,a ,,vision ,,of ,,the ,,future ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4 ,crown #hvo1 #ddc pp41 price #h_/f4 ,scientific ,meliorism and the ,evolution of ,happiness4 8,in the ,author we recognize an advanced thinker of a rare and high order40--,westminster ,review4 8,we earnestly advise all to read this admirable book40--,weekly ,despatch4 ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench ,,co41 ,,london4 ,crown #hvo1 #bjg pp41 cheap edition #f;d4 ,margaret ,dunmore or ,a ,socialist ,home4 8,the story in the life in ,la ,maison is very well told40--,literary ,world4 8,in the chapter on ,unselfish ,love there are some sound and sensible views which might well be adopted without waiting for the advent of ,the ,unitary ,home40--,times4 8,decidedly entertaining40--,manchester ,examiner4 ,,swan ,,sonnenschein ,,co41 ,,london4 ,a ,,vision ,,of ,,the ,,future ,,based ,,on ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,ethical ,,principles ,by ,,jane ,,hume ,,clapperton ,,author ,,of 8,,scientific ,,meliorism01 8,,margaret ,,dunmore01 ,,etc4 8,,hitch ,,your ,,wagon ,,to ,a ,,star0 --,emerson4 ,,london ,,swan ,,sonnenschein ,,co41 ,,limited ,,paternoster ,,square #aijd ,,to ,,my ,,friend ,,george ,,arthur ,,gaskell ,to the ,reader ,social ,problems are the chief interest and study of my life4 ,in #ahhe ,i published in ,london a work entitled ,scientific ,meliorism and the ,evolution of ,happiness4 ,the world of thought has acquired new knowledge since then2 and many social changes have occurred4 ,the present volume is not a replica of that work1 although1 as before1 my aim has been to gather together the currents of meliorism pursuing diverse courses throughout society and to throw upon these the light of fresh knowledge gained by investigators of economic and social science2 and1 above all1 the light emanating from philosophic thinkers who recognize that the path of improved outward conditions1 and the path of inward progress for man1 lie parallel to each other4 ,it is my belief that in this dawning epoch of conscious evolution man may1 if he so chooses1 push forward the actual life of to-day and merge it into the ideal life of to-morrow4 ,there has recently occurred a widespread commemoration of the birth of that pure-souled ,american1 who was pre-eminently a teacher of the ideal life4 ,this volume1 ,i hope1 will be read in ,america1 and1 to the memory of ,emerson ,i tender homage1 while adopting his phrase1 8,hitch ,your ,wagon to a ,star10 as the motto of my book4 ,the toil of man's daily life alas6 is indeed as the straining and jolting of a lumbering wagon1--it grovels1 it wallows1 it drags wearily1 and the soul of the wagoner soars not4 ,but there are few thinkers who confront the great social question of the hour as not the rescue of the submerged tenth merely1 not the elevation of the masses only1 but the uplifting of all ,humanity to higher levels in the scale of being4 ,when the great process of social reform is animated and ruled by that lofty aspiration1 the lumbering wagon of toil will become a triumphal chariot of moral and spiritual progress4 ,,jane ,,hume ,,clapperton4 ,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,initial ,chapter--,,happiness #a ,part ,i--,,economics ,,in ,,modern ,,life ,i ,,the ,,industrial ,,revolution #bc ,,ii ,,organized ,,industry #ea ,part ,,ii--,,the ,,physiological ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,i ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,population #gi ,,ii ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,sex #ig ,,iii ,,eugenics ,,or ,,stirpiculture #aad ,,iv ,,marriage #aca ,v ,,parentage #adi ,part ,,iii--,,abnormal ,,humanity ,,the ,,elimination ,,of ,,crime #afc ,part ,,iv--,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,emotions ,i ,,the ,,sentiments ,,of ,,individual ,,rights ,,and ,,social ,,justice #ahe ,,ii ,,rapacity1 ,,pride1 ,,love ,,of ,,property #bjb ,,iii ,,personal ,,jealousy1 ,,national ,,patriotism #bah ,part ,v--,,education1 ,,or ,,direct ,,training ,,of ,,childhood ,,to ,,the ,,civilized ,,habit ,,of ,,mind #bcg ,part ,,vi--,,conditions ,,in ,,aid ,,of ,,happy ,,life ,,in ,a ,,developing ,,civilization ,i ,,the ,,needs ,,of ,,adolescence #beg ,,ii ,,domestic ,,reform #bfh ,part ,,vii--,,religion ,,and ,,religious ,,life ,,primal ,,elements ,,in ,,humanity',s ,,evolution #bhg ,,summary #cai ,,synopsis #cbe ,,initial ,,chapter ,,happiness ,the ultimate value of all effort is the production of happiness1 and objects excite our interest in so far as we believe them to be conducive to that great and ultimate consummation of existence--,happiness4--,j4 ,c4 ,,chatterji4 ,the age in which we live is one of great activity and general movement4 ,we are passing out of the mindless1 genetic1 into the rational1 conscious epochs of evolution2 and while1 at every stage of human history1 right conduct depends objectively on relatively true thinking1 and subjectively1 on good impulses1 a transitional period such as the present demands special efforts to attain to an adequate and clear conception of the problems of life4 ,if no correct philosophy of life comes to birth in the thinking centres of our social organism1 general conduct will continue harmful to many and inimical to progress4 ,how may the truth of a philosophy be tested8 ,no better answer1 ,i think1 can be given than that of ,buddha1 of whom it is chronicled that he said in reference to a projected philosophy--8,after observation and analysis if it agrees with reason and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all1 then accept it and live up to it40 ,our theory of life must appeal to the developed reason of civilized man and carry a conviction of its truth4 ,moreover1 it must be all-embracing4 ,sectional aims and aspirations will never suffice4 ,the aim must be universal1 i4e41 directed to the well-being of all mankind4 ,in view of the question3 8,what is the primary object of human life80 two significant facts are apparent4 ,first1 the perpetual aim1 conscious or instinctive1 of man1 as of all physical beings1 is to compass the satisfaction of his desires1 viz41 contentment4 ,second1 however diverse and conflicting may seem the opinions held by popular teachers on the subject1 there is nevertheless an essential unity4 ,for all point to some kind of happiness1 in the present or future1 for oneself1 or others1 for individuals1 or for the race1 as the ultimate end of existence4 ,a close observation of actual life--apart from theories of duty--reveals incontestably that the instinct to seek pleasure and avoid pain is universal and paramount4 ,it is the general force ruling individual conduct4 ,a child shrinks from lessons and seeks play because the one causes painful effort1 the other gives pleasurable sensations1 unless there are the beginnings of an intellectual sense and the child is what we call studious2 in that case the sense of effort is overcome by the pleasure of learning1 and there is no unwillingness4 ,or when the representative faculty is strong1 the thought of a parent's or teacher's approval may be so clear in the young mind as to make the future happiness counterbalance the present effort4 ,but it is always pleasure at the moment1 or pleasure in anticipation1 or fear of punishment1 viz41 avoidance of pain1 that gives the stimulus to work4 ,the human nature of a tender mother is much the same4 ,she hates to hear her offspring cry1 she loves to see them smile4 ,she seems to sacrifice herself to them1 but in reality it is not so2 for her greatest pains and pleasures reach her through them4 ,her personal desires1 her dearest hopes1 are centred in her children4 ,she is proud of their acquirements1 ambitious for their future1 happy in their success4 ,when she strives to check and discipline them1 it is because she dreads1 for them and for herself1 some baneful consequences should she refrain4 ,she does not act for a selfish end4 ,her nature is more complex1 far wider and deeper than the child's2 but her action is essentially the same4 ,she is avoiding painful and seeking pleasurable sensations1 present and future1 for herself and her children4 ,nor with the poor man is the position different4 ,the pain of hunger or the dread of hunger1 for himself or those beings whom he loves1 stimulates to a life of continuous and wearing toil4 ,if he submit to present pain1 it is that he may avoid remote pain1 and secure the satisfaction of his most pressing wants4 ,the leisured classes are differently situated4 ,with conditions of life that place them above the struggle for subsistence1 they seek enjoyment according to individual character and tastes4 ,whatever interests the mind and stirs the emotions pleasurably will be pursued4 ,we speak of this and that career as guided by genius1 ambition1 benevolence1 and so forth1 but in every case these qualities of mind have pushed choice in the direction which will gratify the individual4 ,if we say goodness1 not happiness1 is the proper aim of life1 we must allow that goodness means the aiding to bring happiness to mankind4 ,religions signifying less than this are unworthy the name of religion4 ,now it is emphatically the good who keenly suffer in the midst of an evil social state where poverty1 misery and crime abound4 ,it has been truly said--8,the contrast between the ideal and the actual of humanity lies as a heavy weight upon all tender and reflective minds40 ,these perceive that goodness1 in their own case1 has depended largely on the conditions of their lives1 while thousands of their fellow-creatures have had little scope for goodness1 because born and brought up in degraded1 vile conditions they had no power to escape from4 ,it is no consolation to the good to point to a future happy state and to immortality for themselves4 ,the actual is what concerns them4 ,their feelings get no rest1 their intellects surge with perpetual efforts to conceive some means of radical reform1 some method to secure more goodness and more happiness for all1 i4e4 for every woman1 man and child1 alive in the present day4 ,turning now to published opinions concerning the object of life1 ,carlyle taught that conscientious work was the main business of civilized man4 8,be indifferent10 he cried1 8alike to pleasure and pain2 care only to do work1 honest1 successful work 7no futilities7 in this hurly-burly world40 ,he directed attention from abstract ideals of the future to the actual life of the present1 pointing out the miseries and shams of the evil social state and powerfully inveighing against its corruptions4 ,to maintain an outward existence of active usefulness and an inward state of quietism and stoicism was ,carlyle's conception of an individual's duty1 but while there was to be no seeking for personal reward he believed this course would result in blessedness1 and blessedness meant something purer1 nobler1 more desirable than happiness4 ,if we take his own history set forth in the ,reminiscences as carrying out this theory1 we find that in his case it broke down4 ,he toiled and plodded1 doing successful work to the end of what appeared a noble1 victorious career1 but the blessedness never came1 or if it did1 it was not nobler and purer than happiness4 ,it was a gloomy state1 bankrupt of hope and full of querulous1 dissatisfied egotism4 ,george ,eliot gave us no theory of life in any of her works of genius4 ,the action of her influence is1 however1 unmistakeable4 ,it was to develop social and sympathetic feeling1 to make individuals tolerant and tender towards their fellows1 judging none without due regard to his or her surroundings4 ,she has accustomed her thoughtful readers to the scientific aspect of human nature and social life1 to watch the manifold relations between the two1 the action and interaction of forces without and within1 and to see the continuity of causation along with the reforming effect of ceaseless changes4 ,the evolutional conception of life underlies all her work4 ,the pictures are realistic1 there is no false colouring and vain delusions1 no perfection of character--but aspiration1 effort1 broad humanity--and no perfect happiness attained4 ,she indicated1 however1 that the social state wants altering1 and readjustments there would conduce to nobler life and greater happiness4 ,she hoped for progress by gradual changes in the outward social system and in inward human nature4 8,what ,i look to10 she once said1 in conversation with a friend1 8is a time when the impulse to help our fellows shall be as immediate and irresistible as that which ,i feel to grasp0 7and as she spoke she grasped the mantelpiece7 8something firm if ,i am falling40 ,although ,george ,eliot formulated no theory ,i conceive she held the belief that happiness for all at all times is the object of life1 and to be arrived at1 chiefly1 through the development of the altruistic or sympathetic side of human nature4 ,some writers teach that culture is most to be desired4 ,the rapid growth of wealth in this country has forced upwards in the social scale a class of people destitute of culture and refinement4 ,this class dominates society and takes the lead in fashion4 ,luxury and ostentation are everywhere prominent2 extravagant modes of living prevail without the comfort of the former simpler and more genial modes1 and this is side by side with poverty and destitution that do not decrease4 ,patronage1 with its demoralizing influence on both classes1 is the most conspicuous bond between the wealthy and the poor1 and vulgarity of mind characterizes the age4 ,there is little to surprise us in the fact that gentle1 refined natures withdraw from public life into a narrow sphere1 not necessarily a selfish one1 but a sphere bounded and circumscribed by their own personal tastes and temperaments4 ,finding solace in intellectual pursuits and a pure elevated enjoyment in the study of art and literature1 they adopt the theory that culture is the proper business of man4 ,sweetness and light have been held up as the panacea for all the ills of life and the 8elevation of the masses0 as the true social progress4 ,other teachers1 thinking less of intelligence than of moral sentiment1 point to perfection of character as the aim of life4 ,they recognize the marked diversity in human nature4 ,some intellects are slow and dull1 incapable of being kindled into fervour or brightened into swift reflection1 and culture for such is hopeless4 ,but in ,god's sight1 surely1 all men are equal4 ,birds without song have brilliant plumage to compensate the defect1 and so with man4 ,the 8law of compensation0 holds throughout humanity they have said1 and1 for the most part1 hearts are deep and tender even when heads are dull4 ,our finest works of literature and art may fail to give one pleasurable sensation for lack of the special faculty to apprehend their beauty1 but kindness makes the whole world kin4 ,when the noble1 generous1 sympathetic side of human nature is appealed to there comes a quick response4 ,happiness is the aim of life1 but happiness implies excellence of character1 the emotional and moral elevation of all mankind4 ,that ,ruskin's views were similar to the above we learn from his ,crown of ,wild ,olive4 8,education10 he says there1 8does not mean teaching people to know what they do not know--it means teaching them to behave as they do not behave4 ,it is not teaching the youth of ,england the shape of letters and the tricks of numbers1 and then leaving them to turn their arithmetic to roguery and their literature to lust4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 training them into the perfect exercise and kingly continence of their body and souls by kindness1 by watching1 by warning1 by precept and by praise--but1 above all1 by example40 ,from the field of modern science there has come as yet no direct teaching on the subject of life's duties and purpose1 but two of our eminent scientists have thrown out hints that are important and significant4 ,the late ,professor ,huxley says of his own career3 8,the objects ,i have had in view are briefly these--,to promote the increase of natural knowledge and forward the application of scientific method to all problems of life--in the conviction that there is no alleviation for the sufferings of mankind except veracity of thought and action and the resolute facing of the world as it is when the garment of make-believe by which pious hands have hidden its uglier features is stripped off40 7,methods and ,results1 ,essays by ,thomas ,m4 ,huxley47 ,professor ,sir ,oliver ,lodge has stated that new paths of investigation are opening up to science4 ,telepathy1 clairvoyance and some other allied psychic states have been tested and found in the range of actual fact4 ,they reveal qualities in man which although special to a few individuals only1 are latent it may be in all1 and point to an unknown province of nature to which man seems related independently of his five senses4 ,it becomes evident that by the 8resolute facing of the world as it is10 science is altering our conception of man's existence and nature1 and extending our vista of his future4 ,positivist thinkers1 who base their teaching on materialistic philosophy1 have bright anticipations for the human race1 although ages may elapse before the realization of their hopes2 and the existence of poverty and misery in our midst is fully recognized1 graphically described1 and feelingly deplored4 ,the exponents of ,positivism are eloquent1 cultured1 refined4 ,we want a new religion1 they say1 and without that1 no rapid progress can be made4 ,the public mind is all at sea1 floating in a chaos of unfixed beliefs1 and to reach settled convictions and formulate a creed is the crying need of our times4 ,religion is a scheme of thought and life whereby the whole effort of individual men and societies of men is concentrated in common and reciprocal activity with reference to a ,superior ,being which men and societies alike may serve4 ,the ,superior ,being is collective humanity1 and men's true business is to understand and seek to perfect human nature and the social state4 ,a marked feature of present-day ,french literature1 we are told1 is a reaction of religious sentiment against the rule of scientific naturalism1 and religious sentiment dominates in the strangely pathetic and fascinating journal of the ,swiss author1 ,amiel1 which has been widely read4 8,to win true peace10 says ,amiel1 8a man needs to feel himself in the right road1 i4e41 in order with ,god and the ,universe4 ,this faith gives strength and calm4 ,i have not got it4 ,sybarite and dreamer10 so he addresses himself1 8will you go on like this to the end for ever1 tossed backwards and forwards between duty and happiness1 incapable of choice and action8 ,is not life the test of our moral force8 ,are not inward waverings temptations of the soul80 ,to the question--,will all religions be suppressed by science8 he replies3 8,all those that start from a false conception of nature1 certainly10 and adds reflectively3 8,if the scientific conception of nature prove incapable of bringing harmony to man1 what will happen80 ,to which he answers3 8,we shall have to build a moral city without ,god1 without an immortality of the soul40 ,then1 protesting against ,emil de ,laveleyes' notion that civilization could not last without belief in ,god and a future life1 he exclaims3 8,a belief is not true because it is useful2 and it is truth alone--scientific1 established1 proved and rational truth--which is capable of satisfying now-a-days the awakened minds of all classes40 ,i have here presented what is only a meagre reflection of portions of our mental atmosphere1 but ,i know of no clearer1 more definite thoughts emanating from influential teachers calculated to throw light on the great enigma of life4 ,it may seem to my readers that on these mental heights unanimity exists as little as on the lower planes of man's discordant impulses1 his confused and conflicting actions4 ,clearly we have no philosophy of life as groundwork to orderly personal and social action1 no religion of vital power to bind the nations in one1 no moral code adapted to the complexities of our social relations1 and1 above all1 no steady belief in a universal love to sweeten society from end to end and create the requisite medium in which alone the nobler qualities of human nature will bud and blossom4 ,nevertheless the diverse opinions held by the above thinkers are not irreconcilable4 ,carlyle's 8blessedness0 is the feeling of harmony with the divine order of development in humanity and the universe1 therefore it is identical with ,amiel's 8true peace40 ,the ,positivists' 8,supreme ,being0 is the perfected man whose endowments of sympathetic fellowship1 emotional sweetness1 intellectual light1 moral strength1 kingly continence of body and soul1 and knowledge of truth are specialized and pointed to by ,george ,eliot1 ,ruskin1 ,huxley and others4 ,all have simply given expression to aspiration from the subjective side of their human nature conformably to the evolutionary process within themselves1 and the attitude of mind produced thereby in each4 ,partial1 but not contradictory views1 characterise those thinkings4 ,beneath superficial differences there lurks a unanimous belief that harmony of life with conditions--viz41 happiness1 is the legitimate aim of life4 ,a ,humanity steadily moving in a given direction may be infinitely varied in detail1 and since the correct philosophy of life must be a wide generalization embracing all1 we need not wonder at its slowness to appear4 ,modern nationalities are only now emerging from the individualistic to pass into the socialistic stage of industrial development4 ,our popular writers and teachers1 springing from a specialized class--not the main body of the people--instinctively show their limitations by individualistic or sectional modes of thought4 ,mark1 for instance1 the insufficiency1 nay1 the pathetic absurdity of the thought--,culture will cure the ills of life1 in face of the fact that thousands in our midst to-day possess no intellectual desires whatever1 while the appetites belonging to their physical nature which forms the very basis of life have never been properly met and satisfied4 ,in setting forth a definition of happiness we have to recognize the marvellous complexity of human nature4 ,we have to take into account not only variations distinctive in1 and native to1 separate individuals1 but the gradations and variations within each individual arising from progress1 or the reverse1 in his or her outward condition and inward development4 ,contentment means the satisfaction of desire4 ,but desire may be directed to the physical plane1 the emotional plane1 the mental plane1 the spiritual plane4 ,the harmony of all life is happiness1 and brings blessedness or peace4 ,having shown that practically infants1 children1 young men and women1 adults and old people of every social class are similarly engaged in seeking happiness1 each according to his tastes and tendencies controlled by his personal1 social and spiritual development2 having shown also that thinkers and writers offer no condemnation1 ,i proceed to point out that this universal habit is in harmony with evolution4 ,it tends to personal evolution1 i4e41 to expansion and elevation of character and capacities4 ,moreover1 it tells favourably on general life4 ,it tends to social evolution1 i4e41 to expansion and elevation of the social organism or collective society so long as the method pursued by each individual is unhurtful to the other organic units incorporated in that society4 ,to seek to attain happiness at the expense of other human beings whose happiness is thereby sacrificed1 is of course evil4 ,it is anti-social1 or vicious1 i4e41 it is wholly adverse to personal evolution and social evolution1 in other words1 to general progress4 ,but given a society that has carefully surrounded its units by conditions of personal freedom 7harmonious with general well-being7 in which to seek innocent happiness1 the normal man or woman on a level with the average of his race is not in any danger of preferring the vicious course4 ,that we confuse a wholesome love of pleasure with selfishness arises from the fact that individual selfishness unhappily is developed by our present evil system of life4 ,notwithstanding1 it is easy to show the real value of pleasure by its ready alliance with unselfishness4 ,a significant feature is this--people take pleasure in uniting for pleasure4 ,sensuous pleasures are taken as a rule1 socially1 it being recognized that to civilized man the presence of the enjoyment of others enhances his personal enjoyment4 ,the physiological effect of pleasure is to promote health and activity4 8,every pleasure raises the tide of life2 every pain lowers the tide of life10 says ,herbert ,spencer4 ,the pleasures of love are essentially and pre-eminently invigorating and social4 ,it is only when they are selfishly pursued that evil creeps in1 and what should produce the purest happiness becomes degraded into a source of misery4 ,it seems hardly necessary to point out further that asceticism and purism are immoral because directed against an element in happiness4 ,whenever science finds out means to alleviate suffering or free the condition of pleasure from accidental accompaniments that are evil1 it is clearly the duty of man to hail the discovery and apply it that he may add to the sum of human happiness4 ,before touching on environment1 i4e41 the social condition under which alone general happiness becomes possible1 ,i may classify desires into primary and secondary in order to make the subject clearer4 ,primary desires are those common to all physical beings1 the satisfaction of which 7in man7 is necessary to healthful ordinary social life4 ,secondary desires are those whose satisfaction is necessary to some individuals1 but not to all4 ,desires for food1 clothing1 shelter1 also for work alternating with rest1 and for love1 belong to the first class4 ,they are primary and fundamental4 ,but desires that imply a development of cultured intellect1 of delicate sensibilities1 of high moral and emotional attainments1 of aesthetic tastes1 and of spiritual life are secondary desires1 i4e41 they are not common to all at the present stage of the evolution of man4 ,that they may become so is devoutly to be desired2 but if we expect to reach a high standard of life in the social organism without first securing for its individual units the satisfaction of primary needs1 we indulge a vain delusion4 ,does a tree throw out fruitful branches before it is rooted in the soil at its base8 ,development depends on the satisfaction of primary needs1 and proportionally to these being made secure will the satisfaction of the higher desires become necessary to happiness4 ,now in relation to primary needs1 the conditions which it is the duty of society as a whole to secure for the individual are1 first3 ,freedom to act for the end of securing satisfaction of desire2 second1 opportunity for acquiring the means of satisfaction2 third1 ability to adopt the means2 fourth1 protection of life and action4 ,and these conditions have a wide implication4 ,the first implies some control of individual conduct as regards propagation1 that each social unit may possess a sound constitution and the comfort of physical health4 ,the second implies access to nature4 ,the third implies education to give knowledge and skill4 ,the fourth implies an organized society with an appropriate1 scientifically arranged system of industry4 ,that our present confused industrial and social system--the survival of an archaic state--is inimical to happiness1 few thinkers will deny4 ,discontent is not confined to the poor4 ,where wealth abounds there is little1 if any1 real happiness4 8,the towers of ,westminster10 says ,edward ,carpenter1 8stand up by the river1 and within1 the supposed rulers contend and argue4444 ,the long lines of princely mansions stretch through ,belgravia and ,kensington2 lines of carriages crowd the park2 there are clubs and literary cliques and entertainments1 but of the voice of human joy there is scarcely a note4444 ,and ,i saw the many menacing1 evil faces1 creeping1 insincere worm-faces1 faces with noses ever on the trail1 hunting blankly and always for gain2 faces of stolid conceit1 of puckered propriety1 of slobbering vanity1 of damned assurance4 8,o faces1 whither1 whither are you going8 8,no ,god1 no truth1 no justice1 and under it all no love4 8,o the deep1 deep hunger6 8,the mean life all around1 the wolfish eyes1 the mere struggle for existence1 as of man starving on a raft at sea--no room for anything more4 8,o the deep1 deep hunger of love40 ,this picture of the degradation and misery of rich and poor alike is essentially true to fact4 ,our collective life does not supply the necessary conditions for real happiness in any section of the community2 and nothing less than a reconstruction of society and regeneration of its life will suffice to meet the wants of humanity4 ,immense efforts are put forth in philanthropy and benevolence4 ,enormous energy is expended in partial or sectional reforms2 for quite correctly has it been said that 8,reform tends to run on a single rail1 the majority of people refusing to study society as an organism of organisms resting on biological law40 7,john ,m4 ,robertson47 ,we make no attempt as yet1 to prevent waste of energy1 to focus the factors of meliorism1 to mass them1 to direct them straight to the causes of evil and apply them effectively there--and that1 because we have no carefully constructed scheme of thought and life whereby the whole effort of individual men and societies of men is concentrated in common and reciprocal activity to the end of creating happiness for all4 ,social regeneration is necessarily of a two-fold character1 embracing action without and action within4 ,the first--which ,i call objective1 signifies collective action on the physical plane adapted to promote and sustain the healthful1 happy vitality of a race expected to grow steadily and uniformly in physical1 mental1 moral and spiritual elevation4 ,the second1 which ,i call subjective1 signifies collective action directed to the repression of all the unsocial desires of man--those selfish emotions and narrow affections that alloy the mental and moral structure of human beings and render it impossible to develop the spiritual side of ,humanity4 ,the ,darwinian laws--supposed by many to be still applicable to man--had relation1 not to happiness1 but to the preservation of life and the continuance of the race in the genetic1 unconscious period of evolution4 ,it is in the conscious period or stage of evolution that happiness evolves4 ,our present system of social life1 if system it can be called1 is a chaos of conflicting interests1 duties1 thoughts1 feelings1 actions--a prison-house in which the finer qualities and attributes of man can scarcely exist4 ,let us put forth all our strength to create out of this chaos 8the garden in which we may walk40 ,let us break down the walls of our prison-house till it 8opens at length on the sunlit world and the winds of heaven40 7,edward ,carpenter47 ,,part ,i ,,economics ,,in ,,modern ,,life ,the only safety of nations lies in removing the unearned increments of income from the possessing classes and adding them to the wage-income of the working classes or to the public income in order that they may be spent in raising the standard of consumption4--,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,august1 #aijb4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,industrial ,,revolution ,it is a leading thought in modern philosophy that in its process of development1 each institution tends to cancel itself4 ,the special function is born out of social necessities2 its progress is determined by attractions or repulsions which arise in society1 producing a certain effect which tends to negate the original function4--,,william ,,clarke4 ,if we view the physical aspects of existence in relation to happiness1 it is obvious that the satisfaction of desires for food1 clothing and shelter stands first in order of urgency in the life of nations4 ,that modern nationalities are very far from the attainment of this satisfaction of primary wants is lamentably evident to the eye of observers who examine the conditions in which the great majority of their members live4 ,food to the mass of the people is excessively dear4 ,in order to buy it for his family1 a workman has often to spend two-thirds of his weekly wage1 leaving one-third only to meet the cost of shelter and clothing1 and nothing at all for recreation and instruction4 ,if we add to this difficulty of satisfying the primary needs of a family on average wages1 the frequent lack of employment with the consequent lack of any weekly income at all1 and the prevalence of low wages1 rightly termed starvation-wages1 we have before us a picture of the utter inadequacy of our present industrial system to subserve general well-being4 ,it is necessary to understand something of our present industrial system1 its foundations and evolution in the past1 if we are to forecast the changes that will occur in the immediate future1 when the fast-growing recognition of its manifold failings must inevitably bring about a different order of industry4 ,private property in land and in other essentials for the production of food1 shelter1 clothing1 etc41 lies at the basis of the present system2 and since the direct object of private proprietors is not to satisfy the primary needs of the people1 but to create individual profits1 we cannot wonder that a system thus motived by selfishness works out in a miserable and wholly imperfect manner4 ,the industrial class may be broadly divided into two sections1 employers and employed1 while a few highly skilled workers1 members of the professions of law1 medicine1 arts1 letters1 and science stand in a measure outside this category4 ,landlords and shareholders as such are an idle section of the community4 ,they absorb the labour of a multitude of workers1 while giving no personal service in return4 ,quite truly has it been said3 8,the modern form of private property is simply a legal claim to take year by year a share of the produce of the national industry without working for it40 7,fabian ,essays1 page #bf74 ,in comparing past forms with the present forms of industry1 a distinguishing feature of the latter is the number of great factories where workers toil long hours1 usually in the tending of machines1 to turn out for the private profit of their employers1 vast quantities of goods destined for retail distribution all over the world4 ,the large organizations of industry1 so familiar to us1 are of quite recent growth1 and already show signs of a coming change as sweeping in its scope as any changes that have occurred in the past4 ,yet to listen to the expression of opinions that prevail in literary and upper class circles1 one would suppose we had reached finality in our social system1 and that the conventional tributes paid to proprietors of land and capital in the shape of rent and interest would1 as a matter of course1 remain legal to the end of time4 ,now let us glance at the history of the past4 ,for two centuries after the ,norman conquest1 intestine war and feudal oppressions embittered the life of the ,british labourer4 ,he might be called from the plough at any moment to take up arms in his master's quarrel1 and if he sowed seed and saw his fields ripen1 the harvest of his hopes might still be cut down by the sword of the forager1 or trodden by the hoof of the war-horse4 ,he was bondsman and slave1 defenceless in the hands of the lords of the soil1 who at best1 protected him only in the barest necessities of a scanty livelihood--a hut without a chimney1 its furniture a great brass pot and a bed valued at a few shillings4 7,wade's ,history of the ,working ,classes47 ,a change for the better came after the plague of #acdh1 and1 when by perpetual warfare with ,france1 men had become more valuable through diminution of their number4 ,king ,edward the ,third freed the bondsmen to recruit his armies1 and enforced villeinry service was exchanged for service paid by wages--these1 however1 were ordinarily fixed by statute4 ,in the middle of the eighteenth century wages stood at the ratio of about a bushel and a half of wheat for one week's labour2 by the middle of the nineteenth century they had fallen to what could only purchase one bushel of wheat4 7,threading my ,way1 ,r4 ,d4 ,owen1 p4 #bbj47 ,the cause of this change was that meanwhile1 two clever men--,arkwright and ,watt--had made discoveries which gave an impetus to industry beyond all previous experience4 ,mechanical aids to production were invented1 and the consequent cheapening of products created more and more demand4 ,machinery and human labour side by side were under stress and strain to meet the call of new desires4 ,cotton and wool and flax were woven into fabrics and poured out of ,great ,britain to every quarter of the globe2 capital was amassed1 and wealthy capitalists bid against each other for more labour still4 ,agriculturists flocked into towns1 factories sprang up in all directions1 population rapidly increased1 and children were sucked into the industrial maelstrom1 for health and happiness were in no way considered when remunerative work was offered4 ,outwardly the ,british world had altered4 ,internal warfare had passed away1 and the war-horse was no longer visible in harvest-fields4 ,the scene now presents a resemblance to a huge hive of bees industriously secreting and amassing honey for future use4 ,great ,britain has assumed beyond her own shores a foremost place among civilized nations4 ,the resources of her newly-created wealth seem boundless1 and everywhere her power is felt4 ,she can thin the ranks of her population1 and swell her army to conquer and suppress the tyrant ,napoleon1 while keeping at work the enormous leviathan of her own trade and commerce by the deft fingers of her little children4 ,summer and winter find her tiny bees--infants of seven or eight--at labour in the factories from six a4m4 to noon4 ,one hour for dinner is allowed1 and they toil on once more till eight o'clock at night4 ,were these1 then1 the 8good old times0 of which we are proud8 ,at all events they were the times in which ,england's greatness was established and vast fortunes were built up1 founded upon the industry of young children sweating in factories for thirteen hours a day4 8,it was not in exceptional cases10 wrote ,robert ,dale ,owen1 when on a tour of inspection of factories with his father in #ahae1 8but as a rule1 that we found children of ten years old worked regularly fourteen hours a day1 with but half an hour's interval for the midday meal1 eaten in the factory40 ,in the fine yarn cotton mills1 the 8temperature usually exceeded #ge degrees10 and in all factories the atmosphere was more or less injurious to the lungs4 ,in some cases 8greed of gain had impelled mill-owners to still greater extremes of inhumanity1 utterly disgraceful to a civilized nation40 ,their mills were run fifteen1 sometimes sixteen1 hours a day1 and children were employed even under the age of eight4 8,in some large factories1 from one-fourth to one-fifth of the children were cripples or otherwise deformed4 ,most of the overseers openly carried stout leather thongs1 and frequently we saw even the youngest children severely beaten40 7,threading my ,way1 p4 #ajb47 ,at that period ,robert ,owen the elder expressed himself thus to the ,earl of ,liverpool3 8,it would be clearly unjust to blame manufacturers for practices with which they have been familiar from childhood1 or to suppose that they have less humanity than any other class of men40 ,the system was what ,robert ,owen condemned1 and he strained every nerve to bring about some alterations in the system4 ,he wrote and spoke and agitated for the protection of children by law1 and for their compulsory education1 and he publicly exposed the ghastly evils that spring from competition unchecked by law1 while left free to regulate itself at any amount of cost to life1 health1 and happiness4 ,after the lapse of about four years1 the first point aimed at by ,robert ,owen was gained1 and infants became protected by statute from gross oppression4 ,his second point was gained in #ahgj1 when the ,government ,bill for ,national ,education was passed4 ,and ever since the period of that noble1 unselfish life1 minds have everywhere been awakening to the truth of his third point1 viz41 that frightful evils inalienably belong to free industrial competition4 ,owen proved that in the year #ahaf1 the machine-saved labour in producing ,english fabrics--cotton1 woollen1 flax1 and silk--exceeded the work which two hundred million of operatives could have turned out previous to the year #agfj4 7,threading my ,way1 p4 #bah47 ,the world was richer then to the extent of all this enormous producing power--a power1 he thought1 surely sent down from ,heaven to set man free from the ancient curse that in the sweat of his brow should he eat bread4 ,but what were the actual facts8 ,there was no respite from toil for the workers1 no freedom from the curse6 ,throughout the old and new world1 senseless machinery competed with the living sons of toil1 or1 as ,robert ,owen expressed it1 8a contest goes on between wood and iron on the one hand1 human thews and sinews on the other--a dreadful contest1 at which humanity shudders1 and reason turns astonished away40 7,threading my ,way1 p4 #bah47 ,the problem presented was this3 ,a recent rapid growth of wealth had enriched the few and left many in misery2 nay more1 it had lowered and pressed down the many to depths of degradation previously unknown4 ,were there no means by which mankind could unitedly work for the benefit of all1 and all be made happy as the world grew richer8 ,political ,economy suggested none1 and ,robert ,owen turned from its futile study to that of the facts themselves4 ,he was a manufacturer1 in sympathy with employers as well as with employed4 ,he had every opportunity for a practical understanding of the interests involved1 and he gave years to the study of this question in a spirit of keen inquiry and ardent devotion to the cause4 ,his ultimate conclusion was that in some form of socialism alone could a remedy for the existent evils of industrial life be found4 ,henceforth he laboured to give to the world an object lesson in socialism4 ,he embarked his fortune in bold experiments1 which proved--as in the case of ,new ,harmony--financial failures4 ,into the details of these failures ,i cannot now enter1 nor have we to deal just yet with socialism as a remedy4 ,my present purpose is to show the origin and reality of the evils inherent in the individualistic system of industry--evils on which the argument for socialism is based4 ,and ,i must reiterate the statement made by ,john ,stuart ,mill in #ahfi1 that the fundamental questions relating to property1 and to the best methods of production and distribution--questions involved in socialism--require to be thoroughly investigated4 ,mr4 ,mill's opinion regarding socialism was that in some future time communistic production might prove well-adapted to the wants and the nature of man1 but a high standard of moral and intellectual education would first be necessary1 and the passage to that state could only be slow4 ,meanwhile the sufferings of the proletariat are as intense as in the days of ,robert ,owen4 ,the problem which absorbed his energies and wrecked his fortunes remains as yet unsolved1 and we1 who live when a twentieth century has been entered upon1 are daily surrounded by a mass of workers tied hand and foot by poverty and often weighed down by despair4 ,and this is the case1 notwithstanding the lapse of a long intermediate period of national prosperity2 in spite1 also1 of the powers of science to enlighten manual labour1 the intellectual efforts to advance education1 and a boundless benevolence and sympathy ready to embrace all mankind1 and give happiness to all1 were only the right means devised wherewith to accomplish that end4#a ,footnote #a3 ,in the ,scotsman of ,march #af1 #ahig1 this paragraph occurs3 8,at the meeting of ,edinburgh ,parish ,council yesterday1 it was stated that pauperism is increasing1 and pointed out that for the month ending #aeth ult4 there was an increase of #aad applications for individuals for relief1 compared with the corresponding period last year60 ,it was stated by ,mr4 ,rowntree 7whose investigations of this subject are widely known and respected7 that one-fourth of the population of ,great ,britain lives in poverty1 either primary or secondary2 while #eb per cent4 of the cases of primary poverty are due to the principal wage-earner receiving too low a wage to maintain his family in physical efficiency4 7,evening ,news ,report1 ,march #bb1 #aijc47 ,individual benevolence has failed1 and that as completely as ,robert ,owen's socialism1 to cope with general poverty1 and the method of ,poor ,laws has accomplished almost nothing4 ,in ,robert ,owen's day the evils described in factory life belonged specially to ,great ,britain4 ,that is not the limit1 however1 now4 ,i need only refer my reader to ,henry ,george's picture of poverty dogging the footsteps of progress in ,america and to ,professor ,goldwin ,smith's corroborative words3 8,it is a melancholy fact1 that everywhere in ,america we are looking forward to the necessity of a public provision for the poor40 ,and again3 8,there will in time be an educated proletariat of a very miserable and perhaps dangerous kind1 for nothing can be more wretched and explosive than destitution with the social humiliation which attends it1 in men whose sensibilities have been quickened and whose ambition has been aroused40 ,the problem respecting appalling poverty in the midst of wealth 7it is a poverty marring the happiness of the rich as well as the poor7 cries out for solution4 ,it forces itself upon public attention in the old world as in the new4 ,there is no escape from it4 ,the problem must be grappled with by educated reason1 and solved by means of the patient exercise of a cold calculation of natural forces4 ,happily it is recognized in its evolutional aspects by many thinkers all over the world4 ,twenty years ago ,charles ,letourneau in his ,sociology wrote3 8,in every country which enjoys the ,european system of civilization1 the right of property has ever been in a state of evolution1 always tending to give a greater degree of independence to the individual owner2 in other words1 the evolution is always worked in favour of individual egotism4 ,who can say that the evolution is now complete1 or that we have yet realized the highest ideal system in the disposition of our property8 ,a progressive evolution is1 for every society1 one of the conditions of existence4 ,the right of proprietorship cannot1 therefore1 remain stationary40 ,the period that has elapsed since that passage was written has witnessed a widespread and strong growth of opinion upon these lines4 ,in the ,contemporary ,review of ,february1 #aijb1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,hobson thus writes3 8444 ,the idea of natural individual rights as the basis of democracy disappears4 ,a clear grasp of society as an economic organism completely explodes the notion of property as an inherent individual right1 for it shows that no individual can make or appropriate anything of value without the direct continuous assistance of society40 ,the right of proprietorship in land is the first principle to examine4 ,the relation between land and life in its simpler aspects is clear and definite4 ,all classes of land animals--man included--are immediately dependent for subsistence upon the produce of land1 and when man emerges from slavery1 another element1 namely1 labour1 enters into the conditions of his life and becomes1 with land1 essential to his existence4 ,of food1 fitted for the nourishment of man1 uncultivated land produces little save some wild fruits and edible roots1 and many wild animals1 which he may eat if in hunting them down they do not eat him4 ,but land placed under the additional forces of man's physical and intellectual energies produces an immense variety of objects--a perfect wealth of raw material1 vegetable1 animal1 mineral--which1 yielding to further elaboration through his efforts and genius1 all help to create for him a civilized life4 ,this raw material1 in short1 supplied man with food1 shelter1 clothing1 with the comforts and luxuries his developing nature demands1 and with all necessaries to the existence of literature1 science1 and art4 ,passing over the primitive forms of associated life--the nomad and pastoral--we come to the agricultural stage1 when labourers on the land are manifestly the all-important social units4 ,they sow1 till1 and reap the fields4 ,they tend domestic animals1 whose skins and wool are made into garments by other members of the group4 ,but the latter depend for food and the raw materials of their industry on the cultivators1 who are1 if ,i may so express it1 the foundation stones of the simple social structure4 ,to whom does the land belong8 ,to the whole group1 and an annual division amongst the families for purposes of cultivation takes place1 whilst weapons1 fishing-boats1 tools and other movables are the property of individuals4 ,now observe1 a change gradually occurs1 a change from the communal possession of land to a system of the individual possession of land1 and force is the sole cause of this change4 ,external aggression has initiated militant activity1 while1 in the process of frequent resistance to invasion1 and frequent aggression upon others1 there is produced the class inequalities which distinguish a militant type of society and a system allowing of individual land-ownership4 ,land becomes private property in the hands of the bold and crafty1 who compel the cultivation of the soil by the landless men of the group1 and by prisoners of war spared on condition that they perform hard labour4 ,the institution of slavery thus becomes established1 and it is a leading factor in the promotion of civilization4 ,lords of the soil spend their energies in warlike activities1 whilst protecting their slaves and serfs at labour4 ,the produce of that labour is appropriated by the dominant class1 and used for its own particular benefit4 ,its requirements extend much beyond the mere necessaries of existence that it yields to the workers1 and slowly there uprises a new form of labour and a large class of labourers1 producing a variety of commodities to gratify the desires of pomp-loving1 barbaric chiefs4 ,now this class1 the labour of which is wholly absorbed by the chiefs1 must be fed from the produce of the land4 ,how is this accomplished8 ,the chiefs1 while exacting hard labour from the slaves and serfs1 yield them only a bare living4 ,but the proceeds of their labour1 over and above the bare living of the producers1 is very considerable4 ,there is therefore a large surplus1 which1 appropriated by the chiefs as rent1 is the source of their power4 ,with it they support a large class of landless men engaged in ministering to their own specific wants4 ,moreover1 this class groups itself around the castle of the chiefs1 which are filled with military retainers1 and here we have the beginnings of towns4 ,the town population increases steadily with the increase of the surplus produce from land under better conditions of cultivation4 ,markets and stores are instituted1 and a commercial system is introduced4 ,barter gives way to the use of money1 and the entire social organism expands and becomes more complex4 ,anon1 slavery disappears4 ,but workers on the land--always the most necessary social units--remain poor as before4 ,competitors for work1 in danger of starving1 drive no hard bargain with masters who are in full possession of the soil1 and able to forbid their growing even the simple fruits and grain required for a meagre living4 ,for food enough to live1 they readily pledge the labour of their whole lives1 and since nature's recompense for labour is liberal1 there is an abundant surplus produce for landowners to grasp and employ as they choose4 ,into the towns it is sent1 and there it stimulates progress--mental and material--and creates new departures in social life4 ,class inequalities among town workers increase1 and labour becomes organized4 ,the mentally stronger dominate the weaker in the new fields of industry4 ,they direct and control the production of commodities for the use of the dominant class1 and succeed in acquiring a greater reward for their work than a meagre living4 ,out of the surplus produce of the land they become able to secure from their lords a portion which forms the foundation of wealth in a new social class--a class of landless capitalists who1 possessing brain power and later money-power1 become the supreme factors in altering social conditions4 ,these men promote manufacture and commerce by action similar to the landholders' methods of promoting agriculture4 ,they press down their workers to a bare living1 and take as profits all that competition permits of the results of the joint labour4 ,these profits they apply to the satisfaction of their personal desires and the carrying out of their schemes of manufacturing and commercial enterprise4 ,finally1 they indulge in luxurious living and emulate landholders in the purchase of valuable commodities1 thus stimulating certain trades4 ,meanwhile1 through the intercourse of urban life1 mental activity rapidly augments4 ,education is initiated1 aptitude and skill are more and more prized and rewarded4 ,invention profoundly modifies the primitive modes of production1 and genius aspires to understand and govern the forces of nature4 ,one direction taken by mental activity eventuates in an important social force1 viz41 the ,church1 or religious organization4 ,many of the best minds in early ages were allied with the priesthood1 and the ,church's desire for stately temples1 gorgeous shrines1 and decorative worship have enormously aided the outward development of architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and music1 and the inward growth of aesthetic capacity4 ,but priests and all whose labour is absorbed by the requirements of religious worship and the constructing of temples1 must be fed on the produce of the land4 ,the priesthood is maintained in leisure by rents1 tithes1 or the voluntary offerings of the people4 ,it is freed from the necessity of industrial labour and military activity1 and members within this large class have devoted their leisure to literature1 history1 philosophy1 and art1 thereby greatly advancing civilization4 ,under increased stability of governments the organization becomes of a mainly industrial type4 ,nations now possess enormous wealth in the form of material commodities1 wealth in the form of intellectual literature and the educational institutions that promote knowledge2 wealth in the form of ornament--all that embellishes and makes beautiful the surroundings of human life2 and all this wealth has come into existence through the natural action of evolutionary forces--an action creative1 step by step1 of a system of social interdependence and regulation4 ,the prominent features of the system are3 ,first1 private property in land2 second1 great social inequality2 third1 poverty of manual labourers2 fourth1 a large town population1 and a small or minimum peasant population4 ,its less prominent but no less decisive feature is the complete social subjugation of the poor by the rich4 ,the supports of the system through the whole process of its growth have been labourers on the land1 and these labourers have scarcely at all partaken of the national wealth4 ,the food they reaped formed the motor force vitalizing and energizing the evolving social organism4 ,food was the ruling power deciding the growth and extent of economic life1 as well as the form of its development4 ,but food-producers have never determined the destination of the surplus food1 and in this fact lies the key to a great social problem which students of social science are bound to comprehend4 ,the landholders--and these as a rule have not been workers on the land--have decided the destination of the surplus produce4 ,up to the present-day landlords--including the proprietors of coal1 iron and other mines1 capitalist employers of labour1 the churches of the nation1 and hereditary rulers--are at the fountainhead of modern civilization4 ,it is through their action--caused mainly by selfishness1 tyranny1 pride1 greed--that cultivators and operatives have been kept at maximum toil and been limited in number1 while at the same time the land's resources have developed and improved until land and labour united serve to support an enormous mass of population--individuals of entirely distinctive character1 activities1 social position and social worth1 all alike in this one particular--they are daily and hourly consumers of the produce of the land4 ,a good harvest that is general over the world sends activity like an electric current through the economic system4 ,a bad harvest1 if universal1 would cause universal depression2 not agriculture alone must suffer1 but manufacture1 commerce1 science1 art1 literature1 education1 recreation--for on the production of food depends the buying power of the whole trading world4 ,it is true that modern countries are not maintained from their own food resources alone4 ,also1 it is true that the machinery of exchange--money and our vast credit system--enter into the phenomena and confuse the student's mind4 ,nevertheless1 an all-important fact discloses itself on close investigation1 viz41 this--the relation of landlordism to modern civilization is not accidental1 it is essential and causal4 ,as already shown1 the general drift of the produce of the land has been into the towns2 and thither also have migrated the labourers4 ,machinery and science applied to land cultivation lowered the amount of peasant labour required1 but it did not lower the birth-rate4 ,surplus peasants have been driven by necessity from their homes to the centres of manufacturing industry1 and1 competing for work there with the operative class1 have kept wages low and facilitated the enriching of capitalist employers4 ,these men1 actuated by personal desires1 selfish ambition1 and a tendency to mercantile speculation1 use their wealth in extending the production of objects that minister to a life of luxury and refinement4 ,the older political economists mistakenly taught that 8all capital1 with a trifling exception1 was originally the result of saving40 7,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,political ,economy1 book #a1 chap4 #e47 ,attention to the history of social evolution1 however1 proves the fact to be otherwise4 ,not individual saving1 but social seizure1 created capital4 ,its origin1 as we have shown1 was the surplus produce taken from producers and disposed of by a dominant class4 ,it originated