,,bantu ,,beliefs ,,and ,,magic ,,with ,,particular ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,kikuyu ,,and ,,kamba ,,tribes ,,of ,,kenya ,,colony2 ,,together ,,with ,,some ,,reflections ,,on ,,east ,,africa ,,after ,,the ,,war ,,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,hobley1 ,c4,m4,g4 ,m4 ,r4 ,anthrop4 ,inst41 ,c4,m4,z4,s41 ,assoc4 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 7,late ,senior ,provincial ,commissioner1 ,kenya ,colony7 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,sir ,,james ,g4 ,,frazer1 ,f4,r4,s41 c4 ,,london ,h4 ,f4 ,g4 ,,witherby #cbf ,,high ,,holborn1 ,w4,c4 #aibb ,,preface ,it is often said that the longer one knows the native the less one knows1 and the less one understands him4 ,this expression is doubtless comforting to persons who have not the patience to systematically study him and his views on life1 but it could with convenience be replaced by a saying to the effect that the more one knows of the native the more one realises how much remains to be learnt4 ,the spirit of this is in accordance with the true attitude to all other branches of knowledge1 for the more one learns1 the more the map unfolds1 and one gradually realises the vastness of the country to be explored4 ,during long years of service in ,east ,africa my work has brought me into close contact with the native tribes from ,lake ,victoria to the coast1 and ,i early realised that their administration could not be intelligently conducted without close inquiry into their social organisation and religious beliefs1 and in this connection ,i would here like to express my indebtedness to the kind advice and stimulating assistance which ,i have received from ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,professor ,haddon and others4 ,i particularly wish to thank ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer for his kindness in consenting to write an introduction to this work4 ,my first researches in this field were conducted among the tribes of ,kavirondo1 and when some years later ,i left the ,nyanza province for ,ukamba ,i became interested in the people with whom this work mainly deals4 ,in #aiaj ,i published a small work styled 8,the ,ethnology of the ,a-,kamba and ,other ,east ,african ,tribes0 which was mainly intended as an aide memoire for colleagues working among the people referred to2 the study was continued and certain matters were dealt with in papers communicated to the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute and the ,british ,association4 ,further research has1 however1 brought to light a great deal of additional material and has enabled me to piece together the work1 and ,i venture to believe that the light which it attempts to throw upon the inner life of these important tribes may stimulate further inquiry1 and help both official and colonist in his relations with them4 ,it has long been the fashion to look upon such research as being of only academic value2 this view1 however1 is year by year becoming dimmer1 and ,i would ask all those who are interested in ,africa to abandon it4 ,the late war has forcibly demonstrated the importance of understanding the psychology of our enemies1 and if that is admitted ,i would claim that it is quite as important for workers in ,africa to endeavour to understand the psychology of the ,africans1 whose friendship is of vital necessity to all progress in that country4 ,in presenting this work to the public1 ,i would like to emphasise the belief that the field is by no means exhausted2 all that ,i have been able to do has been done amidst the insistent rush of official duties1 and ,i have often longed for the chance of being able to concentrate my attention for a year or two solely on researches of this nature4 ,the language difficulty is one of the greatest obstacles with which a ,european is faced2 native languages are numerous and an administrative officer rarely has time to learn one before he is removed to another area and therefore another language4 ,the elders rarely know much ,swahili1 the language which is the lingua franca of ,east ,africa4 ,interpreters are often a snare1 and an investigator has to work with one for some time before being certain that he has fully realised the spirit of the research1 especially when dealing with religious beliefs3 indeed many interpreters never grasp the spirit of the inquiry4 ,i had working with me for some years a remarkable interpreter--,juma bin ,hamis--who became deeply interested in the subject under investigation1 and was of the greatest assistance4 ,when any point was obscure he would go off and unearth an elder who was known to have particular information on the point at issue4 ,unfortunately1 however1 ,i have to mourn his loss1 for he died at ,nairobi in #aiaa4 ,such a man is difficult to replace2 his speciality was ,kikuyu political organisation and customs1 and1 although a coast native1 he was deeply esteemed by all the people of ,southern ,kikuyu4 ,i would here like to express my indebtedness to several of my colleagues and friends1 particularly the ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas1 ,g4 ,h4 ,osborne1 and the late ,s4 ,w4 ,j4 ,scholefield1 who1 living for a long time in the native reserves of ,kikuyu and ,ukamba in close contact with the people1 have given me the greatest assistance upon special points4 ,i am also grateful to ,miss du ,cros for her kind assistance in revising the ,,mss4 of this work4 ,with the ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas's permission1 ,i have inserted an interesting memorandum by him on ,kikuyu dances and certain magical phenomena4 ,he collected the information while in charge of the ,kikuyu district4 ,i also express my gratitude to the many elders who have so fully given me information about many customs and rites which they do not care to discuss with the man in the street4 ,the ,kikuyu in particular welcomed my interest in their beliefs4 ,they even urged me to become a recognised elder of the tribe1 so that they could impart full information without violation of the rules forbidding the divulging of the ceremonial of their grade to those not initiated to that grade4 ,this election has been of great value1 for recognition as an elder in ,kikuyu franks one1 so to speak1 among the ,kamba1 and the elders of that reticent tribe talked freely to me on their rites and beliefs4 ,finally ,i must express my indebtedness to ,professor ,robertson ,smith's illuminating work on the 8,religion of the ,semites10 and to ,campbell ,thompson's book on 8,semitic ,magic40 ,i have referred to these from time to time1 as they throw light upon the principles underlying many of the ,african ceremonies which ,i describe4 ,any description of the languages spoken by the tribes under review being outside the scope of this work1 it has been considered inadvisable to complicate it by the adoption of the modern system of phonetic symbols in the native names4 ,the use of the symbols1 though based on sound principles1 unfortunately renders unintelligible to the ordinary reader many native words4 ,as the war has occurred since the bulk of this work was written1 ,i have considered that it might not be out of place to add a chapter of a general nature dealing with the position of native affairs after the great upheaval1 for ,africa has not escaped its effects any more than other parts of the world1 and the future of the relations of black and white needs most thoughtful consideration4 ,c4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,introduction ,the author of this book1 ,mr ,c4 ,w4 ,hobley1 has long been known to anthropologists as one of our best authorities on the native races of ,british ,east ,africa1 or ,kenya ,colony1 as it is now called1 where he resided as ,provincial ,commissioner for many years4 ,the time he could spare from his official duties he wisely devoted to studying the customs and beliefs of the tribes whom he was appointed to govern1 and through the knowledge and experience thus acquired he was able to make a valuable series of contributions to ethnography4 ,in the present work he has resumed and largely supplemented his former studies of two important tribes1 the ,kikuyu and ,kamba1 enriching his previous accounts with many fresh details and fruitful observations4 ,the result is a monograph replete with information of great variety and of the highest interest for the student of savage thought and institutions4 ,but the book has a practical as well as a scientific value4 ,placed in the hands of ,british officials engaged in the maintenance of order and the administration of justice among the natives1 it must prove of real service to them in their task of affording them an insight into the habits and ideas of the people1 and thus greatly facilitating the task of government4 ,indeed1 without some such knowledge of the native's point of view it is impossible to govern him wisely and well4 ,the savage way of thinking is very different to ours1 and ,mr ,hobley is right in insisting that it is by no means simple1 but1 on the contrary1 highly complex1 and that1 consequently1 it cannot be understood without long and patient study4 ,to legislate for savages on ,european principles of law and morality1 even when the legislator is inspired by none but the most benevolent intentions1 is always dangerous1 and not seldom disastrous2 for it is too often forgotten that native customs have grown up through a long course of experience and adaptation to natural surroundings1 that they correspond to notions and beliefs which1 whether ill or well founded1 are deeply rooted in the native mind1 and that the attempt to discard them for others which have been developed under totally different conditions may injure instead of benefiting the people4 ,even when the new rules and habits1 which government seeks to force upon the tribes1 are in themselves1 abstractly considered1 better than the old1 they may not be so well adapted to the mental framework of the governed1 and the consequence may be that the old moral restraints are abolished without the substitution of any equally effective in their room4 ,to this danger ,mr ,hobley is fully alive1 and he gives a timely warning on the subject to those well-meaning but ill-informed persons at home who would treat the native ,african in accordance with the latest political shibboleths of democratic ,europe4 ,such treatment1 which its ignorant advocates seem to regard as a panacea for all human ills1 would almost inevitably produce an effect precisely the opposite of that intended3 instead of accelerating the progress of the natives1 it would probably precipitate their moral1 social1 and even physical decline4 ,in practical life few things are so dangerous as abstract ideas1 and the indiscriminate application of them to concrete realities is one of the most fatal weapons in the hands of the moral or political revolutionary4 ,among the mass of interesting topics dealt with in ,mr ,hobley's book it is difficult to single out any for special mention in an introduction4 ,the subjects to which1 on the whole1 he has paid closest attention are natural religion and magic4 ,in respect of religion the author again and again notes the remarkable similarities which may be traced between ,east ,african and ,semitic beliefs and rites1 and he raises the question how these similarities are to be explained4 ,are they due to parallel and independent development in the ,african and the ,semitic races8 ,or are they the consequence of the invasion of ,africa either by a ,semitic people or at all events by a people imbued with the principles of ,semitic religion4 ,in my book 8,folk-lore in the ,old ,testament0 #a ,i had been similarly struck by some of these resemblances1 and1 while abstaining from speculation on their origin1 had remarked that the hypothesis of derivation from a common source was not to be lightly rejected4 ,on the other hand ,mr ,hobley thinks it safer1 in the present state of our knowledge1 to assume that the resemblances in question have arisen independently1 through parallel development1 in the ,african and ,semitic areas4 ,he dismisses as highly improbable the idea that the ancient ,semitic beliefs should have originated in ,east ,africa and spread from there to ,arabia4 ,yet recent investigations in this part of ,africa1 particularly with regard to the native veins of iron and gold1 tend in the opinion of some competent inquirers to show that ,east ,central ,africa1 including the region of the great lakes1 was an extremely ancient seat of a rudimentary civilisation1 the seeds of which may have been carried1 whether by migration or the contact of peoples1 to remote parts of ,europe and ,asia4 ,in regard to iron1 which has been wrought in ,central ,africa from time immemorial1 ,mr ,hobley quotes ,professor ,gregory who thinks it probable that the art of forging the metal was invented in tropical ,africa at a date before ,europe had attained to the discovery and manufacture of bronze2 he even suggests that the ingenious smith who first fused tin and copper into bronze may have borrowed the hint from the process of working iron which he had learned in ,africa4 ,among the many curious superstitions recorded by ,mr ,hobley none is perhaps more interesting and suggestive than by the name of thahu or thabu1 and which presents points of similarity to the ,polynesian taboo4 ,mr ,hobley thinks that the idea involved in it is best expressed by the ,english term 8curse40 ,but to this it may be objected that a curse implies a personal agent1 human or divine1 who has called down some evil on the sufferer2 whereas in many1 indeed in most1 of the cases enumerated by ,mr ,hobley there is no suggestion of such an agent1 and the evil which befalls the sufferer is the direct consequence of his own action or of a simple accident4 ,thus it would seem that 8ceremonial uncleanness0 answers better to the meaning of thahu than 8curse40 ,be that as it may1 deliberate cursing apparently plays a prominent part in the superstition of the ,kikuyu and ,kamba2 but it is significant that they give it a different name 7kirume1 kiume7 from that which they apply to ceremonial uncleanness4 ,great faith is put in the effectiveness of curses1 especially the curses of dying persons2 and as these latter curses often refer to the disposal of the dying man's property after his death and are intended to prevent the alienation of land from the family1 ,mr ,hobley is led to make the ingenious suggestion that in some curses we may detect the origin of entail and of testamentary dispositions in general4 ,not a few of the customs and beliefs described by ,mr ,hobley remind us of similar practices and ideas in the religion and mythology of classical antiquity4 ,thus the warriors who1 armed with swords and clubs1 dance or hop from foot to foot at the time when the mawele grain is reaped1 are curiously reminiscent of the ,roman ,salii1 the dancing or leaping priests of the war-god ,mars1 who1 similarly accoutred with swords and staves1 danced or leaped1 while they invoked ,saturn1 the ,god of ,sowing4 ,again1 the strange sort of madness which from time to time seizes on ,kamba women and under the influence of which1 wrought up to a state of frenzy1 they caper about with cow's tails suspended from their arms1 offers a parallel to the ,greek legend of the daughters of ,prtus and the other ,argive women1 who1 oddly enough1 were said like their ,african sisters to have been healed of their infirmity by dances and the sacrifice of cattle4 #b ,the study of such hysterical and infectious manias among primitive peoples opens up an interesting field of inquiry to the psychologist4 ,such are a few specimens culled from the rich collection of ,east ,african folk-lore and religion which the author has presented to his readers in this volume4 ,the facts recorded by him provide much food for thought and suggest many lines of investigation for inquiries in the future4 ,for1 as he reminds us1 with equal truth and modesty1 the field of inquiry is far from being exhausted4 ,let us hope that it will yet yield an abundant harvest to others1 who will follow in ,mr ,hobley's footsteps and imitate the example he has set them of patient and open-minded research4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,,contents ,,page ,preface #c ,introduction #g ,,part ,i ,,natural ,,religion ,introductory #ai ,i4 ,spirit ,beliefs #bg ,,ii4 ,sacrifice #dj ,,iii4 ,sacred ,stones or ,village ,shrines #fi ,,iv4 ,the ,firstfruits of ,harvest and ,planting ,ceremonial #gc ,v4 ,circumcision ,ceremonial #gg ,,vi4 ,death and ,burial ,ceremonial #ig ,,vii4 ,the ,curse and its ,manifestations-- 7a7 ,thahu and its connection with circumcision rites1 etc4 #ajc 7b7 ,purification and blessing #acd 7c7 ,the dying curse #ade ,,viii4 ,superstitions regarding ,children and ,women #aed ,,part ,,ii ,,magic ,introductory #afe ,i4 ,the ,guild of ,smiths in ,kikuyu and ,ukamba #afg ,,ii4 ,the ,evil ,eye #agg ,,iii4 ,kikuyu ,magic and ,magicians #ahd ,,iv4 ,miscellaneous ,magical ,practices #aib ,,part ,,iii ,,miscellaneous ,introductory #bjg ,i4 ,the ,constitution and ,working of ,councils #bji ,,ii4 ,laws of ,compensation for ,murder #bcj ,,iii4 ,ceremonial ,oaths #bci ,,iv4 ,war and ,peace #bdd ,v4 ,miscellaneous ,customs and ,beliefs #bej ,,vi4 ,legends #bfb ,,vii4 ,dances #bff ,,viii4 ,women as ,factor in ,tribal ,organisation #bgd ,,ix4 ,some ,general ,remarks #bha ,x4 ,east ,africa after the ,war #bhf ,l',envoi #cjc ,glossary #cje ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,kamba ,chief1 ,kitui ,frontispiece ,typical ,muthuri ya ,ukuru ,facing #cg 7,elder of ,grade of ,priest7 ,kikuyu ,muthuri or ,elder #fe 7,prognathous ,type7 ,scenes at ,mambura 7,circumcision ,festival7 #ha 7#a7 ,sugar canes over village gates 7#b7 ,eating ceremonial food 7,photos by ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis7 ,climbing the 8,mugumu10 fig tree #hg 7,photo by ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis7 ,kikuyu ,circumcision ,feast 7#a7 ,male candidates #aac 7#b7 ,female candidates ,a ,dorobo ,elder1 ,torori #ahc 7,photo by ,t4 ,a4 ,dickson7 ,kamba ,elder with ,kithito #bda ,kikuyu--,beehive ,marks on ,trees #bed 7,woodcut in ,text7 ,kivata ,dance at ,kyambu1 ,kikuyu #bfg 7,photo by ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas7 ,kikuyu ,circumcision ,shield with ,anthropomorphic ,figures #bgc ,kikuyu ,methods of carrying the circumcision ,shield 7,the young men parade the country with these some weeks before the ceremony7 ,,part ,i ,,natural ,,religion ,,introductory ,the main objects of this work are to place on record the results of investigations made among the native tribes in ,british ,east ,africa1 particularly among the ,kikuyu and ,kamba people1 and to endeavour1 from a study of their ceremonial with regard to sacrifice and taboo1 to obtain a better insight into the principles which underlie the outward forms and ceremonies of their ritual4 ,it has long been customary1 partly through narrow-minded prejudice and partly through ignorance1 to class as ,pagans all native tribes which have not yet embraced one of the great positive religions1 such as ,christianity or ,mohammedanism4 ,but the time has now come when such negative definitions1 if seriously applied1 will have to be abandoned4 ,it must be admitted that all savages have a natural religion which is a survival of1 and is analogous to1 a stage of belief which existed among the ancestors of the civilised peoples of the present day4 ,the admission is inevitable1 however distasteful to those who are dogmatic in their religious beliefs and loath to admit that religious thought and the conception of a deity have passed through an evolutionary process and1 furthermore1 a process which has not ceased4 ,for1 after all1 the development of mental and moral ideas is a part of the evolution of the living being as much as the development of limbs1 cranial shape1 or body markings4 ,no positive system of religion descended from heaven as a completely new concept of the deity and with an absolutely novel code4 ,such a system could never have survived4 ,any new religious teacher could not fail to be1 to a great extent1 a creature of his environment and of the age in which he was born4 ,he must necessarily graft his scheme on to what went before4 ,as ,robertson ,smith so truly says1 8a new scheme of faith can only find a hearing by appealing to religious instincts and susceptibilities that already exist in the audience40 ,in ,east ,africa1 various tribes remain in a stage of belief very similar to that which prevailed in ,arabia and ,assyria from about #aejj ,b4,c4 and onward1 and which continued till a dogmatic uniformity was forced on the bulk of the people by the teachings of ,mahomed about ,a4,d4 #fej4 ,asiatic beliefs were introduced to ,abyssinia by the ,sabans or ,himyaritic invaders a few centuries before the ,christian era1 but it is doubtful whether they spread to any extent4 ,for ancient religious influences on ,central ,africa1 we must look more to the channel afforded by the ,nile valley which had become a route of exploration as far back as the time of the ,pharaohs4 ,although1 however1 we know that ,egyptian influence was spasmodically exercised for a long distance up the ,nile valley1 little evidence of any spiritual effect has as yet come to light4 ,this is natural1 for the ancient expeditions were at long intervals and were not missionary enterprises1 but were in search of material gain4 ,the only case of permanent settlement which appears to be beyond doubt is the invasion into ,uganda1 ,unyoro1 and ,ankole1 of a light coloured race1 now known as the ,ba-,hima or ,ba-,huma4 ,some consider that these people came from the ,abyssinian highlands2 ,sir ,harry ,johnston1 on the other hand1 believes them to be descendants of ancient ,egyptian settlers2 according to ,dr ,seligman they are probably descendants of what he terms ,proto-,egyptians--the latter description being a more concrete definition based upon careful researches in the ,nile valley1 the result of which was not available when ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston made his suggestion4 ,but whatever the origin of the ,ba-,hima1 there appears to be no trace of this infusion of northern blood anywhere east of the ,rift ,valley1 except1 possibly1 among the ,masai who are believed to have migrated south-east from the valley of the ,upper ,nile4 ,the ,nandi1 the ,lako and ,savei of ,elgon1 the ,lumbwa and ,elgeyo also came from the north-west1 but did not cross the ,rift4 ,the ,kikuyu absorbed some ,masai blood from time to time1 and also intermixed to some extent with the aboriginal ,oggiek1 but they are mainly ,bantu in blood and constitution4 ,the ,kamba people1 whose ancestors flowed into their present habitat from the south and south-west1 are believed to be pure ,bantu4 ,we have1 therefore1 no evidence as to where the ancestors of the ,kikuyu or ,kamba lived about two thousand years ago1 and1 further1 whether they were affected by ,semitic culture in remote times4 ,it is1 moreover1 highly improbable that the ancient ,semitic beliefs should have originated in ,east ,africa4 ,we must1 therefore1 decide whether such similarity as we find to-day is merely a case of parallel and unconnected development1 or the result of an ancient invasion of a ,semitic race or possibly of a race which had adopted ,semitic beliefs4 ,in the present state of knowledge it will be safer to assume that this similarity is due to parallel development1 many examples of which may be found in other parts of the world4 ,it is1 however1 necessary to make it clear that if there should have been any ,semitic influence it cannot have been derived from the ,arab settlements on the ,east ,coast of ,africa1 founded during the last few hundred years4 ,their political hold of the country never extended much beyond the tidal waters1 and their only social influence was the slight one exercised at intermittent intervals by a slave raiding or ivory trading expedition4 ,no ancient trace of ,mohammedanism can be found among the people under consideration1 and their present stage of culture is pre-,islamic in point of time4 ,the religious beliefs of the tribes of ,kikuyu and ,ukamba generally consist of a rudimentary conception of a high god1 corresponding more or less to the old ,hebrew concept of ,jahveh4 ,to the bulk of the peasantry this idea is naturally very vague and practically subconscious4 ,but the elders of what may be termed the 8high place0 are believed to have a clear conception of it1 and their deity is apparently of the kind which can be influenced and appeased by material attentions4 ,the belief in ancestral spirits--ngoma or aiimu--is the predominating spiritual factor in the minds of the great majority of the people4 ,these are ever present1 and the relations between men and spirits are in accordance with the actual patriarchal state of society4 ,the spirits must not be ignored1 for are they not of the blood kin8 ,if neglected1 they will be angry and punish their children4 ,but naturally no rancour is felt when such punishments are inflicted4 ,there is a total absence of religious intolerance about this cult2 failure to worship or failure to contribute to a sacrifice brings its own retribution1 and the spirits are swift in detecting a delinquent4 ,these spirits are not necessarily evil1 but there is little doubt that the character of the spirit is believed to reflect to some extent the character of the person from whom it came1 and the power of the spirit is intimately connected with the position of the person in the tribe4 ,this explains to some extent why an ordinary person is cast out at death1 whereas an elder1 qualified to take part in sacrificial ceremonies1 receives burial4 ,the burial is probably pleasing to the spirit1 and the spirit of an elder possesses more power than that of an uninitiated common person4 ,all spirits1 however1 appear to be relentless and malignant when neglected1 and remain so until they are appeased4 ,at times they are said to assist their clients1 and1 through a suitable medium1 to warn the people of an impending raid4 ,in old ,semitic records the evil spirits or jinn loom very large2 they are usually referred to as devils in the ,old ,testament4 ,they have no continuous or fixed personal relations with mankind1 but have their own particular haunts in desert places1 caves1 and so forth4 ,they are1 so to speak1 outlaws2 they appear to man either in human or animal form1 and if one is killed1 a solid carcase is believed to remain4 ,among the ancient ,semites1 the belief became very elaborate and survives to this day in out-of-the-way places4 ,these unwholesome creatures were even classified more or less definitely as jinni1 ghouls1 mared1 lilith1 sedim1 and so forth4 ,among our ,african tribes this cult1 however1 has fortunately not developed to any great extent4 ,it may1 of course1 have been forgotten1 or it may have disappeared1 but there are still a few traces of it left4 ,a ,kamba story1 for instance1 tells of two girls who took shelter in a cave during a storm4 ,a centipede came in while they were there and the girls threw it outside4 ,but the centipede was an evil spirit and revenged itself by closing up the entrance to the cave1 so that the girls were starved to death4 ,this story might have come straight from ,central ,arabia and be that of a jinni1 the sedim of the ,talmud1 who were supposed to assume any form they wished4 ,the deity or the ancestral spirit is appeased by means of sacrifice or libations1 carried out either privately or communally according to the circumstances4 ,a considerable amount of detailed information concerning these has been collected1 which it may be interesting to compare with similar practices described in the ,old ,testament and other ancient literature4 ,the aiimu ya ,kitombo referred to in 8,ethnology of the ,a-,kamba0 7p4 #hi71 and the unnatural creature said to be seen at ,manyani 7p4 #hg1 op4 cit471 should also very probably be placed in this class4 ,the widespread prevalence of 8taboo0 among these tribes is very surprising1 as it is a subject which is rarely mentioned and certainly never openly discussed4 ,it has1 nevertheless1 reached a pitch of considerable elaboration4 ,the reason for many of the prohibitions is obvious1 but that of others is extremely obscure4 ,the tribes under review have a very definite idea of prayer4 ,their appeals to the deity take place regularly at the sacred place1 either on the occasion of sacrifice or when pouring out libations to the spirits4 ,examples of these are given later4 ,this form of supplication is probably much more common than we are inclined to think4 ,but it is no easy matter to induce people to give a definite enumeration of minor rites which they perform constantly and as a matter of course4 ,the ,a-,kamba1 for instance1 when on a journey1 and when leaving a spot where they have camped1 throw a firebrand on their path and pray that the party should reach its destination in safety and proceed together in amity4 ,this is done by the head of the party1 the next man throwing a few leaves on the firebrand and stepping on it4 ,it is a pretty custom1 although a ,european of the present day might consider it a somewhat strenuous method of expressing gratitude6 ,but when people are constantly travelling through parts of a country infested with lions1 and when their only protection from wild animals is a small camp fire1 one can perhaps understand that they should think it advisable to keep on the right side of the deity4 ,at ,kikuyu1 a man was once seized with a sudden fit4 ,when he recovered consciousness1 he was given a little water4 ,before drinking it1 he promptly poured a few drops in front of him1 then on his right side1 then on his left4 ,this was meant as a kind of silent prayer of thanksgiving for recovery4 ,he stated that it was his muungu who had attacked him thus4 ,charms are also very common4 ,many of them are in the nature of sympathetic magic1 whilst others are merely a form of perpetual prayer1 or rather1 of materialised prayers4 ,a ,german missionary1 named ,brutzer1 gives a good example1 and describes the charms worn by a ,kamba friend2 one was worn round his neck to protect him against witchcraft in general2 on his wrist was a bracelet containing a charm which would warn him should there be poison in any beer which might be offered to him2 if his hand shook on raising the gourd to his lips1 it would be a sign of poison4 ,from his elbow two pieces of wood were suspended to protect him from snake bites4 ,and hanging from his waist was a chain to ensure riches4 ,there are also charms against infection2 these are carried by a man when visiting a sick friend4 ,there are charms worn when going to war1 charms worn when love-making1 to ensure the return of affection4 ,the charms usually consist of powdered wood1 roots and herbs4 ,the advice of a medicine man is sought and he recommends a certain plant or tree4 ,grain is taken to the plant or tree indicated1 and six times a single grain is thrown at the tree1 the remainder of the grain being thrown the seventh time only4 ,this possibly signifies a sacrifice to the spirit of the tree4 ,the plant is then dug up1 or a piece of wood cut off the root of the tree and dried and powdered4 ,sometimes a firebrand and water are taken to the tree2 in this case1 the water is placed on the ground1 and the supplicant1 closing his eyes1 walks six times round the tree1 then stands under it1 facing east1 and prays1 with eyes still closed3 8,tree1 ,i have a favour to ask--,i have a sick child or wife or brother0--as the case may be--8and know not the origin of his sickness1 as he has no trouble with anyone4 ,i come to ask a favour4 ,i come to you1 ,o ,tree1 to treat him for it that he may be cured40 ,according to some of the missionaries1 the natives believe that the fate of each individual from birth to death is decided beforehand2 they believe1 in fact1 in predestination4 ,i myself have discovered no trace of this4 ,a native will sometimes say of a bad character1 8,oh1 he was born a bad lot10 but this seems to me too vague a statement to serve as the basis of a theory4 ,conscience does not loom very large as a rule4 ,the ,reverend ,hoffman1 who lived for many years in ,kitui1 however1 quotes a saying which undoubtedly shows that the natives have some faint notion of the meaning of it3 8,aka nwa ,engai0 or 8,god will find him40 ,thus do the ,kamba refer to an evil-doer4 ,the ,kamba account of creation is very vague4 ,the first man is said to have been produced by the high god ,engai out of an ant-hill by the sea1 and from him all men are descended4 ,he is referred to as imuuma ndi 7he who came out of the earth74 ,according to the ,reverend ,hoffman1 there is a saying that 8the bird was created on the fifth day1 and the imundu mwei on the sixth day40 ,no further explanation of this curious saying is given4 ,the ordinary meaning of mundu mwei is 8man of power or wisdom10 and it is used of the medicine man4 ,but in the saying above quoted1 it probably refers to mankind generically as opposed to other animals4 ,generally speaking1 the tribes under consideration attribute the existence of the world and of its inhabitants to creation by ,engai4 ,very little abstract spirituality is to be found in their religion4 ,almost everything is concrete1 and1 according to their point of view1 strictly logical4 ,the same is probably true of all religions appertaining to human beings on a similar plane of culture4 ,this aspect of religion is a great snare to the ,european student4 ,being the product of a far more complex environment and having been brought up under the influence of religions of a higher type1 he finds it extremely difficult to avoid either reading more into a ceremony than actually exists1 or1 on the other hand1 he is apt to overlook some apparently trivial point which may be of deep significance to the worshipper4 ,,chapter ,i ,,spirit ,,beliefs ,ancestral ,spirits4--,the belief in the vitality of the ancestral spirits is very strong among both the ,kikuyu and the ,kamba peoples2 the former call them ,ngoma and the latter ,aiimu 7singular ,imu74 ,the ,a-,kamba declare that the life breath ngo becomes the ,imu4 ,curiously enough1 the disembodied spirit was called ,edimmu by the ancient ,assyrians 7according to ,r4 ,c4 ,thompson in 8,semitic ,magic071 and they also believed that the soul could return to earth and that ghosts were responsible for many body ills4 ,under ordinary circumstances1 when a person died and was duly buried his soul entered the underworld1 8the house of darkness1 the seat of the god ,irkalla1 the house from which none come forth again40 ,this would seem to correspond to the ,sheol of the ,hebrews4 ,the ,assyrian word ,edimmu 7the root of which is immu7 is practically identical with the ,kamba word for the same conception1 but there is no evidence to show that the identity is anything but accidental4 ,the belief in the ancestral spirit is merely a form of the belief in a soul1 with the difference that the present-day religions of the civilised world would not admit that the spirits of the departed could interfere with the life of man4 ,we still find traces of this belief in ,europe in the ,feast of ,all ,souls1 and in curious ceremonies which take place in some countries on ,st ,john's ,eve4 ,the ,yezidis of ,mesopotamia believe that the spirits of the good inhabit the air1 whilst the ,kikuyu believe that the ancestral spirits live underground1 and the ,kamba that they inhabit certain sacred fig trees4 ,this latter belief would seem to be particularly widespread4 ,it is prevalent all over ,india1 and examples of it are to be found at most places along the east coast of ,africa4 ,the ,kikuyu will tell you that there is only one ngoma or spirit for each person1 and that women as well as men possess it4 ,cattle are said to have no ngoma1 but sometimes they may become possessed with that of human beings1 and an evil spirit will now and again enter their body in the hope of destroying the poor beast4 ,an animal so possessed is easily recognised by its peculiar behaviour2 it goes about shaking its head1 and tears stream from its eyes4 ,this spirit may be of the same nature as the evil demons of ,semitic mythology4 ,the ,kikuyu declare that it can be driven out by getting the possessed animal to sniff the smoke of a fire made of the dry fruit of the tree known as ,kigelia musa4 ,they believe that the high god ,engai can control the actions of the ngoma1 and they sometimes go to a sacred fig tree1 mugumu1 and beseech ,engai to protect the people from evil spirits4 ,it is said that the ngoma of a murdered man flies straight back to his father's village and1 as a rule1 hovers around it2 but1 should the murderer run away and hide1 the ngoma of his victim will often pursue and haunt him or else influence events in such a way that the guilty one will be discovered and handed over to the authorities1 who will deal with him according to tribal law4 ,i endeavoured to find out from the elders whether the spirit or soul was supposed to be present in the body during life4 ,but they declared that all they knew was that ngere1 the life breath1 was present during life1 and between this and the soul they seemed to make no difference4 ,they believe1 however1 that it is dangerous to wake a man suddenly1 as his ngere is away1 and1 in this semi-conscious condition1 he is very apt to strike you if he should happen to have a weapon at hand4 ,they have quite a clear conception of the ngoma or spirit of the departed1 the character of which is said to be similar to that of the person during his or her lifetime4 ,unlike the people of ,kavirondo1 they have no fear of treading on a man's shadow4 ,there are no particular customs connected with suicide1 although suicide is certainly not unknown among them4 ,when people hang or stab or drown themselves they are supposed to have been possessed by a malevolent spirit4 ,the general attitude of the people towards the ancestral spirits has been described in the introductory chapter1 and many concrete examples will be found in the accounts of the various ceremonies given later4 ,the influence of these spirit beliefs among the ,kamba people has been very clearly set forth by the ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas in his paper on ,kitui1 ,r4,a4,i4,j41 ,vol4 xliii1 #aiac1 page #ecd et seq4 ,a quotation from an ,assyrian tablet some three thousand years old1 which ,r4 ,c4 ,thompson refers to in his 8,semitic ,magic10 shows how slowly man changes3 8,the ,gods which seize 7upon man7 ,have come forth from the grave4 ,the evil wind gusts ,have come forth from the grave ,to demand the payment of rites and pouring of libations4 ,they have come forth from the grave1 ,have come like a whirlwind40 ,the author goes on to say3 8,now if the attentions of its friends on earth should cease and the soul should find nothing to eat and drink1 then it was driven by force of hunger to come back to earth to demand its due40 ,this psalm-like utterance might equally well have been made by a ,kikuyu or a ,kamba of the present day4 ,the intense desire of ,africans for offspring is probably due to the fact that children are expected to sacrifice to the spirits of their dead parents1 and the ghost of one who has left no posterity is therefore in a piteous plight4 ,the spirits generally manifest themselves through certain women who1 falling into a trance1 give utterance to the message with which they are charged 78,ethnology of the ,a-,kamba10 p4 #hf74 ,this reminds one of ,saul going to ,endor to visit a woman with a familiar spirit 7,sam4 xxviii4 #g74 ,spirits are also said to manifest themselves and give messages to men in dreams4 ,the ,kitui people say that sometimes when a snake1 crawling outside a hut1 is attacked1 it will suddenly vanish1 and they then know that it was the imu of a deceased person which had either assumed the form of a snake or entered the body of a snake4 ,a few days afterwards1 a woman will become possessed and fall into a state of semi-trance1 and the imu will speak through her mouth and say3 8,i came into the village the other day1 and ,so-and-so wanted to strike me40 ,whereupon the people think it just as well to sacrifice a goat to sooth the feelings of the injured spirit4 ,the ,kamba people1 unlike the ,kikuyu1 do not believe that spirits enter into kimbu or caterpillars4 ,when a hyna comes and howls near a village1 it is looked upon as an evil omen and as a token of death1 and the beast is generally driven away and killed1 if possible4 ,they very probably believe that an evil demon has assumed the shape of a hyna4 ,in the ,assyrian tablets mention is made of a spirit called ,alu which slinks through the streets at night like a pariah dog and harms people4 ,there is a curious custom in ,ukamba which throws some light on the spiritual beliefs of the people4 ,if a young unmarried man is killed away from his village1 his imu or spirit will return there and speak to the people through the medium of an old woman in a dance 7see p4 #hf1 author's work on the ,a-,kamba71 and say1 8,i am ,so-and-so speaking1 and ,i want a wife40 ,the youth's father will then make arrangements to buy a girl from another village and bring her to his1 and she will be mentioned as the wife of the deceased1 speaking of him by name4 ,she will presently be married to a brother of the deceased1 but she must continue to live in the village where the deceased had his home4 ,if at any time the corporeal husband beats or ill-treats her1 and she in consequence runs away to her father1 the imu of the deceased will come and pester the people of the village and they will have bad luck2 it will probably ask1 through the usual medium1 why his wife has been ill-treated and driven away4 ,the head of the family will then take steps to induce the girl to return for fear of the wrath of the spirit of his deceased son4 ,to those who wish to obtain full insight into the sociology of these people1 it is of the utmost importance to have a clear understanding of the native's point of view1 and to bear in mind that the ancestral spirits are a very real and vital thing to him and have a very deep influence upon his life4 ,the leaders of psychical research allege that the survival of human personality after death has been scientifically proved1 and that1 under favourable circumstances1 communications from the dead have been received4 ,if this be so1 might it not be said that races on a lower plane of culture are possibly more sensitive to such influences and that their belief in the activity of the ancestral spirits is therefore not wholly unreasonable8 ,the evidence for this1 however1 is at present quite insufficient to satisfy most1 although we think that the question is one which deserves further consideration4 ,tree ,spirits4--,when clearing a forest to make a cultivated field1 the ,kikuyu people generally leave a large and conspicuous tree in the clearing4 ,such a tree is called murema kiriti and is believed to collect the spirits from all other trees which have been cut down in the vicinity4 ,we have here an interesting example of animism1 the spirits so collected being most emphatically declared to be tree1 and not human spirits4 ,now if this tree shows signs of decay and is liable to be blown down1 they decide to fell it4 ,before taking this step1 however1 they sacrifice a red ram at the foot of the tree1 the ram being1 as usual1 killed by suffocation4 ,the tree is then cut down1 and when this is done1 the elders take branches from two sacred bushes1 mukenya and muthakwa1 and plant them on each side of the stump of the fallen tree2 two elders cut the mukenya1 and two the muthakwa4 ,the elders then say 8,nitukuria muti tutemeti10 which means 8,we pray for this tree we have cut down10 and pour the melted tail-fat of the ram over the stump1 smearing the tatha or stomach contents of the animal over the trunk of the fallen tree4 ,the wood from such a tree can only be used by a senior elder1 by a very old woman1 or for the making of beehives4 ,if young people were to use this particular fuel1 they would become ill or die2 old people are supposed to be ordinarily immune against the operation of most curses or thahu4 ,it is believed that when a tree is cut down the spirits leave it and settle in another big tree1 and1 if the above ceremonial is observed1 they are not angry and do not vent their spite upon the people1 or1 as they say1 no thahu falls upon them4 ,if such a tree blows down1 the spirits are supposed to avenge themselves on the elders1 who are held responsible for not having taken the necessary precautions1 and they are very apt to die4 ,there is great similarity between this and the lore concerning the spirit of the oak1 mentioned by ,professor ,frazer4 ,and1 from a different point of view1 it may also be considered as an example of the slaying of the divine king1 expressed in terms of trees3 fear that harm may befall the spirit or spirits of the tree1 and the consequent ceremonial killing of the tree and arranging for the comfortable and formal migration of the spirits to another tree1 or to a new dwelling place4 ,the ,a-,kamba of ,kibwezi have a similar belief3 before cutting down a big solitary tree in a clearing1 an elder and a very old woman must pour beer and corn at its foot4 ,the man pours out the beer1 and the woman the corn4 ,the tree is then felled1 and1 taking a branch from it1 they place it against another tree some little distance away1 and declare that the spirit of the fallen tree will then go quietly into its new abode4 ,in ,ukamba of ,ulu1 ,mr ,osborne states that his people told him that to fell an ithembo tree would1 of course1 be considered absolute sacrilege1 and according to tradition it was the felling of an ithembo tree on the ,iveti ,hills by an official of the ,i4,b4,e4,a4 ,co4 which gave rise to the attacks by the ,a-,kamba on the ,government ,station at ,machakos in about #ahib4 ,large trees1 however1 which are not ithembo trees appear to have a certain sanctity1 and when1 for reasons of utility or safety1 the felling of such trees becomes necessary the following ceremony is practised3 ,the trunk of the tree to be felled is plastered with the sap of the waithu shrub as a ngnondu4 ,a small branch of the tree is broken off and placed against some smaller tree in the vicinity4 ,some earth at the foot of the tree is also taken and placed at the foot of the smaller tree4 ,the elders then assemble with some beer at the tree to be cut down1 and a little of the beer is poured out at the foot of the doomed tree1 accompanied by some such prayer as--8,we give this beer as a gift to the ,engai1 if one lives here1 and ask him to go to another tree40 ,the rest of the beer is then drunk by the assembled elders4 ,the larger parts of the tree are taken by the elders of ithembo to manufacture into honey barrels1 whilst the rest is carried off as firewood by the women entitled to sacrifice at the ithembo4 ,non-observance of this ceremony is supposed to bring death on the man who cuts the tree down1 and on all who make use of the timber4 ,miscellaneous ,spirit ,worship4--,there are some traces of the belief in river spirits4 ,for instance1 at places where there are waterfalls like on the ,chania and ,thika1 the elders1 in passing1 will spit into the river or throw a little grass into it4 ,there is a sacred rock near ,thembigwa1 close to a stream called ,kichii--a tributary of the ,ruaraka--where the natives pluck tufts of grass as they pass by and throw them on the rock4 ,if a tree has blown down and fallen across the path1 grass is again placed on the fallen trunk4 ,sometimes1 too1 stones are laid on a fallen tree4 ,when people come upon the skull of a dead elephant in the bush1 they also place grass on it4 ,the origin of all these customs appears to be lost4 ,certain plants are believed to be maleficent1 and are possibly thought to be connected with bad spirits4 ,there is a creeper called mwinyuria1 which is said to possess sap like blood2 the story is told how one day1 near ,kirawa1 three men named ,nbota1 ,kigondu1 and ,kacheru1 cut one of these plants which was growing near a sacred fig tree1 and died the same day4 ,when cut1 the released end is alleged to spring out like the lash of a whip4 ,this creeper is rare in ,kikuyu1 but is said to be common in the ,kibwezi bush4 ,the ,scapegoat4--,the ,kikuyu have a ceremony which appears to be an undoubted example of a belief which may be grouped with the ,semitic doctrine of the scapegoat4 ,if a serious epidemic visits a village1 the elders take a ram1 a he-goat or a ewe lamb which has not yet borne1 mwati1 and slaughter it at the village4 ,they cut pieces of meat from the carcase and impale them on wooden skewers1 ndara or njibe4 ,the men and women of the village then each take a piece1 walk away some distance from the village and throw it into the bush4 ,they firmly believe that the disease will be carried away with the pieces of meat4 ,the remaining meat is roasted at a fire and eaten by the villagers2 the bones are collected at the place where the meat was roasted and are broken up and the marrow extracted and eaten4 ,beer is prepared1 and next morning at dawn1 some is poured on the bones and the hynas come and carry off the fragments4 ,when they pour the libation of beer on the place of the fire1 they pray as follows3 8,twa oria ichua twa oria murimu utika choke muchi0--which means1 8,we put out the fire at the place where we roasted the meat1 we put out the sickness so that it cannot return again to our village40 ,everyone must be awakened before the beer is poured out4 ,the beer is put into an ox-horn and into a piece of gourd1 ndayi1 the former being held in the right hand and the latter in the left4 ,the beer in the right hand is poured out first to appease the male ngoma1 that in the left to appease the female ngoma4 ,from the ceremony taking place at the village it is clear that the people believe that the ancestral spirits alone require to be propitiated4 ,the ,scapegoat ,idea in ,kitui4--,if a village is afflicted by a serious sickness1 the headman will call in a medicine man who concocts some medicine by grinding up the roots of the following plants3 muthumba1 kiongoa 7an aloe71 mulema1 nthata1 kivumbu1 and mutaa4 ,a small boy and girl are then chosen from among the inhabitants1 the villagers all congregate together1 and the small boy leads a goat twice round the group1 followed by the little girl and led by the medicine man2 the party then passes through the centre of the group of people4 ,the medicine man next makes an incision in the right ear of the goat1 and the blood from this is allowed to drip into a half gourd containing the above-mentioned magical concoction1 mixed with water4 ,the villagers then form up into a procession and1 led by the medicine man1 run for some distance into the bush towards the setting sun1 no one being allowed to look backwards4 ,the medicine man then stops and throws the mixture of medicine and blood in front of him1 and the people return4 ,this ceremony is performed in the early afternoon1 after two p4m4 ,that night1 the village head must cohabit with his wife4 ,this point is considered a matter of such importance that the elder has to take the kithito oath that it has been done4 ,a ,kikuyu ,oracle4--,there lives in ,south ,kikuyu-land an elder named ,kichura or ,thiga wa ,wairumbi wa ,kaumo of the ,kachiko clan and the ,njenga generation or rika1 who is credited with the extraordinary power of being the recipient of messages from the ,supreme ,being1 and in consequence possesses the gift of prophecy4 ,he was interviewed and cross-examined by the writer1 and stated that at intervals1 about twice a year1 during the night1 he falls into a deeper sleep than usual1 a trance in fact1 and that while in this condition he is taken out of his bed and statements are made to him by a voice1 but he cannot see who gives him the message4 ,the trance always occurs at night1 and he is generally taken outside his house while in this cataleptic condition1 but says that he never remembers being able to distinguish the huts or any familiar objects in the village4 ,the interior of the hut appears to him to be lighted up1 and the message comes with a booming sound which he understands4 ,he stated that one day when visiting an elder named ,kibutu1 he was seized during the night and taken bodily through the thatch of the roof1 and was found on the top of the hut next morning4 ,on another occasion a young man of the warrior class1 mwanake1 belonging to his village1 was sleeping alongside him in his hut when he was temporarily carried off1 and the young man's hair all came off as if it had been shaved1 and in the morning it was found lying in a heap on the floor by the bed1 the owner having no idea how this had occurred4 ,he does not sleep in an ordinary hut with his wife1 but in a thengira or bachelor hut with another elder4 ,when he is seized with one of his trances the other elder will wake up and find he has gone1 but does not see him go or return4 ,the day following one of his seizures he collects the elders and delivers his message4 ,he states that after one of these seizures he is very exhausted1 and for three days cannot rise from his bed4 ,his father and paternal grandfather had this gift or power4 ,his father told him that his paternal grandmother had three breasts1 two on her bosom and one on her back1 but he did not say whether he considered that this had any connection with the other phenomena4 ,he stated that he believed the gift came from ,god and not from the ngoma or ancestral spirits1 and that if he did not deliver to the people the messages he received he would be stricken with sickness4 ,he says that he was invested with this power when he was a stripling1 soon after he had been circumcised4 ,one morning he woke up with his two hands tightly clasped1 and he passed blood instead of urine for nine days4 ,a big medicine man named ,wangnendu was then called in1 a goat was killed1 and the medicine man tied rukwaru bracelets of the skin on to the patient's wrists4 ,the hmaturia then stopped1 and his hands relaxed1 and he was able to open them1 and it was found that he had fifteen mbugu in each hand4 ,these are white stones such as are used in a medicine man's divination gourd4 ,the medicine man then brought a small medicine gourd and placed the mbugu therein4 ,kichura still has the gourd with the thirty mbugu1 and relates how on one occasion his hut was burnt down and his gourd was destroyed in the fire1 but that the mbugu were found quite uninjured in the ashes4 ,he was asked whether he considered that his powers were intimately connected with these stones2 he declared that he did not believe he could lose them1 but if by some mischance1 however1 they should be lost ,god would give him some more1 and that even if they were lost he would receive oracles as before4 ,he gave examples of the kind of messages he received4 ,on one occasion1 some time before the advent of ,europeans1 he was told that the ,masai would be severely stricken with small-pox1 and that subsequently many would settle among the ,kikuyu1 and shortly afterwards it happened accordingly4 ,on another occasion he was told that a white race would enter the country and that they and the ,kikuyu would live side by side in this country1 and now it has come to pass4 ,he was seized before the great famine of #aijj and foretold its arrival4 ,later1 he was told to inform the ,kikuyu to sacrifice a white sheep1 a red sheep1 and a black male goat at the mugumu1 sacred fig trees1 and that the chief ,kinanjui was to sacrifice a mori1 white heifer1 at the head waters of the ,mbagathi ,river4 ,these orders were obeyed1 and the famine and small-pox were lifted from the land4 ,early in the present season he was told that the maize and other grains would be lost by drought1 and that the food now being planted 7,april1 #aiaa7 would come to a good harvest4 ,he was also told that during the present year the young people would suffer greatly from dysentery1 and that they were to sacrifice sheep at the sacred fig trees1 and that the women and children were to put bracelets from the skins of the sacrificed sheep on their wrists4 ,many have done so1 and those who have obeyed will escape the visitation4 ,after this he says that small-pox will come from the west of the country1 and attack people from ,karuri's 7east slopes of ,nandarua ,mountain7 to ,limoru4 ,the disease will gradually work its course eastward and decrease in intensity4 ,when he delivers one of his oracular utterances the athuri ya kiama1 elders of the council1 bring him a sheep and a gourd of beer4 ,he kills the former and eats it1 and the beer is returned to the elders to drink4 ,he says that sometimes when rain does not come he is accused of stopping it1 but that such accusations are due to ignorance1 as he is merely the unconscious and involuntary agent for utterances from a ,supreme ,power1 and that all he can do in such cases is to take a sheep to a sacred fig tree1 sacrifice it there1 and pray for rain1 just like any other elder who is qualified to do so4 ,in ,ukamba1 many years ago1 a famous medicine man1 ,kathengi by name1 is said to have prophesied the coming of the white men and their domination of the country4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,sacrifice ,although this rite has often been referred to and described in a somewhat desultory way by various writers1 it seems to have received very little serious attention4 ,the subject is1 however1 one which undoubtedly contains many features of great interest and is certainly deserving of special examination and study4 ,there is little doubt that if we can only fully understand the relations of a people to their gods we have advanced a long way towards a realisation of their moral and intellectual development4 ,it is first proposed to examine the ,kikuyu ceremonial4 ,among this tribe sacrifice is of two kinds3 7#a7 ,the sacrifice at the sacred fig tree1 or mugumu1 which is always intended as an act of communion with a deity or high god called ,engai4 ,this sacrifice may be either a communal rite1 or it may be a personal matter for the head of a village4 7#b7 ,the other sacrifice is carried out in a village and is intended as an offering to the spirits of the ancestors who are supposed to live underground4 ,this may be either a communal or an individual act4 ,dotted about ,kikuyu are numbers of great wild fig trees 7,ficus capensis71 many of which are used from generation to generation as sacred shrines or places of sacrifice1 called mugumu or muti wa ,engai4 ,certain big medicine men like ,njau wa ,kabocha have special trees2 it appears that the original choice of a tree as a sacred place devolved on certain notable medicine men1 and if a sacred tree happens to fall owing to age1 the elders assemble there and sacrifice a ram and a male goat2 they eat one half and leave the other half of each carcase at the tree and pour the fat over the stump of the fallen tree to appease the deity4 ,it is then the duty of the local magician and the elders of ukuru to choose another tree4 ,they sacrifice at the new tree1 and if their prayers are answered they know that it is acceptable to ,engai1 but1 if after several trials no result is obtained1 they dedicate another to the service of ,engai4 ,the idea of sacrilege is very marked4 ,if1 for instance1 an impious person cuts a portion of a sacred tree1 dire results are believed to ensue1 and the elders make the offender pay a ram and a male goat4 ,these are sacrificed at the tree1 and the elders apply a strip of the skin to the place where the incision was made in the tree and anoint it with fat and the tatha or stomach contents4 ,the breast of the ram is cut off and hung in the tree1 and the remainder of the carcase and the whole of the carcase of the goat1 eaten by the elders4 ,no beast or bird can be killed or shot in a sacred tree4 ,the sacred tree and its environs is often called ,kithangaona cha inja1 which means the 8sacred place of the ceremonies40 ,on the occasion of a sacrifice the elders of ukuru send word to the elders of ,athamaki or ,athuri ya mburi nne or elders of four goats and any senior to that grade1 saying tuthieni mutini--8,let us go to the tree40 ,no elder whose father is alive can attend4 ,no elder must go to the tree in a state of anger2 no one must display anger with a wife1 child1 or even a stranger the day before he attends at the tree4 ,elders of both of the circumcision guilds go together to the sacred tree and also elders of all clans4 ,if two elders1 or their people1 have a blood feud they are not allowed to attend or take part in a sacrifice at the sacred tree until the feud is at an end2 if they do1 they are supposed to die4 ,a person who is alien to the tribe1 but who has been formally admitted to it1 may attend a sacrifice4 ,oaths or ordeals are not administered at the sacred tree4 ,strict celibacy must be observed the night before they go to sacrifice and the night after4 ,the night before1 they sleep in their usual huts1 but the night after1 they sleep in the thengira or goat hut4 ,the morning following the sacrifice they go and bathe in a river and then resume their ordinary life4 ,a departure from this rule of celibacy by anyone present will entirely spoil the efficacy of the sacrifice1 and1 if an offender is discovered1 he will have to pay a fine of two goats1 and the elders will spit on him ceremonially and sacrifice afresh on the following day4 ,arms must not be taken to the sacred tree4 ,the elders wear their usual garments4 ,the following things are collected on the day before the sacrifice at the village of the elder who provides the sacrificial ram1 and that night they stay at his village3 #b gourds of honey beer4 #b gourds of sugar cane beer4 #a cooking pot4 #a half gourd4 #a small knife for skinning the sacrifice and making the incision to bleed it4 ,the sacrifice is always a ram1 and it is called ngorima4 ,one year it will be black1 but if that particular year the seasons are not propitious they consider that the deity is displeased and therefore change the colour1 choosing either a red or a white one4 ,in former times a he-goat was said to be sacrificed before going to war4 ,the ram must have the clan mark on its ears1 and must also have had its tail cut4 ,the provision of the sacrificial animals is settled by the elders1 who pick the donors by rotation4 ,at a specially important sacrificial ceremony1 however1 an important medicine man is called in and decides who shall provide the ram4 ,the proper time for a communal sacrifice is about two p4m41 but private sacrifices take place at nine a4m4 ,it is said that the later time is usual for a communal sacrifice because it takes some time for elders who live far away to reach the place4 ,when the assembly arrives at the tree1 one of the elders lifts up the ram into a standing position on its hind legs1 facing the tree4 ,this is called ,kurugamia ngorima mugumuini--8,to stand the ram before the tree40 ,the idea is probably to show the sacrificial animal ceremonially to the deity4 ,only senior elders are allowed to go to the actual foot of the tree1 and the elders of the four goat grade collect the wood for the ichua fire4 ,a gourd of honey and one of sugar cane beer are then poured into the ground at the base of the tree and the elders call out3 8,twa kuthaitha ,engai twa kuhoia mburi twa kuhoia indo chiothi0--8,we pray to ,god1 we sacrifice a goat1 we offer all things40 ,it is curious that they use the word mburi1 which really signifies a goat1 whilst the ,kikuyu use the word mburi in a collective sense1 which1 in this way1 often refers to sheep as well as goats4 ,the sheep is then suffocated by clasping its muzzle4 ,as soon as it is insensible1 but before it is actually dead1 its throat is pierced by the sacrificial knife and the blood is collected in the half gourd called kinga1 mentioned above4 ,the blood is then poured out at the foot of the sacred tree1 cf4 ,exodus xxix4 #aj3 8,and thou shalt slay the ram and thou shalt take his blood and sprinkle it round about upon the altar40 ,the animal can be strangled by any elder present1 and it does not appear to be the duty of any particular person to pierce the animal's throat4 ,it is said that the animal is strangled so that its life breath should not escape4 ,a sheep killed for food is also strangled1 but an animal which has its throat cut can also be eaten4 ,should an ox be killed1 it is stabbed at the back of the neck1 but an ox is said never to be offered as a sacrifice4 ,the right half of the carcase is then skinned1 that portion being cut away and removed1 and the left half wrapped in the skin and placed at the foot of the tree and left there4 ,this is believed to be eaten by a hyna or wild cat which is moved to do so by the deity4 ,a fire is then lit at a little distance from the tree and the pieces of meat from it are stuck on skewers1 roasted and eaten by the elders4 ,in olden times this fire was always supposed to be kindled from new fire made by friction1 but nowadays a firebrand is often brought from a village1 or better still from a fire in a garden4 ,the place at which this sacrificial fire is kindled is called ichua4 ,the meat is laid on the branches of certain sacred trees1 viz3 #a4 ,muthakwa4 #b4 ,nahoroa4 #c4 ,muthigio4 #d4 ,mugumu4 #e4 ,mararia4 which are collectively termed mathinjiro4 ,the skewers used for roasting the meat are called ndara1 and must be of muthakwa and muthigio wood4 ,the branches and the skewers have to be burnt in the sacred fire on the same day as that on which the meat is cooked4 ,the burning of these is said to be in the nature of a prayer to ,engai1 and it is specifically stated that this is not done for fear of anyone using these branches and skewers as fuel as everyone would dread touching them4 ,when the meat is cooked1 it is eaten by the elders1 who each drink a horn of beer4 ,the fat of the ram is boiled down in the cooking pot provided for the purpose1 and one of the elders climbs into