,transcrib]'s ,notes3    ,und]scores 80 
be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate     
italics  9 ! orig9al text4 ,equal signs 
80 be=e & aft] a ^w or  phrase indicate 
bold 9 ! orig9al text4 ,small capitals h
 be5  conv]t$ to ,,solid capitals4      
,illu/rations h be5 mov$ s !y d  n break
 up p>agraphs4 ,typographical &         
punctuation errors h be5  sil5tly       
correct$4                               
,,! ,,book ,,( ,,/>s                    
,by ,a4 ,fr$]ick ,coll9s                
,! ,book ( ,wireless                    
,! ,book ( ,/>s                         
,! ,book ( ,magic                       
,! ,book ( ,electricity                 
,gas1 ,gasol9e & ,oil ,eng9es           
,! ,amateur ,*emi/                      
,! ,amateur ,me*anic                    
,h[ to ,fly                             
,! ,home ,h&y ,book                     
,keep+ ,up ) ,y\r ,motor ,c>            
,motor ,c> ,/>t+ & ,light+              
,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company            
,publi%]s      ,new ,york               

,,! ,,book ,,( ,,/>s                    
,,be+ ,a ,,simple ,,explanation ,,( ,,! 
,,/>s                        ,,& ,,_!   
,,uses ,,to ,,boy ,,life                
,,writt5 ,,to ,,con=m ,,to ,,! ,,te/s   
,,( ,,! ,,boy ,,sc\ts                   
,,by                           ,a4      
,,fr$]ick ,,coll9s               8,,!   
,,book ,,( ,,wireless02 8,,! ,,book ,,( 
,,magic10 ,,etc4                        
,illu/ration                            
,,fully ,,illu/rat$                     
,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company            
,,new ,,york      ,,london              
#aibj                                   
,,copyright1 #aiae1 #aibj1 ,,by         
,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company            
,pr9t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica      
,,to ,,! ,,burnhams                     
,,) ,,pleasant ,,memories ,,(           
,,m\nt ,,hamilton ,,nights          ,a  
,,^w ,,to ,,y      ,! />s are ! fri5ds (
 ev]yone :o kn[s !m4    ,if y h nev]    
/ood out 9 ! op5 & wat*$ ! />s on a     
cle> night1 y h miss$ ! mo/ wond]ful    

sight to be se5 f  ?is little old mud   
ball ( ours1 & my advice to y is n to   
let  ano!r night g by )\t mak+ fri5ds ) 
! />s4    ,by ! />s ,i mean ev]y?+ 9 !  
f> (f sky t we c see1 &  ?is includes ! 
:ite hot po9ts ( light we call ! fix$   
/>s1  ! blaz+ sun1 ! bright planets1 !  
pale1 cold moon1 ! fi]y  comets & !     
burn+ meteors4    ,all ( ^! ?+s 9 ! sky 
are s easily ours to look at1 to enjoy  
& to use1 t we are apt n to take !m at  
_! true value1 j  z _m ( u d n          
appreciate to ! fulle/ ! gre5 grass1 !  
trees1 ! birds & all ! o!r good ?+s we h
 )\t price4    ,y may wond] h[ y c make 
any use ( ! />s1 b !re are  doz5s ( ways
 by :i* !y w s]ve y\r purpose1 f f9d+  !
 nor? to light+ a fire1 & f tell+ ! "t  
to s5d+ a  signal1 & !y are all easy to 
y :5 y "k h[4    ,all ! app>atus y ne$ s
 t y c "k ! />s is a pair (  good1 %>p  
eyes1 & if y are fitt$ ) ^! y are ready 
to  beg9 y\r "w 9 />craft ?is v night4  
,a great _m folks believe t !y mu/ h a  
telescope ) :i*  to see ! />s1 & :ile1 (

 c\rse1 a great deal m c be se5  ) a    
telescope ?an )\t "o1 /ill x mu/ be     
rememb]$ t  ! telescope 0 inv5t$ n long]
 ?an f\r hundr$ ye>s ago &  t _m        
important discov]ies 9 a/ronomy 7 made  
long be=e !  telescope 0 inv5t$4 ,&1 by 
! way1 x 0 a boy :o inv5t$ !  telescope4
    ,a small telescope1 or a pair (     
field or op]a glasses1 w %[ y  _m ?+s 9 
! sky :i* y _c see ) ! nak$ eye1 & if  y
 h "o ( ^! in/rum5ts1 by all means use  
x4 ,on ! o!r  h&1 y c get along v well  
)\t a glass ( any k9d until y  h le>n$ !
 ?+s t are set d[n 9 ?is book4    ,to w9
 a m]it badge 9 ! organization ( ,boy   
,sc\ts1 a boy mu/  pass c]ta9 te/s2 b x 
is j z necess>y = y to "k !  />s z x is 
= a ,boy ,sc\t1 & ?is book is s writt5 t
 anyone  :o /udies x c pass ! ,boy ,sc\t
 te/s1 & !re are a few o!r  ?+s 9 x :i* 
ev]yone %\ld "k4    ,once t y h an      
insight into />craft1 y w nev] ne$ to be
  told aga9 h[ v int]e/+ & useful ! />s 
are1 & once t  y h ma/]$ ! *ief po9ts 9 
?is book1 y %\ld make or  buy a         

telescope hav+ a two-or ?ree-in*        
objective & get a little  clos] to !    
/>s4    ,if any que/ions %\ld come up   
:i* y don't und]/&1 if y w  write to me1
 ,i w write to y4        ,a4 ,,fr$]ick  
,,coll9s4    8,,! ,,antl]s10 ,cong]s1   
,n4 ,y4          ,,cont5ts              
,,*apt]      ,,page           ,i4 ,,h[  
,,to ,,f9d ,,! ,,nor? ,,/>              
#a        ,,ii4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,"k ,,! ,,/>s
                  #ad       ,,iii4 ,,!  
,,sun1 ,,! ,,brighte/ ,,( ,,all ,,/>s   
#bi        ,,iv4 ,,! ,,planets1 ,,!     
,,sun',s ,,kiddies         #df          
,v4 ,,"m ,,e>?1 ,,old ,,adam',s ,,planet
        #ff        ,,vi4 ,,! ,,moon1 ,,!
 ,,e>?',s ,,daught]         #hi         
,,vii4 ,,o!r ,,?+s ,,9 ,,! ,,sky        
#ajg      ,,viii4 ,,see+ ,,! ,,/>s      
#aba        ,,ix4 ,,! ,,spyglass ,,or   
,,telescope             #acf         ,x4
 ,,! ,,"t ,o' ,,day                     
#aea        ,,xi4 ,,! ,,/>s ,,( ,,!     
,,zodiac               #aff       ,,xii4
 ,,valuable ,,in=mation                 

#ahe            ,,app5dices             
#aic            ,,def9itions ,,( ,,"s   
,,words ,,& ,,t]ms   #bac               
,,index                                 
#bba          ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations  
,,fig4                                  
,,page        #a4--,/>bo>d %[+ cleats   
#b        #b4--;,c>dbo>d />             
#b        #c4--,! ,nor? ,/> & ,big      
,dipp] on />bo>d                  #c    
#d4--;,f9d+ ! ,nor? ,/> & ! ,big ,dipp] 
#d        #e4--,l9e = sight+ ! ,nor? ,/>
                            #e          
#f4--,! ,big ,dipp] z we see x          
#f        #g4--,! ,great ,be> z !       
anci5ts saw x                       #f  
#h4--,! ,e>?1 ,pole ,/> & ,dog ,/>      
#g        #i4--,! ,nor? ,/> & ,big      
,dipp] 9 w9t]                     #i    
#aj4--,! ,nor? ,/> & ,big ,dipp] 9 spr+ 
#aj       #aa4--,! ,nor? ,/> & ,big     
,dipp] 9 summ]                    #aa   
#ab4--,tell+ "t by ! ,big ,dipp]        
#ab       #ac4--;,con/ellation (        
,cassiopeia                             

#ae       #ad4--;,cassiopeia z ! ,arabs 
saw h]                            #af   
#ae4--,! ,little ,dipp] or ,little ,be> 
#af       #af4--,! ,little ,dipp] made  
into a ,little ,be>                  #ag
       #ag4--,! ,great ,squ>e ( ,pegasus
                                #ah     
#ah4--;,hold+ ! *>t ( ,pegasus ov]head  
#ai       #ai4--,! ,fly+ ,horse (       
,pegasus                                
#bj       #bj4--;,figure ( a trapezium  
#bj       #ba4--;,con/ellation ( ,orion 
#ba       #bb4--,orion ! ,mighty ,hunt] 
#bb       #bc4--;,con/ellation ( ,auriga
                                    #bc 
#bd4--;,auriga ! ,%eph]d                
#bd       #be4--;,con/ellation ( ,taurus
                                    #be 
#bf4--,taurus ! ,bull                   
#bf       #bg4--,/> map %[+ a "p ( ! sky
                         #bg            
#bh4--,smok+ glasses ov] c&le flame     
#bi       #bi4--,see+ ! sun ?r\gh smok$ 
glasses                      #cj        
#cj4--;,a c&le flame %[+ lay]s ( flame  

#ca       #ca4--,! sun z se5 ) a field  
glass                         #cb       
#cb4--,prom95ces ( ! sun comp>$ ) ! size
 ( ! e>? #cc       #cc4--;,cross section
 ( ! sun                                
#cd       #cd4--,sun spot 9 ,photosph]e 
#ce       #ce4--;,b>omet] tube          
#cf       #cf4--;,b>omet] complete      
#cf       #cg4--;,boy focuss+ burn+     
glass on leaves to make fire         #ch
       #ch4--;,boy s5d+ fla% signal )   
mirror                       #ci        
#ci4--;,cont95tal ,morse ,code          
#ci       #dj4--;,base = heliograph     
#dj       #da4--;,back view ( heliograph
                                    #dj 
#db4--,top view ( heliograph            
#da       #dc4--,side view ( heliograph 
#da       #dd4--;,heliograph complete   
#db       #de4--,numb]$ /rip = sundial  
#dc       #df4--,t9 r+ = sundial        
#dc       #dg4--;,brass semi-circle )   
%ad[ wire                         #dd   
#dh4--,sundial complete                 
#dd       #di4--,to f9d ! ,nor? by a    

wat*                               #de  
#ej4--;,a /> & a planet 9 a telescope   
#df       #ea4--,sizes ( planets comp>$ 
#dh       #eb4--,?ree views ( ,m]cury   
#di       #ec4--,m>s z se5 ?r\gh a      
telescope                           #di 
#ed4--,?ree views ( ,v5us               
#ej       #ee4--,! e>?                  
#ea       #ef4--;,jupit]                
#ea       #eg4--,saturn                 
#eb       #eh4--,uranus                 
#ec       #ei4--,neptune                
#ec       #fj4--,m>bles on top ( table  
#ed       #fa4--,top view ( sol> sy/em  
#ee       #fb4--,sol> sy/em 9 p]spective
                                #ef     
#fc4--;,egg %ell on plate               
#eg       #fd4--;,boy ?r[+ /one to      
illu/rate c5trifugal =ce         #eh    
#fe4--;,iron ball p5dulum sw++ 9 a plane
                     #ei                
#ff4--;,iron ball p5dulum sw++ 9 curv$  
l9e                 #fj       #fg4--,map
 ( />s on sun's pa?                     
#fb       #fh4--;,diagram ( position (  

con/ellations                      #fc  
#fi4--,plott+ position ( planet         
#fd       #gj4--;,cross section ( ! e>? 
#fg       #ga4--,sails ( %ip c be se5   
aft] hull has disappe>$       #fg       
#gb4--,sail+ r\nd ! e>?                 
#fh       #gc4--,! e>? moves "u ! sw++  
p5dulum                #fi              
#gd4--;,if ! e>?'s equator 7 9 a l9e ) !
 sun         #gj       #ge4--,! e>?     
tilt$ on its axis                       
#gj       #gf4--,light 9 room to        
repres5t sun                            
#ga       #gg4--,top sp9n+ on plate     
#gb       #gh4--;,circle ar\nd c&le m>k$
 ) seasons                   #gc        
#gi4--;,apple to repres5t e>? susp5d$ 9 
air                  #gd                
#hj4--,position ( ! e>? & sun 9 autumn  
#gd       #ha4--,position ( ! e>? & sun 
9 w9t]                    #gd           
#hb4--,position ( ! e>? & sun 9 spr+    
#gd       #hc4--,position ( ! e>? & sun 
9 summ]                    #ge          
#hd4--;,cycle ( seasons                 

#ge       #he4--,l9es ( =ce ?r\gh &     
ar\nd a magnet                 #gf      
#hf4--,l9es ( =ce ar\nd ! e>?           
#gg       #hg4--,wat* spr+ ne$le =      
compass                            #gg  
#hh4--;,compass complete                
#gg       #hi4--,pocket wat*-case       
compass                                 
#gh       #ij4--;,dial ( m>9]s' compass 
#gh       #ia4--,ne$le = dipp+ ne$le    
#hj       #ib4--;,dipp+ ne$le complete  
#hj       #ic4--,protractor %[+ degrees 
#ha       #id4--;,e>? surface divid$    
into degrees                         #ha
       #ie4--,protractor set by dipp+   
ne$le %[+ latitude          #hb         
#if4--,two /icks screw$ toge!r          
#hc       #ig4--,two /icks across bucket
 ( wat]                          #hc    
#ih4--,protractor & /icks on draw+ pap] 
#hd       #ii4--,sextant 9 use4 ,%oot+ !
 sun                           #he      
#ajj4--,%ad[s at ! ,nor? ,pole          
#hg      #aja4--,moon & e>? jo9$ toge!r 
l a dumbbell             #hi            

#ajb4--;,balls connect$ ) an ela/ic     
#ij      #ajc4--,map %[+ ,pacific ,ocean
                                  #ij   
#ajd4--;,imitat+ ! volcanoes 9 ! moon   
#ia      #aje4--,real volcanoes         
#ib      #ajf4--,nak$ eye draw+ ( full  
moon                             #ic    
#ajg4--;,exp]im5t %[+ h[ "o revolution (
 ! moon            r\nd ! e>? makes x   
turn once r\nd its axis          #id    
#ajh4--;,apple cut to %[ cresc5t        
#ie      #aji4--;,diagram %[+ h[ !      
moon's phases are made             #if  
#aaj4--;,diagram ( ! moon's phases z we 
see !m                #ig               
#aaa4--;,boy1 lamp & orange %[+ phases (
 moon                #ii                
#aab4--;,attraction ( ! moon causes !   
tides                   #ajj            
#aac4--;,h[ spr+ tides are =m$          
#aja      #aad4--;,h[ spr+ tides are =m$
                               #aja     
#aae4--;,h[ neap tides are =m$          
#ajb      #aaf4--;,h[ neap tides are =m$
                                 #ajc   

#aag4--,view ( ! e>? f ! moon           
#ajd      #aah4--,tell+ "t by ! moon    
#aje      #aai4--;,eclipse ( ! moon by !
 e>? 7exp]im5t7             #ajg        
#abj4--,moon eclips$ by ! e>? 7diagram7 
#ajh      #aba4--,! moon z se5 :5 9     
p>tial eclipse                  #ajh    
#abb4--;,eclipse ( ! sun by ! moon      
7exp]im5t7               #aji           
#abc4--,! sun eclips$ by ! moon         
7diagram7                    #aji       
#abd4--,total eclipse ( ! sun1 %[+ pa? (
 ! sun         #aaj      #abe4--,total  
eclipse ( ! sun1 f photo                
#aaa      #abf4--;,annul> eclipse ( !   
sun                                #aaa 
#abg4--,p>tial eclipse ( ! sun          
#aaa      #abh4--;,comet %[+ ,nucleus1  
,coma & tail                      #aac  
#abi4--;,an ellipse1 p>abola & hyp]bola 
#aac      #acj4--;,head & tail ( comet d
 n obey ! same laws          #aad       
#aca4--;,halley's comet1 f photo        
#aae      #acb4--,meteorite ( iron et*$ 
) acid                        #aaf      

#acc4--,! ,milky ,way                   
#aag      #acd4--;,diff]5t =ms ( nebul  
#aai      #ace4--,ripples or waves on   
wat]                                    
#abd      #acf4--,vibration ( a bell    
#abe      #acg4--,s\nd waves 9 ! air set
 up by bell                     #abf    
#ach4--,waves 9 ! e!r                   
#abg      #aci4--;,=m+ an image ) a l5s 
#abh      #adj4--,! human eye           
#abh      #ada4--,light reflect$ by an  
apple                               #acb
      #adb4--,light reflect$4 ,spoon 9  
glass ( wat]                  #acb      
#adc4--;,h[ light is reflect$           
#acc      #add4--,prism                 
#acc      #ade4--,prism =m+ a spectrum  
#acd      #adf4--;,convex l5s           
#acd      #adg4--;,concave l5s          
#ace      #adh4--,lipp]hey's boy        
discov]s telescope                      
#acg      #adi4--;,disk ( c>dbo>d =     
p9hole telescope                   #ach 
#aej4--;,cross section ( p9hole         
telescope                        #ach   

#aea4--,! telescope 7,galileo7          
#aci      #aeb4--,op]a glasses          
#adj      #aec4--,pa/ebo>d m\nt+ ( l5s  
#adj      #aed4--,pa/ebo>d l5s m\nt+    
#ada      #aee4--,op]a glass telescope4 
,cross section                      #ada
      #aef4--,telescope4 ,cross section 
view                             #adb   
#aeg4--,magnify+ p[] ( telescope        
#adc      #aeh4--;,full view ( moon     
#ade      #aei4--;,glass globe crack$   
#adf      #afj4--,map ( ! moon          
#adg      #afa4--,! moon girl           
#adg      #afb4--;,diagram %[+ h[ to f9d
 sol> noon                    #aec      
#afc4--;,circle divid$ into #cfj degrees
 & #bd h\rs              #aeg           
#afd4--,! e>? divid$ into #bd /&>d      
m]idians              #aeh              
#afe4--,/&>d "t m]idians 9 ,u4 ,s4      
#aei      #aff4--,/&>d "t at diff]5t    
cities                         #afa     
#afg4--,rul$ glass 9 transit in/rum5t   
#afb      #afh4--,! "t ball             
#afd      #afi4--,receiv+ "t signals by 

wireless                        #afe    
#agj4--,! zodiac z inv5t$ by ! anci5ts  
#afg      #aga4--,! zodiac z we "k x    
today                            #afg   
#agb4--;,con/ellations & signs ( !      
zodiac                    #agj          
#agc4--;,c>dbo>d zodiac                 
#aga      #agd4--;,con/ellations (      
zodiac 9 circle                         
#agb      #age4--;,con/ellations (      
,aries ! ,ram                           
#agd      #agf4--;,con/ellations ( !    
,lion & ,big ,dipp]                 #agg
      #agg4--;,con/ellations ( ,virgo ! 
,virg9                        #agi      
#agh4--,libra1 ,lion1 ,scorpio1 ,virgo  
#agi      #agi4--,lyra1 ,aquila1        
,capricornus                            
#aha      #ahj4--;,cam]a po9t+ to ,nor? 
,/>                             #ahf    
#aha4--,/> trails                       
#ahg      #ahb4--;,boy look+ ?r\gh prism
 at slit 9 c>dbo>d            #ahi      
#ahc4--;,fraunh(]'s l9es                
#aij      #ahd4--,! spectroscope        

#aia      #ahe4--;,geometrical figures  
#aie      #ahf4--,kullm] /> f9d]        
#bji          ,,! ,,book ,,( ,,! ,,/>s  
,,*apt] ,i    ,,h[ ,,to ,,f9d ,,! ,,nor?
 ,,/>      ,if y want to "k some?+ ab\t 
! />s :i* w be helpful z  well z        
ent]ta9+1 ! fir/ ?+ y %\ld d is to be   
able to  f9d ! ,nor? ,/>4    ,! ,nor?   
,/> is tak5 z a />t+ po9t 9 ! sky = two 
v  good reasons3 fir/1 ( all ! ?\s&s (  
/>s :i* ! eye c  see1 x moves ! lea/2 & 
second1 x is nor? f any place on  !     
,e>?'s surface f :i* x c be se54    ,x  
mu/ be pla9 !n t ?is /> is ! mo/        
important "o ( all  to u1 = by its      
fri5dly light we c easily tell ! po9ts (
 !  compass1 ?\gh we may be lo/ 9 an    
unkn[n l& or %ipwreck$ on a  /range sea4
 ,t is1 ( c\rse1 we c easily f9d ! po9ts
 ( !  compass if we h fir/ le>n$ h[ to  
f9d ! ,nor? ,/>4    ,h[ to ,make a ,/>  
,f9d]4--,to f9d ! ,nor? ,/> = ! fir/ "t 
is a v easy matt] if ! simple directions
 giv5 bel[ = mak+  & us+ a /> *>t1 or />
 f9d]1 are foll[$4    ,get a smoo? p9e  

bo>d1 ab\t #af in*es wide1 #bj in*es    
long &   in* ?ick2 make two cleats (    
wood1 ea* ( :i* is #a in* wide1 #ab     
in*es long &  in* ?ick1 & screw ^! to ! 
bo>d ne> !  ends & on ! same side1 to   
prev5t ! bo>d f w>p+1 z %[n  9 ,fig4 #a4
 ,if a draw+ bo>d ( any size is at h&1 x
 w s]ve !  purpose j z well z a homemade
 bo>d4    ,! next ?+ to d is to obta9 a 
%eet ( c>dbo>d ab\t #ab by #af  in*es & 
cov] "o side ( x ) a dull black pa9t2 :5
 ! pa9t  is ?or\ghly dry lay x1 black   
side up1 on ! smoo? side ( !  bo>d4     
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,/>bo>d ,,%[+
 ,,cleats4    ,f ano!r %eet ( :ite      
c>dbo>d cut out sev5 />s1 ab\t !  size &
 %ape %[n 9 ,fig4 #b1 & cut out ano!r />
 ne>ly twice  z l>ge1 to repres5t !     
,nor? ,/>4    ,n[ place ! :ite />s on ! 
black surface ( ! c>dbo>d 9 !  positions
 %[n 9 ,fig4 #c1 us+ ! small] />s to =m 
! outl9e  ( ! ,big ,dipp] & ! l>ge /> = 
! ,nor? ,/>4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4    
#b4--;,,c>dbo>d ,,/>4    ,:5 all ( ! />s
 h be5 prop]ly arrang$1 fa/5 !m to !    

black c>dbo>d ) a bit ( glue or         
mucilage4 ,pu% a ?umb tack1 or  a p91   
?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! l>ge />1 :i* is ! ,nor?
 ,/>1  & well into ! bo>d1 s t ! *>t1 or
 /> map1 c be turn$  r\nd on ! bo>d ) ! 
,nor? ,/> z its axis4 ,:5 ?is is done   
y\r /> f9d] is complete4    ,f9d+ !     
,nor? ,/>4--,all be+ 9 read9ess1 take   
?is *>t1 or  /> f9d]1 out-(-doors "s    
ev5+ :5 ! see+ is good &  all ! />s 9 ! 
nor!rn sky are %9+ brightly1 & face ab\t
  nor?1 hold+ ! />bo>d 9 front ( y1 z   
%[n 9 ,fig4 #d4    ,usually ! direction 
( nor? is well kn[n1 & yet !re are "s   
places :]e ! /reets & roads d n run due 
nor? & s\?1  & = ?is reason x is        
sometimes h>d to tell exactly :i* way is
  nor?4 ,9 su* a place ei!r use a       
compass to get y\r be>+1 or1 if  y      
hav5't a compass1 face ab\t z ne>ly nor?
 z y "k h[4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4     
#c4--,,! ,,nor? ,,/> ,,& ,,big ,,dipp]  
,,on ,,/>bo>d4    7,position ( ,big     
,dipp] 9 ,autumn47    ,hav+ look$ at y\r
 /> *>t c>efully raise y\r eyes f !     

bo>d until !y are 9 a l9e ) ! nor!rn    
horizon1 t is1  ! l9e :]e ! e>? & ! sky 
seem to meet4 ,keep on rais+  y\r eyes 9
 a /raight l9e until !y rea* a gr\p (   
/>s1 :i*  is ab\t #dj degrees above !   
horizon4 7,see ,fig4 #ih47 ,! l9e =     
sight+ ! ,nor? ,/> is %[n 9 ,fig4 #e4   
,all ! />s ( ?is gr\p are v fa9t except 
"o & ?is  p>ticul> /> w /& out bright1  
di/9ct & alone1 = !  o!r two />s ( !    
same gr\p :i* c be pla9ly se5 are n  v  
close to x4 ,! /> y h f\nd is ! ,nor?   
,/>1 or ,pole  ,/>1 or to give x its    
prop] "n ,pol>is 7pron\nc$ ,po-la-ris74 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,f9d+ ,,!   
,,nor? ,,/> ,,& ,,! ,,big ,,dipp]4      
,to make sure y h n mi/ak5 "s o!r /> = !
 ,nor?  ,/> x w be a good idea to prove 
y\r f9d4 ,se>* ar\nd 9 !  nor!rn sky a  
little & y w see a gr\p ( sev5 bright   
/>s  fix$ 9 ! sky j z ! c>dbo>d />s are 
fix$ on ! black  surface ( y\r *>t1 &   
:i* are %[n 9 ,figs4 #d & #e4    ,! ,big
 ,dipp]4--,?is gr\p ( sev5 />s is call$ 
! ,big ,dipp]  because if a brok5 l9e   

jo9$ all ! />s toge!r a v good  figure (
 a big dipp] w\ld be =m$4 ,a gr\p ( />s 
is call$ a  con/ellation1 & ?is         
con/ellation is %[n z we see x 9 ,fig4  
#f1 & z ! anci5t %eph]ds & sailors      
pictur$ x 9 ,fig4 #g4    ,illu/ration3  
,,fig4 #e4--,,l9e ,,= ,,sight+ ,,!      
,,nor? ,,/>4    ,9 ,engl& ?is gr\p (    
/>s1 or con/ellation1 is sometimes call$
  ! ,pl\gh1 = our fri5ds across ! pond  
see 9 x ! lik5ess  ( a pl\gh z well z ( 
a dipp]4 ,x is also call$ ! ,great ,be> 
! _w ov] aft] ! anci5t "n giv5 x1 b x   
requires "s  /ret* ( ! imag9ation to    
lik5 x to t nubbly %ort-tail$  animal4  
,all ^! fancy names 7 giv5 ?is great    
gr\p ( />s long  be=e ! bir? ( ,*ri/ &  
by ^! names ! con/ellation is  /ill     
famili>ly call$4 ,a/ronom]s ( ! pres5t  
"t also call  ?is con/ellation ! ,great 
,be>1 b !y say x 9 ,lat9 & s  x becomes 
,ursa ,major1 :i* is a v high ton$ &    
s*ola/ic  s\nd+ ^w4 ,b ! ,big ,dipp] is 
a "n t is good en\gh = all  ord9>y      
purposes & s we'll use x4               

,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,! ,,big     
,,dipp] ,,z ,,we ,,see ,,x4    ,! />s   
=m+ ! ,big ,dipp] /& out s bright & cle>
 9 !  nor!rn sky t y won't h ! slighte/ 
tr\ble 9 f9d+ x1  especially if y h ! />
 f9d] at h& to help y4    ,9 us+ ! />   
f9d] !re is "o ?+ y %\ld keep well 9    
m9d & t is t ! ,big ,dipp] z we see x   
turns r\nd ! ,nor?  ,/>1 l ! h&s ( a    
clock1 b 9 ! opposite direction4 ,t  is1
 ! ,big ,dipp]1 :5 bel[ ! ,nor? ,/>1    
seems to turn r\nd  ! ,nor? ,/> f left  
to "r4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,! 
,,great ,,be> ,,z ,,! ,,anci5ts ,,saw   
,,x4    ,9 a ^w ! ,nor? ,/> =ms "o end (
 ! axis r\nd :i* n  only ! ,big ,dipp] b
 ! :ole />ry heav5s seem to revolve z   
?\gh !y 7 fa/5$ to ! spokes ( a great   
:eel4 ,?is is !  way x seems to u4 ,z a 
matt] ( fact1 ?\gh1 all ! />s are  fix$ 
9 _! positions 9 ! sky1 & ! reason !y   
seem to  revolve r\nd ! ,nor? ,/> is    
because ! ,e>? f :i* we see !  />s turns
 r\nd in/ead4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   
#h4--,,! ,,e>?1 ,,pole ,,/> ,,& ,,dog   

,,/>4    ,by look+ at ! draw+ %[n 9     
,fig4 #h1 x w be se5 t !  nor? pole (   
our ,e>? is directly "u ! ,nor?         
,/>1--h5ce !  "n ,pole ,/>--& t if we   
c\ld draw a l9e ?r\gh ! c5t] (  ! ,e>? f
 ! s\? pole to ! nor? pole & ext5d ! l9e
  f> en\gh1 or produce x z x is call$1 x
 w\ld f9ally meet !  ,nor? ,/>4    ,let 
u take1 n[1 ano!r />1 call$ ! ,dog      
,/>--its real "n  is ,sirius 7pron\nc$  
,sir-i-u7--:i* is n f> f a l9e )  &     
ov]head ( ! ,e>?'s equator2 suppose we  
are "s place on !  e>? :]e we c see bo? 
! ,nor? ,/> & ! ,dog ,/> at ! same  "t1 
& keep+ 9 m9d t ! ,e>? is turn+ r\nd on 
its axis2  x mu/ be pla91 !n1 t ?\gh bo?
 ( ^! />s are fix$ 9  ! sky & nev] *ange
 _! positions we on ! ,e>? w turn away  
f ! ,dog ,/> until ! ,e>? has turn$ half
 way r\nd1 b we  w n turn away f ! ,nor?
 ,/>4    ,! eye1 h[ev]1 is easily       
deceiv$2 = example1 if we are on a  mov+
 tra9 ne>by objects1 su* z h\ses1 trees1
 etc41 w seem to  be mov+ 9 ! opposite  
direction to :i* we are go+ :ile we seem

  to be /&+ p]fectly /ill4 ,! illusion  
is mu* m complete :5  we are see+ ! />s1
 = ! motion ( ! ,e>? z x sp9s on its    
axis & %oots r\nd ! ,sun 9 its orbit is 
s /eady t we _c  notice x2 = ?is reason 
x seems z if x is ! />s :i* are  mov+ & 
t we are /&+ /ill4    ,x is easy to     
und]/& n[ :y ! ,big ,dipp]1 & all ! o!r 
/>s1 seem to move 9 great circles r\nd !
 ,nor? ,/> z well z  :y ! ,big ,dipp]   
m>k$ ) c>dbo>d />s on y\r *>t may n  h !
 same relative position to ! horizon z !
 ,big ,dipp] (  real />s 9 ! nor!rn sky1
 :5 y view !m toge!r z 9 ,fig4  #d4     
,n only does ! revolution ( ! ,e>? on   
its own axis once 9 e  #bd h\rs cause ! 
,big ,dipp] to seem to turn r\nd ! ,nor?
 ,/>1 b  ! ye>ly j\rney ( ! ,e>? r\nd ! 
,sun makes a *ange 9 !  position ( !    
,big ,dipp] z we see x at diff]5t       
seasons ( !  ye>4 ,& :at has be5 said   
ab\t ! ,big ,dipp] is j z true (  all ! 
o!r con/ellations4    ,= ^! reasons we  
w\ld ne$ an almanac to help u keep track
 (  ! exact h\r :5 ! ,big ,dipp] w\ld be

 9 a giv5 position =  e night 9 ! ye>4  
,b y c always f9d ! ,big ,dipp] any     
ev5+ 9 autumn ab\t n9e o'clock1 by      
rememb]+ t x is turn$  "r side up z %[n 
9 ,figs4 #c & #d4 ,aga91 if y look = !  
,big  ,dipp] 9 w9t] at ab\t n9e o'clock 
9 ! ev5+ y w f9d x  /&+ on its h&le a   
little to ! ea/ z 9 ,fig4 #i4 ,9 spr+   
ab\t #i o'clock1 x w h mov$ on r\nd !   
,nor? ,/> until x is  upside d[n1 z 9   
,fig4 #aj1 :ile 9 summ]1 at #i1 x is    
hung up by its  h&le high 9 ! sky1 z %[n
 9 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! f\r positions ( !  ,big
 ,dipp] dur+ ! same h\rs ( ! diff]5t    
seasons are %[n 9  ,fig4 #ab1 :i* also  
%[s ! f\r positions ( ! ,big ,dipp] dur+
  ea* #bd h\rs4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 
#i4--,,! ,,nor? ,,/> ,,& ,,big ,,dipp]  
,,9 ,,w9t]4    ,by turn+ ! *>t r\nd on !
 bo>d c\nt]-clockwise y w  soon come to 
a po9t :]e ! ,big ,dipp] ( pap] />s & ! 
,big  ,dipp] ( real />s are 9 exactly ! 
same position4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4  
#aj4--,,! ,,nor? ,,/> ,,& ,,big ,,dipp] 
,,9 ,,spr+4    ,y h1 no d\bt1 notic$ t a

 l9e jo9s ! two end />s ( !  ,big ,dipp]
 & ! ,nor? ,/> 9 ,figs4 #c1 #d1 #aj1 &  
#aa4 ,^! two end  />s ( ! ,big ,dipp]   
are call$ po9t] />s1 = !y po9t  directly
 to ! ,nor? ,/>2 t is if we draw a l9e )
 ! eye  ?r\gh ! po9t] />s & produce1 or 
cont9ue ! l9e1 x w  run into ! ,nor?    
,/>1 ne>ly4    ,by us+ ^! po9t] />s x is
 easy = any "o :o kn[s ! ,big  ,dipp] to
 be able to f9d ! ,nor? ,/> on any cle> 
night 9 !  ye>1 = ! ,big ,dipp] c be se5
 ! ye> r\nd4    ,! sev5 />s :i* =m !    
,big ,dipp] are n ! brighte/ />s  9 !   
sky by any means1 yet ea* "o is a great 
:ite sun z l>ge or  l>g] ?an our own    
,sun4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,! 
,,nor? ,,/> ,,& ,,big ,,dipp] ,,9       
,,summ]4    ,n[ look %>ply at ! middle  
/> 9 ! h&le ( ! ,big ,dipp]1  ^: "n is  
,miz> 7pron\nc$ ,me-z>71 & see if y c   
make out  ano!r little /> ^: "n is      
,alcor 7pron\nc$ ,al-cor7 hugg+  up     
close to x4 ,! ,arabs :o nam$ !m call$  
^! two />s !  ,horse & its ,rid]4 ,if y 
c see ?is little /> ,alcor y  w h cause 

to %ake h&s ) y\rself1 = if y\r eyes are
 good  y c see x & if !y are only fair  
to middl+ y _c see x4  ,?is is "o ( !   
fam\s ,arab te/s = eyesight4            
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,tell+ ,,"t 
,,by ,,! ,,big ,,dipp]4    ,h[ to ,tell 
,"t by ! ,big ,dipp]4--,we h se5 h[ !   
,big ,dipp]  seems to turn r\nd ! ,nor? 
,/> & ?is be+ ! case we c use  ! po9t]  
/>s = ! h\r h& ( a big /> clock4    ,y  
mu/ always be> 9 m9d1 ?\gh1 t :ile ! h&s
 ( a clock  turn f "r to left1 ! ,big   
,dipp] sw+s r\nd f left to  "r2 & !re is
 ano!r ?+ to be kept 9 m9d & t is :ile  
! h\r h& ( a clock goes twice r\nd 9 #bd
 h\rs1 ! ,big ,dipp]  revolves only once
 9 #bd h\rs1 & = ?is reason ! h& =m$ by 
! po9t] />s ( ! ,big ,dipp] moves only  
half z fa/ z ! h\r  h& ( a wat* or      
clock4    ,ea* qu>t] ( ! circle1 !n1 is 
equal to #f h\rs & by divid+  ! qu>t]   
circles into #f equal p>ts y c m>k (f ! 
h\rs4  ,! be/ way to d ?is at fir/ is to
 make a l>ge draw+ ( ,fig4  #ab on y\r  
/>bo>d & comp>e x ) ! ,big ,dipp]2 !n   

draw an  imag9>y circle r\nd ! ,nor? ,/>
 9 ! sky s t x w j  cle> ! la/ /> 9 !   
h&le ( ! ,big ,dipp]4 ,) "s practice  y 
w be able to tell ! "t )9 half an h\r or
 less4    ,9 tell+ ! "t by ! ,big ,dipp]
 y mu/ rememb] t ! />s  9 turn+ r\nd !  
nor? pole run fa/ an h\r e #ae days1 &  
?is makes !m ga9 #f h\rs 9 #c mon?s & s 
!y ga9 a complete  revolution 9 a ye>4  
,b e "t ! ,big ,dipp] makes "o complete 
turn r\nd ! ,nor? ,/>1 "o complete day1 
z measur$ by /> "t1  w h pass$4    ,!   
,po9t]s ( ! ,big ,dipp] are 9 ! f\r     
positions1 %[n 9 !  figure1 on ! foll[+ 
dates at #h ,p4,m43 ,may #a1 #bd? h\r2  
,aug4 #a1 #f?  h\r2 ,nov4 #a1 #ab? h\r2 
,feb4 #a1 #ah? h\r4 ,9 ! same way1 on   
,sept4  #a at #h ,p4,m4 ! po9t]s w be at
 #h & !y w also be !re at #g  ,p4,m4 on 
,sept4 #af4          ,,*apt] ,,ii       
,,h[ ,,to ,,"k ,,! ,,/>s      ,"o ( !   
te/s a ,boy ,sc\t mu/ pass 9 ord] to    
obta9 8 badge  ( m]it = />craft is to be
 able to "n & po9t out twelve  pr9cipal 
con/ellations1 & e boy1 :e!r he is a    

sc\t or n1  %\ld be able to d ! same ?+ 
= 8 own good4    ,! ^w con/ellation is  
=m$ f two ,lat9 words1 ! fir/  be+ con  
:i* means toge!r1 & ! la/ be+ /ella :i* 
means />1 or 9 pla9 ,engli%1            
con/ellation means />s toge!r4    ,9 y\r
 ef=ts to f9d ! ,nor? ,/> y h already   
le>n$ "o (  ! pr9cipal con/ellations--t 
( ! ,big ,dipp]--& to le>n m  ( !m w be 
ev5 easi] & mu* m fun1 = n[ y h le>n$  !
 game4    ,! ,con/ellation (            
,cassiopeia4--,to f9d ! con/ellation (  
,cassiopeia 7pron\nc$ ,cas-i-o-pe-ah7   
aga9 make use ( y\r />  f9d]4 ,remove   
all ! />s f ! black5$ c>dbo>d & re>range
  !m s t ! ,nor? ,/> is 9 ! c5t] ( !    
bo>d & ! ,big  ,dipp] is on ! left h&   
side ) ! two po9t] />s 9 a l9e  ) !     
,nor? ,/>4 ,on ?is *>t ! ,big ,dipp] mu/
 be made mu*  small] ?an ! "o describ$ 9
 ! fir/ *apt]4    ,cut out five m />s f 
:ite c>dbo>d & place !m on !  opposite  
side ( ! bo>d f ! ,big ,dipp] 9 su* a   
mann] t  !y w =m ! lett] ,w be+ c>eful  
to fa/5 ! />s to !  c>dbo>d s t ! lett] 

,w /&s 9 ! exact position %[n 9  ,fig4  
#ac4    ,a l9e drawn ?r\gh ! po9t]s ( ! 
,big ,dipp] & produc$ w1  z be=e1 pass  
?r\gh ! ,nor? ,/>1 & if x is ext5d$ an  
equal  di/ance beyond x1 w pass v       
closely to ! con/ellation (             
,cassiopeia2 ?is l9e w aid y 9 plac+ !  
/>s on y\r *>t  9 ! "r positions4       
,hav+ ?us prep>$ ! /> f9d]1 take x out  
into ! op5 :5  night comes on & beg9 by 
locat+ ! ,nor? ,/> & ! ,big ,dipp]4  ,n[
 set ! ,big ,dipp] & ! ,nor? ,/> ( y\r  
/> *>t 9 a  position :i* to y\r eye     
corresponds to ! ,big ,dipp] & ! ,nor?  
,/> 9 ! sky4 ,foll[ ! l9e f ! po9t] />s 
to ! ,nor?  ,/> & beyond :5 ! great     
lett] ,w :i* is ! con/ellation (        
,cassiopeia1 w /& out s cle> & bright t 
y w wond] :y  y h nev] se5 x be=e4      
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4                    
#ac4--;,,con/ellation ,,( ,,cassiopeia4 
,fig4 #ad %[s ?is gr\p ( />s & ! outl9e 
( ! unhappy  ,cassiopeia :o is z (t5 /&+
 on h] head z on h] feet1 b x  requires 
! imag9ation ( an ,arabian />-gaz] to   

see ! lik5ess4    ,! ,little            
,dipp]4--,al?\gh "s ( ! />s :i* =m !    
,little  ,dipp] are v fa9t x is includ$ 
9 our li/ ( #ab pr9cipal  con/ellations 
= two reasons3 fir/1 because x conta9s !
 v  important ,nor? ,/>1 & second1      
because x is easy to f9d4               
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,cassiopeia
 ,,z ,,! ,,arabs ,,saw ,,h]4            
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,! ,,little 
,,dipp] ,,or ,,little ,,be>4    ,! ,nor?
 ,/> is ! la/ /> 9 ! h&le ( ! ,little   
,dipp]4 ,!  two out] />s :i* =m ! b[l ( 
! ,little ,dipp]1 & :i* are  call$ !    
,gu>dians ( ! ,pole1 are q bright1 &    
aft] a few  trials y c easily put 9 !   
o!r />s t are mu* fa9t]1 &  s complete 9
 y\r m9d's eye ! outl9e ( ! ,little     
,dipp] z y  h x on y\r *>t4 ,fig4 #ae   
%[s ! arrangem5t ( ! />s 9  ! ,little   
,dipp] & ! relative position ( ! ,little
 ,dipp] to !  ,big ,dipp]4    ,! ,little
 ,dipp] is also call$ ! ,little ,be> &  
?is latt] "n  :5 done into ,lat9 becomes
 ,ursa ,m9or1 :i* is its sci5tific  "n4 

,h[ ! ,little ,dipp] 0 made into a      
,little ,be> by ! anci5ts  is %[n 9     
,fig4 #af4    ,! ,great ,squ>e (        
,pegasus4--,unlike ! ,big ,dipp]1 !     
,little ,dipp]  & ,cassiopeia1 :i* are s
 close to ! ,nor? ,/> t !y nev]  set &  
h5ce c be se5 at any h\r ( ! night & at 
any season (  ! ye>1 we n[ come to "s   
con/ellations :i* are q di/ant  f !     
,nor? ,/> & are = ?is reason to be se5  
only at c]ta9  times ( ! ye>4 ,! ,great 
,squ>e ( ,pegasus c always be se5 on    
cle>1 crisp nights dur+ ! autumn mon?s4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,! ,,little 
,,dipp] ,,made ,,into ,a ,,little ,,be>4
    ,to f9d a con/ellation t is z f>    
away f ! ,nor? ,/> z  ,pegasus 7pron\nc$
 ,peg'-a-sus7 is n an easy ?+ to d1 at  
lea/  ! fir/ "t y try x1 = :ile our *>t 
is m>k$ ) a  /raight l9e ! sky is l a   
great b[l & a l9e produc$ f !  ,nor? ,/>
 to ,pegasus w1 9 consequ5ce1 n be a    
/raight l9e1 b  a curv$ l9e4 ,h[ev]1 )  
y\r /> f9d] *>t$ l ! diagram  %[n 9     
,fig4 #ag y w be able to locate ,pegasus

 ) v little  ef=t4    ,aft] tak+ (f all 
! />s f ! c>dbo>d surface1 p9 or pa/e  !
 ,nor? ,/> to ! l[] left h& corn] ( !   
black surface (  ! c>dbo>d & place !    
five />s ( ,cassiopeia 9 _! prop]       
positions4 ,n[ draw a l9e f ! ,nor? ,/> 
?r\gh ,cassiopeia j  bel[ ! /> m>k$  :i*
 is ! ,greek lett] beta 7see ,app5dix   
,c7 & produce1 or ext5d t l9e until !   
edge ( ! c>dbo>d  is rea*$4 ,on !       
extreme "r h& end ( ?is l9e set two />s1
  :i* we w also call po9t] />s1 & place 
two m />s above  !m s t a ne>ly p]fect  
squ>e w be =m$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ag4       
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,! ,,great  
,,squ>e ,,( ,,pegasus4    ,to f9d       
,pegasus take ! /> *>t out-(-doors1 say 
"s ev5+ 9  ,novemb] ab\t #i o'clock1 = !
 ,great ,squ>e w !n be on !  m]idian1 t 
is1 on a l9e pass+ ov] y\r head & :i*   
runs  nor? & s\? across ! sky4 ,?is "t1 
in/ead ( look+ d[n on  ! *>t1 z y did 9 
f9d+ ! ,big ,dipp] & ,cassiopeia1 turn  
! bo>d bottom side up1 z %[n 9 ,fig4    
#ah1 b /ill keep+ !  c>dbo>d ,nor? ,/>  

po9t+ nor? & ! f\r />s ( ,pegasus  po9t+
 t[>d ! s\?4    ,by look+ ov] y\r *>t   
into ! sky & foll[+ an imag9>y l9e  )   
y\r eye f ! ,nor? ,/> ?r\gh ,cassiopeia 
pa/ ! />   7beta7 & l5g!n+ ?is l9e t[>d 
! equator 9 ! s\!rn  sky y w come ^u f\r
 bright1 :ite />s :i* =m ! ,great       
,squ>e ( ,pegasus & y h add$ ano!r &    
f\r? con/ellation  to y\r li/4    ,!    
practical value ( kn[+ ! mighty         
con/ellation ( ,pegasus is  t y c always
 f9d ! nor?1 by means ( its fri5dly />s1
  ?\gh ! ,nor? ,/>1 ! ,big & ,little    
,dipp]s & ,cassiopeia are  hidd5 by     
cl\ds4 ,to f9d ! nor? y only h to wait  
until ,pegasus  gets v high 9 ! sky &   
run an imag9>y l9e ?r\gh ! po9t]  />s ( 
,pegasus & produce x until x rea*es !   
nor!rn horizon4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 
#ah4--;,,hold+ ,,! ,,*>t ,,( ,,pegasus  
,,ov]head4    ,! ,great ,squ>e (        
,pegasus 0 fancifully pictur$ by !      
anci5ts z  a ,fly+ ,horse &1 curi\sly   
en\gh1 ) only half a body at t1  z %[n 9
 ,fig4 #ai4 ,to ^? :o d n "k ! lore ( ! 

