,,chronicles ,,of ,,pharmacy ,illustration ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,london 4 ,,bombay 4 ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,boston 4 ,,chicago ,,atlanta 4 ,,san ,,francisco ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada4 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,chronicles ,,of ,,pharmacy ,,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,wootton ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street1 ,,london #aiaj ,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill1 ,e4,c41 ,,and ,,bungay1 ,,suffolk4 ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,contents ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,chapter ,,page ,,xv4 ,,animals ,,in ,,pharmacy #a ,,xvi4 ,,reminiscences ,,of ,,ancient ,,pharmacy #cb ,,xvii4 ,,pharmacop,,ias #ei ,,xviii4 ,,shakespeare',s ,,pharmacy #gj ,,xix4 ,,some ,,noted ,,drugs #hf ,,xx4 ,,familiar ,,medicines ,,and ,,some ,,notes ,,of ,,their ,,histories #aba ,,xxi4 ,,noted ,,nostrums #afa ,,xxii4 ,,poisons ,,in ,,history #bbj ,,xxiii4 ,,pharmacy ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #bdc ,,xxiv4 ,,names ,,and ,,symbols #bgf ,,index #cac ,,illustrations ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,page ,preparation of ,theriaca #de ,lemnian earth seals #ed ,title-page of ,london ,pharmacopia #fc ,the ,apothecary #ha ,aloe in ,flower #hg ,aloe at ,chelsea #hh ,castor oil plant #ij ,dr4 ,huxham #aja ,charles ,ledger #ajg ,william ,withering1 ,m4,d4 #aaj ,preparation of ,guaiacum ,remedies #aac ,dr4 ,james ,gregory #acg ,dr4 ,gregory's ,prescription #ach ,patrick ,anderson1 ,m4,d4 #afh ,dr4 ,james #ahg ,john ,st4 ,john ,long #aic ,joshua ,ward #bji ,horace ,wells #bej ,sir ,james ,young ,simpson1 ,m4,d4 #bec ,friedrich ,whler #beh ,august ,kekul #bfb ,a4 ,w4 von ,hofmann #bfd ,alchemical symbols #cjh1 #cji1 #caj ,,errata ,,vol4 ,,ii ,page #ca4 ,ninth line from top1 for ,clestis read ,celestis4 #df4 ,bottom line1 additional reference3 ,vol4 ,i41 #abd4 #aff4 ,seventh line from bottom1 for ,magnetic read ,metallic4 ,,erratum4 ,the acknowledgment at the foot of page #cjh1 of the source of the symbols illustrated on that page1 is incorrect4 ,the symbols in question are reproduced from ,mr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,s4 ,thompson's book1 ,the ,mystery and ,romance of ,alchemy and ,pharmacy1 published by the ,scientific ,press1 ,ltd4 ,,chronicles ,,of ,,pharmacy ,,xv ,,animals ,,in ,,pharmacy ,their next business is1 from herbs1 minerals1 gums1 oils1 shells1 salts1 juices1 sea-weed1 excrements1 barks of trees1 serpents1 toads1 frogs1 spiders1 dead men's flesh and bones1 birds1 beasts1 and fishes1 to form a composition for smell and taste the most abominable1 nauseous1 and detestable they can possibly contrive4--,,swift1 ,a ,voyage to the ,houyhnhms1 ,chap4 ,,vi4 ,,animal ,,substances ,,in ,,pharmacy4 ,the inclination to find medicinal virtues in parts of animals is not altogether unreasonable in its origin4 ,savages eat the hearts of lions and tigers to acquire some of the courage and fierceness of those beasts2 and a similar instinct would suggest various organs of animals for use in medicine4 ,the employment of foxes' lungs in asthmatic and bronchial complaints1 for example1 seems a most natural remedy to try1 and as the lohoch1 in which form these lungs were generally administered1 was made up with other demulcents1 it is not surprising that it should have been often found efficacious4 ,in this section illustrations of the extravagant extent to which faith in medicines of this character has been carried will be given4 ,,officially ,,recognised ,,animal ,,medicines4 ,remedies obtained from the animal kingdom were employed by the ,egyptian1 the ,greek1 and the ,roman physicians4 ,the ,arabs1 though they introduced musk1 kermes1 and bezoar into medicine1 were not largely interested in animal products in their materia medica4 ,the adoption of revolting preparations of this class developed rapidly in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 curiously enough alongside the introduction of the new chemical remedies4 ,the appended list of animals and animal products which were made official in the ,london ,pharmacopias of the seventeenth century1 namely1 those of #afah1 #afej1 and #afgg1 will serve to demonstrate the diligence which had been exercised by the practitioners of that period in ransacking the world of animal life for possible means of alleviating human ills4 ,ambergris1 ants4 ,bee-glue from entrances and cracks of hives1 bezoar stones1 blood of badger1 bat1 bull1 cat1 dog1 frog1 goat 7he- and she-71 goose1 hare1 man1 partridge1 pig1 pigeon1 stag1 tortoise2 bones of hare 7heel-bone71 oxen 7leg71 pigs 7ankle71 stags 7heart and heel2 the latter called the astragalus71 and the triangular bone of the human skull2 brains of hares and sparrows2 butter1 fresh and salt2 buttermilk4 ,cantharides1 castor1 caviare1 cheese 7old and new71 civet1 cochineal1 cock's-comb1 coral 7white and red71 crabs' claws1 crabs' eyes1 crayfish1 cuttlefish1 cygnets4 ,eggs of ants1 hens1 and ostriches2 egg-shells2 earthworms2 excrements of the cow1 dog1 he-goat1 goose1 hen1 horse1 horse 7not castrated71 man1 mouse1 peacock1 pigeon1 sheep1 swallow1 wolf4 ,fat1 lard1 or grease from the badger1 bear1 beaver1 boar1 bull1 bull calf1 camel1 capon1 dog1 duck1 eel1 fox1 goat1 goose1 hare1 hedgehog1 hen1 heron1 horse1 leopard1 lion1 man1 mountain-mouse1 pike1 pig1 rabbit1 ram1 snake1 stork1 thymallos 7grayling71 vulture1 wild cat1 wolf1 and from cut wool2 feathers of partridges1 fur of the hare1 frog's spawn1 and hairs of the silkworm1 are among the curious animal products named4 ,green frogs are specially ordered4 ,gall of the bear1 bull1 cow1 he-goat1 she-goat1 hare1 hawk1 kite1 ox1 and pig2 grasshoppers4 ,ham of pig2 heart of bullock1 pig1 stag1 wether2 honey and virgin honey2 hoof of ass1 elk1 she-goat1 pig2 horns of elk1 goat1 rhinoceros1 stag1 unicorn4 ,isinglass2 intestines of wolf and fox2 jaw of pike4 ,larks1 leeches1 lynx claws2 liver of ass1 duck1 frog1 otter1 wild boar1 wolf2 lungs of bear1 fox1 lamb1 pig4 ,marrow from leg of bull1 bull calf1 calf1 cow1 dog1 she-goat1 lamb1 ox1 sheep1 stag2 milk of ass1 cow1 ewe1 goat1 woman2 mole1 mummy1 musk4 ,omentum 7bowel membrane7 of the calf1 lamb1 ram1 and wether4 ,pearls and mother of pearl1 perspiration1 pickle or sauce from the tunny fish1 puppies4 ,rennet of calf1 hare1 horse1 kid1 lamb4 ,saliva of a fasting man2 scorpions 7land72 secundines 7afterbirth7 of a woman2 sexual parts of bull1 cock1 horse1 and stag2 silk 7raw72 silkworms' cocoons4 ,inner skin of a hen's stomach2 skinks2 skull of a man who has met with a violent death1 and moss from that skull2 sparrows 7house and hedge72 spermaceti2 spleen of ox2 sponge2 spiders' webs2 cast-off snake's skin2 sea-shells 7various kinds named72 swallows' nests2 stone from the heads of carp and perch1 from ox-gall1 from human bladders 7see also bezoar stones and crabs' eyes72 suet of badger1 calf1 cow1 goat1 ox1 sheep1 stag4 ,teeth of elephants 7ivory71 wild boar1 sea-horse1 tench1 toads4 ,urine of boar1 bull1 dog1 he-goat1 man4 ,in the last-named case the urine of a child not arrived at the age of puberty1 and of an adult man1 are separately indicated4 ,vipers' flesh4 ,wagtails2 wax 7white1 red1 and yellow72 whelks2 whey2 woodlice4 ,in contrast with the list quoted above1 representing the animal pharmacy of the seventeenth century may be placed the following fifteen articles which cover the zoology of the ,british ,pharmacopia of #ahih3--;,cantharides1 cod-liver oil1 cochineal1 honey1 lard1 leeches1 musk1 ox-bile1 pepsin1 spermaceti1 mutton1 suet1 sugar of milk1 thyroid gland1 wax1 wool fat4 ,,homo3 ,,man ,,as ,a ,,medicine4 ,man being the microcosm of the universe 7the macrocosm7 medicines of human origin figured very prominently in old pharmacopias4 ,in ,lemery's 8,dictionnaire ,universelle des ,drogues ,simples10 which was a standard authority all over ,europe1 at least until the end of the eighteenth century1 the author presents a summary of the medicinal uses to which the various parts of 8,homo0 were applied4 ,i quote 7but slightly abbreviate7 from the edition of ,lemery's ,dictionary of #agei3-- 8,all parts of man1 his excrescences and excrements1 contain oil and sal volatile1 combined with phlegm and earth4 ,skull1 brain1 and calculus are employed in medicine1 and are referred to in their proper places4 ,burning hair1 smelt by patients1 will counteract the vapours4 ,moss of the human skull1 human blood1 and human urine all have their uses in medicine4 ,the saliva of a robust young man1 taken fasting1 is an antidote against the bites of serpents and mad dogs4 ,wax from the ears is good against whitlows4 ,nails from the fingers and toes1 given internally either in substance or infused in wine1 make a good emetic4 ,women's milk is pectoral1 good in phthisis1 and useful to apply to inflamed eyes4 ,fresh urine1 two or three glasses drunk in the morning fasting1 is good against gout1 hysterical vapours1 and obstructions4 ,it may also be applied externally in gout and in skin complaints4 ,excrement of man can be applied to anthrax1 plague bubos1 and quinsies4 ,dried and powdered1 it is recommended in epilepsy and intermittent fevers4 ,dose1 one scruple to one drachm40 ,bechler1 in 8,parnassus ,medicinalis10 #affc1 quoted in ,peter's 8,history of ,pharmacy10 says3-- 8,powdered human bone1 in red wine1 will cure dysentery4 ,the marrow and oil distilled from bone is good for rheumatism4 ,prepared human skull is a sure cure for the falling sickness 7epilepsy74 ,moss grown on a skull is a hmostatic4 ,mummy dissolves coagulated blood1 relieves cough and pain in the spleen1 and is very beneficial in flatulency and delayed menstruation4 ,human fat properly rubbed into the skin restores weak limbs4 ,the wearing of a belt of human skin facilitates labour and mitigates its pain4 ,water distilled from human hair and mixed with honey promotes the growth of hair40 ,the ,liquor ,cranii ,humani was a highly-prized remedy4 ,it was prepared from unburied skulls1 those of criminals for preference4 ,pomet 7#afid7 says he had been informed by ,moses ,charas1 who had lived for some time in ,england1 that 8,the ,london druggists sell skulls of the dead upon which there has grown a little greenish moss called ,usnea1 because it resembles the moss which grows on the oak4 ,these skulls mostly come from ,ireland1 where they frequently let the bodies of criminals hang on the gibbet till they fall to pieces40 ,the market price of skulls at that time varied in ,london from #hs4 to #aas4 each1 according to size1 but those with plenty of moss made fancy prices4 ,they were largely used for compounding the 8,sympathetic ,ointment10 described by ,crollius in his 8,royal ,chemist10 and were recommended in epilepsy4 ,germany was the principal market4 ,the pharmaceutical authorities of that day were very decided about the superior virtue of the skulls of persons who had died violent deaths4 ,lemery 7#agch7 orders3 8,to make the ,magistry of human skull4 ,calcine the skull and powder finely40 ,but he adds the useful comment1 8,this ,magistry is only a dead-head of no virtue unless you employ the skull of a young man who died a violent death40 ,in a paper 8,on the ,deaths of some ,eminent ,persons10 printed by ,sir ,h4 ,halford in #ahce1 it is stated that in the last illness of ,charles ,,ii1 when he was suffering from a stroke of apoplexy1 one of the prescriptions1 signed by four physicians1 ordered among other ingredients #be drops of the spirit drawn from human skulls4 ,sir ,theodor ,mayerne's famous ,powder de ,gutteta 7anti-epileptic powder7 contained amber1 crystal1 and hartshorn vitriolated1 various roots and seeds1 and flowers1 8human skull1 both crude and vitriolated1 secundine of a woman10 gold and silver leaf1 ambergris1 etc4 ,fifty years later valerian alone was thought to be as effective4 ,human fat was regarded as an excellent remedy in rheumatism4 ,pomet 7#afid7 complains that at that time the business of the apothecaries in this luxury was seriously crippled by the competition of the public executioners4 ,but he points out that the article provided in the pharmacies was incomparably superior to that which came from the scaffolds1 because it was prepared with aromatic herbs4 ,human excrement and human urine were strongly recommended by many of the chief authorities4 ,mme4 de ,svign1 writing to her daughter on ,june #ac1 #afhe1 says3--8,for my vapours ,i take #h drops of essence of urine1 and contrary to its usual action it has prevented me from sleeping40 ,there are other references to this delicate remedy in some other of her letters4 ,apparently she took a special combination of the essence with the ,baume ,tranquille4 ,culpepper says3 8,that small triangular bone in the skull of a man called ,os ,triquetum1 so absolutely cures the ,falling ,sickness that it will never come again1 saith ,paracelsus40 ,culpepper also states that 8the fat of a man is exceeding good to anoint such limbs as fall away in the flesh40 ,lemery explains how to make a plaster from the blood of a healthy young man1 after drying it1 which was useful in old ulcers4 ,paracelsus had a 8,primum ,ens ,sanguinis10 which was fresh blood from a healthy young person4 ,crollius gives a recipe for an eye salve1 which was to divide a human brain into half2 mix one half with honey and apply it at night2 dry and powder the other half and apply it in the morning4 ,,cow-,,dung ,,as ,a ,,medicine4 ,a female pharmacist is mentioned in ,salmon's 8,bate's ,dispensatory0 7#afid71 who1 he says1 made a fortune of #bj1jjj by selling a tincture made from cow-dung4 ,her formula was1 cow-dung1 fresh gathered in the morning1 #ab lbs42 spring or rain water1 #cj lb4 ,digest for twenty-four hours1 let it settle1 and decant the clear brown tincture4 ,salmon says it is no doubt a good medicine1 and has been much used with success4 8,it has a pretty kind of sweet scent as if it was perfumed with musk or some other odoriferous thing40 ,an essence of cow-dung was an old ,english household remedy for gout1 rheumatism1 stone1 etc4 ,it was from cow-dung gathered in ,may2 digested with a third of its weight in white wine1 and distilled4 ,in another old formula cow-dung and snails with their shells1 equal parts1 are prescribed4 ,the resulting distillate was known as all-flower water1 aqua omnium florum1 and aqua arthritica4 ,dr4 ,rutherford1 of ,edinburgh1 in the eighteenth century strongly recommended cow-dung poultice in rheumatic fever1 and asserted that he had known of many cures from its use4 ,it has been for centuries a popular article in the ,hindu materia medica4 ,the phosphate of soda and benzoic acid 7which are the medicinal constituents of cow-dung7 are better suited to modern fastidious patients in the form of laboratory products4 ,,excrements ,,as ,,medicines4 ,it will be observed from the list of the excrements used in medicine officially recognised in the early ,london ,pharmacopias already given that those from various animals were specified4 ,excrements as remedies are at least as old as ,dioscorides1 whose work contains a special chapter devoted to an appreciation of the distinguishing virtues of the various sorts of dungs4 ,pliny likewise names many sorts1 and states what are their particular properties4 ,it is evident that these substances became very popular as household remedies among the peasantry of ,european countries4 ,in his treatise 8,on ,salts10 ,glauber 7about #afej7 explains how satisfactorily certain of these chemical products can take the place of the unpleasant remedies in use among the peasantry of his time4 ,he says3 8,they purge the bodies of boys and girls with mouse dung1 horse dung1 and goose dung2 these dissolved in wine or beer1 and strained through linen cloths1 they use to cure falling sickness by sweat4 ,in the cure of erysipelas or burns and scalds1 they use hogs' dung2 in all kinds of swelling1 sheep's dung2 in a quinsy1 dogs' turd or human dung40 ,glauber states that he had known of wonderful cures effected by these remedies4 ,but the reason was simple4 ,human dung1 for example1 is nothing but bread and flesh reduced into their first matters1 all their bonds being loosened and rendered fit for the exercise of their virtues4 ,the essential constituent is a salt not unlike the sal enixon of ,paracelsus4 ,the mention of this great teacher leads ,glauber to relate that once some physicians and noblemen asked ,paracelsus to tell them some great secret of medicine4 ,in reply he told them that incredible virtues were hidden in human dung4 ,whereupon they were very angry and departed1 considering that he was mocking them4 ,paracelsus made a remedy which he called ,zebethum ,occidentale from human dung1 dried and powdered4 ,he also recommended a child's excrement to be distilled twice1 and to use the oily distillate for fistulas1 canker1 and as an application for premature baldness4 ,album ,grcum1 which was dried white dogs' turds1 was regularly stocked by the apothecaries of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 and was given in colic and dysentery1 but more generally applied externally to abscesses1 ulcers1 and quinsies4 ,in ,robert ,boyle's 8,collection of ,medicines10 #afif1 8a homely but experienced medicine for a sore throat10 is said to be one drachm of album grcum made into a linctus with honey of roses4 ,pigeons' dung was reputed to be so violently heating that it was almost a caustic4 ,applied to the soles of the feet it would draw the humours down1 but ,quincy remarks there was no reason for believing that it attracted the peccant humours only4 ,fuller prescribes a poultice containing ,venice turpentine1 pigeons' dung1 and spiders' webs to be fastened to the wrists two hours before a fit of ague is expected1 to ward it off4 ,pectoral drinks were much improved medicinally1 especially for pleurisies1 if some dung of stallions had been steeped in them4 ,,miscellaneous ,,animal ,,remedies4 ,it is not possible in a short space to exhaust this unsavory topic1 but a few of the more notable applications of animals or animal derivatives may be briefly mentioned4 ,pigeons were cut in half while they were alive and applied to the feet of patients4 ,pepys alludes two or three times to this and always as an indication that the case is nearly hopeless4 ,the ,queen of ,charles ,,ii was one of the instances4 ,oil of ,puppies was made by cutting up two newly born ones and boiling them in a varnished pot for twelve hours with one pound of live earthworms4 ,very good for strengthening the nerves1 for sciatica1 and for paralysis1 says ,lemery4 ,the gall of a black puppy1 says ,schroder1 cures epilepsy to a wonder4 ,it had to be prepared with vinegar4 ,ambrose ,par says he got a recipe from a famous surgeon at ,turin for a balm with which he treated gun-shot wounds with extraordinary success4 ,it was to boil young whelps just born with earthworms1 ,venice turpentine1 and oil of lilies4 ,fox lungs were prepared for medicines by first separating them from the blood-vessels1 then washing them in white wine in which hyssop and scabious had been boiled4 ,after drying gently the lungs were kept wrapt up in hyssop1 wormwood1 or horehound4 ,swallows1 hedgehogs1 toads1 and frogs were prepared by cutting their throats and leaving the blood to dry on them4 ,they were then baked in a close vessel well covered4 ,snails were made into a cough syrup by hanging them in a bag with sugar and catching the droppings4 ,earthworms had a great reputation for the relief of lung complaints4 ,they were also administered with great confidence1 dried and powdered1 to children to drive away internal worms4 ,woodlice1 bruised and digested in ,rhine wine1 made the ,vinum ,millepedarum given in dropsy and jaundice4 ,lice and bugs were also honoured remedies4 ,the latter digested in wine or vinegar had the singular power of expelling leeches which might have been accidentally swallowed4 ,culpepper quotes from ,mizaldus1 perhaps sarcastically1 a very wonderful property of earthworms1 which is that the powder of them put in a hollow tooth makes it drop out4 ,he gives another way of making a tooth drop out1 which was to 8fill an earthenware crucible full of emmets1 ants1 or pismires1 call them by which name you will1 eggs and all1 and when you have burnt them keep the ashes1 with which if you touch the tooth it will drop out40 ,the same authority offers a drink cure which looks as if it might be effectual4 8,eels being put into wine or beer and suffered to die in it1 he that drinks it will never endure that sort of liquor again40 ,he recommends the brain of a hare roasted to help children to breed their teeth2 a dead mouse1 dried and powdered1 one whole one to be taken each morning for three consecutive days1 for diabetes2 grasshoppers for colic2 and hedge-sparrows salted for stone4 ,deers' fat strengthened the nerves1 and relieved rheumatism and gout4 ,hares' grease applied outwardly ripened swellings4 ,rabbits' fat had a dispersing power4 ,the fat of cocks and hens would soften hard swellings4 ,goose grease was specially good against piles1 deafness1 and to prevent pitting after the small-pox4 ,bears' grease1 still sold nominally1 could be had in genuine form in this country a hundred years ago4 ,bears were at that time fattened and killed in this country for their grease1 and until even more recent times they were imported from ,russia4 ,the principal use of bears' grease was always to make the hair grow1 but it was also used as an emollient for many purposes4 ,the lion had a high reputation among the ,romans for its medicinal value4 ,the fat was used as an ointment in affections of the joints1 and combined with oil of roses as the best cosmetic for preserving the delicacy of the complexion4 ,an aqueous tincture of the gall was used for weak eyes1 and a mixture of the gall with the fat of the lion taken in small doses was esteemed an excellent remedy for epilepsy4 ,roasted lion's heart was given in fevers4 ,it was believed that no wild beast would attack anyone anointed with lions' fat1 and that this same treatment would prevent human treachery4 ,these statements are found in ,pliny4 ,the lion rather fell out of use in more modern times4 ,its fat was prescribed in the ,p4,l4 #afah1 and in ,james's 8,dispensatory10 #agdg1 is said to be successful in anointing limbs numbed with cold1 and also to put in the ears for the relief of earache4 ,the flesh of the tiger is still eaten by the ,malays to impart courage and sagacity4 ,marcellus quotes a prescription by ,democritus of ,abderos 7contemporary with ,hippocrates7 for nervous diseases4 ,it consisted of the spinal marrow of a hyena mixed with his gall1 all boiled together in old oil4 ,the cat has been largely used in medicine4 ,galen recommends the head of a black cat to be burned in a glazed vessel1 and the ashes to be used in diseases of the eye1 including cataract4 ,pliny says that the fces of this animal mixed with mustard cured ulcers in the head4 ,sylvius prescribed cats' flesh for hmorrhoids and lumbago4 ,in ,lemery's 8,pharmacopia0 a cat ointment is ordered4 ,it was to be made from a newly born kitten cut up into small pieces in a pot varnished with crushed earthworms4 ,cats' fces were employed in the eighteenth century as an application for baldness1 and cat's skin was recommended to be worn over the stomach for strengthening the digestion4 ,montaigne states that in his time physicians prescribed as choice remedies the left foot of a tortoise1 the liver of a mole1 and blood drawn from under the wing of a white pigeon4 ,queen ,anne's 8,oculist and ,operator on the ,eyes in ,ordinary10 a quack named ,read whom she knighted1 comments in his writings on the practice of putting a louse in the eye when it is dull and obscure and wanteth humours and spirits4 ,this1 he says1 8tickleth and pricketh so that it maketh the eye moist and rheumatick and quickeneth the spirits40 ,oil of ants made by pounding two ounces of live ants and macerating them in eight ounces of olive oil for forty days was used as a stimulating liniment4 ,oil of spiders and earthworms was prescribed by ,mindererus for anointing in small-pox and plague4 ,he recommended it as being equal to the oil of scorpions1 which was a very complicated combination of drugs devised by ,matthiolus4 ,spiders have been often employed in medicine4 ,a live spider rolled up in butter and swallowed as a pill was a seventeenth century cure for jaundice4 ,spiders taste like nuts1 says ,lalande4 ,galen recommended spiders' eggs mixed with oil of nard for toothache4 ,elias ,ashmole in his 8,diary0 7#afha7 writes3 8,i took early in the morning a good dose of elixir and hung three spiders about my neck1 and they drove my ague away4 ,deo gratias40 ,spiders' webs were frequently used as a febrifuge1 and are well-known to be excellent to stop bleeding4 ,oil of lizards1 twelve of them cooked alive in three pounds of nut oil1 was esteemed a good application against hernia4 ,oil of frogs prepared in a similar way was applied to the temples to promote sleep4 ,,bezoar ,,stones4 ,bezoar stones acquired their fame in the ,east1 and were introduced to ,european medicine by the ,arabs4 ,the name is of ,persian origin1 ,pad-zahr1 meaning an expeller of poisons4 ,the earliest reference known to ,bezoar stones in ,europe is by ,avenzoar1 an ,arab physician who practised in ,seville about the year #ajjj4 ,they were included in the ,london ,pharmacopias from #afah to #agdf4 ,there were many kinds of bezoar stones sold4 ,the most esteemed was the lapis bezoar orientale4 ,this came from ,persia and was supposed to be obtained from the intestines of the ,persian wild goat4 ,it was a calculus which had formed itself by deposits of phosphate of lime round some nucleus1 such as hair1 or the stone of a fruit4 ,one in the museum of ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital has a date stone for nucleus4 ,it was believed that the special virtues of the stone were due to some unknown plant on which the animal fed4 ,a certain kind of ape also yielded bezoar stones4 ,these were obtained by giving the ape an emetic4 ,there were1 besides1 the lapis bezoar occidentale1 procured from the llamas of ,peru2 and the bezoar ,germanorum got from the chamois of the ,swiss mountains4 ,these never commanded the same confidence as those from the ,east4 ,the latter are stated by ,paris and ,redwood and other writers to have sold for ten times their weight in gold4 ,no authority1 however1 is given for that assertion4 ,in a paper read before the ,royal ,society of ,london1 in #agad1 by ,frederick ,slare1 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 the claims of the bezoar stone to the possession of medical virtues are boldly challenged2 and in the course of the paper the author states that the price varied from about #c to #e per ounce in ,london4 ,he mentions that he had asked a ,london druggist1 one 8of the upper ,size10 how many ounces of bezoar stones he sold yearly4 ,he said about #ejj ounces4 ,i presume he was a wholesale druggist4 ,perhaps this is implied by the expression 8of the upper ,size40 ,mr4 ,slare uses this fact in support of his suggestion that a large proportion of the imports of these precious commodities1 though they came from ,india or ,persia right enough1 had never been inside any wild goat1 antelope1 or ape4 ,he records experiments which go to show this1 and also gave letters from medical officers in ,india1 men quite competent to judge1 who manifested in this particular a surprising degree of innocence4 ,it would have been strange if the wily oriental had refrained from practising his skill on his confiding ,western customers4 ,mr4 ,slare tells us that the stone was only found in about one goat out of seven killed1 and that it took some twelve stones to make an ounce1 which worked out to nearly #ej1jjj goats to be slain annually to keep this one ,london druggist supplied4 ,the original use of the bezoar was as an antidote to poisons4 ,it came to be the valued remedy for all kinds of fevers1 was applied externally in many skin diseases1 and had the reputation of being able to cure even leprosy4 ,the dose of the oriental bezoar was from #d to #af grains2 of the occidental #f to #cj grains4 ,they were also carried about in gold or silver boxes as amulets4 ,in ,portugal in time of plague the stones were let out at about the equivalent of ten shillings a day4 ,some designed for this use may still be seen in museums4 ,bezoar stones were required to be of an olive-greenish tint1 to be striated1 and to yield a musky odour4 ,they were further expected to strike a green colour when rubbed on white paper which had previously been prepared with chalk4 ,the alchemists prepared a mineral bezoar1 by treating butter of antimony with nitric acid4 ,they got antimonious acid4 ,the livers and hearts of vipers dried in the sun furnished the animal bezoar2 and a stony concretion sometimes found in cocoa-nuts1 and in high repute among the ,malays as a medicine was called vegetable bezoar or calatippe4 ,the importance attached to bezoar stones in the seventeenth century1 and1 incidentally1 their liability to falsification1 are illustrated by a minute in the records of the ,society of ,apothecaries1 dated ,may #beth1 #afcj1 as follows3-- ,pretended bezar stones sent by the ,lord ,mayor to be viewed were found to be false and counterfiet and fitt to be destroyed and the whole table or as we should say1 the ,court certified the same to the ,lord ,mayor4 ,a little later1 it appears that the case of these stones was tried at the ,guildhall1 a jury composed partly of druggists and partly of apothecaries being empannelled4 ,this jury confirmed the verdict of the table of apothecaries and the bezoar stones were duly burnt4 ,three bezoar stones were sent by the ,shah of ,persia as a royal gift for his brother the ,emperor ,napoleon1 only a hundred years ago4 ,ambrose ,par1 who wrote in the later half of the sixteenth century1 was one of the few eminent doctors who discredited the alleged medicinal virtue of the bezoards4 ,he was surgeon to ,charles ,,ix1 and relates that one day1 the king being at ,clermont1 a ,spanish nobleman brought him a bezoar stone which he assured him was an antidote against all poisons4 ,the king sent for ,par and asked him if he knew any substance which would annul the effects of any poison4 ,par said that could not be1 for there were many sorts of poisons which acted in very different ways4 ,the ,spanish nobleman1 however1 maintained that this stone was a universal antidote1 and the king was eager to test the question4 ,so the ,provost of the ,palace was sent for and asked if he had any criminal in his charge condemned to death4 ,he said he had a cook who had stolen two silver dishes1 and who was to be hanged the next day4 ,the offer was thereupon made to the cook that he should take a poison1 and an alleged antidote immediately afterwards1 and if he escaped with his life he should go free4 ,the cook gladly consented1 and an apothecary was ordered to prepare a deadly draught and give it1 and to follow this with a dose of the bezoar4 ,this was done4 ,the poor wretch lived for about seven hours in terrible agony1 which ,par tried in vain to relieve4 ,after his death ,par opened him and showed that the antidote had no effect at all4 ,it was sublimate which had been given4 8,and the king commanded that the stone should be thrown into the fire2 which was done40 ,par's authority was considerable1 but it was by no means strong enough to destroy public faith in the bezoar4 ,according to ,pomet and ,lemery the demand for the stones was so great in ,france more than a century later that it was difficult to get them genuine except at fancy prices4 ,a stone of #d oz4 was sold for #b1jjj livres 7say #ge74 ,in ,savary's 8,dictionnaire de ,commerce0 7#agda7 it is stated that when bezoars arrived at ,amsterdam they fetched from #cjj to #djj livres apiece4 ,they were bought by rich citizens either to serve as presents1 or to be kept in their families4 ,,gascoyne',s ,,or ,,gascoign',s ,,powder4 ,in the paper by ,mr4 ,slare read before the ,royal ,society already referred to the author comments with similar severity on the then popular ,gascoign's ,powder4 ,as evidence of the fame it possessed he says he had been told that a certain 8grandee of the faculty0 had got above #ej1jjj by prescribing this compound4 ,i suppose this meant he had received that amount in fees for prescriptions ordering that medicine4 ,taking advantage of the reverence in which bezoar was held by that generation1 ,gascoign's ,powder had assumed as a second title the name of bezoardic powder4 ,it was also known as the ,powder of the ,black ,tops of ,crab-claws1 from the ingredient in largest quantity4 ,the professed composition of ,gascoign's ,powder as given by ,mr4 ,slare was oriental bezoar1 white amber1 hartshorn in powder1 pearls1 crabs' eyes1 coral1 and black tops of crabs' claws4 ,naturally a powder of such costly ingredients was sold at a very high price4 ,mr4 ,slare recommends chalk and salt of wormwood as being in all respects as good4 ,the former was cheap enough then2 and of the salt he says two pounds could be got for the price of half an ounce of the compound4 ,,vipers4 ,both in ancient and comparatively modern times vipers have been held in the highest esteem for their medicinal virtues1 and viper fat1 viper broth1 and viper wine are used to this day in some remote parts of ,britain1 and to a still greater extent on the ,continent4 ,in some districts of ,france heads of vipers enclosed in little silk bags are worn by children to preserve them from croup and convulsions4 ,it was the addition of vipers to the confection of ,mithridates that constituted the principal improvement effected by ,andromachus in his composition of the electuary which came to be known as theriakon1 and subsequently as theriaca4 ,therion was ,greek for a wild beast1 but came to mean specially a venomous serpent1 and the compound may have been called theriaca either to indicate that vipers were an important ingredient1 or that it would cure their bites4 ,according to ,dr4 ,mead1 ,antonius ,musa1 physician to ,octavius ,csar1 was one of the first physicians who recommended the flesh of vipers for medicinal use4 ,pliny states that he quickly cured inveterate ulcers by this remedy4 ,it is possible1 however1 that ,musa acquired his knowledge of this remedy from a ,greek physician named ,craterus1 who had advised that in certain wasting diseases vipers should be eaten1 dressed as fish4 ,in ,galen's time vipers had become common medicines1 and were probably taken to some extent as a nourishing food4 ,moses ,charas studied vipers very closely1 and wrote a treatise on their use in medicine 7#affi7 which had a great reputation4 ,he adopted the curious view of ,van ,helmont that the poison of the viper1 which was supposed to be contained in the animal's saliva1 was not there normally1 but was created as the effect of rage and terror4 ,according to ,charas1 the head of the viper1 grilled and eaten1 would cure its bite1 or hung to the neck would cure quinsy4 ,the brain similarly hung on the neck of an infant would greatly assist in cutting the teeth4 ,the skin fastened round the right thigh of a woman was an excellent aid to delivery in childbirth2 if given to dogs1 cooked or raw1 it would cure mange4 ,the fat was a valuable application in gout1 or for tumours4 ,those treatments he had verified by his own experience4 ,other virtues attributed to vipers were mentioned1 but he had not proved them1 and could not conscientiously guarantee their existence4 ,one was that the person who swallowed the liver of a viper could not be bitten by any kind of serpent during the ensuing six months4 ,madame de ,svign1 was a firm believer in the medicinal value of vipers4 ,writing to her daughter in #afgi she says3 8,madame de ,lafayette is taking viper broth1 which much strengthens her eyesight40 ,in #afhe she informs her son3 8,it is to vipers ,i am indebted for the abundant health ,i now enjoy4 ,they temper1 purify1 and refresh the blood4 ,but it is essential to have the vipers themselves1 and not the powder1 which is heating unless taken in broth1 boiled cream1 or something refreshing40 ,then she goes on to advise him to get ,m4 de ,boissy to send him ten dozen vipers from ,poitou in a case divided into three or four compartments lined with hay and moss1 so that they can be kept at their ease4 ,he is to take two every morning4 ,the heads are to be cut off1 the bodies to be scalded and cut into small pieces1 and used to stuff a fowl4 ,he is to continue this treatment for a month4 ,the early ,london ,pharmacopias gave the following form for the ,trochisci ,viperum required in the preparation of ,theriaca3 ,remove the skin1 entrails1 head1 fat and tail1 and boil the flesh of vipers in #h oz4 of water with dill and a little salt1 add #b oz4 of white bread twice toasted1 ground and sifted1 and make into troches1 your hands being anointed with opobalsamum or expressed oil of nutmeg4 ,dry them on a sieve turned bottom upwards in an open place4 ,turn them frequently until they are quite dry1 and keep them in a well-stopped glass or glazed vessel4 ,they will keep good for a year1 but it is better to make the treacle with them as soon after they are made as possible4 ,quincy 7#agbd7 had great confidence in their virtues4 ,he writes1 8,that they are ,balsamic and greatly ,restorative is confirm'd by long ,experience2 for we have many instances in ,physical ,histories of ,persons arriving at a healthful old age by their frequent use1 as well as others who recover'd from deplorable ,decays and ,weaknesses40 ,then he proceeds at considerable length to compare the juices of these animals with those of terebinthous plants1 which are mostly evergreens4 8,moreover they have been experienc'd to do wonders in cutaneous cases2 the ,force and ,activity of their parts breaking thro' the little obstructions in the ,miliary ,glands1 which turn into ,ichor1 ,scabs1 and ,blotches0 7those old practitioners knew exactly how their remedies acted72 8and by restoring a free perspiration render the skin smooth and beautiful02 and much more on cures of itch1 leprosy1 and the worst skin eruptions4 ,viper wine was a very popular tonic4 ,it was believed to cure barrenness in women4 ,an essence of vipers was believed in as an aphrodisiac1 but ,dr4 ,james 7#agdg7 tells us that what was then advertised and sold in ,london under that name was tincture of cantharides4 ,this author is sceptical about vipers altogether4 ,he had given the flesh1 broth1 and salt of vipers in large quantities1 but had come to the conclusion that the broths and flesh were no better than the broths and flesh of fowl1 veal1 or mutton1 prepared in the same way1 and as to the salt1 he was sure that the salt of hartshorn or any other animal salt would answer just as well4 ,the vipers employed for medicine were the common vipers1 which in this country are usually called adders 7,vipera communis74 ,a common recipe for viper broth was to boil together a chicken with a middling-sized viper from which the head1 skin1 and entrails had been removed4 ,these made a quart of good broth4 ,,mummies4 ,the employment of mummies in medicine does not seem to have been very ancient1 nor did it become permanent4 ,who introduced it is not known4 ,ephraim ,chambers in his ,cyclopdia 7#agch7 says1 8,mummy is said to have been first brought into use in medicine by the malice of a ,jewish physician1 who wrote that flesh thus embalmed was good for the cure of divers diseases1 and particularly bruises1 to prevent the blood's gathering and coagulating40 ,pomet also says that a ,jewish physician had written about the medicinal value of mummy1 but he does not suggest that he had recommended it out of malice4 ,the trade in mummies was evidently in the hands of the ,jews and ,armenians at the time when ,pomet wrote1 and1 according to him1 the fading popularity of mummy as a medicine was the result of the rogueries practised by these ,jews4 ,he tells of a ,guy de la ,fontaine1 the ,king's physician1 who1 when visiting in ,egypt1 went to see a ,jew in ,alexandria who traded in mummies1 and after some difficulty was admitted into the ,jew's warehouse1 where he saw several bodies piled one upon another4 8,after a reflection of a quarter of an hour he asked him what druggs he made use of1 and what sort of bodies were fit for his service4 ,the ,jew answered that as to the dead he took such bodies as he could get1 whether they died of a common disease or of some contagion4 ,as to the druggs1 they were nothing but a heap of some old druggs mixed together which he applied to the bodies1 which after he had dried in an oven he sent into ,europe1 and was amazed to see the ,christians were lovers of such filthiness40 ,this very frank ,jew must have been on the point of retiring from business4 ,pomet regrets that he is not able to stop the abuses of the dealers in this commodity1 so he has to content himself with advising those who buy mummy to choose what is of a fine shining black1 not full of bones and dirt1 and of a good smell4 ,he also tells us it is good for contusions1 and to prevent the blood from coagulating in the body 7#afid74 ,ambrose ,par1 who wrote before ,pomet1 was even more suspicious4 ,he mentions that it was held by some that the mummies then in use were made and fashioned in ,france2 that they were bodies stolen at night from the gibbets1 the brains and entrails removed1 and the bodies dried in a furnace1 and then dipped in pitch4 ,par states that he never prescribes mummy4 ,oswald ,crollius seems to have had no objection to artificial mummies4 ,in his 8,royal ,chemist0 he gives a process for preparing one4 ,the carcase of a young man 7some say a red-haired young man7 who had been killed1 that is1 did not die of disease1 and1 it is to be presumed1 had not been buried1 was to lie in cold water in the air for twenty-four hours4 ,the flesh was to be cut in pieces and sprinkled with myrrh and a little aloes4 ,this was then to be soaked in spirit of wine and turpentine for twenty-four hours1 hung up for twelve hours1 again soaked in the spirit mixture for twenty-four hours1 and finally hung up in a dry place to dry4 ,mummies were principally recommended for consumption1 wasting of flesh1 ulcers1 and various corruptions4 ,nicasius ,le ,febre1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,chemistry to ,charles ,,ii1 in his 8,compleat ,body of ,chymistry10 #afgj1 says the best mummies for medical use were those of bodies dried up in the hot sands of ,lybia1 where sometimes whole caravans were overwhelmed by simooms and suffocated4 8,this sudden suffocation doth concentrate the spirits in all the parts by reason of the fear and sudden surprisal which seizes on the travellers40 ,next to these ,lybian mummies ,le ,febre recommends the dried corpse of a young lusty man of about #be to #cj years of age who has been suffocated or hanged4 ,he gives directions for drying the flesh1 smoking it for a philosophical month1 and then it is to be given in doses of #a to #c grains with some old treacle 7theriaca7 and vipers' flesh made into an electuary with spirit of wine4 ,it was specially good against pestilential diseases4 ,,dippel',s ,,animal ,,oil4 ,animal oil1 oil of harts' horns1 or empyreumatic oil1 as it was variously called1 or ,dippel's animal oil1 which was the original1 was highly prized as a medicine in the eighteenth century1 and disputed the palm for nastiness with the balsam of sulphur4 ,dippel made it from harts' horns1 but later formulas directed it to be made from any bones1 from blood1 or indeed from any animal substance4 ,in distilling the horn some water first came over1 and this was rejected4 ,at the end of the operation the distillate consisted of carbonate of ammonia in solution and an empyreumatic oil1 very dark and ftid4 ,the spirit was drawn off by filtration1 and the oil which remained in the filter was rectified by as many as twenty distillations1 the residue increasing at each operation and the rectified oil becoming paler4 ,as it became brown by exposure to light it was the practice to put it up in #a drachm bottles1 which were buried in sand4 ,the virtues of this preparation were highly vaunted4 ,frederick ,hoffmann strongly recommended it1 especially when fever threatened4 ,twenty to thirty drops on a lump of sugar1 followed by a glass of wine1 were said to procure a calm and refreshing sleep1 often continuing for twenty hours4 ,it would be almost shorter to enumerate the complaints it was not recommended for than those which its advocates alleged it would cure4 ,epilepsy1 apoplexy1 palsy1 plague1 pleurisy1 leprosy1 and all skin diseases down to ringworm1 fevers1 colds1 and headaches of all sorts were said to yield to its virtues4 ,johann ,conrad ,dippel1 its inventor and medical sponsor1 was a strange1 shifty1 but clever adventurer4 ,born in #afgc1 near ,darmstadt1 his father1 a ,lutheran minister1 hoped to train his son to his own profession4 ,he was sent when quite a youth to ,giessen ,university1 where he distinguished himself and soon became an ardent controversialist4 ,at that time the ,protestants in ,germany were divided into ,orthodox and ,pietists1 the latter seeking to restore the personal spirituality which they considered the orthodox ,lutherans were burying in formalities4 ,young ,dippel argued vigorously on the orthodox side1 and went to ,strasburg to preach his views4 ,there he also practised alchemy and cheiromancy and1 besides1 got mixed up in broils and disturbances4 ,his inconsistent life compelled him to leave ,strasburg1 and having spent some time at ,landau1 ,neustadt1 and ,worms1 he returned to ,giessen1 where he became as ardent a ,pietist as he had previously been an ,orthodox4 ,he took his degree1 and then1 having exhausted his father's funds1 took to travelling1 and practised medicine and alchemy1 occasionally reverting to theology1 but now denouncing ,protestantism in all its diversities4 ,getting to ,berlin1 and securing the confidence of some wealthy believers1 he established a laboratory where he produced this animal oil and1 more important still1 in trying to imitate a ,florentine lake from cochineal1 accidentally produced ,prussian blue1 but did not realise the value of this discovery4 ,he claimed to have succeeded in making gold1 and on the strength of his representations was able to get deeply into debt1 purchasing1 among other luxuries1 a castle and estate for fifty thousand florins4 ,in #agjg he was imprisoned for a short time in ,berlin1 and when he regained his freedom made his way to ,amsterdam4 ,he took a medical degree at ,leyden1 and was acquiring a good medical practice at ,amsterdam when his creditors and religious antagonists compelled him to escape from ,holland4 ,he went to ,altona and then to ,hamburg1 but was ordered to leave both these cities4 ,copenhagen was his next home1 and there again he suffered imprisonment4 ,he was sent to the ,island of ,bornholm1 where he practised as a physician until he was freed on the instructions of the ,queen of ,denmark4 ,his medical reputation must have been both wide and high1 for in #agbg the ,king of ,sweden who could not get cured of a malady by his own physicians sent for ,dippel1 who completely succeeded4 ,his troubled life seemed likely now to be exchanged for peace and prosperity1 but this was not to be4 ,the king would willingly have kept ,dippel near him1 but ,sweden was a ,protestant nation1 and the clergy and people did not forget his scoffing attacks on their cherished faith4 ,they would not have him among them1 and ,dippel had to return to ,germany4 ,after residing for a short time at ,lauenburg and ,celle1 he at last found a refuge at the ,castle of ,wittgenstein1 the owner of which1 ,count ,wittgenstein1 was one of his adherents4 ,there he lived from #agbi to #agcd4 ,the last event recorded of him was characteristic4 ,it had been announced that he was dead4 ,dippel published an indignant denial1 and declared his assurance that he would not die until the year #ahjh4 ,the prophecy failed1 for the next year1 #agcd1 he was found dead in bed at the castle of ,wittgenstein4 ,the story of his discovery of ,prussian blue is curious4 ,when he was in ,berlin1 an artist1 named ,diesbach1 was preparing some ,florentine lake from a combination of alum and cochineal1 acted on by sulphate of iron and fixed alkali4 ,he asked ,dippel for some of the alkali left over in his retort after he had distilled some of his animal oil4 ,this seemed to spoil the product1 for it yielded a blue instead of a crimson lake4 ,dippel tried it himself and got the same result4 ,but he did not appreciate the value of this product1 and it was left for ,scheele to trace its chemical history4 ,,spermaceti4 8,the sovereign'st thing on earth was parmceti for an inward bruise40--,henry ,,iv4 ,part ,i1 ,act ,i1 ,sc4 #c4 ,woodall 7#afci7 writing of spermaceti1 says1 8,it is good also against bruises inwardly taken with ,mummia40 ,culpepper 7#afie7 says1 8,sperma ,cti is well applied outwardly to eating ulcers1 and the marks which the small-pox leaves behind2 it clears the sight1 provokes sweat4 ,inwardly1 it troubles the stomach and belly1 helps bruising and stretching the nerves1 and therefore is good for women newly delivered40 ,dr4 ,james 7#agdg7 describes it as a noble medicine and refers to its chief use for outward application in small-pox to prevent the pitting4 ,it was melted with oil of almonds1 and with this mixture the pustules were kept moist when they began to harden4 ,he says1 8,although this is but a modern practice in this distemper1 yet ,schroder takes notice of its use in his time in smoothing and filling up the fissures or cavities made by blotches and scabs40 ,schroder was much puzzled by this substance and was doubtful whether to class it among animal or mineral substances4 ,he decided to include it among minerals4 ,subsequently it was believed to be the spawn of the whale1 and from this belief it acquired its name4 ,still its origin continued to be discussed4 ,gesner said it was a milk shed by the whale4 ,borrichius believed it to be the spinal marrow4 ,pomet affirms with certainty that spermaceti is the brain of the whale 7cachalot74 ,he had not only seen it prepared1 but had prepared it himself4 ,he described the process4 ,the brain was melted over a gentle fire1 then cast into moulds1 cooled1 and when the oil had drained off1 remelted1 moulded again and again until it was very white4 ,then1 with a knife made for the purpose1 it was cut into scales or flakes4 ,lemery says the ancients gave it the name1 believing it to be the seed of the whale1 which was found floating on the sea4 ,but in 7his7 modern times this opinion had been rejected1 and it was held to be a kind of sea froth driven by the waves to and fro4 ,quite recently 7when he wrote7 it had been learnt that it was drawn from the head of the whale4 ,our spermaceti ointment was known in earlier pharmacopias as unguentum album1 and at first contained white lead4 ,,honey is one of the oldest of food products1 and was the only sweetening substance in popular use until quite modern times4 ,sugar was known in ,india and was imported into ,greece and ,rome at very early periods4 ,the name saccharum is of ,sanskrit origin1 and therefore testifies to its ancient lineage1 and allusions to it1 likening it to honey1 are to be found in the writings of many of the classic naturalists from ,herodotus onwards4 ,the ,arabs1 who had long brought sugar from ,india to the wealthy ,west1 made great use of it in medicine1 and the early apothecaries in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany were the makers of sweetmeats from sugar to royal and aristocratic gourmets4 ,queen ,elizabeth's apothecaries were in the habit of presenting her with boxes of sweetmeats on her birthdays4 ,but sugar was a rarity and a luxury for the rich1 while honey was always in use4 ,palestine was a land flowing with milk and honey1 and the records of its employment as a food1 a fermented beverage1 and as a medicine1 are traceable in almost all histories4 ,the ancients had curious notions concerning it4 ,they knew that the bees obtained it from flowers1 but they thought the flowers had only caught it as it descended from the heavens4 ,pliny says it is engendered in the air1 mostly at the rising of the constellations1 and especially when ,sirius is shining4 ,he is not sure whether it is the sweat of the heavens1 saliva from the stars1 or a juice exuding from the air while purifying itself4 ,he admits that its flavour affords an exquisite pleasure1 but he wonders what that flavour would be if we could get the pure ethereal substance uncontaminated by the corruption of the air1 its absorption by the herbs1 and afterwards in the stomachs of the bees4 ,pliny and ,galen both affirm that it was sometimes found where no bees had been1 and ,galen says in such cases the peasantry exclaimed that ,jupiter was raining honey4 ,the honey which came in this way was called ,cibus ,celestis4 ,honey was used in the preparation of all the famous confections and electuaries of old pharmacy1 and when these began to lose their reputation there were authorities who attributed their decline in efficacy to the substitution of sugar for honey4 ,dioscorides had stated that honey counteracted the evil effects of the juice of the poppy4 ,in the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries honey was credited with many medicinal virtues4 ,applied to the scalp it was a remedy for baldness2 better if some dead and dried bees were ground up with it4 ,it wonderfully promoted expectoration4 ,it was also claimed that it would destroy worms if drunk in milk1 because the worms took to it so greedily that they killed themselves by excess4 ,oxymels1 too1 had at one time a high repute4 ,a compound oxymel1 containing a number of aromatic herbs1 was handed down from ,mesu to the early pharmacopias1 and was esteemed as a stimulant of the liver and kidneys4 ,an oil of wax was known as the ,celestial ,medicine4 ,it was made by melting bees' wax1 then wringing it out by hand pressure seven times in sweet wine1 and finally distilling it twice4 ,it would kill worms1 cure palsy1 and greatly assist in childbirth4 ,,xvi ,,reminiscences ,,of ,,ancient ,,pharmacy ,at the ,renaissance of letters at first everything had to give place to the books of the ancients2 nothing was good or true except what was found in ,aristotle or ,galen4 ,instead of studying plants as they grew1 they were only studied in the works of ,pliny and ,dioscorides2 and nothing is so frequent in the writings of those times than to find the existence of a plant doubted for the simple reason that ,dioscorides has not spoken of it4 ,j4 ,j4 ,,rousseau3 ,dictionary of ,botany4 ,,precious ,,stones4 ,marvellous virtues were attributed by the ancients to the precious stones known to them1 but rather perhaps in their character of amulets than as medicines4 ,one of the so-called hymns of ,orpheus1 composed probably about #ejj ,b4,c41 is 8,on ,stones10 and describes the properties of many of these highly esteemed minerals4 ,four lines 7taken from a translation in the ,rev4 ,c4 ,w4 ,king's 8,natural ,history of ,precious ,stones07 will serve as a sample3-- ,with its complexion of a lovely boy ,the opal fills the hearts of gods with joy2 ,whilst by the mild effulgence of its light ,its healing power restores the fading sight4 ,coral1 according to the same authority1 acquired its special properties from ,minerva4 ,this substance was much valued by the ,romans1 who attached pieces of it by ribbons to their children's necks1 in the belief that it would protect them against the designs of sorcerers2 and ,paracelsus adopted the same view1 recommending necklaces of coral to be worn as a preventive of epilepsy1 8but such impostures10 says ,quincy 7#agbd71 8are now deservedly laughed out of the world40 ,some old writers insisted that coral worn on the person changed colour1 becoming dull and pale when the wearer's health failed4 ,in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries coral and pearls were considerably used in medicine in the form of magisteries1 tinctures1 syrups1 and arcana4 ,lemery says coral was given to infants in their mothers' milk as soon as they were born 7he does not explain how7 to prevent epilepsy1 and he names a multitude of other disorders for which it was good4 ,boyle1 too1 in his 8,collection of ,remedies10 recommends it in drachm doses to 8sweeten the blood and cure acidity40 ,the largest and reddest obtainable was to be chosen4 ,pearls were used in medicine until the eighteenth century1 when it began to be suspected that chalk had the same effect4 ,the tiniest pearls1 known as pearl seeds1 ground to a fine powder1 were prescribed as an absorbent1 antacid1 and cordial4 ,this powder was also used1 says ,pomet1 8by ladies of quality to give a lustre and beauty to the face40 ,it was superseded before long by ,lemery's magistery of bismuth1 which1 however1 retained the name of pearl white4 ,pomet further states that a magistery of pearl was made 7apparently by quacks7 by combining the ground pearl with acids2 an arcanum1 spirits1 flowers1 and tinctures were also prepared and credited with marvellous virtues1 8to pick fools' pockets40 ,pearls1 writes ,jean de ,renou 7#afjg71 8are greatly cordial and rejoice the heart4 ,the alchemists consequently make a liquor of pearls1 which they pretend is a marvellous cure for many maladies4 ,more often than not1 however1 their pretended liquor is nothing but smoke1 vanity1 and quackery4 ,i knew a barber in this city of ,paris who was sent for by a patient to apply two leeches1 and who had the impudence to demand six crowns of gold for his service4 ,he declared that he had fed those leeches for an entire month on the liquor of pearls40 ,it is on record that ,pope ,clement ,,vii took #dj1jjj ducats' worth of pearls and other precious stones with unicorn's horn within fourteen days4 7,see ,mrs4 ,henry ,cust's 8,gentlemen ,errant407 ,emeralds had a great reputation1 especially on account of their moral attributes4 ,they were cold in an extra first degree1 so cold that they became emblems of chastity1 and curious tales of their powers in controlling the passions were told4 ,moses ,maimonides1 a famous ,jew who lived in ,egypt in the twelfth century1 in a treatise he wrote by command of the ,caliph as a concise guide in cases of venomous bites or poisons generally1 declared that emeralds were the supreme cure4 ,they might be laid on the stomach or held in the mouth or #i grains of the powdered stone might be taken in wine4 ,but recognising that emeralds were not always handy when the need arose1 ,moses names a number of more ordinary remedies4 ,confection of ,hyacinth was a noted compound formulated in all the old pharmacopias1 and regarded as a sovereign cordial1 fortifying the heart1 the stomach1 and the brain2 resisting the corruption of the humours and the malignity of the air2 and serving for many other medicinal purposes4 ,the original formula ordered besides hyacinths 7which were probably amethysts71 sapphires1 emeralds1 topazes1 and pearls2 silk2 gold and silver leaves2 musk1 ambergris1 myrrh1 and camphor2 sealed earth1 coral1 and a few vegetable drugs2 all made into an electuary with syrup of carnations4 ,a similar compound1 but in powder form1 was known as 8,hungary ,powder0 and was believed to have been the most esteemed remedy in the ,hungary ,fever1 to which some reference is made in the sketch of ,glauber 7,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bfj-bfd74 ,the ,emperor ,ferdinand's ,plague ,powder was another variation of the same compound4 ,the formula given in ,lemery's ,pharmacopia orders about twenty vegetable drugs with bole1 hartshorn1 ivory1 and one scruple each of sapphires1 hyacinths1 emeralds1 rubies1 and garnets1 in a total bulk of about #d ounces4 ,the dose was from scruple to #b scruples4 ,sir ,william ,bulleyn1 a famous physician in the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 and said to have been of the same family as the ,queen1 ,anne ,boleyn1 in his 8,book of ,simples10 which was a work of great renown in its day1 gives the following recipe for ,electuarium de ,gemmis4 8,take #b drachms of white perles2 two little peeces of saphyre2 jacinthe1 corneline1 emerauldes1 granettes1 of each an ounce2 setwal1 the sweate roote doronike1 the rind of pomecitron1 mace1 basel seede1 of each #b drachms2 redde corall1 amber1 shaving of ivory1 of each #b drachms2 rootes both of white and red behen1 ginger1 long pepper1 spicknard1 folium indicum1 saffron cardamon1 of each one drachm2 troch diarodon1 lignum aloes1 of each half a small handful2 cinnamon1 galinga1 zurubeth1 which is a kind of setwal1 of each #a drachm2 thin pieces of gold and sylver1 of each half a scruple2 musk1 half a drachm40 ,the electuary was to be made with 8honey emblici1 which is the fourth kind of mirobalans with roses1 strained1 in equall parts1 as much as will suffice40 ,what that may mean ,i do not know4 ,the medicine1 it was said1 would heal cold1 disease of the brain1 heart1 and stomach1 and ,bulleyn adds1 8,kings and noble men have used this for their comfort4 ,it causeth them to be bold-spirited1 the body to smell well1 and ingendreth to the face good colour40 ,there was a theory that the engraving of a design or a monogram on a gem increased its medicinal virtues4 ,galen doubts this1 however4 ,he states that the jasper benefits the chest and the mouth of the stomach if laid thereupon1 and for complaints of these parts he recommends a necklace of jaspers hung round the neck and reaching down to the affected part4 ,that he knew would do good4 ,but some recommended that a serpent should be engraved on the stones1 and ,galen had tried this1 but could not discover that the engraved stones were any better than the plain ones 7,simp4 ,med41 ix74 ,the idea did not die1 however4 ,mr4 ,king quotes the opinion of ,camillo ,lionhardo1 physician to ,csar ,borgia1 to the effect that if precious stones were engraved by a skilful person under a particular influence1 that influence would be transmitted to the stone2 and if the figure engraved corresponded with the virtue of the stone itself or its natural quality1 the virtue of the figure and of the stone would be doubled4 ,jerome ,cardan and other mystic writers of the sixteenth century gave great prominence to precious stones as remedies2 and ,culpepper after quoting from several of them intimates that he expects some of his readers may consider the accounts given incredible4 ,they declared that the diamond rendered men fearless1 that the ruby took away idle and foolish fancies1 that the emerald resisted lust1 that the amethyst kept men from drunkenness and too much sleep1 and so on4 ,culpepper's reply to prospective sceptics is that he has named his authorities1 and that he knows nothing to the contrary why it may not be as possible for these stones to have the effects attributed to them as for the sound of a trumpet to incite a man to valour1 or a fiddle to dancing4 ,moreover1 said ,garcius1 if the stones applied externally were so efficacious1 how much more so would they be if taken internally4 ,,the ,,four ,,officinal ,,capitals4 ,this description was applied in old medical books to ,mithridatium1 ,venice ,treacle1 ,philonium1 and ,diascordium4 ,there were writers who ventured to criticise some of the details of composition1 or some of the uses frequently made of these compounds1 but the possibility of medicine existing without them was hardly contemplated previous to the eighteenth century4 ,of the two confections first named much has been said in other chapters2 but it may be of interest to present here a conspectus of the ingredients of each1 comparing the last formulas prescribed in the ,london ,pharmacopia with what may be regarded as the original compositions4 ,the first pair of formulas are quoted from ,galen1 who gives the ,mithridatium from ,damocrates and the ,theriaca from ,andromachus4 ,both were in ,greek verses4 ,it is not known whether the prescription of ,andromachus was versified by ,nero's physician or by his son4 ,,antidotus ,,mithridatica ,,damocratis4 ,root of round birthwort2 of valerian2 of each #d oz42 of sweet flag1 #e oz4 #c drm42 of gentian1 #g oz42 of ,ligusticum meum1 #c oz4 #f drms42 of ginger1 #ae oz42 herb of dittany of ,crete1 #g oz42 of pennyroyal1 and of scordium1 of each #aj oz42 leaves of laurus cassia1 #ab oz42 flowers of ,st4 ,john's wort1 #c oz41 of ,french lavender1 #ab oz42 of red lavender1 and of roses1 of each1 #g oz42 ,celtic nard1 #g oz42 spikenard1 #ae oz42 lemon grass1 #ac oz42 seeds of thlaspi1 #ae oz42 of seseli1 #ab oz42 of carrot1 #aj oz42 of parsley1 and fennel1 of each1 #g oz42 of anise1 #d oz42 juniper berries1 #a oz42 long pepper1 #ab oz42 white pepper1 and fruit of amyris opobalsamum1 of each #aj oz42 lesser cardamoms1 #g oz42 saffron1 #ae oz42 cinnamon1 #ae oz42 ,arabian costus1 #ab oz42 cassia lignea1 #aj oz42 trochiscs of agaric1 #ae oz42 castor1 #ab oz42 scincus marinus1 #c oz42 myrrh1 #af oz42 olibanum1 #ae oz42 bdellium1 #aj oz42 gum ,arabic1 #g oz4 ,pulverise1 mix1 and sift the above4 ,then dissolve in #h lb4 of wine galbanum and opoponax1 of each #ab oz42 sagapenum1 #d oz42 juice of hypocist1 #ab oz42 juice of acacia1 #d oz42 opium1 #g oz4 ,mix this solution with #ajf lb4 despumated honey1 and gradually incorporate the powder4 ,then pour into the mixture #ab oz4 of storax dissolved in #ad oz4 of turpentine1 and finally add #ab oz4 of opobalsamum4 ,stir for several hours and leave the mixture to ferment in a large vessel4 ,,electuarium ,,theriacale ,,magnum4 ,root of ,florentine iris1 licorice1 of each1 #ab oz42 of ,arabian costus1 ,pontic rhubarb1 cinquefoil1 of each #f oz42 of ,ligusticum meum1 rhubarb1 gentian1 of each1 #d oz42 of birthwort1 #b oz42 herb of scordium1 #ab oz42 of lemon grass1 horehound1 dittany of ,crete1 calamint1 of each1 #f oz42 of pennyroyal1 ground pine1 germander1 of each1 #d oz42 leaves of laurus cassia1 #d oz42 flowers of red roses1 #ab oz42 of lavender1 #f oz42 of ,st4 ,john's wort1 #d oz42 of lesser centaury1 #b oz42 saffron1 #f oz42 fruit of amyris opobalsamum1 #d oz42 cinnamon1 #ab oz42 cassia lignea1 spikenard1 of each1 #f oz42 ,celtic nard1 #d oz42 long pepper1 #bd oz42 black pepper1 ginger1 of each #f oz42 cardamoms1 #d oz42 rape seeds1 agaric1 of each #ab oz42 seeds of ,macedonian parsley1 #f oz42 of anise1 fennel1 cress1 seseli1 thlaspi1 amomum1 sandwort1 of each #d oz42 of carrot1 #b oz42 opium1 #bd oz42 opobalsamum1 #ab oz42 myrrh1 olibanum1 turpentine1 of each #f oz42 storax1 gum ,arabic1 sagapenum1 of each #d oz42 asphaltum1 opoponax1 galbanum1 of each #b oz42 juice of acacia1 and of hypocist1 of each1 #d oz42 castor1 #b oz42 ,lemnian bole1 calcined vitriol1 of each1 #d oz42 trochiscs of squill1 #dh oz42 of vipers1 of sweet flag1 of each #bd oz4 ,triturate the balsams1 resins1 and gums in a sufficient quantity of wine1 to form a thin paste1 and incorporate the whole with #ifj oz4 of honey4 ,appended are the formulas for these two confections as given in the ,p4,l4 #agdf4 ,the drugs named in parentheses are those which the ,college officially authorised as substitutes4 ,,confectio ,,damocratis 7,,mithridatium74 ,cinnamon1 #ad drachms1 myrrh1 #aa drachms2 agaric1 spikenard1 ginger1 saffron1 thlaspi seeds1 frankincense1 ,chio turpentine1 of each1 #aj drachms4 ,camel's hay1 ,arabian costus 7zedoary71 ,indian leaf 7mace71 ,french lavender1 long pepper1 hartwort seeds1 juice of rape of cistus1 strained storax1 opoponax1 strained galbanum1 balm of ,gilead 7expressed oil of nutmeg71 ,russian castor1 of each1 #a oz4 ,poley mountain1 water germander1 fruit of balsam tree 7cubebs71 white pepper1 ,cretan carrot seeds1 strained bdellium1 of each #g drachms4 ,celtic nard1 gentian root1 ,cretan dittany leaves1 red roses1 ,macedonian parsley seeds1 lesser cardamum seeds1 sweet fennel seeds1 gum ,arabic1 strained opium1 of each #e drachms4 ,sweet flag root1 wild valerian root1 aniseed1 strained sagapenum1 of each #c drachms4 ,spignel1 ,st4 ,john's wort1 juice of acacia 7catechu71 bellies of seines1 of each #b drachms4 ,clarified honey1 three times the weight of all the rest4 ,,theriaca ,,andromachi4 ,troches of squills1 lb4 ,long pepper1 strained opium1 dried vipers1 of each1 #c oz4 ,cinnamon1 balm of ,gilead 7expressed oil of nutmeg71 of each1 #b oz4 ,agaric1 orris root1 scordium1 red roses1 navew seeds1 extract of licorice1 of each #a ounces4 ,spikenard1 saffron1 greater cardmoms1 myrrh1 costus 7zedoary71 camel's hay1 of each #a oz4 ,cinquefoil root1 rhubarb1 ginger1 ,indian leaf 7mace71 ,cretan dittany leaves1 horehound1 calamint1 ,french lavender1 black pepper1 parsley seeds1 olibanum1 ,chio turpentine1 valerian root1 of each1 #f drachms4 ,gentian root1 ,celtic nard1 spignel1 poley mountain1 ,st4 ,john's wort1 ground pine1 creeping germander1 fruit of balsam tree 7cubebs71 aniseed1 fennel seed1 lesser cardamoms1 bishop's weed1 hartwort1 treacle mustard1 juice of rape of cistus1 catechu1 gum ,arabic1 storax1 sagapenum1 ,lemnian earth 7,armenian bole71 calcined green vitriol1 of each1 oz4 ,creeping birthwort1 lesser centaury1 ,cretan carrot seeds1 opoponax1 strained galbanum1 ,russian castor1 ,jews' pitch 7white amber71 sweet flag root1 of each1 #b drachms4 ,clarified honey1 three times the weight of all the rest4 ,,philonium1 a famous antidote invented by ,philon of ,tarsus1 who is supposed to have lived in the early part of the first century 7a contemporary probably of ,saul of ,tarsus74 ,galen says of it that it had been in great reputation for a long time1 and was one of the earliest of the compounds of the kind4 ,philon gives his formula in ,greek verses and in such enigmatic language that it would be impossible to interpret it if ,galen himself had not come to the rescue4 ,philon writes3-- ,take of the red and odorous hairs of the young lad whose blood is shed on the fields of ,mercury 7saffron71 as many drachms as we have senses2 of the ,nauplium ,euboic 7pyrethrum71 #a drachm2 the same quantity of the murderer of the son of ,menetius1 preserved in sheeps' bellies 7euphorbium72 add #bj drachms of white fire 7white pepper72 the same quantity of the beans of the pigs of ,arcadia 7henbane72 one drachm of the plant which is falsely called a root1 and which comes from a country renowned because