the sacred tree1 and pours the liquid fat on to the main stem of the tree4 ,the breast of the ram is often cut out and also hung up in the tree4 ,cf4 ,exodus xxix4 #bf3 8,and thou shalt take the breast of the ram and wave it for a wave offering before the ,lord40 ,the bones of the portion of the sacrificial ram eaten by the elders are each broken into two parts and placed at the foot of the tree1 the marrow not being extracted4 ,not a single piece of the meat may be taken back to the villages4 ,the elders then retire some little distance away and chant as follows3 8,tathai ,engai mwangi utue mbura0--8,we ,mwangi elders pray ,god to give us rain40 ,if1 of course1 the sacrifice is for another object the prayer is varied4 ,after the prayer no man must look back at the tree4 ,each man returns to his village4 ,next morning the principal wife of each elder goes to the tree and deposits at its foot offerings of uncooked bananas and various kinds of grain4 ,if1 however1 they notice that the sacrificial meat is untouched they do not deposit their offerings1 but retire to some distance and call out to their husbands1 telling them that ,engai has refused the sacrifice4 ,the elders assemble and send the women back with their offerings4 ,they then select another elder and direct him to provide a fresh ram1 which is sacrificed as before4 ,they pray to ,engai and beg him not to refuse their sacrifice a second time1 as they have brought a fatter sheep4 ,their exhortation is3 8,tiga ,engai kutumbia0--8,beg ,god not to refuse40 ,the women come again on the following morning1 and1 if the meat is eaten1 they leave their offerings and return to their villages1 chanting a pan of joy as they go4 ,the chant is called ,ngemi1 and is a form of what is usually known as 8ululuing40 ,they sacrifice at the sacred trees to invoke rain1 and they also sacrifice to check the progress of an epidemic1 when they say3 8,kurinda murimo utikaoki muji0--8,to stop the sickness that it may not come to the village40 ,they sacrifice and pray for relief from famine3 8,kuoya mugumuini ngnaragu ithire0--8,to pray at the mugumu tree that the hunger may finish40 ,here again a ram is sacrificed1 but before the animal is killed an important magician pours medicine into its mouth1 and also squirts beer from his own mouth into that of the ram4 ,unlike other tribes1 they neither shave their heads nor deposit offerings of hair at the sacred tree4 ,it is said that sometimes lights are seen at night in a sacred tree1 and the following day they hasten to sacrifice there4 ,every season1 when the maize is just coming up1 the elders summon the important medicine men to go with them to the sacred tree to sacrifice4 ,one of the magicians pours medicine into the mouth of the sacrificial ram before it is killed1 and also pours it on the fire on which the meat is roasted4 ,the bones of the animal are then burnt in the fire4 ,these are supposed to be burnt so that the smoke may ascend into the sacred tree and be pleasing to the deity4 8,it is a burnt offering to the ,lord3 it is sweet savour an offering made by fire unto the ,lord0 7,exodus xxix4 #ah74 ,the blood is caught in a half gourd1 njeli or kinga1 and then placed in an ox horn2 one half is poured at the foot of the sacred tree1 the other half being mixed with tiny pieces of intestinal fat and placed in the large intestine of the sacrificial ram4 ,this is roasted over the fire and eaten by the senior elders of ukuru4 ,the mixture is called ndundiru4 ,near the time of the harvest1 when the crops are ripe1 but before they are cut1 the elders take a ram to the sacred place and slaughter it4 ,they pour the blood at the foot of the tree and pray3 8,engai twaoka kukui enyama tutikarware enda twa getha iriu wega0--8,o ,god we have to bring meat so that we may not get ill1 for we have good crops and are glad40 ,the elders then eat the meat4 ,after the feast1 they take the tatha or stomach contents of the sacrificial ram and sprinkle it over the ripe crops1 and also sprinkle some over the mukumbi or big wicker bottles in the grain huts and over the big gourds in which grain is stored4 ,it is believed that if the elders failed to do this1 the people would suffer greatly from diarrha4 ,the last two rites are evidently rudimentary forms of the ancient ,semitic ritual of the offering of the firstfruits1 or cereal oblation4 ,the sprinkling of the crops and of the grain receptacles with tatha indicate either a conservation of the crop for human consumption1 or a purification of it from all influences which might be harmful to the consumers4 ,the latter is probably more in accordance with their line of thought4 ,on the particular day when sacrifices for rain are offered1 no one may touch the earth with iron2 not even a spear or sword may be rested on the ground1 as the sacrifice would then be useless4 ,the ,kamba have a somewhat similar belief1 and think that to till the soil with iron drives away the rain4 ,among the ,kikuyu1 however1 the ground on such days must not be struck by anything1 and an elder may not even strike his mithege staff into the ground in the usual way4 ,sacrifices for good crops are also made at the mugumu trees by medicine men4 ,on the same day1 a mwanake 7a young man of warrior age7 patrols the whole district 7ridge7 with a torch1 which he finally throws on the ground4 ,no one may then come from another ridge or leave the ridge to go to another4 ,sanctuary4--,the ancient idea of a sanctuary at a holy place is known to the ,kikuyu4 ,if a murderer1 or a person who has committed a serious crime1 runs to a sacred place and touches the tree1 he is safe from vengeance4 ,the criminal cannot1 of course1 stay indefinitely at the tree or he would starve1 but the elders come and take him away1 and his life is safe4 ,he cannot1 however1 re-enter a village1 and his clans-men have to go to the tree and sacrifice a ram1 which they are supposed to offer in exchange for him4 ,he is smeared with the tatha1 and a line of white earth1 ira1 is drawn from his forehead to the tip of his nose by a senior elder1 of ukuru4 ,after which he is tahikia1 or ceremonially purified1 and can return to his family4 ,all the meat of the sacrifice is eaten by the elders1 and none is left at the tree4 ,some of the tatha1 however1 is sprinkled at the foot with the object of purifying the spot where the criminal stood4 ,in a case of this sort the criminal does not pay blood money himself1 but his blood relatives have to pay for him4 ,if in war an enemy were pursued and took sanctuary at a sacred place1 he could not be attacked whilst he was there1 but would probably be seized and killed at some distance from the sacred place4 ,if1 again1 a man should kill a tribesman1 he can run to the house of his victim's father and1 by confessing his crime1 obtain sanctuary there4 ,the father will then kill a ram and place a strip of skin on the right wrist of the homicide1 who must have his hand shaved and be ceremonially purified by a medicine man--tahikia1 as it is termed4 ,he will henceforth become as the son of the deceased's father4 ,private ,sacrifice to the ,deity4--,the head of a village usually has a private sacred tree at which he sacrifices to the deity for good fortune or for assistance in times of trouble4 ,the ceremony described by ,routledge--8,a ,prehistoric ,people10 pages #bcb-gcd--;is a private sacrifice to the deity4 ,as we have said before1 women are not allowed to attend a sacrifice to the deity at one of the regular sacred trees4 ,but at a private sacrifice for good fortune1 carried out at a sacred tree belonging to a particular village1 the village elders attend with their wives and children1 their cattle1 sheep and goats4 ,the sacrificial ram is killed1 and the whole family1 as well as flocks and herds1 are smeared with fat4 ,the party then returns home1 uttering the usual ,african cry of joy1 sometimes called 8ululuing0 which the ,kikuyu term ngemi4 ,the women and children are not actually allowed to come near the tree1 but must remain some little distance away4 ,the people belonging to the ,masai circumcision guild use muzigio1 mutumaiyu 7,olea chrysophylla71 or mugumu trees for their private sacrifices4 ,they would probably begin with a mutumaiyu or muzigio tree1 and if the luck was not good they would change to a mugumu4 ,those belonging to the ,kikuyu guild use either mugumu or muthakwa trees4 ,in a private sacrifice1 the skin of the sacrificial ram is taken back to the village and presented to the head wife of the elder1 but this is never done at a public communal sacrifice4 ,the night before the sacrifice1 the elders of the village sleep in their own huts1 but must observe celibacy4 ,the night after1 they sleep in the goat hut or thengira4 ,for two days before and after a sacrifice1 no stranger is allowed to sleep in a village2 nothing is sent out of the village to sell1 and nothing is allowed to be carried away4 ,if a stranger comes1 he can be fed1 but he must eat the food there and not take it away4 ,at both a public and private sacrifice the eyes of a ram must be very carefully removed from the carcase1 for it is considered an extremely bad omen if an eye should burst during extraction1 and a fresh sacrificial ram then has to be provided4 ,two days after a private sacrifice1 ceremonial beer drinking takes place at the village1 the men drinking together in the goat hut1 or thengira1 and the women in the hut of the principal wife2 this is called a kithangaona ya muchi4 ,during the ceremony they pray to the deity3 8,twa thuitha ,engai utue endo chiothi chiana na mburi na ngombe0--8,we pray thee1 ,o ,god1 that you will give us all things1 children1 goats1 and cattle40 ,on the morning of the day following a private sacrifice the wives go to the sacred tree and deposit offerings of grain1 bananas1 and other things4 ,sacrifice to ,ancestral ,spirits4--,in addition to the sacrifice at the sacred trees to the deity ,engai1 the ,kikuyu sacrifice to the ngoma1 or ancestral spirits4 ,these rites1 however1 never take place at the sacred trees1 but in a village1 close to the village shrine4 ,the animal sacrificed is a ram4 ,it is killed in the same way as those sacrificed to the deity1 the carcase being laid upon branches from certain sacred trees1 viz3 ,mukuyu--,ficus sp3 ,mutumaiyu--,olea chrysophylla4 ,muthakwa--,vernonia sp3 ,mutare4 ,mugumu--,ficus capensis4 ,the branches are called mathinjiro4 ,four skewers1 ndara1 are cut from each of the above species1 and the pieces of meat which are eaten are impaled upon the skewers and roasted at a fire specially kindled for the purpose1 called ichua and muzigia4 ,mutumaiyu or makuri wood must be used4 ,the branches on which the meat has rested1 as well as the skewers1 must be burnt the same day in the fire on which the meat was cooked4 ,early next morning1 before sunrise1 beer is poured on the spot4 ,the ichua fire was formerly kindled on the spot from new fire made by friction1 but nowadays it is supposed to be brought from a village4 ,these sacrifices generally take place at about nine a4m4 ,an elder usually sacrifices a ram every three months or so at the grave of his father4 ,he pours blood1 fat1 and beer upon it and leaves the skin there4 ,if the father died away from home1 on a journey1 the son proceeds some distance along the road by which the father left and sacrifices a ram by the roadside4 ,the son and his wives eat the meat of the sacrifice1 but a wife married after the father's death1 as well as the man's children1 are not allowed to touch it4 ,the sacrifice must take place before sunrise4 ,this would seem to be a very common feature in many ancient sacrifices1 and some authorities consider that it may be in some way connected with the worship of ,venus1 the morning star4 ,it is1 of course1 a difficult question to settle1 but ,i would venture to suggest that it is more likely to have some connection with the idea that ancestral spirits are more active at night1 and therefore more appreciative of attention1 and that they lapse into inaction with the sunrise4 ,there appears to be no particular day in the month for the celebration of these sacrifices4 ,if1 on the occasion of a sacrifice at the sacred tree1 the elders chance to see a snake1 they say that it is a ngoma1 or ancestral spirit1 which has taken the form of a snake1 and endeavour to pour a little of the blood from the sacrificial ram on its head1 back1 and tail4 ,if the owner of the village should meet a large caterpillar1 called thatu1 near the gate1 he pours a little fat and milk in its path2 if it turns back1 all is well4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it should walk round the spot where the fat1 and so forth1 was poured1 and still come on towards the village1 the people know that it is a spirit which has assumed the form of a caterpillar1 and a ram is sacrificed in the village4 ,if one of these caterpillars is found in a food hut1 a ram is again sacrificed for the same reason4 ,should anyone set fire to the grass or scrub on the spot where the dead are thrown out1 spirits of the departed are supposed to be heard calling out4 ,when this happens1 the person who lit the fire gives a ram1 which must be killed on the spot1 and the elders of ukuru sprinkle the tatha all round to appease the ngoma4 ,sometimes a spirit will come and call in a peculiar way outside a village at night4 ,the people believe that it is hungry1 and next day sacrifice a ram4 ,the elders1 when they eat1 always throw a little food to the spirits before commencing their meal1 and at a beer-drinking always pour a little beer on the ground to propitiate the spirits so that they may not harm them4 ,women1 too1 when they are cooking porridge or gruel1 invariably throw some on the ground for the spirits4 ,description of a ,sacrifice at a ,sacred ,fig ,tree in ,kikuyu4 7,witnessed by the ,author47--,the elders first took some sugar cane and poured a little on each side and in front of the tree1 praying at the same time4 ,the sacrificial ram was then strangled1 held up before the tree1 and its throat pierced4 ,the blood was collected in a cow's horn and a little poured out on each side of the tree and allowed to trickle down the trunk4 ,at this stage of the proceedings another prayer was uttered4 ,a strip of skin and fat running from the throat of the carcase down to its belly1 and including the genitals1 was then cut off and hung up on a small branch projecting from the tree4 ,the elders now prayed again4 ,after this the ram was dismembered and the feast took place4 ,if the head of a village notices the appearance of disease among his flocks and herds1 or among his people1 he sacrifices at his own sacred tree4 ,but he first of all consults a mundu mugo1 or medicine man1 to find out whether the affliction comes from the high god or is due to the offended ngoma1 or ancestral spirits4 ,the medicine man throws his stones1 and if1 after sorting them into little heaps1 the balance left is eight1 he knows the trouble comes from the high god2 if1 on the other hand1 the balance is seven1 the trouble is attributed to the ngoma or ancestral spirits4 ,for a man1 the heap consists of five stones1 and for a woman three4 ,the sacrificial ram is obtained from a neighbour4 ,if a bad storm comes and damages the crops1 or if there is too much rain or a drought1 a large assembly of elders is convened4 ,they meet and sacrifice at the communal place of sacrifice1 called the big mugumu4 ,sacrifice among ,a-,kamba4--,we will now examine the ceremonial connected with sacrifice among the ,a-,kamba1 and principally among those of ,kitui4 ,these people have two kinds of sacred places1 or mathembo 7singular1 ithembo74 7#a7 ,sacred places for the whole country1 or rather for each big division of the country1 at which they pray and sacrifice to ,engai or ,mulungu for rain1 and in the event of a pestilence among human beings and cattle4 7#b7 ,sacred places for a group of two or three villages1 where they pray to the aiimu1 or ancestral spirits1 on the occasion of sickness among people or cattle4 ,the holy places are almost always at a tree4 ,for the first-mentioned a fig tree of the species known as mumo is chosen4 ,for the village shrine1 on the other hand1 the tree may be either a mumo1 fig tree1 another variety of wild fig called mumbo1 or a mutundu tree4 ,the mode of procedure of a sacrifice for rain at an ithembo of the first kind may be taken as an example1 and the following description was given by a couple of leading elders3 ,on the day settled for the ceremony1 the elders of ithembo assemble early in the morning1 and at about nine a4m4 proceed slowly to the sacred place1 taking with them an nthengi1 or male goat1 usually black in colour1 as well as milk1 snuff1 and a small quantity of every kind of produce which is grown4 ,the following were specified3 mbaazi 7cajanus71 mawele 7millet71 mtama 7sorghum71 bananas1 wimbi 7penicillaria71 sugar cane1 beans1 sweet potatoes1 cassava1 and pumpkins2 also some sugar cane beer 7honey beer is not allowed71 red trade beads and cowries1 the leaves of a sweet smelling plant called mutaa1 butter and gruel4 ,the men lead the goat and carry the milk1 gruel1 snuff1 and beer1 each one putting a little butter in the milk1 whilst the other items are carried to the tree by the old women4 ,the women are not allowed to approach the tree1 but dance together some distance away2 as mentioned above1 the ceremony commences at about nine a4m41 and goes on till about two p4m41 when the actual sacrifice takes place4 ,the proceedings are not hurried1 as some of the elders have to travel long distances before reaching the spot4 ,six senior elders and six old women are selected1 and all proceed to the tree2 they can wear their loin cloths1 but their blankets are taken off and left some distance away4 ,the men go first and taste a little of the milk1 gruel1 and beer1 which they spit out at the foot of the tree1 and then give way to the old women who go through the same ceremony4 ,the men again return to the tree and pour the balance of the milk and so forth at its foot4 ,each elder now puts some of the snuff in the palm of his hands1 takes a little1 and deposits the remainder4 ,the women again come up and pour the foodstuffs at the foot of the sacred tree1 the butter being smeared on it4 ,when the offerings are deposited1 the officiating elders--one can almost call them priests--pray as follows3 8,mulungu chao ya nekeu twenda nbua na aka machisi na ngombe kisia na mbui kisia engai tupiengea muimu andu ma kakwe0--8,mulungu1 this is food4 ,we desire rain and wives and cattle and goats to bear1 and we pray ,god that our people may not die of sickness40 ,the sacrifice of the goat comes next1 but before this is done1 they take the roots of two trees called mriti and muthumba1 grind them together1 mix them with water1 and make the animal drink the mixture with a view to sanctifying it4 ,this done1 they lead the goat up to the tree1 stand it on its hind legs before the tree1 or1 as they say1 8show0 it2 its throat is then pierced and the blood allowed to flow over the offerings previously enumerated4 ,the carcase is skinned and an incision made from the throat to the stomach4 ,the upper portion of the skull with the horns is cut off and buried at the foot of the tree4 ,the leg bones1 however1 must not be broken1 but carefully disarticulated at the knee-joints and elbows4 ,small pieces of meat are cut from every part of the carcase and from every internal organ and deposited at the foot of the tree4 ,the meat is then divided1 the left shoulder and part of the back is given to the officiating old women1 whilst the elders take the rest4 7,cf4 ,exodus xii4 #df3 8,the bones of the meat of the passover feast must not be broken407 ,each party1 male and female1 lights a separate fire and eats1 the selected officiating elders eating with their fellows4 ,the fire must be made of the wood of a mumo tree1 not that of the sacred tree1 but of another of the same species4 ,the six men and six women each impale a fragment of the meat on a skewer of mumo wood1 roast and eat it4 ,this is a ceremonial meal1 and when it is over the remainder of the meat is divided up1 and any kind of firewood can be used for cooking it4 ,the actual sacrifice of the goat is called kutonya ngnondu1 to pierce the sacrifice4 ,the mere word sacrifice1 however1 hardly expresses it1 for the word ngnondu really implies purification1 or perhaps expiation1 the underlying idea being that the goat is an expiatory gift offered with the object of relieving the country from the effects of the deity's displeasure and of the consequent drought4 ,no work is done on the day following the sacrifice1 and no cultivation is undertaken1 neither any house building4 ,a man may stroll over and see a friend close by1 but he is not allowed to go on a real journey4 ,the night before the sacrifice the elders must observe celibacy1 as well as on the six following days1 the day on which the sacred meat was eaten counting as the first4 ,no elder can participate in this ceremony if he has the stain of death on him2 that is to say1 if his wife or child has died1 and the purification ceremonies connected with the event have not been completed2 or again if he1 or one of his men1 has killed someone and the ceremonies for removing the bloodstain are not over4 ,any fighting or quarrelling or fighting among the people would also be likely to destroy the efficacy of the ceremony4 ,if a man breaks a stick from the sacred tree the elders at once fine him1 and a bull or goat is sacrificed4 ,the wound in the tree is anointed with butter1 and milk is poured at its foot4 ,lights are sometimes seen at night in mathembo1 but people very rarely go out to them while it is dark2 those who have tried it declare that stones were thrown at them from the tree1 and that these stones strike fire when they hit the ground4 ,if a person be thus attacked1 it is a sure sign that he is fitted for a medicine man4 ,another account of the procedure was obtained from elders in a different part of the ,ukamba country1 and as this varies a little and contains a few additional details1 it is considered advisable to describe it4 ,the day before the sacrifice1 the women of the neighbourhood gather together and go to the sugar cane plantations1 every woman bringing back two or three sticks of cane and taking them to the thomi1 or village meeting place1 of one of the elders1 where they are crushed to make beer4 ,in the evening1 the elders of ithembo take the beer and place it near the sacred tree4 ,they light a fire there with a firebrand from the village1 and the gourds of beer are put near it2 a little beer is also poured at the foot of the tree and they pray to the imu of the person to whom the tree is dedicated1 and then return home4 ,it is believed that the object of this ritual is to attract the attention of the guardian spirit of the shrine1 and to propitiate it and to ensure1 as it were1 its attendance on the morrow as the intermediary between the people and ,engai4 ,in the morning1 the elders of ithembo and certain very old women proceed to the ithembo4 ,the elders bring the sacrificial beast and first suffocate it2 they then quickly skin its throat1 and the oldest of the elders stabs it in the neck with a knife1 collecting the blood in a half gourd 7nzeli74 ,the skinning is then completed1 and small pieces of meat are cut from the tongue1 ribs1 and the left flank4 ,one kidney1 one testicle1 and a piece of the liver1 heart1 and every internal organ are also taken1 all these fragments being placed in a half gourd4 ,they then take a half gourd of beer1 and the gourds containing the meat and the blood1 and empty them at the foot of the tree4 ,the old women now approach and deposit samples of every kind of field produce--beans1 maize1 and so forth--and milk4 ,some of the food is cooked and some is raw4 ,when the men deposit their offerings they pray as follows3 8,engai twaevoya mbua kuamba eyima sionthi ,engai0--8,we pray to ,god that rain may bless all our country40 ,the women merely say 8,twaevoya mbua0--8,we pray for rain40 ,the sacrificial meat is then cooked and eaten4 ,the first to partake of it are the four senior elders4 ,the fire for cooking the meat is lit a little away from the tree1 and the fuel must consist of dry sticks picked up in the sacred grove4 ,the fire having been lit1 a small staging is built over it1 and the pieces of meat are placed thereon to roast4 ,the place of the fire is called ivuvio2 the wood used for the framework is muthakwa2 the sticks composing it are mbatwa1 and the whole framework when completed is called ndala4 ,when removing the marrow the bones of the sacrificial animal must not be broken4 ,after the feast the bones are collected and placed on the fire and covered with the stomach contents 7tatha or muyo71 and the smoke which rises to heaven is said to be pleasing to ,engai4 ,a private sacrifice is called kithangaona by the ,kamba people1 its object being to purify a village from sickness4 ,the ceremony is also termed kuvindukia muimu--8to cleanse the place from the spirit0 7ku-indukia--to cleanse7 and may possibly have an implied meaning to the effect that the spirit must be appeased4 ,sometimes a woman who goes into a cataleptic condition1 which is known as being seized by aiimu1 will say that to obtain rain a beast of a particular colour must be sacrificed4 ,a black goat is said to be preferable as a supplication for rain1 the colour probably being symbolical of the rain clouds4 ,sheep and goats1 both male and female1 are sacrificed1 and also bulls and bullocks1 but never a cow4 ,a black bullock is thought to be the most acceptable and a white sheep comes next1 whilst many of the ,kamba people consider a red animal bad for the purpose of sacrifice4 ,sacred ,places 7,mathembo7 in ,ukamba4--,dotted about the country1 near most of the older villages1 there are sacred trees1 representing private shrines1 called mathembo4 ,the sacrifice which takes place here is similar to that described above1 but the proceedings do not take so long1 as the assembly is smaller4 ,there is no particular day of the month for such a ceremony1 but it should not be performed in the months called ,nyanya and ,kenda 7the month ,nyanya in #aiab commenced on ,june #adth74 ,ikumi is suitable for a sacrificial ceremony1 as it is then considered possible to prepare the fields for planting1 in expectation of the rain which will fall as a result of the ceremony4 ,four pieces of the stalk of the castor oil bush are planted at the foot of the sacred tree4 ,if on a certain day a man brews beer1 he visits the tree in the evening and pours a little of the beer into each of the castor oil stems1 and prays to the aiimu1 saying1 8,i have made some beer1 and this is your share2 do not come into the village and bother us40 ,the castor oil stalks are meant to imitate gourds of beer4 ,it is customary to deposit at the tree a piece of the fruit of ,kigelia pinnata1 or ,k4 ,musa 7called miatini and used in producing fermentation in beer71 and the leaf of a mumo tree4 ,they then say1 8,this is your nzeli to drink the beer from10 the nzeli being a half gourd used as a drinking cup1 and the mumo leaf in this case representing a nzeli4 ,as these things decay1 they are periodically renewed4 ,the people of a village utter a prayer when they see the new moon1 begging that they may go safely through the month4 ,this bears a close resemblance to the ,european habit of turning one's money and bowing nine times to the new moon4 ,at the village ithembo beer is poured out1 generally on the advice of a medicine man1 when someone is ill in the village4 ,the sacrifice at the village ithembo usually takes place about ten a4m41 the people returning at noon4 ,on their arrival at the village1 a mixture of tatha and water is sprinkled upon the cattle1 and upon the water pots of the village4 ,this is called kikaela muyo and is done for the benefit of those villagers who are not qualified to go to the sacred place4 ,the women qualified to attend a ceremony at an ithembo are those who are past the age of child-bearing and have a husband who is a mutumia ya ithembo 7an elder of the ithembo74 ,a childless old woman may also be allowed to go4 ,it often happens that during a ceremony at an ithembo a woman is seized1 or possessed1 and passes into a condition of semi-trance in which she will prophecy either that the rains are coming or that they will fail1 or1 in former days1 that a ,masai raid was imminent4 ,an explanation of this was carefully sought1 and1 upon investigation1 ,i was told that the message came from the imu or spirit of the person of olden times to whom the ithembo was dedicated and to whom it was supposed to belong1 but quite clearly1 that this spirit was only an intermediary1 the message really coming from the high god ,engai or ,mulungu4 ,a little house is always built at the foot of the sacred tree on the east side1 with the door facing the rising sun1 and two days before the time settled upon for commencing planting a pot of water and one of food1 as well as butter and milk1 are placed in it4 ,on the day following the deposit of this offering1 no work is done4 ,these offerings are said to be for ,engai2 the pot of water is a reminder that rain is required1 and the food represents the crops4 ,sacrifices for ,rain4--,kikuyu--,if the elders go to the sacred fig tree for rain they sacrifice the usual ram1 preferably a black one4 ,if1 on the other hand1 they pray for rain to cease1 the sacrificial ram is preferably a white one1 although a red one may be used4 ,after the sacrifice1 the intestines are taken and tied round the stem high up in the tree4 ,the melted tail fat is then poured at the foot of the tree and a strip of the meat and fat are hung on a branch4 ,ukamba4--,among the ,kamba a black goat should be sacrificed for rain2 a red one1 however1 is occasionally used4 ,but whatever the colour of the animal sacrificed1 it is very important that it should be entirely of one colour1 and not spotted or parti-coloured4 ,a parti-coloured animal would probably be considered as having some blemish4 7,cf4 ,deut4 xviii4 #a3 8,thou shalt not sacrifice unto the ,lord thy ,god any bullock or sheep wherein is blemish or evil-favouredness02 also ,numbers xix4 #b3 8,speak unto the children of ,israel that they bring thee a red heifer without spot407 ,the ,kitui ,a-,kamba also have another curious ceremony which they perform when their crops are in danger of being spoilt for lack of rain4 ,they snare a couple of hyrax 7,procavia sp47 and carry them round the fields containing the standing crops2 one is then released1 the other is killed4 ,the heart1 contents of the stomach1 and intestines of the victim are then taken and placed on a fire which is lit among the crops4 ,the smoke of the sacrifice is said to be pleasing to the deity 7,engai74 ,cf4 ,exodus xxix3 8,and burn them 444 for a sweet savour before the ,lord40 ,the carcase is not eaten4 ,the use of a hyrax for sacrificial purposes is rather curious1 and may well be a relic of an old ,semitic belief in which the hyrax was thought to have possessed originally the human shape4 ,it was said that he who eats of its flesh will never see father and mother again4 ,the ,a-,kamba1 however1 appear to have lost sight of any connection of this sort1 and it is therefore impossible to say whether it really existed2 the choice of this curious animal may be merely a coincidence4 ,general ,remarks on ,sacred ,places and ,sacrifices4--,the way in which a particular tree is chosen as a sacred place was explained to me unhesitatingly in the following manner3 ,in a particular locality1 long ago1 there would be a woman1 noted as a prophetess or seer1 whose prophecies always came true1 and at her death she would be buried in her village4 ,after a time1 a woman of that village became possessed by the imu1 or spirit1 of the deceased1 and1 in a state of exaltation1 would speak in the name of the prophetess1 saying3 8,i cannot stay here1 ,i am called by ,engai1 and ,i go to live at a certain tree0 7which would be specified74 ,the tree thus designated then acquired sanctity4 ,four elders and four old women would then be selected2 taking some earth from her grave1 and one 7a blood relation of the deceased7 taking a goat1 they would all proceed to the tree4 ,the earth was deposited at its foot1 the goat led thrice round the tree and then sacrificed4 ,the delegates then prayed3 8,we have brought you to the tree you desire10 and a small hut was built on the spot4 ,this hut is renewed from time to time1 usually before a great ceremony takes place at the tree4 ,the elders who build the hut must have their heads shaved next morning1 but must shave one another1 as no one else is allowed to do it4 ,they then hide their hair4 7,note4--,hiding away of hair after it is cut or shaved is a common custom among ,africans2 the idea is supposed to be that an evil-disposed person might use the hair as a medium for bewitching the owner47 ,an interesting and thoughtful paper on the ,a-,kamba of ,kitui1 by ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas1 appeared in the ,journal ,r4,a4,i41 #aiac1 and on page #ecd et seq4 the writer discusses the religious beliefs of these people4 ,he has come to the conclusion that they have no conception of a high god1 and that the terms ,engai and ,mulungu are merely collective words denoting the plurality of the spiritual world4 ,the present writer1 however1 is unable to accept this opinion1 for while it is recognised that great confusion of thought may exist on the subject among the bulk of the people1 there is little doubt that the elders of ithembo1 or tribal shrines1 are quite clear on the matter4 ,great care was taken to record only such information on the question as was furnished by this grade of ,kamba society4 ,and as the elders of ithembo correspond1 in a measure1 to the priestly castes of more highly developed communities1 their opinion has a certain value1 and we therefore feel justified in saying that the ,kamba religion contains the concept of a high god4 ,we would also contend that the information herein recorded contains internal evidence of this1 and every effort has been made not to read more into the information than it actually contains4 ,the fact that the writer was known to have been duly recognised as an elder among the neighbouring tribes1 the ,kikuyu1 undoubtedly induced the elders to discuss these questions with considerable freedom in his presence4 ,the words used to designate what may be conveniently termed the high god are ,engai1 ,mulungu1 and sometimes ,chua 7or the sun74 ,it is sometimes said that ,engai lives in the high mountains1 ,kenya for instance1 and this would appear to differentiate the great spirit from one which has its origin in an ordinary human form4 ,they insist also that there is only one ,engai4 ,they say that if the aiimu1 or ancestral spirits1 want to kill someone1 ,engai or ,mulungu can stop them1 their explanation being that although the aiimu can afflict a living person1 they cannot kill him unless ,mulungu concurs4 ,there is a saying when anyone dies1 8,nundu wa chua10 which means 8the order of the sun10 the obvious inference of which is that death comes from the high god4 ,they are emphatic in stating that ,engai1 and not the aiimu1 brings the rain4 ,it is said that a woman will sometimes bear a child having a mark on its body similar in position to that of a wound which caused the death of a brother-in-law or some near relative in the village4 ,the deceased is supposed to have been seen by ,engai1 and it is he who puts a similar mark on the new-born child4 ,i am not sure1 however1 that the term ,engai is not somewhat loosely used in this case1 as the imu of the deceased might well be held responsible for such an occurrence4 ,other confirmatory evidence of the presence of the concept of a high god will be found in the account of various ceremonies4 ,there is no doubt about the definition of the concept of the imu1 and it can be translated as the spirit of the deceased person4 ,the ,kitui elders stated that the sacrificial fire for cooking the meat at the ithembo must always be made by friction1 so as to avoid any such impurity or uncleanness being brought from a house as might occur were burning embers from a household kitchen taken to the tree4 ,no one who is under a thabu or tabu can take part in a ceremony at an ithembo1 nor must the muma or kithito oath be taken on such an occasion4 ,inquiries were made as to whether1 in olden times1 any of the spoils of war were sacrificed at an ithembo1 but this was said not to have been the case4 ,when1 as sometimes happens1 a shooting star appears to fall in an ithembo1 it is supposed to be a sign that ,engai has descended to the ithembo and demands food4 ,various kinds of food are then taken there as offerings4 ,it is1 however1 not usual to sacrifice an animal4 ,the shooting star falling on an ithembo may be compared with the story of ,jehovah appearing to ,moses in a burning bush1 which seemed to burn and yet not be consumed4 ,it is here to be noted that it is ,engai who demands food1 not the aiimu4 ,sacrifice apparently is only performed when the people desire to invoke help4 ,one elder only from each clan1 mbai1 can participate in a ceremony at the ithembo on any particular occasion1 and1 further1 no elder whose father is alive can go to the tree4 ,if in war an enemy took sanctuary at an ithembo he was allowed to stay there unmolested1 and was safe2 at night he escaped4 ,if1 again1 he caught hold of an elder of ithembo1 he was equally safe2 the elder would take him to his village and send one of his sons to convey him safely out of the country4 ,it is considered that this fact emphasises the priestly position of the elders of ithembo1 who must1 at all cost1 avoid the stain of death4 ,if a snake is seen at a sacred place it is customary to pour milk1 butter1 and gruel over it2 it is supposed to be njoka ya aiimu 7snake of the aiimu74 ,arms must not be taken to an ithembo1 small knives to skin the sacrificial animals only being allowed4 ,no bird or beast can be killed at a sacred tree in the grove which generally surrounds it4 ,should a sacred tree1 of the old communal mathembo kind1 fall down1 the people will still worship on the site4 ,if a village which possesses one of the small mathembo is moved1 the assistance of a medicine woman is sought for the selection of another one near the new site for the village4 ,the elders take her to the old tree and leave her there all night in solitary vigil2 in the morning she is fetched and taken to the new tree4 ,when the elders return from sacrificing at a sacred tree1 each takes a small piece of the skin of the sacrificial animal and ties it on the thorn fence near his hut4 ,it is believed1 however1 that this would not be allowed in the case of a great communal gathering to pray for rain1 such as previously described4 ,the sacrificial animal is provided by the elders of ithembo in rotation4 ,it is said that before going to war a black goat was sacrificed at the ithembo1 and success was prayed for4 ,upon returning from a successful raiding expedition1 they went to the organiser of the party1 the muthiani1 killed the biggest ox1 and prayed to ,engai as a thanksgiving ceremony4 ,this did not take place at the ithembo1 as1 in all probability1 they dared not go to the ithembo with any suspicion of bloodstain upon them4 ,the ,kamba belief that the spirits like to haunt certain sacred fig trees is very widespread1 and there is one factor connected with it which is common to the whole area in which the belief is found1 and that is that sacrilegious trespassers in a sacred grove are assailed by showers of missiles4 ,such incidents are often alleged to occur in ,india1 and1 apart from native superstition1 the writer has even heard of two examples in ,east ,africa1 where ,european colonists1 who had no knowledge of these beliefs but had built in the vicinity of sacred fig trees1 asserted that they were periodically disturbed at night by stones thrown on the roofs of their houses4 ,in ,phil ,robinson's well-known book1 8,in my ,indian ,garden0 7page #bjh71 it is stated that in ,burmah to this day the ,government pays a fee1 called murung1 to the headmen of certain tracts for appeasing the manes of their ancestors lodged in old sal trees4 ,robertson ,smith also quotes an old authority to the effect that fig1 carob1 and sycamore trees are haunted by devils4 ,the belief in ghosts is widespread in ,kitui1 and people who allege that they occasionally see the ghosts of human beings are not uncommon4 ,they do not appear to be terrified about it1 but state that they call out to the apparition to verify its immaterial character1 and if no reply is received they know that it belongs to the aiimu4 ,if1 however1 a ghost is seen1 it is necessary for the observer to kill a ram and smear his face with some of the purifying tatha1 together with some of the ram's fat4 ,we thus see that when a shrine is established1 tradition and the continual use of it for worship sanctifies it and maintains its position in the popular mind4 ,as the authority previously quoted points out3 8,holy places are older than temples1 and older than the beginnings of settled life40 ,it is also interesting to note how the old ,canaanite high places were associated with a tree or grove of trees4 ,this is considered by some authorities as an indication of an ancient cult of tree worship4 ,there is little evidence of the survival of such a cult among the people under consideration1 but an account has been given of a ceremony which has to be performed when a large solitary tree in a clearing is cut down1 and certain rites have to be performed to transfer either the spirit of the tree to a new abode or perhaps human spirits resident in the tree4 ,there is1 however1 little doubt that the ancient altars erected under trees were a later development of worship which originally took place at the tree without any altar4 ,it is said that our ,english maypole is a degraded survival of the worship under trees4 ,generally speaking1 in ancient ,arabia the gifts of the worshippers were presented to the deity by being laid on sacred ground1 often at the foot of a sacred tree1 or they were hung on it1 and when libations of sacrificial blood or other things were offered1 they were poured either there or over a sacred stone4 ,all this might have been written of our ,african peoples of to-day1 and one cannot1 therefore1 be accused of special pleading in inviting attention to the similarity of practice4 ,it is supposed that the ceremonial dedication of the foundation of a sacred building is a direct survival of the rites which took place in ancient times when a new 8holy place0 was formerly recognised and adopted4 ,the ancient flavour will be detected in the following extract from the account of the proceedings which took place a few years ago upon the occasion of the laying of the foundation stone of a ,jewish synagogue1 in ,british ,east ,africa1 the sacrificial nature of the rites being very noticeable3 8,corn1 wine1 and oil were presented to ,his ,excellency by three prominent ,freemasons4 ,his ,excellency strewed the corn on the stone1 and the bearer of the corn said3 8#8,there shall be a handful of corn in the earth upon the top of the mountains1 the fruit thereof shall make ,lebanon1 and they of the city shall flourish like grass of the earth4' 8,his ,excellency poured the wine on the stone1 and the bearer of the wine said3 8#8,and for a drink offering thou shalt offer him a third part of a bin of wine1 for a sweet savour unto the ,lord4' 8,his ,excellency poured oil on the stone1 the bearer of the oil said3 8#8,and thou shalt make it an oil of holy ointment1 an ointment compound after the art of apothecary1 it shall be an holy anointing oil4 ,and thou shalt anoint the tabernacle of the congregation therewith and the ,ark of the testimony4' 8,benediction--#8,may the ,god of ,abraham1 of ,isaac1 and of ,jacob1 shower down his choicest blessings upon this ,synagogue about to be erected for ,his ,honour1 and may ,he grant a full supply of the ,corn of ,nourishment1 the ,wine of ,refreshment1 and the ,oil of ,joy4'0 ,making of ,fire 7,kamba of ,kibwezi74--,the fire required for sacrificial purposes was formerly always made anew by friction1 as fire so produced could carry no evil with it1 whereas if firebrands were brought from a hut some thabu or curse which rested on the family owning the hut might inadvertently be brought with it1 and the wood might in fact be infected4 ,nowadays1 however1 it is curious to note that a sacrificial fire is lighted with matches2 for they consider that these1 being of foreign origin1 can bring no infection derived from ,kamba spirit influence4 ,this gives some insight into the ratiocination of the native mind4 ,fire was formerly made1 and is still made1 on occasion1 by hunters and others who rapidly rotate a piece of hard stick1 held vertically between the hands1 in a cup-shaped cavity cut in a piece of soft wood which is held between the toes1 the friction generating enough heat to produce sparks which light some tinder4 ,the vertical stick is called the male1 and the other piece the female1 the reasons for which nomenclature are obvious4 ,it is curious to note that a woman is not allowed to make fire by friction1 the reason given for this being that a man has to squat to make fire1 and that if a woman does the same1 it is unseemly1 as she thereby exposes her nakedness4 ,it is believed1 however1 that there is more in it than this1 and that only a male is really supposed to manipulate the masculine portion of the fire-making apparatus4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,sacred ,,stones ,,or ,,village ,,shrines ,,in ,,kikuyu ,when the ,kikuyu people found a new village1 the elder of the family collects three stones1 two being brought from the bed of a river to the north of the village1 the direction from which the tribe migrated1 and one from a river to the south of the village4 ,the river in the north is generally the ,thika1 and the river in the south is generally the ,mbagathi4 ,the stones must not be collected from a river from which the villagers take water for their domestic use1 and it must also be a river with a perennial flow4 ,these stones usually weigh from thirty to forty pounds1 and are used as a village shrine4 ,having obtained the stones1 the people take a black ram1 sew up its left eye1 and bury it in the middle of the village4 ,this is done with the idea that if anyone comes to bring bad magic to the people of the village1 he will1 like the ram1 lose the sight of one eye4 ,the three stones are then planted round the spot where the ram is buried4 ,four people carry out this ceremony3 the head of the village1 another elder of the same clan1 and the two senior wives of the village head4 ,they break branches from the mutumaiyu1 mukenya1 and muthakwa trees and plant them round the spot4 ,if they take root1 it is considered a very good omen2 if the branches die1 however1 they are replaced periodically by fresh ones4 ,whenever a sacrifice is made in the village1 in connection with any ceremony1 the ram is killed near this spot and blood and fat are poured into the ground between the stones4 ,meat for the spirits is always put out in two heaps1 one for the male and one for the female spirits4 ,it is believed that if the stones are obtained from strong flowing rivers1 they will help to protect the village from nocturnal thieves4 ,moreover1 the stones from the rivers to the north of the village will stop the entrance of bad ngoma or spirits coming from that direction1 and similarly1 the stones from the south will form a protection against the evil spirits from that direction4 ,the stones are not supposed to possess a spirit1 but if a stone is stolen it is looked upon as a terrible crime4 ,the thief is said to have1 by its possession1 the power to inflict a serious curse upon the village1 whenever it was stolen4 ,when the stone is missed1 the head of the village collects the kiama1 or council of elders1 and presents them with a fee of a ram and a bullock1 which are killed4 ,they tell the owner to wait three days1 and if by then the stone is not returned1 they bring him the kithathi on which to curse the thief4 ,in all probability1 the stone is secretly returned by night2 if not1 the owner curses the thief on the kithathi1 and some time afterwards it will be found that two or three people have died mysteriously in a certain village and the stone is brought back4 ,the owner of the stone will then kill a sheep1 and place strips of the skin1 rukwaru1 upon the right wrist of all the men1 and upon the left ankle of all the women in the thief's village4 ,after this1 they all go to a river and are purified on the bank of it by a mundu mugo1 or medicine man4 ,they then bathe in the river and are marked on their foreheads by a vertical mark made with ira1 or white earth1 and return home4 ,the owner of the stones now presents a ram or male goat to the elders of kiama1 to show that the trouble is over4 ,it is said that no theft of this kind has occurred in recent years4 ,the sacred stones are called ,kithangona ya muchi1 which may be interpreted as 8village shrine0 or altar4 ,the ,swahili equivalent is ,mathbah ya ,kafara ya miji2 mathbah is evidently the same as the ,arabic masseba4 ,it is believed to be associated particularly with the ngoma1 or ancestral spirits1 and has no connection with the deity4 ,they may perhaps believe that the stones form a resting-place for the beneficent ngoma of their ancestors1 or that they indicate a spot where the villagers can render service to the spirits4 ,the former interpretation is the more likely2 why1 otherwise1 should there be such trouble when one is stolen8 ,these stones must never be used as seats4 ,the same idea occurs in ,bantu ,kavirondo1 where these stones are to be found in each village4 ,mumia pointed out such a shrine1 decked round with white feathers1 where a fowl was periodically killed and the blood poured between the stones4 ,the stones were said to have come from the north of the ,nzoia ,river1 from a place whence the ,wanga clan were supposed to have migrated4 ,some years ago1 one of these stones was stolen by a complainant who alleged that he could not get a hearing in a case regarding the debt of a cow4 ,the whole country-side was upset at the loss2 the suit was immediately heard and disposed of1 and eventually the stone was returned4 ,the incident clearly showed what importance was attached to these apparently insignificant objects4 ,if a ,kikuyu village is moved1 the stones are moved to the new village1 a fresh ram being buried in the new spot4 ,before the stones are removed1 the head of the village and his senior wife pour out honey-beer and sugar-cane beer on the space between the stones1 which can then be removed with impunity4 ,when a brew of honey-beer is made a little of the honey is poured out between the stones1 and when the beer is fermented1 a libation is also poured there4 ,the writer recently witnessed the celebration of the morning prayer at a village shrine4 ,the principal wife brought sugar-cane beer and poured some into a cow horn and some into a small ,u shaped gourd4 ,the elder1 who was head of the village1 then poured the beer1 first from the horn on to the trees growing between the stones1 and then from the gourd4 ,he now uttered a prayer with great solemnity1 and called upon the spirits to grant good fortune to the village and also to the visitor4 ,he prayed for wealth in live stock1 abundance of children1 safety in journeying1 and so forth4 ,as the prayer proceeded another elder responded solemnly4 ,the beer from the horn was a libation to the male spirits2 that from the gourd to the female spirits4 ,the horn had a knob carved on the end1 the origin of which might be phallic4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,firstfruits ,,of ,,the ,,harvest1 ,,also ,,planting ,,ceremonial ,it is interesting to compare all this with the ,mosaic ritual laid down in ,exodus xxiii4 #ai3 8,the first of the firstfruits of thy land thou shalt bring into the house of the ,lord thy ,god40 ,this is the ,levitical minha or tribute4 ,robertson ,smith's 8,religion of the ,semites10 p4 #bda1 states3 8,among the ,hebrews1 as among other agricultural peoples1 the offering of firstfruits was connected with the idea that it is not lawful or safe to eat of the new fruit until the god has received his due4 ,the offering makes the whole crop lawful food1 but it does not render it holy food2 nothing is consecrated except the small portion offered at the altar1 and of the remaining store clean persons and unclean can eat alike during the year4 ,this1 therefore1 is quite a different thing from the consecration of animal sacrifices1 for in the latter case the whole flesh is holy1 and only those who are clean can eat of it0 7,cf4 ,lev4 xxiii4 #aj-ba74 ,professor ,robertson ,smith also points out that in ,hosea's time the firstfruits of corn were offered at the shrines of the ,baalim1 who had become recognised as the giver of rain and the author of all fertility4 ,this principle1 it will be seen1 agrees as closely as possible with the ideas of the tribes under review4 ,in ,kikuyu1 the people do not appear to take the firstfruits to the sacred tree formally before reaping the crop1 but on the occasion of each harvest the women will take offerings of the various cereal foods--maize1 millet1 and so forth 7also beans1 sugar cane1 etc47--to the sacred place4 ,they are not allowed to go right up to the tree1 but pour their gifts on the ground near by4 ,all such food must be uncooked4 ,this being done1 they return1 and the elders kill either a young ewe which has not yet borne a lamb1 or a ram1 at a little distance from the tree1 and a rukwaru1 or strip of skin1 is placed on the left wrist of each of the women4 ,the elders then eat the meat2 none is actually taken to the tree or left there4 ,it is a kind of harvest thanksgiving ceremony4 ,firstfruits in ,ukamba4--,it is customary to eat a certain quantity of the maize cobs or the bean crop before they ripen4 ,but before this can be done a little of each kind is reaped and laid at the ithembo by an elder and an old woman1 and a goat is sacrificed4 ,the tatha1 or stomach contents of the goat1 are mixed with the green food in a cooking pot and boiled4 ,a portion of this is then distributed to each village1 after which the green crops can be safely eaten4 ,next comes the proper harvest1 but before reaping can commence the owners again consult the medicine man whose advice was previously sought at sowing time4 ,they take him a present of every kind of grain1 and so forth1 reaped at the previous harvest1 and he gives his advice as to a propitious day for the ceremony4 ,the elders then gather the firstfruits of the harvest and assemble at the village meeting-place 7thomi7 of one of the senior elders and sacrifice a goat4 ,then1 as above1 they cook samples of the various products in a big pot together with the tatha of the goat4 ,when the food is ready1 the women from the villages round come and receive some of it1 which is placed on leaves4 ,it is said that were this ceremony to be omitted1 the people would be afflicted with diarrha1 and would presumably become the victims of thabu4 ,but when it is concluded1 they may reap and eat of the crop without fear or hindrance4 ,curiously enough1 this ceremony is not considered necessary for the mbaazi crop 7,cajanus indicus or pigeon pea74 ,the people give no explanation of this1 but it may be that the pigeon pea was introduced from ,kikuyu or elsewhere1 after the belief had developed1 and was therefore excluded4 ,a housewife having gathered into her granary 7ikumba7 all her crops1 must not cohabit with her husband the night on which she has completed her harvest4 ,a present of a little of the new grain has to be made to the medicine man who advised the people where to plant4 ,if a woman has had assistance from her neighbours in the harvest-field she makes a feast of all kinds of food2 no men are present1 as they have nothing to do with it4 ,there is no dancing on such an occasion4 ,the next thing is the threshing of the grain1 and before the mawele grain1 and according to some the mbaazi pea1 can be threshed1 permission must be sought from a medicine man who specialises in agricultural magic4 ,in ,kibwezi district no one has any leave to thresh mawele until the elders have sacrificed at the ithembo4 ,it is said that if anyone breaks this prohibition the particular area will miss the mvua ya ua1 or the second portion1 of the next big rains4 ,these are the showers which bring the grain into head and fill out the seed1 and thus they will miss their crops4 ,the first half of the rains grow the stem and leaves1 and the second half bring the plant to fruition4 ,again1 if a woman has the assistance of her neighbours she will make a feast for them at the completion of the threshing4 ,planting of ,crops and ,harvest4--,in ,ukamba1 before the sowing of the grain is commenced a medicine man is usually consulted with regard to the proper season and the prospect of good rains4 ,when these preliminaries are settled1 the elders of ithembo and the old women are summoned to the ithembo4 ,the men bring a goat and the women bring milk and offerings of grain contributed by the villages of the neighbourhood4 ,the goat is sacrificed at the sacred tree2 some of the blood and the beer are poured out as libations1 an offering of the cereals is made1 prayers for good crops are offered1 and the meat and food is then eaten and the beer is drunk by the worshippers4 ,they then go away and commence to plant with a light heart4 ,after planting1 however1 a woman must not cohabit with her husband until the grain has sprouted and appeared above ground4 ,should1 however1 ceremonial cohabitation become necessary in connection with some other religious observance1 the woman must first go and dig up a seed of each species of food product which has been planted and bring it back to the village4 ,if any man plants before the proper sacrifice has taken place1 the elders will fine him a goat1 which has to be sacrificed at the ithembo as an atonement4 ,further1 the grain which has been sown has1 as far as it is possible1 to be dug up1 collected and returned to the village4 ,if it is left in the ground1 it is supposed not to mature1 and also ,engai might be angry with the community at large4 ,the people of ,ulu 7,ukamba7 again1 often perform another fertility ceremony to ensure good crops4 ,they take the dung of the hyrax1 which is called kinyoi ngilla in ,kikamba1 and mix it with the powdered root of the mulinditi tree and a weed called waithu4 ,this medicine is then mixed with some of the seed which they propose to plant and burnt together with some of the dry weeds collected from the field4 ,the fire is made in such a position that the smoke drifts across the field4 ,the ashes of this fire are then mixed with the seed about to be sown4 ,in ,kitui1 however1 it is said that a live hyrax is carried round the field by a procession of villagers1 the animal being then killed and its blood and entrails scattered over the field4 ,,chapter ,v ,,circumcision ,,ceremonial ,one of the most important factors in the life history of all natives is the formal initiation to the tribe1 of which the outward sign is usually the ceremony of circumcision4 ,in ,kikuyu these rites have attained some elaboration1 and it is important to describe them in detail4 ,it will later be seen in ,chapter ,,vii how deeply the division of the ,kikuyu tribe into the two guilds1 ,kikuyu and ,masai1 #c affects their customs1 and in the following description the rites of the two guilds are described separately4 ,before a child reaches the age of circumcision1 however1 a ceremony called ,ku-chiaruo ringi has to be gone through1 which means 8to be born again40 ,it must be undergone by young children before they are eligible for the next stage of initiation1 viz41 circumcision4 ,the occurrence of these two ceremonies1 connected as they are1 cannot fail to strike one as being1 in a lower stage of civilisation1 the genesis of the idea of the sacraments of baptism and confirmation4 ,it is said in fact that some of the missionaries do not hesitate to explain the two ,christian doctrines mentioned by reference to the two pagan ones1 and state that with the help of this key the natives at once grasp the idea of their doctrines4 ,but to return to the ceremony itself--the form varies with the guild of the parents4 ,according to the fashion of the ,masai guild1 about eight days after the birth of the child1 be it male or female1 the father of the infant kills a male sheep and takes the meat to the house of the mother1 who eats it with her neighbours if they belong to the ,masai guild4 ,at the conclusion of the feast1 the mother is adorned with the skin from the left foreleg and shoulder of the sheep1 the piece of skin being fastened from her left wrist to left shoulder2 this she wears for four days1 when it is taken off and thrown on to her bed1 where it remains till it disappears4 ,the mother and child have their heads shaved on the day this ceremony takes place2 it has no connection with the naming of the child1 which is done on the day of its birth4 ,the ceremony of ,ku-chiaruo ringi1 according to the fashion of the ,kikuyu guild1 is as follows in ,s4 ,kikuyu4 ,the day after the birth a male sheep is killed and some of its fat is cooked in a pot and given to the mother and infant to drink4 ,it was not specifically stated whether this had a direct connection with the rite referred to1 but the description commenced with a mention of this4 ,when the child reaches the age of from three to six years the father kills a male sheep1 and three days later the novice is adorned with part of the skin and the skin of the big stomach4 ,these skins are fastened on the right shoulder of a boy or on the left shoulder of a girl4 ,the skin used for a boy has1 however1 the left shoulder and leg cut out of it1 and that for a girl has the right shoulder and leg cut away4 ,the child wears these for three days1 and on the fourth day the father cohabits with the mother of the child4 ,there is1 however1 one important point1 and that is that before the child is decorated with the sheep skin it must go and lie alongside its mother on her bed and cry out like a newly born infant4 ,only after this ceremony has been performed is the child eligible for circumcision4 ,a few days after circumcision the child returns to sleep on a bed in its mother's hut1 but the father has to kill a sheep before he can return1 and the child must drink some of the blood1 the father also having to cohabit with the mother upon the occasion4 ,owing to similarity of name it is possible that the ceremony of ,ku-chiaruo ringi might be confused with ,ku-chiaruo kungi1 which is of widely different significance4 ,this latter is an adoption ceremony1 and is said to be similar to a ,swahili rite called ndugu ,kuchanjiana4 ,if a person has no brothers or parents he will probably try to obtain the protection of some wealthy man and his family4 ,if such a man agrees to adopt him he takes a male sheep and slaughters it1 and the suppliant takes another one4 ,the elders are assembled and slaughter these sheep1 strips of the skin 7rukwaru7 being taken from the right foot and from the chest of each sheep and tied round each person's hand1 while each is decorated with strips of skin from the sheep of the other party4 ,the poor man is then considered as the son of the wealthy one1 and when the occasion arises the latter pays out live stock to buy a wife for his adopted son4 ,the ,kamba people1 at any rate the ,kitui section1 have nothing corresponding to the ,ku-chiaruo ringi rite of the ,kikuyu1 but when the child is about six months old it is moved from its mother's bed and thenceforward sleeps on a little bed by itself4 ,if the husband cohabits with his wife during this period the child has to be placed on the mother's back4 ,circumcision4--,as previously mentioned1 the ,a-,kikuyu are circumcised according to two systems1 some according to one and some according to the other4 7#a7 ,ku-ruithia ukabi1 i4e41 ,masai fashion4 7#b7 ,ku-ruithia u ,kikuyu or ,gikuyu1 i4e41 ,kikuyu fashion4 ,the actual surgical operation is the same1 but according to the ,masai system the boys stay and sleep in the hut for four days after the operation1 and then go out1 shoot birds1 and wear the skins of the birds on the head and neck4 ,when the new moon appears their heads are shaved1 and each one then goes to his home4 ,the head of the village cannot sleep in the hut where the circumcised youths are staying until they are well4 ,according to the ,kikuyu system the youths remain in the hut for eight days2 on the day of the operation a sheep is killed1 and on the ninth day the father of the children takes them away to their homes4 ,the head of the village sleeps in the hut where the youths stay after the operation has taken place4 ,those circumcised according to ,kikuyu fashion hold the feast called ,mambura the day before the operation2 the writer recently witnessed one of these gatherings1 and so is able to describe it with some accuracy4 ,it was held at a village between the ,mathari and ,thigiri streams1 and was on the twelfth day of the moon1 so there does not appear to be any particular significance as to date4 ,several thousand people of both sexes had collected to dance and take part in the festivities2 the warriors were dressed in their war paint and had their bodies smeared with red or grey paint1 and in some cases were picked out with star-like patterns4 ,the women were all in their best1 and freely smeared with red ochre and oil2 a large collection of elders was there1 and the chief was present1 as he explained1 in order to keep order and prevent the young warriors from quarrelling4 ,over the gate of the village two long pieces of sugar cane were fastened1 and all who entered the village were supposed to pass underneath4 ,the entrance of the village was also guarded by a bag of medicines