/>s x  is n s easy to see 9 ! ,great    
,squ>e ! fabl$ w+$ /e$ :o  /ill cont9ues
 8 flight ?r\gh ! sky j z he did :5 he 0
  inv5t$ ov] f\r ?\s& ye>s ago4         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,! ,,fly+   
,,horse ,,( ,,pegasus4    ,illu/ration3 
,,fig4 #bj4--;,,figure ,,( ,a           
,,trapezium4    ,! ,mighty ,orion4--,!  
brighte/ con/ellation 9 ! :ole sky is   
,orion 7pron\nc$ ,o-ri-on71 ! ,great    
,hunt]1 z ! anci5ts lik$  to imag9e ?is 
gr\p ( />s4    ,) ! exception ( ! ,big  
,dipp]1 ,orion is ! easie/ ( all !      
con/ellations to f9d provid$ y look = x 
at ! "r "t (  ! ye>1 :i* is dur+ ! w9t] 
mon?s4    ,to locate ,orion cut out (   
c>dbo>d sev5 l>ge />s & ?ree small  />s4
 ,ne> ! l[] edge ( ! black5$ c>dbo>d p9 
two l>ge &  two small />s to =m :at is  
call$ a trapezium1 t is1 f\r  /raight   
l9es =m+ a figure1 none ( :i* are       
p>allel1 z %[n  9 ,fig4 #bj4 ,ab\t      
halfway across ! figure p9 ?ree l>ge />s
 9 a  r[1 at equal di/ances ap>t & tilt$
 a little1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ba4           

,illu/ration3 ,,fig4                    
#ba4--;,,con/ellation ,,( ,,orion4      
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,orion ,,!  
,,mighty ,,hunt]4    ,^! ?ree />s =m !  
,belt ( ,orion1 = a mighty hunt] mu/    
ne$s h a belt1 & ?is belt ( bright />s  
is "o ( ! be/  kn[n gr\ps 9 ! :ole sky4 
,across ! belt & ne>ly at "r  angles to 
x p9 ?ree small />s2 ^! small />s =m !  
sword or  dagg] ( ! fanciful hunt] b !y 
are ( m use to u ?an to  him1 z w be se5
 pres5tly4    ,at ! top ( ! /> *>t p9 ! 
,nor? ,/> s t x w be 9  a direct l9e ) !
 ?ree small />s =m+ ! ,sword ( ,orion4  
,y\r /> *>t ( ,orion is n[ ready to be  
comp>$ ) ! "o 9  ! sky4 ,! be/ "t to f9d
 ,orion is 9 ,janu>y ab\t #i o'clock1   
:5 ! con/ellation is high 9 ! s\!rn sky1
 ?\gh he may be  se5 %9+ 9 all 8 glory  
all w9t] long4    ,on tak+ y\r /> *>t   
out-(-doors hold x ov]head j z y did  9 
f9d+ ! ,great ,squ>e ( ,pegasus2 n[ look
 t[>d ! s\? until  y\r eyes re/ on !    
equator runn+ across ! s\!rn sky f ea/  
to we/ & y w see ! mighty ,orion1 ?\gh y

 may n recognize  ! lion sk9 he holds4  
,hav+ f\nd ,orion draw an imag9>y l9e   
?r\gh ! ?ree small  />s call$ 8 sword & 
produce ?is l9e until x meets ! ,nor?   
,/>4 ,once y h f\nd ,orion y w nev] aga9
 require ! help  ( a /> *>t to locate   
him1 b x is a good plan to look him up z
  (t5 z y c1 & to draw ! imag9>y l9e    
?r\gh 8 sword &  on to ! ,nor? ,/>1 =   
%\ld y ev] lose y\r way or want to f9d  
! nor? & ! ,nor? ,/> %\ld be hidd5 by   
cl\ds a l9e ?r\gh  ! ,sword ( ,orion :5 
,orion is 9 ! s\? w direct y z  c]ta9ly 
z ! ne$le ( a compass4 ,fig4 #bb %[s !  
fabul\s ,orion  z a giant hunt] hold+ ! 
sk9 ( a lion :i* he kill$1 accord+  to  
,arabian />-lore4    ,illu/ration3      
,,fig4 #bc4--;,,con/ellation ,,(        
,,auriga4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4       
#bd4--;,,auriga ,,! ,,%eph]d4           
,auriga1 ! ,*>iote] or ,%eph]d4--,aft]  
f9d+ ,orion !  con/ellation ( ,auriga   
7pron\nc$ ,aw-re-ga7 w get "r 9  y\r way
 s t y _c by any *ance miss x4 ,?is is  
because  ! *ief /> 9 ,auriga & ^: "n is 

,capella 7pron\nc$  ,ca-pel-la7 lies    
ne>ly on ! l9e drawn ?r\gh ! ,sword (   
,orion  & produc$ to ! ,nor? ,/> z %[n 9
 ,figs4 #ba1 #bc & #bg4    ,auriga 0    
pictur$ by ! ,assyrians z a *>iote]1 b !
 e>ly  ,greeks saw 9 ?is con/ellation a 
good %eph]d1 :o c>ri$ a goat  on 8 back 
& two kids 9 8 arms4 ,! brilliant />    
,capella is  suppos$ to be ! goat & !   
?ree small />s :i* =m a triangle  close 
to ,capella are ! kids z %[n 9 ,fig4    
#bd4    ,:5 ! ,nor? ,/> _c be se5 ! />  
,capella w prove a useful  aid ) ,orion 
9 f9d+ ! nor?2 & s9ce x is j ab\t half  
way betwe5 ,orion & ! ,nor? ,/> x may   
aga9 be useful 9 judg+  ! di/ance ( !   
,nor? ,/> f ,orion :5 ! =m] /> is       
obscur$4    ,! ,con/ellation (          
,taurus4--,! la/ con/ellation :i* ne$   
conc]n u "h is ,taurus 7pron\nc$        
,to-rus7 ! ,bull4 ,taurus  is "o ( !    
con/ellations ( ! zodiac ( :i* we w h   
some?+ to say 9 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,by ! "t y 
h le>n$ !  =ego+ con/ellations y w be   
able to locate ,taurus )\t  us+ y\r />  

*>t1 = x lies to ! nor? ( ,orion1 to !  
s\?  ( ,auriga & a little to ! we/ ( bo?
 ( ^! con/ellations z  y w see 9 ,figs4 
#be & #bg4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4      
#be4--;,,con/ellation ,,( ,,taurus4     
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,taurus ,,! 
,,bull4    ,! little gr\p ( />s ne>by is
 ! ,pleiades 7pron\nc$  pl-ya-dez71 & is
 a "p ( ! con/ellation ( ,taurus4 ,!re  
are  six small b bright />s gr\p$       
closely toge!r :5 se5 by !  ord9>y      
p]son1 b if y h v %>p eyes y may be able
 to  make out "o or two m4    ,x is     
believ$ t ! />s ( ,taurus 7 ! fir/ to be
 wov5 into  a gr\p or con/ellation by ! 
anci5ts1 & x is ?\ght t !  ,bull (      
,light1 z ,taurus 0 call$1 0 kn[n long  
be=e ! "t  ( ,abraham1 or ov] f\r ?\s&  
ye>s ago4 ,fig4 #bf %[s ,taurus z  !    
,egyptians saw him4 ,! bright r$ /> :i* 
sets 9 ! "r eye  ( ,taurus is call$     
,aldeb>an 7pron\nc$ ,al-deb-a-ran7 & is 
"o  ( ! brighte/ />s 9 ! sky4 ,9 ! />   
*>t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bg  ! diff]5t          
con/ellations y h le>n$ are gr\p$ toge!r

 9  ! same positions 9 :i* !y are plac$ 
9 ! sky4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4        
#bg4--,,/> ,,map ,,%[+ ,,six ,,*ief     
,,con/ellations4    ,six />s ( ! fir/   
magnitude1 t is #f ( ! #bj />s :i*  %9e 
! brighte/ 7see ,app5dices ,f & ,g71 are
 also %[n on !  *>t1 ,fig4 #bg4 ,by     
foll[+ ! equator f we/ to ea/ across  ! 
b[l ( ! sky1 & :i* runs "r ?r\gh !      
middle (  ,orion1 y w f9d to ! we/ & s\?
 ( x ! brighte/ />  9 ! heav5s--,sirius1
 ! ,dog ,/>1 s nam$ because x is 9 !    
con/ellation ( ,canis ,major1 :i* is    
,lat9 = ,big ,dog4    ,( ! o!r />s on ! 
*>t1 ,capella 9 ,auriga is ! next       
brighte/ />1 & ,arcturus 7pron\nc$      
,arc-tu-rus7 :i* c  be f\nd by foll[+ ! 
h&le ( ! ,big ,dipp]1 is ?ird 9         
brilliancy4 ,! f\r? place is held by    
,rigel 7pron\nc$ ,rai-gel7  9 ,orion2   
,betelgeux 7pron\nc$ ,bet-el-g]z7 9     
,taurus is fif? 9  ord]1 & ,aldeb>an 9  
,orion comes la/4    ,!re are _m o!r    
con/ellations & a l>ge numb] ( o!r />s  
b :5 y are able to "n & po9t out ^?     

describ$ 9 ?is  *apt] y w h made a v    
good runn+ />t4          ,,*apt] ,,iii  
,,! ,,sun1 ,,! ,,brighte/ ,,( ,,all     
,,/>s      ,9 nam+ ov] ! />s ( ! fir/   
magnitude--t is1 ! />s t  %9e !         
brighte/--!re is "o /> ,i did n m5tion &
 yet z we  see x x is bright] ?an all ! 
o!r />s put toge!r4    ,?is great /> is 
our ,sun & s9ce we owe ev]y?+ we possess
 on  ,e>? to him--light1 heat1 p[] & ev5
 life itself--he %\ld & does  /& 9 a    
class by himself1 ?\gh aft] all he is j 
z mu* ( a  fix$ /> z ! ,nor? ,/>1 ! ,dog
 ,/>1 or any ( ! ?\s&s (  o!r />s :i* we
 see z m]e po9ts ( light 9 ! sky4    ,h[
 to ,see ! ,sun4--,y mu/ nev] look      
directly at ! ,sun ) !  nak$ eye1 = he  
is s p[]ful t 8 light w injure y\r sight
  = all "t4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4     
#bh4--,,smok+ ,,glasses ,,ov] ,,c&le    
,,flame4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4        
#bi4--,,see+ ,,! ,,sun ,,?r\gh ,,smok$  
,,glasses4    ,!re are sev]al ways1     
?\gh1 to obs]ve ! ,sun )\t dang] to  y\r
 eyes & z all ( ^! are simple & co/ no?+

 y c  easily try !m4 ,! mo/ common way  
is to take a bit ( w9d[ glass1  say an  
in* squ>e1 & smoke "o side ( x ov] !    
flame ( a  c&le1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #bh4     
,:5 ?is black5$ glass is held closely to
 ! eye1 z %[n 9 ,fig4  #bi1 & ! latt] is
 direct$ t[>d ! ,sun1 a little circle ( 
light w appe> on ! film ( smoke & !     
surface ( ! ,sun may  be exam9$ at l5g? 
& )\t ! lea/ dang]4    ,a decid$        
improvem5t ov] ! smok$ glass idea is to 
use a piece (  r$1 or a piece ( yell[   
glass1 z an eyepiece1 or1 bett]1 place !
  r$ & yell[ glasses toge!r & b9d !     
edges ) pap]4 ,ano!r  plan to see ! ,sun
 )\t injury to ! eyes is to make a hole 
)  ! po9t ( a ne$le 9 a visit+ c>d &    
look ?r\gh ! hole  directly at ! ,sun4  
,a /ill bett] view ( ! ,sun c be obta9$ 
if a p9hole telescope  is us$4 ,a       
telescope ( ?is k9d c be easily made )\t
 tools1  metals or l5ses4 ,x is describ$
 & pictur$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4    ,to obs]ve 
! ,sun hold ! p9hole end ( ! tube       
closely to y\r  eye1 to cut (f all !    

outside light1 & sight ! tube s t !     
,sun %9es directly into y\r eye ?r\gh ! 
p9hole1 & y w get  a v brilliant view ( 
! great yell[ /> :i* we call ! ,sun4    
,:at ! ,sun is ,made (4--,:5 a c&le is  
lit ! wax ( :i* x is  made beg9s to melt
 & ?is is drawn up ! wick :]e x is *ang$
  into gas & ! burn+ gas =ms ! flame4   
,! flame ( a c&le is made up ( f\r p>ts1
 :i* are really lay]s  ( heat$ gas      
surr\nd+ ! wick1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #cj4 ,9 !
 c5t]  ( ! flame is ! wick2 ! fir/ lay] 
( gas is at ! bottom (  ! flame & ?is   
gives a gre5i%-blue light2 ! second lay]
 is  ! d>k & cool "p ( ! flame2 ! ?ird  
lay] is a cone (  heat$ gas :i* gives   
out ! bright light1 & surr\nd+ ?is cone 
is a fa9t blue light :i* c j be se54    
,we "k1 ( c\rse1 :at ! c&le is made ( & 
we also "k :y  x burns & 9 a way h[ x   
gives (f light & heat because we h      
exam9$ x closely1 b if we c\ld get no   
ne>] a c&le flame ?an  a qu>t] ( a mile 
x is v d\btful if we c\ld ev] be able to
  le>n any?+ ab\t ! real s\rce ( !      

flame--t is its greasy  wick4           
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,a ,,c&le   
,,flame ,,%[+ ,,lay]s ,,( ,,flame4    ,x
 is mu* ! same ) ! ,sun1 = we c only    
exam9e x at a great  di/ance & "k x by  
its action on our s5ses1 = ! flam+      
lay]s ( ! ,sun are s bright t no "o ev] 
saw ?r\gh !m1  s ! real s\rce ( its     
light & heat--! core ( ! ,sun--rema9s   
unkn[n4 ,fig4 #ca %[s ! ,sun z se5 ) a  
field glass4    ,s9ce ! ,sun gives out  
light & heat x is easy to believe t x is
  a great ball ( v hot gases & f :at    
a/ronom]s h le>n$  ( him ) _! wond]ful  
in/rum5ts ?is idea seems to be pretty   
well f\nd$4    ,! ,sun mu/ be a         
trem5d\sly hot body--= ! iron & o!r     
metals  9 x are n only melt$ b !y boil  
away l wat] & are  *ang$ into gases4 ,"u
 c]ta9 conditions gigantic flames1 call$
  prom95ces1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #cb1 c be se5  
to leap f ! edge1 or  limb1 z x is      
call$1 ( ! ,sun1 & f9ally1 great spots1 
call$  sun spots1 are =m$ on ! ,sun t   
are s l>ge a doz5 worlds !  size ( our  

,e>? c\ld be dropp$ into any "o ( !m &  
rattl$  ar\nd l m>bles 9 a cig> box4 ,^!
 are a few ( ! reasons we  are l$ to    
believe t ! ,sun is a see?+ ball ( fire4
    ,! ,sun's ,lay]s ( ,flame4--,j z !  
wick ( a c&le is surr\nd$  ) sev]al k9ds
 ( flame1 s ! ,sun has ?ree lay]s (     
flame  ar\nd a c5tral core4    ,! core (
 ! ,sun is believ$ to be =m$ ( liquid   
gases :i* are  ab\t z ?ick z ,new       
,orleans molasses4    ,ar\nd ?is core1  
:i* is ! real s\rce ( ! ,sun's light &  
heat--& :i* has nev] be5 se5--is a d>k  
lay] ( flame usually  call$ ! ,sun's    
surface2 ?is lay]1 :i* is cov]$ ) num]\s
  d>k spots l freckles on ! face ( a    
r$-head$ boy1 is call$ !  photosph]e1 & 
x is ?is "p ( ! ,sun :i* gives out ! mo/
  light4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4        
#ca4--,,! ,,sun ,,z ,,we ,,see ,,x4     
,! second lay]1 :i* is call$ !          
*romosph]e1 is ab\t #e1jjj  miles ?ick1 
& if y c\ld imag9e ! :ole _w afire y    
w\ld  !n h b a fa9t idea ( :at a mighty 
see?+ sea ( flame  ?is lay] is4 ,x is 9 

?is lay] ( lum9\s gases t t]rific       
explosions take place & r$ tongues (    
flame1 or prom95ces1 are  %ot out =     
upw>ds ( #cjj1jjj miles4    ,ar\nd !    
*romosph]e is ano!r lay] ( flame :i*    
ext5ds =  hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( miles 9 all 
directions4 ,?is la/ lay] is  call$ !   
corona1 & x is z ?9 z ! /uff ( :i*      
dreams are  made4 ,x is =m$ ( ! gas     
coronium & s9ce x is s ?9 x c  nev] be  
se5 except :5 !re is a total eclipse1 t 
is1 :5 !  ,moon passes betwe5 u & !     
,sun1 :i* w be expla9$ 9 ,*apt]  ,,vii1 
& s %uts out ! int5se light ( ! o!r two 
lay]s4 ,a  cross section ( ! ,sun is %[n
 9 ,fig4 #cc4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   
#cb4--,,prom95ces ,,( ,,! ,,sun ,,comp>$
 ,,) ,,! ,,size  ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4    ,sun 
,spots & ,_! ,effect on ! ,e>?4--,v (t5 
great spots are  se5 on ! ,sun's        
surface4 ,^! purpli% black spots appe>  
to be  holes1 l ! crat]s ( volcanoes1 9 
! photosph]e1 or lay] (  flame next to !
 core ( ! ,sun4 ,! sun spots are caus$  
by great  eruptions :i* take place 9 !  

core ( ! ,sun1 & ^! sun  spots are      
sometimes ov] #ajj1jjj miles 9 diamet]1 
:5 !y c be  easily se5 ) ! nak$ eye2    
inde$ if a sun spot has a diamet]  only 
z l>ge z t ( our ,e>?1 x c be se5 ) !   
nak$ eye1  protect$1 ( c\rse1 ) ei!r a  
smok$ or a color$ glass1 or  bett]1 ) a 
p9hole telescope2 9 any case x w look l 
a black  speck ab\t ! size ( a p9head4  
,fig4 #cd %[s a view ( a sun spot  made 
?r\gh a l>ge telescope4    ,illu/ration3
 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,,cross ,,section ,,( ,,!
 ,,sun4    ,:5ev] ! sun *anges 8 spots  
magnetic /orms take place on !  ,e>?1 :5
 compass ne$les1 telegraph & telephone  
app>atus &  wireless sy/ems are di/urb$4
 ,:5 a l>ge numb] ( spots appe> at  !   
same "t on ! ,sun ! ,nor!rn ,lights are 
(t5 v bright4  ,sun spots h some?+ to d 
) our wea!r1 b ! effects are  n yet well
 und]/ood4    ,! ,sun & ! ,wea!r4--,(   
c\rse ! ,sun has ev]y?+ to d )  ! wea!r1
 b to be able to pr$ict ! k9d ( wea!r we
 %all  h ev5 ! next day is a v h>d ?+ to
 d4    ,! *anges 9 ! wea!r are caus$ by 

! heat ( ! ,sun alone4  ,! heat ( ! ,sun
 produces cl\ds by vaporiz+ ! wat] (    
riv]s1  lakes & oceans4 ,he causes hot &
 cold wea!r by heat+ "s p>ts  ( ! air m 
?an o!r p>ts1 & ?is sets ! air 9 motion 
&  we call ?is movem5t ( ! air ! w9d4   
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,sun ,,spot 
,,9 ,,photosph]e4    ,*anges ( heat1    
moi/ure & w9d are ! cause ( all ! k9ds (
  wea!r we h1 & we h a good _m k9ds1 be 
x hot or cold1 dry  or wet1 calm or     
w9dy1 cle> or /ormy1 good1 bad &        
indiff]5t4    ,to ,=eca/ ! ,wea!r by a  
,b>omet]4--,! be/ way to tell :at !     
com+ wea!r w be 9 ! next few h\rs is by 
! rise & !  fall ( ! pressure ( ! air1  
or b>ometric pressure1 z x is  call$4   
,a simple b>omet] = %[+ ! *anges 9 !    
pressure ( ! air  c be made ( a glass   
tube ab\t #c feet long1  in* 9 diamet]1 
&  clos$ at "o end z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ce4   
,fill ! tube ) m]cury &1  plac+ y\r f+] 
ov] ! m\? ( ! tube1 turn x upside d[n & 
put ! op5 end into a cup1 or o!r vessel1
 :i* is half full (  m]cury2 9 plac+ x  

into ! cup be c>eful t no air gets into 
! tube4    ,only a small "p ( ! m]cury 9
 ! tube w run into ! cup  & ?is w leave 
a space 9 ! top ( ! tube4 ,n[ fa/5 a    
y>d/ick1 ! purpose ( :i* is to %[ !     
*anges 9 ! height (  ! m]cury 9 ! tube1 
) a /r+ or wire to ! tube1 & y\r        
b>omet] w be complete1 z %[n 9 ,fig4    
#cf4    ,s9ce ! air presses on ! m]cury 
9 ! cup b n 9 ! tube1  ! pressure ( !   
air on ! m]cury 9 ! cup j balances !    
weight ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube &1 h5ce1 any 
increase or decrease  9 ! pressure ( !  
air1 :i* ord9>ily is ab\t #ae p\nds to !
  squ>e in*1 is %[n by ! ris+ or ! fall+
 ( ! m]cury 9  ! tube4    ,! b>omet] 9  
help+ to =eca/ ! wea!r %[s t3 7#a7 :5  !
 m]cury rises 9 ! tube1 t is :5 x is    
high1 ! wea!r  w be fair2 7#b7 :5 !     
m]cury falls 9 ! tube1 t is  :5 x is l[1
 bad wea!r may be look$ =2 7#c7 :5 !    
m]cury  sudd5ly falls 9 ! tube a /orm is
 com+1 & 7#d7 :5 !  m]cury cont9ues at a
 high po9t ! wea!r w rema9 fair4        
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,b>omet]   

,,tube4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4         
#cf4--;,,b>omet] ,,complete4    ,to     
rememb] ^! =eca/s easily !y may be      
briefly /at$ ?us3    7#a7 ,a high       
b>omet] %[s fair wea!r4    7#b7 ,a l[   
b>omet] %[s bad wea!r4    7#c7 ,a sudd5 
fall ( ! b>omet] %[s a com+ /orm4       
7#d7 ,a con/ant high b>omet] %[s cont9u$
 fair wea!r4    ,to ,=eca/ ! ,wea!r by  
,signs4--,x w seldom happ5 t a boy  :o  
goes camp+1 or "o :o o!rwise wants to "k
 :at ! wea!r  is likely to be on !      
morr[1 w h a b>omet] to consult1 s !    
next be/ ?+ is to "k h[ to read ! wea!r 
signs3        7#a7 8,r$ at night is !   
sailor's delight0 is an old             
=eca/1 & means t ! morr[ w be a f9e     
day4        7#b7 8,r$ 9 ! morn+ is !    
sailor's w>n+10 :i*          means t ra9
 is com+4        7#c7 ,a gold5 sunset is
 a sign t a high w9d is          com+4  
7#d7 ,a yell[ sunset is a sign t ra9 is 
com+4        7#e7 ,:5 ! ,sun sets cle> x
 is a sign ( a f9e day          on !    
morr[4        7#f7 ,:5 ! ,sun sets beh9d

 a cl\d x is a sign t          ! next   
day w be cl\dy or ra9y4        7#g7 ,a  
mi/y dawn %[s ! com+ ( a f9e day4       
7#h7 ,a l[ dawn1 t is :5 ! ,sun %9es    
cle> on          ris+1 %[s ! com+ ( a   
f9e day4        7#i7 ,a high dawn1 t is 
:5 ! ,sun rises ov] a          haze1 or 
cl\ds1 %[s w9d4    ,to ,light a ,fire ) 
! ,heat ( ! ,sun4--,a small magnify+    
glass1  or burn+ glass1 is simply a     
convex l5s4 ,x is a little piece (      
app>atus t e boy %\ld always c>ry ) him 
j z he does  8 pocket knife & compass4  
,a l5s #a in*es 9 diamet] & hav+ a      
#d-;in* focus may be b\ght = #be or #cj 
c5ts4    ,a l5s ( ?is k9d w be f\nd v   
useful 9 _m ways1 = x  w greatly magnify
 any object su* z clo?1 leaves1 insects1
  f+]-pr9ts1 9 fact any?+ y may wi% to  
see bett] ?an y  c\ld ) y\r nak$ eye1   
?\gh y _c use a s+le l5s = a  spyglass4 
,a magnify+ glass w also frequ5tly come 
9 h&y =  light+ fires1 by us+ ! ,sun's  
rays :5 mat*es are sc>ce4    ,:ile a    
,boy ,sc\t w\ld disda9 to use pap] to   

k9dle a fire1 yet if  a scrap ( pap] is 
at h& x w prove a good m$ium on :i* to  
direct ! rays ( ! ,sun ) a burn+ glass4 
,if y h no pap]  focus y\r glass on "s  
punk or v dry leaves1 z %[n 9 ,fig4     
#cg4    ,to focus ! glass means to hold 
x away f ! pap] or leaves s  t ! rays ( 
! ,sun are br\ght to a po9t l ! %>p5$   
end  ( a lead p5cil2 :5 all ! rays (    
sunlight1 ea* ( :i* c>ries  a little    
heat1 are br\ght to a po9t1 !y w make   
en\gh heat to  light a piece ( pap] or a
 dry leaf4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4      
#cg4--;,,boy ,,focus+ ,,burn+ ,,glass   
,,on ,,leaves ,,to ,,make  ,,fire4      
,signal+ ) ! ,sun's ,rays4--,!re are _m 
ways ( s5d+ a  signal or a message      
across space by day1 z1 = in/ance1 by   
means (  smoke1 by flags & fla%es (     
sunlight2 by bonfires1 p9e-knot flames  
& burn+ arr[s by night1 & by wireless1  
:i* c be us$ ei!r  by day or by night4  
,a simple & effective way to signal 9 ! 
daytime :5 ! ,sun is  %9+ is by us+ a   
mirror1 t is1 a look+-glass1 z x is     

commonly call$4 ,e boy kn[s h[ to make  
fla%es ) a mirror1 s  x w be en\gh to   
say "h t ! glass is held 9 ! h& 9  su* a
 position t ! sunlight fall+ ^u x w be  
reflect$ 9  ! direction y wi% to s5d !  
signals4 ,fig4 #ch %[s h[ x is  done4   
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,boy ,,s5d+
 ,,fla% ,,signal ,,) ,,mirror4          
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,cont95tal 
,,morse ,,code4    ,any sort ( a code c 
be us$1 b x is f> m int]e/+ & w  prove v
 useful if y are able to s5d & receive  
messages 9 !  dot & da% alphabet1 or    
,morse telegraph code1 :i* is giv5 9    
,fig4  #ci4 ,a %ort fla% repres5ts a    
dot1 a long fla% a da% & %ort &  long   
fla%es repres5t lett]s4 ,?is is ! same  
code t is us$ =  wireless telegraphy4   
,h[ to ,make a ,simple ,heliograph4--,a 
heliograph is m]ely a mirror  m\nt$ on a
 basebo>d1 b ?is is a big improvem5t ov]
 hold+ !  mirror 9 ! h&1 = to s5d &     
receive fla%es ov] long di/ances  !     
mirror mu/ be c>efully aim$ & kept 9    
position4    ,to make a heliograph1 get 

a bo>d #ab in*es long1 #d in*es wide &  
#a in* ?ick & cut a piece out ( "o end  
#d in*es long & #a in*  wide1 z %[n 9   
,fig4 #dj4 ,bore a in* hole ?r\gh !     
slott$ end  & ano!r  in* hole #d in*es f
 ! slott$ end1 z %[n 9 !  cut4          
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,base ,,=  
,,heliograph4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   
#da4--;,,back ,,view ,,( ,,heliograph4  
,make a block ( wood #d in*es long1 #a  
in* wide & #a in* ?ick &  bore a  in*   
hole ?r\gh x ne> "o end4 ,to ! o!r end (
 ?is  /ick fa/5 a mirror ab\t #d in*es  
squ>e4 ,?is mirror %\ld be  p]fectly    
smoo?--a plate glass mirror is ! be/--& 
h a hole  _/ in* 9 diamet] drill$ ?r\gh 
! c5t] ( ! mirror =  sight+ !           
heliograph1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #da4 ,any     
optician w drill  ! hole = y = a qu>t]  
or less4 ,fig4 #db %[s a top view ( !   
heliograph & ,fig4 #dc %[s a side view (
 x4    ,make a wood frame s t ! mirror c
 be fa/5$ 9 x & screw  ! frame to a /ick
 ( wood4 ,get a bolt #e in*es long &    
in*  9 diamet] & h a ?umb screw fitt$ to

 x4 ,set ! end ( !  /ick :i* has !      
mirror fa/5$ to x into ! slott$ end ( ! 
basebo>d1 pu% ! bolt ?r\gh ! holes &    
aft] slipp+ on !  wa%] put on ! ?umb    
screw4 ,! mirror c n[ be mov$ to & fro4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,top ,,view 
,,( ,,heliograph4    ,illu/ration3      
,,fig4 #dc4--,,side ,,view ,,(          
,,heliograph4    ,into ! hole 9 ! front 
"p ( ! base put a wire or a ?9 r\nd     
/ick to sight ! mirror by4 ,! heliograph
 is n[ ready = use4    ,aft] sight+ !   
mirror at ! place :]e ! signals are to  
be  receiv$1 set ! mirror s t ! reflect$
 beam ( sunlight %9es  directly on !    
place4 ,to s5d signals 9 ! ,morse code  
all y ne$  to d to make dots & da%es is 
to place a %eet ( c>dbo>d be=e  ! mirror
 & take x away2 ! l5g? ( "t ! mirror    
rema9s  uncov]$ det]m9es :e!r x is a dot
 or a da%4 ,! heliograph  complete is   
%[n 9 ,fig4 #dd4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4
 #dd4--;,,heliograph ,,complete4    ,h[ 
to ,make a ,simple ,sundial4--,to make a
 sundial ( ! usual k9d  t w give !      

correct ,sun "t is n an easy matt]1 = ! 
spaces m>k+ ! h\rs on ! dial are n equal
 z !y are on !  face ( ! clock & ?is w  
make x h>d to figure out4    ,a k9d (   
sundial t w give ! correct ,sun "t ?\gh1
 c be  easily made & at little co/4 ,get
 a /rip ( t9 #b in*es wide & #bd  in*es 
long2 m>k x (f into #bd equal spaces l  
^? on a two-foot  rule1 & beg9n+ at "o  
end ) ! numb] #a1 numb] ea* space  to   
#bd1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #de4 ,?is done1 b5d !
 /rip ( t9 into a  p]fect r+ ) ! numb]s 
inside & sold] ! jo9t1 z %[n 9  ,fig4   
#df4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4            
#de4--,,numb]$ ,,/rip ,,= ,,sundial4    
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,t9 ,,r+ ,,=
 ,,sundial4    ,next get a /rip ( iron  
or brass  in* wide1 _/ in* ?ick & #ac   
in*es long2 drill a _/ in* hole ?r\gh   
ea* end & a  in* hole  #d in*es f "o    
end2 b5d ?is /rip into an exact         
semi-circle1 z  %[n 9 ,fig4 #dg & sold] 
! t9 r+1 at ! po9t :]e numb]s #a  & #bd 
meet1 to ! middle ( ! brass semi-circle4
 ,?r\gh ! holes  9 ! ends ( ! brass     

semi-circle fa/5 a wire1 & ?is wire mu/ 
run exactly ?r\gh ! c5t] ( ! t9 r+4 ,n[ 
screw ! brass  semi-circle to a basebo>d
 7see ,fig4 #dh71 s t ! angle made by ! 
wire & ! surface ( ! bo>d w be equal to 
! latitude ( !  place :]e x is to be    
us$2 9 o!r words1 :5 ! bo>d is level  ! 
wire %\ld po9t directly to ! ,nor? ,/> &
 :5 ?is is done  x w be adju/$ to !     
prop] angle4 ,! bo>d %\ld be ab\t #ab   
in*es squ>e & #a in* ?ick4              
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,brass     
,,semi-,,circle ,,) ,,%ad[ ,,wire4      
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,sundial    
,,complete4    ,s9ce ! %ad[ ( ! wire    
made by ! sunlight w fall on ,,xii  at  
noon1 x w be pla9 t ! %ad[ ( ! wire     
fall+ on !  numb]s on "o side or ! o!r (
 ! r+ w m>k ! ,sun "t4 ,to  *ange ,sun  
"t to mean sol> "t1 or ord9>y "t1 see   
,equation  ( ,"t1 ,app5dix ,m4          
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,to ,,f9d   
,,! ,,nor? ,,by ,a ,,wat*4    ,to ,f9d !
 ,nor? by a ,wat*4--,to use a wat* z a  
compass1 t is to  f9d ! nor? by means ( 

a wat*1 is easy if ! ,sun is %9+4 ,!    
wat* %\ld be held face upw>d2 !n turn ! 
wat* ar\nd until !  h\r h& po9ts 9 !    
direction ( ! ,sun4 ,draw an imag9>y l9e
  f ! h\r ,,xii to ! c5t] ( y\r wat*4   
,if1 n[1 9 ! middle betwe5 ?is l9e & !  
h\r h& y draw  ano!r l9e f ! c5t] ( !   
wat* & produce1 or ext5d x1  ! middle   
l9e w po9t j ab\t nor?1 all ( :i* is    
cle>ly  %[n 9 ,fig4 #di4                
,,*apt] ,,iv    ,,! ,,planets1 ,,!      
,,sun',s ,,kiddies      ,9 ! la/ *apt]  
we said t all ! />s 9 ! sky1 includ+    
our ,sun1 are fix$ 9 _! positions2 by   
?is we mean t if we  7 to look at ! ,big
 ,dipp] e night = a hundr$ ye>s we  c\ld
 see no *ange 9 ! positions ( any ( !   
/>s =m+ ?is  con/ellation4    ,b if we  
look at ! sky along ! l9e ( !           
ecliptic--t is !  pa? ( ! ,sun--"o night
 aft] ano!r we are likely to see a      
bright  po9t ( light :i* looks exactly l
 a /> & yet x is c]ta9  t ?is po9t (    
light really does move among ! o!r />s4 
,:at  k9d ( a heav5ly object !n is ?is8 

,! bright po9t ( light :i* ?us seems to 
u to be a /> :5 we  look at x ) ! nak$  
eye is really ano!r _w1 or planet z  x  
is call$1 & v l our own ,e>?4 ,to prove 
t ?is mov+  po9t ( light is really a _w1
 or planet1 & n a di/ant />1  all y ne$ 
to d is to look at x ?r\gh a pair ( op]a
 glasses1 or  a small telescope1 :5 x w 
be se5 to be a r\nd body1 :]eas a  /> :5
 view$ ?r\gh ! greate/ telescope is nev]
 l>g] ?an a  m]e po9t ( light4 7,see    
,fig4 #ej47    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4     
#ej4--;,a ,,/> ,,& ,a ,,planet ,,9 ,a   
,,telescope4    ,! reason ! planets1 "s 
( :i* are small] & "s l>g] ?an  our     
,e>?1 c be se5 to move is because !y are
 q ne> our  ,e>?2 t is1 !y are ne> :5   
comp>$ ) ! fix$ />s4    ,aga91 ! reason 
! planets %9e l ! />s is n because  !y  
are hot & flam+ bodies l our ,sun & !   
o!r />s1 b  because ! light f ! ,sun :i*
 /rikes !m is reflect$ to !  ,e>? 9     
exactly ! same way t ! sunlight fall+ on
 a mirror is  reflect$ away 9 ano!r     
direction4    ,names & ,sizes ( !       

,planets4--,! names ( all ! planets1 &  
!re are eight *ief ones1 %\ld be le>n$ z
 well z ! ord] 9  :i* !y are arrang$    
ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,! names ( ! planets are  
giv5 bel[ 9 ! ord] ( _! size4           
,,m]cury--,! smalle/ planet & ! "o ne>e/
 ! ,sun4 ,pale a% 9  color4 ,has no     
moon4    ,,m>s--,! ,r$ ,planet4 ,r$di% 9
 color4 ,has two moons4                 
,,v5us--,call$ ! ,ev5+ ,/>4 ,brilliant  
/raw 9 color4 ,has no moon4             
,,e>?--,our own planet4 ,has "o moon4   
,,uranus 7pron\nc$ ,yew-ra-nus7--,call$ 
,h]s*el's planet4 ,pale gre5 9  color4  
,has five moons4    ,,neptune--,! planet
 f>!/ away f ! ,sun4 ,has "o moon4      
,,saturn--,! planet ) ! r+s4 ,its color 
is a dull yell[4 ,has t5  moons4        
,,jupit]--,! l>ge/ planet4 ,he is m>k$ )
 l9es call$ belts4 ,he  has n9e moons4  
,bright silv] 9 color4    ,,!           
,,a/]oids--,a gr\p ( small planets1 !   
l>ge/ ( :i* is ab\t  #ejj miles 9       
diamet]4    ,h[ to ,"k !                
,planets4--,:ile x is n an easy ?+ to   

tell a  planet f a /> ) ! nak$ eye1 /ill
 !re are sev]al ways (  do+ x4    ,fir/1
 always look = ! planets along ! pa? :i*
 ! ,sun &  ,moon travel4 ,z all !       
planets are ne>ly 9 ! same plane ) !    
,sun & ,moon !y mu/ all foll[ ! same pa?
 across ! sky4    ,second1 x is useful  
to rememb] t none ( ! planets1 except   
,m]cury1 ev] tw9kle1 unless !y are v ne>
 ! horizon4    ,?ird1 by wat*+ a planet 
closely = a few h\rs x w be f\nd  to h  
mov$ a little4 ,to note ?is *ange (     
position ! planet &  "s fix$ /> ne> x   
mu/ be closely wat*$ & _! di/ances      
comp>$ f "t to "t4    ,f\r?1 & la/1 !   
sure/ way ( f9d+ ! diff]5t planets is   
by us+ an almanac :i* w tell y :i*      
planets c be se5 at  c]ta9 times ( ! ye>
 & 9 :at "p ( ! sky !y are to be  f\nd4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,sizes ,,(  
,,planets ,,comp>$4    ,see+            
,m]cury4--,m]cury is s ne> ! ,sun t x c 
only be se5  ) ! nak$ eye at c]ta9      
times4 ,m]cury %\ld be look$ = j  above 
! ea/]n horizon = ab\t an h\r be=e !    

,sun rises 9 !  spr+2 & above ! we/]n   
horizon = ab\t an h\r aft] ! ,sun  sets 
9 ! autumn4 ,y w h no tr\ble 9 kn[+     
,m]cury if y  c only see him1 = he is v 
bright & w be ne> ! horizon4  ,8 pale a%
 color w also help y to s+le him out f !
 />s  ab\t him4 ,m]cury goes ?r\gh      
phases l our ,moon1 b ^!  _c be se5 ) ! 
nak$ eye4    ,m]cury is a curi\s planet 
9 t 8 day & 8 ye> are ( exactly  ! same 
l5g?1 j l our ,moon2 ?is means t he     
turns on 8  axis once 9 exactly ! same  
l5g? ( "t x takes him to travel  r\nd ! 
,sun4 ,?is causes "o side ( ,m]cury to  
be always turn$  t[>d ! ,sun1 & ( c\rse 
?is side is hot & light1 :ile !  o!r    
side is always turn$ away f ! ,sun &1   
consequ5tly1 x  is d>k & cold4 ,?ree    
views ( ,m]cury 9 diff]5t phases z se5  
?r\gh a telescope are %[n 9 ,fig4 #eb4  
,m]cury is #cf millions ( miles f !     
,sun4    ,8 diamet] is #c1jjj miles4    
,8 day is #hh ( our days long4    ,8 ye>
 is #hh ( our days long4                
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,?ree       

,,views ,,( ,,m]cury4    ,see+          
,m>s4--,we he> m ( ,m>s ?an ( any o!r   
planet = two  reasons3 fir/1 because    
great l9es c be se5 on 8 surface :i*    
are ?\ght to be canals1 & second1 s9ce  
,m>s sometimes comes almo/  z close to !
 e>? z ,v5us1 !re has be5 a great deal (
 talk  s9ce ! inv5tion ( wireless       
telegraphy ab\t our signal+ to him4     
,t p c\ld live on ,m>s is possible1 = ! 
,r$ ,planet is l  our ,e>?1 9 t x has   
l&1 wat] & air1 wea!r & seasons1  ) a   
w>m equator & ice-cov]$ poles4 ,se5     
?r\gh a telescope he  looks l ,fig4 #ec1
 ?\gh mu* small]4    ,illu/ration3      
,,fig4 #ec4--,,m>s ,,z ,,se5 ,,?r\gh ,a 
,,telescope4    ,b ,m>s _c always be    
se51 = sometimes he disappe>s = a  c\ple
 ( ye>s1 b :5 he f9ally does return he  
is a good planet1  = he /ays a long "t1 
& y _c mi/ake him1 = he w %9e  ruddy &  
bright ) nev] a m]ry tw9kle4    ,m>s is 
#ada millions ( miles f ! sun4    ,8    
diamet] is #d1bjj miles4    ,8 day is   
#bd ( our h\rs long4    ,8 ye> is #fhg (

 our days long4    ,see+ ,v5us4--,v5us  
is s mu* bright] ?an any ( ! o!r />s  or
 planets t y w "k h] ! in/ant y see h]4 
,inde$1 :5  ,v5us is ! brighte/ & ! ,sun
 is f> en\gh away f h]1 %e c  (t5 be se5
 ) ! nak$ eye 9 ! daytime if ! sky is   
cle>4  ,?ree views ( ! phases ( ,v5us   
are %[n 9 ,fig4 #ed4    ,illu/ration3   
,,fig4 #ed4--,,?ree ,,views ,,( ,,v5us4 
,to see ,v5us y mu/ look = h] e>ly 9 !  
morn+ 9 ! ea/  be=e ! ,sun is up1 or 9 !
 ev5+ 9 ! we/ j aft] ! ,sun  has gone   
d[n4 ,?is is ! reason ,v5us is sometimes
 call$ an ev5+  /> & sometimes a morn+  
/>4 ,v5us goes ?r\gh phases l  ,m]cury &
 our ,moon1 b ^! _c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye4
    ,:5 ,v5us & ! ,sun get too close    
toge!r %e _c be se51 =  ! light ( ! ,sun
 is s p[]ful t h] reflect$ light is     
dimm$  by x4 ,v5us is a bright /raw     
color & %e is a beautiful object 9  !   
sky :5 visible1 b !re are weeks at a "t 
:5 %e _c be  se51 by reason ( ! ,sun    
out%9+ h] :5 %e is betwe5 u &  ! ,sun or
 on ! o!r side ( ! ,sun4 ,! day & ! ye> 

( ,v5us  are1 l ,m]cury1 probably equal1
 & h5ce "o side ( ,v5us is  always turn$
 t[>d ! ,sun & basks 9 its light & heat1
 :ile !  o!r side is turn$ away f ! ,sun
 & is doom$ =ev] to cold  & d>kness4    
,v5us is #fg millions ( miles f ! ,sun4 
,h] diamet] is #g1gjj miles4    ,h] day 
is #bbe ( our days long4    ,h] ye> is  
#bbe ( our days long4    ,our ,e>?4--,! 
,e>? is ! ?ird planet 9 di/ance f our   
,sun1  & al?\gh x is small comp>$ ) "s (
 ! o!rs x is s  important to u t x w be 
describ$ 9 a sep>ate *apt]4 ,fig4  #ee  
%[s a view ( ! ,e>? z %e w\ld be se5 f !
 ,moon4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4         
#ee4--,,! ,,e>?4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4
 #ef4--;,,jupit]4    ,! ,e>? is #ic     
millions ( miles f ! ,sun4    ,h]       
diamet] is #g1ibj miles4    ,h] day is  
#bd h\rs long4    ,h] ye> is #cfe days  
long4    ,see+ ,jupit]4--,jupit]1 !     
l>ge/ planet :i* revolves r\nd  our     
,sun1 is fif? 9 di/ance f him4 ,he is n 
z bright z ,v5us1  b he is bright] ?an  
any ( ! fix$ />s1 & by 8 brightness  &  

silv]y color he is q easy to recognize4 
,?is great planet seems n to h cool$ d[n
 yet into a nice _w  l our own ,e>? or  
someone's else ,m>s1 b r he is a ball   
surr\nd$ by cl\ds ( hot vapor4 ,/ill he 
is n hot en\gh to give  out any light   
himself1 b l ! re/ ( ! planets he %9es  
by  ! reflect$ light ( ! ,sun4 ,fig4 #ef
 is a view ( ,jupit] z se5  ?r\gh a     
telescope2 "o ( ! moons1 & its %ad[ on !
 planet1 is  %[n4    ,jupit] is cross$ )
 sev]al b&s & he has n9e moons to light 
up  8 great surface on a d>k night1 b   
nei!r 8 belts nor 8 moons  c be se5 )\t 
a glass4    ,jupit] is #dhc millions (  
miles f ! ,sun4    ,8 diamet] is #hg1jjj
 miles4    ,8 day is ab\t #aj ( our h\rs
 long4    ,8 ye> is almo/ #ab ( our ye>s
 long4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4          
#eg4--,,saturn4    ,see+ ,saturn4--,x is
 n q z easy to s+le out ,saturn )  !    
nak$ eye1 = 8 light is j ab\t z bright z
 ,capella 9 !  con/ellation ( ,auriga1  
or any ( ! o!r fir/ magnitude />s4      
,?is disadvantage is (fset by ! fact t  

:5 he rises at sunset  he c be se5 dur+ 
! :ole night1 s t y w n only h  pl5ty ( 
"t 9 :i* to f9d him1 b to obs]ve him z  
well4 ,aga91  ,saturn may be se5 any    
cle> night dur+ ! w9t] mon?s until !    
ye> #aibj4    ,l ! ,e>?1 ,saturn is     
believ$ to h a m or less solid core1  b 
hott] & ) lay]s ( gas ar\nd him4 ,x is !
 six? planet  f ! ,sun1 & ) 8 beautiful 
r+s1 :i* are =m$ (  millions ( little   
pieces--ea* a moon 9 itself--& ) 8 t5   
l>ge  moons1 :5 se5 ?r\gh a telescope he
 is f> & away ! mightie/  sight 9 ! :ole
 sky at night4 ,he & 8 wond]ful r+s are 
%[n  9 ,fig4 #eg4    ,saturn is #hhf    
millions ( miles f ! ,sun4    ,8 diamet]
 is #gc1jjj miles4    ,8 day is #aj (   
our h\rs long4    ,8 ye> is #bi ( our   
ye>s long4    ,see+ ,uranus4--,if y h   
%>p eyes & w look = ,uranus 9  ! spr+ & 
summ] mon?s1 y %\ld be able to see him4 
,he has a  pale gre5 color1 & on a cle> 
moonless night is visible to a good     
eye4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4            
#eh4--,,uranus4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 

#ei4--,,neptune4    ,uranus is ! planet 
/> f ! ,sun & be=e ,h]s*el discov]$  him
 ) 8 homemade telescope a/ronom]s       
frequ5tly mi/ook him  = a fix$ />4 ,z   
se5 ?r\gh a l>ge telescope ,uranus %[s  
"s  indi/9ct m>k+s4    ,uranus is #a1ghj
 millions ( miles f ! ,sun4    ,8       
diamet] is #cb1jjj miles4    ,8 day is  
?\ght to be #aa h\rs long4    ,8 ye> is 
#hd ( our ye>s long4                    
,neptune4--,neptune is s f> away f !    
,sun he _c be se5 )  ! nak$ eye1 b he c 
be easily se5 ) a good op]a glass4 ,he  
is  att5d$ by "o moon4 ,he is simply a  
disk ( light :5 se5 ?r\gh a  big        
telescope1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ei4           
,neptune is #b1gij millions ( miles f ! 
,sun4    ,8 diamet] is #cf1jjj miles4   
,8 day is unkn[n4    ,8 ye> is #afe (   
our ye>s long4    ,! ,a/]oids4--,!      
,a/]oids are a gr\p ( small planets mov+
  ar\nd ! ,sun 9 orbits betwe5 ! ,e>? & 
,m>s &1 h5ce1 at  times ^! little bodies
 come v close to u4 ,! gr\p occupies a  
place 9 ! sky :]e we %\ld expect to f9d 

a s+le l>ge planet4    ,illu/ration3    
,,fig4 #fj4--,,m>bles ,,on ,,top ,,(    
,,table4    ,b :5 ! planets 7 made1     
,jupit]1 ) 8 great bulk pull$ !  s(t    
pieces ap>t ( :i* a planet w\ld h be5   
=m$1 & in/ead  ( "o planet ( respectable
 size !re are hundr$s ( little planets  
rang+ any:]e f #aj miles to #ejj miles 9
 diamet]4    ,"o ( ^! small planets is  
call$ ,ve/a1 & al?\gh %e is only  #bdj  
miles 9 diamet] %e may be se5 on c]ta9  
occasions ) !  nak$ eye4    ,positions (
 ! ,planets ,r\nd ! ,sun4--,x 0 m5tion$ 
9 !  beg9n+ ( ?is *apt] t all ( !       
planets lay n f> f "o  plane1 & t !     
,sun's equator is ne>ly 9 ?is plane4 ,n[
 let u  see j :at ?is means4            
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,top ,,view 
,,( ,,sol> ,,sy/em4    ,suppose we lay  
eight m>bles ar\nd a l>ge m>ble plac$ on
 top ( a  table & 9 ! c5t]4 ,?is means t
 all ! m>bles lie 9 !  same plane :i* is
 ! top ( ! table1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj4 ,! 
planets are all arrang$ r\nd ! ,sun1 z  
%[n 9 ,fig4 #fa1 j !  same z if !y 7 all

 plac$ on a big1 level bo>d or table    
top4 ,if  we draw a picture ( ! plane   
view ( ! planets 7,fig4 #fj7 & !  top   
view ( ! planets 7,fig4 #fa7 toge!r1 we 
%all h a picture (  ! sol> sy/em1 z !   
,sun & all ( 8 planets are call$1 z  %[n
 9 ,fig #fb4 ,f ^! pictures y w see t ! 
planets are  n arrang$1 9 di/ance f !   
,sun1 9 ord] ( size4    ,illu/ration3   
,,fig4 #fb4--,,sol> ,,sy/em ,,9         
,,p]spective4    ,to rememb] !          
arrangem5t ( ^! planets 9 _! relation to
 !  ,sun commit to memory ?is simple    
s5t5ce3    ,m5 ,v ,e>ly ,made ,j>s ,s]ve
 ,useful ,ne$s4    ,z ! fir/ lett] ( ea*
 ( ! above words is ! same z ! fir/     
lett] ( a planet1 y w be able to        
in/antly recall ! prop]  place ( any "o 
( !m4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4           
#fc4--;,,egg ,,%ell ,,on ,,plate4    ,h[
 ! ,planets ,are ,held 9 ,space4--,if y 
w take an ord9>y  d9n] plate & half an  
egg%ell1 & give ! egg%ell a slight sp9  
on ! rim ( ! plate--! rim %\ld be       
slightly moi/5$--y w  f9d t by tilt+ !  

plate a trifle ! egg%ell w revolve 9    
two directions2 fir/1 x w sp9 r\nd on   
its own axis1 & second1  x w travel r\nd
 ! rim ( ! plate1 :i* we w call its     
orbit1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fc4    ,?is d\ble 
motion ( ! egg%ell is exactly l ! d\ble 
motion  ( a planet--ea* "o turns on 8   
own axis & ea* travels r\nd !  ,sun 9   
its own orbit2 moreov]1 all ! planets   
travel r\nd ! ,sun  9 ! same direction1 
! ne>e/ planets tak+ ! %orte/ "t  to    
complete ! circle or orbit1 :ile ^? f>!/
 away take !  longe/ "t to g r\nd _!    
orbits j z we might expect !m to  d4    
,9 ! beg9n+ ( ?+s ! planets 7 a "p ( !  
,sun1 z we  %all see fur!r on1 & :5 !y 7
 ?r[n (f by him !y spun  r\nd _! own    
axes1 & !y cont9u$ to sp9 r\nd _! axes j
  z a ball cont9ues to d s aft] x has   
left ! pit*]'s h&4    ,! t5d5cy to fly  
(f at a tang5t :i* e p>ticle ( a rotat+ 
body feels is call$ c5trifugal =ce4 ,n[1
 no "o kn[s :at  c5trifugal =ce is1 b h[
 x acts is v well kn[n1 & y c  f9d out =
 y\rself by mak+ ! foll[+ exp]im5t4     