of ,jupiter ,pissean 7spikenard72 write pium1 and place at the head of the word the masculine article of the ,greeks 7opium7 #aj drachms2 and mix the whole with the work of the daughters of the bull of ,athens 7,attic honey74 ,the words in parentheses are the explanations of this rather unwieldy joke as they are provided by ,galen4 ,it is conjectured from an obscure passage in ,pliny that this antidote was prescribed against a peculiar form of colic which became epidemic at ,rome about the time when ,philon was practising there4 ,philonium was the original of the confection of opium which remained in our pharmacopias until #ahfg4 ,in the first ,london ,pharmacopia the formula was more similar to that which ,galen gives2 later1 a modification by ,nicolas ,myrepsus was adopted1 the most important change being the omission of the euphorbium4 ,until #agdf it was called ,philonium ,romanum4 ,in the ,p4,l4 #agdf1 the ingredients were white pepper1 ginger1 caraway seeds1 strained opium1 and syrup of poppies 7or of meconium1 as it was called74 ,this had been substituted for honey in all the ,english formulas4 ,the name was also changed in #agdf to ,philonium ,londinense4 ,the proportion of opium in ,philonium was #a grain in #cf grains4 ,,diascordium1 the last of the four officinal capitals1 was a medicinal compilation by ,hieronymus ,frascatorius1 and is given in his book 8,de ,contagio et ,morbis ,contagiosis40 ,it was devised as a preventive of plague1 but it acquired such popularity that ,dr4 ,james in the introduction to his ,dispensatory 7#agdg7 writing of the conventional esteem in which so many compounds are held1 says1 8,thus the ,venice ,treacle invented by ,andromachus under the reign of ,nero1 and the ,diascordium of ,frascatorius1 have been used by almost every physician who has practised since their publication40 ,the original formula1 which was adopted in its integrity in the first ,p4,l41 was as follows3-- ,cinnamon1 ,cassia wood1 aa oz42 true scordium 7water germander7 #a oz42 ,cretan dittany1 bistort galbanum1 gum ,arabic1 aa oz42 storax1 #d drachms2 opium1 seeds of sorrel1 aa #a drachm2 gentian1 oz42 ,armenian bole1 #a oz42 sealed earth 7,lemnian71 oz42 long pepper1 ginger1 aa #b drachms2 clarified honey1 #b lb42 generous canary1 #h oz4 ,make into an electuary1 ,s4,a4 ,in the eighteenth century this compound became a popular household opiate1 and was frequently given to children for soothing purposes1 especially as the ,pharmacopia had substituted syrup of meconium 7poppies7 for the honey4 ,as the preparation was rather a strong astringent it was doubly harmful as a frequently taken remedy4 ,in the ,p4,l4 #agdf two species of diascordium were prescribed1 one with and one without opium2 at the same time a 8pulvis e bolo compositus0 was introduced in which the scordium1 the dittany1 the sorrel seeds1 the storax1 the sealed earth1 the bistort1 and the galbanum1 as well as the wine1 were omitted4 ,edinburgh likewise omitted the scordium and other ingredients1 and made the preparation still more astringent by the addition of catechu and kino4 ,this was called ,confectio ,japonica4 ,the mangled remains of the various formulas are represented in the ,british ,pharmacopia by ,pulvis ,catechu ,compositus4 ,,theriaca4 ,theriaca was invented by ,nero's physician1 ,andromachus1 and was devised as an improvement on ,mithridatium which until then was the great antidote in ,roman pharmacy4 ,the most important addition which appeared in the new formula was the introduction of vipers4 ,andromachus named his electuary 8,galene10 which meant tranquil1 probably to suggest that it was a soothing1 anodyne medicine4 ,it soon1 however1 acquired its permanent name1 for it is referred to as ,theriaca by ,pliny1 who would have been a contemporary with ,andromachus4 ,pliny1 it may be remarked1 was rather contemptuous of the polypharmaceutic compounds which were then becoming so popular4 ,they were devised1 he says1 8ad ostentationem artis20 just to 8show off10 as we should say4 ,andromachus 7or it may have been his son1 a physician of the same name7 wrote his formula1 and described the virtues of his compound in ,greek elegiac verses which he dedicated to ,nero1 and which ,galen has preserved4 ,the object of giving the formula in verse was that it should be less easy to modify it4 ,the enumeration of the medicinal properties of the antidote left very little room for any other remedy4 ,first it would counteract all poisons and bites of venomous animals4 ,besides1 it would relieve all pains1 weaknesses of the stomach1 asthma1 difficulty of breathing1 phthisis1 colic1 jaundice1 dropsy1 weakness of sight1 inflammation of the bladder and of the kidneys1 and plague4 ,galen1 after describing its alexipharmic properties1 states that he tested it by causing a number of fowls to be dosed with it4 ,to these he brought others to which no theriaca had been given4 ,the poison was administered to all4 ,the fowls to which the theriaca had been given all survived1 and all the others died4 ,galen's encomiums on this compound were no doubt largely responsible for the marvellous reputation it enjoyed all through the centuries in which his authority was accepted4 ,he declares that it resists poison and venomous bites1 cures inveterate headache1 vertigo1 deafness1 epilepsy1 apoplexy1 dimness of sight1 loss of voice1 asthma1 coughs of all kinds1 spitting of blood1 tightness of the breath1 colic1 the iliac passion1 jaundice1 hardness of the spleen1 stone1 urinary complaints1 fevers1 dropsies1 leprosies1 the troubles to which women are subject1 melancholy1 and all pestilences4 ,down to the seventeenth century these virtues were almost universally accepted1 and many were the learned treatises written to explain its action2 how one drug toned down the effect of others1 and how the whole formed a sort of harmony in medicine4 ,at the same time most of the old masters in pharmacy fancied they could suggest some improvement1 and the original formula was modified in scores of ways4 ,in addition there arose new electuaries1 modelled more or less closely on theriaca1 but perhaps devised for some special complaints1 and bearing the names of their authors4 ,many of these also attained to considerable fame4 ,for some centuries the theriaca made in turn at ,constantinople1 ,cairo1 ,genoa1 and ,venice was in such reputation that customers would have it so branded4 ,ultimately the last-named city secured almost the monopoly of the manufacture4 ,a reference to its production there occurs in ,evelyn's ,diary1 dated ,march #bc1 #afdf4 ,evelyn writes3 8,having packed up my purchases of books1 pictures1 casts1 treacle1 c4 7the making and extraordinary ceremony whereof ,i had been curious to observe1 for it is extremely pompous and worth seeing71 ,i departed from ,venice40 ,in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth ,english apothecaries began to claim that they could make the confection as well as their ,italian contemporaries4 ,some curious documents illustrating their confidence were given in an interesting research by ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,piper1 published in ,the ,chemist and ,druggist1 ,march #ae1 #ahhj4 ,he quotes from ,william ,turner1 8the learned divine1 daring ,protestant1 and first ,english botanist10 the title of a work on the virtues and properties of the great ,triacle 7published in #aefh but not now known71 and also a few paragraphs from a later volume on the same subject in which1 after describing the method of making the remedy1 he says3 8,wherefore if there be any ,apothecaries in ,london that dare take in hande to make these noble compositions they may know where to haue them40 ,it appears that ,hugh ,morgan1 the ,queen's apothecary1 accepted the challenge1 for in a pamphlet by him 7#aehe7 he insists that his product has been compared with other 8theriacle0 brought from ,constantinople and ,venice1 and has been better commended4 8,it is very lamentable to consider10 he writes1 8that straungers doe dayly send into ,england a false and naughty kinde of ,mithridatium and ,threacle in great barrelles more than a thousand weight in a year1 and vtter ye same at a lowe price for #c;d4 and #d;d4 a pound1 to ye great hurt of ,her ,maiesties subjects and no small game to straungers purses40 ,illustration3 ,,preparation ,,of ,,theriaca4 7,from ,brunschwick's 8,destillir10 ,strassburg1 #aejj47 ,reproduced 7by permission7 from 8,the ,follies of ,science10 by ,h4 ,carrington ,bolton 7,pharmaceutical ,review ,publishing ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,mr4 ,piper also quoted at length from another pamphlet published in #afab by ,r4 ,band 7in a subsequent edition1 ,r4 ,browne71 who relates how the ,master and ,wardens of the ,grocers' ,company1 having marked that 8a filthy and unwholesome baggage composition0 was being brought into this ,realm as ,tryacle of ,genoa1 8made only of the rotten garble and refuse outcast of all kinds of spices and drugs1 hand over head with a little filthy molasses and tarre to worke it up withal10 communicated with the ,college of ,physicians1 and induced them to prescribe the proper formula and to superintend the manufacture1 which was then entrusted to ,mr4 ,william ,besse1 apothecary in the ,poultry4 ,mr4 ,besse had to take 8a corporall oath0 before the ,lord ,mayor1 and every year when he made the confection had to show the ingredients and the product to the ,college of ,physicians4 ,his triacle was sold at not above #bs4 #h;d4 per lb4 or #b;d4 per ounce4 ,it appears from the same pamphlet that nothing was alleged against ,venice ,treacle except its 8excessive dearness40 ,prosper ,alpinus1 a ,paduan physician1 wrote an account of his three years' residence at ,cairo 78,de ,medicina gyptorum07 in #aeia1 and has much to say of the manufacture of ,theriaca in that city4 ,it was only allowed to be made in public1 and the ceremony was performed once a year in the month of ,may in the ,mosque of ,morestan by the chief pharmacist of the city in the presence of all the physicians4 ,the operator would give no information to ,albinus1 a ,christian1 about the composition2 but he got what he wanted from a famous herbalist who collected all the materials for the compound4 ,albinus states that at that time ,italians1 ,germans1 ,poles1 ,flemings1 ,englishmen1 and ,frenchmen came to ,cairo to purchase this true ,theriaca4 ,theriaca 7,tyriaca1 as he calls it71 was among the drugs recommended to ,alfred the ,great by ,helias1 the ,patriarch of ,jerusalem4 ,the manuscript is quoted in 8,anglo-,saxon ,leechdoms0 by the ,rev4 ,oswald ,cockayne4 7,see ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #abd1 #aca47 ,many allusions in old records show how highly the confection was esteemed by those who could afford to take it4 ,according to ,buckle 78,miscell4 ,works10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cjc7 it is first mentioned in ,english literature by ,foucher de ,chartres 7#aabd74 ,he had come to know of it in the first crusade4 ,a 8,pixis argenti ad ,tyriacum0 is named in the ,close ,roll of ,king ,john1 #abjh2 in the old romance of ,sir ,tristrem 7about #abej7 a man is slain by a dragon2 and 8,his mouth opened thai ,and pelt treacle in that man02 the 8triacle box du pere apelle une ,hakette garniz d'or0 is mentioned among the precious effects of ,henry ,v2 in the ,paston letters written in the reign of ,edward ,,iv we find allusions to 8treacle pottes of ,geane 7,genoa7 as my potecarie swerytht on to me1 and moerovyr that they were never undoo syns that they came from ,geane40 ,in early ,english books treacle was a term used metaphorically for the divinest blessings4 ,nothing could better prove the high appreciation in which it was held4 ,piers ,ploughman 7about #acgj7 writes1 8,treuthe telleth that love ys tryacle for synne02 ,chaucer 7#acdj-adjj7 has 8,crist1 which is to every harm triacle02 in ,coverdale's ,bible 7#aece7 the sentence in ,jeremiah viii1 #bb is rendered 8,is there no triacle in ,gilead802 ,sir ,thomas ,more 7#aegc7 writes of 8laying up a store of cumfort in your hart as a triacle against the poyson of desperate dread02 and later ,milton speaks of 8the treacle of sound doctrine02 ,jeremy ,taylor says1 8,we kill the ,viper and make treacle of him2 that is1 we not only escape from but get advantage by temptations40 ,laurens ,catelan1 ,master ,apothecary of ,montpellier1 and ,apothecary in ,ordinary to ,monseigneur the ,prince de ,cond1 has left a full report of his discourse on the occasion of his dispensing a batch of ,theriaca at ,montpellier on ,september #bc1 #afbh4 ,it is a most interesting lecture1 full of curious old facts chiefly about poisonings1 and inspired with an unshakable faith in the importance of the operation in which he was engaged4 ,the exordium is explanatory of the ceremony3 8,the regulations and statutes under which we live in this city10 says ,master ,catelan1 8require that whenever we prepare either ,theriaca1 ,mithridatium1 ,confection of ,hyacinth1 or ,confection ,alkermes1 the compounding shall be done in public1 and in the presence of the very illustrious professors of this famous ,university of ,medicine1 so that they may have the opportunity of censuring or approving the ingredients1 and the public may therefore be assured of the fidelity of these important medicines4 8,this is why ,i have here spread out before you all these drugs which are used in the composition of the great and famous ,theriaca4 8,but as ,i am honoured with the attendance of such an august assembly1 ,i ought not1 ,i think1 to omit to lay before you some of the singularities associated with the history and composition of this remedy1 and ,i will divide what ,i have to say on these subjects into three sections1 namely-- 87#a7 ,the discoverer of this compound2 7#b7 the purpose of the invention2 and 7#c7 the reasons why these drugs and no others of the multitude known to us have been chosen for this purpose40 ,the lecturer then entered upon a history of ,mithridates and his wonderful immunity against poisons2 of his defeat by ,pompey1 of the recovery of his formula1 of the additions made to it a hundred years later by ,andromachus1 and of the preservation of directions for making it which ,galen wrote some fifty years after ,andromachus had completed his invention4 ,at this point the book tells us there was an interval1 and some music was performed4 ,when the lecturer resumed he proceeded to tell of the risks which princes and nobles ran of being poisoned in those old times1 and of the precautions taken against such crimes4 ,of the rings and amulets they wore1 of the tasters they employed1 and of the treatment such as ,mithridates went through of accustoming his system to poisons to such an extent that they took no effect on him4 ,he quotes in support of the belief in this method of ensuring immunity against poisons two or three stories from the classics which one would have thought would have been too strong even for a professional eulogist of ,theriaca4 ,one case was that of a girl who ate spiders from her childhood1 and was so fortified against poisons as not to be afraid to take any of them4 ,a man is alluded to by ,galen who would drink a cup of wine in which a live viper had been drowned4 ,we have also the account of a girl whose system had been so saturated with aconite that an ,indian king had sent her as a present to ,alexander the ,great in the hope that he would kiss her1 and thus imbibe the poison with which her lips would be charged2 but1 fortunately1 ,aristotle saw her first1 and recognised by her flaming eyes that she was filled with some sort of poison1 and thus the ,indian's purpose was frustrated4 ,after another interval and some more music1 the lecturer came to the third part of his subject1 in which he expounded the special virtues of the drugs before him4 ,these were grouped1 and it was shown that some were good for the brain1 others for the chest1 for the stomach1 for the kidneys1 the heart1 and other organs4 ,others1 like the viper's flesh1 were directly sympathetic with poisons1 and would go straight for them if they were inside the body1 or would lie in wait for them1 as it were1 if they were only expected4 ,when the subject was exhausted1 it was announced that in consequence of the lateness of the hour the weighing of the ingredients would be postponed till the next day4 ,that ceremony was duly performed on the #bdth of ,september1 and the drugs were passed on to a 8pulveriser40 ,it was not until the #afth of ,november that the final mixing was undertaken4 ,,kermes4 ,kermes as a pharmaceutical term reaches us through the ,arabic1 qirmis1 red4 ,but it was not a native ,arabic word4 ,it was adopted into that language from the ,persian1 and was of ,sanskrit origin4 ,the word ,krimija in ,sanskrit meant produced by a worm1 and was itself from krimi1 a worm2 worm is the direct ,english descendant of krimi4 ,kermes is responsible in modern ,english for carmine and crimson1 but it need hardly be said that it has no connection with the ,flemish kermess though it looks so like it4 ,kermess is kerkmess1 or1 in ,english1 church-mass4 ,the kermes of the ,arabs was the kokkos of the ,greeks1 coccus of the ,romans4 ,it was found on a species of oak1 now called the ,quercus ilex1 a low1 shrubby1 evergreen bush with prickly leaves like the holly4 ,the tree1 however1 bears acorns4 ,the ancients generally regarded these insects as the fruit of the trees1 though they were aware that worms came from them4 ,but these they thought were produced from the corruption of the fruit4 ,the principal use they made of them was in dyeing1 and for this purpose they were employed until the superior coccus cacti from ,mexico superseded the coccus ilicis4 ,in the middle ages kermes was retained as the medicinal name1 but for dyeing the insects were called vermiculi1 and the cloth dyed by them was known as vermiculata4 ,from this came the ,french word vermeil1 and from that vermilion was derived4 ,medicinally the coccus was principally employed by the ,greek and ,latin physicians as an application to wounds and for inflamed eyes4 ,it acquired a very high reputation among the ,arab doctors as a cordial for internal administration1 and the famous ,confection of ,alkermes1 invented by ,mesu the younger1 who was contemporary with ,avicenna1 continued in popular favour up to the eighteenth century4 ,meanwhile1 the external application of kermes lingered in the use of scarlet cloth in measles1 erysipelas1 and other red diseases4 ,the original ,confection of ,alkermes contained juice of rennet apples1 rose water1 silk1 kermes1 sugar1 ambergris1 amber1 yellow santal1 lapis lazuli1 pearls1 musk1 and leaf gold4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries this compound was prepared publicly at ,montpellier1 and was supplied from that city to all ,europe4 ,it was described as good for all maladies proceeding from the melancholic humour1 faintings1 palpitations1 heart weakness1 and in slow convalescence4 ,it fortified the stomach1 rejoiced the heart1 and engendered good spirits4 ,the dose was #a drachm1 or it might be applied externally on a piece of scarlet cloth4 ,,mel ,,gyptiacum is a very ancient compound used chiefly by veterinarians as an escharotic4 ,its name suggests ,egyptian origin1 but it has not been traced further back than to the 8,grabadin0 of ,john ,mesu1 the ,arabian author1 about the year #hjj4 ,scribonius ,largus before him gives a similar formula under the name of ,hygra4 ,mesu's formula was to boil #a oz4 of vinegar with #a oz4 of honey to the consistence of honey and to add #b drachms of verdigris4 ,this formula was modified in various ways in the different pharmacopias in which it was adopted2 alum was added in some cases1 cream of tartar in others4 ,the chemical action varied with the process1 but generally the result was to reduce a part of the verdigris to an oxide of copper1 metallic copper1 and a little basic acetate in different proportions4 ,the compound appeared in the ,london ,pharmacopia of #agba as ,unguentum gyptiacum2 in that of #agdf as ,mel gyptiacum2 as ,oxymel ruginis in that of #aghh2 and as ,linimentum ruginis in the ,p4,l4 #ahea4 ,in this last edition the formula given was to dissolve #a oz4 of verdigris in #g oz4 of vinegar1 and boil this with #ad oz4 of honey to a proper consistence4 ,it was not adopted in the ,british ,pharmacopia4 ,in old veterinary recipes it was often combined with tincture of myrrh to form a detergent liniment1 and occasionally in a very diluted form was administered internally as a tonic4 ,on the ,continent1 where its employment lingered longer than in this country1 an ,egyptiac of ,solleysel1 from which the vinegar was omitted1 but litharge1 sulphate of zinc1 and arsenic in small proportions added1 was frequently preferred to the original4 ,an ,unguentum gyptiacum magis compositum1 containing rock alum and sal ammoniac1 in addition to the other ingredients mentioned1 was included in the ,london ,pharmacopia #agba4 ,in some foreign pharmacopias camphor was prescribed as an ingredient1 and in one old one theriaca is ordered4 ,,terra ,,sigillata4 ,various earths were celebrated as medicines in old times1 that from the ,island of ,lemnos especially having been esteemed from the days of ,herodotus among the ,greeks1 and this product retained its reputation in ,western ,europe down to the seventeenth century4 ,it is still used by the ,turks and neighbouring nations4 ,the ,lemnian earth is a greasy clay which is dug from a desolate hill in the island and consists of silica1 alumina1 chalk1 and magnesia1 with a little oxide of iron which gives it a red tint4 ,it acquired the fame of being an antidote to all poisons1 and was given in dysenteries1 internal ulcers1 and hmorrhages2 also in gonorrha1 and in pestilential fevers4 ,externally it was applied to festering wounds4 ,the characteristic of the best ,lemnian earth was its greasy feel and freedom from grit4 ,a sufficient supply of this ,lemnian earth is still1 and has been certainly from the time of ,galen1 dug out of the hill only on one day of the year1 with considerable ceremony and in the presence of the principal inhabitants of the island4 ,at present the ceremony is largely a religious one1 and the day fixed for it is the #fth of ,august1 which in the ,greek church calendar is the ,fte of the ,saviour4 ,formerly the ceremony was originally associated with the worship of ,diana1 and the date of the performance was the #fth of ,may4 ,the particular earth may not be dug by any one on any other day of the year except that formally set apart for the operation4 ,according to ,dioscorides the earth was made up into a paste in his time with goats' blood1 but when ,galen visited the place #aej years later he could find no evidence of this addition4 ,lemnian earth was1 and ,i presume still is1 a monopoly of the ,sultan of ,turkey4 ,most of the produce of the day's digging was sent to ,constantinople and was made up into round tablets of about half an ounce in weight1 which were stamped with designs similar to those shown in the accompanying sketches4 ,at one time it is said the figure of ,artemis 7,diana7 or the goat1 which was one of her symbols appeared on the tablets1 and it may be from this that the story of the goat's blood originated4 ,illustration ,many other sealed earths were also more or less used in medicine1 and were credited with similar virtues4 ,the ,terra ,mellitea came from ,malta and was alleged to have a special power against the bites of serpents1 ,malta1 vipers1 and ,st4 ,paul thus associating themselves in the public mind4 ,these cakes bore the effigy of ,st4 ,paul1 and a popular legend attributed their efficacy to a blessing on the earth of the island when the apostle landed there4 ,there were besides ,terra ,samia1 from the ,isle of ,samos2 ,terra ,sicula or ,fossil ,bezoar from ,sicily2 ,terra ,portugallica1 stamped with the figure of a rose1 from ,portugal2 ,terra ,strigensis or ,germanica from ,strigonium in ,hungary1 stamped with a design1 suggesting mountain peaks and cross-keys on them2 and ,terra ,livonica4 ,naturally the temptation of selling soil at fabulous prices per shovelful appealed to all nations4 ,the appended formulas from ,geoffroy's ,materia ,medica 7written before #agca7 will show how this sealed earth was used4 ,both are for dysentery4 ,lemnian earth1 i1 syrup of quinces1 #a oz41 plantain water1 and knot grass water1 of each #c oz4 ,spoonful doses4 ,lemnian earth1 conserve of red roses1 conserve of hips1 of each oz42 syrup of bearberries sufficient to make a soft electuary4 ,take i morning and evening4 ,several so-called 8alexipharmic powders0 or mixtures much more complex than the preceding were prescribed in small-pox1 fevers1 and pestilential diseases4 ,,oil ,,of ,,bricks4 ,oil of ,bricks appeared in the earlier ,london and ,edinburgh pharmacopias and in many foreign formularies4 ,it was long held to be a specially valuable application in gouty and rheumatic pains1 and was especially in repute as a cure for deafness4 ,it was also sometimes given as an internal remedy4 ,among its synonyms were those of oleum philosophorum1 oleum sanctum1 oleum divinum1 and oleum benedictum2 but as these names were adopted for selling purposes they may not have meant much4 ,the process given in the ,p4,l4 #agdf was to heat bricks red-hot and quench them in olive oil until they had soaked up all the oil4 ,they were then broken into small pieces and put into a retort1 and by means of a sand-bath with a gradually increasing heat a distillate of oil and so-called spirit was obtained4 ,the spirit was water impregnated with empyreumatic oil4 ,the oil was nothing but an empyreumatic olive oil4 ,,arquebusade ,,water was the original of many vulnerary waters invented for application to wounds1 bruises1 and ulcers4 ,it was a weak1 spirituous distillate from a large number of herbs and aromatic plants1 such as angelica1 rosemary balm1 hyssop1 mint1 rue1 sage1 and wormwood4 ,these would furnish an antiseptic lotion4 ,as the arquebus was displaced by the musket about the end of the sixteenth century it may be supposed that the lotion acquired its name and popularity at that same period2 but these evidently lasted for a long time1 as we find that a certain ,john ,thomson took out a patent for 8a concentrated balsam of arquebusade0 in #aghf4 ,,four ,,thieves ,,vinegar is the sub-title of the ,antiseptic ,vinegar of the ,french ,codex4 ,it is a strong vinegar in which a number of aromatics with camphor and garlic have been macerated4 ,the story of its origin is that in the year #agbj a plague was raging in the city of ,toulouse1 and that during the period of panic four thieves went about the city plundering the dead and dying4 ,people wondered why they never took the disease1 and when they were ultimately brought to justice and convicted1 they were offered pardon if they would reveal the secret of their prophylactic4 ,this is the legend as given by ,littr1 who quotes it from ,abb ,lemontey4 ,other authors make ,marseilles the scene of the exploit4 ,,elixir ,,proprietatis4 ,this medicine was very celebrated in all countries for several centuries1 and1 though not in the ,british ,pharmacopia1 was official under the name which ,paracelsus gave it in the ,p4,l4 #agbd1 as ,elixir of ,aloes in the ,p4,l4 #agdf1 and later as ,tinct4 ,aloes ,co4 ,in the ,ph4 ,ed4 it was called ,tinct4 ,aloes et ,myrrh1 and this was the most usual name for it until quite recent times1 and probably is still4 ,paracelsus wrote about it and extolled it as a compound which would prolong life to its utmost limits4 ,that he used the same ingredients mainly as his successors is certain1 but he never gave any clear formula4 ,his disciple1 ,oswald ,crollius1 however1 deduced from his writings that it was a tincture of aloes1 myrrh1 and saffron1 with sulphuric acid4 ,boerhaave substituted vinegar for the sulphuric acid and left most of that behind by distillation4 ,van ,helmont had previously made an ,elixir ,proprietatis without any acid2 and in many continental pharmacopias the elixir was made alkaline by the addition of carbonate of potash4 ,this also originated with ,boerhaave4 ,other authors added a few spices4 ,the ,elixir of ,garus which still appears in the ,french ,codex was the same sort of preparation but with cinnamon1 cloves1 nutmeg1 and other ingredients1 diluted with syrup of maidenhair4 ,garus was a grocer1 who acquired great popularity under the ,regency with his ,elixir4 ,st4 ,simon says he cured the ,marchal de ,villars with it1 and that he would probably have saved the life of the ,duchesse de ,berry if the physician ,chirac1 jealous of his fame1 had not administered to her a purgative which killed her 78,mem4 de ,st4 ,simon10 cxi1 pp4 #adj-bbh74 ,,balsam ,,of ,,sulphur was a famous medicine up to our own days4 ,it appears now to have dropped out of use4 ,it was highly commended by ,van ,helmont1 ,rulandos1 ,boyle1 and indeed by most of the medical experts of the seventeenth century1 and was compounded from many different formul4 ,the simple balsam was made by boiling one pound of flowers of sulphur with four times its weight of olive oil until the sulphur was dissolved and a thick dark balsamic substance was obtained4 ,this was the formula of the ,p4,l4 #agdf4 ,but linseed oil and walnut oil were often prescribed in preference to olive oil1 and oil of anise1 oil of amber1 oil of juniper1 white wine1 ,barbadoes tar1 turpentine1 myrrh1 aloes1 and saffron2 one or more of these substances were combined with the balsam in other receipts4 ,the use of the balsam was generally for coughs1 asthmas1 and lung diseases4 ,salmon says1 8,it is of good use to digest crude humours and undigested matter in any part of the body1 being often anointed upon the same40 ,the terebinthinated balsam was given in stone2 a combination with iron1 ,balsamum ,sulphuris ,martis1 was prescribed in gravel4 ,these balsams were applied externally to ulcers1 or taken in doses of from five to forty drops4 ,,xvii ,,pharmacop,,ias ,but here is one prescription out of many3-- ,sod sulphat4 vi1 ss ,mann optim41 ,aq4 fervent1 fiss1 ii ,tinct4 ,senn ,haustus 7and here the ,surgeon came and cupp'd him71 ,r4 ,pulv4 ,com4 gr4 iii ,ipecacuanh 7,with more besides if ,juan had not stopp'd 'em74 ,bolus ,potass ,sulphuret sumendus1 ,et haustus ter in die capiendus4 ,,byron3 ,don ,juan1 ,canto x 7#da74 ,,the ,,london ,,pharmacop,,ia4 ,the collection of medicinal formulas was a favourite occupation of ancient medical writers4 ,galen and ,avicenna1 ,mesu and ,serapion1 ,nicholas ,prepositus and ,nicolas of ,salerno were the authors of the dispensatories most esteemed up to the sixteenth century in ,europe4 ,the ,college of ,medicine of ,florence adopted an ,antidotarium in the early part of that century1 and in #aebd the ,senate of ,nuremberg made the ,dispensatory of ,valerius ,cordus official in that city4 ,augsburg followed the example of ,nuremberg1 and the ,pharmacopea ,augustana of #afja was probably the first work of the kind designated a ,pharmacopia and issued under authoritative sanction4 ,a quasi-official ,dispensatorium for the ,state of ,brandenburg1 forerunner of the ,prussian ,pharmacopia1 came next in #afjh1 and the ,london ,pharmacopia1 which appeared in #afah1 was the first really national publication of that character4 ,the first ,french ,codex was published in #afci1 and no other work of similar standing was issued until the next century4 ,the ,college of ,physicians was incorporated by ,charter in the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 in the year #aeah4 ,the idea of preparing an official pharmacopia was first considered by the ,college on ,june #beth1 #aehe1 8but as the matter seemed weighty0 7sed quoniam res videbatur operosa71 the deliberation on it was postponed and was only resumed on ,october #ajth1 #aehi4 ,on this occasion ten committees were appointed and to these were assigned the work of selection and compilation distributed thus3--,committee #a was charged with ,syrups1 ,juleps1 and ,decoctions2 #b took ,oils2 #c1 ,waters2 #d1 ,liniments1 ,ointments1 ,cerates1 and ,plasters2 #e1 ,juices1 ,conserves1 ,candies1 and ,confections2 #f1 ,extracts1 ,salts1 ,chemicals1 and ,metallic ,preparations2 #g1 ,powders and ,dragees2 #h1 ,pills2 #i1 ,electuaries1 ,opiates1 and ,eclegmas 7looches72 #aj1 ,lozenges and ,eye-salves4 ,the work must have been carried on leisurely1 for it is not mentioned in the minutes again until #afad1 when eight fellows were appointed to examine certain foreign ,antidotarii4 ,in #afaf1 an editing committee was appointed1 and all the collaborators were called upon to send their papers to this body4 ,it then appeared that many which had been prepared had been lost1 a misfortune attributed to the carelessness of the recently deceased ,president1 ,dr4 ,forster4 ,his successor1 ,dr4 ,atkins1 put more energy into the business and consequently the manuscript was completed and in type by the day after ,palm ,sunday1 #afah4 ,sir ,theodore ,mayerne was commissioned to write a dedication of the work to ,king ,james ,i1 and his ,majesty's proclamation requiring all the apothecaries in the realm to obey this ,pharmacopia and this only1 was dated ,april #bfth1 #afah4 ,it will be observed that exactly a century intervened between the incorporation of the ,college and the production of the ,pharmacopia4 ,the ,president was evidently a smart man1 but the printer was still smarter1 for while the former was out of town for a few days the printer rushed the publication through1 8surreptitiously and prematurely10 as the ,college officially declared1 with a number of errors and imperfections1 on ,may #gth1 #afah4 ,this presumptuous printer was one ,john ,marriot1 at the inappropriate sign of the ,white ,lily 8in platea vulgo dicta ,fleet ,street40 ,on ,december #gth in the same year the ,college brought out a corrected edition1 to which they appended an epilogue1 expressing their opinion of their offending 8typographus0 in terms which left no excuse for not appreciating their dissatisfaction with him4 ,the first ,london ,pharmacopia did not err on the side of condensation4 ,it comprised #ajbh simples and #icb preparations and compounds4 ,among the simples were #ca animals and #fj parts of animals or derivatives from them4 ,the herbs named numbered #bga1 and there were #ach roots and #ach seeds4 ,among the preparations were #agh simple and #ce compound waters1 #c medicated wines1 #aj medicated vinegars1 #a vulnerary potion1 #h decoctions1 #ij syrups1 #ah mels and oxymels1 #ah juices and linctuses1 #aae candies and conserves1 #dc species or powders1 #eh electuaries1 #cf pills1 #de lozenges1 #aea oils of various kinds1 #ec ointments1 #ea plasters and cerates1 and #ag chemicals4 ,the names of the inventors of many of the compounds were duly attached to the formulas1 some of which were very elaborate and complicated4 ,rufus of ,ephesus1 physician to the ,emperor ,trajan1 the ,arabian doctors1 ,nicolas1 ,rivierus1 ,fracastor1 ,fallopius1 and many others are thus quoted4 ,there were #baa preparations with more than ten ingredients in each1 and one1 the ,antidotus ,magnus ,matthioli1 called for #acj substances in its composition1 among the #acj being ,mithridatium and ,theriaca which would have contributed another hundred between them4 ,medicated waters which had been invented by ,arnold de ,villa ,nova in the #acth century still commanded respect1 over #bjj different kinds being provided4 ,worms1 swallows1 frogs' spawn1 and other animal remedies as well as the whole range of the vegetable kingdom were requisitioned to surrender their virtues to these waters by distillation4 ,syrups1 honeys1 oxymels1 and lohochs were numerous and included syrups of white and red poppies1 rhubarb1 violets1 marshmallow1 coltsfoot1 liquorice1 oxymel of squills1 and mel ,egyptiaca4 ,powders of hot precious stones and of cold precious stones1 powders of pearls and spices1 and a compound senna powder2 troches of various drugs2 basilicon ointment and a multitude of plasters are formulated4 ,neapolitan ointment was our blue ointment1 the mercury being killed by fasting spittle4 ,an itch ointment was made with corrosive sublimate4 ,may butter was a favourite ingredient in ointments4 ,it was butter made in ,may1 melted in the sun1 strained and kept the year through4 ,oils was a term of wide significance4 ,not only were expressed and distilled oils included in the reference1 but oils in which things had been infused1 as oil of ants1 of bricks1 of earthworms1 of wolves1 and oil of vitriol was also in the same classification4 ,vipers in lozenges were there1 lohoch of foxes' lungs was the great remedy for asthmatic complaints1 and a modification of ,vigo's plaster with its live frogs and worms and vipers' flesh was not omitted4 ,the full list of the animal substances recognised as medicinal in this ,pharmacopia and its two successors has been given in the ,section on ,animal ,medicines4 ,illustration3 ,,title-,,page ,,of ,,the ,,london ,,pharmacop,,ia4 7,from the reprint of the ,first ,edition1 #afbg47 ,chemicals included calomel1 turpeth mineral1 flowers of sulphur1 the mineral acids1 preparations of steel and antimony1 sugar of lead1 and caustic potash4 ,the inclusion of some of these may no doubt be attributed to the influence of ,sir ,theodore ,mayerne4 ,after the first ,pharmacopia had been several times reprinted a new one appeared in #afej4 ,notable features of this issue were that the gallon hitherto #i lb4 of water was now fixed at #h lb42 corrosive sublimate and red and white precipitate were among the additions1 but it has to be remarked that the white precipitate of that day was not what we know by name but really a precipitated proto-chloride of mercury4 ,its true chemical composition was not recognised until some fifty years later by ,deidier in his 8,chimie ,raisonn40 ,tinctures formed a new class of preparations1 seven of them being formulated1 castor1 saffron1 and strawberries being among these4 ,syrup of buckthorn was added to the syrups1 and ,gascoin powder to the powders4 ,mercury was now killed by turpentine4 ,mezereon1 ,winter's bark1 and cochineal were among the new drugs2 antimonial wine made from the regulus of antimony was adopted2 and the skull of a man killed by violence1 and moss from that skull were admitted4 ,the third ,pharmacopia 7#afgg7 did not present many remarkable features1 and was apparently rather hastily produced4 ,the most striking new formula it contained was one for 8,aqua ,vit ,hibernorum sive ,usquebagh40 ,burnt alum1 flowers of benzoin1 balsams of capivi and tolu1 contrayerva root1 ,jesuits' bark1 and resin of jalap were among the new drugs4 ,steel wine was added4 ,sir ,hans ,sloane presided over the compilation of the ,p4,l4 of #agba1 the fourth of the series4 ,the preface to this edition claimed that all remedies owing their use to superstition and false philosophy had been thrown out1 but perhaps the far-reaching effects of the false philosophy were not fully appreciated4 ,many of the absurd old formulas were retained1 but an approach to greater simplicity is apparent4 ,the transition from the old to the new pharmacy can be traced very easily in this volume4 ,the names of the plants1 we are told in the preface1 are 8not only distinguished by the names known in shops1 but also by such as are sometimes used by the more eminent writers in botany40 ,tinctures are growing in favour1 their number being increased to #ah4 ,the number of waters and syrups is largely diminished1 and puppies1 hedgehogs1 wagtails1 bread-crust plaster1 lapis lazuli pills1 and ,galen's unguentum refrigerans are dismissed4 ,the last-named has1 however1 refused to die to this day4 ,among new chemical preparations ,hepar ,sulphuris 7pot4 sulphuret471 ,flores ,salis ,ammoniaci ,martiales 7ammonio-chloride of iron71 ,tinctura ,martis cum ,spiritu ,salis 7tinct4 ferri perchlor471 ,sal ,martis 7ferri sulphas71 ,aqua ,sapphirina 7solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper71 ,lunar ,caustic1 ,tartar ,emetic1 ,ens ,veneris1 ,aurum ,mosaicum1 ,ethiops ,mineral1 ,spirit of ,sal ,volatile1 ,mynsicht's tincture of steel1 ,elixir of ,vitriol1 and ,lime ,water may be mentioned4 ,the ,p4,l4 #agdf 7the fifth7 was very different from its predecessors4 ,among those who took an active part in its preparation were the ,president of the ,college1 ,dr4 ,plumptre1 and ,drs4 ,crowe1 ,mead1 ,heberden1 and ,freind4 ,in the preface to this work the old 8inartistic and irregular mixtures0 and 8the antidotes superstitiously and doatingly derived from oracles1 dreams1 and astrological fancies0 are severely condemned1 and the ,college declares its intention of freeing the book as much as possible from whatever remains of former pedantry4 ,notwithstanding these good intentions the old pharmacy is still abundantly represented4 ,crabs' eyes1 coral1 bezoar stones1 harts' horns1 woodlice1 pearls1 vipers1 and skinks' bellies continue to figure among the simples1 and formulas for ,mithridatium with #de ingredients1 and for theriaca with #fa are likewise retained4 ,on the other hand1 human fat1 unicorn's horn1 mummy1 spiders' webs1 moss from the human skull1 bone from the stag's heart1 and lac virginale disappear4 ,there are now #cd tinctures1 while the medicated waters have been reduced to about #cj and the syrups to about #bj4 ,tinctures of cummin1 valerian1 and cardamoms1 syrup scilliticus1 and pilula saponacea 7soporific7 are new2 and lixivium saponarium 7liquor potass71 sal diureticus 7potass acetas71 causticum commune fortius 7potassa cum calce71 sal catharticus ,glauberi1 pilul mercuriales1 and spiritus nitri dulcis make their first appearance4 ,the sixth ,p4,l4 7#aghh7 proceeds on the same lines4 ,the ,college claims to have paid special attention to the application of the advances of chemistry to pharmacy1 and to have provided that very few traces of former superstition should remain4 ,mithridatium1 theriaca1 bezoar stones1 vipers1 and oil of bricks are dismissed1 but woodlice remain4 ,materia medica synonyms are now according to ,linnus4 ,among the new drugs admitted we find aconite1 arnica1 cascarilla1 calumba1 kino1 quassia1 simarouba1 castor oil1 senega1 and magnesia2 and among the new preparations may be named ,dover's powder1 ,james's powder1 ,mindererus's spirit1 ,rochelle salts1 tartrate of iron1 oxide of zinc1 ,huxham's tincture of bark1 ether1 ,hoffmann's anodyne1 the decoctions of sarsaparilla1 tincture of calumba1 compound tinctures of benzoin1 cardamoms1 and lavender1 and extract of chamomile4 ,tincture of opium made with proof spirit deposes the ,tinctura ,thebaica made with wine1 and elixir paregoricum assumes the name of tinct4 opii camphorata4 ,a number of other names are changed4 ,it is significant of the declining familiarity of doctors with ,latin that for the first time an ,english translation of the ,pharmacopia is authorised4 ,the seventh ,p4,l4 is dated #ahji4 ,the new chemical nomenclature is introduced1 and the minim substituted for the drop4 ,acidum vitriolicum becomes acidum sulphuricum1 and ferrum vitriolatum is changed to ferri sulphas4 ,more than a hundred articles are omitted1 and nearly that number substituted4 ,among the new drugs and preparations are arsenic1 belladonna1 cajeput1 cusparia1 digitalis1 infusions of calumba1 rhubarb1 and digitalis1 compound decoction of aloes1 acetum colchici1 confections of roses1 rue1 and almonds1 pulv4 kino co1 pil4 cambogi co1 emp4 opii1 ung4 zinci1 ,griffiths' mixture and pills1 ,plummer's pills1 lin4 hydrargyri1 cataplasm of yeast4 ,prepared woodlice1 crabs' claws1 tutty ointment1 and the electuaries fall out4 ,the eighth ,p4,l4 7#ahbd7 recognised bismuth1 cubebs1 croton oil1 and stramonium1 and admitted confection of black pepper as a substitute for ,ward's paste1 and colchicum wine in imitation of the ,eau ,medicinale d',husson4 ,but the conservative ,college lacked the courage to endorse the claims of morphine1 iodine1 and quinine1 though these were pretty generally established in medical practice at the time4 ,the ,pharmacopia of #ahcf was largely the work of ,richard ,phillips1 a very competent pharmacist1 who had mercilessly criticised the edition of #ahbd4 ,this1 the ninth ,p4,l41 was brought well up to date with notes indicating the methods of ascertaining the purity of medicines1 better methods of preparing chemicals1 and the introduction of the most important of the new products4 ,the alkaloids aconitine1 morphine1 quinine1 strychnine1 and veratrine found admission4 ,iodine and bromine and their compounds1 hydrocyanic and phosphoric acids1 creosote1 ergot1 and lobelia were also among the novelties4 ,acetum cantharidum1 aqua flor4 aurant41 aqua sambuci1 cataplasma lini1 decoct4 cinchon 7#b71 extract4 colchici corm41 extract4 colchici acet41 hydrarg4 iodid4 and biniodid41 inf4 krameri and inf4 lupuli4 lin4 opii1 liquor sod chlorinat1 mist4 spt4 vini ,gall41 pil4 rhei co4 and tinct4 colchici were the principal new compounds4 ,muriatic acid now became hydrochloric acid1 subcarbonate of magnesia was advanced to be a carbonate1 and tartarised antimony assumed the title of antimonii potassio-tartras4 ,the tenth and last of the ,london ,pharmacopias appeared in #ahea4 ,henbane seeds1 spigelia1 oyster shells1 and extract of digitalis were removed after longer or shorter periods of service1 together with soda and potash waters1 and biniodide of mercury and veratrine ointments1 which had only found admission in the preceding edition4 ,cod-liver oil1 chloroform1 atropine1 gallic and tannic acids1 extract of nux vomica1 tincture of aconite1 tincture and ointment of belladonna1 iodide of sulphur1 chloride of zinc1 and ammonio-citrate of iron1 were the principal novelties now made official4 ,the first ,edinburgh ,pharmacopia appeared in #afii and the last in #ahda1 while the first ,dublin ,pharmacopia was published in #ahjg and the last in #ahej4 ,the ,medical ,act of #aheh authorised the fusion of the ,pharmacopias of the three kingdoms1 and assigned the task of carrying out this work to the ,general ,medical ,council created by that statute4 ,the first ,british ,pharmacopia was issued in #ahfd1 but it failed to give satisfaction1 and was superseded by a second dated #ahfg4 ,the third and fourth editions were published in #ahhd and #ahih4 ,,xviii ,,shakespeare',s ,,pharmacy4 ,but law and the gospel in ,shakespeare we find1 ,and he gives the best physic for body and mind4 ,,garrick3 ,shakespeare's ,mulberry ,tree4 ,the two most familiar pharmaceutical allusions in ,shakespeare's writings are the apothecary and his shop in 8,romeo and ,juliet0 7,act ,v41 ,sc4 #a71 and the juice of cursed hebenon which ,hamlet's uncle poured into the ear of his father 78,hamlet10 ,act ,i41 ,sc4 #e74 ,some remarks on both these noted allusions are given separately4 ,the medical knowledge of ,shakespeare has been discussed by several eminent doctors1 notably by ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,bucknill1 of ,exeter1 who published a very interesting work under that title in #ahfj1 in which the writer almost went so far as to hint at the possibility that the great dramatist must have had some training in the medical science of the day before he took to the theatre business4 ,a similar suggestion was made by ,lord ,campbell in regard to the poet's legal knowledge4 ,great interest in drugs and poisons was taken by the people generally in ,queen ,elizabeth's reign1 and the medical controversies of the period filled a good many books4 ,it is certain that ,shakespeare at least skimmed a good many of these4 8,galen and ,paracelsus0 are mentioned in 8,all's ,well that ,ends ,well0 7,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #c74 ,in 8,coriolanus0 7,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #a7 ,menenius says of a letter from ,coriolanus that it gives him an estate of seven years' health1 adding 8the most sovereign prescription in ,galen is but empiricutick1 and10 compared with this letter1 8of no better report than a horse-drench40 ,apothecaries are mentioned in 8,henry ,,vi0 7,part ,,ii41 ,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #c71 when ,cardinal ,beaufort1 delirious on his deathbed1 cries1 8,bid the apothecary bring the strong poison that ,i bought of him40 ,also in 8,pericles0 7,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #b71 the amateur physician ,cerimon1 a ,lord of ,ephesus1 who had studied medicine1 and 8by turning o'er authorities0 had made himself familiar with 8the blest infusions that dwell in vegetives1 in metals1 stones10 gives a prescription to his servant1 saying1 8,give this to the 'pothecary1 and tell me how it works40 ,apothecaries' weights are used as metaphors in 8,all's ,well that ,ends ,well0 7,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #c7 when ,lafeu1 who has given ,parolles 8most egregious indignity10 which the latter says he has not deserved1 replies 8,yes1 good faith1 every dram of it2 and ,i will not bate thee a scruple10 and by ,falstaff1 who1 in his interview with the ,chief ,justice1 refers rather enigmatically to drams and scruples4 ,falstaff again1 in 8,merry ,wives of ,windsor10 is responsible for the simile of those who 8smell like ,bucklersbury in simple time40 ,the ,dr4 ,caius in the same play1 with his 8by gar0 and comical ,english1 is assumed by some interpreters to have been a burlesque on ,sir ,theodore ,mayerne1 but except that ,mayerne was ,french and certainly spoke ,english with a foreign accent1 there is no reason for associating him with the character4 ,mayerne never acquired ,english4 ,in one of his later letters he writes of ,lady ,cherosbury1 for ,shrewsbury4 ,there was a very famous ,dr4 ,caius1 who had been physician to ,queen ,elizabeth1 who founded ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 and who died in #aegc1 not so very long before this play was written4 ,but it is agreed that he could not have been the original of the caricature4 ,of the drugs and pharmaceutical preparations named by ,shakespeare most would be familiar to anyone acquainted with the literature of the day4 8,throw physick to the dogs10 says ,macbeth to the physician who is telling him of the mental illness of ,lady ,macbeth4 ,then1 his mind recurring to the war in which he was engaged1 he demands of the doctor 8,what rhubarb1 senna1 or what purgative drug would scour these ,english hence80 7,act ,v41 ,sc4 #c74 ,in the same play 7,act ,i41 ,sc4 #c71 ,banquo asks when the witches vanish1 8,have we eaten of the insane root ,that takes the reason prisoner80 ,there are many allusions in classical literature to herbs which destroyed the reason4 ,in ,plutarch's life of ,antony1 for example1 there is an account of some ,roman soldiers in the ,parthian war eating a root which deprived them of all memory1 and it is said they occupied themselves in digging1 and in hurling stones from one place to another4 ,among the ingredients of the witches' cauldron 7,act ,,iv41 ,sc4 #a71 the animal substances named recall much of the pharmacy of the period1 but only one vegetable drug1 8root of hemlock1 digg'd i' the dark10 is named4 ,lady ,macbeth 7,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #b7 tells how she has drugg'd the possets of ,duncan's grooms1 so that 8death and nature do contend about them ,whether they live or die40 ,in ,act ,v41 ,sc4 #a1 she complains that 8all the perfumes of ,arabia0 will not sweeten her hand from the smell of blood4 ,it is also in this play that the description of ,edward the ,confessor curing the ,king's ,evil 7see ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bii7 occurs4 ,in the 8,comedy of ,errors0 7,act ,,iv41 ,sc4 #a7 ,dromio of ,syracuse tells ,antipholus of ,ephesus that he has found a bark for him1 put the freightage on board1 and bought 8the oil1 the balsamum1 and aqua-vitae40 ,in ,act ,v41 ,sc4 #a1 the ,abbess declares that ,antipholus having taken sanctuary in the ,priory she will not let him stir1 8,till ,i have used the approved means ,i have1 with wholesome syrups1 drugs1 and holy prayers1 ,to make of him a formal man again40 ,in 8,much ,ado about ,nothing0 7,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #d7 ,margaret recommends the love-sick ,beatrice to 8get you some of this distilled ,carduus ,benedictus1 and lay it to your heart2 it is the only thing for a qualm40 ,this drug was in great repute in ,shakespeare's time and was used for a multitude of complaints4 ,woodall says the distilled water of it 8doth ease the pain of the head1 conformeth the memory1 cureth a quartane1 provoketh sweat1 and comforteth the vital spirits40 ,the ,physician in 8,king ,lear0 7,act ,,iv41 ,sc4 #d71 tells ,cordelia there are 8many simples operative whose power will close the eye of anguish40 ,the story of 8,all's ,well that ,ends ,well0 is based on a secret remedy for fistula which ,helena had acquired from her deceased father1 and with which she heals the ,king4 ,the ,queen in 8,cymbeline0 is an amateur pharmacist4 ,in ,act ,i41 ,sc4 #f1 she tells the doctor that he has taught her how 8to make perfumes1 distil1 preserve02 and in ,act ,v41 ,sc4 #e1 the doctor tells the ,king that on her deathbed she confessed she had 8a mortal mineral0 which would 8by inches waste you40 ,in the 8,midsummer ,night's ,dream0 7,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #a71 a fairy named ,cobweb gives ,bottom the opportunity of alluding to the usefulness of cobwebs for cut fingers4 8,in ,twelfth ,night0 ,sir ,toby ,belch jocularly addresses ,maria as 8,my nettle of ,india0 7,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #e71 probably ,indian hemp4 ,we read of 8parmaceti10 8the sovereign'st thing on earth for an inward bruise10 and also of the 8villainous saltpetre0 in ,act ,i41 ,sc4 #c1 of 8,henry ,,iv40 ,part ,i42 in the second part 7,act ,i41 ,sc4 #b7 there is an allusion to the fashion of diagnosis by the examination of a person's water2 and in ,act ,,iv41 ,sc4 #d1 we find mention of the deadly character of aconitum1 and in the same scene of gold 8preserving life in medicine potable40 ,in 8,antony and ,cleopatra10 the ,queen greets ,antony's messenger with the remark that though so much unlike him yet that 8coming from him1 that great medicine hath with his tinct gilded thee0 7,act ,i41 ,sc4 #e71 evidently an allusion to the tincture of gold4 ,another reference to potable gold is found in 8,all's ,well that ,ends ,well40 ,the plantain for a broken shin is called for by ,costard in 8,love's ,labour's ,lost0 78plantain1 a plain plantain2 no salve1 sir1 but a plantain10 ,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #a72 plantain leaf for a broken shin is also recommended by ,romeo 7,act ,i41 ,sc4 #b74 ,in the same scene occur the words so dear to homeopaths3 8,one fire burns out another's burning40 ,in 8,king ,john0 7,act ,v41 ,sc4 #b17 revolt is likened to a plaster which will heal 8inveterate canker of the wound by making many40 ,in 8,henry ,,vi410 part ,,ii4 7,act ,v41 ,sc4 #a7 ,york quotes the legend of ,achilles' spear 8able to kill or cure02 while in 8,hamlet0 7,act ,,iv41 ,sc4 #g7 ,laertes declares that he will anoint his sword with unction bought of a mountebank2 8,no mortal that but dips a knife in it1 ,where it draws blood1 no cataplasm so rare1 ,collected from all simples that have virtue ,under the moon1 can save the thing from death ,that is but scratched withal40 ,the action of drugs as charms is much in evidence in 8,othello40 ,the father of ,desdemona accuses the ,moor of having 8,practised on her with foul charms1 ,abused her delicate youth with drugs or minerals ,that awaken motion40 ,and again ,brabantio tells the ,duke that ,desdemona has been stolen from him 8,and corrupted ,by spells and medicines bought of mountebanks40 ,these allusions all occur in scenes #b and #c of the first ,act2 in the latter also ,iago promises ,roderigo that ,desdemona shall soon be to ,othello 8bitter as coloquintida40 ,at the end of this play ,othello describes his 8subdued eyes dropping tears as fast as the ,arabian trees their medicinal gum40 ,autolycus refers to aqua vit as a restorative in the 8,winter's ,tale0 7,act ,,iv41 ,sc4 #c71 as does the nurse in 8,romeo and ,juliet0 when she finds her mistress dead 7,act ,,iv41 ,sc4 #e74 ,the 8popinjay0 takes snuff in 8,henry ,,iv40 7part ,i41 ,act ,i41 ,sc4 #c71 ,cleopatra calls for mandragora to drink 8that ,i might sleep out this great gap of time my ,antony is away0 78,ant4 and ,cleop410 ,act ,i41 ,sc4 #e74 8,not poppy nor mandragora1 nor all the drowsy syrups of the world10 said ,iago1 shall medicine ,othello against the poison he has given him 78,othello10 ,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #c74 8,sleepy drinks0 are mentioned in the 8,winter's ,tale10 7,act ,i41 ,sc4 #a71 and in the same play 78,winter's ,tale10 ,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #a7 ,shakespeare uses the word 8land-damn10 which some of his commentators have been disposed to identify with laudanum4 ,the ,king of ,sicily grossly insults his wife1 ,hermione1 declaring her to be an adultress1 ,antigonus warmly defends her and assures the ,king that he has been 8abused by some putters-on who will be damn'd for't10 and he adds1 8,would ,i knew the villain1 ,i would land-damn him40 ,the idea is that this may be a misprint for laudanum1 meaning1 8,i would poison him40 ,it must be added that this explanation does not find much favour1 and perhaps it is rather far-fetched4 ,it is mentioned by ,stevens as having been proposed by ,dr4 ,farmer1 but ,furness thinks that ,stevens was poking fun at the solemn nonsense of his learned friend4 ,but the other interpretations are not much better4 ,there is1 it appears1 an old dialect word 8lan-dan0 which meant following a man with kettles and other rough music4 ,another suggested meaning is an association with an old ,saxon word 7hland7 for urine1 conveying the notion that the villain is to be made ill by a suppression of urine4 ,both these explanations seem ludicrously insufficient to express the anger of the speaker4 ,damn him up with land1 that is1 bury him alive1 is gruesome enough1 but this is an obscure way of expressing the proposal4 ,johnson disposes of the term by the theory that it was 8a word which caprice brought into fashion1 and reason and grammar drove irrevocably away4 ,it has also been assumed1 and this looks likely1 that the punctuation has got misplaced and that the sentence should read 8,i would--,lord damn him40 ,shakespeare's favourite daughter ,susannah was married to ,dr4 ,john ,hall1 and it is possible that the doctor and his wife lived with the poet in his later years at ,stratford4 ,dr4 ,hall was a practitioner of some eminence1 and wrote a book in ,latin 7translated into ,english in #afeg by ,james ,cook7 entitled 8,select ,observations 444 ,cures ,empirical and ,historical on ,very ,eminent ,persons in ,desperate ,disorders40 ,the following1 which is ,observation #fj1 is worth quoting for the picture it gives of pharmacy in the ,elizabethan age4 8,talbot1 the first born of the ,countess of ,salisbury1 aged about one year1 being miserably afflicted with a fever and worms1 so that death was only expected1 was thus cured4 ,there was first injected a clyster of milk and sugar4 ,this gave two stools and brought away four worms4 ,by the mouth was given hartshorn burnt1 prepared in the form of a julep4 ,to the pulse was applied ,ung ,populeon ii mixed with spiders' webs1 and a little powder of nutshells4 ,it was put to one pulse of one wrist one day1 to the other the next4 ,to the stomach was applied mithridate2 to the bowel the emplaster against worms4 ,and thus he became well in three days1 for which the ,countess returned me many thanks and gave me great reward40 ,,the ,,apothecary ,,in 8,,romeo ,,and ,,juliet0 is a favourite illustration of the scrupulous care which ,shakespeare bestowed on the revision of his dramas4 ,the story on which the play is founded is well known to students4 ,it was written by an ,italian novelist1 ,luigi da ,porto1 of ,vicenza1 and was entitled 8,la ,giuletta40 ,this author died in #aebi4 ,in ,girolamo de la ,corte's 8,history of ,verona10 published at ,venice in #aedi1 it is given and stated to be a true story4 ,an ,english translation of it in rhyme by ,arthur ,brooke appeared in #aefb1 and a prose translation by ,painter some time later4 ,the version by ,brooke is entitled 8,the ,tragicall ,historie of ,romeus and ,juliet10 and it is from this that ,shakespeare took not only the incidents1 but1 as will be seen1 some of his expressions4 ,brooke describes ,romeus in ,mantua1 resolved to die1 and looking for a shop where he may buy poison4 ,brooke's ,version1 #aefb4 ,and then from street to street he wand'reth up and down ,to see if he in any place may find in all the town ,a salve meet for his sore1 an oil fit for his wound1 ,and seeking long1 alas1 too soon1 the thing he sought he found1 ,an apothecary sat unbusied at his door1 ,whom by his heavy countenance he guessed to be poor2 ,and in his shop he saw his boxes were but few1 ,and in his window of his wares there was so small a shew4 ,wherefore our ,romeus assuredly hath thought ,what by no friendship could be got with money should be bought4 ,for needy lack is like the poor man to compel ,to sell that which the city's law forbiddeth him to sell4 ,then by the hand he drew the needy man apart ,and with the sight of glittering gold inflamed well his heart4 8,take fifty crowns of gold 7quoth he7 ,i give them thee ,so that before ,i part from hence thou shalt deliver me ,some poison strong that may in less than half an hour ,kill him whose wretched hap shall be the poison to devour40 ,the wretch by covetisse is won and doth assent ,to sell the thing whose sale ere long too late he doth repent4 ,in haste he poison sought and closely he it bound ,and then began in whisp'ring voice thus in his ear to round3 8,fair ,sir 7quoth he71 be sure this is the speeding gear1 ,and more there is than you shall need2 for half of that is there ,will serve1 ,i undertake1 in less than half an hour ,to kill the strongest man alive4 ,such is the poison's power40 ,shakespeare's ,first ,rendering4 ,this is the rendering of the scene from ,shakespeare's first quarto edition1 #aeig3 ,as ,i do remember ,here dwells a pothecarie whom oft ,i noted ,as ,i past by1 whose needie shop is stuft ,with beggarly accounts of empty boxes4 ,and on the same an ,aligarta hangs1 ,olde ends of packthred1 and cakes of roses ,are thinly strewed to make up a show4 ,here as ,i noted thus with myselfe ,i thought3 ,ah1 if a man should need a poison now1 7,whose present sale is death in ,mantua71 ,here he might buy it4 ,this thought of mine ,did but forerune my need2 and hereabout he dwells4 ,being holiday the beggar's shop is shut4 ,what ho6 ,apothecary6 ,come forth ,i say4 ,ap4 ,who calls8 ,what would you1 ,sir8 ,rom4 ,here's twenty ducats4 ,give me a dram of some such speeding gere ,as will despatch the weary taker's life ,as suddenly as powder being fired ,from forth a cannon's mouth4 ,ap4 ,such drugs ,i have1 ,i must of force confesse1 ,but yet the law is death to those that sell them4 ,rom4 ,art though so bare and full of poverty1 ,and dost thou fear to violate the law8 ,the law is not thy friend nor the law's friend1 ,and therefore make no conscience of the law4 ,upon thy back hangs ragged misery ,and starved famine dwelleth in thy cheeks4 ,ap4 ,my poverty but not my will consents4 ,rom4 ,i pay thy poverty but not thy will4 ,ap4 ,hold1 take you this and put it ,in any liquid thing you will1 and it will serve1 ,had you the lives of twenty men4 ,rom4 ,hold1 take this gold1 worse poison to men's souls ,than this which thou hast given me4 ,go hie thee hence1 ,go1 buy thee cloathes1 and get thee into flesh3 ,come cordial and not poison1 go with me ,to ,juliet's grave1 for there must ,i use thee4 ,shakespeare was a busy man in #aeig1 and in the years before as well as about that date he was preparing novelties for his theatre4 ,later he had more leisure1 and it is interesting to notice how artistically he fills out his original sketch with only just such details as make the ideas more vivid4 ,in the revised version of this scene1 published in #afji1 there are no new ideas1 but scarcely a line is left untouched4 ,a comparison of title-pages in the two editions is amusing and at the same time instructive4 ,in #aeig it reads3 8,an ,excellent ,conceited ,tragedie of ,romeo and ,juliet as it hath been often 7with great applause7 plaid publiquely40 ,in #afji this is toned down to 8,the most ,excellent and ,lamentable ,tragedie of ,romeo and ,juliet as it hath been sundri times publiquely ,acted40 ,the omission of the parenthetic 78with great applause07 is significant4 ,the poet knows he no longer needs meretricious advertisement4 ,the scene as we have it in our modern books is very similar to ,shakespeare's ,revised ,version 7,third ,quarto1 #afji74 ,rom4 ,i do remember an apothecary ,and hereabouts he dwells--whom late ,i noted ,in tatter'd weeds1 with overwhelming brows1 ,culling of simples2 meager were his looks1 ,sharp misery had worn him to the bones2 ,and in his needy shop a tortoise hung1 ,an alligator stuff'd1 and other skins1 ,of ill-shap'd fishes2 and about his shelves ,a beggarly account of empty boxes1 ,green earthen pots1 bladders1 and musty seeds1 ,remnants of packthread1 and old cakes of roses1 ,were thinly scatter'd to make up a show4 ,noting this penury1 to myself ,i said-- ,and if a man did need a poison now1 ,whose sale is present death in ,mantua1 ,here lives a caitiff wretch would sell it him4 ,o1 this same thought did but fore-run my need2 ,and this same needy man must sell it me4 ,as ,i remember this should be the house2 ,being holiday1 the beggar's shop is shut-- ,what ho6 ,apothecary6 ,ap4 ,who calls so loud8 ,rom4 ,come hither1 man4 ,i see that thou art poor2 ,hold1 there is forty ducats2 let me have ,a dram of poison2 such soon speeding gear ,as will disperse itself through all the veins1 ,that the life-weary taker may fall dead2 ,and that the trunk may be discharg'd of breath ,as violently as hasty powder fired ,doth hurry from the fatal cannon's womb4 ,ap4 ,such mortal drugs ,i have2 but ,mantua's law ,is death to any he that utters them4 ,rom4 ,art thou so bare1 and full of wretchedness1 ,and fear'st to die8 famine is in thy cheeks4 ,need and oppression starveth in thy eyes1 ,contempt and beggary hangs upon thy back1 ,the world is not thy friend1 nor the world's law2 ,the world affords no law to make thee rich2 ,then be not poor1 but break it1 and take this4 ,ap4 ,my poverty but not my will consents4 ,rom4 ,i pray thy poverty and not thy will4 ,ap4 ,put this in any liquid thing you will ,and drink it off2 and if you had the strength ,of twenty men1 it would despatch you straight4 ,rom4 ,there is thy gold1 worse poison to men's souls ,doing more murders in this loathsome world ,than these poor compounds that thou may'st not sell4 ,i sell thee poison1 thou hast sold me none4 ,farewell2 buy food1 and get thyself in flesh4 ,come cordial1 and not poison2 go with me ,to ,juliet's grave1 for there ,i must use thee4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,apothecary4 7,drawn by ,miss ,k4 ,righton47 ,two lines in the accepted version have been the subject of much controversy1 sometimes of an acrimonious character among critics4 ,both sides quote one or other of the early editions in support of their contentions4 ,one of the lines is 8,need and oppression starveth in thy eyes40 ,it is fiercely held that 8starveth0 in this expression should be 8stareth40 ,and in the famous line 8,i pray thy poverty and not thy will0 ordinary readers naturally think 8pay0 should be substituted for 8pray40 ,the defenders of the quoted versions contemptuously reply that it is because we are only commonsense people and not poets that we cannot rise to the height of appreciating the meaning of the more recondite phrases that makes us suggest the emendations4 ,,hebenon4 ,the 8juice of cursed ,hebenon10 which according to the ,ghost1 was the poison chosen by ,hamlet's wicked uncle to kill his father by dropping some of it into his ears during his afternoon nap1 has been much discussed by commentators4 ,authorities generally favour either henbane or ebony 7hebenus74 ,some occasional opinions may be found suggesting other poisons1 but they do not carry much weight4 ,dr4 ,paris1 for example1 in 8,pharmacologia0 proposes the essential oil of tobacco1 quoting in support of his opinion the authority of ,gerard1 who says it was 8commonly called the henbane of ,peru40 ,dr4 ,bucknill remarks that the poet could not have meant henbane because that herb is not a virulent poison1 and would not have had the effect attributed to it4 ,but no dramatist would care to have his fancies subjected to the test of science in this way4 ,possibly ,shakespeare would hardly have cared to justify the introduction of the ghost by strict evidence4 ,dr4 ,bucknill decides that as no poison will fit the description the term was used as a generic one for a drug producing 8hebetudo animi40 ,in ,beisley's 8,shakespeare's ,garden0 it is suggested that hebenon may have been a misprint for eneron1 nightshade1 which ,dyce1 a prominent authority1 politely dismisses as a 8villainous conjecture40 ,a plausible ,german interpretation of hebenon is that it is derived from ,eibenbaum1 the yew-tree4 ,eibe was the ,saxon name for the yew1 and its poisonous properties were recognised from very ancient times4 ,it is probable that some of the quotations which have been credited to ebony may have been really due to the yew4 ,spenser1 for example1 writes3 8,lay now thy ,heben bow aside02 8,a speare of ,heben wood0 and 8trees of bitter gall and ,heben sad40 ,these references are more likely to be to the yew than to the ebony3 and certainly could not have been applied to the henbane weeds4 ,gower 7#acij7 has 8,of hebanus the sleepy tree40 ,in ,marlowe's 8,jew of ,malta0 7#aeib1 contemporary with ,shakespeare71 several deadly things are grouped thus3-- 8,the blood of ,hydra1 ,lerna's bane1 ,the juice of ,hebon1 and ,cocytus' breath40 ,there is no tradition of poisonous properties associated with ebony1 as there is with both henbane and yew1 but in regard to henbane1 a remarkable passage has been found in ,holland's translation of ,pliny which was published in ,london just about the time when ,shakespeare was writing 8,hamlet40 ,pliny1 dealing with henbane1 says 7in this translation73 8,an oile is made of the seed thereof which