,,papers ,,of ,,the ,,southwestern ,,expedition ,,number ,,two ,,pueblo ,,pottery ,,making ,illustration3 ,,plate #a ,courtesy ,wesley ,bradfield ,,maria ,,martinez ,the most skillful potter of ,san ,ildefonso4 ,,department ,,of ,,archaeology ,,phillips ,,academy ,,andover ,,massachusetts ,,pueblo ,,pottery ,,making ,a ,,study ,,at ,,the ,,village ,,of ,,san ,,ildefonso ,,by ,,carl ,e4 ,,guthe ,illustration ,,new ,,haven ,,published ,,for ,,the ,,department ,,of ,,archaeology ,,phillips ,,academy ,,andover ,,massachusetts ,,by ,,the ,,yale ,,university ,,press #aibe ,,copyrighted #aibe ,,by ,,yale ,,university ,,press ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,by ,,the ,,andover ,,press ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,raw ,,materials2 ,,collection ,,and ,,preparation #ai ,,ingredients #ai ,,red ,,clay #ai ,,white ,,clay #ba ,,temper #ba ,,cooking ,,vessel ,,clay #bb ,,slips ,,and ,,paints #bc ,,native ,,slip #bc ,,santo ,,domingo ,,slip #bc ,,red ,,slip #bc ,,orange-,,red ,,slip #bd ,,black ,,ware ,,paint #bd ,,black ,,or ,,guaco ,,paint #be ,,fuel #bf ,,manure #bf ,,kindling #bf ,,paraphernalia #bg ,,primary ,,paraphernalia #bg ,,moulds #bg ,,moulding ,,spoons #bg ,,scrapers #bg ,,polishing ,,stones #bg ,,paint ,,brushes #bh ,,secondary ,,paraphernalia #bi ,,carrying ,,and ,,storing ,,receptacles #bi ,,mixing ,,surfaces #bi ,,boards #bi ,,water ,,containers #bi ,,mops #cj ,,paint ,,receptacles #cj ,,wiping-,,rags #cj ,,firing ,,accessories #cj ,,moulding #ca ,,bowls #cg ,,ollas #db ,,cooking-,,vessels #df ,,prayer-,,meal ,,bowls #dh ,,double-,,mouthed ,,vases #di ,,handles #ej ,,sun-,,drying #eb ,,scraping #ed ,,slipping ,,and ,,polishing #eg ,,white ,,slip #eg ,,orange-,,red ,,slip #ei ,,red ,,slip #ei ,,dark-,,red ,,slip #fb ,,painting #ff ,,firing #gj ,,preparation #gj ,,building ,,the ,,oven #gj ,,burning #gb ,,accidents #gf ,,treatment ,,after ,,burning #gg ,,painting ,,of ,,designs #gh ,,symbolism #he ,,bibliography #hi ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,plates ,,page #a4 ,maria ,martinez1 the leading potter of ,san ,ildefonso ,frontispiece #b4 ,fragments of ancient corrugated wares #f #c4 ,old decorated vessels from the ,pueblo villages #h #d4 ,old ,san ,ildefonso vessels #h #e4 ,old ,san ,ildefonso vessels #aj #f4 ,modern polychrome ware by ,maria ,martinez #aj #g4 ,modern polychrome and black-on-red wares #ab #h4 ,modern plain and decorated polished black ware #ad #i4 ,winnowing clay #af #aj4 a1 ,digging tempering material1 b1 ,guaco plant #bj #aa4 ,gourd spoons #bf #ab4 a1 ,kneading clay b1 ,primary stages of bowl moulding #cb #ac4 ,method of building vessels #cb #ad4 a1 ,work on rim of unfinished bowl1 b1 ,shaping vessel #cf #ae4 ,successive stages in the moulding of an olla #db #af4 a1 ,moulding an olla1 b1 ,a typical potter #dd #ag4 a1 ,finishing touches1 b1 ,application of handle #df #ah4 ,sun-drying #eb #ai4 ,scraping #ed #bj4 a1 ,cutting down an olla b1 ,applying slip #eh #ba4 a1 ,applying slip1 b1 c1 ,polishing #fj #bb4 ,decorating small vessels #ff #bc4 ,decorating ollas #fh #bd4 a1 ,drying the oven site1 b1 ,preparing the oven #gj #be4 ,oven-building #gb #bf4 ,firing #gb #bg4 a1 ,smothered fire1 b1 ,wiping fired vessels #gd #bh4 ,zui potter preparing clay #gf #bi4 ,zui potter moulding a vessel #gf #cj4 ,zui potter finishing a vessel #gf #ca4 ,zui potter decorating and firing a vessel #gf #cb4 ,design by ,maria ,martinez #ha #cc4 ,design by ,maria ,martinez #hb #cd4 ,design by ,maximiliana ,martinez #hb #ce4 ,design by ,antonita ,roybal #hd ,,figures ,,in ,,the ,,text #a4 ,outlines of post-,basket ,maker vessels #f #b4 ,pre-,pueblo pottery #g #c4 ,decorations of ancient ,pueblo bowls #i #d4 ,bad examples of modern pottery #ac #e4 ,paint brushes #bh #f4 ,sections of a bowl during building #cd #g4 ,method of terracing a prayer-meal bowl #dh #h4 ,angles of paint brush during stroke #fh #i4 ,growth of a polychrome design #hj #aj4 ,raincloud design #hc #aa4 ,elements of design #hg ,,introduction ,the present paper is a careful study by ,dr4 ,guthe of pottery making at ,san ,ildefonso1 a typical ,pueblo ,indian town on the ,rio ,grande1 north of ,santa ,fe1 ,new ,mexico4 ,the field-work was undertaken in #aiba as part of an archaeological survey of the ,southwest1 that has been carried on for a number of years by the ,department of ,archaeology of ,phillips ,academy4 ,from prehistoric archaeology to modern pottery making may seem a far cry1 but in the ,southwest the past merges almost imperceptibly into the present1 and the ,pueblos of today live in almost exactly the same way1 and practise almost exactly the same arts1 as did their ancestors of a thousand years ago4 ,in the ,southwest1 therefore1 the archaeologist has the invaluable opportunity of observing1 and of studying at first hand1 the life whose earlier remains he unearths from the ancient ruins4 ,when one considers what such a privilege would mean to the excavator in1 for example1 the mounds of the ,mississippi ,valley1 or the ,neolithic village-sites of ,europe1 it becomes obvious that the ,southwestern archaeologist should devote a not inconsiderable part of his time to the study of that industrious1 kindly1 hospitable1 and thoroughly charming folk1 the ,pueblo ,indians4 ,living a sedentary1 agricultural life in an arid country it was inevitable that the ,pueblos should early have developed into expert and prolific potters2 and so pottery1 in the form of sherds scattered about their former dwellings1 and of vessels piously interred with their dead1 is the most striking1 the most abundant1 and the most readily accessible form of evidence to be dealt with by the ,southwestern archaeologist4 ,the value of pottery to the student of the past cannot be more happily expressed than in the words of the historian ,myres3 8,when with the soft clay which has1 so to say1 no natural shape or utility at all1 the human hand1 guided by imagination1 but otherwise unaided1 creates a new form1 gourd-like1 or flask-like1 or stone-bowl-like1 but not itself either gourd1 or skin1 or stone1 then invention has begun1 and an art is born which demands on each occasion of its exercise a fresh effort of imagination to devise1 and of intellect to give effect to1 a literally new thing4 ,it is a fortunate accident that the material in question1 once fixed in the given form by exposure to fire1 is by that very process made so brittle that its prospect of utility is short2 consequently the demand for replacement is persistent4 ,the only group of industries which can compare with potmaking in intellectual importance is that of the textile fabrics2 basketry and weaving4 ,but whereas basket-work and all forms of matting and cloth are perishable and will burn1 broken pottery is almost indestructible1 just because1 once broken1 it is so useless4 ,it follows that evidence so permanent1 so copious1 and so plastic1 that is to say so infinitely sensitive a register of the changes of the artist's mood1 as the potsherds on an ancient site1 is among the most valuable that we can ever have1 for tracing the dawn of culture40 ,myres wrote of arid ,egypt1 and in many ways conditions in the likewise arid ,southwest1 where a primitive people were also building up for themselves through agriculture a new type of civilization1 closely parallel those of the ,nile ,valley in predynastic times4 ,and the analogy1 naturally enough1 holds good in the matter of archaeological methods4 ,the rise and spread of the predynastic cultures of ,egypt are being traced out in large part by studies of ceramic types and of their stratigraphic relation one to another4 ,the same methods are applicable1 and indeed are now beginning to be applied1 to the problems of the ,southwest4 ,to understand the trend of recent archaeological work in the ,pueblo field it is necessary to take a bird's-eye view1 so to speak1 of the region4 ,over a vast area in ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 and the state of ,chihuahua in ,old ,mexico1 are found the remains of the prehistoric ,pueblos4 ,their villages1 now in ruins1 were built in all sorts of places1 on the tops of mesas1 in open plains1 in narrow canyons1 on the ledges of great cliffs1 and in the shelter of caves4 ,they range in size from one-or two-room houses of the roughest construction1 to great communal buildings of five hundred or even a thousand rooms1 compactly built of excellent masonry and terraced to a height of three1 four1 or five stories4 ,the artifacts1 too1 found in them vary bewilderingly1 both in degree of perfection1 and in type4 ,all ,southwestern houses1 however1 and all ,southwestern artifacts1 have a certain family resemblance that allies them to each other and makes it evident that they are all the product of a single culture1 a culture distinct1 for example1 from that of ,central ,mexico or that of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,to reconstruct the history of that culture1 to trace its origin1 to follow its growth1 and to explain how and why it developed in the peculiar way it did1 are the tasks which confront the ,southwestern archaeologist4 ,as in any scientific problem1 the first step must be to collect and classify the data2 and although ,pueblo sites are numbered in thousands1 and an overwhelming amount of merely descriptive work must still be done1 the outlines of a classification have been achieved4 ,we know1 for example1 what sort of ruins are found in the ,san ,juan drainage of northern ,new ,mexico2 what kinds of pottery occur along the ,gila river in southern ,arizona4 ,but what relationship1 genetically and in time1 there existed between1 say1 ,pueblo ,bonito and ,casa ,grande1 we do not know4 ,the time element1 or in other words the historical sequence of our material1 remains in large part to be determined4 ,to set up an historical outline we must first determine the relative ages of the different ruins1 and then estimate the size and distribution of the ,pueblo tribes from the earliest times to the present4 ,at the top1 so to speak1 of our series the problem is simple enough--we are acquainted with the present location of the tribes1 and the various ,spanish accounts tell us where they have been living during the past three hundred and fifty years4 ,but for the prehistoric period 7and everything in the ,southwest prior to #aedj is prehistoric7 we must rely almost wholly on such evidence as may be turned up by the archaeologist's shovel1 for of native written records there are none1 nor can native legendary testimony be safely depended upon4 ,this1 of course1 throws a heavy burden upon the archaeologist1 a burden which is made heavier by the fact that stratigraphy of remains is so rarely found in the ,pueblo country4 ,stratigraphy1 in other words the superposition of the more recent upon the more ancient1 has been the ,open ,sesame to all the reconstructive sciences4 ,the very framework of geology1 for example1 has been built up from stratigraphic observations4 ,in archaeology1 too1 stratigraphy has revealed the sequence of the ,stone ,ages2 made clear the development of the early ,mediterranean cultures1 and the rise of predynastic civilization in ,egypt4 ,therefore1 as has just been said1 the general lack of stratigraphic conditions in the ,southwest renders the task of the student a particularly hard one4 ,for some reason1 not yet clearly understood1 the ,pueblos ancient and modern were very prone to shift from one dwelling place to another1 and a site once abandoned was seldom reoccupied4 ,although their houses were of the most permanent construction1 and their agricultural life should have tended to render them solidly sedentary1 they moved about to a surprising extent4 ,the result of this is that one seldom finds a ruin which was lived in for more than a few decades or1 at most1 centuries2 and few have so far been discovered to contain superimposed remains illustrating any long period of development4 ,where such evidence is so rare1 what can be found naturally becomes of the greatest importance2 hence the recent diligent search for1 and excavation of1 such sites as show signs of long occupancy4 ,the choice of ,pecos for investigation by ,phillips ,academy was due to the above considerations4 ,the ruin was a large one1 was occupied at the time of the ,discovery and was not abandoned until #ahch4 ,a surface examination also showed that it must have been tenanted for a long time prior to the ,conquest because its mounds were scattered over with potsherds not only of recent date1 but also of several distinct prehistoric types1 each one well enough known to students1 but whose relative ages were entirely a matter of conjecture4 ,it was hoped1 therefore1 that excavation might disclose some definite cases of superposition1 and that several prehistoric periods might thereby be arranged in their proper chronological order4#a ,the results have been more than satisfactory4 ,pecos proved to have been built on the edge of a sharp-sided mesa1 a fact not suspected before digging began1 because the rubbish from the town had heaped up to such an extent against the original cliff as completely to mask its steepness4 ,the first inhabitants naturally threw their refuse over the edge of the mesa1 their descendants added to the accumulation1 and the process continued down the centuries until there grew up a midden of enormous extent and1 for the ,southwest1 of unusually great depth4 ,it is stratified as neatly as a layer-cake4 ,when the exploratory trenches revealed the size and probable importance of the ,pecos rubbish heap1 all other projects were postponed1 and two full field-seasons were devoted to the meticulous dissection of large areas of the deepest deposit4 ,at frequent intervals stratigraphic tests were made1 in which all the specimens from each successive stratum were kept separate and shipped to the ,museum for study4 ,it was found that many changes in culture had taken place during the long occupancy of ,pecos2 in the stone and bone implements1 in the pipes1 and in burial customs4 ,but the most abundant1 the most easily gathered1 and the most readily interpreted evidence of cultural change was offered by the thousands of pottery fragments that filled the mound from subsoil to surface4 ,we have been able to recognize about twenty distinct wares1 to arrange them into eight chronological groups1 and to determine the exact sequence of these groups4 ,this information1 derived from the stratigraphic study of the pottery in the mounds1 has been of the greatest value4 ,its application has been both local and non-local4 ,in the excavations that we have since carried on at ,pecos it has enabled us to date relatively to each other the various kivas1 cemeteries1 and small refuse mounds that occurred on the mesa top1 and also to unravel much more confidently than we would otherwise have been able to do1 the extraordinarily complex jumble of ruined1 torn-down1 stone-robbed1 rebuilt1 abandoned1 and reoccupied rooms that we encountered when we attacked the pueblo itself4 ,as helpful as has been the knowledge of the sequence of the pottery types in working out the details of local archaeology1 its usefulness in that regard is small as compared with the flood of light which has been thrown on much larger and more vital problems4 ,it has just been stated that some twenty types of pottery were identified2 the majority of these are not peculiar to ,pecos2 many of them occur throughout large areas in the ,rio ,grande drainage2 and so we are now able1 in most cases by a hasty examination of the surface sherds1 to assign to its proper place in the chronological series any ruin at which our types are present4 ,thus mere reconnaissance 7a cheap and rapid undertaking7 now serves to make clear the major outlines of ,rio ,grande archaeology4 ,but the usefulness of the stratigraphic studies at ,pecos does not end with the territory in which the ,pecos types of pottery are found1 for ,pecos1 because of its size and because of its situation on the main route between the ,pueblo country to the ,west and the buffalo ranges to the ,east1 was an important trade centre4 ,from its mounds we have taken potsherds from almost all parts of the ,southwest1 shells from the ,pacific1 spindle-whorls from ,central ,mexico1 as well as pottery and stone objects from the ,mississippi drainage4 ,the importance of such finds is evident2 every sherd from an outside culture found in a datable stratum at ,pecos helps to fit into our general chronological scheme the culture from which it came2 as conversely1 does every ,pecos or even ,rio ,grande sherd that turns up beyond the limits of the ,rio ,grande4 ,only a start has been made1 but enough has already come to light at ,pecos and at such stratified sites as have been excavated by other institutions1 to provide us with a surprisingly full knowledge of the rise and growth of the ,pueblo civilization4 ,ten years ago it would have been hard to believe how much could be accomplished by the stratigraphic work carried on by ,nelson in the ,galisteo ,basin1 ,hodge at ,hawikuh1 ,judd at ,pueblo ,bonito1 ,morris at ,aztec1 ,guernsey in the ,kayenta country1 and the writer and his associates at ,pecos4 ,the work1 as ,i have said1 has just begun1 but the prospects are bright4 ,success will depend1 as in any such endeavor1 upon intelligent excavation1 careful collection of data1 and accurate observation of specimens1 but the investigator cannot hope to derive the best results from his labors if he does not hold to a very broad view of his field4 ,he must familiarize himself not only with the material of the locality he is working in but must also know as much as possible about that of other regions1 for it is of the last importance that trade-objects be recognized wherever they occur4 ,of all trade-objects1 vessels and potsherds are likely to be the commonest and most easily recognizable4 ,when the members of the ,pecos expedition realized how vitally important was to be a close knowledge of the pottery1 not only of that particular site1 but also of the ,rio ,grande in general1 and1 indeed1 of the entire ,southwest1 they devoted a large part of their time1 both in the field and at the ,museum1 to the study of ceramics4 ,a difficulty was at once encountered in our ignorance of the technique of ,pueblo pottery making4 ,we were constantly obliged to compare the paints and slips of different wares1 to decide whether observed variations were technically fundamental1 or were merely accidents of clay-mixing or firing4 ,no full published accounts existed1 nor had any of us had the opportunity for more than casual observation of potters at work4 ,dr4 ,guthe1 accordingly1 spent the month of ,august1 #aiba1 at ,san ,ildefonso in making detailed studies4 ,his results are published in the hope that they may be of use to ,southwestern archaeologists and ethnologists1 and also to students of the primitive pottery of other areas who may be in need of material for comparative purposes4 ,in order that the reader may envisage the long history that lies behind the work of the modern potters1 ,i give a summary of our present knowledge of the origin and development of pottery in the ,southwest4 ,to go back to the very beginning1 it is not yet certain whether pottery making was introduced into the region from ,mexico1 or whether it was a local invention4 ,there is evidence in favor of each theory4 ,as will presently be shown1 there can be traced in the ,southwest an almost unbroken development from the earliest and crudest forms1 through intermediate stages1 to the perfected styles of later times2 nor can ,mexican influence be seen in the wares themselves at any period from beginning to end4 ,hence it might appear that the art was of purely local origin and growth4 ,on the other hand1 ,mexico was the breeding ground for all the higher elements of native ,american culture2 corn-growing1 the cultivation of cotton1 the use of stone masonry1 the true loom1 etc41 and it is practically certain that all these traits worked into the ,southwest from ,mexico4 ,it would thus seem reasonable to suppose that the concept of pottery came from the same source1 particularly as pottery does not appear in our area until some time after the introduction of corn1 and the mere presence of corn proves contact of one sort or another with ,mexico1 where presumably pottery had been in use for a considerable period4 ,my present feeling is1 however1 that the importation consisted of no more than the bare idea that vessels could be made of clay1 and that the subsequent development of the art was entirely unaffected by outside influences4 ,this question1 so important for its bearing on general problems of dissemination versus independent origin of culture traits1 can only be settled by work in the archaeologically still unknown field of northern ,mexico4 ,the earliest inhabitants of the ,southwest of whom we have certain knowledge were the ,basket ,makers1 so called by their discoverer because basketry rather than pottery was buried with their dead4 ,they lived in southeastern ,utah and northern ,arizona1 were an agricultural or semi-agricultural people who built no permanent houses1 and who had no true pottery4 ,in some of the caves that they occupied1 however1 there have been found a few fragments of crude1 unfired clay dishes whose thick1 bungling sides bear the imprints of the fingers of their makers4 ,save for occasional hesitating lines of incised marks1 or straggling daubs of black paint1 these vessels are undecorated4 ,they bear no slip1 nor1 as was said above1 were any of them subjected to the burning which would have converted them into true pottery4 ,in the course of time1 though whether that time should be counted in tens1 or hundreds1 or even thousands of years1 we have at present no way of telling1 the ,basket ,makers began to build houses of stone slabs1 to group their hitherto scattered dwellings together into small communities1 and1 most important of all from the point of view of our present inquiry1 to make hard1 thin-walled1 thoroughly fired vessels1 in other words real pottery4 ,the culture stage characterized by these ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,outlines of ,post-,basket ,maker vessels4 7,courtesy ,s4 ,j4 ,guernsey47 remains and further distinguishable from the classic ,basket ,maker on the basis of house structure1 sandal form1 and other traits1 was first identified by ,s4 ,j4 ,guernsey1 and named by him 8post-,basket ,maker04 ,post-,basket ,maker pottery is simple in form and in decoration4 ,it is normally light gray in color4 ,the vessel forms most commonly found are bowls 7fig4 #a1 d1 e71 globular vessels with restricted orifices 7fig4 #a1 a71 and water jars1 the latter often having a swollen neck 7fig4 #a1 b74 ,the body of the ware in cross-section has a markedly granular appearance1 due to the large size of the bits of tempering material included in it4 ,a small percentage of the bowls bear a thin white slip on the interior ,illustration3 ,,plate #b ,,ancient ,,corrugated ,,wares a4 ,pre-,pueblo4 b4 ,early ,pueblo4 c4 ,classic ,pueblo period4 and are ornamented with irregularly drawn designs in black paint 7fig4 #a1 e74 ,many of the patterns suggest basketry prototypes4 ,all in all1 post-,basket ,maker pottery1 judging from the few specimens so far recovered1 is surprisingly well made2 so well as to raise the suspicion that an earlier stage still awaits discovery4 ,hints of such a stage have1 indeed1 been found in the form of heavy clay dishes1 tempered with shredded juniper bark1 unbaked but distinctly superior in size and workmanship to the ,basket ,maker product4 ,these specimens have turned up in post-,basket ,maker sites1 but in caves stratigraphically so confused that it is still uncertain whether they antedated1 or were contemporaneous with1 the more highly-perfected post-,basket ,maker wares4 ,they are too crude1 however1 to be considered the direct forerunners of post-,basket ,maker pottery4 ,if the development took place in the ,san ,juan1 one step at least is still lacking4 ,these questions will be answered by further work of the sort now being carried on by ,guernsey in the ,kayenta country and by ,morris in the ,canyon del ,muerto4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,pre-,pueblo vessels4 ,from post-,basket ,maker times down to the present day1 however1 the development of ,southwestern pottery can already be outlined with considerable confidence4 ,the next stage is usually called the pre-,pueblo4 ,it is marked by further improvements in house-building1 by the introduction of cranial deformation1 and by certain innovations in ceramics4 ,it had been the custom with the post-,basket ,makers 7as among many primitive people7 to build up their vessels by adding to the growing walls successive rings of clay4 ,when the process was complete and the sides had reached the requisite height1 all trace of the rings was obliterated by rubbing down the surface4 ,in the interiors of some post-,basket ,maker pieces1 however1 with orifices so small that a smoothing tool could not be introduced1 there were left the telltale junction-lines between the structural rings4 ,in pre-,pueblo times it became the fashion purposely to leave unsmoothed the last few rings at the necks of certain small cooking vessels 7fig4 #b1 a2 pl4 #b1 a74 ,this was the beginning of the elaborate coiled or corrugated technique1 later so widely used4 ,pre-,pueblo black-on-white ware takes the form of bowls1 pitchers1 ladles1 small jars1 and ollas4 ,its paste is hard1 is less heavily tempered than post-,basket ,maker paste1 and the surfaces of the pieces are better smoothed4 ,the decoration is characterized by boldness and dash1 the brushwork being correspondingly hasty4 ,the lines are of irregular width1 nor was care exercised that the junctions of strokes should be accurate4 ,as is shown by the accompanying drawings 7fig4 #b1 b1 c71 the commonest elements are the stepped figure and the triangle1 both often emphasized by sets of widely spaced thin lines which follow the outer edges of the basic patterns4 ,the transition between the pre-,pueblo and the ,pueblo was evidently a gradual one4 ,there was no violent break1 either in culture or in physical type2 and so it is hard to say just where the dividing line should be drawn4 ,the introduction of indented corrugated pottery1 however1 forms a convenient milepost on the road of ceramic progress4 ,the change was brought about as follows3 the plain1 broad rings of pre-,pueblo ware were replaced by a continuous thin fillet of clay applied spirally2 the junctions between the successive laps of the fillet were left unobliterated1 not only at the neck1 but over the entire vessel2 and the fillet itself was also notched or pinched or otherwise indented to produce various ornamental effects 7pl4 #b1 b1 c74 ,thus was made the well-known coiled or corrugated cooking-ware so characteristic of all the archaic true ,pueblo ruins1 a style introduced at about the same time as the development of the above-ground rectangular living-room1 the clustered method of building1 and the use of horizontally coursed masonry1 all elements that are commonly recognized as typical of true ,pueblo culture4 ,the earliest varieties of ,pueblo pottery are imperfectly known1 for little work has so far been done in the small and often nearly obliterated mounds that mark the house-sites of the first pueblo-dwellers4 ,it is certain1 however1 that in the ,san ,juan and ,little ,colorado drainages there was a strong growth in corrugated ware4 ,this technique was experimented on and played with4 ,the variety and even virtuosity of the results are extraordinary3 waved coiling1 pinched coiling1 incised coiling1 and all manner of indenting were practised 7pl4 #b1 b74 ,the black-on-white ware evidently did not advance so rapidly1 the vessels1 to judge from the sherds1 were not particularly symmetrical as to shape or notable as to finish4 ,the decoration ran to hachure in wavy lines and to poorly drawn spiral figures4 ,as ,i have just said1 little is known of the early ,pueblo sites4 ,the period which they represent1 however1 was undoubtedly a long one4 ,the date of its beginning is entirely problematical1 nor can we even say with any assurance when it ended1 but the probabilities are that as early as the opening of the ,christian era the ,pueblos had begun to gather together into larger settlements1 to develop the closely-knit community life1 and the many-storied terraced style of architecture which typify the golden age of their existence4 ,between that time and #ajjj or #aajj ,a4,d4 the more or less uniform early culture split up into distinct and often highly specialized local sub-cultures1 each of which followed its own line of growth in house-building1 pottery-making1 and the minor arts4 ,it was during this general phase of ,southwestern history that there came into being the great pueblos and cliff-dwellings that housed entire villages3 ,pueblo ,bonito and the other ,chaco ,canyon towns2 the cliffhouses of the ,mesa ,verde and of the ,kayenta country2 the enormous adobe constructions such as ,casa ,grande on the ,gila and ,casas ,grandes in ,chihuahua4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c ,,old ,,modern ,,decorated ,,ware a4 ,acoma4 b4 ,zui4 c4 ,sia4 d4 ,hopi4 e4 ,san ,ildefonso4 f4 ,tesuque4 g4 ,santo ,domingo4 h4 ,cochiti4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #d ,,old ,,pieces ,,from ,,san ,,ildefonso a1 b4 ,black-on-buff4 c1 d4 ,polished black4 ,to describe the many different wares of the classic ,pueblo period would entail far more space than is available in this introduction4 ,brief accounts of the more important styles are included in the first paper of the present series1#b and a handbook of ,southwestern pottery will1 it is hoped1 appear as a subsequent number4 ,a single ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,black-on-white bowls of classic ,pueblo period4 a4 ,chaco ,canyon4 b4 ,mimbres ,valley4 c4 ,upper ,gila ,river4 d4 ,mesa ,verde4 illustration 7fig4 #c7 must suffice to show the bewildering variety and the high artistic perfection which were reached at this time4 ,it seems ordained that periods of high achievement shall be followed by periods of slackening and even atrophy4 ,so it was with the ,pueblos4 ,the years between about #ajjj ,a4,d4 and the ,spanish invasion of #aedj were evidently a time of tribulation4 ,the formerly prosperous communities of the ,north and the ,south were abandoned1 the population shrank1 the arts degenerated1 and when ,coranado entered the ,southwest he found the ,pueblos occupying a mere fraction of their former range4 ,what brought about this decline is not surely known1 droughts1 intertribal wars1 pestilences1 inbreeding1 may all have been in part responsible2 but its principal cause was probably the ever-increasing attacks of nomadic enemies4 ,at all events ,pueblo culture of the sixteenth century was not what it had been in the past1 and pottery making suffered with the other arts4 ,by that time the beautiful and elaborate1 but difficult1 corrugated technique had been given up1 and cooking vessels had become mere unornamented pots2 black-on-white ware with its handsome1 intricate geometric decoration had long been extinct1 replaced by various local styles1 few of which equalled it in technical excellence or artistic perfection4 ,as a matter of fact the ceramic products of the historic period are very little known4 ,in old times pottery formed an essential accompaniment of the dead1 hence at nearly every prehistoric ruin may be found a burial place richly stocked with mortuary vessels4 ,with the arrival of the priests1 however1 missions and ,catholic cemeteries were established1 all interments took place under the supervision of the ,padres1 and no more bowls or ollas went into the graves4 ,pottery1 of course1 is short-lived1 few vessels1 other than reverently guarded ceremonial