,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,,boy ,,?r[+
 ,,/one ,,to ,,illu/rate ,,c5trifugal   
,,=ce4    ,take a /one & tie "o end ( a 
/r+ to x2 n[ sw+ ! /one  r\nd 9 a       
circle2 if ! /r+ %\ld break1 or y %\ld  
let x g  accid5tally 7on purpose7 ! /one
 w %oot (f at a tang5t1 t  is 9 a l9e   
away f ! circle 9 :i* x 0 sw++1 z %[n 9 
,fig4 #fd4    ,?is is j :at made !      
planets1 "o aft] ano!r1 sep>ate f  !    
,sun1 b !y c\ld n get v f> away1 = ano!r
 =ce :i*  is n only 9 ! ,sun b 9 e      
p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se1  pull$ !m  
back t[>d ! ,sun1 j z x pulls a ball :5 
?r[n to  ! ,e>?1 & ?is =ce is call$     
gravitation4    ,s ! c5trifugal =ce     
keeps !m sp9n+ r\nd on _! axes &  fly+  
r\nd 9 _! orbits ab\t ! ,sun4 ,if x _h n
 be5 = !  attractive =ce ( gravitation (
 ! ,sun & ! planets1 ! planets  w\ld h  
kept "r on go+ out into space & left !  
,sun to %ift  = itself =ev] aft]4    ,z 
x is !y :irl r\nd ! ,sun1 nev] able to  
get any f>!r f  him & yet nev] gett+ any
 ne>] to him1 = ! c5trifugal =ce  t5ds  

to make !m fly out & away & ! =ce (     
gravitation t5ds  to pull !m back to !  
,sun4 ,! result is t ^! two great       
oppos+ =ces exactly (fset or balance ea*
 o!r1 & ! planets  are held 9 _! orbits 
j z securely z ! /one is held out by  ! 
=ce ! boy ex]ts to move x1 & 9 by ! /r+ 
he holds 9  8 h&4    ,?is balanc+ (     
oppos$ =ces 0 nicely %[n "s ye>s ago by 
,sir  ,rob]t ,ball1 ! great ,engli%     
a/ronom]1 at "o ( 8 lectures 9  ! ,royal
 ,in/itution ( ,london1 & ,i reproduce x
 "h4    ,to ! ceil+ ov] 8 lecture table 
he _h fa/5$ a ?9 wire1 !  l[] end ( :i* 
0 secur$ to a holl[ iron ball4 ,:5 !    
ball  0 pull$ aside1 x w\ld sw+ l a     
great p5dulum1 =? &  back1 9 a plane1 z 
%[n 9 ,fig4 #fe4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4
 #fe4--;,,iron ,,ball ,,p5dulum ,,sw++  
,,9 ,,/raight ,,l9e4    ,illu/ration3   
,,fig4 #ff4--;,,iron ,,ball ,,p5dulum   
,,sw++ ,,9 ,,curv$ ,,l9e4    ,b :5 a    
p[]ful magnet 0 plac$ on ! table & !    
ball 0  set sw++ 9 a plane z be=e1 j z x
 came close to ! end (  ! magnet ! latt]

 pull$ ! ball ) its mighty =ce t[>d x1  
& s *ang$ its c\rse1 b ! ball1 in/ead ( 
be+ attract$  directly to x1 swung 9 a  
graceful curve ar\nd x1 z %[n 9 ,fig4   
#ff4    ,?is is precisely ! case ( !    
planets sw++ r\nd ! ,sun1 &  %[s v      
nicely ! balanc$ =ces ( ! ,sun & !      
planets &  :y ! planets /ick to _!      
orbits4    ,:y ! ,planets ,d ,n ,/op    
,sp9n+4--,n[ y may ask :y ! planets  d n
 /op turn+ on _! axes & revolv+ 9 _!    
orbits r\nd  ! ,sun4 ,& ! answ] is      
because !re is no?+ to /op !m4    ,if y 
sp9 a top on a plate x may keep go+ = a 
long "t1 b x  w f9ally die d[n & /op4   
,?is is because !re are o!r =ces  :i*   
oppose its c5trifugal =ce4 ,! =ces a    
sp9n+ top has to  ov]come are friction  
betwe5 ! po9t ( its sp9dle & ! plate1  &
 ! resi/ance betwe5 ! surface ( ! sp9n+ 
top & !  air press+ on its sides1 & !   
friction & ! air resi/ance  toge!r soon 
use up ! en]gy /or$ 9 ! top & :i* makes 
x  sp94    ,b if y c\ld sp9 & ?r[ a top 
f> en\gh away f ! ,e>?  s t x w\ld n    

meet ) friction or resi/ance ( any k9d1 
x  w\ld g on sp9n+ =ev] j l ! planets4  
,h[ to ,plot ! ,position ( a            
,planet4--,"o ( ! te/s :i* a ,boy  ,sc\t
 mu/ pass 9 ord] to obta9 a m]it badge =
 />craft is to  8plot on at lea/ two    
nights p] mon? = six mon?s ! positions  
( all nak$ eye planets betwe5 sund[n &  
"o h\r !reaft]4 ,!  plot ( ea* planet   
%all conta9 at lea/ ?ree fix$ />s ) _!  
names & designations1 colors ( planets &
 />s to be record$ by  him40    ,n[1 by 
look+ at y\r almanac "u ! head ( ,morn+ 
& ,ev5+  ,/>s y w f9d all ! planets :i* 
are li/$ z ,ev5+ ,/>s1  toge!r ) ! dates
 :5 !y c be/ be se54 ,f y\r almanac  =  
#aiae y w le>n t        ,m]cury is an   
ev5+ />1 & c be se5        ab\t ,feb4   
#e1 ,may #ca & ,septemb] #bg 9 ! we/1   
j aft] sunset2 t        ,v5us w be an   
ev5+ /> f ,septemb]        #ab = ! re/ (
 ! ye>2 t        ,jupit] w be an ev5+ />
 until ,febru>y        #bd2 aft] t a    
morn+ /> until ,septemb] #ag1 &         
!n an ev5+ /> = ! re/ ( ! ye>1 &        

t        ,saturn w be an ev5+ /> until  
,june #bh4    ,! fir/ ?+ to d is to f9d 
:at con/ellation is on y\r  m]idian at  
#i ,p4 ,m4 = ! mon? t ! planet y wi% to 
plot is  to be se54 ,?is y c d by look+ 
at ! map ( ! />s %[n  9 ,fig4 #fg4 ,y c 
see any ( ! />s or con/ellations on y\r 
m]idian by look+ = !m at #i o'clock ,p4 
,m4 on ! mon?s m>k$  above !m4    ,?is  
done1 consult y\r almanac & f9d out :at 
"t ! ,sun sets on  ! day t ! planet y   
are look+ = c be se54    ,z an example  
let's take ,m]cury1 :i* ! almanac says  
is an ev5+  /> ab\t ,febru>y #e1 & :i* c
 be se5 9 ! we/ j aft]  sunset4 ,!      
almanac w also tell y t ! ,sun sets on  
,febru>y #e  at #e o'clock4             
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,map ,,(    
,,/>s ,,on ,,sun',s ,,pa?4    ,! /> map 
7,fig4 #fg7 w %[ y t ! con/ellation (   
,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1 is "o :i* c be se5 9   
,febru>y on y\r  m]idian at #i o'clock  
at night1 & y "k t ,m]cury c be se5     
close to ! we/]n horizon f #c to #d h\rs
 e>li]4    ,s9ce ,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1 is on 

! m]idian at #i o'clock1 ,taurus1 !     
,bull1 :i* is ! next con/ellation to x1 
w be on ! m]idian at  #g o'clock1 &     
,aries1 ! ,ram1 w be on ! m]idian at #e 
o'clock4    ,n[ ! next con/ellation to !
 we/ ( ,aries1 ! ,ram1 is ,pisces1  !   
,fi%es1 & ! next "o to ,pisces1 !       
,fi%es1 is ,aqu>ius1 !  ,wat] ,be>]1 & z
 ?is con/ellation sets ab\t an h\r aft] 
!  ,sun1 x is 9 ?is con/ellation t y w  
f9d ,m]cury 9 !  e>ly ,febru>y ev5+s4   
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,diagram   
,,( ,,position ,,( ,,con/ellations4     
,! diagram 7,fig4 #fh7 %[s h[ x is t :5 
,aries is on !  m]idian at #e o'clock 9 
! ev5+s ( ,febru>y1 ,gem9i w be  ris+ 9 
! ea/1 & ,aqu>ius1 ) ,m]cury 9 x1 w be  
gett+  ready to set 9 ! we/4    ,y c f9d
 all ! o!r planets 9 ! same way1 b x is 
mu*  easi] to f9d !m 9 ! sky ?an x is to
 try & imag9e _!  positions aft] read+  
h[ x is done4 ,y %\ld1 ?\gh1 by all     
means1 read ! *apt] on ,! ,/>s ( !      
,zodiac be=e y try to  plot a planet1 = 
!re is mu* useful in=mation 9 x :i* y   

ought to "k4    ,illu/ration3    ,,no4  
,,( ,,*>t--#c ,,date--,,feb #e          
,,"t--#e-f ,p4,m4 ,,"n ,,(              
,,planet--,,m]cury ,,"n  ,,( ,,ne>e/    
,,/>s ,,color ,,( ,,planet--,,pale ,,a% 
,,phi  ,,oph9cus   ,,william ,,br[n     
,,=malhaut ,,9 ,,s\!rn ,,fi% ,,color ,,(
 ,,/>s ,,alpha   ,,beta1 ,,:ite         
,,=malhaut1 ,,/raw    ,,fig4            
#fi4--,,plott+ ,,position ,,( ,,planet4 
,to plot ! position ( a planet1 take a  
%eet ( /iff pap] or  c>dbo>d ab\t #h    
in*es squ>e & divide x into a squ>e #f  
in*es on  ! side1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #fi4    
,?is w leave a m>g9 ( #a in* on  bo?    
sides1  in* on top & #a in*es at !      
bottom ( y\r pap]4    ,fa/5 ! pap] to   
y\r />bo>d1 describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii1 & g 
=? ) x & y\r acetyl5e or fla% lamp & f9d
 y\r planet4  ,hav+ f\nd x1 m>k ) a     
p5cil 9 ! squ>es on y\r rul$ pap]  !    
positions ( ?ree ( ! ne>e/ fix$ />s :i* 
are %[n 9  ! /> *>t ( ,fig4 #fg4 ,n[ m>k
 ! position ( ! planet z  y see x on y\r
 *>t by mak+ a little circle & y\r      

outdoor  obs]vation is end$4    ,once   
inside1 m>k d[n ! *>t numb]1 ! date & ! 
"t y made  ! obs]vation2 also ! names & 
colors ( ! />s & ! planet1  & f9i% !    
record by sign+ y\r "n4 ,%\ld any ( !   
o!r  planets be visible at ! "t ( y\r   
obs]vation y w1 ( c\rse1  h to plot two 
*>ts1 unless ! planets are v ne> ea*    
o!r4          ,,*apt] ,v    ,,"m ,,e>?1 
,,old ,,adam',s ,,planet      ,! ,e>? 9 
! ,mak+4--,! ,e>? on :i* we live & f9d s
  mu* t is int]e/+ 0 once a "p ( our    
,sun j z ! o!r  planets 74    ,:5 ! ,sun
 0 be+ made ( /> /uff great quantities (
 gases  7 set into mighty :irls1 & :5 ^!
 acquir$ en\gh =ce !y  %ot (f into space
 l s _m cannon balls1 & !y are /ill     
a-:irl+4    ,b ^! new-born planets c\ld 
only get a c]ta9 di/ance away f  ! ,sun1
 z we h le>n$1 = ! =ce ( 8 attraction   
(fset !  =ce ( _! motion ) ! result t !y
 are /ill held 9 space  ar\nd him4      
,"o ( ^! :irl+ bodies 0 ! ,e>?1 & :5 x  
_h com=tably  settl$ 9 its orbit & sl[$ 
d[n a bit x began to cool (f &  a cru/ 0

 =m$ on its liquid surface1 j z ice is  
=m$ :5  wat] is froz54 ,!n "s ( ! gases 
cond5s$ into wat] & o!rs  became air &  
:5 ! ,e>? _h cool$ d[n /ill fur!r "s    
millions ( ye>s aft]w>d x became a m or 
less suitable place =  human be+s to    
live on4    ,:ile ! ,e>? has cool$ (f   
until x is possible = u to live         
com=tably on its cru/1 x is /ill w>m    
outside & v hot inside4  ,?is is prov$  
by volcanoes :i* ?r[ out :ite hot lava &
 gases  :5 !y are 9 eruption4    ,if x  
_h n be5 = ! light & heat ( ! ,sun 9 !  
pa/ ages  !re nev] c\ld h be5 any k9d ( 
life on ! ,e>?4 ,! ,e>?  is j z dep5d5t 
on ! ,sun n[ z x 0 9 ! pa/1 & if he     
%\ld fail to %9e on our _w = ev5 a      
little "t ev]y?+  w\ld die4 ,fig4 #gj is
 a cross section ( ! ,e>?4    ,to ,prove
 ! ,e>? is ,r\nd4--,e boy kn[s t ! ,e>? 
is r\nd1  b ! wise/ ( m5 did n "k x =   
c]ta9 until ab\t #djj ye>s  ago1 :5 "o (
 ,magellan's %ips made a complete voyage
 r\nd !  _w & return$ to ! place %e />t$
 f4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4             

#gj4--;,,cross ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 
7#a7 ,"o ( ! easy ways to %[ t ! e>? is 
r\nd1 or at lea/  t ! surface ( ! e>? is
 curv$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ga1 is to  wat* a
 %ip z %e sails out to sea4 ,all ( !    
%ip--hull1 sails  & smoke/ack1 if %e has
 "o--c be se5 until %e sails ov] !      
horizon1 & !n h] hull1 :i* is ! l>ge/ "p
 ( h]1 is lo/  to view1 !n h] sails &   
/ack1 & f9ally only ! tops ( h]  ma/s c 
be se54 ,x is a pretty good sign t !    
,e>? is a ball4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 
#ga4--,,sails ,,( ,,%ip ,,c ,,be ,,se5  
,,aft] ,,hull ,,has  ,,disappe>$4       
7#b7 ,a v pleasant way to prove ! ,e>?  
is a ball is to take passage  on a %ip t
 makes a r\nd-!-_w cruise4 ,if y leave  
,new ,york  & keep sail+ ea/ all ! "t y 
w f9ally l& at ,san  ,francisco2 keep on
 go+ ea/ by rail & y w f9d y\rself back 
9 de> old ,new ,york1 :]e y />t$ f4 ,see
 ,fig4 #gb4    ,to ,prove ! ,e>? ,turns 
on ,its ,axis4--7#a7 ,hav+ prov$ t !    
,e>? is r\nd1 ! next ?+ to d is to prove
 t x turns ab\t on  its axis4    7#a7 ,!

 be/ kn[n exp]im5t = %[+ t ! ,e>? really
 turns  on its axis 0 made by ,f\cault  
7pron\nc$ ,foo-ko71 a ,fr5*  philosoph]1
 9 #ahea1 :o us$ a p5dulum = ! purpose4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,sail+      
,,r\nd ,,! ,,e>?4    ,9 ! top ( a great 
dome 9 a build+ 9 ,p>is1 call$ !        
,pan?on1 ,f\cault hung a l>ge metal ball
 by means ( a wire ab\t  #aej feet long4
 ,on ! floor he made a m>k1 exactly "u !
 ball1  runn+ due nor? & s\?4 ,!n draw+ 
back ! ball1 he let x g1  :5 x swung    
directly ov] ! l9e4    ,! heavy p5dulum1
 :i* aft] be+ />t$ swung = h\rs1 seem$  
to move away f ! l9e 9 ! direction ( !  
h&s ( a wat*4  ,?is %[$ t ! floor ( !   
,pan?on 0 really skew+ ar\nd  "u ! sw++ 
p5dulum4 ,?is is easily expla9$ z due to
 !  rotation ( ! e>? because ! nor!rn   
edge ( ! floor 0 ne>]  ! axis ( ! e>?   
?an ! s\!rn edge & !re=e 0 c>ri$  m     
sl[ly ea/w>d4    7#b7 ,a mu* simpl] way 
to %[ ! turn+ ( ! ,e>? on its axis1     
?\gh ?is exp]im5t only proves t ei!r !  
,e>? or ! :ole  sky turns1 is to make a 

photograph ( ! ,nor? ,/> & ! />s 9  its 
neighborhood1 z expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xii4 
,dur+ ! "t ! s5sitive plate is be+      
expos$ ! cam]a w be  c>ri$ r\nd by !    
,e>? turn+ on its axis & ! fix$ />s w   
leave bright trails on ! plate 9 arcs ( 
circles4    ,! ,e>? ,turn+ on ,its ,axis
 ,makes ,day & ,night4--,! ,e>?1 9      
turn+ r\nd on its axis once e #bd h\rs1 
receives ! light (  ! ,sun on half ( its
 surface at a "t1 mak+ ! day1 :ile !    
o!r half is 9 ! %ad[1 :i* makes ! night4
    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,! ,,e>?
 ,,moves ,,away ,,f ,,! ,,sw++          
,,p5dulum4    ,if ! equator ( ! e>? 0 9 
a plane ) ! ,sun1 z %[n 9  ,pig4 #gd1 x 
is easy to see t ! days & nights all ov]
 ! _w  w\ld be ( ! same l5g?1 t is1 ea* 
w\ld be #ab h\rs long4  ,in/ead1 ! ,e>? 
is tilt$ a little1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ge--to
 be exact1  its axis is tilt$ #bc       
degrees out ( ! p]p5dicul> & ?is  makes 
! day & ! night at ! equator ea* #ab    
h\rs long & !  day & ! night at ! nor? &
 s\? poles ea* six mon?s long4    ,!    

circle r\nd ! ,sky :i* is 9 a plane ) ! 
,sun is call$  ! ecliptic4 ,! ,sun seems
 to foll[ a pa? r\nd ! ,e>? 9 ?is       
plane1 & ?is is call$ ! pa? ( ! ,sun4   
,to ,%[ ,t ! ,e>? ,travels ,r\nd !      
,sun4--,:5 we look at ! ,sun  & ! />s x 
is h>d to believe t !y are /&+ /ill &  t
 x is ! ,e>? :i* is :irl+ r\nd on its   
own axis & also  r\nd ! ,sun4           
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,if ,,!    
,,e>?',s ,,equator ,,7 ,,9 ,a ,,l9e ,,) 
,,!  ,,sun4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4     
#ge4--,,! ,,e>? ,,tilt$ ,,on ,,its      
,,axis4    ,we h giv5 a c\ple (         
exp]im5ts to %[ t ! ,e>? turns on  its  
own axis1 & "h is "o to make x cle> h[ !
 ,e>? travels  9 a great circle1 or r   
ellipse1 r\nd ! ,sun & gives u our  ye>4
    ,fur!r1 ! ,e>?'s axis be+ tilt$ away
 f ! axis ( ! orbit1  its movem5t r\nd !
 ,sun causes ! nor? pole to be turn$    
t[>d  ! ,sun half ( ! "t1 & !n ! s\?    
pole to be turn$ t[>d  ! ,sun an equal  
l5g? ( "t1 :i* gives ea* ( !m a day & a 
night t is six mon?s long4              

,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,light ,,9  
,,room ,,to ,,repres5t ,,sun4    ,9 !   
c5t] ( a l>ge room set a light s t x w  
be ab\t z  high z y\r eyes4 ,let ?is    
light repres5t ! ,sun2 y mu/ play n[  t 
y are ! ,e>?1 & ?9k ( ! pictures on !   
wall z be+  ! />s fix$ 9 ! sky away (f 9
 space4 ,n[ walk 9 a circle  ar\nd !    
light t[>d ! "r & fac+ ! light all ! "t4
 ,z  y move ar\nd ! light y w see t x   
seems to move 9 !  opposite direction & 
t x seems to move pa/ ! pictures on !   
wall4 ,! exp]im5t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #gf4   
,?is1 !n1 is exactly :at happ5s :5 we   
look at ! ,sun & !  />s4 ,! ,e>? moves  
r\nd ! ,sun 9 a circle1 ne>ly1 & s9ce ! 
,sun is s mu* clos] to u ?an any ( ! o!r
 fix$ />s ! ,sun  app>5tly moves by !   
/>s1 because ! ,e>? *anges its position 
relative to x & ! />s4    ,! ,e>? ,turn+
 ,r\nd ! ,sun ,makes ! ,seasons4--,we h 
se5 h[  ! days & nights w\ld be equal   
all ov] ! _w if ! equator (  ! ,e>? 0 9 
a plane ) ! ,sun1 b s9ce ! ,e>? is tilt$
  ! days & nights are unequal except    

twice a ye>1 & ?is is :5  ! places :]e !
 ecliptic & ! equator cross ea* o!r are 
fac+ ! ,sun4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4    
#gg--,,top ,,spr+ ,,on ,,plate4         
,aga91 if ! ,e>?'s equator 0 always 9 a 
plane ) ! ,sun !  day w\ld be j z long z
 ! night all ?r\gh ! ye> & !re  w\ld be 
no seasons4 ,b ! ,e>? hav+ its axis     
tilt$1 & :i* is  always set 9 ! same    
direction1 toge!r ) ! ,e>? spe$+ 9  a   
circle ar\nd ! ,sun1 causes "s curi\s   
?+s to happ5 & !  seasons are "o ( !m4  
,to make cle>] ! reason ! axis ( ! ,e>? 
always /ays 9 "o  position take a top & 
give x a good sp94 ,! top1 ( c\rse1     
turns  r\nd its axis v fa/1 & ?is is l !
 ,e>? turn+ r\nd its  axis e #bd h\rs4  
,n[1 if y place ! blunt end ( a p5cil on
 ! upp] axis ( !  sp9n+ top1 z %[n 9    
,fig4 #gg1 & try to tilt x 9 "s o!r     
direction ?an t x took :5 x began to    
sp91 y w f9d x  r a h>d ?+ to d4 ,9 o!r 
words1 once a body is rapidly  turn+ on 
its own axis x v /rongly t5ds to keep   
its axis  po9t+ 9 ! same direction4     

,?is rule also applies to ! ,e>?1 = hav+
 be5 tilt$ at an angle  :5 x 0 ?r[n (f  
by ! ,sun 9 ! mak+1 no o!r =ces h  ev]  
be5 able to *ange ! position ( its axis 
to any great ext5t1  ?\gh1 ! ,e>? sp9s  
easily on its axis & also revolves r\nd 
!  ,sun4    ,to und]/& h[ ! seasons are 
made y mu/ fir/ h cle>ly 9  m9d !       
positions ( ! tilt$ ,e>? 9 diff]5t p>ts 
( its orbit  r\nd ! ,sun4 ,! ?+s ne$$ = 
?is exp]im5t are a nice r\nd  apple1 a  
c&le1 a piece ( /r+1 a safety-p9 & a    
knitt+ ne$le4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   
#gh4--;,,circle ,,ar\nd ,,c&le ,,m>k$   
,,) ,,seasons4    ,place ! c&le 9 ! c5t]
 ( a table & call x ! ,sun2 draw a      
circle a foot 9 diamet] on ! table top &
 ar\nd ! c&le )  a bit ( *alk4 ,m>k "o  
side ,septemb] #bb2 at ! next qu>t] ( ! 
circle m>k ,decemb] #ba2 directly       
opposite ! ,septemb] m>k *alk 9  ,m>*   
#ba1 & f9ally betwe5 ,m>* & ,septemb]   
m>k ,june #ba1 all (  :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4
 #gh4    ,pu% ! knitt+ ne$le ?r\gh !    
c5t] ( ! apple1 call !  apple ! ,e>? &  

call "o end ( ! knitt+ ne$le ! nor? pole
  & ! o!r end ! s\? pole4 ,fa/5 !       
safety-p9 ?r\gh !  sk9 ( ! apple & tie !
 /r+ to ! p9 s t :5 ! /r+  is ti$ to a  
tack 9 ! ceil+ or "s "o is hold+ x      
directly  ov] ! c&le ! knitt+ ne$le ( ! 
apple w be tilt$ to !  p]p5dicul>1 z %[n
 9 ,fig4 #gi4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   
#gi4--;,,apple ,,to ,,repres5t ,,e>?    
,,susp5d$ ,,9 ,,air4    ,illu/ration3   
,,fig4 #hj4--,,position ,,( ,,! ,,e>?   
,,& ,,sun ,,9 ,,autumn4    ,illu/ration3
 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,position ,,( ,,! ,,e>?  
,,& ,,sun ,,9 ,,w9t]4    ,illu/ration3  
,,fig4 #hb4--,,position ,,( ,,! ,,e>?   
,,& ,,sun ,,9 ,,spr+4  ,illu/ration3    
,,fig4 #hc4--,,position ,,( ,,! ,,e>?   
,,& ,,sun ,,9 ,,summ]4    ,n[ grasp !   
top ( ! ne$le1 :i* is ! nor? pole1 ) !  
left  h& & hold ! apple away f ! c&le1 z
 %[n 9 ,fig4 #hj4 ,?is  is ! position ( 
! e>? to ! ,sun on ,septemb] #bb1 :5 !  
,sun  passes directly ov] ! ,e>?'s      
equator1 & = u autumn is at h&4    ,n[  
pull ! apple by its nor? pole t[>d y &  

ar\nd "o qu>t]  ( ! circle *alk$ on !   
table1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ha1 :i* is !      
position ( ! ,e>? to ! ,sun on ,decemb] 
#ba4 ,y w see t !  nor? pole is away f !
 light & heat & h5ce x is d>k &  w9t]   
!re2 b ! s\? pole on ! o!r end is gett+ 
pl5ty  ( light & heat & x is bo? day &  
summ] !re4 ,?is m>ks !  beg9n+ ( our    
w9t]4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4           
#hd4--;,,cycle ,,( ,,seasons4    ,pu% ! 
apple by its nor? pole--always be+      
c>eful to keep !  knitt+ ne$le tilt$ 9 !
 same position--ar\nd ano!r qu>t] ( a   
circle & ?is is :]e ! ,e>? is 9 its     
orbit1 & its position  to ! ,sun on ab\t
 ,m>* #ba4 ,once aga9 ! ,sun is ov] !   
,e>?'s  equator & all p>ts or our _w are
 !n light$ & heat$ twelve  h\rs out ( ! 
tw5ty-f\r1 & we h ! beg9n+ ( spr+4 ,see 
,fig4 #hb4    ,aga9 pu% ! apple ar\nd   
ano!r qu>t] circle & ,june #ba is       
rea*$4 ,?is "t y w f9d ! nor? pole is   
turn$ t[>d !  ,sun & ?is "t x gets !    
light & heat = six mon?s1 :ile !  s\?   
pole is away f ! ,sun & takes its turn (

 six mon?s (  night & w9t]4 ,to u1      
h[ev]1 x is ! beg9n+ ( summ]4 ,fig4  #hc
 %[s ! position ( ! ,e>? to ! ,sun at   
?is "t4    ,pull ! apple "o m qu>t] ( ! 
circle r\nd ! c&le & y  w h complet$ its
 orbit j z ! ,e>? sw+s r\nd ! ,sun 9    
#cfe days4 ,! seasons are m cle>ly %[n 9
 ,fig4 #hd4    ,! ,nor? ,pole4--,! nor? 
pole is n only "o ( ! ends ( !  axis    
r\nd :i* ! ,e>? turns b close to x is ! 
nor? magnetic  pole z well4 ,by magnetic
 we mean t ! ,e>? behaves l a  /eel b> t
 has be5 magnetiz$4    ,a /eel b> magnet
 l t %[n 9 ,fig4 #he is /ronge/ at its  
ends4  ,"o end is positively magnetiz$1 
& we call ?is end its nor?  pole1 & !   
o!r end is negatively magnetiz$1 & we   
call ?is  end its s\? pole4    ,magnetic
 l9es ( =ce /ream f ! s\? pole ?r\gh !  
/eel  b> & rea*+ ! nor? pole !y /ream   
?r\gh ! air to !  s\? pole1 z %[n by !  
curv$ l9es1 ?us =m+ a magnetic  circuit1
 j z two wires jo9$ toge!r may =m an    
electric  circuit4    ,if we place a    
compass ne$le ne> ! /eel b> magnet !    

ne$le w  turn 9 ! same direction z !    
magnetic l9es ( =ce are fl[+1  & x w1   
!re=e1 po9t to ! nor? & to ! s\? poles (
  ! magnet4    ,n[ ! ,e>? is a great    
magnet ) a positive pole1 :i* we call ! 
nor? pole at "o end ( its axis1 & a     
negative pole1 :i* we call  ! s\? pole1 
at ! o!r end ( its axis1 z %[n 9 ,fig4  
#hf4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4            
#he4--,,l9es ,,( ,,=ce ,,?r\gh ,,&      
,,ar\nd ,a ,,magnet4    ,illu/ration3   
,,fig4 #hf4--,,l9es ,,( ,,=ce ,,ar\nd   
,,! ,,e>?4    ,l a b> magnet1 magnetic  
l9es ( =ce /ream all ov] ! ,e>?'s       
surface f ! nor? pole to ! s\? pole1 & a
 compass ne$le  plac$ any:]e on ! ,e>? w
 sw+ r\nd until x is 9 ! same  direction
 z ! l9es ( magnetic =ce4               
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,wat*       
,,spr+--,,ne$le ,,= ,,compass4          
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,,compass   
,,complete4    ,h[ to ,make a ,simple   
,compass4--,take a piece ( wat* spr+    
ab\t #c  in*es long & /raight5 x4 ,heat 
! middle r$-hot & let x cool  sl[ly1 :5 

! temp] w be tak5 out ( x at ?is po9t4  
,place  a c5t] pun* 9 ! middle ( ! spr+ 
& /rike x a %>p bl[  ) a hamm]2 ?is w   
make a little d5t 9 x4 ,b5d x z %[n 9   
,fig4 #hg4 ,to magnetize ! ne$le rub "o 
end on ! nor? pole & !  o!r end on ! s\?
 pole ( a /eel magnet4 ,/ick a sew+     
ne$le  into a l>ge cork & lay !         
magnetiz$ ne$le on x1 :5 x w  po9t nor? 
& s\?1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #hh4    ,box+ !    
,compass4--,!re are two k9ds ( compasses
 9 g5]al  use1 ?\gh bo? k9ds use a      
magnetiz$ ne$le4 ,! fir/ k9d is !       
ord9>y pocket compass1 ) ei!r a pull-(f 
cov] or "o ( !  wat*-case patt]n4 ,9 ?is
 k9d ( a compass ! magnetic ne$le is    
fitt$ ) a jewel$ c5t] :i* sw+s on a /eel
 ne$le2 ! dial  is fix$ 9 ! case & is   
m>k$ ) ! c>d9al po9ts1 t is  ) ! *ief   
po9ts ( a compass4 ,fig4 #hi %[s a      
pocket wat*-case  compass4              
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,pocket     
,,wat*-,,case ,,compass4                
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,,dial ,,(  
,,m>9]',s ,,compass4    ,9 ! m>9]'s     

compass1 :i* is us$ at sea1 ! compass   
c>d &  ! magnetic ne$le are fa/5$       
toge!r4 ,! c>d is made ( a  circul> %eet
 ( mica & ! po9ts ( ! compass1 :i* are  
call$  rhumbs1 are m>k$ on ! edge4 ,!   
ne$le & c>d float 9 a b[l  ( m]cury4    
,! c>d is m>k$ ) #cb rays1 =m+ a        
_m-po9t$ />1 &  ea* ( ^! po9ts has a "n1
 ! names ( ! f\r c>d9al  po9ts be+ nor?1
 ea/1 s\? & we/4 ,to "k all ( !  po9ts  
by he>t & be able to "n !m1 beg9n+ ) !  
nor? &  go+ r\nd ! c>d to ! nor? aga91  
is :at sailors call box+  ! compass4    
,see ,fig4 #ij4         ,po9ts on       
,names ( ,po9ts      ,compass ,c>d      
,n                         ,nor?        
,n b,e                      ,nor? by ea/
         ,,nne                          
,nor?1 nor!a/         ,,ne b,n          
,nor!a/ by nor?         ,,ne            
,nor!a/         ,,ne b,e                
,nor!a/ by ea/         ,,ene            
,ea/1 nor!a/         ,e b,n             
,ea/ by nor?         ,e                 
,ea/         ,e b,s                     

,ea/ by s\?         ,,ese               
,ea/1 s\!a/         ,,se b,e            
,s\!a/ by ea/         ,,se              
,s\!a/         ,,se b,s                 
,s\!a/ by s\?         ,,sse             
,s\?1 s\!a/         ,s b,e              
,s\? by ea/         ,s                  
,s\?         ,s b,w                     
,s\? by we/         ,,ssw               
,s\?1 s\?we/         ,,sw b,s           
,s\?we/ by s\?         ,,sw             
,s\?we/         ,,sw b,w                
,s\?we/ by we/         ,,wsw            
,we/1 s\?we/         ,w b,s             
,we/ by s\?         ,w                  
,we/         ,w b,n                     
,we/ by nor?         ,,wnw              
,we/1 nor?we/         ,,nw b,w          
,nor?we/ by we/         ,,nw            
,nor?we/         ,,nw b,n               
,nor?we/ by nor?         ,,nnw          
,nor?1 nor?we/         ,n b,w           
,nor? by we/         ,n                 
,nor?               ,,dial ,,( ,a       
,,m>9]',s ,,compass    ,h[ to ,make a   

,simple ,dipp+ ,ne$le4--,:5 a compass   
ne$le is pivot$  s t x c sw+ up & d[n1 t
 is1 to & away f ! e>?1  x is call$ a   
dipp+ ne$le4    ,su* a ne$le w dip t[>d 
! ne>e/ pole ( ! e>?4 ,at !  magnetic   
equator !re is no dip1 t is1 ! ne$le w  
/&  p>allel ) ! ,e>?'s surface4         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,,ne$le ,,=  
,,dipp+ ,,ne$le4    ,at ! nor? magnetic 
pole ! ne$le w /& /raight up & d[n  9 a 
l9e ) ! axis ( ! ,e>?4 ,! dip1 !re=e1 ( 
! ne$le  at any place on ! ,e>?'s       
surface is j ab\t t ( ! latitude  ( !   
place :]e x is us$4 ,dipp+ ne$les are   
also us$ by m9]s  = f9d+ iron ores4     
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,,dipp+     
,,ne$le ,,complete4    ,to make a dipp+ 
ne$le1 slip a small cork ov] a knitt+   
ne$le &  pu% a sew+ ne$le ?r\gh ! cork  
at "r angles to ! knitt+  ne$le1 z %[n 9
 ,fig4 #ia4 ,n[ lay ! sew+ ne$le ) its  
ends  on ! edges ( two tumbl]s1 & see t 
! knitt+ ne$le is  p]fectly balanc$4    
,?is done1 magnetize ! knitt+ ne$le by  
rubb+  "o end on ! nor? pole ( a /eel   

magnet & ! o!r end on !  s\? pole ( !   
magnet4 ,make a little wood /& z %[n 9  
,fig4 #ib  & place ! ends ( ! sew+ ne$le
 on ! wood supports4    ,illu/ration3   
,,fig4 #ic4--,,protractor ,,%[+         
,,degrees4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4      
#id4--;,,e>? ,,surface ,,divid$ ,,into  
,,degrees4      ,! latitude runn+ ?r\gh 
! middle ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ab\t  #dj 
degrees nor? ( ! equator & if y live 9  
?is latitude !  dip ( y\r ne$le w be    
ab\t #dj degrees f ! horizontal4        
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,protractor 
,,set ,,by ,,dipp+ ,,ne$le ,,%[+        
,,latitude4    ,h[ to ,f9d              
,latitude4--,! latitude ( a place on !  
,e>?'s  surface is its di/ance nor? or  
s\? ( ! equator4 ,?is di/ance is        
usually measur$ 9 degrees ( a circle1   
in/ead ( 9 miles4    ,! equator is call$
 #j 7z]o7 degrees1 & ! nor? & s\? poles 
are #ij degrees f ! equator1 z %[n 9    
,fig4 #ic4 ,if y are 9  ,philadelphia1  
,p5nsylvania1 or ,qu9cy1 ,ill9ois1 or   
,tehama1 ,cali=nia1  y are 9 latitude   

#dj degrees4 ,if y are 9 ,bangor1 ,ma9e1
 ,/4 ,paul1  ,m9nesota1 or ,portl&1     
,oregon1 y are 9 latitude #de degrees1  
or j  halfway betwe5 ! nor? pole & !    
equator1 z ,fig4 #id %[s4    7#a7 ,an   
easy way to f9d r\ghly ! latitude ( a   
place1 t is1  its di/ance f ! equator1  
is to use a dipp+ ne$le & a  protractor4
    ,to make a protractor cut out a     
semi-circle ( /iff1 :ite c>dbo>d1  j !  
size %[n 9 ,fig4 #ic1 & m>k ! figures on
 ! edge &  draw l9es f ! edge to ! c5t] 
po9t exactly z 9 ! picture4             
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,two ,,/icks
 ,,screw$ ,,toge!r4    ,illu/ration3    
,,fig4 #ig4--,,two ,,/icks ,,across     
,,bucket ,,( ,,wat]4    ,n[ place y\r   
dipp+ ne$le on a level bo>d or table &  
set !  c5t] ( y\r c>dbo>d protractor 9  
l9e & on a level )  ! axis ( ! ne$le1 z 
%[n 9 ,fig4 #ie4 ,:atev] l9e on !       
protractor ! dip ( ! ne$le takes !      
degree m>k$ on ! edge (  ! protractor w 
be ! magnetic latitude y are 94    7#b7 
,a way to obta9 true latitude is to take

 two smoo? pieces ( wood1  ab\t #a foot 
long &  in* ?ick1 & h+e !m toge!r at "o 
end  ) a screw1 z 9 ,fig4 #if4 ,n[ set a
 bucket out-(-doors 9 an op5  space f   
:i* ! ,nor? ,/> may be se51 fill !      
bucket ) wat]  & level x up until ! wat]
 is p>allel ) ! rim all ! way  r\nd4    
,:5 night falls f9d ! ,nor? ,/> & set   
y\r /icks across !  rim1 z %[n 9 ,fig4  
#ig4 ,raise "o ( ! /icks & sight x until
 x  po9ts /raight at ! ,nor? ,/>1 & hav+
 done ?is y are ?r\gh  ) ! obs]vation4  
,take ! /icks into ! h\se1 be+ v c>eful 
n to *ange _!  relative positions1 s t !
 angle !y =m c be measur$  ) a          
protractor4 ,tack a piece ( pap] on y\r 
/>bo>d & draw a  /raight horizontal l9e 
on x4    ,lay ! /ick t 0 on ! bucket on 
! horizontal l9e1 & draw a  l9e along ! 
edge ( ! o!r /ick ) :i* y sight$ ! ,nor?
  ,/>1 z 9 ,fig4 #ih4    ,n[ measure !  
di/ance1 9 degrees1 betwe5 ! two l9es ) 
y\r  protractor & ! numb] ( degrees y   
get w be r\ghly !  latitude4    ,%oot+ !
 ,sun4--,ano!r & v exact way to f9d !   

latitude1  & :i* is also us$ to help f9d
 longitude :5 at sea1 is by means  ( an 
in/rum5t kn[n z a sextant1 s call$ f !  
fact t x  is =m$ ( a six? "p ( a circle4
    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4                
#ih4--,,protractor ,,& ,,/icks ,,on     
,,draw+ ,,pap]4    ,x is made ) a metal 
frame ,a & hav+ ! degrees m>k$ on its   
curv$ edge ,b l a protractor4 ,on "o end
 ( a ?9 /rip ( metal1  or arm1 ,c 7see  
,fig4 #ii71 a mirror1 ,d1 call$ an index
 mirror1 is  rigidly fa/5$1 & "r "u !   
c5t] ( ?is mirror ! arm ,c  is h+$ to ! 
frame ,a4 ,! o!r end ( ?is arm slides   
ov] !  scale ,b4    ,to ! left side ( ! 
frame also rigidly fa/5$ is a second    
glass ,e  call$ a horizon glass1 & half 
( :i* is cle> & half silv]$4  ,a        
telescope is also rigidly fa/5$ to !    
frame ,a directly opposite  b 9 a l9e ) 
! horizon glass ,e4    ,n[ to f9d !     
latitude by tak+ ! ,sun1 or z sailors   
sometimes  call x1 %oot+ ! ,sun1 9 ord] 
to le>n ! position ( ! %ip  at sea1 !   
sextant is held 9 bo? h&s firmly1 & !   

horizon :i*  is sight$ ?r\gh ! telescope
 is br\ght into view ?r\gh ! cle>  "p ( 
! horizon glass ,e4    ,! arm ,c1 c>ry+ 
! index mirror ,d1 is n[ mov$ ov] !     
scale ,a  until ! light f ! ,sun j z x  
crosses ! m]idian at noon is  reflect$  
by its poli%$ surface into ! silv]$ "p (
 ! horizon  glass ,e1 & ?is reflects !  
sunlight into ! telescope "r 9 a  l9e ) 
! l9e ( sight to ! horizon4 ,?is =ms an 
angle ( !  two beams ( light j z an     
angle is =m$ ( ! two /icks ( wood  9 !  
pail exp]im5t & ! numb] ( degrees ! end 
( ! arm ,c  po9ts to on ! scale ,b is ! 
latitude 9 degrees or ! di/ance (  ! %ip
 nor? or s\? ( ! equator4               
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,sextant ,,9
 ,,use4 ,,%oot+ ,,! ,,sun4    ,h[       
,longitude is ,f\nd4--,to f9d !         
longitude at sea1 t is1 !  position ( a 
%ip ea/ or we/ ( a giv5 place1 is j z   
simple a  matt] z f9d+ ! latitude or its
 position nor? or s\? ( !  equator4 ,two
 in/rum5ts are us$ to f9d longitude1 &  
^! are !  sextant1 :i* has j be5        

describ$1 & a v accurate clock1  call$ a
 *ronomet] 7pron\nc$ *ro-nom-e-t]74     
,z y "k1 imag9>y l9es runn+ f ! nor?    
pole to ! s\?  pole are call$ m]idians (
 longitude4 ,n[ ! ,e>? has be5  divid$  
into #bd ( ^! l9es1 ! z]o m]idian1 f :i*
 di/ances  ea/ & we/ are measur$1 runn+ 
?r\gh ,gre5wi*1 ,engl&4    ,!re are #bd 
( ^! /&>d m]idians & h5ce !y are #ae    
degrees ap>t--s9ce !re are #cfj degrees 
9 a circle--& !y are #a  h\r ap>t--s9ce 
!re are #bd h\rs 9 a day1 & !re=e #ae   
degrees  equal #a h\r4 7,see ,*apt] ,x1 
,! ,"t o' ,day47    ,n[1 s9ce x is #ab  
o'clock noon :5 ! ,sun passes ov] any "o
 (  ^! /&>d m]idians1 x w be #aa o'clock
 ,a4 ,m41 #ae degrees we/  ( x1 & #a    
o'clock ,p4 ,m41 #ae degrees ea/ ( x1 & 
consequ5tly  !re w be an h\r's diff]5ce 
9 ! "t1 ei!r fa/ or sl[1  = e #ae       
degrees1 dep5d+ on :e!r y c\nt ea/ or   
we/ f  ! noon m]idian4    ,! purpose ( a
 sextant 9 f9d+ longitude on %ipbo>d is 
to "k  :5 x is exactly noon by ! ,sun1 &
 9 ?is way ! local "t  is f\nd4 ,!      

purpose ( a *ronomet] is to c>ry exact  
,gre5wi*  "t1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 !     
local "t f\nd ea* day by  tak+ ! ,sun1 &
 ,gre5wi* "t %[n by ! *ronomet] gives ! 
di/ance 9 degrees ! %ip has travel$ f   
,gre5wi*4    ,by kn[+ ! latitude &      
longitude ( a %ip ! di/ance 9 miles     
nor? & s\? & ea/ & we/ f any port c be  
figur$ out  )\t mu* tr\ble4    ,! reason
 t a v accurate clock has to be c>ri$ is
 t a  diff]5ce ( a few seconds ei!r too 
fa/ or too sl[ w affect  ! calculations 
j t mu*1 & ?is means t ! %ip w be  ?r[n 
out ( its calculat$ position by sev]al  
miles4    ,to correct ! obs]vations ) ! 
sextant & ! inaccuracy (  ! *ronomet]1  
etc41 are a "p ( ! bus9ess ( ! navigat+ 
(fic]1 & he is provid$ ) tables & ?+s to
 make ?is "w z  easy & c]ta9 z is       
possible4    ,h[ to ,"k ,:5 ,y ,are at !
 ,nor? ,pole4--,if y %\ld ev] rea*  !   
nor? pole :]e ov]head is nor? & e o!r   
direction is  s\? h[ w\ld y "k x8       
,suppose y 7 /&+ on ! exact top ( ! _w  
dur+ "o (  its long pol> nights1 !n !   

,nor? ,/> w\ld be directly ov] y\r  head
 & ! ,big ,dipp] & ,cassiopeia w\ld s]ve
 to m>k ! pass+  ( days z well z (      
nights1 t is1 if y 7 at ! nor? pole 9  !
 w9t]time4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4      
#ajj4--,,%ad[s ,,at ,,! ,,nor? ,,pole4  
,b if y 7 !re dur+ a long ,arctic day1 t
 is1 9 ! good  old summ]time1 y c\ld see
 ! ,sun mak+ a circle1 or seem+ to1     
once 9 #bd h\rs1 p>allel to ! horizon1 &
 nev] go+ high] or  gett+ l[]4          
,explor]s use a sextant to f9d out :5 !y
 are at ! nor? pole1  & !y sight !      
,sun's height above ! horizon at morn+1 
noon &  night4 ,if ! angle ! ,sun makes 
) ! horizon is ! same e  "t he is       
obs]v$1 ! explor] kn[s he is /&+ on ! v 
po9t r\nd :i* ! ,e>? turns4 ,!n he      
plants a /ick 9 ! sn[  & ice on ! nor?  
pole1 hoi/s ! ,am]ican flag1 & hurries  
home  z fa/ z dogs & %ips & tra9s c c>ry
 him to tell ab\t x4    ,if y ev] rea* !
 nor? pole y c "k x1 too1 ev5 ?\gh y    
hav5't a sextant ) y4 ,all y ne$ to d1  
:5 y ?9k y are  /&+ on ! nor? pole1 is  

to notice ! l5g? ( y\r %ad[ five  or six
 times 9 #bd h\rs4 ,if ! l5g? ( y\r %ad[
 is exactly !  same e "t y look at x1 z 
%[n 9 ,fig4 #ajj1 y are really  & truly 
at ! nor? pole4    ,diff]5ce ,betwe5 !  
,true ,nor? ,pole & ! ,magnetic ,nor?   
,pole4--,! compass & dipp+ ne$le d n    
po9t to ! true nor?  pole1 = ! magnetic 
nor? pole & ! true nor? pole are n      
locat$ at ! same place4    ,! magnetic  
nor? pole 0 f\nd by ,capta9 ,ross 9     
#ahcb4 ,at t "t  ! magnetic nor? pole 0 
nor?we/ ( ,hudson's ,bay 9 ab\t latitude
  #gj degrees nor? & longitude #if      
degrees & #de m9utes we/1 t is1  we/ ( !
 z]o m]idian :i* runs ?r\gh ,gre5wi*4   
,,*apt] ,,vi    ,,! ,,moon1 ,,! ,,e>?',s
 ,,daught]      ,h[ ! ,moon ,0          
,made4--,!re 0 a "t away back 9 ! beg9n+
 (  ! planets :5 ! ,e>? did n h a ,moon4
    ,two ideas among o!rs h be5 work$   
out to acc\nt = ! bir?  ( ! ,moon & ^!  
are some:at alike1 = bo? agree t j z  ! 
,e>? 0 once a "p ( ! ,sun & 0 sep>at$ f 
! ,sun &  became a planet s ! ,moon 0   

once a "p ( ! ,e>? & 0 ?r[n  (f & became
 h] daught]4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4    
#aja4--,,moon ,,& ,,e>? ,,jo9$ ,,toge!r 
,,l ,a  ,,dumbbell4    ,! fir/ idea z to
 h[ ! ,moon 0 made is t a small] core 0 
=m$ 9 ! gase\s matt] ( ! ,e>? & t ?is   
core & !  core ( ! ,e>?1 :i* 7 at fir/  
jo9$ toge!r l a dumbbell1  z %[n 9 ,fig4
 #aja1 began to spread ap>t l a pair (  
balls  fa/5$ toge!r ) a piece ( ela/ic  
:5 !y are :irl$ rapidly  r\nd ea* o!r1 z
 %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajb4    ,illu/ration3     
,,fig4 #ajb4--;,,balls ,,connect$ ,,)   
,,an ,,ela/ic4    ,s1 too1 ! high spe$ )
 :i* ! ,e>? turn$ on its axis :5 x  0 9 
! mak+ caus$ ! small] "p to sl[ly move  
away & x  became ! ,moon4    ,! second  
idea is l ! fir/1 except t ! ,e>? is    
?\ght to  h cool$ d[n until x 0 a melt$ 
mass1 & x 0 !n t a  great upheaval took 
place 9 :i* a "p1 "o-eightie? z l>ge z  
t ( ! _w itself1 0 torn out ( its side  
&1 :irl+ away  by c5trifugal =ce1 !     
,moon 0 born4    ,to ?r[ (f su* a mighty
 "p ( its bulk z ! ,moon1 x has be5     

figur$ out t ! ,e>? mu/ h made a        
complete turn on its axis  e #b h\rs1   
in/ead ( "o turn 9 #bd h\rs1 z x n[     
does2 & x  0 :ile ! ,e>? 0 turn+ at ?is 
t]rific rate ( spe$ t !  c5trifugal =ce 
ov]came ! =ce ( gravitation & tore !    
,moon  f ! ,e>?'s side & =m$ a little _w
 ( its own4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4     
#ajc4--,,map ,,%[+ ,,pacific ,,ocean4   
,x is believ$ by "s a/ronom]s t ! ,moon 
0 once t "p (  ! ,e>? :i* is n[ fill$ up
 by ! wat]s ( ! ,pacific ,ocean &  !re  
are sev]al reasons :y ?is seems v       
likely4    ,fir/1 if ! wat]s :i* =m !   
,pacific ,ocean 7 roll$ into a  big ball
 x w\ld be j ab\t ! size ( ! ,moon2     
second1 ! space  betwe5 ! coa/s ( ,nor? 
& ,s\? ,am]ica on ! ea/1 & ,asia  &     
,au/ralia on ! we/1 w be se5 by ref]r+  
to ,fig4 #ajc to be  r\ghly circul> 9   
=m2 ?ird1 !re is a m>k$ lik5ess betwe5 !
  volcanoes 9 ,cali=nia1 9 ! ,hawaiian  
,isl&s & 9 ,japan to ^?  on ! ,moon4    
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,,imitat+  
,,! ,,volcanoes ,,9 ,,! ,,moon4    ,x 01

 d\btless1 at ?is long ago "t t ! great 
volcanoes (  ! ,moon1 z well z ^? ( !   
coa/s ( & on ! isl&s 9 !  ,pacific      
,ocean 7 made1 b :at caus$ !m c only be 
guess$  at4 ,!re are two ideas1 also1 to
 acc\nt = !m2 "o is t !  p5t-up gases   
inside ! ,e>? & ! ,moon explod$ & s ?rew
 up  ! volcanoes2 ! o!r idea is t %[]s (
 gigantic melt$ masses  fell on !       
surface ( bo? ! ,e>? & ,moon & s caus$  
!m4    ,an exp]im5t to %[ h[ ! volcanoes
 might h be5 =m$ by  %[]s ( meteors c be
 made by cov]+ ! surface ( y\r  />bo>d )
 a lay] ( s(t clay ab\t #d in*es ?ick1 &
 !n  ?r[+ clay balls aga9/ x4           
,artificial volcanoes ) crat]s &  all w 
result4 ,comp>e y\r artificial volcanoes
 ) ,fig4 #aje1  %[+ ! real volcanoes on 
! ,moon1 & y w see !y are q  alike4     
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,real      
,,volcanoes4    ,! volcanoes (          
,cali=nia1 ,japan & ! ,hawaiian ,isl&s  
are1 _m  ( !m1 /ill active1 :ile ^? on !
 ,moon h long s9ce become  ext9ct4 ,?is 
is easily acc\nt$ =1 s9ce ! mass ( !    