if it be but dropped into the eares is ynough to trouble the braine40 ,shakespeare must have been a voracious reader1 he probably got ,holland's book as soon as it came out1 and finding this passage1 adopted the suggestion4 ,he was no doubt familiar with the word hebon or hebonus1 and chose that for his verse1 perhaps without caring very much whether it was a correct interpretation of henbane or not4 ,as a matter of fact1 in the earlier editions of 8,hamlet0 the word appears as hebona4 ,in the folios1 which came later1 hebonon is substituted1 no doubt out of consideration for euphony4 ,it is notable that the player who enacts the murder of the ,king 7,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #b7 describes the poison as a 8,mixture rank of midnight weeds collected1 ,with ,hecat's ban thrice blasted1 thrice infected40 ,this of course does not correspond with the suggestion that the juice of hebenon was the product of some one poisonous plant4 ,,xix ,,some ,,noted ,,drugs4 ,who was the first cultivator of corn8 ,who first tamed and domesticated the animals whose strength we use1 and whom we make our food8 ,or who first discovered the medicinal herbs which from the earliest times have been our resource against disease8 ,,cardinal ,,newman3 ,sermon on ,the ,world's ,benefactors4 ,the most valuable and original records of the history of drugs are to be found in 8,pharmacographia0 by ,f4 ,a4 ,flckiger of ,strasburg and ,daniel ,hanbury of ,london 7published by ,macmillan ,co474 ,i have as a rule avoided copying details from that work1 although ,i have dealt with no subject without referring to it4 ,in this section1 however1 the drugs named are of course treated in 8,pharmacographia10 and necessarily the facts given must to some extent correspond4 ,but comparison would show that ,i have only selected subjects which were capable of discussion from a somewhat different point of view from that which guided ,messrs4 ,flckiger and ,hanbury4#a ,,aloes4 ,dioscorides is the earliest medical writer to mention aloes as a medicine4 ,according to him it should be given in doses of from half a drachm to one drachm as a gentle purge1 or of three drachms if its full cathartic effect were required4 ,the drug is not named by ,hippocrates nor by ,theophrastus4 ,celsus describes it as specially valuable for city men and men of letters 7urbani et literarum cupidi72 he says it is an ingredient in all purgatives1 and it is clear from the later ,greek and ,roman writers how highly this remedy was esteemed4 ,in 8,pharmacographia0 ,hanbury refers to the legend of ,alexander the ,great visiting the ,island of ,socotra at the instance of ,aristotle particularly on account of the aloes grown there4 ,it is said that ,alexander left a colony of ,ionians on the island in order to ensure a sufficient supply of the drug4 ,undoubtedly there were ,greek ,christians there in ,mohammedan times and it is probable that the ,arabs invented the ,alexandrian origin of them4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,aloe ,,in ,,flower4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,medicinal ,,aloe ,,growing ,,under ,,glass ,,in ,,the ,,chelsea ,,physic ,,garden4 ,this photograph was published in 8,london ,botanic ,gardens0 by ,p4 ,e4 ,f4 ,perrds1 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,l4,s41 published by the ,wellcome ,chemical ,research ,laboratories1 and is kindly lent for this book by the ,director of those ,laboratories1 ,dr4 ,frederick ,b4 ,power4 ,the fame of aloes was well maintained by the ,arabian physicians1 and the old ,greek and ,roman formulas for aloetic compounds were passed on to the ,middle ,ages by ,mesu of ,damascus1 together with some new ones4 ,it was one of the drugs recommended to ,alfred the ,great by the ,patriarch of ,jerusalem4 ,in #afbb ,mindererus published a treatise on a special compound of aloes which he had devised4 ,raymond ,minderer was the most famous physician of his time4 ,he lived at ,augsburg1 and was the appointed medical adviser to the ,duke of ,bavaria and the great house of the ,fuggers1 the ,rothschilds of the period4 ,minderer's book was entitled 8,aloedarium10 and it described in loving detail each of the nine ingredients of what is supposed to have been the lineal ancestor of our modern compound rhubarb pill4 ,the components were3-- ,aloes #c ounces1 ,marum 7herb mastic71 and ,saffron1 of each #c scruples1 ,agaric1 ,costus1 and ,myrrh1 of each #c half-drachms1 ,ammoniacum1 #c drachms1 ,rhubarb1 #c two-drachms 7vi71 and ,lign ,aloes1 #c half-scruples4 ,these drugs were each separately macerated in appropriate liquids1 the aloes in rose water1 the myrrh in rue vinegar1 and so forth4 ,mindererus recommended these pills not so much as a purgative1 but as a general tonic1 especially useful to strong1 fair1 well-fed persons4 ,following ,minderer's book1 and indeed slavishly copying it1 came a treatise by ,dr4 ,william ,marcquis of ,antwerp1 entitled 8,aloe ,morbifuga40 ,the only notable feature of this work is that its author is clear about the importance of that part of the aloes which is soluble in water as the constituent of the drug in which the purgative properties reside4 ,he was1 in fact1 the originator of our aqueous extract of aloes4 ,,castor ,,oil4 ,the supposed identity of the ,palma ,christi tree1 from the seeds of which castor oil is obtained1 with the ,hebrew 8kikaion0 is mentioned in the note on ,jonah's 8gourd0 in the section 8,pharmacy in the ,bible40 ,it is not doubtful that the plant was the same as the 8kiki0 of ,herodotus1 and the 8kiki0 or 8kroton0 of ,dioscorides4 ,avicenna quotes a reference to the seeds from ,dioscorides1 from which1 he says1 is pressed the oil of kiki 8which is the oil of ,alkeroa40 ,other ,arab authors use the term 8al-keroa0 for the ,greek 8kiki40 ,a frequent ,latin name for the ,palma ,christi was 8kikinum10 or 8cicinum40 ,illustration3 ,,castor ,,oil ,,plant4 ,the earliest allusion to the oil is found in ,herodotus 78,hist4 ,euterpe10 sec4 #id71 where we read 8,the inhabitants of the marshy grounds in ,egypt make use of an oil which they term the #8kiki1' expressed from the ,sillicyprian plant4 ,in ,greece this plant springs spontaneously without any cultivation2 but the ,egyptians sow it on the banks of the river and the canals2 it there produces fruit in great abundance1 but of a very strong odour4 ,when gathered they obtain from it1 either by friction or pressure1 an unctuous liquid which diffuses an offensive smell1 but for burning it is equal in quality to the oil of olives40 ,from this and other references it is clear that the ,egyptians held the ,palma ,christi plant in high esteem1 and this would hardly have been the case if it was only used for the extraction of an inferior burning oil4 ,as is stated in another section1 ,ebers guesses that an aperient medicine made from the fruit of the kesebt tree may have meant the ricinus seeds4 ,the seeds of the ,palma ,christi1 too1 have been frequently found in sarcophagi2 evidence that they had acquired a high reputation of some kind4 ,hippocrates apparently tried to reduce the acridity of the seeds so as to make them more useful as purgatives4 ,dioscorides alludes to their purgative properties1 but only contemplates the external employment of the oil in medicine4 ,pliny1 however1 is more explicit4 ,chapter xli41 of ,book #bc begins with the sentence3 8,oleum cicinum bibitur ad purgationes ventris cum pari calid mensura40 ,the whole passage is of interest4 ,the following is the translation of it given in ,bohn's 8,classical ,library0 7,dr4 ,bostock73 8,castor oil taken with an equal quantity of warm water acts as a purgative upon the bowels4 ,it is said1 too1 that as a purgative it acts particularly upon the regions of the diaphragm 7precordia74 ,it is useful for diseases of the joints1 all kinds of indurations1 affections of the uterus and ears1 and for burns1 employed with the ashes of the murex2 it heals itch1 scabs1 and inflammations of the fundament4 ,it improves the complexion also1 and by its fertilising tendencies promotes the growth of the hair4 ,the cicus or seed from which this oil is made no animal will touch1 and from these grape-like seeds wicks are made which burn with a peculiar brilliancy4 ,the light1 however1 that is produced by the oil is very dim1 in consequence of its extreme thickness4 ,the leaves are applied topically with vinegar for erysipelas4 ,fresh gathered they are used by themselves for diseases of the mamill and defluxions4 ,a decoction of them in wine with polenta and saffron is good for inflammations of various kinds4 ,boiled by themselves and applied to the face for three successive days they improve the complexion40 ,in ,egypt and ,rome1 therefore1 ,ricinus was evidently esteemed2 and though as a medicine they dropped largely out of use1 it is clear from old ,english physic books that a traditional reputation was always associated with both the seeds and the oil4 ,gerard1 in his 8,herbal10 and ,piso1 in an account of the natural history of the ,west ,indies1 both recommend them1 the former in broth1 the latter in the form of a tincture made with brandy for colic and constipation4 ,gerard states that the ,palma ,christi 8of ,america0 grew in his garden 7in ,holborn7 and in many other gardens likewise4 ,the seeds1 however1 came to be regarded as dangerous1 and were clearly but little used in orthodox medicine4 ,quincy 7#agbd7 refers to them as 8hardly ever met with in practice1 unless amongst empirics and persons of no credit40 ,in #agfd1 however1 ,dr4 ,peter ,canvane1 of ,bath1 who had practised for seven years in the ,west ,indies1 published a treatise entitled 8,a ,dissertation on the ,oleum ,palm ,christi1 sive ,oleum ,ricini1 or 7as it is commonly call'd7 ,castor ,oil10 in which he warmly recommended the oil as a gentle purgative1 particularly in cases of 8dry belly ache40 ,his advocacy soon took effect1 for in the second edition of his treatise published in #agfi1 he says it had become officinal1 by which he meant was sold in the shops1 8at ,apothecaries ,hall and several other shops in ,london and ,bath40 ,dr4 ,odier1 of ,geneva1 who visited ,england in #aggf1 became then acquainted with the medicine1 and subsequently brought it to the notice of ,continental physicians4 ,it was admitted into the ,london ,pharmacopia in #aghh4 ,the name 8,ricinus0 was in ,latin the name of the parasite known as the dog-tick1 ,ixodes ricinus1 and was transferred to the ,palma ,christi seeds because of their resemblance to the insect4 ,in ,greek the same insect was called the kroton1 and ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides describe the ,palma ,christi seeds as kroton seeds4 ,curiously the name kroton has been applied in ,america to the cockroach1 not from any association with ticks1 but from a belief that the insects came from the ,croton ,river when the water from that source was brought to ,new ,york in #ahdb4 ,the name of castor oil is supposed to have been given to the oil in consequence of a mistaken idea in the ,western ,indies that the plant which yielded the seeds was ,agnus ,castus4 ,there was1 however1 a castor oil and compound castor oil in medicinal use in ,england and other countries until the eighteenth century4 ,the simple oil was made by digesting castorum in oil and boiling it with wine until the latter had all evaporated4 ,the compound oil contained besides a number of aromatic gums and spices4 ,possibly the taste of the oil from the ,palma ,christi seeds recalled that from the old oil of castor1 and the name may thus have been transferred4 ,,cinchona4 ,it is not possible to determine from the legends and reports collected by the many competent naturalists who visited ,peru in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the special object of investigating the history of the cinchona trees whether it was known or used as a medicine by the natives before its virtues were ascertained by ,europeans4 ,peru was discovered in #aeac1 and became subject to ,spain about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,but ,hanbury points out that no reference to the bark as a febrifuge has been found earlier than the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,it was reported by ,la ,condamine1 and others who acquired their knowledge on the spot1 that the ,indians had long used the bark as a dye4 ,the ,countess ,ana of ,chinchon1 wife of the ,spanish ,viceroy of ,peru1 was cured of a fever by the bark in #afch1 but there is evidence that its medicinal value had been experienced by some of the conquering race before that date4 ,one story is that when the ,countess was ill and all the usual remedies had been found ineffective1 the ,corregidor of ,loxa1 ,don ,juan ,lopez ,canizares1 who had himself been cured by the bark of a similar illness1 brought some of the remedy from ,loxa to ,lima and staked his reputation on its infallibility4 ,after her cure the ,countess became an enthusiastic advocate of the medicine1 administering it with uniform success to her dependents and others in ,lima1 and on her return to ,spain in #afdj1 exerting herself to make it known there4 ,another story is to the effect that a native maid in the employment of the ,countess had made known the virtues of the bark to the ,viceroy out of affection for her mistress1 though until then the ,indians had concealed the secret from their cruel rulers4 ,the most likely account is that the bark had become known as a valuable medicine to the ,jesuit missionaries who had been in the country for fully fifty years when the ,countess of ,chinchon was cured4 ,le ,condamine stated1 in #agch1 that the ,indians had a legend that they had become acquainted with the properties of the bark in consequence of an earthquake in the neighbourhood of ,loxa which had caused a number of the trees surrounding a lake near the city to be thrown into the water4 ,an ,indian violently ill with a fever and consumed with thirst had drunk water from this lake and had been rapidly cured4 ,another tradition was that the pumas of the country had been observed to eat the bark when they were ill1 and that the ,indians had learned its value from this circumstance4 ,the ,count and ,countess of ,chinchon returned to ,spain1 as has been said1 in #afdj4 ,they went to live on their estate at ,chinchon ,castle1 about forty miles from ,madrid1 and their physician1 ,juan del ,vego1 followed them and resided at ,seville4 ,vego brought with him a considerable quantity of the bark from ,peru1 and sold it at #ajj reals per pound4 ,sprengel queries whether the real of ,plata or the real of ,vellon is to be understood2 the latter was worth about #b;d41 the ,plata or silver real being worth about #h;d4 ,it is not at all certain that ,vego's bark was the first importation of the medicine into ,spain4 ,a ,spanish physician named ,villerobel1 quoted by ,badus in #affc in a work on the ,peruvian bark1 states that a quantity was received in #afcb1 but was not tried until #afci 7a year after the cure of the ,countess1 it will be noted74 ,the patient was an ecclesiastic of ,alcala de ,henarez1 near ,madrid4 ,however this may be1 ,vego's reports and the experiments with his bark excited lively interest all through ,spain1 and from then began a controversy almost as bitter as that between the ,galenists and ,paracelsists4 ,there were a large number of practitioners who could not bring themselves to believe in any medicine which ,galen had not described4 ,it was also alleged by some contemporary writers that a prompt cure of intermittent fevers was not by any means desired by a large number of medical men and apothecaries1 who consequently allied themselves in opposition to this very effective bark4 ,this statement is no doubt due to the usual uncharitableness of controversy2 but it is possible that the adversaries of the new remedy might at least cling to their old prejudices with not less firmness when these and their interests ran on parallel lines4 ,fevers were at that time regarded as caused by some morbific principle in the humours which occasioned effervescence1 and which it was essential first of all to expel4 ,the patient was1 therefore1 treated with evacuants and debilitating medicines while the fever continued1 and the vital spirits were afterwards restored by a course of cordials and bitters1 such as wormwood1 chamomile flowers1 mace1 carduus benedictus1 angelica1 and valerian4 ,the opponents of the bark insisted that if it palliated the fever it 8fixed the humour0 and ensured a relapse or some other more dangerous disease4 ,in #afeb ,leopold ,william1 ,archduke of ,austria1 and ,governor of the ,low ,countries1 who had interested himself in popularising the bark1 fell ill with a quaternian fever4 ,he took bark and recovered4 ,a relapse occurred1 but the complaint again yielded to the remedy4 ,some time after he had another attack4 ,this time1 perhaps influenced by the views already quoted1 he refused to take bark and died4 ,this event was regarded1 illogically enough1 as evidence of the dangerous character of the medicine4 ,meanwhile1 the ,jesuits had been busy propagating the new remedy and proving its virtues4 ,the provincial father brought a large supply to ,rome1 and explained the method of using it to a congress of ,jesuits then assembled in that city4 ,the fathers administered it all over ,europe1 giving it gratuitously to the poor and to their own order1 but charging its weight in gold to the rich4 ,it is said that they endeavoured to keep it as a secret medicine1 and would only supply it in powder so that it might be more difficult to identify4 ,the ,procurator-,general of the order1 ,father 7afterwards ,cardinal7 de ,lugo1 making a journey to ,paris in #afdi1 found the king1 ,louis ,,xiv1 himself suffering at the time from an intermittent fever4 ,he recommended to him the use of the bark1 and ,louis took it and quickly recovered4 ,the powder of the ,cardinal1 the ,powder of the ,fathers1 the ,jesuits' ,powder1 by which names among others it was known1 consequently came into strong demand4 ,but these titles were largely responsible for the reaction which almost drove cinchona out of practice4 ,protestant fears and prejudices were added to the orthodox opposition of the ,galenists1 and besides1 many practitioners administered the bark ignorantly1 in too small or too large doses1 while the high prices at which it was sold led to fraudulent substitution1 which more than anything else discredited the bark as a medicine4 ,sprengel quotes complaints from the ,cardinal de ,lugo1 the apothecary of the ,college of ,medicine at ,rome1 and ,vincent ,protospatario1 a physician at ,naples1 who alleged that the ,spanish merchants were sending into ,italy instead of the true ,peruvian bark various other astringent barks devoid of any aromatic taste1 but flavoured up to the necessary bitterness by aloes4 ,although ,sydenham in ,england1 and a number of eminent physicians on the ,continent1 studied the proper methods of administration and the suitable doses of bark1 it fell to a practitioner whose methods went a long way to justify charges of charlatanry firmly to establish cinchona in professional and popular favour4 ,robert ,talbor was assistant with an apothecary at ,cambridge named ,dear4 ,it has been ascertained that in #affc he had been entered as a sizar at ,st4 ,john's ,college for five years1 but there is no indication that he took a degree4 ,in his writings he states that he was largely indebted to a member of the ,university of the name of ,nott for suggestions relative to the administration of bark4 ,the next heard of him is that he was practising in ,essex4 ,this was about #afga4 ,he wrote a book in #afgb1 which he called 8,pyretologia10 a rational account of the cause and cure of agues4 ,in this he refers to his own secret remedy1 which1 he says1 consists of four ingredients1 two indigenous and two exotic4 ,he mentions ,peruvian bark and intimates that it is an excellent remedy1 but one that should be employed with prudence1 as in the hands of inexperienced doctors it might occasion serious evils4 ,he does not say that it was contained in his specific4 ,talbor moved to ,london and set up his sign next door to ,gray's ,inn ,gate1 in ,holborn4 ,his treatment brought him into fame1 the climax of which was that having cured the daughter of ,lady ,mordaunt he was sent for when ,charles ,,ii was ill with an ague and cured him4 ,he was knighted1 appointed a royal physician with a salary of #ajj a year1 and the king caused a letter to be written to the ,college of ,physicians asking them not to interfere with his practice in ,london4 ,talbor next figures in ,paris1 and there leaped into eminence4 ,for ,french convenience he assumed the name of ,talbot1 an ,english name with which they were historically familiar4 ,he soon became a favourite in high circles4 ,mme4 de ,svign refers to him several times in her letters of #afgi4 ,in one she says1 8,nothing is talked of here but the ,englishman and his cures40 ,in ,november1 #aghj1 the ,dauphin was dangerously ill with a fever4 ,talbor had plenty of friends at court who wanted him to be sent for4 ,mme4 de ,svign is again the chronicler4 ,she writes3--8,the ,englishman has promised on his head to cure monseigneur in four days40 ,if he fails she believes he will be thrown out of the window4 ,she further states that the ,king 7,louis ,,xiv7 insisted on seeing ,talbor prepare his wine2 and when she reports the fulfilment of his promise and the cure of the ,dauphin she notes with malicious glee the discomfiture of the king's head physician1 ,antoine d',aquin4 ,d',aquin wrote bitterly against ,talbor1 insisted that his treatment of the ,dauphin and of other persons had been founded on a mistaken diagnosis1 and that in the ,dauphin's case he had made a bilious fever into a dangerous disorder4 ,another critic suggested that his remedy given to the ,duke of ,rochefoucauld in an arthritic asthma had had fatal consequences4 ,louis agreed to buy ,talbor's formula1 but nothing was published until after the death of the latter4 ,two thousand guineas and an annual pension of #ajj were granted to the ,english doctor1 and he was made a ,chevalier4 ,shortly afterwards he went to ,spain and cured the queen of that country of a fever4 ,then he returned to ,london and died in #agha1 at the early age of forty4 ,his official formula1 published after his death1 directed #f drachms of rose leaves to be infused in #f ounces of water with #b ounces of lemon juice for four hours4 ,a strong infusion of cinchona was added to the above1 together with some juice of persil or ache4 ,he also made alcoholic tinctures and wines of cinchona4 ,the ,french doctors were sure that he was in the habit of adding some opium to his speciality4 ,if he did he invented a valuable combination4 ,another contemporary writer1 ,john ,jones1 gives the following as ,talbor's process4 ,he digested finely-powdered bark in juice of persil and decoction of anise separately4 ,the mixture was placed in an earthen vessel1 and having been stirred frequently he added red wine and macerated for a week4 ,he also made a tincture of cinchona by adding #h ounces of alcohol to #b ounces of powdered bark4 ,from a handbill in a collection of quack advertisements in the ,british ,museum ,library1 dated 8#afge1 c410 it appears that ,dr4 ,charles ,goodal1 who gave his address 8at the ,coach and ,horses1 near ,physician's ,colledge1 ,warwick ,lane10 offers 8for the public good a very superior sort of ,jesuit's ,bark1 ready powdered1 and papered into doses0 at #ds4 per ounce1 or in quantity #c per lb41 and as evidence that this is a reasonable price he refers to ,mr4 ,thain1 druggist1 of ,newgate ,street1 to whom he had paid #is4 per lb4 for a considerable quantity4 ,possibly it was ,mr4 ,thain who was advertising4 ,,tinct4 ,,cinchon ,,co4 ,the official formula for this tincture is slightly modified from that devised by ,john ,huxham1 ,m4,d41 and published in his ,essay on ,fevers1 #agee4 ,it first appeared in the ,p4,l4 #aghh as a ,college preparation4 ,john ,huxham was born as ,totnes in #afib1 and was the son of a butcher4 ,he studied medicine under ,boerhaave at ,leyden1 but graduated ,m4,d4 at ,rheims4 ,then he returned to ,england and after a time settled at ,plymouth4 ,he was a ,nonconformist1 and at first depended on the dissenting portion of the population for his practice1 but it did not expand as fast as he wished and it is alleged that he was not above some of the tricks satirised by novelists2 as1 for example1 being called out of chapel1 riding at full speed through the streets1 walking about with a gold-headed cane1 wearing a red coat and followed by a footman who carried his gloves4 ,he1 however1 acquired a considerable reputation both locally and nationally2 was elected ,f4,r4,s4 in #agci1 and was awarded the ,copley medal in #agee for a treatise on antimony in which he strongly recommended an ,essentia or ,vinum ,antimonii made by infusing #a oz4 of glass of antimony in #bd oz4 of sound ,madeira wine for #aj or #ab days1 then decanting and filtering4 ,he advised doses of #cj to #hj drops of this in tea1 wine1 beer1 or other liquid1 as an alterant1 attenuant1 and diaphoretic4 ,the treatise though verbose does not seem to have had any special merit4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,huxham4 ,his ,essay on ,fevers was much more important and has been highly esteemed by competent critics4 ,he also wrote a valuable note on scurvy in seamen1 recommending a more abundant supply of vegetables on voyages1 and was the first to describe the malignant ulcerous sore throat now called diphtheria4 ,huxham's formula for ,tinct4 ,cinchon ,co4 as given by himself was as follows3 ,cort4 ,peruv4 opt4 pulv4 ii1 ,flav4 ,aurant4 ,hispan4 iss1 ,rad4 serpent4 ,virgin4 iii1 ,croci ,anglic4 iv1 ,coccinel4 ii1 ,sp4 ,vini ,gallici1 7,brandy71 xx4 ,f4 ,infusio clausa per dies aliquot 7tres saltern quatuerve7 deinde coletur4 ,the dose was i to ss every #d1 #f1 or #h hours with #aj1 #ae1 or #bj drops of elixir of vitriol in diluted wine4 ,huxham says of this tincture 8it tends to strengthen the ,solids1 to prevent the further ,dissolution and ,corruption of the blood and in the event to restore its ,crassis40 ,he has previously stated that it is a very useful remedy 8not only in slow1 nervous fevers1 but also in the putrid1 pestilential1 and petechial1 especially in the ,decline40 ,but he adds1 8if the patient is costive or hath a tense and humid abdomen1 ,i always premise a dose of rhubarb1 manna1 or the like40 ,according to ,dr4 ,paris1 ,huxham believed in complicated prescribing4 8,there are several prescriptions of ,huxham extant10 we read in 8,pharmacologia10 8which contain more than four hundred ingredients40 ,,cinchona ,,or ,,chinchona4 ,sir ,clements ,markham1 whose services in introducing cinchona culture into ,india and ,ceylon are well known1 has earnestly insisted on the adoption of the name chinchona instead of cinchona in justice to the lady after whom the generic title was chosen4 ,in a ,memoir of the ,lady ,ana de ,osorio1 ,countess of ,chinchon1 ,sir ,clements ,markham somewhat extravagantly exalts that 8illustrious and beautiful lady10 whom he describes as 8one of the most noble benefactors of the human race40 ,she may have been an excellent woman1 but her advocate does not furnish sufficient evidence of her virtues to justify such lavish praise4 ,the ,countess was cured of a fever by the bark1 and on her return to ,spain she distributed the remedy to such of her vassals as needed it4 ,perhaps her physician1 who brought a quantity of the bark home with him and sold it1 did more to make it generally known than she did by her gifts4 ,still there is no doubt that ,linnus intended by the name he gave to the genus to perpetuate her memory2 and it is likewise true that her name was ,chinchon and not ,cinchon4 ,the latter term1 ,sir ,clements says1 means a broad girdle or a policeman's belt1 and makes the intended honour ridiculous4 ,his opinion was that ,linnus had erred in ignorance1 having been misled by several ,french writers4 ,daniel ,hanbury1 however1 who contested some of ,markham's assertions1 gave good reasons for believing that ,linnus had adopted the term cinchona deliberately for the sake of euphony4 ,anyway he shows that ,mutis1 the disciple of ,linnus1 who sent him the plant from which he wrote his description1 while at first writing of chinchona soon followed the spelling of the master and continued to do so4 ,the name cinchona and derivatives from it are too well established to be dislodged now for a sentimental reason1 even if it were not that the adopted name is undoubtedly easier to pronounce than the more strictly correct one would be4 ,,cultivation ,,of ,,cinchona ,,in ,,the ,,east4 ,many botanists and travellers remarked upon the reckless manner in which the natives of ,peru collected the bark4 ,they felled the trees and stripped them of bark without planting new ones to take the place of those destroyed4 ,humboldt says that #be1jjj trees were thus destroyed in a single year4 ,the first attempt to transport any plants to ,europe was made by ,la ,condamine in #agdc4 ,he had obtained some young plants and was conveying them down the ,amazon ,river to ,cayenne1 intending to transport them to the ,jardin des ,plantes at ,paris4 ,at the mouth of the river a wave swept over his little vessel and washed away his whole collection4 ,joseph de ,jussieu1 who had accompanied ,la ,condamine on his expedition1 and remained in the country after him for fifteen years1 was robbed of his collection at ,buenos ,ayres1 and lost his reason as a consequence of his misfortune4 ,royle in #ahci strongly advocated the introduction of cinchona into ,india1 and suggested the ,nilgiri ,hills as a suitable position for the experiment4 ,his suggestions were taken into consideration by the ,government1 but no immediate steps were taken4 ,the ,dutch ,government first moved in the matter1 sending a botanist named ,hasskarl to ,south ,america in #aheb4 ,their object was to establish cinchona gardens in ,java4 ,all through the fifties they were carrying on their experiments1 but with very slow success4 ,the ,english ,government were meanwhile instructing their ,consuls in ,south ,america to obtain seeds1 but it was not until #ahei that the collection was seriously undertaken for ,india4 ,in that year ,mr4 7now ,sir7 ,clements ,markham was commissioned to go to ,south ,america to collect seeds of the best species4 ,markham has told the full story of his mission in his work on 8,peruvian ,bark10 and has incidentally in that narrative exposed the parsimony of the authorities in their treatment of those associated in the important and profitable enterprise successfully carried through after some years of hard and often perilous labour4 ,his principal coadjutor1 ,dr4 ,spruce1 whose health was utterly ruined by his efforts1 was paid a salary of #cj a month while the work lasted1 and a special grant of #bg for an exhaustive report which he prepared4 ,a pension of #ej a year was given him by the ,british ,government for his botanical services1 and after thirteen years of persistent importunity1 the ,indian ,government granted him another #ej a year4 ,mr4 ,pritchett1 who collected plants and seeds in the forests of ,huanuco1 was paid his salary and nothing more4 ,to ,mr4 ,cross1 who assisted ,dr4 ,spruce in the collection of the red bark1 two grants of #cjj each were made4 ,mr4 ,weir1 8a most conscientious1 active1 and skilful worker1 and1 so far as his own labours were concerned1 completely successful10 crippled and disabled for life1 got nothing from the ,government1 though the ,horticultural ,society collected some funds which yielded #bg a year4 ,the monumental instance of official ingratitude was1 however1 manifested in the case of ,charles ,ledger1 to whom1 more than to any other man1 the world is indebted for cheap quinine1 and out of whose adventurous services the ,dutch nation have made millions in their ,java dependency4 ,between the years #ahda and #aheh ,ledger was travelling in ,south ,america in the employment of the ,new ,south ,wales ,government buying alpacas4 ,he had a faithful servant1 ,manuel ,manami1 who had often told him how jealously the natives1 especially those of ,bolivia1 guarded the knowledge of their best seeds4 ,manami had himself been a cascarillero or bark cutter4 ,on ,ledger's return to ,australia in #aheh he found that ,holland and ,england were eagerly seeking to plant cinchona in their ,eastern possessions4 ,the mission of ,hasskarl had been practically a failure4 ,he had not been able to enter ,bolivia1 and the species he brought to ,java were comparatively valueless4 ,ledger was in ,south ,america when ,markham went there on his official journey4 ,he endeavoured to open communication with the ,british ,government's envoy but failed4 ,he1 however1 pressed his faithful ,manami to secure some of the precious 8rojo0 7,cinchona ,calisaya1 var4 ,ledgeriana7 seeds from ,bolivia4 ,manami fulfilled this service1 somewhat reluctantly1 sent the seeds to his master1 but was himself thrown into prison1 beaten1 and died soon after in consequence of the cruel treatment he underwent4 ,ledger sent the seeds to his brother in ,england authorising him to dispose of them as he best could4 ,they were at first offered to the ,british ,government1 but as ,markham was then in ,india superintending the planting of the seeds he had brought from ,peru1 the offer was not entertained4 ,half of them were sold to a ,ceylon planter1 and the rest were taken1 after some discussion1 by the ,dutch ,government for about #cc1 with a promise of a further payment if the plants flourished4 ,a year later on a report that #bj1jjj plants had been raised from these seeds the ,dutch ,government paid ,ledger a further #ajj and got from him a letter expressing his satisfaction4 ,that was in #ahff4 ,for many years ,ledger was lost sight of1 and it was stated in several books that he was dead4 ,in #ahie1 however1 a letter from him was published in ,the ,chemist and ,druggist1 of ,london1 dated from ,goulburne1 ,n4,s4,w4 ,he wrote simply in reference to a paper which had been printed in that journal referring to the admixture of some white flowers with coca as imported4 ,the addition of the 8inga flowers10 ,mr4 ,ledger explained1 was made by the natives in the belief that they kept the coca leaves fresh and green4 ,later it was found that ,mr4 ,ledger was living in comparative poverty in consequence of the failure of ,australian banks and the slump in land values4 ,efforts were made to induce the ,dutch ,government to make some compensation to the man who had done them such grand service1 but at first a blank refusal was returned4 ,in ,may1 #ahjg1 however1 on his seventy-ninth birthday1 ,mr4 ,ledger received the announcement from ,amsterdam that an annuity of #ajj would be conferred upon him4 ,he lived nine years after this4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,,ledger1 ,,cinchona ,,pioneer4 7,from ,the ,chemist and ,druggist47 ,the ,ledger cinchona had also been introduced into ,india1 and as it was found to be yielding such rich bark ,mr4 ,markham appealed in #ahhj to the ,indian ,government to grant ,mr4 ,ledger at least the sum of #bjj to compensate him for the expenses he had been put to1 which far exceeded what he was paid for the seeds4 8,the reply1 after four months' delay1 was a curt refusal10 wrote ,mr4 ,markham to ,the ,chemist and ,druggist1 in ,april1 #ahie4 ,mr4 ,ledger1 who was born in ,bucklersbury1 ,london1 on ,may #d1 #ahah1 wrote a very pleasant and modest autobiographical sketch of his varied experiences for ,the ,chemist and ,druggist1 which was published in that journal of ,july #bg1 #ahie4 ,,cubebs have had a rather chequered medical history4 ,the ,arab physicians used them apparently for the same medicinal purposes1 that is1 for checking urethral discharges1 as they are generally prescribed for by our own physicians2 but in the middle ages we hear of them as a popular but costly condiment4 ,curious particulars of this use of cubebs are given in 8,pharmacographia40 ,they were an ingredient in the ,p4,l4 formulas for ,mithridate and ,theriaca1 probably as a stimulant4 ,then they seem to have dropped out of use4 ,they were omitted from the ,p4,l4 #ahji4 ,their re-introduction into medical practice is due to an article by ,dr4 ,crawfurd in the ,edinburgh ,medical and ,surgical ,journal1 #ahah1 but it appears that the knowledge of the anti-blennorrhagic properties of cubebs came from an ,english officer in ,java1 whose ,hindoo servant had recommended to him the use of them as a medicine4 ,the employment of cubebs in hoarseness and bronchial complaints was popularised by some ,american ,troches1 a proprietary medicine1 but this use of the medicine was familiar a hundred and fifty years ago4 ,in ,james's ,dispensatory it is stated that cubebs are 8recommended in hoarseness and loss of voice1 especially when the tonsils are stuffed and obstructed40 ,,digitalis4 ,foxglove1 the common and ancient name of this handsome plant1 is believed to be a corruption of a still older name1 ,foxes' glew1 or ,foxes' music1 in allusion to an instrument consisting of a series of bells hanging from one support4 ,the ,norwegian name of the plant is ,rev-bjelda1 fox-bells4 ,a pretty fancy1 but one which is not supported by evidence1 is that the original name was folks' glew1 or fairy bells4 ,in ,scotland the flower is called bloody fingers1 and sometimes dead men's bells2 in ,france1 gants de notre ,dame1 and doigts de la ,vierge4 ,the ,german popular name is finger-hut1 finger hood or thimble1 and the ,latin term1 digitalis1 coined by ,fuchs of ,tubingen about #aeej1 was intended to be the equivalent of that designation4 ,the medical history of the foxglove is somewhat varied4 ,it appears to have been used as an ingredient in external applications by old herbalists1 principally for scrofulous complaints4 ,gerard1 ,parkinson1 and ,salmon1 who wrote in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 extol its virtues and mention also its employment internally for the falling sickness or epilepsy4 ,parkinson quotes an ,italian saying concerning it that it is a salve for all sores4 ,it found a place in the ,london ,pharmacopia of #afej and in several subsequent issues4 ,but foxglove was always a medicine with a popular rather than a professional reputation until ,dr4 ,william ,withering1 of ,birmingham1 published 8,an ,account of the ,foxglove1 and some of its ,medical ,uses10 in #aghe4 ,withering was a scientific pioneer of ,european fame1 an intimate associate of ,priestley1 ,watt1 and ,boulton1 a painstaking botanist in whose honour a genus of the ,solanace was named ,witheringia1 and a mineralogist whose name is similarly commemorated by the name ,witherite1 given to barium carbonate4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,withering1 ,m4,d4 7,from a print in the ,british ,museum47 ,in ,dr4 ,withering's 8,account of the ,fox-glove10 he narrated that ten years previously his opinion had been asked about a family recipe for the cure of dropsy which had long been the secret of an old woman in ,shropshire1 and which he was told had cured cases after regular treatment had failed4 ,the medicine was composed of some twenty different herbs1 but it was not difficult1 he says1 for one conversant with such matters to perceive that foxglove was the active ingredient4 ,dr4 ,withering details his experience as well as that of others with the drug in some hundreds of cases4 ,he noted its action on the heart and as a diuretic4 ,he had also ascertained that it was prescribed in family recipes in ,yorkshire4 ,an article in ,parkinson's 8,herbal10 written he believed by ,mr4 ,saunders1 8an apothecary of great reputation at ,worcester10 declared it to be of great value in consumptive cases4 ,it had been admitted into the ,edinburgh ,pharmacopia #aghc1 but many practitioners were giving it in such dangerous doses that he feared its reputation would not last long4 ,dr4 ,withering died in #agii at the age of fifty-eight4 ,a foxglove is carved on his monument in ,edgbaston ,old ,church4 ,,guaiacum ,came into fame in ,europe in the early years of syphilis4 ,the story told about it 7perhaps it was only a clever advertisement1 though it is related without any question by ,leclerc7 was that a certain ,spaniard named ,gonsalvo ,ferrand having taken the disease and finding no cure for it resolved to go into the countries from which the infection had come1 confident that he would there find the remedy which the natives themselves employed4 ,he went to ,st4 ,domingo1 discovered that the wood there called ,huaiacon was regarded as a specific1 took it himself1 and was cured4 ,this was in #aejh4 ,whatever may be the truth of this history it seems that ,ferrand was subsequently a seller of guaiacum wood 7according to ,freind71 at seven gold crowns per pound 7say #ces471 and accumulated a great fortune4 ,enormous popularity accrued to guaiacum by the book which ,ulrich von ,hutten1 the ,german poet and reformer1 wrote on the 8,morbus ,gallicus0 in #aeai4 ,therein he narrated his own experience2 what he had suffered from this disease2 how he had undergone salivation with mercury eleven times to no purpose2 and how at last he had been cured completely in thirty days by a course of treatment by guaiacum4 ,this early treatment as it was developed in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries deserves to be recorded4 ,first a decoction was made by boiling #a lb4 of the wood raspings in #h or #aj pints of water down to #e or #f pints4 ,after straining this off another weaker decoction was made from the same wood4 ,the syphilitic patient was prepared for his course of treatment by a few days' spare diet1 and by a few aperient doses4 ,then he went to bed in a well-warmed room1 and early every morning took half a pint of the first decoction warm4 ,he was then covered with blankets and allowed to sweat for two or three hours4 ,after being dried he was given a few biscuits with some almonds and raisins4 ,the process was repeated in the latter part of the day1 and so on for fifteen days1 only enough food being given to prevent the patient from fainting4 ,in the middle of the month a day or two's interval was granted1 and during that time the bowels were evacuated by an enema4 ,then the treatment was renewed as before1 but a rather more liberal diet was permitted4 ,all the time the second decoction was taken for drink as freely as the patient could be induced to swallow it4 ,gradually the usual habits of eating and drinking were resumed4 ,it is not surprising to learn that the treatment just described was soon accused of so reducing the strength of many patients that they never recovered from it1 and it was being abandoned when ,boerhaave revived it for a time as a remedy in syphilitic cases4 ,illustration3 ,,preparation ,,of ,,guaiacum ,,remedies ,,and ,,their ,,administration4 7,etching by ,stradanus1 #aegj47 ,reproduced 7by permission7 from 8,the ,follies of ,science at the ,court of ,rudolph ,,ii40 by ,h4 ,carrington ,bolton1 ,pharmaceutical ,review ,publishing ,co41 ,milwaukee1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,ipecacuanha4 ,although several earlier allusions to ipecacuanha have been found1 the first being in an account of ,brazil by a ,portuguese friar given in ,purchas's 8,pilgrimes0 7#afbe71 where the medicine is named ,igpecaya and is described as a remedy for the bloody flux1 its effective introduction to ,european medicine was in the year #afhf1 when ,louis ,,xiv bought from ,jean ,adrien ,helvetius the secret of a medicine with which he had performed a number of remarkable cures of diarrha and dysentery4 ,helvetius1 whose original name was ,schweitzer1 was the son of a ,dutch quack1 and had gone to ,paris to try to sell his father's compounds there4 ,apparently he had also enrolled himself as a student of medicine1 for he is reported to have accompanied a physician of note at the period1 named ,afforty1 in his attendance on a merchant variously called ,grenier and ,garnier4 ,the merchant1 having recovered from his illness1 wished to present to ,afforty a parcel of a new drug which he had received from ,brazil4 ,afforty was not tempted by the offer1 but his companion was more open to be influenced by something new4 ,he experimented with the medicine and found it of remarkable efficacy in dysentery4 ,thereupon he placarded the corners of the streets with his announcements of a new remedy but without stating what the drug was4 ,colbert1 having heard of the success of ,helvetius1 mentioned the remedy to ,louis ,,xiv when the dauphin was ill with dysentery1 and the young ,dutch quack was sent for4 ,with the consent of the court physician1 ,d',aquin1 ,helvetius treated the ,dauphin and cured him4 ,as a result the king authorised ,d',aquin and his confessor1 the ,pre de la ,chaise1 to negotiate with ,helvetius for the publication of his secret1 which he sold for a thousand louis d'or1 for a share in which the merchant ,garnier unsuccessfully sued4 ,this was the beginning of a successful career which was continued by his son and his grandson4 ,the last became ,france's fashionable poet and philosopher in the generation before the ,revolution4 ,the discoverer of ipecacuanha was appointed ,inspector ,general of the ,hospitals of ,flanders1 and became physician to the ,duke of ,orleans4 ,it appears from a treatise which ,helvetius wrote that at first ipecacuanha was given in doses of two drachms1 sometimes in decoctions and sometimes in enemas4 ,hans ,sloane in ,england and ,leibnitz in ,germany wrote warmly in favour of the new remedy1 but it was not till thirty years after it had been introduced that the dose was popularly reduced to some four to ten grains4 ,dover's lucky combination of ipecacuanha with opium had a great effect in ensuring its permanent adoption4 ,,kousso4 ,although ,bruce1 the ,african traveller and others had described the tree which bears the kousso flowers in ,abyssinia 7,hagena ,abyssinica7 and had noted that the natives used these as worm medicine1 the first knowledge of them actually made use of came through a ,french physician named ,brayer residing in ,constantinople about the year #ahbj4 ,brayer was one day in a caf where was a waiter extremely emaciated and who suffered cruel pains from tapeworm4 ,an old ,armenian came into the caf and told this waiter that he possessed a remedy which his son had brought from ,abyssinia1 and which he was sure would cure him4 ,brayer ascertained the successful result of the experiment and subsequently tested the remedy himself on other patients with similar results4 ,he sent some of the flowers to the ,german botanist ,kunth1 to whom they were new1 and who named the tree ,brayera anthelmintica4 ,still it does not appear that much notice was taken of the reports until about the year #ahej1 when a ,frenchman offered the flowers in ,london for #ces4 per ounce4 ,the fancy price attracted attention to the remedy1 which proved effectual4 ,,opium4 ,the ancients recognised two kinds of opium4 ,the superior kind was called opion1 and was the juice which exuded from the poppy head while it was growing2 and the second quality1 which was named meconion1 was an extract made from the crushed heads and leaves of the poppy4 ,it is doubtful whether ,hippocrates was acquainted with the juice of the poppy at all4 ,he refers to mecon but he attributes to it a purgative as well as a narcotic power2 it is therefore probable that he alludes to some other plant4 ,in any case1 he made but very little use of poppy or opium if he used either4 ,theophrastus certainly knew opium1 and ,dioscorides distinguishes opion and meconion as explained above4 ,dioscorides also gives the receipt for the famous ,dia-kodion 7made from the poppy head71 the original of our syrup of poppies4 ,his process was to macerate #abj poppy heads for two days in three sextarii 7a sextarius was nearly equal to our ,imperial pint7 of rain-water4 ,this was boiled1 strained1 mixed with honey1 and boiled down to a suitable consistence4 ,probably the shopkeepers and travelling quacks made more use of opium in ,rome than the regular physicians4 ,galen expressly says that he never used the drug except in very urgent cases2 but he enthusiastically commends several confections such as theriaca which owed their efficiency to opium more than to any other ingredient4 ,indeed it may be said that the fame of those compounds was due to opium1 and that by them the medicinal employment of the drug was maintained during many centuries4 ,we know that ,paracelsus owed much of his success to the bold way in which he administered opium to his patients2 evidence that his contemporaries did not use it to any great extent4 ,his followers were as enthusiastic as himself over the virtues of opium1 and before long the most serious practitioners were advocating it1 and devising formulas for its suitable administration4 ,platerus of ,basle about #afjj strongly recommended it1 and ,sylvius 7de la ,boe7 a ,dutch physician said that without opium he would not practise4 ,van ,helmont about #afdj used opium so frequently that he was called the ,doctor ,opiatus4 ,sydenham about #afhj says1 8,among the remedies which it has pleased ,almighty ,god to give to man to relieve his sufferings1 none is so universal and so efficacious as opium40 ,many other eminent physicians might be cited to the same effect1 and some who took an opposite view4 ,stahl1 for instance1 wrote a treatise entitled ,de ,imposturis ,opii4 ,hoffmann considered that the use of opium was greatly abused1 and he believed his ether would fulfil its purpose in almost all cases4 ,,quassia was sent to ,linnus from ,surinam in #agfc by ,c4 ,d4 ,dallberg1 one of his pupils1 with the statement that it formed the basis of a secret remedy employed there by a negro slave in endemic malignant fevers4 ,the negro's name was reported as ,quassi1 and from this ,linnus invented the name of quassia4 ,this bitter wood was obtained from a shrub growing in ,dutch ,guiana1 but for the ,english market it was subsequently superseded by the wood of a large tree growing in ,jamaica1 belonging to the same genus4 ,the earlier product is1 however1 still used in ,france and ,germany4 ,ritman1 who was in ,surinam in #agef1 said he had met with the old negro1 ,quassi1 there1 and reported that he was almost worshipped by some1 while others suspected him of magic4 ,ritman1 however1 found him a simple old man skilled in old women's medicines4 ,,sarsaparilla4 ,sarsaparilla was introduced to ,europe early in the sixteenth century1 and soon leaped into fame4 ,the great ,emperor ,charles ,v1 was cured of gout by it1 or fancied he was1 and this gave it an enormous advertisement4 ,it appeared afterwards that it was really ,china root1 another smilax1 that was given to the ,emperor1 but it was called sarsaparilla1 and the western medicine got the glory4 ,sarsaparilla was vaunted as a cure for syphilis1 but physicians were not long in discovering that it was much more effectual whenever it was combined with mercurials4 ,its advocates insisted that it was a wonderful sudorific1 and for many years a 8sweating cure0 was practised in ,denmark and ,sweden with apparent success4 ,as a matter of fact sarsaparilla has no sudorific properties whatever2 but it was given in long draughts1 other more effective medicines were associated with it1 and vigorous exercise and heavy blankets were adjuncts of the cure4 ,it is not surprising that a sudorific result ensued4 ,other confusions have distinguished the history of this so-called remedy4 ,the species which ,linnus selected as the medicinal sarsaparilla and which he named ,smilax sarsaparilla1 happens to be about the only one of some two hundred species which has never been employed in medicine at all4 ,it is only found in ,north ,america and not further south than ,virginia4 ,jamaica sarsaparilla has the reputation of being the best1 and that comes from ,central ,america4 ,the sarsaparilla which actually grows in ,jamaica is not valued in ,european markets4 ,the origin of the name of sarsaparilla is not agreed upon4 ,some authorities attribute it to sarsa--red1 and parilla--a little vine4 ,littr derives it from zarza--a bramble1 and ,parilla--a hypothetical ,spaniard who helped to introduce it4 ,the native ,indians call it salsa1 and the ,french follow this origin and call it salsepareille4 ,,stramonium may have been known to the ancients as a poison4 ,dioscorides included it among the henbanes1 and ,avicenna is supposed to have described it under the name of the ,methel nut4 ,some species of ,datura were frequently used in ,eastern countries by thieves and sorcerers to induce delirium and subsequent coma1 and the herb had the worst of reputations when ,strck1 of ,vienna1 experimented with it first on himself about #agfe4 ,in consequence of its action on the brain he gave it in cases of mania and epilepsy1 and he and some practitioners who followed him claimed to have administered it in such diseases with much success4 ,its action as an asthma remedy was1 however1 a popular ,indian tradition which was made known to ,europeans through a ,general ,gent about #ahjb4 ,it had been recommended to him by a native1 and he found so much relief from it that he introduced it to ,dr4 ,anderson who was practising at ,madras4 ,it was stated that ,general ,gent used it so freely and so frequently that it caused his death4 ,,xx ,,familiar ,,medicines ,,and ,,some ,,notes ,,of ,,their ,,histories4 ,morbi1 non eloquentia sed remediis1 curantur4 ,,celsus3 ,de ,re ,medica4 ,,black ,,draught4 ,laxative or cathartic potions have been prescribed in all modern pharmacopias1 most of them being preparations of senna4 ,the original one was devised by ,mannagetta1 an ,italian physician at the court of the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii1 about #afjj4 ,his prescription became popular under the title of ,aqua1 or ,potio ,laxativa ,viennensis1 and was popularly known all over ,germany as 8,wiener ,trank40 ,the formula was #a oz4 of senna1 #f drachms of currants1 #b drachms of coriander seeds1 and #b drachms of cream of tartar4 ,these ingredients were packed in a bag and suspended in hot water for a night4 ,in the morning the liquor was strained after the bag had been pressed1 and #e oz4 of manna and #c drachms of cream of tartar added4 ,the dose was #c to #d oz4 ,in the ,london ,pharmacopia the alkaline salt of tartar was at first prescribed with the senna1 but later the acid tartrate of potash was preferred4 ,in the ,edinburgh ,pharmacopias of the eighteenth century a formula for 8,infusi ,senn ,unci ,quatuor0 was included1 while the ,london ,pharmacopias of the same period provided an alkaline infusion1 and an 8,infusum ,senn ,limoniatum10 containing lemon peel and lemon juice with the object of making the draught less nauseous4 ,the modern combination of sulphate of magnesia with an infusion or tincture of senna1 and sometimes with manna1 sometimes with ammonia1 and always with some aromatic ingredient1 began to be used about the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,the earliest mention of the term 8black draught0 that ,i have met with is in ,paris's 8,pharmacologia10 #ahbd4 ,it was dropped out from later editions4 ,the mixture was called 8black dose0 in ,brande's 8,materia ,medica and ,pharmacy10 #ahci4 ,the phrases 8black draught0 and 8blue pills0 were not given as synonyms in the ,pharmacopia until #ahhe4 ,they are essentially ,english4 ,dorvault gives a formula 7practically the ,mist4 ,senn ,co47 entitled 8,potion ,noire ,anglaise10 and ,hager has 8,pilul ,hydrargyros seu pilul cerule ,anglorum40 ,,blaud',s ,,pills4 ,these pills are probably taken in larger numbers than any other pills sold in ,great ,britain4 ,if in proper condition they present iron in the form of the protocarbonate1 either formed in the pills1 or perhaps partially or entirely in the stomach4 ,they are similar to ,griffiths' pills1 which were the popular ,mist4 ,ferri ,co4 in pilular form4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,blaud1 a ,french provincial practitioner1 in an article published in the ,revue ,medicale1 in #ahca1 entitled 8,memoires sur les ,maladies ,chlorotiques10 gave the following formula3-- 8,gummi ,arabici1 #e grammes2 solve calore baln4 vapor in aqu distillat1 #cje2 syrupi simplicis #ae grammes2 ferri sulfuric4 sicci1 #cj2 quibus caute mixtis adde kalii carbonici1 #cj2 et inter agitatione ope spatula ferre in balneo vaporis evaporando ad massam pilularum redige2 e qua forma pilulas #abj2 obducantur argento foliato40 ,there has been much discussion concerning the best method of making these pills so as to keep them from oxidation4 ,honey was for a long time generally used as the excipient1 but glycerin and sugar are generally preferred with gum acacia or tragacanth4 ,pilula ,ferri1 ,b4,p41 is a substitute for ,blaud's pills4 ,,the ,,chelsea ,,pensioner4 ,an electuary for rheumatism bearing this title was evidently popular under the above name in the early part of the nineteenth century1 but ,i have not been able to discover where or when or with whom it originated4 ,the compilers of books of formulas naturally copy from each other1 and consequently a legend once started is likely to become crystallised4 ,in ,the ,chemist and ,druggist1 of ,june #acth1 #bjth1 and #bgth1 #ahif1 an attempt was made to track this medicine to its origin1 and a number of old formulas were sent in by correspondents4 ,the statement is made in many books that the compound acquired its name from the circumstance that the recipe for it was given by a ,chelsea ,pensioner to ,lord ,amherst for gout and proved so successful that ,lord ,amherst gave him #cjj and an annuity of #bj4 ,sometimes this story associated ,lord ,anson with the pensioner and the amounts given in gratitude varied from #cjj to #ejj guineas1 with an annuity sometimes of #bj1 sometimes of #cj1 and occasionally of #ajj4 ,the then living descendants of ,lords ,amherst and ,anson were written to by ,the ,chemist and ,druggist1 but neither could give any information4 ,it rather looks as if the fiction were concocted as an advertisement in the days when the electuary was a proprietary medicine1 if it ever was4 ,the earliest formula traced in the correspondence referred to was given in ,gray's ,supplement1 #ahba4 ,this ran3--,pulv4 gum4 guaiaci1 i2 pulv4 rhei1 ij2 pulv4 pot4 bitart41 #a oz42 flor4 sulph41 #b oz42 one nutmeg1 and #a lb4 of honey4 ,of this1 the dose was two tablespoonfuls night and morning4 ,sometimes pulv4 pot4 nit4 is substituted for pulv4 pot4 bit42 probably a mistake of a copyist4 ,in other formulas mustard appears instead of nutmeg2 perhaps a similar slip for myristica4 ,treacle occasionally takes the place of honey1 and the proportions of the ingredients vary considerably4 ,the ,secretary of the ,chelsea ,hospital was good enough to take some trouble in reply to my inquiry to endeavour to trace this compound1 but only negative results were attained4 ,dr4 ,thomas ,ligertwood1 the oldest living medical officer of the ,royal ,hospital1 was appealed to1 but he only knew of the remedy as 8a very useful combination10 and had never heard the story of ,lord ,amherst's purchase of the secret4 ,he thought some information might be found in a work on the 8,diseases and ,infirmities of ,old ,age0 by ,dr4 ,daniel ,maclachlan1 a former ,principal ,medical ,officer of ,chelsea ,hospital4 ,that work 7dated #ahfc7 contains two allusions to the ,chelsea ,pensioner1 but nothing about its history4 ,writing of ,chronic ,rheumatism the author says3--8 444 ,the more stimulating diaphoretics and diuretics prove serviceable4 ,among these the preparations of guaiacum deserve the confidence they have long enjoyed4 ,the virtue of the powder 7sic7 known as the ,chelsea ,pensioner is chiefly due to the guaiacum and sulphur it contains40 ,in the section on gout he writes3--8,the once famous ,portland ,powder has for long been abandoned1 as has also the almost equally noted ,chelsea ,pensioner gout powder4 ,one formula for the latter consisted of rhubarb1 sulphur1 nitre1 and gum guaiacum1 in equal parts4 ,fifteen or twenty grains of the powder were taken morning and evening in treacle4 ,another was powdered bark1 ginger1 guaiacum1 aa i1 cream of tartar #a oz41 flowers of sulphur oz41 to be made into an electuary with simple syrup4 ,one teaspoonful to be taken three times a day4 ,this is certainly not a bad combination though a nauseous one40 ,the following formula is given in the 8,pharmacopia ,batava recusa cum notis et additamentis ,medico-,pharmaceuticis10 published by ,j4 ,f4 ,niemann1 in #ahbd3--,resin of guaiacum1 rhubarb1 aa ij2 supertartrate of potash1 #a oz42 sublimed sulphur1 #b oz42 one nutmeg2 despumated honey1 #a lb4 ,it is evident that this 8,anti-,rheumatismal ,electuary10 as ,niemann calls it1 and the ,chelsea ,pensioner had a common origin1 and as the formula is not to be found in ,niemann's previous edition1 #ahaa1 it would appear to have come into popularity between that date and #ahbd4 ,so far it remains doubtful whether its composition is due to an ,english or a ,dutch author4 ,,citrine ,,ointment4 ,an ointment thus named appeared first in the ,p4 ,l4 #afej4 ,it was a compound of coral1 limpet shells1 quartz1 white marble1 white lead1 and tragacanth incorporated into a basis of hogs' lard1 suet1 and hens' grease4 ,it was reputed useful for certain skin complaints1 freckles1 etc4 ,in the ,p4,l4 #afgh some of the old ingredients were omitted1 sugar of lead was substituted for the white lead and rose water1 and frankincense and citron bark were added4 ,nitrate of mercury ointment appeared first in the ,edinburgh ,pharmacopia of #agbb4 ,it was made by dissolving mercury in a sufficient quantity of nitric acid1 and adding the solution to melted lard gradually4 ,this was not a satisfactory formula1 and it was not until #aghg that anything similar was introduced into the ,p4,l41 when #a oz4 of mercury1 #b oz4 of nitrous acid1 and #a lb4 of lard were combined4 ,this was intended1 according to ,christison1 as an imitation of the well-known golden eye salve1 which1 however1 was1 as we know it1 an ointment of the red oxide of mercury4 ,other authorities1 ,paris ,dorvault1 ,gray1 etc41 have stated that ,singleton's golden eye ointment was an ointment of sulphuret of arsenic1 orpiment some say1 realgar others4 ,pliny refers to the use of sandrach 7probably realgar7 as an application in ophthalmic affections4 ,apparently the originator of the ,p4,l4 nitrate of mercury ointment was a ,dr4 ,thomas ,nettleton of ,halifax1 ,yorkshire4 ,in a pamphlet entitled 8,on a ,safe and ,efficacious ,medicine in ,sore ,eyes and ,eyelids10 by ,thomas ,dawson1 ,m4,d41 of ,hackney1 printed in #aghb1 the writer relates that he had heard of a yellow ointment specially good for sore eyes1 which fifty years previously had been in the possession of ,dr4 ,thomas ,nettleton of ,halifax1 8whose merit as a man and a physician exceeds all encomium40 ,one day one of ,dr4 ,dawson's patients told him of a yellow ointment she had had from a ,dr4 ,key1 of ,manchester1 who had been a pupil of ,dr4 ,nettleton's4 ,dr4 ,dawson wrote to ,dr4 ,key1 who at once sent him the recipe1 which was as follows3-- ,take #a oz4 each of aqua fortis and mercury2 dissolve and add the solution to #h oz4 of butter melted4 ,to this add #b drachms of camphor dissolved in #b oz4 of olive oil4 ,about the end of the eighteenth century1 a citrine ointment1 made with an ounce of mercury dissolved in nitric acid and incorporated with a pound of lard1 was introduced into the ,hotel ,dieu ,hospital of ,paris1 and used to cure itch4 ,the formula was adopted in the ,dublin ,pharmacopia1 #ahjg4 ,,cold ,,cream4 ,the ,unguentum ,refrigerans1 also called 8,ceratum10 appeared in the first ,p4,l41 the formula being attributed to ,galen4 ,four ounces of white wax were melted in #a lb4 of rose oil 7ol4 rosarum omphacinum1 that is1 olive oil in which rose buds #d oz4 to the lb4 had been macerated1 the maceration being carried out three times1 each time with a fresh lot of roses74 ,the melted oil and wax were to be poured frequently from one vessel to another1 stirring in a little cold water meanwhile1 until the mixture became white4 ,lastly1 it was to be washed with rose water1 and a little rose water and rose vinegar were to be added4 ,,diachylon ,,plaster4 ,the original formula for this plaster was compiled by ,tiberius ,claudius ,menecrates1 who lived in the reign of the ,emperor ,tiberius1 and was probably his physician4 ,in a ,greek inscription discovered at ,rome he is described as ,physician of the ,csars1 probably ,tiberius1 ,caligula1 and ,claudius1 for he died in the reign of the last named4 ,he wrote a great work on remedies entitled 8,autocrator ,hologrammatos10 literally1 8,the ,emperor1 whose words are written in full40 ,probably the book was dedicated to one of the ,emperors1 and thus got its first title4 ,the second intimates that the recipes are written out in full so that any reader could understand them2 suggesting that the other physicians who wrote such books were in the habit of employing abbreviations4 ,the formula for diachylon and the directions for compounding it were put into iambic verses by ,servilius ,damocrates1 who lived a little later than ,menecrates1 and it is in this form that they have been preserved by ,galen4 ,briefly the composition was to incorporate #a lb4 each of the mucilages of fnugreek1 of linseed1 and of marshmallow root with #c lb4 of old oil1 and #a lb4 of golden litharge4 ,the mucilages were made by boiling the seeds and root in water4 ,damocrates concludes his poem with the line 7,i quote from the ,latin translation73 8,vocabat ipsum non absurde ,dia ,chylon40 ,mesu wrote at length about this plaster1 and devised a much more complicated formula which was named ,diachylum ,magnum4 ,it contained1 besides the mucilages already named1 others made from raisins and figs1 juices of orris1 squill1 and dill1 sypus 7sheep wool fat71 turpentine1 rosin1 and wax4 ,subsequent authors also devoted their talents to the further improvement of this famous preparation4 ,diachylon meant a preparation of juices1 and this plaster received the name of plaster of the mucilages in many pharmacopias4 ,in #agdf the ,london ,college1 having dismissed the adjuncts1 altered the name of the simple plaster to ,emplastrum ,commune1 but the old term has refused to die4 ,an ,emplastrum ,commune cum ,gummi was also prescribed4 ,this contained galbanum1 thus1 and turpentine combined with the ,emplastrum ,commune4 ,the ,menecrates to whom we owe ,diachylon is alleged to have written #aee works1 and ,galen gives a number of his formulas1 but no other than ,diachylon has survived4 ,he must not be confounded with the perhaps more celebrated ,menecrates who was physician to ,philip of ,macedon4 ,this one was particularly noted for his vanity1 which amused the king4 ,once he wrote a letter to ,philip commencing 8,menecrates-,jupiter to ,king ,philip1 greeting40 ,the king replied1 heading his letter1 8,philip to ,menecrates1 ,health and ,common ,sense40 ,menecrates got himself up to look like ,jupiter1 and had attendants who were made to figure as ,apollo1 sculapius1 and ,mercury4 ,philip gave a banquet in his honour4 ,a separate table was reserved for him1 and instead of viands only incense was served to him1 while the other guests were gloriously feasted4 ,menecrates was offended at the joke and left the table in anger4 ,he is credited with having written a ,book of ,remedies1 but it has been lost4 ,,dover',s ,,powder4 ,thomas ,dover1 to whom we owe 8,dover's ,powder10 practised as a doctor in ,london in the first half of the eighteenth century4 ,he was born and buried at ,barton on the ,heath in ,warwickshire in #affj4 ,how he got his medical training is not on record1 but some time in his youth he lived in the house of ,thomas ,sydenham1 the famous physician1 from whom probably he acquired his independent ideas of medical treatment1 and possibly the germ of his lack of reverence for the ,college of ,physicians4 ,while living with ,sydenham he had small-pox1 and forty or fifty years later he described how the doctor treated him4 ,first he was bled to the extent of #bb oz42 then he took an emetic4 ,he only took to his bed when he became blind with the disease4 ,in his bedroom he had no fire1 the windows were always kept open1 and the bedclothes were only allowed up to his waist4 ,this was in the middle of ,january4 ,for medicine1 ,dover says1 8he made me take twelve bottles of small beer acidulated with spirit of vitriol every twenty-four hours10 and he concludes1 8,i never lost my senses one moment40 ,having resisted both the disease and the treatment1 ,dover is first heard of in practice in ,bristol in #afhd4 ,he plodded along there until #agjh1 when at the age of forty-eight he set out with a privateering party on a voyage round the world4 ,the expedition consisted of two ships1 the ,duke and the ,duchess4 ,captain ,woodes-,rogers1 who has left an account of the voyage1 was in chief command1 and ,dover on the ,duke was his lieutenant4 ,he must have had previous experience of seafaring life or he would never have been entrusted with the command of a vessel4 ,the buccaneers were away from ,england three years1 and when they returned they brought with them a ,spanish frigate of twenty-one guns1 and a quantity of loot4 ,one event of their voyage proved to be of world-famous importance4 ,on ,february #b1 #agji1 ,dover1 on the ,duke1 touched at the island of ,juan ,fernandez and took on board ,alexander ,selkirk who had lived alone on the island four years and four months1 and whose story was to develop in the skilful hands of ,defoe into that of the immortal ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,a few months after leaving ,juan ,fernandez the expedition arrived at ,guayaquil in ,peru4 ,having duly sacked the city and stored their plunder in the ships1 the sailors slept in the churches1 and ,dover quaintly relates how annoyed they were by the smell of the ,spanish corpses2 for plague was raging in the place at the time1 and the victims were buried just under the floors with only a plank or two over them4 ,two days later1 at sea1 the disease broke out among the crews4 ,they had #ahj cases all at the same time1 and ,dover had four surgeons with him4 ,he ordered them to go round and start bleeding all