belonging to a mundu mugo2 these were supposed to prevent anyone coming into the village to bewitch the candidates4 ,in the morning the elders of kiama slaughtered a big male goat1 nthengi1 by strangulation1 and each male candidate for circumcision had a strip of the skin fastened round his right wrist1 the same strip being also carried over the back of his hand and his second finger passed through a slit in it4 ,the male candidates were nude with the exception of a string of beads or so1 and a necklace made of a creeper called ngurwa2 the girls were nude as far as clothes went1 but were enveloped in strings of beads from their necks to below their waists4 ,much dancing took place till a little after two p4m41 when there was a ceremonial meal4 ,the candidates came into the village in ,indian file1 the girls leading the way4 ,they were received in front of the hut1 where they were to reside temporarily after the operation1 by a few elders who had for some time been preparing a number of strips of a vegetable creeper1 and smearing them with a black oily mixture4 ,each girl first came up and had a piece of the creeper fastened round her left ankle4 ,the creeper is called ruruera1 and each piece is smeared with medicine made from the umu and wangnondu plants mixed with castor oil4 ,one of the elders then took a handful of porridge made of wimbi and mtama meal 7eleusine grain and sorghum71 and placed some on a bundle of twigs of the mararia bush and offered it to each candidate2 the candidate bit a little piece and then spat it out on the ground1 the balance was then placed in her hand and she ate it4 ,the porridge was placed on a flat stone used for grinding corn4 ,the boys then came along one by one1 and the ceremony was repeated in the same manner1 but the strip of creeper was fastened on the right ankle of each boy4 ,it was stated that the object of this portion of the ceremony was to lessen the pain suffered by the candidates during the actual operation4 ,in another part of the village a man was completing five stools of white wood1 roughly hewn out of the solid1 which were intended as special seats for the elders and old women who had to perform the ceremony4 ,immediately after the ceremonial meal was finished a great rush occurred1 and the candidates1 followed by the crowd1 galloped off to a mugumu1 fig tree1 about three hundred yards away2 as they approached it1 the boys threw clubs and sticks up into the tree1 and then commenced to climb into the branches1 hacking savagely the whole time at the leaves and twigs2 each youth had a light club with the head sharpened to a blunt cutting edge1 and by dint of vigorous hacking gradually broke off small branches which fell down among the crowd below1 and were immediately seized by the people1 some of whom at once began to strip off the bark4 ,the bark was supposed to be used to bind round the heads of the candidates4 ,the people then danced round the tree1 and this ended the proceedings4 ,the leaves of the fig tree are collected and strewn in the hut where the candidates sleep after the operation4 ,they are said to be for the purpose of catching the blood1 and possibly to prevent the hut being defiled by the blood soaking into the earthen floor4 ,they would never throw sticks into1 or gather leaves from1 a sacred mugumu tree4 ,the actual operation was not seen1 as it took place at dawn the following morning2 it is performed in the open near the village4 ,the bulk of the prepuce is not cut off at all1 but forms an excrescence below the glans1 a small piece of skin only being cut off2 it is thrown away1 and not buried4 ,at the similar operation in ,ukamba the prepuce is left on the leaves on which the youth is seated during the operation and thrown away with them4 ,the neophyte is placed on a bed of leaves for the operation1 as it is very bad for the blood to fall on the earth4 ,if anyone touches the blood it is considered unlucky and he must cohabit with his wife1 and the mother of the child with her husband1 and no harm will ensue4 ,mambura ,festivities ,preceding ,circumcision ,according to ,masai ,fashion4--,the festival which precedes circumcision according to the ,masai fashion was also witnessed4 ,it was originally to have been held at full moon1 but bad weather caused its postponement till the twenty-fifth day of the moon1 which seemed to be equally propitious4 ,in the morning a sheep was killed and eaten by the elders1 and at about noon the candidates had assembled4 ,the people of the village and the candidates passed their time in dancing until the preparations were completed4 ,the male candidates were smeared from head to foot with ashes1 and were nude with the exception of a belt of iron chain 7munyoro71 a bead necklet 7kinyata71 an iron dancing bell 7kigamba7 on the right leg near the knee2 some wore a ring of the ngurwa vine round their necks4 ,the girls were decorated from neck to waist with a load of beads as in the ,kikuyu form of the ceremony4 ,the first proceeding was the decoration of each of the male candidates with a bracelet made of climbing euphorbiaceous plant called mwimba iguru4 ,the elders of kiama and the wives of the owner of the village1 who was one of the elders1 sat round in a circle in the middle of the village with a quantity of tendrils of the plant on a wicker tray1 kitaruru1 in the centre2 a small gourd of white diatomaceous earth1 ira1 was produced1 and each person licked a little and then smeared a small portion of the white earth on his throat and navel2 this was to purify himself for the ceremony4 ,a horn cup of honey-beer was then produced1 each one taking a sip1 and then all simultaneously blowing it out of their mouths in spray on to the plant2 it was said that the object of this was to purify or dedicate the plant to the use to which it was to be applied4 ,the male candidates then came up one by one and a bracelet of the creeper was fastened on the right wrist of each4 ,after a little more dancing the male candidates were seated in a row on ox-hides spread out on the ground2 a woman1 the sister of the owner of the village1 came along and poured first a little milk and then a little honey-beer on the head of the one on the left of the line2 she smeared it over the scalp and shaved a place on the right side of his head and passed on to the next4 ,the shaving was merely ceremonial1 as the candidates had all been shaved on the head before coming to the ceremony--the native razor1 ruenji1 being used4 ,the milk was in a gourd and the beer in a cow horn4 ,the male candidates then got up1 and the same performance was gone through with the girls4 ,shortly after this two great branches from the mutamaiyu tree were brought to the gate of the village and held upright1 one on each side of the entrance2 the elders said that in the ceremonies according to ,masai fashion the mutamaiyu had the same significance as the mugumu tree had in the ,kikuyu ceremonial4 ,the candidates came through the village dancing and singing all the time up to near the mutamaiyu branches1 and stopped a few yards away from them1 still dancing and singing4 ,the song did not appear to have any great significance1 being to the effect that from time immemorial they always had the mutamaiyu at these festivals1 and now it had come they could proceed to circumcise the candidates according to old custom4 ,they then all returned to the village1 and the candidates were arranged in the order in which they could be circumcised on the morrow4 ,the owner of the village divested himself of his blanket and donned an oily kaross made of goatskin from which all the hair had been scraped2 his hands were carefully wiped and some ira 7the white earth previously mentioned7 was poured into the palm of his hand from a small gourd4 ,he then commenced at the left of the line and anointed each candidate on different parts of the body with smears of the white earth2 he was assisted by his principal wife and two sisters and another elder4 ,the boys were first touched on the tongue1 and a line was then drawn down the forehead to the point of the nose2 a spot was placed on the throat1 the navel1 the palm of each hand1 and finally between the big toe and first toe4 ,the procedure with the girls was slightly different1 the tongue being smeared first1 and a horizontal line then drawn across the forehead4 ,the palms of the hands and the navel were next smeared1 and finally a band was drawn round each ankle4 ,after the candidates had thus been anointed1 the elders took mouthfuls of honey-beer out of a horn and blew it in spray over each candidate's head and shoulders4 ,this part of the proceedings was a ceremony intended to purify the candidates from any thahu which might be on them1 and to protect them from any thahu which they might possibly get from an onlooker4 ,the spectators 8ululued0 loudly during this operation4 ,it was then about two p4m41 and nothing further of importance took place2 the crowd1 which had been gradually growing1 however1 danced on till sundown4 ,at nightfall each candidate was said to receive a dose of the crushed seeds of a plant called ngaita1 which acted as an aperient1 and in the morning before the operation each one had to bathe in water in which an axe head had been placed to make it cold2 it was1 however1 stated that if there were a large number1 some would not bother about this1 but would bathe in the nearest stream4 ,the operation took place at dawn on the following morning1 and was not witnessed4 ,no firewood but that from the mutamaiyu tree is allowed to be used in the hut where the candidates live after the operation4 ,this custom of circumcision according to the two different systems applies to both sexes4 ,both classes dance with the oval wooden shields called ndomi before circumcision1 and travel through the district painted in zig-zag stripes with white clay4 ,a man circumcised according to ,masai fashion can marry a girl circumcised according to ,kikuyu fashion and vice vers2 but a medicine man and the elders have to perform a ceremony to change the girl from ,kikuyu to ,masai before the marriage can take place4 ,the ceremony is said to be as follows3 a male sheep is killed1 and the small intestines are extracted4 ,the medicine man and the girl take hold of them1 and the elders then cut the intestines with three pieces of wood sharpened to a knife edge and made of mathakwa1 mukeo1 and mukenya bushes4 ,a piece of intestine is cut with each knife4 ,the girl is then anointed with the fat of the sheep by another woman and smeared over with tatha 7the stomach contents7 mixed with water4 ,in the case of a marriage between a couple belonging to different guilds the man never changes2 it is always the woman who relinquishes the system in which she was brought up4 ,a man can1 however1 at his own wish and for reasons of his own1 change his guild2 that is to say a man brought up ,masai fashion can change over to the ,kikuyu side4 ,it is a much simpler matter for him than for a woman2 a male sheep is killed by the elders1 and a medicine man then comes and puts him through the ordinary purification ceremony4 ,a man usually belongs to the guild of his father2 that is to say1 he is circumcised according to the system of his father and grandfather before him4 ,the mark of a person circumcised ,masai fashion is as follows3 a copper ring is placed in the lower lobe of each ear1 and a piece of stick with an ostrich feather on it is bound on each side of the head2 a band of sanseviera fibre1 ndivai1 #d is bound round the forehead1 and on this band bird skins are fastened4 ,these ornaments are worn for eight days only2 bows and arrows are also carried and sandals are worn4 ,after eight days they put off the ornaments and give up the bows and arrows1 leaving them in the village where they were circumcised4 ,they then have their heads shaved at the village and return home4 ,those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion go through none of this1 but for two days wear a strip of banana fibre1 maigoia1 in the lobe of each ear4 ,during five days after recovery they also wear in their ears a round plug of mununga wood whitened on the top with ira and a necklace of the leaves of the mutathi plant4 ,this is probably a protective magic to preserve them from evil influence during their convalescence4 ,the marks just enumerated only apply to the male sex4 ,with regard to girls1 further inquiry has elicited the following facts3 a girl whose father belongs to the ,masai guild wears rings of copper called ndogonyi on each ankle4 ,a girl whose father belongs to the ,kikuyu guild wears an anklet of iron with little rattles1 called nyara runga1 attached to it4 ,if a girl who is ,masai marries a man who is ,kikuyu the ndogonyi are taken off at marriage4 ,if a girl who is ,kikuyu marries a man who is ,masai she does not1 however1 discard the nyara runga4 ,the elaborate ceremonial of old days in connection with circumcision is now rapidly dying out in ,southern ,kikuyu4 ,inquiries were made as to whether the bull-roarer1 which is well known in ,kikuyu as kiburuti1 was used in these ceremonies1 but curiously enough it appears to survive only as a child's toy1 whereas in many of the neighbouring tribes it and its first cousin1 the friction drum1 are regularly used in initiation ceremonial4 ,among the ,kikuyu1 two men circumcised at the same ceremony cannot go into each other's huts or even touch one another and neither may their children by their first wives4 ,the prohibition may be removed by an exchange of goats1 or beer1 which both families consume together in a hut4 ,this prohibition does not extend to children of younger wives or to grandchildren4 ,it does not appear to be connected in any way with thabu1 but a penalty of a goat or two is paid for breach of the custom4 ,generations of the ,a-,kikuyu4--,the description of the circumcision may be concluded by an enumeration of the circumcision ages of the ,kikuyu as far back as they can be traced4 ,in the ,december number of ,man1 #aijh1 the late ,hon4 ,k4 ,dundas gives a list of the ,rika or circumcision ages of the ,a-,kikuyu which probably goes back about one hundred years or so1 but this enumeration did not go sufficiently into detail1 and certain important points were missed1 so it has now been revised4 ,four well-known elders1 named ,katonyo wa ,munene1 ,karanja wa ,hiti1 ,ithonga wa ,kaithuma1 and ,mukuria wa ,mucheru1 were consulted1 and the following lists are probably as reliable as can be expected1 dependent as they unavoidably are on the memory of old men4 ,the first list was given me by the first two1 the second list by the second two4 ,there are slight variations1 but these are almost inevitable under the circumstances4 ,morika1 or ,muhurika1 singular--,rika1 plural1 is the circumcision age or generation1 and corresponds more or less to the poror among the ,masai4 ,the ,rika called ,manjiri1 ,mamba1 ,manduti1 and ,chuma were not recognised by either of the elders1 who both commenced their count with ,chiira1 which is obviously the same as ,shiera of ,dundas's paper1 and possibly the farther north one goes among the ,kikuyu tribe the farther back do their legends go4 ,the following is the list beginning at the most remote point3 ,,version ,i #a4 ,chiira4 #b4 ,mathathi4 #c4 ,endemi4 #d4 ,iregi ,these three1 it is said1 are often #e4 ,kiarie grouped as ,iregi4 #f4 ,kamao #g4 ,kinuthia #h4 ,karanja ,the fathers of the oldest men #i4 ,njuguna alive in the country belonged #aj4 ,kinyanjui to these ages1 and are called #aa4 ,kathuru ,maina4 #ab4 ,ngnanga #ac4 ,njerogi1 means the orphans1 ,chief ,katonyo is of this morika4 #ad4 ,wainaina1 means those who shivered during the circumcision ceremony4 #ae4 ,mungai1 means swelled faces4 #af4 ,kitao1 refers to their eating colocasia roots after they were circumcised4 #ag4 ,ngua ya nina1 those who wore their mothers' clothes4 #ah4 ,mbugwa or ,kuchu1 because the circumcision wounds did not heal4 #ai4 ,mwiruri1 name of a song they sang at the ceremony that year4 #bj4 ,mwitungu1 means small-pox4 #ba4 ,kiambuthi1 called ,mwangi1 those of the dancing place4 #bb4 ,kirira or ,ngugi1 because fire was on ,kenya at the time of the circumcision ceremony4 #bc4 ,mangorio1 named after a sweet-smelling tree used to decorate the youths after circumcision4 #bd4 ,rohangha1 named after a girl who had decorated her ears before marriage4 #be4 ,wanyoiki1 because they came one by one to the place of circumcision4 #bf4 ,boro1 the big stomach of a sheep4 #bg4 ,imburu1 the poor people 7there was a famine at the time74 #bh4 ,ngoraya4 #bi4 ,kiniti1 from a song4 #cj4 ,ingigi1 season of the locusts 7,katonyo's son1 ,thuku1 belongs to this generation74 #ca4 ,mutongu ,called ,mwangi4 ,time of the small-pox1 probably #cb4 ,kenjeko about #ahie4 ,when circumcised they went to dig potatoes in the fields4 #cc4 ,kamande ,time of the caterpillar plague4 #cd4 ,wanyaregi ,called ,mwiringhu4 ,the wanderers4 #ce4 ,kanyuto ,this is a name ,the man-eating leopards2 given by the there were several about youths themselves in that year4 #cf4 ,thegeni to this age4 ,they ,the year of the cutting will probably be of the iron wire4 #cg4 ,kariangara renamed later by ,they ate gruel made of the elders when immature maize 7,thuku's the generation son belongs to this is complete4 year74 #ch4 ,njege ,the porcupines4 #ci4 ,makio ,named after a liquid magic medicine which was sold in ,kikuyu during the year4 ,those circumcised in #aiaj belong to this morika1 it will finish early in #aiaa4 ,,version ,,ii #a4 ,chiira4 #b4 ,mathathi4 #c4 ,endemi4 #d4 ,iregi4 #e4 ,mukuria4 #f4 ,kicharu4 #g4 ,kamao4 #h4 ,kiarie4 #i4 ,kimemia4 #aj4 ,kimani4 #aa4 ,karanja4 #ab4 ,kinuthia4 #ac4 ,njuguna4 #ad4 ,kinyanjui or ,kathuru4 #ae4 ,ngnanga4 #af4 ,njerogi4 #ag4 ,ubu4 #ah4 ,wainaina ,these are often #ai4 ,kangnethi grouped as ,wainaina4 #bj4 ,kitao #ba4 ,mungai ,often grouped as #bb4 ,injehia ,mungai4 #bc4 ,mairanga #bd4 ,marire4 #be4 ,wangigi4 #bf4 ,ngua ya nina4 #bg4 ,wakirutu4 #bh4 ,mougwa or ,kitindiko4 #bi4 ,mwitongu4 #cj4 ,mwiruri4 #ca4 ,uchu4 #cb4 ,kiambuthi4 #cc4 ,ngugi or ,kirira4 #cd4 ,mangorio4 #ce4 ,rohangha4 #cf4 ,wanyoike4 #cg4 ,kinyiti4 #ch4 ,imboru4 #ci4 ,ingigi4 #dj4 ,mutungu4 #da4 ,kenjeko4 #db4 ,kamande4 ,this brings us up to the last few years1 and the elders said they had no interest in them4 ,the name given to the morika generally has some topical allusion to an event which occurred during the year and about the time of the circumcision ceremonies2 these allusions are naturally forgotten in course of time1 and the derivations in many cases now appear senseless4 ,one morika extends over two years1 or four ,kikuyu seasons1 called ,kimera4 ,the terms ,maina and ,mwangi as names for the rika of the last fifty years seem to be fixed as far as one can gather1 e4g43-- ,the ,chief ,katonyo's father was ,maina4 ,katonyo himself is ,mwangi4 ,katonyo's children are ,maina4 ,katonyo's grandchildren when circumcised become ,mwangi4 ,his great-grandchildren when circumcised become ,maina4 ,so apparently every person when circumcised takes the name of the morika of his grandfather4 ,the word morika is used indifferently as applying to the larger group as well as to the group of a particular year4 ,any young men1 however1 who have been circumcised of recent years1 and are still under the class ,mwiringhu1 would not be called ,mwangi until the group of years was complete4 ,the time of the completion of a group of years is decided by the elders1 but what determined the commencement of a new group was not ascertained4 ,these rika names only apply to males4 ,a leading ,kikuyu elder named ,lorigi was independently questioned on these matters by ,mr ,c4 ,dundas1 and his view was as follows3 ,the ,azamaki of to-day are practically all ,mwangi1 and ,lorigi himself1 who is among the most senior ,azamaki1 belongs to ,mwangi4 ,kamiri1 and a few others1 are ,maina1 like the ,mwangi he attends the councils4 ,the sons of ,maina are ,mwangi and the sons of ,mwangi are ,maina1 so that a man always belongs to the same division as his grandfather3 thus ,lorigi's father was a ,maina and his son also belongs to ,maina1 but ,lorigi himself belongs to ,mwangi as his grandson does4 ,it thus comes about that there are two generations of ,mwangi and ,maina living at the same time1 and the younger generation of either is distinguished by the temporary name of ,mwirungu 7plural ,irungi74 ,when these become elders they will be called ,mwangi or ,maina1 as the case may be1 without the addition of ,irungu4 ,the ,itwika ,ceremony4--,as explained in the last section1 the ,kikuyu have rika or circumcision ages1 and a long list was given2 these rika fall into groups and so many form a greater rika1 named either ,mwangi or ,maina1 which follow one another alternately4 ,it was not clear at the time what determined a group of rika being lumped together as ,maina or ,mwangi2 it now appears1 however1 that this is connected with a periodic ceremony called the itwika1 which takes place every fifteen years or so4 ,these correspond to a great extent to the eunoto of the ,masai1 and are of tremendous importance to the ,kikuyu2 the elders1 in fact1 state that they originated in ,kikuyu1 and were copied by the ,masai during the period when the ,kapotei and ,dogilani ,masai were very friendly with the ,s4 ,kikuyu and the ,purko ,masai with the ,n4 ,kikuyu2 in the present state of our knowledge it is1 however1 impossible to say whether there is any foundation for this4 #e ,probably the best test would be to inquire if the ,bari people who live in or near the country from which the ,masai are believed to be derived1 possess this kind of social organisation4 ,the itwika has been described by ,mr4 ,routledge as a secret society connected with snake worship1 but as far as can be discovered in ,s4 ,kikuyu there is no foundation for this idea1 elders1 however1 do not care to discuss its ceremonial unless one is very well known to them2 they are not supposed to discuss it with any person of younger grade than themselves1 and the ceremonies may be considered1 in fact1 as a final initiation at which only fully qualified elders are allowed to attend4 ,the last great itwika ceremony was at the end of the big famine of #ahih-i1 and was held about the time that the ,government founded ,fort ,hall4 #f ,the gatherings were formerly held on the area between the ,thika and ,chania rivers1 just above the junction of these two rivers1 and the name ,thika is derived from its connection with the itwika4 ,the last itwika was held near ,kalaki's1 in the district known as ,tingnanga in ,mimi wa ,ruchu's country2 it is said that on account of the decimation of the people by famine and small-pox it was decided not to hold it at the old place4 ,the next itwika will take place when the grandchildren of people of the same rika as the chief ,kinanjui have all been circumcised1 and the decision of the date rests with the athuri ya ukuu of the ,maina generation1 this being the senior generation to-day4 ,this apparently corresponds to the ngaje of the ,masai 7vide ,hollis's 8,masai074 ,an account of the last ceremony was obtained from one who was present1 and the first step is said to be the building of a huge long hut to accommodate those who participate in the festival4 ,this is divided into two main divisions1 one for elders of the ,maina generation and one for those of the ,mwangi generation1 and in addition1 a small room for the athuri ya ukuu1 who may be considered as the officiating priests of the festival4 ,these thuri ya ukuu are always eight in number1 and at the last itwika their names were1 ,muthaka1 ,ngombwa ,tutua1 ,kimwaki1 ,kathungu1 ,kithenji wa ,njuki1 ,rimui wa ,kanjuku1 ,ngegenya and ,mbura wa ,katuku1 and the whole programme rested in their hands4 ,the principal elder of each village is supposed to attend1 and often the next in importance as well2 the gathering1 therefore1 consists of several thousand souls1 and the proceedings continue for three months or more4 ,each elder brings sheep and goats1 bullocks1 gourds of honey-beer1 and gourds of sugar-cane beer1 and relays of food are brought to the camp during the ceremonies by women1 but no women are allowed within the confines of the camp4 ,a number of men are also selected to collect firewood1 but do not come inside the camp4 ,the only persons allowed inside the camp1 except the elders1 are eight spearmen1 who are told off to attend on the eight athuri ya ukuu4 ,it does not appear possible to obtain a detailed account of the proceedings1 but it is said that every day the eight athuri ya ukuu instruct their juniors in the customs of the tribe and so forth1 the elders also hold 8ngomas0 or dances4 ,one man is chosen as an official trumpeter to the proceedings1 and he collects the elders for the various rites by blowing a horn of the rare bongo antelope 7ndongoro74 ,the horn is called choro1 and no one else is allowed to blow it2 this is considered a very honourable office1 and the trumpeter is paid nine rams and nine female kids for his services4 ,in former days towards the end of the festival the elders in charge of an itwika sent two envoys to a certain place on a stream called ,kikira1 in ,kenya province1 which was said to be the habitat of a mysterious reptile called the ndamathia4 ,it was described as being more like a crocodile than like a snake4 ,this beast was given beer to drink1 and when it was drunk hairs were plucked from its tail4 ,a hairy tail is not characteristic of reptiles1 but all are agreed that the hairs were obtained4 ,the envoys then returned1 and the hair was plaited together with some strands of fibre of the wild date palm 7,phnix reclinata71 and then placed on the top of the itwika hut4 ,at the conclusion of the festival the people went in procession to a sacred fig tree 7mugumu7 in the vicinity1 and stuffed the hair into a crevice in the tree and left it there4 ,they then took the milk of a cow which had only borne one calf1 the milk of a ewe which had only borne one lamb1 and the milk of a goat which had only borne one kid1 and poured them as a libation at the foot of the fig tree2 a dance round the fig tree then ensued4 ,this was the concluding ceremony of the itwika4 ,each person attending was finally adorned on the wrist with a rukwaru or strip of skin from a male goat1 and the itwika house was broken up and they returned home4 ,at the last itwika held in ,south ,kikuyu the elders did not send for the hair of the ndamathia1 but the concluding ceremony was carried out with a big black ox1 which was tied by its fore and hind legs and laid between two poles2 all the people then came along1 one after the other1 and stamped on the ox1 which eventually died4 ,the ox was not eaten but was left lying there1 and they then poured libations of milk and fat at the foot of the sacred mugumu tree and danced round it1 praying to ,god 7,engai74 ,after this they shaved their heads1 were adorned with the rukwaru from a male goat1 and returned home4 ,upon reaching their villages each elder killed a ram and placed a rukwaru cut from its skin on every person in his village2 these were worn for one day only1 the villagers then ceremonially bathed and threw them away4 ,these ceremonies are said to be very pleasing to ,god 7,engai74 ,no one is ever allowed to cultivate on the area which has been used for an itwika ceremony1 and no one must ever cut the mugumu 7fig tree7 with an axe or knife4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,death ,,and ,,burial ,,ceremonial ,kikuyu4--,among most peoples1 irrespective of their stage of culture1 definite ceremonials have to be observed upon the occasion of a death1 and before the heirs can succeed to the property4 ,in ,kikuyu land these are somewhat complex1 and like many other observances in that country1 their form greatly depends on the circumcision guild to which the person belongs4 ,this is the excuse for introducing the subject1 as it is submitted that this factor has apparently escaped the notice of previous investigators1 and to understand fully the life-history of a ,kikuyu native it must be clearly realised how1 from his early years to his death1 he is bound down by the ritual of the guild to which he belongs4 ,the nearest analogy one can find to illustrate this is the case of one child who is baptised a ,protestant and another a ,roman ,catholic2 the main principles of these religions are the same1 and among the ,kikuyu the guild to which a man belongs does not affect his beliefs as to the ngoma1 or spirits1 and their influence upon mortals1 but the ritual of his religion varies throughout his life according to the guild to which he belongs4 ,the ceremonial observed upon a death is called ku-hukura--the ,swahili synonym1 sadaka1 has practically the same meaning4 ,the death and funeral ceremonies of an elder circumcised ,kikuyu fashion will be first described4 ,on the day of the death the children or heirs take two rams and present them to the elders to pay for the digging of the grave2 every elder who has circumcised children is buried1 married women who have borne five or six children are also buried4 ,the grass is dug with a mubiru or mukuruwi stick1 the sons of the deceased doing the actual digging1 but the elders decide the site and supervise the work2 if a son refuses to assist in digging his father's grave it disqualifies him from receiving a share of the estate4 ,the grave-diggers receive a big male goat 7nthenge71 or1 if the family is rich1 a bullock1 the bullock being slaughtered and the corpse buried in the hide4 ,the corpse of a male is buried on its right side with its knees doubled up and with the right hand under the head4 ,the site of the grave is near the gate of the village1 and the face of the corpse is placed looking towards its hut4 ,a woman is always buried lying on her left side4 ,on the third day after the interment1 the elders assemble at the village to kill a ram to cleanse the village from the stain of death1 and the sons eat the breast of this animal and next day shave their heads4 ,the same day the elders bring with them one of their number who is very poor1 and of the same clan as the deceased1 and he has to sleep in the hut of the senior widow of the deceased and have connection with her2 he generally lives on in the village and is looked upon as a stepfather to the children4 ,there is then a pause of six days1 and on the seventh day the elders return1 a supply of beer is made ready for them1 and a big male goat is killed and eaten by all present4 ,this is called nthenge ya noro1 which means the 8goat of the whetstone10 referring to the whetstone used in sharpening the razors with which the heads are ceremonially shaved at the conclusion of the ceremonies4 ,during the first four days after the death1 the married men in the village must have connection with their wives2 during the succeeding four days1 however1 they must observe strict continence4 ,after the nthenge ya noro has been killed the property is divided4 ,if the deceased belongs to the ,masai circumcision guild the ceremonies are as follows3 ,when a death occurs the elders decide whether the person is to be buried or not4 ,only elders above what is known as the 8three goat0 grade are buried2 these are called athuri ya mburi tatu1 which means that they have reached the grade1 the entrance fee to which is three goats2 the next grade is athuri ya mburi nne or the 8four goat0 grade4 ,no elder is a fully qualified member of council till he reaches that rank4 ,generally speaking1 it works out that only those elders who have grown-up children are buried4 ,in the case of a person not entitled to burial1 it is the duty of the elders to decide the place in the bush where the corpse shall be deposited4 ,assuming that the deceased is entitled to burial1 the local athuri ya ukuu 7highest grade of elders7 are summoned1 and the corpse is taken out of the hut by the sons and laid on the hide on which the person slept during life4 ,a ram 7ndorume7 is then slaughtered1 the fat being cooked in an earthenware pot and some poured on the corpse1 the children of the deceased also being smeared with the fat4 ,the ornaments of the deceased are then removed under the supervision of the elders and divided up among the immediate family2 the eldest son has the first choice1 then the senior wife1 and each child gets something4 ,an ox of a uniform colour1 preferably all white or all black1 is now slaughtered and the hide is set aside4 ,the elder sons dig the grave1 the site having first been chosen by the elders2 it is usually situated inside the village near the goat hut or bachelor quarters1 thengira4 ,the corpse is then interred lying on the sleeping hide used during life2 if a male1 it is laid on its right side1 knees doubled up and right hand under the head2 if a female1 it is laid on its left side in the same position4 ,the corpse is then covered with the raw ox hide with the hair side upwards and the grave is filled in4 ,nothing is buried with the body1 but after the grave is filled in1 the elders pour honey and cooked fat on the grave1 and say1 8,we give you this to drink40 ,a little later in the day a male goat1 nthenge1 is slaughtered1 the meat being roasted on a fire near the gate of the village1 and a little of the fat is placed on every fire in the village2 the smell of this is believed to be very pleasing to the ngoma1 or spirits1 and any thahu or curse that may be impending is drawn away4 ,this act is also said to lustrate the sons who have performed the burial4 ,a month1 or perhaps more1 is allowed to elapse1 and the division of the estate takes place4 ,the children or heirs then take four rams1 and the women of the village shed all their ornaments and sleep together in the same hut1 which is also shared by the four sheep4 ,in the morning the elders arrive and the sheep are killed1 the fat is cooked and then put away to cool1 while the meat is eaten by the assembled people1 providing they belong to the ,masai guild4 ,the head must be cooked and eaten away from the village2 the skin is taken by someone else1 and the viscera by yet another person4 ,on the following day the heads of all the inhabitants of the village are shaved and they are anointed with the fat of the sheep4 ,during the ceremony the people present wear their skin garments inside out1 and these are anointed with the cooked latex of the mugumu fig tree2 after their bodies have been anointed with the fat they can once more turn their skin robes right side outwards1 and the women resume their ornaments4 ,the property of the deceased is then divided up by the elders2 the principle followed is that each son takes the property which had its dwelling-place in his mother's hut1 the goats and sheep1 for instance1 and which lodge1 so many in the hut of each wife4 ,with regard to which cattle1 each son gets those which have been milked by his mother4 ,strict continency must be observed by all in the village until these proceedings are finished1 and at their close the inhabitants and all the property of the deceased are ceremonially purified by a medicine man4 ,among the ,kikuyu a woman's skin cloak is laid outside on the ground when she dies and no one will touch it2 a ,dorobo husband1 however1 wears his wife's cloak after her death2 hence one may at times see a man wearing a woman's cloak4 ,the fear of corpses is intense with the ,kikuyu1 but it appears to be much less so with the ,dorobo4 ,they will1 for instance1 live in the house of the deceased1 and do not seem to mind handling the corpse1 a man's sons1 in fact1 anointing his corpse after death4 ,burial 7,ukamba of ,kitui74--,among these people the head of a village is buried if his wife1 wives1 or any sons are alive4 ,if they are all dead the body is thrown out4 ,a man of importance and of high social grade is nearly always buried and is interred at the side of his cattle kraal4 ,the head wife of an elder is buried4 ,beer and blood are periodically poured out by the side of a grave of a deceased medicine man1 but not by that of other elders4 ,it is essential that this libation should be made just before sunrise1 and as this is in accordance with the practice in several other places1 the custom is probably a very old one4 ,in the case of deceased elders1 a libation of beer and blood is poured out inside the hut of the deceased when liquor is brewed or when a goat is killed4 ,if a childless wife1 who is the first wife1 dies1 she is buried inside the village4 ,in the case of a second or third wife1 the body is thrown out1 but curiously enough it must not be taken through the gate2 a special opening is made in the village fence for the purpose1 the opening being afterwards closed up again4 ,presumably this is to prevent her spirit from finding its way back into the village4 ,there is a curious custom among the ,kamba of ,ulu1 in the event of a member of the family being away when a death occurs in a village4 ,an elder measures the corpse1 cuts a stick of the same length and places it alongside the house of the deceased2 this procedure is believed to protect the absent one from evil4 ,upon his return1 a goat is killed and he is smeared with the contents of the stomach1 muyo in ,ki-,kamba1 the tatha of ,kikuyu1 and some is deposited at the door of the hut1 and he must tread in it before entering the hut2 this ceremonially purifies him4 ,the stick is then taken up by a mutumia ya makwa1 one of the elders who understands the ritual connected with the removal of thabu or makwa1 and is thrown out into the bush where the corpse of the deceased was deposited4 ,in ,kitui if a man is on a journey and a death occurs in the village during his absence1 his wives may not cut their hair till he returns and has performed the ceremonies necessary upon the occasion of a death4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,curse ,,and ,,its ,,manifestations 7,a7 ,,thahu ,,and ,,its ,,connection ,,with ,,circumcision ,,rites1 ,,etc4 ,thahu1 sometimes called nzahu1 is the word used for a condition into which a person is believed to fall if he or she accidentally becomes the victim of certain circumstances or intentionally performs certain acts which carry with them a kind of ill luck or curse4 ,a person who is thahu becomes emaciated and ill or breaks out into eruptions or boils1 and if the thahu is not removed1 will probably die4 ,in many cases this undoubtedly happens by auto-suggestion1 as it never occurs to the ,kikuyu mind to be sceptical on a matter of this kind4 ,it is said that the thahu condition is caused by the ngoma1 or spirits of departed ancestors1 but the process does not seem to have been analysed any further4 ,we are now in a position to realise the attitude of the ,kikuyu mind towards thahu1 and it is considered that the term curse1 in its mediaeval sense1 expresses it4 ,everyone will remember in the ,ingoldsby ,legends the pitiable condition of the ,jackdaw of ,rheims after he had been cursed by the ,cardinal for stealing his ring2 now this would appeal to a ,kikuyu1 and he would at once say the jackdaw was thahu4 ,in one of the cases of thahu1 quoted hereafter1 it is possible for a person to lay a curse maliciously on a whole village by breaking a cooking pot1 and in another instance1 a father can lay a curse on his son for disobedience4 ,we thus have parallel instances from both higher and lower civilisation2 in the first1 the ,cardinal curses the jackdaw with the help of the supernatural powers with which he is invested by virtue of his sacred position1 and in the lower culture it is apparently held that any person can inflict a curse by invoking the supernatural powers of the ngoma1 or spirits1 of the dead ancestors4 #g ,the position has1 indeed1 changed but little4 ,it would appear probable that as the priests gained power1 they arrogated to themselves the monopoly of laying a curse upon their flock2 but the freedom with which people use the conventional formula of curses to this day is evidence1 however1 that the power to inflict a curse was formerly at the disposal of all4 ,it is nevertheless important to realise that when curses were believed to be effective1 and in the case of malicious ones1 punishable by native law1 people were more careful about the custom than ,europeans are to-day1 when all belief in the power of a curse has died away4 ,some people use the term ceremonial uncleanness to express the meaning of thahu1 but1 as far as my inquiries go1 the phrase inadequately explains the ,kikuyu ideas on this question4 ,acts which cause a person to become thahu are also often found to be enumerated under the heading of 8prohibitions0 and 8tabus40 ,the similarity between thahu and tabu is somewhat striking and worth considering4 ,tabu appears usually to be applied to some act or object by a man who often acts in the dual capacity of ruler and magician4 ,there is1 as far as can be discovered1 no record of a ,kikuyu thahu having been imposed by any known personage1 but these beliefs must have originated somewhere1 and it may be that they were originally imposed one by one by great medicine men in former times1 and have thus become incorporated in what may be termed the tribal religion4 ,the removal of the curse is effected by a process of lustration which1 in the more serious cases1 has to be done by the mundu mugo1 or medicine man1 and in others by the members of the native council1 or kiama2 the latter is an interesting case of the overlapping of judicial functions and those of a sacerdotal character4 ,the lustration ceremony is almost always accompanied by the slaughter of a sheep and anointment with the contents of the stomach1 the white diatomaceous earth called ira being used in some cases4 ,the purification is called tahika4 ,in a few cases smoke is used as a purifying agent and seems to be considered effective in some more trivial ones4 ,the reality of this aspect of ,kikuyu life and thought may easily be under-estimated1 but it is important that all who wish to gain a deep insight into native affairs should understand it and give the phenomenon its true value4 ,to give the question a practical application1 it may safely be said that no ,kikuyu native who becomes thahu during the course of his employment by a white master1 will rest until he has been freed of his curse or ill luck1 and he will probably desert with wages due to him in order to get rid of it2 he cannot afford to wait1 the risk is too great4 ,there is another curious side to the question2 a ,kikuyu1 when he is circumcised1 undergoes this rite either according to the old ,kikuyu custom or according to ,masai custom2 the physical operation and result are the same1 but the ceremonial varies1 and for some unfathomed reason1 a man who is circumcised ,masai fashion can do certain things or encounter certain circumstances with impunity which would1 if he had been circumcised ,kikuyu fashion1 render him thahu4 ,this is a very curious fact1 and the ,kikuyu themselves do not seem to be able to give any reason for it4 ,the matter should1 however1 be made the subject of further research1 as my information is derived from the southern branch of the tribe1 and many customs which are dropping into disuse in that area1 and thus losing their inner meaning1 are found to be very much better known in ,kenya ,province or ,mwaitumi1 as they call it4 ,list of ,thahu4--,i will now proceed to give a list of thahu which ,i have collected with the assistance of the ,kikuyu chief ,kinanjui and his kiama1 or council1 of athuri1 or elders2 the question of the two classes of circumcision will be discussed later4 7#a7 ,if a small child dies and the mother carries the body away into the bush1 the woman is thahu1 and if the husband cohabits with her before she is purified1 he becomes thahu and the woman is cleansed4 ,the man carries the thahu away with him1 and1 what is worse1 may transmit it to his other wives4 ,if the man becomes thahu in this way it is much more serious for him than the woman1 and a mundu mugo1 or medicine man1 has to be called in3 the woman has to be purified by three elders1 athuri ya kiama1 and an elder woman1 mwirui4 ,for instance1 if a man has two wives and the younger had become thahu1 the senior wife would shave the head of the woman who was to be purified2 a sheep is killed1 and she is smeared with tatha1 or the contents of the stomach4 ,this thahu only falls on those who have been circumcised according to ,kikuyu fashion3 if the man has been circumcised according to ,masai custom he does not become thahu4 7#b7 ,if a woman who has assisted at a birth cohabits with a man before the end of the umbilical cord of the newly born child has shrivelled up and come away1 and before she has bathed herself ceremonially1 the infant1 although not her own1 will become thahu4 ,to remove the curse from the child the principal elder of the village kills a sheep and smears the woman with tatha1 the contents of the animal's stomach1 and thus cleanses her4 ,this applies to those circumcised either according to ,kikuyu or ,masai fashion4 7#c7 ,if a man touches or carries a corpse1 he becomes thahu until he is cleansed4 ,the lustration is performed by members of the local council of elders1 athuri ya kiama1 and the final purification by a mundu mugo1 or medicine man4 ,if he cohabits with a woman before he is cleansed she also becomes thahu4 7#d7 ,stepping over a corpse inflicts a thahu of a very serious nature1 and the person contracts a sickness called mangu 7possibly leprosy74 ,he is said to break out into an eruption1 and the fingers come off and the nose rots away4 ,to remove this thahu1 both the elders1 athuri ya kiama1 and the mundu mugo are called in2 the latter procures the bone of an elephant1 and this is placed on the ground1 the athuri forming a circle round it1 and the patient then steps over the bone2 the mundu mugo afterwards purifies the man in the usual way4 #h ,this thahu applies to both sections of the tribe1 viz41 those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion and those circumcised ,masai fashion4 7#e7 ,during a marriage ceremony five goats have to be presented to the athuri ya kiama and are killed for a feast4 ,after they are slaughtered the eyes of the carcases have to be removed1 and if1 during this process1 an eye becomes cut or broken1 the bride becomes thahu1 and unless something is done will not bear children2 the father of the girl has to present a sheep to the athuri1 and the girl is purified by them--this not being a matter which necessitates a medicine man4 ,this applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#f7 ,on the occasion of a birth1 the young men of the village kill a sheep for a feast called mambura2 if the man who slaughters it cuts his finger and his blood drips on to the meat1 he is thahu until he is purified by the athuri ya kiama4 ,this again applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#g7 ,if a man1 the head of the village1 attends the circumcision of a child at the hut of one of his wives1 he is thahu until the children who were circumcised in the hut are cured2 a mundu mugo then comes and purifies him and the woman in whose hut the children were circumcised4 ,this applies only to the men circumcised ,kikuyu fashion1 for in that section it is the custom for the village head to sleep in the hut where the circumcision has taken place1 and he becomes thahu1 whereas it is the custom for a village head who was circumcised ,masai fashion to sleep in another hut until the ceremonies are quite over1 thus escaping the thahu4 7#h7 ,if one man kills another1 and comes to sleep at a village and eats with the family in a certain hut1 the people with whom he has eaten become thahu1 and the skin on which he has slept is thahu and may infect anyone sleeping on it4 ,this is a case for a mundu mugo1 who is called in to purify the hut and its occupants4 ,if1 however1 the owner of the hut and his family have been circumcised ,masai fashion they do not become thahu4 7#i7 ,if an important elder dies he is buried by his sons and they are thahu until purified by the athuri ya kiama4 ,they are smeared with oil and their heads are shaved during the ceremony2 this is not considered a very serious thahu4 ,if they have been circumcised ,masai fashion they can be purified forthwith1 but if they belong to the other section it is necessary for them to isolate themselves until the new moon appears4 7#aj7 ,when a child is born the father kills a sheep1 of which a large part is given to the woman who has assisted at the confinement1 and if1 before he has pegged out the skin and divided the meat1 he is summoned away from the village on urgent business 7my informant gave an example1 and said3 8,suppose he was arrested and taken away as a prisoner071 the infant is thahu and the principal elder of the village has to kill a sheep1 take a strip of skin from the forefoot of this animal1 and fasten it as a bracelet on the wrist of the infant to remove the ill luck4 ,this applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#aa7 ,if children are being circumcised at a village1 and the owner of the hut where the ceremony has taken place goes away to sleep at another village before he is cleansed1 and1 say1 on the way1 meets a crowd of people1 the children who were circumcised will all be thahu4 ,this is a case for a mundu mugo4 ,this only applies to those circumcised ,masai fashion as1 by ,kikuyu fashion1 the man does not sleep at another village4 7#ab7 ,if two men who were circumcised at the same ceremony fight and blood is spilt1 they are both thahu until a mundu mugo comes and removes it4 ,he kills the usual sheep and the athuri or elders put a strip of the skin of the sheep on the wrist of each of the two men4 ,persons who are circumcised at the same feast are called wakini4 ,this holds good for both sections of the tribe4 7#ac7 ,if one man circumcises his children according to ,masai fashion and another according to ,kikuyu fashion1 and the former should eat meat killed by the latter1 the former will be thahu and vice vers4 7#ad7 ,if a person belonging to the ,mweithaga clan sleeps in the hut of a person belonging to another rika or clan1 the people of that hut become thahu2 this is a case for both medicine men and elders1 and applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#ae7 ,if a man throws some earth at his wife1 both become thahu2 this is a case for a medicine man1 and both have to be purified4 ,this only applies to those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion4 7#af7 ,if food is eaten from a cracked pot the persons eating it become thahu and a mundu mugo has to be called in4 ,this affects both sections of the tribe4 7#ag7 ,the wives of smiths are usually decorated with armlets made of twisted strips of iron called mithiori4 ,if a man enters the hut of a smith1 and cohabits with a woman so decorated1 he becomes thahu4 ,a sheep has to be killed and a supply of honey beer provided2 a strip of skin from the sheep is placed on the wrist of the man1 the woman1 and any children she may have2 this bracelet is placed on the left wrist of females1 and the right wrist of a male4 ,the purification ceremony is performed by another smith4 ,this thahu affects both sections of the tribe4 7#ah7 ,persons eating food in a smithy become thahu2 the smith himself can purify one from this curse4 ,it affects both sections4 7#ai7 ,if a bead worn on a warrior's neck or waist falls into food1 the persons who partake of the food become thahu2 if such a bead falls into the grain store and becomes inadvertently cooked with the food the result is the same4 ,this only affects persons circumcised ,kikuyu fashion4 7#bj7 ,if a ,kikuyu has had his crops protected by magical processes performed by a medicine man 7to protect in this way is called ku-roga71 and someone takes food from a garden so protected1 he becomes thahu1 and this form of thahu can only be removed by the medicine man who has roga-ed the plantation4 ,this applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#ba7 ,if a man has connection with a woman from behind1 they are both thahu4 ,this is a very serious thahu and both the athuri ya kiama and a mundu mugo are necessary to remove it1 neither the man nor the woman being allowed to eat any of the sacrificial sheep4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#bb7 ,if a man beats his wife and draws blood1 the woman is thahu1 and the man cannot sleep in her hut until she is freed from it2 the elders are called in and kill a sheep4 ,the two persons concerned are not allowed to eat any of the meat1 and the skin is reserved as a fee for a mundu mugo who is called in to perform the formal lustration4 ,this affects both sections of the tribe4 7#bc7 ,if a woman is carrying a baby on her back1 and it slips out of the leather garment and falls to the ground1 it is thahu2 the child must not be lifted from the place where it fell until a sheep has been killed on that spot1 and this is a case for both the elders of kiama and a medicine man4 ,both sections of the tribe are affected by this4 7#bd7 ,if an elder or a woman when coming out of the hut slips and falls down on the ground1 he or she is thahu1 and lies there until a few elders of kiama come and slaughter a sheep near by1 and some blood and tatha 7contents of the stomach of the sheep7 are rubbed on the spot where the person fell4 ,the elders then say1 8,so-and-so is dead1 let us bury him10 and they plant a sprig of the bushes called mukuria and muthakwa on the site of the mishap4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#be7 ,if a man marries a woman and she steals anything from a member of her father's clan1 she is thahu1 and milk will flow from her breasts without any natural cause1 and any child she bears before the thahu is removed will be thahu4 ,this is a matter for the athuri1 or elders of kiama2 a sheep is placed on the woman's shoulders1 and its throat is pinched until it micturates on the woman's body1 the sheep then being killed1 and the contents of the gall bladder1 mixed with urine from its bladder1 poured over the leather garment of the woman1 and her navel touched with a little of the mixture4 ,the milk that was unnaturally flowing from her breasts will then dry up1 and by this sign they will know that the thahu is removed4 ,this applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#bf7 ,if a man's son commits adultery with one of his father's wives1 and the father is still alive1 the father becomes thahu and not the culprit1 the reason given being that the father takes the thahu because he begot the son4 ,the erring woman does not return to her husband1 she is not thahu1 and can still bring food to her husband1 but he does not cohabit with her1 and her hut is broken down4 ,the son who has transgressed in this way has to make peace with his father by a formal present of a big male goat1 nthengi4 ,this thahu can be removed by the athuri ya kiama2 it is a very serious matter1 and if the thahu is not quickly removed from the father1 he will die4 ,it applies equally to both sections of the tribe4 7#bg7 ,if a person touches menstrual blood1 he or she is thahu2 or if a man cohabits with a woman in this condition he is thahu4 ,the person who is contaminated will first take some cow dung and then red ochreous earth 7thiriga7 and plaster it on the part of the body touched by the blood2 ochre is said to be used because it is the same colour as the blood2 the woman from whom the contamination came is also thahu4 ,the mundu mugo has to be called in to purify the persons4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#bh7 ,if one woman is circumcised ,masai fashion and another ,kikuyu fashion1 and the child of the latter is suckled by the other woman1 the child becomes thahu3 this is a case for a mundu mugo4 ,this applies to those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion4 7#bi7 ,if a hyna comes into a hut at night1 kills a goat and the owner kills the hyna in the hut1 the hut will be abandoned1 and the whole village has to be purified by the kiama4 ,this applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#cj7 ,if a hyna defcates inside a village1 the village and its inhabitants are thahu1 and this is a case for the kiama to arrange2 the usual sheep is killed and must be eaten by the people of the village4 ,if a person belonging to another village eats any of the meat1 a hyna will come and defile the village where he lives4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#ca7 ,if a woman is carrying a gourd on her back and it falls and breaks1 she is thahu4 ,this is a matter for the elders of kiama to arrange4 7#cb7 ,if a goat should come up to where people are sitting1 and try to suckle a woman's breast1 the woman is thahu1 and the goat has to be taken away and slaughtered at the village of the woman's father1 the elders of kiama being called in to purify the woman4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#cc7 ,if a woman is milking a cow and the calf climbs up on her shoulders while she is so occupied1 the calf is not allowed to suckle the cow again and is forthwith slaughtered2 this is a case for the elders4 ,the people of the village must not eat any of the meat1 half being taken by the woman to her father and the other half eaten by the elders4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#cd7 ,when a woman has recently been confined and the discharges are still unfinished1 it has sometimes happened that a cow has come along and licked the stool upon which she has been sitting4 ,in such a case she must immediately tell her husband2 if not1 he will become thahu and die1 and all the other people in the village will become thahu in a lesser degree and get ill4 ,the cow has to be killed without delay by the elders and eaten by them2 no person of the village must eat of the meat unless he has been circumcised ,masai fashion4 ,three elders in ,kikuyu are said to have died from this thahu within recent years4 ,it only applies to those who have been circumcised ,kikuyu fashion4 7#ce7 ,if a cow is out grazing and its tail becomes twisted round a tree1 it is thahu1 and must be slaughtered there and then2 it is killed by the owner1 and the elders receive the saddle and the young warriors the neck4 ,this only applies to cattle owned by persons circumcised ,kikuyu fashion4 7#cf7 ,there is a white bird called nyangi 7the bird nyangi is in ,swahili called furakombe72 if one is seen to settle on a cow1 and the cow is not killed1 the owner of the cow will be thahu and die4 ,the cow must be killed there and then and the meat divided up1 the elders receiving the saddle1 and the neighbouring warriors the neck1 whilst no person belonging to the village must eat of the meat4 ,the herd of cattle also need to be purified1 and the owner of the village1 assisted by the elders1 must take a female sheep which has not borne a lamb1 and a male goat2 these are slaughtered1 and the intestines and bones of the animals 7termed ichua7 are placed on a fire1 which is lit to the windward of the cattle kraal1 and the smoke passing through the kraal and among the cattle will purify the herd4 ,should the bird be killed among the cattle1 the whole herd would die4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#cg7 ,if a cow's horn comes off in a person's hand the animal is thahu and is slaughtered1 and the meat is eaten by all4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#ch7 ,if a bull or bullock leaves the herd when out grazing and comes home alone1 and stands outside the village digging at the refuse heap 7kiaraini7 with its horns1 it is known to be thahu1 and is forthwith killed by the owner4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#ci7 ,if a goat is giving birth to a kid1 and the head appears first and the body is not born quickly1 it is said to be thahu1 and is slaughtered by the owner4 ,no woman must touch the meat of such an animal or she would become thahu2 men only can eat it4 ,moreover1 if a goat which is in kid should die1 no woman must touch it or eat the meat1 the idea probably being that her fertility might become contaminated4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#dj7 ,if a woman bears twins the first time she has children1 the twins are thahu1 and an old woman of the village1 generally the midwife1 stuffs grass in their mouths until they are suffocated and throws them out into the bush4 ,if1 however1 a woman first bears a single child and then has twins they are not thrown out4 ,if a cow or a goat bears twins the first time1 the same practice is observed1 and a necklace of cowries is placed round the neck of the mother4 ,this practice is observed by both sections4 ,some kill both mother and young1 and a medicine man is called1 who leads a sheep round the village and then sacrifices it to remove the curse4 7#da7 ,if the side pole of a bedstead breaks1 the person lying on it is thahu1 and a sheep must be sacrificed2 this is a matter for the kiama to arrange1 and a bracelet called rukwaru1 cut from the skin of the sheep1 must be placed on the wrist of the person1 or he or she is liable to die4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#db7 ,a malicious person will sometimes1 out of spite or in a fit of rage1 take up a cooking pot1 dash it down to the ground and break it1 saying the words urokwo uwe1 8,die like this40 ,this is a very serious matter and renders all the people of the village thahu2 it is necessary for the people of the village to pay as much as seven sheep to remove the thahu4 ,this is naturally considered a crime according to native law1 and the offender is punished by the elders of kiama1 who inflict a fine of seven goats4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#dc7 ,if a son seriously disobeys his father1 he can be rendered thahu by his father rubbing ashes on his buttocks1 and cursing him1 saying1 8,may you be eaten by my anus40 ,the son will have to take a sheep and then a male goat and a jar of honey and crave his father's forgiveness4 ,the father slaughters the animal1 and rubs his navel and his buttocks with the meat1 and the curse is removed4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#dd7 ,if the head of a village has a quarrel with another man1 wounds him with a sim or sword1 and blood is spilt in the village1 the village becomes thahu1 unless the offender takes his adversary and leads him round the outskirts of the village1 letting the blood drip on the ground as they go2 the elders will then have to be called in1 a sheep is killed1 and they purify the village4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#de7 ,if an idiot or maliciously-minded person picks up a skull1 walks round a village with it and leaves it on the 8thomi10 or 8place of conference10 the village is thahu1 and is in very serious danger4 ,the elders are first called in1 and they take a sheep and drag it round the confines of the village by the same route as that taken by the person with the skull2 the animal is killed and pieces of the intestines are dragged round the village4 ,the meat of the sheep is only eaten by very old men4 ,six other sheep then have to be killed by the elders1 and finally the medicine man has to purify each person in the village4 7#df7 ,if a wild animal is killed among a flock or herd of animals out grazing the beasts are thahu2 they can be purified by the owner and the kiama2 a sheep is killed and the bones and intestines are placed on a fire lit to windward of the infected flock or herd1 and the smoke cleanses them and removes the curse4 ,vide ,tylor's 8,primitive ,culture10 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #dcj-dcd1 8,fire serves for purification in cases too trifling to require sacrifice40 ,this applies to both sections4 7#dg7 ,if domestic animals are attacked and stung by bees they are thahu2 a sheep is killed and the bones and intestines are placed on a fire lit to windward of the herd and the smoke removes the curse4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#dh7 ,if a son curses his father seriously he becomes thahu2 he has to bring a sheep1 which is eaten by his father and mother1 the fat is melted and all three are smeared with it2 the son then has to peg out the skin of the sheep in front of his mother's hut4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#di7 ,if a person strikes anyone who is herding cattle1 etc41 and draws blood1 the flock or herd is thahu2 the offender must pay a sheep1 which is killed by the elders1 and a strip of skin 7rukwaru7 is placed on the wrist of the offender2 no young person is allowed near during the ceremony4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#ej7 ,if the droppings of a kite or crow fall on a person he is thahu2 he must shave his head and bathe at a river1 and the elders kill a sheep and fasten a strip of the skin on his wrist4 ,the skin of the sheep must not be pegged out to dry in the village where the person lives4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#ea7 ,if a woman sleeps with her leather garment inside out it is unlucky1 but she is not thahu1 the procedure being for her to spit on the garment and turn it the right way4 ,this applies to both sections1 but is considered much more unlucky for a woman circumcised ,masai fashion4 7#eb7 ,when a man dies1 the eldest son gives one bull or a big male goat 7according to his means7 to the athuri ya kiama for a feast1 and the elders then teach him his duties 7kirira74 ,the next step is to give the elders a male sheep 7ku-hukuria71 which must not be eaten by the children1 the object of this being to cleanse the village of the deceased4 ,now if a son has not made these gifts nor gone through the necessary ceremonies marking his succession1 he cannot participate in the sacrificial feast which has to take place at the sacred fig tree after the death of an elder 7called ku-hoya ,engai74 ,the principal wife of the deceased can attend the sacrifice1 but not the other wives and their children4 ,and should they do so they will become thahu and it is a case for a medicine man to arrange4 ,the women and children from the neighbouring villages can go4 ,if a sacrifice is made at a sacred fig tree to invoke rain only1 athuri ya kiama can attend and eat it4 ,no woman must go near4 ,these