jars1 can be expected to escape breakage for more than a generation or two1 and so we have practically no material to illustrate the changes which took place between the ,conquest and the present day4 ,much will eventually be learned in regard to seventeenth and eighteenth century ,pueblo pottery1 but the work will have to be done largely on the basis of sherds from the rubbish heaps of the older towns1 and such broken pieces as may be found under the fallen walls of abandoned dwellings4 ,we can1 however1 supplement this research by working backwards1 so to speak1 from the modern wares4 ,if we can acquire a thorough knowledge of them it will be much easier to understand the fragmentary material we shall have to deal with in studying the early historic period4 ,we should accordingly collect all possible data as to the wares turned out in recent years at the various pottery-making ,pueblos4 ,the term pottery-making ,pueblos is used advisedly1 for1 queerly enough1 no pottery is manufactured at a number of the towns4 ,if this condition had come about within the last decade it would be easy to account for1 as tin oil cans for holding water1 enamelled pots for cooking1 and china dishes for serving food have lately been pushing native pottery out of use4 ,but no pottery1 other than rough cooking ware1 has been made for a long time at ,taos1 ,picuris1 ,san ,felipe1 ,jemez1 and ,sandia2 while the art is practically or wholly extinct at ,laguna1 ,isleta1 and ,santa ,ana4 ,potters occasionally marry into these towns and continue to exercise their craft1 but they seem to have no disciples among their daughters or among the local tribeswomen4 ,at all the other ,pueblos1 however1 potting is still carried on1 but in most cases with a decreasing output and a lamentable degeneration in technique4 ,the vessels1 being mostly made to sell to tourists or curio dealers1 are carelessly fashioned1 crudely decorated1 and insufficiently fired4 ,good contemporary pieces ,illustration3 ,,plate #e ,,old ,,modern ,,san ,,ildefonso ,,wares a1 c1 d4 ,polychrome4 b1 e4 ,black-on-red4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f ,courtesy ,k4 ,m4 ,chapman ,,present-,,day ,,polychrome ,,ware ,,by ,,maria ,,martinez are becoming rare1 and the older vessels1 which are naturally the best material for study1 are now almost gone from the villages4 ,some pieces1 however1 are still left1 and many more are in the hands of ,mexicans and ,americans living in the ,southwest4 ,these should be got into the custody of museums as rapidly as possible1 for pottery is fragile stuff and every year sees the breakage of many unreplacable old vessels4 ,excellent work in collecting and preserving the older pieces is being done by certain residents of ,santa ,fe1 who have organized the 8,southwestern ,pottery ,fund04 ,in spite of limited resources they have got together a most remarkable collection from the ,eastern pueblos1 and are constantly adding to it as specimens come into the market4 ,a plate showing a typical example of old modern decorated ware from each of the pottery-making pueblos is here given1 in order that the reader may appreciate the striking differences which obtain 7pl4 #c72 ,san ,ildefonso vessels of this period are illustrated elsewhere 7pls4 #d1 #e74 ,in closing this introduction something should be said of the older ,san ,ildefonso wares1 and of the remarkable renaissance which has led to the high artistic achievements of the present-day potters4 ,of the pottery made at ,san ,ildefonso during the early historic period we have as yet no definite knowledge1 but from the fact that the sherds at the ruined pueblo of ,cuyamong1 a ,tewa village only a few miles from ,san ,ildefonso which was abandoned in #afih1 are closely similar to the seventeenth century wares of ,pecos1 we may conclude that the ,san ,ildefonso product of that time also bore resemblance to that of ,pecos4 ,the ,pecos wares in question have as yet been but briefly described4#c ,the following are the leading varieties3 rough black cooking ware2 polished red2 polished black2 and decorated ware of two varieties1 black-on-buff1 and black-and-red-on-buff4 ,the ornamentation is in heavy black lines1 for the most part sloppily drawn1 but the designs are bold1 free1 and effective4 ,although these styles all differ to some extent from the ceramics of late nineteenth century ,san ,ildefonso1 the artistic and technical relationship of the two groups is evident at a glance4 ,the principal differences lie in the much greater amount of polished red found at ,pecos1 and in the absence from ,pecos of a black-on-red decorated ware made at ,san ,ildefonso4 ,what we know of nineteenth century ,san ,ildefonso pottery is derived from pieces found in the pueblo when collecting began about #ahgj2 and from vessels secured between that date and #aijj4 ,the oldest examples we have were thus probably not made much before #ahej1 and the great bulk of the specimens now in museums and in private hands were presumably turned out during the last third of the century4 ,this material 7aside from cooking pots1 of which the older collections contain practically no examples7 is divisible into five types1 two plain and three decorated4 ,the plain wares are polished black and polished red2 the decorated are black-on-buff1 black-and-red-on-buff 7usually called polychrome71 and black-on-red4 ,the polished black and polished red are1 as ,dr4 ,guthe brings out in greater detail below 7p4 #gd71 merely variants of the same ware--the red being produced by a preliminary burning in a more or less open fire--the black by smothering the fire with pulverized manure at a late stage in the burning4 ,vessels of both sorts were evidently made at ,san ,ildefonso during the period under discussion1 the red rarely1 the black fairly commonly4 ,it is usually supposed that the making of these wares1 particularly the polished black1 was confined to the nearby town of ,santa ,clara1 and vessels of the latter type are ordinarily referred to as 8,santa ,clara black04 ,this is a natural enough error as the ,santa ,clara turn out nothing but the polished wares1 and until the last ten years they led all the other pueblos in the excellence of their manufacture4 ,the ,indians of ,san ,ildefonso1 however1 say that they have always made polished black pottery1 and while its production may have partly or wholly lapsed during the #ij's and early #aijj's1 there is little doubt that many of the older specimens1 such as the ones here illustrated 7pl4 #d71 are actually from ,san ,ildefonso4 ,the majority of the examples of old black are large storage jars with full1 round bodies and relatively small orifices2 there are also capacious bowl-like vessels 7called by the ,mexicans cajetes71 which were used for the mixing of dough4 ,the old pieces are less meticulously finished than are those of today1 but their deep1 velvety black lustre is of even greater beauty than the extremely high polish of the modern pieces4 ,the black-on-buff decorated ware was evidently the commonest variety of nineteenth century pottery4 ,it took the form of prayer-meal bowls 7small open vessels with terraced sides72 medium-sized pots 7pl4 #c1 e72 and large storage jars 7pl4 #d74 ,the ware1 like all ,san ,ildefonso work1 is thick and heavy1 giving a 8woodeny0 sound when tapped4 ,the surface color is a creamy buff and the decoration is in deep black pigment4 ,the bottoms of all the pieces1 and the interiors of the necks of the jars1 are painted red4 ,the general nature of the elaborate designs is best brought out by the illustrations4#d ,black-and-red-on-buff or polychrome was apparently not an abundant style in old times4 ,its occurrence at ,cuyamong and at ,pecos1 however1 seem to indicate that it was always made at ,san ,ildefonso4 ,there are also in museums and private collections pieces which appear to be as old as any of the examples of non-polychrome4 ,the style was seemingly limited to bowls and small jars 7pl4 #e74 ,the ware itself is the same as the foregoing1 but various areas in the decorations 7which themselves seem to differ from those of the black-on-buff7 are filled in with a purplish red paint of very characteristic shade4 ,the red-on-black1 like the polychrome1 was not common4 ,as was said above1 it is absent from ,pecos and ,cuyamong1 therefore it is apparently of fairly recent origin in the ,rio ,grande4 ,its introduction or invention may1 indeed1 date from as recent a time as #ahej4 ,it differs from the buff wares in having a dark red slip1 much more highly polished than are the buff slips4 ,the decoration is in deep black4 ,no large pieces1 as far as ,i know1 were made1 most specimens being small globular jars without necks4 ,one of these and a vase-like vessel are illustrated 7pl4 #e74 ,such was the pottery of ,san ,ildefonso during the second half of the nineteenth century4 ,toward the end of that period1 however1 a marked degeneration set in4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g ,courtesy ,k4 ,m4 ,chapman ,,present-,,day ,,san ,,ildefonso ,,pottery a1 b4 ,black-on-red by ,antonita ,roybal4 c4 ,polychrome1 by ,maria ,martinez--one black-on-red piece by ,maximiliana ,martinez4 ,this was due to the substitution for native pottery of ,american utensils for cooking1 food-serving1 and containing water2 and to the growing tendency to produce pottery for sale to curio stores and tourists rather than for home use4 ,the black-on-buff ware and the polished black were given up entirely1 the potters concentrating on the more showy black-on-red and particularly on the polychrome4 ,in the case of the black-on-red the high gloss of the older pieces was no longer produced1 and the paint1 being neither carefully mixed nor sufficiently aged 7see p4 #bf7 developed on firing a dull1 bluish cast4 ,the polychrome also fell off in technical perfection and in artistic excellence4 ,the old1 dull1 purplish reds were replaced by brighter colors1 the designs became flamboyant1 and many ugly non-,indian vessel shapes were introduced 7fig4 #d74 ,this state of affairs went from bad to worse until1 in #aijg1 the potter's art at ,san ,ildefonso was in a thoroughly bad way4 ,a few women1 however1 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,bad examples of modern pottery--un-,indian shapes and slipshod decoration4 retained something of the old craftsmanship and were ready to profit by the opportunity which was about to present itself4 ,in #aijg ,dr4 ,e4 ,l4 ,hewett of the ,school of ,american ,research began a series of excavations in the ancient ruins of the ,pajarito ,plateau4 ,the diggers were all ,tewa ,indians from ,san ,ildefonso4 ,they proved to be excellent shovelmen1 who took a keen interest in everything they found4 ,they helped us identify many specimens which would otherwise have been puzzling1 and their comments on the pottery1 and especially on the designs1 were most illuminating4 ,the women of the ,pueblo1 when visiting camp1 often held animated discussions as to the vessels from the ruins1 and it was suggested to some who were known to be good potters1 that they attempt to revive their art1 and try to emulate the excellence of the ancient wares4 ,while the response was not immediate1 there was observable1 during the next few years1 a distinct improvement in the pottery of ,san ,ildefonso4 ,realizing the importance of this1 the authorities of the ,museum of ,new ,mexico and the ,school of ,american ,research threw themselves heartily into the task of stimulating the industry4 ,they urged the women to do better and better work1 and in particular induced them to return to the sound canons of native art4 ,some old pieces remained in the pueblo1 many others were in the ,museum1 of still others photographs were obtained4 ,these were all brought to the attention of the potters4 ,the undertaking was not an easy one1 however1 for it was difficult to get most of the women to go to the trouble of making good pieces when the tourists1 who were still the principal purchasers1 were equally or even better pleased with imitations of china water-pitchers1 ill-made raingods1 and candlesticks4 ,the problem thus resolved itself into one of supplying a market4 ,the ,museum bought many good pieces1 and ,mr4 ,chapman1 who from the beginning had been a leading spirit in the attempt at rehabilitating the art1 himself purchased large amounts of pottery1 never refusing a creditable piece1 never accepting a bad one4 ,progress was slow1 but eventually certain women1 becoming interested in their work1 made real progress both technically and artistically4 ,their products began to sell more freely and at better prices than did those of others4 ,antonita ,roybal1 ,ramona ,gonzales1 ,maximiliana ,martinez1 and ,maria ,martinez all turned out fine vessels1 the two latter being greatly aided by their husbands1 who developed into skillful decorators4 ,maria especially shone4 ,by #aiae she had far surpassed all the others1 her pots were in great demand1 and at the present time she has a ready market1 at prices which ten years ago would have seemed fantastic1 for everything she can find time to make4 ,her income is probably not less than #b1jjj4jj a year1 and following her example1 many other women are now doing fine work and are earning substantial amounts4 ,the beneficial effect of this on the pueblo has naturally been great4 ,new houses have been built1 new farm machinery1 better food1 and warmer clothing have been bought1 and1 best of all1 there has been acquired a wholesome feeling of independence and of accomplishment1 the value of which cannot be gauged in dollars and cents4 ,from the point of view of ceramics the development has been most interesting4 ,maria began with the manufacture of polychrome ware1 as that was the style most commonly being made at the time4 ,the shapes were improved1 the finish of the surfaces was given greater attention1 and the decorations were applied with a surer1 more delicate touch 7pl4 #f2 pl4 #g1 c74 ,black-on-red ware was taken in hand1 the oldtime polish was restored1 the vegetable paint properly prepared and aged 7pl4 #g1 a1 b74 ,polished black was also reintroduced2 pieces of this sort1 with their simple1 graceful shapes and high black gloss sold so well that they soon became an important product 7pl4 #h1 b74 ,in #aiba1 as ,dr4 ,guthe records 7p4 #bd71 ,maria discovered how to apply to polished vessels dull designs which give the appearance of being etched 7pl4 #h1 a74 ,this method was in its infancy when ,dr4 ,guthe made his study1 but it has since proved so remarkably successful that it bids fair to drive out completely the making of plain polished ware4 ,late in the past autumn there appeared at the ,indian ,fair in ,santa ,fe1 some pieces of a warm pinkish color1 an entirely new departure in ,san ,ildefonso pottery making1 and one which promises much of interest4 ,developments and changes in design have kept pace with the improvements in ,illustration3 ,,plate #h ,courtesy ,k4 ,m4 ,chapman ,,present-,,day ,,polished ,,black ,,wares technique1 yet the development has been purely ,indian1 and the basic processes of today are essentially the same as they were a hundred or a thousand years ago4 ,a somewhat similar revival has taken place at the ,hopi towns in ,arizona4 ,in #ahig ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,fewkes of the ,bureau of ,ethnology was excavating the ruin of ,sikyatki near ,first ,mesa4 ,nampeo1 a woman of ,hano1 the wife of one of the workmen1 observed the beautiful old bowls that came from the graves1 skillfully copied their designs and then searched out beds of clay that could be burned to the exact shades of the ancient pieces4 ,her work was a direct imitation of a lost style rather than a development1 such as ,maria's1 of a current one2 but the effect has been no less extraordinary4 ,nampeo's bowls and ollas were so attractive that they sold well2 they were copied by other women for sale and for their own use1 and thus the potter's art of the ,hopi was not only greatly stimulated but also radically changed4 ,in addition to their economic importance1 the cases of ,san ,ildefonso and ,hopi are of great interest as anthropological phenomena4 ,the stimulus at both places was of course partly commercial1 but it could scarcely have acted without an inherent capacity for rapid artistic and technical progress among the ,indians themselves1 nor could it possibly have brought about such great results without the inspiring example of exceptionally gifted leaders4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite conceivable that other stimuli1 as the discovery of new clays of surpassing excellence1 or of fine new pigments1 may have proved equally potent in ancient times1 and that some of the striking mutations in pottery making1 which have so puzzled archaeologists1 may have been originally started by such discoveries1 and been brought to fruition by the genius of prehistoric ,marias and ,nampeos4 ,a4 ,v4 ,,kidder ,director ,pecos ,expedition ,,pueblo ,,pottery ,,making ,,by ,,carl ,e4 ,,guthe ,the ,pueblo of ,san ,ildefonso is a ,tewa village of about one hundred people1 situated on the east bank of the ,rio ,grande some twenty miles northeast of ,santa ,fe1 ,new ,mexico4 ,san ,ildefonso was chosen for the present study because its women have always been skillful potters1 and under the wise and friendly encouragement of the authorities of the ,school of ,american ,research at ,santa ,fe have of recent years been steadily improving in their work without1 however1 sacrificing any of their native methods4 ,furthermore1 they make more varieties of pottery than are turned out at any other one village4 ,last1 and in some ways most important1 the men of ,san ,ildefonso have for a long time been accustomed to work in the various excavations carried on by the ,school1 cordial relations have been established1 the confidence of the ,indians has been thoroughly won1 and ,i did not encounter that reticence toward strangers1 so characteristic of the ,rio ,grande ,pueblos1 because ,i was known to be a friend of their friends4 ,to the ,pueblo woman pottery making is simply one of the mechanical household tasks1 just as dishwashing is among us4 ,nearly every woman at ,san ,ildefonso is a potter1 good1 bad1 or indifferent4 ,in two cases1 at least1 women have developed into real artists1 and are relieved of other household duties in order to devote their time to pottery making4 ,each potter of today watched her mother make innumerable pots while she was growing up1 and now with a family of her own1 she makes pottery just as did her mother4 ,many steps and small details are carried out for no other reason than that the mother used to do likewise4 ,obviously every potter has her own technique1 which differs slightly from that of others4 ,the daughters in one family work in more nearly the same manner than outsiders1 because they all have had the same teacher4 ,in this report the attempt has been made not only to record the essential steps in the making of pottery1 but also to note individual variations as an index of the amount of latitude a given process may permit4 ,because religion and ceremony play so important a role in the everyday life of the ,pueblo ,indians1 it is certain that there must be involved in the making of pottery and particularly in its decoration1 a mass of esoteric beliefs and practises4 ,the ,pueblos1 however1 are so loath to refer in any way to the mystical side of their existence1 and1 if it is even mentioned1 at once become so suspicious1 that it seemed best to steer clear of all allusion to such matters4 ,the present report1 therefore1 confines itself to a description and discussion of the purely technical side of the potter's art4 ,the writer is indebted to the staff of the ,school of ,american ,research1 especially to ,mr4 ,kenneth ,m4 ,chapman1 for the facilities given for and the interest shown in the work2 also to the ,governor of ,san ,ildefonso1 ,juan ,gonzales1 for his cordial coperation4 ,of the eight informants used1 ,maria1 wife of ,julian ,martinez1 and ,antonita1 wife of ,juan ,cruz ,roybal1 should specially be mentioned because of their constant patience1 and their willingness to answer the many questions which to them must often have seemed absurd4 ,thanks are also due to the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york1 for the photographs of pottery making at ,zui 7pls4 #bh-ca7 which are introduced in this paper for comparative purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #i ,,winnowing ,,clay a4 ,hand method4 ,as the material is sifted through the uplifted hands1 the wind blows the fine1 pure clay upon the shawl at the left1 while the heavier impurities drop back on the pile4 b4 ,basket method4 ,the clay is repeatedly tossed upward from the basket1 until all the fine particles have been blown out and have fallen upon the shawl4 ,,raw ,,materials2 ,,collection1 ,,and ,,preparation ,,ingredients ,red ,clay#e ,the region most often visited for obtaining this clay is directly south of ,san ,ildefonso1 about a quarter of a mile from the village itself1 in the arroyos of the low hills4#f ,the deposit lies directly under a sandstone ledge and spreads over a considerable area4 ,the clay is in the form of soft earth1 easily scooped up with the hand4 ,in gathering it the ,indians first scrape off the top half-inch or so1 which contains impurities such as small pebbles and twigs4 ,when an area from two to three feet in diameter has been cleared in this way1 the clay itself is scooped into a loose pile in the centre of the space1 and transferred by the cupped hands into a woman's shawl or a gunny-sack1 and so transported to the house on the back4#g ,one method of cleaning the clay may be used either at the beds or at home4 ,the material is winnowed like wheat to remove small pebbles and fine gravel1 either of which will ruin a vessel4 ,the larger impurities are of course picked out by hand4 ,the cloth containing the clay is placed in front of the woman and a second cloth or shawl is spread on the ground to leeward of her4 ,a gusty wind requires several shiftings of the shawl1 to the woman's evident annoyance4 ,a double handful is lifted and allowed to sift through the fingers2 the fine particles and dust are blown upon the shawl by the wind1 while the heavier pieces fall again upon the pile of uncleaned clay 7pl4 #i1 a74 ,the height to which the hands are lifted1 varying from three to five feet1 the speed of the movements1 and the rapidity with which the material is allowed to sift through the fingers1 all depend upon the force of the wind4 ,sometimes1 instead of lifting the clay in the hands1 it is allowed to flow over the side of a shallow basket tilted toward the woman at the level of her shoulder2 the coarser particles fall straight down in front of her on the pile of uncleaned clay4 ,another variation is to toss the clay into the air from a shallow basket 7pl4 #i1 b74 ,the movement is repeated quickly and rhythmically2 the wind as before blowing the fine stuff on the shawl1 while the coarse particles fall back into the basket4 ,after this tossing has been repeated a dozen or more times1 the residue1 which consists mostly of coarse impurities1 is thrown away4 ,the process occupies approximately half an hour1 depending somewhat upon the amount of clay handled4 ,the cleaned clay1 which is now ready for mixing1 is by no means entirely dust2 it contains no lumps1 but flaky particles fully three-sixteenths of an inch across are often found in it4 ,if at the time of gathering the wind is not strong enough for winnowing1 the uncleaned clay is brought to the house4 ,here it may be kept for a windy day1 or may at once be sifted through an ordinary kitchen sieve of medium large mesh4 ,the clay1 when cleaned1 may be stored in a variety of receptacles 7pottery vessels1 sacks1 or boxes71 or1 if it is the intention of the woman to use it within a few days1 it is simply left in the shawl4 ,during the fall the ,indians gather great quantities of clay1 and pile it on the floor in the corner of a room for use during the winter when the clay beds are frozen4 ,the preparation of the clay for use consists of two processes1 mixing and kneading4 ,the mixing1 which as a rule immediately precedes the kneading1 consists of the addition of temper 7see page #ba74 ,this is done while both ingredients are dry4 ,different varieties of clay are not mixed together4 ,the work is done on a piece of canvas1 an opened cement-sack1 or the inner side of a skin 7usually that of a goat or dog74#h ,either the clay or the temper may be put on the mixing surface first2 the other ingredient is then added1 and the whole is sifted through the fingers until the mass is uniform in color4 ,the ,indians have no definite idea of the necessary proportions4 ,they judge simply by the color of the resulting mixture4 ,the proportions used by three different informants seemed to be about one-third temper and two-thirds clay4 ,before mixing1 the clay is reddish brown2 the addition of temper lightens the color several shades4 ,the scrapings from partly finished vessels 7see page #ed7 and the ground-up fragments of pots which have cracked badly in the course of sun-drying are used a second time4 ,this re-used clay1 since it already has temper in it1 does not need to be mixed over again4 ,it is mingled with newly mixed clay just before kneading1 or is kneaded by itself1 as occasion demands4 ,the kneading is usually done on the same canvas or skin that was used for the mixing4 ,if a large amount of clay is to be treated at one time1 a quantity of water is poured into a hollow formed in the centre of the pile4 ,later1 as the worked clay or paste approaches the proper consistency1 water is sprinkled over it with one hand1 just as clothes are sprinkled1 at first copiously1 later more sparingly4 ,at the beginning1 the entire mass is kneaded until the water has been thoroughly absorbed4 ,when the paste is wet1 it becomes of course considerably darker4 ,it is then divided into masses which can easily be handled1 about the size of two large loaves of white bread4 ,the woman works the paste to a uniform consistency in exactly the same way that dough is kneaded 7pl4 #ab1 a71 and piles the masses1 now ready for use in moulding1 on a board or canvas1 covering then with a piece of cloth to keep them damp until they come under the potter's hands4 ,the consistency is that of putty1 just dry enough to crack if pinched4 ,the mixing and kneading can be completed in half an hour4#i ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj a4 ,indian digging material for tempering pottery from an outcrop near the village4 b4 ,guaco1 or ,rocky ,mountain ,bee ,plant1 from the juice of which is made black paint for decorating pottery4 ,white ,clay ,white clay is used interchangeably with red1 but the two are never mixed4 ,it is obtained in the bad-lands to the northeast of ,san ,ildefonso1 from the side of an arroyo at some distance from the village4 ,the ,indians dig it1 bring it home1 and prepare it in exactly the same manner as the red clay4 ,the color1 when dry1 is greyish white2 when wet1 brownish grey4 ,temper ,the ,indians of ,san ,ildefonso obtain their tempering material from outcrops along the ,santa ,fe-,espaola road1 in the vicinity of the landmark known as ,camel ,rock4 ,near the crest of the first high hill crossed by the road north of ,camel ,rock1 just west of the road1 in the eastern bank of the cut of the old abandoned road1 is a small cave made by the digging of this temper 7pl4 #aj1 a74 ,there is another outcrop in the ridge of which ,camel ,rock is a part4 ,this mineral is a very light grey in color4 ,when freshly exposed to the air it is soft and crumbly--fragments as large as the fist can be crushed in the hand--but after being exposed for some time it hardens4 ,when chopped out with an axe or hatchet it takes the form of small fragments and fine powder4 ,there are veins and nodules of a hard yellow rock in the stratum1 which are chopped out and thrown away4 ,the source of the temper is at such a distance from the pueblo that trips to it are made only at long intervals when a large quantity is secured in cement-bags1 and carried home in a wagon4 ,two cement-bags may be filled with from fifteen to twenty minutes' work at the quarry4 ,some of the ,indians1 while still at the quarry1 pound the temper with an axe or hatchet1 or a stone1 to break the larger pieces and remove the coarser impurities4 ,others wait to clean it until reaching the house4 ,in the latter case the temper is spread on a cloth or skin2 the skin being preferred as offering a smoother1 more resistant surface4 ,it is then broken up by trampling it with moccasined feet4 ,formerly the ,indians ground the temper on their metates4 ,the final step in the preparation is to pass the material through a sieve to remove the smaller impurities such as sand and crushed rock4 ,before the sieve was known1 the ,indians spread the temper in a very thin layer on a board or skin1 and went over it carefully and painstakingly with their fingers1 feeling for any slight irregularities or rough places4 ,the temper when cleaned is a fine powder1 which looks and feels like dry cement4 ,it is stored in old cement-bags ready to be mixed with the clay4 ,the purpose of the addition of tempering material is to counteract the tendency of the pure clay to crack during the shrinkage that takes place in sun-drying and in firing4 ,if1 however1 there is too much temper1 the clay becomes 8short0 and loses its adhesiveness4 ,the ,indians understand this fully1 for if vessels crack badly during sun-drying1 they are ground up1 and more temper is added to the paste before it is used again2 if1 on the other hand1 a pot will not retain its shape while being moulded1 it is pulled down1 more dry clay added to the paste1 and the mass rekneaded4#aj ,cooking-,vessel1 or ,apache1 ,clay ,this is very different from the two other kinds of clays used4 ,it is light brown in color1 with a large quantity of fine mica flakes in it#aa2 it also has a distinctive odor4 ,when wet it smells cleaner and fresher than the red or white clay1 like a newly plowed field after a shower4 ,some of the ,san ,ildefonso ,indians obtain this clay from ,las ,truchas1 a mountain district to the northeast of the village#ab2 others get it from ,santa ,fe ,canyon4 ,it is dug either with the hand or with a small stick1 and is brought to the pueblo in the form of small lumps4 ,while still in this condition1 it is stored in vessels or bags4 ,the preparation for use is very different from that of the other clays4 ,the lumps are put in a receptacle1 such as an enameled washbasin1 and sufficient water is added to saturate them4 ,if too much water has been mixed in1 the mass is put in the sun to dry out for a while4 ,after the clay has been thoroughly softened by the water1 the next step is to remove the pebbles4 ,a small handful is carefully and slowly squeezed and kneaded in the left hand1 while the thumb and forefinger of the right are used to pick out the numerous small pebbles as they are encountered4 ,after most of these have been removed1 the clay is put on a canvas or skin1 and a small part of it at a time is flattened out with the heel of the right hand1 pressing away from the body1 and against the cloth or skin so as to produce a very thin layer1 in which the smaller pebbles are readily felt and from which they can easily be eliminated4 ,finally when this has been done with all the clay1 the whole mass is kneaded together1 just as the red and white clays are kneaded4 ,when a uniform consistency has been attained--that of putty--the mass is ready for use4 ,the removal of pebbles and the kneading consume from one-half to three-quarters of an hour4 ,the pebbles which have been removed are placed in a small lard-pail containing water1 and when the clay adhering to them has dissolved1 they are thrown away and the clayey water is used in