through the selfish quality of rapacity and not through the respectable virtue of prudence1 as some capitalists would have us believe4 ,the growth of capital has been enormous since the beginning of the industrial revolution2 and at the present moment the riches of a comparatively small number of the owners of our land and capital are colossal and increasing4 ,at the same time1 there is no diminution of poverty among workers4 ,thirty per cent4 of the five million inhabitants of ,london are inadequately supplied with the bare necessaries of life1 and about a fourth of the entire community become paupers at sixty-five4 ,i refer my reader to ,sidney ,webb's pamphlet1 ,the ,difficulties of ,individualism4 ,the supersession of the small by the great industry has given the main fruits of invention and the new power over nature to a small proprietary class1 upon whom the mass of the people are dependent for leave to earn their living4 ,the rent and interest claimed by that class absorbs1 on an average1 one-third of the product of labour4 ,the remaining #h;d4 of the #as4 is then shared between the various classes co-operating in the production1 but in such a way that at least #d;d4 goes to a set of educated workers numbering less than one-fifth of the whole1 leaving four-fifths to divide less than #d;d4 out of the #as4 between them4 8,the consequence is the social condition we see around us40 7,ibid47 ,thus four out of five of the whole population--the weekly wage-earners--toil perpetually for less than a third of the aggregate product of labour1 at an annual wage averaging at most #dj per adult1 and are hurried into early graves by the severity of their lives1 dying1 as regards at least one-third of them1 destitute1 or actually in receipt of poor law relief4 ,in town and country1 the operatives and peasants1 who1 united1 form one large class engaged in manual labour1 resemble ,sinbad the ,sailor1 on whose shoulders rides the ,old ,man of the ,sea4 ,it is they who maintain our leisured classes4 ,the proletariat carries on its back all the rich and their innumerable dependents1 more than #cjj1jjj soldiers1 an immense navy1 a million of paupers1 a number of ,state pensioners1 a multitude of criminals1 ,his ,majesty and the ,royal ,family1 all ,government officials and ecclesiastics--a vast host of unproductive consumers throughout society4 ,slavery of the many for the comfort and enjoyment of the few6 ,that is all man has attained to1 so far1 in the evolution of society4 ,and no one who studies the facts of life can deny this impeachment of civilization3 8,all over the world the beauty1 glory1 and grace of civilization rests on human lives crushed into misery and distortion40 7,henry ,george47 ,the extremity of contrast between rich and poor has no ethical justification4 ,under purely ethical conditions1 every child born into a nation should have equal chances of life1 comforts1 and luxuries1 with every other child4 ,but1 as we know1 one ,british babe may be born to an income of #ajj1jjj a year1 and another to no income1 but to a constant struggle for bare subsistence and a pauper's grave at last4 ,the system permitting this is ethically odious4 ,nevertheless1 we have to recognize that1 under non-ethical conditions1 development has taken place1 and we must accept the process as the natural1 inevitable result of all prior conditions4 ,man's ethical nature itself is the product of a slow evolution1 not yet so advanced as to require and create purely ethical social conditions4 ,changes in the future will proceed on lines of natural growth1 as in the past1 but with this supreme difference--the issues will be favourable to general happiness1 the advance infinitely more rapid1 because aided by conscious human effort4 ,all schemes of social reform that are revolutionary are widely chimerical to the thoughtful evolutionist1 for were we suddenly to deprive our richer classes of property1 privilege1 and power1 we should simply create a general abasement of our national civilization4 ,our upper classes1 rendered effeminate by ill-spent leisure and all the artificial pleasures of a voluptuous and inane life1 are incapable of directing civilization to the highest and noblest ends4 ,yet it is out of their midst that springs the demand for commodities ministering to all the amenities and refinements of a civilized life4 ,it is refinement alone that demands refinement1 culture that demands culture2 and were the control of human labour to pass suddenly from the hands of the upper into those of the lower classes1 which are still1 in the mass1 degraded and unenlightened1 there would be no effective demand for these commodities1 and the science and art implicated in their production would inevitably1 though gradually1 disappear4 ,progressive evolution culminates in social justice1 and the principle of private property in land1 which implies an injurious monopoly in what is essential to human life 7and is therefore socially unjust71 is certain to be consciously relinquished at a given stage of the nation's intellectual and moral advance4 ,having traced the evolution of the individualistic system of industry1 and seen that the inherent evils of the system have their source in the private ownership of land and capital1 which 8necessarily involves the complete exclusion of the mere worker1 as such1 from most of the economic advantages of the soil on which he is born1 and the buildings1 machinery1 and railways he finds around him0 7,sidney ,webb71 let me now sum up and state the paramount evils that have to be overcome4 ,for the workers these are--low wages1 long hours of toil1 difficulty of obtaining work1 and1 when it is obtained1 uncertainty of being permitted to retain it4 ,for the community generally there are further evils1 viz41 first1 the mal-production of commodities made manifest in food adulteration and in a perpetual output of objects that1 instead of promoting and conserving civilization1 debase and corrupt public taste and morals2 and1 second1 the mal-production of human life1 for poverty is a social force that directly tends to racial degeneration4 ,a population born and bred in our city slums becomes physically1 mentally1 and morally unfit4 ,the facts of poverty and the unemployed are impossible to deny4 ,frederick ,harrison's picture is accurate2 ninety per cent4 of the actual producers of wealth have no home they can call their own beyond the end of the week1 have no bit of soil or so much as a room that belongs to them1 have nothing of any kind except so much of old furniture as will go in a cart2 have the precarious chance of weekly wages1 which barely suffice to keep them in health2 are separated by so narrow a margin from destitution that a month of bad trade1 sickness or unexpected loss brings them face to face with hunger and pauperism4 ,this is the normal state of the average workman in town or country4 7,report of ,ind4 ,ref4 ,congress1 #ahhf47 ,as regards the children of these workmen1 fifty per cent4 die before they reach five years of age1 while eighteen per cent4 only of upper class children die at the same age4 ,the industrial evolution of the last #aej years1 with its labour-saving machinery and highly organized masses of wage-workers1 has done nothing at all to lessen poverty4 ,poverty has steadily kept pace with the increase of population4 ,but observe in the present day there is one significant feature that forces itself upon public attention--a feature revealing to the social student our approach to that stage of evolution spoken of by ,william ,clarke in the passage ,i quote as motto to this chapter3 8,each institution tends to cancel itself4444 ,its special function and progress produce effects tending to negate the original function40 ,if we look minutely into the latest developments of large businesses1 we find that the diminution in the number of competitors does not as a rule lead to an easing of the competitive struggle4 ,as ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,hobson observes and demonstrates3 8,it is precisely in those trades which are most highly organized1 provided with the most advanced machinery1 and composed of the largest units of capital1 that the fiercest and most unscrupulous competition has shown itself40 7,evolution of ,capital1 p4 #abj47 ,there is an increase1 in short1 of the elements destined to destroy competition4 ,the anxiety1 arduousness1 and wastefulness of strife among the rival competitors1 becomes so intolerable that a mutual truce and amalgamation is sought after as a release4 ,when fully realized1 the amalgamation becomes a monopoly1 and competition1 that much vaunted check to counteract the natural rapacity of private capitalists1 ceases altogether4 ,let industrial monopoly be fairly established1 and behold6 competition1 with all its merits1 real or assumed1 is abrogated4 ,but industrial monopoly in private hands becomes intolerable to the public1 so that invariably1 in the long run1 the community either puts a forcible stop to the monopoly1 or assumes it1 and administers it as a ,state function4 ,we may confidently assert that as large industries approach to the stage of absorption into monopolies of federated groups of wealthy capitalists1 the more general and widespread grows dissatisfaction and resentment on the part of the dispossessed smaller capitalists who have been beaten out of the field4 ,now1 the trend of movement to-day1 through the whole fields of production and distribution1 is from business on a small scale to business on a large scale1 and the formation of limited companies1 rings1 trusts1 etc4 ,by purchasing raw material in greater quantities an immense saving is effected1 and the same occurs in the advertising of goods and in organizing numerous workers instead of a few4 ,these savings make it possible to lower the price of the finished commodity to the public4 ,hence the change from smaller to larger commercial enterprises is favourable to public interests up to a certain point4 ,but the moment monopoly point is reached1 the position straightway becomes reversed4 ,henceforward the public have no protection from a sudden raising of prices1 for1 the competitive check having been withdrawn1 monopolists dominate their respective fields of production and distribution1 and the individually selfish forces alone hold sway4 ,this tendency1 then1 to larger and larger industrial organization1 with its wasteful warfare and other attendant evils1 implies a certain advance4 ,it indicates competition working out to its last expression and final breakdown4 ,it points to the supersession of the individualistic industrial system by a collectivist industrial system requiring democratic state-ownership of land and the means of production and distribution of all commodities4 ,in process of civilizing man has made himself acquainted with many laws of nature1 and has learnt so to handle matter as to direct its forces into channels carrying benefit to himself4 ,he has thus become the controller of natural forces in as far as they lie within reach of his mental comprehension and physical activities4 ,it is by this method1 and no other1 that our advance along the line of material civilization has been accomplished1 and all further extension of the comforts and amenities of economic and social life is certain to be obtained through persistence in this available and satisfactory course4 ,now1 throughout the domain of non-material civilization1 man has never constituted himself controller of natural forces1 although1 in orders of life inferior to his own1 he has guided many vital forces4 ,for instance1 there are vegetable and animal forces--all subject to natural law--that he has enlisted in his service and made submissive to his dominion4 ,the forms of vegetable life around us to-day--cereals1 fruit-trees1 plants1 and flowers of infinitely varied tint--bear witness to the art and skill of man2 and the animal kingdom1 ruled by mysterious biological laws1 has provided him with faithful servants obedient to his will1 in a life which to dogs and horses is largely artificial4 ,in the order of his own social life man's position is wholly different4 ,what we behold1 if we take an objective view of a so-called civilized society1 is a marvellous variety of complicated movements4 ,these are the outcome of forces pursuing an unbridled course2 and that course is always the path of least resistance4 ,as yet there is no intervening force of a collective1 mental nature to adapt that course to an ultimate definite aim and purpose1 or to harmonize broadly those lines of least resistance with the line of permanent and universal advantage to mankind4 ,as ,professor ,lester ,f4 ,ward expresses it1 8,man has made the winds1 the waters1 fire1 steam and electricity do his bidding4 ,all nature1 both animate and inanimate1 has been reduced to his service4444 ,one class of natural forces still remains the play of chance1 and from it1 instead of aid1 he is constantly receiving the most serious checks4 ,this field is that of society itself1 these unreclaimed forces are the social forces of whose nature man seems to possess no knowledge1 whose very existence he persistently ignores1 and which he consequently is powerless to control40 7,dynamic ,sociology1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ce47 ,these unreclaimed social forces--selfishness1 rapacity1 pride--give activity to the competitive system1 and run riot on the basis of private property in land and the means of production4 ,but the present condition of things cannot much longer persist1 and a new industrial system1 the outcome of far more elevated social forces1 is shaping itself rapidly in many minds throughout ,europe1 ,america1 and the whole civilized world2 that system of co-operative industry we have now to consider4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,organized ,,industry ,the true organic formula of political as of economic justice is-- 8,from each according to his powers1 ,to each according to his needs40 ,j4 ,a4 ,,hobson4 ,whilst bearing in mind that the present economic system--a system unconsciously produced through the play of selfish forces--was a necessary stage of evolution1 and tended to progress so long as savage proclivities in the mass of the people made a closer social union impossible1 we have also to recognize the changes1 outward and inward1 occurring under that system4 ,first1 a rise of co-operation1 both voluntary and involuntary--in factories and throughout business generally--has taken place1 causing evolution to proceed on wider lines4 ,second1 a slow1 silent1 unstudied1 half-unconscious movement has advanced1 and in these days eventuated in the conception of a new system which purports to be the form that industrial evolution must assume in the near future4 ,and inasmuch as this new system is less egoistic and more social than any system of competition1 it will move on ethical lines of progress4 ,the present system1 as we have seen1 is based on private property in land and the instruments of production and distribution4 ,in opposition to this1 socialism implies that the ,state or people collectively should own the land and instruments of production and distribution4 ,further1 that the ,state should organize routine labour and direct the distribution of produce upon this basis1 and that throughout society social equality should be established and maintained4 ,the sentiment of justice and the feelings of sympathy and solidarity1 without which no socialized society could exist1 are prominent everywhere to-day4 ,they manifest in philanthropic action all over the country1 in constant efforts to adjust political and economic forces to lines of social equality and in the revolt of wage-workers1 throughout the civilized world1 from conditions they are finding intolerable and will not much longer endure4 ,a wholly unselfish order of life is impossible still1 but under any intelligent collectivist system1 individual selfishness becomes modified and controlled4 ,hence we may confidently expect that the strong anti-social feelings fostered by the private property and competitive system of industry will largely subside in the greater fraternity of an organized socialism4 ,it is significant that ignorant opponents1 in their wildly erroneous interpretation of the theory of socialism as an equal division of money to all1 recognize the gross injustice of the present distribution of wealth4 ,the wrong and misery accruing from the individualistic system of industry are widely felt and freely admitted1 while the underlying causes of the evil and the true remedies are not yet understood4 ,as regards the connexion of socialism with the theories of political economy1 ,i must shortly explain3 ,political economy is the science of wealth--its production and distribution4 ,but as the science relates exclusively to the present competitive system1 the socialist finds in it a full exposure of the evils involved in that system1 and ample grounds for striving to bring about its supersession by a system of co-operation on a socialized property basis4 ,there is not and there cannot be any conflict between a true political economy and a scientific socialism4 ,the one describes what is1 the other what may be and ought to be4 ,both recognize that wealth is produced 7and it is the only possible way7 by the application of labour to land1 and its products4 ,in the present system1 the individual possession of land and the instruments of production forms the ruling factor1 producing inequality in the distribution of wealth and gives the basis on which commercial competition rests4 ,in referring to laws of political economy1 it is not unusual to speak as if they were laws of nature1 no more to be banished than the law of gravitation4 ,on this assumption there is raised the argument that society is forever bound to the present system1 with its payments of rent1 interest and profits out of the surplus proceeds of labour4 ,nevertheless1 it is easy to see that the so-called laws of economics are only rules of social living springing from motives of human self-seeking exercised within the generally accepted conditions of private property in the essentials of life4 ,it is not necessary for the socialist to contend against any single generalization of political economy2 each may be true on its own basis1 but1 with that basis socialism is at war4 ,let society relinquish the property basis1 and political economy remains applicable only to the past1 while in the future the motives of human self-seeking enter upon a fresh career in a more altruistic system4 ,we must grasp the true nature of the various tributes imposed upon labour--rent1 interest1 profits and rent of ability--to comprehend their economic bearing4 ,a farm is the private property of a landlord1 while it is cultivated by a farmer and his labourers4 ,the proceeds of the industry of the two latter is divided into three portions--the labourers' wages1 the landlord's rent and the farmer's profits4 ,the first1 dependent on demand and supply in the labour market1 is kept down to what will cover the expense of a bare subsistence2 and the second is always the highest amount the landlord can extract above the portion the farmer consents to live upon after paying the subsistence wage to his labourers4 ,a landlord's rapacity1 however1 is no longer the only factor in determining rent1 since ,state interference has been found necessary for protection of farmers in the public interests4 ,the economic bearing of rent is this3 it gives effect to the demands of the landlord class for the results of an immense amount of labour applied to the production of varied commodities4 ,as already explained1 the produce sold in towns by farmers to pay rent goes1 in large measure1 to the support of workers who are manufacturing luxuries1 objets de luxe1 and many meretricious wares that minister to the depraved taste of men and women whose happiness is destroyed by a life of idleness and ennui4 ,it is not land only1 but capital in the shape of railways1 factories1 workshops1 machinery1 etc41 that are held as private property4 ,for the use of these1 therefore1 workers pay a tribute called interest on capital4 ,this interest gives effective demand to the wants of a large class of comparatively idle shareholders1 who further absorb the services and produce of another great army of workers4 ,the next tribute1 namely profits1 is a claim connected with the organizing of labour4 ,it represents a prodigious tax levied upon workers1 a tax that enables employers and managers--more or less wealthy--to enjoy comforts and luxuries their employs can never command4 ,the fourth tribute has been called the rent of ability4 ,it rests on the non-ethical principle that some people deserve from society a great reward for work they have pleasure in doing1 while the toilers engaged in irksome1 dangerous1 dirty1 distasteful work--however necessary to the whole community--are only entitled to a pittance wage4 ,let us look at the proportional value of rent1 interest1 profits and rent of ability in their relation to the reward of manual labour4 ,out of the yearly income of the nation1 recently computed at #a1dej1jjj1jjj1 #eaj1jjj1jjj goes in rent and interest and #daj1jjj1jjj in profits and salaries to the ruling classes1 while #ecj1jjj1jjj only is available for payment of wages to manual workers4 ,but when we consider that the latter compose the great mass of the population1 and the former a small section or fraction of it only1 the enormities involved in the working of our property institutions exhibit their true colours1 and the growing sense of justice within civilized humanity revolts wholly from the system4 ,the facts1 roughly speaking1 are that one-third of the total income of the nation goes to four-fifths of the population1 while the remaining one-fifth pockets two-thirds of the income4 7,see ,sidney ,webb in ,fabian ,tract ,no4 #fi47 ,in the ,census of #ahia there were #edc1jch adult men who entered themselves as not working for a living4 ,we may assume these belonged chiefly to the wealthy classes1 and if we reckon their average incomes at #ejj per annum1 there emerges a sum of #bga1eai1jjj as approximately the value of the labour they exact each year from workers to whom they render no services in return4 ,again1 if we add to the number of these idle men the women and children now living on rent and interest1 the above computation falls far short of the reality4 ,and1 need it be said1 the more there is taken from workers by non-workers1 the less must remain for the workers themselves4 ,to people ignorant of economic principles1 the man who spends a good income on personal gratifications appears--in his relations to society--either passive1 or active beneficially1 inasmuch as he 8gives employment10 and his 8giving0 on these lines is lavish4 ,moreover1 it is considered that the difference between rich and poor is one of natural inequality1 of which1 if workers complain1 they are considered as unreasonable as the invalid who complains that other people are healthy4 ,but the facts admit of no such analogy4 ,the rich owe everything to the poor4 ,they are simply a parasitic class1 and the money they spend represents a power 7socially permitted7 to command and absorb the labour of their fellows4 ,they exact life-long services1 for which they bestow no personal service in return4 ,were we to place a rich man with all his money on an uninhabited island1 however fertile1 he would at once be reduced to his natural stature4 ,no money would cause his daily comforts to spring up around him1 and still less the many luxuries without which he feels his existence has no charm4 ,in order to live he himself must work1 for he is the sole representative of the scores of fellow-men on whose labour he has hitherto wholly depended for necessaries and all the amenities of a civilized life4 ,the absorption by one of the labour of many is a social arrangement of genetic origin1 and is immoral or non-ethical in character4 ,socialism is the philosophy of a pure1 wholesome1 progressive industrial life1 to be initiated and maintained by human effort--nay more1 it is a veritable ,gospel of ,peace4 ,and ,i use the word ,gospel advisedly1 for the finest religious quality of human nature is not in those beings who calmly pursue a course of spiritual development for themselves1 unmindful that the physical part of their fellows craves the food and rest without which the latent soul within cannot manifest itself4 ,we have seen that in the domain of feeling the stirrings of socialism have for years been agitating the bosom of society1 and although the outcome in philanthropic action issues usually in failure1 none the less does it spring from the highest and holiest motives of man4 ,but while philanthropy chiefly represents love's labour lost1 there are other and more virile forces in action that are indicative of a coming organic democracy4 ,observe1 for instance1 the constant efforts of the people to alter the political and economic strain by ,state interference4 ,this agitation is a very significant fact4 ,it betrays a hunger for social justice which will certainly increase with the growth of knowledge1 public spirit and sensitiveness to personal rights4 ,this hunger can never be fully appeased under any system that permits wealth to flow to the lucky1 the clever1 the cunning1 the greedy1 and be handed down by inheritance and bequest from generation to generation4 ,no modification of individualism and not even socialism will banish all popular agitation4 ,communism is the far-distant goal to which it points1 for communism alone sets forth as attainable a satisfying equality in all the comforts of life1 and since evolution must eventuate in social justice1 whatever falls short of this will inevitably contain some conditions of discontent4 ,but whilst a craving for justice among the masses cries out for ,state interference1 from whence comes the modern view of what justice means8 ,among the classes it has been considered that the man who is clever1 i4e4 mentally strong1 has a right to a greater reward for labour than the man who is stupid4 ,the origin of this notion is simply the fact that in a competitive system he is able to obtain that superior reward4 ,power1 and not any ethical idea1 is the foundation of the notion4 ,the notions of justice prevailing throughout society have all arisen naturally in the past amid the strong and privileged few1 and readily have they been accepted by the docile and oppressed many4 ,the clever1 not the stupid1 have formed public opinion1 and that under a purely egoistic impulse4 ,nevertheless1 as evolution passes from the unconscious to the self-conscious stage1 reason unites with altruistic feeling to give birth to new conceptions that are moulding public opinion to a higher and truer form1 and working out on the plane of practical action4 ,the conception of justice involved in socialism is naturally unpalatable to the privileged few1 but it goes far to prove the truth of socialism1 that the conception is the fruit of the most advanced study of our social organism as a whole1 while it coincides precisely with the blindly instinctive pulsations of the central mass of the people4 ,turning now from the moral and emotional to the economic and practical side of the question1 we are bound to inquire by what methods transition from the present competitive commercial system of industry to the socialism of the future will take effect4 ,for1 be it observed1 supporters of the latter system not only assert its ethical superiority1 but further assert that it is both practicable and economically inevitable4 ,there are two1 and only two1 general directions of popular reform3 first1 the revolutionary--the driving straight at established institutions with the intention of overthrowing them2 second1 the legislative--the aiming to improve the existing system by co-operative methods and the modification and gradual destruction of its worst features1 i4e4 its extremes of injustice and inequality4 ,i have to point out how retrograde and futile for the promotion of happiness is sudden revolution4 ,it is the spontaneous method of human passion where intellect is unenlightened on natural evolution and causation4 ,it seeks to overturn what1 for the time being1 is the highest product of evolution1 and it would blindly substitute that1 which although ethically superior1 the society of the time is unable to support4 ,the method of legislative reform1 national and municipal1 is the rational one2 and no other1 we may confidently hope1 will be tried in the civilized countries of ,europe so long as socialists are not harassed and persecuted for their opinion beyond the point of endurance4 ,already1 as regards legislation in this country1 the power of the ,demos--the mass of the people--is acutely felt4 ,step by step our rulers have been compelled to lower the political franchise in order to quell revolutionary tendency and maintain their position4 ,fear-forces within the social organism have changed direction unnoted at the surface4 ,the classes are secretly more afraid of the people than the people are of the classes2 yet the actual burdens borne by the people are in no way lightened4 ,and why is this so8 ,because the people generally are ignorant of their political power1 and still more ignorant of how to wield it favourably to their own interests4 ,as has truly been said3 8,the difficulty in ,england is not to secure more political power for the people1 but to persuade them to make any sensible use of the power they already have40 ,but social forces of persuasion and enlightenment are ready prepared for their guidance4 ,in the upper and lower sections of the middle class1 men and women whose culture is scientific and whose moral sentiment is advanced1 are ranging themselves in the van of the world's progress1 and chiefly through their efforts there is pouring into and penetrating the darkness of the masses a flood of intellectual enlightenment4 ,this process begun has its definite bearings4 ,a growing intelligence in the people will cause the displacement of all authority that is irresponsible4 ,a better selection of legislators will be made1 and these1 constrained by judicious criticism1 will study the principles of social science and learn how best to attain the clear ends of government4 ,as our masses rise to the full exercise of their political power and the democratic trend of the nation goes forward1 no higher motive force than that of self-seeking is required to secure better social conditions4 ,not only does the ignorant self-seeking of the masses carry weight commanding attention1 but the intelligent self-seeking of rulers is a force set in similar direction4 ,to please the majority of constituents is their highest policy2 and since food and leisure and education are the essential needs of that majority1 such available intellect as the legislative body possesses will be honestly applied to promoting the increase and better distribution of these various necessaries of a civilized life2 in short1 to promoting the general well-being in so far as the exigencies of the times permit4 ,i do not deny that self-seeking in rulers has hitherto mainly led to the clever hoodwinking of ignorant constituents4 ,i merely assert that we have rounded the point of ,cape ,danger in that regard4 ,every step we take on democratic lines1 every advance we make in educating the people1 removes us further from that danger point4 ,moreover1 ,i assert that extending the ,parliamentary franchise to women of every social class will equally work for good4 ,the new altruistic or philanthropic spirit of the age has laid firm hold of the so-called educated women of to-day4 ,when public responsibility presses these women to self-education in politics1 the myriad injustices revealed will cause them to turn from futile individualist charities and concentrate their energies on works of real and lasting social reform4 ,we may confidently anticipate that the ,british ,parliament will become an excellent instrument of ,democratic ,government when certain reforms--that are already widely agitated--have been carried out4 ,these reforms are that3 8,the ,house of ,commons should be freed from the veto of the ,house of ,lords1 and should be thrown open to candidates from all classes by a system of payment of representatives and a more rational method of election40 7,see ,fabian ,tract ,no4 #gj47 ,there are two lines of action certain to be pursued by a ,parliament growing yearly more democratic4 ,one is the line of protection of labour1 the other is that of an active service of the people4 ,now ,state interference with trade--in the interests of workers--is condemned by the laissez-faire school of economists4 ,such action is scoffingly termed 8grandmotherly legislation40 ,it is deprecated as injurious to society as a whole1 as an outrage on the liberty of the ,british subject1 and an impious desecration of the capitalistic fetish1 8,freedom of ,contract40 ,but when the knowledge of facts proves that on one side this so-called freedom signifies freedom of choice between dire starvation and the distasteful terms of an absolute master1 surprise is not felt that intelligent men prefer what the ignorant may regard as a species of ,state bondage4 ,this preference is a feature of the times clearly visible4 ,no doubt1 where social equality reigns1 individual liberty is a noble attainment2 but with inequality in the means of life and the fundamental conditions of social happiness1 a ,state that is honestly striving to restore the balance is a very fount of justice4 ,the quest of the workers is not that of individual liberty1 but of a collective liberty1 embracing every man1 woman and child within the ranks of their own order4 ,there is no moral principle that condemns ,state interference1 although we may admit that occasionally it has wrought evil instead of good4 ,failures have been caused by ignorance alike in the rulers and the ruled4 ,but as knowledge of the real problem advances1 errors in governing will become less frequent1 and the action of the ,state be marked by a wise adaptation to human needs in view of the greatest happiness possible4 ,state regulation is simply a matter of power and expediency4 ,at the present low stage of civilization1 for just so long as the ruling power is exercised by a propertied minority1 it will prove injurious to the majority2 but when the power passes over to the people the evils from which the majority suffer--in so far as they are remediable by society--will be slowly and surely redressed4 ,our ,county1 ,district and ,parish ,councils are important instalments of democracy4 ,these elected bodies1 with their increasing powers1 are potent to make of the community an ever larger and larger employer of labour1 until1 at the will of the people1 all industries become absorbed1 and the collectivist system of labour organization is gradually established4 ,it is evident that the instruments of a thoroughly democratic administration are rapidly perfecting in ,great ,britain2 and when the ideal of socialism dominates the national mind1 these will present a ready means of realizing the ideal in practice4 ,ignorance of the ideal leads many minds into the false assumption that the raising of wages1 and to do this the impoverishing of capitalists1 is the socialistic sine qu non in ,state action4 ,but as ,mrs4 ,bosanquet explains3 8,in our nineteenth century cry for higher wages we are apt to lose sight of the fact that many things are more important to the working-man than a few shillings added to his weekly income4 ,a good supply of water1 well-paved and lighted streets1 a market in which he can always obtain wholesome food1 and properly guarded sanitary conditions1 will do more to raise his standard of living above that of his ancestors than any increase of mere money income4 ,with those he can lead a healthy1 orderly life on comparatively small wages2 without them no rise in wages1 however desirable in itself1 will enable him to escape danger and disease40 7,rich and ,poor1 by ,mrs4 ,bernard ,bosanquet47 ,this puts the case for municipal socialism in a nutshell4 ,no amount of philanthropy1 no amount of individual action is likely to provide a parish with a good water supply1 properly paved and lighted streets1 sanitary dwellings and a well-managed market4 7,fabian ,news47 ,yet these are fundamental requisites of general well-being1 and another requisite for well-being and progress1 dependent upon ,state action1 is education of the people4 ,if the power of the masses and their independence of arbitrary authority grow out of accord with their real knowledge of things1 disastrous and bloody revolutions become possible4 ,that in some sort the ,state must educate the masses is a principle already acknowledged and acted upon4 ,we know1 too1 with how little success6 ,but as ,government loses its evil characteristics and grows enlightened1 our ,state education will be directed to new ends4 ,its aim will be to impress such knowledge on the rising generations as will prepare them for social life1 and instruct them in the means of averting misery and increasing happiness4 ,it will educate them in the science of society and true meliorism1 in the best methods for repressing anti-social feelings1 in the formation of noble ideals of conduct1 and in that religion which unites mankind in the region of the heart and makes of their union a living and growing social organism4 ,but while this is the aim of ,state education1 the exact means adopted may vary4 ,where parents are superior much may be left in their hands1 but inferior parents can never be permitted to train up children in inferior ways at the risk of lowering social purity and health4 ,i believe the time will arrive when ,government1 acting on its right of force and expediency1 will take up and sequestrate the small class of social units who1 defective by nature and evil conditions1 are unable to control the injurious tendency to propagate their kind4 ,this degraded minority will be kindly dealt with and allowed all liberty not inconsistent with the careful guarding of public safety4 ,the object to attain would be simply the putting an end to their evil stock4 ,in the matter of ,state education1 as well as in that of ,state interference with trade1 objections are made on the ground of injustice4 8,why10 it is asked1 8should a man without children be taxed to educate the children of others8 ,is it not unjust that the earnings of the prudent should be taken to save the imprudent from the consequences of their own folly80 ,my answer is that besides being expedient1 it is not socially unjust and the argument rests on the fact that the rewards of life depend upon the economic conditions of society much more than upon individual effort or merit4 ,the amount of a man's income is determined by forces not created by justice1 and over which he has no personal control4 ,a clever physician may command the fee of a guinea a visit4 ,let another competent man appear in the neighbourhood and charge half a guinea1 the first has to lower his fee or lose his patients1 and if he lowers his fee1 the sum of the incomes of the two physicians sharing the patients between them will be less than the amount of the single income originally derived from that source4 ,a man's gains are what the competitive system ordained by society permits him to seize1 whether he be working hard or not at all4 ,within these non-moral conditions an appeal to justice is irrelevant4 ,outside the non-moral conditions1 what justice requires is that all men should be socially equal in respect of two things1 viz4 liberty and the ordinary comforts of life4 ,if employers do not deem it unjust to lower wages1 neither should they deem it unjust were the ,state to lower their incomes to the precise amount their employs receive4 ,society has in the past arbitrarily arranged conditions that favour the few2 why should it not now arbitrarily rearrange these conditions favourably to the many8 ,if we take the average amount of all incomes to represent the sum each worker might justly receive1 we find that a number of people have far more than this sum4 ,the surplus represents then an 8unearned increment0 obtained by force of circumstance4 ,a still larger number of people1 on the other hand1 are wholly unable to win1 by any effort they may make1 the above average amount1 even if they work hard and well all their lives4 ,is it not just and reasonable that the more fortunate are required to give up a portion of their 8unearned increment0 in order that in the interests of society the children of the less fortunate should be educated8 ,and1 again1 the improvident and immoral are nature's defective children4 ,does not the highest religion demand that they should be tenderly dealt with and spared--if that be possible--all the tortures that nature unaided would bring upon them4 ,i believe that1 under conscious evolution1 the ,state will become in its action more and more philanthropic1 simply for this reason--its members will become more and more humane and public-spirited4 ,voluntary and ,state agency1 however1 will continue to co-exist4 ,each has its peculiar merits and demerits1 and each individual case to be dealt with has its peculiar conditions4 ,science and experience must in each case therefore decide which agency applies best4 ,there is no foregone conclusion that under ,state ,socialism all private industries will collapse4 ,the principle of the system is that no method of industry1 hurtful to society as a whole1 may exist1 and the power of the ,state shall be rigorously used to protect the interests of the whole1 as against conflicting individual interests4 ,even now it is felt1 through the growing democratic spirit1 that for our public bodies to take advantage of the struggle for employment of starving1 hard-pressed men and women1 is a national disgrace4 ,it will soon be a point of honour with the nation to fix a minimum wage for public employs much above the competitive rate4 ,some ,county ,councils have already been moved to direct that workers employed by them1 or under their contracts1 should be paid trade-union wages4 ,parliament has in some cases acted similarly1 and when we remember that ,government at this moment is the largest employer of labour in the kingdom1 we realize that its example in giving wages determined more by equity than by competition will have a raising effect upon wages in private employment4 ,there is not any danger1 however1 that the movement of taking over the industries of the country by the ,state will stop short of the most favourable point4 ,as ,i write this chapter1 the following paragraph has appeared in a socialist journal of to-day3 8,it is proposed to establish a gigantic trust to control the entire iron-producing interests of the ,united ,states4 ,this1 of course1 is eminently proper from an economic view1 as it is a clearly demonstrated fact that production on a large scale is cheaper than production on a small scale4 ,carnegie1 ,rockefeller and ,morgan1 proposers of the iron trust1 are1 from a certain standpoint1 benefactors of the race1 inasmuch as they will demonstrate the practicability of the co-operative idea on a national scale in production4 ,in due time the people will recognize the folly of allowing these men to reap the whole profits1 and the system will be readjusted40 ,another important public event was the introduction into the ,british ,parliament of an ,employer's ,liability ,bill4 8,this ,bill proceeds10 said its introducer1 8on the principle that when a person for his own profit sets in motion agencies which create risks for others1 he ought to be civilly responsible40 7,the ,scotsman ,report1 ,may #d1 #ahig47 ,now it goes without saying that the iron trust1 and all trusts and commercial rings and monopolies1 create the risk of a disastrous rise of prices to the general public1 and a consequent greater inequality of wealth possession than even that from which we are suffering acutely to-day4 ,a logical executive1 holding the above principle1 will inevitably annex to the ,state these huge outgrowths of the competitive system1 will keep down prices to the level required by the general interests1 and apply profits to the good of all4 ,that the time is not far distant when nationalization of the land will take place1 appears from the fact that many others besides socialists advocate the measure4 ,but we must not suppose that rent will be abrogated4 ,the ,state will impose a charge on the fertile and well situated lands to create conditions that are fair not only to consumers but to cultivators1 whose labour in view of a given result must vary according to the superiority or inferiority of soils and situations4 ,district ,councils will in all probability organize agricultural labour1 the ,state only drawing a rent2 while to present owners of the land compensation will be made1 and1 if accustomed to work on the land1 salaried positions in the new order offered4 ,the rent exacted by the ,state may become the single form of taxation necessary for purposes of administration and for organized labour engaged on such service of the people as does not bring in any profit4 ,but when routine industries bearing on universal needs belong to the ,state1 profits will flow into the national exchequer4 ,it will be possible to gradually increase the ,state's payment for labour as the workers become more capable of elevating their standard of life and consuming wisely2 while the surplus profits will be available for the organizing of new services to be rendered free4 ,the carriage and distribution of letters is a comparatively long established ,state industry4 ,the carriage of human beings should equally become so4 ,the ,state's taking over of railways and the municipalities' taking over of tramways cannot be much longer delayed4 ,bread baking and distributing by ,government employs is pre-eminently desirable1 to put an end to adulteration in a primary necessary of life and to prevent the waste of energy which takes place in the present disorganized system4 ,already there is such a general complaint of the quality of bakers' bread1 that an approved method of baking from pure flour under ,state control would be welcomed by all who perceive how the racial blood is more or less poisoned and its vitality lowered by what is called 8the staff of life40 7,a prolonged process of baking breaks up the starch granules1 and renders bread more digestible4 ,the extra expense and trouble precludes the adoption of this method by private bakers47 ,again1 the health of the nation suffers cruelly from poison germs carried in the medium of milk4 ,but when district councils have organized agricultural labour1 dairy produce will be distributed under strict ,government control4 ,emulation will spring up among local authorities all over the country to excel one another in the arts of rapidly acquiring and skilfully managing all industries that affect general health1 and thus raising the tide of life within the bounds of their jurisdiction4 ,with this aim broadly accomplished1 the minor industries might safely be left for some time in private hands and under a competition modified in a greater degree than now by ,state inspection for the benefit of workers and consumers4 ,among services to be made free to the public1 those of transit bulk largely and should probably come first--free railway and steamship service1 free tramway and cable-car service1 to be followed in time by a more or less complete service of free entertainments calculated to develop art and promote a happy1 joyous life4 ,if we cast our thoughts forward and try to realize the action and interaction of these altered social conditions upon society1 we can hardly mistake the nature of the changes humanity itself will undergo4 ,with the destruction of the frightful incubus of poverty1 human hearts will no longer be wrung by anguish1 bitterness1 despair4 ,with opportunity freely afforded for regular employment and its ample reward1 for decent and wholesome living1 and a civic life brightened by many pure pleasures1 the degrading and false excitements will cease to allure4 ,drunkenness1 vice1 crime will greatly diminish4 ,instead of the desperate struggle for bread and all that appertains to an animal life pure and simple1 a new struggle will arise--a benign1 inspiring emulation to attain to and acquire the noble qualities of humanity1 the distinctive characteristics of1 not the lower animal1 but the higher spiritual man4 ,respecting the form of government in a ,socialistic ,state1 ,i cannot do better than quote ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,hobson3 8,a developed organic democracy will have evolved a specialized #8head1' an expert official class1 which shall draft laws upon information that comes to them from innumerable sources through class and local representation1 and shall administer the government1 subject to protests similarly conveyed40 8,the conditions of a really effective expert officialism are two3 such real equality of educational opportunities as shall draw competent officials from the whole people2 and such a growth of public intelligence and conscience as shall establish the real final control of government for society in its full organic structure40 7,contemporary ,review1 ,february1 #aijb47 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,physiological ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,the laws of heredity constitute the most important agency whereby the vital forces1 the vigour and soundness of the physical system1 are changed for better or worse4--,,nathan ,,allen1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,population ,the population question is the real riddle of the ,sphinx1 to which no political ,oedipus has as yet found the answer4 ,in view of the ravages of the terrible monster over-multiplication all other riddles sink into insignificance4--,,huxley4 ,no human life can be maintained without food1 and no healthy individual life can be maintained without good food in sufficient quantity2 therefore1 the relation of numbers to the actual food supply--in other words1 the ,population ,question--stands at the threshold of our social inquiries and at the base of all social reform4 ,at the beginning of last century1 ,malthus1 who knew nothing of evolution1 expounded the doctrine that man tends to increase more rapidly than the means of subsistence2 that population and food1 like two runners of unequal swiftness chained together1 advance side by side1 but the pace or natural rate of increase of the former is so immensely superior to that of the latter that it is necessarily greatly checked4 ,and the checks are of two kinds4 ,they are either positive--that is1 deaths occur from famine1 accident1 war or disease1 and keep down the population so that the means of subsistence are just sufficient to enable the poorer classes barely to exist2 or they are preventive--that is1 fewer births take place than man is capable of causing4 ,this doctrine was a fertile germ of thought in the mind of ,charles ,darwin4 ,he1 while conscious to some extent of the process of evolution1 was grappling with the great problems of differentiation and genesis of species4 ,how came it that the life which is assumed to develop from low and simple to the highest and most complex forms everywhere exhibited breaks1 or sudden changes1 in the apparently natural order8 ,darwin perceived that a key to the enigma lay in the marvellous fecundity of organisms4 ,each group reproduced its kind in overflowing numbers1 and accidental conditions destroyed individuals and groups that failed to secure sufficient food or to protect themselves from enemies4 ,here were factors of progress1 but factors by no means admirable--a murderous slaughter of the weak1 a frantic struggle for existence1 culminating in violent death or slow starvation1 ultimately in extinction4 ,nevertheless1 the medal had two sides1 for the race is to the swift1 the battle to the strong2 bread is the portion of the wise1 favour the reward of skill4 ,should we feel surprise that in a semi-theological and metaphysical era1 rather than a scientific one1 ,darwin formulated his great discovery in terms suggesting not a cruel1 but a beneficent ,nature8 ,his law of natural selection1 or survival of the fittest1 established itself in many minds as a sacred principle that man could neither deny nor seek to counteract4 ,now this conception1 carried into the field of economics1 confused the minds of men engaged in the study of facts and problems of human life and progress4 ,political economists had to contemplate a social strife and struggle for existence among men as fierce and relentless as that holding sway in the brute kingdom4 ,and in this struggle society as a whole stood on the side of external nature as opposed to the mass of striving individuals4 ,a genetic1 spontaneously developed system of industry favoured a high birth-rate that kept wages low1 an unscrupulous exploitation of labour in the interests of capital1 a wholesale slaughter of infants1 a crushing out or trampling down of the weak1 and a perpetual grinding of the face of the poor1 while1 simultaneously1 wealth was multiplying and capital becoming concentrated and easy of control by the so-called princes of industry4 ,conditions of life to the great mass of the people were fraught with constant misery2 yet1 since ,darwin had demonstrated--in his ,origin of ,species1 published in #aheh--that a struggle for existence eventuates in the survival of the fittest1 enlightened thinkers1 with a few rare exceptions1 accepted the cruel facts of industrial life without any conscious moral revolt from the system4 8,laissez-faire0 was the logical outcome of ,darwinian law applied to human affairs1 and ,darwin's authority dominated the public mind of the period4 ,christianity was teaching the principle that the poor would be with us always2 a poet cheerfully sang 8,god's in ,his ,heaven2 ,all's right with the world2 ,all's love and all's law10 and political economists expounded the laws of demand and supply1 of rent1 of wages1 of profits1 of interest1 etc41 without one hint or surmise that man himself was bound to interfere with the action of derivative laws1 to modify or even annul them4 ,meanwhile an instinct of sympathy1 rudimentary in primitive man1 was steadily growing and strengthening during all the transitions of tribal1 village-communal1 feudal and national life1 in the stormy militant epoch1 till the moment arrived when it compelled man's interference4 ,spontaneously1 impulsively1 individual philanthropy interposed between a suffering humanity on the one hand1 and on the other external nature and a social system that were alike relentless4 ,it supported the weak and helped the unfit to survive4 ,it deliberately selected the half-starved1 the diseased1 the criminals1 and enabled them to exist and propagate4 ,finally it forced society to make laws subversive of the policy of 8laissez-faire10 thereby introducing a new order of things1 irrespective of all doctrinaire principles or authoritative teaching4 ,that new order of things is socialism1 and the genesis of socialism is distinctly to be traced to the vital element in human nature--unselfish sympathy4 ,the rise and progress of philanthropic action carries momentous issues in various directions1 both unfavourable and favourable to human welfare4 ,it has made the law of natural selection and survival of the fittest obsolete for us as applied to man4 ,it tends to a lowering of the level of average health and a gradual degenerating of the race through selection of the unfit1 and through the power of hereditary transmission4 ,it counteracts the positive or destructive checks to the increase of population1 and thereby extends the area of general misery4 ,nevertheless1 at the same time1 it increases the strength and the solidarity of human society1 and becomes a new law of life4 ,that law may be called 8,sympathetic ,selection0 and 8,survival of the ,gentle40 ,darwin in #ahgh acknowledged its existence4 ,he recognized it as a law in human society superseding that of ,natural ,selection and ,survival of the ,fittest4 ,in #ahja the population of ,england and ,wales was #h1hib1ecf1 or let us say about nine millions4 ,eighty years later it had risen to about twenty-six millions6 ,the increase showed an accelerated rate according to the census returns4 ,whereas in the ten years between #ahda and #ahea the percentage of increase was #abfe1 in those from #ahfa to #ahga it was #acai1 and between #ahga and #ahha it was #adcd4 ,in the ,united ,kingdom in #aijj there has been an increase of #ah per cent4 since #ahhj4 ,now ,malthus had pointed out that with conditions of life comparatively favourable1 and an increase of food supply comparatively easy1 population was found to double itself in twenty-five years or less4 ,our numbers during these eighty years had been1 roughly speaking1 trebled6 and the increase took place under conditions not favourable but unfavourable to the bulk of the nation4 ,manufacturing industries had enabled us to purchase food from abroad1 and consequently a larger number of children survived4 ,food1 however1 cannot always be forthcoming in greater and greater abundance from countries that need more and more of their own food supply1 and which1 by manufacturing for themselves1 are gradually reducing their demand for our manufactured commodities4 ,notwithstanding this patent fact1 there are social reformers to-day who persist in ignoring the population difficulty1 and there are thinkers who1 basing their views on ,herbert ,spencer's dictum that 8man's fertility will be checked by his individuation10 pass it over lightly4 ,generally speaking1 however1 the public conscience is now aroused1 and enlightened men and women are tolerably well alive to the fundamental nature and the grave importance of the population question4 8,in some parts of the ,united ,states of ,america10 says an able writer1 8population has actually doubled itself1 apart from immigration1 in twenty-five years2 and this in the face of the ordinary retarding influences4 ,if such a rate of increase upon the present population of the whole globe were to prevail for only #bej years1 there would be left but one square yard of standing room for each individual40 ,again3 8,if we grant that a scientific treatment of crops would enable food supplies to keep pace with population1 and for this purpose supposing that all the land in the planet ,jupiter were available for a market garden1 it would not ultimately be want of food but want of room that would put a stop to the increase of the multitude40 ,but further1 the above author--a mathematician--examines what the potentiality of increase represents on the supposition that each individual merely died the natural death of old age4 8,under such favourable conditions as the absence of war1 famine and disease1 the race might treble its numbers in thirty years4 ,to show the significance of the numerical law1 let us imagine it to operate undisturbed #c1jjj years upon the