rules apply to both sections4 7#ec7 ,if children are being circumcised at a village according to ,kikuyu fashion and the head of the village goes on a journey before eight days have elapsed or1 according to ,masai fashion1 before four days have passed1 he and those of his children who have been operated on become thahu2 this is a case for the medicine man to arrange4 7#ed7 ,if a child has been circumcised and1 on the first occasion after the ceremony on which he leaves his village1 the goats and sheep come back from grazing and enter the village before he returns1 he is thahu4 ,he cannot return to his village until it is removed and must sleep at a neighbouring village where some of the other boys1 who went through the ceremony with him1 reside4 ,to remove the thahu1 his father has to kill a sheep and place a strip of skin 7rukwaru7 from the animal on his wrist4 7#ee7 ,if a father picks up one of his children and places it on his back or shoulders1 the father becomes thahu and the child will die1 the result being the same whatever the sex of the child2 if he carries the child in front of him there is no evil result4 ,this is a case for a medicine man to arrange1 and it applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#ef7 ,if a person should be bitten by a hyna or a dog he or she is thahu and a medicine man has to be called in2 he kills a sheep and places a bracelet1 or rukwaru1 of the skin on the wrist of the patient4 ,this applies to both sections4 7#eg7 ,if a dog dies in a village it is a very serious matter2 the head of the village and his people are thahu1 and the elders are called in4 ,the village head provides a sheep which is slaughtered1 and the stomach contents 7tatha7 are sprinkled round the village1 which is then ceremonially swept by the elders2 the medicine man is then called in to purify all the people of what is called the mugiro of the dog4 7,note4--,the mugiro means the pollution produced by the blood of the dog having fallen on the ground of the village or the death of the dog in the village47 ,this only applies to the ,kikuyu section of the tribe4 7#eh7 ,the children and grandchildren of brothers and sisters cannot intermarry4 ,breach of this rule is considered to be a very grave sin1 and all children born of such marriages surely die2 the thahu on them cannot be purged by any ceremonial4 ,the parents are not affected4 ,it sometimes happens1 however1 that a young man unwittingly marries a cousin2 for instance1 if a part of the family moves away to another locality a man might become acquainted with a girl and marry her before he discovered the relationship4 ,in such a case the thahu is removable2 the elders take a sheep and place it on the woman's shoulders2 it is then killed1 the intestines are taken out1 and the elders solemnly sever them with a sharp splinter of wood from the mukeo bush1 and announce that they are cutting the clan 8kutinyarurira10 which means that they are severing the bond of blood relationship existing between the pair4 ,a medicine man then comes and purifies the couple4 ,this only applies to the ,kikuyu section of the tribe4 7#ei7 ,if a parent goes on a journey and1 during his absence1 one of his or her sons cohabits with one of his father's wives1 the parents are thahu1 and upon his return will be seized with illness4 ,this is a case for the medicine man1 who has to be called in to perform a lustration ceremony to purify them2 the offending son is not affected4 ,sprigs of the mahoroa1 muchatha1 and mitei bushes are bound up together and dipped in water1 and the water is sprinkled over the couple1 a little being also sprinkled at the gate of the village4 ,this only applies to those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion4 ,it is curious to note that practically the same custom is observed by the ,a-,kamba4 7#fj7 ,if a ,kikuyu native kills a man belonging to another tribe he is not thahu2 if he kills a man of his own tribe1 but of a different rika1 or clan1 to his own1 he is not thahu2 if1 however1 he kills a man belonging to his own rika1 or clan1 he is thahu1 and it is a very serious matter4 ,it can be arranged by the elders in the following manner3 ,two trunks of the plantain or banana tree 7called miramba in ,kikuyu7 are placed on the ground parallel to each other1 and an elder sits on each2 one of them is then lifted up by another elder1 and the offender has to seat himself on the tree trunk exactly in the same place2 the other elder is then removed and the elder brother of the deceased or brother next in age to him is put in his place4 ,the mothers of the offender and deceased then bring to the place food made of every kind of field produce grown by the tribe1 as well as meat2 the usual sheep is killed by the elders and a little of the tatha1 or stomach contents1 is sprinkled over the food which was provided by the mothers of the two parties4 ,the two elders who first sat on the plantain trunks then solemnly eat a little of this food1 and also administer some to the offender and the brother of the deceased4 ,two gourds containing gruel made of meal are then taken1 and the elders put a little of the tatha in each1 and one gourd is sent to the village of the offender and one to that of the deceased4 ,the remaining food is divided among the assembly4 ,the following day the elders proceed to the local sacred fig tree 7mugumu71 and kill a sheep4 ,they deposit some of the fat1 the chest bone1 the intestines and the more important bones at the foot of the tree1 and eat the rest of the carcase4 ,they say that the ngoma1 or spirit of the deceased1 will visit the tree that night in the shape of a wild cat and eat the meat1 and that this offering will prevent the ngoma of the deceased from coming back to his village and troubling the occupants4 ,a medicine man then has to come and purify the murderer and the brother of the deceased4 ,this ceremony is not considered legal1 and cannot be performed till the blood money has been paid4 ,the above case is a good example of the two stages of the removal of a more serious thahu2 in the first place1 the spirits of the deceased ancestors1 including that of the murdered man1 have to be appeased1 and the personal defilement due to the spilling of blood1 which falls on both the murderer and the family of the murdered man1 has then to be removed by a separate ceremony performed by the medicine man4 ,it is interesting to note that only the medicine man can remove this latter4 ,the above thahu applies to both sections of the tribe4 ,in giving these details1 my informants explained that according to ,kikuyu native law1 the blood money for a man was a hundred sheep and goats1 and nine sheep and goats in addition for the elders4 ,if1 however1 a man could not raise a hundred goats it was the custom for him to give three daughters in payment1 plus the nine goats for the elders4 ,the ,kikuyu were formerly only allowed to eat the following wild animals and birds before being circumcised3 partridges 7ngware71 pigeon 7ndutwa71 and hyrax 7mi-kami74 ,many will not eat wild game throughout their lives1 and people follow the custom they have been brought up to observe2 those that eat it probably had ,asi or ,dorobo ancestors4 ,a person who eats wild game does not become thahu4 ,this same view is held by both sections4 ,the repugnance to eating this kind of food probably had its origin in totemism1 but all traces of this belief seem to be lost in ,s4 ,kikuyu4 7#fa7 ,if a tree falls on a hut it is considered extremely unlucky2 the hut1 however1 will not be abandoned1 but it is necessary for the head of the village to kill a ram which is led round the village before being killed4 ,if this were not done1 the owner of the village1 or at any rate the woman who lived in the hut1 would become the victim of a thahu or curse4 ,the owner of the village1 however1 may not enter the hut until the sacrifice has been made to appease the ngoma or ancestral spirits who inflict the thahu4 ,this applies to both sections of the tribe1 viz41 those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion and those ,masai fashion4 7#fb7 ,if a jackal 7mbwei7 comes into a village and calls at night when the inhabitants are asleep1 the people say that a spirit is calling for meat1 and it is considered very unlucky4 ,next morning the owner of the village will take a male goat 7nthenge71 lead it round the village1 and kill it at about the spot where the jackal called out4 ,pieces are cut from the loin1 lungs1 heart1 and each of the limbs1 and piled up into two little heaps as offerings to the ngoma1 who are believed to have called out through the medium of the jackal4 ,the sex of the ngoma is not known1 and therefore to be on the safe side two little heaps are laid out1 one for any male spirits and one for any female spirits4 ,no bone must be broken in any meat offered to the spirits4 ,next morning the elders go to the place where the two offerings of meat were deposited and pour out a libation of beer on each4 ,they then address the ngoma as follows3 8,o ye spirits1 take this meat and beer and give us goats and cattle and children1 and do not bring thahu to this village40 ,the people of both circumcision guilds follow this procedure4 7#fc7 ,if a certain snake1 called nyamuyathi by the ,kikuyu1 enters a hut1 it is necessary to pour some milk or fat on the floor for the reptile to drink2 it may drink and leave1 or it may not4 ,if it does1 well and good2 if not1 the owner of the village has to kill a sheep1 cook some of its fat1 and pour it out in the hut1 saying at the same time3 8,we offer you some fat to drink1 we beg of you to leave us40 ,it is believed that a ngoma1 or spirit1 has come in the guise of a snake1 and on no account must such a snake be killed4 ,after the sacrifice of the sheep has been made the snake will always go1 but it disappears mysteriously and no one sees it leave4 ,if the snake remained in the hut1 the wife who owned the hut1 and her children1 would be thahu4 7#fd7 ,if a stranger comes to a village and dies in a hut there1 the hut is completely abandoned if the owner belongs to the ,kikuyu guild2 a large hole is made in the side of the hut by taking out several of the wall slabs or planks 7mihirigo72 the corpse is left inside and the hynas come and carry it off4 ,the hut is then left to fall into ruin1 and no articles1 such as cooking pots1 beer1 jars1 etc41 are removed from it4 ,the men who break the hole in the wall are even considered unclean1 as much as if they had handled the corpse1 and after performing the duty they go straight off into the bush and stay there until they have bathed and been anointed with tatha 7the stomach contents of a sheep72 finally a very old woman comes and shaves their heads2 they are then ceremonially clean and can return to their families4 ,a medicine man 7mundu mugo7 has1 however1 to come and purify the whole village in the usual way4 ,if the owner of the village belongs to the ,masai guild the consequences are not so serious4 ,the family leave the hut temporarily until the corpse has been carried off by the hynas2 they then kill a goat or sheep near the door of the hut1 take a little of the fat from the stomach of the animal1 and place a small portion on the cooking fire of each hut4 ,this removes the thahu due to the death of the stranger and all is well4 7#fe7 ,if a new hut is built in the village and the wife enters it and finds herself menstruating on the day she lights the first fire in it1 the hut has to be broken down and demolished the very next day4 ,the woman must on no account sleep a second night in it2 a thahu is on both the woman and the hut4 ,a medicine man has to be called in to purify ceremonially the woman and her children1 a new hut is built and the medicine man ceremonially sweeps it out with a broom made of the twigs of the mukenya1 mahoroa1 and michatha bushes2 he then collects the sweepings and throws them outside the village4 ,this custom applies to both sections of the tribe4 ,this custom also has another phase which is as follows3 ,if on the day a hut is built1 the wife1 who is the owner of the hut1 is away from the village and finds herself menstruating1 she cannot even return to the village1 but has to seek shelter with neighbours for three days4 ,on the fourth day she returns1 bringing with her a gourd of water4 ,when she reaches the thomi1 or meeting-place outside the village1 she pours some of the water into a half gourd and washes herself4 ,she can then enter both village and hut without further ceremony4 ,this applies to both sections of the tribe4 7#ff7 ,when a new hut is built1 the first fire to be lit in it must be brought from a fire out in a shamba1 or field1 not from another hut4 ,if fire cannot be obtained from a shamba it is first obtained from another village2 with this a fire is lit in a shamba and burning sticks are taken from that fire4 ,the ,kikuyu state that they are afraid to get fire direct from another village in case they bring some unknown thahu along with it or with the firewood2 they consider it a great risk1 particularly for the children1 who might get thin and ill in consequence4 ,two or three days after the first fire has been lit a male sheep has to be slaughtered by the owner of the village4 ,the meat is cooked in the hut1 and the blood is poured out on the village thomi1 then beer is brewed and a libation of it is poured out inside the hut near the door and on the thomi or village green4 ,the above applies to those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion4 ,those circumcised ,masai fashion make the first fire in a new hut by friction with a firestick1 and the wood for the first fire must come from two of the trees sacred to this branch1 viz41 mutamaiyu and mutarakwa 7juniper74 7#fg7 ,anyone can impose a thahu upon the owner of a hut by plucking out a handful of thatch from over the door and throwing it on the ground4 ,the thahu apparently affects the wife who lives in the hut1 and she is apt to be attacked by a wasting disease4 ,to remove the evil effects1 a number of elders and a mundu mugo1 or medicine man1 are called in2 they kill a ram or young ewe1 which has not yet borne1 near the door of the hut1 and sprinkle the tatha inside the hut and at the door4 ,they then take a rough brush made of twigs of the marario and mahoroa bushes and sweep up the tatha4 ,this proceeding purifies the hut4 ,they also sprinkle some of the tatha on the thatch over the door and put some muthakwa and mukenia sprigs in the place where the piece of thatch was taken4 ,only the elders and the medicine man eat the meat of the sacrifice2 none of the inhabitants of the village must touch it1 and even the brothers of the owner of the hut may not eat any4 ,if the hut is not thus purified1 it must be forthwith destroyed4 ,should the thatch be pulled out unintentionally by a drunken man1 he will only have to pay a goat for the purification ceremony4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is done with evil intent1 the kiama1 or council of elders1 will fine the offender five goats4 ,the writer is indebted to ,mr ,beech for bringing this example to his notice4 ,if a man goes to sleep at a strange village1 and if the owner belongs to the same rika as himself1 he is told to sleep in the hut of one of the wives of the owner4 ,if this woman has lost a child and has not performed the usual purification ceremonies after a death1 the man will return home with a thahu and will pass it on to the wife in whose hut he sleeps on his return home4 ,it is necessary for the hut to be purified as in the previous case1 and then the man and his wife have also to be purified4 ,again1 if a wife goes and sleeps abroad and cohabits with a man who has assisted in the burial of a corpse or touched a corpse and not yet been purified1 she will1 on returning home1 bring a thahu to her husband1 and the same ceremony of lustration has to be undergone4 7#fh7 ,the last of the ,kikuyu thahu which will be quoted is one of some importance1 as it may be1 in primitive culture1 the germ of one of the beliefs which affects the life of civilised peoples3 this is the ill luck which is attached to the seventh day4 ,a herdsman will not herd his flocks for more than six days1 and on the seventh must be relieved by another man4 ,if a man has been on a journey and absent for six days he must not return home on the seventh day1 and must observe continence on the seventh day2 rather than return to his village on that day he will go and sleep at the house of a neighbour a short distance away4 ,if this law is broken1 serious illness is certain to supervene and a medicine man 7mundu mugo7 has to be called in to remove the curse4 ,both sections of the tribe are subject to it1 and both male and female are affected4 ,moreover1 the live stock of the offender will become sick4 ,this belief makes it easy for the missionaries to explain to the ,kikuyu the meaning of the ,christian observance of the ,sabbath4 ,an important point in connection with thahu in ,kikuyu which previously escaped notice is that an owner of a village1 if he belongs to the ,kikuyu circumcision guild1 cannot enter or sleep in a hut which has been ceremonially purified until two days have elapsed1 or for two months if he belongs to the ,masai guild4 ,this prohibition has a very practical effect1 for in cases where the whole village has to be purified to rid it of some serious thahu the owner of the village would naturally be homeless for either two days or two months1 as the case may be4 ,to obviate this difficulty the purification ceremony is carried out in two instalments3 one half of the village is done first1 and a little later the medicine man returns and performs the lustration ceremony on the other half2 the people are not thus greatly inconvenienced4 ,a variant of the word thahu in ,kikuyu1 which is often used by the old men1 is nzahu4 ,it appears upon inquiry that not every elder in ,kikuyu has the power of removing thahu1 but only such as have lost a wife who is a mother4 ,if a wife dies and leaves children1 the husband calls in two athuri ya ukuu 7these are the very senior elders71 a muthuri ya kiama 7elder of council71 and an old woman past the age of child bearing4 ,they kill a lamb1 mwati1 or a ram1 and the elders then take the tatha 7stomach contents71 pour them into a half gourd1 njeli1 dip a bundle of leaves in the tatha and sprinkle the hut4 ,this ceremony is believed to remove from the father and his children the thahu left by the death4 ,the half gourd is then placed at the bed head of the father4 ,a medicine man finally comes and purifies the whole family4 ,if his generation or age is junior to that of the elders who come to perform the above ceremony he cannot participate in it1 but has to sit apart4 ,after this the father is considered to be eligible to take part in ceremonial connected with the removal of thahu1 but only if he is a qualified muthuri ya kiama ya imburi nne or mburi ithano2 that is to say1 if he has reached the grade to which the entrance fee is four goats or five goats4 ,partial ,immunity of ,elders from ,thahu4--,the elders of the highest grade1 ukuru1 are as a rule proof against the incidence of thahu4 ,they probably acquire a certain sanctity from their communion with the deity when they take part in the performance of sacrifices at the sacred trees and can thus be considered as a primitive priesthood4 ,if1 however1 they assist in the burial of a corpse and cohabit with their wives within two months1 they will be stricken with illness4 ,if they participate in the native oath ringa thengi1 they must be celibate for four months1 and if they assist at the kithathi or githathi oath ceremony1 they must remain so for five months1 or nothing can save them4 ,in all the above cases they must1 like ordinary people1 be purified by a medicine man before they can resume their marital relations4 ,thabu in ,ukamba4--,in ,ukamba thahu is called thabu or makwa1 and the popular attitude towards it is very similar to that existing in ,kikuyu1 but it does not appear to be such an important factor in the lives of the people1 and for some reason or other does not seem to have reached such a high development4 ,it is looked upon with awe1 and people generally dislike to discuss it4 ,the bulk of the elders can therefore only give one or two examples of it4 ,they declare that the only people who can give much information are the atumia ya makwa 7elders of makwa7 and atumia ya ukuu 7elders of ukuu71 and these important people undoubtedly endeavour to envelop the beliefs in mystery4 ,the incidence of makwa or thabu does not appear to be nearly so frequent in ,ukamba as it is in ,kikuyu4 ,the ,kamba1 in fact1 sneer at the ,kikuyu1 and say they are full of makwa4 ,moreover1 owing to the reticence of the ,kamba on the subject1 it is not easy to collect examples4 ,mr ,c4 ,dundas1 who has assisted in this inquiry1 had to pay a fee of a bullock for himself and a goat for his interpreter before he could get any information on the subject4 ,these fees admitted him to the grade of mutumia ya ukuu4 ,all inquiries1 however1 had to be conducted in a low tone1 and no one was allowed to listen4 ,the following are all that have been discovered up to date1 but there is little doubt that others exist3 7#a7 ,on the death of a man the village is unclean and must be purified by the elders1 and during the period of purification strict continence must be observed by all those resident in the village4 ,if a man fails to observe this rule he will become afflicted with makwa2 also the woman1 providing she belongs to the village where the death has taken place4 ,moreover1 if a daughter of the deceased who is living away from the village visits there within eleven days of the death of her father1 she will become afflicted4 ,the curse is removed in the same way in either of the above cases4 ,a brother of the deceased must first cohabit with his wife4 ,he then brings a goat and the afflicted person brings some beer4 ,one of the elders then collects twigs of the movu1 mulale1 and muteme bushes2 these are pounded up with water1 and the mixture is called ngnondu4 ,some of the ngnondu is poured down the goat's throat1 the idea probably being to purify the animal ceremonially4 ,the patient then walks three times round the goat1 and the animal is lifted up by the elders4 ,its throat is cut and the blood spurts over the patient's head and body4 ,a piece of stick is then placed under his left arm and another between the toes of his right foot2 two elders take hold of each of these sticks and pull them away saying1 8,we purify you40 ,the belief is possibly that by some magical process the defilement is passed into the sticks4 ,subsequently the brother of the deceased again cohabits with the same wife1 and the patient is then cured4 7#b7 ,a man may not lie on his mother's bed1 or even take any articles from it1 without becoming makwa4 ,upon the death of his father he inherits1 and is then entitled to use1 his father's bed1 which was1 of course1 also occupied by his mother1 and it is therefore necessary that he should be protected from any evil which may come from this4 ,so the elders make a mixture called ngnondu1 and smear the soles of his feet with it2 they also sprinkle the framework of the bed4 ,they say that if this were not done the son would become makwa if he even put his foot on the bed4 ,if a son becomes makwa through transgressing this law before his father's death1 he has to be purified as in the previous case4 ,it is suspected that this prohibition was devised as a safeguard against incest1 but if the theory is correct the natives seem to have forgotten the reason4 ,a man1 moreover1 may not sit on his brother-in-law's bed without incurring thabu4 ,reference is invited to the author's work on the 8,ethnology of the ,a-,kamba0 7,camb4 ,press71 p4 #fe1 discussing the danger to a girl if a stranger touches her menstrual blood2 this is a clear case of makwa1 which falls on the girl in consequence4 ,some of the prohibitions mentioned on p4 #ajb op4 cit4 are also cases of makwa1 and on p4 #ig op4 cit4 there is an account of a man who was suffering from thabu or makwa4 ,at the time1 unfortunately1 the importance of the phenomena had not been fully recognised4 7#c7 ,if a man dies and leaves young wives1 the sons usually take them over2 but1 of course1 a son must not marry his mother4 ,a son cannot1 however1 succeed to one of his father's wives until the elders have performed certain ceremonies4 ,if he cohabits with her before these are carried out he will become makwa4 ,to remove the curse in this case the ceremonial is as follows3 a paternal uncle of the offender collects the elders and provides beer for them2 the woman concerned brings a goat4 ,the elders make some of the ngnondu mixture1 which is handed to the patient1 who pretends to pay it to the elders4 ,the elders then bring a branch of a tree called muuti and tell him to pay it to his uncle4 ,he does so by throwing it at his uncle1 saying1 8,i pay you before the elders40 ,this looks as if the spirit of the deceased father were offended1 and ceremonial payment had to be made to the brother of the deceased1 who for the time being represents him4 ,a piece of wood about fifteen inches long1 cut from a mukingezia tree1 is then brought4 ,this is first inserted into the vaginal passage of the woman1 and the man's penis is then touched with it twice or thrice4 ,one of the elders afterwards carries the stick away and throws it across a river saying1 8,i throw this evil away40 ,in the evening the uncle cohabits with the woman4 ,the makwa is thus believed to be removed1 but the man can never have anything to do with that woman again4 ,he can1 however1 marry another of his father's wives after the elders have performed the necessary rites4 7#d7 ,after the death of a father none of the sons may take honey from the father's hives until the paternal uncle has first done so4 ,any who break this law will become makwa4 ,it can1 however1 be removed by the uncle1 who brings a sheep1 and he1 the elders1 and the mother of the patient lead the sheep three times round the patient2 at the conclusion of the third turn the sheep is lifted up and its throat is cut1 and the blood is allowed to spurt over the patient4 ,the animal's throat is cut by one of the elders1 whose forearm is held by the uncle and the mother4 ,after this ceremony the patient is believed to be cured1 and he can take honey4 ,it may be that this was devised to prevent a son rushing off into the woods after his father's death and annexing any honey he found1 irrespective of whether such and such a hive would fall to his share when the elders decided as to the division of the estate4 7#e7 ,if a woman loses a young child by death it is necessary for her to have her breasts ceremonially purified by a qualified elder1 or it is believed that any future children she may bear will die of makwa4 7#f7 ,if a man cohabits with a married woman in the woods while the cattle are out grazing1 it brings makwa upon the cattle and they will die4 ,the woman1 however1 is generally afraid of evil falling on the precious cattle1 and confesses4 ,the cattle are then taken out of their kraal1 medicine is placed on the ground at the gate1 and they are then driven back over the medicine1 and this lifts the curse4 ,the woman has also to be ceremonially purified by an elder4 7#g7 ,if a woman who has borne children is forced by a man a curse is said to fall on the children and they will die4 ,the evil can1 however1 be averted if she is purified by an elder2 the man has to pay a goat and the expenses of the purification ceremony4 7#h7 ,if a hyna defcates in a village during the night a makwa falls on the village1 and the elders have to kill a goat and purify 7tapisha7 the village4 7#i7 ,some medicine men have the power to place a makwa upon one of their wives who is a particular favourite4 ,this is done by medicine1 but the details are kept secret4 ,if a man seduces the woman in question it is said that death will ensue unless he can by payment induce the medicine man to lift the curse4 7#aj7 ,if a person goes to his mother's native village and eats food there1 and if by any chance a death has occurred in that village and the funeral ceremonies are not completed1 he will be stricken with makwa4 ,even if a wife goes to pay a visit to her father's village under the above circumstances the result is the same4 ,this form of makwa can only be removed by a medicine man4 ,the little known ,thaka or ,tharaka people in the ,tana ,valley south-east of ,kenia also believe in makwa1 and use the same word for it4 ,a few examples have been collected by ,mr ,c4 ,dundas1 and are given below3 7#a7 ,if a village is ceremonially unclean for some reason or other1 and a man cohabits therein with a person of the opposite sex before it is purified1 they are both stricken with makwa4 7#b7 ,if a man belonging to a village has been absent on the occasion of a death and at the necessary subsequent purification of the village1 he may not enter until a sheep has been killed and the contents smeared on the threshold of his mother's hut4 ,if this lustration ceremony is omitted he is stricken with makwa4 7#c7 ,after the death of the head of a family the sons may take the younger widows to wife1 but not until the brother of the deceased has ceremonially cohabited with the principal wife of the deceased4 ,if this rite is not observed before a son marries one of his father's widows1 he will become makwa4 ,little is yet known of the procedure which has to be adopted to remove the makwa1 but it is said that only medicine men can do so4 ,an elder1 seen recently1 who was covered with small sores1 and some of whose toes had dropped off1 was stated to be suffering from makwa1 due to infringement of the rule mentioned in example 7#a7 above4 ,a new road was recently opened in ,kikuyu country1 and where it crossed the ,ruiru ,river a bridge was built4 ,at one end of the bridge an arch1 made of bent sticks1 was erected1 and on this a small wicker-work arrangement was suspended4 ,over the bent sticks a strip of the skin of a sheep was entwined4 ,this was called 8rigi10 and was a miniature of the wicker door of a hut4 ,the ,ruiru ,river at this place is the boundary between two sections of the country1 and the object of the model door was to prevent evil influences1 or thahu1 entering the neighbouring area by the bridge4 ,the strip of skin was taken from a sheep which had been sacrificed there4 ,there is a curious belief in ,kikuyu with regard to the burning of a hut4 ,if a hut is burned down1 the owner must not lodge the goats from that hut in the house of a friend1 the idea being that the hut caught fire as the result of some kind of thahu1 and that the goats are probably infected with the thahu and may thus bring sickness to other people's animals4 ,there was1 for instance1 a case where a hut was destroyed by fire1 along with several goats1 but the people dare not eat the carcases1 although the meat was apparently quite wholesome4 ,when a burnt hut is rebuilt1 a goat is slaughtered to prevent the new hut from being destroyed by fire4 ,the meat of the goat is eaten by the elders1 and the skin is given to an elder who has had a hut burnt4 ,but although he may use the skin he must not sell it4 ,extinction of ,fire in a ,hut4--,though not definitely connected with the thahu beliefs1 the ill luck which is associated with the extinction of fire in a hut is rather interesting to note4 ,if a man has several huts it is considered extremely unlucky if the fire goes out in all of them in a single night4 ,he must at once summon the elders1 who kill a male sheep and sprinkle some of the stomach contents or tatha on each fireplace4 ,if his nearest neighbours live some little way off1 he relights the fire by means of a fire stick1 mwaki ku-thegetha1 but if they live near by he begs some fire from them4 ,when the sheep is killed they also fry the fat in a cooking pot and sprinkle some of it in the village and pray to ,engai 7,god7--8,we give thee fat to drink1 and beg thee not to extinguish the fire again40 ,when fire goes out in the hut of a medicine man it is not necessary for him to kill a sheep like ordinary people1 but he feels the ill luck all the same4 ,he dare not travel next day1 and if anyone comes to him for medicine or to be purified1 he will not perform the ceremony until a whole day has elapsed4 ,the elders who were interrogated about this were quite clear that it was ,god who put out the fire and not the ngoma1 or spirits4 ,effects of ,breaking a ,tabu4--,a curious case of the results of an infringement of tabu recently came to the notice of an officer in ,western ,ukamba4 ,he was inspecting the hospital1 and found there a ,kamba porter stricken with illness2 his face was much swollen and covered by a kind of congested rash1 and his testicles were also swollen4 ,on inquiry1 he stated that his affection came on suddenly after eating some hartebeest meat1 and that he belonged to the ,aitangwa clan1 in which this was a forbidden meat4 ,the officer immediately sought out an intelligent ,mu-,kamba1 who knew nothing about the incident1 and asked about the ,aitangwa and their tabu1 or makwa1 and without hesitation he was told that hartebeest meat was forbidden1 and described exactly the symptoms from which the porter was suffering as being the result of breaking the prohibition4 ,it was said that the man would have to sacrifice a goat and go through a purification ceremony to get rid of the affliction4 ,the final result was not heard4 ,these phenomena are very curious1 and psychologists would no doubt attribute them to self-hypnotic suggestion4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that a man who breaks the clan tabu is probably1 before breaking it1 very sceptical as to the evil effects1 and1 being sceptical1 would presumably be proof against the hypnotic auto-suggestion4 7,b7 ,,purification ,,and ,,blessing ,ku-tahikia in ,kikuyu4--,reference has been made to purification by the medicine man1 which generally concludes the ceremonies connected with the removal of thahu4 ,this ceremony is the same in all cases in which it is considered necessary2 it may vary a little according to the practice of a particular medicine man1 but that is all4 ,the writer was recently present at one of these ceremonies1 and the procedure was as follows3 ,the medicine man first received a sheep2 he then made a small incision between the hoofs of the right foreleg and rubbed a little medicine into the wound4 ,the medicine consisted of a powder made from the mararia bush and mahunyuru1 which is the epidermis and hair of a sheep4 ,probably the idea underlying this was a consecration of the animal for the purpose of the ceremony4 ,the medicine man then brought a number of sprigs of various plants3 ,mahoroa1 ,murumbai1 ,uruti-,emilia8 ,mukandu1 ,muchatha-,emilia1 sp41 ,matei or ,mitei1 ,ihurura1 a creeping1 vine-like plant4 ,he separated these into two bundles1 and bound each at the base with the creeper ihurura2 they resembled two hand brushes of green leaves4 ,the mother of the patient or person who was to be purified then fetched about a pint of water from the stream1 carrying it in a couple of banana leaves laid over each other4 ,a small depression was scooped in the ground1 and the water1 still in the banana leaves1 was deposited therein4 ,the medicine man and the patient squatted opposite each other4 ,the former then put a variety of powders in the water4 ,these were enumerated as follows3 7#a7 ,powder made from the stomach contents of the tree hyrax4 7#b7 ,ruthuku made from the muhokora root4 7#c7 ,umu1 a reddish powder made from the root of a thorny plant4 7#d7 ,a powder made from the irura 7papyrus7 and the mahoroa plant4 ,he then produced the dried right black forefoot of a sheep1 dipped it in the water1 stirred up the contents1 and placed the wetted foot in the mouth of the patient1 who licked it vigorously and then expectorated the liquid on the ground4 ,this was repeated some twenty or thirty times1 the medicine man incessantly recounting all kinds of dangers and evils in a chanting voice with a general refrain1 8,may you be delivered from all these40 ,he then took one of the bundles of plants and dipped the lower end in the water4 ,the patient licked it and expectorated1 as above described1 the medicine man chanting the whole time4 ,the same procedure was adopted with the second bundle of leaves4 ,the patient then stood up2 the medicine man took one of the brushes1 dipped it in the water1 and sprinkled the patient's head and wiped the front of his body with the wetted bundle of leaves4 ,the patient now turned round and the back of his body was similarly treated4 ,the patient then knelt down and washed his face with the water and washed each foot and leg4 ,this done1 he wiped his face1 feet1 and legs1 first with one bundle and then with the other4 ,the patient then put his finger into the water and pierced the banana leaf basin1 and the water soaked away into the earth4 ,thereupon the medicine man gathered up the banana leaves and his bundle of leaves and deposited them on the village manure heap1 kiaraini4 ,there was still a final stage of the proceeding1 viz41 the anointing with white clay1 ira4 ,the patient still stood in front of the medicine man1 who took from a small gourd some of the white earth1 and smeared it down the line of the nose1 on the upper lip1 under the chin1 on the right and left big toe1 and on the palms of both hands4 ,a little of the medicines called irura and muhokora were then taken and a little placed in the palm of each hand of the patient1 who crossed his hands and1 holding them in this position1 alternately licked each palm4 ,the medicine man then licked a little of the above medicine1 and the ceremony was finished4 ,the purification ceremony cannot be performed without payment2 it is otherwise of no avail4 ,ceremonial ,blessing by a ,medicine ,man 7,kikuyu74--,this is believed to be efficacious1 upon certain occasions1 against evil and as a purification4 ,the medicine man gives the supplicant a powder made from an aromatic root called muhokora4 ,it is of a greyish brown colour2 a little is poured into his hand and he eats it4 ,the medicine man also eats some1 with the object1 perhaps1 of showing the patient that nothing bad has been mixed with it4 ,the medicine man then takes a long narrow gourd with tiny holes on one side of it and shakes out1 as from a pepper castor1 a powder made of the roots of the muhokora and mchanja muka plants1 and at the same time uttering a prayer4 ,the patient receives the powder on his hands and rubs it on his head and down the middle of his forehead4 ,the medicine man now takes a draught of beer and ceremonially spits a little on to each of his breasts1 first1 however1 spitting a little on the ground as a libation to the ngoma1 or ancestral spirits4 ,the general idea of the purification ceremony is of a dual character2 its first object is to cast out the contamination of an evil influence and1 this being done1 to re-establish normal relations between the worshipper and his deity4 ,it is believed that among ,african natives the idea of the evil influence is not very concrete1 but among other peoples the evil influence assumes the shape of a demon1 the nature of which may be identified by a magician and expelled by him by the use of appropriate formul4 ,the one is a higher development of the other4 ,in ,math4 xvii4 #ad1 and ,mark ix4 #ad1 for instance1 we find the founder of the ,christian religion playing the part of the magician and casting out an evil spirit4 ,the only parallel to this class of procedure among the ,african natives under investigation is the curious ,engai possession of the ,kamba and the ritual undertaken to cure persons possessed3 the odd point about those ceremonies1 however1 is that although the afflicted person for whom the dances are convened may be cured1 others will be seized during the proceedings1 the affliction apparently becoming infectious4 ,kithangaona cha muchi--,the ,purification ,sacrifice for a ,village 7,kamba of ,kitui74--,if sickness becomes prevalent in a village1 the headman will consult a medicine man1 who may declare that the spirit 7imu7 of a person who died long ago is bothering the people and needs appeasing1 and he will therefore order a fowl to be taken round the village ceremonially and killed4 ,this is supposed to be very efficacious in restoring the good luck of the village1 and is done as follows3 the village head will walk round outside the village with some ashes in his right hand and a fowl in the left2 on reaching a point opposite the gate of the village the fowl will be released and allowed to fly inside4 ,it is then caught again and its throat is cut and the knife is afterwards buried in the cattle kraal4 ,the children of the village eat the fowl4 ,the village head then prays to the deity 7,engai7 to remove the sickness and keep it from the village1 and afterwards prays to the imu1 or spirit1 of the deceased person who is supposed to have brought the sickness4 ,it is stated that they first pray to ,engai because the imu is believed to have gone to ,engai4 ,the aiimu which afflict villages are said to be usually those of deceased medicine men who1 when alive1 were supposed to communicate with ,engai in their dreams4 ,they declare that they have seen someone glowing like a fire1 giving such and such a message4 ,there is another kithangaona cha muchi1 which also deals with sickness in a village1 but differs from the previous example in which a fowl is used4 ,as with ,european physicians1 the practice of medicine men varies for individual patients4 ,the magician1 having decided that the sickness is due to the imu of a deceased person1 will order the women of the village to grind some mawele or wimbi flour and cook it and make porridge4 ,the porridge is brought to the hut of the afflicted person and some butter is added2 the people present dip their wooden spoons in the porridge and each one eats a little and then throws some on to the floor as an offering to the imu2 the senior wife of the village head commences and the others follow suit4 ,the village head then brews some beer1 drinks a little1 and pours some out to the troublesome imu4 ,having done this he kills a he-goat1 cuts a strip of meat from the breast1 cooks it1 and deposits it at the door of the hut4 ,it is probably eaten by the village dogs or fowls1 but this does not matter4 ,the people then pray to the spirit and say1 8,we have given you food1 beer1 and meat1 we beseech you to allow the sick one to recover40 ,kithangaona cha mburi--,the ,purification ,sacrifice of the ,goat4--,on some occasions the medicine man will advise that the ceremony of kithangaona cha mburi be performed4 ,this is done as follows3 ,the evening before the ceremony1 the head of the village puts a stone in the hut fire and leaves it there all night2 next morning he calls a small boy and girl1 and the former1 accompanied by the headman1 leads a male goat round the outside of the village1 followed by the girl4 ,the goat must be all one colour and not spotted4 ,when the party reaches the gate of the village the headman takes a half gourd of water and places it on the goat's head between the horns4 ,the red hot stone is brought out from the glowing embers in the hut1 dropped into the bowl of water1 causing the water to boil and give off steam4 ,a hole is now dug at the door of the hut of the village head1 who holds the stone over the hole and prays as follows3 8,engai muimu mivo nathika dikoni wao mivo nathika hivia nathika wao pamwe nabia hii10 which1 freely translated1 means3 8,oh ,god1 ,i do not wish to see the sickness enter my village1 so now ,i bury this stone and bury the sickness with it40 ,the goat is not killed1 but is allowed to go free4 ,this is an unusual proceeding4 ,it is a curious example of a combination of magic and primitive religion4 ,kithangaona cha munda--,prayers for ,crops 7,kitui74--,when a villager sees that his crops are suffering from drought1 the ravages of insect pests1 and so forth1 he will go to a river bed and cut the branch of a tree called kindio which grows there4 ,he will then take the egg of a fowl1 dig a hole in the ground1 among the crops1 and place the egg in it1 planting the branch of the kindio tree in the hole4 ,he prays to the deity 7,engai7 beseeching him to make his crops grow like the kindio1 a tree which never withers4 ,the egg is said to be used because of its nourishing properties1 and it is also believed that no bad influence can penetrate its shell4 ,this is a very pretty example of homopathic magic4 ,the ,dedication of the ,bull--,kithangaona cha nzau--,kitui ,a-,kamba4--,it sometimes happens that when a man consults a magician about a contemplated marriage1 or some other matter1 the magician informs him that in his village a cow is in calf and that this cow will bear a bull calf which will be of a certain colour1 red or black or spotted4 ,he tells the owner that the calf must not be killed or sold in the ordinary way1 as it will be the property of the ancestral spirits 7nzau ya aiimu71 or will be dedicated to them4 ,if1 however1 it is necessary at any time to kill this beast1 some beer must be brewed1 and the meat must be divided among the owner's wives4 ,no portion with a bone in it must be given to a stranger1 but all the bones should be collected and buried in the cattle kraal4 ,the meat of the beast must be cooked and offered to the aiimu1 and some of the beer poured out to them4 ,the bones of the carcase may be broken1 if so desired4 ,a beast thus dedicated to the aiimu will never die of disease4 ,if1 for any special reason1 the owner wishes to sell or kill such a bull1 a substitute must be found for it1 and an important ceremony has to be observed4 ,the original animal and the substitute are tied and thrown on their sides2 the two animals are then placed touching each other4 ,some hair is cut from the forehead1 the chest1 and the tail of the original beast and placed on the substitute1 the animals being then released4 ,the aiimu are addressed1 and it is explained to them that owing to pressing reasons the original beast has to be killed or sold1 as the case may be1 but that a suitable substitute has been provided4 ,some beer is brewed1 and a libation of it is poured out in the hut of the village head4 ,old ,testament ,parallels4--,it is considered that the principle of thahu or thabu existed among the ,israelites1 and the following references to ,mosaic law may be reasonably quoted3 ,leviticus xix4 #h3 8,therefore everyone that eateth it shall bear his iniquity because he hath profaned the hallowed thing of the ,lord and that soul shall be cut off from among his people40 ,this refers to the eating of a sacrifice of peace offerings on the third day2 it may be eaten the day of the sacrifice and the following day1 but if eaten at all on the third day1 inflicts a thabu on the culprit4 ,leviticus xix4 #bb3 8,and the priest shall make an atonement for him with the ram of his trespass offering 444 and the sin which he hath done shall be forgiven him40 ,this can be taken as a case of a man who has committed a crime against tribal law1 and takes a ram to the priest or one of the elders of the tribe1 who performs the ceremony of tahikia to cleanse him from his sin4 ,the elaborate ceremonial laid down in ,leviticus xiv4 dealing with the case of purification from the plague of leprosy might be the procedure adopted by a ,kikuyu medicine man to-day3 the use of special plants1 the sacrifice of a ewe lamb of the first year4 ,the latter is identical with the mwati of ,kikuyu practice4 ,it is laid down in verse #ai that3 8,the priest shall offer the sin offering and make atonement for him that is to be cleansed40 ,this certainly looks as if the plague were the result of evil-doing on the part of the patient1 and of the nature of a thahu1 and is quite in accordance with present-day beliefs in ,kikuyu and ,ukamba4 ,the comminatory chapters xxviii4 in ,deuteronomy are of considerable interest as a parallel to the cases quoted as existing to-day in ,africa1 e4g41 xxviii4 #de3 8,and all these curses shall come upon thee and shall pursue thee and overtake thee till thou be destroyed40 ,general ,remarks on ,thahu and ,thabu4--,it will be well to review the results of this inquiry4 ,it should be noted that in a number of cases1 about one-third of those enumerated1 the thahu is brought upon the offender or brought upon a third party1 by the intentional act of the offender2 in other cases the person1 and sometimes the live stock1 are the victims of circumstances over which there is no control4 ,the investigations throw a vivid light upon the complicated nature of the life history of a ,mu-,kikuyu or ,mu-,kamba1 and it is evident that a native of one of these tribes cannot go through life without becoming thahu or thabu some time or other4 ,mr ,c4 ,dundas1 writing on this subject1 says with regard to the ,kikuyu people3 8,the fear of thahu is always present1 a man may be subject to it without knowing the cause4 ,when anyone goes on a journey he cannot tell whether he may not have contracted thahu in strange houses and villages1 and therefore when he returns he will kill a goat for purification before he enters his village4 ,this was done on one occasion by a number of elders who had been on a journey with me1 but as they were representatives of the western part of the district1 the goat was killed on crossing the ,kamiti ,river1 which river they regarded as the boundary of their country40 ,unmarried men and girls are not subject to thahu4 ,on one occasion a woman in hospital was said to be suffering from thahu caused by having touched the genitals of a strange man2 the symptoms of thahu were in reality only a bed sore1 but a medicine man was called in to cure her4 ,a case1 in which a man was sued for a goat for the purification of a woman whom he had raped1 and who1 in consequence1 could not suckle her child until she was purified1 was tried before a kiama4 ,the idea seemed to be that the child would become thahu4 ,the thahu is1 however1 in nearly all cases removable by the elders and medicine men for payment1 and it may therefore be urged that the belief has not much value as a moral restraint4 ,this view cannot1 however1 be seriously maintained for the following reasons3 ,take the case of a person who commits an act which he knows will bring thahu2 it must be clearly understood that he never questions the validity of the principle2 he goes about with the burden of the misdeed on his conscience1 and this worries him so much that he gradually gets thin and ill1 and puts it down to the thahu4 ,it therefore ends by his confessing to the elders and begging them to free him from the curse4 ,it is in essence nothing more or less than the confession and absolution of the ,christian ,church4 ,then again we have to consider the publicity of kraal life1 where very little goes on which is not known to the neighbours2 polygamy also increases this1 a man confides in one wife1 she tells another wife and so it goes through the village2 if one person commits an act which inflicts thahu on himself or a neighbour1 it will gradually leak out by some means or other1 and public opinion will insist on measures being taken to remove it4 ,no living person would ever dream of evading the wrath of the ngoma1 or ancestral spirits4 ,occasions may1 of course1 arise when the commission of a prohibited act may involve a third party1 and the person who committed it may preserve silence on the point1 but the elders will in most cases be in possession of complete information as to the movements of every person in the neighbourhood1 and1 moreover1 the demeanour of the conscience-stricken culprit will invite suspicion1 so in practice it is but rarely that the offender is not detected4 ,in some of the examples of thahu which are cited above1 cases will be noted in which the hut is affected and has to be forthwith demolished if the curse is not removed2 this feature appears to be worthy of note1 and it may in some measure account for the low type of domestic architecture among these tribes4 ,obviously there is but little incentive to build large permanent structures if1 owing to the incidence of a thahu1 the owner may have to demolish them at any moment4 ,the author's attention was first called to this point by a learned ,french missionary who has studied the ,kikuyu for many years4 ,it must not be assumed that every native is conversant with all the acts of omission or commission by which thahu or thabu may be incurred and there are doubtless variations in different areas1 i4e41 the thahu of ,western ,kenya are not identical in number and character with those of ,kyambu district4 ,all the tribesmen1 however1 know a certain number1 and if anything untoward occurs to a man he will consider it advisable to consult an elder2 the elder will cross-examine him and ask if he has done so-and-so1 or omitted to do certain things4 ,eventually the applicant will admit having done something which results in a thahu2 the way is then clear1 and appropriate treatment must be sought in the proper quarter4 ,ridiculous as most of these taboos appear1 they probably have a general value in regulating conduct in communities where legal restraint is in an undeveloped state4 7,c7 ,,the ,,dying ,,curse ,this is a very interesting belief1 which occurs in both ,kikuyu and ,ukamba4 ,in ,kikuyu it is called kirume1 and in ,ukamba kiume4 ,the belief is also said to be found1 under the name of ukuongo1 among the ,ja-,luo ,kavirondo4 ,it is really a thahu1 thabu1 or makwa which can be suspended by a dying man over his descendants4 ,the same idea1 somewhat inverted1 exists among the ,swahili1 who call it rathi1 or the dying blessing4 ,if a man does not receive his father's blessing1 he is believed to go through life attended by much misfortune4 ,the general idea is that a dying person can put a curse upon property belonging to him1 or can lay a curse upon another person1 but only upon a person belonging to his own family2 thus1 for example1 the head of a village1 when dying1 can lay a curse on a certain plot of land owned by him and will that it shall not pass out of the family1 and if a descendant sells it1 his speedy death is said to follow4 ,a case recently came to the author's knowledge where an elder was offered a very tempting sum for a particular piece of land1 and equivalent land elsewhere1 but refused it because the property had come down to him with a kirume on it4 ,this is a very interesting revelation1 because when one comes to consider it1 in all probability it is the genesis of a last will or testament4 ,furthermore1 it is the rude beginning of our principle of 8entail40 ,it shows1 moreover1 that these people have almost reached the stage of individual tenure in land1 or at any rate1 of tenure by the family1 the head of the village being the trustee for the family1 and it is his duty to see that the gethaka rights are preserved intact4 ,the gethaka is the portion of a ridge owned by a particular family1 title being obtained by an ancestor by purchase from the original occupiers1 the ,dorobo hunting tribes4 ,if the head of the family feels that he is nearing his end he assembles his sons1 and to the eldest he will probably say1 8,the goats belonging to such a hut shall be yours02 he will then call another son and say1 8,the goats of such and such a hut shall be yours1 and if any of you break these wishes he shall surely die40 ,he will then mention a certain shamba 7cultivated field7 and say1 8,such and such a shamba1 shall not be sold1 and if this wish is broken the one who sells it shall die40 ,this operates as an entail on the property which will be passed on from generation to generation2 such is the strength of the belief4 ,upon inquiry1 examples may be found all over the country4 ,another case quoted was that of a man who had a ne'er-do-well son who was in the habit of pilfering the neighbouring villages2 the custom is for those who have suffered to collect and seize the equivalent of their losses from his father4 ,if this continues1 the father1 in the end1 becomes so annoyed with his son's misdeeds that he will put a kirume on him when on his death-bed4 ,there is quite a mediaeval flavour about this action4 ,sometimes1 too1 a man1 when he is very old1 entrusts a son with charge of his live stock1 and the son may abuse the trust and let the flocks and herds melt away4 ,cases have been known where an old patriarch on his death-bed has put a kirume on his son to the effect that he shall neither grow rich nor have wives1 but to the end of his life shall be condemned to perpetual poverty4 ,again1 a daughter may be a trouble to her father2 she is1 say1 married to a husband who has paid the required dowry to her father2 she runs away1 repeatedly misbehaves herself1 and so forth1 and the father will then be subject to continual worry1 owing to the husband's demands for the return of the dowry4 ,the father may eventually become so weary of all this worry that he will put a kirume on her and condemn her to perpetual barrenness4 ,another case quoted was that of two brothers1 one rich and one poor2 the poor man may be envious of his brother and hate him in consequence4 ,one day they go to drink beer1 and1 excited by the liquor1 the poorer one brutally attacks his brother and grievously injures him4 ,when the injured man recovers consciousness he will call his brother and say1 8,you have always been jealous of my wealth1 and now ,i shall probably die from treatment received at your hands1 but when ,i am dead if you attempt to seize any of my property you shall only be able to look at it1 for if you touch a single head of stock you will die1 and if your son comes to take any of my beasts he will also die40 ,if a dying man calls out to a man of his own clan1 muhirika1 or morika1 and makes a request such as1 8,give me water10 and the person refuses1 the dying man can impose a kirume upon the one who refuses4 ,a man is1 generally speaking1 only able to lay a kirume upon a person belonging to his own muhirika1 or clan1 which really means that a kirume will only affect one with a common blood tie4 ,there are1 however1 two exceptions to this3 ,if a man of one clan marries a woman of another clan 7as is the rule7 he can1 if necessity arises1 place a kirume upon the family of his wife if they live in the village of his father-in-law1 because they have1 as the expression runs1 8,eaten of his property10 referring to the live stock he has paid over to his father-in-law for his wife4 ,the converse can also happen1 for if a man has married a woman and has not paid his father-in-law the full amount agreed upon1 the father-in-law when he dies can impose a kirume upon his son-in-law1 and such kirume may also extend to his daughter1 the idea probably being that the daughter has not sufficiently worried her husband to pay the balance due4 ,the power to impose a kirume is apparently not altogether confined to elders1 for it is said that if an incorrigible child is driven away from home1 becomes starved and dies in consequence1 it can1 before it dies1 curse its parents and say1 8,you have treated me like this1 and therefore you shall not have any more children40 ,it is said that if a person hears that someone of his own clan is threatening to impose a kirume on him1 he can take steps to prevent its infliction4 ,the procedure was described as follows3 ,if a person hears that1 say1 a brother intended to place a kirume on him1 he at once takes a male goat or sheep to his village and kills it there2 he offers some of the fat1 some milk and beer to the dying man1 who cannot refuse to forgive the suppliant1 and who ceremonially spits into his hands and rubs a little saliva on his forehead1 navel1 and feet4 ,the threatened person then departs in peace1 free from any danger of a kirume from that person4 ,this applies to both guilds4 ,one curious case of kirume which was described deserves notice4 ,it is probably very rare1 but it possibly carries evidence of the ancient origin of the belief and dates back to matriarchal times4 ,suppose a dying mwanake1 or member of the warrior age1 lays a kirume upon his maternal grandfather1 what course would he pursue to rid himself of the dangerous infliction8 ,if he was unable to get the one who imposed it to spit on him as above described1 he would have to seek a grandson by another daughter1 take or send to him a male goat1 some beer1 the milk of a cow and seed of the various kinds of grain grown in the country1 and beg him to come to his village4 ,the grandson would then come accompanied by the elders2 he would taste the meat1 beer1 milk1 etc41 and ceremonially spit them out on the grandfather1 and this would relieve the old man of all danger from the kirume imposed by his other grandson4 ,there is a word kigao1 which is intimately connected with kirume1 and is often confused with it1 but inquiry seems to show that kigao means the neglect of a dying father's wish with regard to the disposal of property1 and the result of kigao1 is1 therefore1 kirume1 cause and effect being often very closely allied in the mind of a native4 ,the fear of kirume seems to be much greater in the section of the tribe circumcised ,kikuyu fashion1 for a prominent elder of the ,masai guild stated that when those circumcised ,masai fashion succeed to their father's property they are invested with the brass bracelet worn by elders on their right wrist1 and upon their mother's death they wear the iron bracelet worn by her4 ,these are called kigao1 and once an elder has been invested with them he is quite safe from the effect of any kirume from his parents4 ,the younger sons receive pieces of the ear ornaments1 ichui1 which are made into finger rings and fulfil the same purposes as the bracelets4 ,this probably accounts for the greater popularity of the ,masai guild among the ,kikuyu people4 ,at the same time the elder admitted that it would be bad to squander the flocks and herds left by his father1 and that if they became depleted he would probably sell a portion of the landed property to make the flocks and herds up to their original strength4 ,if a man hears that a near relative is very ill he makes a point of going to see him1 and takes the precaution of getting him to spit ceremonially on his hand and rub his visitor on the navel4 ,if a man goes to see his sick father or mother he takes a piece of mutton fat1 and the sick parent ceremonially spits on it and the visitor rubs the piece of fat covered with saliva on his navel4 ,a married woman can impose a kirume1 but not on an unmarried woman4 ,the following is an example of a case in which a married woman may invoke this curse3 ,if a married woman has for a long time been systematically ill-treated by a brutal husband she can1 when dying1 put a kirume on her father for having forced her to marry such a bad man1 and also upon her husband for his brutality4 ,the kirume is looked upon as the severest form of thahu or nzahu known2 in most cases of thahu the subject rarely dies1 because it is slow in its action and the patient has an opportunity of making reparation and seeking relief from the prescribed medicine man or elders1 but in the case of a kirume the curse is very swift in its action1 the patient rapidly sickens1 breaks out into ulcers and often dies before he can arrange to take measures to arrest its onslaught2 his live stock will also die mysteriously4 ,it is believed that the effective power of the kirume is derived from the spirit 7ngoma7 of the deceased person by whom it is imposed1 assisted by the ngoma of the ancestors of the family4 ,it is said that there is no poison without its antidote1 and the same applies to the kirume1 but the antidote must be applied in good time and the only persons who can effect a cure are certain persons called athuri ya ukuu4 ,the athuri ya ukuu compose a grade of elders above that of athuri ya mburi nne 7elders of four goats--referring to the fee they pay for initiation to the grade74 ,they are always old men and rich1 and have to pay to their fellow elders of the grade a bullock and a male sheep or goat as initiation fees4 ,while the athuri ya mburi nne form the ordinary kiama1 or council of elders1 the athuri ya ukuu constitute a native court of appeal1 but they do not admit appeals except in very important cases1 when it is within their competence to revise a judgment and1 if they consider fit1 reduce the amount of compensation4 ,it is also the duty of the athuri ya ukuu to instruct the heir in the customs of the tribe when he succeeds to the property after his father's death4 ,the athuri ya ukuu do not treat ordinary cases of thahu but have to be called in for cases of kirume4 ,the ceremonial connected with the removal of a kirume is as follows2 it is called ku-tahikia kirume in ,kikuyu1 which means 8to purify from the kirume40 ,the athuri ya ukuu are summoned to the patient's village1 and the day before the ceremony the elders catch a mole-like rodent called huku 7,tachyoryctes sp471 put it alive in a cooking pot with some sweet potatoes1 and cork up the mouth of the pot4 ,the huku must be caught near the patient's village4 ,next morning the athuri ya ukuu arrive with a medicine man belonging to another clan and a male sheep is killed2 the elders then take the huku out of the pot and make passes all over the patient's body with the live animal and now take the huku and samples of various kinds of native food1 beads1 etc41 and proceed to the place where the corpse of the person who imposed the kirume has been buried or thrown out4 ,another sheep is taken with this party and also a small cooking pot2 upon reaching the spot referred to the second sheep is killed and some of its fat is cooked in the pot4 ,they then dig a hole and pour the fat in it1 also milk1 honey1 beer1 etc42 they smear the huku with the tatha1 or stomach contents of the sheep1 and the medicine man ties a tiny piece of meat to the right and left foreleg of the animal with a string made of mugeri 7hibiscus7 fibre1 then fastening it up in a rough net made of the roots of the ruriera plant1 