlaying and overlaying1 setting     
gauges1 and      other details          
explained4 ,illustrated2 review         
questions2 glossary4    #bg4 ,cylinder  
,presswork ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,mc,grew         
,preparing the press2 adjustment of bed 
and cylinder1 form rollers1      ink    
fountain1 grippers and delivery systems4
 ,underlaying and      overlaying2      
modern overlay methods4 ,illustrated2   
review questions2      glossary4    #bh4
 ,pressroom ,hints and ,helps ,by       
,charles ,l4 ,dunton        ,describing 

some practical methods of pressroom     
work1 with directions      and useful   
information relating to a variety of    
printing-press      problems4 #hg pp42  
#agf review questions4    #bi4          
,reproductive ,processes of the ,graphic
 ,arts ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,elson        ,a     
primer of information about the         
distinctive features of the      relief1
 the intaglio1 and the planographic     
processes of printing4 #hd      pp42    
illustrated2 #ajj review questions2     
glossary4                         ,,part
 ,v--,pamphlet and ,book ,binding       
#cj4 ,pamphlet ,binding ,by ,bancroft   
,l4 ,goodwin        ,a primer of        
information about the various operations
 employed in      binding pamphlets and 
other work in the bindery4 ,illustrated2
 review      questions2 glossary4       
#ca4 ,book ,binding ,by ,john ,j4       
,pleger        ,practical information   
about the usual operations in binding   
books2      folding2 gathering1         
collating1 sewing1 forwarding1          

finishing4 ,case      making and        
cased-in books4 ,hand work and machine  
work4 ,job and      blank-book binding4 
,illustrated2 review questions2         
glossary4                       ,,part  
,,vi--,correct ,literary ,composition   
#cb4 ,word ,study and ,english ,grammar 
,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton        ,a primer  
of information about words1 their       
relations1 and their      uses4 #fh pp42
 #hd review questions2 glossary4    #cc4
 ,punctuation ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton     
,a primer of information about the marks
 of punctuation and their      use1 both
 grammatically and typographically4 #ef 
pp42 #ei review      questions2         
glossary4    #cd4 ,capitals ,by ,f4 ,w4 
,hamilton        ,a primer of           
information about capitalization1 with  
some practical      typographic hints as
 to the use of capitals4 #dh pp42 #ib   
review      questions2 glossary4    #ce4
 ,division of ,words ,by ,f4 ,w4        
,hamilton        ,rules for the division
 of words at the ends of lines1 with    

remarks      on spelling1 syllabication 
and pronunciation4 #db pp42 #gj review  
questions4    #cf4 ,compound ,words ,by 
,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton        ,a study of the
 principles of compounding1 the         
components of      compounds1 and the   
use of the hyphen4 #cd pp42 #fb review  
questions4    #cg4 ,abbreviations and   
,signs ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton        ,a  
primer of information about             
abbreviations and signs1 with           
classified lists of those in most       
common1 use4 #eh pp42 #cb review        
questions4    #ch4 ,the ,uses of ,italic
 ,by ,f4 ,w1 ,hamilton        ,a primer 
of information about the history and    
uses of italic      letters4 #ca pp42   
#cg review questions4    #ci4           
,proofreading ,by ,arnold ,levitas      
,the technical phases of the            
proofreader's work2 reading1 marking1   
revising1 etc42 methods of handling     
proofs and copy4 ,illustrated by        
examples4 #ei pp42 #fi review questions2
 glossary4    #dj4 ,preparation of      