the patients1 and to stop the bleeding when the round had been completely made4 ,about #ajj oz4 of blood1 he says1 was taken from each man4 ,then he gave them spirit of vitriol1 and only seven or eight died4 ,the next we know of ,dover is that from #agba to #agbh he was in practice in ,cecil ,street1 ,strand2 he returned to ,gloucestershire for a few years1 then came back to ,london and practised in ,lombard ,street1 removing in #agcf to ,arundel ,street1 ,strand4 ,he is supposed to have died about #agdb4 ,it was in these latter years that he wrote his 8,ancient ,physician's ,legacy to his ,country40 ,he describes himself on the title-page as ,thomas ,dover1 ,m4,b41 and his book as 8,being what he has collected in forty-nine years' ,practice1 or an account of the several diseases incident to mankind1 described in so plain a manner that any person may know the nature of his own disease4 ,together with the several remedies for each distemper faithfully set down40 ,in this work ,dover relates a number of wonderful cures he had effected1 gives names and addresses of many of his patients1 often adding grateful letters from them4 ,he had but limited confidence in the 8clan of prejudiced gentlemen10 as he calls the ,college of ,physicians1 and he complains vigorously of the extortions of the ,apothecaries4 ,metallic quicksilver was his panacea1 and he prescribed it so lavishly that he acquired the title of 8the quicksilver doctor40 ,it forms balsam with the blood1 he says4 ,that is why it cures venereal diseases4 ,other doctors gave it1 but in disguise1 in the form of ,ethiops ,mineral generally2 which was like using the sword in the scabbard4 ,his formula for 8,diaphoretic ,powder0 is given in a chapter on gout4 ,it was as follows3-- 8,take opium #a oz42 saltpetre and tartar vitriolated1 each #d oz42 liquorish #a oz42 ipecacuanha1 #a oz4 ,put the saltpetre and tartar into a red-hot mortar1 stirring till they have done flaming4 ,then powder them very fine4 ,after that slice in your opium2 grind these to a powder1 and then mix the other powders with them4 ,dose1 from #dj to #fj or #gj grains in a glass of white wine posset going to bed1 covering up warm1 and drinking a quart or three pints of the posset while sweating4 ,in two or three hours at furthest the patient will be free from pain1 and though before not able to put his foot to the ground1 'tis very much if he cannot walk next day4 ,the remedy may be taken once a week or once a month40 ,the dose appears to us in these degenerate days a large one1 and ,dover states that 8some apothecaries have desired their patients to make their wills before they venture upon so large a dose40 ,but he declares he has given up to #ajj grains1 and the patient has appeared abroad the next day4 ,the notion of danger1 he adds1 proceeds entirely from their ignorance1 and from the want of knowing those ingredients that are mixed up with it1 for they naturally weaken the power of the opium4 ,dover's powder first appeared in the ,london ,pharmacopia for #aghh4 ,probably it was adopted after the quack ,ward had made it famous as a 8sweating powder40 ,ward died in #agfa and the formul for his remedies were published soon after his death4 ,,unguentum ,,elemi4 ,ointment of elemi was in all the ,london ,pharmacopias1 and was only dropped from the ,b4,p4 #ahih4 ,in the earlier issues it was called 8unguentum or linimentum ,arci10 because it had been introduced and recommended by ,arcus of ,amsterdam in #aegd1 for healing wounds4 ,a similar ointment was called 8,balsamum ,arci0 in the ,prussian ,pharmacopia of #ahdg4 ,the inventor's formula was to melt together six parts each of gum elemi and turpentine1 and add six parts of melted stag's suet1 and two parts of oil of ,st4 ,john's wort4 ,arcus was a ,spaniard by birth1 and an eminent authority on the treatment of wounds4 ,,fowler',s ,,solution ,,of ,,arsenic4 ,thomas ,fowler kept an apothecary's shop in ,york from #agfj to #aggd4 ,in the latter year he relinquished trade1 and went to ,edinburgh to study medicine4 ,graduating as ,m4,d4 in #aggh1 he settled at ,stafford1 and was appointed physician to the ,infirmary of that town4 ,later1 he returned to ,york1 where he acquired a large practice1 and where he died in #ahja4 ,it was in #aghf1 during his residence at ,stafford1 that ,dr4 ,fowler published his treatise1 entitled 8,medical ,reports of the ,effects of ,arsenic in the ,cure of ,agues1 ,remitting ,fevers1 and ,periodic ,headaches40 ,it was only a small work1 but it made ,fowler's reputation1 and introduced arsenic into the list of recognised remedies4 ,the doctor stated that a certain ,patent ,ague ,drops known as ,tasteless ,ague and ,fever ,drops1 which had acquired some reputation in this country1 had been occasionally tried in the ,stafford ,infirmary1 and had been found efficacious4 ,with the assistance of the apothecary to the ,infirmary1 a ,mr4 ,hughes 78whose industry1 attention1 and abilities in his professional line justly merit applause07 he had ascertained that these drops were a preparation of arsenic1 and he goes on to detail the experiments which led him and ,mr4 ,hughes to devise the following formula as representative of the patent medicine3-- 8,recipe arsenici albi in pulverem subtilissimum triti4 8,salis alkalini fixi vegetabilis purificati1 singulorum grana sexaginta quatuor4 8,aqu fontan destillat1 libram dimidiam4 8,immitantur in ,ampullam florentinam qua in ,balneo ,aren posita1 ,aqua lente ebulliat donec ,arsenicum perfecte ,solutum fierit4 ,deinde ,solutioni frigid adde4 8,spiritus ,lavendul compositum1 unciam dimidiam4 8,aqu fontan destillat1 libram dimidiam1 plus vel minus1 adeo ut solutionis mensura libra una accurata fiat1 vel potius ,pondere unci quindecim cum dimidia40 ,fowler reminds his readers that of course troy weights are intended1 and he explains that the spirit of lavender is added merely to give the mixture a medicinal appearance1 lest patients entrusted to drop it for themselves might be tempted to use a water-white solution too freely4 ,he also suggests that as arsenic conveys rather alarming ideas1 this medicine should be described as 8mineral solution40 ,it is universally recognised that ,fowler introduced the modern medicinal employment of arsenic1 but it should in fairness be remembered that he was guided to his discovery by a quack remedy1 as lie himself fully acknowledged4 ,the ,liquor ,arsenici ,chloridi1 ,p4,l41 was adopted from a formula of ,dr4 ,f4 de ,valangin1 a ,swiss doctor who qualified in ,england in #agfe4 ,he made a quantity and presented it to the ,apothecaries' ,hall1 where it was sold for some time under the name of ,solvent ,mineral4 ,,friar',s ,,balsam4 ,tinct4 ,benzoin ,co41 was a copy of ,ward's ,balsam1 which itself was only the adaptation of compounds which had been for a long time sold under the names of ,friar's ,balsam1 ,commander's ,balsam1 ,jesuit's ,drops1 ,turlington's ,drops1 and ,traumatic ,balsam4 ,it was under the last name that it first appeared in the ,p4,l4 of #agdf4 ,this was only the ,latinised name of ,wound ,balsam1 another old designation of a similar preparation4 ,it is not known how the still popular name for this preparation1 ,friar's ,balsam1 originated4 ,it is included in the ,schedule to the ,medicine ,stamp ,act of #ahab1 suggesting that at that time it was regarded as a proprietary medicine4 ,a correspondent of ,the ,chemist and ,druggist 7,p4 ,f4 ,r41 ,april #ae1 #ahhe7 quoted from the ,western ,antiquary1 #ahhd1 page #acf1 the curious item that a ,portuguese merchant named ,peter de ,frias obtained from the ,viceroy of ,peru1 about the year #aeha1 the fruit of a balm or balsam4 ,it is not an impossible suggestion that ,peter de ,frias may have been the originator of our ,friar's ,balsam4 ,the substitution of benzoin for the balsam of ,peru1 which was probably the basis of his 8wound balsam10 is easily accounted for4 ,perhaps a more likely explanation of the introduction of ,friar's ,balsam into the ,medicine ,stamp ,act is that there was a patent medicine 8called the ,frier's ,drops10 patented by ,robert ,grubb on ,june #ac1 #aggg4 ,it was intended for the cure of the venereal disease1 scurvy1 rheumatism1 and other complaints4 ,it contained calomel1 antimony1 guaiacum1 and balsam of ,peru in spirit4 ,the ,baume de ,commandeur1 which was also called ,baume du ,commandeur de ,permes1 and ,baume du ,chevalier de ,saint ,victor1 seems to have been the original of these benzoinated tinctures1 and acquired considerable reputation in ,france4 ,it was evidently at first a proprietary preparation1 but ,pomet in #afid gave a formula for an imitation of it1 with the remark that it would cure in eight days any wound by iron or fire1 if it were not a mortal one4 ,his formula prescribes benzoin1 #c oz42 dry ,peruvian balsam1 #a oz42 storax1 #b oz42 ,socotrine aloes1 myrrh1 olibanum1 angelica root1 and ,st4 ,john's wort flowers1 of each oz4 digested in #b lb4 of spirit1 and strained4 ,the ,traumatic ,balsam introduced into the ,p4,l4 substituted ,balsam of ,tolu for the ,balsam of ,peru1 and omitted the myrrh1 olibanum1 angelica1 and ,st4 ,john's wort4 ,this was almost identical with the ,tinct4 ,benzoin ,co4 of the present ,b4,p4 ,the simple tincture of benzoin was already popular in this country when the ,traumatic ,balsam was introduced4 ,it was taken in doses of #bj to #fj drops in asthma1 but its more usual employment was as ,lac ,virginis 7#a drachm of the tincture in #d ounces of water7 as an application for the skin4 ,,gregory',s ,,powder4 ,the original of the ,pulv4 ,rhei ,co4 of the ,british ,pharmacopia was a prescription very frequently given by ,dr4 ,james ,gregory1 of ,edinburgh1 in his time the most famous physician of that city4 ,he died in #ahbb4 ,this ,dr4 ,gregory was ,professor of ,medicine in ,edinburgh ,university1 as his father was before him4 ,his son became ,professor of ,chemistry in the same university4 ,direct ancestors of these ,gregorys had been professors of history1 astronomy1 and mathematics at ,edinburgh1 ,oxford1 and ,st4 ,andrews4 ,within a century and a half the family furnished sixteen professors to ,british universities1 and it is a curious coincidence that the ,church of ,rome likewise counts sixteen ,gregorys among its ,popes4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,james ,,gregory4 ,professor of ,medicine in ,edinburgh ,university1 #agij-ahba4 ,author of ,conspectus ,medicin ,theoretic and inventor of ,gregory's ,powder4 7,from a mezzotint1 8after ,raeburn10 in the ,british ,museum47 ,it does not appear that the ,gregory of powder fame ever published any special recommendation of his compound4 ,he wrote a 8,conspectus ,medicin ,theoretic0 7#aghh7 but the formula for his powder does not appear in that book4 ,annexed is a facsimile of one of ,dr4 ,gregory's prescriptions for his powder4 ,he gave this prescription very frequently1 but occasionally varied the proportion of the ingredients4 ,illustration3 ,,facsimile ,,of ,,dr4 ,,gregory',s ,,prescription4 ,,hiera ,,picra4 ,a medicine with this familiar name can be bought in any chemist's shop in ,europe or ,america to-day1 just as it could in ,damascus a thousand1 or in ,rome and ,alexandria two thousand years ago4 ,probably it is the oldest pharmaceutical compound still in existence4 ,through all the centuries the hiera picra known to the public has been a preparation of aloes4 ,the adjuncts have varied but aloes has always been the essential ingredient1 with one celebrated exception4 ,the origin of this medicine is variously stated by medical historians4 ,the common theory is that it first acquired fame as a remedy employed in one or other of the sculapian ,temples4 ,this may have been the case1 but there is no evidence in support of the suggestion4 ,it is possible that the name may have suggested the notion1 and the drug vendors of ,rome would certainly not discourage the fancy4 ,before the time of ,julius ,csar there were no physicians in ,rome4 ,greek practitioners of the minor arts of medicine1 such as bath-keepers1 corn-cutters1 tooth-drawers1 and herbalists crowded into the great city as it became rich1 and opened shops which were known as 8medicinas10 and it is likely that most of these brought with them a more or less famous 8hiera10 claiming that it had been compounded from a genuine ,temple formula4 ,leclerc1 an excellent authority on all matters concerning ancient medicine1 attributes the first ,hiera to ,themison of ,laodicea1 who practised in ,rome about #ej ,b4,c41 and who is reputed to have been the first physician to make use of leeches4 ,the ,hiera of ,themison was composed of #ajj drachms of aloes1 with #a oz4 each of mastic1 saffron1 ,indian nard1 carpobalsamum1 and asarum4 ,the ,hiera of ,galen1 which was modified from that of ,archigenes1 was originally in the following form3-- ,socotrine aloes1 #ajj2 cinnamon1 spikenard1 xylobalsamum1 mastic1 asarum1 and saffron1 of each #f2 honey to make an electuary4 ,in the ,p4,l4 this was ordered to be kept in the form of species1 and was principally used to make a tincture which was called tinctura sacra4 ,in the #agba edition the mastic and the spikenard were omitted1 cardamom seeds being substituted for the latter1 and some cochineal was added with a view to colouring the tincture4 ,in #agdf hiera picra became simply a mixture of aloes and canella1 and as such it was retained in the following edition 7#aghh71 but under the title of ,pulv4 ,aloeticus1 which in the ,index is given as 8olim ,hiera ,picra40 ,this was the latest reference to ,hiera ,picra as such in the ,london ,pharmacopia4 ,the ,p4,l4 of #aghh gave also a ,pulv4 ,aloeticus c4 ,guaiaco1 which consisted of #a oz4 of ,socotrine aloes1 #a oz4 of powdered guaiacum1 and oz4 of aromatic powder 7afterwards called ,pulv4 ,cinnamomi ,co41 and compounded of cinnamon1 cardamoms1 ginger1 and long pepper74 ,the canella mixture did not appear again1 but that with guaiacum was repeated in all the subsequent ,london ,pharmacopias including the last in #ahea1 but was dropped from the ,british ,pharmacopias4 ,pil4 ,rufi1 our ,myrrh and ,aloes pill1 was originally a ,hiera invented by ,rufus of ,ephesus1 who lived in the reign of the ,emperor ,trajan4 ,the ,hiera was made into pills by the ,arabs1 and were for a long time known as ,pilul ,pestilentiales1 which was the name ,avicenna gave them4 ,in the early ,edinburgh ,pharmacopias they were called ,pilul ,communes4 ,scribonius ,largus1 physician to the ,emperor ,tiberius1 relates 7,a4,d4 #eb7 that one of these noted hieras1 the ,hiera ,pachii1 was much sought after1 and that large sums had been offered for the formula4 ,when ,pachius died at ,antioch the ,emperor had his library searched1 and the true recipe for the famous medicine was there found in a book which ,pachius had prepared and had dedicated to the ,emperor4 ,tiberius handed the formula to ,scribonius with instructions for its publication4 ,the formula given by ,scribonius1 which it will be noted contained no aloes1 was as follows3--,colocynth1 agaric1 germander1 white horehound1 ,arabian stches 7a sort of lavender71 of each x2 opoponax1 sagapenum1 parsley seeds1 round birthwort root1 white pepper1 of each v2 spikenard1 cinnamon1 myrrh1 and saffron1 of each iv2 despumated honey1 #c lb4 #c oz4 #e drachms1 to make an electuary4 ,it is not necessary to describe the other hieras devised by later authorities1 but it may be noted that the ,hiera ,tralliani compounded by ,alexander of ,tralles 7about #eej ,a4,d47 contained scammony1 and that he advises concerning it that the quantity of scammony shall not be increased1 as it appears some were inclined to do1 not knowing that thereby they make it useless4 ,for he says it is not the intention that the medicine should be carried immediately through the system4 ,it should be detained in the body and conveyed to the remote parts so as to correct the various humours1 open the passages1 remove the obstructions of the nerves1 and make way for the motion of the spirits4 ,this was the formula given in the ,p4,l4 #agba under the name of ,hiera ,diacolocynthidis1 but our present-day hiera picra has descended from the ,hiera ,simplex of ,galen4 ,the old dispensatories up to the eighteenth century give a liberal choice of ,hieras1 among which were the ,hiera ,simplex ,galeni cum ,agarice1 ,hiera ,logadii1 ,hiera ,antiochi1 ,hiera ,archigenes1 ,hiera ,tralliani1 ,hiera ,rufi1 ,hiera ,justi1 ,hiera ,constantini1 and others4 ,originally these were all electuaries made with honey4 ,it became the practice1 however1 to keep them in the form of 8species10 and ultimately electuaries went out of fashion altogether4 ,,laudanum4 ,paracelsus probably invented the name of laudanum1 and seems to have called several medicines by that term4 ,in one place he expressly states that his laudanum was made from gold leaf and unperforated pearls2 in other places he seems to mean red precipitate1 and undoubtedly opium or a compound of it was sometimes intended4 ,crollius gives a formula for a pill mass1 which he designates the laudanum of ,paracelsus1 which contained one-fourth of its weight of opium1 to which were added henbane juice1 mummy1 salts of pearls and corals1 the bone of the heart of a stag1 bezoar stone1 amber1 musk1 unicorn1 and some species1 with a few drops of many of the essential oils4 ,the ,anodynum ,specificum of ,paracelsus was a product obtained by first digesting opium1 #d1 in a mixture of orange and lemon juices1 #ahj1 with distilled frogs' sperm water1 to which cinnamon1 #d1 cloves1 #de1 ambergris1 #d1 and saffron1 #de1 were added4 ,this mixture was digested for a month1 and after pressing and straining1 coral1 magistery of pearl1 and quintessence of gold1 of each #b1 were added1 together with the salt extracted from the marc4 ,the laudanum of the early ,london ,pharmacopias was a pill mass made as follows3--,thebaic opium extracted by spirit of wine1 i42 saffron1 similarly extracted1 iss2 castorum1 i2 combined with ss4 of species of diambr made into a tincture with spirit of wine2 to these might be added1 ex-gratia1 ambergris and musk1 of each #f gr41 and oil of nutmeg #aj drops4 ,evaporate the moisture and leave the mass4 ,one would think that the name laudanum was an echo of laudandum1 and that has been the usual opinion4 ,but ,professor ,skeat is confident that it is a variation of ladanum1 which1 he says1 was a stomachic cordial made and named from gum labdanum1 which had been in medical use for centuries4 ,this1 of course1 is possible1 but it must be remembered that ,paracelsus was untrammelled by any etymological rules in his invented words1 and that the one unlikely thing for him to do would have been to adopt with a slight modification the name of a remedy then in use1 if1 indeed1 a preparation of labdanum was at that time popular1 or even known at all in ,germany in his time4#b ,adam of ,bodenstein1 son of the theologian ,carolstadt1 who wrote both for and against ,luther's doctrines1 wrote a treatise in which he professed to explain all the mysterious terms used by ,paracelsus4 ,laudanum1 he says1 is from a laude1 and was a quintessence of mercury and not an opiate4 ,sydenham's ,laudanum is the preparation of opium which attained the highest popularity4 ,it has always been the principal liquid preparation of the drug in continental practice1 and formulas for it more or less corresponding with the original are in all the principal ,pharmacopias except the ,british4 ,it was omitted from the ,p4,l4 in #agdf1 or rather a very similar preparation named ,tinctura ,thebaiaca was substituted for it4 ,sydenham's formula1 which was given incidentally in his description of the dysentery of #affi-gb1 prescribed strained opium1 #b oz41 saffron #a oz41 cinnamon and cloves of each #a drachm1 and ,canary wine1 #a pint4 8,i do not think this preparation has more virtue than the solid laudanum of the shops10 he wrote2 8but ,i prefer it before that for its more commodious form1 and by reason of the greater certainty of the dose1 for it may be dropped into wine or any distilled water1 or into any other liquor40 ,this passage is quoted from ,pechey's translation of ,sydenham's works4 ,the allusion to 8the solid laudanum of the shops0 confirms the opinion that ,sydenham's was the first liquid preparation generally designated laudanum4 ,among the ,sloane manuscripts in the ,british ,museum is included what is described as 8,the ,commonplace ,book of an ,apothecary at ,great ,dunmow10 which contains several more or less similar recipes for laudanum4 ,the book is dated #afdd-e4 ,the most elaborate formula is headed 8,laudanum ,josephi ,michlis10 and lengthy directions for making this are given4 ,the ingredients were opium1 extract of henbane1 species diambr 7a compound of most of the known spices71 pearls1 coral1 amber1 musk1 mummy1 cloves1 and oil of cloves4 ,some of these were to be extracted with spirit of wine1 and the spirituous extracts were to be distilled4 ,ultimately the whole was to be set aside to ferment for three months4 ,the dose was stated to be #d or #e grains at bedtime4 ,rousseau's laudanum1 which also became famous among opium preparations1 differed from others in being a fermented compound4 ,it was made by dissolving #ab oz4 of honey in #c lb4 of warm water1 and setting the mixture in a warm place4 ,when it began to ferment1 #d oz4 of opium mixed with #ab oz4 of water were added1 and the fermentation was allowed to continue at a moderate temperature for a month4 ,after straining1 the liquid was evaporated to #aj oz41 and #d oz4 of alcohol were added4 ,rousseau was a ,capuchin monk and was destined for mission work in ,asia4 ,sent from ,rome to ,paris to study medicine so that he might be better fitted for his life's work1 he carried a letter of introduction to ,colbert1 the first minister of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,rooms were provided for him in the ,louvre1 and there before long he set up a laboratory and began to prepare and sell medicines4 ,the ,capucin of the ,louvre became the fashionable quack1 and ,louis ordered the ,faculty of ,medicine to confer on him a degree4 ,the life was so agreeable that1 when orders came from ,rome that he was to proceed on his mission1 ,rousseau refused1 and1 having transferred his allegiance to the order of ,cluny1 he continued his medical practice in ,paris4 ,falling ill he refused medical aid1 treated himself with his own compounds1 and died4 ,after his death his brother published his 8,remdes et ,secrts ,eprouvs0 7#afig74 ,black ,drop was the name of a celebrated proprietary medicine very popular from the first half of the eighteenth1 until the early part of the nineteenth century4 ,its inventor was one ,edward ,runstall of ,bishop ,auckland in the county of ,durham1 but it also came to be known as the ,lancaster or the ,quaker's ,black ,drop4 ,a formula for it was found by a ,dr4 ,armstrong among the papers of a relative of the proprietor1 and was published in a treatise on fevers in the early part of the nineteenth century4 ,the recipe was as follows3--,opium1 lb42 good verjuice 7the juice of the wild crab71 #d pints2 nutmegs1 #a oz42 saffron1 oz4 ,boil to a proper consistence1 set in a warm place1 add two spoonfuls of yeast1 set in a warm place for six or eight weeks1 then in the open air until it becomes of the consistence of syrup4 ,decant1 filter1 and bottle1 putting a little sugar into each bottle4 ,this preparation was three times the strength of laudanum4 ,the acetum opii of the ,edinburgh and ,dublin ,pharmacopias was intended as a substitute1 but closer approximations to the original formula were given in the ,hamburg ,codex of #ahde and in the ,u4,s4 ,pharmacopia of #ahea4 ,the growing favour with which morphine was regarded gradually destroyed the popularity of the ,black ,drop4 ,,tinctura ,,lavandul ,,composita has much fallen from its earlier glories4 ,in the ,p4,l41 #agba1 it was made with ,french brandy and twenty-seven other ingredients1 including besides lavender1 sage1 rosemary1 betony1 borage1 lilies of the valley1 cowslips1 balm1 orange flowers1 bay berries1 cinnamon1 mace1 nutmegs1 cardamoms1 cubebs1 aloes wood1 ambergris1 saffron1 musk roses1 and a few other less familiar flowers or cordials4 ,the preparation was known as ,palsy ,drops1 but ,i am not sure whether the official compound acquired this title1 or whether it was an imitation of a tincture previously known as such4 ,,lenitive ,,electuary4 ,the formula prescribed in the first ,london ,pharmacopia was as follows3--,raisins 7stoned71 polypody of the oak1 ,eastern senna1 of each #b oz42 herb mercury1 #a handful2 jujubes and sebestens1 of each #bj2 maidenhair1 violets1 and cleaned barley1 of each #a handful2 prunes 7stoned71 tamarinds1 of each #f drachms2 liquorice1 oz4 ,these drugs were to be boiled in #aj lb4 of water to one-third of its volume1 and to the strained liquor were to be added pulp of cassia fistula1 tamarinds1 prunes1 sugar of violets1 of each #f oz42 sugar1 #b lb42 and at last #a oz4 of powdered senna was to be incorporated to each pound of the electuary4 ,in the ,pharmacopia of #afej powdered aniseed1 #b drachms to each pound of the electuary1 was added in order to correct the action of the senna4 ,in #agba figs 7#bj7 took the place of the jujubes and sebestens2 and powdered coriander seeds were substituted for the aniseed4 ,in the ,pharmacopia of #agdf the preparation was much simplified1 the raisins1 polypody1 herb mercury1 maidenhair1 violets1 and barley1 being rejected4 ,the formula then adopted was very nearly the same as the one now prescribed1 but the name of the compound was changed in #ahea to ,confection of ,senna4 ,as in the case of most other medicines1 the dose of this compound has been gradually reduced4 ,there was more senna in proportion to the finished product in the old formulas than in the modern ones2 but the dose was stated by ,culpepper to be 8one ounce for a man of reasonable strength40 ,later a piece the size of a walnut was recommended2 now the official dose is #a to #b drachms4 ,for a long time this preparation was grossly adulterated4 8,i understand10 says ,paris1 8that a considerable quantity is manufactured in ,staffordshire in which unsound or spoilt apples are an ingredient2 that jalap blackened with walnut liquor is frequently substituted for pulp of cassia2 and that the great bulk of what is sold in ,london is little else than prunes1 figs1 and jalap40 ,,compound ,,liquorice ,,powder4 ,although this popular medicine was only made official by being adopted in the ,b4 ,p4 ,additions1 #ahgd1 it had already acquired reputation as a pleasant laxative in household medicine1 and had been familiar in ,german pharmacy for the better part of a century4 ,it first appeared in the ,prussian ,pharmacopia in #agii1 and had been devised by a noted physician of ,berlin1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,kurella1 who died in the year named4 ,he called the mixture ,pectoral ,powder1 and he made an electuary from similar ingredients4 ,the ,prussian powder looks like a modification of a compound senna powder included in the first ,london ,pharmacopia1 #afah4 ,this contained senna1 liquorice1 caraway1 fennel1 cumin1 spikenard1 cinnamon1 galangal1 and gromwell seeds4 ,its 8first contriver0 7says ,quincy7 was ,isaac ,hollandicus4 ,,opodeldoc4 ,so far as can be traced ,paracelsus first used the term opodeldoc 7or as it is generally found in his works1 opodelloch or opodeltoch74 ,if he invented the word it is probable that he did not derive it from any etymological elements4 ,various suggestions have been made from time to time in explanation of the term1 but without any sound basis4 ,the most ingenious one is given by ,hermann ,peters in his 8,pictorial ,history of ,ancient ,pharmacy40 ,he derives it from the first syllabic of opoponax1 the second syllable of bedellium1 and the third syllable of aristolochia root4 ,these were the principal ingredients of the old opodeldoc plaster as it appeared in the last ,nuremburg edition of the 8,dispensatory of ,valerius ,cordus40 ,in some dictionaries ,mindererus is credited with the invention of the word1 but incorrectly4 ,he uses it1 but expressly attributes it to ,paracelsus4 ,in his 8,medicina ,militaris10 for example1 he advises the army doctor to 8be provided with a good plaister for wounds made by thrusting 7spear-wounds7 such as are the opodeldoc of ,theophrastus40 ,schrder1 another medical author of about the same date 7#afjj7 also refers to the 8oppodeldoch plaister of ,paracelsus40 ,paracelsus only uses the term opodeldoc for plasters1 and for these he does not give a specific formula4 ,one of his annotators1 ,felix ,wurtz1 however1 states that the following was the method of preparing the great opodeldoch plaster which ,paracelsus was in the habit of using4 ,its formula was as follows3-- ,galbanum1 opoponax1 of each #c oz42 ammoniacum1 bdellium1 of each #a oz4 ,macerate for eight days in distilled vinegar and slowly evaporate the solution to the consistence of honey4 ,then boil together1 litharge in fine powder1 lb41 with #a lb4 of oil1 stirring until the compound acquires the colour of bay4 ,add #a lb4 of wax1 and when melted mix with the solution the gums above mentioned1 and soon after add #c oz4 of oil of laurinus4 ,stir all these diligently until they are perfectly mixed1 then remove from the fire and work in the following powders1 all finely powdered3-- ,crocus martial1 mummy1 prepared magnet1 magistery of white coral1 and magistery of red coral1 of each oz42 calamine1 myrrh1 frankincense1 mastich1 aristolochia root1 of each #b oz4 ,stir these gradually with the liquefied plaster4 ,separately mix #a drachm of powdered amber1 #a drachm of oil of laurinus1 and oz4 of turpentine1 and add to them #a drachm of camphor and drachm of saffron4 ,add this mixture to the plaster1 and when perfectly blended form into magdaleons 7rolls74 ,these may be slightly softened with oil of ,st4 ,john's wort4 ,the author explains that this plaster will heal all wounds and all ordinary ulcers without the formation of pus2 but for rodent ulcers he recommends the addition of #a drachm of the following mixture of powders to each oz4 of plaster3--,crocus of antimony1 vitriol of calcined rubies1 and red precipitate2 equal parts worked in with a little oil of turpentine4 ,other forms were given by different authors1 but this was the one which was adopted in the ,p4,l41 #agba4 ,just when the name was transferred from a plaster to the liquid soap liniment cannot be traced2 it was applied to an ointment on the way4 ,there is a formula for an ,unguentum ,opodeldoch in the first ,edinburgh ,pharmacopia1 #agbb1 as follows3-- 8,rad4 angelic1 aristolochi long1 imperatori1 aa #b oz42 8,fol4 ocimi 7basil71 origani1 salvi1 serpylli1 8,flor anthos1 lavandul1 aa #a oz42 8,bacc4 juniper1 lauri1 sem4 cummini1 aa #b oz42 castorei1 #a oz4 8,affunde ,spirit4 ,vini ,rect4 congium unum4 ,digere frigide per triduum in vaso clauso2 tandem humitatur in ,b4,m4 tepidum per horas aliquot4 ,colatura express adde 8,camphor #a oz41 saponis ,venet4 minutim incisi1 lbii4 8,digere rursus in vase circularorio juncturis lutatis1 leni calore ,b4,m4 donec coeant in unguentum40 ,steer's opodeldoc was similar to this compound1 but with some ammonia added4 ,it appeared about the middle of the eighteenth century1 and foreign dispensatories state that it was the patent of an ,english doctor4 ,i have not been able to trace either the patent or the doctor4 ,steer's opodeldoc was evidently the model imitated in most of the foreign pharmacopias4 ,,paregoric4 ,paregoric ,elixir originated with ,le ,mort1 ,professor of ,chemistry at the ,university of ,leyden from #agjb till #agah1 when he died and was succeeded by ,boerhaave4 ,a modification of ,le ,mort's formula was given in the ,p4,l41 #agba1 as ,elixir ,asthmaticum1 thus3--,honey and liquorice root1 of each #d oz42 flowers of benjamin and opium1 of each #a drachm2 camphor1 #b scruples2 oil of aniseed1 drachm2 salt of tartar1 #a oz42 spirit of wine1 #b lb4 ,quincy 7#agbd7 says1 8there is not any composition of our shops to be compared to it in the intention in which it is ordered40 ,he explains that opium procures a truce with the cough1 and so provides a better opportunity for the other ingredients to rarefy and thin the viscid cohesions in the vessels1 and fit them for circulation and secretion4 ,in the ,p4,l41 #agdf1 the honey1 liquorice1 and salt of tartar were omitted1 and the name of the preparation was changed to ,elixir ,paregoricum4 ,the ,edinburgh ,pharmacopia of #agef left out the honey1 liquorice1 and salt of tartar1 substituted saffron for camphor1 and ammoniated the spirit4 ,the ,p4,e4 also adopted the name of ,paregoric4 ,in the ,p4,l41 #aghh1 the official name became ,tinct4 ,opii ,camphorata1 and in #ahea1 ,tinct4 ,camphor ,co4 ,a similar formula appears in most foreign ,pharmacopias4 ,in the ,german ,pharmacopia and in some others it is called ,tinct4 ,opii ,benzoica4 ,paregoric1 that is1 soothing1 remedies were frequently spoken of before the adjective became specific4 ,leclerc1 dealing with the later ,greek and ,roman remedies1 states that preparations into which poppy juice or opium entered as an essential ingredient1 whether they were pills or liquids1 were called anodyna or paregorica4 ,bishop ,berkeley said of his tar water that it was 8both paregoric and cordial40 ,the word was derived from a ,greek combination originally meaning to speak in an assembly1 but it acquired the secondary sense of speaking words of consolation4 ,,pil4 ,,cochia4 ,pil4 ,cochia originated with the ,greco-,roman physicians1 from ,galen onwards1 and all the formulas for it associate aloes with a more drastic purgative such as colocynth1 which is the usual ingredient4 ,the term1 however1 did not come into use until about the seventh century1 and according to some authorities it was first formally adopted by ,rhazes1 the ,arab4 ,the predecessors of our pills were called 8katapotia10 which meant things to be swallowed1 and the earlier prescribers directed katapotia of such a size4 ,celsus1 for example1 orders katapotia of the size of an almond1 of an ,egyptian bean1 and so on4 ,subsequently as patients became more fastidious they were humoured by the doctors1 and katapotia of the size of a coccus1 which was a lentil berry1 were prescribed4 ,coccion meant a diminutive coccus1 and as the pill of aloes and colocynth was frequently prescribed in this way the term came to distinguish those pills particularly4 ,paul of gina's formula 7sixth century7 ordered aloes and colocynth pulp1 and extract of wormwood1 of each one part1 with scammony two parts4 ,to be made into pills of the size of a coccus4 ,eleven were to be taken for a dose4 ,the early ,london ,pharmacopias contained formulas for pilul cocci majores1 from ,rhazes1 and pilul cocci minores1 from ,galen4 ,only the latter survived4 ,in the ,p4,l41 #agdf1 the name of ,pilul cocci minores was changed to ,pilul ex ,colocynthide cum ,aloe1 and the formula ordered ,socotrine aloes and scammony1 of each #b oz42 pulp of colocynth #a oz42 oil of cloves1 #b drachms4 ,,plummer',s ,,pills4 ,pil4 ,calomel4 ,co4 originated from a formula devised by ,dr4 ,andrew ,plummer1 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,edinburgh in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,dr4 ,plummer first published his formula in the 8,edinburgh ,medical ,essays10 #agea4 ,it was only a slight modification of the ,pilul thiopic which were already official in the ,edinburgh ,pharmacopia4 ,these were originally a combination of ,ethiops ,mineral with the golden sulphide of antimony1 but the ,edinburgh ,college had substituted calomel for the former4 ,,ammoniated ,,tincture ,,of ,,quinine4 ,under this name ,mr4 ,joseph ,ince recorded in the ,pharm4 ,journ41 ,june #acth1 #ahgd1 that a preparation was made and called by this name which was a solution of #a grain of sulphate of quinine in one drachm of compound spirit of ammonia4 ,this did not meet with general approval1 and in #ahec ,mr4 ,bastick proposed an ,ammoniated ,solution of ,quinine made by dissolving #cb grains of sulphate of quinine in #c ounces of proof spirit and ounce of solution of ammonia4 ,the present ,b4,p4 tincture contains less ammonia1 and alcohol is employed instead of proof spirit4 ,,compound ,,soap ,,pills4 ,pil4 ,sapon4 ,co41 formerly official as ,pil4 ,sapon4 c ,opio1 ,pil4 ,opii1 ,pil4 ex ,opio1 and when first authorised in the ,p4,l41 #agdf1 ,pil4 ,saponacea1 was adapted from a famous nostrum long sold as ,matthews's ,pills1 and as ,starkey's ,pills4 ,starkey1 a qualified physician1 was understood to have devised the process1 and ,matthews was the vendor in whose name they were sold4 ,but a little before his death in #affe ,starkey told ,dr4 ,george ,wilson that the formula he had sold to ,matthews was not his genuine and best process4 ,in both1 however1 the characteristic ingredient was 8soap of tartar10 which it was claimed added an aperient quality to the opium which made it safe to give in asthmas and other complaints when opium alone was objectionable4 ,the soap of tartar was made by melting together in a crucible equal parts of cream of tartar and saltpetre1 the compound being afterwards crystallised and powdered1 and with it was incorporated #d oz4 of turpentine to each pound of the resulting salt4 ,matthews's ,pills were made from #d oz4 each of extract of opium1 black hellebore1 soap of tartar1 and liquorice1 with #a oz4 of saffron4 ,starkey's deathbed formula ordered #d oz4 of extract of opium1 #b oz4 each of nutmeg and mineral bezoar 7calx of antimony71 saffron and snake root1 of each #a oz41 soap of tartar #h oz41 oil of sassafras oz41 tincture of antimony1 #b oz4 ,these pills were also known as pilul pacific4 ,,decoctions ,,of ,,sarsaparilla4 ,sarsaparilla1 guaiacum1 sassafras1 and mezereon enjoyed fitful periods of fame in the sixteenth1 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 especially for the treatment of syphilis4 ,from the time of their introduction the ,paracelsists denounced these remedies1 and ,paracelsus himself was especially sarcastic about 8the wooden doctors10 as he called those who relied on these woods4 ,still they were employed to an immense extent4 ,a number of remedies were made from them1 generally from a combination of them4 ,one of these called the ,lisbon ,diet ,drink became very popular in the eighteenth century4 ,this was taken not only in syphilitic cases1 but as an antirheumatic and generally purifying medicine4 ,it was said to contain antimony1 and the following was reputed to be a correct imitation of it3--,sarsaparilla1 #ij1 red sandal1 #ij1 yellow sandal1 #ij1 rose root1 #cj1 guaiacum wood1 #cj1 sassafras1 #cj1 mezereon bark1 #ae1 sulphide of antimony1 #fj1 boiling water1 #cfjj4 ,infuse twelve hours and boil down to half1 adding near the end of the boiling fifteen parts of liquorice4 ,an ,english ,dr4 ,leake wrote a book about this decoction in #aghg1 describing what he had seen of its good effects in the cure of venereal diseases1 scurvy1 and other stubborn chronic complaints4 ,he had been to ,lisbon1 and intimated that he had obtained the correct formula1 but he did not give it4 ,he had1 however1 for some time made it1 and would supply it in a concentrated form4 ,a compound decoction of sarsaparilla was introduced into the ,london ,pharmacopia of #aghh1 and the ,liquor ,sars ,co4 ,conc4 of the ,b4,p4 is the direct descendant of that preparation4 ,sirop de ,cuisinier has long been a popular preparation of sarsaparilla in ,france1 and has been officially recognised by the ,codex for a century4 ,a compound syrup of sarsaparilla was introduced into the ,united ,states ,pharmacopia in #ahbj expressly as an imitation of the ,french syrup4 ,the original ,sirop de ,cuisinier was evidently a proprietary article1 but ,i have not been able to trace its history4 ,the ,codex formula prescribes sarsaparilla1 with flowers of borage and white roses1 senna1 and aniseed1 made into a syrup with honey1 sugar1 and water4 ,the ,u4,s4,p4 substituted liquorice for the borage4 ,it has often been employed as a vehicle for corrosive sublimate1 but a number of experiments have shown that unless this mixture is quite fresh the sublimate will be reduced to calomel4 ,,seidlitz ,,powders are a well known misnomer4 ,fr4 ,hoffmann discovered the ,seidlitz spring in #agbd1 and found that it owed its medicinal effect to sulphate of magnesia with some sulphate of soda4 ,seidlitz or ,sedlitz is a small town near ,seidschutz in northern ,bohemia4 ,there is evidence that at one time sulphate of magnesia was obtained commercially from this spring as it was from the ,epsom water1 and in this country then1 and in some ,continental countries still1 ,seidlitz salt was and is a synonym for sulphate of magnesia4 ,in ,christison's ,dispensatory it was suggested that the name as applied to the powders which have so long been known in ,great ,britain was a corruption of ,seignette's powders4 ,other writers suggested that the name may have resulted from a confusion between ,seidlitz and ,selters4 ,the most probable explanation1 however1 was given in ,the ,chemist and ,druggist of ,february #bc and ,march #b1 #aija1 from which it appeared that ,thomas ,field ,savory1 of ,bond ,street1 ,london1 took out a patent in #ahae for 8the combination of a neutral salt or powder which possesses all the properties of the medicinal spring in ,germany under the name of the ,seidlitz powders40 ,the specification was for the production of three powders1 namely1 7#a7 tartrated soda1 7#b7 bicarbonate of soda1 and 7#c7 tartaric acid1 but these chemicals were not designated by their usual names1 but old-fashioned methods of producing them were set forth4 ,then it was stated that ij of ,no4 #a1 ij of ,no4 #b1 and ij of ,no4 #c were to be taken and mixed in the manner so familiar to us4 ,in #ahbc ,mr4 ,savory brought an action against ,messrs4 ,price ,son1 of #d1 ,leadenhall ,street1 for alleged infringement of his patent1 which1 however1 the ,court held to be invalid in consequence of the elaborate directions in the specification for the production of the several ingredients1 all of which were chemicals sold in all chemists' shops4 ,at the same trial it seems to have been admitted that the combination was both new and useful4 ,there is no record of any objection to the title4 ,in #aggh ,bergmann published a treatise on artificial mineral waters1 giving analyses of the most popular1 and recommending the use of the factitious waters as preferable to the natural ones4 ,about the same time a ,french pharmacien1 named ,vanel1 introduced a powder with which to make the favourite ,eau de ,seltz1 or ,selters water4 ,apparently the salts for making mineral waters acquired a certain degree of popularity1 and it is likely that ,seidlitz salt was among them4 ,nothing would make this palatable1 and ,mr4 ,savory's idea of substituting a pleasant draught for a nauseous one was at least a commercial success4 ,,turner',s ,,cerate4 ,daniel ,turner1 ,m4,d41 the inventor of ,turner's ,cerate1 which appeared in several ,pharmacopias as ,ceratum ,calamin1 was at first a surgeon in ,london1 but was admitted a ,licentiate of the ,college of ,physicians in #agaa1 and practised in ,devonshire ,square1 ,bishopsgate4 ,in ,william ,munk's ,roll of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians an opinion of him is quoted that he was too fond of displaying his talents upon paper2 the result being that he published many volumes which are now forgotten4 7,a commentary which might be made on most other authors47 ,it is also said of him that his cases were not stated in the most delicate terms1 nor was politeness among his excellences4 ,as several of his works were about syphilis it may be that his style was merely perspicuous4 ,he wrote comments on ,dover's 8,ancient ,physician0 and on ,mr4 ,ward's ,pill and ,drop4 ,his biographer1 however1 quotes from him with approval a pious exhortation to physicians not to be ashamed to avow their religious principles even if they kept their politics to themselves4 8,it can be no disgrace10 he wrote1 8for a physician who owns himself to be no more than ,nature's minister to acknowledge himself also the servant of ,nature's ,master40 ,turner's original formula for his ,ceratum de ,lapide ,calaminari was to melt together #c lb4 of freshly made unsalted butter1 #c lb4 of the best yellow wax1 and #d lb4 of pure and newly-prepared olive oil4 ,these when melted to be strained through a linen cloth1 and while cooling1 #c lb4 #aj oz4 of the best calamine stone1 8sufficiently triturated and passed through a ,sierce10 to be sprinkled into the mixture with constant stirring till it sets4 ,turner's comments on this cerate are worth quoting1 because they incidentally illustrate the pharmacy of the period4 ,he says3-- 8,as ,i have had ample experience of this cerate1 ,i may be allow'd1 ,i hope1 to judge of its singular properties and good effects in all cutaneous ulcerations and excoriations either from scalding1 burning1 or fretting of the said parts by means of salt1 acrid1 or sharp humours2 upon which accounts1 not straining a tittle beyond its deserved euology1 ,i am bold to affirm it will do more in all these superficial hurts of the body than either ,unguentum ,tutiae1 ,diapompholyx1 ,nutritum1 ,desiccativum ,rubrum1 ,rosatum1 or all the epuletic medicines now in use2 and for which cause ,i can1 for the public benefit1 sincerely recommend it to all the professors of the art2 and do wish that the ,apothecaries would keep it made up in their shops1 to deliver1 at a suitable price1 to indigent or poor people1 instead of their ridiculous ,locatellus's ,balsam1 and other improper medicines which they call for ignorantly to heal their skin-deep maladies4 ,i know the medicine has been imitated by several1 and ,i have seen somewhat like it in some gentlemen's salvatories2 but ,i know not more than two persons ,i ever communicated it to1 as ,i was wont to prepare it for my own use4 ,the medicine thus prepared is of a good consistence and a true cerate1 serving both for pledget or plaister1 neither sticking troublesomely1 nor running off or about by the heat of the parts2 but keeping its body and performing things incredible4 ,whoever thinks fit to take it into practice will never repent it1 nor perhaps 7when he has experienced it as ,i have done7 think ,i have said too much in its ,commendation4 ,this is the medicine ,i have so often taken notice of1 which1 that ,i might contribute my mite to the ,surgeon's ,treasure of ,medicine1 ,i here have publish'd1 and leave it to take its fate40 ,the other preparations to which ,dr4 ,turner refers as being at that time in public demand may be briefly noted4 ,tutty was another impure oxide of zinc generally containing some oxide of lead or copper4 ,it was obtained from the flues of smelting furnaces where zinc ores were purified4 ,tutty was so called from an ,arabic or ,persian name given to zinc1 or to a zinc and tin bronze imported from ,china and used as a gong metal by the ,chinese4 ,the tutty ointment was properly made up with viper's fat4 ,pompholyx was one of the names given to oxide of zinc prepared by combustion4 ,it was a ,greek word meaning a bubble in melted metal1 from pomphos1 a blister4 ,unguentum ,diapompholyx contained besides the flowers of zinc1 white lead1 the juice of nightshade berries1 and frankincense4 ,unguentum ,nutritum was an acetate of lead ointment4 ,unguentum ,desiccativum ,rubrum was compounded from litharge1 bole armeniac1 calamine1 and camphor4 ,unguentum ,rosatum was similar to cold cream4 ,,xxi ,,noted ,,nostrums ,from powerful causes spring the empiric's gains1 ,man's love of life1 his weakness1 and his pains2 ,these first induce him the vile trash to try1 ,then lend his name that other men may buy4 ,,crabbe3--,the ,borough4 ,,patent ,,medicines4 ,in the early days of ,english commerce monopolies were granted by the sovereigns at their own pleasure1 and often for their personal profit4 ,queen ,elizabeth so largely abused her power in this direction that towards the end of her reign the discontent of her subjects compelled her to promise she would offend no more3 and her successor1 ,james ,i1 gave a similar undertaking4 ,the abuse1 however1 was continued until the ,statute of ,monopolies1 passed in #afbd1 regulated all such grants1 placing the power in the hands of ,parliament1 and limiting the period of privilege to fourteen years4 ,for the first century or thereabout of the administration of this ,act1 specifications of processes or formulas were not a condition of the patent4 ,the idea was the introduction into the country of new industries1 and it was supposed that the artificers who would have to be employed in any such industries would certainly acquire such necessary skill and knowledge about any new manufacture as would prevent any perpetuation of the monopoly4 ,it was during the reign of ,queen ,anne that the law officers began to require that specifications should be filed before letters patent were issued4 ,but the condition was not by any means uniformly or intelligently insisted upon1 as will be seen immediately in the case of certain patented medicines4 ,the term 8patent medicines10 as now popularly used1 means generally secret medicines1 and the meaning is therefore in exact contradiction to the expression4 ,truthfully to declare the composition of many of these proprietary compounds would ruin their sale4 ,not that the ingredients are often improper or injurious2 this rarely occurs2 but because the success of these remedies depends in most instances rather on the mystery with which the makers can surround them than on their exceptional merit4 ,but some old medicines which became popular1 including a few the reputation of which lives to this day1 were actually patented4 ,the first compound medicine for which a patent was granted under the ,act of #afbd was ,no4 #chh1 and was dated ,october #bb1 #agaa4 ,it was granted to ,timothy ,byfield for his sal oleosum volatile1 8which by abundant experience hath been found very helpfull and beneficiall as well in uses medicinall as others40 ,no particulars of the ingredients or method of manufacture are given4 ,stoughton's 8great cordial elixir0 comes next1 in #agab1 and there is nothing more in the proprietary medicine line until #agbb1 when a patent for ,robert ,eaton's ,styptick medicine appears4 ,in that year a curious patent was granted to ,george ,sinclair for 8raising and cultivating the plants which are commonly called or do produce the balsam of tolu1 ,peru1 and capair1 dragon's blood1 coloquintida1 scamony1 rhubarb1 jalap1 ipecacuanha 7and others named71 and curing the insect commonly called cochenele and cultivating the plant which they feed and live upon40 ,no particulars of the inventor's ideas are given4 ,benjamin ,okell's patent for ,dr4 ,bateman's pectoral drops1 stated to act by moderate sweat and urine1 and to be useful in rheumatism1 afflictions of the stone1 gravel1 agues1 and hysterics1 was dated ,march #ca1 #agbf1 and was granted to him in recognition of the long study1 application1 and great expense he had been put to in finding out this remedy and bringing it to perfection4 ,he furnished no particulars4 ,bateman's drops probably always depended on opium for its efficacy1 and in time various formulas for a medicine under that name for coughs came to be adopted4 ,in #ahcc the ,philadelphia ,college of ,pharmacy published the following formula 8to represent ,bateman's ,pectoral ,drops because of its general use1 and to secure uniformity40 ,they said the preparation was then being sold in strengths varying from #g to #ajj grains to the pint4 ,the formula prescribed was3 ,diluted alcohol1 #d gallons2 red sanders1 rasped1 #b oz4 ,digest for #bd hours1 filter1 add opium in powder #b oz41 catechu in powder #b oz41 camphor #b oz41 oil of anise oz4 ,digest for ten days4 ,the patent for ,john ,hooper's ,female ,pills1 granted in #agdc to ,john ,hooper1 apothecary and man midwife of ,reading1 contains a copy of an affidavit made by the patentee1 who1 being 8obliged to give under his hand and seal a particular description of his invention10 came before the ,king in ,chancery1 and satisfied the royal representative with a specification declaring that his medicine was 8compounded as followeth3--,of the best purging stomatick and anti-hysterick ingredients1 duly proportioned and made into a powder1 and beat into a mass for pills with sufficient quantity of a strong infusion of the above-mentioned ingredients2 and when the same is made into pills about the bigness of a small pea1 two or three are to be given to persons from #g years of age to #ae1 and three or four from #ae years of age to #gj every other night40 ,hooper must have been a humorist4 ,betton's ,british oils 8for the cure of rheumatic and scorbutic and other cases0 had been patented in #agdb4 ,the oil was 8extracted from the black1 pitchy1 flinty roch or rock lying immediately over the coal in coal mines40 ,this was reduced to powder and then subjected to heat in a closed furnace1 by which means the oil was obtained4 ,the patent for ,dr4 ,james's fever powder 7#agdg7 is referred to at length elsewhere4 ,it is agreed that the preparation could not be produced by the process detailed2 but1 according to ,lord ,mansfield1 it was also defective in another respect4 ,in a judgment given by that eminent authority in #aggh 7in the case of ,liardet v4 ,johnson7 he illustrated an argument he was using by a reference to ,dr4 ,james's patent1 8in the specification of which10 he said1 8he has mentioned the articles only of which those powders were composed1 and omitted the proportion or quantity40 ,consequently ,lord ,mansfield added1 8,dr4 ,james never durst bring an action for infringement1 and it was certainly wise in him not to do so1 for no patent could stand on such a specification40 ,his lordship went on to enlarge on the extreme importance of exact quantities in the exact formulas for medicines4 ,dr4 ,james also patented his 8analeptic pills0 in #aggd4 ,they were to be compounded of equal parts of pil4 rufi1 gum ammoniacum1 and his own fever powder4 ,the two first named ingredients were to be 8placed in a large cave underground furnished with the conductors of electrical fire0 by which they were to be dissolved4 ,the powder was then to be added and the pills to be made up with gum arabic4 ,in the second half of the eighteenth century the patents for compounded medicines become more numerous1 but they are generally of no present interest4 ,the names of a very few have come down to our day4 ,ann ,pike's itch ointment 7patented #agfj7 may be noticed4 ,to prepare this1 pomatum and calomel were first mixed and allowed to stand several days2 another ointment was made with hogs' lard and ,jesuit's bark1 and this was likewise set aside for a few days4 ,these two ointments were then blended together1 mercury added to them1 and the mass stirred daily for some time4 ,two other ointments were also made and combined like the others1 the ingredients of these being deer suet1 turbith mineral1 lard1 powdered tutty1 flowers of brimstone1 and wood soot4 ,in #aggg ,robert ,grubb patented a medicine called the ,frier's ,drops1 8for the cure of the venereal disease1 scurvy1 rheumatism1 stranguary and gleets40 ,it contained calomel1 antimony1 guaiacum wood1 balsam of ,peru1 hemlock1 sugar candy1 oil of sassafras1 tartaric acid1 and gum arabic1 with spirit of wine4 ,the particular interest of this is the name which may have been the original of the ,friar's ,balsam named in the ,medicine ,stamp ,act4 ,the ,friar's ,balsam known to us cannot be traced as a proprietary medicine4 ,gale's ,spa ,elixir1 patented #aghb1 is notable as a specimen of condensed information4 ,its composition is thus described3--8,r4 fer4 q4l42 cor1 anima41 sp4vin4 esse4tinc4 anima3 super3aq3 nat31 sp4sal3 q4s42 dissolve1 digest1 correct1 evaporate1 and extract the elixir ,s4,a40 ,the abbreviated terms and the punctuation are copied from the specification4 ,nathaniel ,godbold's ,vegetable ,balsam was patented in #aghe1 ,spilsbury's ,anti-scorbutic ,drops in #agib1 ,ching's ,worm ,lozenges in #agif1 and ,innocenza della ,lena winds up the century with a formula conceived quite on the lines of the pharmacy then departing4 ,it was for 8,a certain medicine called flogistical and fixed earth of ,mars or powder of ,mars40 ,it is not stated what the medicine was for1 but its preparation was awe-inspiring4 ,mineral earth of iron1 copper1 crude antimony1 mineral salt1 and urine were digested for a considerable time in an unvarnished vessel1 hermetically sealed1 deep down in the earth4 ,subsequently the mixture was exposed to the rays of the sun for a period1 more urine was added1 and the interment and the exposure were several times repeated4 ,roche's ,embrocation for whooping-cough1 patented in #ahjc1 was declared to be compounded of oil of elder1 rose leaves1 chamomile flowers1 oil of caraway1 oil of rosemary1 cochineal1 and alkanet root4 ,this remedy is still popular1 but it is understood to have a composition very different from that specified4 ,perkins's ,metallic ,tractors were patented on ,march #ajth1 #agih4 ,benjamin ,douglas ,perkins claimed to have discovered 8an art of relieving and curing a variety of aches1 pains1 and diseases in the human body1 by drawing over the parts affected or those contiguous thereto1 in certain directions1 various pointed metals1 which from the affinity they have with the offending matter10 or from some other cause1 8extract1 or draw out the same1 and thus cure the patient40 ,the metals used were combinations of copper1 zinc1 and gold2 or of iron1 silver1 and platinum4 ,the tractors were invented by ,elisha ,perkins1 the father of ,benjamin1 who died at ,new ,york in #agii4 ,the tractors were united together like a pair of compasses1 and one of the arms was obtuse and the other pointed4 ,they professed to apply galvanic action to the relief and cure of pain and disease4 ,galvani's report of his experiments was only published about #agij1 and not much earlier ,mesmer's animal magnetism had excited marvellous interest in ,paris4 ,perkins's ,tractors had an enormous popularity for a time in ,england and in ,denmark1 but nowhere else to any extent4 ,two ,bath doctors1 named ,falconer and ,haygarth1 professed to get as good results with tractors made of wood1 many patients of the ,bath ,hospital declaring that these promptly relieved their pains4 ,from these experiments it was argued that the alleged cures were entirely due to the imagination of the sufferers4 ,after #ahjj medicinal compounds are only rarely patented4 ,of those known to the present generation1 ,ford's ,balsam of ,horehound appears in #ahaf1 ,savory's ,seidlitz ,powders were protected in #ahae1 ,ridge's ,food1 #ahfb1 and ,page ,woodcock's ,wind ,pills1 #aheb4 ,a patent was taken in #ahec by ,sir ,james ,murray for aerating cod-liver oil with carbonic acid gas1 and ,william ,brockedon's patent for compressing drugs and blacklead1 which has borne fruit a thousandfold in these later days1 was granted in #ahdc4 ,,anderson',s ,,scots ,,pills4 ,these pills acquired extraordinary popularity1 particularly in ,scotland and ,france1 and to some extent in other countries1 including ,england4 ,either these pills or ,singleton's ,eye ,ointment is the proprietary remedy still sold in this country with the longest history4 ,it is claimed that the ointment was invented some forty years earlier than the pills1 but it must be admitted that the records of the latter1 especially in their early days1 are more exactly authenticated4 ,illustration3 ,,patrick ,,anderson1 ,m4,d4 ,dr4 ,patrick ,anderson was a ,scotch physician of considerable reputation in ,london in the ,stuart period4 ,he is described on some of his books as ,physician to ,charles ,i4 ,in #afce he published a treatise entitled as follows3--8,grana ,angelica2 hoc est pilularum hujus nominis insignis utilitas2 quibus etiam accesserunt alia quaedam pancula de durioris alvi incommodis propter materiam cognitionem1 ac vice supplementi in fine adjuncta40 ,he stated that he had obtained the formula for these pills in ,venice4 ,after his death they were sold in ,edinburgh by his daughter ,miss ,katherine ,anderson1 and she by a deed registered in the ,commissary ,court books of ,edinburgh1 the #afth ,december1 #afhf1 declared that she had communicated the secret to ,thomas ,weir1 surgeon1 in ,edinburgh1 8and to no other person40 ,to ,dr4 ,weir letters patent for the pills were granted by ,king ,james ,,ii1 #afhg1 with letters of ,certification1 c41 by ,king ,william and ,queen ,mary1 #afid2 and ,testification by the ,town ,council of ,edinburgh1 #afid4 ,from ,dr4 ,weir by regular succession and assignation1 the secret was conveyed to his widow1 #agaa2 thence to their son ,alex4 ,weir1 #agae2 then to ,lilias ,weir1 his sister1 #agbf2 by her to ,dr4 ,thomas ,irving1 her nephew1 #aggj2 then to his widow1 ,mrs4 ,irving1 #agig2 by her to her son1 ,james ,irving1 #ahad1 but the old lady appears to have retained an interest in them until her death in #ahcg1 at the age of #ii4 ,during her life1 and probably before and after1 the 8shop0 where the pills were made and sold was on the second floor of a house in the ,lawn ,market opposite the site of the ,west ,bow1 a steep street which led down to the ,grassmarket4 ,the house still remains1 the date #afij being carved on the lintel4 ,after certain assignations and trusteeships the property came into the hands of a ,mr4 ,j4 ,rodger who sold his rights to ,messrs4 ,raimes1 ,blanshard ,co4 in #ahgf4 ,they and their successors1 ,raimes1 ,clark ,co41 ,limited1 have been the proprietors since the date mentioned1 and they inform me that there is still a small demand for them4 ,formulas for 8,anderson's ,scots ,pills0 will be found in all the manuals of pharmacy published in ,europe and ,america1 but they differ considerably4 ,paris in 8,pharmacologia0 said they were a compound of aloes and jalap with oil of anise2 the ,french ,codex which adopted them1 or at least the name1 compounded them of aloes and gamboge with oil of anise2 ,niemann1 whose formulary had a quasi-official sanction in ,holland early in the nineteenth century gave a much more complicated recipe1 adding to the aloes both jalap and gamboge1 together with sulphur1 burnt ivory1 liquorice powder1 and soap4 8,pharmaceutical ,formulas0 states that they are well represented by ,pil ,aloes et ,myrrh ,b4,p41 8which 7saving excipient7 contains the same ingredients as those mentioned in a copy of the original document deposited in the ,rolls ,house40 ,,anodyne ,,necklaces4 ,anodyne necklaces were perhaps the most extensively advertised of the quack remedies of the eighteenth century4 ,the introduction of them is generally attributed to one of the ,chamberlen family1 well known in medical history as the inventors of the modern midwifery forceps4 ,in a collection of quack advertisements in the ,british ,museum1 all published in the last half of the seventeenth century1 there is a handbill issued by ,major ,john ,coke1 8a licensed physician and one of his ,majesty's ,chymists0 advertising miraculous necklaces for children breeding teeth 8preventing 7by ,god's assistance7 feavers1 convulsions1 ruptures1 chincough1 ricketts1 and such attendant distempers40 ,these are #es4 each4 ,a number of titled people whose children have used these necklaces are named4 ,a correspondent of ,notes and ,queries 7,mr4 ,j4 ,elliot ,hodgkin1 #fth ,ser41 ,vol4 ,,ix47 quotes a reference to anodyne necklaces from a pamphlet published in #agag dedicated to ,dr4 ,chamberlen and the ,royal ,society1 evidently an advertisement which it may not be too uncharitable to suppose was written by ,chamberlen himself4 ,but another correspondent of the same journal 7#fth ,ser41 ,vol4 ,x47 quotes from ,smith's 8,book for a ,rainy ,day0 another reference to the necklaces in which they are alluded to as ,mr4 ,burchell's1 and are said to be 8so strongly recommended by two eminent physicians1 ,dr4 ,tanner1 the inventor1 and ,dr4 ,chamberlain10 to whom he had communicated the prescription4 ,the necklaces were composed of artificially prepared beads1 small like barleycorns1 and they were sold at #es4 each4 ,the beads were often made of peony wood1 a substance which ,oribasius 7fourth and fifth centuries7 recommended to be hung round the neck for the cure of epilepsy4 ,they were especially recommended for children cutting teeth1 and for pregnant women4 ,no doubt they served like any other hard substance to help in the former trouble to open the gums1 but the idea suggested was that they gave out a certain vapour or effluvium which reduced the feverish condition4 8,may ,i die by an anodyne necklace10 is an expression used by one of the characters in 8,the ,vicar of ,wakefield0 7,ch4 ,,xx474 ,in a comment on this allusion by the eminent authority on the eighteenth century1 ,mr4 ,austin ,dobson1 it was explained that hanging was there euphemistically referred to4 ,mr4 ,dobson's mistake was pointed out in ,notes and ,queries1 and he acknowledged it4 ,the ,collier de ,morand was a neckband sold for goitre4 ,it was made of carded cotton on which was sprinkled a powder consisting of equal parts of sal ammoniac1 common salt1 and burnt sponge4 ,paracelsus recommended that coral should be worn round the necks of children to preserve them from the effects of sorcery4 ,,daffy',s ,,elixir4 ,the ,rev4 ,thomas ,daffy1 who invented the ,elixir ,salutis with which his name has been associated for about #bej years1 was rector of ,redmile in ,leicestershire from #affj to #afhj4 ,he had been appointed rector of ,harby in the same county in ,cromwell's time1 but the ,countess of ,rutland1 who presumably 8sat under0 him1 was a lady of evangelical ideas1 and the ,rev4 ,thomas was apparently of a 8high0 tendency1 for according to ,nichols's 8,history of ,leicestershire10 8he was removed from that better living to this worse one to satisfy the spleen of the ,countess of ,rutland1 a puritanical lady who had conceived a feeling against him for being a man of other principles40 ,just when he invented his elixir does not appear1 but it is to be hoped that the profits from it made up for the sacrifice he had to make in consequence of his 8other principles40 ,it is clear from the references to the medicine which are found in general literature and from the fact that it was imitated in the ,pharmacopia 7under the formula for ,tinctura ,senn ,co47 that it acquired considerable popularity4 ,the following advertisement from the ,post ,boy of ,january #a1 #agjg1 tells most of what is known about the elixir3-- ,daffye's famous ,elixir ,salutis1 prepared by ,catherine ,daffye1 daughter of ,mr4 ,thomas ,daffye1 late rector of ,redmile in the vale of ,belvoir1 who imparted it to his kinsman1 ,mr4 ,anthony ,daffye1 who published the same to the benefit of the community and to his own advantage4 ,the original receipt is now in my possession left to me by my father4 ,my own brother1 ,mr4 ,daniel ,daffye1 apothecary in ,nottingham1 made this ,elixir from the said receipt and sold it there during his life4 ,those who know it will believe what ,i declare2 and those who do not may be convinced that ,i am no counterfeit by the colour1 taste1 smell1 and operation of my ,elixir4 ,to be had at the ,hand and ,pen1 ,maiden ,lane1 ,covent ,garden4 ,catherine ,daffy was not a clever advertiser1 for her announcement seems calculated to assist ,anthony ,daffy's preparation as much as her own1 and it is likely that this was not her intention4 ,such little evidence as exists goes to show that it was ,anthony's and not ,catherine's ,elixir that maintained the fame which had been won4 ,daffy's ,elixir is still made by ,sutton ,co41 of #gf ,chiswell ,street1 the successors to ,dicey ,co41 of ,bow ,church ,yard1 who were themselves successors to ,benjamin ,okell1 who was carrying on the business in #agbg1 but when or from whom1 or for what consideration the property was transferred to them from the ,daffy family1 is not known4 ,the old-fashioned handbills wrapped round the bottles state that the ,elixir was 8much recommended to the public by ,dr4 ,king1 ,physician to ,king ,charles ,,ii1 and the late learned and ingenious ,dr4 ,radcliffe40 ,unhappily1 however1 8a low set of mercenary vendors0 have been making imitations of this 8noble and generous ,elixir10 using 8foul and ordinary spirits instead of clean and pure brandy1 and base and damaged drugs10 of which none could be guilty 8but such as never feel for any but themselves40 ,,baume ,,de ,,fioraventi4 ,this medicine still figures in the ,french ,codex and in other continental ,pharmacopias4 ,it is an alcoholic tincture of canella1 cloves1 nutmegs1 ginger1 and other spices1 with bay berries1 to which are added amber1 galbanum1 myrrh1 aloes1 elemi1 and other resins1 and one-sixth by volume of turpentine4 ,after digestion this mixture is distilled to a yield of about two-thirds of the original bulk4 ,the balm was formerly given in doses of #e or #f drops in kidney disorders1 but it is now only used externally in rheumatism and for chilblains1 and for strengthening the sight4 ,for the last-named purpose the hand is wetted with the balm and held before the eyes4 ,fioraventi was a famous ,italian quack in the latter half of the seventeenth century4 ,he practised in ,naples1 ,rome1 ,venice1 ,milan1 and ,florence1 and was specially honoured in his native city of ,bologna1 where he was made a ,doctor1 a ,chevalier1 and a ,count2 titles of which he made the utmost use4 ,he published numerous works on medicine1 devised various 8,nostra10 and pretended to give the exact formulas for these1 but they were always so complicated that no doubt the rich clients whose patronage ,fioraventi cultivated would prefer to buy the remedies ready compounded4 ,his medical advice though crammed with bombast was generally sensible1 but in all cases he recommended one or another of 8our0 remedies4 ,these included 8our ,balm ,artificiall0 7the compound just referred to71 8our ,electuaria ,anglico10 8our ,sirrup ,solutivo10 8our ,lignum ,sanctum10 8our ,oleum ,benedictum10 and so forth4 ,above all ,fioraventi made play with his 8,petra ,philosophale40 ,philosophers had long disputed1 he says1 whether it was possible to produce a medicine which would cure all diseases4 ,there was no longer any occasion for dispute2 the discovery of 8our ,petra ,philosophale0 was conclusive4 ,the directions for making this remedy were