,moon is  v small comp>$ ) t ( ! ,e>?1 &
 h5ce1 ! ,moon has  cool$ (f m quickly  
?an ! ,e>?4 ,! result is t :ile !  ,e>? 
is yet hot & teem+ ) life & activity1 ! 
,moon is cold1  & dead & sil5t4    ,see+
 ! ,moon ,) ! ,nak$ ,eye4--,if y look at
 ! full ,moon )  ! nak$ eye x w appe> z 
a great1 silv]y-bright disk1 & ab\t  !  
same size z ! ,sun4    ,look aga9 & y w 
see t "s p>ts ( x are mu* bright]  ?an  
o!rs1 :ile ano!r & clos] obs]vation w %[
 y t  ! light & %ad$ p>ts take on !     
expression ( a man's face1 z  %[n 9     
,fig4 #ajf4 ,?is is ! fam\s ,man 9 !    
,moon1 & once y  make out ! lik5ess y w 
nev] aga9 be able to look ! full  ,moon 
9 ! face )\t see+ ! man 9 x4            
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf--,,nak$ ,,eye 
,,draw+ ,,( ,,full ,,moon4    ,:5 we    
look at ! ,moon we always see ! same    
side ( x1 :i* w  be readily und]/ood :5 
we come to ! turn+ ( ! ,moon on its     
axis4 ,z ! ,moon revolves ab\t ! ,e>?1 y
 w see1 if y look  t[>d ! we/ at ! "r "t
 ( ! mon?1 j at dusk1 a pale  cresc5t ( 

light1 & v soon aft] ! ,sun sets x drops
 out (  sight bel[ ! horizon4    ,a few 
nights lat] ! ,moon w be se51 ov] 9 !   
sky t[>d !  ea/2 its cresc5t %ape gr[n  
into ! fir/ qu>t]1 & ! ,moon  looks z if
 x 0 split 9 two4 ,z ! nights g by !    
,moon waxes  until x is gibb\s & f9ally 
! full ,moon--) ! man 9  x--/&s out r\nd
 & cle> & bright4    ,x is a good idea  
at ?is "t1 t is1 :5 ! ,moon is full1 to 
make  a draw+ ( h] face1 & ! be/ "t to d
 x is %ortly aft]  twilight1 = lat] 9 ! 
ev5+ ! ,moon is s bright x is h>d to    
see ! details4 ,aft] ?is ! ,moon beg9s  
to wane2 x aga9 becomes  gibb\s2 !n     
rea*es its la/ qu>t] lat] only a cresc5t
 c be  se51 & %e f9ally disappe>s4      
,at times :5 ! cresc5t is bright ! :ole 
d>k disk ( ! ,moon  c be se5 gl[+ dimly 
) a r$di%1 copp] color1 & ?is is  call$ 
! old ,moon 9 ! new ,moon's arms4 ,?is  
copp]-color$ gl[  is ! ,e>?-%9e on !    
,moon1 t is1 ! sunlight on ! ,e>?1  :i* 
is reflect$ to ! ,moon & back aga9 to u4
    ,on "o side ( ! ,moon y may be able 

to see a d>k oval spot :i*  is m>k$     
,grimaldi on ! maps ( ! ,moon4 ,grimaldi
 is a great  pla91 hav+ ne>ly #ad1jjj   
squ>e miles 9 x1 ) m\nta9s flank+  x on 
! sides4 ,?is is ano!r good eyesight    
te/1 = x takes a  mighty %>p eye to see 
x )\t a glass4    ,^! & a doz5 o!r      
int]e/+ ?+s on ! ,moon c be se5  )\t a  
telescope4    ,! ,motions ( ! ,moon4--,!
 ,moon turns r\nd on its axis once e    
mon? & x also revolves r\nd ! ,e>? once 
e mon?1 s t  ! ,moon's day & ye> are ( !
 same l5g? j l ,m]cury &  ,v5us1 & ?is  
is ! reason t "o side ( ! ,moon is      
always  turn$ t[>d ! ,e>?1 z y w see if 
y look at h] ?r\gh a  glass4            
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,!         
,,exp]im5t ,,%[+ ,,h[ ,,"o ,,revolution 
,,(  ,,! ,,moon ,,r\nd ,,! ,,e>? ,,makes
 ,,x ,,turn ,,once ,,r\nd ,,its ,,axis4 
,a simple exp]im5t w %[ ! cause ( ?is3  
,place an apple1 :i*  we w call ! ,e>?1 
on ! bottom ( an inv]t$ glass on a      
table1  & draw a *alk circle a foot 9   
diamet] ar\nd x4 ,next1 take a          

tablespoon to repres5t ! ,moon1 & hold x
 upright ) ! po9t (  its b[l on ! *alk  
l9e & ) ! b[l turn$ t[>d ! apple1  z %[n
 9 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,n[1 draw ! spoon r\nd ! 
circle1 turn+ x  9 y\r f+]s s t ! b[l is
 always t[>d ! apple4    ,x is easy to  
see t 9 ord] = ! b[l ( ! spoon to be    
turn$  t[>d ! apple dur+ all ( its      
travels r\nd ! *alk circle !  spoon mu/ 
also turn once r\nd on its own axis1 &  
?is is ! reason  we always see ! same   
side ( ! ,moon4    ,! ,moon's           
,phases4--,s9ce "o side ( ! ,moon is    
always turn$ t[>d  ! ,e>?1 x is cle> t  
?is is ! only side we c ev] see1 &1     
fur!r1 we are only able to see z mu* (  
?is side z is made bright  by ! ,sun's  
light4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4          
#ajh4--;,,apple ,,cut ,,to ,,%[         
,,cresc5t4    ,! diff]5t aspects we get 
( ! ,moon z x revolves r\nd !  ,e>? are 
call$ ! ,moon's phases2 & ea* phase has 
a "n1 z  ! new moon2 ! fir/ qu>t]2 !    
full moon1 & ! la/  qu>t]4    ,betwe5 ! 
new ,moon & ! fir/ qu>t]1 & betwe5 ! la/

  qu>t] & ! new ,moon only a cresc5t1 or
 sickle-l edge ( !  ,moon1 c be se52    
:ile betwe5 ! full ,moon & la/ qu>t] !  
,moon is gibb\s 7pron\nc$ gib-u & mean+ 
swell$1 or %ap$ l  a football74    ,if y
 w look at ! picture1 ,fig4 #ajh1 & !   
diagrams1 ,figs4 #aji  & #aaj1 & d !    
exp]im5t :i* foll[s1 ! way ! phases ( ! 
,moon are made w be p]fectly cle>4    ,!
 picture1 ,fig4 #ajh1 %[s an apple f :i*
 a ?9 sector or  slice has be5 cut4 ,!  
l[] picture %[s ! /em end ( ! apple  & f
 ?is po9t ( view ! "p :]e ! slice 0 cut 
out looks  w$ge-%ap$4 ,?is is ! view ( !
 ,moon %[n 9 ,fig4 #aji1 if we  c\ld    
look d[n on x4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4  
#aji4--;,,diagram ,,%[+ ,,h[ ,,!        
,,moon',s ,,phases ,,are  ,,made4    ,n[
 turn ! apple on its side & ! place :]e 
! slice 0 cut  out c be se5 f ! /em to !
 blossom end ( ! apple :5 x  takes on a 
cresc5t =m4 ,?is is ! view ( ! ,moon we 
really get  betwe5 new ,moon & its fir/ 
qu>t]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaj4    ,!        
diagrams1 ,figs4 #aji & #aaj1 %[ ! ,e>? 

9 ! c5t] ( !  ,moon's orbit & ! ,moon is
 pictur$ 9 eight positions1 z x moves   
r\nd ! ,e>?1 "o = ea* phase1 :ile !     
sunlight fall+ ^u  ! ,e>? & ! ,moon is  
%[n by /ream]s ( light f ! ,sun  above4 
,! diagram1 ,fig4 #aaj1 %[s h[ !        
sunlight falls on ! ,moon1 b  y mu/     
always keep 9 m9d t only t "p ( ! ,moon 
:i* is  9 ! sunlight & :i* is also      
inside ( ! l9e ( its orbit c  be se5 f !
 ,e>?4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4          
#aaj4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,! ,,moon',s     
,,phases ,,z ,,we ,,see ,,!m4    ,/>t+  
n[ ) ! new ,moon1 ,fig4 #aji1 x w be se5
 t !  ,moon is directly betwe5 ! ,e>? & 
! ,sun & h5ce t "p (  ! ,moon t[>d !    
,e>? is 9 ! %ad[4 ,n[1 s9ce ! eye c see 
no?+ 9 ! sky :i* is n %9+1 & s9ce !     
,moon rises &  sets at ! same "t z !    
,sun1 we _c see x4 ,z ! ,moon moves  on 
r\nd ! ,e>? 9 ! direction ( ! arr[ &    
:ile half ( x  is 9 ! light & half ( x  
is 9 ! %ad[ z be=e1 f our  position we  
are n[ able to see a n>r[ /rip ( its    
bright surface  :i* 9 ,fig4 #aji is %[n 

z a w$ge1 b s9ce we are look+ at x  f an
 angle we see x z a cresc5t1 z %[n 9    
,fig4 #aaj4    ,! ,moon hav+ rea*$ its  
fir/ qu>t] sets at midnight & f !  ,e>? 
half ( its bright surface c be se51 :i* 
( c\rse is only  "o qu>t] ( ! ,moon's   
:ole surface4 ,! next phase ( ! ,moon is
  :5 ne>ly all ( its bright side c be   
se54 ,?is is ! gibb\s  phase & ! ,moon  
!n seems to be ab\t ! %ape ( a football4
    ,aft] ! gibb\s phase ! full moon    
appe>s & ?is takes place 9  t "p ( ! sky
 opposite ! sett+ ,sun4 ,:5 ! ,moon is  
full x  %9es all night & does n set     
until sunrise4    ,f ?is "t on ! bright 
"p ( ! ,moon :i* we c see gr[s  less & !
 gibb\s phase aga9 takes place4 ,soon ! 
,moon rea*es its  la/ qu>t] & gradually 
! /raight r\gh edge is holl[$ out &     
ano!r cresc5t is =m$4 ,! ,moon is n[ 9 !
 ea/ & ! horns  ( ! cresc5t po9t to !   
we/1 j opposite to ! direction !  horns 
( ! new ,moon po9t$4 ,! horns ( ! new & 
old cresc5ts  always po9t away f ! ,sun 
& ?is also is a good ?+ to  rememb]4    

,to %[ h[ ! ,moon *anges its phases p]=m
 ! foll[+ simple  exp]im5t3 ,peel half  
an orange & pu% a knitt+ ne$le ?r\gh its
  c5t] & let ?is be ! ,moon4 ,y\r eyes w
 s]ve = ! ,e>? &  a light$ lamp w make a
 v good ,sun1 all ( :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4  
#aaa4    ,hold ! orange by ! knitt+     
ne$le well out f y\r body ) !  peel$    
side t[>d y1 & 9 su* a position t !     
orange w be  betwe5 y\r eyes & ! lamp4  
,! side ( ! orange t[>d y w  be 9 ! %ad[
 & ?is repres5ts ! new ,moon4    ,n[    
sl[ly turn y\r body r\nd to ! left &    
always hold ! orange  ) ! peel$ side    
t[>d y4 ,y w see t ! light f !  lamp    
/rik+ ! orange =ms a cresc5t ) its horns
 po9t+ away  f ! light4    ,keep on     
turn+1 a little at a "t1 & soon a qu>t] 
( ! orange  w reflect ! light & ?is is l
 ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! ,moon4  ,:5 y h turn$ 
ne>ly halfway r\nd ne>ly half ( ! orange
  w %9e by ! reflect$ light ( ! lamp & y
 w h a fair  example ( ! gibb\s ,moon4  
,:5 y h turn$ y\r back to ! light hold !
 orange above y\r  head s t y\r %ad[ w n

 hide x2 n[ half ( ! orange--!  half t  
is peel$--reflects ! lamp-light &       
repres5ts ! ,moon  :5 x is full4        
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,,boy1     
,,lamp ,,& ,,orange ,,%[+ ,,phases ,,(  
,,moon4    ,z y keep turn+ r\nd ! am\nt 
( light reflect$ by ! orange1  :i* y c  
see gr[s less & less1 ! bright "p at    
fir/ be+  gibb\s1 !n ! la/ qu>t] is se51
 aft] t a ?9 cresc5t1  & f9ally :5 y h  
turn$ completely r\nd ! orange is aga9  
betwe5 y\r eyes & ! light1 h5ce x c no  
long] be se51 &  ! new ,moon phase is   
aga9 at h&4    ,! ,h>ve/ & ,hunt]'s     
,moon4--,y w rememb] t on ,septemb]  #ba
 ! days & nights are equal & ?is is     
call$ ! ,autumn  ,equ9ox4 ,! full moon t
 falls ne>e/ to ,septemb] #ba is call$  
! ,h>ve/ ,moon z x rises at ne>ly ! same
 h\r = sev]al  nights 9 succession & ?is
 makes sev]al long moonlight ev5+s 9    
succession4 ,! ,hunt]'s ,moon foll[s !  
,h>ve/ ,moon4    ,h[ ! ,moon ,makes !   
,tides4--,:5 we are at ! sea%ore we soon
 see  t !re is a regul> rise & fall ( ! 

ocean4    ,?is rise & fall ( ! wat]s is 
call$ ! tide1 & if we note  ! "t :5 !   
wat]s h rea*$ ! highe/ po9t--:i* is     
call$  high tide--we w f9d t a little   
ov] six h\rs lat] ! wat]s  h rea*$ _!   
l[e/ po9t--or l[ tide4    ,be=e ! tide  
has rea*$ ! high po9t aga9 ano!r six    
h\rs &  "s m9utes h pass$ s t f "o high 
tide to ano!r high  tide #ab h\rs & #be 
m9utes h elaps$4 ,^! tides are *iefly   
caus$ by two =ces act+ on ! oceans1 "o  
be+ ! attraction (  ! ,moon = ! ,e>?1 & 
! o!r be+ ! c5trifugal =ce set  up by ! 
,e>?'s motion r\nd its axis4    ,!      
effect ( ! ,moon's attraction = ! ,e>?  
is to pull ! wat]  ( ! ocean on ! side (
 ! ,e>? ne>e/ x1 & ?is =ms a  bulge1 or 
great wave1 :ile on ! o!r side ( ! ,e>? 
! ,moon's  attraction is small] = ! wat]
 ?an x is = ! solid ,e>?1  s ! ,e>? is  
pull$ away f ! wat]4 ,?us two tidal     
waves are  =m$ at ! same "t1 "o on ea*  
side ( ! ,e>?1 z %[n 9  ,fig4 #aab4     
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4                    
#aab4--;,,attraction ,,( ,,! ,,moon     

,,causes ,,! ,,tides4    ,s9ce ! ,e>?   
revolves r\nd its axis once 9 #bd h\rs  
^! tidal  waves g r\nd ! ,e>? & z !re   
are two tidal waves ea* day  !re are two
 high tides & two l[ tides at e place on
 ! ocean1  b ^! are *iefly noticeable on
 ! coa/s4 ,fig4 #aab %[s !  position ( !
 ,moon & ! ,e>?1 :ile ! wavy l9es ar\nd 
!  ,e>? repres5t ! oceans4    ,spr+     
,tides & ,neap ,tides4--,n only does !  
,moon's attraction  cause ! tides1 b !  
,sun's pull on ! ,e>? also produces     
tides4    ,:5 ! ,sun & ,moon are 9 a l9e
 ) ! ,e>? !y pull toge!r  & ! tides are 
rais$ v high & !y fall v l[1 & ^!  high 
& l[ tides are call$ spr+ tides4        
,s9ce we h ei!r new ,moon or full ,moon1
 :5 ! ,sun1 ,e>? &  ,moon are 9 a l9e1 !
 spr+ tides occur at ^! times1 or twice 
e mon?4 ,figs4 #aac & #aad %[ h[ ! spr+ 
tides are =m$4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4  
#aac4--;,,h[ ,,spr+ ,,tides ,,are ,,=m$4
    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,,h[   
,,spr+ ,,tides ,,are ,,=m$4    ,:5 !    
,moon is at its fir/ qu>t]1 z 9 ,fig4   

#aae1 or 9 its la/  qu>t]1 z 9 ,fig4    
#aaf1 ! ,sun's pull & ! ,moon's pull    
oppose ea*  o!r & ! high tides are l[e/4
 ,^! l[ high tides1 :i* take  place     
twice a mon?1 are call$ ,neap tides4    
,a ,trip to ! ,moon4--,_m /ories h be5  
told ab\t imag9>y  trips to ! ,moon &   
:at ! adv5tur]s saw aft] rea*+ _!       
de/9ation4    ,our /ory is made up (    
facts & ! only ?+ we %all imag9e is  t  
we h made ! trip & set foot some:]e on !
 ,moon4 ,hav+  p]=m$ ?is m5tal som]sault
 we %all c>efully leave out all !  h>d  
que/ions ab\t liv+ !re )\t air & wat]1 =
 ?is is a  pleasure trip & we don't want
 to spoil ! fun ) details4    ,on l&+   
aft] our #bdj1jjj-mile trip we f9d t !re
 is n only  nei!r air nor wat]1 b t !   
,moon is /one cold2 ev5 :5 !  ,sun %9es 
on x1 x is freez+ cold1 :ile !          
temp]ature drops to  p]haps #cjj degrees
 bel[ z]o :5 ! ,moon's night comes on4  
,our next obs]vation w probably be t we 
feel mu* light] ?an  we did on ,e>? & we
 are light] 9 ! v nature ( ?+s1 =  !    

weight ( bodies on ! ,moon is only      
"o-six? z mu* z !y are  on ! ,e>?4 ,?is 
is due to ! ,moon be+ s small & light t 
gravity has only "o-six? z great an     
attractive =ce !re z x has  on ! ,e>?4  
,suppos+ we /ill reta9$ on ! ,moon z mu*
 /r5g? z we _h on  ! ,e>?2 !n e "t we   
took a /ep we w\ld cov] a di/ance  ( #ae
 or #bj feet2 if we jump$ we w\ld sail  
?r\gh space ) !  agility ( a ,h>lem     
goat1 & if we play$ ball & batt$ ! sph]e
  fairly x w\ld %oot (f a qu>t] ( a mile
 & g twice z f> f  ! home plate4        
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,,h[ ,,neap
 ,,tides ,,are ,,=m$4    ,illu/ration3  
,,fig4 #aaf4--;,,h[ ,,neap ,,tides ,,are
 ,,=m$4    ,s9ce !re is no air on !     
,moon1 9 ord] to see "o ano!r ! ,sun    
w\ld h to %9e directly on u1 & if by any
 *ance we %\ld  get into a %ad[ we w\ld 
be z completely lo/ to view z if we _h  
fall5 into "o ( ! crat]s1 = a %ad[ on ! 
,moon is z deep &  black z ! d>ke/ night
 y ev] saw on ,e>?4 ,%ad[s z we "k  !m  
on ! ,e>? are always s(t5$1 = ! air     

scatt]s ! light4    ,nor w\ld x d u any 
good to cry out or :i/le1 =1 s9ce s\nd  
waves are c>ri$ by ! air1 & s9ce !re is 
no air on ! ,moon1  all our ef=ts to    
make ourselves he>d w\ld be useless1 ev5
 if we  7 only a few feet f ea* o!r4 ,! 
,moon is j z sil5t &  cold & /ill z x   
looks1 =1 ?\gh x s]ves ! ,e>? well z  a 
mirror to reflect ! ,sun's light1 x is1 
aft] all1 only a great1  burn$-out c9d]4
    ,look+ at ! sky at night f ! ,moon1 
we are surpris$ to f9d h[  mu* bigg] &  
bright] ! />s seem1 & h[ _m m ( !m c  be
 se51 ?an f ! ,e>?4 ,"h we see z _m ) ! 
nak$ eye z  we c\ld see f ! ,e>? ) a    
?ree-in* telescope4    ,! ,e>? itself is
 se5 l a mighty ,moon--a ,moon z bright 
z #dj (  ! ,moons we are call+ on1 & s  
l>ge is x t we c see1 n  only ! cont95ts
 & oceans1 b ! pol> ice caps & ! pla9s  
& ! m\nta9s z well1 z we see objects (  
same size on ,moon1 z  %[n 9 ,fig4 #aag4
    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,,view  
,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,f ,,! ,,moon4    ,wat*+ 
! ,e>? f ?is new viewpo9t1 we see x turn

 on its axis  e #bd h\rs & go+ ?r\gh all
 ! phases--cresc5t1 qu>t]1  gibb\s &    
full1 & back to cresc5t aga91 j z !     
,moon does  :5 we see x f ! ,e>?4    ,m 
curi\s ?an ! ,e>? is ! view we get ( !  
,sun f !  ,moon1 ! lack ( air mak+ !    
see+ s good t ! spots on !  ,sun1 ! fi]y
 prom95ces & ! ?9 corona c all be easily
 se5  ) ! nak$ eye4    ,:5 ! ,moon is   
new ! :ole half ( ! ,e>? t is turn$ t[>d
  ! ,moon is sunlit & by its reflect$   
light we c easily read our  "t-c>d--= we
 mu/ get back to ,e>? aga9 & ei!r write 
a book  or lecture ab\t ! wond]s we h   
se54    ,! ,moon & ! ,wea!r4--,we h se5 
9 ,*apt] ,,iii t our  wea!r is entirely 
dep5d5t on ! ,sun4 ,/ill x is believ$ by
 _m  p]sons today t ! ,moon has also    
some?+ to d ) ! *anges  9 ! wea!r1 j z x
 is ! cause ( ! tides4    ,illu/ration3 
,,fig4 #aah4--,,tell+ ,,"t ,,by ,,!     
,,moon4    ,h5ce !re h be5 h&$ d[n to u 
a l>ge numb] ( old say+s  to %[ :at !   
wea!r w be dur+ c]ta9 phases ( ! ,moon4 
,b  x has be5 prov$ by records kept ( ! 

wea!r t ! ,moon has  no?+ :atev] to d ) 
x4 ,= ?is reason no reliance is to be   
plac$ 9 any =eca/ ( ! wea!r :i* is f\nd$
 on *anges (  ! ,moon4    ,h[ to ,tell  
,"t by ! ,moon4--,aft] hav+ le>n$ h[ to 
tell !  h\r ( ! day by ! ,sun y %\ld    
le>n to tell ! h\r ( !  night by !      
,moon4    ,on "s nights ?is is a v      
simple ?+ to d1 = :5 ! ,moon is  full x 
is due s\? at exactly #ab o'clock       
midnight1 z %[n 9 ,fig4  #aah4    ,e    
night be=e ! ,moon is full y w f9d x due
 s\? #ee  m9utes e>li]1 s t y mu/       
subtract #ee m9utes f #ab o'clock  = ea*
 day2 t is1 "o day be=e full ,moon x is 
due s\? at  #aa3je ,p4 ,m42 two days    
be=e full ,moon x is due s\? at #aj3aj  
,p4 ,m42  ?ree days be=e full ,moon x is
 due s\? at #i3ae ,p4 ,m41 & s on4      
,aft] ! ,moon is full x w be due s\? #ee
 m9utes lat] e  night & !n y mu/ add #ee
 m9utes to #ab o'clock2 t is1 "o day    
aft] full ,moon x is due s\? at #ab3ee  
,a4 ,m42 two days aft] full  ,moon x is 
due s\? at #a3ej ,a4 ,m42 ?ree days aft]

 full ,moon x is  due s\? at #b3de ,a4  
,m41 & s on4    ,! ,moon's day is #bg ( 
our days long4    ,! ,moon's ye> is #bg 
( our days long4    ,! ,moon's diamet]  
is #b1afj miles4    ,! di/ance f ! ,moon
 to ! ,e>? is #bdj1jjj miles4           
,,*apt] ,,vii    ,,o!r ,,?+s ,,9 ,,!    
,,sky      ,see+ an ,eclipse4--,! ^w    
eclipse is tak5 f ! ,greek &  means to  
fail to appe>4    ,9 />craft1 :5 ! ,e>? 
passes across ! ,sun1 & ! ,moon is      
hidd5 9 its %ad[1 we say t x is an      
eclipse ( ! ,moon2 or :5  ! ,moon passes
 across ! ,sun & cov]s x we say t !re   
has be5  an eclipse ( ! ,sun4    ,h[    
eclipses ( ! ,sun & ( ! ,moon are caus$ 
c be %[n by a  v simple exp]im5t & y    
ought to make x4    ,an ,eclipse ( !    
,moon4--,fir/ let u suppose x is ! ,moon
 :i* is  eclips$ by ! ,e>?4 ,all t is   
ne$$ to %[ h[ ?is is done is  a light$  
lamp on a table & an apple ) a knitt+   
ne$le ?r\gh  its c5t]4 ,let ! flame ( ! 
lamp repres5t ! ,sun1 y\r head !  ,e>? &
 ! apple ! ,moon4    ,illu/ration3      

,,fig4 #aai4--;,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,moon 
,,by ,,! ,,e>? 7,,exp]im5t74    ,hold ! 
apple by ! knitt+ ne$le 9 a l9e betwe5  
y\r eyes &  ! flame & turn r\nd j z y   
did 9 ! exp]im5t %[+ !  phases ( !      
,moon4 ,:5 y h turn$ halfway r\nd !     
apple w  be 9 ! %ad[ ( y\r head1 :5 !   
apple is eclips$1 z %[n 9  ,fig4 #aai4  
,?is is j :at happ5s :5 ! ,e>? gets     
betwe5 ! ,sun & !  ,moon & all ^! bodies
 are 9 a /raight l9e1 z %[n 9 ,fig4     
#abj2  ! ,moon w !n be 9 ! %ad[ ( !     
,e>?1 & ?us x is t  ! ,moon is eclips$4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,moon      
,,eclips$ ,,by ,,! ,,e>? 7,,diagram74   
,if ! ,sun1 ,e>? & ,moon 7 always 9 !   
same plane ) ea*  o!r1 e "t ! ,e>? pass$
 betwe5 ! ,sun & ! ,moon !  latt] w\ld  
be plung$ into ! ,e>?'s %ad[ & ! ,moon  
w\ld be  eclips$4 ,b ! ,moon does n     
revolve r\nd ! ,e>? s t x &  ! ,e>? make
 a /raight l9e ) ! ,sun e revolution = !
  reason t ! ,moon's orbit is tilt$ a   
little & h5ce x is only  once 9 a :ile t
 all ( ^! bodies get 9 a /raight l9e )  

ea* o!r1 & :5 ^! times d happ5 !n       
eclipses are produc$4    ,illu/ration3  
,,fig4 #aba4--,,! ,,moon ,,z ,,se5 ,,:5 
,,9 ,,eclipse4    ,aga9 :5 ! ,moon is   
eclips$ x is n always entirely hidd5 f  
view by ! great %ad[ ( ! ,e>?1 = ! air  
on ! ,e>? s5ds  ! sunbeams r\nd x s t ! 
%ad[ is nev] v deep1 & =  ?is reason !  
,moon c /ill be se51 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aba4
 ,s1 !n1  "s ( ^! b5t sunbeams fall on !
 ,moon & are reflect$ f its  surface    
back to u & x is !n t we see ! ,moon 9  
an entirely  new light4    ,sometimes   
dur+ an eclipse ( ! ,moon ! man c /ill  
be se51 b  in/ead ( hav+ a bright silv]y
 face he w h *ang$ x to !  copp] color (
 a r$ ,indian4 ,! :ole eclipse ( ! ,moon
 (t5 la/s  long] ?an six h\rs &         
sometimes ! moon is 9 ! deep %ad[ (  !  
,e>? z long z two h\rs4    ,illu/ration3
 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun 
,,by ,,! ,,moon 7,,exp]im5t74           
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,! ,,sun   
,,eclips$ ,,by ,,! ,,moon 7,,diagram74  
,a total eclipse is "o 9 :i* ! ,moon    

passes completely into !  %ad[ ( ! ,e>?1
 :ile a p>tial eclipse is "o :]e only "p
  ( ! ,moon is 9 ! %ad[ ( ! ,e>? & "p ( 
x is 9 !  sunlight4 ,eclipses ( ! ,moon 
occur q (t5 & y c look up  ! "t ( ! next
 "o 9 y\r almanac4    ,eclipse ( !      
,sun4--,:5 ! ,sun is eclips$ x is caus$ 
by ! ,moon  pass+ betwe5 ! ,e>? & ! ,sun
 & s ! light is cut (f f  ! =m]4    ,to 
%[ h[ ?is is done all t is ne$$ is to   
cont9ue !  exp]im5t ) ! light$ lamp & ! 
apple :i* y us$ = !  eclipse ( ! ,moon4 
,y w rememb] 9 t exp]im5t y 7  turn$ )  
y\r back to ! lamp & ) ! apple held 9   
front (  y4    ,n[ to %[ h[ ! ,sun is   
eclips$ by ! ,moon keep on turn+ r\nd   
until y face ! light$ lamp ) ! apple 9  
betwe5 & 9 a  /raight l9e ) y\r eyes & !
 flame1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abb4    ,aga9 y w
 f9d t ! side ( ! apple ne>e/ y w be 9  
a deep %ad[1 ?\gh usually x c /ill be   
se51 & ?\gh y c  see ! light all r\nd ! 
apple yet y _c see ! flame4    ,?is is  
exactly :at takes place :5 ! ,moon gets 
betwe5 ! ,e>?  & ! ,sun & all ( ^!      

bodies are 9 a /raight l9e1 z %[n  9    
,fig4 #abc2 ! ,moon w !n cov] up ! ,sun 
& ! %ad[ ( !  ,moon w fall ^u ! ,e>? 9 a
 circle ab\t #ajj miles 9 diamet]1  z   
%[n 9 ,fig4 #abd4 ,x is ?us t ! ,sun is 
eclips$4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4        
#abd4--,,total ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun1 
,,%[+ ,,pa? ,,( ,,!  ,,sun4             
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,total     
,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun1 ,,f ,,photo4   
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,,annul>   
,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun4                
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,p>tial    
,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun4    ,z ! ,moon  
is travel+ r\nd ! ,e>? & ! ,e>? is turn+
 r\nd  on its own axis1 ! ,moon's %ad[  
moves across a pa? or trail t is  only  
ab\t #ajj miles wide1 & x moves v fa/1  
too1 = x usually  takes less ?an five   
m9utes = ! ,moon to sweep ov] ! face ( !
  ,sun4    ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( eclipses
 ( ! ,sun4 ,! fir/ is call$ a  total    
eclipse1 & ?is takes place :5 ! ,moon   
cov]s ! entire  face ( ! ,sun1 z 9 ,fig4
 #abe4    ,! second is call$ an annul>  

eclipse & ?is takes place :5  ! ,moon   
does n completely cov] ! ,sun b leaves a
 bright r+  expos$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abf4 
,! reason ! ,moon cov]s ! ,sun          
completely dur+ a total eclipse & does n
 cov] all ( x dur+  an annul> eclipse is
 because ! orbit ( ! ,moon ar\nd ! ,e>? 
is n a p]fect circle1 & s sometimes !   
,moon is ne>] ! ,e>?  ?an at o!r times &
 ?is makes ! ,moon seem l>g] or small]1 
z  ! case may be4    ,! ?ird k9d is     
call$ a p>tial eclipse4 ,if we are n 9 !
  direct pa? ( ! %ad[ ( ! ,moon we may  
see ! ,moon pass ov]  only a "p ( !     
,sun1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abg4    ,! only    
total eclipses ( ! ,sun :i* c be se5 9 !
 ,unit$  ,/ates 9 ! next #cj ye>s are ! 
foll[+3                                 
----------------------------------------
-------------------------         ,date 
(        ,"t (              ,eclipse    
,total ,phase         ,c\rse ( ,moon's  
,%ad[                                   
----------------------------------------
-------------------------      #aiah1   

,june  #ah1  #b m9utes     ,oregon to   
,florida      #aibb1 ,sept4  #b1  #f    
m9utes     ,pacific ,ocean1 ,u4 ,s4     
,we/ ,indies      #aibc1 ,sept4 #aj1  #c
 m9utes     ,u4 ,s4  ,atlantic ,ocean   
#aicj1 ,april #bh1  #b seconds     ,u4  
,s4  ,canada      #aide1 ,july   #i1  #a
 m9ute      ,u4 ,s41 ,canada1 ,sc&9avia 
& ,russia                               
----------------------------------------
--------------------           ,note3 ,!
 eclipse ( #aicj w be an annul> eclipse4
    ,f9d+ a ,comet4--,to ! nak$ eye a   
great comet looks l a bright  /> ) a    
long1 gl[+ tail4 ,9 ! long ago a comet 0
 call$ a  hairy />1 = ! e>ly ,greeks    
pictur$ ! tail ( a comet z be+  made (  
long hair & s f _! language we get ! ^w 
comet1  :i* means hair4    ,illu/ration3
 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,comet ,,%[+ ,,nucleus1
 ,,coma ,,& ,,tail4    ,a comet is      
really made up ( ?ree p>ts1 :i* are1    
7#a7 a bright head  or core1 call$ a    
nucleus1 & ?is is cov]$ ) 7#b7 a lay] ( 
hazy light1 call$ a coma1 to :i* !re is 

atta*$ 7#c7 a lum9\s  tail1 all ( :i* is
 %[n 9 ,fig4 #abh4 ,! nucleus ( a comet 
is  =m$ ( a bun* ( /ones & pieces (     
iron1 all widely sep>at$  & :i* are held
 toge!r by attraction z !y spe$ ?r\gh   
space4  ,z a comet ne>s ! ,sun x beg9s  
to get hot & to ?r[ (f burn+  gases1 :i*
 make up its coma1 & ^! bright gases    
/ream+ along  =m its tail4    ,!re are  
sev]al ways 9 :i* a comet c be told f ! 
planets4  ,9 ! fir/ place1 new comets1 t
 is1 comets :i* h nev] be5  discov]$    
be=e1 appe> sudd5ly & 9 any "p ( ! sky1 
?\gh  !y may be v dim at fir/1 & aft] a 
:ile !y fade away1  sometimes nev] to   
return aga94    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4    
#abi4--;,,an ,,ellipse1 ,,p>abola ,,&   
,,hyp]bola4    ,second1 !y %9e *iefly ) 
_! own light l ! />s2 ?ird1  !y d n     
travel 9 small circles ar\nd ! ,sun l ! 
planets2  b ! pa?s !y take are ei!r long
 ovals1 call$ ellipses1  or great curves
 ^: ends nev] meet1 call$ p>abolas &    
hyp]bolas1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abi2 f\r?1 !y 
d n travel ?r\gh  space 9 a l9e ) !     

planets & ,sun1 b %oot 9 & out ( our    
sol> sy/em f & to e direction2 & fif? & 
la/1 !y  travel at enorm\sly high spe$s4
    ,n[1 a comet1 h[ev] great x may gr[ 
to be1 nev] bur/s into view1  big1      
bright & beautiful1 b :5 "o is f\nd x is
 usually se5 z  a little1 dim pat* (    
light1 & x w\ld q likely be mi/ak5 =  a 
nebula1 if x did n move along s swiftly4
    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,,head 
,,& ,,tail ,,( ,,comet ,,d ,,n ,,obey   
,,! ,,same  ,,laws4    ,a comet c be    
told by its movem5t & its movem5t c be  
plott$ 9  ! same way ,i h describ$ =    
plott+ ! position ( a planet  9 ,*apt]  
,,iv2 & s1 if y see a dim1 little ball (
 light 9 !  sky & f9d t x *anges its    
position :5 comp>$ ) ! fix$  />s ne> x y
 may guess t y h discov]$ a comet4    ,!
 next ?+ y %\ld make sure ( is1 t y h n 
f\nd "o  ( our old famili> fri5ds1 !    
planets4 ,if x is really a great comet  
com+ t[>d ! ,sun1 x w gr[ l>g] & bright]
 e night1  & y w soon be able to see its
 tail1 :i* is ! real e>m>k (  a really  

truly comet4    ,:5 a comet is ne>e/ u  
its head may %9e f> bright] ?an any (  !
 planets1 & its great tail may be       
millions ( miles 9 l5g?1 &  spread out 9
 a gl[+ arc & light up ! :ole sky4      
,:5 ?is "t comes a comet is by f> a     
great] sight to ! nak$ eye  ?an x is :5 
se5 ?r\gh ! l>ge/ telescope4 ,y %\ld    
obs]ve  ! comet (t5 & c>efully1 = ano!r 
"o may n appe> = a  long "t4            
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,,halley',s
 ,,comet1 ,,f ,,photo4    ,! ne>] a     
comet gets to ! ,sun ! fa/] x travels2  
"s comets  h be5 kn[n to move a ?\s&    
times z fa/ z a rifle-ball1 &  ?is is ! 
m surpris+ :5 we consid] t ! great1     
flam+  tail goes along ) x at ! same    
t]rific rate ( spe$4    ,! tails (      
comets d "s v /range ?+s2 = example we  
%\ld  r expect ! tail ( a comet to      
always foll[ its head l a  skyrocket1 b 
:ile x does s :5 ! comet is head$ t[>d !
  ,sun1 :5 ! comet is pass+ r\nd & %oot+
 into space ! tail  turns away f ! ,sun1
 & ?is causes x to move ahead ( ! comet1

  z %[n 9 ,fig4 #acj4    ,?is %[s t :ile
 ! head ( a comet obeys ! laws (        
gravitation1 ! tail does n d s1 b acts z
 if x 0 electrifi$  l ! ,sun1 :5 ( c\rse
 x w\ld be repell$ by x4 ,fig4 #aca is a
  picture ( ,halley's comet ( #aiaj4    
,al?\gh a great a/ronom] once said t !re
 are m comets 9 !  sky ?an fi%es 9 !    
sea1 !re h only be5 #a1jjj comets       
record$  s9ce ! beg9n+ ( writt5 hi/ory4 
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,meteorite 
,,( ,,iron ,,et*$ ,,) ,,acid4           
,meteors & ,meteorites4--,if y w look at
 almo/ any "p ( !  sky on a cle> night  
:5 !re is no ,moon y w no d\bt see a    
bright fla% l a rocket4 ,b if y w scan !
 sky dur+ !  d>k nights ( ,augu/ &      
,novemb] y w be v apt to see doz5s  ( ^!
 %oot+ />s or meteors4    ,n[1 meteors1 
fireballs1 %oot+ />s & meteorites are   
all  "o & ! same ?+ to />t ) & !y h _!  
beg9n+s  :5 "s comet goes to pieces4    
,aft] a comet breaks up1 ! pieces ( /one
 & iron :i* =m x  /ill travel r\nd 9 !  
same orbit4 ,"s ( ^! pieces may get  )9 

range ( ! ,e>?'s =ce ( gravitation :5 !y
 are drawn to  x1 & on /rik+ ! air !y   
are int5sely heat$ by ! friction1  & if 
!y are small !y burn up be=e rea*+ !    
gr\nd4    ,! small] meteors burn up     
almo/ in/antly & ! %9+ tails  !y leave  
la/ only a few seconds4 ,fireballs1 :i* 
are simply l>ge  meteors1 leave burn+   
trails :i* c sometimes be se5 = sev]al  
m9utes4 ,%oot+ />s are m]ely meteors :i*
 are n v bright1  :ile meteorites are   
meteors :i* h fall5 to ! ,e>? be=e !y  h
 _h "t to burn up4    ,_m meteorites h  
be5 f\nd1 b n9ety-five out ( e hundr$   
are ( ! /ony k9d1 ! o!rs be+ ( ! iron   
k9d4 ,! way to  tell a meteorite f a    
common /one is by exam9+ its surface4 ,a
  true meteorite is cov]$ ) a black1    
%9y1 burnt cru/1 caus$ by  ! int5se heat
 to :i* x 0 subject$ z x fell ?r\gh !   
air4  ,! te/ = an iron meteorite is to  
gr9d & poli% a "p ( its  surface & !n   
cov] x ) a dilute solution ( nitric     
acid1 :5  m>k+s l ^? %[n 9 ,fig4 #acb w 
be et*$ ^u x4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   

#acc4--,,! ,,milky ,,way4    ,! ,milky  
,way4--,y h1 no d\bt1 (t5 se5 on a cle>1
 d>k night1  a wide1 ragg$ b& ( light   
/ret*+ f ! nor!rn sky across  ! cele/ial
 equator & beyond4 ,?is b& ( light is ! 
fam\s  ,milky ,way4    ,if1 z y 7 look+ 
at ! ,milky ,way1 ! ,e>? c\ld be mov$ f 
"u y & y 7 left /&+ 9 space alone s t y 
c\ld  see 9 e direction1 y w\ld f9d t ! 
b& =m$ a complete  r+ r\nd ! sky4    ,to
 ! nak$ eye ! ,milky ,way seems to be   
made up ( mi/s ( matt]  z ?9 z ! /uff ( 
:i* comets' tails are made4 ,!re are "s 
pat*es1 ?\gh1 t are v bright1 b look at 
!m z long z y  w ) ! nak$ eye no?+ m c  
be se5 ?an j a milky  pat* ( hazy :ite1 
z %[n 9 ,fig4 #acc4    ,) a v small     
telescope1 h[ev]1 ?is b& ( lum9\s matt] 
w be in/antly *ang$ into ?\s&s ( />s1   
all sep>ate &  di/9ct1 & "s ( ^! />s w  
look ab\t z l>ge z ! />s  ( ! ,pleiades 
:5 ^! are se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 :ile o!rs  w
 %9e z brightly z ,v5us or ,jupit] :5 !y
 are ne>e/ to !  ,e>?4    ,^! bright    
pat*es1 !n1 :i* =m ! ,milky ,way1 are   

really  gr\ps ( />s or />-clu/]s1 & :5  
"s ( ^! clu/]s are  photograph$ ?r\gh a 
telescope z _m z #ae or #bj ?\s& />s c  
be c\nt$1 :ile ! real numb] ( />s t lie 
beyond & :i*  _c be se5 is pa/ all      
calculation1 &1 j ?9k ( x1 e  "o ( ^!   
/>s is a ,sun z l>ge or l>g] ?an our    
,sun6    ,^? :o h made a deep /udy (    
/>craft tell u t our ,sun is  "o ( ! />s
 ( ! ,milky ,way1 & s9ce ! o!r fix$ /> t
  is ne>e/ to u1 :i* is ,alpha ,c5tauri1
 is #be trillion miles away1  & ,sirius1
 ! ,dog ,/>1 :i* is ! brighte/ /> 9 !   
:ole sky1  is ?ree times z f> away z    
,alpha ,c5tauri1 we may ga9 "s slight   
idea ( ! enorm\s di/ances ( ! fa9t] />s 
t make up !  ,milky ,way4    ,!         
,nebul4--,unlike ! bright1 cl\d-l pat*es
 9 ! ,milky ,way1  & :i* ! telescope %[s
 to be =m$ ( sep>ate & di/9ct  />s1 are 
! fa9t mi/y spots 9 ! sky call$ nebul   
7or nebule74    ,n[ ! nebul give u a    
clew z to h[ ! />s 7 made1 & h[  o!r />s
 are n[ be+ made1 = x is believ$ t !    
nebul are  ! raw mat]ial :i*1 :5 set 9  

motion1 produc$ heat & took on  =m &    
became ,suns & planets l our own sol>   
sy/em4    ,! nebul are =m$ ( lum9\s gas4
 ,"s ( !m are great irregul>  cl\ds (   
gas1 _m are m or less spiral 9 =m1 o!rs 
are  cond5s$ s !y look l fuzzy />s4     
,!re are a few ( ^! nebul :i* c be se5 )
 ! nak$ eye2  "o ( ^! is ! ,great       
,nebula ( ,orion1 & if y w look at      
,orion "s night & draw an imag9>y l9e a 
little bel[ 8 belt  & t[>d ! ea/ y w be 
able to f9d x4 ,ano!r nebula t  is      
bright en\gh to be se5 ) ! nak$ eye is !
 ,great ,nebula 9  ,&rom$a4 ,bo? ( ^!   
nebul are good te/s = eyesight4 ,fig4   
#acd  %[s "s ( ! diff]5t =ms ( nebul4   
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--;,,diff]5t  
,,=ms ,,( ,,nebul4    ,! ,mak+ ( !      
,/>s4--,to expla9 h[ our ,sun & !       
planets  7 made1 z well z all ! o!r />s 
9 ! univ]se1 two ideas  h be5 work$ out1
 & al?\gh ^! are q unlike 9 _m  ways1   
yet bo? />t out ) ! nebul4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 
is call$  ! nebul> hypo!sis & ! o!r &   
lat] "o is call$ !  planetesimal        

hypo!sis4    ,! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis4--,we 
h f\nd out :at nebula is believ$  to be 
& we %\ld next und]/& exactly :at ! ^w  
hypo!sis  means4 ,an hypo!sis is an idea
 work$ out s t !re is a fairly  good    
*ance ( its be+ true4    ,! nebul>      
hypo!sis1 !n1 is an idea t has be5 work$
 out  f :at nebul are believ$ to be &   
:at is kn[n ( ! mighty  =ces ( nature1 &
 ^! :5 tak5 toge!r seem to %[ t all  !  
?+s 9 ! sky--/>s1 planets1 moons1 comets
 & meteors--are  made ( nebul> /uff4    
,! nebul> hypo!sis says t :5 ! nebul>   
matt]1 or /> /uff  ( :i* ! planets 7    
made1 0 sep>at$ f ! p>5t nebula  by     
c5trifugal =ce1 !y 7 all :irl$ away 9 ! 
same plane1  turn+ on _! own axes &     
travel+ r\nd ! ,sun 9 ! same  direction4
    ,! ,planetesimal ,hypo!sis4--,a lat]
 idea1 is call$ !  planetesimal         
hypo!sis4 ,planetesimal means little    
planet1 &  z we "k already :at hypo!sis 
means1 by c\pl+ ! two words  toge!r we  
may easily guess t x is an idea work$   
out :i*  acc\nts = ! mak+ ( sol> sy/ems 

out ( little planets4    ,! planetesimal
 hypo!sis assumes t ! sun1 planets1 &   
moons  compris+ ! ,sol> ,sy/em 7 =m$ f a
 /> :i* 0 torn to  pieces by ano!r />   
:i* pass$ close by4 ,! /> 0 left 9  ! =m
 ( a spiral nebula r lumpy & ) little   
p>ticles (  matt] scatt]$ all ar\nd4    
,! meteors1 or little planets1 mak+ up !
 nebula1 attract ea*  o!r1 l all o!r    
bodies1 & :5 !y get close en\gh !y are  
drawn toge!r & d5se masses ( matt]1 or  
cores1 are built up4  ,! l>ge/ core is  
se5 9 ! c5t] ( a spiral nebula1 & z x   
becomes m compact x gr[s hott] & a ,sun 
is made1 :ile ! o!r  & small] cores turn
 r\nd x & attract little planets to !m4 
,&  s ! cores gr[ 9 size1 & ) m & m     
weight be>+ t[>d  _! c5t]s ! gases are  
=c$ out & ^! make ! air & wat]4    ,x is
 9 ?is mann] t ! planetesimal hypo!sis  
expla9s h[ !  ,sun1 planets & ,moons ( !
 sol> sy/em are made4          ,,*apt]  
,,viii    ,,see+ ,,! ,,/>s      ,h[ !   
,/>s ,%9e4--,a burn+ mat*1 a c&le1 an   
oil or gas flame1  ! ,sun1 comets &     

meteors all give out light & heat 9     
exactly !  same way1 b ! heat & light   
are made diff]5tly4    ,:5 y /rike a    
mat* ! friction makes en\gh heat to     
light !  *emicals ( :i* ! head is =m$ & 
! burn+ gases light !  spl9t :i* 9 turn 
g5]ates m gases f ! wood & ^! give  out 
m light & heat4    ,:5 y light a c&le ! 
heat melts ! wax :i* is !n drawn up  !  
wick1 ! burn+ gas ar\nd ! wick produces 
m gas & !  gas keeps ! flame go+4 ,9 !  
case ( an oil lamp ! oil1 :i*  is       
already a fluid1 is drawn up by ! wick1 
:]e x is *ang$ into  gases1 & light &   
heat result z 9 ! c&le4 ,! oil lamp is1 
!n1 a /ep ahead ( ! c&le1 = ! solid wax 
is replac$ by !  fluid oil4    ,9 ! gas 
light ! gas1 :i* is made ( coal or o!r  
matt]1 is  =c$ out ( ! jet "u pressure &
 ?is gives a bigg] & bett]  flame ?an ! 
oil lamp2 &1 z ! oil lamp is bett] ?an !
  c&le1 s ! gas jet is an improvem5t ov]
 ! oil lamp4    ,n[ ! ,sun1 & ?is is    
also true ( mo/ ( ! />s1 is s l>ge  &   
hot t if any solid matt]1 su* z iron &  

o!r metals c\ld  be ?r[n into ! ,sun !y 
w\ld n only be melt$ b in/antly  *ang$  
into gases4 ,fur!r1 ! ,sun is s hot t ! 
mat]ials  _c comb9e ) ,oxyg5--9 o!r     
words !y _c burn4 ,!  int5sely hot gases
 ( ! ,sun radiate ! light & heat & we   
suppose t !y keep !mselves hot l>gely by
 contraction4    ,:5 a comet comes close
 en\gh to ! ,e>? to be se5 x is !n      
close en\gh to ! ,sun s t ! light & heat
 ( ! ,sun cause  "s ( ! gases ( :i* !   
nucleus ( ! comet is =m$1 to  become    
:ite hot2 z a comet gets clos] to ! ,sun
 ! solid matt]  ( ! nucleus1 su* z      
sodium--:i* is a k9d ( salt--iron & o!r 
?+s are *ang$ into gases & ^! burn      
fi]cely4    ,:ile we c see ! light ( a  
comet we _c feel its heat1 = a  comet is
 too small to s5d its heat waves ?r\gh  
su* a great di/ance4    ,j z a mat* is  
lit by /rik+ x1 s meteors are set on    
fire by  /rik+ ! air4 ,meteors are made 
up ( ! same k9d ( matt] z  comets & :5  
^! %oot+ />s come )9 ! attraction ( !   
,e>? ! friction caus$ by ! meteor rubb+ 

aga9/ ! air is s  great t an int5se heat
 is produc$ & ! gases bur/ into flame4  
,if a meteor is small x is entirely     
burn$ up be=e x rea*es !  ,e>? & all we 
see ( x is a bright /reak ( light4 ,if a
 meteor  is l>ge en\gh only ! outside ( 
x is burn$ & x w1 9  consequ5ce1 rea* ! 
,e>?1 :5 x becomes1 z expla9$ 9 ! la/   
*apt]1 a meteorite4    ,meteors &       
meteorites produce a v bright light1    
burn+ z !y d  9 ! oxyg5 ( our air1 &    
?\gh !y are v close to u !y are  s small
 we _c feel any heat s5t out by !m4     
,we h said t :5 a mat* is /ruck !       
friction produces heat &  t :5 ! wax ( a
 c&le1 ! oil ( a lamp or ! gas ( a jet  
is burn$ !y produce light & heat1 & ?is 
is also true ( !  blaz+ ,sun1 ! fi]y    
comets & ! burn+ meteors4    ,:]e !re is
 light !re is usually heat & turn ab\t  
:]e !re  is heat !re is light if !      
temp]ature is high en\gh4 ,heat is      
produc$ be=e light1 b ! two are ne>ly   
always f\nd toge!r &  !y are s mu* alike
 !y might be call$ ! ,siamese tw9s4     