progeny of a single pair4 ,the number of human beings finally existing would be expressed by twice the #ajjth power of #c4 ,an easy computation will show that if these people were packed together1 allowing six cubic feet of space for each person1 they would fill up the whole solar system in every direction1 and extend beyond it to a distance #dcj times that of the planet ,neptune4 ,in fact1 a solid sphere of human beings would be formed having a diameter of #b1djj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,such considerations lead us to realize the absolute inevitableness of ,nature's checks upon reproduction40 7,social ,evolution and the ,evolution of ,socialism1 by ,george ,shoobridge ,carr1 ,m4,a41 ,cantab47 ,turning now from scientific speculation to recognized authority in practical politics1 let me quote from a paper read at the ,registrar-,general's office on ,march #ah1 #ahij1 by ,dr4 ,william ,ogle1 ,superintendent of ,statistics3 8,the population of ,england and ,wales is1 as we all know1 growing in a most formidable manner1 and though persons may differ in their estimates of the time when that growth will have reached its permissible limits1 no one can doubt that1 if the present rate of increase be maintained1 the date of that event cannot possibly be very remote40 ,premising that the rate of increase is not due to the birth-rate only1 but also to a fall in the death-rate1 and that voluntary philanthropy and ,state interference influence the latter1 we pass to the consideration of conditions that affect the marriage-rate--consequently the birth-rate--in the artisan and labouring classes1 composing the bulk of the nation4 ,the ,registrar-,general1 in his report for the year #ahgf1 wrote as follows3 8,the state of trade and national industry is strikingly exhibited in the fluctuations of the marriage-rate of the last nine years4444 ,the period of commercial distress1 which began about the middle of #ahff and continued during five years 444 influenced the marriage-rates of these years1 which were #age1 #afe1 #afa1 #aei1 #afa and #afg 7in the #a1jjj7 respectively4 ,in #ahgb and #ahgc the working classes became excited under the rapid advance of wages and the diminution of the hours of labour1 and the marriage-rates rose to #age and #agf respectively40 ,in his report for #ahha the ,registrar-,general again accentuated this important point3 8,the marriage-rate reflects with much accuracy the condition of public welfare40 ,and further on3 8,the birth-rate was at its maximum in #ahgf1 and fell uninterruptedly from that date year by year in natural accordance with the corresponding decline in the marriage-rate40 ,these years represented another period of commercial depression4 ,we have here then incontrovertible proof of the national tendency4 ,the mass of our people increase their numbers so soon as they are more comfortable1 and the marriage-rate for each year may be called the pulse or indicator of the nation's economic well-being4 ,its fluctuations coincide with the upward and downward movements of commercial activity4 ,in this connexion we have also to note that the most rapid growth of our population is taking place in the great industrial centres1 the mining1 manufacturing and trading districts2 and the type that there prevails is necessarily affecting the ,british race4 ,by the ,parliamentary return of marriages1 births and deaths registered in ,england and ,wales in the year #ahha1 it appeared that in different districts the percentages of marriages varied considerably4 ,it was greater in the mining1 manufacturing and trading districts than in the farming districts1 and much higher in ,london than in the provinces4 ,in the district comprising ,hertford1 ,buckingham1 ,oxford1 ,bedford1 ,cambridge1 the rate equalled twelve persons per annum for each thousand of the population4 ,in ,london it was eighteen persons for each thousand1 and in the divisions which comprise ,yorkshire and ,lancashire the rate was sixteen and seventeen persons to each thousand4 ,as regards births1 the proportions stated were somewhat similar4 ,in ,london there were thirty-five births to one thousand of the population1 whilst in the southeastern division there were only thirty-one2 but the rate rose again to thirty-five and thirty-six in the great manufacturing districts of the ,midlands and the ,north4 ,dr4 ,ogle's examination of statistics on the subject shows that this state of things has continued1 in its main features1 up to the present day4 8,men marry10 he says1 8in greater numbers when trade is brisk4 ,the fluctuations in the marriage-rate follow the fluctuations in the amount of industrial employment40 8,the rates vary very greatly in the different registration counties40 8,in ,london the rate is invariably high4 ,almost all the counties in which the marriage-rate is high are counties in which the population is also high of women engaged in industrial occupations1 and therefore presumably in receipt of independent wages1 while all the counties in which the marriage-rate is very low are also counties in which but a very small population of the women are industrially occupied40 ,the general drift of the figures leads to the conclusion that early marriage is most common where there is the largest amount of employment for women4 ,the age at which marriage takes place is examined by ,dr4 ,ogle as 8a subject of scarcely less importance than the rate in its bearing upon the growth of the population40 ,and the point is of special interest in view of the fact that delayed marriage was valued by ,malthus as a desirable preventive check4 ,dr4 ,ogle finds that the lowest average age at marriage for both bachelors and spinsters1 viz41 #bef and #bdb respectively1 was in #ahgc1 the year in which the marriage-rate was highest2 and from that date to the present time the ages have gone up gradually but progressively in harmony with the general decline in the marriage-rate4 ,in #ahhh the average age of bachelors at marriage was #bfc years1 and of spinsters was #bdg4 ,observe of late years there has been a slight decline of the marriage-rate and a certain retardation of marriage1 consequently the birth-rate has fallen1 but says ,dr4 ,ogle1 8so also has the death-rate1 and almost in equal amount2 so that the balance between the two1 or natural increment of the population1 has practically scarcely changed4 ,we may10 he observes1 8dismiss altogether the notion that any adequate check to the increase of population is hereafter to be found in retardation of marriage4 ,such retardation may defer the day when a stationary population will be necessary1 but1 when that day has come1 will be insufficient to prevent further growth4 ,if a stationary population is to be obtained by simple diminution of the marriage-rate1 that rate would have to be reduced #de per cent4 below the lowest point it has ever yet reached4 ,in short1 almost one-half of those who marry would have to remain permanently celibate4 ,this seems as hopeless a remedy as the retardation40 ,he makes clearer still this important matter3 8,if one-quarter of the women who now marry were to remain permanently celibate1 and the remaining three-quarters were to retard their marriages for five years1 the birth-rate would be reduced to the level of the present death-rate4 ,it is manifest that if the growth of population is hereafter to be arrested 444 by increase of permanent celibacy1 or by retardation of marriage1 these remedies will have to be applied on a scale so enormously in excess of any experience as to amount to a social revolution40 ,what1 then1 is the present position8 ,population tends to increase faster than actual subsistence4 ,obviously it cannot outrun the supply of food because people cannot live upon nothing4 ,there ensues therefore a state of chronic starvation among the most helpless1 and premature deaths keep population reduced to the means of subsistence4 ,let us glance at facts concerning ,london alone4 ,london now contains over #d1cjj1jjj persons4 ,three hundred thousand of these earn less than #ahs4 per week per family1 and live in a chronic state of want4 ,one person in every five will die in the workhouse1 hospital1 or lunatic asylum4 ,moreover1 the percentage is increasing4 ,considering that comparatively few of the deaths are those of children1 it is probable that one of every four ,london adults will be driven into these refuges to die4 ,one in every eleven of the whole population is a pauper4 ,one in every five of persons over #fe is a pauper4 ,the appalling statistics of the pauperism of the aged are carefully concealed in all official returns4 ,in #ahhe ,canon ,blackley found that #dbg per cent4 of deaths of persons over #fj in twenty-five rural parishes were those of paupers4 ,very many children in the ,board ,schools go to school without sufficient food unless supplied gratuitously4 ,over #cj1jjj persons in ,london have no home but the fourpenny 8doss-house0 or the causal ward4 7,fabian ,tracts1 ,nos4 #aj and #ag47 ,the death-rate of children in the poorest districts of the ,east ,end of ,london is three times as great as among the rich at the ,west ,end4 ,in barbarous ages the death-rate was1 as far as we can learn1 far higher than now1 and even now the death-rate of children in ,russia is extremely high4 ,we have little cause to rejoice in the absence of famine1 pestilence and war so long as the lowering of the death-rate--by sanitation1 the hospital system and the outcome generally of sympathetic feeling--increases the proportion of human beings in a state of chronic want1 and produces a gradual enfeeblement and deterioration of the human race4 ,yet it is inconceivable that rationalized man could withhold his efforts to reduce the death-rate in the future because of the fatal effects of his philanthropic action in the past4 ,darwin acknowledged this dilemma4 ,in the year #ahgh he somewhat sadly wrote3 8,the evils that would follow by checking benevolence and sympathy in not fostering the weak and diseased would be greater than by allowing them to survive and procreate40 ,ten years later ,professor ,huxley wrote3 8,so long as unlimited multiplication goes on1 no social organization which has ever been devised1 no fiddle-faddling with the distribution of wealth1 will deliver society from the tendency to be destroyed by the reproduction within itself in its intensest form of that struggle for existence1 the limitation of which is the object of society40 7,nineteenth ,century1 ,february1 #ahhh47 ,further than this he did not go2 ,huxley1 like ,darwin1 brings us up to the dilemma and leaves us there4 ,not such1 however1 is the position of all scientific men in the present day4 8,we stand on the threshold of a new departure in social evolution10 says the author already quoted1 8a new and potent factor in the process is about to make itself felt4 ,this factor is man's intellect4444 ,the intelligence of man will act intelligently2 population will not be subjected to mere haphazard restriction2 it will be regulated with a wise adaptation of means to an end40 7,social ,evolution and the ,evolution of ,socialism1 ,g4 ,s4 ,carr1 pp4 #fe1 #ff47 ,man's intelligence already perceives the right policy to pursue4 ,it is to lower the birth-rate1 to limit births to a proportion conformable with the food supply2 in other words1 to create a painless1 instead of a painful1 equalization of births and deaths4 ,is there any other means of escape from the existent dilemma8 ,i answer1 there is none4 ,emigration has sometimes been regarded as an efficient check to over-population1 and ,dr4 ,ogle allows that 8hitherto some of the excess of births over deaths has been met by emigration1 or rather by excess of emigration over immigration2 but never on such a scale as to free the country from more than one-twentieth part of its redundant growth40 ,moreover1 this minimum of good is counterbalanced by evil1 for emigration 8carries off the more vigorous and enterprising of our working men to the necessary deterioration of the residue left at home40 ,and further3 8,the facilities for successful emigration are yearly diminishing2 the time must inevitably come--sooner or later--when this means of reducing our population will altogether fail us40 ,in view of the obvious tendency of better conditions--when brought about--to create a reduction of the death-rate and an acceleration of the birth-rate1 eventuating in an increase of general misery1 neither ,malthus1 ,darwin1 ,huxley1 nor any other great teacher of the past1 has given us applicable and available counsel4 ,there only remains for us now to consider ,herbert ,spencer's opinion regarding this all-important matter4 ,he is credited with the demonstration of a law of population wider than the laws discerned by ,malthus and ,darwin4 ,the law is this3 8,other things equal1 multiplication and individuation vary inversely1 i4e4 the rate of reproduction of all living things becomes lowered as the development is raised1 and conversely40 7,lecture on 8,claims of ,labour10 ,edin41 #ahhf1 ,patrick ,geddes47 ,we have to do with this so-called law in respect only of its bearing on practical action4 ,the corollary deduced from it is3 ,individuate1 educate and refine your masses1 for the rate of increase will fall as organisms rise in the scale of culture4 ,now what are our prospects of any rapid advance in individuation 7development and culture7 among the seething masses of a people who are helpless and frightfully overcrowded by the action of the very law which individuation is to counteract8 ,in how long a period will the process be likely to take effect8 ,it is on the answer to these questions that the worth of the principle as a law of practical guidance for humanity must depend4 ,accepting it as a fact that in the families of our higher classes the average number is distinctly smaller than in the families of our lower classes1 let us look for a moment at some of the causes creating this difference4 ,first1 in the higher classes men may have mistresses whose children are unacknowledged2 and frequently they form the marriage tie with heiresses whose hereditary tendency is necessarily--as expounded by ,francis ,galton--towards sterility4 ,second1 women of the higher classes are often delicate4 ,they cannot support the strain of frequent maternity4 ,is this a condition that1 in an advancing civilization1 will persist8 ,by no means4 ,the ideal of womanhood1 as of manhood1 points to strength1 not weakness--8a combination of brain power and skill with bodily health and vigour4 ,many intellectual men are physically robust and capable in a polygamous state of patriarchal propagation40 7,over-population1 ,john ,m4 ,robertson47 ,and it is impossible to doubt that a rational education1 embracing free play to activities hitherto denied to the sex1 and promoting physical development1 will lift women to a superior level of health and of physiological capacity4 ,third1 the higher classes avail themselves to some extent of neo-,malthusian preventive checks1 whereas the mass of the people are either ignorant of them or opposed to their use4 ,fourth1 enforced celibacy in the case of a large proportion of women of the cultured classes is a cause of relatively fewer numbers4 ,obviously it is from the 8warrens of the poor0 that prolific life persistently springs4 ,there we have the highest rate of genesis2 and as the refined restrain propagation and limit their numbers1 the poor enter the breach and fill up the ranks from their own inferior stock4 ,now1 mark the result4 ,the individuating process is checked1 and ultimately fails1 through the crowding out of the individuated4 ,what occurs1 naturally1 inevitably1 by the action of the process is a gradual subsidence1 finally a limiting of the individuating factor1 the very social force to which ,herbert ,spencer directs attention6 ,surely it suffices to point out 8that no theory of the ultimate effects of mere refinement on rate of increase can give us help while nine-tenths of the human race are not refined1 and not visibly in the way of becoming so40 7,over-population1 ,john ,m4 ,robertson47 ,we are compelled to dismiss ,herbert ,spencer's 8law of population0 as irrelevant to the situation1 and to declare that he has no more solved the riddle of the ,sphinx than have ,malthus1 ,darwin and ,huxley4 ,the population problem1 as it faces us to-day1 is serious beyond all comparison4 ,it is impossible to over-estimate the importance of finding its true solution4 ,but while thousands of men and women are ready now to admit the seriousness1 nowhere as yet has a movement appeared of united action applicable and adequate to the exigency4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,sex ,how glorious will be the awakening when man's desires will be honoured1 his passions utilized1 his labour exalted1 whilst life is loved1 and ever and ever creates love afresh4--,,zola4 ,the ,law of ,population derives its force from an innate1 powerful instinct or passion in man1 the unguarded exercise of which brings about reproduction of the species4 ,the thing therefore of greatest importance to general well-being is the discovery of means whereby to prevent this imperious instinct dominating and controlling the reproductive conditions--which imperatively need to be governed by reason and moral sense4 ,the sexual instinct1 irresponsibly exercised1 keeps population up to the margin of the means of subsistence--whatever that may be at the time--perpetuates disease1 constitutional weakness and inherited taint1 and frustrates the community's best efforts to make life easier and happier to all4 ,my immediate purpose is to show that the prevention of all this evil is possible1 for rational man may slowly and surely guide the above vital instinct into a new course--a course that will lead to the redemption of his physical nature1 the purifying and elevating of his intellectual and emotional nature1 and the direct creation of social virtue and happiness4 ,i must first point out the obstacles standing in the way of this fundamental far-reaching readjustment4 ,there is a fatal ignorance of the true nature of the instinct in question1 there is an obstinate prejudice that prevents frank discussion of the subject1 there is ,puritan or ascetic feeling that shuns pleasure as evil1 and there is an optimistic fatalism which1 basing itself on ,darwinian law--already superseded by man's interference--persists in the laissez-faire policy1 however suicidal4 ,sexual relations form the background of human life and are the primary sources of our finest emotions4 ,therefore the instinct that prompts to sex-union ought to hold a supremely honourable place in public estimation1 and be carefully guarded from reproach and every hurtful or degrading condition4 ,this great factor in physical and emotional life stands1 at present1 in disgrace4 ,it is ignominiously repressed1 it produces heart-rending misery and unmitigated evil4 ,publicly and in current literature1 either it is ignored 7hypocritically7 or misjudged and condemned2 and all the time privately it is intensely felt2 and in every direction throughout society its licentious1 furtive indulgence swirls into the vicious circles of destruction1 the broken hearts and lives of women1 the fallen dignity and besmirched consciences of men4 ,if we look at the matter of sexual intercourse calmly and in the light of pure reason alone1 we must perceive that its intrinsic qualities are good1 not evil4 ,it creates happiness in the giving and receiving of pleasure1 and the physiological exaltation connected with pleasure promotes individual health and buoyancy4 ,to quote ,herbert ,spencer3 8,pleasure increases vitality and raises the tide of life40 ,if man 8eats and drinks immoderately10 said ,w4 ,r4 ,greg1 8nature punishes him with dyspepsia and disease2 but nature never forbids him to eat when he is hungry and to drink when he is thirsty1 provided he does so with discretion4 ,indeed1 she punishes him equally if he abstains1 as if he exceeds40 ,mr4 ,greg further showed that the action of nature is precisely similar in respect of the sexual function4 ,if man indulges to excess1 he is punished by premature exhaustion1 with appropriate maladies1 not otherwise however4 ,on the contrary1 enforced and total abstinence is punished often1 if not habitually1 by 8nervous disturbance and suffering and by functional disorder40 7,enigmas of ,life1 ,chapter ,,ii47 ,observe also the sexual desire 8is the especial one of all our animal wants which is redeemed from animalism by being blended with our strongest and least selfish affections2 which is ennobled by its associations in a way in which the appetites of eating and drinking and sleeping can never be ennobled in a degree to which the pleasures of the eye and ear can be ennobled only by assiduous and lofty culture40 7,enigmas of ,life4 ,w4 ,r4 ,greg1 p4 #ga47 ,we have no fastidious recoil from eating and drinking because these are merely animal functions4 ,we take pains to improve our methods of preparing food1 and we embellish our repasts with super-sensual surroundings in order to elevate the nutritive functions and free them from grossness or brutality4 ,the fundamentally animal nature of sexual passion does not imply brutality1 it is sociable to a far greater degree than eating or drinking1 and this element of sociality purifies and ennobles1 causing the function to become the basis of tender unselfish love4 ,in its physiological aspect we may rest assured that the average normal human being has as little inherent tendency to sexual excess as to gluttony or drunkenness4 ,but apart from the question of excess1 an attitude of mind towards the whole subject is common which must be condemned4 ,this attitude consists of an element of shame1 misnamed delicacy1 and a sense of moral superiority4 ,women chiefly cherish the feeling1 but men pay homage to it1 with the result that in no friendly communion of men and women does it seem compatible with good taste to discuss questions of sex4 ,all vulgar allusions to love1 all flippant talk on the subject of sex are distinctly contrary to good taste1 they dishonour human nature1 but ,i submit that it is an outrage on common sense1 and an immoral action1 when students of the ,population--or any other grave social question--allow this spurious delicacy to interfere with their facing the whole facts of life1 or to bias judgment in reasoning from the facts4 ,on the publication of my previous volume1 ,scientific ,meliorism and the ,evolution of ,happiness1 in #ahhe1 a woman of superior intellect and attainments reviewed the book4 ,one passage in her criticism stands thus3 8,a certain instinct that in such matters the instinct of reprobation is as healthy as it is superficially unreasonable1 may make one sicken at the suggestions of neo-,malthusianism40 7,the ,academy of ,may #aeth1 #ahhf47 ,such squeamishness is no indication of health or good taste4 ,its unreasonableness condemns it1 and the source from which it springs is prejudice induced through specific conditions4 ,the reviewer appears to suspect as much1 for1 later she remarks3 8,one cannot put down the book without a greatly increased sense of the supreme necessity of criticizing all established theories and institutions and of the supreme duty of refraining from precipitate action40 ,this is a sentiment one can endorse1 and ,i appeal to all my readers1 especially to women1 to refrain from forming any judgment on any part of this difficult1 all-important problem1 until they have mastered the subject in all its aspects4 ,to pursue the opposite course is to act irrationally and immorally4 ,it causes to spring up in other minds the prejudice which distorts and disguises truth4 ,in nutritive functions1 all repulsive animalism becomes overborne1 as human nature refines and civilizes1 and in a profounder sense the brutality of sex-passion vanishes through the growth of a higher love1 which has for its dominant quality--not eagerness for possession--but unselfish tenderness4 ,this tenderness1 permeating the individual and extending its benign influence into society1 issues in the gentle manners and virtuous actions that seem to spring directly from a universal principle of sympathy and love4 ,the scientific exposition of the phenomena has long been before the public4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 in his ,problems of ,life and ,mind1 demonstrated that whilst the individual functions of man 7alimentation being one of these7 arise in relation to the cosmos1 his general functions1 including sex-appetite1 arise in relation to the social medium1 and 8animal impulses become blended with human emotions10 until 8in process of evolution1 starting from the merely animal appetite of sexuality1 we arrive at the purest and most far-reaching tenderness40 ,the social instincts1 which he calls analogues of the individual instincts1 tend more and more to make 8sociality dominate animality and thus subordinate personality to humanity40 7,problems of ,life and ,mind1 vol4 #a1 p4 #aei47 ,it is only recently that the full significance of these facts has begun to influence general thought and to create a revolt against the unscientific attitude of mind that covers the sexual instinct with contumely and hypocritical disdain4 ,there dawns in consequence a new light upon the afflicting problem of our social impurity4 ,it is seen that the horrible struggle for existence which makes grief and pain1 exhausting mental effort and physical restraint1 enter so largely into the lot of unhappy man1 is the paramount evil to cast out4 8,the wonderful cycles of normal life are for ever clean and pure40 7,the ,new ,spirit1 ,havelock ,ellis47 ,and with far more of sex-union--especially for the young--and all the tender social joys that emanate from that union1 and far more of ease and happiness in life1 there becomes possible a great increase of goodness4#b ,footnote #b3 ,it is well to know moments of material happiness1 since they teach us where to look for loftier joys4--,wisdom and ,destiny1 by ,maurice ,maeterlinck4 ,the late ,james ,hinton spoke truly of the matter when he said3 8,sensuous pleasure will be to the moral life of the future as sense-impressions are to the knowledge of the present1 and with the same history4 ,it will not be a thing put aside as evil or degrading or misleading1 but recognized as the very basis and means of the life1 and used with enhancements and multiplied powers undreamt of by us40 ,and again1 8,this is what sets the soul on fire--the union of goodness and pleasure4 ,it is a new possibility1 a hope we never saw before1 a means whereby all may be brought into goodness40 7,the ,law ,breaker1 pp4 #bge1 #bcf47 ,the key to the position1 he points out1 is the taking of pleasure unselfishly and with complete regard to the happiness of others4 ,the region of sex is indeed to this day unreclaimed1 but1 as ,mr4 ,ellis asks3 8,why should the sweetening breath of science be guarded from this spot8 ,our attitude towards this part of life affects profoundly our attitude towards life altogether40 7,the ,new ,spirit1 pp4 #abg1 #abe74 ,which of us has not felt the truth of that deep saying of ,thoreau's that 8for him to whom sex is impure there are no flowers in nature40 ,it is precisely here that development in the sense of purity gives a sure hope of moral regeneration4 ,and very remarkable is it that as in the old days when prophetic poetry took the lead in all religious reforms so now we have art in the van of social reform boldly confronting the great enemies of progress--ignorance1 pride1 prejudice and malicious insinuation4 ,when ,ibsen's 8,ghosts0 was first put upon the stage of a ,london theatre1 a dramatic critic delivered himself thus3 8,it is a dream of revolt--the revolt of the #8joy of life' against the gloom of hidebound1 conventional morality1 the revolt of the natural man and woman1 the revolt of the individual against the oppression of social prejudice4 ,the joy of life1 the joy of life--it rings like a clarion through the play40 7,star of ,march #adth1 #ahia47 ,the fine women of ,ibsen's creation speak out upon questions of sex with a pure1 earnest candour that breathes a new morality1 and this moral element is one of the central features in ,whitman's attitude towards sex4 ,for the lover1 there is nothing in the loved one impure or unclean2 a breath of passion has passed over1 and all things are sweet4 ,for most of us this influence spreads no farther1 for the man of strong moral instinct it covers all human things in infinitely widening circles2 his heart goes out to every creature that shares the loved one's delicious humanity1 henceforth there is nothing human that he cannot touch with reverence and love4 ,leaves of ,grass is penetrated by this moral element4 7,the ,new ,spirit1 ,havelock ,ellis1 p4 #abc47 ,walt ,whitman himself says3 8,difficult as it will be1 it has become1 in my opinion1 imperative to achieve a shifted attitude from superior men and women towards the thought and fact of sexuality as an element in character1 personality1 the emotions1 and a theme in literature40 7,how ,i made a ,book4 ,an ,essay by ,walt ,whitman47 ,the principles underlying the new morality may be thus stated3 ,goodness does not consist in starving or denying any normal animal appetite1 therefore chastity in the sense of total abstinence is essentially immoral4 ,life is not so prodigal of joys that man can wisely forego any source of innocent happiness1 hence asceticism has no place in a rational theory and code of morals4 ,the course for rational man to adopt in reference to sexual appetite is duly to satisfy and regulate it2 and by removing every loathsome condition that superinduces degradation1 to compel it to raise the tide of life in promoting individual comfort and general virtue4 ,to the reader who grasps the population problem it may seem that this moral code would place society on the horns of a painful dilemma1 for while morality is said to require a closer union between the sexes than has hitherto prevailed1 propagation--which is the actual result of that union--must be limited to an extent hitherto unknown1 and by many people deemed impossible of attainment4 ,by its patient investigations of nature1 however1 science here comes to the rescue of those whose standpoint in viewing the sexual problem is one of ardent sympathy with the essential needs and the moral aspirations of man in a social position truly pathetic4 ,physiology has revealed that sexual organs are naturally divided into amative and reproductive organs1 each class functionally distinct from the other4 ,amative organs relate primarily to sexual union1 while reproductive organs relate primarily to impregnation and gestation4 ,the process of reproduction may take place without use of the amative organs by simply bringing spermatozoa to ova 7this has been done71 and on the other hand the amative organs can be exercised without effecting reproduction4 ,sexual intercourse and procreation are not vitally related1 as they are ordinarily assumed to be4 ,moreover1 the instincts connected with sexual union and with offspring are separate and distinct4 ,in popular1 confused thought1 a reproductive instinct is attributed to animals and man4 ,in reality1 no direct instinct to reproduce the species exists4 ,animals unite sexually from an instinct directed to a pleasurable exercise of function2 and although1 in man1 the relation has been made complex by his knowledge of the facts of reproduction and of social life1 the sexual instinct is connected solely with pleasure and social feeling--not with reproduction4 ,on the other hand1 instincts associated with the presence and nurture of the young are not sexual or related to sexual passion4 ,therefore any doctrine requiring man's exercise of the sexual function to be restricted to the end of reproduction is without justification in nature and directly conflicts with the facts of life4 ,the sexual act1 in the natural order of things1 is only occasionally in accidental relation to the reproductive process1 for with married people in a thousand acts only a dozen may be reproductive4 ,if social morality then requires the satisfaction of normal sexual feeling--and ,i think ,i have shown this to be the case--the desideratum is to prevent at will instead of leaving to accident the above occasional relation1 and make the separation between amative and reproductive conditions as complete as their functional separation4 ,an ,american writer has well said3 8,if there is one social phenomenon which human ingenuity ought to bring completely under the control of the will1 it is the phenomenon of procreation40 8,just as everyone is his own judge of how much he shall eat and drink1 of what commodities he wants to render life enjoyable1 so everyone should be his own judge of how large a family he desires1 and should have power in the same degree to leave off when the requisite number is reached40 7,lester ,f4 ,ward4 ,dynamic ,sociology1 vol4 #b1 p4 #dfe47 ,the ,bible ,communists of ,oneida ,creek practised voluntary control over the propagative function during thirty years with marked success4 ,the number of births was regulated in accordance with the wishes of the community1 and such careful attention was paid to the laws of heredity that no children of defective organisms or unsound constitutions were born4 ,were man universally intelligent and morally self-controlled1 the knowledge of physiological facts and of invention applied to those facts would suffice to create general spontaneous limitation of the birth-rate and hygienic propagation of species4 ,but one has only to think of the battered humanity in the back slums of every great city--the physical1 mental and moral weaklings of our degraded populace--to realize that it is fantastic folly to expect individual intelligence under vicious and utterly depressing conditions1 to counteract habit and save society from a rising tide of overwhelming numbers1 the product of random pregnancy and sportive chance4 ,it cannot be a solution nor even a relief to the population difficulty that the intelligent--comparatively few--should limit their families so long as the masses refuse or fail to limit theirs4 ,when society1 becoming fully alive to the imminent danger of a too rapid birth-rate solves the population and social problems combined--in the only way possible--it will facilitate and promote the use of scientific checks to conception1 and1 if necessary1 exact their adoption by some legislative device4 7,see ,social ,control of the ,birth-rate1 by ,g4 ,a4 ,gaskell47 ,by the aid of these personal means of avoiding or preventing conception the desired complete separation of amative and reproductive conditions is effected4 ,love is set free to rule in its own domain1 and reason controls procreation to the infinite benefit of all future generations4 ,in an article by ,mr4 ,j4 ,holt ,schooling in the ,contemporary ,review for ,february1 #aijb1 entitled 8,the ,natural ,increase of ,three ,populations10 it is shown how widely in the ,united ,kingdom the use of preventive checks has spread within the last twenty years4 ,the writer says in comparing the birth-rates of ,germany1 ,england and ,france since #ahhj3 8,there has been a fall in the birth-rate during each period in each country4 ,but ,england's fall has been larger than all2 larger than the fall in the ,french birth-rate4 ,during #ahhj-ahhd there were #cbc births per year per #aj1jjj of our population2 during #ahie-ahii there were only #bia births per year per #aj1jjj of population--a yearly fall of #cb births per #aj1jjj of population4 ,france's fall was #bh births and ,germany's fall was only #aj births1 although ,germany's birth-rate was higher throughout than that of ,england or of ,france40 ,this is very satisfactory1 and in regard to the strength of a nation that depends upon the adults1 and there are more adults in a population where the children are fewer4 ,the death-rate in ,england during the last twenty years has been always the lowest of the three countries4 ,at the present moment1 society has no scientific sex-philosophy whatever4 ,it affects to be governed by ,puritanism--a vague doctrine belonging to the past history of the race and not in connexion with any ethical code directed to the development of goodness through a careful regard to the happiness of man and the satisfaction of his normal human nature4 ,puritanism1 whether affected or real1 spreads abroad hypocrisy1 deceit1 lying2 it tends to licentiousness in men and the utter defilement of women1 to social disorder and decay4 ,above all1 it frustrates the development of that higher love1 which1 having animalism allied1 but subordinate1 fills the mind with exquisite emotion and creates unselfish delights4 ,many years ago ,miss ,martineau wrote3 8,a thing to be carefully remembered is that asceticism and licentiousness universally co-exist4 ,all experience proves this1 and every principle of human nature might prophesy the proof4 ,passions and emotions cannot be extinguished by general rules40 7,how to observe ,morals and ,manners1 p4 #afi47 ,puritanism ignores the sexual needs of the young4 ,in a scientific age man is bound to recognize physiological reasons for early satisfaction of the sexual appetite and physiological reasons for delayed parentage4 ,of the former1 ,i have here to say that an early moderate stimulation of the female sexual organs 7after puberty is reached7 tends1 by the law of exercise promoting development of structure1 to make parturition in mature life easy and safe2 and that the healthy functional and emotional life of love and gratified passion is the best preventive of hysteria1 chlorosis1 love melancholy1 and other unhappy ailments to which our young women are cruelly and barbarously exposed1 and which1 ,i do not hesitate to say1 make them in many cases feel their youth to be an almost insufferable martyrdom4 ,there are no less serious sexual evils which overtake masculine youth1 if continent1 namely1 persistent and miserable cravings1 abnormally directed instinct1 spermatorrhoea1 self-abuse2 and these are usually hidden from sight and knowledge in consequence of a feeling that1 in sexual matters1 adults have no sympathy with the young4 ,in ,lecky's ,history of ,european ,morals1 vol4 #b1 p4 #cja1 prostitution is thus referred to3--8,however persistently society may ignore this form of vice1 it exists1 nevertheless1 and on the most gigantic scale1 and an evil rarely assumes such inveterate and perverting forms as when it is shrouded in obscurity and veiled by a hypocritical appearance of unconsciousness4 ,the existence in ,england of unhappy women1 sunk in the very lowest depths of vice and misery 444 shows what an appalling amount of moral evil is festering uncontrolled1 undiscussed and unalleviated under the fair surface of decorous society40 ,the number of ,london prostitutes was estimated at #hj1jjj in the year #ahgj4 ,since then1 it has probably increased4 ,in ,paris1 according to ,von ,dettingen1 the actual number at that period was upwards of #fj1jjj2 in ,berlin1 #be1jjj to #cj1jjj4 ,in ,hamburg1 in #ahfj1 every ninth woman above the age of #ae was a prostitute1 and in ,leipzig the women depending principally or exclusively on prostitution was estimated at #b1jjj4 ,this field of prostitution encloses whole armies of women finding there their only means of earning a miserable livelihood and a corresponding number of victims claimed by death and disease4 7,woman in the ,past1 ,present and ,future4 ,august ,bebel1 pp4 #ajj-aja47 ,the prostitute1 in her thousands2 the married drudge1 weary of child-bearing2 the desolate old maid2 these are all alike victims to social oppression4 ,they are compelled to abstain from1 or compelled to engage in1 a specific function which is only natural1 pleasurable1 healthful and virtuous in the absence of all tyranny4 ,love to be real must be prompted by personal desire1 and free to express itself in unhurtful conditions3 ,i mean conditions that involve individual liberty1 social respect and human dignity4 ,the facts of prostitution alone would amply suffice to put ,puritanism out of court in social reform4 ,as a result of conduct1 it has no control over vicious propensities1 whilst it restrains tormentingly impulses that are normal and virtuous1 that need only fitting conditions of healthful freedom4 ,discarding asceticism and conventional purism as alike immoral1 the social reforms that are based on a knowledge of human nature and a knowledge of the possibilities allied with conscious evolution1 will bring all the institutions of our social life into accordance with the needs of the individual2 and one essential condition of happy life is sexual love1 with such union of the sexes as conforms to the general or collective interests4 ,in view of the law of population1 and the fact that science has made plain how practically to separate the amative from the reproductive conditions of physical union1 the love of the sexes can harmonize with the highest interests of our collective social life1 and eugenics1 not sexual love1 may become paramount in generation4 ,what social morality requires is that the forces of philoprogenitiveness and a public conscience combined should dominate the function of reproduction1 while love is left free from coercive control in the sphere of individual life4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,eugenics ,,or ,,stirpiculture ,the first step towards the reduction of disease is beginning at the beginning to provide for the health of the unborn4--,dr4 ,,richardson4 ,the whole theory concerning heredity and its marvellous influence for good or evil is a nauseous draught for mankind to swallow4 ,no wonder we revolt instinctively from a doctrine that charges tender parents with transmitting an evil heritage to the offspring they passionately love4 8,although many important books draw attention to the facts1 as far as they are ascertained1 these momentous facts have as yet made no impression on the general mind40 7,scientific ,meliorism and the ,evolution of ,happiness1 p4 #cbi47 ,this statement is no longer true4 ,it was written in #ahhd1 and since then immense strides have been made in the realization of the action of heredity4 ,the subject is frequently and persistently brought forward now1 and urged upon the attention of the public4 ,zola's mre ide is not found only in ,french fiction1 the new ,russian school of fiction is permeated by it2 and even in ,england some novelists1 following in the footsteps of ,george ,eliot1 are assuming a scientific attitude towards life1 and the facts of heredity are not ignored4 ,moreover1 in science and in all high-class criticism of life the doctrine of heredity is directly taught4 ,apart from purely literary work1 the examination of criminal statistics as a whole1 and the practical observations of physicians1 doctors1 dentists1 schoolmasters1 poor-guardians1 systematized and made public at congresses and stored in scientific handbooks so inexpensive as to be well within reach of all students--these1 ,i say1 combine to impress upon the general mind the conviction that racial degeneracy is a palpable fact2 and that inheritance is prime factor in the degenerating process4 ,and recently indeed a suspicion of danger in over-estimating this factor has been publicly expressed4 ,whereas formerly1 it is said1 a child was supposed to be born with a mind like a clean sheet of paper1 on whose fair surface we might write what we chose1 opinion points in the present day to an opposite extreme1 viz41 this1 that the hereditary tendencies born with the child determine its future career1 and that education cannot modify this destiny in any essential respect4 ,now1 to disallow the importance of education as also a prime factor in progress is an error of judgment2 but so long as the human race continues scourged by sickness1 martyred by pain1 demoralized by disease and innate debility1 and decimated by premature death1 it is not possible for thinkers to over-estimate the profound significance for weal or woe of this question of heredity4 ,where individual life is not menaced by poverty or destitution1 disease is the bane of existence1 the barrier to physical comfort and to both mental and moral advance4 ,alas6 how few of us have any permanent possession of sound health4 ,in spite of medical science1 sanitary protection1 progress made during the last hundred years in knowledge of pathological conditions1 and vast resources now at our command for subduing and mitigating every form of physical evil1 disease dogs our footsteps from infancy to maturity and onwards to the grave4 ,we have the young attacked by consumption1 the middle-aged suffering from failing health1 the aged struck by paralysis or bowed down by rheumatism2 and everywhere we meet husbands and wives permanently saddened by the loss of the chosen companion of their life1 and mothers whose light-hearted buoyancy died out for ever when the babe1 prized beyond all treasure1 was snatched from their arms to be laid in our appallingly numerous children's graves4 ,in order to form an approximately correct conception of disease1 we must glance for a moment at the conditions of health4 ,life in all its forms1 physical or mental1 morbid or healthy1 is in close relation to the individual organism and external forces4 ,health1 as the consequence and evidence of a successful adaptation to the conditions of existence1 implies the preservation1 well-being and development of the organism2 while disease marks a failure in organic adaptation to external conditions1 and leads to disorder1 decay and death4 ,if we could perceive all the conditions1 outward and inward1 and take them into account1 a distinct line of causation would become apparent4 ,we should find disease no more an accident than the storm that breaks upon the seaboard or the volcanic flames that burst from the mountain top4 ,the extreme complexity and delicacy of biological phenomena precludes a wide grasp of conditions in individual cases1 but scientific investigation has established the point that of the antecedents to disease the largest proportion is some heritage of weakness transmitted from parents--some disabilities for healthy life resulting from a bad descent4 ,when1 for instance1 mental anxiety produced by adverse circumstances is said to have made a man mad1 there is implied some inherent infirmity of nervous element which has co-operated4 8,were the nervous system in a state of perfect soundness and in possession of that reserve power which it then has of adapting itself1 within certain limits1 to the varying external conditions1 it is probable10 says ,maudsley1 8that the most unfavourable circumstances would not disturb permanently the relation and initiate mental disease4 ,but when unfavourable action from without conspires with an infirmity of nature within1 then the conditions of disorder are established and a discord or madness is produced40 7,the ,physiology and ,pathology of the ,mind1 p4 #aii47 ,thus although outward circumstances often decide the character of a disease1 inherited infirmity is its primary cause4 ,a being liable to madness1 if subjected to anxiety1 may1 under different conditions1 acquire not madness but consumption4 ,a child may fall a victim to the special ailment from which one or both parents suffered2 but equally it is possible that disease in him may assume a totally different form4 ,all that can be affirmed with certainty is this3 of diseased parents the offspring invariably inherit a constitution liable to 8some kind of morbid degeneration1 or a constitution destitute of that reserve power necessary to meet the trying occasions of life60 ,the trying occasions of life have multiplied with every new complexity in social structure2 and there has been no corresponding increase of constitutional strength2 but1 on the contrary1 a growing feebleness of physique and instability of nerve-function4 8,our children in these times10 remarks ,dr4 ,richardson1 8are our reproach4 ,where is there a healthy child8 ,you may put before me a child showing to the unskilled mind no trace of disease4444 ,it is sure to have some inherited failure4 ,we are as yet unacquainted with all the phenomena of disease that pass in the hereditary line4444 ,we admit1 as proved1 scrofula or struma1 cancer1 consumption1 epilepsy1 rheumatism1 gout4 ,it would be wrong to limit the hereditary proclivities of disease to this list4 ,the further my own observations extend1 the stronger is the impression made on my mind that the majority of the phenomena of disease have hereditariness of character40 7,diseases of ,modern ,life1 p4 #ch47 ,sir ,james ,paget and ,sir ,william ,jenner gave evidence of a similar kind before a ,committee of the ,house of ,lords in #ahhb4 ,from the former eminent physician's speech ,i may quote one passage3 8,we now know that certain diseases of the lungs1 liver and spleen are all of syphilitic origin1 and the mortality from syphilis in its later forms is every year found to be larger and larger1 by its being found to be the source of a number of diseases which previously were referred to other origins40 7,the ,times ,report1 ,august #aath1 #ahhb47 ,in ,august ,bebel's work on ,woman1 her ,position in the ,past1 ,present and ,future1 this passage occurs3 8,with regard to the decimating effects of venereal disease1 we will only mention that in ,england between #aheg and #ahfe the authenticated cases which ended fatally amounted to over #ab1jjj1 among which no fewer than #fi per cent4 were children under twelve months1 the victims of parental infection40 7p4 #aja47 ,of the original source from which syphilis sprang1 of its implication in the sex problem1 and of the ultimate eradication of its virus--to be attained only by the true solution of the sex problem--we cannot here speak2 the point under immediate consideration is the fact that the civilized races of mankind persist in propagating and perpetuating disease4 ,they unscrupulously bring into the world individual organisms that are pre-destined to failure because not endowed with the potential qualities indispensable to complete and successful life4 ,in ,america the same conditions are noted and publicly referred to4 ,mr4 ,nathan ,allen1 ,m4,d41 before a medical society at ,massachusetts1 reported3 8,a gradual change is taking place in the organization of our ,new ,england people--a change which has occurred principally within the last two or three generations4 ,the nervous temperament with all its advantages and disadvantages is becoming too predominant for other parts of the body4 ,the frame-work of the body generally is not so large 444 the countenance is paler1 the features are more pointed and not so expressive of health4 ,we have a larger class of diseases arising from general debility 444 we have more disease of the brain and nervous system1 more sudden deaths from apoplexy1 paralysis1 and also diseases of the heart4 ,in sound healthy stock we have in a far higher degree the recuperative powers of nature2 while the original constitution is feeble1 diseases of almost every kind become complicated1 and their treatment more difficult as well as doubtful in result40 ,laws of inheritance affect the moral as well as the physical and mental health of the nation4 ,their action is fatally legible in the public records of crime4 ,not that many criminals inherit the actual attributes of crime--brutality1 cruelty1 malignity1 propensity to abnormal sexual practices--these develop through the interaction of external with internal forces--but the ordinary criminal is born deficient in the elemental qualities necessary to the establishment of the average moral nature4 ,from observations carried on in ,english prisons1 it appears that in these days of careful school-board education #be per cent4 of prisoners can neither read nor write1 and a certain number are quite incapable of receiving and benefiting by school instruction4 8,the memory and reasoning powers are so utterly feeble that attempts to school them is a waste of time40 7,crime and its ,causes1 ,william ,douglas ,morrison1 of ,h4,m4 ,prison1 ,wandsworth1 p4 #aie47 ,intellectually1 criminals are 8unquestionably less gifted than the rest of the community02 emotionally they 8have the family sentiment only feebly developed10 and morally the will is 8morbidly variable40 ,a prisoner may be animated by good resolutions1 anxious to do what is right1 often possessing a sense of moral responsibility1 yet may plunge again and again into crime from the absence of a sustained power of volition4 8,persons afflicted in this way are generally convicted for crimes of violence1 such as assault1 manslaughter1 murder4 ,they experience real sentiments of remorse1 but neither remorse nor penitence enables them to grapple with their evil star4 ,the will is stricken with disease1 and the man is dashed hither and thither a helpless wreck on the sea of life40 ,the harmony of the social organism depends upon congruity of thought and feeling in its members and upon action made promptly conformable through exercise of the power of control centred in the inner part or spiritual nature of man4 ,a criminal is an unsocial man1 an undeveloped being1 one1 generally speaking1 whose pregenital stock was below par1 and failed in the conservation1 development and transmission of a physical1 mental and moral capacity equalling that of the average of his race4 ,the physical debility or inherited tendency to nerve weakness--so universal in the present day--has clearly a causal relation with the increase of crime deplored by the principal authorities on the subject in ,europe and ,america4 ,in the ,united ,states we are told by ,mr4 ,d4 ,a4 ,wells and by ,mr4 ,howard ,wines1 an eminent specialist in criminal matters1 that crime is steadily increasing at a faster rate than in due proportion to the increase of population4 ,nearly all the chief statisticians abroad tell the same tale4 ,dr4 ,mischler1 of ,vienna1 and ,professor ,von ,liszt1 of ,marburg1 draw a deplorable picture of the increase of crime in ,germany4 ,in ,france1 the criminal problem is as formidable and perplexing as in ,germany4 ,m4 ,henri ,joli estimates that crime has increased #acc per cent4 within the last half century1 and is steadily rising4 ,taking ,victoria as a typical ,australasian colony1 we find that even in the antipodes1 which are not vexed to the same extent as ,europe with social and economic difficulties1 crime is persistently raising its head 444 it is a more menacing danger among the ,victorian ,colonists than it is at home4 7,crime and its ,causes1 ,w4 ,d4 ,morrison4 ,published in #ahia1 pp4 #ab and #ac47 ,while physical degeneracy creates crime1 a non-moral life on the other hand causes further physical deterioration4 ,the pursuit of wealth for purely personal ends is pre-eminently anti-social4 ,breadth of thought and social feeling grow impossible to the man whose life is devoted to the business of amassing riches2 and ,dr4 ,henry ,maudsley gives it as his conviction1 based upon wide observation of family life1 that such men are extremely unlikely to beget healthy children4 ,in cases where the father has toiled upwards from poverty to vast wealth1 8,i have witnessed the results10 he says1 8in a degeneracy mental and physical of his offspring which has sometimes gone as far as extinction of the family in the third or fourth generation4 ,i cannot but think after what ,i have seen that the extreme passion for getting rich does predispose to mental degeneration in the offspring1 either to moral defect or to moral and intellectual deficiency1 or to outbreaks of positive insanity under the conditions of life40 7,the ,physiology and ,pathology of the ,mind1 p4 #bjf47 ,this fact alone is amply sufficient to condemn an industrial system that creates monopolies1 concentrates wealth1 stimulates greed1 degrades the upper classes by superfluous luxury1 the lower by envy1 poverty1 despair1 and tends generally to physical1 mental and moral decay4 ,but were the entire economic system judiciously reconstructed1 fatal elements would remain so long as man fails to grapple with the biological problem and fails to bring the great life forces of reproduction under conscientious direction and control4 ,gravitation and all well studied mechanical and chemical forces have been adapted by man to special purposes in relation with his civilized life2 even so must the sexual forces that belong to his basic existence be in their turn dominated and made conformable with his higher moral and spiritual needs4 ,in this regard his primary need is that there shall be no transmission of disease or constitutional debility from one generation to another2 but that the entire strength of the laws of heredity shall create an improvement of stock and thereby lift humanity to a higher level of physical health and efficiency4 ,in seeking the true method of attaining this end1 it is our duty to look first to the teaching of the great founders of social philosophy4 ,without their invaluable services in discovering and setting forth the one unbroken process of law which 8connects all phenomena from the motion of molecules and the courses of the suns to the phenomena of human thought and the destinies of nations0 7,j4 ,m4 ,robertson71 no intellects could to-day grasp the causes of misery and1 conceiving the possibility of circumventing these causes1 devise a scheme of scientific action to reverse the trend of general movement and evolve conditions of genuine and universal happiness4 ,in this sphere1 however--the sphere of eugenics1 or improvement of the human stock1 as also in regard to the population and sex problems--,darwin and ,herbert ,spencer have failed us4 ,the mind of the former1 habituated to dwell on the favourable aspects of the struggle for existence during the early epochs of man's history1 was blind to the consequences of the genesis and growth of the broadly social element in man4 ,barbarous man could let cosmic forces prevail to exterminate the weak4 ,sympathetic man is compelled by virtue of his enlarged subjective nature to institute a new struggle1 viz41 a struggle against the struggle for existence 7a phrase used by ,lange71 and already his triumph is everywhere visible in the survival of the unfit to struggle4 ,darwin opposed the proposal to restrain population on the score that this would minimize the struggle which had created civilization in the past and which must needs1 he thought1 carry it on in the future1 and both ,darwin and ,herbert ,spencer 8assumed that a generalization which sums up the progressive forces of a collectively unconscious society1 i4e4 a society without the conception of evolution and of a universal sociology1 must equally sum up the progressive principles of a collectively conscious society1 a society which has realized evolution and is constructing a universal sociology4 ,though they themselves are our greatest helpers towards such consciousness1 they failed to realize that our attainment of it must revolutionize human history40 7,modern ,humanists1 ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1 