very complicated1 and of course it was essential that they should be followed minutely4 ,briefly1 the process was to take so much 8,sal ,niter1 ,roche ,allum1 and ,roman ,vitrioll0 7,i take the names from an old ,english translation71 8add some ,sal ,gemm1 and distil4 ,then mix ,mercury1 ,sope1 ,quick ,lime1 and ,common ,ashes1 sublime off the ,mercury1 and add it to the first distillate4 ,to the mixture add so much steel1 iron1 and gold1 dry the compound to a stone1 which #8keep as a precious ,jewell' in a closed glass vessel40 ,why ,fioraventi should have troubled to invent any other remedies after this1 or why his patients should have been called upon to buy any others1 is not explained4 ,,baume ,,tranquille was originally made by the ,capucin monk1 ,aignan1 whose religious name was ,father ,tranquille4 ,the ,capucins of the ,louvre were noted in the seventeenth century for their medical skill1 and ,father ,tranquille was one of them4 ,twenty herbs were used in compounding this balsam1 among them poppy1 tobacco1 lavender1 and rue4 ,these were infused in oil4 8,the ,baume may be made still more effective10 writes ,pre ,rousseau1 who was a fellow monk with ,father ,tranquille1 8by adding as many large live frogs as there are pounds of oil4 ,these are to be boiled in the oil until they are almost burnt4 ,their juice and fat combine with the oil and greatly augment the excellence of the remedy40 ,mme4 de ,svign1 writing to her daughter1 ,december #ae1 #afhd1 says1 8,i am sending you the most precious treasure ,i have3 my half bottle of ,baume ,tranquille4 ,i could not send a full bottle2 the ,capucins have no more40 ,,baume ,,de ,,vie4 ,baume de ,vie1 which is represented by ,decoct4 ,aloes ,co41 ,b4,p41 was first sold by a ,french apothecary named ,le ,lievre1 of the ,rue de la ,seine1 ,paris4 ,a second edition of his book recommending it is dated #agfj4 ,he describes himself as 8le sieur ,lelievre apothicaire1 distillateur du ,roi40 ,he says of it that it gently evacuates the heterogeneous humours1 restores and fortifies the stomach1 reanimates the system without causing any fever or other inconvenience1 preserves the humid radical 7a fluid supposed to be the principle of life and the generator of vigour71 makes the blood circulate1 absorbs from it all acids and renders them balsamic1 and counteracts debility4 ,he also advises its use for horses1 cattle1 and dogs4 ,le ,lievre's formula1 as given by ,cadet de ,gassicourt1 was as follows3-- ,socotrine aloes1 treacle1 of each #a oz42 gentian1 oz42 rhubarb1 #f drachms2 saffron1 agaric1 zedoary1 myrrh1 of each #b drachms2 sugar1 #d oz42 proof spirit1 #b lb4 ,,dutch ,,drops4 ,haarlem ,oil or ,dutch ,drops have been made in ,haarlem since the year #afgb1 when they were invented by one ,claas ,tilly1 and they are still manufactured in ,haarlem by a person who claims to be a direct descendant of the inventor4 ,the preparation is stated in ,paris's 8,pharmacologia0 to have as a base the residue left in the still after the redistillation of turpentine2 a red1 thick1 resinous matter1 sometimes called balsam of turpentine4 ,but the same author adds that a preparation often sold as ,dutch ,drops is a mixture of oil of turpentine1 tincture of guaiacum1 and spirit of nitre1 with oils of amber and cloves4 ,dutch ,drops are asked for all over the world and are known to old-fashioned people as 8,medicamentum40 ,in remote places they are kept in the house and a few drops taken occasionally as a preventive of disease4 ,,godfrey',s ,,cordial4 ,the following advertisement which is taken from ,reed's ,weekly ,journal1 ,february #bb1 #agbb1 throws light on the origin of the still popular 8,godfrey40 ,to all retailers and others4 ,the general cordial formerly sold by ,mr4 ,thomas ,godfrey1 of ,hunsdon1 in ,hertfordshire1 deceas'd1 is now prepar'd according to a receipt written by his own hand1 and by him given to my wife1 his relation1 is now sold by me ,tho4 ,humphreys of ,ware1 in the said county1 ,surgeon1 or at ,john ,humphreys1 at the ,head and ,sheers in ,jewin ,street1 near ,cripplegate1 ,london4 ,also may be furnished with ,arcanums and ,vomits1 and will be allowed the same for selling as formerly4 ,godfrey's ,cordial was named in the ,medicine ,stamp ,act of #ahab1 and was no doubt a proprietary medicine at that time4 ,it now appears to be made by anyone who chooses to make it4 ,in ,paris's 8,pharmacologia10 7#hth edition1 #ahcc7 the following receipt which he says was obtained from a 8wholesale druggist who makes and sells many hundred dozens a year10 was printed3-- 8,infuse #i oz4 of sassafras2 #a oz4 each of carraway1 coriander1 and anise seeds1 in #f pints of water4 ,simmer down to #d pints4 ,when cold add #c oz4 of tincture of opium40 ,in #ahcc the ,philadelphia ,college of ,pharmacy adopted the subjoined formula for ,godfrey's ,cordial in order to ensure uniformity3-- 8,tinct4 ,opii1 #a pint2 molasses1 from the sugar refiners1 #af pints2 alcohol1 #b pints2 water1 #bf pints2 carbonate of potash1 #b oz42 oil of sassafras1 #d drachms40 ,,eau ,,des ,,carmes4 ,eau de ,melisse des ,carmes1 an aromatic spirit1 recommended as a cordial for internal administration1 and to bathe the temples1 was first compounded in the pharmacy of the ,barefooted ,carmelites1 near the ,palace of the ,luxembourg in the ,faubourg ,st4 ,germain in #afaa4 ,in the course of the century the preparation became a valuable property1 and though its composition was kept secret by the monks1 formulas innumerable were published4 ,richelieu1 ,elizabeth of ,bavaria1 mother of the ,regent during ,louis ,,xiv's minority1 and later1 ,voltaire1 8reclaimed0 it4 ,patents authorising the monks to carry on the manufacture and sale were granted by ,louis ,,xiv1 ,louis ,,xv1 and ,louis ,,xvi1 but when the last was applied for in #aghj1 the ,college of ,pharmacy opposed it1 but withdrew their opposition for the consideration of #dj a year which the monks agreed to pay them4 ,in #agia when the monastic orders were suppressed and their property confiscated1 forty-five ,carmelites of the ,monastery of the ,vaugirard formed themselves into a commercial company to manufacture and sell the ,eau des ,carmes4 ,their deed of association provided that the property should remain in the hands of the forty-five down to the last survivor4 ,this one was a certain ,brother ,paradise1 who took as a partner a ,m4 ,royer and died in #ahca on the premises in the ,rue ,taranne where the company had been constituted4 ,m4 ,royer died a few years later1 and his widow married a ,m4 ,boyer in #ahdj who wrote a 8,monographie ,historique10 which it is believed was edited for him by ,alexander ,dumas4 ,the following formula for a preparation resembling the ,eau des ,carmes was published by ,baum after many experiments1 and was adopted by the compilers of the ,codex3-- 8,balm1 in flower1 freshly gathered1 and freed from the stalks1 #b lbs42 lemon peel1 fresh1 #d oz42 coriander seeds1 #h oz42 nutmegs1 cloves1 cinnamon1 each bruised1 #b oz42 angelica roots1 dried1 #a oz42 spirit of wine1 highly rectified1 #aj pints40 ,,goddard',s ,,drops4 ,the original formula for these is given as follows by ,dr4 ,william ,salmon in his edition of 8,bate's ,dispensatory03-- ,r4 ,humane ,bones or rather scales1 well dryed1 break them into bits1 and put them into a retort1 and join thereto a large ,receiver which lute well2 and distil first with a gentle ,fire1 then with a stronger1 increasing the fire gradatim2 so will you have in the ,recipient a ,flegm1 ,spirit1 ,oyl1 and ,volatile ,salt4 ,shake the ,receiver to loosen the ,volatile ,salt from the sides1 then close your ,receiver and set it in the earth to digest for three months1 after that digest it in a gentle heat fourteen days1 then separate the ,oyl which keep for use4 ,salmon says they that please may make it according to the prescription1 but he gives an alternative formula which was 8to rectify the ,oyl from the ,flegm1 then to grind the ,volatile ,salt with the ,oyl1 and so by a long digestion to join them together40 ,salmon also tells us that if these drops are distilled from the bones of the skull they are good for apoplexy1 vertigo1 megrims1 c41 but 8if you want it for gout of any particular limb it is better to make it from the bones of that limb4 ,the dose is #f to #ab drops1 but it has an evil scent40 ,you can1 however1 correct that1 and 8,elixirate0 the preparation1 bringing it 8even to a ,fragrancy0 if you add so much ,spirit of ,nitre as will dissolve the oil1 and then mix it with four times its weight of spirit of wine4 ,then you should give #bj to #fj drops in a glass of ,canary4 8,so you will have a medicine beyond all comparison ten times exceeding the other in worth and efficacy40 ,who was the inventor of this medicine8 ,salmon says1 8,the author of this ,recipe was not that ,goddard whose ,recipes and ,prescriptions are scattered up and down in several places of this book1 but the famous ,w4 ,goddard1 a great ,philosopher and ,physician who deserved well of the ,world in his ,day and ,time1 and who has even in this ,remedy left himself an ,immortal name4 ,and this is the true ,medicine which was purchased of the ,doctor by ,king ,charles the ,second1 so much famed through the whole kingdom1 and for which he gave him1 as it is reported1 fifteen hundred pounds sterling40 ,other statements say that ,charles bought the formula for #e1jjj or #f1jjj4 ,salmon had lived in the reign of ,charles ,,ii1 and may be expected to have been correct in regard to such a recent event4 ,but in the ,roll of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians by ,william ,munk1 ,m4,d41 published by the ,college in #ahgh ,i find the invention of these drops attributed to ,jonathan ,goddard1 ,m4,d41 a person of some historical fame1 due to a large extent to his association with ,oliver ,cromwell1 whom he accompanied as first physician to his army through his ,irish and ,scotch campaigns4 ,cromwell made him ,warden of ,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 and in other ways showed his confidence in him4 ,in the ,little ,parliament which succeeded the ,long ,parliament ,dr4 ,goddard was the sole representative of the ,university of ,oxford1 and became a member of the ,council of ,state4 ,with this record it is not surprising that the doctor did not become a favourite with ,charles ,,ii4 when that monarch returned to ,london4 ,dr4 ,goddard was removed from his ,wardenship1 but subsequently became ,professor of ,physic at ,gresham ,college1 ,london1 and it was there that he and a few other scientific associates founded the ,royal ,society4 ,it is difficult to believe that he was the inventor of the drops of which ,salmon writes2 and it is impossible to accept the statement that he offered1 or that the ,king agreed to purchase1 the secret of their composition from him4 ,dr4 ,munk1 however1 states that 8,dr4 ,goddard was a good practical chemist and the inventor of certain volatile drops1 the ,gutt ,goddardian vel ,anglican1 as they were termed on the ,continent1 long in great repute and commended by ,sydenham1 who gave them a preference over all other volatile spirits whatsoever for #8energetically and efficaciously attaining the end for which they are applied4'0 ,there was a ,dr4 ,william ,goddard admitted a ,fellow of the ,college in #afcd of whom ,dr4 ,munk records that 8on the #bcrd of ,november1 #afdi1 having been contumacious and refusing to attend at his place in the ,college1 though repeatedly summoned by the ,president1 he was1 by a vote of his colleagues1 dismissed from his fellowship3 ,decrete ,collegii1 in ,collegii societale locum amisit40 ,dr4 ,goddard carried the matter into the ,court of ,king's ,bench1 but was defeated4 ,this was most likely ,salmon's ,w4 ,goddard1 and seems more like the genuine ,goddard of the ,drops fame4 ,contumaciousness was sometimes a synonym for exploiting a quack remedy4 ,in ,dr4 ,martin ,lister's 8,journey to ,paris10 #afih1 that rather garrulous ,york doctor states that while he was in ,paris 7in company with some members of a diplomatic party7 he was sent for by the ,prince de ,conti to see his son1 and was requested to bring with him some of the late ,king ,charles's drops4 ,the doctor replied that he had nothing with him1 and could only prescribe such medicines as would be found in any of their shops4 ,it was the drops1 however1 that the ,prince wanted and not the extempore invention of this comparatively unknown practitioner4 ,for apparently the attendance of ,dr4 ,lister was excused1 and he makes the reflection1 after intimating that the young prince died1 8,it is evident that there is as false a notion of physic in this country as with us1 and that it is here also thought a knack more than a science or method2 accordingly little toys1 the bijoux of quacks are mightily in request40 ,dr4 ,george ,henning who edited ,dr4 ,lister's narrative states that these drops were made from raw silk which 8yields an incredible quantity of volatile salt and the finest spirit ,i ever tasted40 ,he adds that raw silk is indeed nothing but a dry jelly of the insect kind1 and therefore it must be very cordial and stomachic4 ,,eau ,,medicinale ,d',,husson4--,,colchicum4 ,the medicinal use of colchicum preparations for gout is comparatively recent and the knowledge of its value for that purpose is undoubtedly due to its success in a secret proprietary remedy4 ,the authors of 8,pharmacographia0 give some interesting historical notes on ,colchicum autumnale1 ,l41 or meadow saffron1 which show how general was the belief in its deleterious qualities in both classical and medival times4 ,dioscorides alludes to the poisonous properties of ,kolchikon1 which he says grew in ,messenia and ,kolchis4 ,pliny and ,galen likewise allude to colchicum as a poison4 ,pliny recommends milk as an antidote4 ,hermodactylus is recommended for gout in the writings of ,alexander of ,tralles1 and ,paul ,egineta 7sixth and seventh centuries71 and the ,arab doctors1 ,avicenna1 ,serapion1 and ,mesu1 describe a similar remedy under the name of ,surengian4 ,it is also recommended by ,ambrose ,par1 ,sylvius 7de la ,boe71 and other authorities in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries2 but ,tragus 7#aeeb7 warns his readers against its use for gout1 for which he says it is recommended in ,arab writings4 ,grevin 7#aefh7 observes 8ce poison est ennemy de l'homme en tout et par tout40 ,lyte1 translating ,dodoens 7#aegh71 says 8,medow or wilde saffron is corrupt and venomous1 therefore not used in medicine40 ,gerard declares the roots of 8,mede ,saffron0 to be 8very hurtfull to the stomacke40 ,evidently some species of colchicum 7,planchon thinks ,c4 variegatum1 ,l41 but ,hanbury does not agree7 was used in ancient medicine under the name of ,hermodactylus4 ,linnus knew hermodactyls brought from ,india and attributed them to ,iris tuberosa4 ,royle says they are sold in the bazaars of northern ,india under the name of ,surinjan1 but he thought they were brought from the shores of the ,red ,sea via ,bombay4 ,and notwithstanding the unfavourable opinions just quoted1 ,radix ,colchici and ,hermodactylus appear among the simples of the ,london ,pharmacopias of #afah and #afci4 ,they are then omitted1 but ,colchicum reappears in the edition of #aghh4 ,this was in consequence of the strong recommendation of ,stoerck of ,vienna1 a practitioner and medical teacher who had a passion for experimenting with discredited remedies4 ,stoerck's report1 published in #agfc1 showed that the medicine was a powerful and a dangerous one2 but it was a most potent diuretic1 and he had administered it with success in dropsical cases in the ,vienna ,hospital4 ,he recommended particularly a colchitic oxymel4 ,he reports favourably on it as a remedy for asthma and in mucous catarrh1 but does not suggest it as a remedy for gout4 ,in the early part of the eighteenth century the bulbs of colchicum were frequently recommended by physicians of repute to be carried in the pocket or worn round the neck as an amulet4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century a ,french proprietary article called ,d',husson's ,eau ,medicinale became popular4 ,its inventor was an army officer1 and it is not known how he acquired his medical knowledge4 ,i have no information as to the price at which the ,eau ,medicinale was sold in ,france2 but from some interesting communications to the ,pharmaceutical ,journal published in #aheb from medical men1 ,thomas ,bushell1 of #aag1 ,crawford ,street1 ,portman ,square1 and ,george ,wallis1 ,m4,d41 many details have been collected1 among them being the statement made by ,mr4 ,bushell that the proprietors of the ,eau ,medicinale were a firm of foreign perfumers in ,bond ,street2 that they told him the sale had at that time 7#aheb7 quite died out2 that four or five years previously they had sold a few bottles at #is4 #f;d4 each1 but that when it was in demand the price was #bbs4 a bottle4 ,the bottles each contained #b fluid drachms1 and the dose was #a drachm1 to be repeated if necessary in four to six hours4 ,according to ,pereira1 ,cadet and ,parmentier had endeavoured to ascertain the composition of this medicine in #aghb2 but they only arrived at the conclusion that it contained no metallic or mineral substance1 and that it was a vinous infusion of some bitter plant4 ,alyon1 another ,french inquirer1 had guessed gratiola2 an ,english doctor 7,moore7 had diagnosed that it was a vinous infusion of white hellebore with laudanum4 ,mr4 ,bushell1 quoting from some references to the medicine in the ,edinburgh ,medical and ,surgical ,journal of #ahaj1 relates the experience of a ,dr4 ,edwin ,godden ,jones1 who had come to know of ,d',husson's remedy while on the ,continent with a gentleman who was a great sufferer from gout1 and who had derived much benefit from the nostrum4 ,the ,edinburgh journal also mentioned that ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 the ,president of the ,royal ,society1 having experienced the most extraordinary deliverance from his arch-enemy1 made ,d',husson's preparation his pocket companion4 ,attempts to discover the secret of the mixture still resulted unsatisfactorily4 ,rhododendron1 chrysanthemum1 digitalis1 tobacco1 and elaterium were among the new guesses made4 ,in #ahad1 however1 a ,mr4 ,want published a statement in the ,medical and ,physical ,journal indicating that colchicum was the basis of ,d',husson's remedy4 ,mr4 ,bushell states that ,want had previously made known his discovery in a popular journal entitled ,the ,monthly4 ,there are three stories of the means by which he came by his information4 ,he himself said he got the first hint from ,alexander of ,tralles1 who recommended a remedy 8,hermodactylon0 for the cure of gout1 and that the ,hermodactylus from which that was compounded corresponded with colchicum4 ,dr4 ,wallis1 of ,bristol1 however1 8in justice to a departed friend10 wrote that ,want had derived his knowledge entirely from ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,haden1 when the latter was a medical officer of the ,brompton ,dispensary4 ,dr4 ,wallis says that in #ahaa ,mr4 ,haden was practising in ,derby with his father1 an eminent surgeon of that town4 ,they had a patient who was anxious to try the ,eau ,medicinale4 ,the younger ,haden examined the stuff and came to the conclusion that it was made from colchicum1 with which he had some acquaintance through having made the oxymel4 ,after many experiments he was convinced of the accuracy of his opinion4 ,soon after ,mr4 ,haden left ,derby and settled in ,sloane ,street1 where he commenced the publication of the ,medical ,intelligencer1 the predecessor of the ,lancet4 ,at the ,brompton ,dispensary he introduced colchicum in the treatment of gout4 ,dr4 ,wallis alludes to the annoyance caused to his friend by what he characterises as literary petty larceny1 forestalling his own communication on the subject4 ,the third story told by ,mr4 ,bushell is the most curious of the three4 ,he was apprenticed near ,covent ,garden two or three years after ,mr4 ,want had published his discovery1 and frequently went to ,mr4 ,grimley1 a herbalist1 in the ,garden1 to buy medicinal herbs4 ,mr4 ,grimley1 he said1 told him that ,want had 8discovered0 the colchicum secret in this wise3--,his wife's father having a bad attack of gout1 a nursemaid in ,mrs4 ,want's service told them that she once lived with a little ,french gentleman who made a famous medicine for gout called 8,eau ,medicinale40 ,he kept his materials very secret1 but this promising young detective had managed to secure a piece of the principal ingredient used1 which she then gave to ,want4 ,want took it to ,grimley1 and between them they made out what it was4 ,grimley further said that he had been in the habit of selling quantities of colchicum to a little ,frenchman who used to come in a hackney coach and take with him #a to #a cwt4 at a time4 ,want's tincture was made from #a part of the fresh bulb of the colchicum autumnale and #b parts of alcohol #cf2 dose #e or #f drops in a tablespoonful of water4 ,sir ,everard ,home1 who studied colchicum preparations with much care1 preferred a wine made from the corms2 and he believed that he had succeeded in removing the deleterious constituents of the medicine by filtering out a deposit which formed after a few days of maceration4 ,williams and ,haden advocated the employment of the seeds4 ,copland1 ,bushell1 and ,frost advised the flowers4 ,drying the corms was found to reduce considerably their medicinal and poisonous effects4 ,prosper ,alpin states that the ,egyptian women of his time were in the habit of taking as many as ten bulbs of some hermodactyl after roasting them like chestnuts at bedtime4 ,they believed they produced the embonpoint which was regarded as a female attraction4 ,,james',s ,,powder4 ,the antimonial preparation which attained the most permanent popularity was ,dr4 ,james's ,fever ,powders4 ,the inventor1 ,dr4 ,robert ,james1 was a life-long friend of ,dr4 ,johnson4 ,the two went to school together at ,lichfield1 in which town ,james at one time practised4 ,he was also in practice in ,sheffield and ,birmingham before he came to ,london4 ,he first settled in ,southampton ,street1 ,covent ,garden1 but removed later to ,craven ,street1 ,strand4 ,he was a man of considerable attainments1 and is described as cordial1 impetuous1 improvident1 but thoroughly loved by his associates4 ,he was the author of a massive ,dictionary of ,medicine1 and ,dr4 ,johnson said of him3 8,no man brought more mind to his profession40 ,dr4 ,munk1 in his 8,roll of the ,college of ,physicians10 adds to this1 however3 8,but he tarnished the fair fame he might otherwise have attained by patenting his powder and falsifying the specification40 ,dr4 ,james died in #aggf at the age of #gc4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,james4 ,the patent for his fever powder was taken out in #agdg4 ,it is on record that ,johnson introduced him to ,john ,newbery1 a noted bookseller of the time1 who had a shop at the corner of ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard and ,ludgate ,hill4 ,newbery became the agent and part proprietor of the medicine4 ,it is still owned and prepared by the direct descendants of ,john ,newbery1 who carry on business in ,charterhouse ,square4 ,the specification of the patent directs to 8,take antimony1 calcine it with a continual protracted heat in a flat unglazed earthen vessel1 adding to it from time to time a sufficient quantity of any animal oil and salt well dephlegmated2 then boil it in melted nitre for a considerable time1 and separate the powder from the nitre by dissolving it in water40 ,the doctor adds to his specification a process for a mercurial pill with antimony1 made by amalgamating equal parts of martial regulus of antimony with 8pure silver0 7sic71 adding a proportionable quantity of sal ammoniac1 then distilling off the mercury and using it again4 ,this performance was to be repeated nine or ten times1 the mercury being at last dissolved in spirits of nitre 7nitric acid71 distilled to dryness1 the caput mortuum calcined till it was of a golden colour1 and this powder1 after spirits of wine had been burnt upon it1 was ready to be made into pills4 ,dr4 ,james gave the moderate dose of the antimonial powder at #cj grains1 and that of the mercurial at #a grain4 ,paris says that ,james 8usually combined his antimonial powder with some mercurial1 and always followed it up with large doses of bark40 ,he suggests that the adjuncts largely accounted for the success of the medicine4 ,the fever powder acquired great fame in ,james's lifetime1 and after his death imitations were numerous4 ,one of these is of interest because of an advertisement against it written by ,dr4 ,johnson4 ,the man who ventured to imitate the genuine product was named ,hawes1 and he had once been in the employment of ,dr4 ,james4 ,he professed that he had learned how to make the powder during his service1 but ,dr4 ,james signed an affidavit against his pretensions a short time before his death4 ,later ,hawes asserted that when the doctor made that affidavit he was not in the possession of his mental faculties4 ,to this ,francis ,newbery replied by an advertisement quoting affidavits by many of ,james's patients and acquaintances4 ,a paragraph was appended which ,newbery himself stated was written by ,dr4 ,johnson1 and as a section of literature rather foreign to the famous author1 it seems worthy of reproduction4 ,it ran thus3-- 8,the public will now be fully enabled to judge of ,mr4 ,hawes's pretensions to the knowledge of this medicine2 and they will determine what degree of credit they ought to pay to the assertions of a man who has made so daring an attempt to impose upon their understanding2 who in contradiction to ,dr4 ,james's deposition has represented himself as possessing a secret with which he was never entrusted1 and as having performed operations at which he was never present2 and who1 to invalidate the ,doctor's testimony1 has declared him to be reduced to fatuity at a time when the vigour of his mind was known and acknowledged by the physician and surgeon who attended him1 and by patients of the highest rank who continued to entrust him with health and life40 ,in #aggd ,dr4 ,james patented an 8analeptic pill40 ,it was composed of his own fever powder with pil4 rufi and gum ammoniacum1 the last two ingredients to be dissolved in an underground cave furnished with the conductors of electric fire4 ,the first official substitute for ,james's powder was introduced into the ,london ,pharmacopia of #aghg4 ,the formula was devised by a ,dr4 ,higgins1 and the experiments were made in the laboratory of the ,society of ,apothecaries4 ,it was composed of equal parts of tersulphuret of antimony and hartshorn shavings4 ,this was found to be stronger than the original1 and further experiments were made for the ,college by ,dr4 ,pearson1 who reported in #agia that ,james's powder consisted of about equal parts of oxide of antimony and phosphate of lime4 ,the formulas in the ,london ,pharmacopias of #ahji and #ahbd were consequently reduced in strength1 one part of the antimonial salt with two parts of horn shavings being substituted4 ,the ingredients were heated to redness in a crucible and afterwards powdered4 ,for the ,pharmacopia of #ahea1 ,mr4 ,richard ,phillips experimented1 and mainly confirmed ,dr4 ,pearson's results4 ,the formula remained as in #ahbd4 ,meanwhile the ,edinburgh ,pharmacopia continued to adopt the stronger combination1 while the ,dublin ,pharmacopia prescribed a different preparation altogether1 tartarised antimony and phosphate of soda solutions being mixed1 and a precipitate consisting of teroxide of antimony and phosphate of lime being produced by precipitation by the addition of a solution of chloride of calcium and ammonia4 ,this was a modification of a process advocated by ,chevenix in a paper published in ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahja4 ,his process was recommended by ,abernethy and many other of the leading practitioners of his time4 ,in the ,british ,pharmacopias the simple formula of one part of antimonious oxide and two parts of calcium phosphate has been adopted4 ,the name of ,dr4 ,james's ,powder as a synonym has now been dropped4 ,it has been suspected that ,dr4 ,james did not actually invent the powder1 but adopted it from an ,italian recipe which was certainly popular when he introduced it4 ,in ,colborne's 8,english ,dispensatory10 published in #agef1 directions are given for making ,mr4 ,lisle's ,powder for ,fevers1 sent to the author1 he says1 by a friend in ,italy4 ,hartshorn shavings are to be boiled in a large quantity of water for six hours2 the water is then to be strained off1 the hartshorn to be dried by a slow fire1 and finely powdered4 ,equal weights of this and of diaphoretic antimony are to be heated in a crucible1 stirring all the time with a long iron1 for eight hours or as long as it smokes4 ,this powder is said to have been in great reputation for some years1 having been successful in cases when hardly any hope seemed left4 ,twenty grains is indicated as a moderate dose at not less than six hours' interval1 and it is noted that the first and second doses often cause vomiting4 ,whether this was the original of ,james's invention or not it may be presumed that the formula was a guide to those doctors and chemists who were busying themselves with the analysis of his powder4 ,another claim of precedence was made by a patent medicine dealer of ,london named ,william ,baker1 who alleged that ,dr4 ,james's process was an infringement of a patent or at least a copy of a formula invented by a ,german named ,schwanberg4 ,medical opinion has varied concerning the relative merits of the proprietary medicine and its official imitation4 ,christison in his ,dispensatory 7#ahdb7 expresses an opinion which was very generally held at least in his time when he says1 8,no one can deny that the antimonial powder of the ,pharmacopias is an irregular preparation inferior in activity as well as certainty to the nostrum sold by ,dr4 ,james's representatives40 ,some dispensers will recollect that up to recent years it was not at all unusual for prescribers specially to order 8,pulvis ,jacobi ,vera40 ,that ,dr4 ,james was a man of great ability and industry is testified by his great ,dictionary and also by his 8,pharmacopia ,universalis or ,new ,english ,dispensatory40 ,the latter is a most valuable guide to the ,pharmacy of the eighteenth century1 and is not only full in its information but particularly advanced in much of its criticism4 ,it may be of interest to add that the famous novelist ,g4 ,p4 ,r4 ,james was a grandson of the ,doctor4 ,,st4 ,,john ,,long',s ,,liniment4 ,john ,st4 ,john ,long after he became famous was always reticent about his origin2 but it was believed that he was the son of a basket maker1 some said of the name of ,driscoll1 that he was born in or near ,doneraile1 and in his youth assisted his father3 that later1 being possessed of some artistic talent1 he practised as a portrait painter in ,dublin and afterwards in ,limerick4 ,an advertisement appeared in a ,limerick paper of ,feb4 #aj1 #ahba1 which was as follows3-- 8,mr4 ,john ,st4 ,john ,long1 ,historical and ,portrait ,painter2 the only pupil of ,daniel ,richardson1 ,esq41 late of ,dublin1 proposes during his stay in ,limerick to take portraits from ,italian ,head to whole length2 any person desirous of getting theirs done in historical1 hunting1 shooting1 fishing1 or any other character2 or their family grouped in one or two paintings from life-size to miniature1 so as to make an historical subject1 choosing one from history10 c4 ,the advertisement went on to announce that specimens might be seen at his 7the artist's7 residence1 #aaf1 ,george's ,st4 ,he was also willing to take views in the country1 and would give instructions 8to a limited number of pupils of respectability40 ,he succeeded fairly well in ,limerick1 but evidently not well enough to satisfy his ambition4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,,st4 ,,john ,,long4 7,from a print in the ,british ,museum47 ,he is next found in ,london1 where he got some employment from ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence1 assisting him in his studio2 was elected a member of the ,royal ,society of ,literature1 also of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,one of his occupations was to colour anatomical drawings for the professors and pupils of one of the minor surgical schools of ,london4 ,this perhaps suggested the opening of his brilliant career as an unqualified doctor4 ,his treatment consisted of the application of a liniment1 and the inhalation of a vapour4 ,the liniment had the extraordinary virtue of selecting between sound and unsound tissues4 ,if the part to which it was applied was healthy no effect would be produced2 but if there were seeds of disease beneath the surface the liniment might be relied upon to draw out the virus which could then be easily disposed of2 thus tubercles on the lungs were extracted and the disease cured4 ,consumption was the principal disease which ,long professed to treat2 but gout1 rheumatism1 palsy1 liver disorders1 and other frequent complaints were dealt with by him4 ,he was a handsome ,irishman with fascinating manners1 and the gift of inducing confidence4 ,his consulting rooms in ,harley ,street were crowded1 chiefly by ladies1 from #h a4m4 to #d p4m41 and all the day patients were seated round a piece of furniture which looked like a piano but from which a number of tubes extruded supplied with mouth pieces from which they were inhaling or smoking the medicated vapour4 ,hopeless cases he declined2 those which he preferred were those which were in the imaginary stage4 ,at the height of his popularity ,st4 ,john ,long was making an income of over #ac1jjj a year 7,gent4 ,mag4 #ahdc74 ,that was in #ahbi4 ,the next year1 #ahcj1 he was tried for manslaughter1 a young ,irish lady1 ,miss ,catherine ,cushin1 having died after1 and it was alleged in consequence of1 his treatment4 ,a number of aristocratic patients gave evidence in his favour1 and ,mr4 ,justice ,park1 who tried him1 summed up strongly on his behalf4 ,but the jury found him guilty1 and he was sentenced to pay a fine of #bej or to be imprisoned until the money was paid4 ,long ostentatiously produced a roll of notes1 counted out the amount1 and then drove off from the court in the ,marquis of ,sligo's carriage4 ,next year a coroner's jury returned another verdict of manslaughter against him in connection with the death of a ,mrs4 ,lloyd4 ,he was again tried but on this occasion was acquitted4 ,strong articles against him appeared in many of the principal newspapers1 but his aristocratic clients as a rule remained faithful to him4 ,he published a book in defence of his system and included in it a number of extraordinary testimonials1 together with a series of smart attacks on the medical profession4 ,he retained his popularity to the last2 but it was not to be for long4 ,he was attacked by the disease over which he had claimed to exercise so much power1 and he died from consumption in #ahcg in the #cgth year of his age4 ,a graceful monument was erected in ,kensal ,green ,cemetery to his memory by his patients and admirers 8to show how much its inhabitant was respected by those who knew his worth1 and the benefits derived from his remedial discovery40 ,his estate became the subject of a lengthy litigation1 the principal claimant being an elderly woman of evidently humble surroundings1 who1 it was proved1 was his lawful wife4 ,he had married her when a lad1 but had afterwards induced her to agree to an amicable separation4 ,it was then remembered how steadfastly the charlatan had resisted the blandishments of his society friends1 many of whom in very high circles had shown their infatuation with the attractive ,irishman4 ,the formula and good will in the liniment were ultimately sold for ten thousand pounds1 but it does not seem to have retained its popularity after the personality of its inventor had been removed4 ,nevertheless it possessed certain properties which were thought by some of its users to be little short of miraculous4 ,for example1 when applied to the skin the particular part where the pain was most severe would develop redness quicker than the other parts4 ,in the course of a little time1 the rubbing being continued1 a fluid varying in colour according1 as was believed1 to the nature of the illness1 would ooze from the skin1 though the cuticle remained unbroken4 ,lastly1 the treatment being still continued1 the part affected would gradually resume its healthy appearance4 ,in the ,lancet of ,june #bc1 #ahch1 may be found the report of a meeting of the 8,medico-,botanic ,society10 held on the #acth of that month1 at which ,dr4 ,macreight communicated the result of an investigation into the composition of this famous liniment1 an imitation of which had been made by himself and ,mr4 ,fownes1 the well-known chemist4 ,the explanation of the analysis was accompanied by a good many disparaging comments on ,long1 and suggestions that there was nothing very wonderful about his liniment after all4 ,the formula which ,dr4 ,macreight and ,mr4 ,fownes devised for a liniment which they said corresponded exactly with the quack compound was as follows3-- ,yolk of one egg2 pure oil of turpentine1 #a oz42 strong acetic acid1 #a oz42 distilled water1 #c oz4 ,dr4 ,macreight notices one of ,st4 ,john ,long's recommendations to apply a cabbage leaf to the skin when the discharge had been obtained1 and remarks 8this in many respects is superior to a common cataplasm1 which is clumsy and dries up rapidly2 but of course no regular practitioner would employ cabbage leaves while the simple and elegant contrivance1 lint covered with oiled silk1 was within his reach40 ,perhaps if a medical man had constructed the cabbage leaf1 it might have been also regarded as 8a simple and elegant contrivance40 ,,seignette',s ,,salts4 7,soda ,tartarata1 ,sodii potassio-tartras1 ,rochelle salts1 ,sel de ,seignette1 ,sal polychrestum ,seignette47 ,peter ,seignette was an apothecary at ,rochelle in the later half of the seventeenth century4 ,he had at least a local scientific reputation1 and a paper of his describing certain remarkable natural products of his locality was printed in the 8,transactions0 of the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris4 ,a little before #afgb ,seignette was making some soluble tartar 7tartrate of potash71 and inadvertently used carbonate of soda with the cream of tartar instead of carbonate of potash4 ,at that time the distinction between the fixed alkalies had not been discovered4 ,the product was a salt different from that which he had expected1 and ,seignette was ready to believe that he had made a valuable discovery4 ,he ascertained that his new salt had laxative properties1 he called it ,sal ,polychrestum1 and advertised it by means of prospectuses1 or handbills4 ,from one of these it appears that he sold it at 8#bj sols la prise10 say #aj;d4 for a dose4 ,each dose was sold in an envelope on which appeared the design of a goose4 ,one of the prospectuses states that ,seignette's salt was sold in ,paris by ,lemery1 but another refers customers to the 8,messieurs ,seignette1 at present at ,paris1 lodging on the ,quay de le ,megisserie40 ,peter ,seignette died in #agaf1 and his son continued to sell the powder4 ,many attempts to analyse it were made by pharmacists1 but it remained a secret until #agca in which year both ,boulduc and ,geoffroi1 both noted pharmaciens of ,paris1 solved the problem4 ,boulduc's paper on the subject was published in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of ,sciences1 ,paris1 and ,geoffroi sent his account to ,sir ,hans ,sloane of ,london and it was published in the 8,philosophical ,transactions10 7#dcf1 p4 #cg74 ,sal ,polychrestum 7salt of many virtues7 was a name which had been adopted a few years before ,seignette made his1 by ,christopher ,glaser1 apothecary to ,louis ,,xiv4 and the ,duke of ,orleans4 ,seignette's salt pushed ,glaser's out of popularity to some extent1 so that the latter is generally designated ,sal ,polychrestum ,glaseri in the old books4 ,glaser made his preparation by mixing nitre and sulphur in equal proportions1 then putting the mixture1 a spoonful at a time1 into a red-hot crucible4 ,the powder would deflagrate1 and the next spoonful was not to be added until the flame of the first had gone out4 ,the mixture was kept in fusion for four or five hours1 and after cooling was dissolved1 the solution filtered and evaporated to dryness4 ,sulphate of potash with perhaps a little free sulphur was produced1 and this has long represented ,glaser's ,sal ,polychrestum or ,sal de ,duobus1 as it was also called4 ,seignette's salt was first admitted into the ,london ,pharmacopia of #aghh under the name of ,natron ,tartarizatum which was altered in #ahji to ,soda ,tartarizata4 ,,singleton',s ,,golden ,,eye ,,ointment4 ,an allusion to this renowned proprietary preparation will be found under ,citrine ,ointment1 this ,vol41 page #abf1 in connection with the several discordant guesses as to its composition which have been published by eminent authorities4 ,the ointment is mentioned in this section also because of its long history4 ,according to the statement published by its present proprietor it is the oldest proprietary remedy still sold in this country4 ,the present proprietor1 ,mr4 ,stephen ,green1 inherited it from his grandfather of the same name who died in #ahgd4 ,he acquired the property by marrying 7in #ahbe7 ,selina ,folgham1 who brought to him one-fifth share in the rights as a part of her marriage settlement1 and after her death in #ahca the elder ,stephen ,green bought up the shares of other relatives4 ,this ,selina ,folgham was a daughter of another ,selina ,folgham1 ne ,singleton1 granddaughter of ,thomas ,singleton who died in #aggi1 and whose tomb1 ,i understand1 may still be seen in ,lambeth churchyard4 ,this ,thomas ,singleton was the first of the ,singletons4 ,before his time the ointment appears to have been known as 8,dr4 ,johnson's ,golden ,ointment10 and the present owners claim that it was first made by a 8,dr4 ,johnson0 in #aeif1 and that it was left by him to a certain ,george ,hind whose great-granddaughter married the ,thomas ,singleton already mentioned4 ,,mrs4 ,,stephens',s ,,cure ,,for ,,stone4 ,perhaps the most notable recognition of a nostrum in ,english history was the ,act of ,parliament passed in #agci entitled 8,an ,act for providing a reward to ,joanna ,stephens upon a proper discovery to be made by her for the use of the publick of the ,medicines prepared by her for the ,cure of the ,stone40 ,mrs4 ,stephens was a widow and professed to have received the recipe from her late husband4 ,a number of persons in the higher classes of society had been cured1 or believed they had been1 by taking her remedy1 and in the year #agch a movement was started to buy the formula from her for the benefit of the public4 ,this was specially advocated in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 and the lady being approached expressed her willingness to sell the recipe for #e1jjj4 ,an account was opened at ,drummond's ,bank1 and #ejj was subscribed in the first few days4 ,dr4 ,david ,hartley1 of ,bath1 was the chief organiser of the fund1 and the ,bishop of ,bath and ,wells1 the ,principal of ,brasenose ,college1 ,oxford1 and other responsible persons wrote letters testifying their knowledge of the good effects produced by ,mrs4 ,stephens's treatment4 ,hartley published an account of 8,ten ,cases of ,persons who have taken ,mrs4 ,stephens's ,medicines for ,stone40 ,when ,hartley died ,warburton in his letters referred to him as 8a philanthropic visionary1 a martyr to ,mrs4 ,stephens's medicine40 ,it is said in some accounts that ,horace ,walpole was one of ,mrs4 ,stephens's cures4 ,the subscription list was kept going until the end of the year1 and though it included dukes1 earls1 bishops1 and several doctors of medicine1 only a total of #a1cef #cs4 was promised4 ,evidently some strong influence was therefore brought to bear on the ,government1 for early in the next year the ,act referred to was passed and the trustees named in the ,act being satisfied that ,mrs4 ,stephens had made the full discovery required1 the #e1jjj was duly paid to her4 ,mrs4 ,stephens's 8full discovery0 was published in the ,london ,gazette of ,june #ai1 #agci4 ,it was very full indeed4 ,omitting superfluous details it ran as follows3-- 8,my medicines consist of a powder1 decoction and pills4 ,the powder is made by first taking hens' egg-shells1 cleaning and drying them1 crushing them up in the hands1 and putting them into a three-pint crucible1 lightly1 so that they will fill about three-fourths of its capacity4 ,cover the crucible with a tile and place it in the midst of a strong1 clear fire1 above and below4 ,keep the crucible in the fire until the egg-shells are calcined to a greyish-white1 and have acquired an acrid1 salt taste4 ,this will need eight hours at least4 ,the calcined shells are to be kept in a dry1 clean1 open earthenware pan1 about three parts filled1 in a dry room for two months exactly4 ,they will then have become of a milder taste and the part which is sufficiently calcined will be in a powder of such fineness that it will pass through a hair sieve1 which has to be done4 8,in like manner take garden snails with their shells1 cleaned from dirt1 put them in a crucible whole1 put the crucible in the fire as before1 and keep it there until the snails have done smoaking1 which will be about one hour4 ,they are then to be rubbed to a fine powder in a mortar1 the two powders are to be mixed1 sifted through a cypress sieve1 bottled in close-stopped bottles1 and kept in a dry place for use40 8,i have generally added a small quantity of ,swines-,cresses1 burnt to a blackness and rubbed fine1 but this was only with a view to disguise it10 adds the lady1 conscientiously4 8,the egg-shells may be prepared at any time of the year1 but it is best to do them in summer4 ,the snails ought only to be prepared in ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 or ,august1 and ,i esteem those best which are done in the first of those months40 ,the decoction was made by beating #d oz4 of best alicant soap in a mortar with a large spoonful of ,swines-,cresses burnt to blackness1 and as much honey as would make the whole of the consistence of a paste4 ,make this into a ball4 ,this ball was to be sliced and boiled for half an hour in two quarts of soft water1 with #a oz4 each of chamomile flowers1 sweet fennel1 parsley1 and burdock leaves4 ,the boiled liquid to be strained and sweetened with honey4 ,the pills were to be made of equal quantities by measure of snails calcined as before1 wild carrot seeds1 burdock seeds1 ashen-keys1 hips and haws1 all burnt to blackness1 8or which is the same thing1 till they have done smoaking40 ,the mixed powders to be passed through a cypress sieve1 and a large spoonful or #d oz4 of best alicant soap1 and a sufficiency of honey added to make pills2 each ounce of the mass to be divided into sixty pills4 ,one dram 7avoirdupois7 of the powder was to be taken three times a day in a large teacupful of white wine1 cyder1 or small punch1 and half a pint of the decoction had to be drunk after each dose4 ,if the medicine caused much pain an opiate was to be given4 ,the bowels were to be kept regular with lenitive electuary or some other laxative4 ,the pills were to be given in fits of gravel or suppression of urine1 five every hour2 or ten or fifteen might be taken daily to prevent formation of gravel stones in constitutions subject to breed them4 ,salt meats1 red wine1 and milk were to be avoided4 ,the patient was to take as few liquids as possible1 and to have but little exercise4 ,the object aimed at was that the urine might be impregnated with the medicine1 which would then dissolve the calcareous deposits4 ,mrs4 ,stephens died in #aggd4 ,the publication of her formula undoubtedly stimulated investigation into the employment of alkaline medicines in the treatment of stone1 but her 8cases0 were not substantiated by later evidence4 ,one in particular was that of a man who was experimented on while the proposal to buy the recipe was under consideration4 ,he was unquestionably suffering from stone1 and he soon improved and in time seemed to be quite cured after taking the remedies4 ,after his death examination showed that the stone was still in his bladder2 but it had made for itself a little sac in which it was so tightly embedded that it never caused any inconvenience4 ,pereira1 summing up the evidence in regard to the ,stephens' treatment1 says it cannot be doubted that many patients obtained relief from the remedies1 8but no cure was effected2 that is1 no calculus was dissolved4 ,for in the bladder of each of the four persons whose cure was certified by the trustees the stone was found after their death40 ,i have not traced the report of the four cases2 only of the one referred to above4 ,,earl ,,of ,,rochester ,,as ,,quack4 ,the witty but profligate ,earl of ,rochester1 well known in history as the boon companion of ,charles ,,ii1 especially in his debaucheries1 frequently gave offence to that monarch by his impudence or his sarcasms4 ,his best known epigram is that referring to ,our ,sovereign ,lord the ,king ,whose word no man relies on ,who never said a foolish thing ,and never did a wise one4 ,on several occasions ,rochester was ordered to leave the ,court1 but ,charles always sent for him to come back again4 ,in one of these absences it is recorded that he took lodgings in ,tower ,street under the name of ,alexander ,bindo and practised for a time as a quack doctor4 ,it is believed that he had a stall on ,tower ,hill on which he spread an assortment of remedies and cosmetics1 and that he especially cultivated the patronage of women1 to whom he gave advice4 ,this must have been about the year #afgg4 ,in a book published in #agaj1 giving the poetical works and speeches of ,sir ,charles ,sedley by ,captain ,ayloff1 is printed a copy of what purports to be one of ,rochester's harangues on ,tower ,hill4 ,no evidence of its authenticity is offered1 and as the ,earl was undoubtedly gifted with a glib tongue and plenty of talent it would seem unlikely that he would trouble himself to write out1 or if he did write it1 to preserve such rubbish4 ,the 8,dictionary of ,national ,biography10 however1 alludes to it without questioning its genuineness1 but does not quote any part of it4 ,the following specimens of the ,earl's alleged patter are quoted from an old part of ,notes and ,queries3-- 8,i am the famed ,paracelsus of the age1 by name ,segnior ,doloso ,euprontorio1 son of that wonder-working ,chymist lately deceased in ,alsatia and famed through all ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america2 from the oriental exaltation of ,titan to his occidental declination1 who in pity to his own dear self and other mortals has by the prayers and solicitations of divers ,kings1 ,emperors1 ,princes1 ,lords1 ,gentlemen1 and other ,personages been prevailed with to oblige the world with notice to all persons1 young and old1 lame and blind1 that they may know where to repair for their speedy cure in all ,cephalgies1 ,orantalgies1 ,paralitical ,paroxysms1 ,rheumatisms1 ,gout1 ,fevers1 ,fractures1 ,dislocations1 and all other ,distempers incident to the human ,body1 external or internal1 acute or chronic1 curable or incurable4 8,my medicines are the ,quintessence of ,pharmaceutical ,energy2 the ,cures ,i have done are beyond the art of the whole ,world4 8,i have an excellent hypontical1 captical1 odoriferous1 carminative1 renovative1 stiptical1 corroboratory ,balsam of ,balsams1 made of dead men's fat1 rosin1 and goose grease4 ,it is the true ,pharmacopia of ,hermes ,trismegistus1 the true ,pentemagogon of the triple kingdom1 which works seven several ways1 and is seven years preparing1 which being exactly completed secundem artem by ,fermentations1 ,solutions1 ,sublimations1 ,putrefactions1 ,rectifications1 and ,quidlibelifications in ,balnea ,mari in the ,crucible1 becomes ,nature's ,palladium1 ,health's ,magazine4 ,one drachm of which is worth a ,bushel of ,march dust4 ,for if any of you chance to have your heads cut off or your brains beat out1 ten drops of this seasonably applied will recall the fleeting spirits reigning through the deposed ,archeus1 and in six minutes will restore the departed ,life to its pristine vigour with all its functions1 vital1 rational and animal40 ,the quack goes on to recount some of his cures4 ,among them were the god-mother of ,prester ,john of a stupendous ,dolor in her ,os ,sacrum2 the ,empress of ,boolampoo of a ,cramp she got in her tongue by eating ,pork and buttered parsnips2 an ,alderman of ,grand ,cairo of a scarlet burning raging fever of which he died2 the ,emperor of ,morocco1 who lay seven years sick of the plague and was cured in #db minutes so that he danced the ,saraband1 ,flip-flap1 and ,somerset4 ,the orator announced that he was to be found at the ,golden ,ball in ,fop ,alley whenever he was not on ,tower ,hill2 for he had devoted himself wholly to serve the ,public4 ,,warburg',s ,,tincture4 ,dr4 ,carl ,warburg1 an ,austrian doctor1 compounded a tincture some seventy years ago which soon acquired an extraordinary reputation in the treatment of agues and malarial fevers4 ,although its formula was not disclosed1 the ,austrian ,ministry of ,health about #ahdh put it on the list of medicines which had to be stocked by all pharmacists1 fixed the maximum price at which it should be sold to the public at #b fl4 #cj kr4 7about #es471 and established a central depot in ,vienna for its manufacture1 paying ,dr4 ,warburg a salary for overseeing its preparation4 ,a little later a medical commission was appointed to examine the tincture and draw up a formula for it4 ,the commissioners formed themselves into three sections1 and each section made an independent analysis4 ,all agreed that the tincture was an alcoholic preparation of quinine1 aloes1 camphor1 and saffron2 zedoary root and angelica were guessed at by two of the sections1 and rhubarb by one4 ,the formula adopted was ,hepatic aloes1 and zedoary root1 of each #a drachm2 ,angelica root1 and camphor1 of each #b grains2 ,saffron1 #c grains1 spirit of wine1 #c ounces4 ,dissolve1 filter1 and add #cj grains of sulphate of quinine4 ,the publication of this formula did not apparently interfere with the sale of the proprietary article1 which might have continued if the inventor had not been persuaded to surrender his secret4 ,about the middle of the century ,warburg's ,tincture had acquired great reputation in ,india4 ,lt4-,general ,sir ,mark ,cubbon ,k4,c4,b41 ,commissioner of the ,mysore province1 seems to have first made it known4 ,at his own expense he supplied #a1ejj bottles to the medical officers of his commission4 ,subsequently remarkable evidence was given before a ,royal ,commission1 appointed to inquire into the health of the ,indian ,army1 by ,major-,general ,cottin ,r4,e41 who stated that many great engineering works carried on in 8deadly jungles0 had been brought to a successful issue mainly through the protection afforded to the workmen by this tincture4 ,in an article published in the ,lancet1 ,november #ae1 #ahge1 ,professor ,w4 ,c4 ,maclean1 ,inspector ,general of the ,army1 gave still more striking testimony4 ,he said he had treated remittent fevers of every degree of severity contracted in ,india1 ,china1 and the ,gold ,coast1 and had never known quinine when given alone act in the characteristic manner of this tincture4 ,a dose of #i grains of quinine in ,warburg's ,tincture would often not only arrest the exacerbation of the fever but would frequently prevent its recurrence4 ,he had never known quinine have that effect4 ,in the same article ,professor ,maclean published the formula for the tincture which ,dr4 ,warburg had confided to him on the advice of his friends4 ,it was as follows3--,socotrine aloes #a lb42 ,east ,india rhubarb1 angelica seeds1 confectio ,damocratis1 of each1 #d oz42 elecampane1 fennel seed1 saffron1 prepared chalk1 of each #b oz42 gentian root1 zedoary root1 cubebs1 picked myrrh1 camphor1 larch agaric1 of each #a oz4 ,digest these ingredients in #ejj ounces of proof spirit in a water bath for #ab hours1 express1 and add #aj oz4 of sulphate of quinine4 ,replace the mixture in the water bath till the quinine is dissolved1 and filter4 ,the tincture was supplied in #a oz4 bottles1 and oz4 was given for a dose after the bowels had been evacuated4 ,the other oz4 was given #c hours after4 ,three years later ,professor ,maclean wrote to the ,times stating that ,dr4 ,carl ,warburg was living in ,england in poverty4 ,the large fortune he had made from his tincture at one time had disappeared1 and the publication of his formula had resulted in the loss of his income4 ,he asked that the ,indian ,government would make some provision for him in return for the publication of his valuable secret4 ,the ,india ,office made a grant of #bjj to ,dr4 ,warburg in #ahhb1 but in ,june1 #ahij1 the ,hon4 ,sydney ,holland wrote to ,the ,chemist and ,druggist appealing for further assistance4 ,the old man was then #hf and ,mr4 ,holland and ,professor ,maclean had collected enough to provide him with #aes4 a week for the rest of his life4 ,this was the last heard of the old gentleman1 and his case may be remembered as a caution to over-scrupulous inventors of remedies4 ,,ward',s ,,remedies4 ,joshua ,ward1 who was born in #afhe and died in #agfa1 was one of the most notorious and successful of ,english quacks4 ,in ,gray's 8,supplement0 and in ,paris's 8,pharmacologia0 he is said to have been a footman and to have obtained his recipes from some monks while travelling on the ,continent with his master4 ,this story is not corroborated by contemporary accounts1 nor is it adopted by the 8,dictionary of ,national ,biography40#c ,from these sources it appears that ,ward came of a good family1 and in early life was associated with his brother ,william in the business of a drysalter in ,thames ,street1 ,london4 ,in #agag he was returned to ,parliament as member for ,marlborough2 but there was either fraud or mistake about this return1 for a ,committee appointed to investigate it reported that not a single vote had been given for ,ward4 ,he was consequently unseated and the other candidate for whom a few votes had been cast got the seat4 ,illustration3 ,,joshua ,,ward1 ,,originator ,,of ,,ward',s ,,paste4 7,from a print in the ,british ,museum47 ,apparently ,ward had got into some political trouble2 the 8,dictionary of ,national ,biography0 suggests that it was in connection with the ,jacobite rising in #agae4 ,he had escaped to ,france before the ,parliamentary inquiry1 and in ,paris he commenced the sale of the pills and drops which he afterwards made so famous in ,london4 ,ward had evidently not finished sowing his political wild oats1 for he somehow became obnoxious to the ,french ,government1 and was only saved from a sojourn in the ,bastille through the intervention of his friend1 ,john ,page1 ,m4,p4 ,in #agcc he obtained a pardon from ,george ,,ii4 and returned to ,england4 ,wards pharmacopia became a rather extensive one4 ,his pills and drops were the principal medicines he concocted2 both were strong antimonial preparations4 ,the pills were composed of glass of antimony 7an oxysulphide of the metal71 #d parts1 mixed with #a part of dragon's blood4 ,this combination was made into #a grain pills4 ,the combination of antimony with a resinous substance had been adopted in several earlier preparations1 mastic being generally preferred4 ,the resin was supposed to 8blunt0 the action of the antimony4 ,the drops were made by dissolving oz4 of glass of antimony in #a quart of ,malaga wine4 ,these powerful medicines were no doubt effective in many cases4 ,both cures and casualties were likely enough to result from them4 ,these were the medicines which ,ward first made famous in ,paris1 and with which he started his career in ,london4 ,ward made besides a 8white drop0 which was an ammoniated solution of nitrate of mercury2 two sweating powders1 one of which was simply 8,dover's10 but with some liquorice powder added2 the other was the same with the addition of white hellebore4 ,his paste for fistula and piles was the original of our ,conf4 ,piper4 ,nig4 ,his 8liquid sweat0 was a wine of opium with saffron1 cinnamon1 and salt of tartar2 his 8dropsy purging powder0 was jalap1 cream of tartar and orris powder in equal proportions2 later the orris was dropped and a small quantity of bole armeniac was substituted1 and his essence for the headache appeared later in the ,pharmacopia as compound camphor liniment4 ,by advertisements of various kinds1 and by a number of startling cures1 ,ward attained astonishing success4 ,george ,,ii4 had unbounded faith in him4 ,at his first interview with the ,king the latter had a dislocated thumb4 ,ward gave it a sharp wrench which incited some strong ,german from the monarch1 but which put the thumb right4 ,subsequently ,george provided the quack with a room in his almonry at ,whitehall1 and paid him to treat poor people there4 ,ward bought besides three houses at ,pimlico and converted them into a hospital where his remedies were administered1 highborn ladies assisting in the conduct of this charity4 ,his patients included ,lord ,chesterfield1 ,gibbon the historian1 and ,fielding the novelist1 as well as a large number of titled persons of less permanent fame1 and when he brought an action for libel against the ,grub ,street ,journal 7which1 however1 he failed in7 ,reynolds1 the ,lord ,chief ,baron1 and ,horace ,walpole were among his witnesses4 ,in #agdh a ,bill was introduced into ,parliament to restrict the practice of medicine1 and it contained a clause specially exempting ,ward by name from its penalties4 ,naturally the qualified members of the medical profession were irritated at the amazing prosperity of this charlatan4 ,queen ,caroline1 it was said1 once asked ,general ,churchill if it was true that ,ward's medicines had made a man mad4 8,yes1 ,madam10 ,churchill replied1 8,mead40 ,dr4 ,richard ,mead was the ,king's physician4 ,ward retained his fame to the end of his life1 and the ,king's liberality made it possible to publish a collection of his recipes which his old friend ,john ,page compiled after his death4 ,but ,george's tenderness to the memory of the great physic-monger did not go to the extent of fulfilling the desire expressed in his will1 that he should be buried in ,westminster ,abbey1 in front of the altar1 or as near thereto as possible4 ,the story of ,ward's treatment of ,george ,,ii4's thumb is thus told by ,dr4 ,george ,henning in a note to ,dr4 ,martin ,listers 8,journey to ,paris0 7this ,vol41 page #aha73 8,george ,,ii being afflicted with a violent pain of the thumb which had baffled the skill of the faculty1 sent for the noted ,dr4 ,joshua ,ward2 who1 having ascertained the nature of the complaint before he was admitted1 provided himself with a suitable nostrum which he concealed in the hollow of his hand4 ,on being introduced he requested permission to examine the affected part1 and gave it so sudden a wrench that the ,king cursed him and kicked his shins4 ,ward bore this very patiently and when the ,king was cool respectfully asked him to move his thumb1 which he did easily and found the pain gone40 ,in reply to the ,king's offer to do something for him ,ward diplomatically replied that the pleasure of serving his ,majesty was quite sufficient reward1 but he would be grateful if the ,king would do something for a nephew4 ,the nephew was made an ensign in the ,guards and ,ward himself was presented with a carriage and pair of horses4 ,in the ,daily ,advertiser of ,june #ajth1 #agcf1 a report is published of an attendance at the court at ,kensington by the ,queen's appointment of ,joshua ,ward1 ,esq41 with eight or ten persons who in extraordinary cases had received great benefit by taking his remedies4 ,her ,majesty was accompanied by three surgeons and several persons of quality1 the patients were examined1 money was distributed to them1 and ,mr4 ,ward was congratulated on his success4 ,in ,lord ,john ,hervey's 8,memoirs of the ,reign of ,george ,,ii0 that eminent courtier 7,pope's 8,lord ,fanny07 relates that he gave ,ward's ,pills to the ,princess ,caroline for rheumatic pains1 and he remarks of them 8an excellent medicine not only in rheumatics1 but in several cases1 which for being so all the physicians and surgeons endeavoured to decry40 ,ward is referred to in the newspapers of the day as 8,spot ,ward40 ,the nickname was acquired in consequence of a claret mark on one side of his face4 ,pope refers to him in the lines3 ,of late1 without the least pretence to skill1 ,ward's grown a famed physician by a pill4 ,ward bequeathed his book of secret formulas to his faithful friend and helper in his earlier troubles1 ,john ,page1 ,m4,p4 ,mr4 ,page was a wealthy man1 and he decided to publish the recipes of those remedies which were most esteemed for 8the noblest of all purposes1 the common good of mankind40 ,so he states in introducing the pamphlet4 ,but a difficulty occurred in respect of these formulas4 ,they did not in all cases represent the medicines which the public had become accustomed to4 ,they had been made for ,ward by a ,mr4 ,john ,white1 a manufacturing chemist of ,twickenham1 and a ,mr4 ,f4 ,j4 ,d',osterman1 who was probably an apothecary1 and those two manufacturers alone knew the exact modifications which had been made in the preparations4 ,in these circumstances the ,king 7,george ,,ii7 consented in his 8most benevolent disposition and extensive bounty0 to make ample provision for these chemists4 ,whereupon the 8,book of ,secrets0 was published4 ,a depot for selling them was established1 and a moderate tariff fixed at which those compounded by the chemists already named could be obtained1 though1 of course1 anybody was at liberty to make similar preparations4 ,mr4 ,page provided that profits after paying expenses should be divided between an ,orphan ,asylum and a ,magdalen ,institution4 ,the following are the recipes for the fistula or pile paste and for the headache essence1 both of which1 being adopted in the ,pharmacopia1 have some historic interest3-- ,paste for the ,fistula3 ,elecampane root1 #a lb42 fennel seeds1 #c lb42 black pepper1 #a lb4 ,all in fine powder1 mixed and sifted4 ,melt together #b lb4 each of honey and white sugar1 and when this mixture is cool knead into it the prescribed powders4 ,the dose was a piece the size of a nutmeg1 to be taken morning1 noon1 and night1 followed by a glass of water or white wine4 ,essence for the ,headache1 etc43 ,french spirit of wine1 #b lb42 ,roch alum in fine powder1 #b oz42 camphor1 cut small1 #d oz42 essence of lemon1 oz42 strongest volatile spirit of sal ammoniac1 #d oz4 ,a little of this essence was to be rubbed on the hand1 and the hand was to be held hard to the part affected until it was dry4 ,ward told ,mr4 ,page that it was this application which had cured ,george ,,ii's thumb4 ,in a lecture on ,hmorrhoids delivered by ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie at ,st4 ,georges ,hospital1 and reported in the ,london ,medical ,gazette1 ,february #c1 #ahce1 that eminent practitioner stated that he had often found the ,confectio ,piperis ,co4 78similar to what was once very celebrated as ,ward's ,paste07 successful when other simple expedients failed4 ,he said it was rather disagreeable to take1 tasted like a coarse gingerbread1 and must be persevered in for a considerable time4 ,he stated that one of the worst cases he ever knew was that of a lady who had consulted him1 and he did not think it possible to cure her without an operation4 ,she1 however1 was obliged to go into the country at the time1 and as the operation must be delayed for a month at least1 he recommended her to try ,ward's ,paste meanwhile4 ,she came back to him six or eight weeks later quite cured4 ,he thought the remedy acted by passing into the colon and1 becoming blended with the faeces1 served as a local application4 ,,the ,,whitworth ,,doctors are almost forgotten now1 but a century ago they were famous all over ,england4 ,the ,whitworth red bottle and the ,whitworth drops are still more or less popular reminiscences of their pharmacy4 ,the former was an embrocation1 and the second an antispasmodic tincture4 ,both contained oil of thyme4 ,formulas are given in 8,pharmaceutical ,formulas10 published at #db1 ,cannon ,street4 ,the founder of the family of the ,whitworth ,doctors was ,john ,taylor1 originally a farrier1 of ,whitworth1 then a village about three miles from ,rochdale4 ,he died in #ahjb at the age of sixty-two4 ,john ,taylor had a younger brother and two sons1 and the younger brother also had sons1 all of whom practised surgery4 ,a third and even a fourth generation of surgeons1 some of whom were fully qualified1 likewise practised at ,whitworth1 and the last of the race died in #ahgf4 ,the original brothers ,taylor were both farriers1 but they became famous for their treatment of human patients4 ,their methods were of the most vigorous character4 ,they were in the habit of buying a ton of ,glauber's salts from their wholesale druggists1 ,ewbank and ,wallis1 of ,york1 and they dispensed it to those who sought their medical advice with no niggard hands1 and without any formality of weighing4 ,the two brothers provided free bleeding for poor patients every ,sunday morning1 and something like a hundred victims attended for this operation4 ,john ,taylor 7the original 8,doctor07 never discontinued his treatment of horse complaints1 and was believed to have taken more pride and pleasure in his veterinary work than in his dealings with humans4 ,but the latter flocked to him from all parts of the country4 ,cancers1 improperly set fractures1 and deformities were his specialities1 but his practice gradually extended to all kinds of ills4 ,a crowd of rich and poor patients had to find lodgings somehow in the village1 for they sometimes had to stay for weeks there4 ,fifty at a time could be seated in the long room where ,john treated them4 ,they came in at one end of the room and went out at the other1 and no one1 no matter