,:at ,heat & ,light ,are4--,we "k t bo? 
heat & light are caus$  by burn+ gases1 
b let's get a little clos] & f9d out j  
h[  & :y gases :i* are burn+ s5d out    
heat & light4    ,n[ gases are =m$ (    
p>ticles ( matt] call$ atoms & ^!  atoms
 are v small b !y h a c]ta9 size &      
weight accord+  to ! sub/ance !y =m4 ,:5
 ^! gases are cold ! atoms are          
comp>atively quiet1 b :5 !y are heat$ to
 a high temp]ature  !y are ?r[n into a  
viol5t /ate ( motion & vibrate to & fro 
a giv5 numb] ( times p] second1 or      
frequ5cy1 z x is call$1  accord+ to !   
sub/ances !y are made (4    ,! next "q 9
 ord] is :at makes ! p>ticles1 or atoms 
move1  or vibrate & ! answ] is heat1 :i*
 sometimes produces burn+4  ,combu/ion1 
or burn+ is a *emical action & c be     
expla9$ by  say+ t x is ! comb9+ ( a    
sub/ance ) oxyg51 or o!r  sub/ance ) !  
production ( heat & light4    ,! only   
diff]5ce betwe5 heat & light is t ( wave
 l5g? z  we %all see pres5tly1 & ! l5g? 
( heat waves & ( light waves  dep5ds    

entirely on ! rapidity ) :i* ! atoms    
vibrate1 or !  frequ5cy ( vibration1 z x
 is call$4 ,if ! atoms ( gas move  sl[ly
 heat is s5t out & if ! atoms move      
rapidly ! heat gr[s  m int5se & light is
 radiat$4    ,:5 ! atoms ( a burn+ gas  
vibrate j fa/ en\gh to produce  light ! 
color ( ! light is r$2 :5 ! atoms       
vibrate /ill  fa/] ! color ( ! light is 
gre5 & :5 ! atoms vibrate v  fa/ ! light
 s5t out is violet1 s we see t n only d 
!  vibrat+ atoms s5d out light b t !    
rapidity1 or frequ5cy )  :i* !y vibrate 
makes1 or det]m9es1 ! color z well ( !  
light  :i* is s5t out4    ,"o ?+ m3 !   
rapidity ( ! motion1 or vibration1 ( !  
atoms  ( a gas dep5ds entirely on !     
sub/ance :i* is be+ burn$1 s  t c]ta9   
sub/ances :5 burn+ always produce c]ta9 
colors4  7,see ,*apt] ,,xii1 ,:at ! ,/>s
 ,are ,made ,(47    ,h[ ,heat & ,light  
,travel4--,:ile ! little motions or     
vibrations1  ( ! p>ticles1 or atoms1 (  
gas =m+ ! flame ( a c&le1 !  ,sun1 & o!r
 heat & light giv]s c\ld g on j ! same  

we c\ld  n feel _! heat or see _! light 
)\t some?+ or "s k9d  ( a sub/ance :i*  
w\ld connect !m ) our bodies & our eyes1
  l a wire connect+ a pu% button ) an   
electric bell4 ,& !re  is some?+ :i*    
connects u ) ! mo/ di/ant />s & t       
some?+ is call$ ! e!r4    ,illu/ration3 
,,fig4 #ace4--,,ripples ,,or ,,waves    
,,on ,,wat]4    ,to %[ h[ ^! little     
movem5ts1 or vibrations set up by !     
atoms  ( a flame impress u z heat or    
light d at a di/ance we w beg9  ) a     
simple exp]im5t to %[ :at ! e!r is & h[ 
x acts4    ,if y w /& on ! edge ( a pool
 ( wat] & ?r[ a /one  into ! middle ( x 
y w see a little r+-l ripple1 or wave   
/>t out f ! po9t :]e ! /one /ruck !     
wat]2 ?is ripple1  or wat] wave w       
cont9ue to gr[ l>g] & l>g] 9 diamet] &  
weak] & weak] until x rea*es ! edge ( ! 
pond1 z %[n 9  ,fig4 #ace1 or if ! pond 
is v l>ge ! waves w die out be=e  !y    
rea* ! edge4    ,aga91 if y toss a numb]
 ( /ones into ! middle ( ! pond "o  aft]
 ano!r a s]ies ( r+-l waves w foll[ f ! 

c5t]  ( ! pond :]e ! /ones /rike ! wat] 
to ! edge ( ! pond1  or until !y die    
out4    ,9 ! same mann] if a bell is    
/ruck by a bl[ ( its tongue1  ripples1  
or waves 9 ! air w be s5t out all ar\nd 
! bell4  ,^! waves 9 ! air are call$    
s\nd waves1 b !y are1 aft]  all1 only   
air waves4    ,:5 a bell is /ruck ! rim 
( ! bell moves =? & back1 fir/  9 "o    
direction & !n 9 ! o!r1 z %[n 9 !       
diagram1 ,fig4  #acf1 & we call ^!      
little movem5ts ( ! bell vibrations4 ,! 
movem5ts are s small t y _c see !m1 b if
 y put y\r  f+] on ! bell y c feel !m4  
,al?\gh ! vibrations ( a bell are v     
small !y are p[]ful  en\gh to set up    
ripples1 or waves 9 ! air z %[n 9 ,fig4 
#acg1  & :5 ^! air waves or s\nd waves  
/rike ! drum ( ! e> x  vibrates j l !   
bell & ! auditory n]ve ( ! e> c>ries  ! 
waves on to ! bra9 & we he> ! bell r+4  
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,,vibration 
,,( ,a ,,bell4    ,x mu/ be pla9 n[ t if
 !re 0 no air connect+ ! bell )  our e>s
 ! bell might keep on r++ & yet we c\ld 

n he> x4    ,:5 ! air is set 9 motion by
 ! vibrations ( a bell1 or any o!r      
device = produc+ f #cb to #dj1jjj       
vibrations p] second1 we c  he> x1 & :5 
! air moves z a mass1 z :5 ! w9d bl[s1  
we  c feel x4 ,air =ms a lay] ar\nd !   
,e>? t is betwe5 #bjj &  #cjj miles     
?ick1 b out 9 ! great space beyond !re  
is no air4  ,yet ! space is n empty1 b x
 is fill$ in/ead ) a sub/ance  call$ !  
e!r4    ,j z ! air is f9] ?an wat] s !  
e!r is a million times  f9] ?an ! air4  
,x is s f9e t x fills up all ! little   
spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles or atoms ( wat]
 & ( ! air1 & x  p5etrates 9 betwe5 !   
atoms ( ! d5se/ metals & ! h>de/  glass1
 & fur!r1 & /ill m wond]ful1 x fills all
 ( ! great  space 9 :i* ! planets & !   
/>s are plac$4    ,n[ :5 ! p>ticles1 or 
atoms ( gas are set 9 motion1 or        
vibration  by a flame ( any k9d1 be x a 
c&le or ! ,sun1 little ripples or  waves
 are />t$ 9 ! e!r & if ^! waves are v   
%ort !y  affect ! eye & cause ! optic   
n]ve to vibrate exactly l !  vibrations 

:i* are s5d+ out ! e!r waves & ^! waves 
are  c>ri$ to our bra9s & we see !      
light4 ,! way 9 :i* a flame  s5ds out   
waves 9 ! e!r & is receiv$ by ! eye1 is 
%[n 9  ,fig4 #ach4    ,illu/ration3     
,,fig4 #acg4--,,s\nd ,,waves ,,9 ,,!    
,,air ,,set ,,up ,,by ,,bell4    ,x     
takes a ripple1 or wave on ! wat] />t$  
by ! impact ( a  /one ab\t "o-half      
second to travel "o foot4 ,a s\nd wave1 
set up  by ! vibrations ( a bell1 or o!r
 s\nd produc+ device1 travels  ?r\gh !  
air at ! rate ( #a1jij feet p] second1  
:ile light &  heat waves set up by !    
vibrations ( a flame1 ! ,sun or o!r hot 
body1 travel ?r\gh ! e!r at ! rate (    
#ahf1ejj miles p] second4    ,x mu/ be  
pla9 n[ t if !re 0 no e!r connect+ !    
flame1  or ! ,sun ) our eyes ! flame1 or
 ,sun might cont9ue to s5d out  light & 
yet we c\ld n see x4    ,h[ ! ,eye      
,sees4--,if x 0 n = our e>s we c\ld n   
he> a bell  r+ nor any s\nd1 = ?\gh !   
waves 9 ! air might /ill be s5t  out we 
w\ld h no means ( receiv+ !m2 aga9 if x 

0 n =  our eyes we c\ld n see a flame1 !
 ,sun or any o!r s\rce ( light  &1 :at  
w\ld be worse1 we c\ld n see an object  
by its reflect$  light1 = ?\gh ! waves 9
 ! e!r w\ld /ill be s5t out we  w\ld h  
no means ( receiv+ !m4    ,illu/ration3 
,,fig4 #ach4--,,waves ,,9 ,,! ,,e!r4    
,! eye is simply a cam]a on a v small   
scale1 b :at x lacks  9 size x makes up 
by ! excell5ce ( its op]ation4 ,if y w  
set up a %eet ( :ite c>dbo>d on "o end (
 y\r />bo>d1 place  a light$ c&le at !  
o!r end & !n hold y\r burn+ glass       
betwe5 ! flame ( ! c&le & ! c>dbo>d1 z  
%[n 9 ,fig4  #aci1 & d all ?is 9 an     
o!rwise d>k room1 y w see a picture     
turn$ upside d[n1 call$ an inv]t$ image1
 ( ! c&le flame on  ! c>dbo>d4    ,to   
get a %>p picture1 or image ( ! flame on
 ! c>dbo>d scre5  y w h to move ! l5s   
t[>d & away f ! c>dbo>d1 &  ?is process 
is call$ focus+4 ,if y w fix ! l5s 9 !  
front  ( a light-tight box & place a    
%eet ( gr\nd glass 9 ! back (  ! box y w
 h a simple1 ?\gh crude1 cam]a4    ,!   

eye has all ( ! ?+s :i* ! highe/ pric$  
cam]a has & a  good deal m1 = all ( its 
adju/m5ts are automatically made1 &  y  
don't ev5 h to ?9k ab\t !m4             
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,,=m+ ,,an 
,,image ,,) ,a ,,l5s4    ,! eye is almo/
 z r\nd z a ball & x c be turn$ a little
 9  its bony socket 9 any direction4 ,! 
out] "p ( an eye :i* takes  ! place ( ! 
box ( a cam]a1 is /ret*$ r\nd ! :ole eye
 l  ! cov] ( a baseball1 z %[n 9 ,fig4  
#adj4 ,! front "p ( ?is  cov] =ms ! :ite
 ( ! eye1 & fitt+ into ! cov] & ov]  !  
l5s1 l a wat* cry/al 9 its rim1 is !    
cornea1 :i* is a  t\gh1 b transp>5t film
 & protects ! iris & ! l5s4             
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,! ,,human 
,,eye4    ,betwe5 ! l5s & ! cornea is a 
?9 disk1 or diaphragm ) a  hole 9 its   
c5t] & ?is is ! iris2 ! purpose ( ! iris
 is to  let 9 only a c]ta9 am\nt (      
light1 j l ! %utt] ( a good  cam]a4 ,!  
hole 9 ! iris =ms ! pupil ( ! eye1 & y c
  see ! hole1 or pupil1 gr[ l>g] or     
small]1 j z ! eye ne$s  m or less light4

    ,! l9+ ( ! eye is call$ ! ret9a &   
?is =ms a scre5 at  ! back ( ! eye on   
:i* ! light waves 9 ! e!r project !     
image ( ! object at :i* ! eye is look+4 
,in/ead ( be+ :ite  l our c>dbo>d scre5 
! ret9a is v black4    ,! ret9a ^u :i* !
 image is =m$ is connect$ ) ! optic     
n]ve2 9 fact1 ! ret9a is a "p ( ! optic 
n]ve & is cov]$  ) a lot ( little n]ve  
ends or filam5ts call$ rods & cones4    
,n[ :5 ! waves 9 ! e!r s5t out by !     
flame ( a c&le1 or  by ! ,sun1 rea* !   
eye1 !y pass ?r\gh ! cornea1 !n ?r\gh  !
 pupil1 or hole 9 ! iris1 & f9ally ?r\gh
 ! l5s :i*  focuses ! waves on ! ret9a &
 =ms ! image !re4    ,! diff]5t colors (
 light are caus$ by waves 9 ! e!r (     
diff]5t l5g?s2 :5 v %ort waves /rike !  
ret9a we say !  color is violet2 waves a
 little long] we call gre5 & ! longe/   
waves :i* ! eye c see =m 9 our bra9s !  
s5sation ( r$4    ,waves 9 ! e!r :i* are
 long] ?an ! wave-l5g?s ! eye c  see    
produce heat & :5 ^! waves fall on any  
"p ( ! body !  n]ves detect !m & we call

 ! s5sation heat4 ,on ! o!r h&  waves 9 
! e!r :i* are too %ort to affect ! n]ves
 ( ! eye  w impress a photographic      
plate4    ,! iris ( ! eye acts z a      
self-regulat+ %utt]1 :i* makes !  hole1 
or pupil 9 front ( ! l5s l>g] or small] 
accord+ to !  am\nt ( light :i* is ne$$ 
to see an object well4 ,if ! light  is  
/rong ! iris contracts1 :i* means t !   
hole gets small]  & s cuts (f "s ( !    
light4 ,if ! light is weak ! hole gets  
l>g] & we say ! pupil exp&s & ?is lets m
 light ?r\gh  ! l5s4    ,!re mu/ also be
 "s means ( adju/m5t to make a %>p      
image1 or  picture1 on ! ret9a1 h[ev]   
ne> or f> away ! object may be f  ! eye4
 ,9 a cam]a ?is is done by mov+ ! l5s & 
! scre5  clos] toge!r or f>!r ap>t & ?is
 is ! purpose ( ! bell[s  ( a cam]a4    
,b ! eye has a mu* f9] & quick] adju/m5t
 ?an ?is =  di/ance4 ,! l5s is s made t 
! front "p ( x c b5d j  z ! di/ance     
*anges4 ,y h only to look at an object &
 !  l5s is adju/$ )\t ! slighte/ ef=t or
 k on y\r "p4    ,y may wond] h[ light  

waves c pass ?r\gh a sub/ance z solid  &
 z h>d z glass or ?r\gh ! eye4 ,y w     
rememb] ,i told y  9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is     
*apt] h[ e!r got into e little space1   
ev5 9 metals & glass1 z well z t x fill$
 all ! great space  betwe5 ! />s4    ,we
 ?9k ( glass z be+ v solid1 & x is solid
 en\gh to keep  wat] or air 9 a bottle f
 gett+ out ?r\gh its pores4 ,b glass  & 
! sub/ance ( :i* ! eye is made are j    
ab\t z full (  holes z a sieve1 b !     
holes are s v1 v small y c\ldn't  beg9  
to see !m ev5 ) ! aid ( a high-p[]      
microscope1 yet  !y are l>ge en\gh = !  
e!r to run ?r\gh j z wat] runs  ?r\gh a 
sieve4    ,:5 ,i tell y t waves 9 ! e!r 
:i* are s5t out by !  light ( a c&le or 
! ,sun are only ab\t #ae t5-million?s to
 #cj  t5-million?s ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & t 
! holes1 or pores1 9  ! glass & ! cornea
 & l5s ( ! eye1 & :i* are full (  e!r1  
are mu* l>g]1 y c readily und]/& t ! e!r
 waves  :i* we call light c m]rily pass 
?r\gh ei!r glass or ! eye  & t !re is   
no?+ 9 ! way to /op !m4    ,to sum up   

briefly h[ ! />s %9e1 h[ light travels &
 h[ !  eye sees we w />t ) ! light ( !  
,sun & say    7#a7 ,t ! ,sun is made up 
l>gely ( gases1 & t 7#b7 ,^! gases  are 
=m$ ( v>i\s sub/ances1 & t 7#c7 ,! gases
 produce  t]rific heat1 :i* means t 7#d7
 ,! atoms or p>ticles :i* =m  ! gases   
are 9 viol5t motion or vibration4 7#e7  
,^! vibrations  />t out waves 9 ! e!r   
:i* travel out into space at a spe$  (  
ab\t #ahf1ejj miles p] second4 7#f7 ,on 
rea*+ ! eye ! waves  pass ?r\gh ! l5s & 
=m a picture or image 7#g7 ,on ! ret9a1 
or  scre5 ( ! eye1 :i* is made up ( !   
ends ( n]ves1 & ^!  vibrate j z ! atoms 
( ! gases 9 ! ,sun :i* s5t out !  waves 
vibrat$1 & f9ally 7#h7 ,^! n]ve         
vibrations are s5t ov]  ! optic n]ve to 
! bra91 :]e !y take on ! %ape1 size &   
colors ( ! ,sun4    ,reflection (       
,light4--,! flame ( a mat*1 or a c&le1  
an oil or  a gas lamp1 or ,sun1 comet or
 meteor1 produces its own light1 & =    
?is reason ^! bodies are call$          
self-lum9\s--t is1 !y are  !mselves !   

s\rce ( light4    ,all o!r objects :i* d
 n produce light1 su* z an apple1 a     
/one1 ! ,e>? & o!r planets & moons are  
call$ non-lum9\s  bodies4    ,yet ^!    
non-lum9\s bodies c s5d out light if !y 
are light$  up by "s self-lum9\s body4  
,x is well t ?is is s1 or else we  c\ld 
nev] see any?+ t 0 n 9 itself giv+ out  
light4    ,if y w hold an apple or a    
/one 9 y\r h& & let ! light (  a c&le or
 ! ,sun fall on x y w be able to see !  
apple or  /one1 &1 al?\gh y w h>dly be  
able to notice x1 y w see  !m by ! light
 :i* /rikes !m & is turn$ back1 or      
reflect$  f _! surfaces1 z %[n 9 ,fig4  
#ada4    ,if a rubb] ball is ?r[n on !  
sidewalk x w b\nce back &  ?is is j !   
way light acts :5 x /rikes mo/          
objects--x  b\nces back1 or1 to use ! "r
 ^w1 x is reflect$4    ,:5 we look at ! 
surface ( ! ,e>? by daylight we see ! s&
  & /ones1 grass & trees1 h\ses & o!r   
objects by ! light  :i* is reflect$1 or 
?r[n back f ! surface ( ^! ?+s by  !    
,sun4    ,:5 we look at ! surface ( !   

,e>? by ! light ( ! ,moon we  also see !
 objects by reflect$ light1 b 9 ?is case
 ! light  is twice reflect$1 = moonlight
 is ! light ( ! ,sun fall+ on  ! ,moon &
 :i* is !n reflect$ to ! ,e>?1 :]e x is 
aga9  reflect$ to our eyes f ! objects x
 falls on4 ,?is is ! reason  moonlight  
is s pale :5 comp>$ ) sunlight4         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,,light     
,,reflect$ ,,by ,,an ,,apple4           
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,,light     
,,refract$4 ,,spoon ,,9 ,,glass ,,(     
,,wat]4    ,refraction ( ,light4--,:5 a 
beam ( light passes ?r\gh glass1 wat]  &
 o!r transp>5t sub/ances1 & is b5t out (
 a /raight l9e x  is said to be         
refract$4    ,place a spoon 9 a glass ( 
wat]1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #adb & x w  look z  
if ! spoon is brok5 9 two at ! po9t :]e 
x t\*es !  wat]4 ,! b5d+ ( ! beam (     
light w be m cle>ly und]/ood  f ! draw+ 
9 ,fig4 #adc4    ,if y w look at a />   
squ>ely ?r\gh a ?ick piece ( glass &  ! 
/> seems to *ange its position a little 
y w "k t !  sides ( ! glass are n q     

p>allel4    ,a prism is a ?ree-sid$     
piece ( glass1 if we except ! ends1 z   
%[n 9 ,fig4 #add4 ,:5 a beam ( light    
passes ?r\gh a prism !  prism affects ! 
light 9 two ways3 fir/1 x b5ds ! beam1 &
  second1 x sep>ates ! e!r waves1 or    
light waves1 z !y are  call$1 accord+ to
 _! l5g?s1 & z color dep5ds on ! l5g?  (
 ! waves 9 ! e!r a prism w %[ ! diff]5t 
colors on a  scre5 & ?is is call$ !     
spectrum4 ,x is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ade4       
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--;,,h[       
,,light ,,is ,,refract$4                
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,,prism4    
,l5ses are pieces ( glass hav+ curv$    
surfaces4 ,:5 a beam ( light  passes    
?r\gh a l5s x is also b5t out ( its     
orig9al direction1 or  refract$4    ,a  
convex l5s1 see ,fig4 #adf1 is a l5s :i*
 is ?ick] 9 !  middle ?an x is at !     
edges4 ,a convex l5s is us$ = magnify+  
an object2 or = =m+ an image s t x c be 
magnifi$ by  ano!r l5s z 9 a telescope1 
= =m+ an image on ! scre5 ( a  cam]a1 & 
= br++ ! heat waves ( ! ,sun to a focus1

 z )  a burn+ glass4    ,! po9t :]e !   
rays ( light are br\ght toge!r is call$ 
!  focus4 ,y c easily f9d ! focus ( a   
l5s by hold+ a %eet (  pap]1 or ! h& "u 
! l5s & lett+ ! sunlight pass ?r\gh  x2 
:]e ! spot ( light is smalle/ & brighte/
 !re is !  focus4 ,! di/ance ( ?is po9t 
f ! l5s is call$ ! focal  l5g?4         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,,prism     
,,=m+ ,a ,,spectrum4    ,illu/ration3   
,,fig4 #adf4--;,,convex ,,l5s4    ,a    
concave l5s is a l5s :i* is ?9n] at !   
middle ?an x is  at ! edge1 z %[n 9     
,fig4 #adg4 ,x is us$ 9 small telescopes
 &  op]a glasses to turn ! inv]t$       
picture =m$ by ! convex l5s  ar\nd s t !
 object c be se5 9 its "r position1 z   
%[n  9 ,fig4 #aea4    ,%ad[s4--,%ad[s   
are useful z well z sun%9e1 b %ad[s are 
su* common1 ev]yday ?+s x seems almo/   
useless to talk ab\t  !m2 /ill y may or 
may n "k t !re are diff]5t k9ds (       
%ad[s4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4          
#adg4--;,,concave ,,l5s4    ,( c\rse we 
all "k t :5 a c&le or a gaslight or !   

,sun  %9es on an apple or any o!r opaque
 object--t is1 an object t  w n let !   
e!r waves g ?r\gh x--! light is cut (f  
back (  x & ?is d>k space is call$ a    
%ad[2 ?is is also true :5 !  ,sun %9es  
on ! ,e>?1 or on any ( ! o!r planets or 
_! moons4    ,!re are always two p>ts to
 ! %ad[ ( an object unless ! light  is a
 m]e po9t or ! object is v close to !   
scre51 or surface  on :i* ! %ad[ falls4 
,! d>k "p ( ! %ad[ is call$ !  umbra4 ,!
 edge ( ! object :]e ! light & %ade run 
toge!r  & =m a p>tial %ad[ is call$ !   
p5umbra & dur+ a total  eclipse ?is     
p>tial %ad[ surr\nds ! d>k %ad[1 or     
umbra ( !  ,e>? or ,moon4               
,,*apt] ,,ix    ,,! ,,spyglass ,,or     
,,telescope      ,! ,boy ,:o ,discov]$ !
 ,telescope4--,spectacles h be5 made &  
us$ = ne>ly a ?\s& ye>s & ! art ( mak+  
l5ses is v  mu* old]4    ,a little ov]  
?ree hundr$ ye>s ago !re liv$ 9         
,am/]dam1  ,holl&1 a spectacle mak] nam$
 ,lipp]hey1 & x is said ( him t  he made
 good l5ses4    ,!re 0 appr5tic$ to ?is 

l5s gr9d] a ,dut* boy1 & ,i am sorry  ,i
 _c tell y 8 "n1 = he 0 a boy :o did    
?+s2 b 8  "n is n record$1 :i* is a     
%ame1 = if x _h n be5 = ?is  boy        
,galileo might nev] h _h a telescope4   
,"o day :ile ! boss 0 out ?is ,dut* boy 
0 /&+ be=e a  w9d[ ( ! %op & he held a  
l5s be=e 8 eye ) "o h& &  ano!r l5s be=e
 ! fir/ l5s ) 8 o!r h&1 z %[n 9  ,fig4  
#adh4 ,imag9e 8 surprise :5 ! *ur* he 0 
look+ at seem$  to move mu* ne>] to him1
 t is to say1 ! image ( ! *ur* 0        
greatly enl>g$4    ,! boy _h made a     
wond]ful discov]y--he _h discov]$ !     
telescope4 ,:5 8 ma/] return$ ! boy %[$ 
him :at he _h  done & x 0 n long be=e ! 
great ,galileo _h a telescope &  0 />tl+
 ! _w by 8 wond]ful discov]ies ( ! moons
 (  ,jupit]1 ! r+s ( ,saturn1 ! phases (
 ,v5us1 ! spots on ! ,sun  & a hundr$   
o!r wond]s ( ! sky4    ,a telescope is  
an arrangem5t ( l5ses 9 a tube = mak+ ! 
image  ( a di/ant object l>g] on ! ret9a
 ( ! eye1 or1 z 9 ! case  ( ! fix$ />s1 
= mak+ !m bright]4    ,illu/ration3     

,,fig4 #adh4--,,lipp]hey',s ,,boy       
,,discov]s ,,! ,,telescope4    ,! ^w    
telescope comes f two ,greek words1 !   
fir/1 tele1  :i* means af>1 & ! second1 
scope1 :i* means to see1 s t  telescope 
means j :at we %\ld expect x to mean & t
 is to  see af>4    ,!re are sev]al k9ds
 ( telescopes1 b !re are only two k9ds  
,i want to make cle> to y "h2 9 ! fir/  
k9d ! eye sees !  object j z x is1 t is1
 /&+ "r side up1 or erect4 ,?is  k9d ( a
 telescope is call$ a spyglass1 & is us$
 to look at  objects on ! surface ( !   
,e>?4    ,9 ! second k9d ( telescope !  
eye sees ! object upside d[n1  or       
inv]t$1 & ?is k9d ( telescope1 :i* is   
call$ an  a/ronomical telescope1 is j z 
good z ! o!r = look+ at  ! />s4    ,a   
,p9hole ,telescope4--,be=e describ+ h[  
to make & use real  telescopes :i* h    
l5ses ,i want to tell y ( a little s*eme
 to  see af>1 & ?\gh x does n magnify ! 
image ( ! object t  is se5 ?r\gh x1 yet 
x aids ! nak$ eye :5 y are look+ at  !  
,sun & ,/>s4    ,to make a p9hole       

telescope get a pa/ebo>d tube ab\t #a   
in*es 9  diamet] & #e or #f in*es long4 
,a pap] tube = mail+ pap]s &  %eet music
 is j ! ?+ & c be b\ght at any /ation]y 
/ore4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4           
#adi4--;,,disk ,,( ,,c>dbo>d ,,=        
,,p9hole ,,telescope4    ,illu/ration3  
,,fig4 #aej4--;,,cross ,,section ,,(    
,,p9hole ,,telescope4    ,cut out a     
disk1 or circul> piece ( c>dbo>d j l>ge 
en\gh to  fit ! tube1 see ,fig4 #adi1 & 
pu% a p9 po9t or ne$le ?r\gh !  c5t] to 
make a small1 clean hole4 ,next1 glue   
?is c>dbo>d disk 9  ! tube  an in* f "o 
end4 ,! disk mu/ be glu$ 9 ! tube s  t  
no light c leak ar\nd ! edge4    ,if1   
n[1 y look at ! ,sun ?r\gh ! p9hole     
telescope1 z %[n  9 ,fig4 #aej1 y w get 
a bett] view ( x ?an if y look at x     
?r\gh a p9hole 9 ! c>dbo>d alone1 = !   
tube %uts out all  ! o!r rays ( light f 
! eye4    ,to improve ! see+ qualities (
 ! p9hole telescope make ! hole  9 !    
c>dbo>d disk  in* 9 diamet] & cov] ?is  
hole ) a bit  ( t9foil4 ,n[ make a hole 

9 ! c5t] ( ! t9foil ) ! po9t  ( a ne$le2
 ?is makes ! edge ( ! hole %>p4    ,a   
pa/ebo>d tube )\t ! p9hole w also aid ! 
nak$ eye 9  see+ ! ,moon & />s1 = x %uts
 out all ! rays ( light  ar\nd ! eye &  
limits ! sight to a c]ta9 "p ( ! sky2   
toge!r ^! ?+s are v good helps 9 obs]v+ 
especially if  !re are gas & electric   
lights ne>by4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4   
#aea4--,,! ,,telescope 7,,galileo74     
,h[ a ,telescope ,works4--,a real       
telescope has at lea/ two l5ses 9  x2 ! 
l>g] l5s is plac$ 9 ! end ( ! tube ne>e/
 ! object  to be view$ & is call$ !     
object glass because ! light f  ! object
 is receiv$ by x4    ,! small] l5s is   
plac$ 9 ! end ( ! tube ne>e/ ! eye1  &  
is call$ ! eyepiece1 = x is ?is l5s :i* 
enl>ges1 or  magnifies ! image ( !      
object t is ?r[n ^u ! ret9a ( !  eye4   
,!re are two simple k9ds ( telescopes2 !
 fir/ is ! k9d t  ,galileo us$ = mak+ 8 
great discov]ies4 ,! k9d ( l5ses us$  & 
! way !y are plac$ 9 ! tube is %[n 9    
,fig4 #aea4    ,9 ?is telescope ! object

 glass is a d\ble convex l5s & ! beam  (
 light :i* /rikes x is br\ght to a po9t 
z 9 ! case ( a  burn+ glass1 b be=e !   
light rea*es ?is po9t x is caught up  by
 ! d\ble concave l5s :i* =ms ! eyepiece1
 :5 x is c>ri$  to ! eye 9 an erect     
position4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4       
#aeb4--,,op]a ,,glasses4    ,an op]a    
glass is simply a pair ( ^! little      
telescopes1 jo9$  toge!r s t !y c be    
focus$ at ! same "t by means ( an       
adju/+ screw1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aeb4       
,ano!r simple telescope is =m$ ( two    
d\ble convex l5ses4 ,z  9 ! telescope j 
describ$ ! l>g] l5s1 or object glass1 is
  plac$ 9 ! end ( ! tube ne>e/ ! object 
to be view$ & !  small] l5s1 or         
eyepiece1 is plac$ 9 ! tube ne>e/ ! eye4
    ,9 ?is telescope1 ?\gh1 ! eyepiece  
is a d\ble convex l5s &  :ile a l>g]    
image is =m$ 9 ! eye x is inv]t$1 or    
upside  d[n1 s t ?is k9d ( a telescope  
is ( no use z a glass to spy  ?+s ) on !
 surface ( ! ,e>?4    ,h[ to ,make a    
,*eap ,telescope4--,l5ses are absurdly  

*eap4 ,if y live  9 a l>ge city y w f9d 
l5s gr9d]s :o w sell y ! k9d  ( l5ses y 
ne$ = ei!r k9d ( telescope = a doll> or 
s4    ,telescope ,no4 #a4--,?is         
telescope is fa%ion$ aft] an op]a glass1
  t is1 x has a concave l5s = an        
eyepiece4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4       
#aec4--,,pa/ebo>d ,,m\nt+ ,,( ,,l5s4    
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,,pa/ebo>d  
,,l5s ,,m\nt+4    ,get two pa/ebo>d     
tubes ( ! k9d describ$ = ! p9hole       
telescope2 ! bore1 or hole1 ( ! fir/    
tube %\ld be #a in*es 9  diamet] & x    
%\ld be #b in*es long4 ,h ! second tube 
a little  small] ?an #a in*es 9 diamet] 
on ! outside s t x w slide  easily into 
! l>g] tube & yet n leak light1 & h ?is 
tube  #a in*es long4 ,pa9t ! inside (   
bo? tubes ) black pa9t to keep  ! walls 
( ! tube f reflect+ any /ray rays (     
light :i* may  /rike !m4 ,! outside (   
bo? tubes c be cov]$ ) bookb9d]s'  clo? 
to give !m a neat appe>ance4    ,! next 
/ep is to m\nt ! l5ses4 ,! l>g] l5s = ! 
object  glass is a d\ble convex l5s #a  

in*es 9 diamet] & hav+ a  #d-;in* focal 
l5g?1 or focus1 z x is call$ = %ort4 ,a 
l5s (  ?is k9d c be b\ght = #be or #cj  
c5ts4 ,! small] l5s = !  eyepiece is a  
d\ble concave l5s #a in* 9 diamet] &    
hav+ a focus  ( #b in*es4 ,?is l5s c be 
_h = ab\t #dj c5ts4    ,illu/ration3    
,,fig4 #aee4--,,op]a ,,glass            
,,telescope4 ,,cross ,,section4    ,cut 
a /rip ( ?91 t\gh c>dbo>d  in* wide & #f
 in*es long2 on  ?is /rip glue a /rip ( 
heavy pa/ebo>d  in* wide & #e in*es     
long1 & h "o end ( bo? pieces ev51 z %[n
 9 ,fig4 #aec4 ,set  a flatiron on !    
pieces & let !m dry4 ,:5 dry make a     
groove d[n  ! middle ( ! heavy pa/ebo>d 
by slic+ out a v ?9 /rip  ) ! po9t ( a  
%>p knife1 be+ c>eful n to cut ?r\gh !  
?9 c>dbo>d4 ,n[ b5d ! /rips ar\nd ! l5s 
) ! l5s 9  ! groove1 glue ov] ! ?9 end z
 %[n 9 ,fig4 #aed1 & slip a a  rubb] b& 
or tie a /r+ ar\nd x to hold x 9        
position until x  has dri$4    ,! small 
concave l5s1 or eyepiece1 is m\nt$ 9 !  
same way1 b  s9ce ! l5s is only #a in* 9

 diamet]1 cut ! /rip ( c>dbo>d   in*    
wide & #d in*es long & ! /rip ( ?ick    
pa/ebo>d  in*  wide & #c in*es long2 ?is
 done glue !m toge!r1 cut ! groove  &   
m\nt ! l5s z be=e4    ,illu/ration3     
,,fig4 #aef4--,,telescope4 ,,cross      
,,section ,,view4    ,! next & la/ ?+ is
 to sme> glue on ! c>dbo>d m\nts &  pu% 
! convex l5s 9 ! end ( ! l>ge tube & !  
concave l5s  9 ! end ( ! small tube4 ,n[
 slide ! tubes toge!r & y w  h z good a 
telescope z ! boy :o inv5t$ x4 ,x is %[n
 9  cross section 9 ,fig4 #aee4    ,y   
%\ld1 h[ev]1 make two caps1 "o = ea* end
 ( ! telescope  to cov] ! l5ses :5 n 9  
use4 ,?is little telescope is v  h&y to 
c>ry along on y\r sc\t+ trips1 z x takes
 up s little  room1 be+ only #b in*es   
long :5 clos$ up4    ,telescope ,no4    
#b4--,?is telescope is v mu* bett] ?an !
 "o j  describ$ = see+ ! />s z x        
magnifies ab\t #d times4    ,x is made  
exactly l ! fir/ "o except t ! l>g] tube
 is #ad  in*es long & ! small] tube is  
#e in*es long4 ,9 ?is telescope  bo?    

l5ses are d\ble convex1 ! l>ge "o1 or   
object glass1 hav+  a diamet] ( #a in*es
 & a focal l5g? ( #ab in*es1 :ile !     
small] l5s1 or eyepiece1 has a diamet] (
 #a in* & a focal l5g?  ( #c in*es4 ,x  
is %[n 9 cross section 9 ,fig4 #aef4 ,a 
spyglass  usually has f\r or five       
plano-convex l5ses 9 x & ^! n only      
magnify ! image b !y also erect x s t y 
see ! object z  x really is4    ,:ile ! 
homemade telescopes :i* ,i h describ$ w 
n magnify  z highly z a *eap telescope  
:i* y c buy1 yet y ought to make  "o1 = 
x w let y into ! secret ( comb9+ l5ses1 
& ?is  is z int]e/+ z see+ ! />s4 ,by   
all means make y\r fir/  telescope & !n 
if y want a bett] "o buy x & get "o z   
l>ge  z y c af=d4    ,illu/ration3      
,,fig4 #aeg4--,,magnify+ ,,p[] ,,(      
,,telescope4    ,to ,f9d ! ,p[] ( a     
,telescope4--,9 ! la/ *apt]1 ,i expla9$ 
:at ! focal l5g? ( a convex l5s is1 see 
,fig4 #adf1 & h[ to  measure x4 ,to     
repeat1 x is ! di/ance 9 in*es betwe5 ! 
c5t]  ( a l5s & ! po9t :]e ! rays come  

toge!r4    ,y c f9d exactly :at !       
magnify+ p[] ( y\r telescope is1  :5 bo?
 l5ses are convex1 by divid+ ! focal    
l5g? ( ! object  glass by ! focal l5g? (
 ! eyepiece1 or l5s4    ,= in/ance1     
suppose ! focal l5g? ( ! convex object  
glass (  y\r telescope is #ab in*es & ! 
focal l5g? ( ! convex eye l5s  is #c    
in*es1 !n #ab  #c  #d & ! quoti5t #d is 
! magnify+ p[]  ( y\r telescope4    ,to 
f9d ! focal l5g? ( a concave l5s is a   
little h>d]1 b  ,g>rett ,p4 ,s]viss     
tells u 9 8 good little book on         
,a/ronomy )  an ,op]a ,glass ( an easy  
way to judge ! magnify+ p[] ( an  op]a  
glass & x is j ! same = a telescope4    
,look at a brick  wall ?r\gh "o ( !     
tubes ) "o eye :ile ! o!r nak$ eye  sees
 ! wall direct4    ,n[ notice h[ _m     
bricks :i* ! nak$ eye c see1 are ne$$ to
  equal ! ?ickness ( "o brick z se5     
?r\gh ! glass4 ,! numb]  ( bricks se5 ) 
! nak$ eye repres5ts ! magnify+ p[] (  !
 glass4 ,fig4 #aeg %[s h[ ! bricks are  
comp>$4    ,! ,/>s ,se5 ,?r\gh a        

,spyglass4--,! ,moon4--,:5 ,galileo liv$
 !  p believ$ t ! ,moon 0 a ball z smoo?
 & bright z a  glass m>ble & !y also    
?\ght t ! d>k spots on its surface  7 ! 
cont95ts ( our ,e>? reflect$ by x4    ,s
 ! fir/ ?+ ,galileo did :5 he got 8     
telescope 0 to turn x  on ! ,moon1 = he 
want$ to "k ab\t ^! d>k spots1 & y c    
imag9e 8 surprise & delight to f9d t !y 
7 really great  m\nta9s & ext9ct        
volcanoes4    ,y _c d bett] ?an to po9t 
y\r little homemade telescope at  !     
,moon1 /op1 look & r$iscov] ! m\nta9s on
 x & be z  surpris$ & delight$ z        
,galileo 01 ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,to   
see  ! m\nta9s at _! be/ d n wait until 
! ,moon is full1 = !  sunlight !n %9es  
directly on top ( ! m\nta9s & !re are no
  %ad[s to help ! eye to gauge bread?s &
 heights4    ,! be/ "t to see ! m\nta9s 
is :5 ! ,moon is 9 its fir/  or its la/ 
qu>t]1 = !n !y are well br\ght out by ! 
bright  sunlight %9+ on !m f ! side & ! 
black %ad[s :i* !y  ca/ on ! o!r side4  
,! great smoo? /ret*es se5 on ! ,moon   

are call$ seas4 ,x may be  t 9 ! long   
ago !y 7 really seas1 b x is m likely t 
,galileo & ! e>ly obs]v]s ^: telescopes 
7 little bett]  ?an y\rs ?\ght !y 7     
seas4 ,!n !re are huge cracks or gorges 
on ! surface ( ! ,moon1 :i* />t f "s ( !
 crat]s &  run = hundr$s ( miles 9 e    
direction4 ,a numb] ( ^! gorges  />t f a
 volcano nam$ ,ty*o 7pron\nc$ ,ti-co7 & 
make !  ,moon look z if x is crack$2 & x
 is likely t :5 ! ,moon  cool$ d[n f its
 melt$ /ate aft] hav+ be5 %ot (f f !    
,e>? x did crack 9 _m places4 ,fig4     
#aeh1 :i* is a good telescopic  view ( !
 ,moon1 %[s "s ( ^! great cracks radiat+
 f ,ty*o4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4       
#aeh4--;,,full ,,view ,,( ,,moon4    ,to
 %[ on a small scale h[ ! ,moon crack$  
on cool+ d[n ,nysmi?  fill$ a glass     
globe ) cold wat] & !n seal+ ! globe he 
plung$ x into hot wat]4 ,! sl[ expansion
 ( ! cold wat] by  ! hot wat] caus$ !   
globe to crack z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aei1 & by 
comp>+ ! pictures x w be se5 t ! cracks 
on ! ,moon &  9 ! glass globe are v mu* 

alike4    ,!re is a m\nta9 call$        
,ari/>*us#a 7pron\nc$ ,ar-is-t>-cus7    
:i* is believ$ to be =m$ ( pure metal   
because x %9es bright]  ?an any o!r     
m\nta9 on ! ,moon4 ,its position is %[n 
on ! map1  ,fig4 #afj4    ,illu/ration3 
,,fig4 #aei4--;,,glass ,,globe ,,crack$4
    ,! in/ant y look ?r\gh y\r glass at 
! ,moon ! man :i*  %[s s pla9ly to !    
nak$ eye vani%es l a co9 9 a magician's 
f+]s & in/ead y w see a new _w cov]$ )  
pla9s &  m\nta9s4    ,b if y w look at !
 ,moon :5 x is n9e or m days old1 y  w  
see ) ! aid ( y\r glass & a little      
imag9ation ! ,moon  girl1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 
#afa4 ,y %\ld h no tr\ble 9 f9d+ h]1  = 
! ,ap5n9es =m h] cr[n :ile ,ty*o %9es ^u
 h] brea/  l a great yell[ diamond4     
,footnote #a3 ,ari/>*us 0 a ,greek :o   
liv$ #bjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4  ,he taught t
 ! e>? 0 r\nd4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4  
#afj4--,,map ,,( ,,! ,,moon4            
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,! ,,moon  
,,girl4    ,!re is ano!r crat] m\nta9   
:i* y %\ld by all means "k  & t is      

,cop]nicus#b 7pron\nc$ ,ko-p]-ni-kus74  
,look ?r\gh  y\r glass at ! s\!a/]n end 
( ! ,ap5n9es & y w see a  crat] t is    
l>g] 9 diamet] ?an ,ty*o1 ?\gh x is n s 
deep4  ,ty*o1 ,cop]nicus & ! ,ap5n9es w 
s]ve y well z l&m>ks if  y foll[ up !   
explorations ( ! ,moon :i* y h s well   
begun4    ,footnote #b3                 
,cop]nicus--,poli%1 a/ronom]4 ,born     
#adgc4 ,be=e 8 "t  x 0 believ$ t ! ,sun1
 ,moon & />s revolv$ r\nd ! ,e>?4       
,cop]nicus %[$ t ! ,e>? 0 a planet &1 ) 
! o!rs1  t x revolv$ r\nd ! ,sun4    ,! 
,sun4--,y c see ! spots on ! ,sun q well
 ) y\r glass1  & sunspots are always    
int]e/+4    ,d n try to look at ! ,sun  
?r\gh y\r glass )\t cov]+ !  eyepiece   
ei!r ) a ?ickly smok$ or d>k-color$     
glass4 ,y mu/  also use smok$ or color$ 
glasses ov] y\r eyepiece :5 y are  look+
 at an eclipse ( ! ,sun4    ,y %\ld look
 = sunspots ?is ye>1 #aibj1 = !y are    
decreas+  9 numb] & size & 9 a few ye>s 
!re w be sc>cely any4 ,aft]  t !re w be 
m ( !m aga94    ,! ,planets4--,aft] y h 

se5 ! m\nta9s on ! ,moon & !  spots on !
 ,sun y %\ld next turn y\r glass on !   
planets4    ,:ile y w probably say t !  
planets loom up v small--!  l>ge/1      
,jupit]1 appe>+ ab\t ! size ( ! head ( a
 l>ge  p9--yet !y are wond]ful to look  
at ev5 ?r\gh ! smalle/  telescope4      
,m]cury4--,?is is a planet n easy to see
 ev5 ) ! aid ( a  glass s if y see x y c
 ?9k t y are lucky or skillful or       
p]haps a little ( bo?4    ,v5us4--,v5us 
c be se5 v mu* bett] ) y\r small glass  
?an  ,m]cury1 b y w only be able to see 
x z a little disk & n  z a cresc5t = y\r
 glass is ( too l[ a magnify+ p[]4 ,x is
 a  brilliant object ?\gh ev5 ?r\gh !   
smalle/ glass4    ,m>s4--,:ile y _c see 
! canals ( ,m>s ) y\r glass y c  see x z
 a bright disk ( light & ?is is well    
wor? :ile4 ,m>s is  believ$ to be peopl$
 & ! ?\ght t x may be makes x a mighty  
int]e/+ object to look at4 ,look at x   
?r\gh y\r glass & ?9k  x ov]4           
,jupit]4--,on acc\nt ( 8 great size y w 
be able to see ,jupit]  bett] ?an any ( 

! o!r planets4 ,8 disk w %[ cle> &      
di/9ct & if y h good eyesight & y\r     
glass is fairly good  y w be able to see
 "o & p]haps two ( 8 n9e moons :i*  w   
appe> z little po9ts ( light close to ! 
planet4    ,saturn4--,! r+s ( ,saturn _c
 be se5 ) a glass magnify+  less ?an f\r
 times4 ,8 r+s are at ?is writ+ 7#aiae7 
9 ! be/  position to be se5 z ! flat    
side ( ! r+s is t[>d u n[4 ,9  #aiba !  
edge ( 8 r+s w be 9 a l9e ) ! ,e>? & !n 
x  w be v h>d to see !m ev5 ) a mu* l>g]
 telescope4    ,uranus4--,al?\gh ,uranus
 is s v f> away1 x c be se5 ) y\r       
glass1 ?\gh y may n be able to see x z a
 disk ( light4    ,y c tell :5 y h f\nd 
,uranus by wat*+ x = a few  nights4 ,if 
x *anges its position among ! />s ar\nd 
x y w  "k y are look+ at ,uranus4       
,neptune4--,neptune is f>!r away ?an    
,uranus & y\r glass w %[  x z a m]e po9t
 ( light4 ,l ,uranus y w "k x if y see  
x1 by its motion among ! />s4    ,!     
,/>s4--,aft] y h look$ at ! ,sun1 ,moon1
 & planets to  y\r he>ts' cont5t turn   

y\r glass on ! ,big ,dipp] & y w see    
ab\t t5 times z _m />s z y c see ) !    
nak$ eye4    ,! ,big ,dipp] is full (   
/>ry surprises z y w f9d to y\r         
pleasure on look+ at x ) y\r glass3 =   
in/ance1 in/ead ( !  h&le be+ =m$ ( ?ree
 />s1 x blazes ) doz5s ( !m4    ,take a 
look at ,alcor1 :i* is ! middle /> 9 !  
h&le ( !  ,dipp]4 ,y may rememb] ,i told
 y 9 ! fir/ *apt] t x _h  a little      
companion1 ,miz>1 :i* only %>p eyes c   
see4 ,n[ look at  ,alcor ?r\gh y\r glass
 & y w see t x & ,miz> are q  widely    
sep>at$4    ,! ,nor? ,/> is also a d\ble
 /> z ^! tw9 />s are call$4  ,j z ,miz> 
is a good te/ = ! nak$ eye s ! tw9 ( !  
,nor?  ,/> is a good object on :i* y c  
try out ! see+ p[] ( y\r  glass4        
,ano!r d\ble /> :i* "s boys c sep>ate ) 
_! ke5 nak$  eyes is ,epsilon1 nam$ aft]
 "o ( ! ,greek lett]s 7,see ,app5dix    
,c74 ,?is /> toge!r ) ,vega1 a v bright 
& beautiful blue />  ( ! fir/ magnitude1
 & ,zeta1 ano!r ,greek lett] />1 =m a   
triangle1 :i* is ! con/ellation ( ,lyra4