p4 #bcd74 ,turning then to less illustrious men1 ,mr4 ,francis ,galton is our most advanced teacher in the field of eugenics4 ,he faces the problem of race regeneration and has put forth a scheme or policy of action1 resting on ,dr4 ,matthews ,duncan's alleged facts regarding the relative fertility in early and late marriages4 ,he shows that a group of a hundred mothers whose marriages and those of their daughters should take place at the age of twenty1 would1 in the course of a few generations1 breed down a group of a hundred mothers whose marriages and those of their daughters were delayed until the age of twenty-nine4 ,let us then1 he reasons1 promote by every means in our power the early marriage of human beings of superior quality1 whilst we discountenance early marriage in those social members who are less favourably endowed4 ,and 8few10 he says1 8would deserve better of their country than those who determine to live celibate lives through a reasonable conviction that their issue would probably be less fitted than the generality to play their part as citizens40 7,inquiries into ,human ,faculty1 p4 #ccf47 ,in examination for official appointments he would have attention paid to a candidate's ancestral qualifications as well as his personal ability4 ,the man of inherited sound constitution and average ability should be preferred to the man of superior ability who belongs to a delicate and short-lived family4 ,the former will in all probability become the more valuable servant of the two4 ,some scheme should be devised by which to bestow marks for family merit1 to put1 as it were1 a guinea stamp to the sterling guinea's worth of natural nobility2 and this1 he conceives1 might set a great social avalanche in motion4 ,it would open the eyes of every family1 and of society at large1 to the importance of marriage alliance with a good stock2 it would introduce the subject of race as a permanent topic of consideration1 and lead to a careful collecting of family histories and noting of those facts which are absolutely necessary for guidance in right conduct4 ,late marriage1 as advised by ,malthus1 ,mr4 ,galton utterly condemns4 ,the prudent alone are influenced by that doctrine1 and it is1 he says1 a most pernicious rule of conduct in its bearing upon race4 ,his policy1 then1 is early and fruitful marriage for the best specimens of our race1 and widespread celibacy in the case of those less highly favoured1 whilst everywhere the sentiment should prevail that eugenics1 or the improvement of the human stock1 is the primary consideration in marriage and the guiding principle in sex relations4 ,this theory ,i hold to be one-sided1 and the policy misleading and to some extent false4 ,mr4 ,galton ignores the fundamental principle of social life1 viz41 that the happiness of all1 at all times1 should be the aim and object of rational man1 and he mistakes the quality of human nature in highly civilized man4 ,to demand celibacy of men and women whose defective organisms it is not desirable to perpetuate1 would be in hundreds and thousands of instances to sacrifice unnecessarily present happiness to future gain--to build up the comfort and enjoyment of coming generations at the expense of the comfort and enjoyment of our own generation4 ,the sentiment of justice repudiates this action as well as condemns the reverse position of a reckless self-indulgent procreating to the deterioration of the human stock1 whilst reason distinctly shows that individual liberty1 in respect of marriage1 is a social necessity perfectly compatible with the well-being of all4 ,physical regeneration of race will not be achieved by an overstrained morality that does violence to the emotional human nature of the normal and average man4 ,mr4 ,galton's system of social reform accords in some respects with that which it is the purpose of this work to set forth4 ,both systems premise teaching that it is man's duty and within his power to improve the physical1 intellectual and moral structure of his race4 ,he may1 in part1 achieve this by intelligent forethought and careful action in exercising the function of propagating his kind4 ,population must not be kept up by consumptives or persons whose pedigree is tainted by any disease known to be hereditary1 and public opinion must enforce the necessary restraints4 7,temporary illness ought also to be considered4 ,it is when parents are in their best state of health only that they are morally justified in bringing children into the world47 ,of these1 celibacy is a restraint commended and advised by ,mr4 ,galton1 whilst scientific meliorism deliberately rejects it1 for celibacy is a vital evil1 destroying individual happiness and tending obviously to social disorder4 ,wherever love in its highest form exists between two individuals1 union is eminently desirable2 but if either or both be afflicted by disease or hereditary taint1 the sacrifice demanded of them is to carefully abstain from giving birth to children4 ,whether the means adopted be those of natural self-control or of artificial aids to self-control will depend on the views of the individuals immediately concerned1 and in this matter society has no right of interference4 ,it is the business1 however1 of society to sweep away ignorance and make it possible for the poor as well as the rich to enter on the right path voluntarily1 and where1 from physical or moral degeneracy1 self-regulation is impossible1 society must exercise authority and coercively restrain the vital social force of propagation4 ,it will not be by means of the lonely lives celibacy entails that civilized men and women will refrain from having children disqualified for useful citizenship4 ,we shall1 to quote the late poet laureate's words1 8move upward1 working out the beast1 and let the ape and tiger die10 by other means more worthy of humanity1 i4e4 by socialized freedom and sex equality2 by intelligent self-control voluntarily practised 7with or without artificial appliance71 and by control1 enforced wherever necessary by the ,state in fulfilment of its responsible duty--the careful guardianship of the congenital blood of future generations4 ,in the savage epoch of our history1 the force of natural selection produced survival of the fittest4 ,from that epoch we have long since passed into a semi-civilized epoch in which the force of sympathetic selection produces a miserable state of indiscriminate survival2 we have now to pass forward to the epoch in which the rational force of a wise1 intelligent selection will systematically secure the birth of the physically fit4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,marriage ,marriage is that union of the sexes which is most in accordance with the moral and physical necessities of human beings and which harmonizes best with their other relations of life4--,,richard ,,harte4 ,it is of vast importance to bear clearly in mind that all the great social institutions that confront us to-day are of genetic origin and evolution4 ,they have not been devised by man to bring about the true end of all intelligent effort--namely1 happiness4 ,they are simply the undesigned1 unforeseen results of various natural and social forces of the past4 ,they survive through their tendency to maintain the existence of the race4 ,they subserve life1 not happiness4 ,it is not my intention to treat marriage historically and trace back the various forms of it to their social origins4 ,it is sufficient to bear in mind the fact of the natural1 undevised origin of every form1 including that form of monogamy which prevails in the most civilized countries of to-day4 ,a priori1 we should have expected that monogamy1 being the ideal sex-union of the civilized races of ,western ,europe1 would have been everywhere the last form to appear2 that1 in short1 its fitness to survive all other forms would be shown by lateness of development as well as by superior qualifications for satisfying the needs of a highly developed humanity4 ,this is not so1 however4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer gives reasons for believing that monogamy dates as far back as any other marital relation4 8,indeed1 certain modes of life necessitating wide dispersion such as are pursued by the lowest forest tribes in ,brazil and the interior of ,borneo--modes of life which in earlier stages of human evolution must have been commoner than now--hinder other relations of the sexes40 7,sociology1 vol4 i4 p4 #fih47 ,two of the lowest tribes of savages existing1 the ,wood-,veddahs of ,ceylon and the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa1 are customarily monogamous4 ,it is plain1 therefore1 that if monogamy is to be reckoned the final form of sexual relations1 no argument can be based on any theory of its recent date in evolution4 ,the opinion must seek to rest upon different ground--upon the quality of the institution1 its fitness and adequateness1 not only to human needs in the present system of society1 but in the reformed system of the future4 ,while a number of primitive tribes are monogamous1 as also are certain monkeys and birds1 many civilized peoples have adopted polygamy1 sometimes openly1 at other times in a masked form4 ,polyandry is also a form of marriage not uncommon among semi-civilized peoples1 as the ,nairs of ,malabar1 the ,kandyans of ,ceylon and the ,tibetans4 ,the ,nairs are especially interesting because there is among them a regulated system of complex marriage which will compare in its results very favourably with the monogamous marriage of ,western nations4 ,the rule of the ,matriarchate prevails1 8inheritance is from mother to daughter and from the uncle to the children of the eldest sister2 the household is directed by the mother or the eldest girl2 polyandry and polygamy exist side by side or are inextricably mixed4 ,thus each woman is the wife of several men1 each of whom has in turn several wives40 7,elisee ,reclus1 ,primitive ,folk1 p4 #afb47 ,the men are under well-understood obligations to assist in the support of the domestic establishments1 while the children look up to their mothers and uncles as their special protectors4 ,the result of these customs on the status of women is most remarkable4 ,it is said that 8in no country are women more influential and respected than in ,malabar40 7,ibid4 p4 #aef47 ,the ,nair lady may possess property1 choose her own husbands and rule her own children4 ,marriage is not1 as elsewhere1 the taking possession of a woman by the man1 but is really her emancipation from male thraldom4 ,it puts her as nearly on a footing of social equality with the man as is possible in a semi-militant community4 ,what is it that has decided the selection or unconscious choice--if we may call it so--of matrimonial usage among the various races of mankind1 since no special form is necessarily connected with the degree of general civilization8 ,the conditions and exigencies of social life2 and as those conditions and exigencies change in the future1 matrimonial usages will also change4 ,as a matter of fact1 every possible method1 speaking generally1 has been adopted4 ,sometimes a regulated promiscuity--for each man claimed his rights--sometimes the mixed polyandric and polygamic household2 occasionally simple polyandry or polygamy2 at other times monogamy2 marriage experimental also1 as with the ,redskins of ,canada1 who pair and unite for a few days1 then quit each other if the trial has not proved satisfactory to both parties2 or temporary marriage as in the case of the ,jews in ,morocco1 who unite for three or six months according to agreement2 or free marriages as those of the ,hottentots and ,abyssinians1 who marry1 part1 and remarry at will2 or partial1 as the marriages of the ,assanyeh ,arabs1 which only bind the parties for certain days of the week4 ,every possible general method1 ,i repeat1 has been tried1 and when the practice hit upon has served human needs and also promoted the solidarity and increase of the group1 it has tended to persist4 ,in tracing the evolution of the modern ,european form of monogamous marriage1 we become aware that at a very early period1 and for a long time subsequently1 the wife was regarded as the absolute property of the husband4 ,the wife was a bought or a captured article1 and like other articles of property was at the entire disposal of the owner to use1 sell1 lend or abuse as he thought fit4 ,the ,roman law makes no essential difference between the marital law and the law of property1 and modern marriage laws in the different ,states of ,europe and ,america treat the wife as if she were in a very large degree a personal possession of her husband4 ,the history of modern marriage1 in short1 is the history of man's domination of woman and the measures he has taken to assume1 assert and establish his rights of possession4 ,amid changing outward conditions of life1 he has made good his claim to control her destiny in accordance with his own varying desires4 ,in appraising the value of our much-vaunted monogamy1 we must clearly understand that its legal basis is not1 and never was1 a strong personal adhesion of sympathy and affection1 but a compact respecting personal property1 involving in the cases where the 8contracting parties are possessed of wealth1 both property in person and in things40 ,it is quite legal1 and indeed quite respectable1 for marriages to be formed on a pecuniary and social foundation1 into which love does not enter4 ,the woman who sells herself in marriage to a man for the sake of money and position is not regarded as a prostitute1 but as a respectable1 8honest0 woman who has made a 8fortunate0 marriage4 ,to understand how thoroughly marriage is based upon property and not upon love1 it should suffice to contemplate the grounds on which legal divorce is granted4 ,divorce is not granted1 in this country at least1 on proofs of incompatibility of nature and absence of affection1 but on proof of adultery1 in which co-respondents may be compelled to pecuniarily compensate the husband on account of having made use of his wife without his permission as her owner4 ,connivance by the husband precludes the granting of a divorce4 ,man's supremacy and woman's subjection become evident in the fact that no amount of simple adultery in a husband can be made the ground of a divorce1 nor is a wife able to claim any pecuniary compensation from the paramours of a husband4 ,matrimony1 at this epoch1 is for the most part a 8commercial transaction10 but in the words of ,herbert ,spencer1 8already increased facilities for obtaining divorce point to the probability that whereas in those early stages during which permanent monogamy was being evolved1 the union by law 7originally the act of purchase7 was regarded as the essential part of marriage and the union by affection non-essential2 and whereas at present the union by law is thought the more important and the union by affection the less important1 there will come a time when the union by affection will be held of primary moment1 and the union by law as of secondary moment2 and hence reprobation of marital relations in which the union by affection has dissolved4 ,that this conclusion will seem unacceptable to most is probable1 ,i may say certain40 7,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 i4 p4 #ghh47 ,herbert ,spencer strikes here at the very foundation of modern marriage4 ,moreover1 in making affection rule sexual relations1 he opens up all the possibilities of other forms of marriage than the monogamous1 for affection may not only be transitory1 but unrestricted to one4 ,in face of the barbarous origin of marriage1 there exists no reason why people of liberal thought should make a dogged1 pious stand at monogamy while lightly dismissing promiscuity1 polygamy1 polyandry as disreputable forms of sex-union4 ,mr4 ,spencer holds that 8the monogamic form of the sexual relation is manifestly the ultimate form10 but he gives no reasons to prove his case that are not sufficiently disproved by the form of marriage existing among the ,nairs4 ,again1 the fact of the numerical equality of the sexes does not make monogamy the only suitable form1 although it supplies a reasonable objection to pure polygamy and pure polyandry4 ,mr4 ,spencer says that 8monogamy is a pre-requisite to a high position of women40 ,here he plainly overlooks the facts of the respected and comparatively independent position of women among peoples practising mixed polygamy and polyandry under fixed rules and regulations4 ,with the actual facts of life before us1 we are forced to admit that under the rgime of man's dominancy and woman's subjection1 monogamy has been gross throughout all history1 while with polyandry it has not been so4 ,note1 in this regard1 one fact alone--jealousy1 that mean1 selfish emotion which destroys the happiness of so many lives1 is not in evidence among the simple polyandric ,nairs4 ,the associated husbands live on a good understanding with one another1 there is a complete absence of jealousy4 ,which of us can say1 in view of the monogamy that surrounds us3 ,tolstoi's graphic picture1 8the wild beast of jealousy began to roar in its den10 applies only to a marriage in fiction8 ,it is to monogamy that we owe the typical domestic tyrant and many tyrannous attributes that survive in modern masculine human nature4 ,monogamy1 too1 has always been accompanied by other sexual relations in which both sexes are degraded and one sex is socially and physically ruined4 ,as ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky has pointed out1 monogamy on one side of the shield implies prostitution on the other4 ,in its normal form1 monogamy signifies the attachment of one man to one woman1 involving--first1 permanent and exclusive sexual union2 second1 conjoint domestic life2 third1 the generating and rearing of a family2 fourth1 social intercourse in the class of society to which the parties belong4 ,beyond these features of marriage1 the economic and social forces of the age bring about in the vast majority of marriages a constant subjection of the wife to the husband1 by reason of her being dependent on him for her living1 and a general freedom to the husband but not to the wife to commit adultery4 ,there is usually compelled also lateness of marriage1 which implies unhealthful1 painful conditions of life in the celibate youth of both sexes4 ,i will ask here3 ,ought we to look upon permanency and exclusiveness as essential elements in the form of sex-union best suited to humanity at the present stage of its evolving civilization8 ,permanency is necessarily essential to our ideal of the final form of marriage1 for the strongest1 most valuable bond of affection implies it1 and loss of love from whatever cause is a real calamity4 ,but where that calamity has already befallen1 for society to enforce a mere outward permanency of the matrimonial bond is irrational--the counterfeit union is productive only of private misery and public disorder4 ,and further1 under our present wretched economic conditions1 the struggle for bread and absence of leisure and freedom in the case of the workers1 and1 amid the upper classes1 frequent financial difficulties1 false notions and customs of propriety and etiquette--all these combine to make it rare indeed that a man or woman chances to meet and unite with his or her counterpart or true life companion4 ,commercialism is no safe guide in the quest for a vital1 permanent sex-union1 and until commercialism wholly disappears1 the exigencies of life demand freedom of divorce to rectify unavoidable errors of judgment in matrimony1 and make more possible the forming of ties that are truly and naturally permanent4 ,as human beings become more moral inwardly and create the outward conditions in which they can live a truly moral existence1 ,mr4 ,emerson's principle that the great essentials in human conduct are to escape from all false ties and to reveal ourselves as we are1 will be more and more acknowledged and acted upon4 ,great thinkers like ,milton in the past and ,herbert ,spencer in the present1 condemn as contrary to religion and reason a permanency that involves falsity or absence of love4 8,it is a less breach of wedlock10 says ,milton1 8to part with wise and quiet consent betimes1 than still to foil and profane that mystery of joy and union with a polluting sadness and perpetual distemper2 for it is not the outward continuing of marriage that keeps whole that covenant1 but whatsoever does most according to peace and love1 whether in marriage or in divorce1 he it is that breaks marriage least1 it being so often written that #8,love only is the fulfilment of every commandment4'0 7,john ,milton1 ,the ,doctrine and ,discipline of ,divorce1 chap4 v47 ,divorce made attainable to all men and women1 rich and poor1 without any disgraceful accompaniment1 is a necessary condition of progress4 ,and in effect1 each nation of ,western ,europe accepts and facilitates divorce concurrently with its advance in civilization4 ,not long ago1 in my hearing1 a ,roman ,catholic barrister1 whose practice makes him familiar with all that occurs in the ,divorce ,court1 delivered himself to this effect3 8,my church anathematises divorce1 and to my mind she is right4 ,but ,i am not the fool to think that the divorce law passed in our ,statute ,books in the year #aheh will ever be annulled or departed from4 ,in the interests of morality1 the pressing desideratum is that the basis of divorce be made the same for man and woman4 ,it is a crying iniquity that whereas a husband by avoiding physical force1 may legally be as unfaithful to his marriage vows as he chooses1 and may tyrannize over and trample under his feet the feelings of his wife1 one single slip in an unguarded moment on her part1 one act of adultery committed1 it may be in a fit of despair1 entitles him by law to repudiate her summarily as barbarian husbands dismissed their wives40 ,while permanency is eminently valuable in sexual relations1 can we venture to say the same as regards exclusiveness8 ,this distinctive quality of exclusiveness is not an extension of love1 but a narrowing of it down--a restraint upon personal feeling4 ,when woman wins her freedom and is no longer under any circumstances man's dependent and slave1 but his friend and comrade in the battle of life1 will she restrain the physical expression of sex-love1 yet fearlessly respond to all the tender ties certain to unite her with the opposite sex8 ,to give at present a dogmatic reply is impossible4 ,personally1 my instincts--so far as ,i know them--accord with ,herbert ,spencer's dictum3 the ultimate form of sexual relation will be monogamic2 but ,i recognize my own limitations4 ,since the women of my generation are children of bond-slaves1 hampered within and without by survivals from an epoch of sex subjection wherein man's dominancy superimposed upon woman a chastity he repudiated for himself1 the standpoint from which the freed being of the future will decide her sex-morality is not in the grasp of my apprehension4 ,nevertheless1 the immediate path of progress is distinctly marked out4 ,i agree with the author who holds the opinion that3 8,better indeed were a ,saturnalia of free men and women than the spectacle which1 as it is1 our great cities present at night40 7,edward ,carpenter47 ,but set women free 8from the mere cash-nexus to a husband1 from the money slavery of the streets1 from the nameless terrors of social opinion1 and from the threats of the choice of perpetual virginity or perpetual bondage10 and we need not fear for sex-morality4 8,sex in man is an organized passion1 an individual need or impetus2 but in woman it may more properly be termed a constructive instinct1 with the larger signification that that involves4444 ,nor does she often experience that divorce between the sentiment of love and the physical passion which is so common with men4 ,sex with her is a deep and sacred instinct1 carrying with it a sense of natural purity40 7,woman1 ,edward ,carpenter1 p4 #i47 ,and from woman herself let me quote a passage occurring in a women's journal3 8,love is an emotion separate from sex-impulse1 it may or may not exist in co-relation to it4 ,the testimony easily taken from the lives of many women is to the effect that love enters not into the impulse which1 active and unrestrained on the part of those to whom they are yoked for life1 has created for them a life which can be called by no name save slavery40 7,shafts1 ,october1 #ahie47 ,again1 turning to the opposite sex1 ,havelock ,ellis states 7in his study of ,man and ,woman1 ,contemporary ,science ,series7 that3 8,in women men find beings who have not wandered so far as men from the typical life of earth's creatures2 women are for men the human embodiments of the restful responsiveness of ,nature40 ,i am convinced that however polygamous the male-sex--under a system of industrial commercialism may appear--the great mass of our women are not licentious and not polyandrous in tendency4 ,while a ,saturnalia of free men and women would1 as compared with present sexual conditions1 be a preferable evil1 we need not in our forecast of the future dread such a ,saturnalia1 or face its possibility4 ,it is a libel on humanity to assume that no self-restraints are inherent to withhold mankind from sexual excesses when freed from control by ,church and ,state4 ,and although it might be said that 8the growing complexity of man's nature would be likely to lead him into more rather than fewer sex relations1 on the other hand it is obvious that as the depth and subtlety of any attachment that really holds him increases1 so does such attachment become more permanent and durable and less likely to be realized in a number of persons4444 ,in man and woman we find a distinct tendency towards the formation of this double unit of wedded life 444 and while we do not want to stamp such natural unions with any false irrevocability or dogmatic exclusiveness1 what we do want is a recognition to-day of the tendency to their formation as a natural fact independent of any artificial laws40 7,marriage1 ,edward ,carpenter1 p4 #ca47 ,the natural restraints or checks upon undue indulgence in sex-intercourse extend from the physical or material plane to the spiritual plane4 ,these are--considerations of health2 feelings of unselfishness and social duty2 and a spiritual1 i4e4 an ideal1 conception of humanity and of all the manifold relations of life4 ,unselfishness is pre-eminently the natural check and regulator of sex relations1 and not until love is emancipated from selfishness will it reach an ideal form4 ,if we love unselfishly we desire the happiness and freedom of the being loved even to the extent of self-abnegation2 tyranny and jealousy become impossible4 ,all natural checks will necessarily strengthen and grow as humanity rises higher in the scale of being2 moreover1 education is bound--under racial progress--to become to each succeeding generation a much more adequate guide than hitherto4 ,even in the present day1 it would not be difficult to get youths and girls at the age of romance to understand that 8though they may have to contend with some superfluity of passion in early years1 the most permanent and deeply-rooted desire within them will1 in all probability1 lead them at last to find their complete happiness and self-fulfilment only in a close union with a life-mate02 to understand also that 8towards this end they must be prepared to use self-control1 to prevent the aimless straying of their passions1 and patience and tenderness towards the realization of the union when its time comes40 7,edward ,carpenter47 ,this teaching would bring to the young a far truer conception of the sacredness of marriage than our marriage laws and customs give4 ,it must never be forgotten1 however1 that this question of marriage and every other social question must be viewed in relation to kindred topics4 ,a sectional treatment of society will surely mislead if we fail to recall the changes going forward in every department of life1 and the close connexion that exists between the forces of social and individual evolution4 ,scientific meliorism implies a reconstruction of domestic life2 and1 within the new environment1 the instructing of youth and its guidance in sex-conduct will become comparatively easy4 ,nor is it only by the training and guidance of youth that marriage will be favourably affected in a new domestic system4 ,the tendency to tyranny within the home--an abhorrent feature of past monogamy--will have no opportunity to appear2 and two undesirable female types--the idle fine lady and the household drudge--will become as extinct as the dodo4 ,outside the precincts of home1 large social and industrial changes will promote the disappearance of the prostitute1 and finally there will emerge the truly emancipated woman1 fearless and enlightened--a capable guide to man in the task of consciously subordinating passions that are selfish and transitory to those deeper attachments and higher emotions that give birth to spiritual love4 8,is marriage a failure80 has been boldly asked and widely discussed in comparatively recent years2 and that the audible answer--sadly re-echoed in thousands of hearts--was in the affirmative1 shows a wholesome awakening to facts--an awakening that inevitably precedes all real reforms in an epoch of conscious evolution4 ,so permeated with selfishness is the mental atmosphere surrounding all questions of sex that the rule of life ,i here indicate will be utterly distasteful to those who accept the rgime of custom4 ,yet as regards morality or an ethical code1 there are two1 and two only1 logical attitudes of mind4 ,either we must think of the stamping out of all sexual feeling on the ground of its purely animal nature1 and limiting physical union to the utmost that is compatible with perpetuation of species2 or we must think of a gradual elevating of sexual instinct and action to a dignified position in human life with due consideration for the desires and needs of every one after puberty is reached4 ,the first is practically impossible to the vast majority of the race at its present stage of development4 ,they would simply refuse submission to the intolerable restraints necessitated4 ,in effect1 the ascetic answer to problems of sex is no actual solution1 but a shelving of the fundamental question1 with a tacit acceptance of the prodigious evils around us in respect both of sex-union and the advent of children4 ,the only rational course is that of elevating and regulating these relations in view of human happiness4 ,this implies a steady repression of anti-social emotions and persistent cultivation of unselfishness4 ,our marital habits of selfish appropriation and jealous control are in direct opposition to the moral elevation of sexual instinct4 ,selfishness degrades where it penetrates1 and the problem is to rescue our sexual forces from selfishness1 and utilize these forces1 i4e4 make them subserve the interests of social virtue4 ,hitherto1 they have been ignored and neglected--a result of false thinking and ascetic teaching1 while in actual life they have run riot1 creating incalculable evils4 ,the ,british race publicly professes monogamy and preaches to the young a ,puritan doctrine4 ,privately the drama enacted would disgrace a civilization of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in the lower classes wife-beating and murder1 in the upper classes the hideous revelations of the ,divorce ,court1 witness to the impurity and the misery of our boasted monogamy4 ,we tolerate licence1 we condemn and conceal vicious propensities2 we harbour a social evil of gigantic magnitude1 we permit hypocrisy to prevail1 we instigate the young to form self-interested mercantile marriages4 ,we are corrupt in our social life and mentally debased1 for we refuse to think out a rational code of sex morals1 and without that we shall never attain to a lofty conception1 a true ideal of what life ought to be4 ,our modern monogamy in its inwardness is not falsely pictured in this indictment3 8,the commercialism which buys and sells all human things2 the narrow physical passion of jealousy2 the petty sense of private property in another person2 social opinions and legal enactments1 have all converged to choke and suffocate wedded love in egoism1 lust and meanness40 7,edward ,carpenter's ,marriage1 p4 #ch47 ,in view of general happiness and virtue1 we must seek the abrogation of all laws based on or involving sex-inequality4 ,and1 further1 that marriage may become transformed into a sacred1 sympathetic and permanent bond--a deeper and truer relation of life--we must seek facilities for divorce or the abrogation of the specific law that binds beings together for life in ill-assorted or artificial unions4 ,,chapter ,v ,,parentage ,the simple fact that the birth of a human being1 the image of ,god1 as religious people say1 is in so many cases regarded as of very much less importance than that of a domestic animal1 proves the degraded condition in which we live4--,,august ,,bebel4 ,the reproduction of species yields to no other special function of life in respect of importance and the wide scope of its vital issues4 ,notwithstanding that vast numbers of illegitimate children are born in every civilized country where monogamy reigns1 this function of reproduction is popularly regarded as allied with marriage in the order of a natural and necessary consequence--a result irrespective of human will4 ,now scientific meliorism makes a clear distinction between marriage and parentage on the ground that1 while the former comparatively is of insignificant importance to the interests of humanity in general1 parentage is of vital moment to these interests2 moreover1 between the two there exists no integral or essential relation4 ,on the one hand1 progeny spring from unions not legalized by marriage2 on the other1 many married people1 swayed by motives chiefly egoistic1 but sometimes altruistic1 are consciously exercising a voluntary restraint over propagation4 ,the late ,matthew ,arnold tells us that when gazing on one occasion in company with a benevolent man upon a multitude of slum children eaten up with disease1 half-sized1 half-fed1 half-clothed1 neglected by their parents1 without health1 without home1 without hope1 the good man said3 8,the one thing really needful is to teach these little ones to succour one another1 if only with a cup of cold water40 ,mr4 ,arnold promptly rejected that theory4 8,so long as the multitude of these poor children is perpetually swelling10 said he1 8they must be charged with misery to themselves and us1 whether they help one another with a cup of cold water or no1 and the knowledge how to prevent them accumulating is what we want40 ,that knowledge is no longer inaccessible to man4 ,there are known rational methods by which to keep the populating tendency within due limits1 and at the same time to promote individual prudence1 foresight and self-dependence4 ,neo-,malthusianism1 with its power of subjugating the law of population and deferring parentage1 is a new key to the social position1 and neo-,malthusian practice has already taken root in ,british society4 ,the discovery is of vast significance1 so great are its latent possibilities of promoting universal happiness4 ,but as long as reproduction of human physical life is left to haphazard1 and the rule of private1 personal interests alone1 without any honourable recognition1 intelligent guidance1 or moral and economic support1 the immediate effect on national life is1 and will continue to be1 the very reverse of beneficial4 ,matthew ,arnold's exhortation in respect of the slum children was3 8,we must let conscience play freely and simply upon the facts of the case2 we must listen to what it tells us of the intelligible law of things as concerns these children1 and what it tells us is that a man's children are not really sent any more than the pictures upon his walls or the horses in his stable are sent1 and that to bring people into the world when one cannot afford to keep them and oneself decently1 or to bring more of them into the world than one can afford to keep thus1 is by no means an accomplishment of the ,divine ,will or a fulfilment of nature's simplest laws1 but is contrary to reason and the will of ,god40 7,culture and ,anarchy1 p4 #bdf47 ,this remonstrance addressed to the rich 7these alone have pictures on their walls and horses in their stables7 may have had some effect1 for certain it is that in the upper classes artificial checks to conception are now widely used1 while slum children show no tendency to proportionately diminish in number4 ,individuals whose standard of living is high1 and whose pecuniary means are small1 or who are thoughtful1 intelligent1 prudent1 either refrain from marriage1 or1 marrying1 check propagation4 ,the natural result is that children of the comparatively superior types are becoming numerically weaker than children of the thoughtless1 reckless members of society who exercise their reproductive powers to the utmost4 ,it is supremely important that we should recognize how parentage bears upon human life and happiness in far wider relations than either sexual union alone or marriage alone4 ,maintenance of species has hitherto been accomplished at an enormous sacrifice of individual life4 ,the requirement that there shall arise a full number of adults in successive generations is fulfilled by means which subordinate the existing and next succeeding members of the species in various degrees4 7,see ,herbert ,spencer's ,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 i4 p4 #fba47 ,among low forms--inferior to the human organism--the germs of new individuals are produced in immense numbers1 the larger part of the parental substance being sometimes transformed into these germs4 ,birth here may be immediately followed by the death of the parent organism1 and an immense mortality of the young may take place--consequent on defenceless exposure1 insufficient food and other untoward conditions4 8,of a million minute ova left uncared for1 the majority are destroyed before they are hatched1 so that very few have considerable amounts of individual life40 7,ibid4 p4 #fbb47 ,throughout the course of evolution the natural order in moving from higher to higher types is a gradual decrease of this condition1 viz4 the sacrifice of individual life to the life of the species1 and at the same time an increase of compensating pleasures allied with the reproductive function4 ,when illustrating this natural order1 ,herbert ,spencer points to the methods among fishes and amphibians contrasted with those among birds and mammals4 ,the spawn of the former when safely deposited is generally left to its fate4#c ,there is physical cost to adults with apparently no accompanying gratifications4 ,birds and mammals1 however1 carefully rear and tend their offspring4 8,the activities of parenthood are sources of agreeable emotions1 just as are the activities which achieve self-sustentation40 ,footnote #c3 ,there are exceptions to the rule1 as in the case of the male stickleback4 ,passing from the less intelligent vertebrates which produce many young at short intervals and abandon them at an early age1 to the more intelligent higher vertebrates which produce few young at longer intervals and aid them for longer periods1 this principle clearly emerges--8,while the rate of juvenile mortality is diminished1 there results both a lessened physical cost of maintaining the species and an augmented satisfaction of the affections40 7,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 i4 p4 #fbh47 ,there is no reversal of this genetic order of nature in the epoch of conscious evolution4 ,the processes are different1 because man possesses developed intellect1 aided by scientific knowledge and invention as a new and skilled ally in the struggle to maintain his species at less and less cost of individual life and happiness2 but the general forward movement takes precisely the same course4 ,with the highest evolved type of man this sacrifice of individual life to the species is reduced to a minimum1 while the interests of species are conserved in a painless1 a wholly superior manner4 ,and1 further1 the entire range of domestic feelings--parental1 filial1 fraternal and intimately social1 become extended and increasingly capable of bestowing enduring pleasure4 ,the ultimate goal is easy maintenance of species1 without--to any unpleasurable extent--subordinating single members of species to that end4 ,love of offspring1 as already explained1 has no reproductive instinct at its base4 ,it is a feeling--superimposed on organic nature--dependent on family life or arrangements that involve parental care and more or less of adult activity directed to the well-being of the young4 ,this sentiment of love of offspring or philoprogenitiveness1 is well established in the ,british race2 but with rampant poverty in our midst1 can we wonder that in hundreds of thousands of individual cases the paternal relation--so capable of filling the heart with tender emotions and joy--creates an actual disgust1 or a feeling of despair1 malignancy1 even injustice1 as is shown in the touching little satire1 ,ginx's ,baby4 ,ginx frankly gave his wife notice that1 as his utmost efforts could scarcely maintain their existing family1 if she ventured to present him with any more1 either single or twins 444 8he would most assuredly drown him40 ,later1 when the arrival of number thirteen is imminent--the wife being unable longer to hide the impending event--,ginx fixed his determination by much thought and a little extra drinking4 ,he argued thus3 8,he wouldn't go on the parish4 ,he couldn't keep another youngster to save his life4 ,he had never taken charity and never would4 ,there was nothink to do with it but drown it40 ,nor is even the maternal relation proof against bitterness in untoward conditions1 although the feelings will be differently expressed1 and may possibly assume a pious garb4 8,i've 'ad my fifteen or my twenty on 'em1 but1 thank 'eaven1 the churchyard 'as stood my friend40 ,these or similar words have often been heard in an ,english factory town4 ,the women speaking thus were not otherwise callous or incapable of mother-love4 ,they were gentle1 patient1 toiling drudges1 who had had the philoprogenitiveness of average human nature and the tender joys of maternity perverted into secret care and open hypocritical cant by the physical strain of a too-frequent child-bearing1 combined with the miseries of ceaseless labour1 pinched means1 and comfortless1 crowded homes4 ,the frequent advent of children who are unwelcome to their own parents in a society no longer ignorant of the scientific means by which its weakest members may avoid parentage1 without any destruction of life or any injury to sexual function1 is marvellously irrational1 and it indicates divergence from the well-marked path of evolutional progress4 ,opposition to neo-,malthusian practice arises from primitive conceptions of life 7conceptions antecedent to evolutional theory71 while all the various undefined scruples painfully experienced by individuals are survivals of the sentiment allied with these false conceptions4 ,prejudice dies slowly1 as ignorance is dispelled by the growing light of new knowledge4 ,i have shown that asceticism is an immoral principle1 the action of which tends to fill individual life with gloom and depression1 and to thwart or counteract general happiness4 ,i have also shown the absolute necessity for retarding the multiplication of human beings to suit the limits of available subsistence4 ,and now1 after pointing out that philoprogenitiveness--which is the groundwork of domestic and social virtue1 and ought to be the mainspring of reproduction of species--is continually liable to be strained1 depressed or perverted into anti-social bitterness in parental bosoms among the lower classes1 ,i must ask the question3 ,how otherwise than by the easiest method known to science could the difficulties of the position be met and overcome8 ,messrs4 ,patrick ,geddes and ,j4 ,a4 ,thomson1 in their treatise on the ,evolution of ,sex1 urge the necessity of what they call 8an ethical rather than a mechanical prudence after marriage1 of a temperance recognized to be as binding on husband and wife as chastity on the unmarried40 7,the ,evolution of ,sex1 p4 #big47 ,but what do these gentlemen mean by the temperance here recommended8 ,it is surely well known that the birth of a large family is perfectly consistent with a sparing1 most temperate exercise of the procreative function2 and surely also it would be folly on our part to look for parental conduct controlled by ethical motive in the warrens of the poor of our large cities1 from whence springs an important section of the national life4 7,social ,control of the ,birth ,rate1 ,pamphlet by ,g4 ,a4 ,gaskell47 ,in the homes of the upper classes1 adorned with all the amenities and refinements of civilization1 parental prudence results mainly from egoistic motive4 ,practical reformers will hesitate to assume that those--the less favoured social units--are likely to surpass these in moral elevation1 and demean themselves generally in a superior manner6 ,but further1 a parental prudence1 dispensing with mechanical methods of checking propagation1 may even prove the converse of ethical conduct4 ,advanced sexual morality requires a free and healthful exercise of sexual function4 ,that such freedom is not possible under present social conditions is irrelevant to the question at issue2 the point is that conduct unnecessarily traversing this advanced sexual morality is not in accordance with rationalized social ethics2 it has no scientific basis4 ,parental morals must conform to the principle indicated by ,herbert ,spencer--reduce to a minimum the sacrifice of individual life and happiness to the life of the species2 augment to the maximum the joys of affection involved in parental relations4 ,this is possible to a race among which are beings of low intelligence and unrestrained passion only by bringing into play the laws of heredity through rational breeding4 ,but rational breeding depends on an appeal to ordinary egoistic motive and practical resort to the painless mechanical means of checking conception4 ,there is no general unwillingness to limit their families among the poor2 what is lacking consists simply in power of control over the physical conditions of fertility4 ,to see children half-starved and wives sickly and miserable is no more pleasant to parents of the ,ginx order than to those of us who view it from a safe distance2 and there is ample intelligence to perceive the connexion between1 on the one hand1 discomfort and poverty attendant on a family of ten or twelve1 on the other1 comparative comfort allied with a family of only three or four4 ,a code of ethics covering the interests of the entire nation commands strenuous effort on the part of all thoughtful1 intelligent people to make the artificial checks known to the thoughtless and unintelligent4 ,it is not by proudly rejecting scientific invention in this matter that we shall attain to development of higher and higher types of man1 but by skilfully using it as a powerful ally in our struggle to maintain and regenerate species at less and less cost to individual happiness4 ,apart altogether from man's partial practice of neo-,malthusian art1 under egoistic motives1 civilization has created an interference with the original order of race preservation under generous or altruistic motive4 ,social feeling slowly developing revolts--in detail--from the cruel method of the law of natural selection4 ,it spontaneously supersedes that law by one of sympathetic selection4 ,but whereas the former law issued in survival of the fittest1 the latter issues day by day in indiscriminate survival1 and consequent race deterioration4 ,a controlled rate of increase is not therefore the only position to which reason and science must guide us2 we have further to escape from the disastrous consequences of the above law and pass to conditions of life evolved under the benign influence of a rational and moral law--a law of social selection1 resulting in appropriate birth1 or the birth of the socially fit4 ,there are thousands of our present day population with whom family life is no whit superior to that of birds1 whose pairing is immediately followed by rapid breeding and a complete scattering of the brood when the young are barely fledged4 ,a wise philanthropy in line with the march of progressive evolution may lift these thousands to the level of the higher vertebrates1 8which produce few young at longer intervals and give them aid for longer periods40 ,the recalcitrant minority refusing to practice parental prudence must be treated by society as abnormal individuals1 incapable of rising to the standard of average civilized human nature1 and these must be subjected to social restraint4 ,,part ,,iii ,,abnormal ,,humanity ,men may rise on stepping-stones ,of their dead selves to higher things4 --,from ,in ,memoriam4 ,,the ,,elimination ,,of ,,crime ,many a man thinks that it is his goodness which keeps him from crime1 when it is only his full stomach4 ,on half allowance1 he would be as ugly and knavish as anybody4 ,don't mistake potatoes for principles4--,,carlyle4 ,a normal child of five years once asked the meaning of this expression--8hanging a murderer10 and after explanation said eagerly1 8,but will hanging the man make that other man alive again80 ,on receiving a negative reply1 the remonstrance burst forth1 8,then why kill him1 since when he is dead we can never make him good again80 ,this is a true picture of the thinking and feeling about crime which is natural to the best types of our present-day humanity4 ,these demand that our punishments shall either reform the criminal or protect society effectively from his malfeasance4 ,as a matter of fact1 our criminal code and whole machinery and procedure relative to crime accomplish neither1 and this is freely admitted by men whose position enables them to judge accurately and entitles them to express an opinion4 ,mr4 ,justice ,matthew has said at the ,birmingham ,assizes that the present state of the criminal law is a hundred years behind the times4 ,sir ,edmund ,du ,cane1 ,chairman of the ,directors of ,convict ,prisons1 says of the solitary system practised in our penal prisons3 8,it is an artificial state of existence1 absolutely opposed to that which nature points out as the condition of mental1 moral and physical health4444 ,the minds of the prisoners become enfeebled by long-continued isolation40 ,in the ,official ,report of the ,departmental ,committee on ,prisons1 #ahie1 these words occur3 8,the prisoners have been treated too much as a hopeless or worthless part of the community4 ,the moral condition in which a large number of prisoners leave the prison1 and the serious number of recommittals1 have led us to think there is ample cause for a searching inquiry into the main features of prison life40 ,the late ,judge ,fitz-,stephen published his ,history of the ,criminal ,law in #ahhc1 and pointed there to 8notorious evils of which it is difficult10 said he1 8to find a satisfactory remedy40 ,nevertheless1 he put down his finger on the crucial spot when he wrote 8the law proceeds upon the principle that it is morally right to hate criminals4 ,it confirms and justifies that sentiment by inflicting upon criminals punishment which expresses it40 ,but it is not right to hate criminals4 ,it is morally wrong1 i4e4 it is contrary to these laws of nature1 by which alone an elevated and happy social life may be attained4 ,the emotion of hatred creates vibrations producing evil on the moral plane1 as certainly as discordant sounds1 acting on sensitive ears1 produce discomfort2 and1 if persisted in1 produce organic disorganization on the physical plane4 ,hence1 all punishment or legal procedure directed against crime1 having hatred at its foundation1 or historic base1 must fail4 ,on the negative side1 hatred has proved ineffectual in protecting society from crime4 ,on the positive side1 it increases the anti-social feelings1 whose natural outcome is crime1 and frustrates1 or annuls1 the human forces of love1 which already widely existent1 and swaying humanity's best types1 are the true evolutional factors by which to annihilate crime4 ,mr4 ,justice ,matthew was simply asserting a fact of social science when he stated that the criminal law is out of date4 ,it consists with a primitive stage of social life2 but it is totally inconsistent with even the semi-civilization of to-day4 ,the fundamental discord between our action and feeling relative to crime declares itself in the uncertainty of a criminal's fate and the steady survival of his type4 ,but1 my reader1 while accepting ,justice ,matthew's premise1 may doubt the conclusion at which ,judge ,fitz-,stephen arrived--that vindictiveness or hate lies at the root of our criminal code1 and that our punishments express it4 ,moreover1 he may condemn by anticipation a supposed tendency on my part to censure all punishments1 and rely solely on a laissez-faire system of dealing with crime4 ,scientific meliorism1 however1 does not imply anarchy or the absence of governing law4 ,its methods repudiate the laissez-faire principle in every department of life1 for this reason3 ,our developed faculties and accumulated knowledge make untenable the negative or inert position4 ,we are impelled in an epoch of conscious evolution to take positive action favourable to progress4 ,my contention is this3 love of all men1 not hatred of any man or class of men ought to be the basis of our criminal code4 ,modern science1 experience and skill are competent to redeem the criminal class1 speaking generally1 and in exceptional cases1 where redemption is impossible1 can render the criminal innocuous to society1 while giving him throughout life such innocent happiness as a being organically defective may enjoy4 ,this thesis embraces a very wide range of action4 ,it means the systematic rational treatment of evil-doers1 from the refractory infant and juvenile pickpocket to the burglar1 the fraudulent bankrupt1 the felon1 the traitor1 the murderer1 and if any exist1 the born criminal4 ,it signifies1 in short1 a complete science complementary to that of true education4 ,for whereas the latter comprises all manner of attractive stimuli to noble living1 this is the science of necessary social restraints to be applied in nursery1 school and prison with the universal gentleness which springs from universal love4 ,the purpose to be aimed at is1 first1 improving character by restraining obnoxious tendencies2 second1 reforming character already become anti-social2 third1 protecting society from all corrupt infusion that might proceed from morally diseased character4 ,a leading principle of the criminal law of ,great ,britain is that punishment be adjusted in proportion to the supposed magnitude of each individual offence4 ,if we study this principle1 we must perceive the truth of ,judge ,fitz-,stephen's allegation1 for what connexion has it with the reformation of the criminal8 ,a judge or a jury makes no attempt to compute the amount of prison restraint and discipline necessary to reformation1 nor are they possessed of facts for forming a judgment4 ,their whole attention has been focussed on the crime1 not on the character of the criminal1 or the antecedent and future conditions affecting the character4 ,neither does the judicial sentence connect itself proportionately with the mischief done to society4 ,a fraudulent banker or commercial speculator1 whose downfall involves the ruin of thousands1 is not dealt with1 as compared with a petty thief1 on a scale of severity expressive of the magnitude of suffering entailed4 ,and the petty thief1 who steals the rich man's goods1 as compared with the criminal who beats and abuses his wife1 is adjudged a severer penalty--a measure of punishment indicating the superior value of goods over wives1 which is a sentiment appropriate only to barbarous times4 ,these anomalies1 however1 are explainable4 ,our laws have descended to us from a barbarous age1 when might was right1 irrespective of justice2 and from a race whose punishments sprang from revenge1 and were roughly proportioned to the feeling of revenge4 ,they are little else than reactionary forces1 of which some are always present in an inchoate society4 ,their inapplicability to the task of reforming criminals is easily proved4 ,in ,scotland in a single year not fewer than 8six hundred and ninety persons were committed to prison who had been in confinement at least ten times before4 ,of these1 three hundred and ninety-three had been in prison at least twenty times before1 and twenty-three at least fifty times60 7,hill on ,crime1 p4 #bh47 ,these figures speak for themselves4 ,our whole system is glaringly unscientific4 ,we do not remove the conditions that act as causes of crime4 ,we punish1 and sometimes severely1 yet we let loose again offenders not one whit more prepared than before to withstand the temptations of freedom4 ,we calmly support and approve an enormous expenditure of public funds upon criminals and crime2 we carefully select good men to be prison managers1 officers and chaplains2 we secure cleanliness and sanitation within the prisons1 and so forth2 but these efforts are utterly futile because the system is wrong--the criminal law of ,great ,britain is based upon a false1 an irrational principle4 ,the causes of crime within our province to deal with are of a two-fold nature--objective and subjective4 ,poverty1 i4e4 hunger and want1 a slum environment1 rough handling in infancy and childhood1 a mischievous training and the absence of all conditions favourable to gentle1 virtuous life--these are some of the objective causes creating crime which society is bound to remove4 ,among causes deciding the innate character of every newly-born babe1 the forces of heredity stand out conspicuously4 ,i have demonstrated that aggregate humanity1 in a scientific age1 has the means of controlling these forces and directing them to the production of physical1 mental and moral health in the individual1 and consequently in the community4 ,the born criminal type may become gradually improved by careful and wise treatment under life-long restraints4 ,meanwhile1 to seek reformation of this type1 by prison discipline alone1 and treat it by methods adapted to corrigible culprits1 is a folly dishonouring to the developed reason of man4 ,we have abundant evidence that the type exists4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,hill1 late ,inspector of ,prisons1 says3 8,nothing has been more clearly shown in the course of my inquiries than that crime is hereditary to a considerable extent 444 it proceeds from father to son in a long line of succession40 7,hill on ,crime1 p4 #ee47 ,mr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,thomson1 ,resident ,surgeon of the ,perth ,prison1 states of the facts of prison life3 8,they press on my mind the conviction that crime in general