,printers' ,copy ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton  
,suggestions for authors1 editors1 and  
all who are engaged in      preparing   
copy for the composing room4 #cf pp42   
#fg review questions4    #da4 ,printers'
 ,manual of ,style        ,a reference  
compilation of approved rules1 usages1  
and suggestions      relating to        
uniformity in punctuation1              
capitalization1      abbreviations1     
numerals1 and kindred features of       
composition4    #db4 ,the ,printer's    
,dictionary ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart        
,a handbook of definitions and          
miscellaneous information about         
various processes of printing1          
alphabetically arranged4 ,technical     
terms explained4 ,illustrated4          
,,part ,,vii--,design1 ,color1 and      
,lettering    #dc4 ,applied ,design for 
,printers ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage        ,a
 handbook of the principles of          
arrangement1 with brief comment on      
the periods of design which have most   
influenced printing ,treats of          

harmony1 balance1 proportion1 and       
rhythm2 motion2 symmetry and            
variety2 ornament1 esthetic and         
symbolic4 #cg illustrations2 #df        
review questions2 glossary2             
bibliography4    #dd4 ,elements of      
,typographic ,design ,by ,harry ,l4     
,gage        ,applications of the       
principles of decorative design4        
,building      material of typography3  
paper1 types1 ink1 decorations and      
illustrations4 ,handling of shapes4     
,design of complete book1 treating      
each part4 ,design of commercial forms  
and single units4      ,illustrations2  
review questions1 glossary2             
bibliography4    #de4 ,rudiments of     
,color in ,printing ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage
        ,use of color3 for decoration of
 black and white1 for broad poster      
effect1 in combinations of two1 three1  
or more printings with      process     
engravings4 ,scientific nature of color1
 physical and      chemical4 ,terms in  
which color may be discussed3 hue1      

value1      intensity4 ,diagrams in     
color1 scales and combinations4 ,color  
theory      of process engraving4       
,experiments with color4 ,illustrations 
in full      color1 and on various      
papers4 ,review questions2 glossary2    
bibliography4    #df4 ,lettering in     
,typography ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage        
,printer's use of lettering3            
adaptability and decorative effect4     
,development of historic writing and    
lettering and its influence on      type
 design4 ,classification of general     
forms in lettering4      ,application of
 design to lettering4 ,drawing for      
reproduction4 ,fully      illustrated2  
review questions2 glossary2             
bibliography4    #dg4 ,typographic      
,design in ,advertising ,by ,harry ,l4  
,gage        ,the printer's function in 
advertising4 ,precepts upon which       
advertising is based4 ,printer's        
analysis of his copy4 ,emphasis1        
legibility1 attention1 color4 ,method of
 studying advertising      typography4  

,illustrations2 review questions2       
glossary2 bibliography4    #dh4 ,making 
,dummies and ,layouts ,by ,harry ,l4    
,gage        ,a layout3 the             
architectural plan4 ,a dummy3 the       
imitation of a      proposed final      
effect4 ,use of dummy in sales work4    
,use of layout4      ,function of layout
 man4 ,binding schemes for dummies4     
,dummy      envelopes4 ,illustrations2  
review questions2 glossary2             
bibliography4                           
,,part ,,viii--,history of ,printing    
#di4 ,books ,before ,typography ,by ,f4 
,w4 ,hamilton        ,a primer of       
information about the invention of the  
alphabet and the      history of        
book-making up to the invention of      
movable types4 #fb pp42                 
illustrated2 #fd review questions4      
#ej4 ,the ,invention of ,typography ,by 
,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton        ,a brief sketch
 of the invention of printing and how it
 came about4      #fd pp42 #fb review   
questions4    #ea4 ,history of ,printing

 ,part ,i ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton         
,a primer of information about the      
beginnings of printing1 the             
development of the book1 the development
 of printers' materials1 and      the   
work of the great pioneers4 #fc pp42 #ee
 review questions4    #eb4 ,history of  
,printing ,part ,,ii ,by ,f4 ,w4        
,hamilton        ,a brief sketch of the 
economic conditions of the printing     
industry      from #adej to #aghi1      
including government regulations1       
censorship1      internal conditions and
 industrial relations4 #id pp42 #abh    
review      questions4    #ec4 ,printing
 in ,england ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton      
,a short history of printing in ,england
 from ,caxton to the present      time4 
#hi pp42 #fe review questions4    #ed4  
,printing in ,america ,by ,f4 ,w4       
,hamilton        ,a brief sketch of the 
development of the newspaper1 and some  
notes      on publishers who have       
especially contributed to printing4 #ih 
pp42      #hd review questions4    #ee4 