what his rank1 was allowed to have the slightest preference4 ,eighteen-pence a week for medicine and treatment was the charge to all1 and those who could not afford that fee were never asked for it4 ,a lord drove up in his carriage one day1 and the powdered footman was sent to ask ,john ,taylor to 8wait upon his lordship40 8,tell the man he must come in here and take his turn like the rest1 if he wants me to wait on him10 said ,john2 and 8the man0 had to do so4 ,it is recorded that he left ,whitworth cured4 ,the other doctors used to tell of ,taylor's failures2 but as his cases were mostly those which they had pronounced incurable1 it is not astonishing if he did not always succeed4 ,but he effected many notable cures4 ,a lady with a cancer in the breast who had been given up by her own doctors came from a hundred miles away to ,whitworth4 ,john examined the breast1 and then said1 8,what art thou come here for1 woman80 8,to be cured1 of course10 she answered4 8,not all the doctors in ,england can cure thee10 he said sternly2 8thou must go home and die40 8,i shall not go home10 said the lady1 8till you have tried your hand on me4 ,i can bear any pain you inflict1 and ,i can only die at last40 8,thou art a brave lass10 said ,john2 8,i will try1 and ,god prosper us40 ,the lady stayed at ,whitworth six months1 and went home cured4 ,she lived thirty years longer4 ,this lady was well known to ,william ,howitt1 a ,quaker and popular writer in the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,in an article he wrote in ,tait's ,edinburgh ,magazine1 #ahci1 ,mr4 ,howitt relates recollections of a visit he had paid to ,whitworth some twenty years previously1 and from that visit1 and from the conversations he had had with the lady just referred to1 he had gathered the particulars which he gave in his article4 ,while under the care of ,doctor ,john at ,whitworth the lady told ,mr4 ,howitt how she occupied herself in assisting 8,mrs4 ,george10 old ,john's daughter-in-law1 to prepare the medicines4 ,glauber's salts were principally relied upon for internal administration4 ,a caustic known as 8keen0 was used for eradicating cancers2 a black salve made up into sticks2 a snuff made from asarabacca leaves which he grew in his garden2 blisters2 and the ,red ,bottle1 made up the medicinal armoury4 ,the last is made still in ,lancashire1 thus3 ,camphor1 #f2 oil of origanum1 #f2 ,anchusa root1 #a2 methylated spirit1 #hj4 ,the lady's account of the preparation of the salve was that they used to boil a kettleful of ingredients1 and then they would mop the kitchen floor4 ,while it was wet they would pour the salve on it1 and then scraping it up they would roll it into sticks with their fingers1 and cut it into little pieces4 ,howitt also describes seeing ,james ,taylor1 the head of the family1 when he visited ,whitworth1 making his pills4 ,in an old hat slung in front of him by a cord round his neck was his pill mass4 ,thus armed1 he would walk up and down in front of his house nipping off bits of the mass and rolling them into pills with his fingers as he walked4 ,in his later years ,john ,taylor sometimes visited patients in distant places4 ,once he went to attend a duchess at ,cheltenham4 ,she had an abscess which he opened and so relieved her at once4 ,george ,,iii was staying at ,cheltenham at the time1 and heard of this skilful man4 ,later he sent for him to come to ,london to treat the ,princess ,elizabeth1 who had pains in her head with fits of stupor4 ,john is said to have cured her with his snuff4 ,having prescribed this and provided the patient with some1 ,john ,taylor turned to ,queen ,charlotte1 who with her other daughters was in the room1 and patting her on the back1 said3 8,well1 thou art a farrantly 7good-looking7 woman to be the mother of all these straight-backed lasses40 8,ah1 ,mr4 ,taylor10 said the ,queen1 8,i was once as straight-backed as any of them40 ,john's son ,james was fond of telling this story4 ,thurlow1 ,bishop of ,durham1 brother of ,lord ,chancellor ,thurlow1 was one of his patients1 and ,john was once sent for to ,london to attend him4 ,more than one eminent physician was in the room when ,taylor arrived4 8,i won't say a word till ,jack ,hunter is here10 said ,dr4 ,john2 8he is the only man among you who knows anything40 ,jack ,hunter was the famous anatomist4 ,when he was present1 ,taylor proceeded to examine the ,bishop1 and was applying some ointment from a box he had with him4 8,what's that made of80 asked ,hunter4 8,no1 ,jack1 that's not a fair question10 was ,taylor's reply4 8,i'll send you as much of it as you like1 but ,i won't tell you what it's made of40 ,,xxii ,,poisons ,,in ,,history 8,to give an exact and particular account of the ,nature and ,manner of acting of ,poisons is no easy matter2 but to ,discourse more intelligibly of them than authors have hitherto done1 not very difficult40 7,from ,dr4 ,richard ,mead's ,preface to his 8,essays on ,poisons10 #agjb47 ,it has been shown elsewhere 7,vol4 ,i41 page #eb7 how intimate was the connection between ancient pharmacy and poisoning4 ,in ,greek the terms came to be almost synonymous1 and there is an echo of the same association of ideas in the words ,poison and ,potion1 which a few centuries ago were used in ,english without much distinction4 ,the priests of ,egypt1 the sculapians of ,greece1 and perhaps still more the herbalists of that country and of ,italy1 necessarily learnt many things from their studies of medicinal plants4 ,they found herbs which would cause sleep1 furnish dreams1 and confuse the brain4 ,they professed and perhaps believed in their ability to accomplish far more with their philtres than the vegetable world was capable of1 but the common people had no means of checking their claims1 and such science as there was tended to support them4 ,in the palaces of kings1 in the tents of generals1 and in all the high places where intrigues1 jealousies1 and enmities found their fullest scope1 pharmaceutical skill was much sought after2 in some cases to dispose of rivals1 but more usually to counteract the murderous schemes which in those times constituted so large a portion of statecraft4 ,there was nothing the brave men of old dreaded so much as secret poisoning4 ,it is impossible to say how far this crime was practised4 ,suspicion and terror may have exaggerated its records1 but on the other hand it is equally possible that thousands of deaths may have occurred from poisons which were not attributed to that cause4 ,hecate and her daughters ,medea and ,circe figured prominently in ,greek legends as inventors and discoverers of poisons4 ,the magic arts for which they were all famous were closely associated with deadly drugs4 ,they were supposed to live in the island of ,colchis1 the name of which still recalls a vegetable which for many centuries retained the reputation of possessing the most venomous properties4 ,colchicum was discovered by ,medea1 but to ,hecate is attributed the earliest use of aconite4 ,kings studied pharmacy and invented antidotes4 ,orpheus1 the physician and poet1 who preceded sculapius1 wrote a poem on precious stones1 in which he relates that ,theodomas1 son of ,priam1 ,king of ,troy1 had learned how to administer these as antidotes to poisons4 ,the marvellous properties of the antidote invented by ,mithridates1 ,king of ,pontus1 is one of the commonplaces of medical history4 ,down to the seventeenth century theriaca1 emeralds1 and bezoar stones were the antidotes to all poisons recognised by the faculty4 ,,biblical ,,poisons4 ,no case of poisoning either suicidal1 murderous1 or accidental1 is alluded to in the ,bible1 unless we regard the story of the wild gourds 7#b ,kings1 ch4 iv1 v4 #ci7 as coming within the last description4 ,the suicide by poison of ,ptolemeus ,macron is mentioned in #b ,maccabees1 ch4 x1 v4 #ac1 but though this was a frequent practice among the ,greeks and ,romans when the ,new ,testament was written1 no allusion to it is found in the sacred writings4 ,it may be that the apostles who include 8pharmakeia0 among the crimes of the heathen had in mind the degradation of the art to homicidal purposes1 but it is more likely that they only intended to denounce its application to the service of lust or its consequences4 ,the word ,rosh occurs eleven times in the ,old ,testament1 and is usually rendered gall1 often in association with wormwood4 ,in two instances1 however 7,hosea1 ch4 x1 v4 #d1 and ,amos1 ch4 vi4 v4 #ab71 it is translated hemlock in the authorised version1 and this is retained in the revised version for the passage in ,hosea4 ,apparently the word was a generic one for pernicious or nauseous weeds2 but as ,rosh also means head some commentators have thought that the poppy was intended4 ,the word translated poison in ,deut4 ch4 xxxii1 v4 #bd1 ,job1 ch4 vi1 v4 #d1 ,psalms1 lviii1 v4 #d1 and cxl1 v4 #c1 is ,chemah1 and always means something burning4 ,it is often used to indicate fierce anger4 ,the verse mentioned in ,job is obviously a reference to the very ancient practice of dipping arrows into some poison1 an application of pharmacy from which we derive our term toxicology4 ,,poisoning ,,in ,,rome4 ,livy tells the story of the earliest of the poison leagues4 ,he is dependent on older historians for his facts1 as the alleged events happened some three centuries before he wrote2 about the year #ccj ,b4,c4 in fact4 ,a number of patricians died one after the other1 their illnesses presenting similar symptoms1 but the causes of these could not be traced4 ,at last1 however1 a female slave gave information to the ,ediles of a group of twenty ,roman ladies of the highest position who1 she said1 occupied themselves in concocting poisons1 and administering them to their husbands or others who had become inconvenient to them4 ,the confederacy was directed by two women named ,cornelia and ,sergia1 and although ,livy says #bj1 some accounts give the number of the conspiratresses as #agj1 while others total it at #cff4 ,cornelia and ,sergia were brought before the magistrates1 and indignantly denied that they had done more than prepare wholesome beverages and medicines4 ,on this the slave1 whose own life was in jeopardy1 demanded that they should themselves be required to take some of these compounds4 ,they were granted permission to consult with their associates before doing this1 and in the interval they all poisoned themselves4 ,livy states that this story is not told by all the contemporary narrators4 ,later ,roman history leaves little doubt that poisoning became a profession1 or rather was frequently associated with the pharmacy of the period1 as it had been in ,greece4 ,theophrastus1 who wrote about #cjj ,b4,c41 alludes to a poison prepared from aconite which could be so administered as to take effect at a defined future time1 three months1 six months1 a year1 or longer after it was taken1 the victim gradually growing weaker4 ,it was perhaps in consequence of this belief that the possession or cultivation of aconite was made a capital offence4 ,pliny states that ,calpurnia ,bastia1 one of the ,catiline conspirators1 was poisoned by aconite4 ,locusta was one of the noted poison compounders of the ,roman empire4 ,she had been condemned to death in the reign of ,claudius1 but probably by the influence of the ,empress ,agrippina1 she was pardoned and was employed by that infamous woman4 ,claudius was getting on in years1 and was showing more affection for his own son ,britannicus than for his stepson ,nero1 whom at the solicitation of ,agrippina he had adopted and made his heir4 ,the empress therefore resolved to get rid of ,claudius1 but she was afraid to use a suddenly acting agent1 and ,locusta was ordered to compound something which should produce a fatal effect1 but not immediately4 ,it was to be so compounded that it would destroy the emperor's reason lest in the course of his proposed illness he should take measures to supplant ,nero by ,britannicus4 ,locusta had to pretend to be able to fulfil this commission1 and the poison she prepared was mixed in a dish of mushrooms4 ,claudius having eaten some of these was soon taken ill and had to be carried from the table1 but as this was what usually occurred at his dinner not much notice was taken of the event4 ,his physician gave him an emetic1 and he was in a fair way to recover1 but ,agrippina1 frightened at the possible exposure1 employed another minion to apply more of ,locusta's poison on a feather to his throat1 under the pretence of making him vomit more4 ,he soon died4 ,tacitus and ,suetonius relate how ,nero used ,locusta later to help him rid himself of ,britannicus1 and also of his old tutor ,burrhus1 who had wearied him with his remonstrances4 ,locusta was executed in the reign of ,galba ,a4,d4 #fh4 ,among other famous ,romans believed to have perished by poison were ,germanicus and ,drusus4 ,caligula ordered a deadly ointment to be given to an impolitic gladiator named ,columbus1 who had unwisely worsted the emperor with the fencing foils1 to be applied to his wounds4 ,the poor wretch died in consequence4 ,these are only samples of ,roman poisonings4 ,,poisons ,,in ,,ancient ,,times4 ,the poisons known to the ancients cannot be with certainty identified4 ,the one to which the power of philtres was principally attributed was mandragora1 which was said to produce various hallucinations and temporary madness4 ,it is most likely1 however1 that in many of the cases where this drug is named the poison actually used was belladonna root4 ,hannibal1 fighting against a large army of ,african rebels1 simulated retreat1 but left on the field of battle a quantity of vases of wine in which 8mandragora0 had been infused4 ,the savages drank the wine1 which reduced them to a condition of stupor4 ,then the ,carthaginian hero returned and gained an easy victory over his helpless foes4 ,henbane seeds infused in wine made the head light1 and gave the impression of having travelled through the air4 ,stramonium1 dulcamara1 hellebore1 opium1 ,indian hemp1 vervain1 mezereon1 and many other drugs1 were in the stock-in-trade of the philtre mongers and conjurers1 and the legends related by ,pliny and others about the properties possessed by these herbs are sometimes nonsense1 but are too often based on their real powers4 ,there was a ranunculus which grew in ,sardinia1 which was credited with the power of promoting gaiety4 ,it was called the ,herba ,sardonica4 ,it occasioned spasmodic contraction of the muscles of the face and so simulated a laugh4 ,hence our expression 8sardonic grin40 ,the employment of haschish by the ,saracen warriors to make themselves fierce and reckless in battle is not a mere legend4 ,the sect who introduced it in the armies of ,islam were called hashashin1 the origin of our word 8assassins40 ,the reputation of the myrtle as an invigorator of the brain1 and its consequent adoption by poets as a garland round their brows1 is a sample of a more innocent tradition4 ,several of the ,greek and ,roman medical authors1 ,galen among others1 profess a cautious reticence in regard to poisons4 ,but there is a treatise in existence in verse1 by ,nicandor1 which gives such toxological knowledge as was familiar to the men of science of the second century before the ,christian era4 ,among venomous animals were included salamanders1 leeches1 toads1 cantharides1 and the sea-hare 7,lepus marinus74 ,the blood of bulls 7probably putrefied7 was a poison in use by the ,athenians4 ,the honey of ,heracleus had a certain fame1 for it was alleged that the soldiers of ,xenophon having regaled themselves with this luxury were all so intoxicated with it that the whole army lay on the field as if they were dead4 ,next day all recovered4 ,it is supposed to have been a honey extracted from narcotic flowers4 ,the vegetable poisons known to the ancients have mostly been named4 ,but cherry laurel1 elaterium1 certain fungi1 and smilax1 probably our mezereon1 should be added4 ,the mineral poisons in more or less use were arsenic1 in the form of orpiment and realgar1 cinnabar1 and metallic mercury1 which was reputed to be poisonous4 ,nicandor alludes to litharge1 ceruse1 and gypsum4 ,by the last he may have meant quicklime4 ,berthelot translated from ,olympiodorus 7sixth century7 the description of a process for making white arsenic from the sulphide4 ,the product was called 8alum1 white and compact40 ,the animal kingdom furnished the ,romans with at least one famous poison which they extracted from the ,lepidus marinus 7in the ,linnean system1 ,aplysia depilans7 which they knew as the sea-horse4 ,according to ,philostratus it was by this poison that ,domitian removed ,titus4 ,,poisonings ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the belief in the skill of the compounders of philtres and mysterious charms grew rather than diminished in the ,middle ,ages and as alchemy developed4 ,in ,sir ,walter ,scott's 8,talisman10 the tale of the ,crusades1 the western physician says1 8,the oily ,saracens are curious in the art of poisons1 and can so temper them that they shall be weeks in acting upon the party1 during which time the perpetrator has leisure to escape4 ,they can impregnate cloth and leather1 nay1 even paper and parchment1 with the most vile and subtle venoms40 ,official records of the trial of a minstrel named ,wondreton in ,paris1 in #achd1 give a copy of instructions alleged to have been given to the accused by ,charles the ,bad1 ,king of ,navarre1 who had employed this ,wondreton to poison the then ,king of ,france1 ,charles ,,vi1 his brother1 two uncles1 and several dukes4 ,the scheme was extraordinarily crude1 although ,charles the ,bad was reputed to be an adept in alchemy4 ,the minstrel was to buy 8arsenic sublimat0 from the hotels of the apothecaries in ,pampeluna1 ,bordeaux1 ,bayonne1 and other towns through which he would pass4 ,he was to powder this1 and get into the kitchens of the eminent persons who were to be his victims1 and then1 when he could do it with safety1 he was to sprinkle some of the powder in the soups and meats served to the masters4 ,wondreton was arrested before he had done any mischief1 and was executed4 ,king ,john of ,england is alleged to have caused ,maud ,fitzwalter to be killed in the ,tower by a poisoned egg because she would not yield to his illicit passion4 ,the sorcery practised so largely in the ,middle ,ages must have frequently developed into poisoning4 ,the philtres were to a large extent the same as those which the ,romans had used4 ,opium1 belladonna1 datura1 ,cannabis ,indica1 and arsenic were capable of producing astonishing effects1 and there was but little chance of detection except the chance which was just as likely to result in the conviction of an innocent as a guilty person4 ,poisons1 or at least the terror of them1 played a considerable part in the history of ,italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and the country acquired the nickname of ,venenosa ,italia4 ,even earlier the famous ,venetian 8,council of ,ten0 was believed to have made a systematic business of assassination by poison4 ,it employed experts and had a regular tariff--so much for a king1 so much for a duke and downwards1 which was allowed1 plus expenses4 ,the crime having been accomplished1 the books of the ,council recorded the fee1 and the single word 8factum0 was added4 ,the ,medicis and the ,borgias1 and other of the great aristocrats of the nation are supposed to have kept skilled poisoners in their pay4 ,giambaptista ,porta1 ,mercurialis1 and other scientific men wrote treatises on toxicology as it was understood at the period1 coloured with exaggerated fancies such as would impress the common public1 and tempt the criminally inclined4 ,porta1 for example1 describes the 8magic unction0 which witches were believed to employ4 ,it was this which gave them power to fly through the air4 ,he attributes this virtue to belladonna4 ,with dulcamara they made a drugged cheese which they gave to travellers1 and which had the effect of inducing the victims to fancy themselves beasts of burden4 ,in this condition the adepts could set them to any work they wanted done1 and1 this performed1 they gave them an antidote which restored them to their proper senses4 ,,credulity ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,poisons4 ,terror of poisons became epidemic in many countries1 and eager credulity welcomed any alleged antidote4 ,ambrose ,par relates an incident in which he was an actor4 ,he1 a ,protestant1 was principal physician to ,charles ,,ix1 the wretched author of the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew4 ,his story of the experiment which that king had made with a bezoar stone is related on page #ah4 ,there was also an ,archduke ,ferdinand of ,austria who in the same century invented an antidote to poisons4 ,it was composed of sapphire1 hyacinth1 emerald1 ruby1 and garnet4 ,he also1 according to ,matthiolus1 tried an experiment similar to the one narrated by ,par4 ,a ,bohemian1 condemned to be hanged1 was given #b grains of arsenic4 ,in four hours he had become livid1 prostrate1 and apparently dying4 ,he was given a dose of ,ferdinand's powder in a glass of white wine1 and recovered4 ,matthiolus also states that ,pope ,clement ,,vii made such experiments on condemned criminals4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,viii of ,england in #aecj an ,act was passed making the crime of poisoning punishable by boiling alive4 ,this was enacted in consequence of several deaths believed to have been due to poisons which had occurred in the household of the ,bishop of ,rochester4 ,in #aedb it is recorded in the chronicles of the time that a young woman named ,margaret ,davie was 8boyled alive in ,smithfield0 for having poisoned persons in three houses in which she had lived4 ,the savage punishment was reduced to hanging in #aedg in the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 ,in ,queen ,elizabeth's reign in #aeih two men were hanged on a charge of having placed poison in her saddle4 ,italian poisoners are alleged to have found abundant employment in ,france4 ,catherine de ,medici took with her to ,paris her astrologer1 ,cosmo ,ruggieri1 and the people believed that he was responsible for the death of ,charles ,,ix4 ,the ambitious queen has found many defenders1 but the fiend capable of planning the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew may support a few extra crimes4 ,exili went to ,paris in the next century with the reputation of having poisoned #aej persons in ,rome4 ,michelet says this miscreant had been in the employment of ,marie ,olympia1 ,queen of ,rome under ,innocent ,x1 and implies that it was on her account that he exercised his chemical skill4 ,he had also been in the service of ,queen ,christina of ,sweden1 but this employment was apparently not a criminal one4 ,the latter queen had only engaged ,exili to instruct her in alchemy4 ,it was from this teacher that the famous poisoners of ,paris were alleged to have learned their arts4 ,it is not possible1 however1 to ascertain the limits of exaggeration in the accounts which gossiping chroniclers give of that epoch4 ,royal edicts were issued forbidding 8all sorts of sorcery or magic1 divinations1 philtres1 invocations of demons1 drinks to win love1 enchantments to trouble the air or excite hail or tempests1 to destroy the fruits of the earth or the milk of beasts1 mathematics which meant astrology1 auguries1 and interpretations of dreams40 ,but though the practice of the 8diabolic arts0 was punishable by death1 it flourished abundantly1 but it is not necessary to accept the estimate of a diarist named ,l',estoile1 who1 describing the execution of a witch named ,la ,miraille in #aehg1 stated that the number of such persons in ,paris at that date exceeded thirty thousand4 ,perfumery and the publication of almanacks were businesses which covered many of the malfeasances struck at in the edict just quoted1 and no doubt there was a widespread belief in the miraculous toxicological skill of the fortune tellers1 who naturally wished their predictions to be verified4 8,tasters0 were employed in the houses of the wealthy1 dishes of 8electron0 which it was believed would tarnish if poisons were placed on them1 and ,venetian glass1 which was warranted to fly into atoms if the wine poured into it had been contaminated1 were in frequent use4 ,as ,rogers has written ,brave men trembled if a hand held out ,a nosegay or a letter1 while the great ,drank only from the ,venice glass that broke1 ,that shivered1 scattering round it as in scorn ,if aught malignant1 aught of thine was there1 ,cruel ,tophana4 ,but probably nine-tenths of the crimes suspected were the mere result of the disordered fancies of the age4 ,knowing as we do on what frivolous evidence women were condemned as witches1 it is permissible to be sceptical in regard to the testimony received by the frightened judges when one of these notorious criminals came before them4 ,nor are the alleged confessions of the women themselves necessarily conclusive4 ,the so-called witches often supplied details of their negotiations with ,satan1 and of their ,sabbatic excursions2 and hysterical women in all ages have been addicted to the relation of fictitious narratives circumstantially describing both their vicious and their virtuous exploits4 ,the rapid putrefaction of a corpse was considered to be sufficient evidence that the cause of death had been poison1 though it is likely that the poisons then in use would have tended to preserve the body4 ,,the ,,marchioness ,,of ,,brinvilliers was one of the most interesting of the historic poisoners4 ,she was the daughter of the civil lieutenant of ,paris1 ,dreux d',aubray1 and her career as a criminal coincides with the early years of ,louis ,,xiv's reign4 ,she is described as elegant1 8petite10 sweet in her disposition1 and modest in her demeanour4 ,according to her own confessions1 produced at her trial1 sometimes admitted1 and sometimes denied by her 7and characterised by ,michelet as confused and impossible1 and probably composed under the influence of fever71 she commenced her career of crime at the age of #g years by incestuous intercourse with her brother4 ,she accused herself also of arson4 ,she married the ,marquis de ,brinvilliers when she was about #bj1 and after helping him to dissipate their joint fortune1 she obtained an order of separation as far as property was concerned1 but continued to live with him as well as with his intimate friend1 a sinister person who called himself ,ste4 ,croix1 and professed to have been a cavalry officer4 ,his real name was ,godin1 and ,michelet1 who investigated all the court documents dealing with the case1 makes him apparently the agent1 and ultimately the victim1 of an arch-fiend of the name of ,penautier1 a cleric who at least profited largely by the sudden deaths of various persons4 ,he describes ,ste4 ,croix as a person of austere manners and as the author of some ascetic books4 ,penautier was never formally accused1 and it is not easy to disentangle the intrigues associated with the case4 ,whatever these may have been1 ,madame's father1 disgusted with the scandal created1 got ,ste4 ,croix placed in the ,bastille4 ,there it is alleged he met with the notorious ,italian poisoner1 ,exili1 and learned from him a number of poison secrets1 though it is doubtful if the art was a new one to him4 ,perhaps ,penautier got him released2 anyhow he went in to the ,bastille poor1 and came out rich4 ,he married and set up a fine establishment4 ,but he still continued his liaison with the marchioness4 ,during his imprisonment that lady had occupied herself in visiting and consoling patients in the hospitals4 ,now1 according to the usual story1 she made use of them by giving them poisoned confectionery1 and watching the effects1 merely for practice4 ,then she began to dose her father4 ,his illness lasted eight months1 his murderess nursing him tenderly meanwhile4 ,two brothers were also victims1 and then she planned the death of her husband1 but according to ,mme4 de ,svign her accomplice1 ,ste4 ,croix1 saved him by providing an antidote4 ,the marquis lived to see his wife punished1 but was one of those who exerted himself to get a pardon for her4 ,ste4 ,croix next died suddenly1 in consequence1 it is said1 of his accidentally dropping a glass mask which he wore when compounding his poisons4 ,this story1 says ,michelet1 is a fable4 ,a case of poisons in packets was found in his rooms1 each neatly labelled with its effects4 ,these1 it was alleged1 were addressed to the marchioness1 who managed to escape to ,england1 ,penautier giving her letters of credit1 says ,michelet4 ,michelet says the packets of poison were addressed to ,penautier4 ,the marchioness was soon after taken at a convent at ,lige by a detective who1 pretending to be an ,abb1 made love to her and induced her to go for a walk with him1 when lie handed her over to his men1 who took her to ,paris4 ,she was tortured 7only formally1 says ,michelet71 convicted1 marched to ,notre ,dame with a rope round her neck to make the 8amende honorable10 then decapitated1 and her body burned4 ,one of the witnesses at her trial declared that the marchioness once showed her a little box containing some white stuff1 and said there were a number of successions in that little parcel4 ,the witness said she was the daughter of an apothecary and recognised that the substance shown her was sublimate4 ,it has been discussed by experts whether the poison on which ,ste4 ,croix and his mistress chiefly relied was arsenic or sublimate4 ,most likely it was arsenic4 ,a certain ,guy ,simon1 an apothecary1 was employed to experiment with it1 and to discover its composition if possible4 ,his report is worth quoting at some length as an illustration of the condition of toxicological science at that period1 and incidentally of the simple faith in the almost miraculous powers of the poisoners which evidently possessed all classes at that time4 ,according to ,chapuis 78,trait de ,toxicologie071 ,simon at first dropped a little of the liquor in the phials on oil of tartar and sea water1 but nothing was precipitated4 ,then he digested some of it in a mattrass on a sand-bath1 but on distilling it no substance of acid or acrid taste was yielded1 and no fixed salts were left4 ,having poisoned a pigeon1 a dog1 and a fowl with the liquid1 he could only discover on opening the dead bodies a little clotted blood in the ventricule of the heart4 ,some of the powder deposited by the liquid was given to a cat which vomited for half an hour and then died4 ,simon explains that poisons generally sink to the bottom of water1 and when tested by fire the innocent part is dissipated and only the acrid and piquant principle remains4 ,but this poison of ,ste4 ,croix's1 floated on water1 and tried by fire1 left only something sweet and innocent4 ,it in fact ruled the elements1 and killed animals without leaving any trace4 ,utterly baffled1 the expert concludes3 8,it is a terrible1 diabolic1 intangible 7insaissable7 poison40 ,,tofana4 ,about the same time the woman ,tofana was selling her ,aquetta di ,napoli in ,italy1 but she was not brought to justice until #agji1 when she confessed to the ,pope and the ,emperor ,charles ,,vi that her drops contained arsenic1 and that by them she had caused the deaths of more than six hundred persons4 ,the ,emperor repeated her story to his physician1 ,garelli1 by whom it was communicated to ,hoffmann1 who published it in his 8,rational ,medicine40 ,she preferred to prepare her drops by rubbing arsenic into the broken joints of a hog just killed and then collecting the juice4 ,tofana took refuge in a convent and lived for some twenty years after her condemnation4 ,a letter from the ,english ,secretary of ,state to the ,commissioners of ,customs1 dated ,july #bi1 #agag1 is on record1 cautioning them against admitting a liqueur called ,aqua ,tufania from ,italy1 as accounts of its dangerous character had been received from the ,british envoys at ,naples and ,genoa4 ,,the ,,chambre ,,ardente4 ,after the execution of the ,marchioness of ,brinvilliers1 secret poisoning1 far from being suppressed1 appears to have become almost fashionable4 ,the ,government at least pretended to believe in widespread conspiracies4 ,it may have been a political trick1 as has been alleged1 to get rid of some inconvenient opponents2 but1 however this may have been1 a special commission was appointed by the ,french ,government to inquire into the truth of certain rumours1 and this commission acquired the title of the ,chambre de ,poisons1 or ,chambre ,ardente4 ,louis ,,xiv consented to the institution of this special court on learning that the notorious ,ste4 ,croix1 the coadjutor of ,mme4 de ,brinvilliers1 had at one time nearly secured the position of matre d'htel in his palace at ,versailles4 ,it principally concerned itself with the revelations made by two women who called themselves ,la ,voisin and ,la ,vigoureux1 who with an unfrocked priest1 who had assumed the name of ,le ,sage1 had carried on a fortune-telling business of enormous extent in the city4 ,they claimed the power of exhibiting the devil to their clients1 and it was charged against them that they had sold a powder of succession to those who would pay for it4 ,many highly connected aristocrats were implicated1 and some faced the commission while others left the country rather than expose themselves to the shame of exposure4 ,la ,voisin had kept records of her business1 but those which were produced displayed rather the ridiculous than the criminal side of the conspiracy4 ,the ,duchesse de ,foix had come to her for bosoms2 ,madame de ,varsi wanted hips4 ,others had paid her fancy prices for petitions written with a special ink guaranteed to make them loved by the king4 ,la ,voisin was extremely insolent to her judges1 and apparently she and her accomplices were all sentenced to be burned4 ,according to ,voltaire the sentence was executed in the case of all of them2 but the account given by ,madame de ,svign1 and by historians who lived nearer the period1 go to show that the death punishment was only inflicted on ,la ,voisin4 ,,negro ,c,,sar',s ,,antidote4 ,in ,prestwich's 8,dissertation on ,poisons0 7#agge7 an extract is given from the 8,carolina ,gazette0 of ,may #i1 #agej stating that the ,general ,assembly1 the governing body of the colony1 had authorised the publication of 8,negro ,csar's ,cure for ,poison40 ,the ,general ,assembly had purchased ,negro ,csar's freedom1 and granted him #ajj a year for life as the price of this formula4 ,it consisted of roots of plantain and wild horehound 78 of each7 #c oz4 boiled together in two quarts of water down to #a quart and strained4 ,of this the patient was to drink one-third every morning fasting for three consecutive mornings4 ,certain conditions of diet were laid down1 and it was quaintly added that if after the three days' treatment no benefit had resulted it was 8a sign that the patient has either not been poisoned1 or has been by such poison as ,csar's antidote will not remedy40 ,,arsenic ,,eating4 ,about the middle of the #aith century some discussion took place in various popular and medical journals in reference to the alleged practice of eating arsenic in ,styria and the neighbouring countries4 ,drs4 ,christison1 ,swaine ,taylor1 and ,pereira were somewhat more than sceptical1 but several doctors and others wrote confirming the statements from their personal knowledge4 ,one of the most notable testimonies was contributed by ,dr4 ,craig ,maclagan of ,edinburgh in the 8,edinburgh ,medical ,journal0 7#ahfe74 ,dr4 ,maclagan had visited ,styria and had introductions to several doctors in that country who had reported cases known to them4 ,two men were brought to ,dr4 ,maclagan at the village of ,liegist in ,middle ,styria1 and in his presence took1 one about #d and the other #f grains of white arsenic4 ,dr4 ,maclagan brought home some of the substance which the ,styrian doctor had given to these men1 and on testing it found it to be genuine white arsenic4 ,he also brought back some samples of the urine voided by the men some time after eating the arsenic1 and found in it distinct evidence of the presence of the poison4 ,the arsenic was taken by the men on a piece of bread1 and in one case was washed down with a draught of water4 ,how extensive was the habit1 ,dr4 ,maclagan could not say4 ,the peasants called it ,hydrach or ,huttereich2 the correct word was said to be hutten-rauch1 furnace smoke4 ,one of the men took his dose about twice a week1 the other generally once a week4 ,they had of course begun with doses of less than a grain4 ,it was understood to be a tonic and stimulant1 and to aid the respiration in climbing4 ,it was also believed to promote sexual desire4 ,having acquired the habit the occasional dose was much missed if omitted for long4 ,,immunity4 ,the modern employment of serums in the treatment of zymotic diseases goes a long way towards explaining the fact of the immunity of individuals in respect to bacterial poisons4 ,but the possibility of immunity against such poisons as arsenic1 opium1 or serpent venom appears to rest on a different basis4 ,in #ahif ,professor 7now ,sir7 ,thomas ,r4 ,fraser1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 reported to the ,royal ,institution a long investigation dealing with the alleged resistant power of certain tribes or sects in ,india1 ,africa1 c41 who can suffer the bites of unquestionably venomous snakes without becoming seriously affected4 ,after quoting numerous reports from old and recent works showing that this immunity is an actual fact1 ,professor ,fraser described a long series of experiments extending over many years with venom which he had obtained from ,india1 ,america1 ,africa1 and ,australia4 ,the venom1 he stated1 is a complex substance and is not a ferment4 ,ascertaining the minimum lethal dose for each animal he experimented on frogs1 cats1 rabbits1 guinea pigs1 and other animals1 and beginning with one-tenth1 one-fifth1 or one-half of that dose1 and gradually increasing it1 he found it possible to administer four or five times1 and in the case of rabbits up to even fifty times the lethal dose4 ,from the immunised animal a serum was prepared which was antidotal in very minute quantities if mixed with the venom1 but if administered separately by hypodermic injection1 though at the same moment with the venom1 some twelve and a half times as much was found to be necessary1 and it was estimated for a normal bite of an average man no less than #aa ounces would have to be administered hypodermically soon after the bite to prevent probably a fatal result4 ,the most interesting observation was that the poison taken into the stomach was almost innocuous1 and yet exercised a protective effect4 ,in many of the narratives given by travellers describing the feats of the snake charmers it has been related that they will squeeze the venom from the serpent's mouth and swallow it4 ,this would evidently be one of their methods of rendering themselves proof against the poison when injected by a bite4 ,professor ,fraser's paper is published in full in 8,nature0 ,april #af and #bc1 #ahif4 ,the author gives his reasons for believing that the action of the antidote is chemical4 ,,modern ,,toxicology4 ,systematic and scientific investigation of alleged poisoning was scarcely known before the end of the eighteenth or the beginning of the nineteenth centuries4 ,the advance of chemical and physiological knowledge1 however1 was soon applied to the more certain detection of the criminal use of toxic agents4 ,orfila's 8,trait de ,toxicologie10 published in #ahad1 the result of a multitude of experiments1 was the work which led the way in the establishment of exact tests4 ,dr4 ,swaine ,taylor in ,england1 ,sir ,robert ,christison in ,scotland1 ,casper in ,germany1 and a host of other medical chemists pursued the subject1 and gradually toxicology reached an assured position4 ,how slow was this attainment may be gathered from the testimony of an expert in a ,french murder trial in #ahbc that globules of fatty mutton had been mistaken for white arsenic4 ,to ,marsh's arsenic test1 made known in #ahcf1 may be traced the practical fall of the poison which for so many centuries had reigned supreme among the deadly agents employed by the most cowardly but most dreaded of the tribe of assassins4 ,the power of proving the presence of the metal which was afforded by the method then set forth brought out the chemical expert1 and led to angry controversies4 ,the skilled experimenter was apt to be very confident of his results1 and naturally others who claimed to be as skilful as himself disputed his conclusions4 ,theories of the almost universal diffusion of arsenic were vigorously maintained1 and on one occasion in ,france1 in #ahci1 when ,orfila had demonstrated the presence of arsenic extracted from the organs of the person supposed to have been poisoned1 ,raspail undertook to extract as much from the judge's armchair4 ,meantime the resources of the poisoners had been vastly extended by the discovery of the alkaloids4 ,many of these substances possessed extreme toxic power1 and the invention of the means of detecting them was necessarily a gradual process4 ,it was attained1 though2 and it may be asserted that at present either by chemical or physiological tests the recognition of the administration of any of the dangerous alkaloids is as certain as is that of the metallic poisons4 ,about the year #ahgj a new complication occurred when an ,italian chemist named ,dr4 ,selmi proved that putrefactive animal matter and certain bacteria yielded alkaloidal products1 often poisonous1 to which the name of ptomaines was given4 ,selmi was engaged as an expert in the investigation of a case in which it was suspected that an individual had been poisoned4 ,a product was obtained1 apparently an alkaloid1 but which ,selmi could not identify with any known vegetable substance4 ,he came to the conclusion that it was of animal origin1 and after a long series of experiments he proved his theory4 ,several eminent toxicologists at first asserted that ptomaines could be distinguished from vegetable alkaloids by the property of yielding ,prussian blue with ferric salts4 ,this test1 however1 proved fallacious as several series of vegetable alkaloids1 notably the pyridic and the allylic1 gave the same reaction4 ,the distinction between animal and vegetable alkaloids is a delicate one1 and has to be established by an accumulation of chemical evidence4 ,leucomaines1 which are also alkaloidal products1 are distinguished from ptomaines by being formed in the body from living tissues1 as a result of their activity4 ,these were first separated by ,armand ,gautier in #ahhf4 ,their constitution is more complex than is that of the ptomaines1 but they are not generally of a poisonous character4 ,,xxiii ,,pharmacy ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century 8,the advance in every section of chemistry during this century 7the #aith71 and especially during the latter half of it1 has literally been by leaps and bounds4 ,although practically a creation of our own time1 no branch has been more fruitful in result1 in suggestion1 or in possibility1 than that of organic analysis40 7,,sir ,,thomas ,e4 ,,thorpe3--8,essays in ,historical ,chemistry10 #ahid47 ,three great achievements characterise the pharmacy of the nineteenth century1 namely1 the discovery of alkaloids in its early years1 of ansthetics in the middle period1 and of synthetic organic products in its later years4 ,,alkaloids4 ,the alkaloids extracted from vegetables are the ideal quintessences which the alchemical pharmacists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries sought so eagerly to obtain4 ,their characteristic property is that they are basic1 that is1 that definite salts can be formed from them by combination with acids4 ,they all contain nitrogen1 and have an alkaline reaction4 ,of all the popular vegetable drugs opium was the one more than any other tortured to yield up its essence4 ,the early laudanums and extracts of opium aimed at this result1 and preparations1 such as the ,magisterium ,opii of ,ludovici of ,weimar 7born about #afbe1 and author of 8,dissertations on ,pharmacy071 were used in the belief that the quintessence had been in some degree secured4 ,robert ,boyle experimented with opium with the object of extracting its essential principle4 ,the process he adopted was first to treat the drug with calcined tartar 7salt of tartar71 and then extract with spirit of wine4 ,by this means he obtained a solution which would be principally one of morphine4 ,in #ahjc a ,french manufacturing chemist1 working on an idea suggested by ,vauquelin1 produced a crystallisable salt which was at first supposed to be the active ingredient of opium4 ,experiments on animals seemed to confirm this opinion1 and the salt of opium1 or 8sel narcotique de ,derosne10 was believed to have solved the long-standing problem4 ,the product was described in the 8,annales de ,chimie0 of ,february1 #ahjd4 ,it was the substance now known as narcotine4 ,sertrner regarded it as meconate of morphium1 a misapprehension which was corrected by ,robiquet4 ,in ,december1 #ahjd1 ,seguin1 a chemist who had been a demonstrator under ,fourcroy1 and who subsequently got into trouble with ,napoleon's ,government on charges of having enriched himself out of drug supplies to the ,republican armies1 read a paper to the ,institute in which he described a process which would yield morphine4 ,for some unexplained reason that paper was not published until #ahad4 ,meanwhile ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,adam ,sertrner1 a pharmacist of ,eimbeck1 in ,hanover1 had been working on ,derosne's salt1 and had investigated more accurately than anyone before him the composition of opium4 ,his first report was published in #ahjf1 and in that he announced the discovery of 8opium-sure0 7opium acid71 but in #ahaf he named this product 8meconic acid10 and explained how it was combined with an alkaline base which he called 8,morphium40 ,he described this as analogous to ammonia1 and prepared several salts from it4 ,he came near to losing his life in the course of his experiments as1 misled by the comparative harmlessness of ,derosne's salt1 he had ventured on dangerous doses of his own product4 ,consequently he was able to determine very accurately the therapeutics of morphine at the same time that he announced its discovery4 8,i flatter myself10 wrote ,sertrner in #ahaf1 8that chemists and physicians will find that my observations have explained to a considerable extent the constitution of opium1 and that ,i have enriched chemistry with a new acid 7meconic7 and with a new alkaline base 7morphium71 a remarkable substance which shows much analogy with ammonia40 ,sertrner's discovery excited much interest and emulation1 and its importance was fully endorsed when1 in #ahca1 the ,french ,institute awarded to him a prize of #b1jjj francs 8for having opened the way to important medical discoveries by his isolation of morphine and his exposition of its character40 ,before ,sertrner had definitely established the nature of alkaloids1 ,vauquelin had separated from tobacco a substance which he regarded as its active principle1 and which was undoubtedly an impure nicotine4 ,this was in #ahji4 ,the alkaloidal character of this extract was not1 however1 recognised until #ahbh1 when ,posselt and ,reimann produced it in a pure form4 ,vauquelin had in #ahab extracted daphnine from mezereon root1 and in describing his experiments had alluded to its alkaline character4 ,for this reason the credit of having been the first to have discovered an organic alkali has been attributed to him2 and when in #ahah ,pelletier and ,caventou discovered an alkaloid in ,st4 ,ignatius's beans1 to which they gave the name of strychnine1 they stated that it had been their original intention to designate the substance ,vauqueline in honour of the celebrated chemist who had first established the existence of an organic alkali4 ,it had1 however1 been pointed out to them by distinguished members of the ,academy that it would have been a doubtful compliment to associate such an honoured name as that of ,vauquelin with such an evil 7malfaisant7 substance as this new product4 ,a number of chemists narrowly missed the discovery of quinine4 ,as early as #agdf ,count ,claude de la ,garaye obtained from cinchona bark a crystalline salt which he termed sel essentiel de quinquina4 ,two other ,french chemists1 ,buquet and ,cornette1 subsequently introduced another sel essentiel de quinquina4 ,both these products were simply kinate of lime4 ,a ,swedish physician named ,westerling announced in #aghb that he had discovered the active principle of cinchona1 and he gave it the designation of vis coriaria4 ,his product was in fact cinchotannic acid4 ,seguin perhaps made the worst mistake of all the investigators in coming to the conclusion that what was precipitated by tannin was the essence of cinchona from a medicinal point of view1 and he actually recommended that gelatin should be substituted for cinchona in cases when price was an object4 ,fourcroy made several attempts to ascertain the true chemical constitution of the bark4 ,in #agij he separated a resinous principle1 mixed with some colouring matter1 since called cinchonic red4 ,this he at first supposed was the essential medical constituent of the bark4 ,vauquelin later adopted this erroneous theory1 and so missed his way4 ,in #agib ,fourcroy got nearer to the truth when he observed incidentally that the water in which the bark had been macerated turned litmus paper green2 and he also remarked that lime water caused a greenish precipitate in the infusion4 ,he did not pursue the investigation1 but his comment on what he had stated is noteworthy4 8,these researches10 he said1 8will no doubt lead to the discovery one day of an anti-periodic febrifuge1 which once known may be extracted from various vegetables40 ,berthollet followed on ,fourcroy's lines1 but came to the conclusion that the precipitate which lime water gave with decoctions of cinchona was magnesia1 which he believed was a constituent of the bark in combination with hydrochloric acid4 ,in #ahaa ,gomez1 of ,lisbon1 described a crystalline substance which ,dr4 ,duncan1 of ,edinburgh1 had obtained from certain species of cinchona1 and gave to this product the name of cinchonine4 ,lambert later prepared it in a state of considerable purity4 ,but neither of these chemists suspected its alkaline nature4 ,in #ahbj ,pelletier and ,caventou studied the whole chemistry of cinchona and succeeded in showing that the cinchonine of ,gomez was a mixture of two alkaloids1 to the second of which they gave the name of quinine4 ,quinidine was isolated by ,henry and ,delondre in #ahcc1 and cinchonidine by ,winckler in #ahdd1 but the name of the latter was given by ,pasteur in #ahec4 ,pasteur also produced the alkaloidal derivatives cinchonicine and quinicine4 ,robiquet had the idea that as the coffee plant belongs to the same family of plants as the cinchonas it might be possible to find quinine in coffee4 ,in searching for it he isolated caffeine4 ,this was in #ahba4 ,in #ahbg ,oudry found an alkaloid in tea and called it theine4 ,jobst and ,mulder in #ahch proved that these alkaloids are identical4 ,it is now recognised that the alkaloids of cocoa1 of guarana1 and of ,paraguay tea are all the same substance1 or closely related4 ,pelletier and ,caventou isolated strychnine from the ,st4 ,ignatius beans in #ahah1 and brucine from false angostura bark 7,bruca anti-dysenterica7 in #ahai2 in the same years they obtained veratrine from cevadilla seeds and white hellebore root2 but it would appear that in their investigation of cevadilla seeds1 which was the first to yield the alkaloid1 they were preceded by a very short time by ,meissner4 ,pelletier and ,magendie produced emetine from ipecacuanha in #ahag1 and ,pelletier alone is credited with narceine in #ahcb4 ,codeine was discovered by ,robiquet in #ahba when he was examining a new process for obtaining morphine which had been suggested by ,dr4 ,william ,gregory1 of ,edinburgh4 ,belladonna had been studied by ,vauquelin and many chemists after him1 but it was not until #ahcc that atropine in a state of purity was isolated from it4 ,this was accomplished simultaneously by ,geiger and ,hess1 two ,german chemists1 and by ,mein1 a ,german pharmacist4 ,,an,,sthetics4 ,the greatest triumph achieved in any department of medicine1 and worthy1 perhaps1 to be described as almost1 if not quite1 the most beneficent discovery in the world's history1 is that of the successful employment of ansthetics4 ,this great glory belongs to the nineteenth century4 ,indian hemp had been employed for centuries in the ,east1 mandragora had a classical reputation1 and from time to time the possibilities of hypnotism had been expounded by one or another of its professors4 ,but it is only within the past sixty years that the terrible anxiety and suffering associated with surgical operations have been so far mitigated as largely to increase the prospects of success1 and to annihilate the pain4 ,to ,sir ,humphry ,davy is due the credit of first suggesting the line of advance towards this precious goal by describing his experiences of the inhalation of nitrous oxide gas which he found had the effect of relieving toothache and other pains2 8uneasiness swallowed up for a few minutes by pleasure10 were his own words2 and he foresaw the possibility of this agent being employed as an inhalation 8in such surgical operations as involved no great effusion of blood40 ,that was in the year #ahjj4 ,about #ahcj ,faraday observed and noted the effect of ether on the nervous system1 which he stated was similar to that of nitrous oxide gas4 ,illustration3 ,,horace ,,wells4 ,the possibility of painless operations began to be imagined about this time1 but not much serious experimental work seems to have been attempted4 ,in #ahdb1 ,dr4 ,long1 of ,athens1 ,georgia1 ,u4,s4,a41 claimed to have removed a tumour from a patient under the influence of ether1 and about the same time ,dr4 ,jackson1 of ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 also professed to have carried out successfully a similar operation4 ,these experiments have not been rigorously established1 but there is no question about the authenticity of the next4 ,horace ,wells1 a dentist of ,hartford1 ,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a41 suffering from toothache1 resolved to experiment on himself4 ,he induced a colleague named ,rigg to draw a molar while he was under the influence of nitrous oxide gas1 and did not feel the pain of the extraction4 ,this was in #ahdd4 ,wells then1 in association with another dentist1 named ,william ,thomas ,green ,morton1 started to demonstrate the discovery publicly4 ,the first exhibition was an ignominious failure1 and the two pioneers were derided as impostors4 ,wells suffered so severely from his disappointment on this occasion that he died insane a few years later4 ,morton1 however1 continued his investigations1 and he and the ,dr4 ,jackson already mentioned worked together on ether1 and assured themselves of its ansthetic powers by experiments on animals4 ,morton then inhaled it himself on ,september #cj1 #ahdf1 and awoke from deep unconsciousness a few minutes later1 convinced of the reality of his discovery4 ,just then a patient rang the bell4 ,it was towards evening1 but the visitor was shown into the surgery4 ,he was in agony with the toothache1 and begged the doctor to mesmerise him in the hope of getting some relief4 ,the nerve was so sore1 he said1 that he could not summon up courage to have the tooth drawn4 ,morton1 greatly excited1 told his patient that he could do better for him than mesmerising him4 ,he could take the tooth out without pain if he would consent4 ,the sufferer agreed eagerly1 and ,morton1 with two assistants1 proceeded to operate4 ,a handkerchief1 saturated with ether1 was applied to the mouth and nostrils1 and unconsciousness was produced almost immediately4 ,a tooth1 a firmly-rooted bicuspid1 was extracted without arousing the patient4 ,then followed a minute of intense fear4 ,the man remained motionless1 and ,morton felt convinced he was dead4 ,seizing a glass of water he dashed it into the face of this first subject1 who at once revived4 8,are you ready to have your tooth drawn80 asked ,morton4 ,rather hesitating assent was given1 and then the extracted tooth was shown to the patient in the chair4 ,his name1 which ought to be recorded in the annals of surgery1 was ,eben ,frost4 ,on ,october #af1 #ahdf1 a tumour was removed from a patient at the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital1 ,boston4 ,morton administered the ether1 and ,dr4 ,collins ,warren1 the senior surgeon1 operated4 ,the patient made no sound1 and after he recovered consciousness declared that he had experienced no pain4 8,gentlemen1 this is no humbug10 said ,dr4 ,warren to the other surgeons who had witnessed the operation4 ,morton died in #ahfh4 ,the first operation under ether in ,great ,britain was performed by ,liston at ,university ,college ,hospital in ,december1 #ahdf4 ,in ,january1 #ahdg1 ,james ,young ,simpson commenced to employ it in midwifery cases in ,edinburgh4 ,simpson had already acquired a high reputation as a gynecologist1 and was an enthusiast in his profession4 ,delighted though he was with the results of his trials of ether1 he felt sure that an ansthetic with more lasting effect could be found or made1 and with characteristic courage and pertinacity he and his two assistants1 ,drs4 ,keith and ,duncan1 carried on personal experiments at ,simpson's private house on such evenings as they could spare4 ,at the same time the scientific world was appealed to for suggestions4 ,about this time ,david ,waldie1 a ,scotch pharmacist then settled in ,liverpool1 where he was manager of the ,liverpool ,apothecaries ,company1 was visiting ,edinburgh and had a conversation with ,simpson on his absorbing topic4 ,waldie had had some special experience with chloric ether at ,liverpool1 and had made experiments on its chemical character1 which had led him to the conclusion that the chloric ether then used was chemically only a mixture of chloroform with some undecomposed spirit4 ,chloroform1 it must be remembered1 was then but little known4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,guthrie1 formerly an army surgeon1 but later practising at ,jewelsville1 ,jefferson ,county1 ,n4,y41 published an account of a chloric ether he had made from alcohol and chloride of lime in ,may1 #ahca4 ,in ,october of the same year ,soubeiran in ,france1 and a month later ,liebig in ,germany1 announced the discovery of a similar compound4 ,none of these products was an absolute chloroform1 but all were heavy substances4 ,dr4 ,guthrie called his chloric ether1 and familiarly sweet whisky1 ,soubeiran's was a bichloric ether1 and ,liebig described his as a trichloride of carbon1 but ,dumas showed in #ahcd that the essential substance was a trichloride of formyl1 ,h,c,cl#c and a substitution product of marsh gas4 ,he invented the name chloroform4 ,it appears too that another ,french chemist1 ,flourens1 in ,march1 #ahdg1 reported to the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris some experiments he had made with chloroform on animals1 which indicated its ansthetic properties2 but probably neither ,simpson nor ,waldie was aware of this paper4 ,this was the chemical which ,waldie recommended to ,simpson in the summer of #ahdg1 and the chemist promised to send some to ,simpson on his return to ,liverpool4 ,a fire in the laboratory of his establishment prevented the fulfilment of this promise1 and also1 ,waldie said1 prevented him from experimenting on himself with chloroform1 as he had intended to do4 ,simpson got chloroform from ,duncan and ,flockhart in ,edinburgh1 but did not expect it would answer on account of its density4 ,the sample was set aside for some time1 but on ,november #d1 #ahdg1 he and ,duncan and ,keith resolved to test it4 ,they all inhaled some from a tumbler1 and almost immediately became loquacious and hilarious4 ,then unconsciousness came on1 and ,simpson1 who was the first to recover1 found ,duncan under the table1 eyes staring1 and snoring vigorously1 while ,keith was kicking at the supper table4 ,the experiment was repeated a few evenings later1 and this time a niece of ,simpson was induced to take a turn4 ,after inhaling the vapour she fell asleep1 murmuring 8,i'm an angel2 ,i'm an angel40 ,simpson at once began the use of chloroform in his practice1 and his great reputation and powerful advocacy soon caused its general adoption4 ,illustration3 ,,sir ,,james ,,young ,,simpson1 ,m4,d4 7,from a drawing by ,t4 ,m4 ,pape1 lent by the publishers of the ,century ,magazine47 ,a ,,mysterious ,,an,,sthetic4 ,a strange and little known story is told by ,professor ,franck4 ,van ,swieten was a ,dutch physician1 a pupil of ,boerhaave4 ,he did not succeed in his native land so well as he ought to have done1 for he was a devout ,catholic4 ,he went to ,vienna1 where he attained the highest medical position and the utmost esteem from his patroness1 the ,empress ,maria ,theresa4 ,on ,may #a1 #agga1 three young gentlemen called on ,van ,swieten and were shown into his study4 ,the professor was then an old man1 #ga years of age4 8,what do you desire1 my children80 he asked1 as he fingered his beads4 8,we come to teach ,van ,swieten what he knows not10 answered one of the young men4 8,that is not difficult10 replied the veteran4 ,then they told him they wished to show him a medicine new to the world1 and as the doctor smiled incredulously1 one of his visitors added3 8,like the philosopher of old1 we will say to ,pain3--,thou art but an idle word40 ,van ,swieten was doubtful1 but after further explanation he invited them to come to his hospital the next morning and demonstrate their secret4 ,when they were gone he went to ,maria ,theresa and told her of the interview4 ,the ,empress declared her intention of being present at the experiment4 ,the next day when the three young men appeared at the hospital they found ,van ,swieten and a veiled lady awaiting them4 ,certain chemicals had previously been placed in retorts by them1 and a mastiff was made to inhale the product4 ,the animal exhibited symptoms of inebriation1 and soon fell on the floor unconscious4 ,one of the strangers made a deep incision into the dog's chest and covered the wound with a surgical dressing4 ,the animal showed no sign of pain1 and shortly afterwards recovered consciousness1 got on his feet1 and walked about as if nothing had happened4 8,this is indeed a miracle10 said the ,empress4 8,would you dare to operate thus on a patient80 asked ,van ,swieten4 8,willingly1 ,master10 was the reply4 8,then operate on me10 said the ,professor4 ,to this proposal1 however1 they demurred1 and the ,empress supported their objection4 ,an appointment for further experiment a few days later was made1 but when the day arrived ,van ,swieten was ill4 ,he died on ,may #ah1 and ,maria ,theresa was at the time immersed in political troubles4 ,the sequel to that strange history has never been told1 but some of the old books tell of the 8,holland ,oil10 which is believed to have been the mysterious medicament employed4 ,professor ,franck thinks one of the strangers was ,gautier ,van ,decoren1 a physician of ,flemish ,holland4 ,,synthetic ,,remedies4 ,,early ,,distinction ,,between ,,inorganic ,,and ,,organic ,,chemistry4 ,the development of organic chemistry in the course of the nineteenth century is a subject so vast that it is mentioned in this place with something approaching despair4 ,the great chemists who1 in the latter part of the eighteenth and in the early years of the nineteenth century1 had rescued their science from the superstitious and fantastic theories and conceits which had encumbered it1 ,lavoisier1 ,priestley1 ,scheele1 ,cavendish1 ,dalton1 ,fourcroy1 ,berzelius1 and many others who might be named1 distinguished sharply between the products of the mineral kingdom and those which they called organic1 that is1 substances of vegetable or animal origin1 combined1 it was agreed1 under the influence of what was described as vital force4 ,this force1 it was considered1 inherent in living bodies1 could never be imitated in the laboratory1 and its achievements were beyond human skill4 ,it was even doubted whether the elements composing organic substances were subject to the same laws of combination as were those of the mineral world4 ,lavoisier1 it is true1 regarded organic bodies as consisting of radical compounds1 hydrocarbon radicals1 as he called them1 instead of the metallic bases4 ,his last scientific work was the investigation of the statics of organic chemistry1 and on this subject his clear vision would probably have enabled him to anticipate many modern conclusions4 ,he had already recognised some of the transformations of sugar1 had analysed alcohol1 and had declared that in animal and vegetable chemistry no less than in the inorganic kingdom nothing is ever destroyed1 but that vegetation and animalisation are only inverse phenomena of combustion and putrefaction4 ,,synthetic ,,organic ,,compounds4 ,some isolated results of the artificial productions of organic substances are recorded which do not seem to have been recognised as challenging the reign of vital force4 ,scheele1 in #aghf1 formed oxalic acid by oxidising sugar by nitric acid2 and in #ahbb ,dbereiner produced formic acid1 previously known as a distillate of ants1 by oxidising tartaric acid4 ,in both these cases1 however1 the transformation was essentially one from a previous organic substance4 ,the inauguration of synthetic chemistry is understood to date from the year #ahbh when ,whler1 then a professor of chemistry at ,berlin1 produced a supposed cyanate of ammonium by the action of ammonium chloride on silver cyanate4 ,whler was surprised to find the cyanate of ammonium which he had obtained did not correspond with other ammonium salts1 but resembled1 and as he afterwards proved1 was identical with the organic substance1 urea1 a crystalline compound which constitutes about half of the solid matter dissolved in urine4 ,whler and ,liebig next collaborated in a study of organic substances1 and one of the early results of their investigations was the discovery of the compound radical1 benzoyl1 as they termed it1 ,c#g;,h#e,o1 which they found could be combined with chlorine1 bromine1 iodine1 sulphur1 ammonium1 and other substances1 always retaining its own individuality4 ,it was1 in fact1 a compound radical1 and though it has never been isolated1 its compounds prove its character4 ,berzelius was so struck by this discovery that he suggested the name of proine or orthrine1 either meaning the dawn1 in substitution for benzoyl4 ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,w,,hler4 7,from the ,royal ,collection of ,etchings at ,munich47 ,born at ,eschersheim1 near ,frankfort1 #ahjj2 died at ,gttingen1 #ahhb4 ,whler's notable discovery of the artificial production of urea in #ahbh is famous as the starting point of synthetic chemistry4 ,henceforward discoveries and theories based on them1 or propounded to explain them1 so crowd the field that even in bulky volumes the story is only told in outline4 ,but several of the famous theories or laws or expositions1 on which modern chemistry relies1 have been so fertile in consequences that they must be very briefly mentioned4 ,,substitution4 ,before #ahdj the famous ,french chemist ,j4 ,b4 ,a4 ,dumas developed the theory of substitution1 or 8metalepsy10 showing that the hydrogen atoms in organic substances can be removed one by one from their molecules1 other atoms being substituted for them4 ,a simple illustration of this process is manifest in the action of potassium on water1 though this is not an example of organic substitution4 ,the water1 ,h#b,o takes up one atom of potassium1 ,k1 in place of one of its hydrogen atoms1 becoming caustic potash1 ,,koh4 ,it is further possible by an indirect method to replace the remaining hydrogen atom by another of potassium1 yielding potassium oxide1 ,k#b,o4 ,changes of organic bodies are always proceeding on these lines1 and ,frankland said the recognition of the process had contributed more to the progress of the science than any other generalisation4 ,,homologues4 ,about #ahej ,c4 ,f4 ,gerhardt1 one of ,liebig's pupils who settled in ,france 7and died in #ahef at the age of #dj71 gave the next great impetus to the development of organic chemistry1 or the chemistry of carbon compounds1 as it was coming to be termed1 by showing how vast numbers of organic compounds could be classified and grouped into homologous series4 ,starting1 for example1 with marsh gas1 ,,ch#d1 which is chemically known as methane1 he showed how from this type methyl alcohol1 ,,ch#d,o1 and formic acid1 ,,ch#b,o#b1 are formed4 ,ethane1 ,c#b;,h#f1 comes next in the series and ethyl alcohol and acetic acid follow just as methyl alcohol and formic acid follow from methane4 ,the addition of ,,ch#b to ethane gives propane2 propyl alcohol and propionic acid following2 another addition of ,,ch#b results in butane with butyl alcohol and butyric acid2 and the next type is pentane1 with amyl alcohol and valeric acid in its train4 ,thus it was perceived that all the multitude of complex bodies included in the organic kingdom were compounded in an orderly system4 ,,valency4 ,the ,english chemist ,edward ,frankland next put forward the doctrine of valency4 ,according to this theory atoms possess one1 two1 three1 four1 or more links each1 and require that number of other atoms of minimum combining capacity to 8saturate0 them in a molecule4 ,carbon1 for example1 is usually considered to be quadrivalent1 and as shown in the instance of methane1 requires four hydrogen atoms to saturate it4 ,but how is it then that in the case of the next type1 ethane1 ,c#b;,h#f1 the conditions are satisfied8 ,the explanation is that the molecule is arranged in this manner3 ,h ,h ,h--,c--,c--,h ,h ,h each carbon atom having three hydrogen atoms attached to it1 the fourth bond uniting it with the other carbon atom4 ,this and other difficulties led to the theory of ,,structural ,,formulas1 towards which ,kekul1 of ,heidelberg1 was the principal contributor4 