is a moral disease of a chronic and congenital nature1 intractable when transmitted from generation to generation40 ,and ,mr4 ,george ,combe1 speaking of prisons in the ,united ,states of ,america1 wrote3 8,i have put the question to many keepers of prisons whether they believed in the possibility of reforming all offenders4 ,from those whose minds were humane and penetrating1 ,i have received the answer--they did not1 for experience had convinced them that some criminals are incorrigible by any human means hitherto discovered4 ,these incorrigibles10 says ,george ,combe--and this is the point to observe1 8were always found to have defective organizations2 444 they are morally idiotic2 and justice1 as well as humanity1 dictates our treating them as patients4 ,they labour under great natural defects2 444 to punish them for actions proceeding from these natural defects is no more just or beneficial to society than it would be to punish men for having crooked spines or club feet40 7,george ,combe's ,moral ,philosophy1 p4 #cjf47 ,and ,i could refer to many more authorities on the subject were it necessary4 ,accepting the theory that our born-criminals are victims of moral disease1 the question arises--how should we treat them8 ,fifty years ago we sorely maltreated our victims to mental disease4 ,we bound them hand and foot1 we punished them sternly for their congenital defects1 we shunned and hated them1 and because they were martyrs to a pitiful disease we made them also the victims of unnecessary and cruel sufferings4 ,few men to-day could glance without a shudder at the record of our treatment of lunatics4 ,we consign the history gladly to oblivion1 and point to changes betokening the better feeling of to-day4 8,no one thinks of sending a madman to a lunatic asylum for a certain number of days1 weeks or months4 ,we carefully ascertain that he is unfit to be at large1 and that those in whose hands we are about to place him act under due inspection and have the knowledge and skill which afford the best hope for his cure2 that they will be kind to him1 and inflict no more pain than is necessary for his secure custody 444 we leave it to them to determine if1 or when1 he can be safely liberated40 7,hill on ,crime1 p4 #aea47 ,these are the lines on which also should run our treatment of moral disease4 ,if a man is unfit morally to be at large1 we must narrow the conditions of his life1 but make it as enjoyable within the coercive restraints as is compatible with improvement4 ,and on no account must we restore his liberty until those who professionally and officially watch his daily conduct are convinced that he will not again be likely to abuse that liberty4 ,but apart altogether from individual delinquents1 the subjective racial tendency to crime demands special treatment1 and in this regard ,i maintain that the enlightened action of an advanced society will be analogous to the ignorant action of an earnest church in the ,middle ,ages with precisely opposite results4 8,the long period of the ,dark ,ages1 under which ,europe lay1 was due1 ,i believe1 in a very considerable degree10 says ,francis ,galton1 8to the celibacy enjoined by religious orders on their votaries4 ,whenever a man or woman was possessed of a gentle nature that fitted him or her to deeds of charity1 to meditation1 to literature or to art1 the social condition of the time was such that they had no refuge elsewhere than in the bosom of the church4 ,but the church preached and exacted celibacy4 ,the consequence was that these gentle natures had no continuance1 and by a policy so singularly unwise and suicidal that ,i am hardly able to speak of it without impatience1 the church brutalized the breed of our forefathers4 ,she acted as if she aimed at selecting the rudest portion of the community to be alone the parents of future generations4 ,she practised the arts which breeders would use who aimed at creating ferocious1 currish and stupid natures4 ,no wonder that club law prevailed for centuries over ,europe2 the wonder is1 that enough good remained in the veins of ,europeans to enable their race to rise to its present very moderate level of natural morality40 7,hereditary ,genius1 ,f4 ,galton1 p4 #cef47 ,a humane society1 guided by rational forces in the epoch of conscious evolution1 will practise the policy of the church of the ,middle ,ages on a different class of subjects4 ,it will gather poor criminals into its bosom1 and secure for them a safe and happy refuge while exacting celibacy4 ,the racial blood shall not be poisoned by moral disease4 ,the guardians of the present-day social life dare not be careless of future social life and the happiness of generations unborn2 therefore the criminal breed must be forcibly restrained from perpetuating its kind4 ,now mark the result4 ,not gentle natures--as in the case of the church--but the innately vicious natures will have no continuance4 ,the criminal type slowly but surely disappears4 ,to promote the contentment and comfort of congenital criminals within their asylum or prison home an alternative to celibacy might be offered1 viz4 surgical treatment1 to render the male incapable of reproduction4 7,the treatment indicated is not the operation ordinarily performed upon some domestic animals2 this1 applied to human beings1 would be morally and physically injurious4 ,particulars of the appropriate method were published in the ,british ,medical ,journal as early as ,may #b1 #ahgd1 at p4 #ehf47 ,were this course voluntarily chosen1 the sexes might intermingle without danger to posterity2 and since fuller social life tends to make all human beings happier1 these convicts would become more manageable1 and coercive restraints cease to be indispensable4 ,but the criminal stock is not great when compared with the actual crimes of to-day4 ,crime in a vast measure is simply produced by the outward accidental conditions of life--an evil environment and a grossly inadequate training4 ,if we alter the environment of our masses--by establishing a new industrial system that banishes poverty from the land1 by initiating a ,malthusian and neo-,malthusian practice that puts the physical life on a healthy basis1 by creating a family life suitable to man's emotional nature1 and supplying a true education that embraces scientific restraints on all anti-social tendencies--then1 but not till then1 will crime and the criminal type alike become things of the past4 ,we are surrounded to-day in our reformatories and board schools1 in our homes and on our streets1 by children of navely-disobedient or rebellious tendency4 ,these are the embryo criminals of a few years hence4 ,when a clever romanticist makes one his hero1 and describes the development of trickiness in the child1 and how he uses it as a weapon of defence against the 8polissman0 whom he defies1 trips up and otherwise evades 7,cleg ,kelly1 by ,crockett71 we read the account without compunction1 nay1 we relish the humour of the situation1 and half approve the issue6 ,yet this assuredly is no legitimate outcome of childish bravery and sportiveness4 ,our levity arises from the underlying conviction1 or the universal feeling begotten of genetic evolution1 that the policeman's jurisdiction here is flagrantly inappropriate4 ,infantile disobedience and full-fledged crime seem far apart1 but they are united by an inward deteriorating process1 an outward chain of trespasses more or less petty4 ,the links are all there1 connecting the tender babe and fascinating street-arab with the thief and murderer4 ,similarly1 on the moral plane1 flow the sequences of cause and effect that bring retribution--that inalienable feature of the law of evolution4 ,the crime that society deplores is the natural penalty for society's neglect of children2 and there is no escape from the penalty as long as the cause continues4 ,nor can society plead ignorance here4 ,herbert ,spencer and ,ruskin have spoken out plainly on this subject4 8,what we need is cessation from all these antagonisms which keep alive the brutal elements of human nature1 and persistence in a peaceful life1 giving unchequered play to the sympathies40 7,herbert ,spencer on ,arbitration47 8,it is10 says ,ruskin1 8the lightest way of killing to stop a man's breath4 ,but if you bind up his thoughts by lack of true education1 if you blind his eyes1 if you blunt his hopes1 if you steal his joys1 if you stunt his body and blast his soul 444 this you think no sin60 ,verily1 there is sin1 acknowledged by the noblest1 wisest of men1 and brought home to us on the lips of babes--8,why kill the man1 since when he is dead we can never make him good again60 ,society has to compass the task of making men good from the beginning2 and in exceptional cases1 where the task is impossible1 the victims are simply society's patients1 to be impounded without hurt4 ,we are as able to protect our social life from moral as from mental lunatics4 ,the initial step1 however 7hardly yet taken71 is to pass from the mental attitude of a barbarous race1 whose habits of defence are those of arbitrary punishment1 to that of a civilized nation bent on reforming its criminals1 and treating its morally diseased members with uniform humanity and brotherly love4 ,as yet the resources of man's reason and scientific knowledge and aptitude have never been called into play to devise a system of consecutive restraints on the 8brutal elements10 a system to make men good from the beginning by 8working out the beast40 ,the crux of the problem is how to imbue children painlessly with the truth that social life has responsibilities and limitations1 obedience to which is indispensable4 ,and ,i submit that this may be done in the homes and nurseries of the future1 under a scientifically adapted system of training4 ,hard blows and even chiding tones of the human voice must have no place in childhood's environment1 but authority may be exercised through the use of a simple appliance for limiting infant freedom4 ,when baby trespasses against some natural law of health or social life1 of which he knows nothing1 he is gently but promptly and firmly placed in a baby-prison standing within reach1 viz4 a goodly-sized basket1 high at the sides1 softly cushioned all round and weighted1 so that it cannot be overturned by the infant culprit1 who1 if refractory1 may kick or scream in safety there till the paroxysm passes1 and he falls asleep4 ,on waking he recalls vaguely1 when older1 more clearly the occurrence1 and he becomes lightly possessed by a subtle sense of authority quite distinct from individual kindness or unkindness4 ,his human relations are unhurt by the necessary training in infancy4 ,he has been checked in wrong-doing without any wrong association of ideas1 and without an awakening of anti-social feeling4 ,i have seen an ignorant nurse teach a child to seek solace for pain in an anti-social emotion6 8,beat the naughty chair that has hurt poor baby's head10 was the evil counsel1 and the child held out to the chair struck his tiny revengeful blows1 and was kissed and caressed in consequence4 ,this happened in a rich man's nursery4 ,could one blame the ignorant nurse8 ,her infancy was passed in a city slum1 and in every such locality children swarm who freely strike out both in self-protection and brutal aggressiveness4 ,from birth these little ones live more or less in an atmosphere of savage assault4 ,tyranny and force are the ruling conditions of their childhood1 and the natural result--under the unalterable law of cause and effect--is this3 vindictive1 barbaric feeling is carried hither and thither throughout society at large1 and degrades every social class4 ,when home-life in the middle classes has been reorganized1 and nursery training is the outcome of scientific thought1 children there at least will escape this taint4 ,they will pass from nursery to schoolroom with nerves that have never been unnecessarily jarred4 ,they will be physically stronger1 and in temperament more serene4 ,reared without harshness1 they will know no craven fear2 and since the native attitude of childhood towards elders never seen angry or cross is that of confiding love1 teachers will have no difficulty in bringing into play the tender emotions that are natural checks upon evil doing1 and natural incentives to effort in action that is right4 ,if playfulness intrudes1 and the serious work of a class is hindered by some little urchin's fun1 the master or mistress needs neither to scold nor to cane the offender1 for unspoken satisfaction and dissatisfaction are quickly perceived and responded to by children unused to punishment or an elder's frown4 ,but even in the schoolroom an appeal to mechanism may sometimes prove useful4 ,an instrument called 8a characterograph0 was described by its inventor to an ,edinburgh audience half a century ago4 ,this instrument for registering had been in use in ,lady ,byron's ,agricultural ,school at ,ealing ,grove1 with moral effects markedly beneficial4 ,there were many comments in the press of that period4 ,it supersedes all necessity for prizes1 place-taking1 or any kind of reward or punishment1 and renders unnecessary the master's expressing anger or irritation--8the worst example a teacher can set to his pupils40 7,mr4 ,e4 ,t4 ,craig was inventor of the characterograph47 ,if we bear in mind that the supreme object of training is social solidarity1 and that social solidarity rests fundamentally on tender relations between the old1 the young1 and the middle-aged1 we shall recognize the wisdom of elders resigning at the earliest possible moment all manifestations of personal authority4 ,the average boy and girl1 if well trained1 has at fifteen1 or about that age1 moral powers sufficiently developed to control innate propensities4 ,at that epoch to the young themselves should be relegated the ruling of youthful conduct in the interests of society4 ,not to the young singly1 however1 but in their corporate capacity4 ,the organizing of juvenile committees and conduct clubs will ensue4 ,i need not1 however1 treat of these here4 ,they belong to the subject of general education1 and ,i am merely touching on training in its relations to specific crime4 ,the point in social science to emphasize is this3 ,at every stage of the nation's history its moral health or disease is the actual resultant of previous conditions of its child-life throughout the length and breadth of the land4 ,at the present moment the public mind is astray on this subject4 ,there is no understanding of the restraints necessary on infantile wrong-doing1 the wholesome because painless checks to apply to juvenile delinquents4 ,science must guide us to the right path of action1 society must enlist parental authority1 or1 if need be1 coerce the child to take the indicated course4 ,by the absence of wholesome checks and the presence of brutal conditions in childhood we suffer a vast amount of preventible crime4 ,we evolve the criminal by sins of omission outside the prison2 we brutalize him further inside the prison by undue1 ill-adapted restraints4 ,very significant was the experience of ,mr4 ,obermair1 of the ,state ,prison in ,munich4 ,when appointed governor there1 he found from six to seven hundred prisoners in the worst state of insubordination1 and whose excesses he was told defied the harshest1 most stringent discipline4 ,the prisoners were chained together4 ,the guard consisted of about #ajj soldiers1 who did duty not only at the gates and round the walls1 but in the passages1 and even in the workshops and dormitories2 and1 strangest of all1 from twenty to thirty large dogs of the bloodhound breed were let loose at night in the passages and courts to keep watch and ward4 ,the place was a perfect pandemonium1 comprising the worst passions1 the most slavish vices1 and the most heartless tyranny within the limits of a few acres4 ,mr4 ,obermair quickly dispensed with dogs1 and nearly all the guards4 ,he gradually relaxed the harsh system1 and treated the prisoners with a consideration that gained their confidence4 ,in the year #aheb ,mr4 ,baillie ,cochrane visited the prison1 and his account is as follows3 8,the gates were wide open1 without any sentinel at the door1 and a guard of only twenty men idling away their time in a room off the entrance hall4444 ,none of the doors were provided with bolts and bars2 the only security was an ordinary lock1 and as in most of the rooms the key was not turned1 there was no obstacle to the men walking into the passage4444 ,over each workshop some of the prisoners with the best characters were appointed overseers1 and ,mr4 ,obermair assured me that when a prisoner transgressed a regulation1 his companions told him #8es ist verboten1' and it rarely happened that he did not yield to the will of his fellow-prisoners4 ,within the prison walls every description of work is carried on 444 each prisoner by occupation and industry maintains himself4 ,the surplus of his earnings is given him on release1 which avoids his being parted with in a state of destitution40 7,this account is taken from ,herbert ,spencer's ,essay on ,prison ,ethics47 ,it is then clearly proved by actual experience that rough handling and brutal words--bolts and bars and bloodhounds--are alike unnecessary in the case of first offenders and in the case of the 8desperate gang40 ,but1 turning once more from the criminal to the ultimate causes of crime1 these are--destitution1 or more or less grinding poverty1 inherited disease1 ignorance and all the degraded nurture that crushes the humanities and develops the brutalities of man4 ,a scientific treatment of crime will eradicate these various causes of crime4 ,no summary methods are applicable4 ,there is no short cut to the end in view2 but by patient perseverance in the scientific meliorism indicated in my chapters on ,industrial ,life1 ,sex ,relations and ,parentage1 and to be further explained in those on ,education and ,home ,life1 the forces brought into play will prove effective in social redemption4 ,they are essentially radical and all-embracing4 ,within reformatories and prisons there may be partially supplied the training for forming and reforming character that is nowhere present in the homes and schools of the lower classes to-day4 ,those criminals who are not structurally defective may recover moral health1 and become virtuous or at least harmless social units4 ,in all such cases liberty should be restored2 but the ,state can never be justified in discharging its rescued criminals without resources and without protection4 ,they must be supplied with work1 i4e4 some means of self-support1 and guarded from dangers besetting the critical period of liberation4 ,the educating of ignorant criminals1 the reforming of corrigible criminals1 the restraining from further crime of incurable criminals--these are duties of the ,state4 ,the time1 however distant1 will finally arrive when science1 applied for generations to the task of skilfully removing all the causes of crime1 will accomplish that glorious aim4 ,by attention to the laws of heredity1 by checking the too rapid increase of population1 by the moral training of every member of the community1 and by well-ordered1 happy1 domestic1 industrial and social life1 the criminal nature will die out1 and crime itself be simply historical--a thing to study with interest1 an extirpated social disease4 ,,part ,,iv ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,emotions ,we must never forget that human aspirations1 human ideals1 are as much a part of the phenomena which makes up this causally-connected ,universe as the instincts and appetites that are common to man and the other animals4--,,david ,g4 ,,ritchie4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,sentiments ,,of ,,individual ,,rights ,,and ,,social ,,justice ,the dawning century will have to undertake a new education of mankind if we are not to relapse4444 ,new inventions are less needed than new ethics4--,dr4 ,,max ,,nordau4 ,herbert ,spencer tells us that3 8,free institutions can only be properly worked by men1 each of whom is jealous of his own rights and sympathetically jealous of the rights of others--who will neither himself aggress on his neighbour in small things or great1 nor tolerate aggression on them by others40 ,the state of mind or sentiment to which ,mr4 ,spencer here points is complex4 ,it comprises an egoism that is not anti-social1 and an altruism that is broadly social4 ,the genesis of this sentiment is intellectual1 implying a recognition in some sort of the laws of nature1 by virtue of which individual rights do not conflict with nature's harmonies or its fundamental organic unity4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 only to a race comparatively advanced1 i4e4 intellectually endowed2 but the children and children's children of that race may possess the sentiment of individual rights as an instinct with no apprehension whatever of its source or its justification4 ,its alliance with1 and perfect conformity to1 natural law are certainly not understood1 and confusion is increased in the public mind by the unscientific teaching of the daily press4 ,here1 for instance1 is a paragraph from a middle-class journal4 8,law is command1 control4 ,nature is instinctive force1 and can neither give nor receive laws4 ,there are no laws of nature1 and there are no rights of man4 ,we are using meaningless phrases when we speak of either4 ,man has no natural rights any more than the wolf and the bear4 ,all rights are conventional40 ,now1 before man had made a direct study of nature1 and1 marking the invariability of sequence in the precision of its phenomena1 had attached to that invariability the term 8laws of nature10 the word 8law0 denoted a lawgiver issuing arbitrary commands4 ,it is in this primitive sense that our journalist uses the word 8law40 ,he entirely ignores its appropriation by science and the modern acceptation of the term 8laws of nature40 ,nature has no arbitrary commands1 he says1 and therefore infers no laws4 ,we admit the premise while denying the inference4 ,the laws of health are invariable1 although they do not necessarily dominate1 since other and opposing laws of disorganization may at any moment get the upper hand4 ,man is competent to disregard the laws of life2 but if he so acts1 another course of natural order is initiated1 and he becomes subject to pathological laws which conduct him steadily to the grave4 ,necessity without arbitrary command rules in the cosmos2 and if happiness1 which all humanity desires1 is attained1 it will be by conforming to all the laws of nature that favour that end4 ,within1 there are the laws of human organization1 without1 the laws of circumstance or environment4 ,the humanity that has intellect and scientific knowledge may1 by union and co-operation1 take a firm advantage of these laws or uniformities of nature and march steadily forward1 controlling the forces of nature by a willing obedience to natural law4 ,no sooner1 observe1 does this control become possible than natural rights come into existence4 ,man rises in the scale of being to a sphere of self-direction and comparative liberty4 ,the wolf and bear and all wild animals are on the lower level1 and have no natural rights4 ,they are controlled by forces external to themselves1 and the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest is the law of destiny to them4 ,it is not so1 however1 with the horse1 dog1 cat1 etc41 for man has lifted all domesticated animals from under the rule of genetic forces1 and placed them under the rule of reasoned forces4 ,he controls their breeding1 limits their numbers1 and gives them a happy life consistent with his own4 ,further1 he claims for them and concedes to them natural rights2 and note this point1 the last phrase of our journalist's misleading paragraph is strictly true3 8,all rights are conventional40 ,convention means by tacit agreement1 and it is by tacit agreement on the part of civilized men that rights of men and rights of animals exist and are respected4 ,an impulse of the higher life1 viz41 a law of sympathy1 impels civilized man to seek happiness for other beings as well as himself1 and intelligence shows him that individual happiness promotes general happiness1 and further that no individual happiness is possible without a certain amount of personal liberty4 ,individual rights1 then1 are a claim for a certain amount of personal liberty1 and the sentiment of individual rights is an unconscious inward preparedness to defend that claim4 ,it lies at the very foundation of modern ethics1 since from it there springs the outward equipoise of egoistic and altruistic forces1 the inward1 subtle1 delicate sense of equitable relations1 in other words1 justice--the moral backbone of the modern conscience4 ,let us see how we treat1 in our nurseries1 this foundation of ethics1 this sentiment of individual rights4 ,we enter a middle-class nursery where a baby and his sister ,jessie1 a child of three years of age1 are side by side on the floor4 ,an impulse seizes baby to clutch the doll1 which ,jessie holds firmly4 ,baby screams and nurse turns round and lifts him in her arms4 8,see1 ,jessie10 she says1 8he wants your doll1 surely you will be kind to baby brother80 ,she takes the doll from ,jessie and gives it to the infant4 ,jessie throws herself on the ground and kicks and screams4 ,a paroxysm of emotion sweeps over her1 and until the wave has spent itself tranquillity in nerve or muscle is simply impossible4 ,but the nurse1 ignorant of the fact that the child is for the moment bereft of any power of self-control1 commands her to be still1 and when not obeyed1 she scolds her severely4 ,finally she puts her in a corner1 and there poor ,jessie sobs and weeps till pure exhaustion brings her to passivity and an abject state of mind which nurse calls 8being good again40 ,she signifies her approval of it by a kiss of forgiveness as unmerited as the previous anger4 ,now here we have an emotion supremely important to the welfare of humanity rudely desecrated in infancy4 ,there was nothing base1 sordid1 exclusive or even selfish in the tempest of feeling that swept away the placidity of ,jessie's little soul4 ,mingled together there was an impulse to defend her personal rights and a hot indignation that any infringement of these rights should occur4 ,and the whole was a wave of the complex forces destined to weld society into an organic whole1 capable of maintaining free institutions4 ,when the nurse through ignorance punished the child for the involuntary expression of a virtuous social-emotion1 she was opposing the very order of nature that genetic evolution is striving to attain2 she was checking the progress of modern civilization4 ,later in the day ,jessie with her doll restored to her arms is happy again4 ,baby plays with his rattle on nurse's knee2 but ,jessie thinks1 8,my dolly is a baby too and wants a rattle40 ,she takes the rattle out of baby's hands to give to dolly4 ,baby shouts and kicks1 and nurse is furious4 ,she slaps ,jessie and calls her a 8naughty child40 ,there is no ebullition of anger this time1 although the tender little fingers ache from the rude blow4 ,jessie shrinks aside with a subdued air4 ,had her former rebellion been an impulse of pure vindictiveness it would have repeated itself now4 ,it had no such feature4 ,it revealed the fact that ,jessie was the offspring of a self-dependent1 self-protective race preparing for a new stage of social evolution1 and her aspect at the present crisis reveals the same4 ,she did not know she was in the wrong2 but vaguely she felt it4 ,she had trespassed on baby's rights1 and conscience dumbly stirred in her infant bosom4 ,if intelligence is strong the child questions silently1 8,why may baby take my doll when ,i may not take his rattle80 ,the nurse will give no answer4 ,her province is to feed and cleanse and clothe her charges1 and1 if need be1 punish action4 ,but the motive springs of action lie quite beyond her range1 and what is the consequence8 ,if ,jessie's intellect predominates over her emotional quality1 her conscience may develop1 although under adverse conditions2 but if the balance tends the other way the position is fatal4 ,the child gathers her ideas of right and wrong from the frowns and smiles1 the slaps or kisses of an ignorant woman who is ruling the nursery with an authority purely barbaric1 and the budding conscience of a modern civilization adapts itself to the archaic environment and reverts or lapses backward4 ,further1 observe1 the nurse strove to create--in this case1 at least--sympathy towards a baby brother4 ,was this wise8 ,it was not wise1 although well-intentioned4 ,sympathy never develops under command1 and to order a child to be kind at the moment when an aggression has been made on his or her rights is like commanding a steam-engine to move forward without turning on the steam6 ,moreover1 baby1 young as he was1 suffered mentally and morally by the event4 ,he learned an evil lesson1 viz41 that if he cried he would probably get what he wanted4 ,vigorously1 though unconsciously1 he will pursue that vicious course and act up to the principle4 ,does my reader inquire 8,what should the nurse have done80 ,she should have instantly removed the baby1 saying gently to ,jessie1 8,children must never take things from one another4 ,not even a baby can be permitted to do that1 and we must teach him better4 ,but see he is so young1 he does not know the doll is yours1 not his4 ,would you like to lend it to him for a little8 ,no8 ,ah1 well he cannot have it then1 but come and help me to amuse him that he may forget the doll40 ,the older child puts down her treasure to fondle her baby brother1 and there are ten chances to one that by-and-bye her sympathy--called out naturally and not by command--carries her a step further1 and she says3 8,nurse1 baby may hold my doll for a little now40 ,later1 when the brilliant idea occurs that dolly would enjoy the rattle1 ,jessie understands--she does not blindly1 vaguely feel1 she knows--that she must not trespass on baby's rights4 ,she restrains her impulse therefore to snatch the rattle1 and in this self-control she is exercising the noblest faculty of her nature under the dominion of a moral conscience--a sense of justice or equivalence of rights4 ,and now we pass from an upper middle-class nursery to any ,british boys' school or playground4 ,we find that quarrels there arise not so much from the simple barbarous impulses of cruelty1 hatred1 revenge1 fear1 as from a different source--an effective sense of personal rights unbalanced by an equally effective sense of sympathy with the rights of others4 ,the phenomenon here is justice in embryo1 self-conscious1 but lacking development on the altruistic side4 8,it isn't0 or 8it wasn't fair0 is a phrase frequently upon a schoolboy's lips1 and it is remarkable with what courage and dignity an urchin of ten or twelve will criticize a master's treatment of him1 and perhaps tell the man of fifty to his face that this or that 8wasn't fair40 ,were every boy as eager that all human beings--schoolmasters included--should be as fairly treated as he himself1 the only further regulation of conduct necessary would be a clear intelligence to discern truth from falsehood in every case of misdemeanour4 ,instructed intelligence is however a minus quantity1 and the sympathetic jealousy for the rights of others that exists here and there amongst boys in minor quantity1 gets deflected from its true course4 ,it links boys of one age together in a mutual fellowship that excludes masters and all others4 ,nor is this difficult to understand4 ,mutual interests is the soil in which sympathy grows2 but with arbitrary authority in the field1 also conflicting desires1 and no distinct teaching on the subject1 the deeper relations of life1 ,i mean the mutual interests of teacher and taught and of the whole school as a social unity1 are often ignored4 ,to shield a companion from punishment1 at all hazards1 becomes virtue in a schoolboy's eyes1 and antagonisms spring up with confused notions of right and wrong1 and a general impulse to falsehood and deceit in special directions4 ,these are menacing features of character for the social life of the future4 ,men of introspection have recognized in themselves the baneful after-effects of the clannishness engendered at school4 ,robert ,louis ,stevenson bewailed the extreme difficulty he had in forcing himself to perform a distinct public duty4 ,it involved some exposure dishonourable to a former schoolmate6 8,i felt10 he said1 8like a cad60 ,from middle-class nurseries where authority is chiefly barbaric and the budding conscience is hurt1 children destined to become the lite of a future society and its rulers1 pass into schools where there is no clear and definite training for the emotional nature1 no scientific development of the social1 and repression of the anti-social impulses4 ,from school the student passes to college or university1 and is emancipated more or less from outward control4 ,when he enters upon the duties and pleasures of adult life he presents1 in many ways1 an element of social danger1 for this simple reason1 his native bumptiousness1 his sense of individual rights is not held in check by an intelligent understanding of1 and feeling of sympathy with1 the equal rights of others4 ,the groundwork of the modern conscience has been tampered with while authority--propelled by genetic forces of evolution--has gradually relaxed and fallen back before the free-born ,british schoolboy4 ,by our present system of education we destroy infant virtue in the nursery and in the school4 ,we dwarf that sympathy which should grow and expand till it bursts forth in manhood into deeds of rectitude1 justice1 love1 manifesting the threefold quality of human nature which alone is competent to lift the whole area of man's existence into line with cosmic order4 ,our schools are yearly pouring into the busy world a rich harvest of human aptitudes that are quickly absorbed in activities mercantile1 professional1 legislative1 but the outcome of these activities is not tuning life into social harmony1 it is merely increasing national wealth1 and that without any marked increase of plenty and pleasure to the nation at large4 ,the picture presented is one of perpetual warfare--an outward struggle in money-making for oneself and family1 an inward contentious spirit that reveals itself abroad in our blatant imperialism1 at home in class antagonisms--the whole re-acting fatally on individual character and lowering the general standard of civilized life4 ,generous enthusiasms die down1 the emotional nature hardens1 till intelligence itself is dimmed and becomes incapable of any wide outlook that entails unselfish effort4 ,as a rule--though with honourable exceptions--our compatriots advanced in life do not fulfil the promise of their youth2 and with forces of nature amenable to man's will1 if wisely directed1 real progress in this scientific age is wofully sluggish4 ,we focus attention on environments that press on adults only1 and in seeking reform overlook the environments that vitally effect our infant population1 therefore the adult life of the future4 ,how different is our action in other directions4 ,in horticultural nurseries1 for instance1 progress is not sluggish4 ,scientific discovery and methods of practice are applied and promptly produce definite results4 ,the composite plants are distinguished from simple plants1 and while all are secured in necessary conditions of healthy life--good soil1 air1 light1 etc4--those receive from the gardener a special fostering care4 ,he studies the laws of differentiation1 the peculiarities of each organism with its hidden possibilities of varied efflorescence1 and by fitting environment to wider issues1 watching them day by day1 nourishing every tendency favourable1 checking every tendency unfavourable1 he induces an outburst of blossom as varied in colour and form as it is marvellous in beauty or grace1 and that in spite of the fact that unaided by natural forces he is utterly powerless to make a blade of grass grow4 ,that human plants give promise of blossoming into a moral beauty as yet undreamed of by the ,british public is patent to any wise observer of the confused social life of to-day4 ,our greatest realists in fiction note the point4 ,we have ,george ,meredith putting into the mouth of his hero1 ,matthew ,weyburn1 these significant words3 8,eminent station among men doesn't give a larger outlook 444 ,i have come now and then across people we call common1 slow-minded1 but hard in their grasp of facts and ready to learn and logical4 ,they were at the bottom of wisdom1 for they had in their heads the delicate sense of justice upon which wisdom is founded 444 that is what their rulers lack4 ,unless we have the sense of justice abroad like a common air there's no peace and no steady advance4 ,but these humble people had it4 ,i felt them to be my superiors4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have not felt the same with our senators1 rulers and lawgivers4 ,they are for the most part deficient in the liberal mind40 7,lord ,ormont and his ,aminta47 ,as regards physical health1 ,i have shown the necessity for stirpiculture and the birth of the fit2 as regards mental and moral health1 i4e4 ,humanity's efflorescence on higher planes--the need of the times is less eugenics than education and training4 ,germs of truth1 justice1 love1 lie latent in the basic structure of our half-civilized race1 and so long as we neglect or destroy these germs it were folly to desire material of finer quality4 8,our raw material is of the very best10 said the headmistress of a ,london ,board ,school1 8our children are full of generous impulses and fearless spontaneity4 ,i sometimes think the no-rule in the homes of the masses a better preparation for life than the factitious training given in homes of the classes4 ,but our teachers are so few and so seldom scientifically enlightened that we spoil very much of the good material40 ,on behalf of the classes my reader might argue that susceptibility to beauty or the aesthetic sentiment with its creative expression in art belongs almost exclusively to the upper section of society1 and is deemed by some social reformers the very foundation of moral life1 the basis of the ethical temper4 ,it is not my purpose to provoke comparison between the classes and the masses1 and ,i fully recognize the value of the fine arts as factors in the general elevation of life and character1 but ,i submit that evolution does not pursue the same line of development in the various races of mankind1 and in the ,british race an advanced ethical temper is in process of formation quite irrespective of the fine arts and the aesthetic sentiment4 ,dr4 ,le ,bon laid before the ,french ,geographical ,society an account of a primitive group of people1 numbering several hundred thousand1 who inhabit a remote region high up among the ,carpathian mountains4 ,of this people1 the ,podhalians1 he says1 8they are born improvisatori1 poets and musicians1 singing their own songs1 set to music of their own composition4 ,their poetry is tender and artless in sentiment1 generous and elevated in style40 ,he attributes these qualities to the wealth of spontaneous resources possessed by natures which neither know violent passions nor unnatural excitements4 ,the ,british race1 moulded by different conditions--geographical and historical--has developed differently4 ,great masses of our population are wholly insensitive to the influences of art4 ,the picture drawn by ,wordsworth of his ,peter ,bell comes nearer to our native uncultured type-- ,a primrose by the river's brim ,a yellow primrose was to him1 ,and it was nothing more4 ,the soft blue sky did never melt ,into his heart1 he never felt ,the witchery of the soft blue sky4 ,nevertheless1 through another channel he was touched to the quick4 ,thrilled into sudden sweetness and pathos by the sight of a widow's tears-- ,in agony of silent grief ,from his own thoughts did ,peter start2 ,he longs to press her to his heart ,from love that cannot find relief4 ,the hard life of our workers has undoubtedly deprived them1 as yet1 of any widespread aesthetic development1 but the chords of their vital part1 if played upon1 produce a sentient state far removed from the rudimentary stage4 ,it is a product of centuries of evolution4 ,this humanity will move forward to higher planes of existence1 and a spiritual plenitude--of which aestheticism is by no means the crown and glory1 but only an imperfect foretaste--by two convergent paths trodden concurrently4 ,these are a steady growth in social qualities and the happiness that flows from these qualities1 the creation1 in short1 of organic socialism2 and the opening up outwardly of channels of sympathy and community of interests throughout the whole nation1 causing the banishment of class distinctions1 the establishment of an organized socialism4 ,perfection in art is not the appropriate ideal for this age1 but perfection in social life1 and it is not from a love of art to a love of mankind and the practices of moral rectitude that our masses will advance4 ,it is by the practice of all the humanities on ever broader1 deeper lines1 until the nation1 vibrating with harmonized life1 frames new visions of art1 and strengthens all the well-springs of art's creation4 ,the aestheticism that belongs exclusively to one social class neither elevates general morals nor produces the noblest art4 ,its narrowing influences are exemplified in ,lord ,chesterfield's advice to his son3 8,if you love music1 go to operas1 concerts1 and pay fiddlers to play to you2 but ,i insist on your neither piping nor fiddling yourself4 ,it puts a gentleman in a contemptible light2 444 few things would mortify me more than to see you bearing a part in a concert with a fiddle under your chin40 ,lord ,chesterfield belonged to a past century1 but the spirit of his thought is not dead2 it manifests prominently to-day4 ,in my own experience a lady novelist was invited to a ,london ,at ,home1 and accepted conditionally4 ,if evening costume were necessary she must decline1 but if less ceremonious dress were permissible she would gladly appear1 and the hostess consenting1 she did so4 ,now ,i heard a large group of middle-class ladies passionately condemning this action1 on the ground that aestheticism had been outraged and the rules of society set at nought by a blot in rooms otherwise beautiful4 ,yet the novelist had been tastefully attired1 that was freely admitted4 ,she had sinned merely in nonconformity to fashion and in covering her neck and arms4 ,can we seriously believe that the type of humanity to which these ladies belong is developing the liberal mind which alone may create and support the highest morality1 the noblest art8 ,are we not compelled to recognize the truth of ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,levy's profound remark3 8,in the present stage of human progress the aesthetic and the moral are conterminate at neither end4 ,aesthetic emotion may be roused in us by that which is ethically odious1 and moral feeling may be called up by that which is artistically ugly40 7,the ,national ,reformer47 ,the true ethical temper is engendered by a complexity of social attractions issuing in an inward sense of justice and the delicate equipoise of natural rights between meum and tuum4 ,the task before us is to unite the half-conscious1 instinctive justice already existent with an intellectual apprehension and clear understanding of right and wrong1 in other words1 to complete the modern conscience2 and in view of this task we must distinctly realize that the sentiment of what is proper and improper in conventional society has no ethical value1 and is a false guide to conduct4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,rapacity1 ,,pride1 ,,love ,,of ,,property ,the facts which it is at once most important and most difficult to appreciate are what may be called the facts of feeling4--,,lecky4 ,the area of man's emotional life is one of vast magnitude4 ,it lies behind the scenes of his outward existence1 yet it interpenetrates the social structure throughout1 and stretches beyond it to distances we know not whence or whither4 ,mysterious as this region is1 no sooner does man aspire to control the social forces of collective life1 as he already largely controls the natural forces of physical life1 than he is compelled to apply his reason scientifically to the phenomena of human emotions1 and to contemplate1 trace out and master there the general features of the process of evolution4 ,in the case of personal development the task is comparatively easy4 ,a child's feelings are simple1 not compound4 ,for the most part they seem vague and indefinite1 always fleeting and evanescent2 but as the child grows his powers of feeling grow likewise and alter in character4 ,their childish simplicity passes away2 they augment in mass1 they become complex1 more permanent and coherent in their nature1 and far more delicate in susceptibility4 ,consequently the breadth of range1 the depth and richness of emotion possible in an adult1 as compared with the emotions of a child1 are as the music of an organ to the sweet notes that lie within the compass of a penny whistle4 ,in racial development evolution of feeling has not pursued one invariable course4 ,distinctive sentiments and modes of feeling characterize the different races of mankind as well as distinctive outward features1 and the impressing on a plastic race of these divergent states of feeling is mainly1 though not entirely1 due to external conditions--not climatic and geographical conditions only1 but also the form of civilization that had taken root and moulded the habits and customs of the race4 ,greek civilization1 for instance1 tended to develop largely the aesthetic group of feelings1 while in ,scotland these feelings1 through outward influences ,i must not pause to consider1 have been stunted in growth1 and moral sentiments have had a deeper and firmer development4 ,amongst barbarous tribes of men the violent emotions--anger1 fear1 jealousy1 revenge--generally speaking1 hold sway2 but there are also in various parts of the world uncivilized communities where these fierce passions are little known1 and where1 in consequence of the absence of warlike surroundings1 the gentle1 tender sentiments that have for their foundation family ties and peaceful social life1 prevail1 and are considerably developed4 ,the conditions of emotional evolution in a given race1 then1 are complex4 ,we have to bear in mind a threefold environment--cosmic1 planetary1 social--pressing upon individual life and powerfully swaying the emotional part of it4 ,social environment is pre-eminently potent in modifying emotional characteristics2 yet the prime factor of change in social environment springs from this region of feeling1 and this factor may1 under rational guidance1 take a path of direct and rapid progression4 ,british civilization is the product of a turbulent1 militant stage of evolution1 an epoch of military glory1 followed by a long period of industrial development and commercial activity4 ,we inherit a survival of virtues and vices from each of these evolutional stages4 ,to the first we attribute our courage1 independence and proper pride1 both national and individual2 and we are apt to suppose that without the experience of military glory our manly ,john ,bull would have been a milk-sop4 ,that may or may not be true2 but when we infer that the above characteristics depend fundamentally and absolutely upon a military environment we are vastly mistaken4 ,observe what is said by travellers and missionaries of certain unwarlike tribes found in ,india and the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,the ,jakuns are inclined1 we are told1 to gratitude and beneficence1 their tendency being not to ask favours1 but to confer them4 ,the ,arifuras have a very excusable ambition to gain the name of rich men by paying the debts of their poorer fellow-villagers6 ,one gentle ,arifura1 who had hoped to be chosen chief of his village and was not1 met his disappointment with the spirit of a philosopher and philanthropist1 saying3 8,what reason have ,i to grieve8 ,i still have it in my power to assist my fellow-villagers40 ,when brought into contact with men of an opposite type--hardy1 fierce and turbulent1 they have no tendency to show the white feather4 ,the amiable ,dhimal is independent and courageous1 and resists 8with dogged obstinacy0 injunctions that are urged injudiciously4 ,the ,jakun is extremely proud--his pride showing itself in refusals to be domesticated and made useful to men of a different race and therefore alien to himself4 ,the simple-minded ,santal has a 8strong natural sense of justice1 and should any attempt be made to coerce him1 he flies the country4 ,the ,santal is courteous and hospitable1 whilst at the same time he is free from cringing40 ,dalton writes of the ,hos--a tribe belonging to the same group as the ,santals--8a reflection on a man's honesty or veracity may be sufficient to send him to self-destruction02 and of the ,lepchas1 ,hooker says1 8,in all my dealings with them they have proved scrupulously honest4444 ,they cheer on the traveller by their unostentatious zeal in his service1 and when a present is given to them1 it is divided equally among many without a syllable of discontent or a grudging look or word40#d ,footnote #d3 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #fbh1 #fcj1 #fca4 ,from these facts we gather that a number of virtues associated in our minds with ,western civilization are present amid barbarous tribes1 and that the vices associated by us with barbarism--cruelty1 dishonesty1 treachery1 selfishness--are in some cases glaringly absent4 ,human nature is not dependent on culture or ,christianity to humanize and make it lovable4 ,there is that in the very groundwork of its nature which renders it capable of developing1 under favourable conditions1 into what is admirable1 pure and gracious4 ,the traits given us of these peoples show virtue1 truth1 generosity1 moral courage and justice1 and what nobler1 more elevated sentiments have as yet been found in civilized man8 ,the favourable conditions are an entire absence of warlike surroundings and warlike training1 hence an absence also of any inheritance of warlike proclivities4 ,these tribes 8have remained unmolested for generation after generation2 they have inflicted no injuries on others40 ,their social or unselfish feelings have been fostered and nourished by the sympathetic intercourse of a peaceful life4 ,in a purely military state unselfish feelings are necessarily repressed1 whilst the bold1 keen1 hard and cruel side of human nature is liberally developed4 ,to hate an enemy and avenge an injury are manly virtues4 ,the predatory instincts are useful and approved4 ,treachery is not discredited1 and the man clever enough to take advantage of an enemy and successfully intrigue against him may be ranked among the gods6 ,the plunderer who falters not in keen pursuit of prey and in the hour of victory shows relentless cruelty is deemed heroic4 ,no thought of happiness or misery to others gives him pause2 military glory is his absorbing aim1 and in the intervals of peace his callous nature manifests in ruling with tyrannic power slavish subordinates1 who bend and cringe before him4 ,now let us glance at two of these militant characteristics1 viz4 rapacity and personal pride1 with a view to observe how their survival into our industrial epoch has vitiated the national life4 ,the purely militant stage of ,british development has passed1 and the outward form of our collective life is industrial1 not military4 ,a sanguinary path of glory has no intrinsic fascination for our people1 and there is no national desire to conquer and rule over races established on other parts of the earth's surface1 however superior to ours may be their climate and quarters4 ,nevertheless1 within the last half century we have fought battles and shed blood copiously in ,china1 ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 ,abyssinia1 ,egypt1 ,south ,africa and elsewhere4 ,seldom1 however1 has the nation itself clamoured for war4 ,in the year #ahed a relapse into militant mood occurred1 and1 in spite of unwillingness on the part of individual rulers1 the ,government yielded to a sinister wave of barbaric feeling in the nation--a martial frenzy that impelled to the ,crimean ,war4 ,since that period wars have originated from other causes than the will of the nation4 ,our people1 immersed in a painful struggle for livelihood at home1 are indifferent to the rights and wrongs of the many squabbles into which we flounder abroad4 ,general malevolence has no part in this matter2 our real collective attitude towards foreigners is one of friendliness1 combined with an impulse to the peaceful exchange of commodities1 kind words and gentle arts--the whole provocative of love1 not hatred4 ,the fundamental causes of war1 then1 have been3 first1 the commercial interests of a capitalist class1 or1 if expressed in terms of feeling1 the desire in that class for increased wealth--a desire partly the product of inherited rapacity1 a sentiment descended to us from our militant epoch2 second1 national pride--a pride which has kindled animosities1 embroiled us in disputes and dragged us into wars1 the pettiness of whose small beginnings is only matched by the pettiness of ,british conduct throughout their whole extent4 ,but both this rapacity and this national pride belong almost exclusively to our ruling classes4 ,their existence is explained by the action of outward conditions on special sections of the community4 ,the ,british passed suddenly out of a period of constant fighting and feud into a period of frantic industrial activity4 ,feudal chiefs and their descendants became grasping landlords4 ,there also sprang up a class of sharp-witted1 keen-sighted men1 whose native rapacity strengthened in the genial hot-bed of our brilliant commercial success4 ,a tremendous start in the international race after wealth was secured to ,great ,britain by her possession of iron1 coal1 etc4 ,she absorbed riches from every quarter of the globe1 and mercantile triumph swelled the pride already deeply implanted in our industrial organizers1 our politicians and plenipotentiaries4 ,the great mass of the people were differently affected by industrial conditions4 ,workers of every description1 packed together in towns and factories1 rapidly developed the qualities of intimate social life1 and out-grew1 in the main1 the savage instincts of militancy4 ,our commercial wars and ,imperialistic policy are fruits--not of the nation's brutality1 its greed1 or its pride1 but of its simple ignorance and its blind trust in individuals peculiarly unfitted by inheritance and personal bias to guide it aright in relations with other1 and especially with weaker1 nations4 ,all the wars of recent times--a record of cruel bloodshed causing needless sorrow and suffering to the innocent--have been instigated by the ruling classes under the dominion of rapacity and pride4 ,when these ruling classes are dispossessed of supreme power1 and civilized democracies assume public responsibility with political supremacy1 the day of disarming of nations will dawn4 ,the world's workers who1 apart from their rulers1 have no tendency to undue accumulation or national pride1 but whose bias1 on the contrary1 is towards sympathetic co-operation in industry1 will strenuously seek the joys and blessings of universal peace4 ,but although the war-spirit of the ancient ,briton dies out and general brutality declines1 individual brutality1 practised privately1 is common enough4 ,class tyranny1 sex tyranny1 and much of domestic tyranny are rampant2 and the co-relative feelings1 viz4 abject fear giving rise to hatred1 anger1 malice1 cunning and despicable meanness of soul1 are all strongly in evidence4 ,the industrial system that succeeded our military system is of no genuinely social type4 ,it is distinctly contentious1 and when we consider how it has pressed for about a century upon a plastic race inwardly prone to every vice engendered by militancy1 the matter for surprise perhaps is that we are as good as we are4 ,in classifying emotional states there is a sentiment which1 if not begotten1 has at least been bred1 nourished and widely diffused during our industrial epoch--,i mean the sentiment1 love of property4 ,on no subject are opposite opinions more strongly and disputatiously held than on the question of the nature and value of this sentiment4 ,it is claimed by some as not only the chief support of present-day society1 but the prime evolutional factor of our entire civilization4 ,a savage only cares to secure the things he is in immediate need of4 ,he lacks imagination to picture what he may want to-morrow1 also intelligence to provide for future contingencies and sympathetic desire to provide for the wants of others4 ,no sooner1 however1 does an established government give safe protection to individual property than prudence and forethought appear4 ,the man who acquires property soon surrounds himself with comforts1 and inspires in others the desire to follow his example4 ,social wealth accumulates1 and energies are set free for further development4 ,some social units become complex1 intellectual tastes and love of travel arise1 and works of art--the treasure-trove of earlier civilizations--are impounded to lay the foundation of artistic life in the later civilization4 ,aesthetic culture now grows rapidly4 ,painting1 poetry1 music abound1 and men may be lifted above the meaner cares of existence to an inward freedom1 where sympathy expands through the exercise of elevated thought and feeling4 ,is not love of property1 then1 a sentiment to honour and conserve8 ,its genesis and history certainly command respect2 but the already quoted case of the ,podhalians proves that by no means is it an essential in human evolution4 ,to that primitive people1 as ,dr4 ,le ,bon has shown1 riches have no charms2 they are poor1 living principally upon oats made into cakes and goat's milk4 ,they enjoy perfect health and live long4 ,they are quick in apprehension1 fond of dancing1 singing1 music and poetry4 ,there is clearly no development here of the property-sense1 yet the ,podhalians have a very considerable development of that group of emotions we term aesthetic and regard as an evidence of high refinement and culture4 ,we are not therefore logically entitled to claim that were ,british love of property and ,british cupidity greatly diminished1 art as a consequence must needs decay and the race revert into barbarism4 ,herbert ,spencer tells us 8that in some established societies there has been a constant exercise of the feeling which is satisfied by a provision for the future1 and a growth of this feeling so great that it now prompts accumulation to an extent beyond what is needful40 7#ast vol4 of ,essays1 #bnd series1 p4 #acb47 ,that point has been overpassed