the process of moulding the paste4 ,the most important difference between this clay and the others is that no temper of any kind is mixed with it2 the clay1 after being cleaned1 is used in the vessels just as it came out of the claypit4 ,the fine mica flakes probably act as temper4 ,,slips ,,and ,,paints ,native ,slip#ac ,this is a white1 flaky1 fairly soft mineral1 which is used in solution to give a white outer coating to the bodies of vessels4 ,it is found at some distance from the pueblo1 beyond the bad-lands which are visible to the northeast4 ,when the ,indians reach the place they pick up small sticks to use as digging tools1 but if the deposit happens to be soft enough1 the material is merely scooped out with the hand4 ,it is carried home in shawls or bags1 and placed in the sun to dry thoroughly2 then stored in pottery vessels1 usually ollas4 ,it receives no further treatment at this time4 ,when preparing it for use1 the ,indians simply place it in water as it is1 in small lumps4 ,the container is either a small pottery vessel or an enamelled basin4 ,a sufficient amount is mixed with the water to give it the color of milk1 but not to thicken it4 ,occasionally the consistency of thin cream is obtained4 ,undissolved lumps remain in the solution4 ,santo ,domingo ,slip ,this substance1 known to the ,indians of ,san ,ildefonso either as 8,santo ,domingo white0 or 8,cochiti white01 is usually obtained from the ,santo ,domingo people2 it is dug1 according to some informants1 in the same manner as the native slip4 ,in color and general appearance it is exactly like the latter1 but its surface feels more soapy4 ,santo ,domingo slip has largely replaced the native product1 because when applied it does not need to be polished with a stone1 as does the native slip4 ,it is prepared for use in exactly the same manner as the native slip4 ,red ,slip ,this is a rather loose red earth1 which is dug either with the hands or1 if conditions demand it1 with a small stick4 ,the ,san ,ildefonso ,indians obtain it near ,santa ,fe1 but not all of the women know the exact location of the beds4 ,one informant said it was found in ,santa ,fe ,canyon1 east of the town1 a short distance below the ,apache clay beds1 at a spot where the convicts from the ,penitentiary get material for their bricks4 ,there are three different colors of clay at this place1 red1 yellow1 and white4 ,the red is the clay under discussion4 ,the white is used to color the women's moccasins4#ad ,this slip is handled in much the same manner as the other clays4 ,it is brought home in the usual receptacles--either shawls or bags--and placed in the sun to dry thoroughly4 ,it is then stored1 usually in ollas or other earthenware vessels1 without further treatment4 ,there are two ways of preparing red slip for use1 according to the kind of vessel for which it is intended4 ,for polished black ware1 it is simply mixed to a thin solution with water4 ,for decorated red ware1 the process is slightly complicated4 ,at some previous time1 equal parts of temper and native slip have been mixed in water and allowed to dry in cakes4 ,when desired for use on a vessel1 the cakes are broken and redissolved in water4 ,a sufficient amount is put in to give the water an opaque1 milky color1 but not to thicken it4 ,to this mixture is added a thin solution of the red slip4 ,there is1 apparently1 no definite rule in regard to the amount of the red solution to be added4 ,the woman simply puts in enough to give to the slip1 when applied to a pot1 the proper shade of red4 ,in some cases this mixing of the red and white is done once for all at the beginning of the application of the red slip4 ,in other cases the woman has a bowl of each solution beside her1 and from time to time1 as she works1 adds some of the red to the white4 ,in each bowl lumps of the undissolved substances still remain4 ,occasionally the slip is stirred to the consistency of cream1 but nearly always it has that of water4 ,orange-,red ,slip ,this substance is a yellow clayey earth1 in texture somewhat like the two white slips4 ,it occurs in the 8,valle0 to the west1 beyond the first ,jemez range1 near ,ojo ,caliente4 ,it is dug with a stick1 in the same manner as the native white1 and is carried home in shawls and bags4 ,before being stored it is put out in the sun to dry thoroughly1 then placed in ollas and kept until needed4 ,like the other slips1 it is prepared for use by being mixed with water4 ,a saturated solution is made1 but the consistency remains that of water4 ,this material1 which in solution is a brilliant yellow1 is used for two purposes--as a slip to color the bases of bowls and ollas1 and as a paint to supply the red elements of polychrome designs4 ,after being fired it assumes an orange-red or burnt-sienna color4#ae ,black ,ware ,paint ,this is a paint used for making matte designs on polished black ware1 a new departure in decorative technique first used by ,maria and ,julian ,martinez of ,san ,ildefonso1 in ,june1 #aiba4 ,the substance is a hard yellow stone1 said to occur in the 8,valle01 west of the ,jemez range1 near ,ojo ,caliente1 in the same district as the orange-red paint4 ,the first step in preparing the paint for use is to scrape the stone with a knife4 ,the resulting powder is mixed with water1 and there is then added about one-fourth as much dissolved 8guaco0 7see below7 as there is paint4 ,it is said that the purpose of the guaco is to make the paint 8stick0 to the polished surface4 ,this paint1 when ready for use1 is kept in a small earthenware or china dish4 ,the consistency of the mixture1 like the other paints1 is that of water4 ,black or ,guaco ,paint ,this is the only vegetable paint used by the ,san ,ildefonso ,indians for the decoration of their pottery4 ,it is obtained from a very common weed1 known as the ,rocky ,mountain ,bee ,plant1 or ,guaco1#af which grows in the moister flats of this district in great profusion4 ,it flowers late in ,july and early ,august1 and the seedpods open toward the first of ,september4 ,the ,indians say it grows at a given place only in alternate years4 ,in favorable spots the plants attain a height of five or six feet 7pl4 #aj1 b74 ,the plant is gathered during ,april and ,may1 when the shoots are only six to ten inches high1 and therefore tender4 ,great quantities of it are carried home in shawls and bags4 ,it is placed with water in ,apache-clay cooking-pots1 and is boiled over an open fire1 never on a stove4 ,as guaco has a bitter taste 78hot like pepper01 the women describe it7 when not cooked sufficiently1 it is necessary to boil it until this unpleasant flavor has disappeared4 ,over a hot fire half a day is long enough1 but often a whole day is required4 ,then the liquid is drained into wide-mouthed earthen vessels and placed in the sun to harden into a solid1 black1 rather sticky1 mass4 ,some women reboil the liquid until it thickens1 before placing it in the sun4 ,metal containers are not used1 because they are said to spoil the color4 ,the informants stated that hardened guaco was not eaten4 ,when it has become completely solidified it is set away for future use in painting4 ,it will keep indefinitely4 ,the residue in the pot1 after the liquid has been poured off consists of tender stems and leaves4 ,this is eaten by the ,indians1 and is not unlike spinach4 ,the hardened guaco juice is stored at least a year before it is used in painting2 the longer it is kept the better black it produces4 ,if it is used during the first year1 the resulting color on the vessel is a streaky blue-black4 ,guaco is prepared for use in painting in the same manner as the other pigments4 ,a chunk of the hardened mass is broken off and dissolved in water4 ,one informant makes a solution which1 although black1 has the consistency of water4 ,the others use a syrupy solution almost like thin molasses4 ,the paint has a distinctive1 not unpleasant1 vegetable odor1 and is rather sticky4 ,any small1 wide-mouthed ,indian bowl1 not too shallow1 is used as a paint-cup4 ,in this bowl there is always a stirring-stick1 usually a splinter from a board4 ,,fuel ,manure ,both cow-manure and horse-manure are used for fuel in burning pottery1 but sheep-dung1 when obtainable1 is preferred1 because it is thought to make a hotter fire4 ,the cow-manure is collected from the corrals1 and while still soft is patted into large circular cakes1 sixteen to twenty inches in diameter4 ,these1 after being hardened in the sun1 are stored in a dry room until needed4 ,such circular cakes1 with the hand-prints showing1 are usually employed for making the top of the oven4 ,the horse-manure is obtained from the corrals in the early spring1 where during the winter it has been trampled down by the horses into a compact layer a foot or more thick4 ,when the corrals are cleaned during ,april this deposit is cut with an axe into chunks roughly two feet square4 ,after being removed1 the squares are split with an axe into slabs several inches thick1 which are then stood up against the bases of house or barn walls to dry in the sun1 and later stored indoors until needed4 ,disused bread-ovens sometimes serve as temporary storage places4 ,further splitting of the slabs may be done at the time of firing4 ,when used in the ovens the slabs are from one to two inches thick4 ,sometimes the slabs of manure are placed in the sun for a day or two before being burned1 but often they are taken directly from the store-room to the fire1 where they are supplemented by dried manure collected from the pastures4 ,during the burning of polished black ware 7see p4 #gd7 the oven is smothered with loose manure1 which is brought in galvanized washtubs directly from the stables and corrals1 either at the time of burning1 or on the preceding day4#ag ,kindling ,for starting the fire in the oven no wood but cedar is ever used4 ,this is cut into pieces from six to eighteen inches long and is split into fine kindling at the time of burning4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa ,gourd spoons1 or kajepes1 used to shape and smooth the walls of vessels4 ,,paraphernalia ,,primary ,,paraphernalia ,earthenware ,moulds or 8,pukis0 ,these moulds are usually the bases of broken bowls or ollas4 ,occasionally pieces of pottery are made especially for moulds2 in such cases1 although they are fired1 they are neither finished carefully nor decorated4 ,when a mould is to be used1 a small amount of temper or wood ashes is placed in it1 so that the vessel being moulded will not stick to it4#ah ,gourd ,moulding ,spoons or 8,kajepes0 ,these spoon-like implements 7pl4 #aa7 are made from pieces of gourd-rind1 usually from broken rattles or dippers4 ,they vary greatly in size1 ranging in diameter from a little over one inch to as much as four1 or four and a half1 inches4 ,there are also many different shapes3 round1 several forms of ovals1 and a few which have one concave edge4 ,the various shapes are used for the different parts of the vessels4 ,as a general rule the larger kajepes are used on the larger vessels4 ,each woman has from four to a dozen of these implements1 which are distinctly individual1 for one potter shows awkwardness in handling the spoons of another4 ,it is said that potsherds were formerly used for the same purpose as these gourd spoons4#ai ,scrapers ,two kinds of scrapers are used at the present time4 ,one is the top of a baking-powder can1 which is popular because its shape makes it possible to apply it to any part of a vessel4 ,the other scraper is an ordinary kitchen case-knife4 ,the scraping of the vessels is done after they have been dried in the sun4 ,it is said that potsherds1 with edges sharpened on a piece of sandstone1 were formerly used4 ,polishing ,stones ,very smooth1 fine-grained pebbles of various colors are used to put the final finish on certain kinds of pottery4 ,they vary considerably in size1 from three-quarters of an inch long to three1 or even three and a half1 inches4 ,it is impossible to classify them by shape1 except that the larger ones are usually more flat than spherical4 ,most of the stones appear to be waterworn pebbles1 without any acute angles or sharp edges4 ,usually two surfaces of the stone are highly polished1 most frequently at the ends1 where they come in contact with the vessel4 ,some specimens show signs of great wear4 ,each potter has several polishing stones1 the number varying from seven to sixteen2 they are distinctly the personal property of the potter1 and apparently have a semi-sacred significance4 ,for the most part they are heirlooms1 handed down from mother to daughter1 but additional stones are picked up from ruins which the potters have visited4 ,one informant has four stones which her mother gave her1 and three which she found at the ruined pueblo of ,puy4 ,another informant uses a stone that belonged to her great-grandmother1 although her favorite is a small one which she found herself at a nearby ruin4 ,stones are sometimes lent by one potter to another1 but they very seldom find their way outside the family group4#bj ,paint ,brushes ,these brushes are narrow slivers of the leaves of yucca or soapweed1 from five to six inches long1 and from an eighth to a quarter of an inch wide4 ,for a distance ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,slivers of yucca leaf with shredded ends1 used as paint brushes for decorating pottery4 of about an inch from one end1 the fibres are chewed and thus separated4 ,most of the chewed fibres are then cut off1 and the number remaining determines the fineness of the point 7fig4 #e74 ,for very thin lines a brush of only one fibre is used4 ,when out of service1 the brushes are kept in some receptacle which will protect the shredded ends4 ,when the implement is dry the chewed fibres become stiff and rather brittle1 and must be handled with care2 before using they are soaked in water for two or three minutes in order to soften them4#ba ,,secondary ,,paraphernalia ,carrying and ,storing ,receptacles ,the receptacles used for bringing clays and other ingredients from the pits to the village vary somewhat according to the distance that the material must be carried4 ,if the beds are close at hand1 the material is placed in a shawl spread flat on the ground4 ,the shawl is then picked up1 the corners are tied1 and the bundle is carried on the back4 ,sometimes gunny-sacks and cement-sacks are used instead4 ,if the beds are at some distance from the pueblo1 the material is placed in sacks and brought home in the body of a wagon4 ,as a rule the ingredients brought home in shawls are transferred to sacks or boxes for storage4 ,paints are kept in ollas1 with the exception of the guaco paint1 which is allowed to remain in the bowl in which it is dried4 ,mixing ,surfaces ,whenever ingredients are to be mixed or crushed1 the work is done upon some sort of extra surface laid upon the floor4 ,this surface is about a yard square1 and may be1 apparently1 of any suitable material--a bit of old canvas1 an opened-out cement-sack1 or a small skin such as that of a goat or dog4 ,similar surfaces also serve for mixing clay and temper1 for cleaning temper1 for mixing the paste with water and kneading it1 and finally for holding the kneaded clay during moulding4 ,partly finished vessels are placed upon such a surface at various stages of construction4 ,for winnowing clay1 the women's shawls are used4 ,boards ,no boards are placed beneath the pukis1 or moulding trays1 while they are being used on the hard floor of the house1 but in the courtyard boards are used under them in order that holes may not be worn in the ground during the constant turning necessary in moulding vessels4 ,when small vessels are completed they are placed in rows on a board1 where they remain during the early stages of the drying process4 ,rectangular1 flat-bottomed vessels are built directly on boards1 or on low footstools made of short boards with legs at each end4 ,water ,containers ,while the potter is at work1 she always has beside her a small lard-pail partly filled with water1 which serves to keep the kajepes damp1 to moisten parts of the vessel1 and from time to time to clean her hands4 ,when the kajepes are not in use1 they are usually placed in the pail4 ,at ,san ,ildefonso such a pail is now the only form of water-container2 formerly pottery bowls were probably used4 ,mops for ,slips ,these mops are the same for all slips4 ,each consists of a rag1 folded and refolded until it is about an inch or an inch and a half wide and from two to two and a half inches long4 ,one end of the rag or mop is held between the thumb and the first two fingers of either hand2 the other end serves as a wide paint brush4 ,the potters state that in former times a piece of leather or skin served the same purpose as the cloth mop4#bb ,paint ,receptacles ,various receptacles hold the slips and paints that are ready for use4 ,the white slips are usually mixed and kept in enamelled basins and pans1 because a large quantity is prepared at one time4 ,the red and orange-red slips may be in small pottery bowls1 or in china sauce-dishes4 ,the guaco is invariably in an ,indian bowl4 ,undoubtedly at one time native bowls were used exclusively1 and there may even have been bowls of special shapes or designs for this purpose2 at present1 however1 no trace of such a custom remains4 ,wiping ,rags ,wiping rags or1 more simply1 the aprons of the potters are used at various stages of the work--after scraping1 after polishing1 after the slip has dried1 and after burning4 ,apparently any convenient piece of cloth is satisfactory4 ,accessories in ,firing ,when the vessels are to be fired1 various accessories must be at hand4 ,four or more half-bricks or stones are needed upon which to set the grate4 ,the latter may be either a discarded stove-grate1 or a collection of strips of iron1 metal barrel-hoops1 and odds and ends1 placed together to form a grill4#bc ,small stones and tin cans--such as small condensed milk cans and meat cans--are needed as props to keep the fuel from touching the vessels during the burning4 ,flat pieces of tin and the covers of large lard-pails serve at times to close spaces between the fuel cakes1 and to cover the oven-top1 to support which metal rods are often used4 ,lastly1 pokers are needed to handle the fuel and to remove the hot vessels4 ,these may be wooden or iron rods1 broomsticks1 old shovels1 or even pitchforks4 ,each potter has her own collection of the above materials and implements1 stored away ready for use4 ,these collections of apparent refuse vary to a surprising extent4 ,,moulding ,for the purpose of this report the vessels may be divided into four large groups3 bowls1 ollas1 cooking vessels1 and unusual shapes4 ,with respect to size there are two classes of bowls3 those less than four inches in diameter1 and those larger than that size4 ,in shape bowls may be either wide-mouthed 7pl4 #f1 b1 g7 or constricted-mouthed 7pl4 #f1 a1 c74 ,the ollas all have full1 globular bodies and relatively small orifices with or without flaring lips 7pls4 #g1 #ae1 a74 ,as a rule1 the cooking vessels are shaped like small ollas4 ,under unusual shapes fall all the types and forms which are not of the first three classes1 such as terraced 7prayer-meal7 bowls1 double-mouthed vessels1 double bowls or 8baskets01 and vessels with handles4 ,the moulding of each of the above forms may be said to consist of four principal steps3 the making of the base1 the building of the walls1 the shaping1 and the finishing4 ,very briefly1 the process is as follows3 ,the potter first forms a pancake-shaped pat of paste from six to eight inches in diameter2 this she presses into the mould1 or puki1 to form a base4 ,then the walls of the vessel are built up by the addition of successive ropes1 or rolls1 of paste laid one upon another4 ,the small bowls are the only exception1 for they are formed in the hands of the potter from a single lump4 ,in some cases the building is done all at one time2 in others1 and always with the larger vessels1 a few rolls are added1 then the piece is set aside to dry a little before the addition of a few more rolls4 ,the potter usually builds two or more vessels at once in order to permit work upon one while the other is undergoing a brief period of drying4 ,the preliminary shaping of the vessel is done either in the course of the building or after the building has been completed4 ,the obliteration of the junctions between the rolls and of finger-marks is accomplished with the kajepe1 or gourd-spoon1 and further use of this implement aids in giving the vessel its shape4 ,the final step1 the finishing1 consists of going over the entire vessel carefully1 first with the kajepe1 then with the fingers1 to remove slight irregularities to even the lip and rim4 ,the finishing is a slow1 exacting process1 and the difference between the artist and the mere pot-maker comes out at this stage of the work4 ,the moulding1 although usually done in the house1 may also take place in some shady spot outdoors4 ,if a woman begins her moulding in the morning1 she will commonly devote the entire day to it4 ,by evening she will have completed from five to thirty vessels1 the number depending partly upon the size of the pieces and partly upon the rapidity with which she works4 ,the potter sits upon her heels on some kind of mat2 it may be a sheepskin with the wool side up1 a piece of canvas1 or a small woven rug4 ,her attitude is changed only when stiffness requires it4 ,thereupon she sits with her feet out in front of her2 or with one leg bent1 the foot flat on the ground1 the knee beside her shoulder1 and with the other leg under her or fully flexed in front with both the knee and foot upon the floor4 ,toward the end of the day the potter usually sits against a wall to rest her back1 for any one of the postures assumed is tiring4 ,at the end of the day the women frequently complain of stiff backs and sore abdominal muscles1 caused by the almost constant stooping posture4 ,some potters cover their laps with shawls1 others wear aprons1 and still others use no protection whatever for their clothing4 ,when the potter is sitting upon her heels1 the mould1 or puki1 is laid directly in front of her upon the floor4 ,if she is sitting with her legs extended1 it is either held in the lap or placed close to her right side4 ,in the house the puki rests directly upon the hard earthen floor2 outdoors1 a short board is placed under it to prevent its constant turning from wearing a hole in the relatively softer ground4 ,in the puki is sprinkled a thin layer of temper or wood-ashes to prevent the vessel from sticking to it4 ,at the right of the potter1 within arm's reach1 on a canvas or a piece of cloth1 is a mass of prepared clay4 ,rarely this reserve paste is on the left4 ,if the paste is in constant use1 it is not covered unless exposed to the sun2 when1 however1 the moulding is abandoned for even a few minutes1 a corner of the canvas or cloth is thrown over it4 ,a small lard-pail partly filled with water is an indispensable accessory during moulding4 ,this is usually kept between the potter and the paste2 occasionally it is on the left1 sometimes near the puki beside the potter's right knee4 ,the gourd moulding spoons1 or kajepes1 are also placed within easy reach1 on the floor near the puki1 beside the waterpail1 or in the pail itself4 ,the potter is then ready to begin moulding4 ,the first step is to ascertain by a little handling whether the paste is of the proper consistency4 ,if it was kneaded the day before1 it may prove to be too dry2 in such a case the hands are well moistened and perhaps a little water is sprinkled on the paste2 it is then rekneaded for a few minutes4 ,then a handful is scooped out of the mass with the right hand4 ,if the first handful is not sufficient1 a second scoop gives the required amount4 ,it is next worked with the hands for half a minute to five minutes2 if it is of just the right consistency1 it is hardly worked at all2 if it is too dry1 the hands are occasionally dipped in water while it is being worked2 if it is too wet1 kneading continues until it is sufficiently dry4 ,there are three distinct movements in this final working of the paste4 ,first1 the handful is pinched and squeezed by opening and closing the hands2 if any gritty particle is encountered1 it is picked out with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and snapped upon the floor4 ,the second movement consists in rolling the paste between the two flattened hands4 ,when the roll is about six inches long1 it is doubled and rerolled4 ,this may be repeated from two to half-a-dozen times4 ,occasionally this step is entirely omitted1 especially when a pat is being made4 ,in the third movement the paste1 now a spherical lump1 is slapped back and forth between the cupped hands1 which are held from six to eight inches apart4 ,sometimes this third movement precedes the second4 ,the handful of paste is now ready to be made into a pat4 ,there are two ways of forming a pat4 ,in the first one1 the spherical lump is held on the open left hand and pounded flat with the right fist2 from time to time it is turned a few degrees by a slight tossing motion4 ,it is then finished by patting ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab a4 ,kneading clay preparatory to modeling a vessel4 b4 ,bowl-moulding1 primary stages4 #a1 ,base formed in mould1 edge crimped to receive first roll 7cf4 pl4 #ac1 a72 #b1 ,walls built to full height2 #c1 ,the same piece after shaping and smoothing4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac a ,applying the first roll of clay to the base4 ,the roll is held in the left hand1 and is flattened and pinched into place in the inside of the rim by the fingers of the right hand4 b ,a bowl-base to which four rolls of clay have been added2 the potter is making a new roll4 ,note the junctions of the roll on the interior of the vessel4 it with the flat right hand until it is fairly smooth and of uniform thickness2 in doing this the pat is turned by slapping it from the left hand to the right and back again4 ,during this interchange1 through the natural placing of the hands1 the pat is turned through an angle of ninety to one hundred and twenty degrees4 ,when the pat has been completely formed by this method1 it is like a large pancake1 six to eight inches in diameter and from three-eighths to half an inch thick4 ,it is then pressed firmly into the puki1 and the edge is turned up and crimped with the thumb and first two fingers of each hand to form a slight rim 7pl4 #ab1 b1 #a74 ,in the second method1 the spherical lump of paste is first pounded with the heel and then with the upper knuckles of the right hand2 it is turned meanwhile by the tossing motion of the left hand4 ,the next movement is the same as in the corresponding stage of the first method1 namely1 patting the paste with the flat right hand while turning it by transferring it to the right hand and back4 ,finally1 before the pat is put into the puki1 the edge is bent up and smoothed off a little1 so that a shallow flat circular tray is formed instead of the slab obtained by the first method4 ,this tray is then placed in the puki1 where it is pressed down very firmly with either the heel of the hand or the balls of the fingers1 in order to insure a solid uniform base and to expel any air-bubbles in the paste4 ,another handful of clay is now scooped out of the mass on the canvas to the right and worked to the proper consistency as before4 ,from the resulting spherical lump the potter very skillfully forms a roll of uniform diameter by a backward and forward motion of her two hands placed palms together 7pl4 #ac1 b74#bd ,there seems to be a tendency for the first part of the roll to be of slightly smaller diameter than the last part2 if this occurs1 the roll is reversed and partially rerolled4 ,one end is then taken in the right hand1 while the left hand holds it near the other at a point chosen to prevent too much sagging at the middle4 ,the potter then places the end which is in her right hand against the inside of that part of the edge of the pat nearest her4#be ,the roll is pressed against the edge just enough to hold it in place 7see pl4 #ac1 a74 ,the thumb is on the exterior1 the fingers on the interior of the edge4 ,usually only the first two fingers are used1 although the third finger is occasionally brought into contact with the paste4 ,then1 as the puki is revolved counterclockwise1#bf the rest of the roll is pressed against the edge of the pat4 ,if the roll is not long enough completely to encircle the pat1 another is made and placed on it in a similar manner4 ,when the edge has thus been completely encircled1 the unused remainder of the roll is pinched off and tossed back on the mass of paste on the canvas4 ,the potter then pinches the roll more firmly to the edge of the pat4 ,this is done with both hands4 ,the thumbs1 almost touching1 are on the exterior1 the fingers on the interior of the vessel4 ,the puki is usually moved counterclockwise1 although the same potter will sometimes revolve it clockwise4 ,during this process of pinching1 the roll is flattened until it assumes in cross-section the shape of a very much elongated ellipse 7fig4 #f1 b74 ,an attempt is made to keep the thickness of the side as nearly uniform as possible1 and in order to accomplish this it is often necessary for the hands to be moved back over a part already flattened4 ,the diameter of the rolls1 except for cooking-pots1 varies from half an inch to slightly over an inch1 according to the size of the vessel being built1 and the individual doing the building4 ,when a roll is pressed against the interior of the rim of the growing vessel1#bg from a half to three-quarters of it lies below the level of the rim 7see fig4 #f1 a74 ,then1 when the roll is flattened1 the junction-plane between it and the preceding roll will not be horizontal1 but will slope downward sharply ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,diagramatic sections of a bowl on the mould4 a4 ,base made and first roll applied to inner side of rim4 b4 ,first roll flattened and welded on4 c4 ,second roll applied4 d4 ,second roll flattened and welded on4 from the exterior 7see fig4 #f1 b1 d71 thus producing a broad holding surface and minimizing the risk of the vessel's cracking along the junction-plane4 ,in other words1 the junction-line between any two rolls on the outside wall of the vessel is considerably higher than the corresponding line on the inside4 ,the flattened rolls1 in all but cooking-pots1 are from an inch and a half to two inches wide1 but because of the overlapping just described the distance between the junction-lines is considerably less 7see pl4 #ac1 b1 and pl4 #ae1 a74 ,during the process of flattening the roll1 some potters obliterate the junction-line on the exterior by rubbing it with the first and second finger of the right hand1 and by the addition of small pellets of paste in the more conspicuous indentations4 ,others consider it unnecessary to obliterate this line during the building of the vessel1 in spite of the fact that the roll may break away because of not being firmly welded4 ,certain women smooth the temporary rim after flattening each roll1 others do not4 ,when the flattening has been finished1 the puki has made a second complete revolution1 and the junction of the two ends of the roll is again directly in front of the potter2 but if a few additional touches are required she may again shift the puki in one direction or another4 ,no potter pays any attention whatever to the location of the junction points of the ends of the rolls2 in successive rolls1 therefore1 they may lie directly above one another1 or they may be distributed about the circumference of the vessel 7pl4 #ac1 b74 ,when one roll has been completely welded on1 flattened out1 and incorporated into the vessel1 another roll is formed1 and is applied in exactly the same manner4 ,thus