    ,:e!r or n y c sep>ate ,epsilon into
 two />s ) ! nak$  eye1 y w see !m /&   
out sep>ate & di/9ct ?r\gh y\r  glass4  
,if y _h a m p[]ful glass y w\ld see t  
ea* ( !  />s ( ,epsilon has a fa9t      
companion />1 s t x is really a         
quadruple />1 t is1 !re are f\r />s "r  
toge!r4    ,!n !re is ! ,milky ,way1    
always a wond]ful sight to ! nak$ eye1  
b /ill m wond]ful :5 view$ ?r\gh a glass
 h[ev] small2  !re are ! />s ( !        
,pleiades ( :i* ! eye sees n m ?an  six 
or sev5 )\t help1 b :i* bur/s =? l a    
skyrocket into  a clu/] ( _m-color$     
lights :5 se5 ?r\gh a glass2 ^! are     
only a few ( ! hundr$s ( o!r ?+s :i* y c
 see 9 ! sky  ) ! help ( y\r little     
telescope4          ,,*apt] ,x    ,,!   
,,"t ,o' ,,day      ,:at ,"t ,is        
,x8--,?is is a "q ev]ybody is always    
ask+  ev]ybody else4    ,did y ev] /op  
to ?9k :at a curi\s ?+ "t is8 ,no "o    
kn[s  :5 x began nor c anyone tell :5 x 
w end1 yet we measure (f  a little bit f
 t :i* has gone or f t :i* is yet to    

come1 s t we may "k :5 to eat1 to />t to
 "w1 or to quit1  & :5 to g to b$ or to 
get up4    ,we "k t1 r\ghly1 a ye> is ! 
"t x takes ! f\r seasons to  come & g1 &
 t ?is is done :5 ! ,e>? travels once   
r\nd  ! ,sun2 t ! mon? is bas$ on ! "t x
 takes ! ,moon to  travel once r\nd !   
,e>?2 t ! week has no?+ to d ) !  ,sun1 
,e>?1 ,moon or ,/>s1 b is a pure        
inv5tion1 &1 f9ally1 t  ! day is ! "t x 
takes ! ,e>? to turn once r\nd on its   
axis4    ,b :5 we want to "k :at "t x is
 we mean1 ( c\rse1 :at !  h\r1 ! m9ute  
&1 sometimes1 ev5 ! second ( ! day is1 &
  ^! are ! small measur$ p>ts ( "t we   
want to f9d out ab\t4    ,! "t x takes !
 ,e>? to make "o complete turn on its   
axis is  divid$ naturally into two p>ts1
 m or less equal1 dep5d+ on  :]e we     
live1 & ^! p>ts are daytime & nighttime4
    ,?is g5]al division ( "t1 m>k$ by   
alt]nate daylight &  d>kness1 may h s]v$
 e ne$ ( ! cave man at fir/1 b j  z he  
came to h s5se en\gh to crawl into 8    
cave to get out (  ! ra9 s ! blaz+ ,sun 

mu/ f9ally h driv5 into 8 awak5+  bra9  
its use to him z a means ( m>k+ "t4     
,z 8 savage m9d grew less animal & m    
human1 ideas 7 =m$  9 x ei!r by in/9ct  
or by ! fir/ vague glimm]+s ( reason  & 
he began to ?9k4 ,he saw t :5 ! light ( 
! ,sun fell on  ! trees & ! rocks1 long1
 /range1 black m>ks1 :i* we call  %ad[s1
 7 ca/ by !m1 & he mu/ h notic$ t !     
%ad[s  swung r\nd ! trees & rocks 9 !   
opposite direction to ! way  ! ,sun 0   
travel+4    ,to m>k (f ) 8 eye & place a
 /one at a po9t some:]e ne>  ! middle ( 
! %ad[ ca/ by ! ris+ ,sun & t ca/ by !  
sett+ ,sun1 & :i* w\ld mean t ! day 0   
half done 0 !  next great /ep4    ,^!   
?+s 71 q likely1 ! fir/ feeble ef=ts ( !
 human  race to measure "t1 & out ( :i* 
! sundial came1 z well z !  crude       
beg9n+s on :i* ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy is   
bas$4    ,sol> ,"t1 or ,"t by !         
,sun4--,to make a sundial :i* w\ld give 
correct ,sun "t 0 s h>d a problem t m5  
_h to ?9k ab\t x  = a million ye>s be=e 
!y c\ld solve x & ! *ances are t  !n x 0

 inv5t$ by a boy4 ,y w f9d directions = 
mak+ a  simple sundial 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4  
,n[ let's f9d out h[ we c "k :5 a day   
beg9s & :5 x ends4  ,on fir/ ?\ght ?is  
w\ld seem to be an easy ?+ to d & x is  
if  we are n p>ticul> ab\t be+ exact4 ,y
 w rememb] t a day  is measur$ by ! "t x
 takes ! ,e>? to turn once r\nd on its  
axis & :at we want to "k1 n[1 is h[ to  
tell :5 ! ,e>? has  made "o complete    
turn1 no m & no less4    ,we c tell ?is1
 y may say1 by a clock or a wat*1 b !   
be/ (  clocks & wat*es are always a     
little fa/ or a little sl[1 & "t  today 
is measur$ by ! fraction ( a second4 ,s 
we get ! app>5t  "t f ! ,sun1 *ange x   
into mean "t & set our clocks &  wat*es 
by x4    ,!re are sev]al ways by :i* we 
c obta9 ,sun "t1 b all ( !m  are bas$ on
 ! same pr9ciple4 ,! way t 0 us$ by p :o
  fir/ began to ?9k ab\t ^! ?+s1 & x is 
also a good way =  y to try1 is l ?is3  
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--;,,diagram  
,,%[+ ,,h[ ,,to ,,f9d ,,sol> ,,noon4    
,fir/ y mu/ h a good horizon1 t is1 y   

mu/ be able to see  ! ,sun rise & set   
)\t any m\nta9s or o!r ?+s 9 ! way4     
,:5 y beg9 y\r obs]vations = gett+ sol> 
"t note exactly  :]e ! ,sun rises & :]e 
x sets on ! horizon4 ,y c easily d  ?is 
by us+ hills1 h\ses & trees = m>k+ !    
places4 ,n[ )  y\r eye draw a l9e betwe5
 ^! two po9ts4    ,notice also :]e y are
 /&+ & let y\r l9e ( sight meet !       
imag9>y l9e :i* jo9s ! places :]e ! ,sun
 rises & sets j  z ne> ! middle z y c1 &
 all ( :i* is cle>ly %[n 9  ,fig4 #afb4 
,n[ ?is l9e w run due nor? & s\? & h5ce 
x is a  m]idian l9e :i* y are to use to 
obs]ve ! ,sun4    ,:5 ! ,sun rea*es t   
po9t 9 ! sky :]e x is directly ov]  !   
middle ( ! imag9>y l9e1 jo9+ ! places   
:]e x rises &  sets1 x is exactly noon1 
,sun "t4    ,! next day obs]ve ! ,sun 9 
! same way & :5 x crosses !  m]idian l9e
 aga9 ! ,e>? w h turn$ r\nd once & y w  
h a "p ( "t measur$ (f call$ a ,sun or  
sol> day4    ,:5 ! "t is tak5 betwe5 two
 succe$+ cross+s ( a m]idian  by ! ,sun 
a day s measur$ is call$ by a/ronom]s an

 app>5t  sol> day1 & :5 ! ,sun is on !  
m]idian x is call$ app>5t  noon4    ,n[ 
! ^w app>5t means to seem1 t is1 some?+ 
:i* is  obta9$ by obs]vation4 ,an app>5t
 sol> day is !n ! l5g? (  a day measur$ 
by ! ,sun1 & :ile we might suppose t !  
,sun at  lea/ w\ld always give a day ( !
 same l5g?1 ?is is n ! case  = ! reason 
t ! ,e>? does n travel 9 all p>ts ( its 
orbit  r\nd ! ,sun at ! same rate (     
spe$1 &1 fur!r1 x is tilt$ on  its axis2
 toge!r ^! ?+s make ! days z measur$ (f 
by !  ,sun unequal & h5ce !y are call$  
app>5t sol> days4    ,mean ,sol>        
,"t4--,app>5t sol> days :i* are (       
unequal l5g? 7  all "r z long z sundials
 7 ! only timepieces1 b :5 clocks  &    
wat*es came into use days :i* 7 equal 9 
l5g? 7 ne$$  & ne$$ badly1 = a clock    
c\ldn't be made :i* w\ld keep ,sun  "t4 
,s a/ronom]s :o wat*$ ! />s by night lay
 awake dur+ ! day  wond]+ h[ !y c\ld    
make ! ,e>? travel r\nd ! ,sun at !     
same spe$ e day 9 ! ye> & j z ?\gh x 0 n
 tilt$4  ,at la/ !y solv$ ! problem4    

,& h[ d y ?9k !y did x8 ,x 0 z easy z   
roll+ (f a  log--:5 y "k h[4 ,!y simply 
imag9$ t ! ,e>? travel$  at a uni=m spe$
 & t x /ood /raight1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #gd4 
,9 o!r words !y took ! mean l5g?1 :i* is
 ano!r way (  say+ ! av]age l5g? ( all !
 app>5t sol> days :i* make up  a ye>1 & 
divid$ x up equally4 ,fur!r1 ! m5 :o got
 up ?is  s*eme said t e day %\ld h n    
only ! same l5g?1 b  t x %\ld h #bd     
h\rs1 & ( c\rse y "k t h\rs are  divid$ 
into m9utes & m9utes into seconds4 ,mean
 sol> "t1 !n1  is really imag9>y ,sun "t
 & ?is is ! "t us$ ev]y:]e &  wat*es &  
clocks are set by x4    ,equation (     
,"t4--,to get ! exact mean "t ea* day y 
h to  "k j :at ! app>5t sol> "t is1 & !n
 y h to "k  :at ! diff]5ce 9 "t is      
betwe5 ! app>5t sol> "t & !  mean "t1 t 
is h[ _m m9utes & seconds to add to or  
subtract  f ! sol> "t ( ea* day to get !
 mean "t4    ,?is diff]5ce ( "t is call$
 ! equation ( "t4 ,a table  prep>$ by   
,pr(essor ,todd ( ! ,amh]/ ,college     
,obs]vatory is giv5  9 ,app5dix ,m & c  

be us$ = all ord9>y purposes4    ,/&>d  
,"t4--,a m]idian1 z y "k1 is an imag9>y 
l9e runn+  due nor? & ,s\? & h5ce we c h
 a m]idian :5ev] we want  x & z _m z we 
l4    ,:5 ! ,sun crosses ! m]idian ( ^? 
:o are on x1 x is noon to  !m1 b to no  
"o else1 = ! ,sun has already cross$ !  
m]idians  to ! ea/ ( x & has yet to     
cross ^? to ! we/ ( x4 ,:5  ! ,sun      
crosses ! m]idian :i* passes ?r\gh ,new 
,york ,city x is  noon !re & :5 ! ,sun  
crosses ! m]idians :i* pass ?r\gh  ,/4  
,l\is1 ,d5v] & ,san ,francisco1 x is    
noon at ^? places1 &  ?is is true ( e   
o!r place & ( e o!r h\r ( ! day4  ,?is  
is ! reason :y e place _h its own1 or   
local "t1 be=e  ! ye> ( #ahhc4    ,z an 
illu/ration x takes ! ,sun ab\t ?ree    
h\rs to cross !  ,unit$ ,/ates f !      
,atlantic to ! ,pacific coa/s4    ,n[ z 
long z p travel$ on foot1 or by horse1  
!y mov$ s  sl[ly t local "t did n worry 
!m1 b :5 railroads came into  use !re 0 
all k9ds ( tr\ble = ! travel]2 if he 0  
go+  we/ 8 wat* 0 fa/] ?an ! local "t ( 

! t[ns he pass$  ?r\gh & if he 0 go+ ea/
 8 wat* 0 always sl[] ?an !  local "t4  
,if he want$ ! "r "t he _h to set 8 wat*
 at  e t[n he pass$ ?r\gh2 ( c\rse he   
c\ldn't v well d ?is  & he 0 always 9 a 
/ew4    ,! railroad companies 7 j z mu* 
put to = x 0 next to  impossible to make
 a timetable to fit ! local "t ( ea* t[n
 &  /ill keep up a runn+ s*$ule2 & !    
result 0 t ! railroads  f9ally got up a 
sy/em ( _! own :i* !y call$ railroad "t4
  ,?is 0 all well en\gh = ev]ybody b !  
poor travel]1 :o1 n  kn[+ ! diff]5ce 9  
"t betwe5 local "t & railroad "t1  ne>ly
 always f\nd he 0 ei!r an h\r too e>ly  
or--z x usually  happ5$--a m9ute or two 
too late to cat* 8 tra94    ,z new t[ns 
sprung up & railroads multipli$1 ?+s _h 
come to  su* a pretty pass 9 #ahhc t    
nobody b ! a/ronom]s knew :at  ! real "t
 01 & !y w\ldn't tell2 !n a new "t s*eme
 0  tri$ out1 & z x is /ill us$ we mu/  
conclude x is a fairly  good "o4 ,x is  
call$ ! zone1 or belt sy/em ( /&>d "t2  
! "t us$ is call$ /&>d "t because ! t[ns

 & cities &  railroads all use x & !re  
is no confusion4    ,to und]/& :at /&>d 
"t means we h to "k fir/ :at a  /&>d    
m]idian is4 ,a m]idian1 z we h said1 is 
an imag9>y  l9e runn+ due nor? & s\?    
any:]e we want x1 b :ile a  /&>d m]idian
 is also a l9e runn+ due nor? & s\? x   
has a  fix$ position4    ,! fir/ fix$ or
 prime m]idian1 z x is call$1 passes    
?r\gh  ,gre5wi* 7pron\nc$ ,gr5-ij71 :i* 
is a "p ( ,london1 ,engl&4  ,! reason   
?is m]idian 0 *os5 by geograph]s to     
reckon di/ance  ea/ & we/ f is because !
 ,royal ,obs]vatory at ,gre5wi* is "o  (
 ! olde/ 9 ! _w & x 0 ! fir/ f :i* exact
 "t  0 s5t out4    ,if a circle is      
divid$ into #cfj degrees1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 
#afc1 &  x is also divid$ into #bd p>ts1
 ea* "p w be a space equal to  #ae      
degrees or #a h\r4 ,n[ geograph]s h     
divid$ ! ,e>? into #bd  equal p>ts by   
m]idians sep>at$ by #ae degrees1 & ea*  
space1 or  belt1 betwe5 !m repres5ts #a 
h\r1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #afd4 ,^! fix$       
m]idians />t at ! fir/1 or prime        

m]idian1 at ,gre5wi* & all  ! o!r       
m]idians are measur$ 9 degrees ea/ or   
we/ ( ,gre5wi*  z ! case may be4        
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--;,,circle   
,,divid$ ,,into #cfj ,,degrees ,,& #bd  
,,h\rs4    ,/>t+ we/ f ! fir/1 or prime 
m]idian1 :i* passes ?r\gh  ,gre5wi* ! "t
 at ! second /&>d m]idian1 :i* is call$ 
!  #ae? m]idian because x is #ae degrees
 f ! fir/ m]idian1 w be  "o h\r beh9d   
,gre5wi* "t4    ,at e /&>d m]idian !    
mean sol> "t is us$ z ! /&>d  "t & e    
place on x & halfway to ! m]idian on bo?
 sides  uses x1 & s local "t & /&>d4    
,?is makes x v conv5i5t = ! travel]1 =  
in/ead ( sett+  8 wat* at ea* /ation he 
does n ne$ to set x until he has        
travel$ #ae degrees ea/ or we/1 :i* is  
ab\t #gjj miles 9 our  nor!rn latitudes1
 & !n he turns x exactly "o h\r ahead or
 "o  h\r back1 dep5d+ on ! direction he 
is go+4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4         
#afd4--,,! ,,e>? ,,divid$ ,,into #bd    
,,/&>d ,,m]idians4    ,!re are f\r /&>d 
"t m]idians runn+ ?r\gh ! ,unit$        

,/ates1 z %[n 9 ! map 9 ,fig4 #afe4 ,!  
"o runn+ ?r\gh ,new  ,york1             
,p5nsylvania1 ,new ,j]sey & ,delaw>e is 
! #ge? m]idian1  mean+ ( c\rse t x is   
#ge degrees we/ ( ! prime m]idian  :i*  
passes ?r\gh ,gre5wi*4 ,"t on ?is       
m]idian & halfway to  ! m]idians on bo? 
sides ( x is call$ ,ea/]n ,"t4 ,x is j  
five h\rs sl[] ?an ,gre5wi* "t4         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,,/&>d ,,"t 
,,m]idians ,,9 ,u4 ,s4    ,! next is !  
#ij? m]idian & ?is "o passes ?r\gh      
,wiscons91  ,ill9ois1 ,miss\ri1         
,t5nessee1 ,mississippi & ,l\isiana4 ,"t
 on &  ar\nd ?is m]idian is call$       
,c5tral ,"t4    ,! "o aft] ?is is !     
#aje? m]idian & passes ?r\gh ,montana1  
,wyom+1 ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico &       
,texas4 ,"t on & ar\nd ?is  m]idian is  
call$ ,m\nta9 ,"t4 ,! la/ ( ! f\r       
m]idians1 !  #abj?1 passes ?r\gh !      
,/ates ( ,wa%+ton1 ,oregon & ,cali=nia  
& "t on & ar\nd ?is "o is call$ ,pacific
 ,"t4 ,x is ?ree  h\rs sl[] ?an ,ea/]n  
"t & #h h\rs sl[] ?an ,gre5wi* "t4      

,al?\gh ^! m]idians are j "o h\r ap>t ! 
"t is n  *ang$ on !m nor exactly 9 !    
middle ( a belt b at "s  well-kn[n t[n  
or city betwe5 two ( ! m]idians1 z y w  
see  by look+ at ! map1 ,fig4 #afe4     
,fig4 #aff %[s ! /&>d "t at  diff]5t    
cities ar\nd ! _w nor? ( ! equator4     
,/> or ,sid]eal ,"t4--,besides all !    
diff]5t k9ds ( "t  describ$ above !re is
 /ill ano!r & a v important k9d (  "t1 &
 ?is is obta9$ by ! />s4    ,j z ,sun1  
or sol> "t is obta9$ by not+ :5 ! ,sun  
crosses  a m]idian1 s />1 or sid]eal "t 
is obta9$ by obs]v+  :5 a /> crosses a  
m]idian4 ,n[ !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ! 
l5g? ( a day :5 =m$ by ! ,sun cross+ !  
m]idian twice 9  succession & :5 =m$ by 
a /> cross+ ! m]idian twice 9           
succession4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 "t1 betwe5 a
 sol> day & a sid]eal  day1 z !y are    
call$1 is ne>ly f\r m9utes4    ,b ! po9t
 is ?is3 an a/ronom] c obta9 ! "t f     
wat*+  a /> cross ! m]idian mu* m       
accurately ?an he c f !  ,sun1 because a
 /> is a m]e po9t ( light1 & x is easi] 

= him  to calculate ! mean sol> "t f !  
transit ( a /> ?an x  is = him to g to  
b$1 & besides he w\ld r d x1 too4    ,h[
 ,"t ,is ,di/ribut$4--,9 ?is c\ntry !   
correct /&>d "t is  s5t out by ! ,unit$ 
,/ates ,naval ,obs]vatory at ,wa%+ton to
 all  cities ea/ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 by
 wire telegraph1 & all ov]  ! ,atlantic 
ocean & seabo>d by wireless telegraph4  
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,,/&>d ,,"t 
,,at ,,diff]5t ,,cities4    ,:5 "t is   
receiv$ ov] ! wires f ,wa%+ton x is     
di/ribut$  by local telegraph or by "t  
balls to v>i\s jewelry /ores & to       
private citiz5s :o always want to be set
 "r4    ,h[ an a/ronom] gets ! correct  
"t2 h[ x is s5t out ov] !  wires & by   
wireless & h[ x is di/ribut$ to ! common
 p is  a mighty int]e/+ piece ( bus9ess4
 ,briefly x is l ?is3    ,h[ ,correct   
,"t ,is ,obta9$4--,e obs]vatory has1    
besides its big  telescopes1 a transit  
in/rum5t1 a wond]fully accurate clock1  
& a clockwork device call$ a *ronograph4
 ,! transit in/rum5t  is no?+ m ?an a   

telescope ) a ?9 piece ( cle> glass )  a
 numb] ( l9es rul$ on x ) a diamond1    
ab\t  in* ap>t1 &  ?is rul$ glass is set
 betwe5 ! eyepiece & ! object glass1 z  
%[n 9 ,fig4 #afg4    ,illu/ration3      
,,fig4 #afg4--,,rul$ ,,glass ,,9        
,,transit ,,in/rum5t4    ,?is telescope1
 or transit in/rum5t--s call$ because x 
is us$ to  obs]ve ! transit1 or passage1
 ( a /> across a m]idian--is set  on an 
axis s t ! telescope c be po9t$ to any  
place on !  m]idian b x _c be mov$ ea/  
or we/4    ,sometime be=e a /> is due to
 cross ! m]idian ! a/ronom] sets  8     
transit in/rum5t s t ! /> w pass "r     
across ! l9e  ( sight ( 8 telescope4    
,! purpose ( obs]v+ ! transit1 or pass+ 
( a /> is to see  h[ mu* 8 wond]fully   
accurate clock has lo/ or ga9$ dur+ !   
pa/ #bd h\rs4 ,s 8 clock is "r at h&4   
,! *ronograph is ano!r accurate         
clockwork :i* revolves a cyl9d]  ab\t ! 
size & %ape ( a phonograph cyl9d]1 &    
ar\nd :i*  is wrapp$ a %eet ( :ite pap]4
 ,?is cyl9d] makes "o revolution  e     

m9ute4 ,a f\nta9 p5 m>ks a spiral l9e on
 ! pap] :5 !  cyl9d] is revolv+ b at e  
second ! p5 is ?r[n out (  position &   
?is makes a not* 9 ! l9e4    ,aft] />t+ 
! *ronograph ! a/ronom] takes an        
electric pu%  button1 :i* is connect$ ) 
& controls ! lev] :i* holds  ! p5 ( !   
*ronograph t makes ! not*es1 & takes up 
8  position ) 8 eye at ! end ( ! transit
 in/rum5t4    ,! in/ant he sees ! /> on 
"o ( ! l9es 9 ! telescope he  presses ! 
button & ?is closes ! electric circuit &
 makes a big  not* 9 ! l9e trac$ on !   
pap] ( ! *ronomet]4    ,f ! position ( !
 big not*es :i* he caus$ to be made on !
  pap] z ! /> cross$ ! rul$ l9es1 & !   
little not*es made  regul>ly e second1  
he c dope out j h[ mu* 8 clock is 9     
error--t is1 h[ mu* x is too fa/ or too 
sl[4    ,! next ?+ he does is to *ange  
?is absolutely correct /> "t  into mean 
sol> "t1 :5 x is ready to be s5t all ov]
 ! ,unit$  ,/ates ea/ ( ! ,rocky        
,m\nta9s by telegraph4 ,! ,pacific ,coa/
  folks get _! correct "t f a ,gov]nm5t 

obs]vatory at ,m>e  ,isl& 9 ,san        
,francisco ,bay4    ,h[ ,"t ,is ,s5t by 
,telegraph4--,! wires ( ! ,we/]n ,union 
,telegraph ,company run into ! ,unit$   
,/ates ,naval ,obs]vatory at  ,wa%+ton1 
& = a few m9utes ea* day all ( ?is      
company's wires  are controll$ by !     
,gov]nm5t4    ,ab\t five m9utes be=e #ab
 o'clock noon1 /&>d "t at ,wa%+ton1  ea*
 day ! wires all ov] ! c\ntry ea/ ( !   
,rockies are  cle>$ & all bus9ess & o!r 
messages are cut (f = ! "t  signals4    
,at five m9utes ( #ab %>p ! ,unit$      
,/ates ,naval ,obs]vatory  beg9s to s5d 
! beats ( e second ( ! wond]fully       
accurate  obs]vatory clock1 :i* are     
tick$ out on telegraph s\nd]s 9 all  !  
cities & t[ns4    ,b no1 n e beat1 = !  
#bi? second ( ea* m9ute1 ! la/ #e       
seconds ( ea* ( ! fir/ #d m9utes1 & !n !
 la/ #aj seconds (  ! la/ m9ute are n   
s5t4 ,! fir/ click ( ! s\nd] aft] !  #aj
 second re/ is ! noon signal1 & all     
local clocks are set by x4    ,9 _m     
cities ! telegraph company has special  

wires runn+ to  v>i\s jewelry & o!r     
/ores & ^! subscrib]s get ! correct  "t 
direct by telegraph f ! ,naval          
,obs]vatory = _! s\nd]s  are connect$ 9 
! regul> l9e circuit4    ,! ,"t         
,ball4--,! ,bureau ( ,navigation got up 
:at is kn[n z !  "t ball = ! b5efit (   
sail+ ma/]s 9 p>ticul> & !  t[nsfolk 9  
g5]al4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4          
#afh4--,,! ,,"t ,,ball4    ,9 ,new ,york
 & o!r cities along ! seacoa/s & lake   
ports a great  ball1 weigh+ 9 !         
neighborhood ( #ajj p\nds1 hav+ a       
diamet] (  ov] #c feet & ) a hole 9 its 
c5t]1 is slipp$ ov] a pole or  flag/aff 
"s #bj feet 9 height1 :i* is m\nt$ atop 
( "s high  build+ :]e x c be se5 to !   
be/ advantage4    ,! ball is held 9     
position at ! top ( ! pole by an        
electro-me*anical trigg]1 :i* is plac$  
directly 9 ! electric  telegraph circuit
 t runs into ! ,naval ,obs]vatory at    
,wa%+ton4  ,:5 ! "t signals are be+ s5t 
out f ! obs]vatory & !  telegraph key is
 clos$ at exactly noon ! trigg] :i*     

holds !  ball 9 place is releas$ by !   
curr5t & ! ball drops4 ,fig4 #afh  %[s a
 "t ball atop ( ! old ,we/]n ,union     
,build+ 9 ,new ,york4    ,illu/ration3  
,,fig4 #afi4--,,receiv+ ,,"t ,,signals  
,,by ,,wireless4    ,h[ ,"t is ,s5t by  
,wireless4--,at ,arl+ton1 ,va41 j across
 !  ,potomac ,riv] f ,wa%+ton1 is "o ( !
 mo/ p[]ful wireless  /ations 9 ! _w1   
hav+ a s5d+ range ( at lea/ #c1jjj      
miles4    ,e day at noon "t signals l ^?
 s5t ov] ! wires on l&  are s5t out s t 
e navigation (fic] & sail+ ma/] ^:  %ips
 are fitt$ ) wireless app>atus c get !  
correct "t4    ,all ov] ! ,atlantic     
seabo>d boys1 z well z jewel]s 7see     
,fig4  #afi71 h wireless receiv+ sets & 
!y receive ! correct "t  e day by       
wireless free ( *>ge4 ,no lic5se is     
requir$ to  receive wireless signals1 ! 
co/ ( ! app>atus is little & !  exp]i5ce
 imm5se4 ,are y 9 on x8          ,,*apt]
 ,,xi    ,,! ,,/>s ,,( ,,! ,,zodiac     
,zodiac6--,x s\nds to ! untra9$ e> l !  
password ( a  bomb-?r[] or a fir/ c\s9  

to a di% ( ,hung>ian g\la%4    ,x is    
en\gh1 albeit1 to sc>e ev5 a ,sc\t away 
f ! />s1 b be  n afraid1 = x c't hurt y 
& y c't eat x4    ,on ! o!r h&1 if y are
 on speak+ t]ms ) ! zodiac  7pron\nc$   
zo-di-ak71 x w help y to f9d ! planets &
 at !  same "t y w add en\gh new        
con/ellations to ^? y already  "k to    
give y a high pass+ m>k = a m]it badge 9
 ! ,boy  ,sc\ts if y want "o4 ,besides1 
! signs & con/ellations ( !  zodiac w   
aid y to use ! almanac & help y 9 _m o!r
 ways4    ,y h (t5 notic$ t ! ,sun seems
 to travel ?r\gh ! sky  ov] a pa? or    
belt t is always ! same f we/ to ea/2 y 
mu/  h notic$1 too1 t ! pa? ( ! ,moon is
 almo/ ! same z  t ( ! ,sun1 b y may or 
may n rememb] t ! planets also  travel  
ov] ! same pa? z ! ,sun & ,moon4    ,x  
is j z ?\gh ! ,sun1 ,moon & planets mov$
 at diff]5t  spe$s on an endless belt 9 
! sky :i* runs r\nd ! ,e>? ne>ly  9 a   
l9e ) its equator1 ?\gh tilt$ at a      
slight angle to x1 &  ?is l9e is call$ !
 ecliptic4 ,! way ! anci5ts ?\ght x 0  &

 ! way x really looks to u is %[n 9     
,fig4 #agj4    ,! anci5ts call$ ?is     
app>5t pa? ( ! ,sun1 ,moon & planets  ) 
! />s = a backgr\nd ! zodiac1 s x is n  
su* a  horrible specim5 aft] all4    ,we
 "k1 ( c\rse1 t ! ,sun is ! c5t] ( our  
sol> sy/em  & t ! planets1 includ+ !    
,e>? & ,moon1 are at v>i\s  di/ances f !
 ,sun & t ea* moves 9 a pa?1 or orbit1 (
 its  own1 mak+ a small angle ) !       
ecliptic4 ,:at we call ! ,zodiac  takes 
9 all ^! orbits & is1 !re=e1 a belt (   
consid]able  wid? ?r\gh ! c5t] ( :i*    
runs ! ecliptic4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4
 #agj4--,,! ,,zodiac ,,z ,,inv5t$ ,,by  
,,! ,,anci5ts4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4  
#aga4--,,! ,,zodiac ,,z ,,we ,,"k ,,x   
,,today4    ,suppose we draw a little   
circle & call x ! ,sun1 z %[n 9 ,fig4   
#aga1 & draw an ellipse ar\nd x & call x
 ! ,e>?'s orbit1  putt+ on ano!r little 
circle = ! ,e>?2 n[ suppose we draw  a  
mu* l>g] ellipse r\nd ! "o repres5t+ !  
,e>?'s orbit1  divide x into #ab p>ts & 
put a con/ellation 9 ea* "p4    ,kn[+ n[

 t ! ,sun1 ,moon & planets are v ne> !  
,e>?  :5 comp>$ ) ! fix$ />s x mu/ be   
pla9 t ^! bodies  :5 se5 f ! ,e>?1 :i*  
is always *ang+ its position 9  its     
travels r\nd ! ,sun1 w\ld appe> to move 
9 & across !  con/ellations4    ,take a 
look at ,jupit] "s night :5 he is mov+  
across any ( !  con/ellations & he w    
seem to be a "p ( x2 ?is is ! reason  we
 speak ( ! ,sun or a planet z be+ 9 a   
c]ta9 con/ellation at  a giv5 "t4    ,! 
/>s =m+ ! backgr\nd ( ! ,moon & !       
planets c always  be se51 = we are !n   
look+ at !m f ! d>k side ( !  ,e>?1 b !y
 _c be se5 :5 !y =m ! backgr\nd ( !     
,sun1 = ! />s are on ! o!r side ( him :5
 he gets betwe5 u  & !m & he %9es 9 our 
eyes4    ,^! con/ellations ?r\gh :i* !  
,sun1 ,moon & planets seem to  pass1 or 
z ! almanacs say are 91 lie 9 a belt =m$
 by ! pa?  ( ! ,sun & nei!r ! ,moon nor 
! planets ev] get f>!r f  ! pa? ( ! ,sun
 ?an #h degrees on ei!r side ( him & ?is
 belt  is call$ ! zodiac4    ,! belt1 or
 zodiac1 is divid$ into #ab equal p>ts1 

or spaces1 :i*  7 call$ signs by !      
anci5ts & !y are /ill call$ signs4  ,?is
 makes ! l5g? ( ea* sign1 or space1 #cj 
degrees1 & h5ce !  #ab signs1 :i* are   
call$ ! ,signs ( ! ,zodiac1 equal #cfj  
degrees  or a complete circle4 7,see    
,*apt] ,x1 ,! ,"t o' ,day47    ,! ,signs
 ( ! ,zodiac & ! con/ellations ( !      
,zodiac h  ! foll[+ names3 ,aries1 !    
,ram2 ,taurus1 ! ,bull2 ,gem9i1  !      
,tw9s2 ,canc]1 ! ,crab2 ,leo1 ! ,lion2  
,virgo1 ! ,virg92  ,libra1 ! ,balance2  
,scorpio1 ! ,scorpion2 ,sagitt>ius1 !   
,ar*]2 ,capricornus1 ! ,goat2 ,aqu>ius1 
! ,wat] ,be>]1 &  ,pisces1 ! ,fi%es4 ,x 
is 9 "o ( ^! con/ellations t !  ,sun1   
,moon & planets are always to be f\nd4  
,a good way to f9d any "o ( !           
con/ellations is by kn[+ ! "t  :5 x w be
 on y\r m]idian1 t is ! l9e ov] y\r head
 due  nor? & s\?1 dur+ a giv5 mon?4 ,any
 con/ellation ( ! zodiac  w be on y\r   
m]idian at #i o'clock ,p4 ,m41 dur+ !   
mon? giv5  opposite its "n 9 ! foll[+   
table3                                  

----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,"t ,con/ellation      ,a/ronomical  ,h[
 ,pron\nc$   ,common ,names    w ,appe> 
on ,y\r          ,names                 
,m]idian at #i ,p4 ,m4                  
----------------------------------------
-------------------------       ,aries  
,a-ri-es          ,! ,ram               
,decemb]       ,taurus      ,tau-rus    
,! ,bull          ,janu>y       ,gem9i  
,gem-i-ni         ,! ,tw9s              
,febru>y       ,canc]      ,c-c]        
,! ,crab          ,m>*       ,leo       
,le-o             ,! ,lion              
,april       ,virgo       ,vir-g        
,! ,virg9        ,may       ,libra      
,li-bra           ,! ,balance           
,june       ,scorpio     ,scor-pi-o     
,! ,scorpion      ,july                 
,sagitt>ius ,sag-x-ta-ri-u ,! ,ar*]     
,augu/       ,capricornus               
,cap-ri-cor-nus  ,! ,goat               
,septemb]       ,aqu>ius    ,a-qua-ri-u 
,! ,wat] ,be>]  ,octob]       ,pisces   

,pis-ces          ,! ,fi%es             
,novemb]                                
----------------------------------------
-------------------------    ,to f9d any
 con/ellation dur+ any o!r mon? ?an t   
giv5 9 !  la/ column above subtract two 
h\rs = ea* foll[+ mon?4 ,suppose  y want
 to f9d ,aries1 ! ,ram1 9 ,janu>y in/ead
 ( ,decemb]1 look  = x on y\r m]idian at
 #g ,p4 ,m42 9 ,febru>y look = x at #e  
,p4 ,m41  & s on4    ,y w ( c\rse come  
to a mon? :]e ! con/ellation w run  into
 daylight & !n y won't be able to see x 
aga9 until !  ,e>? has travel$ r\nd !   
,sun to a po9t :]e ! ,e>? is aga9       
betwe5 ! ,sun & ! con/ellation4    ,!   
con/ellations ( ! zodiac are %[n 9 ,fig4
 #agb2 also ! symbol  = ea* sign & !    
mon? 9 :i* ! sun ent]s ! sign4 ,z we    
%all lat] expla91 ! con/ellation is no  
long] 9 ! sign ( !  same "n4    ,if y   
look s\?w>d at ! sky "s night = any     
p>ticul>  con/ellation y ne$ n expect ! 
/>s :i* =m x to /&  out sep>ate &       
di/9ct1 z %[n 9 ,figs4 #agb & #agd2 if y

 d  y w be sadly disappo9t$1 = _m ( !   
con/ellations ( !  zodiac are h>d to    
recognize comp>$ ) ! ,big ,dipp]1 or    
,orion1 or  ,pegasus4    ,illu/ration3  
,,fig4 #agb4--;,,con/ellations ,,&      
,,signs ,,( ,,! ,,zodiac4    ,nor are ! 
con/ellations ( ! zodiac z equally spac$
 9 ! sky  z 9 ,figs4 #agb & #agd4 ,"s ( 
! />s are v scatt]$ &  /ret* ov] "p (   
two signs ( ! zodiac1 :ile o!rs d n take
  up ne>ly all ! space all[$ !m2 ,figs4 
#agb-agd are b r\gh  sket*es4 ,to       
recognize ^! con/ellations y w h to use 
a good  /> map4    ,! heavy black l9e   
drawn l5g?wise ?r\gh ! middle ( ! /rip  
9 ,fig4 #agb repres5ts ! l9e ( !        
ecliptic :i* is ! ye>ly  pa? ! ,sun     
seems to take4 ,! planets also take !   
same c\rse1  ?\gh !y may be on "o side  
or ! o!r ( ! ,sun's pa? by #h  degrees1 
?us mak+ ! zodiac #af degrees wide2     
h5ce1 ! light]  p>allel l9es on ei!r    
side ( ! black l9e1 or pa? ( ! ,sun1 is 
! f>!/ away t ! planets ev] get4    ,if 
y 7 to cut ! /rip ( pap]1 ,fig4 #agb1   

out ( ! book &  pa/e ! ends toge!r1 y   
w\ld h a b&1 or circle repres5t+  !     
zodiac m ne>ly z x is2 b in/ead ( cutt+ 
! book y  _h bett] draw ! signs &       
con/ellations on a /rip ( c>dbo>d  #b   
in*es wide & #bd in*es long & glue !    
ends toge!r1 z %[n  9 ,fig4 #agc2 y w n[
 h a zodiac ) :i* y c d a little        
exp]im5t+4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4      
#agc4--;,,c>dbo>d ,,zodiac4    ,place a 
c&lelight 9 ! c5t] ( ! c>dbo>d r+ &     
susp5d a  m>ble f a ?read1 by means ( a 
drop ( seal+ wax1 & let !  m>ble hang   
betwe5 ! light & ! c>dbo>d zodiac4 ,z   
se5 f  ! m>ble1 :i* repres5ts ! e>?1 !  
c&le1 repres5t+ !  sun1 is 9 !          
con/ellation directly opposite ! "o 9   
:i* !  %ad[ ( ! m>ble falls4    ,9 !    
almanacs our ye> beg9s ) ,janu>y & z !  
,sun is !n 9  ! sign ,aqu>ius1 ?is mon? 
is repres5t$ by a picture ( ,aqu>ius1  !
 ,wat] ,be>]2 b 9 m>k+ out ! signs ( !  
zodiac on a flat  /rip ( pap] we beg9 ) 
,aries1 :i* ! ,sun ent]s 9 ! mon?  (    
,m>*1 & read !m f "r to left4    ,!     

reason = ?is is because ! ,e>? travels  
r\nd ! ,sun  c\nt]-clockwise z se5 f !  
nor? & ?is makes ! ,sun appe>  to move  
ea/w>d ?r\gh ! con/ellations ( ! zodiac4
    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4                
#agd4--;,,con/ellations ,,( ,,zodiac ,,9
 ,,circle4    ,?is makes all ! mon?s    
foll[ ea* o!r 9 ! prop] ord] :5  ! /rip 
( pap] is glu$ toge!r1 z %[n 9 ,fig4    
#agc1 or :5 !  con/ellations are arrang$
 9 a circle1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #agd4    ,?is
 latt] diagram %[s pla9ly t :5 ! ,e>? is
 at t "p  ( its orbit m>k$ ,a !         
con/ellation ( ,taurus is back ( ! ,sun4
  ,if we are on t side ( ! ,e>? :i* is  
t[>d ! ,sun ( c\rse  we _c see ,taurus =
 ! ,sun1 :i* is %9+ 9 our eyes4    ,/ill
 ,taurus is ! backgr\nd ( ! ,sun j !    
same1 & s :5  ! almanac says ! ,sun is 9
 ,taurus y w "k t ! ,sun is  directly   
betwe5 ! ,e>? & ,taurus4    ,! same ?+  
is true ( all ! planets4 ,take ,m>s1 =  
example2  :5ev] ,m>s is 9 t "p ( its    
orbit s t we c see x at  night1 z %[n at
 ,b1 ,fig4 #agb1 we also see !          

con/ellation back (  x--9 ?is case x is 
,libra1 ! ,balance--& s9ce a planet & a 
fix$ /> look exactly alike to ! nak$ eye
 x is easy to ?9k (  ,m>s z be+ 9 t     
con/ellation2 & x is ! same ) all !  o!r
 planets4    ,! ,con/ellations ( !      
,zodiac4--,! ,con/ellations ( ! ,zodiac 
& ! ,signs ( ! ,zodiac are two v diff]5t
 ?+s4 ,long ago1  :5 ! zodiac 0 inv5t$1 
! con/ellation ( ,aries1 ! ,ram1 0  9 ! 
fir/ ( ! #ab spaces & he & ! sign ( ?is 
space 7  ( c\rse at t "t ! same4    ,ow+
 to a peculi> motion ( ! ,e>?1 call$    
precession1 ! signs  ( ! zodiac h mov$  
backw>d dur+ ! la/ #b1jjj ye>s & !  sign
 ( ,aries1 :i* us$ to be 9 !            
con/ellation ( ,aries1 is n[  9 !       
con/ellation ( ,pisces1 ! ,fi%es4       
,illu/ration    ,aqu>ius1 ! ,wat]       
,man4--,a con/ellation ( autumn3        
,aqu>ius is  always pictur$ 9 ! almanacs
 z p\r+ wat] f a pit*]4    ,all ! />s ( 
?is con/ellation are fa9t & scatt]$ &   
none (  !m are 9 a l9e ) ! ecliptic4    
,aqu>ius got 8 "n f !  ,romans1 :o call$

 him ! ,wat]man because :5 ! ,sun ent]s 
!  sign ,aqu>ius 9 ,janu>y !re are      
usually heavy ra9s 9 ,italy & 9  ! long 
ago p ?\ght ! />s _h a lot to d ) !     
wea!r1  & ev]y?+ else on ,e>?1 = t      
matt]4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4          
#age4--;,,con/ellations ,,( ,,aries ,,! 
,,ram4    ,pisces1 ! ,fi%es4--,?is      
con/ellation is n[ 9 t "p ( !  zodiac ^:
 sign is  7,aries74 ,x is n an int]e/+  
con/ellation  to look at ) ! nak$ eye1 =
 its />s are fa9t & !y /ream  out 9 two 
l9es ov] ne>ly two signs ( ! zodiac4    
,b ,pisces is none ! less a v important 
con/ellation because x  is at "o ( !    
po9ts :]e ! l9e ( ! equator crosses !   
l9e  ( ! ecliptic4    ,:5 ! ,sun crosses
 ! po9t :]e ! equator & ! ecliptic meet 
! days & nights are !n equal at all     
places on ! ,e>?1 &  h5ce we call ?is "t
 ( ! ye>1 :i* is ab\t ! tw5ty-fir/  (   
,m>*1 ! equ9ox1 :i* means equal days2 or
 ! v]nal  equ9ox1 :i* means equal spr+  
days4    ,illu/ration    ,aries1 !      
,ram4--,?is con/ellation us$ to be 9 t  

"p ( !  zodiac ^: sign is  7,aries7 b is
 n[ 9 t "p ^: sign is   7,taurus74      
,illu/ration    ,! position ( ,aries 9 !
 sky is %[n 9 ,fig4 #age & y c  easily  
f9d him by draw+ a l9e f ! ,nor? ,/> to 
,alpha 9  ,pegasus & ano!r l9e at "r    
angles to ! fir/ l9e until y  come to   
two bright />s q close toge!r & a ?ird  
"o n q  s bright4 ,^! are ! *ief />s ( !
 con/ellation ( ! ,ram4    ,illu/ration 
,taurus1 ! ,bull4--,?is con/ellation is 
n[ 9 ! sign  7,gem9i71  ( ! zodiac4 ,9  
,*apt] ,,ii y w f9d directions = locat+ 
,taurus4 ,y w rememb] t ! r$ />         
,aldeb>an =ms ! "r  eye ( ! ,bull4 ,!   
little gr\p ( />s call$ ! ,hyades is !  
,bull's face & ! ,pleiades are 9 8      
%\ld]4    ,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s4--,x is easy  
to see :y ! anci5ts call$ ?is           
con/ellation ( ! zodiac ! ,tw9s1 = its  
two *ief />s1  ,ca/or & ,pollux1 are q  
close toge!r & :ile ( diff]5t  colors !y
 are ( ab\t ! same brightness4    ,^!   
two />s are ! heads ( ! ,tw9s & f\r o!r 
/>s are  _! feet & ^! /& =ev] on !      

,milky ,way4 ,! ,tw9s are  easily f\nd  
s9ce !y are next to ,taurus1 ! ,bull4   
,illu/ration    ,gem9i is an important  
con/ellation1 z ! ,sun rea*es its mo/   
nor!rn po9t 9 x 9 summ]2 ?is is call$ ! 
summ] sol/ice1  & takes place ab\t ,june
 #ba4 ,:5 ! ,sun has rea*$ ?is po9t x   
ca/s ! %orte/ %ad[ at mid-day & x seems 
to /& /ill = a  few days be=e x takes   
its d[nw>d c\rse4 ,! summ] sol/ice is   
halfway betwe5 ! two po9ts ( ! equ9ox4  
,canc]1 ! ,crab4--,?is is a small       
con/ellation ( dull />s t  is *iefly    
int]e/+ because x once conta9$ ! po9t ( 
!  summ] sol/ice1 b t 0 ages ago4    ,! 
only ?+ ab\t ,canc] to attract att5tion 
is a hazy pat* (  light call$ ! ,mang]4 
,on ea* side ( ! ,mang] is a fairly     
bright /> & ?is pair ( />s is call$ !   
,ass's ,colts2 !y  w help y to f9d      
,canc]4    ,illu/ration    ,! ,mang] has
 (t5 be5 mi/ak5 = a comet by ^? :o lit  
^u x  ) ! nak$ eye1 b x is really a     
clu/] ( small />s4    ,leo1 !           
,lion4--,!re are two sep>ate gr\ps ( />s

 t make up  ?is k+ ( bea/s4 ,! fir/ gr\p
 takes ! %ape ( a sickle &  ! o!r ! =m (
 a squ>e4 ,! sickle1 :i* is =m$ ( six   
bright />s1 is ,leo's head & %\ld]s1 & !
 f\r />s ( !  squ>e make up 8 h9dqu>t]s4
    ,two l9es1 drawn f ! ,big ,dipp]    
across ! sky1 z %[n 9 ,fig4  #agf1 w    
meet ! sickle & ! squ>e4    ,illu/ration
    ,! v bright /> 9 ! end ( ! h&le ( ! 
sickle is  ,regulus1 :i* means little   
k+1 & f> to ! o!r side ( !  con/ellation
 "r 9 ! end ( ! ,lion's tail is ano!r   
bright  /> call$ ,d5ebola4              
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4                    
#agf4--;,,con/ellations ,,( ,,! ,,lion  
,,& ,,big ,,dipp]4    ,virgo1 !         
,virg94--,?is con/ellation is ( int]e/1 
because !  ,sun aga9 crosses ! po9t :]e 
! equator & ecliptic meet1 &  ! days &  
nights are aga9 ( ! same l5g? ev]y:]e on
 !  ,e>?1 j z !y 7 at ! spr+1 or v]nal  
equ9ox4    ,b ?is "t1 :5 ! ,sun is 9    
,virgo1 x crosses ! equator f  nor? to  
s\? ab\t ,septemb] #ba & s ?is equ9ox is
 call$ !  autumnal equ9ox1 :i* means    

equal autumn days4    ,illu/ration      
,by draw+ a l9e f ,pol>is ?r\gh ,miz>9  
?r\gh ! h&le  ( ! ,big ,dipp] & produc+ 
x beyond ,arcturus1 & on until x  rea*es
 a big1 bright1 :ite /> y w h rea*$     
,virgo1 z %[n  9 ,fig4 #agg4 ,?is big1  
:ite1 bright /> is ,spica1 & x is ! *ief
  /> 9 ,virgo4    ,! anci5ts always     
repres5t$ ,virgo1 ! ,virg91 ) a %eaf (  
:eat 9 "o h& & a sickle 9 ! o!r4 ,!     
,virg9 & ! h>ve/  always w5t toge!r 9 ! 
m9ds ( ! anci5ts & ?is acc\nts =  !     
pictures ( ,virgo 9 ! almanacs ( !      
pres5t "t4    ,libra1 ! ,balance4--,a   
small con/ellation nam$ = ! anci5t      
,roman p\nd weight4    ,illu/ration     
,! con/ellation ( ,libra is n ne>ly z   
old z ! o!rs 9  ! zodiac1 9 fact x is   
?\ght t !re 7 only elev5  con/ellations 
9 ! zodiac :5 !y 7 fir/ mapp$ out ?\s&s 
( ye>s ago1 al?\gh !re 7 twelve signs or
 spaces 9 ! zodiac4  ,its position is   
%[n 9 ,fig4 #agh4    ,!n 9 ! days ( !   
,roman ,empire1 ab\t #cjj ye>s be=e     
,*ri/1  "s g5ius clipp$ ! claws ( !     