by the ,british4 ,what we have now to struggle against are varied evils arising from a glut of national wealth 7but ,i do not mean by this term commodities of intrinsic value1 only wealth representing an acknowledged claim on the labour of others7 and a frightful inflation of the sentiments allied with wealth1 which at one time were useful1 but for generations have been producing outward vice and inward misery and corruption4 ,the ,british merchant goes on accumulating long after he has amply provided for himself and family1 and many a poor man feels towards that other's wealth precisely as a savage feels towards his fetish4 ,he is filled with reverence1 admiration1 desire and a sense of distance from the golden calf that makes him hopeless1 abject1 despairing4 ,the ,american millionaire1 as depicted by ,mr4 ,howells1 will1 8on a hot day1 when the mortal glare of the sun blazes in upon heart and brain1 plot and plan in his ,new ,york office till he swoons at the desk40 ,such a man is as much a victim to over-development of acquisitiveness as the drunkard is victim to an undue development of the love of stimulants1 and in each case the depraved taste carries ruin to the individual and havoc into society4 ,social unity is rent in twain4 ,a life of exuberant wealth and extravagant expenditure runs parallel with one of constant1 inescapable poverty1 and so long as the nation continues to heap up riches in private possession1 just so long must we reap an emotional harvest of envy1 malice1 private animosities1 class hatreds and a subtle estrangement of heart throughout the length and breadth of the land4 ,yet even the great poet ,tennyson in his writings exalts into a worthy motive for holy wedlock this sentiment--love of property4 ,an affectionate father1 in the poem1 8,the ,sisters10 exhorts his daughters thus3 8,one should marry1 or 444 all the broad lands will pass collaterally06 ,the small accumulator whose petty hoard of gold was gloated over piece by piece has long been labelled miser4 ,he is publicly condemned1 and in literature derided4 ,but the merchant-prince who1 already wealthy1 devotes days and years and his whole mind and heart to business2 the proprietor of broad lands who adds acre to acre1 and anxiously meditates on their passing collaterally2 the rich capitalist who craftily seeks to lower wages in the interests of employers2 the gambler on the ,stock ,exchange2 the market manipulator whose predatory instincts are so pleasurably excited by risks and gains that he will hazard in the game all that nobler men hold precious--these beings1 ,i say1 are as worthy of scorn and infinitely more baneful than the miser4 ,they must take their true place by his side in public estimation4 ,they are social deformities1 morally diseased4 ,in other words1 these men are incapable of moral duty1 which consists in 8the observance of those rules of conduct that contribute to the welfare of society--the end of society being peace and mutual protection1 so that the individual may reach the fullest and highest life attainable by man40 7,huxley's ,life1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cje47 ,in the preceding chapter ,i have shown that the self-regarding sentiment exercised with due consideration for the welfare of others is a social virtue4 ,it promotes national prosperity and personal improvement4 ,but self-regarding actions1 induced by this master-passion over-acquisitiveness1 invariably issue in automatic selfishness and general deterioration4 ,in regard to aesthetic emotions also the cleavage between rich and poor has a fatal significance4 ,a luxurious1 idle1 for the most part1 inane1 life led by the rich1 profoundly influences the poor2 not by creating anti-social feeling only1 but by checking aesthetic development4 ,in the city of many slums there is also a west-end of gay shops filled with objects de luxe1 of showily dressed women1 profligate men1 theatre1 music-hall and ball-room entrances1 at which to stand gazing as into a fairy peep-show4 ,suggestion here plays a mischievous part4 ,poverty hinders the purchase of all commodities that possess any real artistic value1 but commercial enterprise has flooded the markets with meretricious imitations4 ,east-end shops reflect the glitter and glow of west-end attractions1 and the ignorant1 spell-bound by suggestion1 become possessors of that which degrades and vulgarizes taste or the sense of the beautiful4 ,now that science partially dominates thought1 our eyes have been opened to the fact of essential unity in human groups4 ,we may trace the cause of a social evil to a special section or class1 but the effects of that cause radiate forth till they touch every section or class4 ,dwellers in the west-end cannot escape disease propagated by the vilely unwholesome conditions of life at the east-end4 ,micro-organisms of disease are wafted from hither to thither1 and on the physical plane social unity is recognized4 ,a like continuity exists on the non-physical side4 ,minds are as closely united by psychical law as bodies by physical law4 ,the experienced facts of hypnotism make this clear1 and the logical inference is that in ,western civilization the vices of wealthy classes infect and corrupt the masses4 ,that the imagination of the great mass of our people should be snared and their evolutional progress thwarted by mental suggestion from a banal1 vicious life led by a comparatively small portion of the nation1 is an outrage on civilization4 ,it renders it imperative that the cause of this evil1 viz41 our contentious1 i4e4 our competitive system of industry1 should be fundamentally changed4 ,for every group of human beings the steady growth of those social qualities which create happiness and the steady advance in intellectual1 aesthetic and spiritual life1 depend on a close community of interests and the constant opening up of fresh channels of sympathy throughout the group4 ,but the ,british racial group has lost this community of interests--this primary condition of steady growth4 ,it is split up into1 first1 a class of property possessors made effeminate by ill-spent leisure1 often inflated by pride1 and at all times demanding the artificial pleasures of a luxurious life2 second1 a class striving to amass property1 a class whose thoughts and desires circle round and centre in property1 and who to acquire it often sacrifice serenity of mind1 health of body1 and even life itself2 and third1 the mass of the people who1 having no property1 are yet enslaved by it1 and who on the emotional side of their human nature are debased and corrupted by the mental state of the classes4 ,as evolution approaches the era of manhood of human reason it becomes conscious1 and demands a national effort to improve4 ,that effort first appears in the strenuous1 scientific study of life as it is1 in attempts at social reconstruction1 and at improvement in public and private education4 ,it is seen to be necessary to stamp out all the militant and predatory instincts of mankind by ethical nurture and training1 while all the gentle1 gracious qualities of mankind must be carefully guarded and nourished1 until1 in every social unit the effort to improve is habitual1 i4e4 has become 8the essential mode of its being40 7,j4 ,mc,gavin ,sloan47 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,personal ,,jealousy--,,national ,,patriotism 8,jealousy is cruel as the grave40 ,we shall progress faster by diligent striving to fashion the feeling of the time and stir it from the intellectual apathy which is the chiefest curse of the ,state4--,,alex4 ,m4 ,,thomson4 ,the danger that confronts the new century is the recrudescence of racial antipathies and national animosities4--,,hermann ,,adler4 ,the passion of jealousy has a long and significant history1 and a pedigree more ancient than the allied sentiment1 love of property1 which has just been considered4 ,the passion was useful to the welfare of the tribe at an early period1 but it survives as purely a vice in the midst of consolidated nations1 for it is essentially anti-social1 not necessary to general welfare1 and impossible to be exercised sympathetically or for the good of others4 ,if ,i am jealous it means that ,i have a source of personal delight that ,i would guard from others and monopolise if ,i could4 ,the happiness may be self-produced or rest on a being whom ,i love4 ,in both cases it causes within me fears of interference1 suspicion of my fellows1 and a general tendency to dislike1 nay1 even to hate them if they dare to meddle with my secret joy4 ,the emotion is fundamentally selfish1 and when an individual is sympathetic all round he becomes incapable of it4 ,he has risen above the egoistic passion of jealousy4 ,mr4 ,darwin tells us that amongst savages addicted to 8intemperance1 utter licentiousness and unnatural crimes1 no sooner does marriage1 whether polygamous or monogamous1 become common than jealousy leads to the inculcation of female virtue40 ,this gives the clue to the problem of jealousy's evolutional value4 ,it has played a part in the destiny of woman1 and tended to shape her emotional nature4 ,its history is inextricably intertwined with hers1 in all the varying degrees of servitude that mark her slow advance from a condition of absolute chattelism to one of rational equality with man4 ,by virtue of superior strength man has acted on the theory that he was made for ,god1 and woman for him6 and in the process of establishing his dominancy jealousy appeared and aided powerfully the gradual development of a new emotion--constancy1 a social grace and virtue as certain to wax and grow as jealousy is to wane and slowly disappear4 ,in literature one finds a reflection of the entire history of jealousy and all its consecutive changes from barbarous times through the ages1 when frequent duels witnessed to the honourable place it held in public estimation down to the present day1 when it is somewhat discredited1 and duelling--in ,great ,britain at least--has ceased altogether4 ,to track this history were impossible here2 ,i can only point to one or two significant pictures4 ,the play of 8,othello0 depicts the barbarous social conditions in which jealousy flourishes4 ,shakespeare reveals both the anti-social nature of the passion and the intellectual weakness of the mind that harbours it4 8,trifles light as air10 says ,iago1 8are to the jealous confirmation strong as proofs of holy writ40 ,and in effect ,othello is incapable of sifting evidence4 ,the poor device of the stolen handkerchief seals the fate of ,desdemona6 ,woman's subject position is plainly set forth1 and the foundations of the passion in masculine master-hood and pride of power are fully exposed4 ,othello's wife must be his slave and puppet4 8,out of my sight10 he cries1 and patiently she goes4 8,mistress10 he calls1 and she returns4 8,you did wish10 he says to ,lodovico1 8that ,i would make her turn40 ,desdemona is the very type of patient1 gentle1 enslaved womanhood1 the ideal woman of a rough1 brutal age4 ,her father describes her as-- ,a maiden never bold2 ,of spirit so still and quiet1 that her motion ,blush'd at herself4 ,observe1 however1 inwardly she is more advanced than the men4 ,she perceives the low nature of jealousy1 and to ,emilia says touchingly1 8,my noble ,moor is true of mind1 and made of no such baseness as jealous creatures are40 ,alas1 for her generous confidence6 ,and when the base passion transforms her 8noble ,moor0 into a monster of cruelty1 she1 true to the type of her sex at the period1 resembles a pet dog that fawns upon and licks the hand that strikes him4 ,this patient moan is all her utterance-- ',tis meet ,i should be used so1 very meet1 ,how have ,i been behaved that he might stick ,the small'st opinion on my least misuse4 ,the only dignity she shows is in her refusal to display her sorrow before ,emilia3 ,do not talk to me1 ,emilia2 ,i cannot weep1 nor answer ,i have none4 ,jealousy and duelling flourished long after the ,shakesperian period4 ,prose fiction in the eighteenth century is full of the subject of masculine rivalry in the appropriation of the female sex4 ,the woman passionately desired is the prize or reward of a victory in which the hero has manifested adroitness in arts of bloodshed4 ,feminine will plays no part in the decision to which man the heroine shall belong1 and the rivals for her possession make no pretence of superior character as a claim on her favour4 ,the gentle spiritual qualities that alone create union of heart and mind seem unknown4 ,master-hood1 an apotheosis of force1 is the key to the drama2 and the rapid rise of the novel in public esteem shows that pleasurable sensations were closely allied with the barbarous actions and feelings that belong to a militant age4 ,early in the nineteenth century ,george ,eliot draws the hero of her first great novel 7,adam ,bede7 in the act of picking a quarrel with a rival for a woman's love4 ,she shows jealousy in him springing chiefly from a sense of property in ,hetty4 ,the wounded pride and self-importance of a too despotic nature finds relief in fighting ,arthur ,donnithorne4 ,in ,middlemarch the transition to a higher stage of evolution is marked4 ,she gives us there a graphic picture of a woman wrestling with jealousy in the secrecy of her own chamber1 and correctly places in the tenderly emotional nature of that sex the primary impulse to subdue the vile passion4 ,female jealousy made no appeal to arms1 but in a thousand subtle ways it was sending forth currents of anti-social force1 and without a widespread feminine repudiation of jealousy no clear advance to higher social life was possible4 ,dorothea is a true type of progressing womanhood4 ,she gains a victory in the noble warfare we see her waging inwardly1 and1 rising far above the vile passion1 she goes forth to her rival in a glow of generous emotion that not only compels the confidence of the latter1 but for the time draws that selfish1 narrow nature up to the level of her own4 ,there is no false note in this picture1 and if we glance at the transcript of real life at the period we may easily find its counterpart4 ,the well-known writer1 ,mrs4 ,jamieson 7in her ,commonplace ,book7 relates3 8,i was not more than six years old when ,i suffered1 from the fear of not being loved1 and from the idea that another was preferred before me1 such anguish as had nearly killed me6 ,whether those around me regarded it as a fit of ill-temper or a fit of illness ,i do not know4 ,i could not then have given a name to the pang that fevered me1 but ,i never forgot that suffering4 ,it left a deep impression1 and the recollection was so far salutary that in after life ,i guarded myself against the approaches of that hateful1 deformed1 agonizing thing which men call jealousy1 as ,i would from an attack of cramp or cholera4 ,if such self-knowledge has not saved me from the pain1 at least it has saved me from the demoralizing effects of the passion1 by a wholesome terror and even a sort of disgust40 ,the knell of a departing phase of inner life was sounding when womanhood acquired the power to sift evidence from childish recollections1 to detect the utter uselessness of the suffering jealousy creates and the ignominy of allowing it to become a cause of suffering at all4 ,mrs4 ,jamieson stands on the threshold of a new era1 for critical intellect here enters the sphere of the emotions1 and these1 yielding to guidance and control1 human reason is henceforth a prime factor in emotional evolution4 ,but further1 sympathy when developed to a certain point inevitably leads men astray if not guided by reason4 ,let me here relate a sequence of events that occurred in my own experience4 ,two girls became deeply attached2 they worked and studied together1 and their friendship was a source of constant joy4 ,in course of time1 however1 one married1 and the other girl felt forsaken4 ,she suffered from jealousy1 and imagined that the husband would suffer similarly if she kept her place in her friend's affections4 ,a husband's right amounted1 in her view1 to a monopoly of a wife's tenderness4 ,she strove1 therefore1 to loosen the bond of friendship2 to cool her own ardent affection and make no claims1 lest it should disturb conjugal bliss4 ,the action was brave and prompted by sympathy1 but it did not make for happiness4 ,in a few short years the wife on her deathbed spoke thus to her former friend3 8,why did you separate yourself from me8 ,how could you think my love would change8 ,i have been happy in my husband and child1 but love never narrowed1 it widened me4 ,there was plenty of room for friendship1 too4 ,i sorely missed you1 and felt your loss threw a shadow over my married life40 ,sympathy alone1 then1 is no unerring guide to conduct4 ,nevertheless1 in a society permeated by true knowledge of the nature of the emotions and their significance in evolution primitive good-feeling may evolve1 passing through each stage from the basic or simple to the complex1 and every generous emotion prove accordant with the truth of things1 and therefore productive of inward joy and outward right action1 i4e4 action tending to general welfare even in all the labyrinthine complexities of a high civilization4 ,emotion accordant with the truth of things--that is the crux of the position2 and again ,i can best illustrate the point by reference to events that occurred within my own knowledge--events1 too1 by no means uncommon4 ,during eight years a girl was engaged to marry a man we shall call ,roger4 ,he was in ,india and she in ,england4 ,they corresponded1 but meanwhile an intimacy sprang up between the girl and another man--we may call him ,mark--to whom unwittingly her heart went out more warmly than it had ever done to ,roger4 ,she thought the relation to ,mark was one of pure friendship1 and he knew nothing of her engagement to ,roger4 ,the latter's approaching return to ,england1 however1 opened the girl's eyes to her true position1 and on ,mark it fell as a cruel blow4 ,he had courted affection and responded to it in all sincerity1 and was merely withheld from an open avowal by the consciousness of1 as yet1 insufficient means to justify his suit in the eyes of her parents4 ,when concealment was at an end the problem to him seemed simple enough4 8,which do you love best80 he asked1 and added dominantly1 8he is the man you should marry40 ,the girl was not convinced4 ,the knowledge that she could not love ,roger best filled her with tenderness towards him4 ,her emotional nature--wide enough to embrace both rivals with sympathy--could give no decision1 and intellect was confused by false teaching in childhood4 8,duty10 she thought1 8is always difficult2 ought ,i not then to choose the hardest path of the two before me1 and give up ,mark80 ,in this grave dilemma she turned for advice to an elderly man on whose judgment she felt reliance4 ,bravely and truthfully she stated her case1 innocently betraying that ignorance and the wish to do right were dangerously near carrying her into action that was wrong4 8,let us reverse the position10 said her mentor4 8,roger1 we shall suppose1 has written to you to come out to ,india and marry him1 the fact being he has fallen in love with another girl4 ,he did not mean to do that4 ,his heart slipped away from you to her unconsciously1 and he is shocked1 and blames himself1 not wholly without cause4 ,but being an honourable man1 he reasons with himself thus3 #8,i am bound to keep my engagement to ,mary2 ,i will do so1 and strive to make her happy4' ,he meets you then with a lie in his heart1 not on his tongue1 for he will say nothing of your rival and of his sacrifice and pain4 ,would you be happy1 think you8 ,would you miss nothing8 ,and if later you discovered the truth1 would you feel that the generous action was a just one to you80 8,no1 no10 she cried1 8,i never could wish him to sacrifice his happiness to mine2 ,i would infinitely rather he told me the truth1 and married the other girl40 8,precisely so10 said her friend1 8the truth is always best2 but ,i see you think ,roger is less unselfish than you are6 ,is that just to him80 8,i hardly know10 she murmured1 8men are jealous1 are they not80 8,jealous1 ah1 well1 we men are frail1 no doubt6 ,but were ,i ,roger1 ,i tell you frankly1 it would not mend matters to me that ,i had won my wife without the priceless jewel of her love4 ,be true to yourself1 my young friend1 that means also justice to him1 and fling to the winds all fears that make you swerve from the path of open rectitude40 ,the girl fulfilled her difficult task4 ,she relinquished the heroic mood1 met her first lover with perfect candour1 and a short time later became ,mark's wife4 8,roger freed me at once10 she said to her wise mentor2 8he'd rather have my friendship1 which is perfectly sincere1 than love with a strain of falseness4 ,oh1 ,i am glad1 and yet ,i know he grieves2 ,i would give much to be able to console him60 8,ah10 said her friend1 8beware of sentimentality and self-importance there4 ,roger's consolation will come through his own true heart4 ,in time he will love again4 ,see to it that you #8let the dead past bury its dead4'0 ,loyalty to truth is not firmly rooted in humanity1 while without truth as its guiding principle social feeling1 constantly rising1 overflows old channels and floods with new dangers the semi-civilization of the present4 ,there is no escape at this juncture from the absolute necessity of developing the critical faculty and applying it to the social questions of the day2 in other words1 using reason1 intelligence1 knowledge1 as the guides and controllers of feeling4 ,we turn now from personal emotions to an emotion that sways mankind collectively1 and manifests itself in still more direful results than those of individual jealousy4 ,patriotism1 like jealousy1 is of ancient origin1 and at one time possessed social utility4 ,without it there could hardly have occurred the transformation of vagrant tribes into massive communities solidly established on one portion of the earth's surface and sectionally swarming to other portions as occasion requires4 ,the original element holding a tribe together has been termed by a recent sociologist 8consciousness of kind10 i4e4 a feeling not dependent on intellectual congeniality or emotional sympathy1 but simply on nearness in place1 time and blood4 ,with tribal growth cohesion proves necessary to self-protection from adverse environments1 whether of natural forces1 wild animals or human foes4 ,experience reveals that union is strength1 and hostility to other tribes fosters union in opposition4 ,the inward attitude becomes complex2 it embraces cohesion and repulsion2 it is essentially a union in enmity4 ,now we have seen how in boyhood an innocent camaraderie or esprit de corps begets injustice to schoolmasters1 and balks the development of the modern conscience2 similarly here there are ethical dangers inseparable from a sentiment that beginning in 8consciousness of kind0 expands into sociality1 yet has a converse side of hostility and hate4 ,at the present day patriotism and international warfare are closely combined4 ,the student of life who knows that the general trend of evolution is towards a reign of universal peace1 recognizes that although nations have been consolidated by outward warfare and inward patriotism1 this sentiment1 so limited in range and so largely anti-social1 can be no virtue for all time4 ,patriotism belongs to the militant stage of national history1 and as regards ,great ,britain it is plainly out of date4 ,its action is not good1 but evil4 ,the war in ,south ,africa begun in #ahii was not caused by racial enmity1 but by mercantile enterprise4 ,economic forces involved in ,great ,britain's competitive commercial system were the prime factors in its creation1 but without the existence of a vague unintelligent patriotic sentiment in the country generally the ,government would not have been supported by the people in the prosecution of that war4 ,our enfranchised masses1 fired by a sudden enthusiasm and racked by sympathy in the brave deeds and cruel sufferings of our soldiers and sailors1 saw the phantasmagoria of modern warfare in false colours4 ,imagination was grasped and controlled by a press working--though half-unconsciously--in the interests of a special mercantile class2 and while tender emotions overflowed in generous help to one's own kind1 a sympathy stimulated by public laudation1 the reverse side of the picture was ignored4 ,but in this1 as in all wars1 sympathy had its counterpoise in antagonism and rancorous enmity4 ,all the brutal instincts latent in a race that had fought its way to supremacy among ,european ,powers were roused afresh and stirred into fatal activity1 and the evolving modern conscience and sentiments of justice1 honour1 truth towards all men1 were checked and overborne by a loyalty that condones the fierce primitive passions4 ,hatred and uncharitableness were even voiced from some pulpits1 and the term ,pro-,boer was opprobriously launched at those lovers of peace who tried to defend their country's foes from exaggerated blame4 ,it was skilfully handled to promote militant enthusiasm1 and discountenance all criticism of militant action and feeling4 ,on the emotional side of human nature inimical effects of warfare were wholly disregarded1 and opinions on the subject of war given forth by a so-called educated class of men and eagerly imbibed by an ignorant public were confused1 often false and shamefully misleading4 ,one of these pseudo-teachers alleged that the wars of past times indicated chronic disease1 but militarism in the present was useful1 because in the home-life of the nation the restraints of authority are becoming weak 7,capt4 ,mahan74 ,and an eminent statesman announced his impression that the ,south ,african war was 8designed to build up those moral qualities which are after all the only solid and the only permanent foundation on which any empire can be built06 7,mr4 ,balfour's speech at ,manchester2 ,scotsman's ,report1 ,january #i1 #aijj47 ,but the true method of judging an event is to exercise comparison1 taking into account a far greater mass of social phenomena than that of the immediate present4 ,now the careful study of past history has proved that an outbreak of militant fraternity1 combined with indulgence in the principle of enmity1 leaves a society less fraternal than before in regard to the labours of peace and of building up2 and against the claim that military training is a good preparation for civic life there lies the whole testimony of civilization4 ,further1 the survival of militancy frustrates the solving of our great social problems1 and the recent relapse to the militarist ideal is a grave hindrance to that social science which would provide the true ways of humanizing defective types4 7,i refer my reader for a fuller statement on these lines to ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson's ,patriotism and ,empire47 8,after ,waterloo10 says ,mr4 ,robertson1 8it seems to have been realized by the intelligence of ,europe that militarism and imperialism had alike pierced the hands that leant on them40 ,nevertheless1 they reappeared1 as we know1 galvanized into fatal activity in human affairs1 at the close of the nineteenth century4 ,again1 the action of international capitalism and the ideal of imperialism have been analysed from the standpoint of social philosophy by ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,hobson1 an advanced and logical thinker on economic questions4 ,his conclusion is that the driving forces of aggressive imperialism are the organized influences of certain professional and commercial classes which have definite economic advantages to gain by assuming a spurious patriotism1 and the most potent of all these influences emanates from the financier4 ,the power of financiers1 exerted directly upon politicians and indirectly through the press upon public opinion1 is1 perhaps1 so says ,mr4 ,hobson1 the most serious problem in public life to-day4#e ,footnote #e3 ,the ,contemporary ,review of ,january1 #aijj4 ,it is not by sanguinary conflicts in which victory turns on superior numbers1 superior arms1 and superior cunning in military tactics1 that a nation's greatness is built up at this period of the world's history4 ,what progress demands is not more of national wealth and international power2 it is a better system of industrial life and a finer type of humanity--men and women of clear intellectual insight1 high moral courage1 unselfish instincts and humane sentiments guiltless of narrow exclusiveness4 ,these men and women1 discerning ideally the best methods of building up a nation's greatness on the happiness of its people1 will aid our half-civilized races to embody that ideal on the physical plane1 and to educate their children to live up to it and show forth all its beauty4 ,in the mental basis of a high spiritual life even now our children are a reproach1 for here and there they emit sparks indicative of embryonic sentiment in advance of practice around them4 ,at the height of the ,boer ,war a child in his nursery on being told that his nurse was opening a tin of boar's head for breakfast1 exclaimed1 every feature quivering with sudden disgust1 8,catch me eat my enemy's head40 ,when a nation repudiates with similar disgust that wholesale destruction of life1 which is no whit less evil than the cannibalism of an earlier date1 then will war and patriotism cease to be--their place taken by a civilization standing firm on the foundation of human happiness and love4 ,given such outward conditions of life as are favourable to a freer exercise of the noblest social attributes and impulses of man1 and the ethical temper will prevail4 ,by ethical temper ,i mean not only the absence of all animosities that engender conflict1 but the presence of a strong sense of personal rights and an equally strong protectiveness over the rights of others--a national impulse1 in short1 to an equivalence of liberty and social comfort for all mankind4 ,but this justice is a supremely complex emotion--the one of all others that demands most of human capacity4 ,it rests upon mental development1 i4e4 a universal enlargement of mind4 ,industrial changes there must be1 but these alone will not secure progress2 we need true education1 for in the deeper strata of existence--the region of feeling1 the movements of change must be guided from the old order to the new4 ,hence the vital importance of moral education--an education that will create an intelligent appreciation of truth wherever presented1 and bind all men together in loyalty to truth4 ,,part ,v ,,education ,,or ,,direct ,,training ,,of ,,childhood ,,to ,,the ,,civilized ,,habit ,,of ,,mind ,we acquire the virtues by doing the acts4 ,we become builders by building4 ,,aristotle4 ,,education ,next in importance to the inborn nature is the acquired nature which a person owes to his education and training2 not alone to the education which is called learning1 but to that development of character which has been evoked by the conditions of life4--,dr4 ,h4 ,,maudsley4 ,we are beginning to realize the responsibilities that rest on each generation of adults in respect of the life evolving around us4 ,it is not merely the structure and texture of civilization that is affected by every passing generation1 it is the intrinsic quality of the human life to follow4 ,we have seen how the laws of heredity largely decide the physical embodiment of the coming lives as a resultant of the reproductive action of parents whether motived by ethical principle or by unrestrained animal passion4 ,we have now to consider the second great human factor in man's evolution1 viz4 nurture or education1 which depends in its highest terms upon sound knowledge and the application of that knowledge by men and women of the period4 ,in an advanced scientific age1 the reproductive forces of man will be socially controlled and guided to the creation of normal1 i4e4 healthy1 physical life2 while the whole apparatus of nurture1 or the entire range of influence1 playing upon childhood1 will manifest a rational adaptation of means to a special end1 namely1 the elevation of humanity4 ,adaptation necessarily becomes more difficult with the growing complexities of evolving humanity1 but never has man's intellect been stronger than to-day to grapple with difficult problems1 or so furnished with the facts required in dealing with this problem of education4 ,the marvellous scientific discoveries of the nineteenth century and the practical uses to which these discoveries are put1 have created in man a new attitude towards external nature4 ,all ,western nations partake of the scientific bent4 ,they are interpenetrated by reverence for science1 and are conscious that its method of close observation and study of nature is the direct road to material progress4 ,this bent is influencing school education4 ,there are few thoughtful teachers to-day who do not recognize that some hours spent at intervals in country lanes and fields1 on the sea-shore1 or in a farm-yard1 with children free to observe according to native impulse1 when followed by careful instruction concerning the objects observed1 are of far more value than weeks of book-learning indoors4 ,in many parts of ,america 8nature-studies0 on this plan are worked into the public school curriculum4#f ,but adaptation implies also a fuller knowledge of the rudimentary faculties which are to be scientifically nurtured1 and here again ,america has taken the lead4 ,in its 8child-study0 movement1 now spreading in this country1 an effort is made to apprehend nature's processes in unfolding mental powers2 and the inference is that teachers may thwart progress by traversing the true order of mental development4 ,this clearly indicates the entrance of a scientific spirit into the field of education4 ,it shows regard for the order of nature1 willingness to be guided by knowledge of that order1 and a conviction that the laws of a child's inner being must be respected and no arbitrary compulsion exercised in bringing him into harmony with the laws of the environment4 ,footnote #f3 ,the schools of to-day are made more and more into miniature worlds where children are taught how to live4 ,the actual industries of the world as well as its art galleries1 museums and parks are being utilized as part of public school equipment4 ,the children are taken to the shops1 the markets1 the gardens1 etc4 ,the ,new ,spirit of ,education1 by ,arthur ,henry1 ,munsey's ,magazine1 #aijb4 ,a child's capacities1 however1 are not centred in his intellect4 ,on the passional side of his being1 his spontaneous impulses of desire1 fear1 joy1 grief1 love1 hatred1 jealousy1 etc41 have to be studied1 and educative forces found for their guidance and control4 ,moreover1 the ultimate aim is not his subjection to fixed rules of life1 but the establishment within the heart of the child of a supreme rule over all his passions4 ,and again1 every child has characteristics indicative of the course of development undergone by the special race to which he belongs4 ,the geographical position and primitive industry of that race1 its conquests and failures in struggling upwards from savagery to a measure of civilization--all have left an impress in specific effects4 ,in respect of our formal methods of giving instruction there is much that is open to discussion2 but the points usually raised are the best means of teaching grammar1 history1 geography1 arithmetic1 and so forth1 not the far more important question of how best to achieve an all-round development in face of the organic unity and marvellous multiplicity of qualities in the child of a civilized race4 ,great improvement has taken place in every branch of school teaching both as regards the knowledge of teachers and the methods they adopt in imparting the knowledge2 nevertheless1 these improvements are minor matters as compared with the general question before us4 ,during the rise and progress of our industrial system based on individualism1 the constant fluctuations of trade1 the competing of machinery against human labour1 the perpetual danger of getting thrown out of work1 the utter failure of thrift as any protection from intermittent poverty--have been factors eminently calculated to produce a highly nervous type of humanity4 ,children of that type may happily prove bright and eager amid wretched surroundings1 but it were folly to expect them to show any impulse towards a high standard of living1 any outlook beyond the immediate present1 or any inherent check upon action socially immoral4 ,on the other hand1 our city workers have sprung mainly from an agricultural class whose scattered families presented the defects of a low order of life reared in isolation4 ,many of these defects have been counteracted by segregation within towns1 however unfavourable in other directions that may have proved4 ,the close proximity of beings affected by the same fateful conditions1 the actual sorrowing and rejoicing together have expanded the emotional nature and engendered true sympathy4 ,professor ,huxley once said1 8,it is futile to expect a hungry and squalid population to be anything but violent and gross40 ,yet we have an immense population of workers1 often hungry1 and at all times environed more or less by squalor1 whose average character is not violent and gross1 but distinctly humane4 ,turning from the masses to the classes we find some points of difference between the rich and the poor1 viz4 differences following from the diverse industrial conditions4 ,leisure1 as commanded by the rich1 has made mental development possible wherever desire prompted intellectual effort1 and the magnificent record of last century's achievements in discovery of truth1 acquisition of knowledge1 and promotion of artistic skill1 is a gain to the world at large--a gain made possible by accumulation of wealth unequally distributed4 ,but intellectual faculty has frequently been depraved through its devotion to wealth production4 ,the true aims of life are lost sight of by chiefs of industry whose emotional nature has hardened under the daily spectacle of struggling fellow-beings1 on whose labour their fortunes are built up4 ,the dignity of useful labour has had no vogue in general education4 ,an opposite principle--that the highest dignity consists in being served by others and in possessing the means of constraining and exploiting the labour of others1 is impressed on the children of our classes by the whole play of circumstance around them4 ,the property-sense has become unduly developed1 and a selfish mammon-worship holds the place which an altruistic public spirit ought to hold in the inner life of a civilized people4 ,it is true that a showy charity--a patronage by the rich of the poor--is everywhere present throughout society1 but that which creates and supports it is a sentiment wholly different from the simple kindness of the poor to the poor4 ,it is without the essential features of that charity that 8vaunteth not itself1 is not puffed up1 seeketh not her own 444 thinketh no evil40 ,now the scientific spirit of to-day1 in observing the uncontrolled play of middle-class children1 has discovered how great is their interest and joy in the spontaneous exercise of the faculty of make-believe4 ,costly toys will readily be thrown aside to take part in a game of 8pretended0 housekeeping or shopkeeping1 or acting the part of father1 mother1 nursemaid1 or cook4 ,and herein there lies1 says one of our advanced teachers1 8a powerful hint how to keep children's attention alive while cultivating to the utmost their imaginative1 observing1 constructive and correlating faculties4 ,we must dramatize our school education and connect school ideally with real life40 7,mr4 ,howard ,swan2 his introductory lecture at the opening of ,bedford ,park ,school47 ,but the 8powerful hint0 goes deeper4 ,it points to an instinct or a deeply implanted desire and capacity for actual work on the part of children of a practical race4 ,to play at work is pleasurable1 to do work more pleasurable still4 ,yet in blindness to the fact that in drawing out into action every rudimentary faculty favourable to happy life lies the true path of education or an all-round development1 society has shut off middle and upper-class children from the sight and hearing of household labour4 ,in nurseries1 amid artificial toys1 their daily routine is to seek amusement self-centred2 and as in these days of small rather than large families1 nursery children are often solitary1 there is a systematic repression both of natural activities and infolded natural emotions4 ,the same repressions are carried forward into school life4 ,dramatized teaching may connect school ideally with real life1 but it cannot satisfy a child's cravings for the real1 and the companionship of children of similar age will never call out the complex forces of a many-sided emotional nature4 ,it is not playing at life that is required for education1 it is the sharing of life's duties of service1 and constant opportunity given for the practice of varied humanities4 ,the children of our superior workers may perchance fare better if the mother is a capable woman1 and the home not overcrowded4 ,the lighter parts of her work are shared by the little ones1 and to help mother in sweeping and dusting1 washing cups and saucers1 and placing them neatly in the cupboard1 etc41 are not only interesting and useful occupations1 they are educative1 for they imply a simultaneous training of the eye1 the fingers1 the mental faculties and the heart4 ,but overcrowding1 the miserable housing of the poor1 and the early age at which infant school-life begins1 makes such home-training difficult even to the best of mothers1 while to the upper classes--frost-bound in artificial domestic customs1 all home-training seems impossible4 ,nothing1 however1 should deter a student of evolution from proclaiming that the home-life of our people will largely decide the nation's future4 ,unless the great problem of the housing of the poor is rightly solved1 and unless educated women become roused to the necessity of a changed home-life in the interests of their children1 and set themselves voluntarily to the task of domestic reform within their own circle1 the social state can never be greatly improved4 ,all children born in a civilized nation have a right to education4 ,that this principle has been fully acknowledged is evidenced by our ,educational ,acts and the innumerable ,board ,schools that stud the country4 ,but as long as population among the masses rises without check1 the highest aim of education1 viz4 the development and elevation of individual character must1 as regards their children1 remain in abeyance4 ,the only practicable line of action is to gather them together into large schools1 and while bestowing general instruction in reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 etc41 to subject them to some hours of systematic guidance and control4 ,this signifies obedience to rule and order--a useful discipline to juveniles of ,bohemian nature1 and it is the only method of restraining tendencies to licence1 without rousing a spirit of revolt4 ,fresh air1 wholesome food1 ample bathing1 and the play of sunlight and colour upon nerves of sensation--these stimulate bodily health1 while music1 and the personal influence of high-minded teachers1 throw into vibration finer nerves of sensibility1 and elevate the mental and moral tone4 ,but beyond this point1 large schools are incapable of scientific adaptation to the needs of a modern education in a rapidly socializing community4 ,it was in the year #ahcg that there issued from the press a work on education written by ,isaac ,taylor1 who there lays down this proposition3 8,if large schools were granted to be generally better adapted to the practical ends of education than private instruction1 the welfare of society on the whole demands also the other method4 ,the school-bred man is of one sort1 the home-bred man of another--the community has need of both4 ,hence no tyranny of fashion is more to be resisted than such as would render a public education compulsory and universal40#g ,notwithstanding this warning1 the tyranny of fashion is carrying us yearly more and more into the production of school-bred women1 as well as school-bred men4 ,our girls' high schools are replicas of our boys' public schools1 and society suffers still more from the loss of the home-bred woman than the home-bred man4 ,footnote #g3 ,home ,education1 p4 #bb4 ,again1 the late ,professor ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 in his charmingly-written ,day-dreams of a ,schoolmaster1 gives us the fruits of a ripe experience gained during twelve years of boyhood in a large public school1 and many years of manhood as teacher of classics in schools and university4 ,his boyhood1 he tells us1 was dreary because of the monotonous routine4 ,he was 8fed on dull books1 and the manuals were in many cases mere tramways to pedantry4 ,his mental training was a continuous sensation of obstruction and pain4 ,his spiritual parts were furrowed40 7,observe1 there were no nature-studies at that period47 ,the incitement to effort was the cane or the tawse1 and flogging1 he believes1 never instils courage1 it has transformed many a boy into a sneak4 8,let us discard punishment10 says the ,professor1 8and endeavour to make our pupils love work40 ,the whole educational system in his day was mechanical and artificial1 yet when he strove to initiate new methods the boys were withdrawn from his charge4 ,parents understood little of true education4 ,they were slaves to custom4 8,how is it10 he asks1 8that fathers with a personal experience like my own send their boys to school80 ,he answers3 8,they say to themselves1 #8,depend upon it if there were no virtue in birching and caning1 in ,latin verses and ,greek what-you-may-call-'ems1 they would not have held their ground so long amongst a practical people like ourselves6' ,so ,johnnie is sent to the town grammar school and the great time-honoured gerund-stone turns as before1 and will turn to the last syllable of recorded time40 ,for the gerund-stone he would substitute an easy viv voce conversational method of instruction in all elementary classes1 and throughout the school2 for coercion1 the more than hydraulic pressure of a persistent1 continuous gentleness4 ,thirty years before the ,day-dreams was published1 one writer at least was open-eyed to the defects of school education4 ,he charged parents with adopting the new boarding-school system because it spared them some responsibility1 and children were apt to be teasing and importunate4 8,boys advance at school quickly10 he said1 8in knowledge of the auxiliary verbs1 the mysteries of syntax and the stories of gods and goddesses2 but ,i am confident that the reason why women generally are so much better disposed than men is this3 they live domestically and familiarly4 ,they are penetrated with the home-spirit1 they are imbued with all its influences1 their memory is not fed to plethora while the heart is left to waste and perish4 ,no daughter of mine shall ever be sent to school2 at home the heart1 wherein are the issues of all good1 develops itself from day to day4 ,there children ripen in their affections4 ,there they learn their humanities1 not in the academic sense1 but in the natural and true one40#h ,footnote #h3 ,self-,formation1 by ,capel ,lofft1 vol4 #a1 p4 #db4 ,where1 alas6 do we find to-day the daughters of the classes who are not sent to school8 ,our girls' high schools overflow2 and that1 not by the action of ,state control1 but by the voluntarily assumed yoke and tyranny of fashion4 ,girls emerging from these schools are not 8so much better disposed than men40 ,they are certainly not domesticated and imbued with a home-spirit4 ,they may have gained in refinement--even to fastidiousness6 and in the knowledge of ,latin and ,greek1 or what is called the higher culture1 but they are characterized generally by a spirit of pleasure-seeking4 ,they become1 in many cases1 what has aptly been called 8nonsense women1 prepared only to lead butterfly lives40 ,now1 parents who shirk the responsibility and effort entailed in shaping their children's characters to the best of their ability can only expect their own self-indulgence to become intensified in the lives of their children4 ,let me not1 however1 be here misunderstood4 ,the movement for the higher education of women is a step forward in civilization4 ,many women are born with great mental capacity1 and without the specific intellectual culture now obtainable the world would lose much1 while the nonexercise of such native powers creates inward misery4 ,but culture1 according to ,matthew ,arnold1 implies the study of perfection1 and the late ,professor ,huxley's ideal is expressed as follows3--8,that man has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will1 and does with ease and pleasure all the work that as a mechanism it is capable of2 whose intellect is clear1 with all its parts of equal strength and in smooth working order2 whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of ,nature and of the laws of her operations2 one who--no stunted ascetic--is full of life and fire1 but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will1 the servant of a tender conscience2 who has learnt to love all beauty1 to hate all vileness1 and to respect others as himself4 ,such an one and no other has had a liberal education1 for he is as completely as man can be in harmony with nature40 7,an ,address at ,south ,london ,working ,men's ,college1 ,january1 #ahfi47 ,childhood is characterized by sensational activity4 ,the reflective and reasoning powers lie comparatively dormant4 ,mobile sensibility is the distinguishing feature of childhood1 and parents and teachers taking advantage of the law of nature whereby pleasurable sensation stimulates growth should train children step by step to the enjoyment of useful activities1 to physical and manual dexterity2 to simple efforts in pursuit of knowledge2 to infantile firmness in discharge of duty2 to unconstrained dignity in defence of the right1 and sympathetic jealousy over the rights of others2 to gentleness towards all mankind2 to admiration of all that is noble in character1 to veneration of age1 experience and virtue2 and to the love of truth and justice and personal devotion to both4 ,these are the qualities of human nature that make for real civilization2 and further progress requires their steady development in the race4 ,now1 these qualities cannot be evoked by school methods nor even by the easy viv voce conversational instruction proposed by ,professor ,thompson4 ,an indispensable factor in the process is a rich1 full1 domestic environment1 an atmosphere suffused with affection and vibrating with varied activities--a home-life1 in short1 where the delicate qualities of noble character will not be commanded to come forth1 but will come of themselves through the play of circumstance1 i4e4 by the action of example and gentle sympathetic co-operation4 ,in upper-class houses1 even where wealth and luxury abound1 there are none of the diverse and liberal domestic surroundings conducive to early training4 ,the first essential is that the nurseries be freed from all physical1 mental and moral forces that belong to a comparatively primitive stage of evolution4 ,nurses drawn from the masses--however carefully selected--are incompetent by nurture for training infants in the best way4 ,the authority they have known has been archaic1 and elements of barbarism have been near them from babyhood1 while education as yet has done little to raise their intelligence to the plane of civilized thought4 ,hence an ordinary nurse1 of kindly and affectionate disposition1 may seriously misdirect the budding conscience of a babe1 as ,i have shown in my chapters on ,emotional ,life4 ,to women of great attainments and culture the training of infancy properly belongs1 and that training in the homes of the classes will be of the highest value to the ,state4 ,the problem of how to create in childhood a ready obedience to authority without jarring the nerves1 or checking freedom unnecessarily1 is a very difficult one4 ,it requires a cultured intelligence to grasp the problem and carry out the true method of its solution4 ,the aim in the training of infancy is to develop superior types of men and women by evoking the higher qualities of human nature in a sphere of comparative liberty4 ,a babe in the nursery1 let us say1 has had his attention caught by the flames leaping up in the well-guarded grate4 ,he creeps towards them and pushes his fingers through the wires of the guard4 ,the educated nurse gently lifts him to a safe distance1 but he starts creeping again to the fire4 ,now there are in the nursery some baskets of different size and depth1 all softly lined and weighted4 ,baby is put into one of these to amuse himself with a toy until the fascinating flames are forgotten4 ,an older child flings her ball in another child's face4 ,nurse tells her the ball might hurt1 but on persistence in the selfish amusement she1 too1 is firmly placed in a larger basket or nursery prison1 and must stay there till the impulse to be disobedient has passed off2 for the principle which guides nurse in the training of these infants is this3 liberty abused must be abridged4 ,after a few such experiences the little ones feel that a network is around them--a network of authority never physically painful and that has no connection with anger4 ,as the reasoning powers develop they feel that liberty is theirs in the straight course of obedience to authority1 and later they find that this authority represents a knowledge of the laws of nature1 for when in garden and field they join in the nature-study lessons1 they discover that if plants creep into unfavourable conditions1 they languish2 if animals run counter to laws of health1 they suffer and die4 ,from nursery to home-training the infants pass forward4 ,their nerves have never been irritated by harshness1 nor their affections repressed1 and their impulses to unhurtful activities are of normal strength4 ,in the more advanced training now given1 the aim is no longer to impress automatically1 but rationally to guide the growing intelligence4 ,blind obedience is not required1 but every command is explained and related to the facts of happy and healthful life4 ,at this point a discriminating judgment is profoundly necessary1 and the child should be studied individually1 for to each there comes the right moment when self-rule is possible1 and unless outward restraints are wisely withdrawn that power of self-rule may be injured4 ,the human types to be desired are not slavish1 but independent beings1 capable of noble service to ,god and man2 and choosing to do right because they know true happiness lies that way4 ,at sixteen or upwards the young thus trained may safely leave home for high school or university1 in pursuit of the special instruction required for their future career4 ,an education that has laid the foundation of noble character1 comes to no abrupt conclusion4 ,the love of truth when firmly implanted prompts to the acquisition of new knowledge1 and knowledge is boundless as the universe4 ,fields of science become the happy hunting-ground of minds that are markedly intellectual1 and although self-culture supersedes formal instruction1 and original research supersedes the following of authority1 education moves continuously and steadily forward4 8,the environment10 says ,clifford ,harrison1 8that lies open to men rationally developed is as vast as the ideal that lies before them4 ,this environment is not a spiritual matter merely2 not of the soul alone1 but of body1 mind1 soul and spirit2 not of heaven only1 but of earth as well2 not of eternity and a beyond1 but of time and here40 ,,part ,,vi ,,conditions ,,in ,,aid ,,of ,,happy ,,life ,,in ,a ,,developing ,,civilization ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,needs ,,of ,,adolescence ,the woman's cause is man's3 they rise or sink ,together1 dwarf'd1 or godlike1 bond or free3 ,if she be small1 slight-natured1 miserable1 ,how shall men grow8 --,,tennyson4 ,adolescence is a critical period in the life of an individual4 ,at that period1 character1 speaking generally1 fully manifests1 and the life is decided for good or evil4 ,what advanced ethics requires is that each adult generation should deliberately examine its inheritance from the previous1 less conscious1 less informed epoch1 in order to detect and destroy every social snare that entangles unwary feet in adolescence2 and to devise the best methods of bringing to the young the wisdom and sympathy of their seniors4 ,in the autobiography of the late ,anthony ,trollope 7vol4 #a1 p4 #fi71 some facts of his own adolescence are stated in a spirit as generous as it is candid4 ,his fate1 like that of thousands of young men in his day1 and in the present day1 was to live at that critical time in a town1 surrounded by all the attractions that a keen competitive commercialism has created to supplement profits--though at the expense of young men's money and morals--and with no private retreat save a solitary lodging1 a shelter1 but in no sense a home4 8,no allurement to decent respectability10 he says1 8came in my way40 ,for the spending of his evenings1 the choice lay between what he calls 8questionable resorts0 and sitting alone reading or drinking tea4 8,there was no house in which ,i could habitually see a lady's face and hear a lady's voice1 and in these circumstances the temptations of loose life will almost certainly prevail with a young man2 at any rate they prevailed with me40#i ,similar evidence may be found in a realistic1 powerful novel1 ,jude the ,obscure4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,hardy there depicts the tragedy of unfulfilled aims1 the shipwreck of what might have been a noble life2 and the cause of shipwreck is pointed out in the words of the dying ,jude3 8,my impulses and affections were too strong 444 a man without advantages should be as cold-blooded as a fish and as selfish as a pig to have a really good chance of being one of his country's worthies40 ,now1 affection and the impulse to love purely can never be too strong for the interests of general evolution1 therefore we are entitled to assume that the environment is at fault4 ,the fact that thousands of young men deprived of healthy home-life succumb to the temptations of city-life1 condemns our industrial competition4 ,public consciousness has not grasped the needs and dangers of adolescence1 and the slowly evolving community-conscience disregards the terrible penalty paid in general degradation for retaining a system of industry that produces among other evils 8questionable resorts where young men see life in false1 delusive colours40 ,these and all other injurious outcomes of our tragic struggle for the necessaries and amenities of life1 will persist until the individualistic system of industry disappears1 i4e4 is superseded by a