,type and ,presses in ,america ,by ,f4  
,w4 ,hamilton        ,a brief historical
 sketch of the development of type      
casting and      press building in the  
,united ,states4 #eb pp42 #fa review    
questions4                       ,,part 
,,ix--,cost ,finding and ,accounting    
#ef4 ,elements of ,cost in ,printing ,by
 ,henry ,p4 ,porter        ,the         
,standard ,cost-,finding ,forms and     
their uses4 ,what they should      show4
 ,how to utilize the information they   
give4 ,review questions4      ,glossary4
    #eg4 ,use of a ,cost ,system ,by    
,henry ,p4 ,porter        ,the ,standard
 ,cost-,finding ,forms and their uses4  
,what they should      show4 ,how to    
utilize the information they give4      
,review questions4      ,glossary4      
#eh4 ,the ,printer as a ,merchant ,by   
,henry ,p4 ,porter        ,the selection
 and purchase of materials and supplies 
for printing4      ,the relation of the 
cost of raw material and the selling    
price of      the finished product4     

,review questions4 ,glossary4    #ei4   
,fundamental ,principles of ,estimating 
,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter        ,the      
estimator and his work2 forms to use2   
general rules for      estimating4      
,review questions4 ,glossary4    #fj4   
,estimating and ,selling ,by ,henry ,p4 
,porter        ,an insight into the     
methods used in making estimates1 and   
their      relation to selling4 ,review 
questions4 ,glossary4    #fa4           
,accounting for ,printers ,by ,henry ,p4
 ,porter        ,a brief outline of an  
accounting system for printers2         
necessary      books and accessory      
records4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4  
,,part ,x--,miscellaneous    #fb4       
,health1 ,sanitation1 and ,safety ,by   
,henry ,p4 ,porter        ,hygiene in   
the printing trade2 a study of          
conditions old and new2      practical  
suggestions for improvement2 protective 
appliances and      rules for safety4   
#fc4 ,topical ,index ,by ,f4 ,w4        
,hamilton        ,a book of reference   

covering the topics treated in the      
,typographic      ,technical ,series1   
alphabetically arranged4    #fd4        
,courses of ,study ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton
        ,a guidebook for teachers1 with 
outlines and suggestions for            
classroom and shop work4                
,,acknowledgment          ,this series  
of ,typographic ,text-books is the      
result of the splendid      co-operation
 of a large number of firms and         
individuals engaged in      the printing
 business and its allied industries in  
the ,united ,states      of ,america4   
,the ,committee on ,education of the    
,united ,typothetae of ,america1        
under whose auspices the books have been
 prepared and published1                
acknowledges its indebtedness for the   
generous assistance rendered      by the
 many authors1 printers1 and others     
identified with this work4        ,while
 due acknowledgment is made on the title
 and copyright pages of      those      
contributing to each book1 the          

,committee nevertheless felt      that a
 group list of co-operating firms would 
be of interest4        ,the following   
list is not complete1 as it includes    
only those who      have co-operated in 
the production of a portion of the      
volumes1      constituting the first    
printing4 ,as soon as the entire list of
 books      comprising the ,typographic 
,technical ,series has been completed   
7which the ,committee hopes will be at  
an early date71 the full list      will 
be printed in each volume4        ,the  
,committee also desires to acknowledge  
its indebtedness to the      many       
subscribers to this ,series who have    
patiently awaited its      publication4 
,,committee ,,on ,,education1           
,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america4   
,,henry ,p4 ,,porter1 ,chairman1        
,e4 ,,lawrence ,,fell1                  
,a4 ,m4 ,,glossbrenner1                 
,j4 ,,clyde ,,oswald1                   
,,toby ,,rubovits4                      
,,frederick ,w4 ,,hamilton1 ,education  