,scorpion & made its />s into a  pair ( 
scales4 ,?is 0 a v clev] idea1 = !      
autumnal equ9ox  !n took place 9 ?is    
sign ( ! zodiac1 & ! />s 9 ?is sign  7  
giv5 ! "n ( ,libra1 z ! equal days &    
nights call$ to  m9d ! balance4         
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4                    
#agg4--;,,con/ellations ,,( ,,virgo ,,! 
,,virg94    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4        
#agh4--,,libra1 ,,lion1 ,,scorpio1      
,,virgo4    ,scorpius1 ! ,scorpion4--,a 
summ] con/ellation4 ,if ,libra takes up 
only a small "p ( "o sign ( ! zodiac    
,scorpius makes up = x by  ne>ly cov]+  
two signs4    ,to ! old a/rolog]s1      
,scorpius 0 ! 8p[] ( d>kness0 & !       
8accurs$ con/ellation10 & :5 !y ca/ _!  
horoscopes !y  attribut$ to x 8woe &    
discord1 w> & disease40    ,illu/ration 
,! con/ellation ( ,scorpius is "o ( ! v 
few :i* really looks  its "p4 ,9 ! end (
 its curv$ tail !re are two />s :i* are 
ready to /+ if he ev] /rikes1 b he has  
nev] /ruck yet4    ,! he>t ( ! ,scorpion
 is a big1 bright r$ /> call$ ,ant>es1  

:i* means ! rival ( ,m>s1 & :5 ,m>s is 9
 ! con/ellation (  ,scorpius x is h>d to
 tell !m ap>t4    ,ant>es w prove useful
 9 f9d+ ! ,scorpion z !re are no o!r    
bright />s 9 t "p ( ! sky4 ,! position (
 ,scorpius is %[n  9 ,fig4 #agh4        
,sagitt>ius1 ! ,ar*]4--,a summ]         
con/ellation3 ,x is made up (  _m />s   
:i* c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye & is always   
pictur$  9 ! almanacs z a c5taur1 or    
man-horse1 %oot+ an arr[ f a  b[ at !   
he>t ( ! ,scorpion4    ,illu/ration     
,sagitt>ius is a f9e con/ellation1 "r 9 
! pa? ( ! ,milky  ,way1 & ?is makes x   
easy to f9d4 ,!re are sev]al int]e/+    
?+s 9 ?is con/ellation & among !m are ! 
clu/]s ( />s  & nebul4    ,!n !re are   
sev5 />s 9 ,sagitt>ius1 :i* make a      
little dipp]  turn$ upside d[n1 &       
because x is 9 ! ,milky ,way x is call$ 
!  milk dipp]2 :5 y once f9d x1 y w nev]
 be able to see  ,sagitt>ius aga9 )\t   
see+ ! milk dipp]4    ,illu/ration3     
,,fig4 #agi4--,,lyra1 ,,aquila1         
,,capricornus4    ,! w9t] sol/ice1 t is1

 ! mo/ s\!rn po9t :i* !  ,sun rea*es1   
lies halfway betwe5 ! con/ellations (   
,scorpius &  ,sagitt>ius & also betwe5 !
 two /ream l9es ( ! ,milky ,way4    ,:5 
! ,sun rea*es ?is po9t1 :i* is ! #bj? ( 
,decemb]1 !  noonday %ad[s are ! longe/ 
& ! ,sun seems to aga9 /& /ill  until   
,*ri/mas1 :5 he w beg9 to move nor? once
 m4    ,capricornus1 ! ,sea-,goat4--,a  
con/ellation ( autumn3 ,on ! same  plan 
t ! anci5ts made ,sagitt>ius a          
man-horse1 s !y made  ,capricornus a    
goat-fi%4    ,?\gh ,capricornus is a    
small & poor con/ellation :5 view$ )  ! 
nak$ eye1 ! e>ly a/rolog]s ?\ght m ( him
 ?an all !  o!r con/ellations ( ! zodiac
 put toge!r4    ,:ile ! />s (           
,capricornus d n look any?+ l a         
sea-goat1 he  c be easily f\nd by draw+ 
a l9e f ,vega 9 ,lyra to ,altair 9      
,aquila & produc+ x until y come to !   
zodiac z %[n 9 ,fig4  #agi4             
,illu/ration    ,! two brighte/ />s (   
,capricornus are 9 8 head4 ,"o ( ^!  />s
 is a nak$ eye d\ble1 b to _m p x w seem

 m]ely a  s+le />4 ,z a matt] ( fact x  
is a f9e sight te/1 = x takes  a pair ( 
mighty good eyes to sep>ate !m4 ,ano!r  
bright /> ( !  sea-goat is 9 8 fi%like  
tail4    ,we h j\rney$ cle> ar\nd !     
great circle :i* ! ,sun travels  e ye>1 
& we are back aga9 to ,aqu>ius1 !       
con/ellation we  />t$ f1 hav+ cov]$ all 
! con/ellations ( ! zodiac4    ,! ,signs
 ( ! ,zodiac4--,:]e ! signs ( ! zodiac  
are us$ 9  almanacs !y d n mean !       
con/ellations ( ! same "n at all1  b !  
spaces or p>ts ( ! great circle :i* =m !
 zodiac4    ,two ?\s& ye>s ago !        
con/ellations & ! signs ( ! same  "n 7 9
 ! same spaces or p>ts ( ! zodiac1 b !  
signs1 by  precession1 h %ift$ ov] "o   
space to ! we/ s9ce t "t1  :ile !       
con/ellations h ( c\rse rema9$ un*ang$1 
& ?is  has made a good deal ( confusion4
    ,x's a pretty skillet ( fi%1 ?is    
mix+ ( ! signs &  con/ellations ( !     
zodiac1 b y w get us$ to x j z  easily z
 y get us$ to c>ry+ wat] :5 9 camp or   
wa%+  di%es4    ,h[ to ,read !          

,almanac4--,if y 7 ask$ to f9d ! date ( 
any  day ( any mon? ( ! ye> y w\ld      
simply look at a cal5d> &  f9d x 9 a    
jiffy4    ,n[1 long be=e cal5d>s came   
into g5]al use ! almanac 0  freely      
consult$1 n only = le>n+ days & dates1 b
 = mu*  m useful in=mation1 su* z f9d+ !
 dates ( eclipses1 !  beg9n+ ( seasons1 
! ris+ & sett+ ( ! ,sun1 ,moon &        
planets & ! conjunctions & oppositions (
 ^! bodies1  plant+ potatoes & ! ye> !  
fa!r ( y\r c\ntry 0 born4    ,to read an
 almanac easily y %\ld le>n ! foll[+    
signs3         ,! ,sun                  
,m]cury       ,full ,moon               
,v5us       ,la/ ,qu>t]       ,! ,e>?   
,new ,moon            ,m>s       ,fir/  
,qu>t]         ,jupit]                  
,conjunction       ,saturn              
,opposition       ,uranus       ,neptune
    ,conjunction4--,:5 ?is sign is us$ x
 means t two planets1 or  ! ,sun & a    
planet1 or ! ,moon & a planet1 are on ! 
same side  ( ! ,e>?4                    
,opposition4--,:5 ?is sign is us$ x     

means t two planets1 or !  ,sun & a     
planet1 or ! ,moon & a planet1 are on   
opposite sides (  ! ,e>?4    ,to see h[ 
^! signs "w out suppose y look up ! mon?
 (  ,janu>y1 #aiae1 9 an almanac4    ,! 
fir/ l9e1 besides %[+ t x is ! fir/ day 
( ! ye>1  ! fir/ day ( ! mon? & t x is  
,friday1 also %[s t !   7,moon7 is full4
 ,x fur!r gives ! "t !  7,sun7 rises &  
sets1  ! l5g? ( ! days 9 h\rs & m9utes1 
!  7,moon's7 age 9  days1 & :5 x rises &
 sets4    ,!n on ! same l9e ! foll[+    
signs are giv53    & ?is  means t a     
conjunction ( ,m]cury & ,m>s w take     
place on ?is  date2 t is1 t !y w be ne>]
 to ea* o!r f our l9e (  sight ?an at   
any o!r "t = a long :ile4    ,on ! next 
l9e1 :i* is ! #bnd ( ,janu>y1 ! foll[+  
signs are  giv53  greate/ brilliancy2  9
 p]ihelion   2 ! fir/ (  :i* means t    
,v5us has rea*$ its greate/ brightness2 
! second1  t ! ,e>? is ! ne>e/ to ! ,sun
 t x w get1 & !  ?ird1 t !re is a       
conjunction ( ,neptune & ! ,moon2 & s on
  = e day ( ! ye>4    ,note3 ,a good    

almanac = daily /> in=mation is ! ,old  
,f>m]s'  ,almanac1 a copy ( :i* y c get 
by s5d+ #aa c5ts to ,william  ,w>e &    
,company1 ,bo/on1 ,mass4                
,,*apt] ,,xii    ,,valuable ,,in=mation 
,photograph+ ! ,/>s4--,!re are "s       
int]e/+ ?+s y c  d ) an ord9>y cam]a 9 !
 way ( photograph+ ! />s4    ,a cam]a is
 made up ( ?ree pr9cipal p>ts1 & ^! are 
7#a7 a  convex l5s1 :i* =ms ! image ( ! 
object to be photograph$2  7#b7 a       
light-tight box1 :i* keeps out all !    
light except t :i*  passes ?r\gh ! l5s1 
& 7#c7 a plate1 or film hold]1 :i* holds
  ! s5sitive plate1 or film1 9 ! cam]a &
 keeps x p]fectly d>k  until y are ready
 to h ! image =m$ on x4    ,! in/ant !  
l5s is all[$ to =m an image on !        
s5sitive  plate1 or film1 we get out ( !
 optics ( photography & into  ! *emi/ry 
( x4    ,! s5sitive plate1 or film1 is  
coat$ ) a ?9 lay] ( salts  ( silv] &    
bromide1 heat$ ) gelat9e & a little     
wat]1 &  :5 ^! sub/ances are ?or\ghly   
mix$1 an emulsion results1  & ?is is    

spread on glass plates or on celluloid  
films4 ,:5 !  plate is expos$1 t is1 :5 
! image has be5 =m$ on x1 x is          
develop$4 ,! develop+ is done by plac+ !
 plate 9 a solution (  pyrogallic acid1 
or hydroqu9one & wat]4    ,! plate1 or  
film1 is n[ put 9 ! fix+ ba?1 :i* is    
simply a  solution ( hyposulphite ( soda
 & wat]4 ,?is fix+ ba? prev5ts  any     
fur!r action ( ! light on ! plate1 or   
film4    ,b ! picture on ! glass plate1 
or celluloid film1 looks all same  l a  
,*9ese *romo1 = ! light & d>k p>ts are j
 !  rev]se ( t ( ! object :i* 0         
photograph$2 9 o!r words1  :]e ! picture
 %\ld be :ite1 x is black1 & :]e x %\ld 
be  black1 x is :ite1 & ?is is ! reason 
x is call$ a negative4    ,illu/ration3 
,,fig4 #ahj4--;,,cam]a ,,po9t+ ,,to     
,,nor? ,,/>4    ,to get a picture ( !   
object1 z x looks to ! eye1 a %eet (    
pap]1 also coat$ ) salts ( silv]1 is    
laid flat on ! negative  & held close to
 x 9 a pr9t+ frame :5 x is expos$ to !  
light ( ! ,sun4    ,:5 ! pap] is pr9t$  

d>k en\gh by ! ,sun1 x is ton$ to give  
x a pleas+ color & fix$ to make x la/ a 
long "t1 & :5  wa%$ & dri$ ! image ( !  
object1 true to life1 is !re1 a         
wond]ful record = all "t1 ne>ly4    ,?is
 !n1 briefly1 is h[ ! ,sun1 or o!r s\rce
 ( light1 makes  an image1 h[ ! image is
 fix$ on a dry plate1 or film1 & h[ a   
picture is pr9t$ f ! negative1 & hav+   
f\nd out ?is mu*  let's see h[ we c make
 x d a little /> "w = u4    ,!re is n   
mu* we c d 9 ! way ( mak+ pictures ( !  
?+s 9 ! sky ) a small cam]a1 b ! few ?+s
 we c d  are mighty int]e/+1 & %[ ! />s 
9 a way y c nev] see  !m ) ! nak$ eye4  
,to make /> trails is "o ( ^! int]e/+   
?+s4 ,fir/1 set  y\r cam]a on a tripod1 
or o!r firm support1 & focus x on a     
tree or some?+ z f> (f z y c see x 9 !  
daytime4 ,n[1 on  a d>k night1 :5 !re is
 no ,moon1 set y\r cam]a s t ! l5s  is  
po9t+ directly at ! ,nor? ,/>1 z %[n 9  
,fig4 #ahj4 ,set !  %utt] ( y\r cam]a = 
a "t exposure & op5 x4    ,illu/ration3 
,,fig4 #aha4 ,,/> ,,trails4    ,y c g to

 b$ n[ & let ! />s "w = y :ile y sleep1 
t is if y c get up be=e daylight ! next 
morn+1 b if y  _c d ?is /ay up z long z 
y c1 ?ree or f\r h\rs1 anyway1  be=e y  
close ! %utt]4    ,n[1 :5 y develop !   
plate1 or film1 & make a pr9t f x  y w h
 a record ( ! app>5t pa? ( ! />s1 z %[n 
9  ,fig4 #aha1 b :i* is1 ( c\rse1 due to
 ! ,e>? turn+ r\nd on  its axis4 ,if y  
set y\r cam]a ) ! l5s po9t+ t[>d !      
ecliptic1 t is1 ! pa? ( ! ,sun1 ! />    
trails w be long1  /raight l9es1 & ?is w
 make ano!r int]e/+ record4    ,by po9t+
 y\r cam]a t[>d t "p ( ! sky & dur+ t   
"t ( ! ye> :5 !re are %[]s ( meteors1 & 
op5+ !  %utt] ( y\r l5s1 y /& a *ance1  
?\gh x is n a v fat  "o1 ( cat*+ "o ( ^!
 wily %oot+ />s on y\r plate1 & if  y d 
succe$--well1 y w h a picture t is a    
curiosity4    ,y c photograph ! ,sun )  
an ord9>y cam]a & make 8 disk  z l>ge z 
y want to1 b y w get no?+ m on y\r plate
  ?an a :ite spot4 ,! ,moon c likewise  
be photograph$1 b if y  focus x %>p on !
 plate x w n be mu* l>g] ?an a m]e  po9t

 ( light1 & if y get a disk l>ge en\gh  
to see !re w  only be a small :ite spot 
on y\r f9i%$ pr9t4    ,to make good     
photographs ( ! ,sun1 ,moon & planets1 a
 big telescope  driv5 by clockwork to   
(fset ! turn+ ( ! ,e>? is ne$$4 ,su*  a 
telescope is call$ an equatorial        
telescope1 & :5 x is set s  t an object 
9 ! sky is 9 ! field ( view1 x w rema9  
"r  !re z long z y want x1 & :5 y make a
 photograph ( !  object x w be z %>p & z
 cle> z ?\gh bo? x & ! ,e>?  7 /&+      
p]fectly /ill4    ,if y ?9k en\gh ( !   
/>s to try to photograph !m ) y\r       
little cam]a1 ,i %\ld say !re is a v    
good *ance ( y\r be+  able to photograph
 !m sometime ?r\gh an equatorial        
telescope =  all ?+s come to ! boy :o   
wants !m h>d en\gh4    ,:at ! ,/>s ,are 
,made (4--,to "k :at ! />s are made ( is
 to  "k m ab\t !m ?an m5 knew ( ! ,e>? a
 few hundr$ ye>s ago4    ,b j ?9k (     
look+ at a /> l ,aldeb>an1 :i* is s f>  
away t x takes #de ye>s = its light to  
rea* ! ,e>?--light  travels elev5       

million miles a m9ute--& !n say+ x is   
made  ( iron1 & m]cury & hydrog5 &      
sodium & half a doz5 o!r  sub/ances6    
,n[ y ask1 8,h[ is x done80 ,& ,i'll say
 ) a glass prism1 &  !n we'll h made a  
fly+ />t4 ,n[ a glass prism is a        
?ree-sid$  piece ( glass--! ends don't  
c\nt--z %[n 9 ,fig4 #add1 & x is  j z   
wond]ful 9 its way z a l5s is wond]ful 9
 its way4    ,if y w hold a prism to y\r
 eye & look at ! flame ( a c&le  ?r\gh  
x1 y w see ! flame 9 all ! brilliant    
colors ( !  ra9b[1 & ^! bright colors =m
 :at is call$ a spectrum4    ,n[ make   
ano!r exp]im5t2 cov] a w9d[1 on :i* !   
,sun %9es1  ) a %eet ( c>dbo>d1 9 !     
middle ( :i* y h cut a  horizontal slit 
) a %>p knife1 ab\t #a in* long & _/ in*
  wide4 ,make ! room p]fectly d>k except
 = ! light :i* comes  9 ?r\gh ! slit 9 !
 c>dbo>d1 & set a prism 9 front ( !     
slit1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ade4 ,! beam (     
sunlight :i* passes ?r\gh  ! prism w be 
split up1 or decompos$1 z x is call$1   
into !  sev5 colors ( ! ra9b[1 b !      

colors w be mu* bright]4    ,if y w fix 
ano!r %eet ( :ite c>dbo>d 9 a v]tical   
position s t ! colors w %9e on x 9 a b&1
 ! colors1  beg9n+ ) r$ at ! bottom1    
next orange1 !n yell[1 gre51  blue1     
indigo & violet1 w foll[ ea* o!r to !   
top bright &  beautiful4 ,^! ra9b[      
colors1 spread out 9 a b& on ! scre51   
=m :at is call$ ! sol> spectrum1 t is1 !
 spectrum :i*  is produc$ by sunlight4  
,?is beautifully color$ spectrum is     
really made up ( a great _m  images ( ! 
slit 9 ! c>dbo>d1 "o = ea* wave-l5g? ( !
  light4 ,if ! slit is made v n>r[1 !   
images ( ! slit w  n ov]lap mu* & y c   
tell :e!r any ( ! wave-l5g?s are  miss+ 
by look+ = f9e black l9es cross+ !      
spectrum4 ,su*  d>k l9es are v important
 9 f9d+ out :at ! ,sun & ,/>s are  made 
(4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--;,,boy
 ,,look+ ,,?r\gh ,,prism ,,at ,,slit ,,9
  ,,c>dbo>d4    ,all y h to d is to /&  
away f ! slit five or six feet  & look  
at ! beam ( light ?r\gh a prism j z y   
did at !  flame ( ! c&le4 ,?is is !     

simple/ =m ( a spectroscope1  t is an   
in/rum5t = splitt+ up ! light ( any     
object :i* is  self-lum9\s1 into a      
spectrum1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ahb4    ,:5 y  
look at ! sunlight /ream+ 9 ?r\gh ! slit
 9 !  c>dbo>d y w see a numb] ( d>k l9es
 cross+ ! color$  b&4 ,^! d>k l9es are  
call$ ,fraunh(]'s l9es1 because         
,fraunh(]1 :o 0 a ,g]man telescope mak]1
 0 ! fir/ to %[  h[ important !y are4 ,!
 *ief d>k l9es ( ! ,sun's spectrum are  
kn[n by ! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 &1 l !   
color$ images (  ! slit1 !y are always 9
 ! same place4 ,!y are %[n 9 ,fig4 #ahc4
    ,hav+ f\nd out a little ab\t !      
spectrum & h[ x is =m$ by  ! ,sun1 let's
 f9d out next h[ x tells u :at ! ,sun & 
! />s  are made (4    ,illu/ration3     
,,fig4 #ahc4--;,,fraunh(]',s ,,l9es4    
,n[1 9 ! ,sun's spectrum !re are a pair 
( l9es close toge!r &  ne> ! middle :i* 
are call$ ! ,d l9es--see ,fig4 #ahc--;& 
:5 a  beam ( sunlight is split up by a  
spectroscope1 or r by ! prism  ( a      
spectroscope1 ^! ,d l9es always appe> 9 

! yell[ "p (  ! spectrum4    ,!re 0 a   
"t1 & n s v long ago1 :5 no "o _h !     
fa9te/ idea :y ! ,sun's light did n     
conta9 ^! two  wave-l5g?s1 :5 ! spectrum
 f a c&le flame 0 a cont9u\s  b& ( light
 )\t d>k l9es4 ,!n two exp]im5t]s1      
,kir*h(f  & ,buns51 f\nd t v>i\s        
sub/ances :5 conv]t$ into lum9\s  gases 
9 a hot flame always produc$ spectra :i*
 consi/$ only  ( c]ta9 bright l9es4 ,?us
 x 0 f\nd t sodium gas gives  two bright
 l9es 9 ! exact positions ( ! ,d l9es ( 
! ,sun's  spectrum4 ,?is made x look z  
if ! ,sun conta9$ no sodium4 ,b  !      
exp]im5t]s did some?+ else3 !y plac$ a v
 brilliant  light back ( ! sodium gas & 
on look+ ?r\gh _! spectroscope  !y saw a
 cont9u\s spectrum ) black ,d l9es4 ,?is
 meant t  ! sodium gas _h absorb$ f !   
light pass+ ?r\gh x !  wave-l5g?s :i* x 
_h giv5 out :5 %9+ by itself4 ,we n[  "k
 t ! ,sun is surr\nd$ by a lay] ( gases 
:i* is some:at  cool] ?an ! int]ior ( ! 
,sun & t ea* sub/ance 9 ?is  8rev]s+    
lay]10 z x is call$1 takes out "s ( !   

light :i*  is *>act]i/ic ( x & ?us      
produces ! ,fraunh(] l9es4    ,9 ! same 
way iron & o!r metals & sodium & o!r    
sub/ances  :i* are heat$ until !y become
 gases1 & hydrog5 & o!r gases  :i* are  
aflame1 produce spectra consi/+ ( c]ta9 
bright l9es1  & z ! light f ! ,sun also 
produces black l9es 9 ! same  id5tical  
places1 x is kn[n t ! ,sun conta9s ^!   
diff]5t  sub/ances :i* are heat$ up 9 x 
to a :ite heat4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 
#ahd4--,,! ,,spectroscope4    ,x's !    
same ?+ ) ! />s4 ,x makes no diff]5ce if
 ! light  is made by burn+ "s sub/ance a
 few in*es away f ! slit (  !           
spectroscope1 or :e!r x has travel$ #ij 
millions ( miles f  ! ,sun--:i* takes   
ab\t #h m9utes1 or #de ye>s = ! light to
  rea* x f ,aldeb>an1 x always acts     
exactly 9 ! same way2 & s  we "k a good 
deal ab\t ! /uff ! />s are made (4      
,let's see n[1 h[ a real spectroscope is
 made1 = x isn't always  conv5i5t to h a
 pit* d>k room1 nor is x a v exact way  
to  hold ! prism to y\r eye :5 exam9+ ! 

light ( burn+ sodium1  or hydrog5 gas1  
or o!r sub/ances4    ,! spectroscope is 
an in/rum5t made s t ! light ( a        
sub/ance burn$ at "o end w pass ?r\gh a 
prism & w =m a  spectrum on ! ret9a ( ! 
eye at ! o!r end4 ,x is usually made  up
 ( two tubes m\nt$ on a /& at an angle )
 ! prism betwe5  !m1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ahd4
    ,9 ! end ( ! fir/ tube1 :i* is call$
 a collimator1 a v  n>r[ slit is cut1 & 
x is at ?is end t ! sub/ance is plac$   
:i* is to be burn$ & ^: light is to be  
split up & exam9$4    ,a convex l5s is  
fitt$ 9 ! o!r end ( ! collimator1 or    
fir/  tube1 s t ! light aft] pass+ ?r\gh
 ! slit w !n  pass 9 a beam ?r\gh !     
prism4 ,! o!r tube--! "o y look         
?r\gh--is call$ a telescope & 9 ?is "o  
is fitt$ a convex  object glass & an    
eyepiece :i* magnifies ! spectrum made  
by !  prism4    ,:5 a cam]a is us$ to   
photograph ! spectrum ! eyepiece is tak5
  out ( ! tube ( ! spectroscope & a     
little cam]a is put 9 its  place4 ,9 ?is
 way ! cam]a & ! spectroscope are comb9$

 &  ?is helps *emi/s to comp>e ! spectra
 ( diff]5t burn+  sub/ances f> bett] ?an
 !y c\ld d ) ! nak$ eye alone4    ,to   
photograph ! spectrum ( ! ,sun !        
eyepiece ( ! big telescope  is tak5 out 
& ! end ( ! tube ( ! spectroscope ) !   
slit  9 x is fitt$ 9 its place4 ,9 mak+ 
a photograph ( ! spectrum (  a /> ! slit
 is n ne$$1 = ! light ( ! /> itself is b
  a m]e po9t4    ,9 photograph+ !       
spectrum ( ! ,sun & />s ?ree wond]ful   
in/rum5ts are comb9$1 namely1 !         
telescope1 ! spectroscope  & ! cam]a2   
p]haps ,i %\ld h said f\r wond]ful      
in/rum5ts1 = )\t ! bra9 ( a g5ius us+ !m
 ! ,sun &  />s nev] w\ld h giv5 up _!   
secrets4          ,,app5dices           
,,app5dix ,a    ,accord+ to ! (ficial   
,h&book ( ! ,boy ,sc\ts1 if y are a     
,sc\t & want to w9 a m]it badge =       
/>craft1 y mu/        7#a7 ,h a g5]al k 
( ! nature ( !          />s & planets4  
7a7 ,by ! nature ( ! />s & planets is   
meant            _! colors & :at !y are 
made (4 ,_!            sizes & _!       

di/ances f ! ,e>? 9 a            g5]al  
way may also be includ$4          7b7 ,x
 is easy to tell ! color ( bo? ! />s    
& ! planets by look+ at !m1 or by look+ 
!m up 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s4          7c7 ,! 
spectroscope %[s t ! />s are made       
( metals & gases & o!r sub/ances :i*    
we h on ,e>?4 ,! planets are probably   
made ( ! same k9ds ( metals1 gases &    
sub/ances z ^? :i* =m ! ,e>?1 b         
!re is no way ( prov+ ?is1 = ! planets  
%9e by reflect$ light1 & 9 ?is case !   
spectroscope is ( little use4           
7d7 ,! />s are kn[n to be suns z l>ge or
 l>g]            ?an our ,sun2 :ile !   
planets are ab\t z            l>ge z our
 ,e>?--"s small] & "s l>g]4          7e7
 ,all ( ! planets are )9 #b1hjj millions
            ( miles ( ! ,e>?1 :ile !    
ne>e/ />1            except our ,sun1 is
 #be trillions ( miles f !              
,e>?1 or #h1jjj times z f> away4        
7#b7 ,h a g5]al k ( ! movem5ts ( !      
/>s & planets4          7a7 ,:ile all ! 
/>s revolve 9 orbits & are              

mov+ ?r\gh space at high spe$1 !y are s 
f> away f u t !y seem to be fix$ &      
= all practical purposes !y may be      
consid]$            to be fix$ 9 _!     
positions4          7b7 ,all ! planets  
turn on _! own axes & travel            
9 orbits r\nd ! ,sun4        7#c7 ,po9t 
out & "n #ab pr9cipal                   
con/ellations4          7a7 ,twelve easy
 con/ellations are3 7#a7 ,! ,big        
,dipp]2 7#b7 ,! ,little ,dipp]2 7#c7    
,cassiopeia2            7#d7 ,pegasus2  
7#e7 ,orion2 7#f7 ,auriga & 7#g7        
,taurus1 all ( :i* are %[n 9 ,*apt]s ,i 
& ,,ii2 7#h7 ,gem9i2 7#i7 ,leo2 7#aj7   
,virgo2 7#aa7            ,! ,scorpion1 &
 7#ab7 ,sagitt>ius1 :i* are             
con/ellations ( ! zodiac1 & are %[n 9   
,*apt] ,,xi4        7#d7 ,f9d ! ,nor? by
 means ( o!r          />s ?an ! ,pole   
,/> 7:i* is ! ,nor?          ,/>7 9 case
 t /> is obscur$ by          cl\ds4     
7a7 ,?is c be done by f9d+ !            
con/ellation (            ,cassiopeia1  
see ,*apt] ,i2 & also by ,pegasus2      

,auriga & ,orion1 z expla9$ 9 ,*apt]    
,,ii4        7#e7 ,h a g5]al k ( !      
positions &          movem5ts ( ! ,e>?1 
,sun1 ,moon1 & ! ,planets2          & ( 
tides1 eclipses1 meteors & comets4      
7a7 ,by read+ ! *apt]s on ! ,sun1       
,planets1            ,e>? & ,moon &     
7b7 ,o!r ?+s 9 ! sky c>efully1 y w be   
able to pass ! requirem5ts nam$ 9 ,no4  
#e4        7#f7 ,plot on at lea/ two    
nights p] mon? = six          mon?s !   
positions ( all nak$ eye planets        
visible betwe5 sund[n & "o h\r !reaft]4 
,! plot ( ea* planet %all conta9 at lea/
          ?ree fix$ />s ) _! names or   
designations2          colors ( planets 
& />s are to be record$ z               
obs]v$4           7a7 ,h[ to plot !     
position ( a planet is fully            
expla9$ 9 ! *apt] on ,planets1 b y      
%\ld also read ! "o on ,! ,/>s ( !      
,zodiac1 & h a good /> map 7,app4 ,o74  
,,app5dix ,b4    ,figures4--,:5 expla9+ 
! positions & =ms ( ?+s1 x is  (t5      
necess>y to use c]ta9 t]ms & figures1 t 

is to say1 l9es  :i* are ei!r real or   
imag9>y1 b :i* c be drawn on pap]4  ,see
 ,fig4 #ahe4    7#a7 ,a /raight l9e is1 
( c\rse1 a l9e :i* runs uni=mly 9 !     
same direction1 & :i* is regul> & )\t   
curves4 ,a /raight  l9e is ! %orte/     
di/ance betwe5 two po9ts4 7#b7 ,:5 we   
say t  l9es are p>allel1 we mean t !y   
lie s t e "p ( ea*  is equally spac$ f !
 o!r4 7#c7 ,a l9e is horizontal :5 x  is
 p>allel ) ! level surface ( ! ,e>? "u  
x4 7#d7 ,a l9e  is p]p5dicul> to !      
surface ( ! ,e>? :5 x is plumb1  t is1 9
 a l9e ) ! c5t] ( ! ,e>?4 7#e7 ,a       
v]tical l9e  g5]ally means a plumb l9e4 
7#f7 ,a "r angle is =m$ :5 a  v]tical1  
or a p]p5dicul>1 l9e meets a horizontal 
l9e4 7#g7 ,a  circle is a curv$ l9e1 all
 po9ts ( :i* are equally di/ant f  its  
c5t]4 ,circul> means r\nd l a circle4   
7#h7 ,by diamet]  is meant a /raight l9e
 drawn f "o side1 or half ( a circle1 to
  ! opposite side ?r\gh its c5t]4 7#i7  
,! radius ( a circle is  a /raight l9e  
drawn f ! c5t] ( a circle1 or a ball1 to

 its  circumf]5ce4 7#aj7 ,a r+ is a disk
 or object hav+ a circul> hole  cut 9   
its c5t]4 7#aa7 ,an arc ( a circle is a 
"p ( a circle4  7#ab7 ,a qu>t] circle   
is1 ( c\rse1 ! "o-f\r? "p ( a circle4   
7#ac7 ,a tang5t is a l9e :i* t\*es a    
curve b does n cut x4  7#ad7 ,an ellipse
 is an oval figure1 drawn on a plane    
surface4 7#ae7 ,!  equator is a circle  
:i* divides ! ,e>? or o!r ball into     
equal  p>ts1 & is #ij degrees f ! nor? &
 s\? poles4 7#af7 ,!  ecliptic is a     
circle r\nd ! ,sky 9 ^: plane lies !    
orbit (  ! ,e>?4    ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4
 #ahe4--;,,geometrical ,,figures4       
,,app5dix ,c    ,,! ,,greek ,,alphabet  
,_m ( ! bright] />s h names1 z          
,aldeb>an1 ,capella1 ,sirius1  etc41 b  
a/ronom]s n[ indicate ! />s ( a         
con/ellation by  ! lett]s ( ! ,greek    
alphabet4 ,! usual me?od is to call !   
brighte/ /> ( a con/ellation 1 t is1    
,alpha1 ! next brighte/   :i* is ,beta1 
& s on1 b sometimes ! />s are lett]$ 9  
ord] ( position 9 ! sky4    ,! foll[+ is

 ! ,greek alphabet3         ,alpha      
,nu       ,beta        ,xi 7,zi7        
,gamma       ,omicron       ,delta      
,pi       ,epsilon     ,rho       ,zeta 
,sigma       ,eta         ,tau          
,!ta       ,upsilon       ,iota         
,phi       ,kappa       ,*i             
,lambda      ,psi       ,mu             
,omega      ,,app5dix ,d    ,,/> ,,te/s 
,,= ,,eyesight    ,!re are a numb] ( />s
 :i* are consid]$ to be good te/s =  !  
see+ p[] ( ! eyes4 ,! fa9t />s ( !      
,pleiades are a  f9e te/ ( ?is k9d2 b   
usually ^! te/s are d\ble />s &  :ile "o
 w be bright & easily se5 its companion 
w be v  fa9t4 ,! te/ is to see ! fa9t   
"o1 & if y c see x y may  consid] y h v 
good eyesight4    ,eyesight te/s are    
giv5 on ! foll[+ pages3        ,page    
#aa--,miz> & ,alcor       #cd--,spots on
 ! ,sun       #id--;,grimaldi on ! ,moon
      #aai--,nebula 9 ,orion            
#aej--;,epsilon 9 ,lyra                 
#aej--,pleiades      #ahb--;,alpha &    
,beta 9 ,capricornus      ,,app5dix ,e  

,,magnitudes ,,( ,,/>s    ,!re are n    
ne>ly z _m />s 9 ! sky z y might at fir/
  suppose4 ,! />s are divid$ into       
magnitudes1 t is1 accord+  to _!        
brightness4 ,/>s ( ! fir/ magnitude are 
! brighte/  />s2 />s ( ! second         
magnitude are second brighte/1 & s on4  
,! total numb] ( />s :i* c be se5 ) !   
nak$ eye on any  "o night 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates is probably n m ?an #c1jjj4 ,!   
foll[+ table gives ! numb] ( />s ( !    
diff]5t magnitudes  up to & includ+ !   
six?3        ,magnitudes     ,numb] (   
,/>s         #a/                   #bj  
#bnd          ab\t    #fe         #crd  
ab\t   #bjj         #d?          ab\t   
#ejj         #e?          ab\t #a1djj   
#f?          ab\t #e1jjj      ,,app5dix 
,f    ,,fir/ ,,magnitude ,,/>s    ,!    
brightness ( a /> is kn[n by its        
magnitude4 ,a /> ( ! fir/  magnitude is 
"o ( ! #bj brighte/ />s1 & is #b times z
 bright  z a /> ( ! second magnitude2 a 
/> ( ! second magnitude is  #b times z  
bright z a /> ( ! ?ird magnitude2 & s   

on4 ,a />  ( ! six? magnitude c j be se5
 ) ! nak$ eye on a cle>  night :5 !re is
 no ,moon4    ,fifte5 ( ! tw5ty fir/    
magnitude />s c be se5 9 our  latitude1 
& ^! are3                               
,,(           ,,( ,,/>                  
,,con/ellation         #a4 ,sirius1 !   
,dog ,/>1 9    ,canis ,major       #b4  
,capella                8    ,auriga    
#c4 ,arcturus               8    ,bootes
       #d4 ,vega                   8    
,lyra       #e4 ,rigel 77              8
    ,orion       #f4 ,procyon           
8    ,canis ,m9or       #g4 ,betelgeux  
77          8    ,orion       #h4       
,altair                 8    ,aquila    
#i4 ,aldeb>an              8    ,taurus 
#aj4 ,spica                  8    ,virgo
      #aa4 ,ant>es                8     
,scorpius      #ab4 ,pollux             
8    ,gem9i      #ac4 ,regulus          
8    ,leo      #ad4 ,d5eb               
8    ,cygnus      #ae4 ,fomalhaut       
8    ,piscis ,au/ralis      ,,app5dix ,g
    ,,con/ellations ,,hav+ ,,fir/       

,,magnitude ,,/>s    ,! foll[+ important
 con/ellations are n describ$ 9 !  =ego+
 *apt]s ( ?is book4 ,!y c be f\nd1 ?\gh1
 )\t  tr\ble1 s9ce a /> ( ! fir/        
magnitude is locat$ 9 ea*4    ,canis    
,major1 ! ,big ,dog1 is a w9t]          
con/ellation1 & c be  se5 on y\r m]idian
 at #i o'clock ,p4 ,m4 9 ,febru>y4 ,look
 = x 9  ! s\!rn sky & y w quickly f9d x 
because ( ! dazzl+  brightness (        
,sirius1 ! ,dog ,/>4    ,bootes         
7pron\nc$ ,bo--tes71 ! ,be> ,lead]1 is a
 summ]  con/ellation1 & c be se5 on !   
m]idian at #i o'clock ,p4 ,m4 9  ,june4 
,x is to ! nor? ( ! ecliptic1 or pa? ( !
 ,sun4 ,x lies  betwe5 a cr[n ( />s &   
,virgo4 ,y c't miss x1 = midway is      
,arcturus1 a r$ /> ( ! fir/ magnitude4  
,lyra1 ! ,lyre4--,is a summ]            
con/ellation1 & c be se5 on !  m]idian  
at #i o'clock ,p4 ,m4 9 ,augu/4 ,look = 
x almo/ ov]head1 &  y c't mi/ake x1 =   
?ree bright />s1 ( :i* ,vega is "o1  =m 
a triangle4    ,canis ,m9or4--,! ,little
 ,dog3 is a spr+ con/ellation1 & c be   

se5 on ! m]idian at #i o'clock ,p4 ,m4 9
 ,m>*4 ,x lies to ! s\?  ( !            
con/ellation ( ,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1 &       
,canc]1 ! ,crab4 ,9 x  y w see ,procyon1
 ! ,little ,dog ,/>4    ,aquila1 !      
,eagle4--,is a summ] con/ellation1 & c  
be se5 on !  m]idian 9 ,augu/4 ,look = x
 s\? ( ,lyra1 & f> to ! we/ (  ,pegasus4
 ,! /> t put ,aquila on ! map is        
,altair4    ,cygnus1 ! ,swan4--,is also 
a summ] con/ellation1 & c be se5  on y\r
 m]idian at #i o'clock ,p4 ,m4 9        
,septemb]4 ,y w f9d x  nor? ( ,pegasus &
 ea/ ( ,lyra1 & 9 x y w see ! ,nor!rn   
,cross cle>ly trac$ out ) sev5 />s1 !   
brighte/ "o be+  ,d5eb1 a fir/ magnitude
 />4    ,piscis ,au/ralis1 ! ,s\!rn     
,fi%1 is an inconspicu\s con/ellation   
f> s\? ( ! ,equator4 ,fomalhaut1 its    
brighte/ /> comes only #bj  degrees     
above our horizon & mu/ be look$ = :5 x 
is ne> !  m]idian--ab\t #i o'clock ,p4  
,m4 9 ,octob]4      ,,app5dix ,h        
,,color$ ,,/>s    ,y c easily notice t !
 />s diff] 9 color4 ,! foll[+  li/ gives

 ! colors ( a few ( ! bright] />s3      
,,:ite ,,/>s3  ,sirius1 ,regulus1 ,vega4
      ,,blue ,,/>s3   ,rigel & ,spica4  
,,r$ ,,/>s3    ,aldeb>an1 ,ant>es1 &    
,betelgeux4      ,,gre5 ,,/>s3  ,b      
,librae4      ,,yell[ ,,/>s3 ,! ,sun1   
,arcturus1 & ,capella4      ,,app5dix ,i
    ,,d\ble ,,/>s    ,:5 two />s are v  
close toge!r !y =m :at is call$ a  d\ble
 />1 b d\ble />s ( :i* ! two compon5ts  
are really  ne> toge!r 9 space & revolve
 ar\nd ea* o!r usually _c  be resolv$1 t
 is sep>at$1 into two />s )\t ! aid ( a 
telescope4    ,! ,nor? ,/>2 ,rigel1     
,ca/or2 ,procyon & ,sirius1 are all     
fam\s  d\ble />s4      ,,app5dix ,j     
,,v>iable ,,/>s    ,a v>iable /> is "o  
^: brightness *anges f "t to "t4  ,a    
great _m v>iable />s are kn[n1 b v few (
 !m c be  se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,!re are    
diff]5t reasons giv5 = a />  v>y+ 9     
brightness4 ,our ,sun is a v>iable />1 &
 we are told t  ?is is due to 8 spots4  
,ano!r type ( v>iation is p]haps produc$
  by pulsations--! /> p]iodically exp&+ 

& contract+4 ,aga9 a  d\ble /> =m$ ( two
 bright />s :i* revolve r\nd ea* o!r1  z
 _m d\ble />s d1 may eclipse "o ano!r1 &
 ?is w\ld cause  a *ange 9 brightness4  
,"h1 !n1 are ?ree good reasons = a />   
be+ v>iable4    ,! foll[+ are a few ( ! 
v>iables :i* c be se5 ) !  nak$ eye3    
,betelgeux1 9 ,orion4      ,alpha       
,cassiopeia1 t is1 ! brighte/ /> 9      
,cassiopeia4      ,beta ,lyra1 t is1 !  
second brighte/ /> 9 ,lyra1 &      ,beta
 ,pegasus1 t is1 ! second brighte/ /> 9 
,pegasus4      ,mira1 9 ,cetus4         
,algol1 9 ,p]seus4      ,,app5dix ,k    
,,invisible ,,or ,,d>k ,,/>s    ,/>s are
 born1 live & die1 j l human be+s4 ,all 
! />s1  includ+ ! ,sun1 are ei!r 9 !    
process ( mak+1 are at _!  brighte/     
brilliancy1 are dy+ out1 or are cold &  
dead or h n  yet become bright4         
,procyon & ,sirius is ea* att5d$ by a   
comp>atively d>k companion4  ,procyon & 
,sirius bo? move sl[ly back & =? a %ort 
di/ance 9  ! sky & ?is motion 0         
attribut$ to ! pull ( satellites long   

be=e ^! bodies 7 discov]$ ) ! telescope4
      ,,app5dix ,l    ,,! ,,equation ,,(
 ,,"t                         ,,table   
,,( ,,! ,,equation ,,( ,,"t             
----------------------------------------
---------------------       ,day (      
,janu>y ,febru>y   ,m>*    ,april       
,may     ,june       ,mon?              
----------------------------------------
---------------------              m  s 
m  s m  s m  s m  s m  s         #a     
,s  #c  #ca ,s #ac  #dd ,s #ab  #cg ,s  
#d   #f ,f  #b  #ef ,f  #b  #cj         
#f    ,s  #e  #di ,s #ad  #ae ,s #aa    
#cc ,s  #b  #cg ,f  #c  #bg ,f  #a  #da 
#aa    ,s  #g  #ei ,s #ad  #bg ,s #aj   
#ai ,s  #a  #ad ,f  #c  #de ,f  #j  #dd 
#af    ,s  #i  #di ,s #ad  #ai ,s  #h   
#eg ,f  #j   #d ,f  #c  #dh ,s  #j  #ah 
#ba    ,s #aa  #bd ,s #ac  #eb ,s  #g   
#bh ,f  #a  #ab ,f  #c  #ch ,s  #a  #bc 
#bf    ,s #ab  #ci ,s #ac  #aj ,s  #e   
#ef ,f  #b  #aj ,f  #c  #ae ,s  #b  #bg 
#ca    ,s #ac  #ce ,s #ab  #ac ,s  #d   
#bd ,f  #b  #ef ,f  #b  #ci ,s  #c  #ch 

----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
----------------------------------------
----------------------       ,day (     
,july    ,augu/  ,septemb] ,octob]      
,novemb] ,decemb]       ,mon?           
----------------------------------------
----------------------              m  s
 m  s m  s m  s m  s m  s         #a    
,s  #c  #bh ,s  #f  #aj ,s  #j   #f ,f  
#aj   #h ,f #af  #ah ,f #aa   #c        
#f    ,s  #d  #bd ,s  #e  #df ,f  #a    
#ca ,f #aa  #da ,f #af  #ag ,f  #i   #c 
#aa    ,s  #e  #aa ,s  #e   #h ,f  #c   
#ac ,f #ac   #d ,f #ae  #ef ,f  #f  #ea 
#af    ,s  #e  #df ,s  #d  #ae ,f  #d   
#eh ,f #ad  #af ,f #ae  #ac ,f  #d  #cj 
#ba    ,s  #f   #i ,s  #c   #i ,f  #f   
#de ,f #ae  #ac ,f #ad  #aj ,f  #b   #b 
#bf    ,s  #f  #aa ,s  #a  #ea ,f  #h   
#bi ,f #ae  #ed ,f #ab  #de ,s  #j  #bh 
#ca    ,s  #f  #ab ,s  #j  #bd ,f #aj   
#h ,f #af  #af ,f #aa   #c ,s  #b  #ee  
----------------------------------------
----------------------    ,z we h se5 9 

,*apt] ,x e day ( ! ye> is exactly #bd  
h\rs  long by our clock "t4 ,! "t by !  
,sun is usually ei!r ahead or  beh9d    
local clock "t4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 clock
 "t & ,sun "t  is call$ ! equation ( "t1
 & a table to %[ h[ _m m9utes  & seconds
 ! ,sun is fa/ or sl[1 accord+ to clock 
"t1 is giv5  above1 tak5 f 8,! ,new     
,a/ronomy10 by ,pr(essor ,todd1 :o has  
k9dly p]mitt$ me to use x "h4 ,9 ! table
 ,s means t ! ,sun  is sl[1 t is1 t !   
,sun does n cross ! m]idian until aft]  
! clock %[s noon1 & ,f means t ! ,sun is
 fa/1 t is1 t  ! ,sun has cross$ !      
m]idian be=e ! clock %[s noon4 m means  
m9utes1 & s means seconds above !       
figures4    ,! table gives ! av]age     
values ( ! equation ( "t1 :i* may  diff]
 by a few seconds f ! values = any      
p>ticul> ye>4      ,,app5dix ,m    ,,!  
,,kullm] ,,/> ,,f9d]    ,! /> f9d] %[n 9
 ! picture 0 inv5t$ by ,dr4 ,c4 ,j4     
,kullm]1 ( ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 & has be5
 highly prais$ by _m great  a/ronom]s4  
,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--,,kullm]    

,,/> ,,f9d]4    ,y %\ld own "o if       
possible1 = y d n ne$ to "k any?+  ab\t 
! />s to op]ate x4 ,x is m\nt$ on !     
pr9ciple ( a big  telescope1 b x is a   
nak$ eye in/rum5t1 an arr[ tak+ ! place 
( ! telescope4    ,! f9d] is plac$ on a 
table1 or o!r level surface1 ) !  dial  
fac+ nor?4 ,!n ! po9t] & dial are set = 
! day  & h\r :5 y want to f9d ! position
 9 ! sky ( a c]ta9  con/ellation4 ,!    
indicator is turn$ to ! "n ( !          
con/ellation  on ! dial1 & ?is also     
tells ! direction to set ! arr[4    ,?is
 is all !re is to x & ! arr[ po9ts "r at
 ! gr\p (  />s y want1 :e!r !y are above
 ! horizon or n4    ,! f9d] c be us$ =  
_m purposes1 & x is a wond]ful aid 9    
mak+ out 9 ! sky ! pa? ( ! />s1 ,sun1   
,moon & planets1  & :5 !y rise & set4 ,9
 fact1 x is a complete obs]vatory on a  
small scale4 ,its co/ is only #e4jj4    
,,app5dix ,n    ,,! ,,ellis ,,seasonal  
,,twilight ,,*>t    ,a useful *>t1      
design$ by ,miss ,e4 ,rebecca ,ellis1 ( 
,wellesley  ,college1 ,wellesley1 ,mass4

 ,x makes cle> ! *anges 9 ! l5g?s (  !  
day1 ! ph5om5a ( ! seasons1 etc4 ,its   
price is #a4jj4      ,,app5dix ,o    ,,!
 ,,camp ,,fire ,,sky ,,map    ,?is map1 
prep>$ by ,pr(4 ,r4 ,s4 ,dugan (        
,pr9ceton ,univ]sity1 %[s  !            
con/ellations z f> s\? z ! ,s\!rn ,cross
 & is adju/able  = ! "t ( night1 date1 &
 = ! latitude4 ,full in/ructions  are   
giv5 = its use4 ,x is us$ 9 _m s*ools & 
colleges4 ,x is  sold by ! ,camp ,fire  
,/ores ,co41 price #ai c5ts4            
,,def9itions ,,( ,,"s ,,words ,,& ,,t]ms
 ,,us$ ,,9 ,,?is ,,book                 
,action4 ,! way 9 :i* a ?+ works4       
,affect4 ,to act ^u2 to *ange2 to be    
mov$ or         influ5c$ by4            
,almanac4 ,a pamphlet or book conta9+   
tables         %[+ ! days ( ! ye>2 also 
! "t ! ,sun         & ,moon rise & set2 
! conjunctions1 eclipses         & o!r  
in=mation conc]n+ ! ?+s 9 !         sky4
 ,! ^w almanac is suppos$ to be d]iv$   
f ! ,arabic article al & ! v]b          
manac1 :i* means to c\nt4        ,angul>

 measurem5ts4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4         
,aphelion4 ,! po9t :]e a planet or a    
comet is         f>!/ away f ! sun4     
,app>5t4 ,to seem real4 ,! daily motion 
( !         ,sun r\nd ! ,e>? is only    
app>5t1 = we "k x         is ! ,e>? :i* 
turns r\nd on its axis in/ead4          
,arc4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4        ,arc (   
circle4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4               
,aspect4 7#a7 ,any curi\s appe>ance ( an
 object1         especially if ! object 
*anges 9 appe>ance4         7#b7,!      
figure =m$ by a planet ) ! />s (        
! con/ellation :i* x is 94              
,a/rolog]4 ,"o :o =eca/s ! life ( a     
p]son on ! supposition t ! />s control  
x4        ,a/ronom]4 ,"o :o is skill$ 9 
see+ !         />s & :o kn[s !m4        
,atom4 ,a v small p>ticle ( matt]4 ,see 
,molecule2 ,matt]4        ,attract4 ,to 
pull t[>d4 ,! attraction (         !    
,sun & ! ,e>? = ea* o!r is due to       
gravitation4        ,attraction4 ,a =ce 
:i* pulls "o body to         ano!r4     
,attraction ( ,gravitation4 ,a =ce :i*  

pulls         all bodies to ea* o!r4    
,auditory n]ve4 ,a n]ve t c>ries !      
impressions ( s\nd :i* rea* ! e> to !   
bra94        ,aurora borealis4 ,!       
,nor!rn ,lights4 ,a gl[+         light  
effect :i* takes place 9 ! ,arctic      
,circle4         ,x c (t5 be se5 f our  
,nor!rn ,/ates &         sometimes f !  
,s\!rn ,/ates4 ,! same k9d (            
lights appe> 9 ! ,ant>ctic ,circle4 ,^! 
,s\!rn         ,lights are call$ ,aurora
 ,au/ralis4        ,axes4 ,plural (     
axis4        ,axis4 ,an imag9>y l9e on  
:i* a body turns4        ,axis (        
rotation4 ,an imag9>y l9e r\nd :i*      
any?+ turns or sp9s4        ,axle4 ,a   
wood or metal rod on :i* "o or m        
:eels turn1 or x may turn ) ! :eel or   
:eels4        ,badge ( m]it4 ,a badge   
aw>d$ by !         organization ( ,boy  
,sc\ts to memb]s :o c %[ a         c]ta9
 am\nt ( skill 9 do+ c]ta9 ?+s4 ,see    
,app5dix ,a4        ,b&4 7#a7 ,a flat   
/rip ( any mat]ial1 or 7#b7         su* 
a /rip ^: ends are jo9$ toge!r4         