and cuts the face off the sacrificial sheep1 leaving the eyes intact1 and places them all in the hole saying1 8,go back to your burrow and take with you the spirit of the person who left this curse40 ,the hole is then filled in4 ,the medicine man eats the remainder of the meat and afterwards returns to the village and purifies it4 ,the huku is said to personify the person who imposed the kirume1 and the eyes of the sheep are to watch the huku and see that it does not return to the village4 ,the huku is chosen because it lives below ground1 and the ngoma of deceased persons are believed to live below ground4 ,after this ceremony the affected one is believed to recover2 some say1 however1 that it only alleviates the effect of a kirume1 but does not remove it completely4 ,the elders stated that this would not affect a kirume placed on a piece of land forbidding its sale1 and what may be called the kirume of entail could not be lifted4 ,the lustration from a kirume by the huku ceremony only applies to the ,kikuyu guild4 ,altogether this is a very pretty example of what ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer terms 8homopathic magic40 ,if a young woman has been abused or vilified by the young men 7anake7 of her particular rika or generation1 it is a serious matter for her1 but nothing is done about it until the girl is about to be married4 ,the father1 however1 then takes a ram and makes a feast for the anake of the same rika or circumcision generation as his daughter1 and they assemble and ceremonially spit on the girl4 ,she can then be safely married and bear children4 ,in fact1 as a precaution1 this is generally done even if there is no record of a quarrel between the girl and the young men of her rika4 ,a medicine man is called in1 a ewe is slaughtered1 and he ceremonially purifies the girl before her marriage4 ,ukamba4--,as was mentioned before1 the doctrine of kirume or the dying curse is found among the ,kamba people and is there called kiume4 ,elders1 atumia1 and young married men1 anthele1 can impose a kiume among the ,a-,kamba but not among the warrior class1 anake4 ,a man is able to place a kiume upon the people of a village to the effect that they shall not refuse food or good treatment to a particular person1 the friend of the dying man2 this friend may even belong to another tribe4 ,a person cannot impose a kiume on anyone outside his immediate family4 ,a married woman can place a kiume on her father's village if she has reason to do so4 ,an eldest son can place a kiume on a particular thing in the village from which his mother came1 a common case of this being when a man places a kiume on the people of his maternal grandfather's village1 contingent on the disposal of a beast which was paid by his father to his mother's people as part of her marriage price4 ,the reason of this is that an eldest son has a claim to a heifer1 the progeny of the marriage price paid by his father to his maternal grandfather for his mother1 and he can1 when dying1 will this beast to any particular person1 and if anyone prevents this bequest being carried out he will die2 the kiume generally falls on the head of the village4 ,the formula used is3 8,if you do not carry out this wish you will not be able to eat meat1 to drink water1 to drink milk to eat maize1 to eat millet1 and so on--and you will surely die40 ,as in ,kikuyu1 a dying elder in ,ukamba can place a kiume on a cultivated field1 forbidding its sale out of the family4 ,if a ,mu-,kamba breaks a dying wish and incurs a kiume1 he can generally be freed from the consequences if he goes to an elder of his father's village or to a near relative of his father and takes a bullock2 the beast is killed and the elders spit water and milk on his face--this saves him from the worse effects of the kiume1 viz41 death4 ,the ceremony is called kuathimwa4 ,there is little doubt that much more remains to be learnt about the ritual of kiume in ,ukamba1 but these things are more difficult to work out in that district and the details have to be dragged out bit by bit4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,superstitions ,,regarding ,,children ,,and ,,women ,regarding the ,birth of ,children1 etc4 7,kikuyu74--,in former times1 if a child was born feet first it was suffocated and thrown out4 ,if a child touches the ground at the time of its birth it is considered very unlucky4 ,a ram1 a mwati 7young ewe7 or an arika 7young female goat7 is killed1 and a bracelet made of the skin is placed on the mother's wrist4 ,this is done for the sake of the child4 ,the skin of the animal sacrificed is used for carrying the child on its mother's back4 ,it is again very unlucky when an infant cuts its upper teeth first1 but the child is not killed1 and is merely sent to its maternal grandmother4 ,this only refers to those belonging to the ,kikuyu circumcision guild4 ,the child is termed kingu4 ,to avert the ill luck1 a friend is asked to cohabit with the mother for a month1 after which the husband returns to his wife4 ,the birth of twins is a great misfortune either in human beings or domestic animals1 but only when it occurs the first time a woman or animal bears4 ,it is believed that the father will die if he cohabits again with the mother2 a case was cited of a man who did so and was killed by a train a few days later4 ,formerly twin infants were always suffocated1 and in such cases were thrown into the bush by the old woman who assisted at the birth4 ,this probably still occurs in the remoter parts of ,kikuyu1 but the elders stated that in the more civilised parts they are no longer killed but are given to a member of the clan of the father to rear4 ,in order to free the mother from the curse1 the husband hands her over to another man called a mundu rohiu1 and when she has borne to him1 her husband takes her back4 ,a ram has to be killed and the woman adorned with a rukwaru before she is taken back4 ,this only refers to those belonging to the ,kikuyu circumcision guild4 ,if a person1 who is a twin1 crosses a river1 he or she must stoop down and fill the mouth with water and1 facing downstream1 spit it out into the river1 saying1 according to their sex3 8,may ,i not beget 7or bear7 twins as my father 7or mother7 did40 ,anyone seeing this ceremony might well mistake it for a propitiatory offering to a river spirit1 and the error indeed has occurred4 ,the root idea1 however1 is that the flowing water may carry away the kind of thahu which results in such an unlucky tendency as that of bearing twins4 ,they can give no explanation as to why twins should be of such ill omen if they happen to be the first children of a married couple or of a domestic animal4 ,they do not appear to believe1 as in some countries1 that twins have any influence over the weather4 ,if a woman bears twins a second time1 one of the children will be given to another man to bring up4 ,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas made some inquiries on this point in ,kyambu district1 and he states that in ,s4 ,kikuyu the birth of twins is considered unlucky excepting in the case of a woman who has borne other children2 the younger the woman the more unlucky the occurrence1 and if the first birth is of twins1 no medicine man can remove the evil1 and the only course is to throw the twins into the bush or to give them to another man of a different tribe or clan4 ,in ,kenya ,province it is said that twins are sold to other tribes1 but in ,kyambu district the elders held this to be a bad custom4 ,the foster-father becomes sole owner of the twins and if they are girls receives dowry for them4 ,in such case if the twins were the first birth of a woman1 the father can accept no part of the dowry1 but if they were second or subsequent births1 he receives the whole dowry from the foster-father and returns ten goats to him4 ,at ,ngenda ,mission1 a twin was handed over to the missionary1 and the father agreed to give them the customary ten goats out of the dowry when the child should be married4 ,no reason for this belief is known1 but the custom is rigorously followed to this day4 ,no one can sleep in the hut in which twins were born until they are disposed of1 and the mother must cohabit with a stranger who is then called mwendia wa rohio or mundu rohiu 7man of the sword74 #i ,a short time ago a case of triplets occurred4 ,the mother had first borne one child1 then twins1 and finally triplets4 ,in this case only one of the triplets was given away to a man of another clan1 for1 as the woman had borne several times before1 the triplets were not considered unlucky1 and the giving away of the one was said to be due solely to the mother's inability to suckle all three4 ,on the birth of a child a sheep is killed and a strip of the skin is worn on the mother's wrist1 rukwaru1 and her head is shaved2 the fat of the sheep is prepared and given to the infant to eat1 being put into its mouth with the finger4 ,this must be done before the child is suckled1 and the same ceremony1 in respect to the mother1 is performed by the foster-mother in cases where a twin or other child is handed over to a family of another clan4 ,in every case where a child is handed over to foster-parents it will belong to the clan of its foster-parents and not to that of its real parents1 but if the child is a girl she can marry a man of the foster-father's clan provided he does not live close to the foster-father1 while marriage with a man of her real father's clan is prohibited to her4 ,there is an undoubted widespread belief that the only satisfactory way of dealing with twins is to suffocate them1 as they are unlucky4 ,it is believed that the practice of giving them away is a later adaptation to the custom followed when a woman dies in child-birth1 the child1 whether twin or not1 being always1 in this case1 given away to a man of another clan4 ,among the ,kamba of ,ulu1 the same general idea as to the unluckiness of twins1 if they are the first-born1 prevails4 ,the twins1 however1 are not killed or put away1 but within a day or two of their birth the mother is returned by her husband to her father and the marriage price of the woman is paid back to him4 ,if the husband cohabits with the mother of the twins after their birth it is believed that he or the children will die4 ,it is therefore quite clear that the curse or ill luck is only immanent in the woman4 ,upon the birth of an ordinary child a string made of the bark of the ithaa tree is ceremonially tied round its neck1 but this is not permitted in the case of twins4 ,after the mother of twins has been returned to her father1 she may be married to another husband without the latter incurring the same risks as the first husband1 but the second husband must be of the grade of an elder of council4 ,it is an interesting point1 as a man1 on reaching this grade1 is not so subject to the incidence of a curse as a young man4 ,it would therefore appear that the woman is still to some extent dangerous4 ,the second husband becomes the adopted father of the twins and carries out the ithaa ceremony mentioned above2 one of the twins must be named ,mbatha1 the name of the other one being of no significance4 ,at the feast of the ithaa1 he kills two rams or two male goats1 one for each twin4 ,it is said that twins are not killed at birth1 as among the ,kikuyu1 because the woman's second husband would1 under native law1 sue the father for the value of the children4 ,as the twins grow up1 each child must be treated exactly alike2 if one has a present1 the other must receive the same4 ,a wife must be found for each at the same time1 and the same marriage dowry must be paid for each4 ,in the case of boys1 when sufficient live stock has been paid over to the prospective father-in-law to induce them to part with their daughters1 both brides must be brought to their husbands on the same day4 ,if one of the twins is a boy and the other a girl1 and the latter is being sought in marriage by a young man1 it is the custom for the brother to take his sister to her lover's village for a visit4 ,they stay there two days and return home on the third day1 the girl being given a goat by the young man4 ,the ,kamba of ,ulu do not believe that twins have any influence on the rain or the weather generally4 ,in ,kitui1 as in ,kikuyu1 it is most unlucky for twins to be born if they are the first children of the marriage4 ,in former times one was buried alive1 but this cruel custom has apparently died out4 ,it is1 however1 still believed that if they are girls and both live1 the mother will die1 and if the twins are boys and they survive1 the father will die4 ,it is supposed that the evil effect can be mitigated to some extent if1 three days after their birth1 the father cohabits with the mother2 the parents also kill a goat and are smeared with the tatha1 or stomach contents4 ,if a cow bears twin calves at first calving they are invariably both killed4 ,as in ,kikuyu1 it is lucky for a child to be born head first2 it is unlucky to be born feet first1 but the infant is not killed4 ,there is1 however1 a curious belief that such a person must never step over anyone lying on the ground1 and if he forgets this prohibition1 he must at once step back over the recumbent person4 ,the stepping back is called njokela1 8to go back10 and is supposed to reverse the ill luck which would be transmitted4 ,in ,kitui1 if a cow bears a dead calf the children can eat it but not a woman1 as it is believed that the next time she is pregnant she will have a still-born child4 ,women are also not allowed to eat the meat of a beast which dies4 ,if a cow bears a deformed calf it is buried1 for if it is allowed to live lung trouble is said to appear among the cattle4 ,there is no particular taboo on crippled children1 but the people say that the infant is the reincarnation of a deceased person similarly afflicted whom they remember1 and give it his or her name4 ,the ,kamba of ,kitui believe that the aiimu1 or spirits of the deceased1 sometimes pray to the deity 7,engai7 to give them another body1 and if the request is granted1 a spirit will enter a new-born child and commence another corporeal existence on earth4 ,their reason for believing this is that a pregnant woman will sometimes dream of a deceased person night after night2 if she dreams of a certain man who is dead1 and then bears a son1 they know it is that particular man who has come back to earth1 and the child will be given his name4 ,this is part of the same belief as that of the spiritual husband1 described in the author's work on the ,a-,kamba1 page #ci4 ,as in the ,ulu district and ,kikuyu it is considered very unlucky for a child to be born feet first1 and such a child will have ill luck through life4 ,if it is a male child his wife1 if he marries in late life1 is sure to die1 and if it is a girl1 her husband will die4 ,in the latter case1 however1 the evil can be averted if the prospective husband1 before he commences to pay for his bride1 sends her mother a present of an axe4 ,if the woman bears a child which is born feet first1 it is essential that the husband cohabit with her on the seventh day after the birth4 ,should a child in ,kitui cut its upper incisor teeth first it is considered a very bad sign4 ,such a child must not partake of the firstfruits of the fields1 and it is said that1 should it admire a growing crop1 that crop will never reach maturity4 ,this evil influence1 however1 can to a great extent be mitigated if1 when the first of the child's milk teeth drops out1 the father cohabits with the mother4 ,a child is taught that when one of his milk teeth comes out he is to throw it between his legs and say1 8,may ,engai give me a new tooth to replace the one ,i have lost40 ,the feeling against twin birth varies according to the locality4 ,in the more remote parts it is very strong1 but in parts of ,ulu1 the prejudice is dying out4 ,the father1 however1 will usually sacrifice to prevent evil effects4 ,taboos on ,women4--,when a pregnant woman is near delivery1 all arms are taken out of the hut1 and also any iron hoes4 ,they are not brought back again until the mother's head has been shaved at the purification ceremony after a birth4 ,if these articles are left in a hut on such an occasion and someone1 for instance1 takes a hoe away and uses it1 the child will1 it is believed1 be afflicted with a thabu4 ,the food in the house at the time of birth can only be eaten by the mother and three old women who assist at the birth2 any infringement of this rule is a great danger to the newly born4 ,even the father cannot eat in the hut for three or four months1 but if a man is poor and has only one wife1 he will sleep in the thengira1 or goat hut1 and if he has no thengira1 he will sleep in the hut on a separate bed4 ,a pregnant woman must not sew with a needle1 as it is said to be very dangerous for the new-born infant4 ,if at child-birth any blood falls on the floor of the hut1 the old women who assist at the birth dig up the earth floor at that place and bury the soil in the bush at some little distance from the village1 for if a goat licked that particular spot it would die4 ,if a man goes into his hut at a birth or after it has taken place1 and accidentally treads in blood which may have dripped on the floor1 the newly born child will become sick1 but the evil can be averted by the cohabitation of the parents4 ,this fear of certain kinds of blood is very curious and goes right back to ancient times4 ,among these people a woman during her menstrual period may not grind corn1 but is allowed to cook sweet potatoes or whole maize4 ,she may not1 however1 milk the cattle1 nor may she cut potato tops as green fodder for the goats4 ,a woman must also not step over her husband when in this state or he will become ill1 and to remove the thahu a ewe lamb must be killed and both husband and wife invested with bracelets made of the skin 7rukwaru74 ,a woman will tell her husband when she becomes ill1 and bathe when she is no longer so4 ,her husband can then return to her4 ,a woman must not shave her hair while her husband is on a journey2 if she does so she will be accused of bewitching him4 ,she can1 however1 clip her hair a little in front4 ,this prohibition is said to be connected with the customs by which a wife shaves her head on the death of her husband1 and were she to do so while he is travelling1 it might possibly bring him ill luck4 ,if a man goes away to hunt or to fight1 and on his way back1 when he nears his village1 is taken ill and suffers from diarrha1 he knows thereby that his wife has been unfaithful to him during his absence4 ,he will thereupon call an elder and tell him to bring a ram and the roots of certain medicinal plants3 kindio1 ibalu1 and mathengi4 ,the throat of the ram is pierced and the blood collected in a half gourd 7nzeli7 and mixed with the crushed roots and the tatha1 or stomach contents1 of the ram4 ,the suspected woman is called out and told to take hold of the right arm of the elder who is holding the nzeli containing the mixture4 ,she then takes a handful of the decoction and throws it on the ground1 and the husband rubs his foot in it4 ,the remainder of the mixture is sprinkled all the way from there to the door of the hut1 as well as on the bed4 ,she is probably beaten by her husband1 and her paramour is summoned before the council of elders and fined a bull or a ram4 ,,part ,,ii ,,magic ,,introductory ,in a study of the beliefs and practices of primitive people it is difficult to draw the line between religion and magic4 ,the general view is that magic is anti-social2 that is to say1 that it grew up to satisfy the desire of man to manipulate supernatural powers for his own private benefit4 ,robertson ,smith expresses the position as follows3 8,the gods watched over a man's civic life1 etc41 but they were not sure helpers in any private need1 and1 above all1 would not help him in matters that were against the interests of the community as a whole4 ,there was therefore a whole region of possible needs and desires for which religion could and would do nothing1 and if supernatural help was sought in such things it had to be sought through magical ceremonies designed to purchase or constrain the favour of demoniac powers with which the public religion had nothing to do40 #aj ,this line of argument is probably unassailable1 but in the people with whom we are dealing the belief in demoniacal powers1 as apart from the ancestral spirits1 has not reached a high pitch of development1 and is not at all concrete4 ,they practise magic extensively and have a firm belief in it1 but it is difficult to say with certainty exactly what powers they believe are being influenced by the magical ceremonial4 ,the guild of smiths1 both in ,kikuyu and ,ukamba1 possess hereditary magic powers2 one clan of the ,kikuyu1 called the ,eithaga1 is believed also to possess similar powers4 ,a leading elder in ,kikuyu1 for example1 who is also the priest in charge of a sacred tree1 is said to have the power of destroying plagues of caterpillars4 ,such a person1 however1 could scarcely be considered anti-social1 as the destruction of the pest must benefit the crops of the whole community4 ,there is also the case of another elder who is apparently a past master in the art of detecting criminals1 and more especially thieves2 this power would1 of course1 only be exercised at the request of the owner of the property1 and incidentally to the advantage of the magician4 ,the power of the 8evil eye0 probably belongs to magic1 although the power is regarded as an infliction which a person unfortunately possesses at birth4 ,it is a very ancient belief1 and has existed from the time of the ancient ,assyrians to the present day4 ,it still flourishes among the ,semitic races1 and also in ,morocco2 all round the ,mediterranean basin1 in fact1 as well as in ,arabia and ,palestine1 people wear armlets or charms to protect them from this evil influence4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,guild ,,of ,,smiths ,,in ,,kikuyu ,,and ,,ukamba ,the information relating to ,kikuyu smiths was mainly collected from ,kimani wa ,nyaga1 of the ,gachiko clan1 who is one of the senior smiths in ,southern ,kikuyu4 ,a smith in ,kikuyu is called muturi1 plural aturi4 ,the smiths of the ,kikuyu tribe are said to have all come originally from a common centre of distribution at ,ithanga1 on the south-western side of ,mount ,kenya4 ,this scattering of the smiths throughout the tribe is stated to have occurred many generations ago1 and the name ,ithanga to be that of their common ancestor1 but now the term ,ithanga has become a synonym for a sub-clan of the ,a-,gachiko1 and not all the members of this sub-clan are smiths4 ,it may be that the ancestor ,ithanga was a migrant from another tribe and the first person to bring into the tribe the knowledge of working in iron4 ,there appears to be1 however1 no legend as to who invented the act of smelting or working in iron2 it therefore looks as if the craft were imported4 ,it was certainly not learnt from the ,dorobo or ,asi aboriginals1 for the ,kikuyu declare that when their forefathers came into the country1 the ,asi had no smiths1 and to this day they have none4 ,it is believed that the ancestors of the ,dorobo were the people who made the stone implements now being so widely found4 ,the ,masai1 however1 appear to have had amongst them for a long period a clan of serfs called ,el-,konono1 who are their smiths4 ,in former times1 the ancestors of the ,kikuyu dug out nodules of ironstone at ,ithanga1 and also collected iron sand washed down by the rain from the hill4 ,this is probably the place described by ,routledge1 p4 #hj et seq41 of his book4 ,the ironstone was smelted with charcoal made from the mutumaiyu tree 7,olea chrysophylla7 and forged with charcoal from the mutarakwa tree 7,juniperus procera74 ,the tools and apparatus used by smiths are as follows3 ,stone ,anvil--,ihiga ya uturi 7even to this day these are brought from ,ithanga1 where hard metamorphic rocks occur74 ,hammer--,kiriha4 ,pincers--,muhato4 ,bellows--,miura4 ,wooden nozzles of bellows--,ngeruru 7made of murumbu wood74 ,clay tuyre--,ngerrua4 ,charcoal--,makara4 ,smith's fire--,mwaki wa kiganda4 ,smith's hut 7smithy7--,kiganda4 ,pot used to contain water for quenching--,rugio ya uturi4 ,in former times one section smelted the iron and another forged it2 imported iron wire is now so cheap that most of the forgings are made from it4 ,if a man wishes to enter the guild1 he has to be initiated with some ceremony4 ,he must bring a ram 7ndorume7 which is slaughtered just outside the smithy2 the novice is then walked round the anvil4 ,the heart and lungs of the slaughtered animal are held in the smith's tongs and roasted in his fire1 which is fanned by the bellows2 the novice eats them and the smith sits on the anvil and anoints the forehead of the novice with a spot of white earth 7ira74 ,the carcase of the sacrifice is then split from neck to tail1 the right half being eaten by the smiths and the left half by the villagers present4 ,the smiths and the villagers then go to the village of the novice to drink beer1 and next morning the smith comes and forges an iron bracelet1 which he places on the right wrist of the would-be smith1 and1 if the smith is married1 one on the left wrist of his principal wife4 ,if he has more than one wife1 one of his first tasks is to forge bracelets for the others4 ,the head of a smith's village wears a twisted iron bracelet on his right wrist1 the other smiths a plain iron band4 ,birth does not confer membership of the guild2 the son of a smith has to go through the same initiation ceremonies before becoming a smith4 ,all smiths are believed to possess magical powers which are alleged to come from the iron they use and are carried on through the spirits of their ancestors 7ngoma74 ,these powers are used in many ways2 a smith can inflict curses which are of the nature of thahu1 and they can bless the weapons they forge4 ,when a smith has forged a spear or sword he rubs it with a piece of kianduri wood 7,swahili msuaki1 ,bot4 ,salvadora persica7 and addresses the weapon thus3 8,if the owner of this meets with an enemy1 may you go straight and kill your adversary2 but if you are launched at one who has no evil in his heart1 may you miss him and pass on either side without entering into his body40 ,this incantation is believed to be a great charm4 ,after this ceremony the smith's assistant polishes the weapon with a quartzose stone called ngomongo2 the assistant is paid for his work but is not usually a smith4 ,he is often merely the bellows boy1 who is called a muruguti4 ,some customers bring their own iron and charcoal and bargain for the manufacture of a sword or spear2 others buy a weapon which has been made at odd moments and laid by for sale4 ,a smith will not make the sheath of a sword2 he makes the wooden hilt1 but the owner himself covers it with raw hide and also makes the sheath4 ,one of the important functions of the smiths is to make certain articles used in connection with the circumcision rites of the tribe4 ,these are as follows3 ,ruenji--,a razor which is especially made for the circumcision rite4 ,mukuha--,a needle for piercing the ears of small boys4 ,when a boy is circumcised the elders ceremonially pass this through the hole in the novice's ear4 ,ngunju--,a small iron ornament placed in the ears of boys and girls at the circumcision ceremony4 ,kahiu kaithinja--,a knife especially forged to kill the sacrificial ram at the circumcision ceremony4 ,the head of the village where the rites are to take place orders these articles from a leading smith before the ceremony4 ,when the smith delivers them he is given some honey beer1 and he ceremonially spits a little of it on each of the things to free them from any suspicion of containing bad magic4 ,when a smith marries1 another smith is called in to forge an iron bracelet1 which is placed on the bride's left wrist4 ,the husband then kills a ram1 and the fat and the tatha 7stomach contents7 of the animal are boiled together in a pot1 and the bracelet is dropped into the mixture4 ,this is supposed to free the bride from any bad magic which some evilly disposed ancestral spirit might bring upon her by means of the bracelet4 ,the ,kikuyu smiths state that they have no special language or dialect peculiar to their guild4 ,when they die1 they are buried or thrown out in the bush1 according to their grade1 in the same way as other members of the tribe1 and no symbol of their trade is buried with them4 ,some smiths belong to the ,masai circumcision guild1 others to the ,kikuyu guild4 ,with regard to the magic powers of smiths referred to above3 ,a smith can place a spell on a patch of forest to prevent anyone from destroying it4 ,he takes an iron necklet or bracelet which belonged to a deceased person1 cuts it into small pieces1 and walks round the piece of forest which is to be protected4 ,he then deposits the pieces at the foot of a tree within the area1 and woe betide anyone who infringes the prohibition6 ,if at any time the spell is to be lifted1 the smith proceeds to the area1 sacrifices a ewe1 removes the pieces of bracelet1 and smears the spot with tatha1 or stomach contents1 of the sacrificial animal4 ,if sugar cane is stolen from a garden1 or goats are stolen out of a village by night1 the owner often goes to a smith and seeks his aid1 taking with him the iron necklet or bracelet of a deceased person4 ,if the smith agrees to intervene1 he will heat this in his smithy fire and then sever it with a chisel1 saying1 8,may the thief be cut as ,i cut this iron40 ,or he may take a sword or an axe-head which he is making1 heat it in his fire and then quench it in water1 saying1 8,may the body of the thief cool as this iron does10 i4e41 8,may he die40 ,both of these curses are said to be equally effective1 and it is believed that the thief will gradually become thin and fade away with a terrible cough4 ,when he becomes ill1 however1 he will usually confess his crime and be brought to the smith or come to him to beg that the curse may be lifted4 ,he must bring a ram 7ndorume7 with him1 and the smith will then order him to sit down outside the smithy and will march round him with the ram4 ,the ram is killed1 and the heart and lungs are extracted2 these parts are then roasted in the smith's fire and the patient eats them1 and the curse is lifted4 ,the complete recovery1 however1 is said to take about six weeks4 ,a medicine man has no power over a smith's magic4 ,in former times smiths were sometimes supposed to bewitch people against whom they had a grievance4 ,a smith would secretly take the necklet or bracelet of a deceased person1 cut it into pieces1 and bury a piece at the gate of the village he wished to bewitch2 the people passing in and out all day would step on the spot where the piece of iron was buried and thus incur the evil influence4 ,another piece would probably be buried at the watering place4 ,by these means the whole village became afflicted1 and unless the magic was removed the people would die4 ,the infliction of the magic1 in fact1 would probably not be realised until several people had died4 ,the evil magic has to be removed by a smith and a medicine man2 a ram and a young ewe1 which has not yet borne1 mwati1 are provided1 the ram is killed1 and the usual purification ceremony gone through1 the ewe being set aside and taken by the mundu mugo4 ,after the evil magic has been removed1 the head of the afflicted village receives from the smith a twisted iron bracelet 7muthiori74 ,smiths place their old clay tuyres on sticks in cultivated fields to protect the crops from thieves2 there is no ceremony connected with this1 but if at any time these must be removed1 the smith removes them1 carefully placing a little tatha from the stomach of a sacrificial sheep in the hole in which the stick was erected4 ,this removes the curse and also the possibility of the magic damaging1 at some future time1 a person for whom it was not intended4 ,when a smith forges a new hammer for use in his forge1 the medicine men of the district come and collect the iron scale from the forging to mix with their medicines1 more particularly the medicines they make to protect a village from thieves or wild beasts4 ,the medicine man 7mundu mugo7 marches round the village with the medicine and then buries it at the gate4 ,it is called kihoho by the ,kikuyu4 ,if anything is stolen from a smith's forge he calls together all the smiths of the country-side4 ,this assembly is called njama ya aturi4 ,each one in turn is asked if he stole the article1 and whether the culprit confesses or not1 they generally fix on one whom they strongly suspect and insist on his taking the oath of the goat 7ku-ringa thenge74 ,if the culprit confesses he is forgiven and warned1 but if he refuses1 he is cursed by the bracelet of a dead person4 ,should he be guilty1 the spirit of that person will bewitch him to the peril of his life4 ,he cannot get the curse lifted until the njama ya aturi reassembles and lifts it4 ,the ordinary ,kikuyu native is far too afraid of the magic of the smiths to steal anything from one of them1 so that when a smith is the victim of a theft it is easy to guess that the crime has been committed by another smith4 ,in the old days1 the ,anjiru clan1 before starting on a foray against the ,masai1 went to a smith and got from him a small piece of iron called kiheto1 for which the representatives of the clan would pay a pot of honey beer and one of sugar cane beer4 ,the smith took a little of the beer and spat it out on the kiheto4 ,the ,anjiru then took away the kiheto1 made medicine with it1 and buried it on the path at the entrance to the enemy's country4 ,this was believed to stop the ,masai cattle from being driven off a long way4 ,smiths were formerly called upon to settle cases4 ,if1 for instance1 a man was owed a debt1 he would induce some smiths to go to the village of the debtor and order him to pay4 ,and as the smiths were held in fear because of this magic the order was generally complied with4 ,the ,eithaga clan has never counted any smiths amongst its members4 ,the magic of the smiths was always feared by them4 ,when this clan made spells to withhold the rain it is said that they were careful not to let the fields of a smith suffer4 ,if a medicine man visits the village of a smith he does not sleep in one of his huts1 but lodges in the goat hut1 thengira2 a smith does the same if he visits the village of a medicine man4 ,if a ,mweithaga passes a smithy when it is raining he cannot enter to take shelter4 ,a woman cannot enter a smithy unless she is a smith's wife1 and she can then come to bring her husband's food4 ,smiths ,among the ,kamba of ,kitui4--,the original smiths all belonged to one clan1 viz41 the ,atui1 which is a section of the ,anzunzu clan1 but members of other branches have now learnt the art and been admitted to the brotherhood4 ,in ,machakos district some of the smiths belong to the ,eombi clan4 ,if a man wishes to become a smith he brews some beer and takes it along with a goat to a local smith4 ,they drink the beer together2 the smith takes a sip and then ceremonially squirts it over the hand of the novice1 saying1 8,may your hands become skilful at the work which ,i can do40 ,they then kill the goat and mix some of its blood with some of the beer1 and the smith pours it over the anvil and addresses it as follows3 8,this man is now the same as ,i am1 and ,i shall give him a new anvil1 and may this new anvil be his friend40 ,the anvil is of stone1 and when it is worn out the smith searches for another suitable piece of some tough rock1 generally granite or gneiss1 and instals it in the forge4 ,before using it1 however1 he brews some beer and pours it over the anvil1 saying1 8,you are now an anvil1 and you must be as good a one as your predecessor40 ,the cult of the smith does not appear to be as highly developed in ,ukamba as in ,kikuyu1 for his powers are more limited2 he wears no mark of his trade1 and he does not dedicate the weapons he forges1 as is done by the ,kikuyu smiths4 ,if1 however1 a man steals a smith's stone anvil or any tool from his smithy1 the smith can curse him by saying3 8,so-and-so has stolen my anvil1 and ,i curse him1 and if he eats this season's food he will die10 and it is firmly believed that the thief will die before the harvest is reaped4 ,when a man goes to a smith to have an iron rod forged for branding cattle1 the smith will place it in the purchaser's hand when it is finished and say3 8,may the cattle branded with this iron be lucky1 may they escape disease1 and may they be fruitful40 ,this tends to show that the branding of cattle is believed to have a magical value and is not solely intended as an identification mark for the beasts belonging to each clan4 ,iron has always played a great part in ancient magic1 and continues to do so in many parts of the world4 ,this is probably due to the fact that the art of extracting the metal appeared so marvellous to early man that it was attributed originally to magic4 ,this idea was very likely kept alive by the early iron smelters and smiths4 ,in early times1 as at the present day1 in certain parts of ,africa the same persons smelted and forged1 and these men probably invested the process of manufacture with an atmosphere of mystery and combined into a guild pledged to keep the art a secret from the uninitiated4 ,in connection with this subject1 it is interesting to note that some scientists lean to the opinion that the manufacture of iron originated in ,africa4 ,professor ,gregory comments on this problem in 8,geology of ,to-day10 pp4 #cba-cbb4 ,referring to the easier smelting of iron than of bronze he says3 8,grains of iron oxide are very widely distributed1 and in arid areas attract attention by their heaviness and metallic aspect4444 ,the preparation of iron by the negroes in ,africa is a far simpler process than the manufacture of bronze4 ,bronze tools1 however1 are found in ,europe earlier than those of iron1 but their earlier presence may be explained by the readiness with which iron tools would perish by rust4444 ,this explanation is1 however1 not satisfactory1 for if iron had been present and removed1 the rust would have remained as a stain or as a cement4 ,moreover1 it is clear that in ,western ,europe the bronze age immediately succeeded the stone age1 for the early bronze implements are copies of stone tools4 ,the conflict of metallurgical and archological argument probably admits of a geographical explanation4 8,grains of iron ore in sands and gravels are conspicuous in hot1 arid climates such as tropical ,africa1 and it is probable that iron working was invented there before the bronze age in ,europe4 ,the inhabitants of the moister climates of the ,mediterranean and ,europe had no such easily found supply of iron4 8,some conspicuous ores yielded tin and copper1 and an ingenious smith who had learnt iron working in tropical ,africa may have combined them1 and obtained bronze40 ,this is one view4 ,professor ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway1 on the other hand1 is1 ,i believe1 firmly convinced that the secret of the working of iron in the ,western world originated in ,central ,europe1 probably in the ,hallstadt region1 and there we must leave this problem4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,evil ,,eye ,this belief1 so widespread in ,europe1 ,morocco1 and many other parts of the world has never received much attention from observers in this part of ,africa1 and it was only recently realised that it received much recognition in ,kikuyu4 ,it is called kita or kithamengo4 ,the word kita means saliva as well as evil eye4 ,the ,swahili synonym is kijicho4 ,a few people here and there throughout the country are believed to possess this gift1 women as well as men1 irrespective of the guild to which they belong4 ,the possessor is born with it4 ,it gradually dawns upon the people that ,so-and-so possesses the power1 owing to the fact that if that person audibly admires a beast belonging to a neighbour the animal shortly after that becomes sick4 ,if this occurs several times the various owners compare notes and it becomes generally known that ,so-and-so is kithamengo4 ,it would therefore seem that the idea is not based on an evil glance but upon an envious thought4 ,after that1 if a cattle owner hears that a man who has this power 7or one ought1 perhaps1 to term it 8this infliction07 has been admiring one of his cows1 he will send for him and insist on his removing the evil2 this is done by the man wetting his finger with saliva1 and touching the beast on the mouth and on various parts of the body with his wetted finger2 this is believed to neutralise the enchantment4 ,members of the ,chera and ,anjiru clans are notably possessed of this power with considerable frequency2 the ,ambui and ,aithiageni again very rarely possess it4 ,even a medicine man cannot remove a curse imposed by a person with the evil eye2 only the individual who imposed it can remove it1 and he can do it only in the morning before he touches food4 ,human beings and also inanimate objects are equally affected by the power1 for it is said that if a person who possesses the evil eye admires a woman who is enceinte she will abort1 and if she is not1 her breasts will become highly inflamed1 and he has to come and ceremonially rub a little saliva on them to remove the danger4 ,if an individual object is admired1 say a spear1 it will soon afterwards be broken1 or if1 for instance1 the leather-covered sheath of a sword is admired it will probably be gnawed by rats and spoilt4 ,no one who is not born with the power can acquire it1 and it appears to be looked upon as an unavoidable misfortune4 ,it is said to be the gift of ,god 7,engai71 and if a death or loss occurs the person to whom it is attributable cannot be sued for compensation before the kiama1 or council of elders4 ,in time the people get to know who possesses the power1 and if such a person enters a village he is asked in a friendly way to spit ceremonially on all the children to prevent anything untoward occurring to them owing to his visit4 ,if a father possesses this power he can render his children proof against its action either from himself or any other person by shutting his eyes and then ceremonially spitting into each of their mouths4 ,the power is said to be hereditary1 but all the children are not born with the gift4 ,this belief exists among the ,masai1 and is called ',ng-onyek oo'-l-tunganak1 and will probably be found to account for the ceremonial spitting which was so common among them when they wished to show their friendliness4 ,refer to ,hollis's 8,masai10 page #cae1 the spitting on children is undoubtedly done to show the parents that the stranger is anxious to do the right thing and not afflict the child by the power of the evil eye4 ,also vide ,hollis's 8,nandi10 page #ij1 spitting is again believed to remove the spell of the evil eye 7sakutik74 ,in ,ukamba1 ,mr ,dundas states that it is called kyeni2 there is said to be a whole clan in ,kitui called ,mwanziu which possess the power1 and it often happens that when a person has received a slight injury he will go to a member of this clan and ask him to spit on the injured spot1 which forthwith becomes whole4 ,possibly he attributes his hurt to someone with the power of the 8evil eye40 ,it is also said that possessors of this gift have such power that if they admire a stone it will split into fragments4 ,the evil eye is a belief of great antiquity1 for it was even recognised as far back as ,mosaic times1 cf4 ,deut4 xxviii4 #ed3 8,his eye shall be evil towards his brother and towards the wife of his bosom10 etc4 ,the ,magic of the ,eithaga4--,it has occasionally been incorrectly alleged that the power of the 8evil eye0 in ,kikuyu is the monopoly of one clan called the ,eithaga or ,aithaga1 but such does not appear to be the case4 ,the members of the ,eithaga clan are credited with supernatural powers1 but they are of quite a different character1 as will be seen below4 ,the name of the clan is ,eithaga or ,kiuru1 a single member is called ,mweithaga4 ,the name ,kiuru is an opprobrious nickname1 which means 8those who bewitch people40 ,the stronghold of the ,eithaga is ,karuri's country on the east slopes of the ,nandarua ,mountain1 but it is said that they originally came from ,karira's to the north of the ,saba ,saba ,river4 ,the present head of the clan is one ,kiriri near ,karuri's1 and in ,south ,kikuyu the most prominent ,mweithaga is ,mkone wa ,ndawa1 and it is said that the chief ,kiriri has hair growing on the point of his tongue4 ,the clan is nearly entirely endogamous1 that is to say1 a ,mweithaga generally marries a ,mweithaga1 and no man of another clan will marry a ,mweithaga woman1 but a ,mweithaga man may occasionally find a mate from another clan4 ,the members of the ,eithaga clan practically all belong to the ,kikuyu circumcision guild4 ,they are1 however1 divided into two divisions1 ,a-,mbura and ,a-,kiuru1 the first meaning the 8rain-makers0 and the second the 8wizards40 ,the former profess to be able to make rain1 but their powers in this connection are not considered very extensive1 and the majority will only admit that if rain is about1 a ,mu-,mbura may cause it to fall if it is the proper season for rain4 ,if rain comes on in a camp where one has any ,eithaga porters they will turn out1 wave branches and blow vigorously in the direction from which the rain is coming1 and1 what is more1 firmly believe that they are having some effect on the elements4 ,in connection with these rain-making powers1 it is curious to note that no ,mweithaga may drink or cook with rain-water that has been collected in a cooking pot2 if he does so he will surely die4 ,further1 no ,mweithaga may carry embers of fire in a fragment of crock from a cooking pot4 ,he must either carry the fire in some green leaves in his hand or get a firebrand4 ,we now come to the wizard branch of the clan4 ,only the males have magical powers4 ,it is said that a ,mweithaga will take an ox or ,kudu horn and blow it1 and so doing will bewitch an enemy1 saying1 8,i blow this horn and your heart will become like the wind ,i blow through this horn10 meaning1 it will disappear and be lost4 ,the person will then be bewitched1 will cough up phlegm1 and eventually die unless he takes offerings to the ,mweithaga and beseeches him to remove the spell4 ,the proper thing is to take a ram and some sugar cane1 and if this is done the wizard is unable to refuse1 and will keep the sheep1 cook some of the fat and put it in his mouth with some of the juice from the sugar cane4 ,he will then squirt a little into the mouth of the bewitched person1 and will also put some into a gourd for the patient to take back to his village and give to his children4 ,after this ceremony the patient recovers1 and1 what is better1 it is said that no ,mweithaga can again bewitch him in this way4 ,a ,mweithaga1 if he wishes to bewitch a village1 will go into the bush and find francolin eggs1 and will put these1 together with the leaves of the mkurwe 7,albizzia7 bush1 on a fire and will say1 8,as these eggs burst and as these leaves shrivel up so shall this village be destroyed10 and it is believed that evil will forthwith fall on the people of that village1 but only upon the people1 for the ,eithaga do not harm live stock4 ,some will put the francolin eggs with water in a cooking pot on a fire and then break the pot and the eggs with one of the hearth stones4 ,the ,eithaga rarely use herbs or material substances in their magic1 their spells being done by invocation4 ,no medicine man can remove a spell imposed by a ,mweithaga2 it can only be removed by the one who imposed it or by another ,mweithaga4 ,if1 however1 a mysterious sickness falls on a village a mundu mugo1 or medicine man1 is called in1 and he can diagnose it and tell whether it is due to the magic of ,eithaga4 ,a ,mweithaga cannot bewitch another ,mweithaga1 nor can he bewitch a person belonging to another tribe such as ,masai or ,kamba4 ,sometimes1 however1 they are of use1 for they are believed to have the power of bewitching unknown thieves1 and so it occasionally happens that a person who has had1 say1 some goats or some sugar cane stolen1 will call in a ,mweithaga and ask him to throw a spell on the thief4 ,he will come to the village and take a piece of mud containing the spoor of one of the stolen animals or one of the stems from which the sugar cane has been cut1 as the case may be1 and he will say 8,a rokwa nguo10 8,i bewitch the thief40 ,the thief1 who is probably not far away1 will hear people talking of this1 and being convinced of the effects of the magic will hasten to return the stolen property to its owner4 ,the ,mweithaga is then called again1 and the owner of the goats takes one and kills it1 the ,mweithaga cuts out the stomach with part of the sophagus1 wets his finger with saliva and touches the end of the sophagus with his wetted finger1 and then inflates the stomach by blowing and makes passes with it over the body of the thief1 thus removing the spell4 ,he finally fastens a rukwaru1 or strip of the goat skin1 on the thief's wrist and the thief has to pay a sheep to the ,mweithaga as a fee4 ,if the theft is that of such a thing as sugar cane the thief has to find the sacrificial goat and then be purified as above described4 ,no ,mweithaga may eat wild game1 and in no case can he even wear the skin of a wild beast2 the only exceptions to this law are that they can eat locusts and can make honey bags out of the skin of the ngunu1 a small reddish antelope1 probably a duiker4 ,for all their magical powers the ,eithaga1 like other people1 are subject to the incidence of thahu1 and are also subject to the power of the evil eye4 ,there is a kind of constitutional antipathy between the ,eithaga and the smiths of the tribe1 and it is said that there are no ,eithaga smiths4 ,a ,mweithaga may not sleep in a smith's house or vice vers2 if this did occur it is believed that illness or even death would supervene4 ,the evil spell can1 however1 be removed by the owner of the house2 that is to say1 if a smith sleeps in the house of a ,mweithaga1 the ,mweithaga could remove the evil1 and vice vers4 ,the ,kikuyu are very afraid of the ,eithaga1 and in former days after someone had been killed by their black art the elders would induce one of them to come and remove the spell from all the people of the village where the man had died4 ,they would then collect as many of the members of the clan as they could find and insist on their taking the oath known as ku-ringa thenge1 by which they would swear not to bewitch any more of their neighbours4 ,sometimes1 however1 they would turn out en masse and slaughter all the ,eithaga they could lay their hands on4 ,it is said that a ,kikuyu would never enter the village of a ,mweithaga uninvited4 ,if a ,mweithaga goes to a village and becomes embroiled in a quarrel with a member of another tribe1 goats must be exchanged to make the peace1 and the ,mweithaga must spit on the other party to obviate any evil effects4 ,the ,mweithaga then invites the other man to his village to drink beer with him1 and will take a sip from a horn of beer and eject it back into the horn1 the man then drinking the beer1 after which he is immune from the effects of any ,eithaga magic4 ,the ,eithaga are believed to have the power of protecting forest1 and their powers are sometimes invoked for this purpose4 ,if a man wishes to protect a patch of forest on his property1 he sends for a ,mweithaga to put a spell on it2 the magician proceeds to the spot with the local elders and brings with him a cooking pot taken from the deserted hut of a deceased person4 ,he fills this with water drawn from each spring and stream in the piece of forest1 and boils it on a fire made on a path in the said forest2 the pot is supported on three stones4 ,after this a little of the water is poured back into each of the springs or streams1 and the pot is then shattered by dropping one of the hearth stones on it4 ,the magician then blows his horn and announces that if anyone cuts the trees in the forest his heart will burst forth like the blasts of the horn4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,kikuyu ,,magic ,,and ,,magicians ,njau wa ,kabocha4--,there is1 in ,s4 ,kikuyu1 a curious old medicine man named ,njau wa ,kabocha1 belonging to the ,anjiru clan1 who is held in great esteem on account of his magical powers and his priestly functions4 ,he possesses a sacred tree1 at which sacrifices are believed to be very effectual4 ,he is said not to deal in bad magic1 and one of his specialities is the removal of a plague of caterpillars1 ngunga1 or wireworms1 vigunyu1 from the crops4 ,he was good enough to give a description of the procedure used to effect this useful object4 ,the owner of the afflicted crops brings a ram1 ndorume1 and some beer2 the ram is strangled and the lower intestine1 mutura1 is extracted2 a number of the caterpillars are also collected4 ,the magician drinks a draught of the beer and then bites the caterpillars in half1 one after another1 and lays the pieces on the leaves of the mutundu 7,croton macrostachys7 and mukuyu 7,dombeya sp474 ,he then places fragments of the caterpillars in the intestine of the ram1 goes away into the bush and buries the parcel in the hole of white ants' nest 7,muthongonina74 #aa ,he next takes some wood of the morika and muirangani trees and lights a fire near the place where the caterpillars are buried1 and in this fire he burns the above-mentioned leaves and the remaining caterpillars4 ,the magician does not eat any of the meat of the ram2 this is consumed by the owners of the fields and the elders who have accompanied him4 ,a second ram is then provided1 and the magician1 together with the village elders1 goes and sacrifices this at the nearest sacred fig tree2 the breast of the ram is cut out and hung in the tree1 and the remainder of the sacrifice is eaten by the magician and the elders4 ,after this1 the magician takes the ngorima 7colon87 from the second ram1 some beer1 njohi1 some unfermented beer1 ngogoyo1 honey1 beeswax1 medicine1 of which he would not disclose the nature1 and the horns of the ram2 these he burns in a fire1 ichua1 in the afflicted field4 ,the bones are all broken intentionally1 but the marrow is not extracted1 as it is said that when the fat and bones are burnt in the fire they make a smell which is very acceptable to the deity ,engai4 ,the fire is called ichua1 the particular name for a fire lit at a sacrifice--a sacred fire in fact4 ,this is the end of the ceremony1 and the magician then receives two or three miati1 ewes which have not yet borne a kid4 ,it was stated that after the ceremony above described the caterpillars would disappear in a day or two2 they would either be killed by heavy rain1 eaten by soldier ants1 siafu1 or the sun would dry them up4 ,on the day after the ceremony no person is allowed to cultivate the fields1 the men may not eat beef that day or the next1 and that night every man must observe celibacy4 ,he must not sleep in one of his ordinary huts1 but in the thengira1 or goat hut1 among the unmarried men4 ,njau wa ,kabocha declares that he can1 if he wishes it1 bring a plague of caterpillars upon any section of people who treat him badly1 and that he can do this by pouring out some beer in his village and praying to ,engai4 ,within fourteen days1 he alleges1 the caterpillars will begin to appear1 but he admitted that he could only do this about the normal season when caterpillars are apt to come in swarms4 ,in the old days1 when the ,kikuyu used to fight the ,masai1 ,njau's father1 who was a great magician1 was a specialist at making medicine to enable his people to check the ,masai invasions1 and when they came1 to ensure victory for the ,kikuyu4 ,the knowledge of this art is said to have come down from his ancestors4 ,this magic is called mwita1 and its most important instrument is a kiheto1 or small piece of iron obtained from a smith4 ,a small clay pot is made in which the kiheto is placed and some medicine called njeku1 and this is brought to the path by which the ,masai usually came to attack4 ,if this failed1 ,njau's father would go to an old woman of the ,asi or ,dorobo tribe1 buy from her an earthenware pot2 this he would take1 along with a ram1 and proceed secretly through the forest near ,ngong ,mt41 to a spot close to the ,masai raiding track4 ,he would then kill the ram as if for a sacrifice1 cook the tail fat in the pot1 then melt down some of the body fat1 taking care to pick out any pieces of flesh which had accidentally been put into the pot4 ,he would also add some tatha from the stomach of the ram and some sugar cane beer to the melted fat in the pot4 ,he would next seek out a straight and lofty tree and bury the pot and its contents at the foot of it1 being careful that the mouth of the pot just showed above ground4 ,this is what the ,swahilis call kafara1 and it is believed to stop a raiding party from passing that way4 ,if1 however1 they did succeed in passing1 their raid would be abortive and many would be killed4 ,the power of this magic is said to be derived from the deity ,engai and not from the spirits4 ,the medicine above referred to and called njeku is stated to have been made from a piece of cloth or an old discarded sandal secretly obtained from an abandoned ,masai kraal2 this is charred1 ground up1 and then mixed with certain magic herbs4 ,kamiri wa ,itherero4--,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas has furnished some interesting information with regard to the magic powers of one ,kamiri1 who is the same medicine man referred to in the curious incident described in 8,ethnology of ,a-,kamba10 p4 #adc et seq4 ,close to ,kyambu there lives a medicine man of the name of ,kamiri wa ,itherero who is said to be one of the most renowned of all ,kikuyu4 ,like most medicine men1 ,kamiri is possessed of more character than most of his countrymen1 and this is shown by his manner and appearance to a far greater extent than is usually the case among other natives4 ,he is one of the few members of the senior generation of ,maina1 which in itself is a claim to veneration2 this means that he has practically withdrawn from the council of elders1 and that he must be a man of considerable age4 ,yet ,kamiri looks younger and better preserved than many an elder of the ,mwangi generation4 ,this may possibly be due to his temperate habits1 for it is said that he has never in his life touched intoxicating liquors4 ,in height ,kamiri is much below the average of his tribe1 but his remarkably clear features and the penetrating look of his eyes give him a dignified appearance4 ,for the ,european1 ,kamiri1 on the whole1 has no liking1 and he does not trouble to conceal this2 in his own mind he is clear on the point that we do very little good and cause vast damage by upsetting all good customs2 in particular the injurious effect of our administration on the manners of women troubles him4 ,and this is not surprising1 for ,kamiri has suffered much by our intrusion4 ,in former times the success of raids depended to a great extent on his advice and aid1 and this1 coupled with his deep knowledge of the art of medicine in general1 had won him great respect1 and one can even say that he was held in awe4 ,kamiri1 in fact1 was probably the principal man of the tribe and the nearest approach to a chief that his countrymen of that day could imagine4 ,to-day he is a small headman1 but nevertheless enjoys no small standing1 as we shall show4 ,missionaries designate ,kamiri as the 8official poisoner02 yet one missionary1 who knows him better than any other ,european1 tells me that if ,kamiri is hired to poison a man he will first call that man and tell him so and then he will inquire into the case and endeavour to settle the quarrel1 in which respect he is usually successful4 ,if ,kamiri is a poisoner he is essentially the 8official0 poisoner2 he uses his art with discretion and in legitimate causes4 ,there is a great difference between the medicine man of ,kamiri's type and the average witch doctor of to-day2 the medicine man of the old school knows what he does1 and dooms a man perhaps as conscientiously as a judge when he hangs a murderer4 ,nothing which we or our influence could do has broken his position as a medicine man2 even the paramount chief has a great respect for him1 and he has been seen to get up and give his place to ,kamiri4 ,it is believed that no ,kikuyu1 however strongly supported by the ,government1 would really dare to go against ,kamiri4 ,a few years ago he demonstrated this power by hanging up a bag of rupees in a tree by the pathway and left it there for several months3 no one dared to tamper with it4 ,natives attribute marvellous powers to him1 and it is pretty certain that once he has detected a criminal no ,kikuyu has any doubt as to his guilt1 neither would they think that any man poisoned by him had been unjustly dealt with4 ,it is not very surprising that this cunning medicine man1 with his uncomfortable supernatural powers and his science of detection1 should not enjoy great popularity1 and that there should be rather a feeling of distrust between him and his people4 ,on one occasion ,kamiri volunteered to detect a case of theft of some cattle in which two men1 ,a1 a herder1 and ,b1 a man remotely suspected1 were in custody on suspicion4 ,as far as is known ,kamiri knew nothing about the case or the persons suspected4 ,having set some boys to catch lizards1 ,kamiri placed the two men before him and dabbed some white powder on their noses and on the palms of their hands4 ,the same substance was streaked on one of the lizard's heads and he then waved the gourd containing this medicine round the lizard and likewise round the suspected man4 ,he then asked ,b if he had committed the theft1 to which the man replied in the negative4 ,kamiri then held the lizard to the man's nose for some minutes1 but it made no signs4 ,next he repeated the performance with ,a1 and immediately on his denying the charge the lizard caught hold of his nostrils with its mouth4 ,this it did several times4 ,kamiri was then asked if the man was guilty4 ,he replied that he was not1 because if he had been so1 the lizard would have held on and not let go1 but he was also not innocent1 otherwise the lizard would have acted as with ,b1 and therefore he concluded that the man knew about the theft and had probably abetted it4 ,the charge was never proved against this man1 but it was almost certain that he must have had some knowledge of the theft4 ,the natives had not the smallest doubt about it after ,kamiri's decision1 and were highly surprised that ,b was not at once liberated4 ,a famous trick of ,kamiri's is to make a small sheep grow large4 ,the writer has not seen this1 but was told by a ,european that he had witnessed it and that he made the sheep swell to an enormous size4 ,one of ,kamiri's feats is related with great satisfaction by the natives4 ,kamiri once gave some medicine to a ,european in order that he should win a race1 and the story goes that the medicine worked satisfactorily4 ,so now there is a profound belief that ,kamiri's medicine1 unlike most others1 does not lose its potency with ,europeans4 ,kamiri's pupil is his son ,kithege1 who is said to be almost as practised in the arts as his father1 and he is now generally sent in his father's place when there is any distance to go4 ,kithege was seen to perform the same trick with the lizard in another case of theft4 ,this time the lizard hung on to the man's nose and remained so even when not held4 ,the man was at once pronounced to be the offender1 and even admitted himself that he had never heard of ,kamiri making a mistake before1 although he denied having committed the theft4 ,on this occasion endeavours were made to discover how the trick was done4 ,it was certainly not due to any pressure of the hand2 a trial was also made with various colours1 but with no effect4 ,seeing that the writer was sceptical1 ,kithege1 at his own suggestion1 picked out at random two men from the crowd and tried it with them1 but the lizard would not bite either of them4 ,finally the conclusion was come to that there must be some connection between the breathing of the man and the lizard's action2 possibly so long as the man breathed freely1 the lizard would not bite1 but when he held his breath or breathed strongly1 after holding it for a time1 the lizard1 for some reason1 hung to his nose4 ,the idea that a reptile will fasten on to a criminal has its parallel in the ,new ,testament1 vide ,acts xxviii4 #c-f3 8,and when the barbarians saw the venomous beast hang on to his hand they said among themselves1 ,no doubt this man is a murderer1 whom1 though he escaped the sea1 yet vengeance suffereth not to live40 ,possibly there is an idea that the reptile is really a spirit which has temporarily assumed this form4 ,it is considered impossible that a medicine man should maintain a real standing and the absolute faith of the people by mere trickery4 ,still less is it likely that a charlatan would have so much self-confidence as ,kamiri1 and therefore one is driven to the conclusion that a man such as ,kamiri must repeatedly have proved himself to be right in his detection4 ,the most successful practices in this respect will always be such as work automatically1 and the more one sees of noted medicine men the more one inclines to the idea that many of their powers are neither trickery nor mystery1 but are simply due to the nervousness or to the mental effect upon the victim or patient4 ,kithege was asked if he had any other ways of proving the man's innocence or guilt1 and he immediately expressed his readiness to try another test4 ,asked what he would do1 he announced his intention of taking the man's eye out1 and on being stopped he volunteered to put a venomous snake round the man's neck4 ,unfortunately both of these experiments entailed more risk than the confidence of the observer