,director4                              
,,contributors                ,for      
,composition and ,electrotypes          
,,isaac ,h4 ,,blanchard ,,company1 ,new 
,york1 ,n4 ,y4                ,s4 ,h4   
,,burbank  ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4   
,j4 ,s4 ,,cushing  ,,co41 ,norwood1     
,mass4                ,,the ,,devinne   
,,press1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4            
,r4 ,r4 ,,donnelley  ,,sons ,,co41      
,chicago1 ,ill4                ,,geo4   
,h4 ,,ellis ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4      
,,evans-,,winter-,,hebb1 ,detroit1      
,mich4                ,,franklin        
,,printing ,,company1 ,philadelphia1    
,pa4                ,f4 ,h4 ,,gilson    
,,company1 ,boston1 ,mass4              
,,stephen ,,greene  ,,co41              
,philadelphia1 ,pa4                ,w4  
,f4 ,,hall ,,printing ,,co41 ,chicago1  
,ill4                ,j4 ,b4            
,,lippincott ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 
,,mccalla  ,,co4 ,,inc41 ,philadelphia1 
,pa4                ,,the ,,patteson    
,,press1 ,,new ,,york1 ,new ,york       

,,the ,,plimpton ,,press1 ,norwood1     
,mass4                ,,poole ,,bros41  
,chicago1 ,ill4                ,,edward 
,,stern  ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4     
,,the ,,stone ,,printing  ,,mfg4 ,,co41 
,roanoke1 ,va4                ,c4 ,d4   
,,traphagen1 ,lincoln1 ,neb4            
,,the ,,university ,,press1 ,cambridge1 
,mass4              ,for ,composition   
,,boston ,,typothetae ,,school ,,of     
,,printing1 ,boston1 ,mass1             
,,william ,f4 ,,fell ,,co41             
,philadelphia1 ,pa4                ,,the
 ,,kalkhoff ,,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4  
,y4                ,,oxford-,,print1    
,boston1 ,mass4                ,,toby   
,,rubovits1 ,chicago1 ,ill4             
,for ,electrotypes                      
,,blomgren ,,brothers ,,co41 ,chicago1  
,ill4                ,,flower4 ,,steel  
,,electrotyping ,,co41 ,new ,york1 ,n4  
,y4                ,c4 ,j4 ,,peters     
,,son ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4            
,,royal ,,electrotype ,,co41            
,philadelphia1 ,pa4                ,h4  

,c4 ,,whitcomb  ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4  
,for ,engravings                        
,,american ,,type ,,founders ,,co41     
,boston1 ,mass4                ,c4 ,b4  
,,cottrell  ,,sons ,,co41 ,westerly1 ,r4
 ,i4                ,,golding           
,,manufacturing ,,co41 ,franklin1 ,mass4
                ,,harvard ,,university1 
,cambridge1 ,mass4                      
,,inland ,,printer ,,co41 ,chicago1     
,ill4                ,,lanston          
,,monotype ,,machine ,,company1         
,philadelphia1 ,pa4                     
,,mergenthaler ,,linotype ,,company1    
,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4                     
,,geo4 ,h4 ,,morrill ,,co41 ,norwood1   
,mass4                ,,oswald          
,,publishing ,,co41 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 
,,the ,,printing ,,art1 ,cambridge1     
,mass4                ,b4 ,d4 ,,rising  
,,paper ,,company1 ,housatonic1 ,mass4  
,,the ,,vandercook ,,press1 ,chicago1   
,ill4              ,for ,book ,paper    
,,american ,,whiting ,,paper ,,co41     
,holyoke1 ,mass4                ,,west  

,,virginia ,,pulp  ,,paper ,,co41       
,mechanicville1 ,n4 ,y4                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,transcriber',s ,,notes           #a4  
,silently corrected obvious             
typographical errors and variations     
in spelling4       #b4 ,retained        
archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain    
spellings as            printed4        
#c4 ,enclosed italics font in           
underscores4       #d4 ,enclosed bold   
font in equals4