rational collectivist system4 ,standing as we do on the verge of conscious evolution1 that time is not yet1 but something may be done by parents and guardians of youth to counteract the evils of a transitional epoch4 ,footnote #i3 ,more recently still the world has been afforded a glance into the inner history of a life destined to noble uses and high achievements4 ,in the meridian of his fame ,professor ,huxley wrote thus to ,charles ,kingsley3 8,kicked into the world a boy without guide or training1 or with worse than none1 ,i confess to my shame that few men have drunk deeper of all kinds of sin than ,i4 ,happily my course was arrested in time--before ,i had earned absolute destruction--and for long years ,i have been slowly and painfully climbing1 with many a fall1 towards better things40--,life of ,professor ,huxley1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bbj4 ,progress in an evolving society largely depends upon true union1 i4e4 mental1 emotional and spiritual union of the sexes4 ,but a careful examination of the prominent movements in society1 and especially the various divisions of the woman's emancipation movement1 reveals that all are defective through inattention to this fundamental need4 ,they do not aim at social conditions in which solidarity of heart and soul will naturally ensue4 ,the woman movement is the issue in great measure of pent-up forces of youth in the female sex of the upper classes4 ,it is less the revolt of labour against poverty1 injustice1 and overtaxed strength1 than a revolt from enforced idleness on the part of the victims of wealth4 ,the position is graphically put before us by the late ,charles ,reade in his amusing tale ,the ,woman ,hater4 ,fanny ,dover1 a common enough type of upper-class femininity1 appears to the woman-hater a mere shallow-minded1 selfish coquette1 till suddenly at an unexpected emergency she assumes new and very different colours4 8,how is this80 he exclaims4 8,you were always a bright girl and no fool1 but not exactly what humdrum people call good 444 you are not offended80 8,the idea10 says ,fanny1 8why ,i have publicly denounced goodness again and again40 8,yes1 and yet you turn out as good as gold6444 ,i have watched you2 you are all over the house to serve two suffering women4 ,you are cook1 housemaid1 nurse and friend to both of them4 ,in an interval of your time so creditably employed you cheer me up with your bright little face and give me wise advice6 ,explain the phenomenon40 8,my dear ,harrington1 if you cannot read so shallow a character as ,i am1 how will you get on with those ladies upstairs 444 but there1 ,i will have pity on you4 ,you shall understand one woman before you die 444 give me a cigarette4444 ,what women love and can't do without if they are young and spirited1 is excitement4 ,i am one who pines for it4 ,society is so constructed that to get excitement you must be naughty4 ,waltzing 444 flirting1 etc41 are excitement1 444 dining en famille1 going to bed at ten1 etc41 are stagnation2 good girls mean stagnant girls2 ,i hate and despise these tame little wretches2 ,i never was one and never will be4 ,but look here1 we have two ladies in love with one villain--that is exciting4 ,one gets nearly killed in the house--that is gloriously exciting2 the other is broken-hearted4 ,if ,i were to be a bad girl and say3 #8,it is not my business2 ,i will leave them to themselves and go my little mill-round of selfishness as before1 why what a fool ,i must be6 ,i should lose excitement4 ,instead of that ,i run and get things for the ,klosking--excitement4 ,i cook for her and nurse her and sit up half the night--excitement4 ,then ,i run to ,zoe and do my best for her or get snubbed--excitement4 ,then ,i sit at the head of your table and order you--excitement4 ,oh6 it is lovely4' #8,shall you be sorry when they both get well and routine re-commences8' ,of course ,i shall2 that is the sort of good girl ,i am40 ,this youthful exuberance or restlessness is favourable to social advance1 and the woman movement has accomplished good service in claiming and turning it to useful account4 ,but here1 as in all partial reforms1 new evils dog the footsteps of the new good effected4 ,to-day we have numerous city workers of the female as well as the male sex1 compelled by the exigencies of their labour to live far apart from their nearest and dearest1 in solitary lodgings like ,anthony ,trollope1 or at best in the make-believe homes limited to inmates of one sex4 ,i do not infer that these girls fall under any special temptations to licence1 but1 deprived as they are of the immediate influences of early associations and the subtle tendernesses of home-life1 ,i hold it impossible that their emotional human nature should not suffer loss4 ,their need for the happy and useful exercise of activities which were running into mischievous courses1 is satisfactorily met1 but at the expense of domestic traits1 and these are precisely what lie at the root of human fellowship--that union of heart and soul which is indispensable to true progress4 ,some social reformers regard the higher education of women movement as a potent factor in uniting men and women through the mutual interests of cultured thought4 ,a knowledge1 however1 of ,greek1 ,latin1 the classics1 etc41 accomplishes little so long as the sexes are not educated together1 and this form of culture has no direct bearing on elevation of character and development of the emotional side of human nature4 ,cricket1 golf1 and all our fashionable out-door sports have done more1 in creating mutual interests and furthering progress by securing for girls greater social freedom than was previously theirs1 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,massingham spoke truly when he said3 8,no special complications have followed in any marked degree the vast extension that has taken place in the field of girls' free companionship with men4 ,yet what would our fathers have thought of it80#aj ,but sports are for the hours of leisure1 and ample leisure belongs only to the idle or to a minor section of female workers4 ,meanwhile we have thousands of young women1 of different calibre to ,fanny ,dover1 whose noblest attribute1 viz4 their innate capacity for all the finer vibrations of social feeling1 is never called into play4 ,footnote #aj3 ,ethical ,world1 ,june1 #aijj4 ,amid all the kaleidoscopic scenes of our transition period1 a new figure of womanhood has undoubtedly appeared--a type not characterized by frivolity or love of excitement1 but by strenuousness1 sincerity1 refinement1 moral courage1 a will-force in short1 that breaking through selfish limitations seeks nobler spheres of action4 ,this will-force is subject to constant recoil4 ,it is thrown back on itself by adverse conditions of society1 of industry1 of private individual life4 ,in ,jude the ,obscure this new type of woman is skilfully sketched4 ,susan ,bridehead is a creature of high aspiration1 rich inward resources and manifold imperfections4 ,she has foibles and feminine vanities1 but the human nature is essentially large-minded1 generous1 truthful4 8,i did not flirt10 she says to ,jude1 8but a craving to attract and captivate1 regardless of the injury it might do1 was in me 444 my liking for you is not as some women's perhaps1 but it is a delight in being with you of a supremely delicate kind 444 ,i did want and long to ennoble some man to high aims40 ,here we have love transferred from the lower reaches of pure sensation to a higher level of tender sentiment1 and energized from the intellectual plane4 ,this denotes a slow evolution of ages during which all the grossness1 i4e4 the coarser vibrations of primitive love1 are transmuted into the finer vibrations of sympathetic1 altruistic feeling4 ,it is important to see clearly the distinction between primitive and modern love1 in order that no confusion may arise in contemplating the ideal social life that scientific meliorism forecasts4 ,the intrinsic quality of primitive love is illustrated in ,mrs4 ,bishop's description of her favourite horse's attachment4 8,i am to him an embodiment of melons1 cucumbers1 grapes1 pears1 peaches1 biscuits and sugar1 with a good deal of petting and ear-rubbing thrown in60 ,human attachments based on these pleasurable sensations or simple animal appetites and passions1 form the main soldering ingredients in humanity's mass2 but love's development has marched concurrently with true civilization1 and to men and women in the van of civilization one chief cause of misery to-day is repression of the normal1 healthy impulse to pure and unselfish love4 ,unselfishness is the distinguishing feature of higher forms of love1 and an unselfishness that had its origin not in conjugal union but in motherhood4 ,mr4 ,finck1 in his study of love's evolution1 puts it thus3 8,the helpless infant could not survive without a mother's self-sacrificing care1 hence there was an important use for womanly sympathy which caused it to survive and grow while man immersed in wars and struggles remained hard of heart and knew not tenderness4444 ,selfishness in a man is perhaps less offensive because competition and the struggle for existence necessarily foster it40 7,henry ,finck's ,primitive ,love1 pp4 #afj-afa47 ,the social need for a specialized unselfishness has tended to differentiate the sexes emotionally1 and in process of building up the entire structure of social life the pressure of outward forces has carried this differentiation further4 ,i am not then traversing the natural laws of evolution when ,i assume that all questions relating to women are at this date pre-eminently important4 ,the population problem1 as ,i have shown1 can only be solved through a diminution of the birth-rate1 and throughout the ,british nation the family group is breaking up4 ,it is disintegrating especially in the upper and middle classes4 ,the movement towards industrial socialism is the outcome of masculine thought and energy4 ,man is its mainspring1 although many thoughtful women take part in it4 ,conversely1 the house-ruler1 woman1 must be the mainspring of a movement towards domestic socialism1 although no success will accrue without the steadfast aid and co-operation of man4 ,that some women are already fitted to begin this great work is evident from much of our female public service4 ,let me quote some words recently spoken of lady-workers by a male critic1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,massingham3 8,they have moral courage and refinement4 ,they do not tire more easily than men2 they do not shirk the detail work2 they take to drudgery40 ,pioneers of the new movement must be religious in the best sense1 i4e4 their philosophy must bring into touch the worlds seen and unseen1 inspiring action conducive to personal and universal happiness4 ,the task before them is of double intent1 viz4 of immediate utility and of far-reaching benefit4 ,it will attract inferior natures as well as the superior1 for a well-organized modern home will present more convenience1 comforts and embellishments than the family homes of the past or present1 and at smaller expense4 ,herein a certain danger lurks4 ,pioneers will have to guard against dropping out of the enterprise its supreme purpose and main evolutional value1 viz4 the raising humanity on to higher levels of happiness4 ,there is no other policy to this end than that of domestically uniting the sexes from infancy1 in order that in the idealistic period of adolescence soul may meet soul with fearless unreserve and young men and women realize by experience that in the pure realms of thought and feeling the closest union is possible4 ,it is this union manifesting in dual sympathy that will become the liberating force of the world1 and in it and through it woman's emancipation will be complete4 ,woman is not undevelopt man ,but diverse 444 ,yet in the long years liker must they grow2 ,the man be more of woman1 she of man2 ,he gain in sweetness and in moral height1 ,she mental breadth1 nor fail in child-ward care ,till at the last she set herself to man1 ,like perfect music unto noble words2 ,and so these twain upon the skirts of time1 ,sit side by side 444 ,dispensing harvest1 sowing the ,to-be1 ,self-reverent each and reverencing each ,distinct in individualities1 ,but like each other ev'n as those who love4 ,then comes the statelier ,eden back to men2 ,then springs the crowning race of humankind1 ,may these things be6 ,the ,princess4--,,tennyson4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,domestic ,,reform ,the animating spring of all improvement in individuals and in societies is not the knowledge of the actual but the conception of the possible4--,h4 ,,martineau4 ,how shall the new era be inaugurated8 ,by ceasing to strive for self and family2 by thinking of both only as instruments of the common weal4--,,prof4 ,a4 ,w4 ,,bickerton4 ,the model family home of the ,british middle class half a century ago comprised a father and mother of sound constitution and domestic habits with a group of children of both sexes--a group large enough to supply companionship to one another1 and a family income sufficient for comfortable maintenance and recreation1 occasional travel and the free exercise of hospitality4 ,if homes of this type were widely and firmly established throughout the land they might be competent to breed1 nurture and send forth into the world a good average material of human life for repairing waste and building up the ,british nation4 ,but in the present epoch such homes are exceedingly rare1 and the trend of social forces and modern ideas alike make for their becoming still rarer4 ,to speak only of the more obvious factors of change1 ,state action in reference to the education of the young lifts children of the masses at almost an infantile age out of the effective control of family life1 and in our centres of national industry economic forces bring about a hasty pairing and breeding1 with an abrupt scattering of the brood that resembles the nesting of birds rather than the home-making of rational beings2 while so immature are the heads of these evanescent family homes that the break-up is by no means an unmitigated evil4 ,among the classes1 forces of a higher1 more penetrative order are working similarly4 ,prudence is acting towards the restraint of population in a manner that narrows the basis of family groups and shortens the natural term of their existence2 and under a new impulse of right reason and high resolve the educated section of the female sex is deliberately forsaking the domestic hearth to share the world's labour with man4 ,these concurrent movements in society are destroying family life on the old lines1 and by the homes of the present1 individual needs are met only temporarily and provisionally4 ,one conspicuous result is an ever-increasing discomfort to the aged4 ,they are stranded in homes become empty1 or wander abroad seeking touch with their kind4 ,distinctly are they shunted off the rails of busy life before a lowered vitality prompts to inertia4 ,the ,british 8,philistine0 lacks sentiment4 ,old age makes no special appeal to him1 and he is content to bestow on relatives no longer young a brief moment of his precious time1 a fragment of his tenderness4 ,at an earlier stage of our social evolution the mature in years were centres of a rich1 full1 domestic life1 and pivots on which turned the wider social life encircling it4 ,at the present stage of that evolution the young and the comparatively young focus and absorb the whole sunshine of life1 while the guardians of their infancy pass into declining years enveloped in gloom4 ,this premature effacement entails on society a double loss--first1 the loss interiorly of that individual happiness which intensifies and raises the tide of life2 second1 the loss of activities guided by and based upon mellow experience4 ,society is too materialistic to recognize that human beings physically on the down-grade may be psychically on the up-grade1 and pre-eminently fitted to inspire and promote progress4 ,but in thinking of latent possibilities realizable in a better environment we are bound not to judge by average humanity1 but by the superior types of the preceding generation4 ,the old age of ,w4 ,e4 ,gladstone1 ,harriet ,martineau1 ,mary ,somerville1 and others was neither gloomy nor unproductive4 ,the last-mentioned at the age of eighty-one turned her attention to writing a book on microscopic science4 8,i seemed10 she says1 8to resume the perseverance and energy of my youth4 ,i began it with courage1 though ,i did not think ,i could live to finish it40 ,she did1 however1 finish it1 and lived to the age of ninety-two1 maintaining at all times her habits of study and a full social intercourse with many friends4 7,from ,personal ,recollections1 by her ,daughter47 ,it is not intellectual powers only that are running to waste4 ,under the double pressure of competition in trade and competition in the labour market1 good manual workers are found ineffective and dismissed at an earlier age than formerly4 ,an immense mass of our industrial population is forced by circumstance into the workhouse when still comparatively active1 and life there is but a gloomy vacant existence--a complete suppression of the best faculties of body and mind4 ,comparing the past with the present in respect of the old age of workers1 we are told by ,professor ,thorold ,rodgers that village homes were centres of multifarious occupations1 in which naturally the aged1 if able1 would take part4 ,and in towns1 although streets were narrow1 at the rear of the houses there were gardens where old and young together spent the long summer evenings4 8,not long ago10 says the ,american ,social ,science ,committee ,report of #ahgh1 8the farm found constant employment for the men of the family--the women had abundant employment in the home1 there was carding1 spinning1 weaving40 8,and the neverending labour of our grandmothers must not be forgotten1 who with nimble needle knit our stockings and mittens4 ,the knitting-needle was in as constant play as their tongues1 whose music only ceased under the power of sleep4444 ,now no more does the knitting-needle keep time to the music of their tongues1 for the knitting-machine in the hands of one little girl will do more work than fifty grandmothers4 ,labour-saving machinery has broken up and destroyed our whole system of household and family manufacture1 when all took part in the labour and shared in the product to the comfort of all40 ,the system that has superseded that of 8household and family manufacture0 has been adverse to the aged from the first1 and neglect of old age has become a wrong-doing that eats like a canker into our social life4 ,as ,professor ,bickerton well remarks3 8,unhappiness is the disease of social life1 and misery is an indication that there is something wrong with our social system4 ,just as it is unreasonable to expect bodily health under insanitary conditions1 so we cannot look for social concord and joy unless mankind be placed in circumstances that suit his social nature4 ,man has been considered too exclusively as a producing machine with subsidiary mental capacity1 whereas he is essentially a moral being with deep emotions and universal sympathies4 ,the cure for the uncleanliness of society is not difficult4 ,the plans for the edifice of human life are obtainable4 ,what are the plans8 ,those laws of nature which are concerned in the development of mankind4 ,what is the cure8 ,such understanding of the principles of evolution and such consonant action as shall restore to the race an environment befitting its humanity40 7,the ,romance of the ,earth47 ,nevertheless1 we cannot return to a system of household and family manufacture4 ,to relinquish mechanical aids to production would be contrary to1 not consonant with1 evolution4 ,a civilized race outgrows its primitive conditions of life and industry--new wine must be put into new bottles4 ,the immediate step of advance as regards manual labour is this--in our centres of local administration there should be organized municipal employment with shortened hours for elderly people1 the wage to be supplemented by pensions ample enough to secure for these workers an honourable social standing instead of a pauper's dole4 ,but a closer adaptation to humanity's needs may be quickly achieved by the classes where poverty plays a less part in the social phenomena4 ,of present conditions ,mr4 ,escott1 in his ,england1 its ,people1 ,polity and ,pursuits1 thus speaks3 8,the nation is only an aggregate of households4 ,modern society is possessed by a nomadic spirit which is the sure destroyer of home ties4 ,the ,english aristocracy flit from mansion to mansion during the country-house season2 they know no peace during the ,london season4 ,existence for the wealthy is one unending whirl of excitement1 admitting small opportunity for the cultivation of the domestic affections4 ,the claims of society have continually acquired precedence of the duties of home40 ,in the middle class1 however1 wedged in between the rich and the poor1 the greatest factor of change is the servant difficulty1 and this difficulty we must glance at in its causal relations4 ,civilized communities divide broadly into two parts--productive units whose labour supplies what is needful for existence1 and unproductive units whose existence depends on the labour of others4 ,the latter have been correctly termed 8parasites40 ,m4 ,jean ,massart explains in his scientific scrutiny of social phenomena1#aa that during the period of our industrial development a force of integration has gradually strengthened the main body of the social organism1 giving it power to resist in some degree the burden of parasitism4 ,consequently arbitrary authority and slavish subserviency have abated1 and two movements affecting family life in the middle class are discernible--first1 there is an increasing revolt from domestic service as a form of labour directly opposed to the spirit of independence that is growing in workers and to the force of integration which by ranging them shoulder to shoulder is preparing them for a new form of industrial life2 second1 sons of the aristocracy and daughters of the middle class are joining the ranks of producers with some sense of the dignity of labour and the degradation of a purely parasitic existence4 ,social parasitism is not organic4 ,it is an extraneous condition induced in a society developing its civilization4 ,no man is necessarily a parasite2 he acquires the character in the course of his life history1 and happily the young are refusing to acquire it4 ,footnote #aa3 ,parasitism1 ,organic and ,social1 p4 #aba4 ,observe1 then1 it is not in one or two sections of our community life1 but in all sections that diverse causes are producing one uniform result--the break-up of the family home2 and behind all the more superficial causes there is working a profound factor of change in the centripetal or constructive and the centrifugal or destructive forces of nature4 ,whilst the latter destroys old forms1 the former prepares for the new form--prepares1 not only by an integration of workers1 but by a fresh inspiration of love and desire for work4 ,hence women and men endowed with reason1 knowledge and practical skill may bring the life of their own immediate circle into express and positive line with this constructive1 profoundly evolutional1 movement4 ,domestic reform implies the relinquishment of that whole system of household labour that requires the combination of a subject with a parasitic class4 ,co-operation among equals takes the place of masterful authority and slavish subjection1 and heavy labour will be relieved by scientific appliance4 ,labour-saving contrivances in family homes hardly exist4 ,there has been little spur to invention on these lines4 ,but1 as in industrial fields1 a saving of money1 material and labour by the use of machinery has followed the introduction of organized co-operation1 so1 doubtlessly1 a similar process will follow the gradual adoption of organized co-operation within the home4 ,this is not the solution of the servant problem merely4 ,it has a far wider significance4 ,many educated women who are now seeking useful work and economic independence outside of home-life will find these within the domestic circle1 and further will find that it is possible to combine such necessary conditions of dignified life with fulfilment of duty alike to the aged and to the young4 ,pioneers who aim at social solidarity must in practice recognize labour as the indispensable basis of social life and social institutions4 ,all methods of wage-payment dependent on industrial competition will be repudiated for a system that acknowledges every form of useful work as entitling the worker to financial independence2 and in the emotional sphere1 with its possibilities of inner union and solidarity1 who can measure the impetus towards the desired goal that will be given by the setting of the solitary in families and the re-gathering of the old into the bosom of a rich1 full1 domestic life4 ,let us suppose that from fifteen to twenty groups--they may be families or groups of friends--combine and pass out from their numerous separate houses into one large commodious dwelling built for them or bought and adapted to their purpose4 ,the bedrooms are furnished on the continental plan with accommodation for writing1 reading1 solitary study1 or rest by day1 and all the latest improvements in lighting1 heating and ventilating1 etc4 ,by the rules of the house--except for cleaning--no one enters these rooms uninvited by the inmate1 who has there at all times1 if wished1 perfect privacy and the most thorough personal comfort4 ,two eating apartments are placed contiguous to the kitchens1 and by taking advantage of every invention to facilitate cooking and serving1 the lady-cooks and attendants may place prepared food on the table and sit down to partake of it with their friends4 ,one wing of the house is set apart for nurseries and nursery training1 another for school teaching1 inclusive of indoor kindergarten2 a music-room well-deafened enables the musical to practise many instruments without jarring the nerves of others2 a playroom for the young and a recreation-room set apart for whist and chess1 etc41 a billiard room1 and if desired1 a smoking room2 a large drawing-room where social enjoyment is carefully promoted every evening1 a library or silent room where no interruption to reading is permitted1 these1 and a few small boudoirs for intercourse with special friends form the chief outer requirements of the ideal collectivist home4 ,all the details of household management may safely be left to pioneers of the new woman movement2 it belongs only to scientific meliorism to point out the general features and structure of the reformed domestic system and to show its vitally important position in relation to any rational scheme of wide-reaching social reform4 ,humanity as a whole has to climb upward in the scale of being and to leave behind it the individual or family selfishness allied with animal passions that are purely anti-social2 it has further to develop that self-respect that allied with heart-fellowship brings in its train all the social virtues that distinguish the man from the brute4 ,germs of that self-respecting life are with us even now1 but the soil in which they will spring up to vigorous growth must be created1 i4e4 brought together by man himself4 ,the fitting of character to a new domestic system should not be difficult in the case of children under wise training1 for it is as easy to acquire good habits in childhood as bad habits1 and the wholesome atmosphere of a well-regulated superior home will powerfully and painlessly aid in shaping the young4 ,but for the grown-up to alter personal habits1 and adapt thought and feeling to a new order of every-day life1 the task is not easy4 ,it may press heavily on the ordinary adult at the initial stage of the movement4 ,happily that task may be rendered easier by mutual criticism kindly and gravely exercised4 ,the method was practised for upwards of thirty years in the ,oneida ,creek ,community with a marked success4 ,criticism1 says one of the members1 is a boon to those who seek to live a higher life and only a bugbear to those who lack ambition to improve4 ,it was to the community a bond of love and an appeal to all that is noblest1 most refined and elevated in human nature2 it helped a man out of his selfishness in the easiest1 most kindly way possible4 ,whereas in ordinary life the interference of the busybody1 the tongue of the tale-bearer1 the shaft of ridicule1 the venom of malice1 are unavoidable--in the ,community such criticizing was almost unknown4 ,it was bad form for anybody to speak complainingly of anyone else1 because criticism was the prerogative of the ,community1 and was instituted to supersede all evil-speaking or back-biting4 ,nor was it an occasion for direct fault-finding merely4 ,those criticizing were always glad to dilate on the good qualities of their subject1 and to express their love and appreciation of what they saw to commend4 7,abel ,easton1 ,member of the ,oneida ,community47 ,another member1 ,allan ,estlake1 thus speaks3 8,criticism was a barrier to the approach of unworthy people from without1 and equally a bar to the development of evil influences within40 ,the practice was not original4 ,mr4 ,noyes found it established in a select society of missionaries he had joined previous to his forming the ,oneida ,community4 ,one of the weekly exercises of this society1 he tells us1 was a frank criticism of each other's character for the purpose of improvement4 ,the mode of proceeding was this3 ,at each meeting the member whose turn it was1 according to alphabetic order1 to submit to criticism1 held his peace while the others one by one told him his faults4 ,this exercise sometimes crucified self-complacency1 but it was contrary to the rules of society for any one to complain4 ,i found much benefit in submitting to this ordeal both while ,i was at ,andover and afterward4#ab ,if a number of young men adopted criticism as a means of improvement it should not be more difficult to pioneers of the new domestic life1 young and old1 provided they have the same desire to improve4 ,it might be irksome to the young1 until they had learned to profit by it1 as all discipline is at first1 but when 8our young people10 says ,mr4 ,estlake1 8had formed habits in harmony with their means of improvement they learned to love the means by which they had progressed and to rejoice in the results of sufferings that were incident only to their inexperience40#ac ,footnote #ab3 ,the ,oneida ,community1 ,allan ,estlake1 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the ,oneida ,community1 ,allan ,estlake1 p4 #ff4 ,personal habits in the new domestic life will be judged in their relation to the general interests of the household1 and regulations made to safeguard these interests4 ,cleanliness1 orderliness1 punctuality are essential to home comfort1 but conventional etiquette destroys the geniality of domestic freedom4 ,while simple rules of a positive kind are strictly observed1 the negative rule of non-interference with personal habits that are unhurtful to others will be the most stringent of all1 and for this reason--happiness is the great object to attain1 and a supreme condition of happiness is the free interaction of social units without intrusive interference4 ,committees will be necessary--for organizing labour on a method that will ensure variety to workers and frequent leisure--for consultation on the best means to adopt in training children individually--for management of the finances--for recreative arrangements--and for purposes of general direction and control4 ,authority will of course devolve on these committees chosen by members of the household from among themselves4 ,every relic of primitive despotism must be banished from the home3 it is a self-acting republic4 ,since children reared in the home will be one day responsible citizens of a republican state1 it were well to enlist them early in the work of committees4 ,they will learn thereby to subordinate personal desire to the will of the majority1 and to co-operate in action for the common weal4 ,the amusements and conduct of children are well within range of their own understanding1 and although supervision by adults is necessary1 great freedom should be allowed them in the management of their conduct clubs and amusement committees4 ,the relinquishment of personal property is not desirable at the present stage of social evolution2 for individuals--and there may be some--who1 however willing1 are unable to adapt themselves to the new system1 should possess the power to return to the old system without let or hindrance4 ,nevertheless1 be it sooner or later1 the ideal collectivist home of the future will realize1 though at first imperfectly1 the beautiful conception held by ,isaac ,taylor of the ideal family home of the past4 ,here is the picture3 8,home is a garden1 high-walled towards the blighting northeast of selfish care4 ,in the home we possess a main means of raising the happiest feelings to a high pitch and keeping them there4 ,no disparagement1 no privation is to be endured by some for the aggrandizement or ease of others4 ,along with great inequalities of dignity1 power and merit1 there is yet a perfect and unconscious equality in regard to comforts1 enjoyments and personal consideration4 ,there is no room for grudges or individual solicitude4 ,whatever may be the measure of good for the whole the sum is distributed without a thought of distinction between one and another4 ,refined and generous emotions may thus have room to expand1 and may become the fixed habits of the mind4 ,within the circle of home each is known to all1 and all respect the same principles of justice and love4 ,there is therefore no need for that caution1 reserve or suspicion that in the open world are safeguards against the guile1 lawlessness and ferocity of a few40#ad ,there1 too1 may be wholly discarded that reticence with which1 as with a cloak1 the modern1 civilized man1 says ,lucas ,mallet1 strives to hide the noblest and purest of his thought4 ,footnote #ad3 ,home ,education1 ,isaac ,taylor1 pp4 #cc and #cd4 ,the new system fully worked out will make homes permanent instead of transitory4 ,it will check the premature sending of girls out into the world and the tendency of young life generally to drift4 ,it will develop industrial activities and give effective household labour4 ,it will lessen the sordid cares of humanity and increase its social joys4 ,it will create an environment calculated to restrain tempestuous youth and cause every selfish passion to subside in the presence of mutual love4 ,it will perfect education by co-ordinating the life of the young and securing that the entire juvenile orbit is governed by forces of fixed congruity4 ,it will provide every comfort for old age and garner its dearly-bought experience4 ,it will promote healthy propagation causing the birth of the fit2 it will facilitate marriage of the affections and make early marriage possible4 ,it will tend infancy in a wholly superior manner1 and by scientific breeding1 rearing1 training1 produce future citizens of the ,state of a higher intellectual1 moral and spiritual type4 ,,part ,,vii ,,religion ,,and ,,the ,,religious ,,life ,,primal ,,elements ,,in ,,humanity',s ,,evolution ,,section #a ,is this material universe self-sufficient and self-contained1 or is not the 8other conception10 the true one1 viz4 8that of a universe lying open to all manner of spiritual influences1 permeated through and through with a divine spirit1 guided and watched by living minds acting through the medium of law indeed1 but with intelligence and love behind the law2 a universe by no means self-sufficient or self-contained1 but with feelers at every pore groping into another supersensuous order of existence where reigns laws hitherto unimagined by science1 but laws as real and as mighty as those by which the material universe is governed80--,,sir ,,oliver ,,lodge1 8,the ,outstanding ,controversy between ,science and ,faith10 ,hibbert ,journal for ,october1 #aijb4 ,to the man of ,western civilization1 whose environment in youth was a domestic atmosphere of ,sabbath-day ,christian orthodoxy and week-day religious indifference along with a social atmosphere of commercial individualism and the steady pursuit of sense pleasures1 it is no easy task to form a correct judgment regarding the true position of religion and its relative worth in evolution4 ,a study of the subject reveals that not only the more and less civilized races of mankind have each some specialized form of religion1 but the non-civilized savage tribes of the earth are similarly endowed4 ,their worship may be degraded to the last degree1 but it holds them in its grasp1 and in studying these facts we are compelled to believe that humanity is so constituted that its deepest needs are only to be expressed through and by religion4 ,the various religions of the world must have been essential to evolution1 since evolution1 as applied to man1 signifies the ample1 thorough development of every integral part of human nature in each individual4 ,but while recognizing religion as a necessary expression of human nature and a supreme characteristic of man1 we have also to realize that its forms are as various as the distinctive differences amongst men1 and that changes from time to time inevitably occur for good or evil in every religion4 ,none are stationary1 none are perfect4 ,and the spiritual verities which lie at the base of all are constantly overlaid by superstitions1 while the external forms harden and grow inoperative for good4 ,now1 on the theory that religion is in effect necessary to evolution1 and further1 that it represents fundamentally an emanation from the plane of spirit1 i4e4 from a region transcending our phenomenal existence1 what would nineteenth century intelligence a priori expect of the various divergent religious systems8 ,that amid variations1 some striking similarities would exist to indicate the identity of their original source4 ,it would expect also to find some statement of facts in nature not otherwise known to man1 some recognition of the stupendous movement of evolution--the elucidation of which in its physical aspect is the grand achievement of modern science--and some hint of the laws governing that movement4 ,further1 it would expect to find guidance to right conduct and some indications of the paramount purpose and end of universal life4 ,hitherto1 as it happens1 the investigating spirit of modern science has concerned itself little with theological matters2 and the recognized exponents of our own racial theology are incompetent judges here4 ,their training has made of them religious specialists so interpenetrated by sectarian dogma that they are incapable of assuming the mental attitude of a genuine criticism claiming no superiority for ,christianity over other great religions1 save such value of position as lies in its later birth and development4 ,outside the churches1 however1 comparative theology is not neglected1 and it is freely admitted now by many earnest students of the subject that all the great religions of the world possess spiritual1 ethical and philosophical ideas in common4 ,hinduism deals with startling facts of the invisible world4 ,in the ,vedas#ae it teaches that consciousness is the foundation or groundwork of all nature1 that matter and force are instinct with conscious life4 ,behind these is the great unmanifested ,deity--the 8,unknowable0 of our own ,spencerian philosophy--the ,illimitable1 ,eternal1 ,absolute1 ,unconditioned ,source of the ,universe1 incognizable and inconceivable to the finite faculties of man4 ,with manifestation there appears the threefold aspect of ,deity--the supreme ,logos of the ,universe--a ,unity in ,trinity and a ,trinity in ,unity1 the reflection of which as ,consciousness1 ,substance1 ,force1 runs throughout nature1 and is also shown in the ,christian and other creeds and the ,pauline description of man's triune constitution--body1 soul and spirit4 ,the doctrine of evolution is taught in ,hinduism on far wider lines than the modern intellectual conception lays down4 ,the latter1 dealing with outward appearance1 bases itself on physical phenomena4 ,the former transcends phenomenal existence and human experience4 ,it embraces the superlatively great1 the infinitely small and complex1 and presents a cosmogony evolutional throughout1 while it points to a spiritual development for the individual so extensive and sublime that the ,western mind1 unused to metaphysical thought1 is unable to grasp and clothe it in words4 ,in this philosophy there is no stultifying of human endeavour by the view of the soul's opportunities as confined to three score years and ten4 ,that span of life makes but a single page in the soul's vast evolutional history1 for at the centre of ,hinduism lies a rock-bed of belief in re-incarnation--that process of nature which accomplishes the gradual growth and spiritual elevation of humanity by means of the individual soul's successive returns to physical life1 with intervening periods of spiritual rest or latency4 ,the threefold nature of man gives him touch with three levels of existence1 and ,hindu religion represents him bound to a wheel unceasingly turning in three worlds1 viz4 a world of waking consciousness or the physical body1 and of two other worlds to which he passes successively at and after death1 and in which he works out his latest earthly experience and assimilates all its fruit1 then returns through the gateway of birth to begin a fresh course of discipline and learning4 ,footnote #ae3 ,it is from the study of the ,vedas that the educated ,hindu seeks to derive his creed4 ,i refer my reader to ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,slater's ,higher ,hinduism in relation to ,christianity4 ,turning from the transcendental to the scientific and practical sides of ,hinduism1 we find an external worship and broad polity calculated to regulate human conduct in every relation of life1 religious1 national1 social1 family and personal--the entire system founded on the law of causation on all planes of being4 ,by our own scientists1 that law is recognized on the physical plane as the invariable sequence of cause and effect4 ,hinduism regards it as working also on higher planes1 and terms it the law of action or ,karma--the moral retribution which brings out inexorably in one life the results following from causes arising in previous lives4 ,responsibility therefore rests with every self-conscious1 reflective being1 and divine justice is shown reconcilable with the free-will of man through the union of ,karma and re-incarnation4 8,god is not mocked2 whatsoever a man soweth that shall he also reap40 ,the religion of the ,parsis1 i4e4 the modern form of ,zoroastrianism1 has equally with ,hinduism a metaphysical philosophy1 and an outward worship1 while mingled with all there is an astronomical teaching based on the same conception of nature as is found in ,hinduism1 viz4 that it is the manifestation1 in infinitely varied forms1 of the one universal consciousness or mind4 ,the constitution of humanity is two-fold4 ,spirit and matter are two distinct and different principles1 both are in man2 and he is capable of siding definitely with either4 ,the ethic of ,zoroastrian faith is based on the belief that he will throw himself on the side of the pure1 that he will battle for it and maintain it4 ,to be at all times actively on the side of purity is a clear personal duty4 ,the devout ,zoroastrian must keep the earth pure and till it religiously4 ,he must perform the functions of agriculture as a service to the gods1 for the earth is the pure creature of ,ahura ,mazdao--the ,supreme ,spirit to be guarded from all pollution4 ,and passing from the outer to the inner life of the individual1 the constantly-repeated maxim is this3 ,i withdraw from all sins by pure thoughts1 pure deeds1 pure words4 ,in ,taoism1 a religion of ,china of earlier date than ,hinduism or ,zoroastrianism1 there exists a fragment of ancient scripture called the ,classic of ,purity1 wherein man is regarded as a trinity1 viz4 spirit1 mind1 body4 ,to quote from ,mr4 ,legge's translation3 8,now the spirit of man loves purity1 but his mind disturbs it4 ,the mind of man loves stillness1 but his desires draw it away4 ,if he could always send his desires away1 his mind would of itself become still4 ,let his mind be made clean1 and his spirit will of itself become pure40 7,here we have the idea1 expressed in all religions1 of the conflict between the higher and lower nature in man and the necessity for spirit to dominate mind and body4 ,refer to ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,romans1 vii4 #ae1 #ba1 #bb and #bc47 ,again1 ,buddhism has absorbed the attention of modern ,oriental scholars through the fascination of the ,buddha's purity and elevation of thought4 ,there are two divisions of this faith1 viz41 the ,mahayana1 that of the ,northern ,church1 found in ,tibet1 ,nepaul1 ,china1 ,corea1 and ,japan1 and the ,hinayana1 that of the ,southern ,church1 found in ,ceylon1 ,burmah1 ,siam1 etc4 ,the ,mahayana 7,greater ,vehicle7 is closely allied to ,hinduism in its teachings regarding the spiritual world1 the continuing ego of individual man1 the life after death1 the rites and ceremonies of worship1 and the mystic side of personal religion4 ,in the ,hinayana 7,lesser ,vehicle7 of the ,southern ,church1 much of this mystic teaching has been dropped1 nevertheless it retains a wonderful system of ethics1 with appeals made to human reason1 and a constant attempt to justify and render intelligible the foundations on which the morals are built4 ,buddhism is clearly the daughter of the more ancient ,hinduism4 ,its scriptures are the echo of the ,hindu scriptures1 and the general teachings1 while thrown into a less metaphysical form1 are penetrated with the ,hindu spirit4 ,causation is in both an unbroken law4 ,in the ,dhammapada1 for instance1 it is written3 8,if a man speaks or acts with a pure thought1 happiness follows him like a shadow that never leaves him4 ,if a man speaks or acts with an evil thought1 pain follows him as the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the carriage4 ,he who has done what is evil cannot free himself of it1 he may have done it long ago or afar off1 he may have done it in solitude1 but he cannot cast it off40 ,buddha taught that evil is overcome only by its opposite1 i4e4 good3 8,let every man overcome anger by love1 let him overcome the greedy by liberality1 the liar by truth10 etc41 etc4 ,and here the religion is closely in touch with ,christian ethics3 8,love your enemies1 bless them that curse you1 do good to them that hate you10 etc4 8,love is the fulfilling of the ,law40 ,with regard to man's destiny1 ,buddha's teachings build on his hearers' acceptance of the ,hindu doctrine of re-incarnation4 7,in the ,pali ,canon occur these words3 8,the ,bhikshee the disciple sees1 with eye divine1 beings dropping away and reappearing1 he knows them reaping according to their several karma1 degraded and ennobled1 beautiful and ugly1 well-placed and ill-placed40 ,from this and many other passages of the ,pali ,canon 8it is clear and evident and beyond a shadow of doubt10 says ,j4 ,c4 ,chatterji1 8that the ,buddha taught the identity of the re-incarnating ego1 though he did not give it that name4 ,he called it ,consciousness or ,vignana40--,theosophical ,review1 ,jan41 #ahih1 p4 #dae47 ,without that his system falls to the ground4 ,the path of salvation he points to implies a persistent course of personal effort1 and he who would tread that path must open his mind to discriminate between things that are transitory and those that are real and permanent4 ,to the former belong all the pleasures of sense1 every earthly desire and ambition1 and every selfish thought4 ,deep within man's nature1 however1 there lies hid a germ or seed of the permanent4 ,this will persist throughout all the ages amid the fleeting phantasmagoria of many lives1 and this he must cherish1 nourish1 develop4 ,he must resist and renounce the corrupting influences of the flesh4 ,he must master his passions1 steady his mind1 and control1 enlighten and elevate his thoughts4 ,further1 he must purify his emotions and actions1 pervading the world with a 8heart of love1 far-reaching1 grown great and beyond measure40 7,the ,tevijja ,sutta47 ,finally1 the individual consciousness will expand1 until1 able to function in subtler vehicles than those of physical matter1 the man passes out of the chrysalis state of formal existence to emerge upon higher levels of life and reach at length the ,buddhist ,nirvana--that supreme crown of immortality and acme of conscious bliss4 ,this pilgrimage of the soul through many births and deaths1 with its steadfast struggles and gradual liberation from all earthly debasing entanglements1 forms a striking contrast to certain teachings of the modern ,christian ,churches4 ,dogma there presents to us an undeveloped helpless soul1 as playing--within a circumscribed area of earth's surface--its one little game of experimental life4 ,the fate of the soul for all eternity hangs in the balance1 all its chances for weal or woe depending on a single throw of the dice4 ,and what are the terms of the game8 ,conditions of life so adverse1 in millions of cases1 that defeat is a foregone conclusion4 ,no wonder civilized men with a seedling of justice in the soul1 reject the whole scheme of nature allied with this dogma1 and frankly disavow religious faith4 ,but the question arises1 how does it happen that ,christianity1 with an ethic fundamentally the same as that of every other great religion of the world1 diverges so completely here8 ,is it conceivable that ,christianity1 while of ,divine origin1 has become in process of time dwarfed and deformed to the extent even of losing some essential features8 ,it holds1 as sectarian pulpits represent it1 no doctrine of re-incarnation1 and appears to have no clear basis of metaphysical or philosophic thought4 ,moreover1 it has elements impossible to reconcile with the mental and emotional developments of a scientific and intellectual age4 ,the anthropomorphic conception of ,deity1 the almost literal interpretation of the ,jewish allegory of creation1 the personalization of the metaphysical and mystic ,trinity2 the approval of the barbarous sacrifices and vengeful ,deity of the ,old ,testament2 the anti-evolutional doctrine of the vicarious ,atonement in the ,new ,testament2 the crude ideas concerning the soul1 heaven and hell2 and the absence of any evolutional theory applied to human destiny--all these1 and above all the ignorance and pride that claim for this particular form of religion a unique position in the world's history1 and assume that it alone and no other religion is the revelation of ,god to man1 show an ample justification for the fact that the most intelligent men and women of ,western civilization stand outside the ,christian ,churches to-day1 or are in them from motives that have nothing to do with devout religious feeling4 ,if1 however1 we turn to the history of the ,church and search its ancient records1 or if unable ourselves to grapple with the problem1 we place confidence in the evidence of students who have done so1 we find that an entirely new light is thrown on ,christianity and its real position4 ,in the writings of the ,christian ,fathers1 there is a constant reference made to grades of members and teaching within the early ,church4 ,first1 the general members1 and from those the pure in life went into a second grade4 ,the latter formed the 8few chosen0 from the many called4 ,but beyond these were the 8chosen of the chosen10 who1 8with perfect knowledge lived in perfection of righteousness according to the law40 ,clement of ,alexandria1 one of the greatest of the ,fathers of the ,church1 wrote3 8,it is not to be wished that all things should be exposed indiscriminately to all and sundry1 or the benefits of wisdom communicated to those who have not1 even in a dream1 been purified in soul 444 nor are the mysteries of the word to be expounded to the profane40 ,origen tells us that ,jesus conversed with ,his disciples in private1 and especially in their most secret retreats1 concerning the ,gospel of ,god2 but the words ,he uttered have not been preserved4 ,and when ,celsus assailed ,christianity as a secret system1 ,origen replied such a notion was absurd1 8but that there should be certain doctrines not made known to the multitude and which are revealed after the exoteric doctrines have been taught1 is not a peculiarity of ,christianity alone1 but also of philosophic systems1 in which certain truths are exoteric and others esoteric40 ,elsewhere he explains that ,scripture is threefold in meaning1 that it is the 8flesh0 for simple men1 the 8soul0 for the more instructed1 the 8spirit0 for the 8perfect10 and in corroboration he quotes from ,scripture the words of ,st4 ,paul1 8,we speak the wisdom of ,god in a mystery1 even the hidden wisdom10 and 8we speak wisdom amongst them that are perfect40 ,we have here1 then1 more than a trace of some deeper teaching than appears on the surface of ,christianity1 some mine of hidden truth too sacred and profound for open display to the undiscerning multitude4 ,is it not evident that ,christianity contains at its centre1 known only to the few1 the same transcendental and spiritual conceptions1 the same supra-physical and mystical philosophy as the ancient religions contain8 ,but if this be so1 how came the most precious truths of religion to be apparently lost8 ,they were lost through the uncomprehending ignorance of the early followers of the ,master1 ,christ1 and the sectarian bigotry of ecclesiastics who cut themselves apart from the holders of the inner teaching and1 becoming a majority1 overcame the learned few1 stamping as heretics the last remnants known as ,christian ,gnostics1 ,manicheans1 ,pelasgians1 and ,arians1 all of whom1 counted schismatics1 were eventually crushed out through cruel persecution by the victorious orthodox ,latin and ,greek ,churches4 ,nevertheless1 some fragments of the hidden wisdom of the early teaching have survived in the uncomprehended symbols of the creeds and ceremonies of the ,churches4 7,i refer my reader to ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,leadbeater's work1 ,the ,christian ,creed47 ,that re-incarnation and ,karma formed part of the original teaching is1 ,i think1 abundantly evident4 ,in ,gnosticism and ,manicheism they were apparent4 ,the ,christian ,fathers speak plainly of these doctrines1 and ,origen refers to ,pythagoras1 ,plato and ,empedocles as holding them4 ,moreover1 ,jesus ,christ is made to utter a clear statement concerning ,john the ,baptist1 that implies the doctrine of re-incarnation1 and his answer to the question about a blind man1 8who did sin1 this man or his parents1 that he was born blind80 shows the acceptance in the early ,church of both doctrines4 ,the whole incident reveals that the subject of re-incarnation was familiar to the followers of ,christ1 and ,josephus expressly states that the ,pharisees held the doctrine of re-birth4 ,there is then little doubt that in the early ,church the belief was widely spread1 but later at a ,general ,council--a ,council held after darkness had begun its reign--it was formally condemned and stamped as a heresy4 ,bearing in mind the view that all the great religions come from the same spiritual source1 it is significant to find the following in the writings of a rigid ,roman ,catholic historian1 viz4 ,a4 ,f4 ,ozanam3 8,having burst over the borders of the country to which it had once been confined1 ,buddhism at the year #fa ,b4,c4 made a new appearance on the scene1 and invaded all ,northern ,asia4444 ,this great movement could not but influence the ,west4 ,it effected its entrance 7into ,christendom7 through the ,gnostic sects4 ,the ,gnosis was the designation of a higher science or initiation reserved for a handful of chosen spirits40 ,again1 speaking of the ,manicheans1 he says3 8,it is difficult to decide whether ,manes drew his system originally from these ,buddhist sources or found the teaching which he handed down to his disciples held by former ,gnostic sects1 themselves impregnated with the ,oriental doctrine40 7,ozanam's ,history of ,civilization in the ,fifth ,century1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bdg and #bed47 ,it is easy to see that this ,oriental doctrine was none other than the hidden wisdom of ,jesus and ,paul as well as of ,buddha4 ,the special doctrine of re-incarnation is said to be absent in the fragments of the ,avesta and in the ,zend commentaries1 and absent also in the latter ,pahlavi doctrines4 ,it is not held by the modern ,parsis4 8,on the other hand10 says ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 ,b4,a41 ,m4,r4,a4,s41 8,greek writers emphatically assert that the doctrine of re-incarnation was one of the main tenets of the ,magian tradition40 ,the same author elsewhere remarks3 8,since ,bardaisan1 like all the great ,gnostics1 believed in re-incarnation1 such a conception as the resurrection of the physical body was nothing but a gross superstition of the ignorant40 7,the ,theosophical ,review for ,march1 #ahih1 p4 #ag47 ,to judge ,christianity fairly1 it was necessary to know something of its origin1 its antecedents and the early phases of its life4 ,we had to follow the history of its early sects and observe the changes effected in the ,church by forces playing upon it from without4 ,the ,church gradually rose into a position of social influence and authority1 from which it again declined1 and it was during the latter condition that in its struggles to maintain power and supremacy amid adverse forces it dropped out the mystic beliefs difficult of apprehension by ,western minds2 it ceased to order and classify its adherents1 and it ultimately adapted its doctrines to the materialistic spirit of the dawning era of modern science4#af ,nevertheless1 the ,church retained its pure ethical teaching4 ,it has held up to view the noble unselfish life of its founder ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,no one could deny that during the period even of its degradation1 this religion has proved to millions of human beings a source of vital comfort and joy1 and to some extent of spiritual light4 ,footnote #af3 ,tertullian complains3 8,they have all access alike2 they hear alike1 they pray alike1 even heathens if any such happen to come among them40 ,the tendency of ,protestantism was to assert the claims of all men--the weak and childish as well as the thoughtful and intellectually strong--to a clear understanding of the ,church's whole teaching4 ,in pursuance of a policy to meet this demand1 the ,church gave forth a simplified presentation of ,god and ,nature that contradicts the