,beam4 ,rays ( light :i* are p>allel4   
,see ,ray4        ,be>+4 7#a7 ,a piece (
 metal1 or a bit ( agate         or o!r 
jewel1 on :i* a pivot1 sp9dle or %aft   
turns4 7#b7 ,a direction z f\nd by !    
,sun or />s1         or by ! compass1   
sextant or o!r means4        ,body4 ,any
 sep>ate & di/9ct am\nt ( matt]         
:5 held toge!r4 ,! ,sun & ,moon are     
heav5ly         bodies4        ,degree4 
7#a7 ,! #cfj? "p ( a circle4 7#b7       
,indicat$ by ?is sign 4        ,device4 
7#a7 ,an app>atus or in/rum5t or any    
"p !re(4 ,any arrangem5t = produc+ a    
giv5 result4        ,diagram4 ,a sort ( 
%or?& picture ( an         app>atus or  
"p ( an app>atus4 ,x is us$         to  
%[ 9 ! simple/ & cle>e/ mann] !         
con/ruction ( an app>atus4              
,diamet]4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4             
,direct l9e4 ,a /raight l9e4            
,disk4 7#a7 ,a circul> plane or flat    
surface4         ,s9ce ! ,sun1 ,moon &  
planets seem to be flat         _!      
surfaces are call$ disks4 7#b7 ,flat &  

circul> l a co94        ,dog days4 ,s   
call$ f ! fact t ,sirius1         ! ,dog
 ,/>1 rises at ! same "t z ! ,sun4      
,ecliptic4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4            
,ela/ic4 7#a7 ,a body t w /ret* & return
         to its orig9al size4 7#b7 ,a ?9
 piece ( rubb]4        ,ellipse4 ,see   
,app5dix ,b4        ,equator4 ,see      
,app5dix ,b4        ,equatorial4 ,hav+  
to d ) or affect$ by !         equator4 
,equatorial telescope4 ,a telescope s   
m\nt$         t its pr9cipal axis is    
p>allel ) ! axis         ( ! e>? & mov$ 
by clockwork s t x w         foll[ a />4
        ,ev5+ ,/>4 ,a planet :i* c be   
se5 9 !         we/ j aft] ! sun sets4  
,fix$4 7#a7 ,fa/5$ securely4 7#b7 ,! />s
 are         call$ fix$ because !y nev] 
seem to *ange _!         positions4     
,=eca/4 ,a pr$iction ( "s future ev5t4  
,a =eca/ may be f\nd$ on fancy or on    
fact4 ,a         horoscope ( a p]son is 
a =eca/ bas$ on !         fancy ( an    
a/rolog]4 ,a wea!r =eca/ is             
f\nd$ on ! action ( a b>omet]1 & ev5 !n 

! =eca/ is unc]ta9 en\gh4 ,=eca/s ( !   
"t ( eclipses1 ! return ( comets & ! l  
are f\nd$ on cold sci5tific facts & h5ce
 come         true at exactly !         
calculat$ "t4        ,frequ5cy4 ,h[ (t5 
an ev5t occurs4        ,gas4 ,t =m (    
matt] :i* is l air4         ,"s gases   
rema9 9 ! gase\s /ate at ord9>y         
temp]atures4 ,gases h a t5d5cy to exp&  
)\t limit4 ,see ,vapor4        ,g5]ate4 
,to produce4 ,to set up2 z a batt]y     
g5]ates a curr5t2 ! ,sun g5]ates p[]4   
,gravitation4 ,! =ce :i* attracts all   
bodies         ne> ! ,e>? to x & all    
bodies to ea* o!r4        ,heav5s4 ,!   
sky4 ,! space z f> z ! eye         c see
 ab\t ! ,e>?4 ,! space 9 :i* !          
/>s & _! planet>y sy/ems move4          
,horizontal4 ,see ,fig4 #ahe4           
,horoscope4 ,a =eca/ ( ! future ( a     
p]son         made by an a/rolog] :o    
pret5ds to read ! future         f !    
aspect or position ( ! planets & />s4   
,hyp]bola4 ,see ,fig4 #abi4             
,hypo!sis4 ,see ,idea4        ,idea4 ,a 

notion ( a plan or s*eme :i* may be     
m or less vague4 ,supposition4 ,a cle>] 
conception ( a plan or s*eme :i* is bas$
 on         su* facts z may be ?\ght (4 
,hypo!sis4         ,a plan or s*eme     
assum$ to be true & c>efully            
reason$ out f all ! facts obta9able4    
,!ory4 ,a plan or s*eme :i* has be5     
prov$ true by exp]im5t1 exam9ation or   
comp>ison4        ,illusion4 ,an image  
:i* deceives ! eye4 ,!         o!r s5ses
 c also be deceiv$ by illusions4        
,impact4 ,com+ toge!r ( two objects4    
,impress4 ,to =m on1 or to affect1 z    
light         waves impress a dry plate4
        ,indicate4 ,to %[4 ,to po9t out4
        ,indicator4 ,t :i* po9ts out or 
%[s         some?+4        ,limb4 ,!    
edge ( ! ,sun1 ,moon or ,planets4       
,lore4 ,le>n+ on any subject4           
,lun>4 ,(1 or hav+ to d ) ! ,moon4      
,magnetic l9es ( =ce4 ,! direction ( !  
=ce ( magnetism act+ 9 & ar\nd a magnet4
        ,magnetic /orm4 ,! ,e>? is a    
great magnet &         sometimes :5 sun 

spots ( unusual size or numb]s          
appe>1 ! magnetic l9es ( =ce ( ! ,e>?   
are         viol5tly affect$4 ,?is is   
call$ a magnetic /orm4        ,mass4    
7#a7 ,am\nt ( matt]4 7#b7 ,a lot (      
molecules or p>ticles ( matt] br\ght &  
held         toge!r4        ,matt]4 ,!  
sub/ance ( :i* a ?+ is         =m$4 ,a  
molecule ( matt] is made up ( atoms1    
& a mass is a lot ( molecules held      
toge!r by         "s attractive =ce4    
,m]cury4 7#a7 ,! "n ( ! planet ne>e/ !  
,sun4 7#b7 ,a silv] :ite liquid metal4  
,molecule4 ,! smalle/ "p ( matt] t c    
exi/ sep>ately )\t ! sub/ance x =ms     
be+ de/roy$4        ,morn+ ,/>4 ,a      
planet :i* c be se5 9 !         ea/ j   
be=e ! ,sun rises4        ,morse code4  
,a telegraph code ( dots & da%es        
inv5t$ by ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse4 ,!    
,morse ,code is         us$ = telegraph 
& heliograph signal+4        ,motion4   
,any?+ t *anges position4 ,!re          
are two k9ds ( motion 7a7 simple motion 
&         7b7 comp\nd motion4 ,simple   

motion c be         ei!r translat$ or   
rot>y1 :ile         comp\nd motion is   
bo? translat$         & rot>y1 s t :ile 
a body is be+         translat$1 or mov$
 ?r\gh space1 x is also         rotat+  
on its axis4 ,! ,sun & planets1 !n1     
h comp\nd motions4        ,nature4      
,ev]y?+ conta9$ 9 space t has         n 
be5 %ap$ by human h&s4        ,nautical 
almanac4 ,! ,am]ican ,nautical          
,almanac is a book ( ! />s publi%$ by ! 
,bureau ( ,navigation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4
 ,x is         publi%$ ?ree ye>s 9      
advance & is sold by !                  
,sup]9t5d5t ( ,docum5ts1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4  
,c41 at         #cj c5ts p] copy4 ,?is  
is design$ *iefly =         ! use (     
navigators ( %ips4 ,x gives ! exact     
positions ( ! ,sun1 ,moon & planets &   
mu*         o!r a/ronomical in=mation4  
,x is bas$ ^u         ! calculations    
made by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,naval          
,obs]vatory2 ^! are pr9t$ 9 ! ,nautical 
,almanac1 & on ?is all o!r almanacs are 
bas$4        ,nor!rn lights4 ,see       

,aurora ,borealis4        ,obscur$4     
,hidd5 f sight4        ,(ficial ,h&book 
( ! ,boy ,sc\ts4 ,a book         publi%$
 by ! organization ( ,boy ,sc\ts &      
:i* conta9s ! rules & regulations ( t   
organization & ! requirem5ts !y mu/ meet
 9         ord] to w9 m]it badges4      
,(fset4 ,to equal2 to balance4          
,opposition4 ,see ,app5dix4             
,optic ,n]ve4 ,! n]ve t c>ries !        
impression ( light receiv$ by ! eye to !
 bra94        ,orbit4 ,! pa? foll[$ by a
 body4 ,atoms h         orbits z well z 
! />s4 ,! pa?s foll[$ by         planets
 & comets r\nd ! ,sun4        ,p>abola4 
,see ,fig4 #abi4        ,p>allel4 ,see  
,app5dix ,b4        ,p>ticle4 ,a bit (  
matt]4 ,a p>ticle may be a         bit (
 matt] :i* c be se5 or x may mean an    
am\nt s small t x _c be se54            
,p5cil4 ,a gr\p ( rays f ! same s\rce ( 
light4 ,see ,beam4 ,see ,ray4           
,p5dulum4 ,a body susp5d$ f a fix$ po9t 
& free to sw+4        ,p]ihelion4 ,!    
po9t :]e a planet or a comet         is 

ne>e/ ! ,sun4 ,z ! orbit ( a planet is  
an         ellipse & ! ,sun is 9 "o ( ! 
foci--t is         ne> "o end--a planet 
comes ne>e/ to ! ,sun :5         at ?is 
end ( ! ellipse2 & :5 ! planet is       
at ! o!r end ( its orbit1 x is f>!/     
away4         ,see ,aphelion4           
,p]iod4 ,a c]ta9 int]val ( "t :i* is    
m>k$ by a repeat$ occurr5ce4 ,! p]iod ( 
!         ,e>? r\nd its axis is ab\t #bd
 h\rs4 ,its p]iod         ar\nd ! ,sun  
is #cfe days4        ,p]iodic4 ,recurr+ 
regul>ly2 z a p]iodic         comet4    
,p]p5dicul>4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4          
,phase4 ,"o ( ! peculi> aspects ( a     
heav5ly         body2 z ! phases ( !    
,moon1 or ! phases ( ,v5us4             
,pivot4 ,a p91 sp9dle or %aft on :i* a  
:eel1         lev] or device rotates or 
is rotat$4        ,plane4 ,a level      
surface1 z a table top4        ,po9t4 ,a
 %>p end4 ,a />t+ place4        ,pores4 
,m9ute spaces :i* sep>ate !             
molecules ( a sub/ance4                 
,position4 ,! place ( a ?+ :5 comp>$ to 

! places ( o!r ?+s4        ,prec$e4 ,to 
g ahead (4 ,t :i* is be=e4              
,precession4 ,! act ( go+ ahead or      
prec$+4         ,:5 a revolv+ body su* z
 a sp9n+ top or         ! ,e>? is act$  
^u by =ces :i* t5d to         *ange !   
direction ( its axis4 ,?is *ange 9      
! direction ( its axis is call$         
precessional         motion4 ,! pole ( !
 equator ( ! ,e>?         makes a       
complete turn r\nd ! pole ( ! ecliptic  
9 a little ov] #be1jjj ye>s & ?is *ange 
9 !         direction ( ! axis ( ! ,e>? 
causes ! po9ts         ( ! equ9ox1 t is 
! places :]e !         ecliptic & !     
equator cross ea*         o!r to move   
sl[ly f we/ to ea/ & ?is is         t]m$
 ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4             
,pr$iction4 ,to =etell2 to =eca/4       
,pr$ictions may be bas$ on fancy or     
f\nd$ on fact4        ,pr9cipal4 ,! *ief
 "o2 ! mo/ important4        ,pr9ciple4 
,! cause ( a result4 ,t on :i*         a
 ?+ is bas$4        ,process4 7#a7 ,!   
way ( work+4 7#b7 ,! c\rse         (    

proc$ure4        ,produce4 ,9 a/ronomy !
 ^w produce         means ! l5g!n+ ( a  
l9e4 ,x is a         ma!matical t]m4    
,protractor4 ,see ,fig4 #ih4            
,qu>t] circle4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4        
,ray4 7#a7 ,a s+le l9e ( light or heat4 
7#b7 ,!         pa? ( light & heat4     
,relative position4 ,! position ( a ?+  
:5         comp>$ ) ! position ( some?+ 
else4 ,see         ,position4           
,revolution4 ,! turn+ ( a ?+ completely 
r\nd on its axis4        ,revolve4 7#a7 
,to turn completely r\nd a circle4      
7#b7 ,to turn on an axis1 z a top1 or ! 
,e>?4        ,rigid4 ,firm1 t :i* _c be 
easily mov$         out ( its place4    
,r+4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4        ,rise4 ,to
 come into sight above ! horizon1 z     
! ,moon rises4        ,rotate4 ,to turn 
completely r\nd on an axis l         a  
top or ! ,e>?4        ,rot>y4 ,turn+    
completely r\nd on an axis1         l a 
top or ! ,e>?4        ,r\ghly4 ,n       
exactly2 ne>ly en\gh =         practical
 purposes4        ,s*$ule4 7#a7 ,a      

tabulat$ /atem5t giv+ items             
conc]n+ a subject4 7#b7 ,a timetable (  
any k9d4        ,see+4 ,to look at4 ,!  
^w see+         9 />craft means to      
obs]ve ! />s4 ,good         see+ is to  
obs]ve ! />s :5 !         atmosph]e is  
p]fectly cle>4        ,seems4 ,some?+   
:i* app>5tly is true &         yet is n 
necess>ily true4        ,s5sation4 ,!   
action ( "o ( ! s5ses :5         excit$ 
by "s *ange 9 matt]4 ,light fall+ on    
! ret9a ( ! eye produces ! s5sation (   
light & color 9 ! bra94        ,set4 ,to
 s9k f sight bel[ ! horizon2 z         !
 ,sun sets4        ,sight4 ,! p[] to    
see4 ,see ,sight+4        ,sight+4 ,to  
get ! eye & two o!r objects1         su*
 z a telescope & a />1 9 a l9e1 z to    
sight ,jupit] ) a telescope4            
,sign4 ,a m>k1 figure or lett] :i*      
a/ronom]s         h agre$ to use to     
repres5t c]ta9 />s1         aspects (   
/>s1 p>ts ( ! zodiac1 etc4        ,sol>4
 ,t :i* is (1 or has to d ) !           
,sun4        ,spr+ />s4 ,! />s :i* c be 

se5 be/         dur+ ! spr+ mon?s4      
,/> *>t4 ,a map ( ! positions ( ! />s4  
,/>craft4 ,useful k ( ! />s4 ,skill     
%[n 9 mak+ ! />s s]ve useful purposes4  
,/> f9d]4 ,a device ( any k9d :i* w     
enable an unskill$ p]son to f9d !       
planets or         con/ellations4       
,/>-lore4 ,le>n+ conc]n+ ! my?ology (   
! />s4        ,summ] />s4 ,! />s :i* c  
be/ be se5         dur+ ! summ] mon?s4  
,supposition4 ,see ,idea4               
,tang5t4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4              
,tang5t l9e4 ,see ,app5dix ,b4          
,telegraph code4 ,! alphabet ( dots &   
da%es4        ,te/4 ,to try out4 ,to    
exam9e1 comp>e or make an               
exp]im5t :i* w give a ne$$ pro(4        
,!ory4 ,see ,idea4        ,?umb tack4 ,a
 %ort1 ?91 %>p-po9t$ tack         ) a   
l>ge flat head :i* p]mits x to be easily
         pu%$ into a bo>d ) ! ?umb4 ,x  
is us$ by         draftsm5 = fa/5+ pap] 
to draw+ bo>ds4        ,tilt+4 ,lean+ f 
a v]tical or plumb         l9e4 ,! axis 
( ! ,e>? is tilt$ f !         p]p5dicul>

 #bc degrees2 ?is ?r[s its equator      
out ( plane ) t ( ! sun1 & ! circle     
?r\gh ! ,e>? t is 9 plane ) ! ,sun is   
call$ ! ecliptic4        ,transp>5t4    
,said ( any sub/ance ?r\gh :i*          
light c pass easily4 ,any?+ t may be se5
         ?r\gh4        ,tw9kle4 ,to     
bl9k4 ,to fla% ) v>y+                   
brightness4 ,! tw9kl+ ( />s is caus$ by 
!         atmosph]e4        ,uni=m4 ,be+
 ! same all ?r\gh or all along4         
,vapor4 ,a gas produc$ f a liquid or a  
solid         & :i* returns to its      
orig9al =m at ord9>y                    
temp]atures4 ,see ,gas4        ,v]tical4
 ,see ,app5dix ,b4        ,vibration4 ,a
 to-&-fro movem5t1 z !         vibration
 ( a p>ticle ( matt]4 ,a con/ant        
to-&-fro movem5t ov] ! same l9e4        
,visible4 ,t :i* ! eye c see4           
,wane4 ,to gradually gr[ small]4 ,said (
 !         ,moon4        ,wax4 ,to      
gradually gr[ l>g]4 ,said ( ! ,moon4    
,w9t] ,/>s4 ,! />s :i* c be/ be se5     
dur+ ! w9t] mon?s4        ,wireless     

,messages4 ,messages :i* are s5t &      
receiv$ by wireless telegraph /ations4  
,wireless sy/em4 ,an app>atus = s5d+ &  
receiv+ messages by wireless telegraph4 
,y\r m]idian4 ,! l9e runn+ due nor? &   
s\? 9 ! sky directly ov] y\r head4 ,a   
m]idian         ( ?is k9d is call$ a    
cele/ial m]idian4        ,zodiacal      
lights4 ,a fa9t gl[+ light :i*          
may be se5 above ! we/]n horizon j aft] 
twilight dur+ ! cle> ev5+s ( w9t] &     
spr+4 ,x c also be se5 j be=e daybreak  
dur+ ! cle> morn+s ( summ] & autumn4    
,,index          ,air1 ?ickness (1 ar\nd
 ,e>?1 #abe4      ,air waves1 #abe4     
,alcor1 9 ! ,big ,dipp]1 #aa4        &  
,miz> ?r\gh a glass1 #aej4              
,aldeb>an 9 ,taurus1 #bf1 #bh4          
,almanac1 #aga4        h[ to read1 #ahb4
        ,old ,f>m]s'1 #ahd4        signs
 91 #ahc4        use (1 = f9d+ planets1 
#fa4      ,alpha ,c5tauri ne>e/ />1     
#aah4      ,alphabet1 ,greek1 #aig4     
,morse1 #ci4      ,&rom$a1 great nebula 
91 #aai4      ,annul> eclipse ( ! ,sun1 

#aab4      ,ant>es 9 ,scorpio1 #ahj4    
,ap5n9es on ! ,moon1 #adf4      ,app>5t 
noon1 #aed4      ,app>5t sol> day1 #aed4
      ,app>5t "t1 #aeb4      ,aqu>ius1 !
 ,wat] ,be>]1 con/ellation (1 #fc4      
! ,wat] ,man1 #agc4      ,aquila1 !     
,eagle1 #bja4      ,arab te/ = eyesight1
 #aa4      ,arc def9$1 #aid4            
,arctic day & ,sun1 #hg4      ,arcturus 
9 ,botes1 #bh4      ,aries1 ! ,ram1 #fc1
 #age4      ,ari/>*us on ! ,moon1 #adf4 
,ass's ,colts 9 ,canc]1 #agf4           
,a/]oids1 #dg1 #ed4      ,a/rolog]'s    
horoscopes1 #ahj4      ,atoms1 vibration
 (1 #abc4      ,auditory n]ve1 #abe4    
,autumn1 #gd4      ,autumnal equ9ox1    
#agh4      ,auriga1 ,capella 91 #bd4    
,auriga1 ! ,*>iote]1 #bc4               
con/ellation (1 #bc4        ( ! ,greeks1
 #bd4        ! ,%eph]d1 #bd4            
,b>omet]1 a simple1 #ce4      ,b>ometric
 pressure1 #ce4      ,belt ( ,orion1    
#ba4      ,beta ,pegasi1 #ah4           
,betelgeux 9 ,orion1 #bh4      ,big     
,dipp]1 !1 #b1 #d4        ,alcor 9 !1   

#aa4        h[ to tell "t by !1 #ab4    
,miz> 9 !1 #aa4        po9t] />s (1 #aj4
        position (1 9 autumn1 #c4       
9 summ]1 #aa4          9 spr+1 #aj4     
9 w9t]1 #i4        ?r\gh a telescope1   
#adi4      ,botes1 ! ,be> ,lead]1 #bja4 
,box+ ! compass1 #gh4      ,boy ,sc\t1  
m]it badge =1 #aic4      ,boy ,sc\ts'   
,h&book1 #aic4      ,bra9 ( a g5ius1    
#aib4      ,bull ( ,light1 !1 #bf4      
,burn+ l5s1 #cg4        ,cam]a1 h[ x is 
made1 #ahe4      ,canc]1 ! ,crab1 #agf4 
,c&le flame1 #cj4      ,canis ,major1   
con/ellation (1 #bh1 #bja4      ,canis  
,m9or1 ! ,little ,dog1 #bja4            
,capella1 h[ to f9d ! ,nor? )1 #bd4     
,c>d9al po9ts ( a compass1 #gh4         
,cassiopeia ( ! ,arabians1 #af4         
con/ellation (1 #ad4      ,ca/or &      
,pollux 9 ,gem9i1 #agf4      ,cave man1 
h[ he m>k$ "t1 #aeb4      ,c5tral "t1   
#afj4      ,c5trifugal =ce1 #eh1 #ij4   
,*romosph]e1 ! ,sun's1 #cb4             
,*ronograph1 h[ made & us$1 #afb4       
,*ronomet]1 use (1 to f9d longitude1    

#he4      ,circle def9$1 #aid4          
,color$ />s1 #bjb4      ,color$ sun     
glasses1 #cj4      ,colors1 h[ !y are   
made1 #abc1 #abi4      ,combu/ion1 :at x
 is1 #abc4      ,comet1 break+ up (1    
#aaf4        coma ( a1 #aac4            
,halley's1 #aae4        h[ to f9d a1    
#aab4        nucleus ( a1 #aac4         
tail ( a1 #aac1 #aaf4      ,comets1 laws
 (1 #aad4        numb] (1 #aaf4         
pa?s (1 #aac4        spe$ (1 #aae4      
,compass1 box+ !1 #gh4        c>d9al    
po9ts ( a1 #gh4        dial1 m>9]'s1    
#gh4        h[ to make a simple1 #gg4   
m>9]'s1 #gh4        pocket1 #gh4        
,concave l5s1 #acd4      ,con/ellations3
 ,aqu>ius1 ! ,wat] ,be>]1 #fc4          
,aquila1 #bja4        ,aries1 ! ,ram1   
#fc1 #agc1 #age4        ,auriga1 #bc4   
,big ,dipp]1 #f4        ,botes1 #bja4   
,canc]1 ! ,crab1 #agf4        ,canis    
,major1 #bh1 #bja4        ,cassiopeia1  
#ad4        ,cygnus1 #bja4        ,fly+ 
,horse1 #ai4        ,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1    
#fc1 #agf4        ,great ,be>1 #f4      

,great ,squ>e ( ,pegasus1 #ag4          
hav+ fir/ magnitude />s1 #bja4          
,libra1 ! ,balance1 #agh4        ,little
 ,be>1 #af4        ,little ,dipp]1 #ae4 
,leo1 ! ,lion1 #agg4        ,lyre1 #bja4
        ,mighty ,orion1 #bj4            
,nor!rn ,cross1 #bjb4        ,pisces1 ! 
,fi%es1 #fc1 #agd4        ,pleiades1    
#bf4        ,pl\gh1 #f4                 
,sagitt>ius1 ! ,ar*]1 #ahj              
,scorpio1 ! ,scorpion1 #ahj4            
,taurus1 ! ,bull1 #bd1 #age4            
,ursa ,major1 #f4        ,ursa ,m9or1   
#ag4        ,virgo1 ! ,virg91 #agg4     
:at !y mean1 #ad4        ,zodiac1 #afh4 
,convex l5s1 #acc4      ,cop]nicus on ! 
,moon1 #adh4      ,corona ( ! ,sun1 #cc4
      ,cresc5t ,moon1 #ic4      ,cycle (
 ! ,seasons1 #ge4      ,cygnus1 ! ,swan1
 #bja4        ,d>k />s1 #bjf4      ,day1
 sol>1 #aed4        :5 x beg9s & ends1  
#aeb4      ,def9itions ( words us$ 9    
/>craft1 #bac4      ,degrees1 divid+ a  
circle into1 #aef4        ,e>? divid$   
into1 #ha4        protractor = measur+1 

#gi4      ,d5ebola 9 ,leo1 ! ,lion1     
#agg4      ,dial ( m>9]'s compass1 #gi4 
,diamet] def9$1 #aid4      ,diff]5ce    
betwe5 true ,nor? ,pole & magnetic ,nor?
 ,pole1 #hh4      ,dipp+ ne$le1 h[ to   
make a1 #gi4      ,dog ,/>1 #h4         
,d\ble />s1 #bjd4        ,e>?1 #dg1 #ed4
        cross section (1 #fg4           
divid$ into degrees1 #ha4        divid$ 
into /&>d m]idians1 #aeh4        f !    
,moon1 view (1 #ajd4        a great     
magnet1 #gg4        9 ! mak+1 #ff4      
,moon eclips$ by1 #ajg4        & ,moon  
jo9$ toge!r1 #hi4        orbit (1 an    
ellipse1 #gj4        precession ( !1    
#agc4        pro( x is r\nd1 #fg4       
%ad[ (1 #aji4        ?ickness ( air     
ar\nd1 #abe4        tilts on its axis1  
#fi4        travels r\nd ! ,sun1 #gj4   
turn+ (1 makes day & night1 #fi4        
turn+ 9 orbit makes ! seasons1 #gb4     
turns on its axis1 pro( t1 #fh4         
umbra (1 #ace4        :5 cool$ (f1 #ff4 
,e>?-%9e1 #ic4      ,ea/]n "t1 #aeh4    
,eclipse1 annul> ( ! ,sun1 #aab4        

,eclipse1 def9$1 #aac1 #aid1 #aie4      
( ! ,moon1 #ajg4        p>tial1 ( !     
,sun1 #aab4        see+ an1 #ajg4       
( ! ,sun by ,moon1 #aaj4          = next
 #cj ye>s1 #aab4        total1 ( ! ,sun1
 #aab4      ,ecliptic1 !1 #df1 #fi1 #gb1
 #agj4      ,ellipse1 #aac4      ,ellis 
seasonal twilight *>t1 #bja4            
,epsilon 9 ,lyra ?r\gh a glass1 #aej4   
,equation ( "t1 #aee1 #bjg4             
,equator1 cross+ ! ecliptic1 #gb4       
def9$1 #aid4      ,equ9ox1 autumnal1    
#agh4        v]nal1 #agh4      ,e!r1 :at
 x is1 #abc1 #abe1 #abg4      ,ev5+ />1 
,v5us1 #ej4      ,exp]im5t1 ,f\cault's  
p5dulum1 #fh4        9 c5trifugal =ce1  
#ij4        mak+ /> trails1 #fh4        
%[+1 eclipse ( ,sun1 #aaj4          h[  
,moon crack$1 #ade4          ,moon      
eclips$ by ,e>?1 #ajg4          ,moon's 
cresc5t1 #ie4          ,moon's day &    
ye>1 #id4          ,moon's phases1 #ih4 
reflection ( light1 #aca4               
refraction ( light1 #acb4        ) a    
bell1 #abe4        ) c&le to %[ !       

seasons1 #gc4        ) c>dbo>d zodiac1  
#agj4        ) sp9n+ top1 #gb4        ) 
wat] waves1 #abd4      ,eye1 a cam]a1   
#abg4        h[ x sees1 #abg4           
human1 #h4        light &1 #abi4        
,eyesight1 /> te/s =1 #aig4             
,f9d+1 ! ,nor? ,/>1 #b4        ! ,nor? )
 ,pegasus1 #ai4      ,fireballs1 #aaf4  
,fir/ magnitude />s1 #bjj4      ,fix$   
/>s1 #g4      ,fly+ ,horse1 con/ellation
 (1 #ai4      ,focal l5g? ( a l5s1 #acd4
      ,focus ( l5s1 #acc4      ,=eca/+ !
 wea!r by b>omet]1 #ce4      ,=eca/+    
wea!r by signs1 #cf4      ,f\cault's    
p5dulum exp]im5t1 #fh4      ,fraunh(]'s 
l9es1 #aij4      ,frequ5cy ( vibrat+    
atoms1 #abc4      ,friction1 #fj4       
,gem9i1 ! ,tw9s1 con/ellation (1 #fc1   
#agf4      ,geometrical figures1 #aie4  
,gibb\s ,moon1 #ic4      ,girl 9 !      
,moon1 #adg4      ,gravitation def9$1   
#ei4      ,great ,be>1 #e4      ,great  
,squ>e ( ,pegasus1 con/ellation (1 #ag4 
,greek alphabet1 #aig4      ,gre5wi* "t1
 #hf4      ,grimaldi on ! ,moon1 #id1   

#adg4      ,gu>dian />s ( ! ,little     
,dipp]1 #af4        ,h&book ( ,boy      
,sc\ts1 #aic4      ,h>ve/ & ,hunt]'s    
,moon1 #ih4      ,heat1 h[ x travels1   
#abc4      ,heat1 :at x is1 #abb1 #abi4 
,heliograph1 h[ to make & use a1 #dj1   
#da4      ,horizon1 a good1 #aec4       
,horizon glass1 #hd4      ,horizontal   
l9e def9$1 #aid4      ,horoscopes1      
a/rolog]'s1 #ahj4      ,horse & ,rid]1  
#aa4      ,h\rs1 divid+ a circle into1  
#aeg4      ,h[ a cam]a is made1 #ahe4   
,h[ ! cave man m>k$ "t1 #aeb4      ,h[ !
 eye sees1 #abg4      ,h[ to f9d1       
,aries1 ! ,ram1 #agd4        a comet1   
#aac4        con/ellations ( ! ,zodiac1 
#afi4        focus ( a l5s1 #acc4       
longitude #hf4        ! ,nor? ,/>1 #hc4 
) dipp+ ne$le & protractor1 #hb4        
) /icks & pail ( wat]1 #hc4        p[] (
 a telescope1 #adc4      ,h[ to get ,sun
 "t1 #aec4      ,h[ to "k1 ! />s1 #ad4  
y are at ! ,nor? ,pole1 #hg4      ,h[ to
 look at ! ,sun1 #adh4      ,h[ to make1
 a *eap telescope1 #adj4        p9hole  

telescope1 #ach4        simple compass1 
#gg4        simple dipp+ ne$le1 #gi4    
/> f9d]1 #a4        /> trails1 #ahg4    
,h[ ! ,moon makes ! tides1 #ii4      ,h[
 a photograph is made1 #ahe4      ,h[ a 
prism b5ds light1 #acc4      ,h[ to read
 ! almanac1 #ahb4      ,h[ a            
spectroscope is made1 #aia4      ,h[ !  
/>s %9e1 #aba4      ,h[ ! />s 7 made1   
#aai4      ,h[ a telescope works1 #aci4 
,h[ to tell1 "t by ! ,big ,dipp]1 #ab4  
a true meteorite1 #aag4      ,h[ "t is  
s5t1 by telegraph1 #afc4        by      
wireless1 #afe4      ,h[ to use a prism1
 #ahh4      ,h[ we see light1 #abf4     
,hyades 9 ,taurus1 #age4      ,hyp]bola1
 #aac4        ,imag9>y ,sun "t1 #aee4   
,index mirror1 #hd4      ,invisible />s1
 #bjf4        ,jupit]1 #dg1 #fa4        
n9e moons (1 #eb4        see+1 #ea4     
?r\gh a telescope1 #adi4        ,kullm] 
/> f9d]1 #bji4        ,latitude1 h[ to  
f9d1 by protractor & dipp+ ne$le1 #hb4  
) sextant1 #hd4        ) /icks & pail ( 
wat]1 #hc4      ,l5s1 concave1 #acd4    

convex1 #acc4        h[ to f9d focus (  
a1 #acc4      ,leo1 ! ,lion1 #agg4      
,libra1 ! ,balance1 #agh4      ,light1  
def9$1 #abb4        h[ made1 #abb4      
h[ x passes ?r\gh glass1 #acj4        h[
 x travels1 #abc4        h[ we see x1   
#abf1 #abi4        reflection (1 #aca1  
#acb4        refraction (1 #acb4        
spe$ (1 #ahh4        :at makes ! colors 
91 #abc4        wave-l5g?s (1 #abc1     
#acj4      ,little ,be>1 con/ellation (1
 #af4      ,little ,dipp]1 con/ellation 
(1 #ae4      ,local "t1 #hf1 #aee4      
,longitude1 h[ to f9d x1 #hf4           
m]idians (1 #hf4        use ( sextant to
 f9d1 #hd4      ,lyra1 ! ,lyre1 #bja4   
,magellan's voyage1 #fg4      ,magnet1  
,e>? a great1 #gg4      ,magnet1 /eel   
b>1 #gf4      ,magnetic l9es ( =ce1 #gf4
      ,magnetic ,nor? ,pole & true ,nor?
 ,pole1 #gf1 #hh4      ,magnetic /orms1 
#cd4      ,magnitude ( />s1 #aii4       
,man 9 ! ,moon1 #ic4      ,m>9]'s       
compass1 #gh4      ,m>s1 #dg1 #di4      
is x peopl$8 #di4        ?r\gh a        

telescope1 #adi4      ,mean l5g?1 def9$1
 #aed4      ,mean sol> "t1 #aed4        
,mean "t1 #aeb4      ,m]cury1 #dg1 #dh1 
#fa4        phases (1 #dh4        ?r\gh 
a telescope1 #adh4      ,m]idian def9$1 
#ah4        prime1 #aef4        y\r1    
#fa4        z]o1 #aef4      ,m]idians1  
fix$1 #aeg4        ( longitude1 #he4    
/&>d1 #hf1 #aef4      ,meteorites1 k9ds 
(1 #aag4        te/s =1 #aag4           
,meteors1 & meteorites1 #aaf4           
orbits (1 #aaf4      ,m]it badge =      
/>craft1 #aic4      ,milk dipp] 9 !     
,milky ,way1 #aha4      ,milky ,way1 />s
 ( !1 #aag1 #aah4        ?r\gh a glass1 
#aej4      ,miz> 9 ! ,big ,dipp]1 #aa1  
#aej4      ,moon1 #hi4        ,ap5n9es  
on !1 #adf4        aspects ( !1 #id4    
,cop]nicus on !1 #adh4        cresc5t1  
#ic4        day & ye> ( !1 #id4        &
 ,e>? jo9$ toge!r1 #hi4        eclipse (
 !1 #ajg4        eclipse ( ,sun by !1   
#aaj4        gibb\s1 #ic4               
,grimaldi on !1 #id1 #adg4        ,h>ve/
 & ,hunt]'s1 #ii4        h[ x crack$1   

#add4        if y 7 on x1 #aja4         
imitat+ volcanoes on !1 #ia4        ,man
 9 !1 #ic4        motions ( !1 #id4     
old1 9 ! new ,moon's arms1 #ic4         
o!r ?+s ab\t !1 #ajf4        phases ( !1
 h[ made1 #id1 #ie1 #if4                
photograph+ !1 #ahh4        seas on !1  
#add4        see+ !1 ) ! nak$ eye1 #ib4 
tell+ "t by !1 #aje4        ?r\gh a     
telescope1 #add4        "t m>k$ by !1   
#aea4        a trip to !1 #aja4         
,ty*o on !1 #add4        volcanoes on !1
 #ia4        wea!r1 & !1 #aje4          
:]e x came f1 #ij4      ,moon girl1     
#adf4      ,morn+ />1 ,v5us1 #ej4       
,morse ,code1 #ci4      ,motions ( !    
,moon1 #id4      ,m\nta9 "t1 #afj4      
,nak$ eye aids1 #aci4      ,nak$ eye    
view ( ! ,moon1 #ic4      ,nebula1 #aad1
 #aah4        ( ,orion1 great1 #aai4    
,nebul> hypo!sis1 #aai4      ,nebul1    
diff]5t =ms (1 #aai4      ,neptune1 !   
outpo/ planet1 #dg1 #ec4        see+1   
#ec4        ?r\gh a telescope1 #adi4    
,nor?1 to f9d1 by a wat*1 #de4        ) 

,capella1 #bd4        ) ,orion1 #bc4    
) ,pegasus1 #ai4      ,nor? magnetic    
pole1 #gf4      ,nor? ,pole1 #h4        
explor]s at !1 #hg4        h[ to "k y   
are at1 #hg4        %ad[s at1 #hh4      
true1 & magnetic ,nor? ,pole1 #gf1 #hh4 
,nor? ,/>1 #a1 #b1 #d4        h[ to f9d1
 #a1 #b4        h[ to f9d latitude (1   
#hc4        sight+ !1 #b4        ?r\gh a
 glass1 #aej4      ,nor!rn ,cross1 #bjb4
      ,nor!rn ,lights1 #cd4        ,old 
,f>m]s' ,almanac1 #ahd4      ,old ,moon 
9 ! new ,moon's arms1 #ic4      ,op]a   
glasses1 #adj4      ,optic n]ve1 #abf4  
,orion1 ( ! ,arabians1 #bb4        belt 
( />s (1 #ba4        con/ellation (1    
#bj4        f9d+ ! ,nor? )1 #bc4        
! ,great ,hunt]1 #bj4        ,great     
,nebula (1 #aai4        sword ( />s (1  
#bb4        ,pacific "t1 #afj4          
,p>abola1 #aac4      ,p>tial eclipse ( !
 ,sun1 #aab4      ,pegasus1 ! ,fly+     
,horse1 #ai4      ,p5dulum illu/rat+    
,sun's attraction1 #ei4      ,p5umbra1  
#ace4      ,p]p5dicul> l9e def9$1 #aid4 

,phases1 ( ,m]cury1 #dh4        ( ,v5us1
 #ej4      ,photograph1 h[ made1 #ahe4  
,photograph+ ! ,moon1 #ahh        ! />s1
 #ahe4      ,photograph+ ! ,sun1 #ahg4  
,photosph]e ( ! ,sun1 #cb4      ,p9hole 
sun%ade1 #cj4      ,p9hole telescope1   
#cj1 #ach4      ,pisces1 ! ,fi%es1      
con/ellation (1 #fc1 #agd4      ,plane1 
def9$1 #ee4      ,planet1 h[ to plot    
position ( a1 #fa4      ,planetesimal   
hypo!sis1 #aai1 #abj4      ,planets1    
egg%ell exp]im5t to %[ motions (1 #eg4  
fir/ aid to rememb]+1 #eg4        h[    
held 9 space1 #eg4        h[ to "k !1   
#dg4        names & sizes (1 #dg4       
pa? (1 #agj4        plane (1 #ee4       
r\nd ! ,sun1 position (1 #ed4        !  
,sun's kiddies1 #df4        ?r\gh a     
telescope1 #adh4        use ( almanac = 
f9d+1 #fa4        :y !y sp91 #fj4       
,pleiades1 9 ,taurus1 #bf4        ?r\gh 
a glass1 #aej4      ,plott+ ! position (
 a planet1 #fa4      ,pl\gh1 !1 #e4     
,po9t] />s ( ! ,big ,dipp]1 #aj4        
,pol> nights1 #ga4      ,pol>is1 ! ,pole

 ,/>1 #d4      ,pole ,/>1 !1 #d1 #h4    
,precession ( ! ,e>?1 #agc4      ,prime 
m]idian1 #aef4      ,prism1 #acb4       
=m+ a spectrum1 #acd4        h[ to use1 
#ahh4      ,produce1 def9$1 #h4         
,prom95ces ( ! ,sun1 #ca4               
,protractor1 %[+ degrees1 #ha4          
%[+ degrees latitude1 #hb4              
,radius def9$1 #aid4      ,railroad "t1 
#aef4      ,reflection ( light1 #aca4   
,regulus 9 ,leo1 ! ,lion1 #agg4         
,rigel 9 ,orion1 #bh4      ,"r angle    
def9$1 #aid4      ,r+ def9$1 #aid4      
,sagitt>ius1 ! ,ar*]1 #ahj4             
,saturn1 #dg4        see+1 #eb4         
?r\gh a telescope1 #adi4      ,scorpius1
 ! ,scorpion1 #ahj4      ,seasonal      
twilight *>t1 ,ellis1 #bja4             
,seasons3 autumn1 #gd4        spr+1 #gd4
        summ]1 #ge4        w9t]1 #gd4   
cycle ( !1 #ge4        ,e>? turn+ r\nd  
,sun makes !1 #gb4        exp]im5t to %[
 !1 #gc4      ,see+1 an eclipse1 #ajg4  
! ,moon ) nak$ eye1 #ib4        ! />s1  
#aba4      ,sextant1 h[ to use x1 #hd4  

,%ad[ (1 ! ,e>?1 #aji4        !         
,p5umbra1 #ace4        ! ,umbra1 #ace4  
,%ad[s1 #ace4        at ! ,nor? ,pole1  
#hh4      ,%oot+ ! ,sun1 #hd4           
,%oot+ />s1 #aaf4      ,sight+ ! ,nor?  
,/>1 #b4      ,signall+ ) ! ,sun's rays1
 #ch4      ,signs1 9 ! almanac1 #ahc4   
( ! ,zodiac1 #afh4      ,sirius1 ! ,dog 
,/>1 #h1 #aah4      ,sky1 ?+s 9 !1 #ajg4
      ,smok$ ,sun glasses1 #cj4         
,sol> day1 #aed4        app>5t1 #aed4   
,sol> noon1 #aec4      ,sol> spectrum1  
#ahi4      ,sol> sy/em1 9 p]spective1   
#ef4        top view (1 #ee4      ,sol> 
"t1 #aeb4        mean1 #aed4            
,sol/ice1 summ]1 #agf4        w9t]1     
#aha4      ,s\nd waves1 #abe4      ,s\? 
,pole1 #bf4      ,spectroscope1 #ahi4   
h[ made1 #aia4      ,spectrum1 #acc4    
sol>1 #ahi4      ,spr+1 #gd4            
,spyglass1 #acf4        />s se5 ?r\gh1  
#add4      ,/&>d m]idians1 #hf1 #aef4   
,/&>d "t1 #aee4        zone sy/em (1    
#aef4      ,/&>d "t m]idians 9 ,unit$   
,/ates1 #aei4      ,/>craft1 m]it badge 

=1 #aic4      ,/> f9d]1 h[ to make a1   
#a4        ,kullm]1 #bji4      ,/> te/s 
= eyesight1 #aig4      ,/> "t1 #afj4    
,/> trails1 h[ to make1 #ahg4      ,/>s1
 color$1 #bjb4        con/ellations hav+
 fir/ magnitude1 #bja4        d\ble1    
#bjd4        fir/ magnitude1 #bjj4      
h[ made1 #aai4        h[ !y %9e1 #aba4  
invisible or d>k1 #bjf4        magnitude
 (1 #aii4        ne> ! ,sun's pa?1 #fb4 
photograph+1 #ahe4        see+1 #aba4   
?r\gh a telescope1 #adi4        v>iable1
 #bje4        :at !y are made (1 #ahh4  
( ! ,zodiac1 #aff4      ,/raight l9e    
def9$1 #aid4      ,summ]1 #ge4          
,summ] sol/ice1 #agf4      ,sun1 annul> 
eclipse ( !1 #hg4        arctic1 #hg4   
attraction (1 illu/rat$1 #ei4           
brighte/ />1 #bi4        hot gases (1   
#aba4        *romosph]e (1 #cb4         
core (1 #cb4        corona (1 #cc4      
cross section (1 #cd4        eclipse (1 
by ! ,moon1 #aaj4        h[ to see1 #bi4
        lay]s ( flame (1 #ca4           
light+ a fire )1 #cg4        f ! ,moon1 

view (1 #ajd4          />s ne> !1 #fb4  
p>tial eclipse ( !1 #aab4        pa? (  
!1 #df1 #agj4        photograph+ !1     
#ahg4        photosph]e (1 #cb4         
positions ( planets r\nd !1 #ed4        
prom95ces (1 #ca4        rays (1        
signall+ )1 #ch4        %oot+ !1 #hd4   
surface (1 #cb4        "t m>k$ by1 #aea4
        ?r\gh a telescope1 #adh4        
wea!r &1 #cd4        :at x is made (1   
#cj4      ,sun dial1 h[ to make a       
simple1 #db4      ,sun spots1 #ca4      
effects (1 on ! ,e>?1 #cc4      ,sun "t1
 #aeb4        h[ to set1 #aec4          
imag9>y1 #aee4      ,sword ( ,orion1    
#bb4        ,tang5t def9$1 #eh1 #aid4   
,taurus1 ,aldeb>an 91 #bf4              
con/ellation (1 #bd1 #fc1 #age4        (
 ! ,egyptians1 #bf4      ,telescope1    
#acf4        a/ronomical1 #ach4        )
 convex l5ses1 #adb4        def9$1 #acf4
        discov]y (1 #acf4               
equatorial1 #ahh4        h[ to make a   
*eap1 #adj4        h[ to make a p9hole1 
#ach4        h[ x works1 #aci4          

k9ds (1 #acg1 #aci4        magnify+ p[] 
(1 #adc4        ,m>s ?r\gh a1 #adi4     
,m]cury ?r\gh a1 #adh4        ,moon     
?r\gh a1 #add4        ,neptune ?r\gh a1 
#adi4        op]a glass1 #ada4          
p9hole1 #cj4        planets ?r\gh a1    
#adh4        ,saturn ?r\gh a1 #adi4     
see+ ! />s ?r\gh a1 #add4        (      
sextant1 #hd4        simple1 #adj4      
/>s ?r\gh a1 #adi4        ,sun ?r\gh a1 
#adh4        ,uranus ?r\gh a1 #adi4     
,v5us ?r\gh a1 #adh4      ,telescope    
l5s1 m\nt+ =1 #adj4      ,te/ =         
eyesight1 ,alcor1 #aa4      ,tides1 high
 & l[1 #ajj4        h[ ! ,moon makes1   
#ii4        spr+ & neap1 #aja4      ,"t1
 app>5t1 #aeb4        at diff]5t cities1
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by ! />s1 #afj4        c5tral1 #afj4    
to *ange />1 into sol>1 #afc4           
correct1 #afa4          h[ obta9$1 #afb4
        di/ribut$ by telegraph1 #afa4   
by wireless1 #afa4        ea/]n1 #aeh4  
equation (1 #aee1 #bjg4        ,gre5wi*1
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h[ to tell1 by ! ,big ,dipp]1 #ab4      
imag9>y ,sun1 #aee4        local1 #hf1  
#aee4        m>k$ by ! ,moon1 #aea4     
by ! ,sun1 #aea4        mean1 #aeb4     
sol>1 #aed4        m\nta91 #afj4        
o' day1 #aea4        ,pacific1 #afj4    
railroad1 #aef4        /&>d1 #aee4      
,sun1 #aed4        :at is x8 #aea4      
zone sy/em ( /&>d1 #aef4      ,"t ball1 
h[ made & work$1 #afd4      ,"t m]idians
 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 /&>d1 #aei      ,total
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 a />1 #afb4      ,transit in/rum5t1    
#afb4      ,trapezium def9$1 #bj1 #ba4  
,true ,nor? ,pole1 #gf4      ,ty*o on ! 
,moon1 #add4        ,umbra ( ! ,moon1   
#ace4      ,uranus1 ,h]s*el's planet1   
#dg1 #ec4        see+1 #ec4        ?r\gh
 a telescope1 #adi4      ,ursa ,major1  
con/ellation (1 #f4      ,ursa ,m9or1   
con/ellation (1 #af4        ,vani%+ ,man
 9 ! ,moon1 #adf4      ,v>iable />s1    
#bje4      ,v5us1 #dg1 #fa4             
phases (1 #ej4        see+1 #ej4        
?r\gh a telescope1 #adh4      ,v]nal    

equ9ox1 #agh4      ,v]tical l9e def9$1  
#aid4      ,ve/a1 an a/]oid1 #ed4       
,vibrat+ atoms1 #abc4      ,vibrations (
 bell1 numb] (1 #abe4      ,virgo1 !    
,virg91 #agg4      ,volcanoes1 h[ !y 7  
made1 #ia4        on ! ,moon1 #ia4      
,waves1 air1 #abe4        9 ! e!r1 #abg4
        l5g? ( light1 #abc4        s\nd1
 #abe4        spe$ (1 #abf4        (    
wat]1 exp]im5t )1 #abd4      ,wea!r1    
=eca/+1 by ! b>omet]1 #ce4        by    
signs1 #cg4      ,wea!r1 & ! ,moon1     
#aje4        ,sun & !1 #cd4      ,w9t]1 
#gd4      ,w9t] sol/ice1 #aha4          
,wireless1 "t di/ribut$ by1 #afa4       
,wireless receiv+ sets1 #afe4           
,z]o m]idian1 #aef4      ,zodiac1 z     
inv5t$ by ! anci5ts1 #afg4        z we  
"k x today1 #afg4        con/ellations  
(1 #afh4        exp]im5t ) a c>dbo>d1   
#agj4        h[ to f9d ! con/ellations (
 !1 #afi4        signs ( !1 #afh4       
/>s ( !1 #aff4        :at x is1 #aff4   
,zone sy/em ( /&>d "t1 #aef4