the building proceeds to the height at which the shaping is begun4 ,the steps so far enumerated are the same for both bowls and ollas4 ,the further treatment of the vessel varies slightly1 according to the shape desired4 ,stevenson1 describing the moulding of vessels at ,zui1 in #ahgi1 wrote3 8,when the clayey dough is ready to be used1 a sufficient quantity is rolled into a ball4 ,the dough1 if worked by a careful artist1 is first tested as to its fitness for molding by putting a piece of the paste to the tongue1 the sensitiveness of which is such as to detect any gritty substance or particles1 when the fingers fail to do so4 ,the ball is hollowed out with the fingers into the shape of a bowl 7see pl4 #bi1 a71 this form constituting the foundation for all varieties of earthenware1 and assumes the desired form by the addition of strips of clay2 all traces of the addition of each strip are removed before another is added1#bh by the use of a small trowel fashioned from a piece of gourd or fragment of pottery1 the only tool employed in the manufacture of pottery4 ,the bottoms of old water jars and bowls form stands for the articles while being worked by the potter0 7see pl4 #bi74bi ,mrs4 ,stevenson1 writing later1 also of the ,zuis1 said3 8,in beginning the work a sufficient quantity is first made into a ball and then hollowed out with the fingers until is assumes a conventional bowl shape1 which serves as the foundation to be afterward built up and elaborated into any desired shape4 ,the vessel is then formed by the successive additions of strips of the paste long enough to encircle the bowl1 each layer being pressed on the brim with the fingers and accurately fitted1 the trowel being then skillfully used to finish the joining and to remove all traces of the original separation of the strips4 ,most of the work of remodelling the vessel into its final shape is done on the inside with a trowel1 this implement being used on the outside chiefly to smooth the surface4 ,the clay1 if it has been properly worked1 possesses sufficient tenacity and plasticity to admit of being pressed and scraped without cracking40#cj ,the following quotation is of interest as showing how closely modern studio-practice1 undoubtedly evolved experimentally1 resembles ,pueblo ,indian methods3 8,the clay for building should be rather soft as it is apt to dry quickly on handling4 ,a plaster bat 7mould7 should be made4 ,it is first necessary to roll out the clay into cords which should be a little thicker than the proposed walls are to be4 ,these cords should be as uniform as possible and should be rolled quickly to avoid undue hardening4 ,it is best to roll them as required4 ,a roll of clay is taken1 one end laid in the center of the bat and the rest is coiled around it in a spiral line4 ,when the disc so formed has reached the proper size1 the coils are gently rubbed over with the fingers until they have thoroughly united and the lines of the spiral have disappeared4 ,the clay disc may now be turned over and the rubbing continued on the other side4 ,the circle is cut true and a new coil is laid on the outer edge1 thus making a shallow circular tray4 ,in raising the walls it is best to pinch off the roll of clay when one circle has been completed1 and the new roll should be begun at another point so that all the joints will not be at the same place4 ,this plan is better than coiling a long roll in a spiral1 for in this case one side of the piece will be higher than the other4 8,after three rolls have been laid in position1 the wall1 both inside and out1 should be worked like the bottom so that the rolls will disappear and the clay be welded uniformly together4 ,this should be done without water or with as little as possible4 ,the use of water is very tempting4 ,it makes the clay so smooth and seems to help1 but it will inevitably make the work sloppy and will tend to soften the walls4 8,after three or four rolls have been worked in1 the piece should be laid aside for some hours to stiffen4 ,if this be not done the weight of the second building will cause the work to sag and fall out of shape4 ,for this reason it is well to have two or three pieces in hand at once so that there need be no waiting4 ,when the cylinder is of sufficient height it should be allowed to become quite stiff and then the irregularities should be corrected with a little soft clay which is worked into the joints4 ,the whole surface may now be gone over with tools and brought to the required finish40#ca ,before describing in detail the moulding of the various sorts of vessels1 the accidents which are associated with this process should be discussed4 ,these may result from one of two causes1 the presence of foreign matter in the paste or imperfect moulding4 ,if the clay has been carefully sifted1 as it usually is1 there should be very little foreign matter in the paste4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to remove entirely all gravel or stones fragment4 ,if gravel is allowed to remain1 it will cause the vessel-walls to scale during firing because of the difference in the rates of expansion under heat of stone and paste4 ,in order to prevent this1 the potter while moulding is constantly on the lookout for these small particles1 which may be discovered at any stage of the work4 ,they are at once picked out of the vessel1 even if it is all but finished4 ,the irregular hollow formed is then filled with a small pellet of fresh paste and smoothed over4 ,the women say that a bit of hard clay does not cause flaking as does a piece of gravel or a stone splinter4 ,another kind of foreign matter is an air-bubble1 which if left in the vessel will cause the same form of accident1 because of the difference in the rates of expansion of air and clay4 ,in order to eliminate these small air-bubbles1 the pat is pressed down hard upon the puki ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad a ,levelling and smoothing the rim of a bowl after it has been scraped with the kajepe1 or gourd spoon4 ,the left hand serves to keep the piece turning and to support the plastic wall4 b ,use of the kajepe in shaping a vessel2 the left hand supports the wall within1 while the kajepe1 held in the right hand1 thins the top of the wall and gently presses it inward4 and the rolls are carefully pinched at every point about the vessel4 ,a skillful potter is able to feel an air-bubble even if it is covered with a layer of clay3 such a bubble is pricked and the resulting hollow is filled as before4 ,if the moulding is imperfect1 that is1 if the rolls are not carefully welded1 a weak spot occurs at the junction1 which probably contains a thin layer of air4 ,when the vessel is fired1 it cracks along this line and is ruined4 ,such accidents seem to occur most commonly at the bases of large vessels1 either because the first roll was not sufficiently welded to the base1 or because the pat itself was not pressed into the puki with sufficient force4 ,since flaws between the rolls cannot be discovered until the firing1 they cannot be corrected as in the case of foreign bodies in the clay4 ,,bowls ,from two to eight rolls may be used to form a bowl1 according to its destined size and shape4 ,when the building has been completed1 the piece is in the form of a cylinder1 with sides either vertical or very slightly flaring 7pl4 #ab1 b1 #b1 and pl4 #ac1 b74 ,as a rule the fingerprints and the irregular horizontal junction-lines may be seen both on the interior and exterior4 ,the next step is the finishing of the temporary rim4 ,this is done with the right hand1 the fingers of which assume much the same position that they would for holding a pencil 7pl4 #ad1 a74 ,the thumb is on the interior of the rim1 the forefinger on the top1 and the middle finger on the outer edge4 ,the thumb and middle finger are used as guides to help keep the rim uniform in thickness4 ,the forefinger removes the paste from the higher parts of the rim and transfers it to the hollows4 ,the fingers do not move with respect to each other except to exert slight pressure4 ,the play of the right hand during this process is a gliding backward-forward motion repeated many times1 while at the same time the puki is usually kept revolving counterclockwise by the left hand1 which also is generally but not always1 used to steady the side of the vessel4 ,occasionally the same potter will turn the puki clockwise4 ,in the former case the right hand is kept in the twelve-to-two-o'clock sector2 in the latter in the six-to-eight-o'clock sector4 ,if the rim is smoothed hastily1 as it sometimes is at this stage1 the puki may not be turned at all4 ,this completes the building of the bowl1 which is then set aside for a few minutes1 while another is begun4 ,the next step is the shaping4 ,this is done with a kajepe1 or gourd spoon4 ,the kajepe should always be damp when used1 and for that reason is often kept in the water-pail4 ,it is somewhat difficult to describe in detail the use of the kajepe1 for no two potters work with it in exactly the same way4 ,often the same potter will show variations in her method of handling the tool4 ,each woman has from four to a dozen kajepes beside her while she is moulding4 ,these implements vary much both in size and shape 7pl4 #aa74 ,most of them are circular or elliptical with all edges convex1 although every potter has at least one with a concave edge4 ,generally the smaller1 circular kajepes are used on the interior of bowls1 the oval ones on the exterior1 and the one with a concave edge on the exterior at the shoulder1 where it would be difficult to use the other types4 ,as a rule the larger kajepes serve for the larger vessels4 ,a potter occasionally changes kajepes in the midst of her work1 usually because of the edge1 which may be rougher on one than on another4 ,the kajepes are held at an angle of from thirty to sixty degrees to the tangent of the bowl at the point of contact1 according to the curvature of the part of the vessel being worked upon4 ,the kajepe is always used first on the inside4 ,this is done in order to press out the sides and to give the bowl something of its final shape before the paste becomes too dry4 ,the work begins at the bottom of the vessel and slowly advances toward the top2 the bowl gradually assumes a spherical shape1 the sides being forced farthest out about half way between the base and the rim4 ,during this process the outside surface1 since it is being expanded1 begins to show innumerable small cracks4 ,the strokes of the kajepe on the interior are short and always nearly horizontal1 the implement being pulled towards the body4 ,during this first use of the kajepe all traces of the junction-lines between the rolls are removed from the inside of the vessel4 ,the tool is always held in the right hand1 and the left hand1 which is constantly used on the exterior as a brace and stop1 is placed directly opposite the spot on the inside which is being worked4 ,one woman scrapes in the seven-to-ten-o'clock sector1 turning the bowl clockwise2 that is1 working from the scraped to the unscraped surface4 ,the vessel is turned through about sixty degrees at each change of position1 and about a third of the surface just scraped is gone over again by the strokes on the new sector4 ,another works in the nine-to-twelve-o'clock sector1 turning the bowl counterclockwise1 that is1 working from unscraped to scraped surface2 in doing this she turns the puki five or six times through an angle of between sixty and eighty degrees for each turn1 before the entire interior has been gone over4 ,the kajepe is then applied to the exterior of the bowl 7pl4 #ad1 b74 ,the concave surface of the kajepe is preferred for the first of the exterior scraping1 although the convex surface is not infrequently used4 ,the strokes begin again at the base4 ,at first1 when the kajepe comes in contact with the puki1 the strokes are very nearly vertical4 ,a little higher on the bowl they become diagonal4 ,near the rim the strokes are almost horizontal1 but still have a perceptible downward slant4 ,the kajepe is always pulled toward the body4 ,the stroke on the exterior is from four to five inches1 generally a little longer than that on the interior4 ,during this step one woman turns the puki counterclockwise1 working in the two-to-four-o'clock sector2 another turns it in the same direction1 but works in the four-to-six-o'clock sector4 ,in both cases the strokes are from the scraped to the unscraped surface4 ,although the larger portion of the actual shaping of the bowl is done from the interior1 the drawing in of the upper part to form a constricted mouth is done with the kajepe on the exterior1 when the step last described is nearing completion4 ,as when working on the interior1 the left hand again acts as a brace and a stop1 but this time on the inside of the bowl4#cb ,usually only the ends of the fingers rest against the side4 ,upon the completion of the use of the kajepe on the outside for the first time1 all traces of the coil-marks and of the fine cracks developed during the interior scraping are removed1 but the surface is still rather rough 7pl4 #ad1 b2 also #ab1 b1 #c74 ,after both surfaces have been gone over for the first time with the kajepe1 the rim is once more trued up in the manner already described4 ,then1 depending upon the stiffness of the paste1 the piece may be set aside to harden a little or the work may continue without interruption4 ,the women hold the kajepe with fingers either slightly bent1 or nearly fully flexed2 in the latter position the tool is grasped between the thumb and bent forefinger4 ,just before using1 the kajepe is dipped in water2 and the edge is then drawn across the palm of the left hand to remove excess water before it is applied to the bowl4 ,after perhaps a dozen strokes1 the paste which has collected on the tool is removed by a dexterous motion3 the inner side of the thumb of the left hand is run along the edge of the kajepe to collect the paste2 then the inner side of the forefinger of the same hand is run from the base to the tip of the thumb4 ,this brings the paste to the ends of the two fingers in the form of a pellet1 which is thrown upon the mass on the canvas4 ,since the paste has a tendency to stick to the fingers1 the potter must throw it with a jerk or snap4 ,when the kajepe has been used once over the entire surface1 it is usually reversed so as to present its convex side to the bowl1 made a little damper than for the previous scraping1 and the whole process repeated in detail for both the interior and exterior4 ,this results in better symmetry and a smoother surface4 ,the rim is again finished in the manner already described4 ,the walls of the bowl have by this time been thinned to about one-half or two-thirds of their original thickness1 all major irregularities and rough spots have been removed1 the vessel is fully shaped1 and only the finishing touches are needed before it is ready to be sun-dried4 ,the paste now has the consistency of soft thick leather4 ,the first step in the finishing sometimes consists in again going over both surfaces with a wet kajepe1 to smooth them still more4 ,occasionally only the exterior is so treated4 ,then the bowl is turned repeatedly1 while the potter touches small areas with the convex surface of the kajepe4 ,at this point particular attention is given to the bottom of the interior2 it may be retouched with the kajepe1 or simply smoothed over with the ball of the thumb or forefinger4 ,if the surface seems slightly uneven1 small pellets of paste are rubbed into the bottom and then levelled down with the kajepe4 ,the bowl on the puki is then placed upon the palm of the left hand1 held at eye level1 and revolved slowly1 while the potter examines it for rough spots and slight irregularities of contour1 which when found are smoothed over with the forefinger of the right hand4 ,after being replaced upon the floor1 the bowl may be gently pressed between the hands in order slightly to improve its symmetry4 ,finally the rim is smoothed for the last time1 little pellets of paste being added1 if necessary1 to fill in shallow depressions1 and great care is taken to make it as regular and smooth as possible4 ,it is obviously impossible to describe in detail the exact procedure followed in this finishing process1 for the method adopted is chosen according to the needs of the individual vessel4 ,after all this is done1 the piece is ready to be sun-dried4 ,its present appearance is very different from that which it had when the building was completed 7compare pl4 #ab1 b1 #b1 and b1 #c74 ,the moulding of bowls less than four inches in diameter is a very simple matter compared with that of the larger ones1 for there is no use of puki1 rolls1 or kajepe4 ,after working the paste in the hands the resulting lump is formed into a flat spheroid4 ,the forefinger of the right hand is inserted in the centre of this1 the clay held horizontally and slowly revolved by a slight tossing rotary motion of the left hand4 ,the forefinger of the right hand enlarges the hole and gradually shapes the mass into the desired form1 thinning the sides at the same time4 ,if the resulting bowl is too high1 the rim is pinched off with the thumb and fore-finger of the right hand4 ,when the proper shape and thickness have been attained1 the little bowl is held upright in the left hand1 while the fingers of the right smooth the sides and the rim4 ,when completed it is set on a board to dry4 ,sometimes one of the larger of these bowls is placed in a small puki and reshaped with the kajepe4 ,one woman used the kajepe on the interior of the vessel while it rested upon her left hand4 ,the bowl1 when treated in this way1 and finished in the same manner as the larger bowls1 was noticeably a better piece of moulding than the average small piece4 ,the time consumed in moulding bowls is variable1 depending on the dexterity and speed of the potter and to a somewhat lesser degree upon the sort of vessel being moulded4 ,comparisons between potters are apt to be misleading1 for no two make bowls of exactly the same size or exercise the same amount of care in finishing1 which1 from the point of view of time consumed1 is the most variable phase of the moulding4 ,one potter moulded a wide-mouthed bowl of four rolls in twenty minutes2 another finished two spherical bowls of six rolls each in forty-eight minutes2 a third potter1 the swiftest of the three1 finished a wide-mouthed bowl of two rolls after it had been under her hands just fourteen and one-half minutes4 ,the first potter moulded six of the small bowls 7less than four inches in diameter7 in fifty-five minutes1 averaging nine minutes to each1 but to refinish one of them with a kajepe she took thirteen minutes4 ,the third potter moulded one of the small type of bowls in four minutes4 ,in considering in detail the time consumed in moulding1 the work of ,maria ,martinez was studied4 ,she is the swiftest and most dexterous potter of ,san ,ildefonso1 and moulds in a quarter to a third less time than the slowest of the others4 ,in three hours she turned out ten bowls1 averaging about seven inches in diameter1 of the constricted-mouthed and similar types2 this is an average of one in eighteen minutes4 ,she was working constantly1 first on one1 then on another4 ,subsequently she moulded six two-roll constricted-mouthed bowls in one hour and twenty-six minutes1 an average of fourteen and a third minutes each4 ,the various steps in the moulding of two bowls are recorded in ,table ,i1 which gives the actual time consumed in minutes and seconds from the beginning of the first of the pair until the two were finished and set aside4 ,in ,table ,,ii the growth and treatment of a single bowl are given in more detail1 with the time in minutes and seconds that it was under the hands of the potter4 ,this piece was one of five constricted-mouthed bowls of three rolls each which were moulded in sixty-four minutes1 an average of twelve minutes1 forty-eight seconds for each vessel4 ,,table ,i ,bowl ,a1 constricted-mouthed bowl1 diam4 #h in42 ,bowl ,b1 wide-mouthed bowl1 diam4 #g in4 ,min4 ,sec4 #j4jj ,bowl ,a -- clay picked up from pile #b4jj 8 8 -- pat in puki and pinched up #d4cj #c4jj 8 8 -- first roll on and pinched flat #d4jj 8 8 -- second roll on and pinched flat #d4cj 8 8 -- rim smoothed and bowl set aside 7no pause7 #d4cj ,bowl ,b -- clay picked up from pile #e4cj 8 8 -- pat in puki and pinched up #b4ej #f4bj 8 8 -- first roll on and pinched flat #g4aj 8 8 -- second roll on and pinched flat #g4bj 8 8 -- rim smoothed and bowl set aside 7pause of #dj seconds7 #h4jj ,bowl ,a -- picked up again #h4cj 8 8 -- interior scraping stopped #i4ae 8 8 -- exterior scraping stopped #i4de 8 8 -- first rim smoothing stopped #aa4jj 8 8 -- first interior smoothing stopped #h4jj #aa4cj 8 8 -- first exterior smoothing stopped #ab4de 8 8 -- second rim smoothing stopped #ac4de 8 8 -- second interior smoothing stopped #ad4cj 8 8 -- second exterior smoothing stopped #ae4ae 8 8 -- third rim smoothing stopped #af4jj 8 8 -- finishing touches stopped2 bowl completed 7pause of #ae seconds7 #af4ae ,bowl ,b -- picked up again #af4de 8 8 -- interior scraping stopped #ag4jj 8 8 -- exterior scraping stopped #ah4jj 8 8 -- first rim smoothing stopped #ah4cj 8 8 -- first interior smoothing stopped #e4je #ai4jj 8 8 -- second rim smoothing stopped #ai4de 8 8 -- second interior smoothing stopped #bj4de 8 8 -- touching up stopped #ba4jj 8 8 -- third rim smoothing stopped #ba4ae 8 8 -- third interior smoothing stopped #ba4bj 8 8 -- bowl completed ,total1 ,bowl ,a--#ab minutes1 #cj seconds ,total1 ,bowl ,b--#g minutes1 #ee seconds ,,table ,,ii ,small1 constricted-mouthed bowl ,min4 ,sec4 #jj4jj -- clay picked up from pile #jj4ae -- pat put in puki #ja4jj -- clay for first roll picked up #ja4ae -- one end of first roll pinched on pat #ja4ej -- first roll flattened1 and clay for second roll picked up #jb4aj -- one end of second roll pinched on pat #jb4dj -- second roll flattened1 and clay for third roll picked up #jb4ej -- one end of third roll pinched on pat #jc4cj -- third roll flattened1 and rim smoothing begun #jc4ej -- bowl set aside 7#ad minutes1 #aj seconds1 elapsed7 #jc4ej -- interior kajepe-scraping begun #jd4be -- exterior kajepe-scraping begun #jd4ee -- rim smoothing begun #je4bj -- bowl set aside 7#ah minutes1 #cj seconds1 elapsed7 #je4bj -- interior kajepe-smoothing begun #jf4jj -- small roll placed around edge of interior base and patted down #jf4dj -- interior kajepe-smoothing begun #jf4ee -- exterior kajepe-smoothing begun1 lip turned in #jg4de -- rim smoothing begun #jh4ej -- exterior kajepe-smoothing begun #ji4be -- interior kajepe-smoothing begun #aj4je -- rim smoothing begun #aj4ej -- bowl held at eye level1 exterior kajepe-smoothing begun #aa4ag -- bowl placed on floor1 interior kajepe-smoothing begun #aa4de -- moulding completed1 bowl set aside ,,ollas ,in the moulding of ollas the first step is the building of the lower part of the body to a height of four or five rings in the same manner as in bowl-construction4 ,since ollas have a larger diameter than bowls1 more than one roll is needed to form a complete ring about the growing edge4 ,the number of rolls per ring varies from one and a half to four1 depending upon the size of the olla and the part worked upon4 ,when this first building has been completed 7pl4 #ae1 a71 the rim is smoothed somewhat and the scraping and shaping are at once begun4 ,the use of the kajepe in the shaping of ollas is identical in all details with that described above in discussing the moulding of bowls4 ,the roll-junctions and the fingerprints are entirely removed and the sides of the vessel are flared a little4 ,great care is taken not to flare the sides too much1 for the paste at this stage is still rather soft1 and if the sides are flared unduly they collapse outward of their own weight4 ,when the preliminary shaping has been finished the rim is smoothed a ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae ,,successive ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,moulding ,,of ,,an ,,olla a4 ,lower wall built up of rings of clay4 b4 ,sides smoothed and flared by use of the kajepe4 c4 ,sides further flared and more carefully smoothed4 d4 ,shoulder partly formed4 e4 ,shoulder finished4 f4 ,neck built4 g1 h4 ,neck flared and final smoothing completed2 the vessels have been shifted in the moulds to allow work on lower sides4 little1 and the olla is placed in the sun to stiffen4 ,the moulding has now reached the second stage 7pl4 #ae1 b74 ,the vessel remains in the sun from twenty to thirty minutes4 ,this period may be extended to as much as an hour and a half1 if the vessel is in the shade or if other things occupy the potter's time4 ,during all the drying periods1 at intervals varying from five to fifteen minutes1 the potter dips her right hand in the water of the lard-pail1 and moistens the rim of the partly finished olla in order to keep it soft enough to permit perfect welding when additional rolls are added4 ,while one vessel is drying1 the potter is usually occupied with another4 ,in case the work on the latter is finished before the former is dry enough1 the potter simply waits1 or finds some other work with which to occupy herself until it is ready4 ,the test of the condition of the olla after this short drying is to pat the side gently with the balls of the fingers4 ,the clay is now very much like soft leather4 ,the degree of resistance offered by the side indicates the condition of the paste4 ,of course the value of such a test depends entirely upon the knowledge and sense of touch possessed by the potter1 two qualities which can be gained only through long experience4 ,when the paste in the olla1 which now has the shape of an open-mouthed bowl1 has reached the proper degree of firmness1 the vessel is brought in and the shaping continued4 ,by using the kajepe first on the interior and then on the exterior1 the sides are flared still more until the desired shape for the lower part of the olla has been obtained4 ,then1 after a hasty smoothing of the rim1 the vessel1 now in the third stage 7pl4 #ae1 c71 is again set aside to dry4 ,when it has become firm enough to support the weight of the new rolls to be added1 the building is continued4 ,the temporary rim has been kept soft by the application of water from time to time4 ,the method of preparing this rim for the application of the rings varies slightly with different potters4 ,the rim may be pinched into scallops between the thumb and forefinger of either hand1 usually the right1 or it may be roughened by vertical strokes of the kajepe on the exterior4 ,in the former case the scallops may touch one another 7pl4 #af1 a71 or they may be separated by a quarter to a half inch of unpinched rim4 ,when the kajepe is used1 it also destroys the original smoothness of the rim1 producing an irregular1 broken surface to which the new roll can easily be welded4 ,the potter must now build that part of the olla which has the greatest diameter4 ,each new ring of clay must therefore be of greater diameter than those which preceded and those which will follow4 ,three or four rather slender rolls are used to make such a ring4 ,after two complete rings have been placed on the vessel and flattened1 the shaping is begun4 ,gradually the new rim is drawn in until the shoulder of the olla has been formed4 ,again the rim is smoothed before the vessel is set aside4 ,the moulding of the olla has now reached the fourth stage 7pl4 #ae1 d74 ,the olla is once more allowed to dry for about the same length of time as before4 ,during these successive dryings the presence or absence of wind plays a considerable part in the length of time the vessel is allowed to remain in the sun2 for a stiff breeze will dry the paste almost as quickly as the sun itself4 ,the potters do not like to mould ollas when there is much wind because the paste dries so quickly that the vessel is ready to be taken up again before the second vessel1 upon which the potter is working1 is ready to set aside4 ,occasionally1 but by no means always1 the drying olla is turned so as to present a fresh section of the side to the sun4 ,after testing with the hand the newly built part of the olla1 to determine its firmness1 the vessel1 if sufficiently dried1 is taken to the work-board and the building continued4 ,the pinching of the rim is done as before1 two more rings are added1 and their shaping is begun4 ,the rolls decrease very slowly in diameter4 ,in shaping with the kajepe only the newly added section of the vessel is treated4 ,at this stage the work becomes more difficult1 for the two rings just added form the lower part of the neck of the olla1 and therefore constrict the mouth of the partly finished vessel4 ,if the paste is a little too soft1 the newly built section will sag when the shaping is begun4 ,the vessel must then be set aside at once until it reaches the proper degree of stiffness4 ,while using the kajepe on the exterior1 during this stage of the construction1 the left hand is held inside the vessel not only as a brace or stop1 but also as a support for the incurving side4 ,when the scraping and smoothing have been finished1 and the side has been given the proper curve1 the rim is smoothed a little before the vessel1 now in the fifth stage 7pl4 #ae1 e71 is again set aside4 ,half an hour or so later the building of the olla is completed by the addition of one more ring4 ,the rolls composing this ring are distinctly more slender than the first rolls used in the vessel4 ,when this ring has been applied the rim is cursorily smoothed and the last shaping begun4 ,the final delicate contour of the vessel depends to a large extent upon this final shaping near the rim4 ,the kajepe is used with painstaking care1 and the work progresses slowly4 ,a slight outward flare is given to the lip by careful manipulation of the kajepe on the interior4 ,when this is completed1 the olla has reached the sixth stage 7pl4 #ae1 f74 ,the finishing touches consist largely in going over the rim carefully and adding pellets of paste when necessary1 thus making its curve as nearly uniform as possible4 ,this process consumes a considerable amount of time1 for the work is done very painstakingly and slowly 7pl4 #ag1 a74 ,the vessel has now attained its final shape 7pl4 #ae1 g and h71 and for the last time is set out in the sun to dry4 ,the time taken to mould an olla is far greater than that necessary for a bowl4 ,the type of olla shown in the illustrations is about fourteen inches in diameter at the shoulder4 ,the potter who made these counted on moulding two such ollas each day4 ,on some days a little time was left in the afternoon in which to make some smaller vessels1 but no olla was ever begun in the afternoon4 ,ollas were usually started between ten and eleven o'clock in the morning and finished between half-past-three and half-past-four in the afternoon4 ,during the early morning the household tasks had to be attended to2 at noon about an hour was used in preparing and eating lunch2 and at various times during the day the children1 especially the baby1 made it necessary for the potter to leave her work4 ,table ,,iii1 columns ,a and ,b1 gives in detail the various steps in the construction of two ollas1 together with the time each vessel was actually under the hands of the potter and the length of the intervals in which the vessel was drying2 columns ,c and ,d record two other ollas on which the observations were less complete4 ,as a rule it requires one and a half ,illustration3 ,,plate #af a ,potter moulding an olla4 ,the first roll at the shoulder has just been added4 ,the temporary rim has been pinched up with the thumb and forefinger to provide a firm seat for the succeeding roll4 b ,a potter of ,san ,ildefonso4 ,the costume is typical of the ,rio ,grande ,pueblos4 ,with the exception of the shawl it is entirely of native manufacture4 hours' work to