plainest facts of science1 and creates within minds of deeper1 more expanded faculty1 a conscientious revolt from the ,christian faith to an attitude of honest scepticism4 ,outside the ,church1 however1 other forces of evolution have prevailed to carry man forward1 and to-day there exists an earnest and devout spirit of inquiry1 and a strong dissatisfaction with the purely materialistic theory of ,nature4 ,conspicuous among the forces of change are1 first1 the study of physical phenomena on scientific methods1 a study which1 by convincing the ,western mind of a profound mystery behind all phenomena1 gives fresh impulse to speculative thought1 and rouses effort to reach and apprehend the law of evolution4 ,second1 the study of psychic phenomena revealing modes of consciousness hitherto ignored1 and impelling science to penetrate the hidden recesses of our psychic activities and investigate some of the heights and depths of man's inner constitution4 ,third1 the historical studies that throw new light on the marvellous civilizations of the past and those religions that are more ancient than ,christianity4 ,whatever the ultimate outcome of these studies may prove1 it is clear that the perspective of early faiths--their range and reach--was vaster than that of current ,christianity1 and this perception is creeping into our popular literature and laying hold of public thought4 ,for instance1 a recent writer remarks3 8,the modern scientific revelation of stellar evolution and dissolution seems a prodigious confirmation of ,buddhist theories of cosmical law40 ,and again1 8,with the acceptance of the doctrine of evolution old forms of thought crumbled1 new ideas arose to take the place of worn-out dogmas1 and we have a general intellectual movement in directions strangely parallel with ,oriental philosophy40 7,lafcadio ,hearn's ,hints and ,echoes of ,japanese ,inner ,life47 ,this movement necessarily will advance only by carrying with it1 i4e4 convincing step by step1 the reason of man1 and seeing that ,oriental philosophy has the doctrines of re-incarnation and ,karma at its foundation1 these must be tested and the fact ascertained whether or not they are consistent with the laws of phenomenal existence already discovered and believed in by the ,occidental mind4 8,to-day10 says ,lafcadio ,hearn1 8for the student of scientific psychology1 the idea of pre-existence passes out of the realm of theory into the realm of fact10 and he quotes in corroboration of this statement ,professor ,huxley's opinion of the theory--8,none but very hasty thinkers will reject it on the ground of inherent absurdity4 ,like the doctrine of evolution itself1 that of transmigration has its roots in the world of reality1 and it may claim such support as the great argument from analogy is capable of supplying40 7,evolution and ,ethics1 p4 #fa1 ,ed4 #ahid47 ,at this epoch of the world's history1 the humanity that exists is of an infinitely varied character4 ,at one end of the scale1 we have in savages the simplest forms of racial types1 at the other the most complex forms1 and between these every conceivable variant4 ,the distinctions go deeper as we ascend the scale1 and there are no two beings alike in their powers of abstract thinking1 the nature of their intellectual1 emotional and moral qualities1 and the groupings of these qualities--in a word1 their individualities4 ,now one thing demanded by the developed intellects of this age is a generalization that will cover and explain these perplexing differences4 ,the law of heredity does this to a very limited extent only4 ,so far as the physical structure is concerned it explains much2 but when we come to the mental and moral developments1 its insufficiency is apparent4 ,genius and idiocy may be found springing up from the same parent stock and under identical conditions of training in childhood4 ,variety of character will appear in children of the same family from almost the moment of birth4 ,one infant comes into the world handicapped by a sullen temper and vicious disposition1 another with the most lovable traits4 ,it is inconceivable that these incongruous effects flow from congruous causes on the physical plane4 ,and were we able to logically accept these physical causes as adequate1 no civilized being could morally respect the ordering of a universe wherein innocent souls newly created enter life handicapped by vicious propensities4 ,either the ,power behind all phenomena is a malevolent ,power1 or the universe is a chaos--the inconsequent outcome of random chance4 ,these painful alternatives cease their troubling1 however1 and all perplexities gradually disappear as the mind of man grows into a clear apprehension of evolution in its full significance4 ,the basic law of evolution is that all existence proceeds in cycles1 each having its objective and subjective arc4 ,in other words1 there is a constant flow of motion and consciousness from without within and from within without4 ,on the lowlier levels of life1 this law is observed and science based upon it4 ,in the vegetable kingdom1 the leaves1 stalk and flower of a specific plant perish as completely as though they had never existed2 but the subjective entity remains1 and in due course it reappears1 clothed in a different vestment of cells1 the same in all the details of its intricate form4 ,in the insect kingdom1 all the wonderful changes that transform a crawling slimy caterpillar into a glorious vision of beauty and grace takes place in silence and darkness--from within without4 ,here the law of evolution takes a wider range than in the vegetable kingdom4 ,form1 function1 habit1 all are changed1 yet we know by actual observation that the soaring butterfly and crawling caterpillar are intrinsically one and the same4 ,moreover1 the whole process of change is accomplished in the pupa stage independently of that food supply which--to the scientific conception--seems indispensable in the generation and continuation of vital force4 7,i must here refer my reader to the full discussion of this subject in chapters v4 and vi4 of ,dr4 ,jerome ,a4 ,anderson's ,re-incarnation--,a ,study of the ,human ,soul47 ,now in our habit of regarding humanity in its higher aspect as the acme or crown of terrestrial life1 we are apt to forget the potent connexions that link it with life in general4 ,but re-incarnation1 if we would judge it philosophically1 must not be wrenched from its place in the order of nature and studied as an isolated fragment4 8,all evolution consists10 says ,mrs4 ,besant1 8of an evolving life passing from form to form as it evolves1 and storing up the experience gained through the forms2 the re-incarnation of the human soul is not the introduction of a new principle into evolution1 but the adaptation of the universal principle to meet conditions rendered necessary by the individualization of the continually evolving life40 7,the ,ancient ,wisdom1 p4 #bcd47 ,the doctrine of human evolution summed up in the term re-incarnation cannot be proved in the same sense as a new discovery in physics can be proved--that goes without saying4 ,but we may claim that it can be so nearly proved by reasoning that no intelligent being who correctly apprehends the idea and applies it with patience to the experience of existence1 whether in or out of the body1 can fail to believe it as fully1 for example1 as the modern scientific world believes in the electro-magnetic theory of light4 ,that theory is no longer argued about4 ,it is the only theory that will explain all the facts4 ,and of re-incarnation in a higher domain we may equally affirm it is the only theory that explains the facts and is consonant with all the known laws of nature4 ,it is luminous with a truly scientific aspect4 ,it satisfactorily accounts for the inherent differences in character that heredity leaves unexplained1 and it renews our faith in love and wisdom as underlying the phenomena of earthly existence1 notwithstanding present appearances4 ,but add to this the fact that every great religion of the world1 except modern ,christianity1 holds it more or less completely1 whilst ,christianity also originally held it2 and if a spiritual and ethical theory of the universe be tenable1 then cultured minds rejecting re-incarnation must either have failed to study the subject in its antecedents and bearings1 or they must be by constitution profoundly unphilosophical4 7,i refer my reader here to chap4 iii4 of ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,sinnett's ,growth of the ,soul47 ,after all1 it is a comparatively few men and women who seek intellectual clearness of vision1 and are restless of soul till they grasp a theory of the universe and an interpretation of life that alike may satisfy head and heart--the mass of mankind is unthinking4 ,and as we contemplate the stupendous task of evolution in developing each individual soul out of the embryonic condition of the savage to a conscious control and exercise of all the divine potencies of a perfected spiritual man1 we feel no surprise that the major part of humanity stands yet in its childhood4 ,unequal development is the natural corollary of general evolution4 ,the heart of modern man1 however1 is for the most part in advance of his head1 and it is here1 viz4 on the emotional side of human nature1 that religion--no matter what the specific form may have been--has ministered to man's needs and proved an all-important factor of evolution4 ,revelation1 as ,lessing 7who believed in re-incarnation7 declares1 has been the education of the human race4 8,it did not10 he says1 8give anything that human reason left to itself would not arrive at1 but it gave the most important of these things earlier0--that is1 before the reasoning faculties were fully developed in man4 7,lessing's ,treatise3 ,the ,education of the ,human ,race1 translated by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,w4 ,robertson47 ,the founders of every religion--the great and wise ones of the earth--have guided the race in its slow and gradual ascent from infancy to manhood1 and even through the degeneration to which every religion has been subjected from human ignorance and selfishness4 ,,section #b ,we have now to turn from racial religions to personal religion1 and as the springs of individual conduct lie earlier in the heart than in the head1 spiritual developments begin there4 ,it is in accordance with natural order that the right conduct and simple devotion of millions of human beings1 intellectually blind1 should yet aid the steady advance of evolution towards its highest goal4 ,the pilgrim soul pressing forward through a long series of births and deaths has a chequered career of conquest and defeat1 until1 experience guiding effort and overcoming waywardness1 the animal stage of existence has been distanced and left behind4 ,but each of these pilgrim souls pursues a path specifically its own1 that is1 differing from that of every other pilgrim soul4 ,the paths pursued are divided by ,eastern thought into three distinct classes4 ,first1 that of action2 second1 that of devotion2 third1 that of wisdom4 ,in the first class are to be found men and women of infinitely varied powers taking part in all the activities of the world1 and striving with keenness to attain certain desired results4 ,commencing1 it may be1 with low1 selfish1 narrow motives of action1 these gradually alter and improve1 till motive and action alike have become pure1 unselfish and directed to the widest beneficence4 ,such types of humanity tread the first path1 that of action1 and in it are harvesting precious experience4 ,they are developing interiorly the powers that make for righteousness4 ,to the second class belong all the world's sincere religionists1 those beings whose regard--whether of fear or love--goes out to an ideal person4 ,the person1 observe1 may be of low or of high grade in accordance with the subjective development of the individual worshipper4 ,as the object of devotion becomes purified1 love casts out fear1 and advance on this path proceeds4 ,men and women adoring their conception of ,krishna1 or ,buddha1 of ,ahura ,mazdao1 or of ,jesus ,christ1 are treading the path of devotion1 and may rise to the highest emotions of altruism1 the most selfless service of the ,supreme1 thus harmonizing ever more and more the human will and the ,divine will4 ,pilgrims of the third and smallest class are men and women whose constant desire and endeavour is to search out the truth of things4 ,in the earlier grades of this path will be found scientific investigators of physical phenomena2 more advanced on the path are materialist philosophers and all individuals directing their efforts to an examination of man in the regions of emotion and mind4 ,above these again are the men and women whose search is into the innermost nature of things1 and who1 in the intensity of that search1 lose more and more their feeling of self1 and merge themselves in ,divine knowledge4 ,to summarise the three paths3 ,the first is a progress through human activities from motives of self to motives of highest altruism4 ,the second is a progress through religious emotions1 from fear of an invisible demon1 to the most selfless love of an ideal person and unswerving devotion to true ideals4 ,the third is a progress from the simplest efforts to discover truth to the acquisition of ,divine wisdom by means of the immensely increased faculties of the perfected man4 ,these three paths1 like different ways up a mountain1 meet at the top1 where pilgrims attain to the qualities of all1 and not only of the one path mainly traversed by each4 ,all attain in the end to the fullest development of human power and faculty1 and to complete liberation from the chain of births and deaths4 ,that personal goodness and religious zeal are the measure of spiritual development is only the ,church's view1 and it ignores a large part of human efforts and activities4 ,without personal goodness certainly no spiritual life is possible1 but beyond the acme of personal goodness to lofty heights of knowledge1 of wisdom1 of transcendent love and benevolence1 rises the pilgrim human soul under ,divine tuition4 ,we have now to inquire wherein the pilgrims resemble one another8 ,the feature common to all is the inner attitude of self-surrender4 ,it may spring from impulse or a half-unconscious sense of duty4 ,or1 it may result from the reasoning faculty1 from reason controlling and directing conduct with a full consciousness of responsibility4 ,again1 it may be allied with all the sacred aspirations and inspirations that follow upon a long course of development1 but whatever the cause and degree1 this attitude of mind makes it possible for the spiritual forces working in and through humanity as a whole to manifest there1 expanding the heart and mind1 and creating a further soul-evolution4 ,there is a law in nature which has been well called the pulse of our planetary system1 a law of giving out4 ,it involves no absolute and ultimate sacrifice2 and it is the only law by which progress and exaltation in nature can be actually achieved4 ,now this law is a central part of the teaching of every great religion4 ,the ,logos1 we are told1 in bringing into existence an infinitude of centres of consciousness1 made the voluntary sacrifice of limiting ,his own boundless life4 ,this thought is expressed in the ,christian ,scriptures thus3 8,the ,lamb slain from the foundation of the world40 ,this first great outbreathing of the life of the ,logos is the earliest presentation of the law of sacrifice--that law which prescribes that at every stage of evolution life and energy shall be given out for the benefit of some consciousness on a lower grade than the giver4 ,this great principle of evolution is manifest in the unselfish benevolence of all good men and women2 even when they are working as yet in blind obedience to the scarcely articulate impulses of their awakening spiritual natures4 7,i refer my reader to p4 #deb of ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,sinnett's ,the ,growth of the ,soul47 ,to our minds pain seems necessarily connected with sacrifice1 but pain proceeds wholly from discord within the sacrificer1 i4e4 from antagonism between the higher part of his nature which is willing to give1 and the lower part whose satisfaction lies in grasping and keeping4 ,the process required in each case is a turning from the selfish1 individualistic attitude to that of a social1 altruistic giving--a giving joyfully for love's sake4 ,the transition naturally involves some pain1 for the conscious will has to gradually master the animal part of the nature1 and subordinate it to the higher self4 ,man is1 in the order of evolution1 primarily subject to animal desires4 ,his consciousness moves on the sensuous plane of existence1 and he clings to the physical elements in nature4 ,by-and-bye he learns to relinquish an immediate material good for a future good equally material--it may be a greater worldly prosperity for himself or his family4 ,this sacrifice is not essentially noble1 but it prepares the way for a harder lesson1 and one that calls out a deeper faculty within him4 ,here again the process is one of exchange1 but not of one form of sensuous good for another4 ,it is the exchange of material possessions or sense pleasures for something of an entirely different order in nature--a reward not visible1 nay1 possibly far off beyond the tomb4 ,when humanity was in its childhood1 religion inculcated and pressed upon it this form of sacrifice2 and as we ponder the martyr lives that stud the pages of history we recognize the fact that thousands of human beings practised the precept1 and learned to endure1 as seeing the invisible1 to stand morally upright without earthly prop1 to value spiritual companionship and joy in an inner life of purity and peace when outward conditions were adverse and dark4 ,a later1 far higher phase of the law of sacrifice1 is that wherein no reward is thought of1 or desired4 ,reaching manhood1 humanity grapples with the duties and accepts all the grave responsibilities of an advanced evolutional stage4 ,duty becomes the motor of action1 self-mastery and love of one's fellows the very keynotes of man's music4 ,the animal part of his nature becomes subordinate to the higher self4 ,the third great lesson of sacrifice works within1 the lesson1 viz4 to do right simply because it is right1 to give because giving is owed by each to all1 and not because giving will in any shape be pleasing to or rewarded by ,god4 ,during the various stages of progress1 the pain aspect of sacrifice is clearly seen4 ,nevertheless1 a soul's passionate grip upon things physical and sensuous relaxes1 and a day arrives when to give spontaneously1 freely1 lavishly1 is purest joy4 ,then is man's life merging into ,divine life1 and sacrifice is no more pain4 ,vital dissonances cease to rend man's heart1 for his inner consciousness has soared above the selfish separateness of phenomenal existence into realms of nature where unity and love are the all-prevailing principles of life4 ,we know these principles in action through the beautiful1 selfless earthly pilgrimage of ,him we call the ,saviour of ,mankind1 whose whole career was an ,at-one-ment with the ,divine4 ,the 8,vicarious ,atonement0 doctrine of ,western faiths to-day is both an ecclesiastical device for increasing priestly power and a misapprehension of the law we have been considering--the law of sacrifice1 by which the worlds are made1 by which the worlds are living now1 and by which alone the union of man with ,god is brought about4 ,that noble doctrine of antiquity was changed by ,medival ,christianity into a picture of the ,godhead--,father and ,son1 in opposition to one another--a picture that 8shocks all reverence1 and outrages reason by bringing all manner of legal quibbles into the relationship between the ,spirit of ,god and man40 7,four ,ancient ,religions1 ,annie ,besant1 p4 #aff47 ,again1 a race whose reasoning faculties are developed must needs repudiate the ,church's dogma of 8,imputed ,righteousness0--a righteousness not inwrought or attained to1 but applied externally--a covering to what is corrupt and base1 yet deemed sufficient to secure a perfunctory pardon of sin1 a non-merited ,divine favour4 ,the real ,at-one-ment with the ,divine1 whereof ,jesus the ,christ is our ,archetype1 admits of no substitutions1 no subterfuges1 makes no fictitious claims4 ,it signifies an actual transformation or process of change1 the inner consciousness passing from the lower to function on higher levels of being4 ,it is easy1 however1 to apprehend how the necessity of thinking of all supra-physical things1 i4e4 the finer phenomena of existence1 by means of analogies and figures of speech that are purely physical1 led to much of error in the earlier stages of human development2 and there is a sense in which the 8robe of righteousness0 is a not inapt analogy or figure4 ,when speaking of the pilgrimage of the soul1 the picture presented is that of a concrete toiler1 ascending slowly1 breathing heavily1 sighing and evidencing effort to all our outer senses1 yet we know that the soul's best efforts are mostly hidden from sight and hearing and touch4 ,but no confusion arises4 ,the mental conception to which the figure points is that of efforts as great though directed to evils that are chiefly mental1 emotional1 moral1 not physical4 ,similarly1 the 8robe of righteousness0 figure must not be overstrained4 ,man's soul is clothed upon by1 or clothes itself in 7it matters not which1 we say7 robes or garments of flesh1 and of finer physical elements than flesh1 elements intangible to his five senses4 ,the flesh garment or body is constantly changing1 and so are the bodies of desire and of thought4 ,the changes occur through the action and interplay of diverse subtle forces4 ,fresh elemental matter is borne in from without to replace the atoms of structures tending to decompose1 while a process of selection1 determination and assimilation proceeds through the action of forces within4 ,but the same laws of growth apply to realms of nature less open to observation1 and a careful selection and choice of material is as potent and necessary in building the bodies of desire and thought as in building the body of solid flesh4 ,and what are the available materials here8 ,in the hidden life of our own thought and feeling we are conscious of an unceasing flow of transient states1 or we may express it1 currents of emotional and mental vibrations reaching us from we know not whence1 waves breaking upon us from without4 ,if we deliberately choose the elevated moods1 the purest1 swiftest vibrations1 and seek habitually to retain these and make them our own1 sweetness and light must inevitably characterize the habitation we are slowly building for our inner consciousness4 ,in other words1 the vehicles of our feeling and thought will become as 8robes of righteousness40 ,desires1 passions1 emotions form what has been called the astral body2#ag aspiration and thought or the action of reason1 imagination and the artistic faculties1 create a still subtler1 or mind-body1 while the blend of the two is what we are accustomed to observe as ruling character4 ,and when the physical is cast off at death1 man's consciousness passes into his subtle bodies and into regions of bliss whither we may not follow1 but of which ,st4 ,paul gives us a glimpse when he says 8we have a building of ,god1 a house not made with hands1 ,eternal in the ,heavens40 ,footnote #ag3 ,a real body of subtle matter interpenetrating the flesh body and visible to some clairvoyants4 ,now1 to minds permeated by cruder ideas of man's body and soul the above will seem mystical and unreal4 ,nevertheless1 there are many minds1 scientifically trained to a close observation of the manifold phenomena of life with all the finer forces and elements in nature1 that are ready to accept a truer conception of the complex constitution of man4 ,to all such1 the proof of the actual existence of these transcendental vehicles of consciousness lies in hypnotic and other psychic phenomena1 and in the evidence of experience4 ,for1 given a certain amount of intimate intercourse1 and the man within the man shows himself to the eye of his friend through expression1 attitude1 gesture4 ,but what the mental eye sees behind the veil of flesh must exist in some form4 ,hence the eye discerns not the consciousness1 but its phenomenal garment or vehicle1 and the texture organized is coarse1 brutal1 degraded or animal1 sensuous1 selfish1 or of a finer and purer nature1 divinely human1 indicating the grade and quality of the animating principle or soul within4 ,,summary ,passing back once more from personal religion1 or the rise and purification of the inner nature of the individual man1 to the great subject of religion in general1 we must again have recourse to physical analogies or figures of speech4 ,a mighty stream or current of spiritual vibrations has flowed from the beginning behind the circumstances of history2 and each branch of the human family has caught up1 retained1 and manifested a portion thereof4 ,but the manifestations have at all times been governed by the receptive capacity of the particular race and its inherent distinctions4 ,every formulated religion is of dual complexion3 first1 the initial motive1 which is spiritual2 second1 the expression1 which is due to ideas1 and these are furnished by the mind4 ,the creeds1 dogmas1 rituals1 are outgrowths of the age1 civilization and locality4 ,christianity has ostensibly been the religion of ,western ,europe during a long period of development in all the material appliances of a civilized life when mental and physical forces1 engaged in accumulating wealth1 have dominated this development and tended to depress and destroy the higher impulses and aspirations of man4 ,christianity1 already weakened by errors that had crept in1 was unable to withstand the corrupting influences of a money-making age4 ,it adapted itself to the sternly practical business-like son of the ,west1 and dropped out much of the imaginative and reflective side of its teaching4 ,but the 8old order changeth10 and1 as has been shown in previous chapters1 one great department of civilized life1 viz4 the prevailing system of industry1 is hastening to its dissolution4 ,that system has been tried in the furnace of a longsuffering1 patient experience1 and found to create national wealth in abundance1 while utterly failing to subserve general well-being1 and bring about a just arrangement of social conditions4 ,through all the channels of the nation's best thinking there has sounded low1 but clear as a clarion note1 a call to social reform1 and now1 in the depths of industrial confusion1 amid dumb despair and loud-voiced public discontent1 the still small voice of conscience speaks audibly1 and a stirring of dry bones over the whole field of action1 betokens the awakening to a new era of existence4 ,spiritual vibrations have loosened the foundations of our materialized1 selfish life1 and pierced through the crust of callous indifference to the heart of the nation4 ,a new tenderness lurks there4 ,it prompts to the entire overthrow of our hideous industrial warfare and the substitution of a well-ordered system based1 reared and maintained through the action of wide-reaching love4 ,but love was the distinguishing feature of early ,christianity1 and the genius of its teaching4 ,through the figure of family life1 with its tender ties1 unselfish actions and unity of interests and feeling1 did ,christianity strive to allure to the broader1 higher1 deeper love that embraces all mankind and manifests throughout all human relations4 ,pioneers of the social revolution may abjure the churches1 creeds and rituals1 and boast themselves agnostic1 but none the less are they aiding the reembodiment1 on this material plane1 of the true religious spirit1 or the birth of a religion fitted for the nation's age and civilization4#ah ,footnote #ah3 ,mr4 ,lester ,f4 ,ward 7in his new work published in #aijc7 formulates a distinction between human and animal societies by saying that the environment transforms the animal while man transforms the environment4 ,this transformation constitutes what he calls 8achievement10 and is the characteristic feature in human progress4 ,the products of 8achievement0 are not material things4 ,they are methods1 ways1 principles1 devices1 arts1 systems1 institutions4 ,the ,church1 it is true1 gives no formal countenance to the industrial revolution1 but that does not disprove my contention that it is the distinctive religious movement of this age1 and that it is in line and harmony with the religious movements of former ages4 ,these may seem to have been less secular than this1 but they always embraced a reformation of social and individual life4 ,the actual distinction arises from the ,church's own deficiencies1 and from the greater elaboration of modern society1 causing an almost undue prominence to be given to the outward changes necessary at the beginning of a modern reformation4 ,the ,church must inevitably conform itself to the industrial revolution4 ,it must reform itself from within2 and this is clearly perceived by many of its members4 ,whilst ,i write a conference of the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association is taking place4 ,a question discussed was3 8,what is the cause of young men's drifting away from the ,church80 ,one speaker remarked that to his mind the cause was the want of fixity of opinion on the great fundamentals of their common ,christianity4 ,young men found that ministers were not agreed upon what they preached1 and until the ,church made up its mind as to what was really the truth1 there could be no remedy for this drifting4 ,another speaker said he knew young men who hated the ,church1 and said it was not consistent4 ,they pointed to the slum dwellings in their great cities1 and asked what the ,church was doing to remedy the state of affairs there disclosed4 ,in fact1 they said3 8,salvation is hardly worth the taking1 it's so mixed up with money-making4 ,if the ,church was to reach young men1 it must take up a more consistent attitude with regard to all social questions40 7,from the ,scotsman47 ,but religion is not of the ,church alone1 religion appertains to the totality of life2 and the right ordering of all the conditions of the nation's material existence is the first step in the attainment of a national religious life4 ,for1 observe1 the broad current of spiritual vibrations encompassing the race can have no free course and ingress to thrill the nerves and quicken the pulse of the nation so long as there endures a fierce1 brutal struggle for the means of potential life--a struggle that hardens the heart and coarsens the fibre of rich and poor alike4 ,the movement we call ,economic ,socialism is a veritable recurrence of the cry of the ,prophet ,esaias3 8,prepare ye the way of the ,lord1 make ,his paths straight40#ai ,footnote #ai3 ,what profits it to the human ,prometheus that he has stolen the fire of heaven to be his servant1 and that the spirits of the earth and of the air obey him1 if the vulture of pauperism is eternally to tear his very vitals and keep him on the brink of destruction8--,,huxley4 ,the ,church militant must adjust itself without and within to the social industrial revolution1 to a wider development than hitherto in man's reasoning powers1 and to a profound impulse in man--an impulse born of experience--that is carrying him towards the vast region of philosophic mysticism which lies behind the common ,christian creeds and doctrines4 ,the poet caught the shadow of coming events when he wrote-- ,so all intolerable wrong shall fade1 ,no brother shall a brother's rights invade1 ,but all shall champion all3 ,then shall men bear with an unconquered will ,and iron heart the inevitable ill2 ,o'er pain1 wrong1 passion1 death1 victorious still ,and calm1 though suns should fall4 ,oh priests who mourn that reverence is dead1 ,man quits a fading faith1 and asks instead ,a worship great and true4 ,i know that there was once a church where men ,caught glimpses of the gods believed in then3 ,i dream that there shall be such church again-- ,o dream1 come true1 come true4 --,w4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,call4 ,,synopsis ,the world has a purpose4444 ,that purpose aims not at man as an end1 but works through him to greater issues4--,h4 ,g4 ,,wells4 ,man has already furthered evolution very considerably1 half unconsciously and for his own personal advantage1 but he has not yet risen to the conviction that it is his religious duty to do so deliberately and systematically4--,,francis ,,galton4 ,more than a century has elapsed since ,pope's line was written3 8,the proper study of mankind is man10 yet it is only of recent years that physiology has entered upon the proper method of that study4 ,discoveries made in the last century have thrown fresh light on individual human nature4 ,the marvellous potency of thought has been demonstrated1 and the momentous fact of diverse states of basic consciousness made apparent--the fact1 namely1 that the mind of individual man is not functionally limited to his physical consciousness4 ,again1 that every human being should have freedom to be happy was realized by many at an earlier epoch2 but what the essential nature might be of a happiness that could satisfy the conflicting desires of humanity differentiated in all its units--seemed an insoluble problem4 ,psychology1 however1 indicates the solution of that problem1 for it shows that individual happiness is intimately bound up with1 and dependent upon1 general happiness4 ,the 8subliminal or unconscious mind10 otherwise termed the super-physical consciousness that is common to all mankind knows no settled peace and comfort while the areas of physically conscious life are scenes of perpetual conflict4 ,man to be truly happy must be so collectively and not merely individually or sectionally4 ,now the scheme of social reform ,i advocate points the way to a unification of thought that working itself out through the diverse channels of visible life will eject the causes of evil1 bring order where chaos has reigned1 and slowly but surely establish the foundations of universal peace4 ,as ,richard ,harte has well said3 8,human beings at present are like a number of little magnets thrown promiscuously into a heap1 with their poles pointing in every direction1 and wasting their strength in opposing each other4 ,these little magnets have to point in the same direction that they may become bound together into one great magnet1 all powerful to attract good1 all powerful to repel evil40 ,the new system of action bases its thought on the complexity of human nature4 ,it recognizes that the component cells of the physical body are lives which must suffer if the laws of their well-being are not subserved1 and the suffering translates itself into pain or into sub-conscious distressful melancholy4 ,it perceives that the social instincts of man hitherto thrust back and crushed are3 8the various needs of universal attraction all tending towards unity1 striving to meet and mingle in final harmony0 7,zola74 ,and further it apprehends that a lofty aspiration--a divine impulse--hovers on the threshold of consciousness waiting to enter as brutal passions and vicious propensities are conquered and dispossessed4 ,the evils that infest and corrupt our social life and that man must deliberately uproot and eliminate before general happiness becomes possible are--poverty1 i4e4 a life-long struggle to obtain food1 shelter1 clothing2 the birth of individuals weak and unfit2 disease1 premature death2 enforced celibacy2 late marriage2 drunkenness2 disorganization of family life2 prostitution2 war2 and industrial competition2 social injustice and inequality2 individual tyranny2 crime2 barbarous treatment of criminals2 disrespect of natural function and consequent injury to health2 conventional folly2 social repression of innocent enjoyment2 religious bigotry2 the feebleness of religious guidance and confusion of religious thought4 ,partial views of society as well as of individual human nature have hitherto prevailed and given birth to specifics of all kinds for the cure of the diseases of society1 and these in the growing tenderness of humanity1 have been eagerly adopted and applied1 to prove disappointing in the main4 ,the new system deals with society as a whole and throughout all its parts4 ,it requires a full comprehension of each and all the groups or classes of social phenomena and their inter-relations4 ,viewing society as a whole1 we realize that there are no remedial specifics in the case1 that general happiness will be obtained only by a process of evolution1 and that the process is one of continual readjustment of multitudinous relations1 or unceasing adaptation of individual human life to a social environment1 and of social environment to individual human life4 ,the evolution of social environment proceeds towards the highest ethical state which implies a system of society based upon justice and equality4 ,but the realization of this state requires a perfected humanity1 hence the path of progress is also in the gradual improvement of individuals--the creation of a superior race whose spontaneous impulses will construct and support a perfected social system4 ,unconscious evolution has carried us forward from savagery through many transitions to a state of civilization which1 though grossly imperfect1 contains within it a new element of advance4 ,here and there throughout society the power of love and reason combined has become strong1 and aided by a scientific knowledge of man and the conditions of his life1 it is capable of design1 and of intensifying the action of evolutionary forces and immensely increasing their momentum4 ,reason1 however1 must invent an effective policy of meliorism which so unites the practical methods of reform as that each will add strength to all1 and the result prove a powerful factor of change in the society on which it is brought to bear4 ,the strife of competition throughout the whole sphere of industrial life gives free play to selfishness and the passion of militancy1 and permeates society with the warlike spirit4 ,advance in morals is the sure step to a better and happier future2 but man's moral nature is largely conditioned by heredity1 training and environment1 while these1 at present1 are all unfavourable to a high moral state4 ,a progressive system of general reform therefore has to embrace and combine rational breeding1 rational training and a rational order of life in which sympathy and co-operation will take the place of individual competition1 and general happiness--not wealth--be the clear aim of man4 ,the conscious element in evolution is as yet too weak to alter society much or rapidly1 but in all civilized countries--,germany1 ,france1 ,belgium1 etc41 as well as ,great ,britain1--changes towards the collective control of land and capital and the reorganization of industry on collectivist principles1 have begun1 and it is of supreme importance that other changes1 equally necessary1 should be initiated to advance pari-passu with those4 ,a central source of corruption is to be found in the disintegration of the ancient family group--the unfitness of an archaic domestic system to achieve the ends of rational training and the acquiring of habits of rational breeding4 ,at the same time there is a growth in social feeling and a spread of public opinion in favour of industrial socialism with some legislative and local action to carry it out1 that together1 present conditions propitious to change in domestic living and sexual custom4 ,consequently a reconstruction of domestic life on modern principles among educated people fitted to adapt life to moral ends is pre-eminently a feature of the new order4 ,at present excessive labour on the part of the proletariat1 and enforced idleness on the part of many men and women within the classes1 are fatal to progress4 ,vital forces are exhausted on the one hand1 repressed on the other1 while the sub-conscious feeling that craves unity and solidarity is outraged and restrained4 ,to restore work to its legitimate place in human life is a primary aim of the new domestic system4 ,that system must be built up on the principle that work for the benefit of all is the duty and privilege of each1 and without a due share of social labour no normal man or woman in health can attain to inward peace4 ,as regards religion1 man's abstract thought must purge itself from materialized ideals1 his concrete thought from selfish aims1 for he is essentially a religious being and psychical studies affirm that within him there lie latent faculties that relate him to worlds unseen--worlds as yet unrealizable in human consciousness4 ,in the visible world religious forces must be directed to the great work of social reform4 ,to unselfishly promote the welfare of generations unborn is a profoundly religious course of action4 ,the purest1 noblest feelings of man may be enlisted in the cause of progress through union--for social reconstruction1 scientific education1 gentle training of the young1 associated domestic life1 facilitation of happy marriage--and for the comfort of all mankind1 whether good or bad1 clever or dull1 fortunate or unfortunate4 ,co-operation in work to the banishment of idleness and its accompanying misery ennui is the primary object of the new domestic system1 but other ends to attain are--economy1 by means of joint labour and joint expense to the relief of monetary anxieties and domestic worries2 stability of social position1 i4e4 no member needing to fear that his home will break up independently of his wishes2 social intercourse and enjoyment relieved of conventional etiquette or tyranny2 freedom for friendship between the sexes and such conditions of family union as will promote mental capacity and altruistic sentiment in each individual2 early marriage without disregard of social responsibility and based upon mutual knowledge of character1 habits and tastes2 a fitting refuge for old age1 rendering impossible the premature destruction of valuable social forces which age alone can supply1 and securing the material1 intellectual and emotional surroundings necessary for comfort up to the last moment of life4 ,in the lower social strata where any reconstruction of family life is not yet possible1 what is immediately required is a gradual rise of wages with steady improvement in all the conditions of industrial labour4 ,society also must relinquish such patronage of the poor as fosters their too rapid increase1 undermines their self-dependence and tends generally to deterioration of race4 ,parental responsibility must be strongly inculcated and strictly upheld4 ,public teaching should be given in all natural laws affecting society1 especially the laws of health1 increase1 and heredity2 and1 under conditions respectful to human dignity1 ,malthusian doctrine should be taught1 and a knowledge of neo-,malthusian method very carefully imparted4 ,in the higher social strata within the newly constructed modern homes sexual conduct and parentage with its far-reaching results for good or evil must be controlled or guided into the path of racial regeneration4 ,the scientific study of man's nature gives sexual passion an honourable position relatively to human life4 ,it rests on the conscience of each adult generation as an imperative social duty to influence the young generation in such wise as that this great passion shall subserve physical and social health and cease to create degradation4 ,a due activity in growing organs strengthens organic function2 therefore1 with early marriages and freedom to young love1 checked only by scientific knowledge of the laws of health1 propagation at the age of maturity is bound to put forth vitality of good quality4 ,in conscious evolution sexual functions are no longer regarded as essentially allied with propagation4 ,they are regarded1 however1 as properly subject in youth to parental and social control2 and that control acts as a perpetual restraint upon licentious1 dissolute tendencies and a shield to the young love that seeks personal happiness consistent with domestic purity4 ,no less potent is the action of control in another direction4 ,physiology of sex and the laws of inheritance are carefully studied by guardians of domestic peace who1 rejecting the ordinary and vulgar conception accept the teaching of science1 and science points to philoprogenitiveness1 or love of offspring1 as the proper motor force in reproduction4 ,were this force the antecedent cause of parentage throughout the nation1 disease and premature death would be undermined and gradually subside4 8,indiscriminate survival0 gives way before that 8rational selection and birth of the fit0 which is a fundamental condition of social well-being--the master-spring to a rapid evolution of general happiness4 ,the transition1 however1 from our present state of confused sentiment1 illogical thought1 and disastrous action in the field of eugenics or stirpiculture1 to clearness of purpose and consistency of life1 must necessarily be a work of extreme delicacy and patient endeavour4 ,its achievement requires the nuclei of collectivist homes4 ,its nurture must take place in the bosom of a superior domestic life4 ,the process1 in short1 implies an alteration in humanity itself1 to be brought about by such preparatory alteration in outward conditions as will set up and bring into play the constant interaction of new social forces4 ,individualism in domestic life vitiates the movement towards socialism outside domestic life1 for it gives us misshapen units unfit for a better social system--a system that seeks to banish tyranny1 despotism1 pride1 self-will and every anti-social emotion in order to establish the perfect justice and equality that are essential to the highest ethical state4 ,it is a necessity of socialism to lay hold of the family and fashion it anew so that it may produce a superior material of human life1 i4e4 individual men and women whose enjoyments lie chiefly in sympathy and whose spontaneous impulses are towards an essentially social life4 ,and further1 not only is our present domestic system wholly incapable of dealing with sex relations so as to adapt them to stirpiculture1 not only is it so feeble as to be absolutely impotent in the regulation of the conduct of masculine youth outside its boundaries1 but it is destitute also of elements required in the organizing of a progressive educational system4 ,home education has almost disappeared in the disintegration of family life1 while in society the strong forces of aggregation which under diverse conditions of industry and convention group mankind in sections have moulded schools to massive proportions4 ,the youth of the nation is in a great measure cut off from the home influences which are calculated to teach mankind 8humanities1 not in the academic but in the real sense40 ,it is congregated in universities and large schools for superior culture and day schools for culture of a less exalted order4 ,in the former1 young men and maidens are separated4 ,domesticity--the quality in human nature on which depends the consolidation of society1 is disregarded1 whilst to the development of mutual interests1 affinity of tastes1 harmony of habits and unanimity of social aims between the sexes no attention is paid during the plastic period of life when individual character is in process of determination4 ,in day schools boys and girls are often associated1 but under such conditions of mechanical routine1 cramming1 conflicting and alternating authorities1 irregular and erratic forces of moral control1 as to make these schools provocative of evil1 fostering every anti-social instinct of man4 ,co-ordination in the life of the young is the demand of the new system of general reform4 ,the nursery1 school and playground must be harmonized1 and the entire juvenile orbit1 within and without the home1 governed by intellectual and moral forces of fixed congruity4 ,the object and aim of true education is the fullest development of an individual's best powers of thought1 feeling1 action1 by means of their happy exercise at every stage of growth from childhood to maturity4 ,now book-learning or culture in schools accomplishes very little1 but a direct study of nature is an incomparable aid to this end4 ,each object and process in nature from that of the infinitely great to the infinitely small--if fittingly dealt with by teachers--is instinct with charm for the young of an intelligent race4 ,it excites imagination1 awakens thought1 kindles enthusiasm1 stimulates every latent mental faculty1 while the endless variation of beauty in nature--under training to close observation--makes aesthetic appeal to the sense perceptions1 and in calling forth wonder1 admiration1 delight adds richness immeasurably to the quality of human life4 ,nevertheless the springs and checks of a true education lie deep in a world of feeling4 ,for their exercise home-life is indispensable4 ,family love is the primary motor force in the education of the feelings1 and without the presence of a wide domestic circle habitually fostering the sympathetic and repressing the selfish emotions no high water-mark of civilization will be reached4 ,there is in man a group of emotions of comparatively recent origin requiring scientific treatment of the utmost delicacy and precision4 ,on the further development of that group depends in a very special manner the rapid evolution of an ethical social system4 ,the group is threefold--egoistic1 altruistic1 moral4 ,it comprises a sense of personal rights1 a sympathetic jealousy for the rights of others1 an intellectual and moral sentiment of justice1 or equivalence of liberty and social comfort for all mankind4 ,the first element is already very perceptible throughout society4 ,the second is more rare2 it must be strengthened or assiduously created in the nursery1 schoolroom and domestic circle by a system of training whose characteristic is extreme gentleness4 ,the tender shoots of sympathetic jealousy are incapable of growth in an environment of harsh sound or brutal force4 ,hence the authority that begets antagonism has no place in the perfected education of the future4 ,as the young emerge from childhood the responsibilities of life become aids in education1 and immensely develop the above emotions4 ,discipline of conduct within their own order appertains to the young2 whilst society1 within and without the domestic circle1 demands the thorough regulation of young life4 ,conduct clubs and combinations for a variety of social ends1 both sexes taking part1 arise among the young2 and these promote in the highest degree the healthy growth of such virtuous emotion and habits in the individual as are indispensable to ethical socialism4 ,the method adopted is a just and intelligent criticism to which the youthful mind has previously been trained4 ,since pride of birth1 pride of wealth and habits of domination and luxury are all unfavourable to the growth of a moral sentiment of social justice1 it is not in the upper ranks of society we need look for the public spirit that will devise methods of gradually equalizing the labour of life and its rewards and undermining present class distinctions4 ,as little likely is the sentiment of social justice to spring spontaneously in a fortunate capitalist class where pride of acquisition strongly opposes the principle that reward should not be proportioned to personal capacity--that mental labour has no title to inordinate distinction1 but that other useful exertion ethically requires fullness of reward4 ,reconstruction is necessarily a growth from below4 ,from the proletariat comes the impulse towards industrial reconstruction1 and it is in the middle class--and the less wealthy section of that class--that the beings exist who by segregation may form collectivist homes capable of by-and-bye aggregating into the solid foundation of a pure and elevated republican society4 ,education in these homes where mixture of ages1 from the white-haired centenarian to the infant in arms1 creates all manner of tender ties1 where gentleness and love are the main stimuli in training1 where authority is exercised consistently and reasonably1 and replaced at maturity by reason and self-control--must eventuate in the production of a superior moral and intellectual type4 ,the order of social evolution1 computed roughly1 is as follows3 ,in the first stage1 social equality exists2 it is an epoch of savagery4 ,in the second stage1 differentiation issuing in class distinctions takes place2 the birth of social inequality and injustice arising naturally through exercise of superior brute force and cunning4 ,civilization has here its genesis2 and coercion1 tyranny1 robbery1 injustice1 avarice1 love of power1 inequality1 are stimuli of civilization and prime elements in the formation of strong nations4 ,individuals who are inferior1 then whole classes socially weak1 are compelled by forces1 individual and social1 to minister to the wants of the strong and superior4 ,civilization nurtured by inequality and injustice develops in the superior classes of society and slowly spreads downwards4 ,in the third stage1 reaction occurs1 prompted by civilization itself6 ,justice and liberty develop in the lower or inferior social classes and spread very slowly upwards without destroying a civilization1 become inherent in the superior type of man4 ,the fourth stage is one of readjustment in which civilization becomes general and there is a gradual return to social equality4 ,ultimately society will have no class distinctions of the present order1 no idlers or parasites1 no poor and no coercive government4 ,voluntary co-operation or concerted action for social ends is a self-regulating1 self-controlling force which1 when fully developed in the new domestic and industrial systems is able to dominate society throughout its length and breadth4 ,the path of social reform ,i advocate has now1 in its main features1 been placed before my readers4 ,outside the general policy that will cause the direct action of the system to become a great factor of social change1 however1 there are sundry courses of less direct action1 it is bound to pursue4 ,these bear relation to1 first1 pauperism and patronage of the poor2 second1 the proletariat2 third1 the criminal classes2 fourth1 the position of woman2 fifth1 the young2 sixth1 conventionalism2 seventh1 political action4 ,in the first relation the specific policy is to carefully discriminate between benevolence that is beneficial and benevolence that is mischievous in its results on social well-being4 ,whilst exercising the former1 it gives no support to charities that hurt the independence of the poor1 or relieve them of parental responsibility4 ,in reproduction it discountenances and opposes the social force of indiscriminate selection which results in survival of the unfit4 ,it seeks to initiate and press forward the counteracting social force of intelligent selection1 which brings about the birth of the fit4 ,in the second relation1 the specific policy strenuously supports combinations of workers for the raising of wages1 mutual help and democratic political aims preparatory to general socialism4 ,in the third relation1 the specific policy strives to enlighten public opinion upon the nature of crime and the philosophic principles of its treatment4 ,it elaborates a new method in which vindictiveness1 the essence of punishment1 has no existence2 but gentleness towards all evil-doers issues in1 first1 the effectual protection of society2 second1 the reform of corrigible criminals2 third1 the gradual extinction of crime4 ,it urges upon government a cautious deliberate adoption of this method4 ,in the fourth relation1 the action of the policy is to promote the enfranchisement of women1 and at every point aid the movement of advance to the position of social equality of sex4 ,in the fifth and sixth relations1 it inculcates by admonition and example1 and especially among the young1 a return to simplicity of manners1 habits and dress4 ,it repudiates conventional etiquette1 and opposes the tyranny of fashion4 ,it promotes the association of the sexes in youth under condition of adult control1 whether the union be that of marriage1 of friendship or of simple intercourse and companionship4 ,it discountenances and takes no part in the excitements of an artificial1 frivolous society1 but it creates and fosters the vigorating excitements of useful labour1 alternating with unconstrained and 8tranquil delights40 ,in the seventh relation1 the specific policy agitates for alteration of the marriage laws1 the laws of inheritance of property and the land laws4 ,equality of sex is required as the basis of the marriage law1 accompanied by the condition of easy divorce in order to facilitate the dissolution of false ties in favour of the true4 ,the laws affecting children require adaptation to the ethics of social justice and sex equality4 ,laxity must give way to strictness in respect of parentage2 and child-birth be recognized as an event bearing directly upon the interests of the general public4 ,hence modification here entails the recognition of illegitimate children and the counteracting of the vicious tendency to shirk parental duty and social responsibility4 ,the land and property laws must be adjusted to a levelling process--the action of paring down large estates and diminishing the massive proportions of private property so slowly as to create no individual suffering or social confusion1 such legislative measures being directed1 however1 to land nationalization and nationalization of capital as their final aim4 ,in conclusion1 let me add1 ,i claim to have shown that 8science in the economic field gives certain facts from which a line of social evolution may be foreshadowed10 and that religion and science give1 in wider fields1 facts and principles that point to lines of illimitable progression for man4 8,whether these lines will be followed depends not upon immutable laws beyond our control1 but upon the human will40 ,the general policy ,i advocate is distinctly reliable so long as it rests on scientific methods and knowledge1 but no question is finally exhausted4 ,in the sphere of rational reform free-thought must ever be considered and respected4 ,new occasions teach new duties2 ,time makes ancient good uncouth2 ,they must upward still and onward1 ,who would keep abreast of truth4 ,,index ,a ,abyssinians1 ,the1 #acd ,acquisitiveness1 #bac ,adler1 ,hermann1 #bah ,adolescence1 #beg-bff1 #cce1 #cda ,adulteration1 #de ,aesthetic sentiment1 #aig-bjj1 #bjc1 #baa1 #bae ,aged1 ,the1 #bfi-bgb1 #cca1 #cch ,allen1 ,dr4 ,nathan1 #abj ,amiel1 #aj ,anderson1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,a41 #cjf ,anxiety1 #aag ,arabs1 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non-standard1 and uncertain spellings as printed4 #c4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4