would permit1 although the suspected man seemed to have no apprehensions as to the danger he was running4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,miscellaneous ,,magical ,,practices ,rain ,magic 7,ukamba74--,the ,kamba have no medicine men who specialise in rain-making1 and in times of drought they pray and sacrifice at the ithembo1 or local shrine1 in the manner already described4 ,some people1 however1 pretend that by means of a certain medicine they can make rain pass by and not fall at a particular place4 ,the ingredients of this are kept very secret and are only known to a few people4 ,it is a black powder and is placed in the palm of the hand and blown in the direction of the rain storm4 ,some is also placed in the horn of an antelope and stuck in a tree4 ,it is addressed as follows3 8,you are now a man and are placed here to keep the rain away2 if you fail you stay out here in the rain and ,i will not take you back into the house1 but throw you away into the bush40 ,presumably the concept is that by these means a human1 or perhaps anthropomorphic spirit1 having the power of averting rain1 is bottled up in the horn by the potent medicine1 or it may be that the spirit is supposed to be in the medicine itself4 ,it is a pity we do not know what the medicine is composed of1 as the reasoning might be the easier to follow4 ,burglar's ,magic4--,in the author's 8,ethnology of ,a-,kamba0 an example of this in connection with the ,machakos district was given--p4 #ie4 ,the same kind of thing is evidently practised in ,kitui1 where it is said that a thief will sometimes obtain medicine from a magician and rub it on a stone4 ,he then goes to a village at night and throws it on to the thatch of a hut4 ,it is stated that he then probably waits till he hears the people say3 8,let us sleep40 ,he presently enters the hut and goes to the owner and says3 8,i have come for a cow which ,i am going to take away40 ,the owner is apparently hypnotised and unable to refuse1 for he answers3 8,take such and such a one10 and the people go on sleeping till late the next morning4 ,a neighbour calls at the village early next day1 and is surprised to find the door of the hut and of the cattle kraal open1 one or two cattle missing1 and the people still asleep4 ,women often fashion little clay images of men and hang them up in their gardens to frighten youngsters who go there to pilfer the crops2 the children believe that if they take anything they will be stricken with a thabu4 ,the elders1 however1 declare that such charms are only a sham1 as the women do not really wish to harm the children1 but only to scare them4 ,hunter's ,magic4--,if a ,kamba hunter shoots a very fat beast he must not take snuff while he is skinning it or he will be seized with diarrha4 ,elephant hunters often carry a medicine called ngatho1 of which a little is placed on each arrow before it is shot at an elephant2 it is carried in a hollow reed in the hunter's quiver4 ,the hunter must not eat or touch mutton before he returns from hunting or this medicine will prove ineffective4 ,the medicine man who concocts the medicine places it in the quiver of the hunter with his own hands1 and the quiver must not be opened till the hunter is in the presence of the elephants4 ,hunters often carry another medicine called 8nzebi10 which1 if blown in the direction of game1 prevents it from seeing the hunter4 ,in ,kitui1 if a man has made his preparations to go on a hunting expedition1 he must not cohabit with his wife the night before he starts4 ,if there is a new-comer in a hunting party and an elephant is killed1 the leader of the party will cut off the trunk and breasts of the beast before the new-comer comes up1 and hide them in the bush4 ,it is said that if this is not done the new-comer might joke about the peculiar appearance of these parts and in so doing turn their luck so that no other elephant would be killed4 ,the elephant spirit would evidently be annoyed4 ,an officer1 some time ago1 shot an elephant in ,kitui1 and two of the natives who accompanied him came up and asked if they might perform their ceremony1 the object of which was to bring him much luck and good sport4 ,he agreed1 and a goat was killed and some of the blood collected2 one of the men tasted a little of the blood1 and then each of them took a little in his mouth and ejected a few drops on the tusks of the dead elephant1 the remainder being poured out as a libation4 ,the leader or leaders of the hunting party who are termed ,a-thiani in ,ukamba and ,tha-mati in ,kikuyu can alone eat the trunk of an elephant4 ,when the hunting party returns it is the duty of the leader to sacrifice an ox and brew some beer2 the blood of the ox and the beer are mixed and poured out in the village as a libation of thanksgiving4 ,the same ceremony is observed after the sale of the ivory4 ,a man who organises successful hunts1 or proves himself a good leader of caravans to the coast1 obtains great honour among his people4 ,charms4--,the ,kikuyu people sometimes place a human skull in a tree in a garden to prevent people from stealing2 it is not quite certain whether this is believed to have any magic power4 ,they also place the clay tuyres from a smith's furnace in trees to protect gardens2 in this case they are probably trading on the dreaded magic powers of the smiths4 ,the horns of the first ox presented to a man by the father or his son-in-law are not thrown away1 but placed on the roof of the hut of his principal wife4 ,the significance of this is not very clear2 it may be done merely to commemorate the event1 but in these matters it is never safe to jump to conclusions4 ,the following observation in ,kikuyu may be classed among magical procedure4 ,a man was sued for return of some cattle which he was obliged to return4 ,on doing so1 he pulled out a few hairs from the animals' tails4 ,it appears that when certain medicine is made in the village the owner has only to pull out a few tail hairs from a beast and it will always return to his village4 ,occasionally in a ,kikuyu village the vertebra of an ox may be seen transfixed on the stick which surmounts a grain hut4 ,this is a charm to keep butterflies away from the village1 as it is believed that these insects carry sickness to the goats and sheep4 ,fear of old ,women4--,old women in ,kikuyu are much feared1 particularly those who are blind1 toothless1 and decrepit2 they are often believed to possess magic power4 ,when meeting them1 it is safer to pass by or to speak to them pleasantly4 ,if they are annoyed they may bring all sorts of ill luck4 ,being bothered one day by a number of very old women1 ,chief ,marraro and his elders were asked to send them away1 but were afraid to tell them to go1 and even many of the police dared not talk to them4 ,knots1 etc4--,when a ,kikuyu warrior goes to war he ties knots in the grass on the way1 so that he may find his enemy sleepy4 ,or again1 if he is going to visit anyone he does the same in order that he may find his friend at home4 ,if a man is at war1 it is bad for the wife to make string for a food bag 7chondo72 it is probably believed that the twisting of string would have the same deleterious effect as the tying of a knot is supposed to have on certain occasions4 ,further1 the wife must not sweep out the hut while her husband is away with a war party4 ,a zebra was shot by the writer some time ago in ,kitui1 and when the meat was brought to camp a ,kamba was observed to tie a knot in the hair of the tail2 the reason given for this was that zebras being rather subject to diarrha1 it was a good thing to tie a knot in the tail1 as the persons who eat the meat would then not be likely to suffer from this complaint4 ,in ,kitui1 also1 if two men are starting on a cattle trading expedition and one gets ahead of the other the one who is delayed plants a stick in the ground and ties grass to it1 this being supposed to delay the first man1 and1 the other passing him1 will then be able to sell his cattle first and therefore at a better price4 ,war ,medicine 7,kikuyu74--,before a young warrior departs on an expedition1 the father goes to a medicine man and obtains some medicine called njeku and smears it on his son's shield1 the object of this being to protect him from the weapons of his enemies4 ,it is said that sometimes the medicine man1 out of spite1 supplies bad medicine and the warrior will then be killed4 ,this alternative is no doubt the explanation of casualties1 and it would be interesting to know how the medicine man defends himself from the accusation of having supplied the wrong medicine4 ,if a man collects the saliva of an enemy and takes it away to a medicine man 7murogi7 who makes suitable medicine of it1 the owner becomes afflicted with a bad throat4 ,a wife must not sleep away from her village while her husband is on a journey1 nor bring a male friend to the village2 she may shave her head in his absence1 although this is barred among some tribes4 ,magical ,remedies for ,sterility4--,among the ,a-,kamba of ,ulu there are various remedies for barrenness in women4 ,the husband consults a medicine man1 who casts lots1 8piga mbau0 to find out which of the various remedies must be adopted4 ,when the proper kind of remedy has been discovered1 the husband takes his wife to the discoverer of the remedy 7ngnondu71 who administers it4 ,various remedies are in vogue1 viz3 7#a7 ,a piece of the trunk of the mumo tree is cut out and bound in the woman's bead loin band4 7#b7 ,one of the yellow fruits of a common wild weed is bound in the loin band4 ,it is called baringo1 and is probably a ,solanum4 7#c7 ,a goat is led round the woman seven times1 and the aiimu are promised a goat if she proves fertile4 7#d7 ,a goat or fowl is killed4 ,its blood is poured on the woman's head till it trickles down her back and breast4 ,she is thus supposed to derive new blood4 7#e7 ,the leather tails of her loin cloth are knotted4 ,medicine is also made from the following3 7#a7 ,two twigs of the mukengesia tree4 7#b7 ,one twig of the musumsuyia tree4 ,a branch of mulali tree sufficiently long to go round the woman's waist is then cut4 ,the woman's loin skin apron is cut into two pieces1 and a knot is tied in one of them4 ,the mulali branch is then passed round her waist and tied into a knot4 ,the twigs #a and #b are then placed to the woman's lips1 and she bites some of them and spits out the pieces three times4 ,part of this is taken and thrown on a main road for passers-by to tread on4 ,the rest is taken by the husband1 who walks in front of the woman1 dropping it for her to tread on as far as the village4 ,water in a nzele1 or half gourd1 is then drawn by the husband1 and all the men and women of the village rinse their hands in it4 ,a goat1 given by the husband1 is made to drink the water in the nzele2 it is then killed1 and the chest is taken and eaten by husband and wife4 ,the husband does not cohabit with his wife till the second night after the ceremony4 ,among the ,kikuyu if a married woman does not prove fertile a medicine man takes her to a mukeo1 mukenyia1 or muthakwa tree1 and there suffocates a mwati 7a young ewe which has not yet borne a kid72 the elders of the husband's clan take the small intestine of the mwati and twine it around the woman and the tree1 the intestine being then cut through with a sharp splinter of wood4 ,the ceremony concludes with the anointing of the woman on the forehead with castor oil1 and some fat from the carcase of the mwati is melted and poured out at the foot of the tree4 ,it was impossible to discover the exact significance of this ceremony2 it may be a form of so-called tree marriage1 a ceremony by which presumably the fertility of the tree can be given to the woman4 ,inoculation ,against ,snake ,bites4--,although these observations are classified under the heading of magic1 it is not at all clear whether the procedure adopted is based on the knowledge of prophylactic or antiseptic drugs4 ,the subject is worthy of professional investigation by a trained pathologist4 ,the author is indebted to ,mr ,g4 ,h4 ,osborne for the description of the process of inoculation for snake bites which took place in his presence at ,machakos in ,ukamba4 ,the practitioner was a young man of some twenty-five years of age1 ,waita wa ,mathendu by name2 the patient a boy of about sixteen1 called ,kaboyi wa ,kimoino--both natives of the ,iveti ,hills4 ,at the writer's request the native doctor brought specimens of the medicinal plants4 ,they consisted of3 7#a7 ,a branch of a shrub called musobi 7,kikamba74 ,this has a leaf measuring about two inches in length1 bright green on the top and a lighter shade below2 the edges are serrated but not sharp1 and the whole leaf has a velvety feel to the touch4 ,it bears a fruit which is red when ripe and which is eaten by the ,a-,kamba4 ,it is also used as medicine for colds in the head4 7#b7 ,two branches of a shrub called mthingii4 ,the leaves appear to grow on a single stem1 and are composed of some six petals on either side of the leaf stem4 ,the leaf1 full grown1 measures about one and a half inches by three quarters4 ,in the case of the first1 a piece of the stem as it stands in the ground is lightly scraped three times with a knife4 ,in the case of the second1 grains of mtama grain are thrown three times to strike the bush4 ,both are then completely dug up by the roots1 and the two roots1 the stems and leaves1 are put on the fire without water and dried completely4 ,these are the vegetable ingredients of the medicine4 ,the animal ingredients are3 7#a7 ,the heads of various kinds of snakes4 ,when a medicine man captures a snake he takes it by the neck in his right hand and passes its tail three times around and behind his waist with the left hand1 like a belt1 the third time passing its head to his left hand1 which is grasping the tail1 and then clasping neck and tail in the left hand and holding it out from his body4 ,he makes three gashes with a knife on the back of the snake's head1 just above the neck1 at the same time making a gash in the back of his left hand1 which is holding the snake's head and tail4 ,he then takes some of the blood from the gash on the back of his hand and smears it with his knife point in each of the gashes in the snake's neck4 ,the snake dies after the man's blood has been smeared on the gashes1 and its head is then severed below the gashes and put into the nzele with the vegetable ingredients4 ,these are then pounded up till the mixture becomes a pitch-like substance4 ,it is put back on the fire until thoroughly dried1 when it is ground up into a powder varying from dark grey to black in colour4 ,the medicine is now ready for use and is placed in its several receptacles4 ,the vegetable ingredients are always the same1 but as each kind of snake is treated1 each vessel holds a different kind of medicine4 ,on this occasion the doctor had only three snakes fastened up in a gourd with air holes bored into it4 ,before explaining the initial process he took them out and put the first round his neck and the second on his lap1 where it lay diversifying its position by coiling round his arm4 ,the snakes brought for inspection were3 7#a7 ,ndau 7female74--,about eighteen inches long1 dark green on the back and light green underneath4 ,it both spits and bites1 and lives mostly in trees4 ,its darts are very rapid4 7#b7 ,syomelule 7female74--,a dark grey colour on the back and light grey to light yellow below2 the pattern appeared to be almost in squares4 ,it was about two feet long and had not digested a mouse which had got half-way down4 ,it is said to be a tree snake2 it both spits and strikes1 and after striking sticks on to the bitten part4 7#c7 ,kiko 7male74--,marked like a puff adder1 black1 with a broad flat head4 ,unfortunately this one had had a slight difference with the second snake1 which had struck and killed it on the way to the station4 ,it was in the bottom of the gourd and was not visible4 ,it is said to lie on the road1 shamming death1 and rearing suddenly1 to strike at the thigh4 ,the larger ones also spit1 and are especially dangerous to people drawing water4 ,there were in all seven small gourds of powder1 each containing a mixture of the vegetable ingredient and a different kind of snake4 ,in addition to the three snakes above mentioned the gourds contained the powder made from four other kinds of snakes3 7#d7 ,nguluku4--,said to be a small1 reddish1 whip-like snake of which larger specimens have also been found living near streams2 their bite is very deadly4 7#e7 ,kimbuba 7,swahili ,bafu74--,puff adder4 7#f7 ,kisilu4--,a very black snake seldom leaving its hole in the daytime4 7#g7 ,yaitha4--,a tree snake which is very fond of taking up its residence in large birds' nests4 ,it darts down on the passer-by from a tree1 strikes the head1 and then retires again to the tree4 ,in #aijg1 one of them lived in a tree on the road to ,mumoni1 not far from ,gai1 and killed two people in a short time4 ,the ,district ,commissioner was asked to kill it1 but two ,kamba went out together and one of them killed it as it tried to strike the other4 ,this is probably a ,dendraspis4 ,the doctor takes the skin of the patient's upper palm1 just below the knuckle of the finger and thumb1 and cuts three small gashes in the skin4 ,he does this just above the upper wrist bone and upper elbow joint on the outside4 ,the tongue is also slightly gashed in places till blood is drawn4 ,the writer only saw these particular places cut1 as there was not sufficient time1 but anyone undergoing the full treatment would be cut on the top of the foot1 just above the toes1 on the upper thigh1 the buttock1 and the shoulder1 the process being repeated on the other side of the body4 ,the practitioner then pours into the palm of his left hand a little of each powder--seven kinds in this case4 ,with the first finger of the right hand he puts the mixed powder on to each of the three gashes1 then spits on the places and rubs the powder into the gashes with the second finger of his right hand4 ,the remaining portion in the palm of the left hand is licked three times off the palm by the patient's gashed tongue4 ,the doctor then carefully wipes his hands1 and1 the operation being over1 the powder is allowed to dry into the gashes4 ,to show the writer the efficacy of his medicine he took out the ,syomelule snake and put it on to the finger of the patient1 the mouth being closed over the first finger just below the nail1 where it hung for several seconds4 ,then he took it off and returned it to its receptacle4 ,one fang--the upper one--had drawn blood in the finger4 ,he then took a knife and scraped the place of the bite on the upper and lower side of the finger4 ,he said this was to scrape off the fangs of the snake4 ,no blood was drawn on the under side of the finger4 ,the patient said that the snake1 when hanging to his finger1 did not hurt him1 but that he merely felt as if his finger was being tightly pinched4 ,both the doctors and the writer's boy who were present declared that instant death was the usual result of a bite by such a snake4 ,the result of the treatment is that a person can seize hold of any snake and1 by making a circle round its head three times with the first finger of the right hand1 render it innocuous4 ,if a person sees a snake enter a clump of grass1 he walks three times round the clump1 and at the place where the snake has entered puts his hand in till he catches it by the tail4 ,he pulls it out1 and the snake strikes back4 ,he allows it to strike his hand three times1 and then seizes it by the head or neck and lets go the tail4 ,he then makes three circular passes round its head with the first finger of the right hand and the snake can no longer hurt anyone unless a person forcibly puts his fingers into its mouth4 ,it can be carried about or worn with impunity4 ,if a person who is immune spits and strikes a snake with the spittle1 the snake becomes sick and dies at once4 ,the patient was at the writer's house for quite an hour after the operation4 ,he still had the other side of the body to be operated upon4 ,he showed no signs of swelling or illness4 ,the usual price for divulging the identity of the plants and the method of concoction to a fellow tribesman is a cow and a bull4 ,for this reason the doctor brought the twigs tied up in a piece of cloth1 so that their nature was not apparent to a passer-by4 ,this inoculation may be a system of immunisation or it may be that the snakes produced for the operation had had their poisonous fangs extracted4 ,its efficacy is1 however1 implicitly believed in by the ,kamba people of these parts1 and no one who has been inoculated is known to have died from the bite4 ,it must be noted that a certain amount of formality is observed1 there being a favourite number for the magic 8passes0 and for the gashes made for inoculation4 ,another observer writing from ,kikuyu states that while standing at a particular place with some elders a snake was seen in the long grass4 ,one man commenced to feel about in the grass for the snake1 and when another man struck at it1 he picked it up alive4 ,he seemed to have absolutely no fear of snakes1 and explained that he had medicine for their bites--not to prevent bites1 but to neutralise the poison4 ,later1 he was further cross-examined and denied that he had this medicine4 ,the author also saw in ,kitui a man who professed to have no fear of snake bites4 ,this man one day walked into ,kitui ,station carrying a big puff adder 7,bitis arietans7 in his hand2 he was not holding it by the neck1 but was gripping it about eighteen inches below its head4 ,he had heard that snakes were wanted for a collection1 and had come to sell it4 ,after the puff adder had been safely disposed of1 he pointed out two deep scratches1 not punctures1 bleeding freely1 at the base of his thumb and produced a black powder1 some of which he rubbed on the wounds and some of which he placed on his tongue and swallowed4 ,the wounds were inflicted by the adder4 ,this man accompanied the writer for a ten days' journey1 and during that time caught various live snakes4 ,his general procedure was to lie down and put his arm into the recesses of a white ant nest which is a very favourite shelter for snakes during the heat of the day2 he would feel about and sometimes extract a snake4 ,the idea of feeling about in a dark hole in a district where cobras1 puff adders1 and other poisonous snakes are common1 made one shudder4 ,but nothing untoward happened1 and he suffered no ill effects from his scratches by the puff adder's fangs4 ,he was asked what the black powder was made of1 and produced about six plants1 the roots of which1 when dried1 charred and ground up1 were said to constitute the antidote4 ,it was1 however1 not possible at the time to identify the plants4 ,,part ,,iii ,,miscellaneous ,,introductory ,in this section a variety of matters1 many of which have a bearing on the beliefs of the people1 but which cannot be legitimately placed under either ,religion or ,magic1 are dealt with4 ,the section dealing with the constitution of the people shows how the council of elders grades into the primitive priesthood4 ,a chapter on ,kikuyu dances is included1 and for this the author has to thank the ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas4 ,many of these dances take place either at planting time or near the harvest1 and also at marriages1 and undoubtedly come under the class of fertility ceremonies4 ,they may thus be considered to come under the heading of either ,religion or ,magic1 although it is not always possible to say to which they belong4 ,a chapter has been added on the position of women in tribal organisation1 and this subject is particularly recommended to future investigators4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,constitution ,,and ,,working ,,of ,,councils ,,among ,,the ,,kikuyu ,according to the natural organisation of the ,kikuyu tribe every youth1 as he grows up1 gradually passes through the various grades of tribal life4 ,he commences as a kihe1 an uncircumcised boy1 and after circumcision becomes a mwanake1 and finally a muthuri4 ,he has to be initiated1 step by step1 into each grade according to the ritual of the tribe1 and payment has to be made for entry into each stage4 ,the procedure and rites with regard to circumcision have been dealt with elsewhere1 and we now have to consider entry into the higher grades4 ,when a father considers that his son is old enough1 he agrees to his marriage1 and after marriage1 when he is the father of a child1 he becomes eligible for eldership4 ,when the father thinks the time has come1 he provides the son with a goat to present to the council of elders for his initiation into the grade4 ,the elders cannot refuse to admit him to the lowest grade1 and at their next meeting the initiation takes place4 ,the goat is first strangled1 and a knife is then driven into its chest and the blood collected in a pot4 ,the senior elders take a sip of the blood1 and the candidate also drinks a little4 ,the following portions of the carcase are then set apart1 viz41 the ribs1 a piece of the meat of a leg called ruhongi1 a piece of the small intestine1 one of the small stomach1 ngorima1 and one of liver4 ,two athamaki1 or full elders of council1 take these portions and roast them before a fire2 they are then brought to the hut of the candidate and handed over to his wife1 or1 if he has more than one1 to the senior wife1 who places them on a kind of shelf1 called thegi1 near the bed1 and they are afterwards eaten by the man4 ,the wife then gives the elders a half gourd1 njeli1 of gruel and a portion of cooked pigeon pea1 njahe4 ,the elders eat a little of this and the remainder is given to the candidate4 ,this ceremonial meal appears to be in the nature of an oath4 ,the man is then called a muthuri ya mburi imwe1 viz41 an elder of one goat4 ,a little later on he presents another goat to the elders and becomes an elder of two goats1 muthuri ya mburi igiri2 and then again1 he presents a third goat and becomes an elder of three goats1 muthuri ya imburi itatu4 ,no particular ceremony attends the presenting of the second or third goats4 ,after a due time has elapsed the man can apply to the senior council to be admitted to that body4 ,as a rule his entry is not refused1 but it is said that he cannot demand admittance to this grade without the approval of its elders4 ,he pays a fourth goat as entrance fee1 and the same ceremony as for the lower grade elder of one goat is gone through4 ,he then has to pay a fine thenge1 or male goat1 which counts as two ordinary goats1 whereupon the elders reveal to him the secret matters of their grade and instruct him in the procedure of the council4 ,they also invest him with his staff of office1 the mithegi1 and hand him the bunch of sacred leaves1 mutathia 7,clausena anisata and also ,clausena inaequalis71 and he is then a fully fledged elder of council and is called muthuri ya imburi nne or ithano1 elder of four or five goats1 as the case may be1 and is entitled to be called muthamaki1 which may be translated as magistrate or judge1 or one who is entitled to try cases4 ,ordinary elders are allowed to carry a bunch of leaves of mutathia 7,clausena inaequalis1 also ,c4 anisata71 but until they become ukuru1 they cannot carry the leaves of muturanguru 7,vernonia sp474 ,it is now necessary to consider the functions of the various grades4 ,there are two councils1 or kiamas3 kiama cha kamatimo and kiama cha athamaki4 ,the council whose legal powers are recognised by ,government is the kiama cha athamaki4 ,the following table shows how these councils are composed3 ,,name ,,of ,,councils ,,composed ,,of ,kiama cha kamatimo ,athuri cha imburi imwe 11 11 igiri 11 11 itatu ,kiama cha athamaki 11 11 nne 11 ithano ,athuri ya ukuru4 ,the members of the kiama cha kamatimo have no judicial power2 they attend at a meeting of the council but do not sit with the athamaki2 they are grouped at some little distance1 the word1 in fact1 meaning those who sit away4 ,this body generally correspond to the kisuka of the ,a-,kamba4 ,the kiama cha athamaki actually means those who adjudicate or settle cases4 ,the term athuri ya kiama1 elders of council1 is generally understood to refer only to the elders of the kiama cha athamaki4 ,the athuri ya ukuru still remain members of the kiama cha athamaki1 but when they reach this grade1 as years go by1 they generally take a less active part in judicial matters1 although they are always called upon to settle knotty points of tribal law and custom4 ,when a man becomes a muthuri ya ukuru he assumes more definite priestly functions1 and becomes responsible for the proper conduct of the periodical sacrifices at the sacred trees4 ,when such a sacrifice is made the athuri ya ukuru are alone privileged to eat half of the head and the kidneys of the sacrificed ram4 ,in the same way when a sheep is brought to the kiama as a judicial fee1 it is eaten by the elders present1 and the ukuru1 if they happen to be there1 claim the head and the kidneys1 which1 according to custom1 they pass on to the small boys of the village4 ,when an elder enters the grade of ukuru he can wear in his ears the flat discs of brass-wire known as ichui4 ,in former times1 one of the duties of the ukuru was to summon the kiama for the discussion of questions of national importance4 ,the elders of ukuru also decide the date of the circumcision feasts1 and other similar questions4 ,it is also the function of the ukuru of the tribe to settle when the time has arrived for the holding of the great itwika feast1 in which the generation changes from ,mwangi to ,maina1 or vice vers4 ,as a general rule the athamaki are men advanced in years1 but there is no fixed rule as to this2 many are middle-aged or younger4 ,occasionally one may see quite a young man1 practically a youth1 among the elders4 ,the elders explained this as follows3 the election to the muthamaki grade lies entirely with the athamaki2 if they see a young man whose prudence and knowledge has impressed them favourably1 they may elect him into their grade2 further1 the family of a muthamaki should always be represented in this grade1 and therefore if one dies and leaves no near relation other than a young man1 they will elect his son or brother in his place even if he is quite a youth4 ,such elections are1 of course1 rare and are only mentioned in case these exceptions should be noticed4 ,they are more frequently found among the ,a-,kamba1 as the ithembo1 or sacred places1 are inherited from father to son1 and the owner of an ithembo must always have his place among the elders of ithembo1 who correspond to the athuri ya ukuru among the ,a-,kikuyu4 ,if an elder behaves improperly while occupying the position of elder1 or commits a serious breach of tribal custom1 his fellows threaten to curse him with their staves and sacred plants1 and he stands in such awe of this that he will appear before the elders and beg forgiveness1 bringing with him a ram or male goat as a sign of his good intent4 ,he will then be ceremonially purified1 tahikia4 ,initiation into the ,ukuru ,grade of ,elders 7,kikuyu74--,when a muthuri1 or elder1 becomes old he generally aspires to a higher grade called the ukuru1 but cannot enter it until all his children have been circumcised4 ,some1 however1 never become members of the ukuru grade2 the consent of the other members of the grade is necessary and they do not approve of a candidate who is not well endowed with worldly goods1 or1 again1 prospective candidates may be considered unlucky4 ,when an elder wishes to become a muthuri ya ukuru he prepares a supply of beer and invites all the elders of that grade from the surrounding neighbourhood2 if they agree to his admission they assemble and ceremonially spit on him4 ,a day is then fixed for the formal initiation1 and a larger gathering of elders of various grades assembles4 ,the candidate has to present formally to the elders of the grade what is called njahe1 and at the ceremony at which the writer was present this consisted of3 #d gourds of honey-beer4 #d gourds of sugar-cane beer4 #d gourds of gruel made from kimanga and mawele meal all mixed together4 #d bowls of cooked njahe or pigeon pea4 ,numerous bowls of cooked sweet potatoes4 ,a bullock and ram were also provided for the guest4 ,the first thing to be settled was to which elders the various parts of the beasts should be given2 this goes by seniority4 ,the head of the bullock went to the senior1 two forelegs and chest to the next1 the left hind leg to the next1 the hide to the next1 and the right hind leg to the candidate4 ,this being decided1 the candidate presented each of the most senior elders with a gourd of the different beers and each kind of food4 ,the candidate then presented the principal wife of the senior elder with a gourd of beer and food4 ,the senior elder brought forth a horn of beer1 took a sip and spilt a tiny drop into his left breast and then offered it to the candidate who took a sip and ceremonially spat into his left breast4 ,the senior elder's wife did the same1 offering the beer to the candidate's wife4 ,the food was then divided among the other elders1 who gathered round and drank beer4 ,after this1 various elders made speeches welcoming the candidate into the grade and prayed to ,engai to look favourably on him1 his wives being also mentioned with the hope that they might be fruitful4 ,the animals are then slaughtered1 the following portions being selected3 ,the heart of the ram--ngora4 ,lungs1 a portion of--mahuri4 ,intestines1 a portion of--wei4 ,spleen1 a portion of--weriungu4 ,loins1 a piece from--ruduithi4 ,rump1 a piece from--ruhongi4 ,ribs1 portion of--kengeto4 ,colon--ngorima4 ,kidneys of bullock--hiyo4 ,the ngorima is cut out and the end tied up2 it is then filled with blood from the ram and bits of meat4 ,the mromo waiyu1 or big stomach of the ram1 is filled with bits of meat and fat and tied up4 ,all these are cooked1 and when ready are taken inside the hut of the senior elder and only a chosen few of the ukuru are allowed inside2 on this particular occasion only eight were admitted4 ,the senior elder bites a small piece out of the ram's heart and spits out a bit to the right and left as an offering to the ngoma1 or ancestral spirits1 and the candidate does the same4 ,the next senior elder eats the kengeto4 ,the mahuri and ngorima are given to the senior wife of the host by the senior wife of the candidate4 ,a little honey beer was then brought into the hut1 and the candidate was presented with one of the black staves which only elders are allowed to carry1 and also the bunch of sacred leaves known as muturanguru 7,vernonia sp474 ,the leaves are tied together with the fibre from the mukeo bush4 ,the candidate took hold of the staff and the leaves1 and the senior elder drank a little sip of the beer and ceremonially spat on the leaves saying 8,aroendwo na kiama0--8,may you be well liked by the council of elders40 ,this was a kind of blessing which may be likened to the blessing which accompanies the 8laying on of hands40 ,the ceremony inside the hut was then over1 and all the elders outside indicated its conclusion by taking a sip of beer and spitting a little on to their right breasts4 ,the meat was then divided and cooked1 and the company settled down to the feast of meat and beer4 ,procedure in ,pre-administration ,times4--,the procedure in former times seems not to have differed greatly from that followed nowadays in regard to the form of trial4 ,it is said that the elders of mburi imwe1 igiri and itatu used to sit separately1 according to their rank1 instead of together as they seem to do now1 but it is doubtful if this custom was religiously observed4 ,the whole procedure was1 of course1 less organised than at present4 ,there appear to have been no fixed councils or meeting places1 which is easily explained by the fact that there were no defined locations4 ,if two men had a case1 they each called a few elders1 who met to judge the case2 others came and joined in1 partly out of interest in the affair and partly because the elders1 on the whole1 delight in litigation4 ,certain cases became of general interest or may have affected the whole country1 and then the council would probably comprise most of the elders from far and wide4 ,it is certain that the elders could exercise considerable authority when they chose1 as already described1 but the object of the council was primarily to arbitrate in disputes and to point out the recognised custom to be followed4 ,where an offence affected the whole community1 or when an accused was regarded as an habitual and dangerous offender1 public indignation might be so strong that the affair would appear as a public concern1 and the elders would then use their full authority4 ,ordinarily differences between two men1 however1 were considered to be their own affair1 and if a man would not give what was due by custom1 the claimant was expected to use force1 although in such cases he was held liable for any damage done in using such means4 ,the elders were1 however1 always able to enforce a judgment by cursing an accused found guilty if he refused to obey the judgment against him1 but probably this was only done in very serious cases where public feeling ran high4 ,hence1 probably1 the many ancient feuds and the intense desire to increase the strength of the family4 ,had public authority been very strong and efficient this would not have been considered of such importance4 ,the presumption that the elders were regarded more in the light of arbitrators than judges is strongly supported by the fact that even to-day some elders appear to be adverse to deciding questions of fact4 ,the mere appearance of a defendant before the council would seem to have implied his liability2 even now it is difficult at times to induce a native to appear before either the council or a court if he maintains that the charge is entirely groundless or false4 ,present-,day ,procedure4--,in each locality there is a gazetted council1 or kiama1 which meets at the council house situated near the headman's village2 a special flag is hoisted to tell the people that there is a meeting4 ,until now the kiama has met whenever there has been a case to try1 but this has proved a great evil1 as a few elders are hastily collected and the large majority object to going to the councils too frequently4 ,the councils have therefore mostly been composed of elders living in the vicinity of the chief's village4 ,it is now arranged that the meetings shall1 if possible1 be on fixed days1 and not more than three or four times a month1 and the improvement in consequence has been most marked4 ,the athamaki for each locality are now registered1 and it has been agreed that at each meeting at least half1 or in large localities1 one quarter1 of their number must be present4 ,hitherto it has been customary for the headman to summon the defendants through his askaris1 or retainers1 but now that each elder has been entrusted with the charge of a certain number of huts1 it has been agreed that the parties shall in the first instance be summoned by their respective athamaki4 7,in ,s4 ,kikuyu each muthamaki will have1 on an average1 twenty-five huts under his charge47 ,as a general rule the elders prefer to sit outside the council house2 this is a good rule1 as it ensures publicity to the proceedings1 and publicity is also the object of native law4 ,the athamaki sit in front and the other elders1 the kamatimo1 behind2 only women and anake1 or young unmarried men1 are barred from sitting on the general council4 ,the fee paid to the elders varies greatly according to the means of the parties and the matter in dispute4 ,it would be advisable to see a fixed fee instituted1 but the elders should make this change of their own accord4 ,when the parties appear1 they come before the elders of athamaki in turn and state their cases2 the plaintiff as a rule begins4 ,witnesses are sometimes called1 but the parties repeatedly appear before the athamaki to contradict or correct the opponents' statements4 ,the elders generally keep count of the articles in dispute by breaking twigs2 if1 as is usual1 part of the claim is admitted1 the twigs representing what is admitted are put aside4 ,having heard all that the parties have to say the elders of athamaki then retire alone to discuss the question and settle it 7this conference is called ndundu74 ,they do not1 however1 all go1 and any elders who are relatives of the parties are excluded2 this is1 of course1 very equitable4 ,the gazetted headmen never appear to go with these elders1 but are sometimes called and consulted by them4 ,the discussion between the elders is conducted so that it is not heard by anyone else2 they are hardly ever known to break up without coming to an agreement4 ,having decided what it is to be1 they break twigs representing the amount to be paid or any imprisonment imposed4 ,one of them repeats what each twig represents1 while the rest give their assent in chorus4 ,two of the senior members then stand up and invoke poverty1 sickness1 and calamity upon those who disobey their orders1 and to this the rest again assent in chorus4 ,after this1 all beat their sticks on the ground1 repeating much the same phrases1 and finally they bring their staves together on the ground1 so that the points meet1 while they give a peculiar sort of whoop indicating that they have agreed4 ,they then return to the general council1 and one of the most senior among them1 carrying the twigs1 asks in varying terms if they have agreed1 to which they assent in chorus4 ,the elders then state what each twig represents1 and finally throws his staff or club on the earth4 ,one case was recently witnessed in which the elders came to a decision without adjourning at all4 ,as a general rule they are loth to decide facts1 and if such are in dispute1 or either party appears to be lying1 the decision will simply be that both parties must take the oath of muma4 ,the investigation is generally most searching2 if the subject is some hurt done they will not be satisfied until they have examined and probed the wounds4 ,no questions are asked as to dates and time1 these being considered of minor importance4 ,the elders will not recognise that a claim has been paid unless it was made good before a kiama1 and this is the only proof that it was paid4 ,natives will therefore not pay debts out of court1 as it were1 and this principle is often erroneously taken to mean that they will not pay debts at all unless forced to4 ,if the council imposes a fine1 it is paid to the ,government4 ,in almost all cases1 however1 a goat or two must be paid to the elders1 who are allowed to keep them on the understanding that such fines must be consumed by them4 ,as was previously mentioned1 in former times many of the judgments were not executed until force was used by the plaintiff and his kin4 ,the fear of revenge must1 indeed1 have been the chief preventative of crime1 as it has been at all times before the ,state became the public avenger4 ,mere compensation could certainly not have acted as a deterrent to crime any more than it could to-day4 ,we have therefore1 in reinstituting the settlement of crimes by payment of compensation only1 not made adequate provision for the prevention of crime1 nor have we been able to revive fully the old native organisation by leaving out the fear of private revenge4 ,the councils are1 it is believed1 gradually realising that crime will not be effectually checked by awards of compensation only2 the right of private revenge has been abolished4 ,it would therefore seem that the infliction of imprisonment by councils is at times a necessity if peace and good order is to prevail1 but stringent supervision by ,government will1 of course1 be necessary for a long time to come4 ,constitution and ,working of ,councils among the ,a-,kamba of ,kitui4--,the male ,mu-,kamba from birth to death passes through most of the following grades3 ,kana4--7a7 ,kahengi1 an unweaned child2 7b7 ,kabisi1 a weaned child able to walk4 ,the generic name is1 however1 kana4 ,these distinctions would really only amount to our describing children as being in long clothes or short4 ,kivizi or ,kivisi4--,a boy old enough to herd goats1 but who has not been circumcised4 ,kamwana4--,a circumcised boy who is old enough to dance at ngomas1 but not reached the age of puberty4 ,mwanake 7plural--,anake74--,a young man who has reached the age of puberty1 dances at ngomas1 and has joined the warrior class4 ,he may be married and have children4 ,nthele 7plural--,anthele74--,a married man with children who has ceased to dance at ngomas4 ,he pays a fee of one to three goats to the anthele on being promoted from the anake grade1 part of the meat going to the anthele and part to the anake4 ,it is said that an oath1 kithito1 has to be taken with the blood4 ,a mwanake may be of any age and must remain in that group until he has been admitted among the anthele4 ,ngila4--,this does not appear to be a regular grade1 but is merely a war title4 ,no initiation seems to be necessary4 ,an ngila is one of the advanced guard in war1 and his portion of meat is the lower part of the leg4 ,it does not seem necessary that he should be even an nthele4 ,mwamba in ,kitui1 and ,kiauu in ,machakos1 is also a war title4 ,the bearer forms part of the rear-guard1 whose duty it is to keep off the enemy while the ngila escape with the booty4 ,his portion is the rump and upper part of the leg4 ,an nthele next enters the grade of atumia ya kisuka1 elders of kisuka1 and has to pay ten goats4 ,as a matter of fact they generally pay one bullock1 which is the recognised equivalent1 but the fee is always quoted in goats1 the ,a-,kamba probably having nothing but goats when the procedure was evolved4 ,the fee is divided among the members of the kisuka and the elders of nzama1 which is the next higher grade4 ,although a man enters this grade1 it must not be inferred that the kisuka is a council which still exists4 ,the duty of the elders of kisuka is to deal with a kingnoli palaver2 that is to say1 the communal execution of a person who has been proved to their satisfaction to have killed a number of people by witchcraft1 poison and so forth4 ,the practice corresponds in a measure to the stoning of ,stephen by the people described in ,acts vii4 #eg-fj4 ,the people undoubtedly looked upon this man as a strange and harmful magician1 and their point of view is quite comprehensible4 ,they also assembled on the occasion of a ,masai raid to draw up a plan of campaign1 another of their functions being to arrange a peace palaver in case of serious internal fighting4 ,the grade takes its name from the meat they ate on the occasion of such meetings4 ,the next grade is mutumia ya nzama 7plural1 atumia ya nzama71 elders of the nzama1 and for the privilege of entering this grade a man has to pay one bullock and ten goats4 ,its members are the arbiters of private disputes1 the assessors of damages1 and the witnesses of the payment of bridal price and ordinary debts1 and are thus the archives of the tribe and the registrars of transactions4 ,a man enters this grade by invitation of the members of the council1 and must have proved himself a man of sound judgment4 ,his age does not matter1 but he must be married and a father to be eligible either as a member of the council of the anthele or of the nzama4 ,at a feast the portion of meat allotted to him is the head1 the back1 and1 if a bullock is killed1 the rump4 ,the next1 or final grade1 is that of atumia ya ithembo1 elders of ithembo1 often just referred to as ithembo1 to which there is no specific entrance fee1 as the selection is made by the other elders of the grade4 ,the candidate1 however1 invariably makes a present to the other elders after his election1 as a compliment for the honour done him1 the usual payment1 according to the statement of one elder1 being four goats4 ,the bullock which an elder has to pay to enter the grade of nzama is also said not to be a fee but a thank-offering to the elders for his election4 ,the atumia ya ithembo claim the tail as their portion of a feast4 ,their duties are mainly sacerdotal2 they arrange and carry out the sacrifices at the ithembo1 or sacred place1 in times of drought1 pestilence1 planting of crops1 and they are responsible for the proper carrying out of burial customs and village offerings to the spirits4 ,in times of national crisis their advice is sought1 but they do not ordinarily sit and hear cases dealing with private disputes4 ,the rise of a ,kamba native from one social grade to another depends3 7#a7 ,on his supposed fitness for the position1 this being decided by the members of the grade he can enter1 and an invitation to join is necessary4 7#b7 ,on the ability of the candidate to pay the fees4 ,when a case is brought before the council of elders1 nzama1 any of the male population can be present1 but can only listen to the evidence and cannot interfere in the proceedings4 ,the evidence is generally taken by one man on behalf of the council2 he conducts the examination and cross-examines1 and if other members of the court wish to put questions1 it is generally done through the presiding elder4 ,the ,government ,chief1 or ,gazetted ,headman1 who is really foreign to the organisation1 does not generally sit with the nzama2 he sits apart4 ,the nzama is really a court for the settlement of questions of law or custom4 ,should the evidence on matters of fact differ materially1 the only way1 with the exception of very obvious cases1 is for the litigants to take the native oath 7kula kithito71 which is supposed to bring most dire consequences on the perjurer4 ,a litigant who refuses to take the oath is out of court1 and judgment goes against him4 ,the results of the oath are supposed to take effect within six months or a year1 and should the litigant who has taken the oath survive the period1 the case is given in his favour4 ,only one party and his witnesses are allowed to take the oath4 ,as cattle are generally involved in the case1 the cattle in dispute are generally placed with some respected headman or elder until the effects of the oath are known4 ,the elders of the nzama retire to consider their verdict1 and no members of the tribe below that rank are admitted to the consultation4 ,the council generally sits in a circle4 ,the ,government ,chief has in recent years assumed the duty of ,executive ,officer to carry out the judgment of the nzama1 and in many cases in ,ukamba has1 at times1 arrogated to himself a certain amount of revisionary power4 ,disputes between members of the same family rarely come before the council1 but are settled by the head of the family4 ,enforcement of ,orders of the ,council4--,formerly obedience would be enforced by any sentence1 up to that of a death penalty4 ,at the present day obedience has in some cases to be enforced by ,government4 ,the successful litigant could enforce the payment awarded by court by seizing the defendant or members of his family4 ,in connection with this inquiry it is of some interest to analyse the functions of two special grades of elders among the ,kamba1 i4e41 atumia ya makwa 7elders of makwa7 and atumia ya ukuu 7elders of ukuu74 ,it must first of all be clearly understood that these titles have no connection with the ranks of atumia ya nzama 7elders of council7 in whose hands the judicial functions are vested4 ,the members of the highest grade of this rank are termed the atumia ya ithembo 7elders of the shrine71 both of these ranks being part of the natural career of the head of a family of any standing in the tribe4 ,the elders of makwa and ukuu are1 however1 more comparable to positions which are attained by successful medical specialists4 ,a man may become one or the other1 or he may be both4 ,of the two branches the elders of ukuu are considered the more important2 on the other hand1 it is said to be more difficult to become a successful elder of makwa4 ,these branches of practice must not be confused with the profession of medicine man1 which is quite distinct4 ,a man can only become a medicine man if he is in direct communication with the aiimu1 or ancestral spirits4 ,the function of a mutumia ma makwa 7elder of makwa7 is to avert the evil consequences of the incidence of a thabu or makwa2 the functions of a mutumia ma ukuu is to ward off death itself4 ,the former uses ceremonial and lustrates by means of various herbs1 from which he concocts the ngnondu or purifying reagents4 ,the latter 7ukuu7 uses spells which have a magical value only1 and gives directions4 ,the qualification which enables a man to become a mutumia ma makwa 7elder of makwa7 is that one of his wives shall have died under circumstances which may leave a curse or thabu4 ,he must then at once consult an elder of makwa1 who performs certain purification ceremonies4 ,if these are not performed the children of the deceased will become afflicted with thabu or makwa4 ,if the ceremonies are successful the husband is considered to be initiated as an elder of makwa2 if1 however1 he wishes to practise the art1 he must set to work to obtain experience1 as the ceremonial necessary to cure the many forms of makwa is very varied1 and a wide knowledge of the various herbs employed is necessary4 ,in the case of a mutumia ma ukuu 7elder of ukuu7 the necessary qualification is a series of deaths in the family within a short period4 ,he can then go to another elder of ukuu1 pay fees and be initiated in the secrets of the art--the fee is usually one or two bullocks2 his duties are to remove the curse due to murders1 accidental deaths1 and remove the curse of death from a family which has been afflicted by an unusual number of deaths4 ,he does not perform purification ceremonial1 but lays down certain procedure which has to be followed by the applicant4 ,he may be compared to the consulting physician who gives certain advice1 such as a particular diet1 and leaves the patient to follow it or not as he likes4 ,the prescription sometimes1 for instance1 takes the form of a direction to have conjugal intercourse at a particular season4 ,the final degree which he reaches in old age is called mutumia ma ithembo 7elder of the shrine71 and his duty then is to offer the sacrifices at the sacred grove or ithembo4 ,among the ,kamba tribe the members of this grade take but little part in the affairs of the tribe1 but in ,kikuyu the athuri ya ukuu form a tribal court of appeal 7the word ukuu in ,kikuyu has a different significance from ukuu in ,ukamba and merely means 8great or senior074 ,if an elder of ithembo becomes so old as to fall into his dotage1 and has a son who is qualified to take his place1 the son is often elected in his stead4 ,if1 however1 a mutumia ma nzama 7elder of council7 is married to a wife who is a magician1 and who can instruct him in certain matters connected with the ritual of the shrine1 he can approach much nearer to the sacred grove than the ordinary elder of nzama1 but cannot actually go up to the place of sacrifice--the elders of ithembo only being privileged to do so4 ,elders of ithembo are very few in number2 there are rarely more than two for each grove4 ,the above practice is prevalent among the ,kamba of ,ulu4 ,the ,kitui customs may possibly vary somewhat4 ,the author is greatly indebted to the late ,hon4 ,k4 ,dundas for assistance in making these matters clear4 ,curse for ,disobedience to a ,judgment by the ,court of ,elders4--,in connection with the history of the operation of the thahu in ,kikuyu one point is worthy of notice4 ,if a person has been one of the parties in a suit before the kiama1 or council of elders1 and refuses to pay the necessary compensation1 the elders can lay a curse or thahu on him4 ,the procedure is as follows3 they assemble at one of their recognised meeting places and then mass together1 beating their long staves on the ground in unison1 calling out1 8,we curse you on the mithegi2 the person who disobeys the order of the kiama shall be cursed40 ,mithegi is the name of the staves carried by old men1 the name coming from the wood they are made of4 ,no elder goes to a council without his staff4 ,the offender need not be present1 but it is believed that the curse forthwith begins to take effect4 ,to remove the curse the offender then goes to the elders and begs to be allowed to pay the amount of the judgment4 ,this is done1 and in addition he brings a sheep2 the elders then say1 8,go back home1 bring some beer1 and the day after to-morrow we will come and spit on you40 ,they assemble at his village on the appointed day and the offender gives another sheep1 which is killed outside the gate of the village2 the purpose of this is to purify the village1 ku-thirura muchi1 and the meat is carried round the confines of the huts4 ,the elders then each take a little of the sheep's fat and rub it on their staves1 saying1 8,we are glad that the man who defied our orders has now obeyed it2 we cursed him through our mithegi1 but we now smear our mithegi with fat1 as a sign that we and our mithegi are glad1 and there is now nothing to be feared1 for we have come to cleanse you and your village from evil40 ,the elders then assemble in a circle with the man and his family in the middle1 and one of the elders anoints the tongue of each individual of the family with a spot of ira1 or white earth1 and the elders then ceremonially spit on the offender and each of his family1 and depart4 ,the same belief occurs in ,ukamba1 and the nzama1 or council of elders1 can inflict a curse upon a man for disregard of its orders2 if he is still recalcitrant it is said to be potent enough to kill him and all the people of his village in a short time4 ,the elders impose this curse1 called kutuu1 by all clapping their hands together4 ,the effect of the curse can be averted if the man obeys and the elders forgive him2 as in ,kikuyu1 however1 he has to pay a fee of a goat1 and the elders assemble and ceremonially spit on the culprit to neutralise the curse4 ,the removal of this curse is called ka-athimwa or ka-musia by the ,a-,kamba4 ,sometimes1 however1 in ,kikuyu a defiant tribesman was beaten with staves1 or his village was burnt1 and in extreme cases he was ordered to be killed and his property was confiscated4 ,if he was executed by judicial order1 he had to be killed by his blood kin1 so that no claim for blood money should lie4 ,the procedure consists either in strangling the culprit with a rope1 choking him by clasping his throat kuita1 or killing him by blows delivered with the handle of an axe4 ,it was also considered right to drive a man out of his tribe if he proved himself an undesirable2 this may be done even now1 in which case he is allowed to take his property with him4 ,summary4--,the preceding review of the organisation of the councils of elders1 and the functions exercised by them1 show how1 in the first place1 the elders are merely administrators of tribal law or arbiters as to what is right and proper according to the tribal code2 secondly1 how they eventually acquire a sacerdotal position4 ,the memories of the elders are also the archives of the tribe as well as the unwritten records of tribal law and tribal observances4 ,if a debt of any importance is paid1 it is generally done in the presence of one or more elders1 and the matter is then settled without the necessity of any receipt or quittance4 ,it is sometimes assumed by reformers that the elders are nothing more than useless encumbrances1 and every district officer wishes they were more progressive4 ,they certainly have their faults1 and in some tribes the faults almost overshadow the more useful qualities4 ,on the other hand1 we may be rather over anxious to push things along1 and we are apt to expect a tribe to jump into a higher cultural plane in too short a time4 ,we forget too easily that reform must come from within1 and that the inner consciousness of a tribe changes slowly4 ,a veneer applied on the surface is always thin1 and is unlikely to wear4 ,to illustrate this organisation it may be interesting to refer to the account of the ,druids of ,britain1 about #ee ,b4,c41 left to us by ,csar2 these functionaries apparently performed very much the same duties as those of the present-day elders of the ithembo in ,kikuyu and ,ukamba2 in the case of these tribes1 however1 the line between ordinary people and the priestly caste does not seem to be as sharply marked as it was in ,britain4 ,csar in ,bell4 ,gall4 vi4 #ac-ad writes as follows3 8,among the ,celts there are only two classes held in consideration and honour1 the ,knights 7equites7 and the ,druids4 ,the latter are concerned with all things divine1 manage the public and private sacrifices1 interpret sacred omens and religious scruples4 7,n4,b4--,this is identical with the duties of the athuri ya ukuru as regards thahu1 etc474 ,for they make decisions on almost all disputes1 both private and public1 and if a crime is committed1 e4g41 a murder1 or if a lawsuit arises concerning heritages or disputed boundaries1 it is they who give judgment4 ,they name the compensation and assess the penalty1 and if any private person will not accept their award they interdict him from taking part in the sacrifice4 ,this is the heaviest punishment they can impose4 ,persons thus placed under interdict are held impious and accursed2 men quit their company and avoid meeting them or speaking to them lest they may come to harm from the contagion of the wicked40 ,all this has a peculiarly ,african flavour1 and with slight amendment might refer to the constitution of a modern ,african tribe on the same level of civilisation as the ,kikuyu or ,kamba people4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,laws ,,of ,,compensation ,,for ,,murder ,it is a matter of great importance1 from an administrative point of view1 that these should be properly understood1 as a murder is otherwise likely to create a hereditary feud between the two families1 which will eventually lead to fresh crimes4 ,kikuyu4--,in ,kikuyu1 for instance1 until the ceremonial has all been properly carried out1 no member of the family of the murdered man can eat food out of the same dish or drink beer with any member of the family of the murderer4 ,in ,ukamba it is believed that unless the matter is properly adjusted according to the law 7their law7 the members of the family of the murderer will continually be involved in quarrels which are likely to end by one of them killing his neighbour1 and conversely the members of the family of the murdered man become involved in quarrels and are liable to be killed in the same way as their relation4 ,if one tries to look at the matter from their point of view it appears to be this3 there is a bad spirit or muimu about1 belonging to an ancestor2 it enters into a man and the result is that the next time he quarrels with a neighbour he kills him4 ,this spirit may continue to possess that person1 or it may go on to another member of that family with the same result4 ,in the same way the muimu of the deceased1 the murdered man1 influences the aiimu in the bodies of all the members of his family and makes them afraid4 ,they know that this death-dealing spirit is abroad1 and the members of the family are more liable to be killed if they become entangled in a broil4 ,thus both families are anxious that this state of affairs should cease and that the troublesome spirit be appeased and laid to rest4 ,the explanation just given may or may not be the final interpretation1 but the fact remains that it is considered a vital necessity that the ceremonies necessary to close the trouble caused in a tribe by a murder should be carried out according to the law of the tribe1 and only by the observance of the proper ritual can the avenging spirit be appeased4 ,in ,south ,kikuyu there are only two persons qualified to perform these ceremonies3 ,gachii wa ,kihara and ,juguna wa ,kihara1 both sons of a great elder and chief named ,kihara1 of the ,anjiru clan1 upon whom those duties devolved4 ,the office is apparently hereditary4 ,the ceremonies are called ,kugira uhio wa kuria mundu1 which means 8,to carry the man who was killed10 and the word mugiro1 derived from ku-gira1 is also used in this connection4 ,of course1 the payment of compensation has now been abrogated by ,government1 and the death penalty imposed in its place according to our law1 so that the functions of the elders mentioned have of late years been confined to the supervision of the ceremonies which have magical or religious significance4 ,the description of the affair1 however1 which was obtained from ,gachii himself1 takes no cognisance of the amendment caused by the substitution of the 8lex talionis0 for the old principle of 8wergild0 or compensation4 ,the procedure runs as follows3 soon after the murder had occurred the father of the murderer summoned ,gachii or ,juguna to his village1 and whichever of these elders attended took with him eight athuri ya ukuu 7elders of appeal71 and the first object of their mission was to stop any fighting between the young men of the two parties4 ,they remained at the village1 and the father of the murderer then collected seventy goats and sent them to the father of the murdered man1 and a bullock and a male sheep to the mother of the deceased4 ,this bullock is important2 it is called ndegwa muhiriga or njiga migwe1 that is the 8ox for the clan0 or the 8ox of the arrows10 which represents a peace offering to the clan1 and prevents the clan of the deceased taking out their arrows to avenge their brother4 ,two days later thirty goats were collected and sent to the father of the deceased4 ,the compensation of a hundred sheep or goats can be paid either in goats or sheep or cattle1 but1 whatever is paid1 the count is always kept in sheep or goats4 ,for instance1 a thenge1 or big male goat1 may count as two or three goats1 according to size1 and in the same way an ox has its stated rate of exchange and is counted as so many goats2 in pre-,european days the ox counted as three goats1 and a heifer or cow counted as ten in paying compensation