mould an olla4 ,in the case of olla ,a1 the potter was unfortunate in misjudging the proper consistency of the paste1 which delayed the construction of this vessel an entire half-hour1 omitting the periods of additional drying4 ,the two ollas were begun at eleven o'clock in the morning2 the second of the two was set aside completed at eight minutes past four in the afternoon4 ,it is said that it requires one whole day1 and sometimes two1 to mould a single very large olla4 ,the process is identical with that just described4 ,in the case of small ollas 7such as those seen in pl4 #ah1 a7 a single period of drying elapses between the construction of the body and that of the neck4 ,these small ollas can be moulded in a little less than twice the time taken for a bowl of about the same diameter4 ,,table ,,iii ,a ,b ,c ,d ,min4 ,sec4 ,first clay picked up #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj ,pat placed in puki #jd4jj #jd4jj ,second handful of clay picked up #jd4cj #je4cj ,first roll added #je4jj #jf4jj ,first ring flattened1 second begun #jf4de #jh4cj ,second ring flattened1 third begun #ji4jj #aj4jj ,third ring flattened1 fourth begun #aa4cj #ab4cj ,fourth ring flattened1 fifth begun #ae4jj #af4de ,fifth ring flattened 7,stage ,i1 pl4 #ae1 a71 inside scraping begun #ah4cj #bj4jj ,exterior scraping begun #ba4jj #ba4cj ,rim smoothed and interior scraping begun #bc4jj #bd4jj ,rim smoothing begun #be4jj #bg4cj ,set aside 7,stage ,,ii1 pl4 #ae1 b7 #bf4jj #bi4jj ,time out #cd4jj #bd4cj ,interior smoothing1 then exterior #bf4jj #bi4jj ,set aside 7,stage ,,iii1 pl4 #ae1 c7 #cc4jj #cb4cj ,time out #ec4jj #ei4jj ,pinching of rim begun #cc4jj #cb4cj #cc4jj #cc4jj ,pinching of rim completed #cd4ae #cc4cj ,first roll made #ce4jj #cd4ae ,first roll pinched on1 second begun #ce4cj #cd4cj ,second roll pinched on1 flattening begun #ci4de #cf4cj ,first ring flattened #da4jj #cg4cj #cg4jj ,second ring flattened1 rim smoothing begun #de4jj #da4cj #da4jj ,interior scraping begun #de4cj #db4jj #db4jj ,exterior scraping begun #ej4jj #de4jj #de4jj ,rim smoothing begun #eb4jj #dg4jj ,interior smoothing begun #ec4cj #dh4cj #dg4jj ,exterior smoothing begun #ee4jj #di4cj #eb4jj ,rim smoothing begun #eg4jj #ej4ae ,set aside 7,stage ,,iv1 pl4 #ae1 d7 #eh4jj #ej4de #ed4jj #ee4jj ,time out #bg4jj #bj4de #bh4jj #fh4jj ,pinching of rim begun #eh4jj #ej4de #ed4jj #ee4jj ,pinching of rim completed #eh4de #ea4ae ,first roll completed #ei4cj #eb4jj ,first ring flattened1 second begun #fd4jj #ef4de ,second ring on #ff4ae #ei4de ,second ring flattened1 rim smoothing begun #fg4ae #fj4cj #fa4jj ,exterior scraping begun #fh4jj #fj4de #fa4ae ,interior scraping begun #gj4jj omitted omitted omitted ,set aside 7clay too soft7 #gj4cj 8 8 8 ,rim smoothing begun omitted #fc4jj 8 8 ,set aside omitted #fc4de 8 8 ,time out #ac4de #ag4jj 8 8 ,interior scraping begun #gj4cj #fc4de #fd4jj ,exterior smoothing begun #ge4ae #fi4ae ,rim smoothing begun #gg4ae #ga4de ,set aside 7,stage ,v1 pl4 #ae1 e7 #gi4ae #gc4cj #fi4jj #fg4jj ,time out #ah4jj #ae4ae #fh4jj #db4jj ,interior smoothing begun #gi4ae omitted omitted omitted ,exterior smoothing begun #hc4de 8 8 8 ,rim smoothing begun #hd4ae 8 8 8 ,set aside #hd4de 8 8 8 ,time out #cc4jj 8 8 8 ,interior smoothing begun #hd4de 8 8 8 ,exterior smoothing begun #hh4jj 8 8 8 ,set aside #hi4de 8 8 8 ,time out #ba4jj 8 8 8 ,pinching of rim begun #hi4de #gc4cj #fi4jj #fg4jj ,first roll put on #ib4de #ge4jj ,ring flattened1 rim smoothed1 exterior scraping begun #id4de #gg4cj #gc4jj ,interior scraping begun #ig4de #gi4jj #gf4jj ,exterior smoothing begun #ajj4ae #ha4cj ,interior smoothing begun 7,stage ,,vi1 pl4 #ae1 f7 #aja4de #hc4jj ,exterior smoothing begun #ajb4de omitted omitted omitted ,rim smoothing begun #ajc4cj #hd4cj #hd4jj #hc4jj ,set aside 7clay in rim too soft7 #aje4ae omitted omitted omitted ,time out #af4cj 8 8 8 ,interior and exterior smoothing begun omitted 8 8 #hg4jj ,rim finishing begun #aje4ae #ij4cj #ia4jj ,vessel completed 7,stage ,,vii1 pl4 #ae1 g1 h7 #aai4de #id4cj #ic4jj #ih4jj ,total elapsed time from beginning3 ,ollas ,a and ,b1 #e hours1 #g minutes1 #cj seconds2 ,ollas ,c and ,d1 about #e hours4 ,,cooking-,,vessels ,the clay forming the paste of these pieces is called ,apache clay1 and is very different from that employed in making ordinary ware 7see p4 #bb72 it is used without the addition of any tempering material4 ,just before moulding is started1 the clay is carefully gone over in a final search for small pebbles4 ,the moulding differs only in detail from that of vessels made from other kinds of paste4 ,a pat very much thinner than those described above is made and placed in the puki4 ,the vessel is built by the addition of rolls which are of smaller diameter than usual--about three-eighths of an inch4 ,when the body has been built to the desired height1 the scraping and smoothing with the kajepe are begun4 ,at first the vessel1 like the others1 is cylindrical2 but the scraping1 first on the ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag a4 ,putting the finishing touches on an olla4 ,the potter's left hand is supporting the soft neck while she shapes it from the outside with the kajepe4 ,in front is a pile of base-moulds 7pukis7 for small bowls2 at the potter's right is a lard-pail of water and a reserve supply of clay wrapped in a canvas4 b4 ,applying a horizontal handle to a small olla2 two gourd spoons 7kajepes7 are lying on the table4 interior and then on the exterior1 thins the sides and gives it a spherical shape4 ,after the smoothing the sides are from one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch thick1 much thinner than the walls of vessels made of other kinds of paste4 ,when the body has assumed the desired shape1 additional rolls are added to form the lip1 which is scraped1 smoothed1 and flared with the kajepe4 ,during the entire period of moulding small pebbles are constantly being found and removed1 for ,apache clay contains a great many more pebbles than the other clays4 ,after the finishing touches have been completed1 the rim is indented1 and a vertical handle is added as described below 7see p4 #ej74 ,the indenting of the rim is done with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand4 ,the thumb is placed under the flaring rim1 with the nail vertical2 the forefinger rests upon the lip1 the nail horizontal4 ,the fingers are in about the position they would assume were the potter holding a pencil4 ,a gentle downward pressure of the hand indents the rim slightly1 the nail of the thumb leaving a small mark on the under side of the lip4 ,this pressure is repeated at intervals of about three-quarters of an inch until the entire lip has been given an indented or undulating edge4 ,the construction described above is that of a small olla about six inches in diameter4 ,larger ollas are built in several stages in the same manner as ollas made of the other forms of paste4#cc ,the time consumed in the moulding of cooking vessels was noted in only one case4 ,six rolls were used for the body and two for the lip4 ,before the kajepe was used for the first time the cylindrical body was five inches in diameter and four and a half inches high4 ,table ,,iv gives the time of construction1 divided according to the various steps of the work4 ,,table ,,iv ,min4 ,sec4 #jj4jj -- ,kneading of small handful of clay to eliminate pebbles begun #jd4jj -- ,pat placed in puki1 kneading of clay for rolls begun #ab4jj -- ,making of first roll begun #ai4jj -- ,six rolls added and flattened1 interior scraping begun #bj4cj -- ,exterior scraping begun1 later interior smoothing begun1 followed shortly by exterior smoothing #bf4jj -- ,seventh roll added #bi4jj -- ,eighth roll flattened and interior smoothing begun #bi4cj -- ,exterior smoothing begun #cb4jj -- ,rim smoothing begun #ch4jj -- ,finishing touches begun1 followed by indenting rim #df4jj -- ,moulding completed1 vessel set aside #i4jj -- ,time out #df4jj -- ,work upon handle begun #di4jj -- ,handle finished1 vessel completed ,,prayer-,,meal ,,bowls ,prayer-meal bowls are of two sorts1 bowl-shaped with a terraced elevation on one side of the rim1 and rectangular1 or box-like1 with a terraced elevation at either end4 ,in the construction of a rectangular prayer-meal bowl1 no puki is employed4 ,the pat1 either circular or rectangular in shape1 is made as usual4 ,it is placed upon a board1 care being taken to press it down hard1 and the rectangular shape is accentuated by the pinching up of the edge4 ,a thin layer of temper may1 or may not1 be sprinkled on the board before the pat is placed upon it4 ,to this pat are added two or three rolls in the manner already described4 ,when it is desired to turn the vessel1 the board upon which it rests is turned4 ,the board is either held in the lap or rests on the top of a low stool4 ,in scraping and shaping the vessel one potter began to use the kajepe on the exterior first1 then proceeded to the interior2 another reversed the process4 ,the stroke on the exterior is vertical at the corners and nearly horizontal on the sides2 on the interior it is nearly horizontal4 ,when the building of the vessel has been completed1 the rim is smoothed1 and the corners ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,the three stages in making the terraced end of a prayer-meal bowl3 a4 ,end built to full height4 b4 ,notches cut with a taut string4 c4 ,bits of clay removed from the notches and edges of terracing smoothed down4 made straight4 ,the bowl may be pressed lightly between the hands to improve the symmetry and to make all the corners more nearly right angles2 it is then set aside for a while4 ,the next step is the construction of the terraced ends4 ,a single short roll is attached to the interior of the rim at one end4 ,this roll is pressed flat1 and smoothed with the kajepe1 first on the interior and then on the exterior4 ,the sharp edges are softened1 the rim is smoothed1 and the junctions of this new portion with the sides are rounded off4 ,the result is a flattened semicircular vertical projection at the end 7see fig4 #g1 a74 ,the other end is then treated in the same manner4 ,the bowl is now ready to have the terraces put in4 ,there are two methods of doing this4 ,one potter uses a long string in making the first marks4 ,the string is stretched taut horizontally1 parallel to the length of the bowl4 ,it is then pressed lightly on both ends at the same time1 first on one side of the centre1 then on the other4 ,the distance between the hands is next shortened1 and two notches are cut on either side of the centre of the end with this string1 which is still held horizontally4 ,similar notches are cut in the other end4 ,each end of the bowl is now as shown in fig4 #g1 b4 ,another potter does not make the initial marks in the two ends simultaneously4 ,holding the end of the bowl towards her1 she lightly marks the lines to be cut with her fingernail4 ,then1 picking up the string and following the marks made by her fingernail1 the notches are cut in the way described4 ,as soon as the notches have been cut1 the small triangular pieces of clay are removed1 the edges rounded with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand1 and the corners made into curves4 ,small pellets of clay may be added if necessary4 ,after a few finishing touches with the forefinger the terracing of the ends of the bowl is completed 7see fig4 #g1 c74#cd ,the time consumed by the swiftest potter of the village1 in moulding an unusually large prayer-meal bowl1 is recorded in ,table ,v4 ,the piece was seven and a half inches long1 four and three-quarters inches wide1 and three and a half inches high4 ,the terraces raised the ends one and three-quarters inches more4 ,,table ,v ,min4 ,sec4 #jj4jj -- ,first handful of paste for the bowl picked up #jh4jj -- ,two rolls put on the pat and flattened1 the rim smoothed and interior scraping begun 7exterior scraping done later7 #bb4jj -- ,moulding of the bowl itself completed1 after some time spent in pressing down the pat on the interior of the bowl4 ,vessel set aside #bb4jj -- ,time out #bb4jj -- ,interior and exterior smoothing begun #bf4jj -- ,paste picked up for roll to be placed on one end of bowl #bi4de -- ,roll flattened and smoothing of edges begun #cj4cj -- ,interior scraping begun #ca4aj -- ,exterior scraping begun #ca4de -- ,smoothing of connection with sides begun #cb4cj -- ,roll placed on other end #cc4de -- ,roll flattened and interior scraping begun #cd4ae -- ,exterior scraping begun #cd4de -- ,very small roll placed on first end to improve curve1 followed by a little smoothing with kajepe #ce4de -- ,finishing of end begun #cg4cj -- ,marking of one end with fingernail begun #ch4ae -- ,notches cut with thread1 pieces removed1 and finishing of terrace begun #dj4ae -- ,marking of other end with fingernail begun #dj4ce -- ,cutting of notches with thread begun #da4je -- ,pieces removed and finishing of terrace begun #dc4ae -- ,finishing completed ,,double-,,mouthed ,,vases ,the first step in the construction of this type of vessel is the moulding of an open-mouthed bowl4 ,across the mouth of this bowl a clay bridge is placed4 ,finishing touches are given at this stage of the work1 just as if the moulding had been entirely completed4 ,the piece is set aside for a while to stiffen4 ,later1 additional rolls are added to each half of the mouth of the bowl by attaching them to the rim proper and also to the bridge4 ,in this way two necks are gradually built up4 ,at regular intervals the work is set aside to stiffen in order that it may support the additional weight to be added4 ,the shape and height of the two necks depend entirely upon the whim of the potter4 ,the moulding of the upper parts of the two necks is a delicate process1 and requires considerable skill4 ,the roll-marks on the interior of the neck1 if obliterated at all1 are destroyed by the fingers only1 since the diameter of the neck is too small to permit the use of a kajepe4 ,after the moulding has been entirely finished1 a handle connecting the two necks is usually put across the top at right angles to the bridge which forms the base of the necks4 ,obviously this handle has a structural as well as ornamental purpose4#ce ,,handles ,in all cases in which handles are to be applied the vessel is entirely finished before they are put on4 ,the potters of ,san ,ildefonso make three types of handles3 7#a7 passing across the top of an open-mouthed bowl1 7#b7 attached vertically to the side of a vessel1 7#c7 attached horizontally to the side of a vessel4 ,all three types consist of a short roll of paste of the proper length1 usually somewhat smaller in diameter than the rolls used in the body of the vessel4 ,this roll is slightly flattened before it is applied4 ,the first two types of handles are placed on the vessel in the same manner4 ,the ends of the flattened roll are pinched still flatter4 ,in the case of the handle over the top of a bowl1 first one end of the roll1 then the other1 is attached by pressure to the exterior of the rim4 ,the vertical handle on the side of a vessel is attached first to the exterior of the rim1 then bent over and attached to the side just above the shoulder4 ,the left hand is used as a stop on the inside of the vessel in order that the shape of the side may not be altered by the pressure exerted in applying the handle4 ,the junction-lines between the handle and the vessel are then obliterated with the forefinger of the right hand4 ,small pellets of paste may be added to the side of the contacts1 especially on the inner side of the handle where it makes an acute angle with the side of the bowl4 ,in this way the welding is made solid1 and the curves regular4 ,finally the curve of the handle itself is made symmetrical4 ,a few finishing touches1 such as the obliterating of fine cracks in the handle and the smoothing of its surface1 complete the process4 ,such a handle may be constructed in three to five minutes4 ,horizontal handles are attached to the sides of vessels in an entirely different manner1 being keyed or riveted in1 rather than merely welded on4 ,handles of this type are usually put on in pairs4 ,the position of one handle is chosen and the rim of the finished pot is marked to show its location2 by sighting across the top of the vessel a point exactly opposite is also marked to give the location of the other4 ,for each handle two holes1 about three-eighths of an inch in diameter and fairly close together1 are cut through the side of the vessel from the exterior with a small stick4 ,one end of the roll which is to form the handle is inserted in one of the two holes4 ,then the other end is similarly inserted4 ,the left hand holds the first end in place on the interior1 while the other end is being put in 7pl4 #ag1 b74 ,next the junctions between the ends of the roll and the interior surface of the vessel are smoothed over and obliterated with the fingers of the right hand4 ,the handle itself is flattened a little1 and small pellets of paste are added at the junctions between it and the exterior of the vessel4 ,these are smoothed over with the fingers1 so that superficially the handle looks as if it had been pressed upon the surface in the same manner as a vertical handle4 ,a smoothing of curves1 and touching up of the handles to make them symmetrical1 form the last stage of the construction4 ,it took one potter just an hour to place a pair of handles of this type on a globular bowl4#cf ,,sun-,,drying ,the purpose of sun-drying is to allow the vessels to harden1 and to remove all moisture before the work on them is completed4 ,during sun-drying1 which immediately follows moulding1 the ability of the vessels to withstand some heat is also tested4 ,pieces made of improperly mixed clay are eliminated at this stage of the work1 because of the cracks which develop 7see under ,temper1 p4 #ba74 ,the length of time allowed for sun-drying depends upon the weather and also upon the place where the vessels are exposed4 ,during the dry months of the year1 notably in ,may and ,june1 vessels placed in the sun will dry completely in less than a day1 often in half a day 7pl4 #ah1 a74 ,in the fall it requires an entire day under the same conditions4 ,when the sky is cloudy or showers threaten1 the drying is done in the house4 ,if time is not pressing1 the pots are placed on a table1 or in the corner of the room1 and allowed to remain there three or more days4 ,at the end of that time they are usually sufficiently dry4 ,vessels moulded one afternoon and placed on the table for the night are dry enough the following morning to permit lifting them from the pukis1 which can then be used again4 ,if1 during cloudy weather1 the potter desires to dry the vessels quickly1 they are placed in the oven of the small wood-stove with which most ,san ,ildefonso houses are nowadays equipped4 ,sometimes a piece of corrugated cardboard from a carton is placed on the floor of the oven1 the door of which is left open to allow the evaporating moisture to escape4 ,only a low fire is built in the stove1 for a hot one would cause the vessels to dry too quickly4 ,under such treatment a batch of pottery can be dried in two days1 more or less4 ,the length of time depends very largely upon the number of pieces to be dried1 for the potter tries to keep all the vessels at about the same stage of drying2 this of course requires frequent relays in the oven4 ,the most common1 and most natural1 method1 however1 is to place the vessels in the sun and1 when showers threaten1 to carry them hurriedly into the house4 ,in this way pottery is dried in a day or a day and a half4 ,the loss of moisture in the paste changes its color from a dark reddish or greyish brown to a light reddish or whitish grey1 and in the early stages the variations in the color of the paste serve as indications of the dryness of the vessel4 ,later the color-change is very difficult to detect4 ,various parts of the vessel dry at different rates2 the rim always first1 then the body1 and last the base1 both because it is thicker and because it is usually in the shadow of the vessel itself2 in spite of this the vessels are never inverted while they are drying4 ,the occurrence of cracks in the paste is the only form of accident which takes place during drying4 ,there are three sorts of cracks3 those in the bottom of the vessel1 which usually pass through or very near the centre of the base2 rim-cracks2 and vertical cracks in the body4 ,all are caused by the contraction of the paste in drying4 ,the part of the vessel which receives the greatest strain is the base1 which1 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah a4 ,vessels on their base-moulds drying in the sun2 the pottery is always thoroughly sun-dried after it is moulded and before it is decorated4 b4 ,summer house of ,antonita ,roybal1 a woman who specializes in the manufacture of large red ollas3 a row of these may be seen drying before the house4 because of the amount of paste in it1 has a tendency to contract more than the bottom of the side4 ,the next greatest strain is at the bottom of the side1 where the paste must adjust itself to the contraction in the base as well as to that in the body of the vessel4 ,the body and lip have the least strain1 for the contraction may be compensated for by a slight settling of the paste4 ,it is in the base1 therefore1 that cracks usually occur1 and then near the centre of it1 since that is the point of greatest strain4 ,the size and quantity of the cracks are an indication of the amount of temper still needed to make the paste of just the right consistency4 ,if there are many small cracks1 or a single serious one1 the piece may be discarded entirely1 to be broken up later1 and re-used in moulding4 ,if a crack is not serious1 it is filled as follows4 ,with a small sliver of wood1 or the end of a case-knife1 the paste on the edge of the crack is forced down into it1 first on the interior and then on the exterior2 little pellets of paste are then added and pressed into the crack until it is filled4 ,final smoothing with the finger or the kajepe completes the obliteration4 ,small vertical cracks near the base of the body probably also indicate faulty mixture of the paste4 ,the potters1 however1 say that these fine cracks are caused by a vessel's drying too quickly in the sun1 and insist that if it had been allowed to dry slowly in the house1 they would not have appeared4 ,such cracks are too fine and too numerous to warrant the careful filling of each one2 so accordingly the surface is merely dampened1 some soft paste is added and rubbed in with the fingers or the kajepe4 ,cracks running downward from the rim are exceedingly rare4 ,the women of ,san ,ildefonso make no attempt to repair them1 but occasionally cut down the vessel to a smaller size4 ,in the single instance noted#cg the crack was first traced downward from the rim until its end was located upon the neck1 then the upper part of the neck was cut off below the end of the crack4 ,it was thus possible to use the base of the olla as a large bowl4 ,a line parallel with the rim was marked about the circumference of the neck with a lead-pencil4 ,this line was incised with a penknife1 and gone over again in order to deepen it4 ,a second line was incised around the neck about three-sixteenths of an inch nearer the rim4 ,then the paste between these two lines was dug out with great care1 forming a ,v-shaped groove 7pl4 #bj1 a74 ,this groove was cut through about one-half the thickness of the wall all the way around the neck4 ,then at one point the wall was pierced1 and1 from there around1 the groove was deepened by long and short strokes of a knife pulled toward the body until the wall had been cut through for about three-fifths of the circumference4 ,the remainder broke away easily4 ,the raw surface of the new rim was then softened by the application of water and smoothed with the fingers4 ,the potter said this was the usual method of treating a rim crack4 ,,scraping ,the purpose of this process is twofold1 to improve the surface of the vessel by removing the marks left by the kajepe and the puki1 and to thin the sides1 thus reducing the weight of the finished piece4 ,it is usually begun the day following the completion of the moulding and sun-drying1 unless other duties1 such as planting1 harvesting1 and the like1 force a postponement4 ,large vessels such as ollas are allowed to dry nearly forty-eight hours before they are scraped4 ,at ,san ,ildefonso vessels are made in quantities ranging from a dozen to fifty pieces4 ,the moulding and drying of the entire group1 a process which may extend over a period of several days1 is entirely finished before the scraping is begun4 ,there are three steps in the scraping3 the wetting1 the actual scraping1 and the smoothing of the surface4 ,the implements employed are a wet cloth and a scraper4 ,the latter is either the top of a baking-powder can1 or a kitchen case-knife4 ,the can-top seems to be the more popular because it may be used on nearly any type of curve on the vessel4 ,the informants said that their people formerly used potsherds1 stones1 or broken animal-bones as scrapers1 in fact anything that had a suitable edge2 the potsherds were sharpened and straightened by rubbing them on coarse sandstone4 ,when the vessel is brought in from drying1 it is easily lifted from the puki1 since the layer of ashes or temper prevents sticking4 ,a small olla or bowl is held upon the left knee1 with the mouth tilted to the left and away from the body4 ,a bowl is held with the left hand1 the fingers on the interior1 the thumb on the exterior of the lip4 ,the exterior surface of the vessel is then softened by wiping it with a wet rag4 ,this step is omitted by some potters always1 by others only when the vessel needs a small amount of scraping4 ,the scraping itself is begun while the surface is still damp4 ,the scraper first touches the vessel near the shoulder4 ,the work then continues toward the base by means of short1 quick strokes taken toward the body4 ,as the work advances the upper part of the bowl is turned away from the body1 that is1 the vessel turns counterclockwise4 ,when the ridges marking the former position of the edge of the puki are being destroyed1 care is taken to keep the curve of the side uniform from the base to the shoulder4 ,if the scraping discloses an impurity1 such as a stone fragment in the paste1 it is removed2 the resulting irregularity is filled with a pinch of soft paste1 and smoothed over4 ,the strokes of the scraper are usually approximately parallel to the rim of the vessel4 ,the upper part is scraped as far as the surface remains convex4 ,in bowls the scraping is done to the very rim4 ,in both large and small ollas with flaring lip1 the scraping continues only to the base of the flare4 ,the interiors of vessels1 even of wide-mouthed bowls1 are never scraped4 ,when a bowl requires little scraping to make the surface uniform1 it may be finished in from three to five minutes4 ,those which are too ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai a4 ,scraping an olla after sun-drying2 the implement used is an ordinary kitchen case-knife4 b4 ,scraping2 the dark part of the olla has just been moistened to soften the clay4 heavy1 and therefore need thinning1 take considerably longer4 ,it may even be necessary to moisten the surface a second time4 ,the potters judge the proper thickness of the bowls by weighing them in the two hands with the elbows unsupported4 ,large ollas1 while being scraped1 are held in the lap1 with the mouth inclined to the left and away from the body4 ,the left hand supporting the olla is placed palm down upon the neck 7pl4 #ai1 b74 ,because of the extent of surface to be gone over only that part of the olla about to be scraped is moistened with the cloth4 ,when a case-knife is used instead of a can-top1 it is held either at right angles to the surface worked or at an angle of about sixty degrees with the surface1 the upper edge of the knife tilted away from the body 7pl4 #ai1 a74 ,in all vessels1 bowls as well as ollas1 the angle with the horizontal made by the mouth varies considerably1 according to the part of the vessel being scraped4 ,after the scraping proper is completed1 one potter sometimes rubs the surface1 including the rim and lip1 with a little steel wool1 which noticeably improves the smoothness4 ,the final step is to go over the entire surface carefully with the palm of the right hand in search of irregularities or small uneven spots4 ,when the scraper is laid aside for the last time1 the surface of the vessel is again softened with a wet cloth4 ,by means of vigorous rubbing the thin film of moist surface-paste is redistributed over the entire exterior of the vessel1 filling the small scratches made by the scraper1 and softening the edges of the larger ones4 ,if the vessel is a bowl or a large olla1 its position is then changed so that its mouth is tilted to the right and towards the body1 whereupon the interior is treated with a wet cloth4 ,the finishing touches consist in smoothing1 either with a wet cloth or the ball of the finger1 small areas of the surface which are not quite to the potter's satisfaction4 ,the use of the wet cloth gives a uniform smooth texture which is a distinct improvement over the scraped surface4 ,the paste resumes its dry color in three to five minutes after the wetting4 ,this process actually amounts to the same thing as putting a thin slip of paste upon the vessel1 but the potters do not think of it in that light4 ,it is said that some women entirely omit this final smoothing step4 ,formerly a wet cloth was not used2 the fingers alone1 a piece of sandstone1 or a corncob served1 according to the informants1 to smooth the surface after scraping4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 cloth was used in old times for smoothing pottery1 as clay-smeared rags are occasionally discovered in the rubbish of ancient cliff houses4 ,ground potsherds1 on the other hand1 were more often used than gourd-rind kajepes1 the latter being very rare even in the dry deposits found in caves4 ,at ,pecos well-worn fragments of the spongy interior parts of large animal bones have been found which may well have been employed for smoothing4 ,the time element in scraping is a variable quantity4 ,table ,,vi on the following page is the record of one potter4 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c were large ollas2 ,d1 ,e1 and ,f were small globular ollas six inches in diameter and five inches high2 ,g was a shallow1 wide-mouthed bowl4 ,,table ,,vi ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,min4 ,sec4 ,wet cloth applied #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj ,scraping begun #jj4cj #ja4jj #jj4cj ,wet cloth applied again #jb4cj #jh4cj ,wet cloth applied again #jd4jj #aa4jj ,steel wool rub begun #je4cj #af4cj ,scraping done1 exterior smoothing begun #jh4jj #ah4cj #ah4jj #jh4cj #jc4jj #je4jj #jh4jj ,interior smoothing begun #ad4cj #bf4jj #aa4jj #je4cj #jg4cj #aa4jj ,finishing begun #ag4jj ,set aside #ag4cj #ca4cj #ce4jj #ac4jj #jh4cj #jh4cj #ae4cj ,the treatment of the vessels after scraping varies considerably among different potters4 ,one places the scraped vessels in the sun for a period of not less than three days in order to test them for cracks2 another begins the next step in the work1 that of slipping1 almost at once1 sometimes the same day2 a third after scraping ollas replaces them in the sun for a day or so1 in order to allow them to 8get warm0 7that is1 dry thoroughly71#ch before the slipping and polishing are begun4 ,,slipping ,,and ,,polishing ,up to this point all vessels are made in the same general manner4 ,in the succeeding stages the treatment differs according to the type of decoration which is eventually to be applied4 ,the making of the vessel has been completed1 and the finishing is now begun4 ,just as the making is divided into three