8,rational formul0 as distinguished from 8empiric formul0 were already recognised as shown by the homologous series of ,gerhardt4 ,let this be illustrated by the instance of alcohol4 ,the atomic composition of compound bodies was ascertained by many of the earlier chemists4 ,lavoisier analysed alcohol1 and assigned to it almost the same composition as we know it to be4 ,its empirical formula is ,c#b;,h#f,o2 but that does not explain how it is built up4 ,by deductive reasoning it is established that alcohol is ethane with one hydrogen atom in each molecule replaced by hydroxyl 7,,oh74 ,ethane is ,c#b;,h#f2 alcohol is thus formulated--,c#b;,h#e,,oh4 ,that is its 8rational formula40 ,alcohol is a comparatively simple substance2 we shall deal with some formulas of much greater complexity presently4 ,illustration3 ,,august ,,kekul4 ,born at ,darmstadt1 #ahbi2 died at ,bonn1 #ahif4 ,but these explanations were by no means sufficient to meet all the cases which were coming before chemists1 and now ,kekul's brilliant 8closed ring0 theory was conceived1 and on this most of the wonderful building up of the synthetic compounds has been planned4 ,kekul was puzzling over the formula ,c#f;,h#f which had been found to represent benzene1 now so famous as the starting point of the aromatic series4 ,he stated that the solution of the problem came to his mind on the top of a ,london omnibus in #ahfe1 when he was an assistant in the chemical laboratory of ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital ,medical ,school4 ,he conceived the idea of a hexagonal structure with an atom of carbon at each angle1 each united to one atom of hydrogen1 and on one side a double link or bond1 and on the other a single one1 connecting it with the next carbon atom1 the quadrivalency of each atom being thereby satisfied4 ,the formula is depicted in the margin1 and is generally accepted2 but it ought to be stated that it has rivals1 though all are founded on the necessity of providing for the saturation of the four links of the carbon atoms4 ,h ,c _/ ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch _/_/ ,c ,,aniline4 ,among the events which gradually led to the production of artificial compounds for which physiological properties and action have been claimed1 the discovery of aniline is prominent4 ,the substance1 now so well known by that name1 was first separated from indigo in #ahbf in the course of a dry distillation of that dye by a pharmacist of ,erfurt1 named ,unverdorben4 ,he named his product 8crystalline10 from its character4 ,in #ahcd the same substance1 as it was later known to be1 was obtained from coal-tar by ,runge1 who1 observing the violet colour which bleaching powder caused in its aqueous solution1 designated the product 8kyanol40 ,ten years subsequently ,hofmann continued the investigations which ,runge had pioneered4 ,meanwhile ,fritzsche had obtained anthranilic acid from indigo1 and from that he had produced an oily base which he called 8aniline40 ,this term was derived from the specific name of the indigofera anil1 which was the ,sanskrit designation of the famous blue dye4 ,hofmann's researches ultimately proved that ,unverdorben's crystalline1 ,runge's kyanol1 and ,fritzsche's aniline were all chemically identical4 ,hofmann would have preferred to retain the first of these names1 but the more definite aniline prevailed4 ,the colour producing power of aniline had been observed 7as has been already mentioned7 by ,runge in #ahcd1 but it was not until #ahef that this property became of practical importance1 when ,w4 ,h4 ,perkin1 at the time a pupil of ,hofmann's1 commenced the investigation which resulted in such a complete revolution in the dyeing industry4 ,perkin's patent for his 8mauve0 dye was obtained in #aheh4 ,it is an interesting circumstance that he made his discovery as a consequence of experiments he was conducting with the view of manufacturing an artificial quinine4 ,now we may turn to the ,illustration3 ,a4 ,w4 ,,von ,,hofmann4 ,born1 #ahah2 died1 #ahib4 ,was ,director of the ,royal ,college of ,chemistry1 ,london1 #ahde-ahfd2 subsequently ,professor of ,chemistry in ,berlin ,university4 ,hofmann commenced the researches into coal-tar chemistry and established the chemical characteristics of aniline1 and was thus one of the principal founders of modern organic chemistry4 ,,imitation ,,of ,,natural ,,alkaloids 7showing how coniine1 piperine1 atropine1 nicotine1 caffeine1 theobromine1 and others1 have been synthesised2 and that quinine1 strychnine1 morphine1 and codeine await conquest74 ,liebig1 ,gerhardt1 and other chemists had been progressing towards this attainment by studying the structural constitution of various alkaloids4 ,in #ahdb ,gerhardt separated a base which he called quinoline from quinine1 cinchonine1 and strychnine4 ,this base was subsequently identified by ,hofmann with the leucol which ,runge had obtained from coal-tar in #ahcd4 ,in #ahdf ,runge also produced a substance which he called pyridine from bone oil4 ,hofmann showed that this was the base of certain other alkaloids1 coniine1 piperine1 nicotine1 and atropine among these4 ,now it will be necessary to illustrate progress by means of a few formul diagrams4 ,benzene is ,c#f;,h#f2 aniline is a derivative of benzene in which one atom of hydrogen has been replaced by the amino-group1 ,,nh#b4 ,its formula is ,c#f;,h#e,,nh#b1 and it is represented thus3 ,,ch _/_/ ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch _/_/ ,,cnh#b ,aniline is basic2 that is1 it combines with acids to form salts4 ,together with aniline in coal-tar there occur other basic nitrogenous substances2 of these pyridine and quinoline have already been mentioned1 and to them must be added isoquinoline1 which is also the parent substance of a series of alkaloids4 ,in pyridine one of the ,,ch groups of the benzene ring is replaced by a nitrogen atom1 the formula of the substance being ,c#e;,h#e,n4 ,in #ahhf ,ladenburg succeeded in synthesising the alkaloid coniine1 starting with pyridine4 ,this was the first occasion on which the artificial preparation of an alkaloid was achieved4 ,the steps of the process were as follows2-- ,by the action of methyl iodide 7,,ch#c;,i71 pyridinium methyl iodide is formed1 which is transformed on heating into -methyl-pyridine hydriodide4 ,the free base1 when treated with acetaldehyde 7p4 #bga71 yielded a compound known as -allyl-pyridine1 which1 in turn1 was made to combine with nascent hydrogen4 ,the resulting compound 7isoconiine7 becomes coniine on heating to #cjj ,c4 or boiling with solid potash4 ,the chemical history is shown graphically below3-- ,,ch ,,ch ,,ch ,,ch _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch ,h#b;,c ,,ch#b ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,cch#c ,,hc ,,cc#c;,h#e ,h#b;,c ,,chc#c;,h#g _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ ,n ,n ,n ,,nh ,pyridine4 -,methyl-pyridine4 -,allyl-pyridine4 ,coniine4 ,pyridine1 it may be mentioned1 can be built up from its elements4 ,this coniine triumph of synthetic chemistry has been followed by many others of a similar character1 and now all the alkaloids mentioned above in connection with pyridine have been produced artificially4 ,piperine was synthesised by ,ladenburg and ,scholtz in #ahid2 atropine together with other solanaceous alkaloids1 and cocaine#d by ,willsttter in #aija-b2 and nicotine by ,pictet in #aijc4 ,the structure of these alkaloids is considerably more complicated than that of coniine2 atropine1 for example1 is represented by the formula ,h ,h#b ,h#b;,c----,c----,c ,,ch#b,,oh _/ ,n--,,ch#c ,,ch--,o--,,co--,,ch _/ ,h#b;,c----,c----,c ,c#f;,h#e ,h ,h#b ,the molecule of quinoline contains a benzene and a pyridine nucleus condensed thus3-- ,,hc ,,ch ,c _/ _/_/ _/ ,,hc ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch _/ _/_/ _/ ,c _/_/ ,,hc ,n ,among the alkaloids of the quinoline group may be mentioned those of cinchona bark and nux vomica4 ,the constitution of these alkaloids is very complex1 and in most cases but little understood4 ,as an example of the cinchona group quinine may be taken4 ,its structure is probably ,,ch _/ _/ ,h#b;,c ,,ch#b ,,ch--,,ch,,ch#b ,h#b;,c ,,ho,c ,,ch#b _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ch#b ,n _/ ,,hc ,c _/_/ ,c _/ ,,ch#c,,oc _/ ,,ch ,,hc ,,ch ,c _/_/ ,,hc ,n the formula being ,c#bj;,h#bd,n#b,o#b4 ,quinine has not been completely synthesised1 but it has been prepared from cupreine1 another cinchona alkaloid4 ,the strychnos alkaloids likewise have not yet been artificially prepared1 and their structure still requires elucidation4 ,the derivatives of isoquinoline1 which was discovered by ,hoogewerff and van ,dorp in #ahhe1 include some of the opium alkaloids1 papaverine and narcotine1 for example4 ,morphine and codeine do not1 strictly speaking1 fall into either of the three groups mentioned2 our knowledge of the chemical nature of these substances has been much advanced recently1 and it is probable that their synthesis will be effected before long4 ,,hc ,,ch _/_/ ,c _/ ,,hc _/ ,,ch ,,hc ,n _/ ,c _/_/ ,,hc ,,ch ,isoquinoline4 ,one of the most beautiful pieces of work on the synthesis of vital products during recent years was the artificial preparation by ,fischer 7#ahie-ih7 of the bases caffeine and theobromine4 ,the processes employed are too long and complicated to be described here1 but the formulas may be given1 since they demonstrate the close relationship which exists between the two substances4 7,,ch#c7,n-----,,co ,,hn-----,,co ,,co ,c-,n7,,ch#c7 ,,co ,c-,n7,,ch#c7 _/,,ch _/,,ch 7,,ch#c7,n-----,c-,n 7,,ch#c7,n-----,c-,n ,caffeine4 ,theobromine4 ,,other ,,synthetic ,,products4 7,benzoic acid1 camphor1 adrenaline1 salicylic acid47 ,certain chemical bodies which have been used in medicine for centuries have been analysed1 their structural formulas ascertained1 and then the atoms have been put together in the laboratory so perfectly that in many cases the artificial products cannot be distinguished from the natural original ones4 ,benzoic acid1 obtained by subliming gum benzoin1 has been in use since the latter part of the sixteenth century1 when under the name of fleurs de benzoin1 soon anglicised into flowers of benjamin1 they were introduced by a ,french physician1 named ,blaise de ,vigenre1 who was secretary to ,henri ,,iii4 ,the name benjamin was not a bad corruption after all1 as the ,arabic term from which the ,european designations were derived was ,luban ,jawa1 the incense of ,java4 ,the ,spaniards first dropped the first syllable under the mistaken impression that it was the ,arabic article4 ,old etymologies traced the name to a supposed ,ben-jui1 or tree of the ,jews4 ,the artificial benzoic acid is obtained by the oxidation of toluene1 a hydrocarbon distilled from coal-tar4 ,comparatively recent achievements of synthetic chemistry are the artificial production of camphor and of adrenaline1 the active principle of the suprarenal gland4 ,the synthetic products can be distinguished from the originals by their behaviour towards polarised light4 ,salicylic acid1 prepared by acting on carbolic acid by carbon dioxide in the presence of an alkali1 became a practical commercial product in #ahgd1 but its discoverer1 ,kolbe of ,leipzig1 had prepared it in his laboratory since #ahei4 ,the natural product1 prepared from willow bark or oil of wintergreen1 was worth twelve guineas a pound2 the artificial salicylic acid in a few years came to be sold at not so many shillings per pound4 ,kolbe's theory was that the compound he devised would decompose within the organism into phenol and carbon dioxide1 and thus exercise an anti-putrefactive effect4 ,,physiological ,,speculations4 ,in many other cases the physiological effect of the compound was distinctly foreseen1 and latterly the relation between chemical constitution and physiological action has become the objective of much research4 ,it may be reasonably anticipated that before many years have passed it will be possible to predict the physiological powers of a substance from a knowledge of its structural formula1 just as already many of its more noteworthy physical properties may be so foretold4 ,even at present certain trustworthy rules1 affording guidance in this respect1 have been formulated4 ,dujardin-,beaumetz and ,bardel1 dealing with compounds of the aromatic series1 have laid down that 7a7 those containing hydroxyl 7,,oh7 are antiseptic2 7b7 those containing an amino-group 7,,nh#b7 or an acid amide are hypnotic2 and 7c7 those containing both an amino-group and an alkyl group 7,,ch#c1 ,c#b;,h#e1 etc47 are analgesic4 ,in order to show how synthetic remedies have been built up from simple products it will be convenient to take a few typical examples in the order of increasing chemical complexity1 rather than with strict regard to chronological progression4 ,,alcohol1 ,,ether1 ,,aldehyde1 ,,acetic ,,acid4 ,ethyl 7that is1 ordinary7 alcohol forms a convenient starting point4 ,it has been already stated that the molecule of this substance is represented by the formula ,c#b;,h#e,,oh but for centuries before its constitution was unravelled it had been prepared in a more or less pure condition1 as it still is1 by a process of fermentation followed by distillation4 ,alcohol can be built up from its elements thus3--,when an electric arc burns between carbon rods in an atmosphere of hydrogen1 acetylene is formed2 acetylene can be made to combine with hydrogen1 forming ethane2 ethane reacts with chlorine1 yielding ethyl chloride2 and this acted upon by an aqueous solution of potash gives alcohol as a result4 ,the steps of the process are shown below3-- ,,ch ,,ch#c ,,ch#b;,cl ,,ch#b,,oh -- -- -- ,,ch ,,ch#c ,,ch#c ,,ch#c ,acetylene4 ,ethane4 ,ethyl chloride4 ,ethyl alcohol4 ,alcohol is the basis of a number of substances used in medicine4 ,on treating it with a dehydrating agent such as strong sulphuric acid1 the elements of water are removed1 and two molecules of alcohol unite into one1 the resulting product being ether 7diethyl oxide74 ,the reaction is rather more complicated than is explained here1 but the net result is as stated4 ,the process was described by the ,german physician1 ,valerius ,cordus1 and was incorporated in the 8,dispensatory0 published after his death by the ,senate of ,nuremberg1 under the title of 8,oleum vitriole dulce verum40 ,as explained in the article on ,ether 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cdg71 the chemical reaction was1 until recent times1 a favourite topic for investigation4 ,when alcohol 7,c#b;,h#e,,oh7 is oxidised1 a substance known as aldehyde 7,,ch#c;,,cho7 is formed4 ,this was first prepared and described by ,fourcroy and ,dbereiner1 but its constitution was explained by ,kolbe4 ,on further oxidation acetic acid 7,,ch#c;,,cooh7 is formed4 ,the relationship between the alcohol1 aldehyde and acetic acid was traced by ,liebig4 ,,chloral ,,hydrate ,,and ,,chloroform4 ,the oxidation of alcohol may be effected by the agency of chlorine1 and in that case an intermediate oily product is obtained1 in which three of the hydrogen atoms of the aldehyde are replaced by three of chlorine4 ,the compound resulting is chloral 7,c,cl#c;,,cho71 and this readily combines with water and forms the familiar chloral hydrate crystals which were first prepared by ,liebig in #ahcb1 but only got into the 8,british ,pharmacopia0 7,additions7 in #ahgd4 ,chloral hydrate treated with caustic potash splits into chloroform and potassium formate4 ,chloroform was discovered in #ahca by ,liebig and ,soubeiran1 and was admitted into the 8,london ,pharmacopia0 of #ahea1 four years after ,simpson had demonstrated its wonderful ansthetic property4 ,,sulphonal4 ,returning to acetic acid1 it may be stated that by heating its calcium salt two substances1 acetone1 7,,ch#c7b;,,co1 and calcium carbonate are formed4 ,also that when alcohol is acted upon by phosphorus pentasulphide1 mercaptan1 ,c#b;,h#e,,sh1 is obtained4 ,by the reaction of acetone and mercaptan1 mercaptol results1 and this1 when oxidised1 becomes the well-known synthetic hypnotic1 sulphonal4 ,it is not necessary to give the full formulas of these reactions1 as they may be found in the usual chemical manuals2 but it may be stated that the full descriptive name of sulphonal is dimethyl-diethylsulphone-methane4 ,the group of sulphones furnishes an illustration of the reasoning on which new synthetic compounds come to be constructed4 ,the theory was that the physiological action of sulphonal was due to1 or connected with1 its ethyl group4 ,it was supposed1 therefore1 that by increasing the number of such groups in a molecule the hypnotic effect would be proportionately developed4 ,it was believed that experiments on dogs supported this deduction2 but it was not maintained in clinical experience4 ,,acetanilide ,,and ,,phenacetin4 ,many of the popular synthetic remedies belong to the benzene series4 ,benzene is obtained from coal-tar1 but1 as shown by ,berthelot1 it is possible to prepare it by heating the gaseous hydrocarbon1 acetylene1 ,c#b;,h#b1 in a closed vessel4 ,by this means three molecules of acetylene are condensed into one1 ,c#f;,h#f1 which is benzene4 ,benzene acted upon by nitric acid yields nitrobenzene1 and this by the action of nascent hydrogen is changed into aniline4 ,aniline may be regarded as ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 in which one hydrogen atom has been replaced by the phenyl group1 ,c#f;,h#e1 and1 like ammonia1 it combines with acids to form salts4 ,aniline acetate being formed1 the elements of water being eliminated in the process1 the product is acetanilide1 or antifebrin4 ,acetanilide was first prepared by ,gerhardt1 in #ahec1 but its physiological action was only discovered by ,cahn and ,hepp in the 'eighties4 ,by the substitution of an ethoxy-group for one of the hydrogen atoms of acetanilide1 para-ethoxy-acetanilide1 commonly called 8phenacetin10 is produced4 ,,salol4 ,phenol is another of the multitudes of substances obtainable from coal-tar2 it can be prepared from aniline by the action of nitrous acid1 and can be shown to be benzene with one hydrogen atom replaced by hydroxyl4 ,if one of the adjacent hydrogen atoms of phenol is replaced by carboxyl1 salicylic acid is produced2 and in the presence of a suitable dehydrating agent salicylic acid reacts with phenol and phenyl salicylate1 known as salol1 is formed4 ,,antipyrin4 ,many of the synthetic chemicals are much more complex than those so far described4 ,they are built up on similar lines1 but the processes involve a greater number of stages4 ,antipyrin 7phenazone1 or phenyl-dimethylisopyrazolone7 may be added to the examples selected for this notice4 ,antipyrin is represented by the annexed formula1 which is said to be heterocyclic1 ,h#c;,,cc-----,,ch ,h#c;,,cn ,,co _/ _/ ,n ,c#f;,h#e because its molecules1 like those of pyridine1 consist of rings not made up exclusively of carbon atoms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it must be understood that in this sketch only a very few notable instances of modern chemical research have been given1 these being some of the more familiar products which have been introduced into medicine4 ,favourite colours1 odours1 and flavours have likewise been synthesised1 and the manufacture of some of these artificial products has developed into vast businesses4 ,the object of this chapter has been to make it clear that the marvellous activity which has been displayed in these directions during the past half-century1 has been guided by the most profound and skilful research1 one step leading to another1 and that the new products have not been hit upon by mere chance4 ,,xxiv ,,names ,,and ,,symbols 8,every trade and handicraft1 every art1 every science1 is constantly changing its materials1 its processes1 and its products2 and its technical dialect is modified accordingly1 while so much of the results of this change as affects or interests the general public finds its way into the familiar speech of everybody40 7,w4 ,,dwight ,,whitney3--8,language and its ,study40 #ahgf47 ,the technological vocabulary of pharmacy is very voluminous1 and has been recruited from all languages4 ,many of the names of vegetable drugs literally household words in ,english1 have been transferred direct from savage tongues4 ,guaiacum1 ipecacuanha1 and jalap may be cited as examples4 ,other names of drugs cover histories which well repay investigation4 ,take1 for example1 the word hyoscyamus and its ,english equivalent henbane 7which ,i select because it does not happen to be alluded to elsewhere in this work74 ,the obvious and usual explanation of these names is that hyoscyamus is the ,greek genitive hyos1 of a hog1 and kyamos1 a bean1 and in fact the name of hog's bean is applied to it in several languages4 ,henbane1 too1 is supposed to be self-explanatory4 ,but there is good reason to believe that neither of these interpretations is correct4 ,dioscorides1 who calls the plant hyoscyamos1 also mentions that its almost obsolete name was dioskyamos2 and henbane is well known to be a corruption of henne-bell4 ,the obsolete name is obviously more likely to convey the original meaning than its corruption1 and therefore hyoscyamos is more likely to have meant the bean of the gods than the bean of the pigs4 ,possibly its name was traceable to the idea that the delirium which the drug produced was the condition induced in human beings when the gods communicated with them1 or that some priests used it to produce that condition in which messages presumably from the higher powers could be transmitted4 ,henbane1 again1 is not satisfactorily accounted for by its surface meaning4 ,there is no evidence that hens ever eat the herb or the seeds4 ,but the ,saxon name henne-bell suggests some sort of a musical instrument1 and it is a curious fact that in medival ,latin henbane was sometimes known as ,symphoniaca ,herba2 the ,symphoniaca being a rod with a number of little bells on it4 ,this description might be appropriately applied to the plant1 and we have only to suppose a ,saxon term 8hengebelle0 to clear up the mystery4 ,i am indebted for the foregoing notes to three very suggestive articles in ,the ,chemist and ,druggist of ,october and ,november1 #ahgg1 and ,february1 #ahgh1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,piper4 ,next we come to the fanciful and poetic names of metals and their salts1 and of all sorts of chemical compounds1 invented by the alchemists4 ,they gave the names of aquila alba1 mercurius dulcis1 panchymagogum minerale1 manna metallorum1 draco mitigatus1 and others to calomel2 regulus1 or the little king1 to antimony 7gold being king72 lunar caustic1 ethiops martial1 and salts of ,saturn2 vitriol1 tartar1 pompholix1 and scores of others1 not selected without judgment1 but intended rather to mystify the public than to instruct them4 ,chemical nomenclature of the present day has gone to the opposite extreme4 ,the ingenious laboratory devisers of synthetic products have developed a nomenclature which it is impossible to use4 ,it explains itself to the initiated1 but even for intercommunication between chemists1 pharmacists1 and physicians words like tetrahydroparamethyloxyquinoline or calcium betanaphthol-alphamonosulphonate insist on being simplified if the substances they describe come into medicinal use2 and to do them justice it must be admitted that the inventors of the products are always ready to meet this requirement with a more or less expressive title which can be protected as a trade mark4 ,this forces other manufacturers to devise other distinct names for the same article1 so that among the new chemicals which have become popular within the past thirty years there are sometimes a dozen designations for the same substance4 ,a ,,pharmaceutical ,,vocabulary4 ,the subjoined list of technical terms is limited to the names of pharmaceutical processes1 products1 and apparatus2 and only 7as a rule1 with some exceptions7 of such as are not dealt with in other sections4 ,many of the terms are obsolete1 but are to be met with in old treatises4 ,occasionally rather more than a bare definition has been thought desirable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,acetabulum4 ,originally a vessel used by the ,romans for holding vinegar at the table4 ,then a liquid measure about #b oz4 ,acetum ,philosophicum4 ,vinegar made from honey4 ,acopon4 ,a stimulating or anodyne liniment1 almost of the consistence of an ointment4 ,if acopa contained aromatics they were called myracopa4 ,adept4 ,an alchemist who 8had attained40 ,adust4 ,a dried up condition of the humours4 ,aggregatives4 ,pills devised by ,mesu which were intended to purge all the humours4 ,alabaster4 ,a special kind of carbonate or sulphate of lime used by the ancients for ointment containers which were sometimes called alabastra4 ,the name is supposed to have been derived from a town in ,egypt4 ,album ,rhasis4 ,white lead ointment1 which ,rhazes was believed to have introduced4 ,alembic4 ,the ,arabic name for a still4 ,it was adapted by the ,arabs from the ,greek ambix1 a vase1 to which was prefixed the particle al4 ,the word became corrupted in ,english to ,limbeck4 ,alembroth4 ,sal ,alembroth was the double chloride of mercury and ammonium4 ,also called the salt of wisdom4 ,the word has not been traced1 but has been supposed to be a ,chaldaic term meaning the key of art4 ,alexipharmic 7in ,greek alexipharmakon74 ,a remedy against poison4 ,alexiteria4 ,remedies against the bites of venomous animals4 ,alhandal4 ,the ,arabic name for colocynth which was applied to certain lozenges or tablets of that drug4 ,alkahest4 ,the universal solvent1 or menstruum4 ,the word has an ,arabic appearance1 but cannot be traced to that language4 ,it is believed to have been one of ,paracelsus's many etymological inventions4 ,the derivation has been guessed to have been from the ,german al-geist1 all spirit1 ,paracelsus said it was a liquid to cure all kinds of engorgements4 ,van ,helmont's ,alkahest was capable of restoring to their first life all the bodies of nature4 ,glauber's ,alkahest was nitrate potash which had been detonated on live coals4 ,it was carbonate of potash4 ,alkali1 in ,arabic al-qaly4 ,qaly meant to fry1 and the technical term was applied to the ashes of plants after frying or roasting4 ,alkekengi4 ,the ,winter ,cherry1 formerly in much esteem as a remedy in kidney and urinary complaints4 ,alkool4 ,this name was given to powders of the finest tenuity4 ,it was also applied to spirit of wine rectified to the utmost extent4 ,boerhaave employed the term to indicate the purest inflammable principle4 ,aloedarium4 ,a purgative medicine with aloes as the principal ingredient4 ,aludels4 ,pear-shaped pots constructed so that they could be fitted one into another1 a series of them being used for sublimations4 ,the name is supposed to have had an ,arabic origin1 or it may have meant 8not luted40 ,amalgam4 ,a compound of mercury and some other metal4 ,believed to have been a perversion of malagma1 a soft ointment1 with the ,arabic article prefixed4 ,amphora4 ,an earthenware vessel with two handles wherewith to carry it4 ,used by the ,greeks and ,romans for wine and oil4 ,the ,greek vessel contained about #i gallons2 the ,roman amphora was equivalent to nearly #g gallons4 ,analeptica4 ,restorative remedies4 ,anoyntment4 ,an old term for ointment4 ,antidotary4 ,a frequent title of books of formulas for medicines4 ,antidote4 ,something 8given against40 ,originally1 perhaps1 an adjective1 and in old medicine employed for various remedies2 now limited to substances which will counteract the effect of poisons4 ,apozems4 ,strong decoctions or infusions4 ,a ,greek word meaning 8boiled off40 ,aqua ,mirabilis4 ,once a popular household remedy4 ,water distilled from cloves1 cardamoms1 cubebs1 mace1 ginger1 and other spices4 ,aquila ,alba4 ,an old name for calomel4 ,arcana meant secrets4 ,the original idea of the word was things shut up and protected as the occupants of ,noah's ,ark were shut up4 ,the alchemists used the word arcanum freely1 but it came to be applied to medicines of known composition but of mysterious action4 ,arcanum tartari was acetate of potash4 ,arcanum duplicatum was another name for the ,sal de ,duobus or sulphate of potash which was supposed to combine the virtues of nitre and vitriol4 ,athanor was a self-supplying furnace1 the coals or fuel being provided in a reservoir above the fire and intended to be supplied to the furnace automatically4 ,balm and ,balsam1 which are words with the same origin1 have always been suggestive of medicinal and healing virtues4 ,probably balsam has descended through the ,greek and ,latin from ,semitic terms meaning spices4 ,the ,hebrew ,besem or ,bosem1 often translated 8spices10 in one place 8cinnamon10 in another 8calamus10 always meant some grateful aromatic4 ,but the opobalsamum or juice of the ,balsam tree1 the famous ,balm of ,gilead1 was ,tsori in ,hebrew4 ,old etymologists1 supported by ,littr and other moderns1 consider that ,baal-schaman1 prince of oils1 was the original word from which balsam was derived4 ,the ,arabic ,abu-scham1 father of perfumed oils1 was a name for the balsam tree4 ,paracelsus taught that the human body contained a natural balsam which tended by itself to heal wounds4 ,basilicon ointment is first met with in ,celsus4 ,it means royal ointment but no explanation of the origin of the term is given4 ,he compounded it of panax1 7perhaps opopanax71 galbanum1 pitch1 resin1 and oil4 ,mesu made a basilicon minus1 composed of wax1 resin1 pitch1 and oil4 ,this he also called unguentum tetrapharmacum1 because it was made from four drugs4 ,both of these were black ointments4 ,later the pitch was omitted and the ointment was then named yellow basilicon4 ,a green basilicon ointment was also formulated in the early ,london ,pharmacopias1 containing verdigris1 and used as a detergent4 ,it is sometimes stated that the ointment acquired its name because it contained the plant basil 7,ocimum basilicum7 among its ingredients2 but ,i find no authority for this statement4 ,baths4 ,the most usual form of digesting substances in a gentle heat was in a ,balneum ,mari1 ,bain-,marie1 or as old ,english writers translated it a ,st4 ,mary's bath4 ,it was supposed to have been derived from balneum maris1 as if sea water was used2 but there is no justification for this guess4 ,littr thinks it was called the bath of ,mary because of its gentleness4 ,sand-baths1 cinder-baths1 horse-dung baths1 and iron-filings baths were also ordered4 ,bezoards4 ,mineral bezoard was diaphoretic antimony4 ,silician earth was also called mineral bezoar4 ,blisters4 ,freind says these were introduced into medicine in ,venice and ,padua during the plague of #aegf4 ,jerome ,mercuriali wrote about them4 ,they superseded dropaxes and metasyncretics4 ,bolus was a medicine of the consistence of an electuary or rather stiffer1 taken in pieces about the size of a bean4 ,the ,greek word meant a lump of earth1 and it was used medically by the ,romans4 ,it was the same as katapotia4 ,calx was the name applied to lime which had been burnt1 and from this it came to be applied to the white powdery product yielded by burning metals4 ,thus came the calx ,lun1 the calx ,saturni1 the calx ,jovis1 the calx ,mercurii1 and others4 ,the ancient theory was that in burning the metal the sulphur principle was driven out1 and this was the parent of ,stahl's phlogiston theory4 ,caput mortuum and terres damnes were names applied to residues in retorts after operations4 ,carminative4 ,a medicine which expels winds4 ,one theory traces it to carmen1 a charm1 but most authorities consider that it was an application to medicine of the term carminare1 to card wool1 and suggested that the remedy acted by combing through the humours4 ,cataplasm4 ,from ,greek kata-plassein1 to apply over4 ,used originally for both poultices and plasters4 ,cataplasmata were perfumed powders sprinkled over the clothes1 or sometimes depilatories4 ,catholica4 ,electuaries which purged all the humours4 ,cerates were ointments made solid by wax1 but not so hard as plasters4 ,cerevisi 7,beers74 ,medicinal preparations made by adding medicines to malt wort and letting them ferment together were popular in the early part of the #ahth century4 ,it was believed that the process of fermentation extracted the properties of drugs more effectively than mere digestion4 ,quincy 7#agci7 names thirty cerevisi1 aperient1 antiscorbutic1 diuretic1 hysteric1 stomachic1 c4 ,many of these were compounded with numerous drugs4 ,ceruse4 ,old ,latin name for white lead4 ,flowers of antimony were called ceruse of antimony4 ,the name is supposed to have had some association with wax1 but the connection is not clear4 ,cochleare4 ,the usual prescription term for a spoonful1 was in ,latin the twenty-fourth of a cyathus or wineglassful4 ,it was an egg-spoon1 but owed its name to a pointed tip used to extract winkles from their shells as we use pins1 and1 the cochlear being a small snail1 the name was transferred to the instrument4 ,from it has descended the ,french cuillier1 a spoon4 ,cohobation came to mean only the repetition of distillation1 the distillate being poured on the material from which it had already been distilled1 and again distilled4 ,paracelsus uses the term cohob to signify a repetition of the same medicine4 ,colcothar4 ,the name was applied to the prepared rust of iron now called rouge1 but originally to the residue left in the retort after oil of vitriol had been distilled from sulphate of iron4 ,paracelsus used1 and some say invented1 the word2 but ,murray traces it through the ,spanish to an ,arabic origin1 qolqotar1 which ,doxy believes to have been a corruption of the ,greek ,chalcanthos1 a solution of blue vitriol 7from chalkos1 copper1 and anthos1 flower74 ,colcothar was the same as crocus ,martis4 ,collutories4 ,medicines of the consistence of honey for applying to the gums and mouth4 ,honey and borax is an example4 ,a fluid mouth-wash was called a collution4 ,collyrium4 ,collyria were 8dry10 or powders such as alum1 sulphate of zinc1 or calomel1 which were insufflated into the eye2 soft1 or pomades applied to the eyelids2 and liquid1 or eye lotions4 ,the term kollyrion was used in ,greek medicine with the same meaning2 it was originally derived from kollyra1 a roll of bread4 ,conserves properly consisted of only one medicament and sugar4 ,crocus 7,saffron74 ,the term was applied to certain metallic combinations of a saffron colour1 such as crocus ,martis 7rust of iron71 crocus ,veneris 7a copper oxide71 and crocus ,metallorum 7liver of antimony74 ,damocrates left a formula for ,crocomagma1 tonic cakes or trochiscs1 of which saffron was the principal ingredient4 ,crucible4 ,a vessel in which metals are melted4 ,the word is generally attributed to a supposed association with crux1 crucis1 a cross2 but this is not proved4 ,it was originally the name of a night-lamp1 and several authorities consider it owes its name to the crossing of the wicks4 ,cucupha4 ,a cap to be worn on the head in which certain aromatic drugs were fixed with the idea of curing headaches4 ,cucurbit4 ,a gourd-shaped vessel of glass or earthenware used as a retort4 ,cyathus1 translated wineglassful when the word appears in prescriptions1 was the ladle with which the wine was scooped out from the cratera into the poculum4 ,it was also a ,roman measure1 about the twelfth part of a pint4 ,decocta have been attributed to ,nero as the inventor4 ,at least they appear to have originated in his household4 ,they were simply boiled water refreshed by ice1 and often flavoured by fruits4 ,these were employed as beverages4 8,et hc est ,neronis decocta0 exclaimed the fallen tyrant as he fled from ,rome and allayed his thirst by scooping some dirty water from a pond4 ,deliquium4 ,deliquescence2 as when salt of tartar was resolved into 8oil of tartar0 by mere exposure to the air4 ,this was called 8deliquium per se40 ,despumation4 ,the removal of the froth from boiling honey or syrup4 ,dia in the 8,vision of ,william concerning ,piers the ,plowman0 written by ,langland in #acgg occur the lines3 ,lyf leuede that lechecraft lette shulde elde ,and dryuen away deth with dyas and dragges4 ,translated into modern ,english these lines would read 8,life believed that leechcraft should let 7hinder7 age1 and drive away death with dyas and dragges40 ,the dyas and dragges were evidently the means which leechcraft employed4 ,at that time and for long afterwards a large number of compounded medicines bore titles with the prefix dia-4 ,diachylon1 diagrydium1 diabolanum diakodion1 diasulphuris are examples of scores4 ,dia was the ,greek preposition1 meaning through or from1 which appears in a multitude of ,english words4 ,in medicine it always implies a compound1 and in old ,english it is occasionally found alone as in the instance quoted from 8,piers ,plowman40 ,another given in the ,historical ,english ,dictionary is from ,lydgate 7#adcj7 8,drug nor dya was none in ,bury towne40#e ,in combination a few survivals remain in the language as ,diachylon1 ,diapente1 and ,diacodion1 but in the old medical formularies its use is very frequent4 ,generally it meant an electuary or confection4 ,thus for example the ,p4,l4 of #agdf changed the old ,diascordium into ,electuarium e ,scordio4 ,apparently the dia- was then going out of fashion4 ,diagredium or ,diagrydium4 ,this term was often applied to scammony but it was correctly reserved to a prepared scammony 7see ,dia72 the object being to modify the purgative action4 ,one method was to place some scammony in the hollow of a quince and keep it for some time in hot ashes4 ,this gave ,diagredium cydoniatum4 ,or sulphur was burned under a porous paper on which scammony was spread1 and the preparation was known as ,diagredium sulphuratum4 ,it was also combined with liquorice and called ,diagredium glycyrrhisatum4 ,dropax was the name of a plaster employed as a depilatory4 ,it was applied warm and pulled off1 with the hairs1 when cold4 ,it was the ,greek term for a pitch plaster4 ,drug4 ,the word 8dragges0 in the 8,vision of ,piers ,plowman0 7refer to 8,dia07 has been generally supposed to have been an earlier form of drugs2 but ,skeat contended on philological grounds that the two terms could hardly be the same4 ,dragges occurs also in ,chaucer in the description of the ,doctour of ,phisike3-- ,ful redy had he his apothecaries ,to send him dragges and his lettuaries4 and ,skeat presumed that the dragges were a kind of medicinal sweetmeat corresponding with the ,french drages4 ,but ,murray has shown that in most of the texts of ,chaucer the word is droggis or drugges4 ,so that it is probable that the poet was using the term which we now almost invariably confine to the raw materials of pharmacy4 ,it might easily be shown that in the past it was more generally applied4 ,the etymology of drug is doubtful4 ,the majority of philologists trace it to ,anglo-,saxon dryg1 and ,dutch droog1 both meaning dry1 the sense originating from dried herbs4 ,there is1 however1 a ,celtic word1 drwg1 in ,irish1 droch1 which has the meaning of something bad4 ,but ,littr suggests that the primary signification of that word is that of an ingredient1 and therefore might have been the derivation of our drug4 ,most likely it is the original of the word when employed as indicating something worthless1 as 8a drug in the market40 ,it may well be therefore that the word used in different senses has distinct derivations4 7,two interesting articles on this subject will be found in ,the ,chemist and ,druggist for ,february and ,march1 #ahhb47 ,eclegma4 ,thick syrups given on a piece of liquorice root to suck with the object of relieving coughs4 7,see ,electuary for ,derivation47 ,ecussons4 ,compounds of theriaca with some added opium used as plasters4 ,edulcorate4 ,to deprive substances of their acrid taste4 ,generally by the addition of syrup4 ,electuary4 ,old dictionaries give the origin of this word as from the ,latin electus1 on the theory that an electuary was a composition of selected drugs4 ,it is1 in fact1 a ,latin corruption of the ,greek ekleikton1 which meant something that could be licked4 ,see ,eclegma4 ,elixir4 ,an ,arabic word1 al-iksir1 which ,littr says signified the essence or the quintessence4 ,murray suggests that it may have had a ,greek origin4 ,xerion1 a late ,greek medical term1 meaning a desiccative powder for wounds1 is the word which he supposes the ,arabs may have adopted4 ,it is probable that elixir was from the first used to denote a medicine2 perhaps the medicine1 the great panacea which ,arab chemists sought for4 ,for although alchemy1 the name at least1 may be traced to their laboratories1 it is certain that their early efforts were rather in the direction of the discovery of remedies than in that of the production of gold4 ,by the alchemists of ,europe and ,england1 however1 elixir was understood in both senses4 ,it meant both the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life4 ,in 8,the ,alchemist10 ,ben ,jonson 7#afaj7 alludes to an old superstition thus3 ,he that has once the 8flower of the sun0 ,the perfect ruby which we call elixir 444 by its virtue ,can confer honour1 love1 respect1 long life1 ,give safety1 valour1 yea1 and victory ,to whom he will4 ,in eight and twenty days ,he'll make an old man of fourscore a child4 ,the word has been a useful one for empirics many times since4 ,emplastra are noted by ,celsus1 many of his formul being made with a lead plaster basis as ours are to this day1 litharge 7spuma argenti7 and olive oil being boiled together4 ,emulsion1 from emulsus the past participle of emulgere1 to milk out1 was originally applied to the milky liquid extracted from almonds4 ,subsequently extended to other milky fluids4 ,enchrista4 ,liquids1 ,celsus says1 8qu illinuntur10 but the word linimentum had not been formed in his time4 ,he uses the word ,linamentum for a sort of lint4 ,acopa were a kind of liniment4 ,enema or clyster or glyster are all used to signify either the injection or the instrument by which the injection is applied4 ,enema 7properly pronounced with the accent on the first syllable7 means something sent2 clyster was the ,greek word for the instrument4 ,ens4 ,a favourite term with old metaphysicians and alchemists with the same meaning as essence4 ,supposed to have been derived from ,esse1 to be4 ,epithema4 ,an alcoholic fomentation or liquid medicine applied to the heart and stomach as a stupe4 ,epithemation was the name of an application described by ,galen as of a consistence between that of a cerate and that of a plaster4 ,errhines1 called ,nasalia in ,latin1 are substances snuffed up the nostrils to excite sneezing4 ,gas was a word invented by ,van ,helmont4 ,several guesses have been hazarded as to the idea which suggested the term4 ,the ,dutch geest1 spirit or ghost1 seemed the most likely4 ,the ,german gschen1 to ferment1 has also been proposed4 ,but in #ahig ,dr4 ,f4 ,hurder discovered a paragraph in ,van ,helmont's writings which stated definitely that he had derived the word from chaos4 ,gilla ,vitriola4 ,the name first given to white vitriol4 ,gilla meant simply salt4 ,gutteta4 ,a term for epilepsy4 ,pulvis de ,gutteta was a remedy against epilepsy4 ,hepars were chemicals of a liver colour1 as hepar antimonii1 hepar sulphuris4 ,infusions first appeared in the ,london ,pharmacopia of #agbj4 ,in the revised edition of that issue 7#agbd71 however1 the three infusions of #agbj appear as ,decocti1 the title of ,infusum being abandoned1 but the directions for the three preparations referred to still give 8infunde0 and not 8coque40 ,in the edition of #agdf ,infusa re-appear as such1 and 8,macera0 appears in the directions for the first time4 ,in the #aghh edition ,inf4 ,amarum ,simplex becomes ,infusum ,gentian ,compositum1 and aqua bulliens gives place to aqua fervens4 ,in #ahji the number of ,infusions is raised from four to eighteen4 ,julep1 a term made popular in medicine by the ,arabs4 ,it was used by them exclusively for clear1 sweet1 liquids4 ,nothing oily or with a sediment could be a julep4 ,the name is said to be a ,persian compound from gul1 rose1 and ap1 water2 applied to rose tinted waters4 ,it has lingered in modern pharmacy as camphor or mint julep1 but in neither of these cases is it correctly applied1 as they are not sweetened4 ,the old way of making camphor julep was to hold a piece of camphor by pincers1 inflame it1 and plunge it in water1 repeating this operation frequently until the water acquired a strong flavour of camphor4 ,katapotia4 ,the most usual form of medicine among the ,greek pharmacists was the confection or electuary1 a composition of drugs made to a proper consistence generally with honey4 ,frequently these electuaries were called 8antidotes10 things given against this or that disease4 ,there were antidotes against gout1 against stone1 against colics1 against phthisis1 etc4 ,the taste of these antidotes was always unpleasant1 so it became the custom to order them to be made up into little balls of such or such size4 ,the ,greeks called these little balls 8katapotia10 that is1 things to be swallowed4 8,take a katapotium the size of a bean0 would be an ordinary ,greek direction4 ,galen describes a composition of #a part of colocynth1 #b parts of aloes1 #b of scammony1 #a of absinth juice1 and a little mastic and bdellium1 which was to be formed into katapotia1 each of the size of a dried pea4 ,trallien refers to this same pill1 but names the size as that of a kokkion1 a seed4 ,this was the origin of our pil4 cochi or cocci as they came to be known4 ,by this time the names globulus1 glomeramus1 and pilula had taken the place in ,latin of katapotium4 ,actuarius says expressly that what the ,greeks called katapotia the ,romans knew as pilul4 ,trochisci were katapotia made very hard4 ,lac ,virginale4 ,the name was applied to a dilute solution of acetate of lead 7,goulard's water7 and also to water made milky by the addition of a little tincture of benzoin4 ,both were used by young girls for their complexions4 ,lapis ,infernalis4 ,nitrate of silver4 ,lapis ,medicamentosus4 ,an astringent stone of which oxide of iron was the principal ingredient4 ,lapis ,mirabilis4 ,an application for wounds1 of which green vitriol was the essential ingredient4 ,looch--sometimes loch1 lohoch1 lohoth--was a thick liquid1 between a syrup and an electuary1 almond emulsion being frequently the basis1 which formerly patients were ordered to suck on a stick of liquorice cut in the form of a pencil for throat and lung irritation4 ,sometimes stronger medicines1 like kermes mineral and ipecacuanha1 were administered in this way4 ,the word was of ,arabic origin1 and was derived from the verb la'aka1 to lick4 ,maceration is the digestion of a solid body in a liquid for the purpose of dissolving its active principles4 ,magdaleon4 ,originally a mass or paste such as crumb of bread 7,greek1 magdalia71 or it may have been used for pill masses made up with crumb of bread4 ,the term became limited to plasters in cylindrical form4 ,magistery4 ,a word much in favour with the alchemists and old pharmacists4 ,it had not a very definite meaning1 but was understood to be a substance so converted as to present the virtues of the material from which it had been made in their most effective form4 ,boyle mentions that ,paracelsus uses the word to signify many different things1 and ,boyle himself has not a clear idea of what he understands by it1 for1 he says1 8the best notion ,i know of it is that it is a preparation whereby there is not an analysis made of the body assigned1 nor an extraction of this or that principle1 but the whole or very near the whole body1 by the help of some additament1 greater or less1 is turned into a body of another kind40 ,boerhaave1 however1 takes the pretensions of the makers of magisteries to be that they change a body into another form1 as1 for instance1 solid gold into liquid1 without any addition4 ,according to ,littr1 precipitates generally were considered to possess the properties of the bodies from which they were obtained1 and thus became magisteries4 ,the magistery of bismuth is the one which has survived the longest with us4 ,resin of jalap was also regarded as a magistery4 ,magma was the residuum left in the press after pressing out the menstruum4 ,it was also used to describe other substances of a soft consistence4 ,magnes ,arsenicalis was a compound of sulphur1 arsenic1 and antimony1 which1 either in the form of powder or made into a plaster1 was applied to syphilitic sores to draw out the virus4 ,angelo ,sala was the inventor of the plaster4 ,malagmata were substances applied to the skin to soften it1 such as poultices4 ,malaxation was the process of making a pill mass or a plaster soft enough to be worked4 ,manica ,hypocratis 7,sleeve of ,hippocrates7 was a long linen bag used to filter pharmaceutical preparations4 ,manipulus1 a handful1 often prescribed as an approximate measure of the quantity of herbs or flowers to be used in a pharmaceutical process4 ,manus ,christi was the name of a tablet made of sugar and flavoured with rose into which some prepared pearl entered4 ,manus ,dei was the name of an old plaster containing myrrh1 frankincense1 ammoniac1 and galbanum4 ,marmalades were conserves of various fruits1 the pulp of which was preserved in sugar4 ,said to have been originally the pulp of the quince 7in ,portuguese marmelo74 ,some old medical books say the pharmaceutical preparations known by this name1 which often contained manna1 were derived from the ,french marc ml4 ,masticatories4 ,substances chewed with the object of exciting the saliva4 ,sage1 betony1 pyrethrum1 and tobacco have been employed for this purpose4 ,matrass4 ,a round or oval glass vessel used in chemical operations to digest or evaporate liquids4 ,it was provided with a long straight neck1 and is supposed to owe its name to this1 matras or matrat being an old word for an arrow or javelin4 ,mellites were syrups made with honey instead of sugar4 ,mensis ,philosophicus1 a philosophic month1 or forty days4 ,menstruum4 ,the alchemists used this term much as the word solvent is now used1 and some etymologists think it was adopted to indicate that a month was necessary for a solvent to exercise its full power4 ,dr4 ,johnson says the idea originated 8in some notion of the old chemists about the influence of the moon in the preparation of dissolvents40 ,sir ,j4 ,murray says 8,menstruum was a medival term used in alchemy to express belief that the base metal undergoing transmutation into gold corresponded with the seed within the womb which was being acted upon by the agency of the menstrual fluid40 ,it is possible1 however1 that the old belief in the extraordinary solvent power of the menstrual fluid may have better accounted for the adoption of the term in pharmacy4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,carrington1 of ,brooklyn1 has quoted from a ,french narrative of the conquest and conversion of the natives of the ,canary ,islands1 published in one of the ,hakluyt volumes1 a passage written by two monks giving an account of the ,flood4 ,describing the ,ark1 they say it was so perfectly joined by 8,betun10 a glue so strong that the pieces united by it could not be separated by any art 8sinon par sang naturel de fleurs de femmes40 ,moxa4 ,in the middle of the seventeenth century ,ten ,rhyn and afterwards ,kaempfer1 both surgeons in the service of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company1 described a process of cauterisation largely adopted in ,china and ,japan in the treatment of various maladies4 ,they used the hairy leaves of the ,chinese artemisia and made it up into a cylindrical shape which they placed on any part on which they wished to act1 and then set fire to it1 allowing it to smoulder slowly down to the skin4 ,it was adopted by many ,european surgeons1 especially by ,van ,swieten in gout1 rheumatism1 and paralysis1 but carded cotton1 lint1 hemp1 or other substances were employed in the same way4 ,sydenham mentions this as a cure for gout1 and ,larrey designed a little instrument to facilitate the application4 ,sometimes chemicals were combined1 and the stem of the sunflower cut into inch lengths1 the pith being burnt1 was also used4 ,the operation of course gave great pain1 and after a time it was doubted if it did any good4 ,nasalia4 ,see ,errhines4 ,noctiluca4 ,the name given by ,boyle to the phosphorus which he made before the latter word became general4 ,nutrition4 ,a term used in old pharmacy to signify the act of combining substances in a mortar or by agitation until they acquired the proper consistence4 ,unguentum nutritum1 for example1 was an ointment made by stirring together in a mortar some lead plaster with oil and vinegar and generally some belladonna juice4 ,nychthemeron meant maceration for a day and night1 that is for #bd hours4 ,it appears sometimes in directions for treating herbs and flowers previous to distillation4 ,obolos1 a ,greek weight equal to half a scruple4 nclaion1 a mixture of wine and oil4 nogala1 a mixture of wine and milk4 nomeli1 a mixture of wine and honey4 sypus1 the name given by ,dioscorides to wool fat4 ,ointments among the ,greeks and ,romans were generally liquids4 ,anything used to anoint with1 not being oil simply1 was an ointment 7miron in ,greek1 unguentum in ,latin74 ,from the ,greek word was derived ,myrepsus1 which meant an ointment maker4 ,opiates were originally electuaries containing opium or some other narcotic4 ,gradually1 however1 the word lost its significance and was used to indicate any medicinal substance of the same character4 ,it is sometimes used for tooth pastes4 ,oxycroceum was the name of a plaster among the ingredients of which were vinegar and saffron4 ,panchrest4 ,a remedy for all complaints4 ,panchymagogon4 ,a medicine to purify all the humours4 ,pulp of colocynth1 black hellebore1 diagrydium1 of each #b ounces2 senna1 rhubarb1 of each #d ounces2 species of diarrhodon abattis1 hermodactils1 turbith1 agaric1 aloes1 of each #a ounce4 ,make an extract with cinnamon water1 adding the salt from the fces4 ,dose1 #bj to #cj grains4 ,calomel was called 8mineral panchymagogon40 ,pedilavium4 ,a decoction of herbs intended to bathe the feet with to induce sleep4 ,pelican4 ,a glass vessel with a tubular neck and provided with two beaks1 one opposite the other1 which conducted the vapour back to the lower part of the vessel1 so that cohobation or redistillation was continually being carried on4 ,periapt4 ,an amulet hung round the neck1 or applied to some other part of the body1 to preserve the wearer from contagion1 or to drive away evil spirits4 ,pessary1 from ,greek 8pessos10 a little round stone used in a game4 ,pessaries were in very common use by the ,greek women for every kind of vaginal complaint4 ,they were little balls of wool or lint which were medicated in various ways4 ,pill4 ,the word 8pilula0 is first found in ,pliny1 who says 8,pharmaca illa in globulos conformata vulgo pilul nominamus40 ,see 8,katapotia40 ,poison is the same word as 8potion40 ,both originally meant a draught4 ,polychrest4 ,a medicine of many virtues1 ,pomatum4 ,originally an ointment made from the pulp of apples1 lard and rose water1 and used as an application for beautifying the face4 ,populeum4 ,an ointment made from the buds of the black poplar4 ,it was prescribed by ,nicolas of ,salermo as a narcotic and resolvent application4 ,poultice1 from the ,latin 8puls 7pult-70 through the ,italian 8polta10 meaning pap1 pottage1 pulse4 8,poltos0 was the ,greek term for pottage4 ,the intrinsic purport of the word was something beaten4 ,the ,latin 8pulsare10 to beat1 represents the idea1 and it is found in our word 8pulse10 which indicates the heart-beats1 and also in such words as impulse1 compulsory1 and the like4 ,in old medical books1 8poultice0 is generally spelt 8pultesse0 or 8pultass10 and this form was retained until the eighteenth century4 ,in the first quarto of 8,romeo and ,juliet0 7,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #e7 the ,nurse asks ,juliet1 8,is this the poultesse for my aking boanes80 ,propomata were drinks made of wine and honey in the proportion of four to one according to ,galen4 ,psilothrum4 ,a depilatory4 ,salamanders' ,blood4 ,the red vapours of nitrous acid4 ,salia4 ,salt was a term very vaguely applied in old chemistry4 ,anything soluble and possessing a marked taste was called a salt4 ,thus grew the practice of describing substances as salia acida1 salia alkalina1 and salia salsa4 ,sal fixum was a salt not affected by heat4 ,scutum4 ,see ,ecusson4 ,sinapisms were a form of poultices or cataplasms used by the ,romans as counter irritants4 ,they were generally made with crushed mustard1 sometimes with cantharides and crumb of bread1 and often with dried figs wetted and reduced to a pulp4 ,smegma was an application to the skin composed of some active remedy such as verdigris1 alum1 sulphur1 pepper1 hellebore1 or stavesacre4 ,sparadrap4 ,an adhesive plaster on linen or paper4 ,suffumenta or ,suffumigia4 ,gums1 aromatics1 or other substances burned and inhaled to fortify the brain4 ,supplantalia4 ,remedies applied to the soles of the feet1 believed to attract the vicious humours4 ,live pigeons cut in two1 and other animals were sometimes thus applied4 ,suppositories are at least as old as ,hippocrates1 who called them ,prosdita or ,balanoi4 ,suppository is from the ,latin sub-ponere1 and is stated by modern etymologists to mean to place under2 but older writers say the meaning was to substitute4 ,that is1 the suppository was employed instead of an enema4 ,syrup4 ,an ,arabic introduction4 ,the ,arabic word is ,sharab or ,shurab1 and our words sherbet and shrub as well as syrup are derived from it4 ,tisanes1 formerly ,ptisans1 are mentioned as favourite forms of administering the simpler kinds of remedies by ,celsus4 ,the word was derived from 8ptissein10 to crush1 and was applied first to barley water1 made from crushed barley4 ,in ,french pharmacy ,tisanes1 mostly infusions of herbs1 are still very familiar4 ,celsus uses the term 8sorbitio0 for gruel4 ,apozems were stronger than ,tisanes4 ,troches1 from the ,greek trochiscos1 a cone4 ,medicines in a hard form4 ,subsequently called in ,latin1 pastilli1 and in ,english1 lozenges4 ,they were first made in the shape of cones4 ,trochisci plumbi were compounds of white lead1 camphor1 gum1 etc41 like oat grains1 invented by ,rhazes for application to the eyes4 ,named also trochisci ,rhasis1 and ,arab soap4 ,,apothecaries' ,,weights ,,and ,,measures ,,signs4 ,it is not possible to ascertain with certainty the origin of the familiar signs 1 1 1 used in formulas and prescriptions to represent the scruple1 drachm1 and ounce respectively4 ,a few guesses may be quoted1 but actual historic evidence is not available4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,rice1 ,new ,york1 an accomplished scholar and pharmaceutical authority1 supposed that the scruple sign was a slightly modified form of the ,greek gamma1 1 the first letter of 8gramma10 the nearest ,greek equivalent weight1 and the original of the modern gramme4 ,the same author associated the ounce sign with the ,greek x1 1 which was certainly used in ancient times1 often with a tiny against it1 thus1 1 to represent the 8oxybaphon10 or vinegar vessel1 which became a fluid measure equal to about #ae fluid drachms4 ,there is some evidence that the same sign was used for the later ,greek 7or ,sicilian7 ungia1 ,latin uncia1 the original of our ounce4 ,the oxybaphon1 it may be added1 was translated into ,latin 8acetabulum10 which was also a vinegar vessel and a measure4 ,it has been guessed that the scruple sign may have been a slurred ,greek 1 written thus1 symbol 7see ,dr4 ,wall's 8,prescription10 published at ,st4 ,louis1 #ahhh74 ,apuleius1 who wrote in the second century1 gives symbol as a sign for an obolus which was equal to about #ad grains4 ,that symbol could easily have drifted into our 4 ,hermann ,schelenz 78,geschichte der ,pharmacie10 #aijd1 page #aec7 makes up a table of medicinal weights and measures from ,celsus1 ,pliny1 and ,galen1 and quotes the following signs as being then used3 1 sextans or obolus2 1 gramma or scruple about #bj grains2 1 drachme or ,holea #c scruples2 1 oungia or uncia ounce2 1 libra pound4 ,the drachm sign in ,dr4 ,wall's opinion is a reminiscence of an ,egyptian symbol for half1 somewhat similar to our figure #c1 4 ,he supposes that the ,greeks adopted this sign to represent the half of the ,egyptian medicinal weight unit1 which according to the best authorities was equivalent to a double drachm4 ,in a treatise by ,ebers on the ,weights and ,measures of the ,ebers ,papyrus1 he estimates the weight unit at #fjfd grammes 7say #ajc grains74 ,he explains1 however1 that the name of the weight is nowhere given in the ,papyrus4 ,i cannot say whether there is any evidence of the transfer of the ,egyptian weights to ,greek pharmacy1 but the usual course of the travels of such characters was from the ,egyptian hieratic or demotic writing to the ,coptic1 and thence to the ,arabic4 ,it appears certain1 however1 that the ,arabic 8dirhem0 was adopted from the ,greek 8drachma40 ,the sign symbol1 which frequently occurs in the ,ebers ,papyrus1 might quite easily and almost inevitably come to be written something like our 2 but ,ebers values it at two-thirds of a litre1 where it is named as a fluid measure4 ,he deduces this from the hypothesis that the symbol is the hieratic equivalent of the hieroglyphic symbol1 dnat1 or tenat4 ,scribonius ,largus1 in the first century1 and ,apuleius in the second1 both give as the ,greek sign for a drachm in medical formulas4 ,the former says this was equivalent to the ,roman denarius1 or one eighty-fourth of a pound4 ,a writer in the ,lancet of ,august #ah1 #aijf1 very confidently attributed these signs to the abbreviations made by the copyists of ancient manuscripts in the ,middle ,ages4 ,one of the old abbreviation marks is still familiar in the z1 which appears in 8oz40 and 8viz40 ,the z was formerly a 1 which was largely used to indicate that the word had been abbreviated2 in the cases quoted from onza and videlicet4 ,palontologists say that the was itself a modification of the mark 820 which was a common contraction at the end of words ending in bus or que4 ,thus1 for instance1 omnibus and quaque would be written omni2 and qua24 ,it is alleged that in writing2 without removing the pen from the paper1 something like will result4 ,this is interesting1 but it does not explain how the abbreviation came to signify drachm4 ,the ,lancet writer further stated that the was a slurred form of writing oz41 and that the scruple sign was a ligature representing the letters sr4 ,it may be added that among the old manuscript signs is often used for ejus4 ,i am not1 however1 prepared to suggest any connection between this word and a scruple4 ,paris1 in 8,pharmacologia10 pages #ac and #ad1 makes the statement that 8such was the supposed importance of planetary influence that it was usual to prefix a symbol of the planet under whose reign the ingredients were to be collected2 and it is not perhaps generally known that the character which we at this day place at the head of our prescriptions1 and which is understood and supposed to mean ,recipe1 is a relict of the astrological symbol of ,jupiter40 ,i have not met with that statement in any earlier writer1 but it has been quoted by scores of compilers since4 ,it is very confidently asserted1 but ,i think its accuracy is questionable4 ,as an excuse for my temerity in challenging such an eminent authority it may be mentioned that on the same page the author informs us that the word 8crucible0 was derived from the circumstance that the alchemists were in the habit of stamping the figure of a cross on the vessel from which they were to obtain their long sought prize4 ,no modern philologist would endorse that etymology4 ,paris quotes1 in support of the ,jupiter theory1 a few instances of directions for gathering specific plants 8at the rising of the moon10 8when the dog-star is in the ascendant10 and so on4 ,but these have no reference to a compound of several ingredients4 ,it would have been of no use to invoke ,jupiter alone for any of the ancient prescriptions4 ,every plant1 said ,paracelsus1 has its special star4 ,it would have stirred up discord in ,olympus if any had been neglected4 ,pereira adopts ,paris's theory1 but makes it almost impossible to accept it4 ,in 8,selecta et ,prescriptis10 he says it was usual in old prescriptions to prefix to the formula a pious invocation such as 8,d4 ,j40 7,deo ,juvante71 8,j4 ,j40 7,jesu ,juvante71 the figure of a cross1 or some similar ,christian sign4 ,the suggestion is that we have progressed from ,christian to heathen symbols4 ,it would be particularly interesting to know when the physicians of ,christendom substituted the appeal to ,jupiter for that which their own religion had pressed upon them4 ,greek and ,roman physicians wrote prescriptions1 no doubt2 but ,i am not aware that any of these have been preserved to us4 ,our prescriptions are the direct descendants of the 8bills0 which the physicians of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries scribbled in coffee houses when they met their apothecaries4 8,physitians bylles not ,patients but ,apothecaries know0 7,warner1 #afab1 quoted in 8,murray's ,dictionary074 ,it is too much to ask us to imagine that these scribes were in the habit of sketching the symbol of ,jupiter at the head of these documents4 ,,planets ,,and ,,metals4 ,there are no historic records of the origin of the association of the seven metals with the seven planets nor of the connection of either with the deities of antiquity4 ,that ,greece transmitted the mythological connection to ,rome is clear enough1 but it is not so certain whence ,greece obtained the idea4 ,traces of it can be discovered in both ,persia and ,egypt1 and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the circle of imagery may have developed from the worship of the sun4 ,allowing that heavenly body to have been the supreme divinity1 or at least the residence of such a being1 it would be natural to assign to the moon and the five principal planets apparently in attendance on the earth similar though lower dignities4 ,the tendency to group gods and planets and metals into sevens would be an obvious link between the last two1 and the characters of the deities named would naturally be extended to the materials named after them4 ,berthelot considers that ,babylon and ,chaldea were the localities where imagination was first most abundantly applied to the elucidation of science4 ,there and elsewhere in the ,east the mystic relations of the number seven came to be recognised4 ,perhaps it was the regular appearance of the seven planets1 visible to the naked eye1 from which those early notions were based4 ,then the moon's phases consisted of four equal periods of seven days each4 ,the seven stars in the ,great ,bear1 the seven colours1 the seven tones in music1 the seven vowels in the ,greek alphabet1 the seven sages1 and1 naturally also1 the seven known metals1 were all evidences of this order of the universe4 ,out of this correspondence grew the ,chaldean and ,persian ideas of seven heavens1 each with its gate of a different metal2 the first of lead1 the second of tin1 the third of brass1 the fourth of iron1 the fifth of a copper alloy1 the sixth of silver1 and the seventh of gold4 ,the philosophers of ,chaldea attributed to the heavenly bodies1 or rather to the deities who had made these their homes1 extensive control over the products of the earth4 ,the sun-god produced gold1 the moon-god silver1 and so forth2 and this view was prevalent certainly until the sixteenth century4 ,naturally all the early investigators had to picture their fancies more or less crudely1 and thus alphabets originated4 ,the ,egyptian ideograms are the most familiar of this ancient poetry to us1 and among these are some which are intelligible to us to-day4 ,the sun and gold1 1 are still represented by that sign2 water1 symbol1 was so indicated in the papyri and in the alchemical books of three or four hundred years ago2 and the sign still used for the planet and the metal mercury1 1 differs but little from the hieroglyph of ,thoth1 whom the ,greeks called ,hermes and the ,romans ,mercury4 ,greek students have imagined that this sign was derived from the caduceus or winged staff of the god1 but some ,egyptologists have claimed it as a picture of the 8sacred ibis40 ,it need not be supposed that any definite table of the planetary symbols was ever drawn up and agreed to4 ,these only very gradually became uniform4 ,even the association of the planets and the metals was by no means invariable in different nations4 ,among the ,persians1 for example1 copper was assigned to ,jupiter2 but the ,egyptians dedicated a compound of gold and silver called electron to him1 while in more recent systems ,jupiter and tin are allied4 ,venus controlled tin according to ,persian lore2 but the ,egyptian attribution of brass or copper to her has prevailed4 ,iron belonged to ,mercury before quicksilver was recognised as a metal and at that time ,mars was the god-father of an alloy similar to bronze4 ,the oldest table known is one given by ,olympiodorus in the fifth century1 and in that electron is still associated with ,jupiter and tin with ,hermes 7,mercury74 ,berthelot's laborious researches into the origin of alchemy1 and his reproductions of ancient manuscripts show that while signs were used by the ancient ,greek writers of about the first century of our era1 they were not used by the ,latin authors1 but seem to have been in full adoption in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the manuscript of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice1 which ,berthelot believed was written about the year ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 probably for some prince1 contains a multitude of these symbols4 ,a regular system is followed4 ,gold1 for example1 is represented by symbol2 gold filings by symbol2 gold leaf1 thus symbol2 and a combination of gold and silver by symbol4 ,a similar modification of the original symbols is found in connection with the other metals4 ,there is scarcely any allusion to the symbols in the ,arabic manuscripts1 for that race had a holy horror of all forms of ,greek paganism1 though it may be noted that