or in marriage fees for a wife4 ,the next payment is nine male sheep to the athuri ya ukuu1 nine more sheep being given to the father of the deceased1 and nine ewes1 nyarume1 to the maternal uncle of the deceased1 or mamawe1 as he is called4 ,the father of the murderer and the father of the deceased then each bring a male sheep1 and the trunk of a banana plant is procured1 placed on the ground1 and the murderer and his relations seat themselves on one side of it1 and the relatives of the other party on the opposite side2 four of the athuri ya ukuu also sit on each side4 ,the two sheep are then killed1 and the two parties exchange pieces of cooked meat and eat them2 they then exchange pieces of sugar cane and sweet potatoes smeared with tatha 7the contents of the stomach of the sheep71 which are given to the women and children of the two families4 ,some gruel is also exchanged2 this is for the children of the two families1 and is eaten inside the villages of the two parties4 ,the presiding elder1 ,gachii or ,juguna1 does not sit with either party1 but a little way off1 his function being to see that the proper ritual is observed4 ,the elders then take the spear or sword with which the murder was committed1 and beat it until it is quite blunt4 ,the spear head or sword is taken away and thrown into a deep pool in the nearest river4 ,they say that if this were not done the weapon would continue to be the cause of murder4 ,the final act is what is called ku-kukuriwa ithe na nyina 7to purify father and mother74 ,the elders adorn themselves with necklets of a grass called ngoka1 which they wear for eight days1 but if at the expiration of this period no moon is visible they cannot take them off till the moon reappears4 ,when the day comes for dispensing with them they cross a river and bury them on the far side1 and return home without looking back4 ,in ,north ,kikuyu1 ,mwaitume1 it is said that they throw the rings away in an old shamba1 garden1 dig up a sweet potato1 eat it1 and then return home4 ,these ceremonies are the same for both grades of the ,kikuyu1 viz43 those circumcised ,kikuyu fashion1 and those circumcised ,masai fashion4 ,if they are properly carried out they wipe out all questions of blood feud1 and the members of both families can eat together4 ,if the mugiro ceremonies are not properly carried out1 the spirit of the murdered man will go back to his village1 cry out in the night like a child1 and enter into one of the villagers1 who will become as one possessed4 ,the people will call out to him1 8,who are you80 and he will reply1 8,i am ,so-and-so0 7mentioning the deceased74 8,i have come because ,i have been abandoned40 ,a near blood relative of the deceased must then take a male goat or sheep1 if the deceased was a man1 or a young ewe1 mwati1 if the victim was a woman1 into the bush1 where it is killed by strangulation1 and immediately it is dead its throat is pierced and the blood allowed to run out on the ground4 ,they then carve a piece of meat from each limb and part of the animal1 and place them in a heap1 the bones also being placed in another heap1 and left there4 ,any meat that remains is eaten by the elders2 the person who was possessed of the ngoma1 or spirit1 of the deceased then recovers4 ,the customs vary according to different cases1 the compensation for the murder of a woman being only thirty sheep or goats and three rams4 ,if a man murders his cousin on his mother's side of the family1 the father of the murderer collects fifty sheep or goats1 and pays them to the head of the family of the deceased1 and the recipients usually kill an ox which is eaten by both parties2 the elaborate ritual described above is not observed because of the blood relationship which exists4 ,if a man kills his brother or sister by the same mother there is no compensation--the case very rarely arises2 the father would1 however1 kill a sheep and make his children eat it together4 ,if a pregnant woman is struck and injured by a man1 and miscarries in consequence1 the elders are called in to settle the matter4 ,the culprit has to bring two male sheep2 first one is killed and eaten by the villagers and the elders1 but not by the woman4 ,the second is eaten by the woman and visitors1 but not by the elders4 ,some of the fat and meat of this second animal is cooked in a pot with some bitter herbs1 and the woman drinks the decoction1 this being evidently in the nature of a purification2 it is called theria nda1 to purify the belly4 ,the people present who are nearly related1 either to the offender or the woman1 are then invested with rukwaru1 or wristlets1 made of the skin of the sheep first mentioned4 ,this is not a matter for the athuri ya ukuu1 but the ordinary councillors1 athuri ya kiama4 ,ukamba4--,in ,ukamba there is a general similarity of ideas1 but a considerable difference in ceremonial4 ,the general compensation for the murder of a man is thirteen cows1 two bulls1 and fifty goats2 and for a woman six cows1 two bulls1 and one goat4 ,in each case the actual blood money is twelve cows and five cows respectively1 the balance being for the ceremonies necessary to wipe out the blood stains1 and which bear the name of etumo4 ,the cow1 the two bulls1 and the goat are taken to the village of the murdered man2 the elders1 athuri ya ukuu1 assemble there1 and the goat is first killed at about five p4m4 ,the murderer must not be present2 if he or any member of his clan appeared at the etumo ceremonies they would probably be killed4 ,fourteen pieces of meat are cut from its throat1 an elder impales seven pieces on a wooden skewer1 and puts them into the mouth of the wife of the deceased1 who eats them1 and the other seven are similarly given to the brother of the deceased4 ,when darkness comes on1 the elders retire to a short distance from the village1 and the widow and her brother-in-law retire to a hut and have connection2 they then return and call the elders4 ,upon their return the bull is killed and they receive half of its meat and half of that of the goat1 the remainder being consumed by the family of the deceased4 ,all the meat must be eaten during the night1 and none of the bones must be broken1 and before morning the latter must be carried out and deposited in the bush by the elders4 ,the hides of the two animals must not be allowed to remain in the village1 but are carried off by any elders who do not belong to the same mbai1 or clan1 as the deceased4 ,the cow remains in the village1 and becomes the personal property of the widow1 who is not allowed to sell it4 ,the collection of the number of cattle payable as blood money generally takes some time1 and the members of a man's clan often assist him to pay4 ,when they are all collected1 an assembly of people and elders takes place at the village of the deceased1 comprising members of the family and clan as well as strangers1 and a bull is slaughtered from the compensation cattle2 there is a general feast1 and each person takes a strip of the hide away for tying up loads4 ,the cattle are then divided2 the senior member of the deceased's family receives one cow and pays back one bull1 the maternal grandfather of the deceased receives a cow and pays back a bullock1 and if there is a half-brother of the deceased he receives a cow and pays back a bull1 provided that he does not live in the village of the deceased4 ,if there is a village of the same clan near by1 the head of it receives a cow and pays back a bull4 ,none of these cows may be sold or given in exchange for a wife2 if this rule is broken the recipient has to pay back a cow to the family4 ,the bulls given in exchange provide feasts for the elders1 members of the family of the deceased1 and members of the clan4 ,the remainder of the cattle are the property of the eldest brother of the deceased1 who divides them between the mother and wife or wives of the deceased1 who have the use of the milk4 ,he cannot dispose of one of the beasts without the permission of these women4 ,the payment of the cow1 bull1 and goat first mentioned is of ritual importance1 and is called etumo2 they are necessary to protect both the family of the murderer and the murdered one from the powers of the unappeased death-dealing spirit which is abroad4 ,even if the killing was accidental 7mbanga7 the etumo payments and ritual must be observed1 because it shows that there is a bad influence about or the accident would never have occurred4 ,in former times1 if a man of one clan killed another in some inter-tribal fight1 the custom was for a brother to waylay and kill a man of the clan who had killed his brother4 ,the two deaths cancelled each other1 and there was no further question of compensation1 but it was considered essential that the etumo fees should be paid and the proper ceremonial observed4 ,one other point in connection with the weapon used in the murder should be mentioned3 in ,kikuyu the spear is thrown away1 but in ,ukamba the weapon is nearly always an arrow1 which is carried away some distance and placed on a path1 the idea apparently being that it contains a harmful essence which it is impossible to remove1 and the evil is believed to pass on to whoever picks it up4 ,if this is not done the evil is said to remain with the family of the deceased4 ,the ,kingnoli ,custom4--,in the author's 8,ethnology of ,a-,kamba10 p4 #ie1 an account is given of the old form of judicial execution called kingnoli which used to be customary throughout ,ukamba4 ,it is also referred to by ,c4 ,dundas in the 8,history of ,kitui10 p4 #ead4 ,it is not proposed to describe over again the details of the procedure1 but while considering the question of sacrifice1 it may be interesting to point out the similarity of this practice with the judicial slaying which took place among the ancient ,semites1 e4g41 among the ,hebrews the criminal was stoned4 ,professor ,r4 ,smith ably shows how the idea of an execution of this kind is not penal in one sense of the word3 it is not done to punish the offender1 but to rid the community of an impious member--generally a man who has shed the tribal blood4 ,it would appear that the repeated spilling of tribal blood is an act which annoys the aiimu of the tribe to such an extent that an ordinary sacrifice is insufficient to appease them1 and a human sacrifice becomes necessary either as an expiation or to re-establish good relations3 by not offering compensation for the crimes he has committed1 the brothers of the criminal formally surrender him to the community and this acquits the community of any bloodstain4 ,the kingnoli custom is also known among the ,kikuyu1 who call it mwinge4 ,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,dundas states that the procedure in ,kikuyu is practically the same as that in ,ukamba except that the near relative of the accused1 whose consent to the execution is essential1 had to carry it out by strangling the convicted person4 ,another important point is that any person giving evidence against a tribesman being tried under this law had to make his charges on the kithito or kithathi which is one of the most potent oaths4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,ceremonial ,,oaths ,the ,kithito of ,ukamba4--,this is the most powerful oath recognised by the tribe1 and is common to all sections of the ,kamba2 it corresponds to the kithathi of the ,kikuyu4 ,the apparatus for the oath is made by medicine men4 ,secret medicines are placed in the horn of a buffalo or hartebeest1 a hippo tusk1 or on the bottom end of a small ivory tusk4 ,there is usually one in each district1 and it is always in the possession of a particular elder2 in many cases1 they have been bought from the makers1 who reside in either ,mumoni or ,tharaka country4 ,all over the world the idea that better medicine can be obtained from a distance than at home seems to exist2 even in ,england1 people in the provinces have unbounded faith in the ,london specialist4 ,some of these kithito are undoubtedly of great age1 and are handed down through many generations4 ,the kithito must always be kept away from the village1 as it might harm the inmates2 it is generally hidden away in a cavity in the rocks4 ,it is carried about in a small pot or a basket1 being very dangerous to handle2 the original owner or his son1 if he has been taught1 can handle it by observing certain precautions1 but no one else4 ,an unmarried man cannot possess a kithito4 ,the writer once witnessed the administration of a kithito oath near ,machakos at ,mathend's4 ,the gathering was a very large one1 and elders from all parts of the district were present1 all the various clans being represented4 ,it was an occasion of some importance1 the object of the gathering being for representative elders from each council to swear upon the kithito to conduct their councils and the internal government of the district upon proper lines and to afford the local councils due support4 ,the congregation of elders1 which probably numbered some five hundred1 sat round in a large circle on the hill-side2 in the centre were a few of the senior chiefs and elders from each clan and the elders chosen to officiate4 ,the first proceeding was for an elder to march round the outside of the whole circle with the kithito1 which was suspended by a string2 after this1 all the persons included in the circle were subject to the effects of the oath4 ,the kithito was then brought into the centre of the circle and deposited on a branch of the acacia tree1 kisumi4 ,as far as could be seen the contents of the kithito were as follows3 ,a shell 7containing secret medicine74 ,a human leg bone4 ,the tooth of a ruminant4 ,twigs from various trees4 ,the whole of these were wrapped in a portion of a plaited ,kamba fibre bag 7chondo74 ,stones were arranged on the ground around the package4 ,the end of the kithito parcel faced towards the afternoon sun1 i4e41 the west4 ,the officiating elder then stood on the two stones to the west of the kithito and1 with a thin stick1 touched the kithito and recited the terms of the oath4 ,the object of these stones was to insulate him from the ground while he was engaged in the ceremony4 ,at each item of the oath the elder took a thin stick and dipped it in some blackish sticky medicine in the shell and recited the particular points1 saying3 8,if any man breaks this1 may he be thrown away10 and then jerked the stick over his right shoulder in the direction of the sun4 ,after the ceremony1 the kithito was carried away and a sheep was killed near by and the tatha1 or stomach contents1 were sprinkled on the ground at the spot where the kithito had been4 ,this was said to be done to cure the ground from the evil effects of the kithito4 ,the ,oath of the ,sacred ,bead 7,chuma cha mchugu7 in ,kikuyu4--,this oath or ordeal belongs to the same class as those described in the writer's work1 8,ethnology of ,a-,kamba0 7,camb4 ,press71 pp4 #aci-adc1 viz41 the kithathi and ku-ringa thengi ceremonies4 ,if one man is in debt to another and repudiates his debt1 the creditor goes to the elders and demands that they may both be given the ordeal of the chuma cha mchugu 7chuma is the ,kikuyu word for bead74 ,now the bead used for this purpose must be one of a particular kind1 which has been handed down from past ages and is evidently believed to be of magical value4 ,several of the clans in ,kikuyu are alleged to possess specimens of this bead1 each one being in charge of a particular elder2 they are said to be reddish in colour and rather long in shape4 #ab ,endeavours have been made to get a specimen for examination1 but it has not been possible to locate one2 the elders state that they have not seen one used for some years4 ,a chuma cha mchugu must not be kept in a house1 but is hidden away in the bush--in this particular it is like the kithathi4 ,to return1 however1 to the ceremonial connected with its use3 on the appointed day the creditor and debtor meet the elders2 the latter sit in a circle and the former sit on the ground in the middle and facing each other4 ,each takes a piece of fine grass and places it inside the aperture in the bead and swears1 as the case may be1 that he lent a cow1 or that he borrowed a cow1 and that if he testifies falsely may he be eaten by the bead 7i4e41 destroyed74 ,sometimes the bead is held in the hand1 and sometimes it is placed on the ground between the two parties4 ,perjury is believed to result in the death of the perjurer1 and furthermore serious harm1 even death1 to his near relatives4 ,if a man who has perjured himself by this oath dies1 his brothers by the same parents will promptly pay the debt1 and then call in the elders to remove the curse1 or thahu1 which the perjury has inflicted4 ,to effect this lustration1 the sacred bead has to be brought to the village1 a sheep is killed and some of the stomach contents are smeared on the bead4 ,another sheep is next marched round the afflicted village1 is killed1 and the people eat the meat4 ,the bones of the sheep are afterwards collected and calcined in the fire on which the meat was cooked1 next morning a libation of beer being poured over the ashes of the bones by the elders of the village4 ,a medicine man is then summoned1 and he purifies 7tahikia7 the villages1 and these are finally safe from all danger from this thahu4 ,there is another piece of ritual in which beads play a part4 ,if an elder or old woman dies in one village1 and later on a similar death occurs in a neighbouring village1 the head of each village goes to assist at the hukura or death ceremonies 7described in ,chapter ,,vi7 at the village where the death has occurred4 ,at the conclusion of these ceremonies each will have two blue trade ring beads1 of the pattern known as mtinorok1 fastened on his wrist1 and the senior wife of the principal elder of the village where the death occurred will have two beads tied to her wrist2 they wear these for eight days1 and then bathe and cast the beads into a river2 finally they wash their clothes there and return home4 ,the custom is practised only by the people belonging to the ,kikuyu circumcision guild4 ,the blue beads used on this occasion are ordinary trade beads and are called chuma cha mchugu1 but are not the sacred beads referred to in the earlier portion of this chapter4 ,probably1 as the real chuma cha mchugu are very rare1 they pretend that these are the real articles1 or think they delude the spirits into believing that the beads are the genuine thing4 ,the sacred bead is also said to be used for the detection of thieves2 the elders declare that the bead is first doctored by a medicine man and then thrown away in the direction of the suspected person1 and the elders simultaneously cry out1 8,go and find the thief40 ,the belief is that after it is thus thrown the bead will enter the stomach of the offender and trouble him to such an extent that he will be forced to confess1 and he can then be ceremonially purified and healed4 ,the ,muma ,oath and ,adultery4--,a case of adultery occurred in ,kikuyu in which a man1 having seduced a woman1 afterwards induced her to take the oath of muma that she would not tell her husband4 ,after a time she disclosed this to her husband and1 shortly after1 she died4 ,the husband then sued for blood money1 but the elders refused his demand on the ground that if the woman had held her tongue the muma would not have killed her4 ,the husband then demanded that the man should jump over the corpse seven times2 this he refused to do and the elders would not insist as they held that the woman had1 in fact1 committed suicide4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,war ,,and ,,peace ,war4--,in former times raids were conducted by the anake or warrior class only1 but if the country was invaded1 the younger elders also fought1 while the old men went to hide with the women and stock2 elders were armed with bows and arrows1 but the anake of ,kikuyu carried spears and swords only4 ,the ,kikuyu apparently made a good stand against the ,masai invaders1 for it is said that the ,masai killed most of the ,dorobo1 so presumably this tribe was unable to stand against the invaders while the ,kikuyu held their own4 ,it is probable that the scourge of the ,masai was generally much overrated1 and that they were as often as not badly beaten by other tribes4 ,during a ,masai invasion it was customary to bury knives at the foot of mugumu trees2 this was supposed to give the invaders sore and swollen feet4 ,expeditions and raids were led by three anake called asigani4 ,these had first to consult with a medicine man1 who would say whether they could be asigani or not2 ,kamiri was particularly noted as such a medicine man4 ,if approved by the medicine man they had to go alone into ,masai country as a test of courage and spy out where the cattle were4 ,only such men could be leaders of raids1 and they remained as asigani until they had passed the warrior age4 ,on return from a raid the booty was brought together and the elders assembled4 ,the asigani had first choice of the spoil1 and got about one quarter more than the rest4 ,the elders merely looked on1 and each warrior took his share of the booty home2 the father took possession of the cattle so long as his son remained in the village1 but if he left the village and settled elsewhere he would take with him the stock he had obtained in war4 ,the only elder who was actually given any part was the medicine man who had been previously consulted as to the success of the raid4 ,when a raid was arranged1 the warriors were collected from everywhere1 but no one was forced to join4 ,special distinction was attained by those who had killed a ,masai4 ,such a man was called mundu wa rohiu1 man of the sword2 the shield and spear of the ,masai he would give to his uncle1 from whom1 in turn1 he received a goat or two2 he would also go round to all his relations1 who would give him small presents1 but to prove his deed he had to bring back the sword of the slain ,masai1 otherwise he was not believed4 ,the ,kikuyu apparently often raided ,masai country1 but raids on the ,kamba were considered much more dangerous1 and were only undertaken by large bodies and with greater precautions4 ,the whole force was divided up into various bodies to guard against total annihilation2 attacks were made only at night1 and as soon as the stock was captured it was sent1 under escort1 to ,kikuyu so that if they were attacked and killed the stock was saved4 ,women and children were also taken and handed over to the warrior's father1 but a ,kamba was generally permitted to redeem his wife for nine head of cattle2 this is said to have been the practice owing to the former friendship existing between the ,kamba and the ,kikuyu4 ,this practice was broken later1 because the ,kamba always stole the wives of the ,kikuyu4 ,the ,kamba is to this day an incorrigible wife stealer2 the same cause led to his breaking friendship with the ,masai and ,galla1 so the legend goes4 ,it is said that fights with the ,kamba were more frequent than with the ,masai1 and that they were much more feared because of the ,kamba arrows1 but nevertheless the ,kikuyu declare that they penetrated as far as ,mumoni1 and that they also fought the ,emberre4 ,gachii wa ,kichara remembers that on one occasion the ,kamba and ,kikuyu joined to fight the ,masai1 but that the ,kamba ran away1 not because they were afraid of the ,masai1 but because they foresaw that they would have to fight the more numerous ,kikuyu if they were to get any of the booty4 ,on the whole it would appear that the ,kikuyu were no mean fighting tribe2 they certainly inflicted very severe lessons on the ,masai1 and they gave us no little trouble in the early days4 ,one can1 however1 scarcely imagine them to have been warlike judging from their present character1 but the generation of warriors before our time have passed into elders1 and the present warrior class has never known war2 this class is also rapidly disappearing1 and the young native now marries long before the time when wars and raids allowed them to do so in the past4 ,it is believed to be very lucky to meet a mole on the way to war2 a warrior kills it with his spear and carries the skin on the point of it2 this is supposed to bring him good fortune in the fight4 ,before the ,kikuyu went to war they used to sacrifice at the sacred trees in the usual way2 the elders attended1 but not the warriors2 their weapons were not smeared with the sacrificial blood4 ,if any of the warriors killed an enemy during the fighting1 the elders who had conducted the sacrifice above mentioned shaved the heads of the warriors upon their return1 took away the hair and hid it in the woods4 ,they also smeared their faces with a line of ira1 or white earth1 and the spear which had done the killing was also smeared with ira4 ,this white earth is generally used as a protecting agent against evil influences1 in this case doubtless the spirits of the slaughtered foes4 ,if cattle were captured the captain of the warriors1 as soon as possible after the fight1 would choose a fine bullock from the spoil and slaughter it as near as possible to the scene of the fighting4 ,this was done as a thank-offering to the deity1 ,engai4 ,the bullock should be a whole coloured beast1 either black1 white1 or red1 and not spotted or parti-coloured4 ,the elders who go to sacrifice and pray at the sacred tree before the fighting1 and the captain of the warriors1 eat the meat2 the bulk of the fighting men do not participate4 ,the hide of the bullock is left on the spot after the feast4 ,peace ,ceremonial 7,kikuyu74--,seven elders from the clans or tribes at enmity each meet with a number of the warrior class1 the different sides providing a ram or he-goat1 which is slaughtered4 ,an elder of one side then takes the intestines and cuts them with a razor and says3 8,who breaks this peace may he be cut as this is cut40 ,an elder from the other side now takes the intestines from the animal provided by his side and goes through the same ceremonial4 ,both sides then eat the meat together4 ,in the days of the early travellers1 some fifteen to twenty-five years ago1 the ,kikuyu were noted for their treachery2 one day they would make peace with a caravan and the next day attack it4 ,the elders were asked the reason of this1 and whether they believed that peace deliberately broken would bring evil on the breakers of it2 they said it was quite true that many had been guilty in this respect1 but that the great famine of #ahii1 and the smallpox which followed it1 had killed off all the guilty ones4 ,in former war-like times when a member of another tribe came to the village of an elder and wished to enter into brotherhood and settle among the tribe1 the elder would summon his colleagues and kill a bullock4 ,the stranger would be formally adorned with a bracelet made of the ox hide1 and he would then be safe from harm4 ,the meat was eaten by the assembled elders and the villagers4 ,the elder then chose a daughter for him to marry4 ,if1 for instance1 the head of the village belonged to the ,anjiru clan1 the stranger became a ,munjiru2 and he also adopted the circumcision guild of his host4 ,if1 after this1 anyone belonging to the tribe were to kill him1 the murderer would have to pay a hundred goats and nine rams to his adopted father1 nine rams for the elders and nine rams for his mother4 ,peace ,ceremonial1 ,ukamba 7,kitui74--,the elders of the vanquished side bring an ox1 and the elders of the winning side bring a kithito4 ,the elders of each side assemble in two groups in the centre1 and the warriors are collected in two masses1 one on either side of the area chosen for the ceremony4 ,the kithito oath is then administered to the leaders of the two groups of fighting men4 ,they kill the ox1 skin it1 and cut the meat off the throat and also cut out a few of the vertebr of the neck 7ngata7 and place them on the kithito4 ,an iron arrow head is then produced and tied on to a shaft2 it must be tied with the fibre from the lilambia bush1 and a few thorns of the mulaa tree are also fastened to the arrow4 ,a small bag is made from a piece of the small intestine of the ox and is filled with blood4 ,the officiating elder then picks up the arrow and slits open this bag and allows the blood to drip on the neck-vertebr and meat1 which are placed on the kithito1 and calls out to the assembly3 8,if anyone breaks this peace may he be slit as the mwethi wa kitutu40 ,the neck bones and meat are then left to be devoured by hynas4 ,before this1 however1 an oath is administered to each of the captains of the fighting2 those who take the oath are naked2 the right arm and right leg are smeared with ashes1 and a bunch of leaves is fastened over the pubes4 ,each man takes a bundle of arrows in his right hand and swears by the kithito that he will never again fight the opposite party and that if any should come to his village they shall be received as friends2 the company of warriors assent to this and say1 8,if you break this oath may the kithito slay you40 ,blood ,brotherhood 7,ukamba of ,kitui74--,the two parties meet and a goat is killed2 two pieces of the liver are taken and slightly fried on a fire4 ,a small incision is then made in the right forearm1 the chest1 and the navel of each party1 and a spot of the blood therefrom is smeared on the liver4 ,the two pieces are then exchanged and eaten jointly4 ,this is a very sacred and lasting oath of friendship4 ,if ever it is broken1 the people are very shocked and ,engai is believed to injure the village of the one who breaks it and probably both blood kin and stock will die4 ,it is often difficult to state with precision whether the high god or the ancestral spirits are meant when the term ,engai is here used4 ,in this case1 however1 the high god is probably referred to4 ,and if the opinion be correct1 it is a striking example of the belief in the concept of a personal ,god1 who takes a continual and minute interest in the doings of ,his creatures4 ,,chapter ,v ,,miscellaneous ,,customs ,,and ,,beliefs ,adoption into a ,new ,clan 7,kikuyu74--,this is a proceeding which sometimes takes place in ,kikuyu1 but which rarely comes to the notice of ,european observers4 ,it is called njama ya ruoro kucharua1 which means 8the assembly or council of the knife to change10 and1 expanded1 means 8the ceremonial gathering of the knife at which a man changes his clan40 ,the word ruoro means the knife used for branding cattle4 ,the candidate first makes an arrangement about the matter with the senior elder of the clan he wishes to enter2 a day is fixed for the ceremony and the elder summons the other elders of his clan and the candidate brings his brothers4 ,a number of elders belonging to other clans are also invited as witnesses4 ,the candidate presents a razor 7ruenji71 some castor oil1 butter 7ngoromo71 and a ewe lamb 7mwati7 to the elders of the clan he wishes to join1 and the elders of that clan provide a bullock4 ,the bullock is slaughtered and the skin is dried1 this being for the parties to sit on during the ceremony4 ,the candidate and the senior elder of the clan he wishes to enter then sit on the bullock's hide1 and the elder's senior wife comes and shaves both their heads4 ,when this is completed1 they anoint each other's head with the castor oil and the butter4 ,each man collects and takes away the hair cut off and carefully hides it so that no evilly disposed person shall pick it up and make medicine with it4 ,henceforward the man is considered as adopted in the new clan1 and his children belong to that clan4 ,if he is a young man and wants a wife1 the senior elder of his new clan will buy him one1 and if he is killed in a tribal fight the elder claims the blood money4 ,if1 after this ceremony1 the elder was to commit adultery with the wife of the adopted man he would surely die4 ,if a daughter of the adopted man is married1 the elder gets five goats from the bridal price received for the girl2 these goats are called ugendi and possibly have reference to cases in which the elder has paid the bridal price for the wife of the adopted man4 ,a ,kikuyu native does not1 however1 change his circumcision guild by entering a new clan4 ,njama ya ,kikende4--,the ceremony of adoption is closely connected to a ceremony performed between great friends2 this is a form of ceremonial brotherhood1 but the man who makes the alliance does not change his clan1 and if he is killed the blood money would go to his own clan4 ,in this case the elder kills a ram or he-goat 7thengi71 which is skinned1 and a piece of the skin of the chest is cut off1 whilst another elder cuts out a bracelet of the skin and places it on the elder's right wrist and on the wrist of the man who wishes to join in brotherhood with him4 ,the man who desires the brotherhood then presents a gourd of beer to the elder2 the beer must be of two kinds1 viz41 sugar-cane and honey-beer mixed4 ,the elder who cuts the bracelet also receives a gourd of beer from the man4 ,on ,bee-,keeping4--,the ,a-,kamba are great bee-keepers4 ,when ,europeans first visited the country they found the industry fully established2 as at the present day1 logs of wood were hollowed out and hung in trees for bees to hive in4 ,they periodically collected the honey1 brewed mead1 and then threw away the comb4 ,the ,government ,officers have since taught them to boil down the wax into cakes which can be sold1 and a large quantity is annually exported4 ,in ,kitui when a man makes his first beehive he does not hang it in a tree himself1 but gets his uncle to do so2 he believes that if he omitted to do this the bees would not settle in it4 ,the owner of the beehive cannot cohabit with his wife until he sees that a swarm of bees has settled in the hive and is building there4 ,two nights after he is satisfied that this is the case1 he may resume his marital relations4 ,if on his first visit of inspection he finds the hive occupied1 he brews beer and pours some on the ground as a libation to the aiimu1 or ancestral spirits4 ,in a season when there is a dearth of honey the owners of the hives go to the woods in which they have put their hives and sacrifice a goat2 the meat is eaten1 and the blood1 mixed with beer1 is poured on the ground as a propitiatory libation to the aiimu to secure a good honey crop4 ,among the ,ulu ,a-,kamba the ceremonial varies and is apparently more elaborate4 ,when a man has hollowed out the log of wood which forms the beehive he takes a shaving or chip of the wood which is called ikavu1 and gives it to his mother1 who then cooks beans1 pigeon peas and maize in a pot and places the chip1 ikavu1 in the fire under the pot to assist in cooking the food4 ,if he has lost his mother the ikavu is given to his wife1 who cooks the ceremonial meal4 ,when the food is boiled the villagers are summoned to eat it4 ,the beehive is then hung in a tree1 and when it is full the owner collects the honey and brings it to his village4 ,before the honey can be mixed with water to make beer or mead the owner of the hive must present his mother with some of the raw honey4 ,when the first brew of the mead is ready the father of the owner of the hive buys it for a goat1 which may not be killed4 ,on the second night after the purchase1 the parents of the owner of the hive must cohabit2 this in speaking to each other they refer to as kuzya mbui1 and if talking to another person1 the term kulunga mbui is used4 ,they believe that the consumption of the beer and the succeeding ceremony ensures that the hive will always yield a good supply of honey1 and that there will always be plenty of people to buy succeeding brews of mead made from the honey4 ,the whole proceeding may therefore be considered as a magical fertility ceremony4 ,if a man has lost his own parents1 he sells the first brew of mead to his uncle1 presumably as head of the family4 ,among the ,dorobo hunting tribe of the ,kikuyu escarpment when a man makes a new beehive1 beer is made and the old men and women drink it before it is hung in a tree4 ,they then ceremonially spit on the hive and next morning place it in a tree2 the inside of a hive is also smeared with beeswax to attract the bees4 ,the first crop of honey out of a new hive is only eaten by the children of the village1 or perhaps by very old women4 ,the reason of this is said to be that if a young woman were to eat any and then misconduct herself with a man1 the honey crop would be spoilt and the bees would not enter any of the hives hung up on that day4 ,it is a well-known fact the natives always mark their beehives before suspending them from the trees1 and the marks are generally of two kinds1 one being that of the clan and the other that of the owner4 ,mr ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis states that on the ,southern ,aberdare ,range in the bamboo forest between ,karanja's and ,enjabini he saw two musaiti trees 7camphor wood1 ,ocotea usambarensis7 from which the ,kikuyu make their honey barrels or beehives4 ,although still standing1 they were both marked with the same designs one sees on beehives4 ,the trees1 it would appear1 are earmarked by certain persons for the manufacture of beehives while still standing4 ,sketches of these marks are given below4 ,at first sight it seems curious to put the clan mark on beehives1 but the object is to warn a would-be thief that if he robs a hive he will have to reckon with the whole of the clan to which the owner belongs4 ,further1 if a would-be thief found a hive belonging to his own clan he would be very unlikely to rob it1 as he could always obtain honey or honey-beer from his blood kin4 ,infectious ,mania among the ,kamba ,people4--,in 8,ethnology of ,a-,kamba10 p4 #aj1 reference was made to a peculiar kind of infectious possession or mania which appears periodically in ,ukamba country1 and in #aijf many young people in ,machakos district were seized with it at the sight of a ,european hat4 ,in a few months1 however1 it passed away1 but in #aiaa a similar epidemic recurred4 ,this took a different form1 and was called ,engai ya mweretu1 or the spirit of the girl4 ,the spirit of a girl who was said to have died mysteriously was supposed to enter into people in various parts of the district--generally old women--and speak4 ,the whole district rapidly became disturbed2 the spirit1 through its oracles1 demanded that bullocks should be slaughtered2 the order was implicitly obeyed1 for anyone who refused was supposed to be doomed4 ,as a result1 several thousand bullocks were slaughtered and consumed in a week or two4 ,great dances1 at which the meat was eaten1 were held4 ,very soon the oracles became seditious1 and plans were being made for the abolition of ,european government and attack on the ,government station4 ,the whole thing was kept secret at first1 but eventually it all came out and a company of troops had to be sent to the district to calm the excited people2 the elders1 who felt sore at the loss of so many cattle1 rallied to the support of law and order and the country gradually regained a normal state4 ,the phenomenon is also known in ,kitui1 but is said to have been introduced from the ,machakos district4 ,mr ,c4 ,dundas has investigated it in the former district and states that when people wish to misrepresent the nature of any dances held in this connection they refer to them as kilumi4 ,now kilumi is an old ,kamba dance which is periodically performed at ithembo all over the country with the object of warding off epidemics1 but the ,engai dances are carried on at villages to cure an individual possessed by the form of mania known as ,engai4 ,fez caps and other unusual ornaments and clothing worn at ,engai dances are not worn at kilumi dances4 ,the word ,engai appears to be loosely used in this connection1 but this is possibly due to the fact that the individual organising the dance is supposed to be a person possessing occult powers1 a person1 in short1 who knows the inner mysteries or who would not otherwise possess the 8medicine0 which is supposed to come from ,engai4 ,as far as is known1 this ,engai possession appears to be almost entirely confined to women4 ,a woman becomes mysteriously possessed2 the medicine man cannot account for it4 ,a woman who understands the affection is therefore called in and orders the appropriate dance to be performed4 ,the performers become worked up and wildly excited1 and many of them become affected and the disease spreads1 although the afflicted person for whom the dance was convened may be cured4 ,when the people are worked up to a pitch of frenzy1 the leader of the dance then demands a bullock1 beer1 and a goat from the head elder1 and these are consumed by the performers4 ,women who organise these dances have been seen and interviewed by the writer and they generally appear to be stupid and half-witted1 and one would not suspect that they were capable of influencing the people as they undoubtedly do4 ,when they have worked themselves up into a kind of hypnotic state they may possibly be different4 ,one great idea at these dances is that everyone must shake hands with the woman1 and for this privilege she is given sixpence or more4 ,the people believe that if this be omitted1 they will be permanently afflicted with a spirit2 they do not apparently mind temporary possession1 but fear its becoming a permanency4 ,the payments appear to be peculiar to ,kitui4 ,the elders do not approve of these dances1 but are generally too frightened to intervene4 ,the reason of their disapproval is not far to seek2 every woman who becomes possessed is told to demand something from her husband or the mania will not leave her4 ,the women generally ask for fez caps and clothes which are worn at subsequent dances2 one elder told ,mr ,dundas that his wife had demanded the tails of ten white cows4 ,they dress in white and red clothes1 consisting of deep bands worn round the waists1 and have fez caps on their heads and cows' tails suspended from their arms4 ,the women who conduct the ceremony are termed ,siekitundumu2 the meaning of kitundumu is thunder4 ,one of the chants sung on such an occasion was translated as3 8,we have come from a comet and one day we will return there to stay with ,siekitundumu40 ,when a woman shakes hands with the leader she is seized with a kind of convulsion and says1 8,i am ,siekitundumu40 ,the speeches of the women appear to be devoid of meaning2 they will attempt to use ,english words in particular1 calling out 8,yesu10 and ,so-and-so is said to be the children of 8,yesu10 or one will be asked who she is and she will mention the name of some ,european or other4 8,yesu0--,mr ,dundas thinks--may be either a corruption of the ,english 8,yes0 or it may be a contraction of 8,jesus0 as pronounced by the ,german missionaries1 or it may be a corrupt pronunciation of the ,swahili word 8kisu10 which means a knife1 and which the ,a-,kamba are inclined to pronounce 8kyesu40 ,it is also said that those who participate in the dance must keep their eyes fixed on the ground2 they are otherwise supposed to be liable to fly up to the heavens4 ,the woman called the ,siekitundumu has a chondo 7string bag7 full of medicines carried in small gourds4 ,no one may look at these magical properties without paying4 ,the medicines are said to be made by a kind of ghoul who has only one hand and one leg and who lives above4 ,these mysteries work the credulous and susceptible women into a state of frenzy1 when they cease to be responsible for their actions4 ,one chief1 with some pathos1 stated that women who have been to one of these dances often go back home and beat their husbands4 ,the principal ,siekitundumu in ,kitui is said to be one ,monge wa ,muli4 ,she and her husband assembled all the people at the village of the chief ,muli and told them to collect food and other gifts4 ,the elders had to pay a bull and a black goat4 ,on a certain day the bull was killed and its blood poured into a large hole in the ground and mixed with meal1 milk1 and grain4 ,monge then announced that she would transfer the ,engai to a particular village4 ,she selected certain able-bodied women1 who ran into the bush with a fowl1 shouting that they were sending 8,engai0 to ,muli's village1 the fowl being left in the bush4 ,a few days later a woman in ,muli's village was1 of course1 seized with the ,engai mania and the dance had to be performed there4 ,thus the affection is spread throughout the district4 ,after a time1 either the ,government or the combined elders take steps to stop it by drastic measures and it dies down for a while1 possibly for a year or two1 but at any time it is liable to recur and it is then necessary for the administration to keep a sharp look out for its appearance4 ,the whole phenomenon rather reminds one of the ancient accounts of demoniacal possession4 ,according to ,goodrich ,freer a peculiar kind of possession1 called bonda1 is said to attack women in ,abyssinia4 ,here again all their demands for dress1 food1 and trifles of any sort must be strictly attended to4 ,they sometimes mimic a hyna4 ,,sundry ,,beliefs ,slaughter of ,pregnant ,animals4--,the ,a-,kamba may not wilfully kill an animal heavy with young when hunting1 and certainly would not slaughter a domestic animal in this condition4 ,should1 however1 such an animal happen to be killed by mistake1 the uterus is opened to discover the sex of the ftus4 ,in cutting up the uterus the hunter will hold a few blades of grass in his hand1 together with the knife1 at the same time grasping the wrist of the hand holding the knife with the other hand4 ,if there are two men1 the second man will grasp the wrist of the other while he cuts open the uterus4 ,if the ftus is male it is unlucky1 and if female it is lucky4 ,the killing of the mother in this condition must1 however1 have been done unwittingly4 ,this curious custom appears to be common to all the ,kamba people4 ,eclipses4--,these are said to be the work of ,engai 7or the high god7 and to be an omen of a sickness in the land4 ,the head of each village has to take two children and a goat1 which is lead round the outside of the village1 and when it reaches the gate1 an elder cuts a piece out of one ear and lets the animal return to the village4 ,they then smear it with ia 7,kamba7 ira 7,kikuyu71 or white earth--on its face1 along its stomach1 and along its back to the tail4 ,lunar ,changes4--,the ,kikuyu people have no theories as to the nature of the sun or moon1 but believe that the sun and moon are constantly at war with each other and that the moon is always beaten and driven away4 ,after a time she regains her strength and returns to the fight4 ,food 7,kitui74--,the ,kamba of ,kitui state that they cannot eat the meat of hyna1 jackal1 serval cat1 hunting dog1 crocodile1 snakes1 kites1 vultures1 marabou stork1 ducks1 geese1 crows1 rats1 or even eggs4 ,a few will sometimes eat a little of the flesh of lions and leopards1 probably on the grounds of sympathetic magic1 i4e41 with the idea of assimilating the strength and agility of these beasts4 ,baboon1 monkey1 and donkey meat are also eaten by some4 ,food ,ceremonial 7,kikuyu74--,if an ox is killed for a feast and a member of the same clan1 who happens to live at a distance1 puts in an appearance1 he must be given a piece of meat1 although he cannot claim to share in the feast4 ,if an ox is killed on the occasion of a wedding1 the members of the clan living in the neighbourhood are always invited to participate4 ,women eat separately inside the huts and out of sight of the men1 but can drink water or beer in the presence of men4 ,small children naturally feed with their mothers1 but once the boys are circumcised they no longer eat with women4 ,a curious custom was recently noticed during a journey among the ,kikuyu4 ,the desiccated carcase of a cow or ox was noticed in the branches of a tree by the roadside1 a little distance from a village1 and it appears that if cattle are lodged at the village of a friend and one should die1 the owner is informed1 and is asked to come over and see it and remove the meat4 ,if for some reason or other he does not come the carcase is hoisted into a tree so that all may see it4 ,the object of this is that people may know that the beast was not surreptitiously killed and eaten by the people of the village1 and no claim can then be lodged against them by the owner4 ,names ,among the ,kikuyu4--,every ,kikuyu child receives two proper names4 ,if a male1 his first name is that of the paternal grandfather1 thiga1 and if a female that of the maternal grandmother1 chuchu4 ,in the case of a male the second name is that of the father4 ,in addition he generally receives another name at the time of circumcision2 this is considered as a nickname1 and generally refers to some peculiarity of character1 habits1 or physique4 ,for instance1 a boy will be called kichuru because he was said to drink a large amount of gruel as a child4 ,if the lobe of a man's ear is broken he is called kachuru2 if he happens to break a finger he is called kara4 ,the names are derived from animals such as nugu--a baboon1 njovu--an elephant1 hiti--hyna1 ngui--a dog4 ,from names of natural objects1 such as kamiti--trees1 kegio--a wild hibiscus used by the ,kikuyu for making fibre1 higa--stone1 meriwa--a thorn1 wa-rui--a stream1 kirima--a hill4 ,from names of weapons such as kitimu--a spear 7used of a tall thin man71 kahiu--a sword1 njuguma--a club4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,legends ,legend of ,kilui ,lake 7,kamba of ,kibwezi74--,a few miles below ,kibwezi ,station there is a small lake called ,kilui which is believed to be haunted by numerous spirits4 ,the author recently had occasion to visit the place and1 seeing a crocodile1 shot it2 the crocodile was badly hit1 but1 as usual1 managed to struggle back into the water4 ,the ,kamba porters were afterwards heard to say that it was a good thing that it was not killed as the master would have been taken sick and probably died4 ,the local elders1 however1 were questioned on the subject later on1 but denied that any evil effects were likely to supervene4 ,they stated that the place was undoubtedly full of spirits1 as a long time ago there was a large village on the site of the lake1 and1 one day1 a terrible rain storm occurred during which a frog entered one of the huts2 the housewife on seeing it told one of her children to throw it out1 and this having been done1 the frog then went to another hut where the same thing occurred1 and so on at the third1 but at the fourth hut the wife1 however1 said1 8,oh1 it is doing no harm1 let it stay40 ,thereupon the frog said to her1 8,you have given me shelter and so listen to my words--take your children and flee from this village without delay for it will disappear40 ,she had the sense to obey this wonderful warning and had only gone a short distance when the whole village sank below the water4 ,the place was also supposed to possess a large sacred snake1 and it is said that the manager of a neighbouring rubber plantation shot this reptile and cut down a sacred tree near by4 ,this man having died of dysentery a few months later1 the natives were convinced that his death was directly due to the ancestral spirits avenging such sacrilegious actions4 ,the ,kibwezi ,river flows along an old valley carved through the metamorphic rocks1 but in recent geological times a sheet of lava came down the valley from the ,chyulu ,mountains and choked its flow4 ,it appears from under a lava-bed near the railway station and runs for about three-quarters of a mile1 and then disappears entirely and reappears in three sources1 joining up at ,kilui ,lake4 ,the eruptions which caused this are of so recent a date that quite possibly the legend above narrated may be founded on fact and may contain some vestige of the record of an actual occurrence during the last phases of volcanic activity in this region4 ,in the author's book on the ,a-,kamba1 p4 #afg1 mention was made of a haunted hill in the ,kibwezi region2 it is of volcanic origin1 and is regarded with great awe by the people4 ,it is called ,chumbi and is situated near the south end of the ,chyulu ,range on the eastern side4 ,there are two small hills1 one being bush-covered1 and the other so recent that no bush has yet taken root on it4 ,it is said by some that the latter was only formed some fifty years ago4 ,the people will only discuss it with those whom they know very intimately1 but it is said that a rhythmic beat1 attributed to the female spirits crushing corn in mortars and keeping time with each other1 can be heard1 as one approaches the place4 ,if1 however1 a native could be persuaded to guide one there1 it would be probably found that this rhythmic beat is due to the sound of a pulsating steam vent4 ,it is also said that when an intruder approaches the hill a rushing wind comes and sweeps him up into the hill and he is never seen again4 ,the first native who told a ,european about this awesome place is said to have sickened and died shortly afterwards4 ,legend ,regarding ,origin of ,fire4--,the ,kikuyu have a curious folk tale concerning the origin of fire4 ,this has now become merely a fairy-tale told to children4 ,a long time ago a man borrowed a spear1 katimu1 from a neighbour to kill a porcupine which was destroying his crops4 ,he lay in wait in the field and eventually speared one1 but it was only wounded and ran off with the spear in its body and disappeared down a burrow4 ,he went to the owner and told him that the spear was lost1 but the owner insisted on having it back4 ,whereupon1 the man bought a new spear and offered it to the owner in place of the lost weapon1 but the owner refused it and again insisted on the return of the original spear4 ,the man then proceeded to crawl down the porcupine burrow1 and having crawled a long way found himself eventually1 to his surprise1 in a place where many people were sitting about cooking food by a fire4 ,they asked him what he wanted and he told them of his errand4 ,they then invited him to stay and eat with them2 he was afraid and said he could not stay as he must go back with the spear which he saw lying there4 ,they made no effort to keep him1 but told him to climb up the roots of a mugumu tree1 which penetrated down into the cavern1 and said that he would soon come out into the upper world4 ,they gave him some fire to take back with him4 ,so he took the spear and the fire and climbed out as he was told4 ,this is said to be the way fire came to man2 before that people ate their food raw4 ,when the man reached his friends he returned the spear and said to the owner1 8,you have caused me a great deal of trouble to recover your spear1 and if you want some of this fire which you see going away into smoke1 you will have to climb up the smoke and get it back for me40 ,the owner of the spear tried and tried to climb the smoke but could not do it1 and the elders then came and intervened and said1 8,we will make the following arrangement3 fire shall be for the use of all1 and because you have brought it you shall be our chief40 ,the underworld referred to in this tale is called ,miri ya mikeongoi4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,dances ,kikuyu4--,there are1 according to trustworthy authorities1 a large number of ,kikuyu dances4 ,it is difficult to give an exhaustive list of these1 as it has been impossible to trace them all4 ,the word ngoma 7a dance1 ,swahili7 has such a very wide meaning that it is difficult to say where dances begin or end4 ,a girl must not refuse to dance when called upon to do so by the anake 7warrior class72 if she does so she may be beaten by them and her parents cannot interfere4 ,generally1 in such cases1 a mwanake will deprive her of her ornaments and she cannot then dance until she gets them back4 ,the mwanake who takes the ornaments cannot keep them1 but must divide them with the other anake4 ,if he breaks them he has to make uji 7gruel7 for the other anake2 if he hurts the girl when taking her ornaments he has to pay a goat to the elders1 but her parents get nothing4 ,the principal dances of the anake are connected with harvest and crops2 the most important of these is the ,kivata dance4 ,in this only certain rikas1 or age grades1 may take part2 at present only the rikas named ,kincheku1 ,kamandu1 ,kanyeta1 and ,mutungu dance the ,kivata1 while the rikas of ,sengenge1 ,matiha1 ,njarege1 ,kangei1 and ,makiomei are not allowed to join in4 ,formerly the junior rikas were not even permitted to look on1 but now they do so and frequently try to take part in the same2 which leads to fierce fights and not a few deaths4 ,the elders are therefore much against this dance1 and have often forbidden it4 ,formerly if the elders wished to prohibit a dance they would go to a place where it was to be held1 and lay a cooking pot on the ground2 a branch of the mugere tree was stuck beside it1 and the anake could not dance there unless they were returning from a raid on enemy's country4 ,this custom is still practised1 for in ,kyambu district a few years ago the elders for some reason wished to prevent a ,kivata dance1 and they resorted to the old rite4 ,kivata is danced when the mawele grain is reaped4 ,the dancers wear no clothes whatsoever2 they are ornamented with a large inverted crown of ostrich feathers which is slung from the forehead to the back of the head4 ,strings of beads and bells are hung about the body1 and plumes of colobus monkey fur are tied below the knees4 ,in many cases the face is covered completely with yellow colouring1 the loins being likewise adorned2 others affect various colours in stripes and dots4 ,the legs and arms are also coloured4 ,the weapons carried are mostly swords and clubs2 very few have spears1 but the younger rikas1 who look on1 generally have spears4 ,their faces are often decorated with a broad red stripe drawn across the face and outlined with white dots4 ,the dancers march round in rows of from six to eight1 the dancing consisting mainly in a continued jumping from one foot to the other4 ,the women bring gourds of uji1 or gruel1 which they give to the dancers and thereby signify their affections4 ,the dance is said to be a general occasion for choosing brides by old men as well as by anake4 ,many of the onlookers 7not the younger rikas7 run madly round the whole circle1 brandishing swords and leaping into the air4 ,the name of the dance is said to be derived from this4 ,even the old men who are spectators become infected with the spirit of the dance1 cast off their blankets and trot round the outside of the circle4 ,in fact it appears to be essential to discard clothing1 for if one omits to do so he is censured by his fellows4 ,the women also follow the men with shrill cries1 but otherwise they take no part4 ,at one of these dances several girls were noticed amusing themselves by a game exactly similar to one played by children in ,europe1 and which consists in clapping hands4 ,this is called ,amukiana4 ,when the njahe or cajanus bean is planted the ,mugoyo is danced4 ,this dance is held at night when there is no moon1 and is one of the most picturesque dances of the country4 ,a circle of fires is made and maintained by men appointed for the purpose1 and round the outside of this circle stand the dancers4 ,richly smeared with red earth and fat as they are1 the fire heightening the blaze of red1 the whole scene is intensely bright in the darkness4 ,the men stand with their backs to the fire1 each holding his partner1 who stands with her feet on his4 ,their faces and legs are slightly coloured1 but the girls use no colouring beyond the red mixed with fat4 ,forming a diameter across the circle stands another row of dancers4 ,the leader of the maribeta 7song or verse7 goes about and the rest join in the chorus4 ,excepting for a slight movement of the shoulders among the dancers the whole dance has an air of quietness which is presumably intentional4 ,there are masters of ceremony who go about and check noisy persons1 preserving general quiet and the regular formation of the circle4 ,their methods are simple and effective3 two firebrands are struck together over offending couples1 and a shower of sparks thus quickly calls them to order4 ,all the men are naked but elaborately ornamented2 unfortunately the vulgarity of civilisation too often mars the beauty of this picturesque scene4 ,one smart youth has dangling on his back an advertisement for sardines1 another a gaudy scriptural text1 and others1 similar cheap articles of ,european origin4 ,occasionally the figure of the dance varies--the men turn facing the fire and bump up and down on their heels2 another time they kneel joining hands on spears held horizontally which they sway to the rhythm of the song4 ,the song is not startlingly comprehensible3 8,we went to ,juja and saw a white ostrich1 so we put its feathers on our heads10 and such like4 ,the girls also join in the chorus1 while the men now and again make a curious gulping sound produced from the throat4 ,finally at midnight1 or later1 the dance breaks up3 each mwanake takes a firebrand1 and the country is soon dotted in every direction with small spots of fire4 ,at such a dance a man was seen carrying a clay figure of the kind described by ,mr ,routledge4 ,it was not1 however1 part of the ceremony1 and the man who was carrying it in his hand was not dancing4 ,this image is a common feature in dances1 but its significance is not known even to the people themselves4 ,judging from ,mr ,routledge's description1 therefore1 the figure must either have lost its meaning among the ,kikuyu west of the ,chania1 or it must have acquired a new and increased significance in the ,kenya area4 ,another dance connected with the crops is ,kichukia1 which is held when the mawele is six to eight inches high4 ,it is danced both at night when there is a moon1 and in the daytime4 ,the author has not seen this dance4 ,it must not be confounded with ,njukia1 which is called thus because the girls do not choose the song4 ,both are danced by girls and anake together2 the latter dance is held about the month of ,july1 and in the morning only4 ,muzogo4--,this is also danced by anake and girls on dark nights by firelight1 and is very similar to the ,mugoyo both in name and character1 but is danced when the maize is nearly ripe4 ,one of the most important dances for young men is ,nguru4 ,in #aiab it was held all over the district in the month of ,september2 it does not seem to be in any way connected with crops1 but denotes rather a time of rest and leisure while there is no work in the field4 ,it is danced by young men and boys only1 but the latter are said to join merely for instruction2 anyone may look on4 ,the dance commences with a sort of 8follow my leader0 march1 after which there is continued jumping up and down with great vigour1 although the heels are not lifted off the ground4 ,a continuous song is maintained by one man2 there is no chorus4 ,the dance somewhat resembles ,kivata1 but the body painting is much less profuse4 ,no spears are carried1 but among the people east of the ,ruiru ,river it is customary to dance with shields1 which1 during the march1 are held aloft over the head4 ,sticks with wisps of fur are carried4 ,a curious feature is the wearing of skin apron flaps such as are worn by women2 when the season for this dance is over these coverings are given to small girls to wear4 ,the main feature of this dance is the eating of meat by the dancers and elders4 ,everyone who dances must contribute to the cost of buying bulls to supply the meat which is eaten in common by the dancers at a hut built near a river4 ,the dancing which takes place at different villages goes on day by day until the meat is finished2 the bladders of the slaughtered beasts are very common articles of decoration in the dance4 ,the elders1 if they contribute1 are given a share of the meat1 which they eat apart from the young men4 ,in the eastern part of ,kikuyu meat-eating is not a part of the ,nguru dance1 but at the same time of the year several men1 both old and young1 club together and buy meat which is eaten at a common meal2 this custom is called kiruga4 ,at this time people are supposed to lose strength1 and therefore require good nourishing2 this is said to be the reason for the custom4 ,it appears1 therefore1 to be a general time for feasting all over ,kikuyu4 ,this dance is said by ,mr ,routledge to be one held by warriors before going to war1 but this can hardly be so seeing that it is performed at a fixed season in the year4 ,if it were so it must be a relic of a very old custom1 when possibly the tribe had a favourite time for raiding4 ,there is thus a continual round of dances for the anake1 and they continue for a fixed period4 ,one should therefore be able to reckon the seasons by the dances1 but as a matter of fact they may be very irregularly held4 ,for instance in #aiab most of the dances1 ,kivata in particular1 were quite out of season1 and this was only owing to the previous heavy rains in which the people could not dance4 ,the anake will1 however1 have their dances1 and if the season is unsuitable they will dance it at another time4 ,it is probable that the significance of the dance as connected with the crops is beginning to be lost4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note that although there is a great difference in the seasons prevailing in the highlands and the lowlands1 the dances are mostly held at the same period all along one ridge4 ,it thus happens that the highlanders are often completely out of season in their dances4 ,the fact is that the ,fort ,hall ,kikuyu give the lead1 and the dances spread westward so that the lowlanders even in ,kyambu may not be dancing quite at the proper season4 ,fort ,hall is1 on the whole1 the authority for the ,kikuyu customs1 whether because it is the birthplace of the tribe or not1 one cannot say1 but the lead given by ,fort ,hall is analogous to that given by ,machakos to the ,kamba of ,kitui4 ,these facts give a curious instance of how a custom may lose its meaning2 we have here an example of a custom superseding its own origin4 ,the uncircumcised boys and girls are called irego4 ,their principal dance is ,ngoisia4 ,there is no particular season for this1 and it is danced both in the daytime and at night2 in the former case anyone may watch it1 but at night only the inmates of the village in which it is held may be present4 ,before the circumcision feasts a dance called ,kibuiya is danced by circumcised and uncircumcised boys4 ,it is so called because of the buffalo horns worn by the boys1 but this dance is now said to be practically extinct1 mainly because they cannot get buffalo horns4 ,for women there are two dances which are3 ,getiro--,this is a marriage dance and is held first at the bride's village and in the evening at the bridegroom's village4 ,ndumo--,this is danced by women at the close of the ,kikuyu year4 ,it takes place in a village1 but anyone may be present4 ,in ,kikuyu the elders have only one dance1 called ,muthungwei1 which they dance together with the women2 its name is said to be derived from the nodding of the head in the dance4 ,only elders can dance it1 and a woman cannot join unless her husband is entitled to dance4 ,it is held in an open space outside a village4 ,mr ,routledge mentions three other dances1 but he was probably misled by the words used4 ,two of these1 ,keoana and ,kuinenera1 are verbs meaning to dance or sing4 ,the third1 ,ndorothi1 is the name given to a stick carried by youths at circumcision feasts4 ,it is topped with a tuft of colobus monkey fur and is carried until the evening before the ceremony4 ,on that evening1 all those about to be circumcised race to a mugumu tree and throw the ,ndorothi sticks at the foot of the tree4 ,at the time of circumcision there is1 again1 the ,mambura dance4 ,the boys travel about the country1 their bodies painted white1 and wearing curious wooden shields on their arms above the elbow4 ,natives1 of course1 often sing either in chorus or singly1 and at any time2 such songs are also called ngoma4 ,on one occasion the author met a man who was a sort of primitive travelling minstrel4 ,it was his vocation in life to go about the country singing songs1 for which people gave him a few cents4 ,the natives said that he was the only man known to do this1 and he was therefore perhaps rather a freak4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,women ,,as ,a ,,factor ,,in ,,tribal ,,organisation ,although far from negligible1 the part played by women in the life of a savage tribe is very apt to be overlooked by a man4 ,the reasons are obvious2 the ,african woman is not obtrusive2 she is perpetually busy1 and one rarely comes into contact with her4 ,her inner thoughts and beliefs are a sealed book to the investigator1 and one is at first inclined to believe that her influence is not worth consideration4 ,the longer the experience1 the more clearly one realises that this lack of information about the woman is one of the weak points of any inquiry4 ,among the ,kikuyu there is a council1 or kiama1 of old women in every district2 they collect goats periodically and present them to the elders of ukuru1 or priestly class4 ,they occasionally fine troublesome women1 and the fine1 usually a goat1 has to be obtained by the culprit either by extra work or by begging one from her father4 ,the men fear the women's kiama1 as it is believed that the members of it have the power to bewitch people4 ,it is to be regretted that so little is known about the methods of initiation and the scope of their activities in this direction1 but complete information could only be obtained by a female investigator who has exceptional opportunity and great sympathy4 ,the official recognition of the wife of a candidate for admission into the grade of ukuru among the ,kikuyu has been described at another place4 ,this is unusual in ,african ritual1 but can readily be understood when one learns that old women1 past the child-bearing age1 can participate in sacrificial ceremonies at the sacred trees4 ,this is due to the fact that the growth of cereal and other vegetable food falls to the woman1 and they alone are responsible for the food of the family4 ,this leads to great difficulty1 as the women are intensely conservative1 and when an energetic district officer wishes to improve the economic products of his district and distribute better seeds he is invariably up against the opposition of the women1 which is very difficult to overcome4 ,the woman knows by long experience that1 given a certain area1 a certain seed1 and a certain rainfall she can feed the family1 and one can understand that she should be loth to waste labour on experiments1 the result of which is doubtful4 ,this feeling is very deep-rooted1 and consequently most difficult to overcome3 the same obstacles are met with in connection with the introduction of big ,european hoes for agriculture4 ,the ,african woman has for generations done her planting with either a digging stick or the small ,african hoe2 the tiresome ,european comes along and worries the men to buy the big heavy hoe1 and one can hear the annoyed woman inquiring of her husband why she is being bothered to give up the implement she has been brought up to use with one hand1 for a strange thing which is more expensive and requires two hands4 ,for all that1 however1 the ,european hoe is making good progress1 and will eventually win4 ,it is hoped that this1 and the introduction of ox-drawn ploughs1 will result in the male section of the population taking a more active part in agriculture1 and alleviating the lot of the women4 ,it is believed that if instructors could be detailed to travel about and demonstrate the benefits of utilising oxen to plough1 women would soon champion the cause of progress4 ,the male ,african in his home life is not noted for persistent steady work2 the women1 on the other hand1 are never idle1 and are withal cheerful and uncomplaining about their lot1 and not nearly so down-trodden as some people believe4 ,in most tribes they are well-treated2 their lot among the ,masai is probably harder than among agricultural tribes2 the old women have to go on watch at night in the cattle kraal and often get beaten if they fall asleep4 ,in ,kavirondo1 on the other hand1 the mother of the head of the village is often the most important person in the village1 and her opinion is generally sought even on political matters which lie outside the ordinary sphere of a woman's influence2 the affection of the ,kavirondo for their mothers is1 however1 a very marked trait in their character4 ,among the ,a-,kamba the fact that manifestations from the spirit would nearly always come through the mouths of women undoubtedly proves that the sex plays an important part in the life of the people4 ,the fact that in both ,ukamba and ,giriama old women have in recent years turned out to be at the bottom of serious political agitation also demonstrates this point4 ,the influence of a woman over her children is the same all the world over1 but owing to the long period of lactation prevalent in ,african society1 and possibly among any polygamous community1 the ,african mother might be expected to be more tied by her children than a ,european mother2 such1 however1 is not the case1 and the baby is taken everywhere with the mother--to market1 to the field1 out into the bush when firewood has to be gathered1 and to the river or water-hole4 ,the first separation is when the small boy first goes out to herd the goats2 the small girl stays on with her mother and trots by her side and assists her in her various duties4 ,this continues until the boy is promoted to herd cattle and then goes out into the wider world and comes into contact with civilising influences and ,european progress which cannot fail to enlarge his horizon and increase his knowledge of men and affairs4 ,the girl1 however1 stays on with her mother in the narrow life of an ,african village4 ,the difference of environment at the formative stage of life is thus ever producing a great disparity between the mental development of the two sexes1 and must1 as time goes on1 prove more and more a disturbing factor in tribal life4 ,owing to the marriage value of girls their parents are loth to allow them to go far from home2 the missionaries complain of this as one of their greatest difficulties4 ,boys can be attracted to the missions for instruction1 but it is very difficult to induce parents to allow their daughters to go to school4 ,the old women say that if they go to school their heads will be turned1 that they will want to be fine ladies1 as the saying goes1 and will not take kindly to agriculture1 the collection of firewood1 and other household duties4 ,there is probably a large amount of truth in the accusation1 for education would undoubtedly open their eyes to the life of drudgery they lead2 they would1 as far as physical labour goes1 have an easier time while at a mission1 and would feel the return to a harder life4 ,the whole question is a problem which time alone can solve1 and a proper adjustment of the sphere of activity of the two sexes will take many years4 ,it may be of some interest to review the class of work which is the special duty of the women4 ,their primary duty may be said to be the raising of food1 be it in the form of grain1 beans1 bananas1 sweet potatoes1 etc4 ,they sow1 they tend the fields during the growth of the crop1 and then reap the grain1 thresh it1 store it1 crush it in wooden mortars1 and grind it into meal4 ,in most tribes the clearing of the bush and the heavy work of breaking up new ground devolves on the men1 and in ,kavirondo the men assist to a great extent in actual agriculture4 ,where natives irrigate1 this branch of agriculture is always in the hands of the men4 ,as the producers of food1 it naturally becomes the duty of the women to make the supply of beer for the family4 ,in ,kikuyu young girls crush the sugar cane in mortars made out of a log of wood with round holes in it1 and they then squeeze out the sweet sap and brew the beer4 ,they understand the art of malting grain and the manufacture of beer from cereals4 ,having grown the food1 the cooking of it naturally falls to them2 they know the wild green herbs which are used as green food1 particularly in times of scarcity1 and the wild edible roots which are sought for at such periods4 ,the collection of firewood to cook the food and the transport of the water used also falls to the women4 ,the manufacture of the cooking pots and other household utensils is generally women's work4 ,in ,uganda1 however1 it is as a rule done by men4 ,smith's work is never done by women1 this industry being a monopoly of man2 there would be a prejudice against any arms or weapons made by women1 and by analogy it is therefore believed that the persons who made the stone implements which we are beginning to find in ,africa were men4 ,the collection of honey and the manipulation of bees is also never done by women4 ,the basket work used in the villages is almost always made by women1 and also sleeping mats4 ,the rule is1 however1 not invariable1 for an old influential elder in ,giriama was recently seen plaiting a mat1 possibly because he was too infirm to do more active work4 ,the string bags1 singular1 chondo1 plural1 vyondo1 used by the ,a-,kamba are always made by the women4 ,wood cutting or rude carpentry is the work of the men2 if bedsteads are used they are made by the men1 also the ornamental staves and stools so extensively used4 ,if skin garments are worn1 the woman will bray the goat skins she wears and that in which she carries her child4 ,when the men have not reached the blanket stage they usually go naked or wear an ox hide1 and this they generally prepare themselves4 ,leather work for weapons is always done by the men4 ,in ,uganda the bark cloth is made by men4 ,the bead work affected by some tribes is nearly always done by the women1 but in ,kikuyu a young dandy will often be seen sewing beads on to a bit of hide4 ,metal work used as ornament is always done by the men2 the beautiful iron chain work of ,ukamba is man's monopoly2 any working in ivory1 such as armlets1 must be done by men4 ,each wife in an ,african family usually has dedicated to her particular use a certain number of cattle2 they are not her property1 but she has the sole disposal of their milk for the use of her children4 ,the adult ,a-,kamba and others also drink a considerable amount of curdled milk1 and each wife keeps a supply for her husband and his friends4 ,to what extent women have assisted in the domestication of animals is now a matter of some conjecture1 but there is little doubt that the men caught the animals1 probably young ones1 when out on hunting expeditions1 and handed them over to the women to rear4 ,it is noticeable that among ,african tribes a woman never owns live stock1 and probably never did1 even in matriarchal times4 ,the women are largely responsible for the handing on of the folk lore of a tribe and undoubtedly teach it to their children1 as is done in ,europe to-day4 ,the men1 however1 often unconsciously help in this1 for at a friendly beer-drinking gathering elders will recount folk tales1 out of the stores of their experience1 to the assembled company1 and one tale will remind someone of another and he will try to cap the previous story by one more wonderful4 ,women have done a good deal1 however1 for the development and blending of folk lore4 ,in times past when inter-tribal conflict was common1 women were frequently carried off and thus became incorporated with another tribe2 they carried their folk tales with them1 and unconsciously the stories1 as well as the blood of a tribe1 became modified4 ,the influence of women in fixing a language must not be overlooked2 the mother teaches it to her children1 not actively perhaps1 but the young child is in closest association with the mother and assimilates her speech1 and1 of course1 captured women will1 if in any number1 bring foreign words with them1 and may be instrumental in their general adoption4 ,european women may consider that none of her sisters1 even in ,africa1 could willingly acquiesce in a polygamous life2 such1 however1 is not the case4 ,the burden of life falls heavily on the ,african woman1 and she is1 as a rule1 only too pleased to welcome a new wife to share her burden of work4 ,several cases have been observed of women worrying their husbands to take a second wife1 and a senior wife will often lodge a new wife in her hut until she becomes settled down in the village and her own hut is ready4 ,there are doubtless quarrels1 but1 on the whole1 the family lives in amity and it is believed that jealousy in the ,european sense does not loom very large2 fierce feeling is1 however1 sometimes aroused if a husband unfairly favours one wife in the allotment of cattle4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,some ,,general ,,remarks ,the writer's main object has been to demonstrate the fact that the tribes under review possess a system of natural religion more elaborate than was hitherto suspected1 and he must frankly admit that1 although living for some years in close touch with these natives1 he had no idea of the extent and variety of the ceremonial connected with the tabu beliefs1 sacrifice1 and other cognate branches of their beliefs4 ,the light which the inquiry has thrown upon the complex nature of a native's life is somewhat of a revelation4 ,it should serve as a warning to rash reformers who consider that so-called pagan heathendom can be abolished by a stroke of the pen4 ,this attitude should most certainly be avoided in ,africa as much as in ,india4 ,the beliefs of an ,african are as real to him as those of a ,buddhist1 although they may belong to different and more primitive plane of thought4 ,the influence of the spirits1 or the belief in their influence which in fact comes to the same thing1 is1 as it were1 the real key to a close understanding of the native mind4 ,the native mind is so permeated with these beliefs1 and they consequently have such a profound effect on his actions that1 until this point has been thoroughly grasped1 we are bound to be perpetually brought face to face with absolute enigmas4 ,progressive ,europeans are at times apt to sneer at native beliefs and to feel very impatient with them2 there is no doubt that1 generally speaking1 these beliefs tend to check progress and development1 as we understand them4 ,although this cannot be denied1 we must not lose sight of the fact that1 on the whole1 they undoubtedly act as moral restraints and perform in very much the same way the functions which a dogmatic religion fulfils among people of a higher culture4 ,even if ,government formally abolished the ceremonial by legislation1 the belief would not be affected one iota2 each people has to reckon with its own gods1 and before the indigenous religion is officially discountenanced1 the ruling power must be sure that it has something better and equally suited to the native mind to put in the place of a faith it tries to displace4 ,otherwise materialism will result1 and the effect of this negation of faith1 and freedom from all moral restraint upon a savage would be most disastrous4 ,there is practical evidence of this in the criminal tendencies evinced by numbers of natives who have drifted into the up-country towns in ,british ,east ,africa and cut themselves adrift from their tribal life4 ,to what extent the progress of ,christianity will supply discipline and fit the spiritual needs of a people at this stage of culture is not yet quite clear4 ,while not opposing missionary effort1 it would therefore appear to be imperative to study carefully their present beliefs and not give the impression of trying to crush them2 at the same time1 with the influence based on the knowledge acquired1 the people could be gradually induced to give up any repugnant features and retain the better elements of their ritual4 ,it is not suggested that this is a policy of finality1 but it is important at this juncture to avoid the spread of an impression that the ,europeans have set out to crush the deep-seated and cherished natural religion which the natives now possess4 ,the spread of an idea of this character will do as much as anything to alienate the sympathies of the blacks and may prove a cause of serious antagonism4 ,the need for higher philosophy will gradually spread1 but let the craving come from within4 ,it is of great interest to note how readily the more intelligent elders respond to inquiry into their beliefs once they are convinced that it is undertaken in the proper spirit1 and nothing convinces them so much of the bona fides of our administrative intentions as a sympathetic study of their customs and a demonstration of one's knowledge of them4 ,it is therefore maintained that the study of these questions is not merely academic but one of the greatest practical value to the administrator1 the missionary1 and the colonist1 as well as the student4 ,it is interesting to show how these questions may frequently affect the colonist4 ,it is well known that the ,kikuyu people form the bulk of the labour supply of the upland colonists in ,british ,east ,africa1 and complaints are often received from employers of its capricious nature4 ,upon investigation it was found that1 apart from the natural ebb and flow of this supply1 the charge of caprice was well founded1 i4e41 there were many cases of desertion1 often without any suspicion of ill-treatment2 further1 in some cases it was discovered that this desertion was traceable to a belief on the part of the individual that it was necessary to go away to get dawa1 which is the general local synonym for medicine1 whether of the nature of drugs or magical in character4 ,the question then arose as to why such frequent calls occurred1 and it was a long time before a definite clue could be obtained1 but the principles gradually unfolded and became clear and were found to rest on the necessity of obtaining ceremonial purification to free the individual from either a thahu or the impurity left by a death in the family1 as has been described in this work4 ,it is in fact difficult at first to believe how complex a native's social life may be4 ,it may not be immediately obvious how a knowledge of these beliefs can ameliorate the difficulty1 but the point is that if a man deserts without leave he breaks his contract of service and dare not venture back for a long time in case he should be identified and punished1 whereas if he knows that his master understands his beliefs he will probably go and tell him and ask if he can go away for a day or so and carry out the necessary ceremonies1 and will then usually come back4 ,it may be a little tiresome to the master1 but the better feeling and mutual confidence which is induced pays in every way4 ,this is not mere theory1 for the men who do get into close touch with their employees lose very few1 and can generally get more men than they require4 ,this is merely quoted as an example of the practical value of ethnological inquiry in daily life1 which after all is not a bad working test4 ,the method employed in collecting the material has been to discuss the questions with as many responsible elders as possible1 and compare and correct the statements so obtained4 ,it has been a work of great interest1 though often very tedious1 but probably more tedious to the informer than to the recorder4 ,there is one warning which it is desired to impress upon persons living in the country and who have opportunities of research1 and that is that the last word has not been said upon these questions1 and it is hoped that these observations will only encourage further research and the keenest criticism4 ,it must be remembered that very few of the ceremonials described in this book have been witnessed by ,europeans1 and if they have1 they have not been observed and described by eyes trained to note the important features1 and it may well happen that with the best intentions the elders may have from time to time omitted some point which1 when accurately described1 may throw a flood of light upon an apparently obscure point in the ritual4 ,this is where the district officer and the missionary can1 if they choose1 play such an important part2 we have many missionaries who possess a thorough knowledge of the vernaculars of the tribes1 and district officers who1 if not such good linguists1 are in intimate touch with these people2 these men have many chances if they would only train themselves for the task4 ,up to the time of the war signs of a renaissance were not wanting1 however1 and administrative officers and others were yearly taking more and more scientific interest in their people1 and one of the missionary societies1 it is said1 formed a committee for the study of native customs4 ,it is to be feared that the war has indirectly checked this branch of scientific study1 and the activities of many observers1 who before its occurrence promised to develop a flair for this kind of research1 have temporarily ceased4 ,a very marked need at present is greater sympathetic appreciation from high quarters4 ,further1 local assistance with regard to the publication of observations is essential4 ,few signs of such support are1 however1 visible at present in many of our colonies4 ,missionary endeavour in this field is particularly welcome1 but if a word of advice will not be resented1 these observers must realise the necessity of caution in collecting observations of pagan customs from persons who have been for some time in close contact with their teaching1 which often has the effect of causing their pupils to ridicule time-honoured ceremonial4 ,moreover1 missionaries are1 as a rule1 only in close touch with the rising generation who are not initiated in the procedure1 and have little to do with the elders of the tribe4 ,,chapter ,x ,,east ,,africa ,,after ,,the ,,war ,although it may appear somewhat beyond the scope of the foregoing inquiry1 which was mainly conducted before the war occurred to interrupt it1 ,i consider that it may be of interest to examine the effect of the great world conflict on the native races1 and to assess the present position with regard to black and white in that region4 ,the outbreak of war came as an unexpected shock to the natives as a whole4 ,the up-country tribes had very little conception of the distinctions between the various white races1 and were somewhat puzzled by the conflict4 ,the coast people1 who were in daily touch with ,germans and ,austrians1 were a little clearer1 but1 of course1 had no conception of the casus belli1 and although they knew that the daily lives of the two sections were apart1 yet they saw them mix at the clubs and never dreamt that ,europeans among themselves ever resorted to arms4 ,the internment of the enemy subjects in ,mombasa was the first material sign1 and it was hailed with acclamation by the ,swahilis of ,mombasa1 who treasured up resentment at the arrogant behaviour of the ,germans prior to the war4 ,the conflict was therefore a great blow to the solidarity of the white race1 but this effect was not immediately apparent4 ,on the whole the tribes behaved in an exemplary manner1 but enemy agents produced some active unrest among a coast tribe which for some years past had been unfavourably disposed towards ,government4 ,like most of our countrymen1 the natives naturally had no conception of the magnitude of the struggle or its possible duration4 ,they thought that it would be over in a few months1 and responded with alacrity to calls for porters1 and for recruits for the ,k4,a4,r4 ,they also made no demur to the numerous restrictions which a war imposes on the people involved4 ,the war1 however1 dragged on year after year1 the calls for labour became more and more insistent1 the poor carriers suffered hardships and died in tens of thousands1 from the diseases inseparable from a campaign in an unhealthy tropical region1 dysentery and pneumonia being the two main causes of death4 ,in a campaign of this character1 where troops of mixed races are employed1 the close contact between black and white is an undesirable and unavoidable feature4 ,the black troops soon came to realise the physical disabilities of the ,europeans and their vulnerability4 ,they saw ,europeans shot down and even bayoneted by enemy black soldiers1 they realised that very few ,europeans were crack shots1 they noted the inferior marching capacity of the white man1 his inability to find his way about in the bush unaccompanied by a native guide1 and in some cases they even saw that the courage of the white was not greater than that of the black4 ,after all this can it be wondered that the prestige of the white race has suffered in the war6 ,is it surprising that the attitude of many of the blacks to the white man has altered8 ,the black has always been quick to realise who is in authority and who is not1 and will still accede outward respect to a representative of the ,government1 but that is not the test1 and the real criterion is his attitude towards the ordinary farmer or settler2 this has been considerably modified during the war1 and it is doubtful if the old traditional wide respect of white by black can ever be entirely restored4 ,the might of the ,government has been demonstrated during the war to an unheard of extent1 and to some extent ,government has unconsciously traded on this impression1 for it has boldly imposed restrictions on the black1 and a degree of taxation which it would have hesitated to do before the war4 ,there are two schools of thought in existence regarding the governance of the black races in ,east ,africa4 7#a7 ,this school claims to be progressive1 and favours the abolition of tribal control by its indigenous constitution2 it is opposed to chiefs1 tribal law and customs1 and is in favour of direct government by ,european magistrates and by police4 7#b7 ,the conservative school aims at retaining and strengthening the internal forces which control a tribe1 at the same time promoting an evolution of the character of that control by inducing the native leaders to slough the more repugnant customs and beliefs4 ,the former scheme receives considerable support from the settler community on the grounds that it will result in the native1 conjointly with themselves1 playing a more active part in the development of ,africa4 ,it is also supported to some extent by the missionaries1 who feel that the disintegration of the old order would afford them greater chances for their propaganda4 ,at the same time the probable effect of the dissolution of tribal control is rarely realised4 ,the nearest example of such emancipation can be observed in the larger towns1 and here we have thousands of natives attracted to these places by the desire to earn money4 ,they have no natural authorities in control1 and although there are1 of course1 respectable members in these assemblages1 taking it all round they are the biggest collection of native ruffians in the country1 and are saturated with every vice4 ,consequently in spite of a concentration of magisterial and police control far in excess of anything in a native reserve1 crime of every kind is rife1 and they have become an increasing menace to the ,european residents4 ,these town colonies of natives1 it must be remembered1 are products of our own creation1 and do not argue well for native emancipation from their natural leaders4 ,the native system of government is admittedly faulty1 not so much in design as in execution2 this is partly due to the fact that the blood kin of a criminal will go to great lengths to shield him1 and partly because chiefs and elders are often venial or amenable to threats or to fear of witchcraft4 ,native custom has in recent years been purged of many of its repugnant features1 and any that exist will steadily tend to disappear if intelligently approached by native commissioners who take the trouble to understand these customs and the motives behind them4 ,blind action in these matters is rarely effective4 ,if the present-day political shibboleth of 8self-determination0 is to be encouraged in ,africa1 the policy of disintegration of all native authority should be pursued4 ,it is a sure prescription for the birth of a native party which will speedily demand equal electoral privileges with the ,europeans2 it will abolish tribal isolation and inter-tribal prejudice which has for long years been a safeguard against the combination of the black millions against the few white intruders from overseas4 ,it will produce a receptive soil for educated blacks from other countries to propagate the doctrine of 8,africa for the ,africans40 ,in the event of a struggle1 the ,european1 having sole control of munitions1 will not eventually be worsted1 but he will not re-establish domination until much blood1 both black and white1 has been spilled1 and both sides will emerge from the struggle with bitterness and distrust4 ,the choice of a policy is therefore a vital matter to all1 and the problem should be dispassionately considered4 ,after the ,armistice large numbers of natives who had served in the ,king's ,african ,rifles were disbanded1 and some people maintain that these men in future may prove a menace owing to their knowledge of arms and their close acquaintance with ,european troops in the field4 ,in ,kenya there is1 as far as ,i know1 no signs of it1 for they have no arms2 they are moreover weary of war1 and the majority have gone back to their reserves to spend their savings or invest them in wives4 ,in ,tanganyika a good many arms were secreted by deserters and picked up after engagements1 and these may be used to some extent in attempts to settle inter-tribal feuds2 there is1 however1 little fear of the concentration of any force in opposition to ,government4 ,in fact our rule is so mild compared with the ,german rgime that when the internal prosperity of that country revives there is no reason to anticipate anything but peace for a long time to come4 ,when one realises that over eight thousand official floggings per annum took place in ,german ,east ,africa before the war1 and in addition many thousands of unofficial floggings1 no record of which was kept1 the relief must be apparent to all4 ,the ,germans themselves must have realised that the flogging propensity had to be checked1 for in #aiab-aiac no fewer than one hundred and seven employers were convicted of assaulting their labourers4 ,needless to say1 under ,british rule1 flogging is only inflicted for a few extremely serious crimes4 ,it is1 however1 fruitless at this stage to dilate upon the differences between ,german and ,british rule2 it is far more important to consider the factors on both sides that count in the present situation and to outline any obvious future dangers4 ,the question of religion is intimately connected with behaviour1 and an attempt has been made in this work to show how closely interwoven with their life are the primitive beliefs of the people4 ,in recent years1 however1 a new set of influences have arisen1 viz41 those of the ,christian churches and also ,mohammedanism4 ,the ,christian missions are very varied2 there are the ,roman ,catholic1 and ,church of ,england faiths1 ,methodists1 ,seventh ,day ,adventists1 also a loosely knit group of nonconformist type known as the ,inland ,african ,mission and others4 ,to obviate undue competition in any particular area1 ,government has in ,kenya ,colony agreed to spheres of influence being arranged between the various mission groups1 and withholds approval of the establishment of a new mission too near an already established rival4 ,the only argument in favour of this practice is expediency1 for on ethical grounds the ,state has no right to decide that the people of any particular area shall only have ready access to the doctrines of any particular church4 ,the ,roman ,catholic missions1 as is often the case1 have acquired more land than any other religious body1 and there is a marked tendency on their part to attempt to set up imperia in imperio on their estates on the plea of internal discipline1 thus usurping to some extent the rights of government4 ,it will be remembered that in the early days in ,uganda this led to armed struggles between ,catholics and ,protestants3 such1 however1 are unlikely to recur under modern conditions4 ,the ,catholics have perhaps more than any other mission suffered from shortness of funds since the expulsion of the religious orders from ,france1 and up country in ,africa they generally endeavour to grow coffee or some other crop to help to support the mission2 such efforts are praiseworthy and useful in the educational sense4 ,they are a great contrast1 for instance1 to the neglected estate of the ,c4,m4,s4 at ,freretown4 ,the missionaries1 taking it all round1 have in spite of unrivalled facilities contributed but little to our knowledge of the country2 but they have1 it is true1 recorded the construction of various native languages4 ,with one notable exception in ,uganda1 who1 in spite of discouragement from his fellows1 persisted in his researches1 no missionary in ,east ,africa has thrown much light on the ethnology of the natives2 it is said that they have been inclined to consider researches of this nature as somewhat irreligious1 but this view has1 it is believed1 died away4 ,upon the plea of combating the spread of ,mohammedanism1 the missions have1 except at the coast1 declined to teach the ,swahili language1 which is the lingua franca of ,east ,central ,africa1 and have perpetuated and are still endeavouring to perpetuate a host of tribal languages1 which1 although interesting as linguistic curiosities1 prove a barrier to civilisation and progress4 ,it may be1 of course1 that ,english will on this account come into general use quicker1 but that result1 if it comes1 will not be due to the missions4 ,the main qualification for a missionary in ,africa appears to be what they term 8earnestness10 but it is to be feared that the possession of this admirable trait is an inadequate equipment for the task of regenerating the black4 ,it is to be regretted that there are not a greater percentage of scholarly men with liberal ideas among their numbers4 ,it is not to be inferred that such men are absent2 it would1 however1 be invidious to mention names2 there is a leaven of men of wide vision1 and the missionaries as a whole afford examples of purity of life which cannot fail to have a good moral effect4 ,this short review of the missionary position may seem beside the point1 but the character of the influences which affect the native are of no little importance4 ,the missions all claim to play a great part in the education of the natives1 and the local government has1 through paucity of funds1 found it convenient to acquiesce in this claim1 and to a great extent leaves native education to mission effort4 ,the results leave much to be desired1 and naturally the primary mission ideal of education is to impart to the native a sufficient knowledge of reading and writing to enable him to read such portion of the scriptures as have been translated into the vernacular of the tribe4 ,very few missionaries understand the philosophy of education2 very few even have much knowledge of educational method4 ,as a brilliant educationalist has written1 8the function of education is to foster growth0--the aim of the teacher should be 8the development of the latent powers of his pupil1 the unfolding of the latent life40 ,are the blacks in ,kenya ,colony receiving an education of this nature8 ,the answer is1 it is feared1 generally in the negative4 ,now the character of the education of the black is going to have a profound effect on his future and also on the relations of black and white4 ,this is a truism1 and as ,dudley ,kidd has so forcibly put it1 8,the problem is the progress of a backward race1 and we allow inefficient teachers1 whose only qualification for the difficult work is their own kind hearts1 to form the character of the rising generation and to complicate our difficulties--has any ,state the right to allow unqualified people to intensify national problems in this gratuitous fashion80 ,it is not to be inferred that missionary educational effort is mischievous4 ,far from it2 but it is narrow in its outlook1 it is not based on any sound foundation1 and it does very little to develop latent powers4 ,the colonists do not1 as a rule1 favour literary education1 but clamour mainly for industrial education4 ,there is a germ of truth in this opinion1 but a sense of proportion must be exercised or the industrial market may be flooded with artisans of mediocre efficiency far in excess of the demand4 ,the great rle of the ,african in the future must be1 as it has been in the past1 the cultivation of the soil4 ,improve his agricultural methods and teach him to extract more food per acre to feed the future increase of the native population and still have something to sell4 ,mohammedanism needs a reference1 for it is a factor of no mean importance in ,africa4 ,some students of extreme views picture the growth of a pan-,islamic spirit which will bind all the blacks against the ,europeans2 and missionary publications often refer to this as an imminent danger possibly with the object of eliciting financial support for ,christian propaganda4 ,the writer has no such fears4 ,mohammedanism is spreading to a limited extent in ,east ,africa1 but there is little religious fervour behind it1 and it is difficult to see how it can ever become more than a veneer with the up-country tribes1 for it is certain that they will never learn ,arabic in order to be able to enjoy the ,koran4 ,among the up-country people who come into intimate contact with ,mohammedan life1 such as those who come to coast towns to work1 it is readily embraced1 for it becomes the religion of the cooking pot4 ,the ,swahilis and such like are hospitable folk1 but may not eat with unbelievers1 and it is therefore very expedient for an up-country stranger to become nominally a ,mohammedan1 for he may then dip his finger in the food bowl with his hosts4 ,apart from this1 however1 there is no doubt that the easy doctrines of ,islam appeal to the ,african2 they are suited to his temperament1 and more important still1 ,islamism is not looked upon as an alien religion1 for although the ,arabs are few1 the ,swahilis1 who form the greater number of the followers of ,islam in the country1 are only ,africans who are a little more civilised and better clothed than their cousins from up-country1 while ,christianity is always associated with the coming of the ,europeans and with their domination of the country4 ,although for many reasons ,mohammedanism appears more suited to the black than ,christianity--it is a ceremonial religion and it moreover countenances polygamy--nevertheless1 it is inadvisable that the ,state should in any way foster its progress in our ,african colonies1 for it contains many dangerous elements4 ,the ,mohammedanism of ,east ,africa is a mild variety1 but there is much inflammable material lying about in the ,mohammedan world1 and it might at any time be blown over to that area4 ,mohammedanism1 too1 has a reactionary influence2 it stunts cultural development and it appears to be insusceptible to internal evolution4 ,on these grounds it would appear expedient that the bias of the ,state should be in favour of the eventual spread of ,christianity1 for it is a religion of a higher ethical type4 ,it is the religion of the ,western world1 and although its spiritual progress has been hampered by an extraordinary mass of mediaeval accretions in the shape of dogma1 ritual and such like1 there are signs that it is endeavouring to eliminate non-essentials and adjust itself to the plane of modern thought4 ,the progress is slow but it has to such a great extent lost its authority and its influence over the people as a mass1 that if it wishes to survive it must adjust itself to the age it serves and endeavour to carry mankind a step further in the way of spiritual evolution4 ,as for faith1 faith is common to and alike in all religions--faith is the vital spark without which no religion can live or can ever become a vital force--be it a highly developed creed of the ,west or a lowly primitive type such as we have been considering4 ,faith evades all logic1 and even the higher criticism of advanced clerics leaves it untouched4 ,during recent years the rapid internal development of ,east ,africa has produced an acute situation with regard to native labour1 and although1 owing to the present economic depression1 this is relieved for the moment1 it is bound to recur as trade improves and production increases4 ,the supply of labour has vastly increased during the last ten years1 but up to the outbreak of war the amount but rarely kept pace with the demand1 and the loss of native life during the ,german ,east campaign was so heavy that if the pre-war demand had been maintained there would have been a general shortage2 a few years of restricted demand will therefore give a little breathing space1 and a number of youths who were not old enough for military service will become old enough to go out and seek work4 ,among a certain section of people in ,england whose knowledge of the colonies is somewhat vague1 and whose outlook is tinged with sentimental philanthropy1 the employment of blacks as agricultural labourers or industrial workers by ,british colonists is looked upon with suspicion and as being little removed from slavery4 ,it is apparently based on the belief that such labour is forcibly seized1 badly treated and paid only a nominal wage4 ,ill-informed criticism is generally faulty1 and in the present instance it is particularly so4 ,twenty years ago the up-country natives were1 generally speaking1 reluctant to work for private ,europeans or for ,government1 except occasionally to carry loads2 as settlement1 however1 proceeded the demand for farm labour arose1 the needs of the native gradually increased1 and a few rupees had annually to be earned to pay the hut tax2 as these stimuli became felt1 so native labour gradually became available4 ,every year up to the war the supply increased1 and more and more natives became accustomed to the idea of working for wages several months in the year4 ,is this desirable1 and if so1 why8 ,in the old days1 before ,european occupation of the country1 the able-bodied male population had to be always ready to repel raids or participate in raids1 and in times of peace its main duty was the herding and guarding of the tribal cattle4 ,the danger of attack ceased with the advent of settled government1 and if the younger men of the tribe do not go out to work1 they spend the bulk of their time loafing from village to village attending beer feasts and philandering with the young girls2 for tribal custom insists that the bulk of the agricultural work shall as formerly be done by the woman4 ,the elders do not approve of the present habits of the youths1 but unfortunately under our rule the bonds of tribal discipline have been relaxed4 ,if this is fully realised it will readily be seen that the absence of a considerable portion of these young men for a part of each year is beneficial to the good order of a native reserve2 they are under discipline when working1 they learn something1 and come back to their villages with money which enriches the tribe4 ,on the majority of plantations and farms the natives are well treated1 and it is the duty of ,government to see that they are well housed1 well fed1 and that any grievances are speedily redressed2 inspectors periodically visit employees for this purpose4 ,ill treatment has occurred from time to time1 and isolated cases of brutality on the part of employers have unfortunately happened and have been punished by the courts4 ,such cases should1 however1 not be allowed to cloud our vision or distort our sense of proportion any more than the occurrence of a few cases of cruelty to children in ,england4 ,as regards wages1 the rates are such that have naturally grown up in the country with due regard to the cost of food1 the usual village diet of the labourer1 and the cost of his simple clothing4 ,it must also be borne in mind that the output of an ,african is very minute compared with a ,european1 and the supervision required is vastly greater4 ,a recent petition to the home government headed by prelates1 labour representatives1 and various well-meaning people took rather an extreme view1 and urged the adoption of a policy entirely native in its outlook1 and one which would result in crushing ,european endeavour in this part of ,africa4 ,one important plank in the policy was the foundation of native industries in the reserves1 and so forth4 ,every well-wisher of the native wishes to see progress in the reserves1 but intimate knowledge of the cultural plane of the aboriginal population causes one to realise clearly how easy it is to formulate dicta in ,london1 and how difficult it is to carry them out in ,africa4 ,the individual planting of agricultural products in reserves by the medium of the ,african hoe1 and the labour of the ,african woman1 is an uneconomical form of production1 and once the food supply of the tribe is assured1 the surplus enriches the ,indian middle man more than the native4 ,long established custom rules that the agricultural work in a tribe shall be carried out by the women1 and no ordinance will force the young men to relieve the women of this duty if they do not desire to do so4 ,native progress proceeds slowly1 and the stimulus for acceleration must come from within if it is to be permanent4 ,then again with regard to native industries--conditions of life can be gradually improved1 and the people can be taught to build better houses1 and to use furniture4 ,the majority1 however1 cannot afford such luxuries1 and are contented with their own mode of life2 their idea of saving money being to provide the means to buy live stock1 the possession of which is essential for wife purchase4 ,the renaissance again must come from within4 ,it will come gradually1 but not nearly so soon as our benevolent friends hope and desire4 ,to sum up this brief survey of a complex question1 it is desired to impress upon all that the future of the ,african native and the nature of his relations with the white race will not be decided by the academic recommendations of any body in ,england4 ,the utmost that philanthropically minded opinion can demand is a high ethical standard in native administration1 and the safeguarding by government of native land rights4 ,further1 the well-meaning people at home must trust their own people in ,africa1 trust to the growth of a tolerant and humane local view of the relationship of black and white4 ,there is no reason to believe that this spirit will not reach as high a level in ,east ,africa as it has done in other parts of our ,empire4 ,further1 as ,lord ,buxton recently remarked in an address on native problems1 and referring to the government of the ,union of ,south ,africa and ,rhodesia3 8,especially do they resent criticism when those who criticise put on a self-righteous air and assume that they and their associates alone have the welfare of the native at heart1 and imply that those who differ are actuated by obstinate or unworthy motives40 ,the main points in native policy which long experience of ,africa suggest may be stated as follows3 7#a7 ,the old tribal discipline and organisation is in danger of dissolution2 it rarely rested on very firm foundations1 for the authorities were weak2 it should receive most careful review by experienced men of knowledge and sympathy1 tribe by tribe4 ,the situation is at present drifting1 and neither black nor white can see whither4 ,there is one thing1 however1 which is obvious1 and that is that the new generation of native leaders should be educated by ,government to fit them for their duties4 ,such a step would be widely appreciated and might do a great deal to avert future danger4 ,their education should1 above all1 concern itself with the formation of character and the development of responsibility2 education seems to so rarely provide the ,african with these essentials1 in fact their vital importance seems to be often overlooked4 7#b7 ,the taxation collected from natives by the ,state for general purposes should be low1 and any addition to the standard tax which may be collectable as the wealth of the natives increases should be devoted to specific objects1 such as native education1 the development of the reserves and such like4 ,the natives should clearly understand this1 and it would do a great deal to improve the relations of the ,government with the native1 for there is at present a well-founded belief in the native mind that they are periodically called upon to pay more and at the same time get but little return for their money2 confidence in ,government has perceptibly lessened in the last few years4 7#c7 ,the excessive infantile mortality in native reserves should receive specific attention1 and also the checking of disease generally4 ,on economic grounds alone1 epidemics among the native population are far more important than those among cattle2 it is feared1 however1 that up to now they have not received as much attention1 and the reason is not far to seek4 ,effective measures will entail the training of a considerable staff of native subordinate medical staff who should be distributed throughout the reserves1 each group being under a ,european medical officer4 7#d7 ,as has been previously stated1 the more dangerous elements of the native population are in the towns2 for it is there that the restraining influence of the chiefs and elders is absent1 it is there that crime is more prevalent1 it is there that undesirable political movements are bred and where more educated material can be found2 a fertile soil for the seditious seed of the ,asiatic agitation4 ,common sense therefore suggests that special efforts be made to reach these mixed assemblages of native life by the provision of suitable educational facilities and by the provision of healthy amusement and entertainment1 by evening lectures in subjects both interesting and instructive1 by an amusing and healthy native press4 ,needless to say1 better housing in town locations is an important matter if these people are to be taught to live decent1 respectable lives2 baths and places for washing clothes are also essential for health and well-being4 7#e7 ,abrupt interference with native customs and tribal laws is to be deprecated2 much of the old codes is good1 and undesirable features can1 with the consent of the people1 gradually be eliminated1 if the guiding hand applies his reforming touch with judgment2 and this brings us to the necessity for the careful selection of administrative officers and the importance of these being trained in ethnological method1 for no man can reform and develop a system of which he is not qualified to judge4 ,greater knowledge of native psychology will help to maintain the paternal relations which should exist between the natives of a district and their commissioner1 and to which the most successful native administrators in the past owe their success4 7#f7 ,education4 ,this is essential1 but1 as has been explained1 matters are not satisfactory at present1 nor will they improve much until ,government takes it over into its own hands1 and it should begin by the formation of a well-equipped normal school wherein a large staff of native teachers should be trained by a picked ,european staff4 ,a boarding school should also be founded in each province where an effective industrial training can be given to a number of picked youths1 and in conjunction with a sound rudimentary education4 ,the ,african is a receptive person1 but has little persistence1 and is apt to become weary before he is efficient4 ,there are altogether too many young men about with a mere smattering of education which is nothing more than a surface veneer1 and is often used as an excuse for escaping manual labour2 this spirit needs to be vigorously combated4 ,very few natives leave the mission schools with anything more than this surface veneer of education1 the outward sign of which is a passion for khaki coats1 boots1 collars and ties1 and in this way they ape the ,european4 ,this may appear ridiculous at present1 but there is one thing certain and that is that a renaissance has now begun1 and we must in the future be prepared for curious manifestations of the aspiration for self-realisation on the part of the ,african4 ,the true art of government1 therefore1 will be to utilise with wisdom any real signs of their desire to rise to a higher cultural and social plane4 ,the way will not be easy1 but much can be attained by wide sympathy and by knowledge of the psychology of the subject4 ,it must never be forgotten that in a colony of the ,east ,african type the ,european colonist and the native are interdependent4 ,due consideration and justice for the backward partner must be the keynote of the native policy1 for a contented1 friendly black population will connote a healthy and prosperous white community4 ,l',,envoi ,the student of anthropology is urged to be precise and accurate in his record of facts1 and the haunting fear of giving rein to the imaginative side1 especially when dealing with beliefs which have almost ceased to evoke response from ,western races1 often tends to make one's narrative seem dull and lifeless4 ,the poet is bound by no such paltry conventions1 but it is rare to find one who strikes the true note--intimate knowledge coupled with acute insight4 ,the late ,captain ,cullen ,gouldsbury of ,rhodesian repute possessed this rare gift1 and the writer takes the liberty of reproducing the following poem as a remarkable and unique attempt to express the native point of view3 ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,view ,from ,songs out of ,exile by ,cullen ,gouldsbury 7,fisher ,unwin1 #aiab7 ,white man1 cease from your tales--your ,god may be good for you1 ,but think you that aught avails to fashion our creed anew8 ,we1 who are born and bred in the fear of ',mlimo's wrath1 ,heirs to eternal dread shall we cast our ,witchmen forth ,to take as a load instead the creed of ye from the ,north8 ,lo6 we are born in the fear of wild and unspeakable things2 ,born in the ,bush land here1 where the souls of the dead have wings4 ,hovering high in the air where the shades of even fall1 ,shrinking in dim despair at the gate of each lonely kraal-- ,scoff not1 white man6 beware1 when the ghosts of the dead men call4 ,there are ,spirits that walk by night with their heads behind their backs-- ,there are ,spirits that fade from sight in the gloom of the forest tracks2 ,there are ghosts of the babes that died in the kraal long moons ago1 ,ghosts of cripples that glide with shambling pace and slow1 ,ghosts of the new-made bride and of many a girl we know4 ,yestereen1 when the sun sank low in the western sky1 ,and silently1 one by one1 the hovering bats flew by1 ,ziwa1 pride of my heart1 my youngest and best-loved wife1 ,drew me a pace apart1 saying3 8,husband1 'tis done with life1 ,nay friend1 shrink not1 nor start6 lend me your hunting knife60 ,ay6 and she lies there dead--and the youths and maidens mourn1 ,they bury her1 so one said1 in the cool of to-morrow's dawn-- ,for the evil moor-hens keep a watch on this kraal1 ,i know1 ,and perch when the world's asleep1 on the hut-tops then below4 ,see6 ,i will kill a sheep to ward off a further blow6 ,white man1 laugh if you will6 such tales are for babes1 you say8 ,have you no ,god of ,ill8 ,do you not cringe and pray8 ,offering sacrifice in a temple built of stone8 ,do you not seek advice from a priest man of your own8 ,do you not pay a price8 ,are we the heathen alone8 ,,glossary ,this includes the native names most used in the text4 ,dorobo3 ,masai word 7spelt ,torobo by ,hollis7 often corrupted by travellers to ,wandorobo or ,andorobo4 ,dorobo in ,masai means tsetse fly4 ,the name for an aboriginal race of hunters who inhabit the great forests of the highlands in ,east ,africa4 ,they call themselves ,asi and the ,kikuyu call them ,adzi4 ,the name of the ,athi ,river is believed to be a corruption of ,adzi4 ,engai 7,kikuyu73 ,the deity4 ,eithaga3 ,the name of a ,kikuyu clan1 members of which are said to possess magical powers2 sometimes spelt ,aithaga4 ,a member of this clan is called a ,mweithaga4 ,gethaka 7,kikuyu73 ,the portion of a ridge in ,kikuyu owned by a particular family1 the title to possession of this being obtained from the ,dorobo1 the original occupants of the forest4 ,some regard it as a freehold right1 others maintain that the ,kikuyu only acquired the right to cut the forest in order to make shambas1 or gardens4 ,the gethaka rights are1 however1 very real possessions in the eyes of the ,kikuyu4 ,huku 7,kikuyu73 ,a mole-like rodent--,tachyorctes sp4 ,ichua 7,kikuyu73 ,a sacrificial fire4 ,imu1 singular2 aiimu1 plural 7,kamba73 ,ancestral spirits4 ,ithembo1 singular2 mathembo1 plural 7,kamba73 ,sacred place where sacrifices are carried out4 ,ira 7,kikuyu73 ,white diatomaceous earth which is also used in ceremonial as a purifying agent4 ,itwika 7,kikuyu73 ,a periodic ceremony which marks the termination of a generation or age in the tribe--it corresponds in some ways to the ,masai ,eunoto ceremony4 ,kikuyu3 ,the missionaries now often spell it ,gikuyu4 ,a member of the ,kikuyu tribe is called ,mu-,kikuyu--plural1 ,a-,kikuyu4 ,in common parlance1 however1 if one drops the prefixes and refers to a man of this tribe as a ,kikuyu 7native7--the latter word being widely understood1 it is simpler than attaching the appropriate prefix4 ,an upland tribe in ,kenya ,colony extending from near ,nairobi to ,mount ,kenya4 ,kamba3 ,mu-,kamba is the singular2 ,a-,kamba is plural and collective4 ,in the same way as above1 it has become more usual to simply refer to them as ,kamba 7native74 ,their country is termed ,ukamba1 and their language ,ki-,kamba4 ,a tribe in ,kenya ,colony1 east of ,nairobi4 ,there are detached portions of the tribe near ,mombasa1 near ,taveta1 and in ,tanganyika territory4 ,kithangaona 7,kikuyu73 ,sacred place4 ,ku-roga 7,kikuyu7 verb3 ,to place upon or to bewitch4 ,kihe 7,kikuyu73 ,an uncircumcised boy4 ,kamwana 7,kamba73 ,an uncircumcised boy4 ,kingnoli 7,kamba73 ,collective killing or execution by the people of a person convicted of certain serious offences4 ,kafara 7,swahili73 ,a charm placed at cross-roads to avert misfortune4 ,if anyone carries it away it is believed that the misfortune or disease will be carried with it4 ,kirume 7,kikuyu73 ,the dying curse which can be suspended over his descendants by a dying man4 ,kiume 7,kamba73 ,the dying curse which can be suspended over his descendants by a dying man4 ,konono 7,masai73 ,a clan of serfs believed to be of alien race who live among the ,masai and who are the smiths to the tribe4 ,they correspond to the ,tumal of the ,somalis4 ,kita 7,kikuyu73 ,the power of the evil eye4 ,kiama 7,kikuyu73 ,council of elders4 ,mwanake1 singular2 anake1 plural 7,kikuyu73 ,warrior class4 ,mutumia1 singular2 atumia1 plural 7,kamba73 ,tribal elders4 ,muthuri1 singular2 athuri1 plural 7,kikuyu73 ,athuri ya ,ukuru--the senior elders4 ,mumo 7,kamba73 ,sacred fig tree4 ,mugumu 7,kikuyu73 ,sacred fig tree1 often called muti wa ,engai4 ,makwa 7,kamba73 ,afflicted by a curse4 ,see thabu4 ,mwati1 singular2 miati1 plural 7,kikuyu73 ,a young ewe which has not borne a lamb4 ,miatini 7,kamba73 ,the fruit of ,kigelia musa or ,kigelia pinnata--used for fermenting beer4 ,mulungu 7,kamba73 ,the deity4 ,mathamaki1 singular2 azamaki or athamaki1 plural 7,kikuyu73 ,an elder of council2 his official title1 not his grade rank4 ,muturi1 singular2 aturi1 plural 7,kikuyu73 ,a smith4 ,mundu ,mugo 7,kikuyu73 ,medicine man4 ,murogi 7,kikuyu73 ,medicine man who deals in black magic4 ,muburi 7,kikuyu73 ,goat4 ,ngoma 7,kikuyu73 ,ancestral spirit4 ,ngoma 7,swahili73 ,a dance4 ,this word is also widely used by up-country natives4 ,njele 7,swahili73 ,a half gourd used as a domestic utensil for drinking water1 gruel or milk4 ,nzeli or nzele 7,kamba73 ,a half gourd used as a domestic utensil for drinking water1 gruel or milk4 ,nthele1 singular2 anthele1 plural 7,kamba73 ,young married man4 ,ndorume 7,kikuyu73 ,a ram1 a favourite form of sacrifice4 ,ngnondu 7,kikuyu73 ,a ewe1 which is also used as a sacrifice on certain occasions4 ,ngunga 7,kikuyu73 ,caterpillars4 ,njohi 7,kikuyu73 ,native beer1 usually made from sugar cane4 ,nzama 7,kamba73 ,council of elders4 ,njama 7,kikuyu73 ,a consultation by the elders2 the proceedings are generally secret4 ,rika 7,kikuyu73 ,generation--age grade4 ,rathi 7,swahili73 ,happiness1 blessing--generally used of a formal blessing4 ,kuwarathi--to be satisfied or content with4 ,rukwaru 7,kikuyu73 ,a strip of goat skin bound on the waist of a person to signify that he has duly performed a certain ceremony4 ,ruenji 7,kikuyu73 ,a razor4 ,ruoro 7,kikuyu73 ,knife used for branding cattle4 ,shamba1 singular2 ma-shamba1 plural 7,swahili73 ,cultivated field or garden1 widely used by up-country ,africans4 ,ku-tahikia 7,kikuyu71 verb3 ,to purify4 ,ku is the infinitive prefix common to all verbs4 ,thabu 7,kamba73 ,a curse or afflicted by a curse--a condition which is the result of certain acts1 analogous to some forms of tabu4 ,thahu 7,kikuyu73 ,a curse or afflicted by a curse--a condition which is the result of certain acts1 analogous to some forms of tabu4 ,thengira 7,kikuyu73 ,literally the goat hut4 ,it is synonymous with the hut in which the unmarried men sleep4 ,thomi 7,kamba73 ,open meeting place outside every village4 ,tatha 7,kikuyu73 ,the semi-digested vegetable matter which forms the contents of a sheep or goat4 ,when an animal is sacrificed this is used as a purifying agent to remove evil4 ,in ,kamba language called muyo4 ,uji 7,swahili73 ,gruel--also widely used by ,east ,africa ,bantu tribes4 ,uji is usually made of maize or millet meal4 ,uki 7,kamba73 ,beer1 especially mead1 made from honey1 but the word is used for all beer4 ,,notes #a ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #d et seq4 #b ,apollodorus1 ,the ,library1 ,,ii4 #b1 #b1 with my notes4 #c ,members of the ,kikuyu tribe from birth to old age pass through various grades of initiation1 but the ceremonial observed is of two classes1 one of which is referred to by the natives as the ,kikuyu system1 and the other the ,masai system4 ,the ,kikuyu system is probably the older1 whilst the so-called ,masai system is probably contact metamorphism due to the proximity of the ,masai and the partial intermingling which has occurred from time to time4 ,curiously enough1 the ,masai system bears very little resemblance to the ,masai customs of the present day1 so presumably it has been modified to fit in with the psychology of the ,kikuyu who adopted it4 #d ,ol-divai is the ,masai word for the wild ,sanseviera4 #e ,vide article on ,masai and their traditions1 by ,a4 ,c4 ,hollis--,london ,quarterly ,review1 ,july1 #aijg1 p4 #ajd--8,now the ,masai themselves say they learnt this peculiar ceremony 7viz43 their method of circumcision7 from the ,kikuyu40 #f ,mr ,routledge mentions a later one which took place near ,karuri's about #aijd1 but according to the ,s4 ,kikuyu natives it was only a local ceremony4 #g ,of course the analogy is not complete1 for it does not apply to one who accidentally becomes the victim of certain circumstances4 #h ,the act of stepping over a corpse is probably considered a serious insult to the ngoma4 #i ,the frequent occurrence of sexual rites may appear repugnant to ,europeans1 but students of the ancient world will readily admit that there is an intimate connection between these rites and the religious beliefs of people in a certain stage of culture4 ,many examples could be quoted4 #aj 8,religion of ,semites10 p4 #bfd4 #aa ,a ,syrian superstition quoted in 8,religion of the ,semites10 p4 #ddc1 deals with a ceremony to rid gardens of caterpillars1 and in that1 one of the insects is bewailed and buried and the caterpillars then disappear4 #ab ,these are probably ancient carnelian beads2 they are occasionally found among the divination apparatus of medicine men2 they almost certainly were derived from ,egypt or the ,nile valley4