general processes--moulding1 sun-drying1 and scraping1 so the finishing is similarly divided into slipping1 painting1 and firing4 ,slipping is the application of a very thin layer of clay to the surface or surfaces of the vessel to produce a smooth texture1 uniform in color1 which gives the pottery a pleasing appearance2 it also serves as a background upon which designs may be painted4 ,the slip further acts as a sizing4 ,san ,ildefonso slip is a saturated solution of a colored clay in water2 it is very little thicker than water1 and is applied by means of a small piece of cloth1 used in much the same way in which a painter would handle a brush an inch and a half or two inches wide4 ,it is said that formerly a small piece of skin was used instead of a cloth mop4 ,the treatment after application depends upon the slip used2 some slips are merely wiped vigorously with a cloth1 others must be polished with smooth1 fine-grained stones4 ,at ,san ,ildefonso the potters use slips of four different colors--white 7of two varieties71 orange-red1 red1 and dark-red4 ,the red and dark-red slips and one variety of the white must be polished2 the other white and the orange-red do not need it4 ,the white slips are principally used as backgrounds in polychrome ware 7see pl4 #f71 the red for undecorated red ware and polished black ware 7see pl4 #h71 and the dark-red for decorated red ware 7see pl4 #g1 a1 b74 ,the orange-red slip is the only one of the four which is not used on the body of vessels1 it being confined to the bases of ollas and of some bowls4 ,the white and the orange-red are used also in the elements of designs4#ci ,,white ,,slip ,the native white slip 7see p4 #bc7 is applied and polished in the same manner as the red slip 7see p4 #bc74 ,it has been very largely supplanted by the ,santo ,domingo white slip1 which does not require polishing4 ,the ,santo ,domingo white slip 7see p4 #bc7 is a soapy clay which the ,san ,ildefonso potters obtain from the ,indians of ,santo ,domingo and ,cochiti4 ,it is mixed with water in enamelled pans and basins or in china dishes1 although formerly pottery vessels were used to hold it4 ,although undissolved lumps of the clay remain in the bottom of the vessel containing the solution1 the latter is not appreciably thicker than water4 ,the mop with which it is applied is a folded cloth1 about two inches wide and three1 or three and a half1 inches long4 ,this is held at one end1 between the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand1 the other end of the cloth acting as a two-inch wide paint-brush1 which is manipulated with an easy1 backward-forward stroking motion1 parallel to the rim4#dj ,before the slip is applied1 the hand is rubbed over the surface in order to remove any dust or powder which may remain after the scraping4 ,some vessels1 while being slipped1 are held with the mouth vertical and to the left1 supported by the bent fingers of the left hand against the interior of the rim4 ,others are held upright1 resting upon the palm of the left hand 7pl4 #bj1 b74 ,in both cases the vessels are revolved counterclockwise as the slip is applied4 ,in the container the slip is creamy white1 but when first laid on it turns a muddy yellowish-white1 because the clay below darkens as it absorbs the moisture4 ,within two or three minutes the under clay dries1 and the surface becomes dead white4 ,five or six coats are applied1 the vessel being allowed to become completely dry after each one4 ,one potter rubbed the surface vigorously with a dry cloth after each application and before the slip had thoroughly dried4 ,another rubbed the vessel with a cloth only after all the coats had been put on1 but before the last had dried4 ,usually the work is done in the sun1 at the place where the pieces have been drying1 but occasionally it is carried on in the house1 and between coatings the vessels are placed in an oven heated by a slow fire4 ,the length of time1 five or more minutes1 during which the vessel remains in the oven is determined by testing the warmth of its surface4 ,when the work has been completed1 the very faint marks of the mop are visible4 ,pieces of pottery of various shapes are slipped on different surfaces4 ,small ollas and constricted-mouthed bowls are coated with white only on the upper two-thirds or three-quarters of the exterior4 ,no particular care is taken to keep the lower edge of the slip regular4 ,of smaller vessels the entire exterior1 including the base1 is usually covered4 ,open-mouthed bowls are coated with white both in the interior and the upper part of the exterior4 ,shallow open-mouthed bowls may be coated only on the interior4 ,the exterior surfaces not treated with white slip are later coated with orange-red slip 7see below74 ,the actual length of time that each vessel is in the hands of the potter while it is being slipped is very short4 ,it requires one-quarter to one-half a minute to apply a coat of slip to a constricted-mouthed bowl six to eight inches in diameter4 ,the six coats could be applied in less than three minutes4 ,another half minute is needed for the rubbing with the cloth at the end4 ,four minutes in all is a generous estimate4 ,a coat of slip is applied to the entire group of vessels at one time 7pl4 #bj1 b74 ,less than fifteen minutes are required to give a single coat of slip to a group of from twenty to thirty pieces4 ,after this step has been completed1 the vessels are placed in the sun for an hour or more before the painting of the design is begun1 the length of time depending upon attendant circumstances4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj a ,cutting the top from an olla which had cracked slightly at the rim during the final sun-drying4 ,the raw edge was afterwards worked down to form a new rim1 and the vessel was successfully fired4 b ,applying white slip with a cloth mop4 ,the enamelled pan containing the prepared slip is on the bench at the potter's side4 ,a number of vessels are slipped at one time4 ,,orange-,,red ,,slip ,this slip is applied only to the bases of vessels 7ollas and certain bowls7 and to the interior of the lips of ollas4 ,before burning it is mustard-yellow in color1 but after firing it becomes orange-red4 ,a cloth mop is used for application in the same manner as with the white slip2 one coat only is applied to each surface4 ,as a rule the vessel being slipped is held in the lap1 the mouth vertical and turned to the left 7pl4 #ba1 a74 ,the left hand is placed in the interior to support it and keep it turning counterclockwise1 that is1 the upper part is turned away from the body1 as the strokes are taken towards the body4 ,the formation of the junction-line between this base-slip and the body-slip is very carefully handled4 ,no attention is paid to the lower edge of the body-slip1 except to notice its general location1 for the base-slip covers it and itself produces the edge4 ,this upper line1 made by long1 careful1 slow1 trailing strokes of the mop1 is drawn entirely free-hand1 yet the potters succeed surprisingly well in keeping it always the same distance from the centre of the base4 ,three or four strokes are more than sufficient to encircle the vessel 7pl4 #ba1 a74 ,it is often possible in the finished piece to trace the lower edge of the body-slip1 under the orange-red coating4 ,after the junction line has been drawn1 the rest of the base is covered with shorter forward-backward strokes4 ,the application of the orange-red slip to the interior of the lips of ollas is done with the same careful1 slow technique used in forming the junction-line near the base of the body2 during the process the vessel is held on the palm of the hand right-side up4 ,the exterior of shallow bowls which receive no white slip is completely coated with the orange-red1 the bowl being inverted over the left hand during the application4 ,the orange-red slip may be put on either before or after the painting of the design2 if before1 the painting may be begun at once2 if after1 the application may be delayed until within an hour or two of burning4 ,if the vessels are set aside for a while at this stage1 they are covered with a cloth to keep the dust and flies away4 ,the time element is practically the same as in the case of the white slip4 ,,red ,,slip ,the red slip1 as was said above1 serves to cover the surfaces of undecorated red-ware4 ,it is always polished with the rubbing-stone after application4 ,when given a certain special firing 7see p4 #gd7 it turns a lustrous black and so produces polished black ware 7pl4 #h1 b74 ,this slip is a saturated solution in water of the red clay just as it was obtained from the claypits 7see p4 #bd74 ,although undissolved lumps remain at the bottom of the solution1 the latter is no thicker than water4 ,the containers are either open-mouthed pottery bowls or china dishes4 ,the slip is applied as usual with a small folded rag4 ,while it is being put on1 the vessel may be hung from the fingers of the left hand with the mouth vertical1 or held in the usual way upon the palm of the left hand1 its position depending upon whether or not the base is to be slipped4 ,the surface is covered two or three times with the cloth mop1 in a rather haphazard manner1 so that certain portions where the strokes overlap receive as many as four coats4 ,the potter herself is uncertain regarding the number of coats the surface has received1 as they are applied one immediately after the other1 with no wait between4 ,the mopping is stopped when the surface seems uniformly covered with just the right shade--a rather bright red4 ,san ,ildefonso potters usually cover with this slip the entire exterior of small ollas and bowls1 including the base4#da ,in some cases shallow open-mouthed bowls are slipped only on the interior4 ,before the slip dries1 the rubbing with the polishing-stone is begun4 ,the stone is held between the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand4 ,the entire surface is gone over several times with a backward-forward motion in strokes about three or four inches long4#db ,each stroke is made with the entire forearm1 there being no noticeable play in either the wrist or the fingers4 ,this is a rather fatiguing and exacting process1 for to obtain the best results all parts of the surface must receive equal attention3 a definite system1 however1 has been developed by means of which the entire surface is gone over4 ,in polishing the exterior of a small olla or of a bowl1 the vessel is first placed upon the lap in an inverted position1 tilted slightly to the right4 ,it is held at the rim by the left hand1 which rests upon the left thigh4 ,the polishing is begun on the right-hand side of the base near the body1 and proceeds diagonally across the base to the far left-hand side4 ,the vessel is then tipped up with the mouth to the left and the rim nearly vertical4 ,the polishing is begun at the shoulder and continued down to within a very short distance of the centre of the base 7pl4 #ba1 b74 ,at this stage some potters polish from the base to the shoulder4 ,as the work continues1 the upper part of the bowl is turned counterclockwise away from the body4 ,usually the stroke is parallel to the rim1 but occasionally a diagonal motion develops4 ,the strokes across the bottom are then made at right angles to the previous series4 ,a constricted-mouthed bowl is then turned so that the mouth1 still vertical1 is to the right1 and the section from the lip to the shoulder is polished2 the bowl is now turned clockwise1 that is1 the top still turns away from the body4 ,small ollas may be held either in this position or with the mouth tilted at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the left and away from the body1 in which case the polishing is done from the shoulder to the lip 7see pl4 #cj1 b1 which shows a ,zui potter using the polishing stone74 ,after the surface has been completely covered in this manner once1 and none too carefully1 the rim is coated with the slip1 applied by the forefinger of the right hand1 and gone over with the stone4 ,the vessel is then wiped with a cloth upon ,illustration3 ,,plate #ba a4 ,applying orange-red slip with a cloth mop2 the beginning of the stroke may be seen just above the lap of the potter4 b4 ,polishing a bowl with a small stone after red slip has been applied4 ,the marks of the stone are visible at first1 but quickly disappear as the slip dries4 c4 ,women working with the polishing stone4 ,note the light line about the shoulder of the large olla1 where a space is always temporarily left unpolished4 which a little lard has been rubbed4 ,the lard may be kept near the potter in any convenient receptacle1 like a sauce-dish or the bowl of a spoon4 ,a clean cloth is then immediately used to distribute the lard evenly upon the surface1 and to remove any surplus4 ,some potters do not use this second cloth at all2 others apply the lard to the vessels with their fingers1 wiping it immediately afterwards with a cloth4 ,in some cases1 the application of the lard is withheld until the polishing is entirely completed4 ,the polishing is then continued in exactly the manner just described4 ,the surface is covered more carefully and more slowly1 the areas worked upon often overlapping considerably4 ,a cloth1 sometimes a part of the potter's apron1 is now between the left hand and the vessel in order to protect the smooth surface4 ,a considerable pressure is exerted4 ,some women use a short1 very quick stroke2 others a somewhat longer1 slower stroke1 hence taking more time for the work4 ,in this way the surface is covered several times4 ,finally the routine treatment is dropped1 and finishing touches are given by polishing small areas here and there which do not show the required amount of lustre4 ,the strokes used at the end are usually slightly longer than the previous ones4 ,finally1 after the stone has been laid aside1 the surface is wiped once with a clean cloth before the vessel is set aside2 it is usually placed upon a mat or cloth in order that the base may not be scratched by contact with the earthen floor4 ,when the polishing of several vessels has been completed1 they are gathered in a corner of a room on a mat or rug1 and covered with a cloth to keep the flies and dust away1 for it is said that fly-specks leave a black mark upon the burned vessel4 ,in the case of large ollas one half of the vessel is doubtless coated with slip and polished before the other half is slipped4 ,this is the process employed in polishing large ollas slipped with dark-red 7see p4 #fc74 ,no opportunity presented itself to see a large polished olla being made4 ,in polishing the interior of a shallow bowl1 the vessel is held in its normal position1 tilted slightly to the right1 and resting upon the right knee and the palm of the left hand1 which in turn1 rests upon the left knee4 ,the polishing is done from the lip to the centre of the vessel4 ,as the work advances1 the bowl is turned counterclockwise4 ,the degree of polish obtained by different potters varies considerably1 and yet in even the very finest examples of polishing the marks left by the stone may be faintly seen in certain lights in the form of exceedingly low ridges1 generally running roughly parallel to the rim and too low to be felt with the fingers4 ,the surface has a lustre almost equal to that of burnished metal4 ,in pieces which are not as well polished1 the ridges are higher and may be felt with the fingers2 indeed they are often prominent enough to make the lustre uneven4 ,maria ,martinez1 who does the best polishing1 is also the swiftest worker in the village4 ,from the moment the vessel is picked up to apply the slip until the completion of the polishing1 it is not laid down for an instant4 ,her strokes are quicker than those of the other potters2 she covers the surface in much less time and therefore polishes a given area more often before the slip dries4 ,continued polishing tires the wrist and hand very quickly and is apt to produce cramps4 ,other potters are inclined to rest for a few minutes from time to time1 especially after the application of the slip and again after the lard has been put on4 ,one woman complained of the humid weather1 because it did not allow the slip to dry quickly enough4 ,the potters themselves say that streaky polish is due to lack of persistence on the part of the polisher4 ,maria attributes her success to the fact that she uses a faster stroke and puts on a little more lard than the others4 ,large vessels usually have a poorer polish than small ones4 ,the secret of good polishing seems to lie in the ability of the potter to go over her work as many times as possible after the slip has been applied and before it becomes too dry4 ,the time during which the vessel being polished is actually in the hands of the potter is given in ,table ,,vii4 ,the first column 7,a7 represents a constricted-mouthed bowl1 about eight inches in diameter at the shoulder and four inches high1 which was polished by ,maria4 ,in one hour and fifteen minutes elapsed time three such bowls were done1 an average of twenty-five minutes for each4 ,the second column 7,b7 represents the polishing by another potter of the interior of a shallow wide-mouthed bowl4 ,the actual time from the moment the bowl was picked up for the application of the slip until the polishing was done was forty-one minutes4 ,a rest of one minute was taken after the slip had been applied1 another of thirteen minutes after the application of the lard1 in order to let the bowl 8dry01 and a third of one minute when the final polishing was about half done4 ,the interior of this bowl was a very fine example of polishing4 ,,table ,,vii ,min4 ,sec4 ,min4 ,sec4 ,first application of the slip #jj4jj #jj4jj ,first polishing begun #jb4ej #jc4jj ,slipping of rim begun #jd4de ,polishing of rim begun #je4cj ,application of lard begun #jf4je #aj4jj ,wiping with dry cloth begun #jf4dj ,final polishing begun #jg4je #aa4jj ,polishing finished #bd4je #bf4jj ,,dark-,,red ,,slip ,the dark-red slip is a mixture of red slip1 native white slip1 and tempering material4 ,it is applied to vessels which are later to receive a black design 7see pl4 #g1 a1 b74 ,it is mopped on with a cloth in exactly the same manner as the red1 and is also polished with a stone but never acquires as high a lustre as does the red4 ,there seems to be a tendency for the first coat of this slip to dry more readily than the first coat of the red slip4 ,while applying the slip to small ollas about six inches in diameter1 the vessel is held by the rim with the left hand4 ,either the entire exterior may be slipped1 or the base may remain uncoated1 to be covered later with the orange-red slip4 ,the slip is first applied to the rim1 the forefinger being used instead of a mop4 ,during this process the vessel is right-side up either in the lap or on the floor4 ,the body is then slipped with the cloth mop1 and the polishing done in two parts1 with the shoulder as the dividing line4 ,in polishing the lower part the strokes begin at the base1 or at the lower edge of the slip in case the base has not been coated1 and proceed upward to the shoulder4 ,the direction of the strokes is practically parallel to the rim4 ,the upper part is polished from the shoulder to the lip4 ,on the base1 if it has been slipped1 the strokes are first made in one direction1 then at right angles to that direction4 ,from time to time1 as the polishing proceeds1 the vessels are set aside in order to allow the slip to dry somewhat4 ,they may even be placed in the sun or near a fire on the hearth4 ,the potters explain that if the work is completed while the slipped surface is very damp1 the resulting polish will not be as high as when the slip is just drying4 ,apparently1 the work done just before the surface becomes dry plays an important part in securing a high lustre4 ,one of the potters working on this ware applied a little lard to the surface after the polishing had been completed4 ,another potter used no lard whatever for this class of ware4#dc ,when the polishing has been completed the vessel is placed in the sun or near a fire to dry thoroughly before it is put away to await decoration4 ,while the olla is drying it is covered with a cloth to protect it from flies4 ,in polishing larger ollas one half of the vessel is coated with the dark-red slip and polished before the other half is slipped4 ,either the half above the shoulder or the half below the shoulder may be polished first4 ,rather quick strokes1 three or four inches long1 are made with the stone4 ,sufficient pressure is exerted to cause motion in the entire body of the worker4 ,the strokes1 as before1 are usually parallel to the rim4 ,because of the larger surface to be covered in these vessels1 the position of the olla on the lap of the potter is changed frequently4 ,it is supported with the left hand1 which is placed palm down upon the exterior surface4 ,while the lip is being polished1 the mouth is turned toward the body and to the right1 making an angle of about sixty degrees from the horizontal4 ,in polishing the upper part of the shoulder the potter turns the mouth to the left and away from the body 7pl4 #ba1 c74 ,usually the mouth is more nearly horizontal in this position than in the former4 ,before applying the slip to the lower half of the olla1 a faint line is drawn with the polishing-stone around the lower part of the body to define the lower edge of the body-slip4 ,during the slipping and polishing of this portion of the surface1 the olla is held with the mouth nearly vertical and to the left1 directed away from the body4 ,when the polishing proper is completed1 the finishing touches are given to the entire exterior by rubbing small areas here and there which do not entirely satisfy the potter4 ,as in the case of the red slip1 the polishing must be completed before the slip becomes too dry4 ,when there is a large surface to be polished1 as in the case of these ollas1 it is of course necessary that the work upon any given section of the surface be completed as quickly as possible4 ,therefore when two potters are working together1 the swifter of the two does the polishing on the larger vessel1 regardless of which of the two applies the slip4 ,after the polishing proper has been completed1 the olla may be turned over to the slower worker for the finishing touches4 ,this necessity for speed in polishing is probably the reason for slipping only a part of the surface at one time4 ,now and then1 as the polishing proceeds1 the potter changes stones4 ,an important factor in this change is the desire to rest the fingers through the slight alteration in grip afforded by the different shapes of the stones4 ,occasionally the change is due to a wish to obtain a stone with just the proper shaped surface for the section of the olla being worked upon4 ,there is also a tendency to use a larger1 rougher stone at the beginning of the work1 for which is substituted later for the final finish a smaller1 finer-grained1 and therefore smoother1 stone4 ,because of the practice of slipping and polishing only half the surface at a time1 there develops around the shoulder a narrow line of dried slip1 which is naturally lighter in color than the worked areas4 7,this line may be seen encircling the olla in pl4 #ba1 c74 ,after the polishing of the upper and lower areas has been completed1 the potter's attention turns to this line1 and since dry slip cannot be polished1 the rubbing stone is either wet with the tongue or dipped into the liquid in the slip-container before being used on the line4 ,the latter method appears to give the best results1 but in either case1 the moistening of the stone is done very frequently1 and the process of eliminating the lighter line is a painfully slow one4 ,even when the best results have been obtained1 the line is not entirely obliterated4 ,occasionally the stone is moistened with the tongue while giving final touches to other parts of the surface4 ,when the polishing with the stone has been entirely completed1 a little lard is rubbed on the surface either with the forefinger or with a greasy cloth2 the surface is then vigorously rubbed with a chamois4#dd ,this distributes the lard evenly and very noticeably improves the lustre4 ,then the vessel1 after being covered with a cloth1 is put in the sun to dry thoroughly4 ,the great difference in the time required for polishing large and small ollas requires two tables to present the details4 ,table ,,viii gives the time during which a large olla1 about fourteen inches in diameter at the shoulder1 was under the hands of the potters4 ,the time devoted to obliterating the light junction-line1 about fifteen to twenty minutes1 was considerably longer than usual4 ,table ,,ix gives the time required for three small globular ollas1 about six inches in diameter at the shoulder4 ,the surface of each of these was approximately the same as that of the polished black constricted-mouthed bowl recorded in ,table ,,vii4 ,,table ,,viii ,hrs4 ,min4 ,sec4 #jj4jj -- ,drawing of line about lower part of body begun #ja4jj -- ,slipping of lower half of olla begun #jh4cj -- ,slipping finished1 polishing begun #bc4cj -- ,vessel transferred to a slower worker #dj4jj -- ,set aside #jd4de -- ,time out #dj4jj -- ,polishing by slower worker continued #dg4de -- ,first application of lard begun #dh4de -- ,polishing with chamois begun #ej4de -- ,lower part finished 8 -- ,time out #ej4de -- ,slipping of upper half begun #ee4ae -- ,slipping of body done1 slipping of rim begun #ef4de -- ,polishing begun #a4jj4de -- ,vessel transferred to the swifter worker #a4bj4de -- ,vessel transferred to the slower worker1 obliteration of junction-line #a4ec4de -- ,first application of lard begun #a4ee4de -- ,polishing with chamois begun #a4ei4de -- ,polishing of vessel completed ,,table ,,ix ,min4 ,sec4 ,slipping begun #jj4jj #jj4jj #jj4jj ,slipping completed #jc4jj ,time out #ja4jj omitted ,polishing begun #jc4jj #jd4jj #jd4jj ,set aside 7second one beside fire7 #bg4cj #ca4cj ,time out #jc4jj #cd4cj omitted ,polishing continued #bg4cj omitted ,lard first applied1 chamois used later #cj4cj #ca4cj #cb4jj ,work on vessel completed #ca4de #cc4jj #cf4jj ,,painting ,three varieties of paint are employed in making the designs--the black1 or guaco1 which is used on red and polychrome wares1 the orange-red 7also used as a slip71 which serves as a paint in filling certain spaces in the designs upon polychrome ware1 and the black ware paint which produces the designs upon polished black ware4#de ,the consistency of the guaco1 when dissolved in water and ready for use1 varies from that of water to that of thick cream4 ,the solution is sticky and has a characteristic odor4 ,a thin solution when applied to the surface of a vessel is yellowish-green1 and has much the same appearance as a fresh coat of the orange-red paint4 ,after drying the two are easily distinguishable4 ,a thick solution of guaco is dark brownish-green when applied to the vessel1 and on drying has a noticeable 8body01 so that the lines appear slightly raised and glossy4 ,it is not possible to draw as fine a line with the thick solution as with the thin one4 ,the orange-red is never used in painting lines1 but only for filling areas1 and is therefore always applied with a medium or heavy brush4 ,in preparing the black ware paint1 a slight amount of guaco is added as an adhesive1 and the solution is often stirred with the fingers in order to insure complete dissolving of the coloring matter4 ,when first applied to the vessel1 this paint is almost transparent2 as it dries it becomes yellowish4 ,the principal precaution taken when painting is begun is to guard against flies4 ,they eat the moist guaco1 causing blank spaces in the lines1 and also make fly-specks on the slip which turn black in the firing4 ,the room is therefore cleared of flies as far as possible1 and great care then exercised to keep the door shut4 ,the painter watches the pot constantly1 and often interrupts her work in order to brush a fly from the design4 ,if it is necessary to do the painting out of doors1 the services of an assistant are required to wave a cloth back and forth across the top of the vessel to keep the flies away4#df ,when the work has been completed the vessels are immediately covered with a cloth4 ,the receptacle for paint may be either a small open-mouthed pottery bowl or a china sauce-dish4 ,during the painting it is on the right side of the potter within easy reach1 either on the floor or on a low stool4 ,in it is always a stirring-stick4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bb ,painting designs on small vessels4 ,the decorator's right hand does not come in contact with the pot1 and the tip of the brush is trailed rather than stroked across the surface4 a4 ,maria ,martinez4 b4 ,maximiliana ,martinez4 ,the brushes are usually kept in the paint1 or occasionally beside it1 and sometimes a pencil is also near at hand 7pl4 #bc1 a74 ,in decorating the exterior of a constricted-mouthed bowl1 the vessel is held upright and inclined very slightly towards the body2 it rests on the left knee and is steadied by the pressure of the left hand against the interior of the rim 7pl4 #bb1 a74 ,the potter sits in a position which allows the light to come over her right shoulder directly upon the section of the bowl being painted4 ,as the work proceeds the vessel is turned counterclockwise4 ,when the design extends slightly below the shoulder1 the bowl is inclined to the left and away from the body4 ,if a considerable portion of the design is below the shoulder1 the vessel is inverted and is supported by the fingers of the left hand against the interior base of the bowl4 ,if the interior of an open-mouthed bowl is being painted1 the enclosing lines near the rim are made first4 ,during this process the bowl is held with the mouth vertical and to the right1 while the lines are drawn on the lower part of the interior rim4 ,the vessel moves counterclockwise4 ,the bottom of the interior is painted with the bowl standing in its normal position on the left knee1 the mouth inclined to the right and toward the body4 ,when a large vessel1 such as an olla1 is to be painted1 it is placed upon a box or table of the proper height1 which has previously been covered with a rug or mat to protect the base 7pl4 #bc74 ,the painter chooses her position so that the light will fall over her shoulder upon the vessel4 ,during the painting of the upper part of the vessel it is touched with the left hand only when it needs to be turned4 ,in working below the shoulder the vessel is tilted slightly to the left1 and away from the painter4 ,the paint-brushes are made of slivers of yucca 7fig4 #e74 ,they may be roughly grouped into three weights--fine1 medium1 and heavy4#dg ,the fine ones are used in making outlines on the smaller vessels2 the medium ones either for line work or for the filling of small areas2 and the heavy ones for filling only4 ,during the painting there are from three to six brushes in the paint vessel4 ,these brushes are of such durability that the potters have no definite idea of the length of their usefulness4 ,since the fibres are brittle when dry1 brushes are occasionally broken by accident2 to prevent such breakage they are soaked in water for a few minutes to soften them before they are used4 ,the brush is held in the right hand1 with the fingers in the position used in holding a pencil or pen4 ,the ends of the fingers are two or three inches from the tip of the brush 7pl4 #bb1 a1 b42 pl4 #bc1 a74 ,the fingers of the right hand do not rest upon the surface of the vessel and the entire right arm is unsupported 7pl4 #bc71 although at times the elbow may be unconsciously steadied against the body4 ,the straightness and evenness of the lines drawn under these conditions are remarkable4 ,there is a slight personal variation in the method of contact of the brush with the vessel4 ,one potter uses only the tip