their physicians made a superstition of the practice of bleeding on ,tuesdays and ,wednesdays only1 unconscious perhaps of the origin of this ritual1 which depended on the fact that ,mars1 the god of blood and iron1 superintended ,tuesday's operations1 and ,mercury1 who had the management of the humours1 was in charge on ,wednesdays4 ,it was really not until the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and seventeenth centuries1 when the ,european alchemists were trying to find a way to transmute the baser metals into gold1 that the code became 8conventionalised40 ,as already stated1 the signs for the seven metals have not been invariable1 but for many centuries they have been distributed thus3-- ,sol1 the ,sun1 ,gold4 ,luna1 the ,moon1 ,silver4 ,jupiter1 ,tin4 ,venus1 ,copper4 ,mars1 ,iron4 ,mercury1 ,quicksilver4 astrological symbol ,saturn1 ,lead4 ,it may be noted in passing how these old-time fictions have influenced our language1 our literature1 and especially our medicine4 ,lunatic1 jovial1 saturnine1 martial1 venereal1 and mercurial1 are etymological reminiscences of the time when temperaments and diseases were associated with the heavenly bodies1 and the extent to which metallic compounds acquired their medical reputations from their artificial relationship with the powers which were assumed to have adopted them1 is curious4 ,nitrate of silver was given in brain disorders originally because of the belief in the control of the mental faculties by the moon4 ,the administration of iron for the purpose of invigorating the constitution was largely due to its connection with ,mars1 whose fame for virility assured the possession of similar virtue in his metallic god-son4 ,illustration3 ,these symbols are a few of those used in alchemical treatises of the fifteenth century4 ,they are collected in 8,the ,follies of ,science at the ,court of ,rudolph ,,ii410 by ,h4 ,c4 ,bolton1 published by the ,pharmaceutical ,review ,publishing ,co4 of ,milwaukee1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,reproduced by permission4 ,to the ancient planetary symbols the alchemists added a number of other signs to represent chemicals of later discovery1 and to make their jargon even more incomprehensible than it would have been without them4 ,thus they indicated earth1 air1 fire1 and water by the signs ,illustration ,these were a few of their other characters3 ,illustration ,the introduction of any kind of mysticism was dear to the alchemical fraternity1 some of whom1 perhaps1 really believed there was some hidden meaning in the symbols1 for there were among the adepts clever men1 true discoverers1 who cannot be accused of fraudulent intentions1 and yet can hardly have accepted literally the poetry they devised4 ,glauber1 contemporary with our ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i41 was one of these4 ,according to him the symbols were invested with a special mysterious meaning4 ,he showed them in squares1 thus3 ,illustration and explained that the extent to which the symbol touches the four sides of the square indicates how near it approaches perfection4 ,gold1 it will be observed1 touches all four sides1 silver three1 and the other metals only two each4 ,,interpreting ,,the ,,signs4 ,interpretations of these symbols have often been attempted1 but they are for the most part mere guesses4 ,those representing the sun and moon are easy1 but the others may generally be read in various ways4 ,the sign for ,jupiter is alleged to represent one of his thunderbolts2 that for copper is supposed to illustrate the looking-glass of ,venus2 the iron sign is the shield and spear of ,mars2 the caduceus of ,mercury and the scythe of ,saturn are likewise traced in their respective signatures4 ,it has also been fancied that the three signs of which a circle forms part--namely1 those for quicksilver1 copper1 and iron--were intended to suggest that gold could be formed from them1 the cross or spear attached being in fact the ,egyptian phallus1 or organ of generative vigour4 ,in tin and lead there are evidences of the presence of silver4 ,perhaps more probable is the idea that these signs were originally combinations of letters--monograms1 in fact1 indicating the name which the planet bore in the country where the symbol was first adopted4 ,thus1 in the sign for ,jupiter1 symbol1 the ,greek initial for ,zeus1 has been traced2 in that of ,venus1 symbol1 we have the initial of phosphorus2 1 has been supposed to be symbol1 and symbol1 the first and last letters of ,thouros1 one of the names of ,mars2 while symbol represents the first and second letters of ,chronos 7,saturn7 welded together4 ,but the interpretation depends largely on the period when the signs were first used4 ,pictures preceded alphabets2 they were in fact the originals of the phonetic sounds which ultimately the letters indicated4 ,the mysteries which made up so large a part of the science of alchemy passed from its votaries to the practitioners of physic and pharmacy1 and are hardly dead in those professions yet4 ,pretended solutions of gold1 vaunted as universal cures1 were sold under the title of solar elixirs2 the popular name of nitrate of silver to this day is lunar caustic2 a black oxide of iron is called ,ethiops martial2 a solution of sugar of lead is extract of ,saturn2 sulphate of copper was once known as vitriol of ,venus2 muriate of tin was famous for the expulsion of worms under the name of ,salt of ,jove2 and ointment of quicksilver is still universally labelled mercurial ointment4 ,,index ,a ,ablathanabla1 #aff ,abracadabra mystery1 #afd ,abraxas1 mystic word1 #afe ,absorbent ethiops1 #cea ,abtinas1 incense makers1 #eg ,acetabulum1 ii1 #bgh ,acetanilide1 discovery1 ii1 #bgc ,acetic acid1 synthetic1 ii1 #bga4 ,see also ,pyroligneous acid ,acetum ,philosophicum1 ii1 #bgi ,achillea milfoil1 virtues discovered1 #af ,achilles1 medical discoveries1 #af ,acids1 how first made1 #cbc ,acidum causticum1 #cbe ,acidum ,pingue1 #cbe 7,for other acids see specific names47 ,aconite1 discovery1 ii1 #bba2 as poison1 ii1 #bbc ,acopa1 #ia2 ii1 #bgi2 ii1 #bij ,adders4 ,see ,vipers ,adept1 ii1 #bgi ,adrenaline1 synthetic1 ii1 #bfi ,adrian's antidote1 #bhh2 dropsy cure1 #bii ,adulteration1 early methods of detecting1 #baj ,adust1 ii1 #bgi ,advertisement1 early1 #ada gyptiacum #af2 ii1 #eb ,arated cod-liver oil1 ii1 #afg sculapius1 ,greek physician1 #g2 portraits1 #h2 death1 #h2 descendants1 #aj2 temples1 #aa1 #gi thiops4 ,see ,ethiops ,aetius1 medical writer1 #bae ,aggregatives1 ii1 #bgi ,ague1 cures1 #ej2 ii1 #acc ,agyrtoi1 #ic ,alabaster1 ii1 #bgi ,albucasis of ,cordova1 #aaj1 #cbi ,album ,grcum1 ii1 #aj ,album ,rhasis1 ii1 #bgi ,alchemy1 invention1 #d4 ,see also ,chemistry ,alcohol1 constitution1 #ccj2 formula1 ii1 #bgj2 etymology1 #ajc1 #cbf2 early references1 #cbh1 #cbi2 synthesis1 #ccj2 ii1 #bga ,alcohol of ,mars1 #cbg ,alcohol of sulphur1 #cbg ,aldehyde1 preparation1 ii1 #bga ,alembic1 etymology1 ii1 #bgi ,alembroth salt1 #bdc1 #dag2 etymology1 ii1 #bgi ,alexander of ,tralles1 #baf2 ,hiera1 ii1 #ada ,alexandria library1 #hh1 #ih ,alexandrinus1 ,nicolas1 #bai ,alexipharmic1 ii1 #bgi ,alexiteria1 ii1 #bgi ,alfred the ,great1 letter to1 #aad1 #aca ,alga nostoch1 #cge ,algaroth's powder1 #cha ,algarotti1 note on1 #cha ,alhandal1 ii1 #bgi ,alkahest1 ,glauber's #bfd2 ii1 #bgi ,alkali1 etymology1 ii1 #bhj ,alkalies1 early knowledge of1 #cbd2 ,black on1 #cbd ,alkalised ethiops1 #cea ,alkaloids1 discovery of1 #bgd2 ii1 #bdc2 synthesis1 ii1 #bfe ,alkekengi1 ii1 #bhj ,alkermes1 ,arabic derivation1 #ajc ,al-,koh'l1 #cbf ,alkool1 ii1 #bhj ,allicola1 #cfj ,all-flower-water1 ii1 #h ,almond tree1 ,biblical reference1 #ge ,aldarium1 ii1 #bhj ,aloes1 as pigment1 #ie2 tincture1 ii1 #cg2 elixir1 ii1 #eg2 notes on1 ii1 #hf2 picture of1 ii1 #hg2 ii1 #hh2 books on1 ii1 #hh2 decoction1 ii1 #agf ,aloes wood1 ,biblical references1 #fc ,alquimesci oil1 #aaj ,aludels1 ii1 #bhj ,aluka1 #gj ,alum1 early uses1 #cca2 first factories1 #ccb2 discovered in ,yorkshire1 #ccc2 composition investigated1 #ccc2 symbol1 ii1 #cji ,aluminium1 first made1 #ccc ,amalgam1 ii1 #bhj ,amalgama ,jovis1 #dbe ,amaranth1 meaning of1 #bb ,ambix1 #cbh ,ambrosia1 identity of1 #bb ,ambrosial elixir1 #bf ,amen1 #f ,ammon1 #f ,ammonia1 made from bones1 #bfc2 history1 #ccd2 etymology1 #ccd2 composition1 #ccg ,ammoniacum1 etymology1 #ccd ,ammoniated ,tincture of ,quinine1 origin of1 ii1 #aec ,ammonium acetate solution1 #acb ,amphide salts1 #cbf ,amphora1 ii1 #bhj ,amulets for preventing disease1 #afb4 ,see also ,charms ,ansthetic1 mysterious1 ii1 #bed ,ansthetics1 discovery1 ii1 #bdh ,analeptica1 ii1 #bhj ,anderson1 ,dr4 ,p41 portrait1 ii1 #afh2 publication1 ii1 #afh2 invents pills1 ii1 #afi ,anderson's ,scots ,pills1 origin of1 ii1 #afh2 formul1 ii1 #afi ,andreas1 author1 #ahb ,andromachus's theriakon1 #ij2 ii1 #bj2 ii1 #db ,anethon in ,bible1 #ga ,anglicanus's 8,compendium of ,medicine10 #acb ,aniline1 discovery of1 ii1 #bfc ,animal magnetism1 #aii medicines1 #hi1 #abg2 ii1 #a2 ii1 #b oil1 ii1 #be ,animals1 mythical1 #bf ,aniseed1 magical plant1 #ah oil1 use of1 #bdg ,anne1 ,queen1 cures by touch1 #cja ,anodyne necklaces1 ii1 #agj ,anointing oil1 #ch1 #ej1 #ee2 formula1 #ei ,anointment1 ii1 #bhj ,antidotary1 meaning1 ii1 #bhj of ,nicolas ,prepositus1 #aaf of ,nicolas ,myrepsus1 #bai ,antidote1 meaning1 ii1 #bha ,antidotos ex duobus1 #bae1 #caj ,antidotum ,acharistos1 #bbj ,antidotum ,adrianum1 #bhh ,andromachus1 #bib ,mithridatum1 #bhi2 absurdities of1 #bij2 ,galen on1 #bib ,podagrica1 #caj ,pythagoras1 #ah ,anthony1 ,francis1 panacea of1 #cia2 epitaph1 #cic ,anthropomorphon1 #bj ,antifebrin1 discovery1 ii1 #bgc ,anti-hecticum poterii1 #dbe ,antimony1 introduction1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bbg2 used by ,paracelsus1 #bdc2 early use in medicine1 #cgf2 etymology1 #cgg2 alchemists1 researches on1 #cgi2 compounds of1 #bbg1 #cgh1 #chj2 controversy1 #chc2 symbol1 ii1 #cji ,antimony cups1 #che sulphide1 #cbf1 #cgh1 #chb ,antipyrin1 discovery1 ii1 #bgd ,antiseptic vinegar1 ii1 #ef ,apollo1 god of medicine1 #f2 portrait1 #g2 banished from ,olympia1 #h2 ,apollo and ,daphne myth1 #i1 #cc ,apotheca1 meaning1 #aag ,apothecary1 ,biblical mention1 #ej ,apothecary's duty defined1 #aee ,apothecary1 picture of1 ii1 #ha in 8,romeo and ,juliet10 ii1 #gg versions1 ii1 #gh2 ii1 #gi2 ii1 #hj ,apothecaries' ,jewish ,guild1 #ea become physicians1 #aeb charges1 #adi1 #aej curriculum1 #abb during the ,plague1 #adi early references1 #adb oath1 #abb ,shakespearian references1 ii1 #gj2 ii1 #ga2 ii1 #gg ,society1 arms1 #i1 #ca2 motto1 #aj2 incorporation1 #add1 #bef2 drug-inspection1 ii1 #ag2 weights as metaphor1 ii1 #ga4 ,see also ,chemists and ,pharmacists ,apothek1 derivation1 #ie ,apoplexy1 remedy1 #acc ,apozem of ,epsom ,salts1 #cde ,apozems1 meaning1 ii1 #bha2 ii1 #bii ,aqua aluminosa1 #cdf ardens1 #bbc1 #cbh arthritica1 ii1 #h kali ,puri1 #cbe ,luccana1 #cci ,lulliana1 #cdh mirabilis1 ii1 #bha ,omnium ,florum1 ii1 #h ,phagadnica1 #dad ,aqua ,sancti ,luci1 #cci ,temperata1 #cdh ,tufania1 ii1 #bce ,vit1 early use1 #bbc1 #cbi2 ,rhazes on1 #ajg2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #ge2 symbol1 ii1 #cji2 ,hibernorum1 ii1 #fe4 ,see also alcohol vini1 #cbi ,aquetta di ,napoli1 ii1 #bce ,aquila ,alba1 #dai2 ii1 #bha ,arab pharmacy1 #ig ,arabic names in pharmacy1 #ajc ,arcanum ,corallinum1 #bdi duplicatum1 #cee1 #cga2 ii1 #bha meaning of1 #bdi2 ii1 #bha ,tartari1 ii1 #bha ,vitrioli1 #cih ,arcus invents elemi ointment1 ii1 #acc ,areometer1 invention1 #bha ,arfwedson discovers lithium1 #cec ,argentum vivum1 #djh ,argile1 #ccc ,archidoxa ,medicin of ,paracelsus1 #cij ,archigenes's ,hiera1 ii1 #aci ,aristes1 medical discoveries1 #af ,arithmetic1 invention1 #d ,armoniac1 #ccd ,arnold of ,villa ,nova1 #cbi ,arquebusade water1 ii1 #ef ,arrow-poisoning1 antiquity of1 ii1 #bbb ,arsenic1 early use1 #ajh2 eaten in ,styria1 ii1 #bch2 ,marsh's test1 ii1 #bda2 symbol1 ii1 #cji ,assassin1 origin of word1 ii1 #bbf ,asclepiades1 #gi ,asparagin1 isolation of1 #bge ,asphalt used in embalming1 #cei ,astronomy4 ,see ,starcraft ,athanasia1 identity of1 #bb ,athanor1 ii1 #bha ,atropa1 sister of the ,fates1 #bd ,atropine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdh2 synthetic1 ii1 #bff ,attalus cultivates medicinal plants1 #bhh ,aurum fulminans1 #cif musivum1 #dbd ,potabile1 ,anthony's formula1 #cib2 ,glauber's formula1 #chi1 #cij1 #cic2 other recipes1 #cid1 #cie1 #cif2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #gd vit1 #dad ,avenzoar of ,seville1 #aaj ,averrhoes of ,cordova1 #aaj ,avicenna's doctrines1 #ajb2 formulas1 #ajc2 biography1 #ajh2 writings1 #aji2 portrait1 #ajh2 influence of1 #aag2 introduces silvering pills1 #dbc ,b ,baaras1 identity of1 #ba ,bacchus1 ancient god1 #e ,bacon1 ,roger1 writings1 #acb2 on aurum potabile1 #cij ,bagdad1 foundation of1 #ajj ,bain-,marie1 ii1 #bhb ,baktischwah1 ,persian physician1 #ajd ,balanites ,egyptiaca gum1 #ec ,balanoi1 ii1 #bii ,balard1 discovers bromine1 #bgc1 #cci ,balm1 etymology1 ii1 #bha ,balm of ,gilead1 #di1 #ec2 ,galen on1 #bac2 in mithridatum1 #bic2 ii1 #bha ,balneum ,mari1 ii1 #bhb ,balsam ,arci1 ii1 #acc ,balsam of bats1 #beg etymology1 ii1 #bha of sulphur1 #cfj2 ii1 #eh ,barbadoes tar1 #cfj ,barbarossa's mercurial pills1 #daa ,barley water1 ,hippocrates recommends1 #hg ,barytes1 discovery1 #bfi ,basilic powder1 #dbj ,basilicon ointment1 origin1 ii1 #bhb ,basilides1 note on1 #afe ,bateman's pectoral drops1 ii1 #afc ,baths1 varieties1 ii1 #bhb ,baume du ,chevalier de ,saint ,victor1 ii1 #acf du ,commandeur de ,permes1 ii1 #acf de ,fioraventi1 ii1 #agc ,tranquille1 ii1 #age de ,vie1 ii1 #agf ,baum1 ,french chemist1 #bha ,bayen1 ,french pharmacist1 #bgf ,bdellium1 identity of1 #fb ,bears' grease1 use of1 ii1 #ab ,beer1 medicinal1 ii1 #bhc ,bell's 8,historical ,sketch of the ,progress of ,pharmacy10 #aej1 #aef ,belladonna1 etymology1 #bd2 old names1 #be2 uses1 #be ,belloste's mercurial pills1 #dab ,benjamin1 etymology1 ii1 #bfi ,benzoic acid1 synthetic1 ii1 #bfh ,benzoyl1 discovery1 ii1 #beg ,berkeley1 ,bishop1 portrait1 #cae2 devises tar water1 #caf2 publications1 #caf ,bernard1 ,claude1 #bhe of ,gordon1 #ace ,berthelot's 8,history of ,alchemy10 #aad ,berthollet1 ,french ,chemist1 #bha ,besen1 meaning of1 ii1 #bha ,bestucheff's ,tincture1 #cba2 secret purchased1 #cbb2 formula1 #djd ,betton's ,british ,oils1 #cei2 ii1 #afd ,bezoar ,germanosum1 ii1 #ae stones1 first mention1 #aaa2 use in medicine1 ii1 #ae2 source1 ii1 #ae2 price1 ii1 #af2 ii1 #ah2 as charms1 ii1 #af2 fallacy of1 ii1 #ah2 as antidote1 ii1 #bba ,bezoardic powder1 ii1 #ai ,bezoards1 ii1 #bhb ,bible1 pharmacy in1 #df drugs mentioned in1 #ec poisons in1 ii1 #bbb ,biblical references1 #bg1 #bi1 #cc1 #df1 #ec2 ii1 #bbb ,biliousness remedies1 #afa1 #afg ,bindo1 ,a41 ,earl of ,rochester's pseudonym1 ii1 #bjd ,birthwort as remedy1 #ahd ,bismuth1 first mention1 #chf2 regarded as poisonous1 #chg2 liquor1 #chh2 lozenges1 #chh2 oxychloride1 #chg ,bitter flavours1 ,jewish objection to1 #dh1 #fd ,bitter ,purging ,salts1 #cde ,bitumen of ,juda1 in embalming1 #cei ,black1 ,joseph1 on alkalies1 #cbd2 portrait1 #ceg2 on alkaline earths1 #cef ,black draught1 origin of1 ii1 #aba drop1 invention of1 ii1 #ade precipitate1 #dah wash1 introduction1 #adf1 #beg ,bladder wort as remedy1 #ahd ,blanc de fard1 #chf ,blatta ,byzantina1 #eg ,blaud1 ,dr41 ,french physician1 ii1 #abb ,blaud's pills1 original formula1 ii1 #abb ,bleeding1 old cure for1 #agb ,blindness1 cures1 #ha1 #hb1 #bih ,blisters1 introduced1 ii1 #bhb ,blood root as remedy1 #ahd ,blue vitriol1 #cgc ,bodega1 derivation1 #ie ,boils1 ,biblical remedy1 #df1 #gc2 cure for1 #agj ,bole armeni1 medical uses1 #baf ,bologna sun-stone1 #cfa ,bolus1 meaning of1 ii1 #bhb ,bombast ,see ,paracelsus ,borax1 early use1 #ajh ,borith1 #cbd ,botanologoi1 #ie ,boulduc1 ,french apothecary1 #bha ,boules de ,mars1 #djb de ,nancy1 #djb ,boutique1 derivation1 #ie ,bovins's remedy1 #cgd ,boyle investigates phosphorus1 #cfe ,boyle's 8,hell10 #dag ,boyveau-,laffecteur's rob1 #dae ,brandt discovers phosphorus1 #cfc ,brass1 #dbf ,brass-alum1 #dbg 8,breviarium ,bartholomei10 #ace ,brinvilliers1 poisoner1 ii1 #bcb ,british oils1 #cei2 ii1 #afd ,british ,pharmacopia1 animal substances in1 ii1 #d2 editions1 ii1 #fi ,brockenden's compressed drugs1 ii1 #afg ,bromine1 discoverer1 #bgc2 isolation1 #cci ,brongniart1 ,french pharmacist1 #bgf ,broom1 ,biblical plant1 #fe ,brugnatelli's ,poudre ,vermifuge1 #dbf ,bucklersbury1 drug trade centre1 #adj ,burchell's necklaces1 ii1 #aga ,burghley's gout preventive1 #agb ,bulleyn's electuarium de ,gemmis1 ii1 #ce ,burnt sponge for scrofula1 #cec ,burt's 8,heartburn ,tablets10 #chh ,butter of antimony1 #chj ,byfield's sal oleosum volatile1 ii1 #afb ,c ,caffeine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdg2 synthesis1 ii1 #bfh ,caius1 ,dr41 ii1 #ga ,calamus draconis fruit1 #ca ,calatippe1 ii1 #ag ,calomel1 introduction1 #adf1 #beg1 #dah2 etymology1 #dai ,calx ,jovis1 #dbe2 ii1 #bhc ,lun1 ii1 #bhc meaning of1 ii1 #bhc ,mercurii1 ii1 #bhc ,saturnii1 ii1 #bhc ,camphor1 use in medicine1 #aji2 synthetic1 ii1 #bfi ,canterbury bells as remedy1 #ahd ,cantharides as gout remedy1 #baf ,capers1 use in ,east1 #gd ,caput mortuum1 ii1 #bhc ,carbonic acid gas1 discovered1 #bei ,cardinal's powder1 ii1 #ig ,carduus ,benedictus1 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #gc ,carminative1 etymology1 ii1 #bhc ,spirit of ,sylvius1 #ccg ,cassia1 introduction of1 #aje ,castor oil1 used by ,dioscorides1 #baj2 notes on1 ii1 #hi2 picture of plant1 ii1 #ij2 early uses1 ii1 #ij2 treatise on1 ii1 #ib2 etymology1 ii1 #ic4 ,see also ,ricinus4 ,castorum1 early use1 #bag ,cat1 medicinal use1 ii1 #ac ,cataplasm1 etymology1 ii1 #bhc ,catholica1 meaning of1 ii1 #bhc ,caustic potash formul1 #cbe ,caventou discovers quinine1 #bgd4 ,see also ,pelletier ,celsus1 on ,egyptian medicine1 #ce2 writings1 #ij ,centaurs1 fable1 #ae ,centaury1 etymology1 #ad2 figure of1 #be ,ceratum1 ii1 #abg de ,lapide calaminari1 ii1 #aeh lithargyri1 #djj ,cerates1 meaning of1 ii1 #bhc ,cereirsi1 ii1 #bhc ,ceruse1 ii1 #bhd4 ,see also ,white lead4 of antimony1 ii1 #bhd ,chamberlain's restorative pills1 #dba ,chamberlen's necklaces1 ii1 #agj ,chamomile1 use in medicine1 #abe ,chambre ardente enquiry1 ii1 #bcf ,chaptal1 ,french chemist1 #bha ,charas1 ,french chemist1 #bgi ,charms1 dragon's blood as1 #cb2 use of1 #aeg1 #aga4 ,see also ,talismans ,charles ,,ii1 prescription for1 ii1 #f2 ii1 #ahb ,chaucer on physicians1 #acc ,chelbanah1 #ef ,chelsea ,pensioner1 origin1 ii1 #abc2 formula1 ii1 #abd ,chemistry1 ,patin on1 #bdc2 ,boerhaave's definition1 #cbc2 debt of pharmacy to1 #cbc ,chemists and ,druggists origin1 #aed4 ,see also ,apothecaries and ,pharmacists ,chenopodium ,botrys1 old name1 #bb ,chloral hydrate1 preparation1 ii1 #bgb ,chloric ether1 ii1 #beb ,chlorine1 discovery1 #bfi ,chloroform ansthesia1 discovery of1 ii1 #bea2 ii1 #bgb ,cholera1 ,heraclides's remedy1 #hi ,chinchon1 ,countess of1 ii1 #id2 ii1 #ajb ,ching's ,worm ,lozenges1 ii1 #aff ,chin-,nong herbal1 #bhg ,chiron1 knowledge of simples1 #ad ,christ1 meaning of1 #fj ,chromium1 discovery1 #bga ,churchill1 ,dr41 introduces hypophosphites1 #cjg ,cibus ,celestus1 ii1 #ca ,cinchona1 discovery of1 ii1 #ic2 how its virtues were discovered1 ii1 #id2 first used in ,europe1 ii1 #ie2 opposition to using1 ii1 #ie2 ,talbor employs1 ii1 #ig2 tincture of1 ii1 #ajj2 derivation of word1 ii1 #ajb2 introduction1 ii1 #ajd ,cinchonidine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdg ,cinchonine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdg ,cinnabar as panacea1 #dba2 confused with minium1 #djh ,circe1 invention of poisons1 ii1 #bba ,circulatores1 #ic ,circumforanei1 #ic ,citrine ointment1 origin1 ii1 #abe ,clement of ,alexandria1 writings1 #cg 8,closed ring0 theory1 ii1 #bfa ,clyster1 ii1 #bij ,cobwebs1 for bleeding1 ii1 #gc ,cocaine1 synthetic1 ii1 #bff ,cochineal insects1 patent1 ii1 #afb ,cochleare1 meaning of1 ii1 #bhd ,codeine1 discovery1 #bgf2 ii1 #bdh ,coffee1 introduction1 #bhd ,cohal1 #cbg ,cohobation1 meaning of1 ii1 #bhd ,colcothar1 ii1 #bhd ,colchicum1 virtues discovered1 #ag2 introduction1 ii1 #ahb2 ii1 #bba wine1 ii1 #fg ,cold cream1 ii1 #fe2 ii1 #abg ,collier de ,morand1 ii1 #aga ,collodion1 discovery1 #cdj ,collutories1 ii1 #bhd ,collyrium1 ii1 #bhd ,colical antidote of ,nicostratus1 #bae ,colocynth1 ,biblical reference1 #fi ,comfrey1 used by ,saxons1 #abf ,commander's ,balsam1 ii1 #ace ,compound liquorice powder1 origin1 ii1 #adh soap pills1 origin of1 ii1 #aec ,confectio ,anti-,epileptica1 #bdh piperis1 origin of1 ii1 #baj2 ii1 #bad ,raleighana1 #cab1 #cac1 #cad ,confection of ,alkermes1 ii1 #ea of ,mithridates1 #bij of opium1 origin of1 ii1 #dj ,confectionarii1 #aag ,coniine1 synthetic1 ii1 #bff ,conserves1 ii1 #bhe ,copper1 ,valentine's method of preparing1 #bbh2 symbol1 ii1 #cjg2 ii1 #caj ,copper sulphate1 early use1 #ajh ,coral1 use in medicine1 #bdg2 ii1 #cb ,cordova1 #ih2 view of1 #ii ,cornachino's powder1 #dbj ,corrosive sublimate1 introduction1 #aje2 for itch1 #ajh2 concession1 #adh2 as syphilis remedy1 #dad2 medical use1 #dba ,cos1 temple of1 #aa ,cosmas1 patron saint of pharmacy1 #ai 8,cotta contra ,antonium10 #cia ,cough1 old remedies1 #ij1 #abh 8,council of ,ten0 as poisoners1 ii1 #bbh ,coursus de ,gangeland1 #adb ,courtois discovers iodine1 #cea ,cow-dung as a medicine1 ii1 #h ,crabs'-claws' powder1 ii1 #ai ,crabs' eyes1 #cef ,cramp rings1 #agb1 #bid2 antiquity of1 #cje2 origin1 #cjf2 consecration1 #cjf ,cream of tartar1 investigated1 #bfh1 #cga ,cress1 use in medicine1 #abe ,crocomagma1 ii1 #bhe ,crocus ,martis1 #cej1 #cih1 ii1 #bhd1 ii1 #bhe meaning of1 ii1 #bhe metallorum1 ii1 #bhe veneris1 ii1 #bhe ,crollius1 medical writer1 #ahc1 #ahe ,crucible1 meaning1 ii1 #bhe ,cubebs1 history1 ii1 #ajh2 medicinal uses1 ii1 #ajh2 ingredient in ,mithridate1 ii1 #ajh2 re-introduced1 ii1 #ajh ,cucupha1 ii1 #bhe ,cucurbit1 ii1 #bhe ,culpepper1 ,nicholas1 #bea2 criticises ,p4,l41 #bea2 portrait1 #beb2 house1 #bec2 career1 #bec ,cusinier's syrup1 ii1 #aee ,cyathus1 meaning1 ii1 #bhe ,d ,daffy1 ,rev4 ,t41 invents elixir1 ii1 #agb ,damien1 patron saint of pharmacy1 #ai ,damocrates1 #ia2 ,mithridatum1 ii1 #ch2 ii1 #ci ,dante1 connection with pharmacy1 #bgi ,daphnine1 discovery of1 ii1 #bde ,darsini1 #bai ,david1 ,king1 electuary1 #bbj ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 portrait1 #bhd ,decocta1 invention1 ii1 #bhe ,decoctum ,aloes ,co41 origin1 ii1 #agf 8,degrees0 in diagnosis1 #agi ,deliquium1 ii1 #bhf ,demons as cause of disease1 #aeh ,danaus's ,collyrium1 #bae ,dephlogisticated air1 #bfi ,derosne's salt1 ii1 #bdd ,despumation1 ii1 #bhf ,devil's claw1 #eg ,d',husson's ,eau ,medicinale1 ii1 #ahb2 price1 ii1 #ahd2 composition1 ii1 #ahd ,dia1 meaning1 ii1 #bhf ,diabetes1 papyrus remedy1 #dc ,diachylon plaster1 invention1 #ia2 ii1 #abg2 first formula1 ii1 #abh2 etymology1 ii1 #abh2 ii1 #bhf1 #djf ,diacodium1 inventor1 #ij2 etymology1 ii1 #bhg ,dia-kodion1 origin1 ii1 #aaf ,diapente1 etymology1 ii1 #bhg ,diaphoretic vitriol1 #cgd ,diarrha1 old remedies1 #dc1 #bid ,diascordium1 #bbc2 formula1 ii1 #da2 ii1 #bhg ,diatesseron1 #caj ,diet1 ,hippocrates on1 #hg2 ,aetius on1 #bae2 ,alexander of ,trailles on1 #bag ,digby1 ,sir ,kenelm1 toothache cure1 #afh2 biography1 #aic2 portrait1 #aid2 tincture of gold1 #cie ,digitalis1 origin of name1 ii1 #aji2 medical history1 ii1 #aji2 book on1 ii1 #aaj ,dill1 ,biblical reference1 #ga2 used by ,saxons1 #abf ,dioscorides1 #ij2 biography1 #bjf2 writings1 #bjh1 #bji ,dippel's oil1 ii1 #be2 uses1 ii1 #bf ,diseases1 transferring1 #agj ,distillation1 antiquity of1 #cbg ,distilled waters1 #cbh ,distillers' ,company1 #adh ,dittany1 uses1 #bf ,dover1 ,t41 biography1 ii1 #abi2 8,ancient ,physician's ,legacy10 ii1 #aca ,dover's powder1 first official1 ii1 #fg2 ii1 #aae2 origin1 ii1 #abi2 original formula1 ii1 #acb ,drachm sign1 origin1 ii1 #cjj ,draco ,mitigatus1 #dai1 #dbj ,dragon's blood1 origin1 #ca ,dragon tree1 figure of1 #cb ,dragons1 ,biblical references1 #cc ,drink cures1 old1 #acj2 ii1 #ab ,dropaxes1 ii1 #bhb2 ii1 #bhg ,dropsy cured by touch1 #bii ,drug1 etymology1 ii1 #bhg ,drug-inspection1 #ach2 ii1 #ag ,drug-trade1 development1 #ach ,drugs as charms1 ii1 #ge2 in ,ebers's papyrus1 #dj2 in ,bible1 #ec2 mentioned by ,hippocrates1 #gg ,dschondisabour1 medical college at1 #aja1 #ajc ,dublin ,pharmacopias1 ii1 #fi ,dudaim1 identity of1 #bj1 #di ,duke of ,portland's powder1 #bae1 #cji2 ii1 #abe ,dumas1 ,french chemist1 #bhf2 theory of substitution1 ii1 #bei ,dumeril1 ,french physician1 #bgf ,duncan and ,flockhart's chloroform1 ii1 #bec ,dutch ,drops1 origin of1 ii1 #agf ,dysentery1 ipecacuanha as remedy1 ii1 #aad ,e ,ear-ache1 early remedies1 #de1 #acj ,earl of ,warwick's powder1 #cjh1 #chc1 #dbj ,earthworms as remedy1 ii1 #aa1 ii1 #ab ,eaton's styptick1 ii1 #afc ,eau des ,carmes1 origin1 ii1 #agh2 formula1 ii1 #agi ,divine de ,fernel1 #dad de ,luce1 #cch2 inventor1 #cci de ,lusse1 #cci ,medicinale d',husson1 ii1 #fg1 ii1 #ahb de la ,reine d',hongrie1 #big ,ebers' papyrus1 #cf2 described1 #cg2 photograph1 #da2 date1 #dh ,ebn-,izak1 translator of ,greek works1 #aje ,ecclesiasticus1 author1 #dg2 medical aphorisms1 #dg ,eclegma1 ii1 #bhh ,ecussons1 ii1 #bhh ,edinburgh ,pharmacopias1 ii1 #fi ,edulcorate1 ii1 #bhh ,edward the ,confessor treats scrofula1 #bii1 #cjj ,elements1 old theories1 #agd ,elemi ointment1 origin1 ii1 #acc ,egrea1 daughter of sculapius1 #aa ,egypt1 medicine in1 #cd1 #df2 conquest1 #ih ,egyptiacum4 ,see gyptiacum ,egyptian papyri1 medical1 #cf ,electron1 as poison test1 ii1 #bca ,electrum1 #dj ,electuarium de ,gemmis1 ii1 #ce ,electuary1 etymology1 ii1 #bhh of ,alexander of ,tralles1 #baf ,elemi ointment1 invention1 ii1 #acc ,elixir of ,alves1 origin1 ii1 #eg etymology1 ii1 #bhh of ,garus1 ii1 #eg of ,long ,life1 #cij ,proprietatis1 ii1 #eg of vitriol1 #cge ,elizabeth1 ,queen1 medical knowledge1 #bie ,emeralds1 used in medicine1 ii1 #cd ,emetic cups1 #che ,emetic tartar1 preparation1 #chj2 invention1 #chb2 uses1 #chc ,emetine1 discovery of1 ii1 #bdh ,empedocles1 theory of elements1 #agd ,empirics1 old sect1 #hi2 leader of1 #bag ,emplastra1 ii1 #bhi ,emplastrum ,commune1 ii1 #abi vigonium1 #daj ,empyreal gas1 #bfi ,emulsion1 etymology1 ii1 #bhi ,enchrista1 ii1 #bhi ,enema1 ii1 #bij ,enoch1 book of1 #d ,ens1 ii1 #bij ,epidaurus1 temple of1 #aa ,epilepsy1 remedies1 #acd1 #aff1 #bjj1 #bad charm1 #bdg1 #bid1 #cjg ,epithema1 ii1 #bij ,epithemation1 ii1 #bij ,epsom1 medicinal springs1 #cdj salts1 introduction1 #cdj ,erfurt discovers aniline1 ii1 #bfc ,errhines1 ii1 #bij ,erythra ,centaurium1 #be ,erzalaum1 #dbg ,essenes practise medicine1 #ej ,essential oils1 prepared by ,paracelsus1 #bdf ,ether1 early references1 #cdg2 first made1 #cdg2 investigated1 #cdg2 old names1 #cdh2 chemical nature1 #cdh2 as ansthetic1 ii1 #bdi2 preparation1 ii1 #bga ,ethiops ,antimoniale1 #cea gommeux1 #cej magnesium1 #cej ,martial1 #cej1 #cih2 ii1 #caa ,mineral1 #cej origin of1 #cej saccharine1 #cej ,ethiopic pills1 #cea ,everlasting pills1 #cha ,excreta1 used in medicine1 #dj2 ii1 #e1 ii1 #g1 ii1 #h1 ii1 #i ,exili1 poisoner1 ii1 #bcj1 ii1 #bcc ,extract of ,saturn1 #bfe2 ii1 #caa ,eyes1 remedies for1 #ahe ,f ,face wrinkles1 papyrus prescription1 #dd ,fx vini1 #cga 8,fakhiliteh10 ,arab treatise1 #aab ,fat1 human1 medical uses1 ii1 #g ,ferdinand of ,austria1 plague powder1 ii1 #ce2 invents antidote1 ii1 #bbi ,fennel1 used by ,saxons1 #abf ,fernel1 ,paris physician1 #dae ,ferruginous waters1 effect of1 #djc ,fever1 ,rhazes's treatment1 #ajf2 charm for1 #ajg2 cinchona for1 ii1 #ie ,fig poultice1 #df1 #gc ,fig tree in ,bible1 #gc ,flies in ointment1 quotation1 #ea ,fioraventi's ,balsam1 ii1 #agc 8,fire-air10 #bfi ,fire-stone1 #cfj ,fistula paste1 ,ward's1 ii1 #bad 8,fixed air10 #ceg ,flake's anti-hmorrhoidal ointment1 #dbe ,flores martis1 #cih zinci1 #dbg ,flos clorum1 #cge ,flckiger and ,hanbury's 8,pharmacographia10 ii1 #hf ,fluoric acid1 discovery1 #bfh ,folk-lore1 superstitious1 #afh ,ford's ,balsam of ,horehound1 ii1 #afg ,forget-me-not1 old name1 #ahe ,formic acid1 synthetic1 ii1 #beg ,fourcroy1 ,french chemist1 #bhe ,four officinal capitals1 ii1 #cg ,four ,thieves' ,vinegar1 ii1 #ef ,fowler's ,solution of ,arsenic1 ii1 #acc2 original recipe1 ii1 #acd ,fowler1 ,t41 biography1 ii1 #acc2 publication1 ii1 #acd ,fox1 medical uses1 #abg ,foxes' lungs1 as remedy1 ii1 #a2 ii1 #aa ,fox-glove4 ,see ,digitalis ,france1 pharmacy ordinances1 #aba ,frankincense1 source1 #ef ,frankland's theory of valency1 ii1 #bfj ,frascator1 ,jerome1 biography1 #bbc ,frederick ,,ii1 pharmacy edict1 #aag ,french disease1 #dac4 ,see also syphilis ,friar's ,balsam1 origin of1 ii1 #ace ,frier's ,drops1 ii1 #acf2 ii1 #afe ,fritzsche's aniline1 ii1 #bfc ,furies1 propitiating1 #afg ,g ,galbanum1 ,biblical reference1 #ef ,gallitzenstein1 #dbg ,galvani's experiments1 ii1 #afg ,gale's ,spa ,elixir1 ii1 #afe ,galen1 theory of humours1 #agh2 biography1 #baj2 infallibility1 #baj2 bust1 #baa2 portrait1 #baa2 influenced by dreams1 #bab2 medical fame1 #bad2 works1 #bad2 criticised1 #baf ,galen's ceratum lithargyri1 #djf cold cream1 ii1 #fe2 ii1 #abg confection1 ii1 #db ,hiera1 ii1 #aci pil4 cochia1 ii1 #aeb ,garth's 8,dispensary10 #aea ,garus's elixir1 ii1 #eg ,gas1 invention of word1 #bfj2 ii1 #bij 8,gas sylvestre10 #bfj1 #ceg ,gascoyne's powder1 ii1 #ai ,gay-,lussac1 ,french chemist1 #bhd ,geber1 chemical discoveries1 #ajb1 #aje ,gentian1 discovery of1 #bhh ,gentius1 ,king of ,illyria1 #bhh ,geoffrey1 ,french physician1 #bgh ,gerard's ,herbal quoted1 #fg ,gerhardt1 ,french chemist1 #bhc ,germany1 pharmacy ordinances1 #abj ,gilead1 ,balm of4 ,see ,balm of ,gilead ,gilead1 where situated1 #ed ,gilla vitrioli1 #cgd2 ii1 #bij ,girandeau1 syphilis remedy1 #dae2 prosecuted1 #daf ,glaser's sal ,polychrest1 #cga2 makes silver nitrate sticks1 #dbd ,glauber1 biography1 #bfj2 chemical discoveries1 #bfa2 bust1 #bfb2 invents ,kermes mineral1 #cha2 ,kermes1 secret purchased1 #cai2 discovers spirit of salt1 #cfi ,glauber's salts1 discovery1 #bfa ,glaucus1 restored to life1 #ac ,glucinium1 discovery1 #bga ,glycerin1 discovery1 #bgj ,glyster1 ii1 #bij ,godbold's ,vegetable ,balsam1 ii1 #aff ,goddard1 ,dr4 ,j41 note on1 ii1 #ahj ,goddard's ,drops1 secret purchased1 #cai1 #ccg2 origin1 ii1 #agi2 uses1 ii1 #agi ,godfrey's ,cordial1 ii1 #agg ,gold1 medicinal uses1 #chh2 for covering pills1 #chi2 cure for syphilis1 #cie2 symbol1 ii1 #cjf2 ii1 #cjg2 ii1 #caj4 ,see also ,aurum ,gold leaf1 use of1 #chh ,golden ,drops1 #cba 8,golden ,water10 #cbi ,goose grease as remedy1 ii1 #ab ,gout1 remedies for1 #abi1 #acf1 #afg1 #agb1 #bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #cec2 ii1 #ahc powder1 ,mayerne's1 #beg2 ,duke of ,portland's1 #bae1 #cji ,gourd1 ,biblical plant1 #ff1 #fi ,goulard1 biography1 #bfd2 discoveries1 #bfe ,goulard's extract1 #bfe ,greeks1 drugs used by1 #gg ,green precipitate1 #dag ,green vitriol1 #cgb1 #dbg ,gregory1 ,dr4 ,jas41 portrait1 ii1 #acg2 publication1 ii1 #ach ,gregory's ,powder1 origin of1 ii1 #acg2 prescription for1 ii1 #ach ,grew1 ,nehemiah1 on ,epsom salts1 #cdb2 portrait1 #cdc ,griffith's mixture1 #djc ,grocers' ,guild1 #aci1 #adg ,grubourt1 ,french pharmacist1 #bhb ,guaiacum1 syphilis cure1 #dad2 history1 ii1 #aaa2 medical uses1 ii1 #aab2 preparation1 ii1 #aac ,gutteta1 ii1 #bij ,gwynne's 8,aurum non aurum10 #cia ,h ,haarlem oil1 origin1 ii1 #agf ,hair oil1 papyrus formula1 #db ,hall1 ,dr41 ,shakespeare's son-in-law1 ii1 #gf ,haloid salts1 #cbf ,ham1 originator of medicine1 #f ,hamech1 a purgative1 #bjc ,hammon1 #f ,hammoniacus salt1 #ccd ,hanckwitz advertisement1 #ada2 makes phosphorus1 #cfe ,hartman's 8,book of ,chymicall ,secrets10 #aif ,headache ,essence1 ,ward's1 ii1 #bad ,headache1 early remedies1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #abi ,heartburn tablets1 #chh ,hebenon1 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #hc ,heberden1 ,dr4 ,w41 portrait1 #bia ,helbanah1 #ef ,helias's letter to ,alfred the ,great1 #aad1 #aca 8,hell-stone10 #dbd ,hellebore as medicine1 #ab2 used by ,paracelsus1 #bdf ,helvetius's pills1 #cb2 ipecacuanha secret1 #cai ,helvetius employs alum1 #cca2 ,french physician1 ii1 #aad ,hemlock1 ,biblical reference1 #fd ,henbane1 etymology1 ii1 #bgf2 toothache remedy1 #afh1 #ahe4 ,see also ,hyoscyamus4 ,henry ,,viii1 medical knowledge1 #bid2 plaster for ulcers1 #bie2 ,halford on1 #bie ,henry's patent1 #cde ,heracleus honey as poison1 ii1 #bbf ,heraclides1 #hi ,herbalists earliest doctors1 #a ,herbs1 symbolical names1 #ce2 used by ,saxons1 #abd ,hermes1 ,greek god1 #d2 works of1 #e1 #afb2 ,egyptian1 #aeg2 ii1 #cje ,hermodactyls1 gout remedy1 #bag2 ii1 #ahc ,hezekiah's boil1 treatment1 #df1 #gc ,hezob1 #fd ,hhawi1 ,rhazes's book1 #ajf ,hiera ,diacolocynthidis1 ii1 #ada ,hiera ,picra1 origin1 ii1 #ach2 antiquity1 ii1 #aci2 first formula1 ii1 #aci2 other recipes1 ii1 #adj1 #ada ,hin1 ancient measure1 #ei ,hippocrates1 drugs mentioned by1 #gg2 biography1 #hd2 portrait1 #he2 as pharmacist1 #ia2 doctrines1 #ajj1 #aja1 #agh2 theory of cures1 #ahc2 theories attacked1 #bag ,hippocrates's sleeve1 ii1 #bid ,hoffmann's anodyne1 #cdh2 ii1 #fg ,hofmann1 ,a4 ,w4 von1 researches1 ii1 #bfc2 portrait1 ii1 #bfd 8,holland oil10 ii1 #bee ,homberg's weather figures1 #cfd2 narcotic salt1 #cgd ,homologues1 discovery1 ii1 #bei ,honey1 medical uses1 #bde2 ii1 #cj2 preparations1 ii1 #ca ,hooper's ,female ,pills1 ii1 #afc ,horehound1 early use1 #baj ,horse leech1 ,biblical mention1 #gj ,horus1 discoverer of medicine1 #c ,houel1 founder of ,paris ,school of ,pharmacy1 #bhe ,hoy's salt1 #cde ,humours1 doctrine of1 #agh ,hungary ,powder1 ii1 #ce ,hungary1 ,queen of1 invents rosemary water1 #bif2 origin of formula1 #bih ,huxham1 ,j41 biography1 ii1 #ajj2 portrait1 ii1 #aja2 8,essay on ,fevers10 ii1 #aja ,huxham's tincture1 ii1 #fg2 ii1 #ajj1 #ajb ,hyacinth confection1 ii1 #cd ,hydrargyrum1 derivation1 #djh ,hydrochloric acid4 ,see ,spirit of salt ,hydrocyanic acid4 ,see ,prussic acid ,hydrophobia1 poem on1 #bbd ,hygeia1 daughter of sculapius1 #aa ,hyoscyamus1 etymology1 ii1 #bgf4 ,see also ,henbane ,hypnotic ,powder of ,jacobi1 #cej ,hypophosphites1 medical use1 #cfg ,hyssop1 ,biblical reference1 #fd2 ,dioscorides on1 #bji ,i ,icy ,noctiluca1 #cfe ,incense1 #ch1 #ej2 etymology1 #ee2 ,biblical formula1 #ee1 #eg2 ,catholic formula1 #eh ,infant's skin as a charm1 #agc ,infusions1 introduction of1 ii1 #bij ,infusum ,gentian ,co41 origin1 ii1 #bia ,insane root1 #ba2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #gb ,iodine discovery1 #cea ,iodoform1 first prepared1 #cec ,ipecacuanha1 history1 ii1 #aad2 medical use1 ii1 #aad2 dose1 ii1 #aae ,iron citrate1 introduction1 #dje iodide1 #dje perchloride as secret remedy1 #cbb phosphate1 #dje reduced by hydrogen1 #djd ,iron1 as remedy1 #ab1 #ahg1 #bag1 #cig2 varieties1 #cih2 in the blood1 #cih2 ,sydenham and ,willis on1 #cii2 pharmaceutical preparations1 #djb1 #djc1 #djd1 #dje2 symbol1 ii1 #cjg2 ii1 #caj sulphate1 medical use1 #ajh syrups1 various1 #dje tincture1 #djd ,isis founder of medicine1 #b1 #cd2 invocation to1 #ch tears1 name for ,vervain1 #ce ,isotheos1 ancient nostrum1 #bae ,israelite medicine1 #df ,itch1 treatment1 #acj1 #bja history1 #bjb theories1 #bjc cause1 #bjd van ,helmont contracts1 #beh1 #dbj ,ivy1 called ,osiris1 #ce ,j ,jacobi's powder1 #cej ,jamblicus1 writings of1 #e ,james ,dr41 portrait1 ii1 #ahg ,james's analeptic pills1 ii1 #afe2 ii1 #ahi ,james's powder1 first official1 ii1 #fg2 patent1 ii1 #afd2 origin1 ii1 #ahg2 ii1 #aia2 patent1 ii1 #ahh2 imitations1 ii1 #aij ,jaso1 daughter of sculapius1 #aa ,jesuits' bark1 ii1 #ig4 ,see also ,cinchona drops1 ii1 #ace ,jews1 belief in charms1 #afj2 medicines of1 #dh2 object to bitter flavours1 #dh1 #fd ,john of ,gaddesden1 #acd2 small-pox cure1 #afi1 #ahf ,john xxi1 medical author1 #bid ,johnson1 ,dr41 touched for scrofula1 #cja ,johnson's ,golden ,ointment1 ii1 #aii ,jonah's gourd1 #ff ,julep1 etymology1 #ajc2 ii1 #bia ,juniper1 ,biblical reference1 #fe ,jussieu1 ,french botanist1 #bhd ,k ,kadolikoi1 #ie ,kakhal1 #cbg ,katapotia1 #hf2 ii1 #bhc1 ii1 #bia ,kekul's structural formulas1 ii1 #bfa2 portrait1 ii1 #bfb ,kermes1 etymology1 ii1 #ej2 what it is1 ii1 #ej2 uses1 ii1 #ea ,mineral1 invention1 #cha2 medicinal uses1 #cha ,kesebt1 identity of1 #db ,ketorah1 meaning of1 #ee ,kik1 ,gerard's reference1 #fg ,kiki1 ii1 #ij ,king's ,evil1 cured by touch1 #bih2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #gb4 ,see also ,scrofula ,kohol1 #cgh ,kopopoloi1 #ie ,koran as ,arab literature1 #ih ,kousso1 introduction1 ii1 #aae2 tapeworm1 remedy1 ii1 #aae ,krabadin1 earliest pharmacopia1 #ajc ,kunckel's1 portrait1 #cfb2 ,bologna stone1 #cfc2 luminous pills1 #cfe ,kurella1 ,dr41 note on1 ii1 #adh ,kyanol1 ii1 #bfc ,kyphi1 sacred perfume1 #de ,l ,la ,mre ,thecle's ointment1 #djg ,la ,mothe's ,golden ,drops1 #cba1 #djd ,la ,voisin1 poisoner1 ii1 #bcf ,lac ,virginis1 ii1 #acf2 ii1 #bib ,ladanum1 ,biblical reference1 #fd ,lana philosophica1 #dbg ,lancaster ,black ,drop1 ii1 #ade ,lang1 ,andrew on mythology1 #cc ,lapis ,bezoar ,occidentale1 ii1 #ae2 ,infernalis1 #dbd2 ii1 #bib2 ,medicamentosus1 ii1 #bib2 ,mirabilis1 ii1 #bib ,laser4 ,see ,silphion ,laudanum1 ,paracelsus's1 #bdc2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #ge2 invention1 ii1 #adb2 recipes1 ii1 #adb2 etymology1 ii1 #adc2 various kinds1 ii1 #add ,laugier1 ,french chemist1 #bhb ,laune1 ,gideon de1 #add2 biography1 #adf2 pills1 #adg ,lavoisier1 ,french chemist1 #bha ,lavoisier defines salts1 #cbf ,le ,febre's 8great cordial10 #cab2 ,baume de ,vie1 ii1 #agf ,lead1 medical use1 #djf2 preparations1 #djf2 ,goulard uses1 #djg2 symbol1 ii1 #cjg1 ii1 #caj ,lead plaster4 ,see ,diachylon ,lead solution1 discovery1 #bfe ,lebonah1 meaning of1 #ee ,ledger1 ,c41 obtains cinchona seeds1 ii1 #aje2 annuity1 ii1 #ajg2 portrait1 ii1 #ajg ,leechdoms1 ,saxon1 #abd ,leeches1 ,biblical mention1 #gj2 first use of1 ii1 #aci ,lemery1 ,french pharmacist1 #bhj2 works1 #bha2 ,crocus ,martis1 #cej2 tincture of gold1 #cie ,lemnian earth1 ii1 #ec2 source1 ii1 #ec2 uses1 ii1 #ed ,lenitive electuary1 origin1 ii1 #adf ,lepidus marinus1 poison1 ii1 #bbf1 ii1 #bbg ,leucomaines1 discovery1 ii1 #bdb ,levingstern1 ,epsom apothecary1 #cda ,libanos1 meaning1 #ee ,liebig1 portrait1 #bhc2 mistake of1 #cci ,lign aloes1 ,biblical reference1 #fc ,lilium1 ,paracelsus's1 #bdd ,limbeck1 #cbh2 etymology1 ii1 #bgi ,lime water1 efficacy1 #cef ,linamentum1 ii1 #bij ,linimentum camphor composit1 origin1 ii1 #baj1 ii1 #bad ,lion1 medical1 use1 ii1 #ab ,liquor ,bismuthi1 introduction1 #chg ,cranii ,humani1 ii1 #e ,lisbon ,diet ,drink1 ii1 #aee ,lisle's ,powder for ,fevers1 ii1 #aia ,litharge1 #djf ,lithargyrum ,argenti1 #djf ,auri1 #djf ,lithium discovery1 #cec2 uses1 #cec ,liver complaint1 ancient diagnosis1 #ci2 old remedy1 #bhh ,lixivium1 #cbd ,saponarium1 #cbe ,tartari1 #cgb ,lizards' blood1 #ci ,locatelli's balsam1 #cb2 ii1 #aei ,locusta1 poisoner1 ii1 #bbd ,lohn's writing board1 #afc ,london ,pharmacopia1 the first1 #ajc1 #acc2 compiler1 #adf1 #bah1 #bef2 criticised1 #bij1 #dah2 formul1 ii1 #ch1 ii1 #ci1 ii1 #dj1 ii1 #da2 how prepared1 ii1 #fj2 contents1 ii1 #fa2 title-page1 ii1 #fc2 translation1 ii1 #fg2 formul1 ii1 #adf ,long1 ,dr41 ether ansthetist1 ii1 #bdi ,long1 ,st4 ,john1 biography1 ii1 #aib2 portrait1 ii1 #aic2 income1 ii1 #aid2 death1 ii1 #aie ,long's ,liniment1 ii1 #aib1 ii1 #aif ,looch1 origin of word1 ii1 #bib ,lozenges1 ii1 #bii ,luban1 meaning of1 #ef ,luce1 ,lille1 pharmacist1 #cci ,lully1 ,raymond1 biography1 #bba2 portrait1 #bbb2 on aqua vit1 #cbi ,luminous pills1 #cfe ,lunar caustic1 ii1 #caa ,luna fixata1 #dbh ,lupus ,metallorum1 #cgi ,lydgate1 note on1 ii1 #bhf ,m ,maceration1 ii1 #bib ,machaon1 son of sculapius1 #aa ,macquer1 ,french chemist1 #bgg2 arsenical salt1 #bgg ,madder1 used by ,saxons1 #abf ,magdaleo1 meaning of1 ii1 #bib ,magic and medicine1 #b1 #aeg ,magistery of ,bismuth1 ii1 #bic of ,human skull1 ii1 #f meaning of1 ii1 #bic of ,saturn1 #djg ,magma1 ii1 #bic ,magnes ,arsenicalis1 ii1 #bic ,magnesia1 medical use1 #ced2 preparation1 #ced2 etymology1 #ced2 confused with manganese1 #cee2 in mineral springs1 #cee2 ,black1 on1 #cef of ,gold1 #cee ,magnesian stone1 #ced ,magnesium1 preparation1 #ceg ,magnets as cures1 #aii ,magnus1 ,albertus1 describes caustic potash1 #cbe ,magog identified with ,prometheus1 #ab ,maimonides1 ,jewish scholar1 #aaa2 remedies for poison1 ii1 #cd ,malagmata1 #ia2 ii1 #bid ,malascation1 meaning of1 ii1 #bid ,male fern1 tapeworm remedy1 #cbj1 #cba ,mallows1 ,biblical plant1 #fe ,man1 parts of1 used in medicine1 ii1 #d ,mandrake1 legends1 #ai2 as sterility remedy1 #bj1 #dh2 ancient uses of1 #ba ,mandragora1 legends of1 #ai2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #ge2 on battle-field1 ii1 #bbe ,manhu1 derivation of manna1 #fj ,manica ,hypocratis1 ii1 #bid ,manipulus1 ii1 #bid ,manna1 ,biblical1 #fj2 sources1 #fa2 ,avicenna1 uses1 #aji ,manna metallorum1 #dai ,manus ,christi1 meaning of1 ii1 #bid ,manus ,dei1 meaning of1 ii1 #bid ,marcquis's 8,aloe ,morbifuga10 ii1 #hi ,markham1 ,sir ,c41 introduces cinchona into ,india1 ii1 #ajb2 on derivation of cinchona1 ii1 #ajc2 8,peruvian ,bark10 ii1 #aje ,marmalades1 origin of1 ii1 #bid ,marsh's arsenic test1 ii1 #bda ,martial ,regulus of ,antimony1 #cgi ,masticatories1 meaning of1 ii1 #bid ,matrass1 ii1 #bid ,matthews's ,pills1 origin of1 ii1 #aed ,mauve1 discovery1 ii1 #bfc ,may dew for the complexion1 #agc ,mayerne1 ,sir ,theodore de1 #add2 portrait1 #ade2 biography1 #adf1 #bee2 impeached1 #chd2 introduces calomel1 #dah2 anti-epileptic powder1 ii1 #f2 writes preface to ,p4 ,l41 ii1 #fa2 burlesqued1 ii1 #ga ,maythe1 use in medicine1 #abe ,measures1 signs for1 ii1 #cjj ,meat1 putrid1 in medicine1 #ci ,meconic acid1 discovery1 ii1 #bde ,medea1 medical discoveries1 #ag2 inventor of poisons1 ii1 #bba ,medea oil1 #cei ,medical aphorisms in ,talmud1 #ej treatises in verse1 #acg ,medicamentarii1 #ib ,medicamentum ad annum1 #caj2 ii1 #agg ,medicina1 #ie ,medicine1 origin of1 #b2 associated with magic1 #b2 traditional founder1 #b2 god of1 #f2 as a science1 #hh2 separation from pharmacy1 #ia2 and magic1 #aeg ,medicines1 charges for1 #adi1 #aej from metals1 #cgf ,megillat-,sammanin1 treatise on pharmacology1 #di ,megrims diagnosis1 #abh2 early remedy1 #abi ,mel ,egyptiacum1 ii1 #eb ,helleboratum1 ,culpepper1 on1 #bea ,melampus1 medicinal discoveries1 #ab1 #ac2 uses iron as remedy1 #cig ,mellites1 ii1 #bid ,menecrates1 #ia2 originator of diachylon1 ii1 #abg2 ii1 #abi ,mensis ,philosophicus1 ii1 #bid ,menstruum1 meaning of1 ii1 #bid ,mentha1 legend of1 #bf ,mercury1 ancient god1 #d2 medical use1 #bdc2 origin of name1 #djh2 used by ,arabs1 #dji2 medical uses1 #dji2 as syphilis cure1 #dji1 #daj2 8killing10 #dba2 symbol for1 ii1 #cje1 ii1 #cjf1 ii1 #caj4 ,see also ,corrosive ,sublimate1 ,red ,precipitate1 ,calomel1 and ,quicksilver ,mercurial ointment1 #acb1 #daj1 #dba pills1 early formul1 #daa1 #dab1 #dba ,mesu1 the elder1 #aja1 #aje1 #bag1 #bah ,mesu1 the younger1 #aaj1 #bag1 #bah ,mesu's unguentum tripharmacum1 #djf ,mesmer1 note on1 #bja2 animal magnetism1 ii1 #afg ,messiah1 meaning of1 #fj ,metalepsy1 ii1 #bei ,metallic ,tractors1 #bja2 ii1 #aff ,metals in ,ebers's papyrus1 #dj2 as remedies1 #ahf2 symbols1 ii1 #cjd ,metasyncretics1 ii1 #bhb ,methel nut1 ii1 #aai ,midas1 punishment of1 #g ,midwifery1 ansthetics in1 ii1 #bea ,migmatopoloi1 #ie ,mindererus's spirit1 invention1 #cch2 first official1 ii1 #fg ,mindererus1 old physician1 #cch2 biography1 ii1 #hh2 8,aloedarium10 ii1 #hh ,mineral bezoar1 #chj 8,mineral ,solution10 ii1 #ace ,mint1 origin of1 #bf ,mirfield's 8,breviarium ,bartholomei10 #ace ,mistura ,ferri ,composita1 #djc ,mithridates the ,great1 biography1 #bhi2 medical discoveries1 #bhi2 death1 #bij ,mithridatum1 #ia2 inventor1 #bhi2 absurdities1 #bij2 ,galen on1 #bib2 number of ingredients1 #bic2 formul1 ii1 #bj1 #ch1 #ci ,mohammed1 influence of1 #ig2 death1 #ajd ,monoceros1 mythical animal1 #bh ,monopolies abolished1 ii1 #afa ,moore's 8,history of the ,study of ,medicine10 #ace ,morbus ,gallicus1 #dac4 ,see also ,syphilis ,morella furiosum lethale1 #be ,morgan1 ,hugo1 ,queen ,elizabeth's apothecary1 #bih2 makes theriaca1 ii1 #dd ,morpheus1 how represented1 #ag ,morphine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdd ,morphium1 etymology1 #ah ,morton1 ,w4 ,t4 ,g41 uses ether in dentistry1 ii1 #bej ,mosaic gold1 #cif1 #dbd ,moses identified with ,hermes1 #d ,moss from skull1 as remedy1 #aia ,mother's ointment1 #djg ,moult1 ,london chemist1 #cde ,moxa1 meaning of1 ii1 #bie ,mullein1 used by ,saxons1 #abf ,mummies1 medical use1 ii1 #bc2 opinions on1 ii1 #bd ,murray's arated cod-liver oil1 ii1 #afg ,mustard for scorpion bites1 #ah seeds1 ,biblical reference1 #ga ,mynsicht's publications1 #cge2 elixir of vitriol1 #cge2 invents emetic tartar1 #chb2 powder of ,saturn1 #djg ,myrepsus1 ,nicolas1 #bai2 ointment1 #dbg ,myrepsus1 #ie2 ii1 #bif ,myrophecia1 #ie ,myropolia1 #ie ,myrrh1 origin1 #bc2 ,biblical references1 #fc ,myrrha1 legend of1 #bb ,mythology1 science of1 #cc ,n ,naphtha1 legend1 #cei ,narceine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdh ,narcotine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdd ,nardos pitike1 meaning1 #gc ,nardostachys1 #gd ,narwhal horn1 #bh ,nasalia1 ii1 #bij ,nataph1 meaning of1 #ef ,necklaces1 medical uses1 #bad ,nectarion1 identity of1 #bd 8,negro ,csar's ,cure for ,poison10 ii1 #bcg ,nepenthe1 etymology1 #bc2 identity1 #bd ,nettleton1 ,dr4 ,t41 originates citrine ointment1 ii1 #abf ,newbery1 maker of ,james's ,powder1 ii1 #ahh ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 connection with pharmacy1 #bgi ,nicandor's treatise on poisons1 ii1 #bbf ,nicotine1 discovery1 ii1 #bde2 synthetic1 ii1 #bff ,nihil album1 #dbg ,nitre1 ,biblical reference1 #gj2 medical use1 #ajh2 manufacture in ,france1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cei2 early references1 #ceh2 symbol1 ii1 #cji ,nitric acid1 first use in medicine1 #aje ,nitrous oxide gas1 discovery1 ii1 #bdi ,nitrum fixum1 #cga ,noctiluca1 ii1 #bif ,nostrums1 ancient1 #bae ,nouffer's ,tapeworm ,cure1 secret purchased1 #cai2 origin1 #cbj ,nuremberg ordinance1 #abj2 old pharmacy1 #abj ,nychthemeron1 ii1 #bif ,o ,obolos1 ii1 #bif ,oenelaion1 ii1 #bif ,oenogala1 ii1 #bif ,oenomeli1 ii1 #bif ,oesypus1 ii1 #bif ,oil of ,ants1 ii1 #ad ,bricks1 how prepared1 ii1 #ee2 medical uses1 ii1 #ee ,eggs1 prepared by ,paracelsus1 #bdg ,harts' horns1 ii1 #be ,peter1 #cfj ,puppies1 ii1 #aa ,tartar1 preparing1 #acb2 uses of1 #bdg1 #cgb2 ii1 #bhf ,vitriol1 #cgc ,wax1 ii1 #ca ,wine1 discovery1 #bfc ,ointments1 ii1 #bif4 ,see also ,unguentum ,old age1 ,ecclesiastes symbolism1 #gf ,oleum ,benedictum1 ii1 #ee ,divinum1 ii1 #ee ,dulce ,paracelsi1 #cdh ,philosophorum1 ii1 #ee ,sanctum1 ii1 #ee ,vitrioli ,dulce1 #cdg2 ii1 #bga4 ,see also ,oil of ,wine ,olibanum1 source1 #ef ,olive oil1 uses1 #eh ,onguent de la ,mre1 #djg ,onions as remedy1 #di1 #ej ,onycha in ,bible1 #eg ,opiates1 ii1 #bif ,opium used by ,paracelsus1 #bdc2 history1 ii1 #aaf2 medical uses1 ii1 #aag2 active principle1 ii1 #bdc ,opobalsamum1 #ec ,opodeldoc1 origin1 ii1 #adh2 derivation1 ii1 #adh2 originally a plaster1 ii1 #adi ,oribasius1 medical author1 #bad ,origanum ,dictamnus1 #bf ,orthrine1 ii1 #beh ,osiris1 illustration1 #c2 name for ivy1 #ce ,ounce sign1 origin1 ii1 #cjj ,oxalic acid1 synthetic1 ii1 #beg ,oxycroceum1 ii1 #big ,oxygen1 discovery1 #bfi2 why so called1 #cbd ,oxymels1 ii1 #ca ,p ,pachius's ,hiera1 ii1 #adj ,palma ,christi1 #fh2 ii1 #hi1 ii1 #ib ,palsy ,drops1 ii1 #adf ,panacea1 daughter of sculapius1 #aa ,holsatica1 #cga ,mercurialis1 #dai ,panchrest1 ii1 #big ,panchymagogon1 #dai2 ii1 #big ,pandects of ,physic1 #ajd ,pantopoloi1 #ie ,papyri1 medical and pharmaceutical1 #cf ,papyrus ,ebers1 #cf2 described1 #cg2 photograph1 #dj2 prescriptions in1 #da1 #db2 date1 #dh ,paracelsus1 theory of elements1 #agd2 8sympathetic ointment10 #ahh1 #aij2 biography1 #bcj2 education1 #bcb2 boastfulness1 #bcc2 epitaph1 #bcf2 character1 #bcg2 ,browning's poem on1 #bci2 ,butler on1 #bdj2 mysticism1 #bdj2 chemical observations1 #bda2 drugs used by1 #bdc2 portraits1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bej2 8,archidoxa ,medicin10 #cij2 8,catholicon10 #dad2 8,zebethum ,occidentale10 ii1 #i ,par's experiment1 ii1 #bbi ,paregoric ,elixir1 origin1 ii1 #aea2 formula for1 ii1 #aea2 etymology1 ii1 #aea ,paris1 apothecary edicts1 #abb ,paris ,school of ,pharmacy1 #bgj1 #bhe ,parmentier1 biography1 #bgb ,pastilli1 ii1 #bii ,patent ,medicines1 origin of1 ii1 #afa ,patents1 why granted1 ii1 #afa ,pearls1 use of1 in medicine1 ii1 #cc ,pectoral ,powder1 ii1 #adh ,pedilavium1 ii1 #big ,pelican1 ii1 #big ,pelletier1 discovers quinine1 #bgd2 ii1 #bdg2 portrait1 #bge2 discovers other alkaloids1 ii1 #bdh ,pelouze1 ,french pharmacist1 #bhc ,peon1 identified with ,apollo1 #g ,peony1 use by ,saxons1 #abf2 promotes dentition1 ii1 #aga ,pepperers' ,guild1 #aci ,perfume1 sacred1 #de ,perfumer1 ,biblical reference1 #ej ,percapt1 ii1 #big ,periodeutes1 #ic1 #id ,perkins's ,metallic ,tractors1 #bja2 ii1 #aff ,perkin1 ,w4 ,h4 discovers mauve1 ii1 #bfc ,peroxide of hydrogen1 inventor1 #bhb ,peruvian bark4 ,see ,cinchona ,pessary1 ii1 #big ,peter of ,spain1 medical author1 #bid ,petra ,philosophale1 ii1 #agd ,petroleum1 medical uses1 #aca2 early use1 #cei2 synonyms1 #cfj2 medical use1 #cfj2 ,barbadense1 #cfj ,pharmaceutical ,society of ,great ,britain1 foundation1 #aef ,pharmacies1 ,state controlled1 #ajc1 #ajd ,pharmacist1 the first1 #ab ,pharmacists1 royal and noble1 #bhg4 ,see also ,apothecaries and ,chemists ,pharmacopeus1 #ic ,pharmacopia1 the earliest1 #ajc2 history of1 ii1 #ei ,pharmacopolis1 #ib ,pharmacopoloi1 #ic ,pharmacotrib1 #ie ,pharmacy ,acts1 various1 #aef ,pharmacy1 myths1 #a2 origin1 #a2 patron saints1 #ai2 in ,pharaoh's time1 #cd2 in the ,bible1 #df2 old use of word1 #eb2 identity with sorcery1 #eb2 ,hippocrates on1 #hf2 separation from medicine1 #ia2 ,arabian1 #ig2 in ,east1 #ajj2 in ,northern ,europe1 #aae2 edict to regulate1 #aag2 ,beckmann on1 #aah2 concessions1 origin1 #aai2 in ,saxon ,england1 #abd2 animal substances in1 ii1 #a2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #gj2 progress in #aith century1 ii1 #bdc ,pharmaka1 use by ,homer1 #eb ,pharmakeia1 #eb1 #ib ,pharmakeuein1 #ic ,pharmakoi1 use of1 #eb ,pharmakon1 #ic ,phenacetin1 discovery1 ii1 #bgc ,phillips1 ,p4 ,l41 critic1 ii1 #fh ,philon1 #ia ,philonium1 inventor1 #ia2 formul1 ii1 #ci1 ii1 #dj1 ii1 #da ,philosopher's stone1 #ajf1 #cfc ,philosophic egg1 #cgi ,phlogiston theory1 #agf ,phnix1 as alchemists sign1 #bf2 legends of1 #bg2 ,biblical references1 #bg2 longevity1 #bg ,phosphor paste1 #cfh ,phosphorus1 ,hanckwitz's advertisement1 #adb2 etymology1 #cfj2 discovery1 #cfc2 made in ,london1 #cfe2 medical use1 #cfe2 prepared from bones1 #cfe2 dose1 #cfg2 solubility1 #cfh2 symbol1 ii1 #cji ,phthisis1 ,rhazes's treatment1 #ajf ,phylacteries1 protect from evil1 #afa ,physicians1 as priests1 #ce2 ,biblical references1 #df2 ,pope on1 #adh2 fees1 #aea2 ,valentine on1 #bbg ,pigmentarii1 #id ,pike's itch ointment1 ii1 #afe ,pil cocci1 origin1 ii1 #bib ,pil cochi1 origin1 ii1 #aeb1 ii1 #bib ,pil ,rufi1 origin1 ii1 #adj ,pills1 gilding introduced1 #aji2 origin1 ii1 #bib1 ii1 #big2 silvering introduced1 #aji1 #dbc ,pilula saponis composita1 origin1 ii1 #aec ,pilul ,communes1 ii1 #adj ,ethiopic1 ii1 #aec ,lunares1 #dbc ,pacific1 ii1 #aed ,perpetu1 #cha ,pestilentiales1 ii1 #adj ,piperine1 synthetic1 ii1 #bff ,pissaeleum1 #cbh ,pitt's 8,crafts and ,frauds of ,physic ,exposed10 #adi ,plague remedy1 #bbd ,planets1 as aids to prescribing1 #ahg ,plantain1 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #gd ,plasters1 ,aetius on1 #bae ,pleurisy1 old remedy1 #ha ,pliny1 death1 #ij ,plough1 inventor1 #bhh ,plummer1 ,dr4 ,a41 note on1 ii1 #aec thiops ,medicinalis1 #chb pills1 #cea2 origin1 ii1 #aec powder1 #chb ,pocula ,emetica1 #che ,podalirus1 son of sculapius1 #aa ,poisoners1 famous1 ii1 #bcj ,poison1 antidotes1 ii1 #cd1 ii1 #di1 ii1 #bba1 ii1 #bcg1 ii1 #bhi origin of word1 ii1 #big register introduced1 #abc ,poisoning1 delayed1 ii1 #bbc detecting4 ,see ,toxicology punishment1 ii1 #bcj ,poisons1 in ,bible1 ii1 #bbb2 history of1 ii1 #bbj2 used in ,rome1 ii1 #bbc2 in ancient times1 ii1 #bbe2 in ,middle ,ages1 ii1 #bbg ,polychrest1 #cfi1 #cga2 ii1 #aih1 ii1 #big ,polyidus1 magician1 #ac ,pomatum1 ii1 #bih ,pomegranates1 ,biblical reference1 #gb ,pompholyx1 #bji1 #djg1 #dbg ,poppy1 in ,saxon times1 #abf2 as remedy1 #ahd2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #ge ,poppies1 syrup1 origin1 ii1 #aaf ,populeum1 ii1 #bih ,porta1 medical author1 #ahc ,portland powder1 #bae1 #cji2 ii1 #abe ,posca1 #ga ,potassium nitrate4 ,see ,nitre sulphate1 synonyms1 #cga ,potato1 popularising1 #bgc ,potio ,laxativa ,viennensis1 ii1 #aba ,potion ,noire ,anglaise1 ii1 #abb ,poudre des ,chartres1 secret purchased1 #cai1 #cha ,poultice1 papyrus formula1 #dj2 etymology1 ii1 #bih ,powder de ,gutteta1 ii1 #f of ,projection1 #cgi ,saturn1 #djg ,precious stones1 medical use1 ii1 #cb ,precipitatus per se1 #daf ,prepositus's ,antidotary1 #aaf ,prescribing by chemists1 limitation1 #aee ,prescriptions on papyri1 #cf1 #da2 from 8,don ,juan10 ii1 #ei2 origin1 ii1 #cjd ,priestley discovers oxygen1 #bgj ,primum ,ens ,sanguinis1 ii1 #g ,proine1 ii1 #beh ,prometheus1 the first pharmacist1 #ab ,propomata1 ii1 #bih ,prosdita1 ii1 #bii ,prussian blue1 discovery1 ii1 #bg1 ii1 #bh ,prussic acid1 discovery1 #bgj ,psilothrum1 ii1 #bih ,ptisans1 ii1 #bii ,ptomaines1 discovery1 ii1 #bdb ,pulvis ,cornacchini1 #cji ,principis ,mirandol1 #caj ,scammoni co41 origin1 #cjh ,pyroligneous acid1 made by ,glauber1 #bfc ,pyroxylin1 discovery1 #cdj ,pythagoras antidote1 #ah ,q ,quack doctor's harangue1 ii1 #bjd ,quackery in ninth century1 #ajg ,quakers' ,black ,drop1 ii1 #ade ,quassia1 introduction1 ii1 #aag2 etymology1 ii1 #aah ,quevenne's iron1 #djd ,quicksilver1 first mention1 #djh2 bottles for1 #djh2 girdles1 #dbj4 ,see also ,mercury ,quinodine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdg ,quinine1 discovery1 #bgd2 ii1 #bdf2 synthetic1 ii1 #bfd1 ii1 #bfe ,quinsy1 ,hippocrates's treatment1 #hf ,quintessences1 prepared by ,paracelsus1 #bdf2 ii1 #bdc ,r ,ra's ointment1 #dc ,rakach1 meaning of1 #eb ,raleigh's ,great ,cordial1 #caj1 #cab ,raleigh1 ,sir ,walter1 portrait1 #caa2 medical knowledge1 #caa2 confection1 #cab 8,rational0 formul1 ii1 #bfa ,read1 ,queen ,anne's oculist1 ii1 #ad 8,receptarium ,antidotarii10 #bah ,recipe sign1 origin1 ii1 #cjb ,red bottle1 ii1 #bag cloth as small-pox cure1 #afi1 #ahf precipitate1 introduction1 #aje2 used by ,paracelsus1 #bdc1 #bdi2 early references1 #daf2 preparation1 #daf ,reduced iron1 #djd ,re'em1 identity of1 #bi ,regenerated tartar1 #cga ,regulus of ,antimony1 #cgi ,renandot's mercurial pills1 #dab ,rhazes1 chemical writer1 #aje1 #ajf2 ointment1 #djg2 pil cochi1 ii1 #aeb ,rheumatism1 early treatment1 #acf ,rhizotomoi1 #ie ,rhubarb1 first mention1 #baf ,ricinus1 ,biblical plant1 #fg2 origin1 ii1 #ib2 in papyrus1 #da4 ,see also ,castor oil ,ridge's ,food1 patent1 ii1 #afg ,rocha alum1 #cca ,roche's ,embrocation1 patent1 ii1 #aff ,rochelle salt1 #cgb2 first official1 ii1 #fg2 ii1 #aig ,rochester1 ,earl1 as quack1 ii1 #bjc ,rock oil1 #cfj4 ,see also ,petroleum 8,romeo and ,juliet10 origin1 ii1 #gg 8,rosa ,anglicana10 #acd ,rose water1 ,arabic origin1 #ajc2 early mention1 #cbh ,rosemary1 derivation1 #bif2 properties1 #bif2 ,queen of ,hungary uses1 #big ,rosencreutz1 #aha ,rosetta stone1 #ce ,rosh1 meaning1 ii1 #bbb ,rosicrucians1 #aha ,rouelle1 ,french chemist1 #bgg ,rousseau's laudanum1 ii1 #add ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 incorporation1 #adc2 dispensaries1 #aea1 #aef2 prosecute an apothecary1 #aed2 origin1 ii1 #fj ,royal touch cures disease1 #bih2 ceremony described1 #cjd ,rufus pill1 invention1 ii1 #adj ,runge's researches1 ii1 #bfc ,runstall's ,black ,drop1 ii1 #ade ,s ,sabor-,ebn-,sahel's ,pharmacopia1 #ajc ,saffron1 called blood of ,throth1 #ce2 derivation1 #gb2 ,biblical reference1 #gb ,st4 ,john's ,wort1 charm1 #agb 8,sal ,admirabile10 #bfa ,sal ,alembroth1 #bdc1 #dag2 etymology1 ii1 #bgi2 ammoniac1 discovery1 #f2 ,glauber makes1 #bfc2 early reference1 #ccd ,sal ammoniacum factitium1 #ccf de ,duobus1 #cga2 ii1 #aih2 ii1 #bha ,enixon1 #bfa fixum1 #cce2 ii1 #bih ,fossile1 #cfi ,gemm1 #cfi ,jovis1 #dbe2 ii1 #caa ,polychrestum1 #cfi2 ,glaser's1 #cga2 ii1 #aih2 ,seignette's1 ii1 #aig2 ii1 #big ,prunella1 how prepared1 #cfh2 why so-called1 #cfi ,purgatorius1 #bbj sacerdotale1 #bbj sapienti1 #dag2 ii1 #bgi viperum1 #bjh volatile oleosum1 #ccf4 ,see also ,salt and ,sel ,salamanders' ,blood1 ii1 #bih ,salerno ,medical ,school1 #aae2 dissolved1 #aag ,salia1 ii1 #bih ,salicylic acid1 synthetic1 ii1 #bfi ,salmon1 ,w41 note on1 ii1 #agi2 ii1 #ahj ,salol1 discovery1 ii1 #bgd ,salsa1 ii1 #aai ,salt1 etymology of1 #cbe of the ,holy ,apostles1 #bbj of many virtues1 #cfi of ,mars1 #cih of ,st4 ,luke1 #bbj of tartar1 #cbf1 #cga1 #cgb of wisdom1 #dag2 ii1 #bgi of wormwood1 #cbf4 ,see also ,sal and ,sel ,saltpetre1 ,see nitre ,salptrire ,asylum1 why so-called1 #cei 8,sardonic grin10 origin of expression1 ii1 #bbf ,sarsaparilla1 introduction1 ii1 #aah2 medical use1 ii1 #aah2 etymology1 ii1 #aai2 decoctions1 ii1 #aed ,savory's ,seidlitz ,powders1 ii1 #aef2 ii1 #afg ,saxifrage as remedy1 #ahd ,saxon pharmacy1 #abd ,scammony powder1 #cjh ,schacht's liquor bismuthi1 #chg ,scheele1 biography1 #bff2 statue1 #bfg2 investigations1 #bfh2 pharmacy1 #bfi2 medallion1 #bgf ,schnbein discovers pyroxylin1 #cdj ,schwalbach mineral springs1 #djc ,schwanberg's fever powder1 ii1 #aia ,scorpion grass1 #ahd ,scrofula1 etymology1 #bii2 cramprings for1 #cjc2 burnt sponge for1 #cec4 ,see also ,king's ,evil ,scruple sign1 origin1 ii1 #cjj ,scutum1 ii1 #bih ,sea-sickness1 early remedy1 #abf ,seba1 naturalist1 #bgh ,seed of gold1 #chi ,seguin discovers morphine1 ii1 #bdd ,seidlitz powders1 origin1 ii1 #aef2 patent1 ii1 #afg ,seignette's salt1 #cgb2 ii1 #aig ,sel de ,duobus1 #cga2 ii1 #aih ,essentiel de quinquina1 ii1 #bdf ,narcotique de ,derosne1 ii1 #bdd de ,seignette1 #cgb2 ii1 #aig ,seneca oil1 #cei ,senna1 introduction1 #aje1 #bah ,seplasia1 #id ,seplasiarii1 #id ,serapion of ,alexandria 7or ,the ,elder71 #aji2 epilepsy remedy1 #aff1 #bag ,the ,younger1 #aaj ,serenus1 ,roman physician1 #afd ,sertrner discovers morphine1 ii1 #bdd ,serullas1 ,french chemist1 #bhb 8,seven metals10 ii1 #cjd ,svign1 ,marquise de1 portrait1 #aib ,shakespearian references1 #bj1 #cj2 ii1 #gj ,sheba1 ,queen of1 #ed ,sheben1 identity1 #db ,shekel1 ancient weight1 #ei ,signatures1 doctrine of1 #ahc 8,signet star of philosophy10 #bbe ,silphion1 introduction1 #af ,silver1 medical uses1 #dbb2 symbol1 ii1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #caj nitrate1 first use1 #aje1 #dbc2 made into sticks1 #dbd ,simpson1 ,j4 ,g41 uses ansthetics1 ii1 #bea2 portrait1 ii1 #bec ,sinapisms1 ii1 #bih ,singleton's eye ointment1 ii1 #abf1 #aii ,skin1 as a charm1 #agc ,skull oil1 #bdg ,skulls1 medical uses1 #bdh2 ii1 #e1 #f ,sleep promoting1 #abh1 #ach ,sloane1 ,sir ,hans1 edits ,p4,l4 #agba1 ii1 #fe ,small-pox1 first mention1 #ajd2 early treatment1 #acj1 #afi1 #ahf2 ii1 #acj ,smegma1 ii1 #bih ,snails as remedy1 ii1 #aa ,snake-venom antidotes1 #aab2 immunity1 ii1 #bci ,soap1 ,biblical reference1 #gj1 #cbd ,soap liniment1 origin of1 ii1 #aej ,society of apothecaries4 ,see ,apothecaries' ,society ,soda tartarata1 ii1 #aig ,sodium carbonate1 ,biblical reference1 #gj ,solar elixir1 ii1 #caa ,solecism1 derivation1 #bjg ,solomon's treatise on medicine1 #di2 magical secrets1 #aei ,the ,hebrew1 #aeg ,soluble mercury1 #dah 8,solvent mineral10 ii1 #ace ,somnus1 god of sleep1 #ag 8,sons of ,god0 legend1 #c ,sorbito1 ii1 #bii ,sorcery1 identified with pharmacy1 #eb2 held in esteem1 #afj ,sparadrap1 ii1 #bii de ,vigo1 #daa ,specificum purgans1 #bdd1 #cga ,spermaceti1 medical use1 ii1 #bh2 derivation1 ii1 #bi2 ,shakespearian reference1 ii1 #gd ,spicerers' ,guild1 #aci ,spiders1 medical use1 ii1 #ad ,spielman's ,vermifuge ,electuary1 #dbf ,spikenard1 value1 #gc2 ,biblical reference1 #gc2 ointment1 #gc1 #gd ,spirit of nitrous ether1 origin1 #cdi2 early formul1 #cdi of salt1 ,valentine describes1 #bbh2 discovery1 #bfc1 #cfi2 medical uses1 #cfi2 properties1 #cgj of tartar1 #cgb of vitriol1 #cgc1 #cgd of wine4 ,see ,alcohol4 ,spiritus theris ,co41 origin1 #cdh theris ,nitrosi4 ,see ,spirit of ,nitrous ,ether ,ammoni ,succinatus1 #cch ,ammoni ,aromaticus1 #cce1 #ccg ,mundi1 #cfa ,nitri ,dulcis4 ,see ,spirit of ,nitrous ,ether ,salis ,marini ,glauberi4 ,see ,spirit of ,salt ,volatilis ,oleosus1 #cce1 #ccg ,vini ,ethereus4 ,see ,ether ,vitrioli ,antepilepticus ,paracelsi1 #cdg ,spilsbury's ,anti-scorbutic ,drops1 ii1 #aff 8,spot ,ward10 ii1 #bac ,spruce ,dr41 obtains cinchona seeds1 ii1 #aje ,squill called ,eye of ,typhon1 #ce2 vinegar1 #ah ,stacte1 identity1 #ef1 #fc ,stahl's theory of the elements1 #age2 portrait1 #agf ,starcraft1 ,saxon1 #abd ,starkey's ,pills1 origin1 ii1 #aed ,stationarii1 #aah ,steer's opodeldoc1 ii1 #aej ,stephens's ,cure for stone1 #cai2 ii1 #aii2 recipe1 ii1 #bjj ,sterling1 derivation1 #ach ,stibium1 ,see ,antimony ,stimmi1 #cgh ,stoughton's ,cordial ,elixir1 ii1 #afb ,stramonium1 history1 ii1 #aai2 introduction1 ii1 #abj ,structural formul1 ii1 #bfa ,strychnine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdh ,strychnos manikon1 #be ,sublimation dulce1 #dai ,suffumenta1 ii1 #bii ,suffumigia1 ii1 #bii ,substitution theory1 ii1 #bei ,sugar1 arabic derivation1 #ajc2 a rarity1 ii1 #cj ,sulphonal1 preparation1 ii1 #bgb ,sulphur1 symbol1 ii1 #cji ,sulphuric acid1 #cgc ,sun-stone1 #cfa ,supplantalia1 ii1 #bii ,suppositories1 ii1 #bii ,swammerdam1 ,dutch anatomist1 #bhe ,swediaur's pilula ferri1 #cea ,sweet spirit of nitre1 ,see ,spirit of ,nitrous ,ether ,sydenham1 on iron1 #cii2 portrait1 #djj2 laudanum1 ii1 #adc ,sylvius's ,carminative ,spirit1 #ccg salt1 #ccf ,sympathetic egg1 #aij ointment1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij2 ii1 #f powder1 #aia remedies1 #ahg ,symbols1 alchemical1 ii1 #cjd1 ii1 #cjh1 ii1 #cji ,synthetic ,remedies1 ii1 #bef ,syphilis1 book on1 #bbd2 ,valentine's reference1 #bbi2 treatment1 #bdc2 mercury as cure1 #dji2 origin1 #dac2 early treatment1 #dac2 guaiacum as cure1 #dad1 ii1 #aab ,syrup1 derivation1 #ajc2 ii1 #bii ,t ,takkum gum1 #ec ,talbor's ,tincture of ,bark1 #cai ,talbor ,r41 employs cinchona1 #cai2 ii1 #ig process1 ii1 #ii ,talismans worn by ,arabs1 #afc2 universality1 #aga4 ,see also ,charms ,talmud1 medicine in1 #di ,tamarinds1 introduction1 #aje1 #bah ,tansy1 origin1 #bb ,tapeworm remedy1 ,nouffer's1 #cbj2 ,kousso1 ii1 #aae ,tar water1 invention1 #caf2 opinions1 #cah ,tartar etymology1 #cgj preparations1 #cga1 #cgb ,tartaric acid1 discovery1 #bfh ,tartarised iron1 #djb ,tartarum tartarisatus1 #cgc ,tartarus1 mythical hell1 #cgj ,tartre ,stibi1 #chd ,tartre ,stygi1 #chd 8,tasteless ,ague ,drops10 ii1 #acc ,temperature1 doctrine of1 #ahj ,terra ,germanica1 ii1 #ed ,livonica1 ii1 #ee ,mellitea1 ii1 #ed ,portugallica1 ii1 #ed ,samia1 ii1 #ed ,sicula1 ii1 #ed ,sigillata1 ,galen on1 #bac2 ii1 #ec2 how prepared1 ii1 #ed2 uses1 ii1 #ed ,strigensis1 ii1 #ed ,terres damnes1 ii1 #bhc ,tetragonon1 #hg1 #cgf ,tetrapharmacum1 #caj ,theine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdh ,themison1 ,roman physician1 #ij2 uses leeches1 ii1 #aci2 ,hiera1 ii1 #aci ,thnard1 ,french chemist1 #bhb ,theriaca1 medical uses1 #aca2 absurdities1 #bij2 origin1 #bib2 formul1 ii1 #ch1 #ci2 invention1 ii1 #db2 virtues1 ii1 #dc2 history1 ii1 #dh2 ceremony1 ii1 #dd1 ii1 #de1 ii1 #df1 ii1 #df2 esteemed1 ii1 #dg2 as poison antidote1 ii1 #bba ,theriakon1 ,andromachus's1 #ij ,thistles as remedy1 #ahd ,thoth1 inventor of medicine1 #d1 #ch2 ii1 #cje blood1 #ce ,thurneyssen's 8,magistery of the ,sun10 #cij ,thus1 derivation1 #ef ,thuti1 ,see ,thoth ,thymiana1 meaning1 #ee ,tilly's ,dutch ,drops1 ii1 #agf ,tin as vermifuge1 #dbd2 medical compounds1 #dbd2 symbol1 ii1 #cjg1 ii1 #caj oxide as nail polish1 #dbf salts1 used by ,paracelsus1 #bde ,tinctura ,aloes ,co41 origin1 ii1 #eg ,benzoin ,co41 origin1 ii1 #ace ,lavandul ,co41 origin1 ii1 #adf ,lun1 #dbc ,tinctura ,metallorum1 #bdd solis1 etc41 #cij ,tonica ,nervina ,bestucheffi1 #cba1 #cbb1 #djd ,tisanes1 ii1 #bii ,tofano1 poisoner1 ii1 #bce ,tooth-ache1 early remedy1 #acj cause1 #afh charms1 #afa1 #afh ,tooth-extraction1 ansthetics in1 ii1 #bdi ,toxicology1 rise of1 ii1 #bdj ,tranquille1 note on1 ii1 #age ,traumatic ,balsam1 ii1 #ace ,trefoil as remedy1 #ahd ,trismegistus1 ,hermes's surname1 #e 8,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony10 #bbd ,troches1 etymology1 ii1 #bii ,trochiscus trigonus1 #hg ,tsora1 meaning1 #ec ,turbith mineral1 ,paracelsus uses1 #bdc2 why so called1 #dag ,turlington's ,drops1 ii1 #ace ,turner's ,cerate1 origin1 ii1 #aeg2 formula1 ii1 #aeh ,turner1 ,dr41 note on1 ii1 #aeg2 publications1 ii1 #aeh ,turpentine as remedy1 #ej ,tutty1 ii1 #aei ,typhon's eye1 #ce ,u ,uisage-beatha1 old ,irish drink1 #cbi ,unguentum gyptiacum1 ii1 #eb ,arci1 ii1 #acc ,desiccativum ,rubrum1 ii1 #afj ,diapomphologos1 #djg1 #dbg2 ii1 #afj ,nutritum1 #djg2 ii1 #afj2 ii1 #bif ,refrigerans1 ii1 #fe2 ii1 #abg ,rosatum1 ii1 #afj ,saturninum1 #djg ,sympatheticum1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aij ,tetrapharmacum1 ii1 #bhb ,tripharmacum1 #djf ,ungius odorata1 #eg ,unicorn1 ,biblical references1 #bi2 in ,royal ,arms1 #cj2 ,shakespearian references1 #cj2 ,scottish pound1 #cj2 ,apothecary's sign1 #ca ,unicorn's horn1 #bi1 #cj 8,universal medicine10 ,geber's claim1 #ajf 8,universal panacea10 #dad 8,universal remedy10 #acb1 #cgd 8,universal solvent10 ,glauber's1 #bfd ,urus1 identity1 #bi ,usquebagh1 ii1 #fe ,v ,valenciennes1 naturalist1 #bhb ,valency1 theory1 ii1 #bfj ,valentine1 ,basil1 #aha1 #bbd2 portrait1 #bbe2 identity1 #bbh2 works1 #bbh ,valangin's solution1 ii1 #ace ,van ,helmont on weapon salve1 #aia2 biography1 #beg2 portrait1 #beh2 contracts itch1 #beh2 discovers carbonic acid1 #bei2 physiology1 #bfj2 employs alum1 #cca ,van ,swieten's solution1 #dba2 ansthetic story1 ii1 #bed ,vauquelin1 biography1 #bga2 portrait1 #bgb2 discovers narcotine1 ii1 #bdd2 discovers daphnine and nicotine1 ii1 #bde ,vegetable ethiops1 #cea vitriol1 #cge 8,vegeto-,mineral ,water10 ,goulard's #bfe ,venice treacle4 ,see ,theriaca ,venom antidotes1 ,arabian1 #aab2 ii1 #bci ,venus uses dittany1 #bf ,veratrine1 discovery1 ii1 #bdh ,vervain1 #ce2 used by ,saxons1 #abf ,verdigris ointment1 #af2 ii1 #eb ,vigo1 ,john de1 biography1 #daj2 plaster1 #daa ,vinegar1 ,biblical references1 #fd1 #fe1 #ga ,vinum ,millepedarum1 ii1 #aa ,vipers1 medicinal uses1 #ij2 ii1 #ai2 ,charas on1 #bhj2 ii1 #bj2 de ,svign on1 ii1 #ba2 ,quincy on1 ii1 #bb2 preparations1 ii1 #bb ,vis ,coriaria1 ii1 #bdf ,vitriol1 early use1 #cgb2 kinds1 #cgc2 etymology1 #cgc2 medical uses1 #cgc1 #cih2 preparations1 #cgd2 symbols1 ii1 #cji4 ,see also ,oil of ,vitriol and ,spirit of ,vitriol ,vitriol of ,mars1 #cgc ,venus1 #cgc2 ii1 #caa ,vitriolated tartar1 #cga ,vitriolum ,camphoratum1 #cgd ,vocabulary1 pharmaceutical1 ii1 #bgh 8,volatile gold10 #cif ,vulnerarii1 #ib ,w ,walnuts as remedy1 #ahe ,want's ,tincture of ,colchicum1 ii1 #ahf ,warburg1 ,dr4 ,carl1 biography1 ii1 #bjf2 poverty1 ii1 #bjg ,warburg's ,tincture1 history1 ii1 #bjf2 formula1 ii1 #bjg ,ward1 ,joshua1 biography1 ii1 #bjh2 portrait1 ii1 #bji2 recipes1 ii1 #baa1 #bac ,ward's paste1 ii1 #fg ,warts1 remedies1 #afi transferring1 #agj1 #agb4 ,see also ,wort-cunning ,watercress1 medical use1 #abe ,weapon salve4 ,see ,sympathetic ,ointment ,weights1 ancient1 #dd1 #ei signs for1 ii1 #cjj ,wellcome ,research ,laboratory 7,khartoum71 #afb ,wells1 ,h41 uses nitrous oxide gas1 ii1 #bdi2 portrait1 ii1 #bej ,whisky1 early use1 #cbi ,white lead ointment1 #bhh1 #djf ,white vitriol1 #cgc1 #dbf ,whitworth doctors1 ii1 #bae2 cures1 ii1 #baf ,whooping-cough1 transferring1 #agj ,wiener1 ,frank1 ii1 #aba ,willis1 ,dr41 portrait1 #dja ,willis's ,preparation of ,steel1 #djj1 #dja ,witches' powers1 #aga ,withering1 ,dr4 ,w41 biography1 ii1 #aaj2 on digitalis1 ii1 #aaj ,wohler's discovery1 ii1 #beg2 portrait1 ii1 #beh 8,wolf of ,metals10 #cgi ,wondreton1 poisoner1 ii1 #bbg ,woodcock's ,wind ,pills1 ii1 #afg ,wool fat used by ,dioscorides1 #baj ,words1 origin of1 #cc ,worms1 early remedy1 #db1 #dc1 #bde ,wormwood1 ,biblical reference1 #fd ,wort-cunning1 ,saxon1 #abd ,wound ,balsam1 ii1 #ace ,writing1 invention1 #d ,z ,zebethum ,occidentale1 ii1 #i ,zinc1 early references1 #dbf2 alloys1 #dbf2 composition1 #dbg2 preparations1 #dbg2 symbol1 ii1 #cji oxide1 synonyms1 #dbg sulphate4 ,see ,white ,vitriol ,zoroaster1 inventor of medicine1 #f1 #aeg ,r4 ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,bread ,,st4 ,,hill1 ,e4,c41 ,,and ,,bungay1 ,,suffolk4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the historical part of ,dr4 ,tschirch's great work on ,pharmakognosie is in course of publication while the proofs of this book are being read4 ,it promises to be very thorough and modern in regard to drugs4 #b ,labdanum or ladanum is a resinous substance which exudes from the leaves and branches of a shrub found in the ,isle of ,candy--,cistus creticus of ,linnus4 ,it was formerly collected by combing the beards of goats which fed on these leaves4 ,a commoner kind was brought from ,spain4 ,it was an ingredient in an anti-hysteric nerve cordial called ,theriaque ,cleste4 ,it was also combined in a plaster designed to cure rupture4 #c ,the footman story is also told of the owner of ,murray's ,specific for ,gout1 of whom it was probably true4 #d ,synthetic cocaine and other artificial alkaloids differ from the natural products only in being without action on polarised light4 #e ,john ,lydgate1 a monk of ,bury1 born #acgj1 left some amusing poems1 very valuable on account of the insight they give into the customs of his period4 ,one of them is an application to the ,duke of ,gloucester for money4 ,lydgate says he is dressed in black 8'cause my purs was falle in grete rerage02 while his 8guttes were out shake1 ,only for lak of plate and coyngnage40 ,so he 8sought lechis for a restauratif1 ,in whom ,i fonde no consolacione1 ,to a poticary for confortatyf1 ,drugge nor dya was none in ,bury towne40 ,transcriber's ,note3 #a4 ,obvious printers'1 spelling and punctuation errors have been silently corrected4 #b4 ,errata have been silently corrected4 #c4 ,some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been retained as in the original4 #d4 ,italics are shown as xxx4 #e4 ,subscripts are represented with underscore and brackets1 e4g4 ,,ch#d for methane4