of the brush2 another first places the tip upon the surface1 and then makes the line with the body of the brush2 a third places the body of the brush upon the vessel at the first contact4 ,in making a line a trailing stroke is invariably used2 its direction is usually toward the body1 but occasionally away from it4 ,the brush is always moved slowly1 and the angle at which it is held varies according to the part of the surface over which the line is being drawn1 and upon the part of the stroke which is being made4 ,at the beginning of a stroke the angle is an acute one1 varying from forty-five to seventy degrees 7fig4 #h1 a72 about the middle it approximates ninety degrees 7fig4 #h1 b72 while at the end it is often an obtuse angle of as much as one hundred and twenty degrees 7fig4 #h1 c74 ,on small vessels the strokes seldom exceed four inches in length2 on larger pots they are sometimes as much as six inches long4 ,after each stroke the brush is dipped into the paint vessel2 it is then always drawn across the stirring stick1 which is kept ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,angles at which paint-brush is held during a long stroke2 a4 ,beginning4 b4 ,middle of stroke4 c4 ,end4 there1 in order to remove excess paint before being applied again to the surface4 ,even after this precaution more paint occasionally remains on the brush than is needed2 in such a case the excess is removed by touching with the tip of the brush various larger areas which will later be covered with paint4 ,the width of the lines drawn is largely dependent upon personal variation1 although the type of design also governs their width to some extent4 ,exceedingly fine lines1 for example1 would obviously look out of proportion in a bold design upon a large olla4 ,the lines vary in width from one-thirtieth to one-tenth of an inch2 the great majority are between one-fifteenth and one-twentieth4 ,lines one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch wide are in reality double1 that is1 they actually consist of two lines painted so close together that they touch along their entire length4 ,still wider lines are made by two parallel lines1 with the space between filled up4 ,some potters simply make the line once1 retouching it only in small sections which most plainly require such treatment4 ,others go over each line at least twice in order to insure a constant width4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bc ,decorating large ollas4 ,note the unsupported arm of the painter and the length of the brush4 ,on the bench in front is the paint-cup with stirring-stick and extra brushes 7,antonita ,roybal74 ,from the point of view of technique1 the lines upon the exteriors of small vessels1 such as constricted-mouthed bowls1 may be divided into two groups--the long enclosing lines and those within panels4 ,in forming the enclosing lines1 especially the long horizontal ones1 the vessel is turned while the brush remains almost stationary4 ,there are two methods of forming such long horizontal lines1 which of necessity are made of a series of relatively short strokes4 ,in one case the growth of the line is in the same direction as the strokes1 that is1 each stroke begins at the point at which the previous stroke ended4 ,in this method the vessel is turned counterclockwise4 ,in the other case the growth of the line is opposite to the direction of the stroke1 that is1 each stroke is begun a short distance beyond the end of the line and is drawn to meet the beginning of the previous stroke1 the vessel being turned clockwise4 ,in either case the fingers of the left hand1 which hold the pot by the interior of the lip1 are spread far apart in order to insure the constant and regular motion of the vessel4 ,when the lines within a panel are being drawn1 the procedure is just the reverse4 ,the bowl remains stationary while the brush is drawn across it4 ,occasionally lines which are nearly horizontal are drawn first in one direction1 then in the other4 ,in some cases1 when long diagonal or curved lines are being made1 the vessel is turned very slightly counterclockwise4 ,large vessels1 such as ollas1 remain stationary while the brush is being drawn across the surface1 and are turned only when a new area is to be worked upon4 ,lines within panels are usually made with a single stroke of the brush1 for it is seldom that a diagonal or curved line within a panel is more than four or five inches long4 ,in large open designs the long lines1 both straight and curved1 are often drawn in two parts4 ,crosshatching is made by two sets of parallel lines crossing each other4 ,dotting is done with the tip of the brush touched lightly to the surface4 ,spaces are filled with a heavier brush by means of many short strokes4 ,as a rule the strokes begin at the upper right hand corner of the area and proceed downward4 ,in filling spaces1 as in drawing lines1 some women go over their work only once1 others apply two or three coats in order to insure even distribution of the paint4 ,some potters exhibit much sureness of touch and confidence in their own ability2 their designs are executed without hesitation1 but at the same time slowly4 ,others make hard work of the painting1 seem uncertain1 and occasionally stop to rest and inspect the symmetry of the pattern4 ,there are two general points in the painting of vessels which should be emphasized4 ,the first is the remarkable steadiness of the painter's hand4 ,it seems almost incredible that such straight1 unwaving1 even lines can be drawn by a hand which is supported only by a completely free arm1 and guided merely by the end of the brush4 ,the second is the fact that the men often assist in the painting of designs4 ,they may either execute a complete design upon a vessel1 or relieve the painter from time to time during the construction of large patterns4 ,this is the only phase of the actual manufacture of pottery in which the men of the village take part4#dh ,,firing ,the firing of the vessels is not only the last major step in the making of pottery1 but it is also the most critical one4 ,the supreme test of the potter's work is to subject it to the fire1 for many forms of accident occur during the process1 some of them due to careless handling of the vessels or of the firing materials1 others to defective workmanship or to hidden flaws in the paste4 ,it is only natural that the potters should exhibit considerable excitement and nervousness during the firing4 ,some women proceed calmly and methodically1 and take occasional accidents as part of the day's work2 others are exceedingly nervous1 and show exasperation when things go wrong4 ,the latter1 as a rule1 have more accidents than the former4 ,one potter1 in six burnings1 lost two large ollas through breakage1 and had innumerable smoke-clouds1 several of them rather severe ones4 ,the firing falls naturally into four distinct phases3 the preparation1 the building of the oven1 the burning1 and the treatment after burning4 ,each of these phases will be considered separately4 ,,preparation ,the oven is usually situated behind the potter's house4 ,all that is required is a level space free from vegetation2 no attention is paid1 as a rule1 to the position of the sun or to the direction of the prevailing wind1 and the same spot is used time after time4 ,if on the evening before the firing there are any signs of rain1 or if a heavy dew is expected1 the area on which the oven is to be built in the morning is covered with a thick layer of dead ashes to protect it from moisture4 ,it would be a fatal mistake to make the oven on ground which would give off steam during the burning4 ,about six o'clock the next morning a fire is started on the area over which the oven is to be built4 ,while this preliminary fire is thoroughly drying the ground1 the accessories are collected 7pl4 #bd1 a74 ,slabs of dung are brought out from the storage places2 some of them are placed against the house wall to dry in the sun1 others remain in the washtubs in which they have been carried4 ,the material for the grate1 and other iron bars1 are placed nearby4 ,pokers of wood and iron1 shovels1 and sometimes pitchforks1 which are to be used later in handling the burning fuel and hot vessels1 are placed within reach4 ,when a collection of small tin cans1 pail-tops1 and small stones saved for this purpose has been added1 the workers are ready to begin the burning4 ,usually a supply of cedar kindling has been split1 but sometimes this is done as the wood is needed4 ,,building ,,the ,,oven ,when the preliminary fire has died down to a mass of coals1 these are levelled to form an area of hot ashes about three feet in diameter4 ,on this the oven is built4 ,the surface upon which the vessels are placed must be raised a few inches ,illustration3 ,,plate #bd a4 ,drying the oven site with a preliminary fire before burning the pottery4 ,at the lower right-hand corner are an old iron grate which will later support the vessels1 two iron rods to hold up the roof of the oven1 and a wooden poker4 ,cakes of dung for the oven walls are drying in the sun against the house4 b4 ,the vessels on the grate1 and the oven wall of dung cakes begun4 ,small tin cans support the cakes and keep them from touching the vessels4 ,the grate rests on stones1 and split cedar kindling is placed below it on the embers of the preliminary fire4 above the ground to permit the introduction of fuel below the pottery4 ,such a surface is usually formed of iron rods of one kind or another4 ,one potter built up a grate of a varied assortment of iron junk supported on tin cans and odd-shaped iron fragments4 ,another potter used a worn-out stove-grate supported on four half-bricks4 ,the vessels are then placed upon the grate in an inverted position4 ,no attempt is made to keep them from touching one another4 ,in fact1 they are crowded together in order that the greatest possible number may be burned at once 7pl4 #bd1 b74 ,in firing red ware and polychrome ware only one layer of vessels is placed upon the grate4 ,when polished black ware is to be burned1 two layers may be made4 ,the vessels in the second layer are always placed carefully between those of the bottom layer1 in order that there may be free circulation of air on both the interior and exterior of all the vessels 7pl4 #be1 a74 ,as a rule the larger bowls are placed in the lower layer4 ,the number of polychrome vessels burned at one time varies from half-a-dozen to twenty1 according to the area of the grate and the size of the vessels4 ,at one burning there were eleven pieces1 eight medium-sized and three small2 in another there were twenty1 eight of which were medium-sized1 and the other twelve very small4 ,it is possible to burn as many as thirty-five polished black bowls at once4 ,some potters burn both polychrome and red pottery in the same oven2 others insist that this should not be done1 because red ware requires far less time and heat than does polychrome4 ,after the pots have been placed on the grate1 pieces of split cedar six to fifteen inches long are inserted underneath it4 ,pion is never used1 but the potters could not explain this1 saying they had never tried it4 ,a wall-like ring of dung-cakes1 placed on edge but not set as snugly together as they might be1 is then built around the grate 7pl4 #be1 b74 ,small tin cans1 held in place by the weight of the dung1 are used to prevent the cakes from touching the vessels 7pi4 #bd1 b1 shows one of these cans very clearly74 ,sometimes small stones and broken bricks are used in place of cans4 ,while the ring is being completed more kindling may be added4 ,the ,zui oven differs from that of ,san ,ildefonso in being built of smaller pieces of manure which are laid up horizontally instead of on edge 7see pl4 #ca1 b1 c74 ,the fire may now be lighted before the oven is finished1 but sometimes the potters wait until the roof is nearly complete4 ,cedar-bark shreds are generally used to start the fire4 ,the lighting is done through the spaces between the dung-cakes1 usually at more than one place1 sometimes in as many as five4 ,no attention is paid to the wind in this process4 ,if the fire does not start quickly enough1 cloths are used to fan the flames4 ,the roof or vault of the oven is then built4 ,some potters place iron bars across the top of the dung-ring1 keeping them from touching the vessels by inserting tin cans and stones4 ,on these bars flat cakes of dung are laid1 and the larger holes are covered with smaller pieces of dung4 ,other potters dispense with the bars and rest a large circular cake of dung upon cans and stones set in the centre of the pile of pottery4 ,the space between this central cake and the top of the dung-ring is bridged by other cakes which rest on the dung alone4 ,in this manner a low vault of dung-slabs is formed1 roughly square in shape1 two and a half to three feet on a side1 and about a foot and a half high 7pl4 #be1 c74 ,there are still left numerous spaces1 both large and small1 between the cakes4 ,these are covered with smaller pieces of dung1 and with old tin tops of lard-pails or discarded tin plates 7pl4 #bf1 a74 ,even after this1 however1 there remain enough small spaces to allow free circulation of air1 and to prevent the smothering and consequent smoking of the vessels4 ,through these smaller spaces the flames and pots may be seen4 ,the building of the oven is now complete2 by this time the fire has usually been started1 and the flames are well under way4 ,as a rule more than one burning is undertaken during a morning4 ,the building of the oven for the second burning differs slightly in its preliminary stages from that described above4 ,after the previous oven has been destroyed1 the ashes are smoothed out1 and the grate set straight and carefully dusted so that no ashes remain 7pl4 #bf1 b74 ,the bowls are than placed on it as before4 ,partly burned cakes of dung1 which remain from the first burning1 are re-used4 ,if1 in placing them on the oven1 ashes drop on the vessels1 care is taken to blow them off4 ,some potters stand the vessels which are to be burned on the warm cakes of dung for a few minutes before placing them on the grate 7pl4 #bf1 b71 a process which is supposed to heat them slightly and thus prevent breakage during firing4 ,other potters would not think of doing this1 for vessels treated in this manner always have discolored bases1 where the warm dung has touched them4 ,ollas twelve to fourteen inches in diameter are burned in pairs1 with a few smaller pieces beside them4 ,the oven is built in the same manner as before4 ,very large ollas are usually fired one at a time2 the oven1 except for its greater size1 is said to be of the usual type4 ,,burning ,as was said above1 the firing of the pottery is done in the morning4 ,the ,indians say that they wish to get it over with 8before the sun grows hot04 ,their own personal comfort probably plays a more important part in this than does the effect of the sun upon the pottery4 ,as a rule the firing is withheld until a sufficient number of finished vessels have accumulated to permit three or four burnings in one morning4 ,the entire forenoon is spent at this work1 and sometimes it drags over until early afternoon4 ,the actual burning of the vessels occupies a period of about half-an-hour for each oven2 it is said that the length of time has not been appreciably shortened in the past forty or fifty years4 ,the black ware is always saved for the last oven1 since the process employed completely precludes the possibility of rebuilding the oven at once4 ,at the beginning of the burning white smoke is apt to be given off1 but too much smoke is regarded as a bad sign1 since it signifies that the dung cakes are not sufficiently dried4 ,after fifteen minutes or so1 that is when the process is about half finished1 the amount of smoke has greatly diminished 7pl4 #bf1 a74 ,about this time more kindling is added through openings made by temporarily removing a piece of tin1 and new cakes of dung are added where necessary1 usually on the top of the oven4 ,the ,indians say that they judge of the condition of the pottery in the oven by its color2 the paste and slip must be of just the proper shade before the vessels are ,illustration3 ,,plate #be ,the building of an oven4 a4 ,a double layer of bowls is on the grate2 the woman is placing a can between a dung-slab and a bowl4 b4 ,the wall of dung-cakes completed4 c4 ,the oven finished1 but the chinks not yet filled4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bf a4 ,the oven fired4 ,the chinks between the dung-slabs have been partly closed by smaller pieces of dung4 b4 ,a firing completed and a grate prepared for a second firing4 ,two vessels to be burned are warming on hot dung-slabs2 the pots that have just been taken from the fire are cooling in the shadow of the house4 thoroughly burned2 if they are too dark the burning must continue4#di ,some potters seem to pay little or no attention to the color of the vessels in the oven4 ,when the potter considers that the burning has been completed1 the cakes of dung on the top of the oven are lifted off with a pair of pokers1 and those in the ring around the grate are tipped outward4 ,thus the vessels on the grate are exposed1 and their removal is begun at once4 ,some are tipped on shovels or hay forks2 pokers are inserted under and into others4 ,they are then deposited upon tins which have been placed on the ground within six or eight feet of the oven1 and are left there from ten to twenty minutes to cool4 ,the women often complain about the heat from the oven during the removal of the vessels4 ,as soon as the grate has been cleared1 preparations are begun for the next burning 7pl4 #bf1 b74 ,in one instance a potter decided that a certain vessel which had been removed from the grate was not sufficiently burned4 ,another fire was already in progress1 but when the third was built the vessel was replaced on the grate and burned again4 ,when it came out1 however1 one side was badly overfired4 ,the time occupied by various burnings is given in the following table4 ,the first four columns represent burnings by ,maria ,martinez2 the last three by ,antonita ,roybal4 ,the seventh column records the oven in which the partly fired piece was reburned1 and in which a cooking vessel was also placed4 ,,table ,x 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 7#g7 ,minutes ,preparation and building of oven begun #jj #jj #jj #jj #jj #jj #jj ,fire started #be #ae #jf #ab #ae #ae #ji ,more kindling and dung added #de #be #be #eg ,oven broken up #eb #cg #cf #da #gb #dj #bg ,last bowl removed from grate #eh #da #db #dg #gg #de #cj ,the time required for burning the different wares varies only slightly4 ,some potters say that red ware takes less fuel1 less heat1 and less time than polychrome ware2 others place both wares in the same oven4 ,the difference in the time required for these two wares is probably no greater than the chance variations in the length of burning as given in ,table ,x4 ,cooking vessels need to be fired only from one-half to two-thirds as long as the two wares just mentioned 7cf4 ,table ,x1 column #g74 ,the polished black ware will be considered later4 ,the changes in color before and after firing1 and when hot and cool1 are very noticeable in some pigments and slips4 ,the orange-red paint is yellow before firing1 firing turns it orange-red1 almost the color of burnt sienna2 cooling produces no noticeable change in this shade4 ,burning has only a fugitive effect on the red and dark-red slips4 ,while still hot1 upon removal from the oven1 these are both a dark chocolate shade4 ,as the vessels cool the different reds gradually reappear1 until when cold they are the same color as before firing4 ,in some cases1 these pigments seem to be just a shade darker after firing than before4 ,the two kinds of white slip are a dead white when applied2 after firing they take on a slight pinkish-brown tinge1 more cream than white4 ,cooling produces no further change4 ,the most interesting change caused by firing is in the black vegetable pigment 7guaco74 ,it has already been pointed out 7p4 #ff71 that when this paint is laid on thickly1 the line made is a little raised and glossy1 like a glaze4 ,this 8body0 to the paint is probably formed by vegetable matter in suspension in the solution4 ,when the vessels with such decorations are removed from the oven after burning1 these lines are seen to be white or grey4 ,the material which formed the body of the pigment has been reduced to white ash1 which adheres to the surface1 but can be rubbed off with the finger or a cloth1 while the black color itself has been burned into the clay4 ,where a thin layer of the pigment was applied1 the line1 after burning1 is light grey1 because the black under the thin coat of ash shows through4 ,in those vessels on which a thick solution of pigment was used1 the decorations are dead white1 and the surface of the ash is often crackled4 ,the thickness of this ash seems to have some effect upon the manner in which the black pigment is burned into the clay1 for in decorations covered with a thick layer of ash1 the black is of an irregular color with streaks of grey in it4 ,when the thin pigment is used1 the resulting black on the finished vessel is of a uniform shade4 ,the glossiness and raised character of the pigment is of course completely destroyed during burning4 ,guaco lines do not change in shade while the vessel is cooling4 ,the color of the paste is little affected by burning4 ,in both the red and the white clays1 the change is simply one of tone1 that is1 the clay is lighter after burning than before4 ,the cooking-vessel clay before burning is greyish yellow1 but after it has been removed from the oven it is a rich orange-yellow4 ,these cooking vessels eventually become blackened by use over an open fire4 ,vessels destined to be polished black ware are treated in quite a different manner during the firing stage1 for they are to be subjected to a smothered fire1 which will result in the deposition of carbon1 thus turning them from red to black4 ,the oven is built in the same way1 but greater care is taken to fill gaps1 so that more of the heat may be retained4 ,enough spaces remain1 however1 to permit free circulation of air4 ,more kindling is used1 for a hotter fire is necessary4 ,when the fire has reached the stage at which other wares are removed1 it is smothered with new1 pulverized1 loose manure4 ,just before the smothering the vessels have the dark chocolate color typical of the red wares while hot4 ,the potter always attempts to smother the entire oven at once by dumping upon it a whole washtubful of fine loose manure4 ,if there is a wind1 flames are apt to break out in one or two places4 ,they are1 however1 hurriedly extinguished4 ,when the loose manure is added1 the arch of the oven is1 of course1 broken1 and both cakes and loose manure come in contact with the vessels4 ,for this reason the potter does not exercise particular care in building the oven to keep the cakes from touching the vessels1 as they are to be entirely black in the end and a little premature smoking does no harm4 ,after the manure has been added1 the mound is continually prodded with a poker to redistribute the loose manure and make certain that all the pieces are equally covered4 ,an extra supply of loose manure is at hand1 and this is added in large and small quantities from time to time1 as occasion demands4 ,two washtubsful are generally used1 sometimes three4 ,the mound of manure gives off a dense white smoke after the smothering has begun 7pl4 #bg1 a74 ,great care is taken to prevent flames from appearing1 since these would remove the carbon from the vessel4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bg a4 ,a fire smothered with loose manure to produce polished black ware4 b4 ,wiping vessels that have become cool enough to handle4 ,one woman wipes off the ashes with a dry rag1 then passes them to her companion1 who goes over them with a slightly greasy cloth4 ,ten or fifteen minutes after the smothering the first piece is dug out of the mound with the poker4 ,it is placed a foot or two from the oven and hastily wiped with a dry cloth to remove all manure4 ,the surface of the vessel is a beautiful shiny black color1 which does not change at all on cooling4 ,if black ware paint 7see p4 #bd7 has been used1 it changes from the greenish-yellow color that it had before burning to a dead matte black which contrasts very effectively with the polished surface of the vessel 7see pl4 #h1 a74 ,at first the vessels come from the smoking mound slowly1 and all holes left in the pile by the removal of vessels are carefully filled again1 but later they are taken out as quickly as possible1 and toward the end no attempt is made to keep the pieces still in the pile thoroughly covered4 ,if1 when a vessel is removed1 its condition does not quite suit the potter1 it is replaced in the smoking manure and completely covered4 ,certain polished black vessels are further manipulated in such a way as to produce an irregular red blotch upon them4#ej ,specimens destined to receive this red blotch1 which is usually placed near the rim1 are reburied in the hot manure lying round the edge of the pile with that portion which is to have the blotch left uncovered4 ,against this exposed portion is placed a smoking fragment of a dung-slab4 ,the action of the heat and air results in the removal of the carbon from the surface1 so that that part of the vessel which is not covered with manure and ashes regains its former color1 the red of the pigment4 ,since the pot is pushed about a good deal during this process1 the line between the red and the black surface is not always very definite1 which improves the appearance4 ,the ,indians themselves cannot tell beforehand just what shape the blotch is going to take1 and must therefore watch the vessel continually4 ,sometimes burning shreds of cedar bark are placed against the exposed surface to hasten the process1 but actual flames are not necessary in order to obtain the desired result4 ,if the red blotch is too large1 part of it is simply recovered with hot manure-ashes1 and a few minutes later will again become jet black4 ,so far as looks are concerned the success or failure of this red blotch upon black ware depends largely upon the artistic sense of the potter making it4 ,in one group of thirty-three polished black vessels fired together1 sixteen were given a red blotch2 eight or ten of these were excellent pieces4 ,the time consumed in burning polished black ware is shown in ,table ,,xi4 ,it should be noted that before the loose manure was added1 the vessels were subjected to the fire about the same length of time as those of other wares4 ,,table ,,xi ,minutes ,preparation and building of oven begun #jj #jj ,fire started #af #ah ,more fuel added #da #ci ,oven smothered with loose manure #df #de ,first bowl removed #ei #ei ,last bowl removed #gd #ii ,,accidents ,the accidents which may occur in firing are of two general classes--those which result from faulty treatment during the construction of the vessel itself and those which are due to careless manipulation in burning4 ,the latter are the more frequent4 ,a vessel may crack or flake badly in the oven2 often the entire base breaks off4 ,the fault in this case lies in the original moulding1 because small stone fragments or air-bubbles were allowed to remain embedded in the paste4 ,since the rate of expansion under heat varies for different substances1 a great strain develops about such stones or air-bubbles during firing1 and the natural result is cracking or flaking of the clay4 ,in some larger vessels the slip flakes away around the shoulder1 where the two areas of the surface met when the polishing was done 7see p4 #fd74 ,in the potter's opinion these flakes1 which are exceedingly small1 are probably caused by minute air-bubbles that had lodged under the slip while the line about the shoulder was being polished4 ,a third type of accident is merely a blemish2 it is due to flies settling on a vessel before burning2 the resulting fly-specks are burned into the clay1 and the surface of the pot is sprinkled with dots quite as black as guaco decorations4 ,the most common form of blemish caused by careless manipulation during firing is the 8smoke-cloud0 or 8fire-cloud01 a circular blackened area1 the darkest part of which is at the centre4 ,there is no question but that this is caused by contact between the vessel and a dung-cake1 and the result is probably due to moisture in the dung which brings about a deposit of carbon on the surface4 ,if1 during the burning1 a cake of dung falls1 it will probably come in contact with the surface of some bowl4 ,if it is removed at once there is little danger of a smoke-cloud1 and the potter1 when she notices such an accident1 immediately tries to secure the fallen cake with two pokers4 ,with much skill she carefully extricates it from within the oven without disturbing the other cakes about the place from which it fell4 ,fire-clouds may be produced upon the bases of vessels by setting them on hot cakes of dung before firing2 or upon damp1 or relatively damp1 ground immediately after firing4 ,excessive dampness1 such as steam from wet ground under the oven1 may in addition to discoloration1 produce warping of the vessels4 ,another sort of blemish is occasionally caused by rust from a tin can resting upon a vessel during firing2 such a spot is usually reddish brown in color1 and covers a very small area4 ,if light areas appear on polished black ware1 it is safe to assume that they were brought about by lack of proper ventilation within the oven during the preliminary burning1 such as would occur if two vessels were so close together as to prohibit the free passage of air4 ,if white slip is touched just before burning1 the oil from the fingers is apt to be fired in1 thus ruining the uniform appearance of the surface by the potter's indelible fingerprint4 ,to avoid such an accident1 polychrome vessels are usually handled only by the interior of the rim on the day they are burned4 ,underfiring and overfiring1 with consequent damage to the ware1 are usually due to gross carelessness on the part of the potter in the irregular placing of kindling4 ,the wind also has something to do with it4 ,if there is a stiff breeze blowing1 the probabilities are that the windward surfaces of vessels within the oven will be underfired1 while those in the lee of the vessels will be overfired4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bh ,courtesy ,amer4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,,zu,i4 ,,preparing ,,clay a4 ,pulverizing dry ingredients on flat stone slab with a mano or hand stone4 b4 ,wetting1 mixing1 and kneading clay2 water-container in foreground2 prepared clay in bowl4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bi ,courtesy ,amer4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,,zu,i4 ,,moulding a4 ,lower part of vessel completed2 potter forming roll of clay with which to continue building4 b4 ,applying roll of clay2 left hand guides roll2 right hand welds it to side of vessel4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cj ,courtesy ,amer4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,,zu,i4 ,,surfacing a4 ,going over outside of vessel with moulding tool to smooth out irregularities4 b4 ,vessel has been removed from base-mould and covered with white slip from bowl in foreground4 ,potter now polishing slip with rubbing stone4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ca ,,zu,i4 ,,painting ,,and ,,firing a4 ,applying design with yucca-leaf brush4 ,black pigment in shallow stone mortar1 red in small white bowl4 b4 ,building oven of dung cakes--note kindling at feet of figure at right4 c4 ,oven domed over and set afire4 7,photographs from ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history74 ,in underfired vessels the color of the pigments is not true1 being usually midway between the unfired color and the fired color2 as a rule the paste is also dark and friable4 ,overfiring is more easily detected than underfiring4 ,a slight overfiring may be first noticed in the black guaco paint1 which has a tendency to become bluish and light if burned too much4 ,other bad results follow in quick succession as overfiring is increased3 at an early stage the white slip becomes smoky2 in severe overfiring it may turn black1 as in a smoke-cloud2 the paint of the designs is apt to flake off2 and finally1 in a bad case1 the guaco will turn nearly white4 ,,treatment ,,after ,,burning ,polished black vessels1 when removed from the fire1 are set directly upon the ground within a foot or two of the oven4 ,they are at once wiped hastily with a dry cloth to prevent any fragments of the new manure from sticking to the surface4 ,when the vessels are sufficiently cooled they are again wiped with a clean dry cloth and taken into the house for storage4 ,occasionally the first wiping1 while the bowl is still hot1 is omitted4 ,when pieces of polychrome ware or red ware are removed from the oven they are placed on the ground some six or eight feet from the fire1 resting on tins in order to prevent possible discoloration from contact with the damp soil1 as well as to prevent dust and dirt from sticking to their bases4 ,the vessels are piled on these tins in any manner1 often three or four on top of one another4 ,when the pottery first comes from the fire1 it is still much too hot to touch1 and radiates heat copiously4 ,ten or fifteen minutes later1 when the vessels are cool enough to handle1 they are removed from the tins and collected at some convenient place to await wiping4 ,first the pieces are gone over with a clean dry cloth to take off the guaco ashes and any dust that may remain from the oven 7pl4 #bg1 b74 ,each vessel is then wiped with a slightly greasy cloth1 which gives a faint sheen to the surface and removes the blue tinge which is apt to be found in the black guaco-covered areas4 ,some potters have substituted a chamois skin for this second cloth4 ,it took the two women shown in pl4 #bg1 b1 just fifteen minutes to wipe with the two kinds of cloths the twenty-two vessels figured4 ,when the wiping is done1 the pottery is carried to the house and stored in one of the rooms4 ,the pieces are placed on the floor1 usually with a carpet or rug under them1 and covered with a sheet to keep off dust and flies4 ,the time occupied in each of the individual stages of pottery making has been considered1 but the total time1 from the beginning of the moulding until the finished vessels are placed in the store room under a sheet1 is far in excess of the mere sum of the separate hours and minutes used in each process4 ,household duties and other tasks are constantly interfering with the work4 ,about nine o'clock on a certain morning one potter began moulding the first of a group of perhaps forty pieces4 ,the scraping was commenced on the morning of the third day1 and the polishing on the fourth morning4 ,nothing was done on the fifth day1 but early on the sixth the painting began4 ,a fiesta interrupted the work for two more days1 and the burning was done on the morning of the tenth day1 although it could have taken place on the seventh4 ,another potter finished burning several large ollas at noon on the ninth day4 ,,painting ,,of ,,designs ,by means of the decorations on the vessels the potter expresses her personality4 ,the type of design used by any one potter is very constant1 and is distinctly individual4 ,it is a comparatively easy matter1 by an inspection of the design alone1 to distinguish the vessels made by one potter from those of another4 ,the designs are planned in several different ways4 ,maria ,martinez sits with the bowl in her hands for a few minutes doing nothing2 apparently she is working out in her mind the combination of elements which she will use4 ,designs so conceived are generally simple4 ,maximiliana ,martinez begins painting almost at once4 ,while she is working ideas occur to her and are incorporated4 ,occasionally1 after the painting has been completed and the vessel set aside1 she will pick it up again to add some detail4 ,this method of working is apt to cause somewhat involved figures4 ,antonita ,roybal1 in choosing her designs1 refers to drawings of her own1 or to photographs which have come into her hands1 of old ,san ,ildefonso vessels4 ,this potter uses a pencil to outline very sketchily the design upon the vessel1 as an aid in obtaining the proper symmetry4 ,the figures obtained in this manner are usually very elaborate4#ea ,the first lines drawn in a design are almost without exception the enclosing lines under the rim4 ,these are followed by the enclosing lines near the shoulder 7in the case of an olla71 or near the bottom of the interior 7in the case of a bowl74 ,when the design consists of panels1 the vertical division-lines are then added4 ,if there are to be four panels1 one division-line is drawn1 and then the one on the opposite side of the bowl1 dividing the surface into halves4 ,each of these halves is then bisected4 ,the next step is to double all the vertical division-lines4 ,occasionally each quadrant is judged by the eye only1 and the division lines are drawn in sequence about the vessel4 ,when there are to be either more or less than four panels1 they are outlined one after the other4 ,no measuring instrument of any kind is used4 ,after the skeleton of the design has been completed1 the outlines of the figure within each panel are drawn4 ,all the lines are first placed in one panel1 then the second panel is finished1 and so on1 until all have been filled with the outlines4 ,all the areas on the vessel that are to be colored black are then filled1 followed by the areas which are to be red4 ,the strokes taken in outlining are not always made in the same order in the various panels4 ,such variation is entirely natural and should be expected in work done without the use of a visible pattern4 ,when a design is attached to the lower enclosing line of a panel1 it usually consists of a repetition of some small figure of one or two elements4 ,the position of such added figures has absolutely no relation in the mind of the potter to the panel-design4 ,when a design consists of a repetition of figures not enclosed within panels1 the painter always refers1 before adding another figure1 to the amount of the surface as yet unfilled4 ,the correctness of the painter's judgment is therefore easily determined by the proportions of the last figure in the design as compared with the remaining figures4 ,as a rule1 with the product of the present-day potters of ,san ,ildefonso1 it is exceedingly difficult to determine in a finished vessel1 which of the figures was the last one drawn4 ,in designs which consist of a single figure1 or of two or more figures1 with several complex elements1 the development of the design upon the vessel is necessarily at variance with that described above4 ,as a general rule1 each element is completed1 including the filling of areas1 before the next element is outlined4 ,similarly1 each figure is finished before the next is begun4 ,in considering generally the ornamentation of ,san ,ildefonso vessels1 a distinct group-similarity can be observed4 ,the polychrome vessels are painted in black and orange-red upon a white base4 ,the red-ware vessels are decorated only in black4 ,the designs usually consist of several almost identical figures1 each composed of a small number of rather simple elements1 in which curved lines are common4 ,and yet1 in spite of this almost indefinable similarity among the vessels1 the differences between the designs made by different potters of the village are clear-cut and distinct4 ,maria ,martinez specializes in constricted-mouthed and similarly shaped bowls of polychrome ware4 ,her lines are relatively narrow1 and the black of the design is very uniform in color4 ,she uses panelled designs almost exclusively4 ,the elements within the panels are simple1 and few in number4 ,her work is easily recognized because of its simplicity and pleasing composition 7see pl4 #f74 ,maximiliana ,martinez generally confines herself to red ware in the form of small ollas and small bowls with a slightly constricted lip4 ,her lines are somewhat wider and more uneven than those of ,maria1 and the black is of varying shades4 ,as a result of her custom of developing the design as the work progresses1 the figures are rather complex and intricate1 or1 as the ,indians themselves say1 8mixed up04 ,the outstanding characteristic of her work is the use of one or more elements entirely detached from the figure proper4 ,antonita ,roybal devotes most of her time to making large ollas of red ware4 ,her lines are relatively broad1 often indeed of double width4 ,her blacks are also uneven4 ,the designs upon her vessels are usually composed of two or four very large1 complex figures1 in which spiral curves are conspicuous4 ,dotting1 crosshatching1 and filling of many small areas characterize her work4 ,the products of a man painter1 ,julian ,martinez1 are easily recognized by the abundant use of very narrow lines4 ,the figures1 which are usually composed of many intricate elements1 impress one with the amount of detailed and careful work lavished upon them4 ,julian has obviously been strongly influenced by the technique of modern ,hopi potters1 such as the famous ,nampeo1 whose work he of course often sees in the curio-stores and in the ,state ,museum at ,santa ,fe4 ,in the following pages typical designs of ,maria1 ,maximiliana1 and ,antonita are discussed in detail1 with the aid of figures upon which the direction and order of the strokes have been indicated4 ,these drawings are given in order to amplify and clarify the general statements made above4 ,,drawing ,,no4 #a 7fig4 #i72 original by ,maria ,martinez4 ,this design was on a constricted-mouthed polychrome bowl1 and consisted of four identical panels1 each four and one-half inches long by two and one-half inches wide4 ,the work was divided into four distinct sections1 or stages1 each of which was completed in all four panels1 one after the other1 before the next stage was begun4 ,first stage 7fig4 #i1 a72 construction of the framing lines4 ,lines #a-d are drawn completely around the bowl2 then lines #e-h4 ,the corresponding two pairs of lines are then drawn upon the other half of the bowl1 thus dividing the space into four sections4 ,second stage 7fig4 #i1 b72 placing of the outlines within each panel4 ,the first three lines drawn 7#i-aa7 divide the panel into three triangles4 ,then the details are ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,the growth of a polychrome design as painted by ,maria ,martinez 7the shading indicates red74 outlined in each triangle in turn4 ,when the outlining of one panel has been completed1 each of the other panels is treated in turn in the same manner4 ,the work of ,maria is noteworthy in that the order and direction of the lines and the filling of spaces is hardly ever changed from one panel to the next4 ,third stage 7fig4 #i1 c72 filling certain areas with solid black paint4 ,the largest area 7,i7 is always filled first4 ,no order is followed in filling areas ,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv1 and in making the dot 7,v74 ,in one panel1 ,,iv is filled before ,,ii1 in another ,v precedes the other three4 ,after this the dots 7,,vi7 are placed below line #ba4 ,in the different panels the number of these dots varies from six to eight4 ,the last area filled in this stage is the triangle ,,vii4 ,when the first panel has been completed the other three are treated in like manner before the fourth stage is begun4 ,fourth stage 7fig4 #i1 d72 filling of areas with red paint 7shown in the reproduction by shading74 ,in some panels area ,,viii precedes area ,,ix1 in others the reverse is the ,illustration3 ,,plate #cb ,design by ,maria ,martinez case4 ,with the completion of this fourth stage in all the panels1 the painting of this comparatively simple design is finished4 ,the time consumed was twenty-five minutes4 ,,drawing ,,no4 #b 7pl4 #cb72 original by ,maria ,martinez4 ,this design may be placed upon either a constricted-mouthed bowl or an olla-bowl4 ,it is made up of five identical panels4 ,during the painting the bowl is turned counterclockwise4 ,there are eleven distinct stages4 ,first stage 7pl4 #cb1 a72 the enclosing lines of the panels are produced4 ,each panel is four inches long and one and a half inches wide4 ,the horizontal lines 7#a-d7 are drawn completely around the bowl before the dividing lines 7#e-h7 are drawn4 ,second stage 7pl4 #cb1 b72 lines #i and #aj are drawn1 dividing each of the five panels into a semicircle and two triangles4 ,third stage 7pl4 #cb1 c72 the plumes are outlined in each of the panels by means of lines #aa to #bj4 ,fourth stage 7pl4 #cb1 d72 the two triangles 7areas ,i and ,,ii7 are filled with black pigment4 ,sometimes area ,i is filled first1 sometimes area ,,ii4 ,fifth stage 7pl4 #cb1 e72 when the triangles in all five panels have been filled1 the dots are placed in two of the five plumes in each panel 7areas ,,iii and ,,iv74 ,these dots are sometimes six in number1 sometimes seven4 ,they are painted from the base of the plume upwards4 ,sixth stage 7pl4 #cb1 b72 areas ,v to ,,vii are filled with red pigment1 thus completing the panel-design4 ,seventh stage 7pl4 #cb1 g72 now that the design in the panel has been finished1 the second half of the figure1 that below the bottom enclosing line1 is begun4 ,a series of small semicircles 7lines numbered #ba7 are appended to the lowest enclosing line4 ,the position of the semicircles bears no relation whatever to the series of panels4 ,three and a half to four semicircles fall below each panel or a total of from seventeen to twenty in the entire extent of the design as it encircles the vessel4 ,eighth stage 7pl4 #cb4 g72 by means of lines #bb and #bc1 a triangle is outlined below each of the semicircles4 ,ninth stage 7pl4 #cb1 h72 a very small semicircle 7#bd7 is drawn just below the point of each triangle4 ,tenth stage 7pl4 #cb1 h72 another similar semicircle 7line #be7 is drawn just below line #bd4 ,eleventh stage 7pl4 #cb1 i72 the triangles 7areas numbered ,,viii7 are filled with black pigment4 ,although this figure is based upon the panel-design1 it differs from pure panel-decoration in the use of a series of simple figures appended to the bottom enclosing-line of the panel4 ,the time required to paint this design was thirty-five minutes4 ,,drawing ,,no4 #c 7pl4 #cc72 original by ,maria ,martinez4 ,this design is of an entirely different type1 in that there is no use of a panel4 ,it was placed upon a constricted-mouthed bowl4 ,first stage 7pl4 #cc1 a72 the enclosing lines 7#a1 #b7 are drawn around the rim of the vessel4 ,these are immediately followed by the three lines 7#c to #e7 which form the outlines of the five spirals composing the design4 ,the proportions of the figures were determined by constantly watching the position of the first spiral as the bowl was turned counterclockwise4 ,second stage 7pl4 #cc1 b72 the outlines of the details 7lines #f to #ag7 are drawn on each spiral in turn4 ,third stage 7pl4 #cc1 c72 the outlining is completed by adding to each spiral a horizontal triangle at the base of the curve4 ,it is interesting to note that line #ah1 the first of the group #ah to #ba1 was the first one drawn1 although it was entirely detached at that time from the main figure4 ,fourth stage 7pl4 #cc1 d72 the filling of areas is begun by painting the four small triangles on the upward curve of the spiral 7areas ,i to ,,iv74 ,the order in which they are filled is apt to vary with the different spirals4 ,fifth stage 7pl4 #cc1 e72 the large triangle at the base of the spiral 7area ,v7 is filled with black pigment4 ,sixth stage 7pl4 #cc1 f72 the triangle at the bottom 7area ,,vi7 is filled in each unit4 ,seventh stage 7pl4 #cc1 g72 this consists in placing a series of dots along the median line of the leaf-shaped area in the base of the spiral4 ,in the various spirals these dots vary in number from eight to ten4 ,eighth stage 7pl4 #cc1 h72 the design is completed by filling the red areas 7,,viii and ,,ix74 ,in the first spiral so treated1 area ,,viii was filled first1 but in all the others area ,,ix preceded area ,,viii4 ,the base of each spiral is four and one-half inches long4 ,the width of the design is three inches4 ,,drawing ,,no4 #d 7pl4 #cd72 original by ,maximiliana ,martinez4 ,this rosette was placed in the interior bottom of a small constricted-mouthed bowl of red ware4 ,a cloud-design which was painted on the rim of the same bowl is described and illustrated in fig4 #f4 ,first stage 7pl4 #cd1 a72 the outlines of one set of four leaves are drawn 7lines #a-h74 ,second stage 7pl4 #cd1 b72 the areas within these enclosing lines are hatched 7areas ,i-,,iv74 ,these four areas are filled in clockwise rotation4 ,third stage 7pl4 #cd1 c72 the same areas 7numbered ,v-,,viii7 are crosshatched1 starting at the tip of each area and working towards the centre4 ,fourth stage 7pl4 #cd1 d72 four more leaves are drawn between the four already made4 ,after lines #i and #aj are drawn1 the area between them is filled with black pigment1 leaving an oblique white bar1 before lines #aa and #ab are placed upon the vessel4 ,each of the four leaves is entirely completed before the next is begun4 ,fifth stage 7pl4 #cd1 e72 this consists in the placing of four lines 7#ag-bj7 at the end of each of the four longer leaves4 ,these four groups of lines are drawn upon the design in clockwise rotation4 ,sixth stage 7pl4 #cd1 f72 at this point ,maximiliana glanced at the drawing which the writer was making in his notes4 ,by accident the ends of the shorter leaves had there been made more pointed than the actual painting4 ,when she saw this1 she pointed the tips of these leaves with black to make them correspond in shape to the writer's drawing4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cc ,design by ,maria ,martinez ,illustration3 ,,plate #cd ,design by ,maximiliana ,martinez ,this is an excellent example of the type of work done by a painter who develops her pattern while drawing it4 ,the contrast between this and the simple strength of the first three designs 7fig4 #i and pls4 #cb1 #cc7 should be noticed4 ,,drawing ,,no4 #e 7fig4 #aj72 original by ,maximiliana ,martinez4 ,this is a border decoration that was applied to the edge of the constricted-mouthed bowl on which was produced ,drawing ,no4 #d4 ,first stage 7fig4 #aj1 a72 this is the drawing of the two enclosing lines 7#a and #b7 about the lip of the bowl4 ,these are followed at once by #c to #e1 which outline three small semicircles4 ,eight of these triple semicircles complete the circumference of the bowl4 ,second stage 7fig4 #aj1 b72 the three semicircles are filled with dots of pigment1 two in each of the upper ones1 three in the lower4 ,third stage 7fig4 #aj1 c72 the three small lines are added to the lowest of the three semicircles4 ,the painting of the rosette 7pl4 #cd7 and the eight sets of semicircles took just sixteen minutes4 ,,drawing ,,no4 #f 7pl4 #ce72 original by ,antonita ,roybal4 ,this elaborate decoration was placed upon a large red ware olla4 ,antonita1 it may be noted1 specializes ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,raincloud design by ,maximiliana ,martinez in vessels of this sort1 and her designs1 while not slavishly repeated1 all have a strong family resemblance1 due to her bold use of scrolls and step-figures4 ,the small upper drawing illustrates the method by which the design under consideration is applied to the vessel4 ,in the larger one it is projected flat2 the centre circle represents the mouth of the olla4 ,the time taken for painting the various parts of the pattern is incorporated in the description2 the total time at the end of each stage being given immediately thereafter4 ,framework lines4 ,the heavy double-width line forming the middle of the central square is drawn first4 ,then two narrower lines are drawn1 one inside and one outside1 thus completing the square 7sixteen minutes2 #jj3jj-af3jj74 ,the two lines encircling the mouth of the olla are next produced 7four minutes2 #af3jj-bj3jj74 ,neck-design within the square4 ,each of the four corners of the square is ornamented with a small scroll-ended element4 ,each element is first outlined and then filled with black before the next is begun 7twelve and one-half minutes2 #bj3cj-cb3jj74 ,small irregularly placed spots are then dotted into the remaining surface within the square 7six minutes2 #cc3jj-ci3jj74 ,the medallions4 ,appended to each of the four corners of the original square is a flower-like medallion4 ,the drawing of each is done as follows4 ,the outer line is first traced1 then the inner one4 ,next the inner part is filled with black1 except for a narrow band across the middle4 ,to the exterior ring are added the outlines of the nine radiating elements4 ,as a last step these are filled with black4 ,the olla is then turned counterclockwise and the next medallion is begun4 ,each medallion is completed more quickly than the last4 ,the time3 ,no4 #a1 ten minutes 7#ci3jj-di3jj72 ,no4 #b1 eight minutes 7#di3jj-eg3jj72 ,no4 #c1 seven and one-half minutes 7#eg3jj-fd3cj72 ,no4 #d1 six and one-half minutes 7#fd3cj-ga3jj74 ,the side patterns4 ,each of the four sides of the square bears a design composed of two scrolls with a double stepped element and two long appendages between them4 ,each design is completed before the next is begun4 ,the drawing proceeds as follows3 #a4 ,the outlining of the scrolls and the drawing of the crossbar between them4 #b4 ,the outlining of the central stepped figures4 #c4 ,the filling of the stepped figures with black4 #d4 ,the outlining of the two long appendages between the scrolls4 #e4 ,the filling of the appendages with black1 leaving two narrow crossbars in the ground color4 #f4 ,the addition of the two small appendages between the stepped figures4 #g4 ,the outlining of a central streak ending in a small circle in each of the scrolls4 #h4 ,the filling of the scrolls with black1 leaving the central streak and small circle in the ground color4 ,as in the case of the medallions1 each one of the side patterns is completed more quickly than the last4 ,the time3 ,no4 #a1 twenty-six minutes 7#ga3jj-ig3jj72 ,no4 #b1 twenty-two and a half minutes 7#ig3jj-aai3cj72 ,no4 #c1 twenty-one and a half minutes 7#aai3cj-ada3jj72 ,no4 #d1 fourteen and a half minutes 7#ada3jj-aee3cj74 ,the entire time required for painting the design was thus two hours1 thirty-five minutes1 and thirty seconds4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ce ,black design on red jar by ,antonita ,roybal 7the small drawing above shows how this design is applied to the olla74 ,,symbolism#eb ,symbolism of one kind or another1 plays a very important part in the existence of the ,pueblo ,indian4 ,it is generally agreed that even the minor acts of everyday life have a certain religious symbolic meaning4 ,for example1 the gourd spoons1 or kajepes1 used in moulding pottery1 must apparently be consecrated before they may be used4 ,similarly1 a new technique in pottery making must pass through a period of consecration before it becomes completely established4 ,on the other hand1 white men often overemphasize the importance of symbolism in studying any civilization whose customs and philosophy differ radically from their own4 ,in the light of what is known of the mental attitude of the ,pueblo ,indian1 it would not be unreasonable to assume that the designs on their pottery have some symbolical meaning4 ,whether this symbolism is in any sense religious1 or is merely the symbolism of conventionalization of design1 is an open question4#ec ,it is probable that vessels made before the time when pottery became to some extent an article of commerce between the ,indian and the tourist1 bore designs of symbolical meaning4 ,it may be that the vessels made today for their own use also have such meanings1 but there is every reason to believe that much of the ware now turned out by the ,san ,ildefonso potters for sale to tourists bears designs of no special meaning4 ,it is true that through bitter experience1 the ,indians have learned to guard carefully their religious and secular philosophy1 and it would require many years of study1 living with them1 to gain an intimate knowledge of their beliefs4 ,if1 however1 there are definite meanings associated with the designs upon commercial pottery1 the inhabitants of ,san ,ildefonso have become past masters of the art of concealment4 ,an attempt to obtain some idea of the general reason why vessels are decorated and of what was taking place in the mind of the painter while at work1 proved wholly fruitless4 ,inquiries as to the meaning of whole designs1 figures1 and elements met with three kinds of response4 ,one family1 who have enjoyed considerable contact with investigators of ,indian customs1 were ready and eager with explanations of the meanings of various elements4 ,they could not1 however1 explain the meaning of the entire design upon any vessel4 ,other potters met the inquiry with a frank statement of ignorance1 such as 8,i don't know01 or 8,ask the men1 the women don't know04 ,a third group exhibited great uncertainty4 ,these people would usually translate the questions into ,tewa for the benefit of the rest of the ,indians present4 ,then1 after much laughter and discussion1 the potter would sometimes offer a meaning1 at other times say nothing4 ,one old man explained with great gusto that the design which he had just finished upon a small globular olla represented four small clouds sailing across the sky1 one behind the other1 from west to east4 ,his manner was very similar to that which one of us might adopt in telling an improbable yarn to a particularly guileless listener4 ,some potters gave meanings for whole figures4 ,another potter1 however1 composed her figures as the work advanced1 evidently with no clear idea1 when she began it1 of the ultimate form of the figures and therefore probably with no idea in regard to their meaning4 ,it has been suggested that minor variation in similar figures on the same vessel have some meaning4 ,the more probable explanation would seem to be that these variations are due to the lack of a visible pattern4 ,at one time a potter was distinctly annoyed because she noticed1 after completing a figure1 that she had filled the wrong part of a small detail4 ,it is equally fallacious to lay too great importance upon alternating figures in a panel design4 ,for example1 one potter in filling the areas in a four-panel decoration filled the same areas in the first and third panels1 and different areas in the second4 ,when she began to fill the areas of the fourth panel in the same way as the first and third1 her attention was called to the areas in the second1 the order of which she obviously considered a mistake4 ,the result was that the fourth panel was filled as the second had been1 thus giving the vessel a panel-design with alternating figures4 ,the fact that in excavations no two vessels have ever been found with identical designs has been attributed to something in the ,indian's way of thinking4 ,yet one potter at ,san ,ildefonso placed upon one constricted-mouthed bowl out of a group of vessels a design identical with that on a bowl of the same shape in the previous group made4 ,among older pots the 8line-break01 a small space left in the horizontal enclosing-line at the lip of the vessel1 is a constant element4 ,at ,san ,ildefonso its use has become almost obsolete but one of the informants did employ it4 ,careful questioning on the subject with another potter as interpreter1 brought out the fact that the line-break is called a 8door01 through which a spirit may enter or depart4 ,persistent questioning in regard to the nature of the spirit caused an animated discussion among those present4 ,the potter was clearly puzzled by the questions4 ,then1 after a single sentence by her1 the ,indians all laughed heartily4 ,finally1 the interpreter stated that the potter had said1 in effect1 that if the door was going to cause all that trouble she would close it4 ,the matter was finally settled by the interpreter1 who pointed out a passage in the advertising pamphlet of a ,santa ,fe curio-dealer which explained that the line-break was a passage through which the spirits of the dead might pass4 ,the ready answers given by some potters in response to inquiries as to the meaning of elements of a design1 seem to show that the elements are actually conventionalized symbols of definite objects4 ,in one instance the potter1 on noticing a dance-costume lying on the bed1 pointed out certain parts of it1 and then drew the elements representing those parts4 ,other potters simply deny all knowledge of the meaning of elements4 ,still others by their hesitancy1 seem to grope for a plausible meaning and offer the first which occurs to them4 ,whether the elements do represent definite objects or not1 it nevertheless remains a fact that the meanings given cause apparent contradictions4 ,to elements essentially the same widely different meanings are often given and1 conversely1 the same idea or object ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,elements of design commonly used by the potters of ,san ,ildefonso4 is often represented by entirely different elements4 ,this is also true of more complex figures4 ,the elements illustrated in figure #aa1 give examples of the type of idea or object said to be represented1 and incidentally illustrate some of the contradictions spoken of above4 ,numbers #a and #f both refer to hills4 ,on the other hand1 ,no4 #g is a mountain1 although it bears little resemblance to the 8hills04 ,it resembles more closely ,no4 #b which one informant described as a pueblo and another as a kiva4 ,the same regular zigzag appears in ,no4 #ab1 which represents a tablita1 or dance mask1 with small feathers tied to the points of the zigzags4 ,no4 #ag1 in which the zigzag also appears1 represents kiva-steps4 ,nos4 #aa and #af represent feathers1 and ,no4 #ba is a bunch of feathers on the end of a dance-pole4 ,but ,no4 #bb represents the poles of the kiva-ladder1 and ,no4 #c is rain1 which is falling a long way off4 ,no4 #aj represents fringed woolen armlets1 and yet there is as close a resemblance between ,nos4 #c and #aj1 as there is between ,nos4 #ad and #ai1 both of which represent the tassels on a man's dance-belt4 ,no4 #h is called rain-water1 but a single spiral1 as in ,no4 #be1 is a buffalo horn4 ,the dots of ,no4 #ac represent rain-drops in dust1 but in ,no4 #ba the dots are markings on feathers1 and in ,no4 #ae they represent a procession of bugs on the rib of a leaf4 ,no4 #ah represents water dripping through a hole in the roof and making a small cup-like depression in the floor1 represented by a semicircle1 or a whole circle with a dot in the centre of it2 but ,no4 #bc1 which is also a triangle1 is called a leaf1 as is also the case with ,no4 #ae4 ,and yet ,no4 #d is also a leaf1 although if placed horizontally it more closely resembles the clouds represented in ,no4 #e4 ,but ,no4 #i is also a cloud1 this time a big black cloud with an open space in it through which a small cloud may be seen4 ,nos4 #bj and #bd represent respectively the sun and a star4 ,in the light of the small amount of material obtained on the subject of symbolism1 all that can be said is that the evidence is purely negative4 ,if the elements do represent definite ideas and objects1 which seems to the writer improbable1 the meanings are so deeply hidden that only an intensive specialized study will result in an acceptable solution4 ,,meaning ,,of ,,elements 7,m4--,maria4 ,a4--,antonita7 #a--8;hillside01 ,m4 #b--8pueblo01 ,m42 8kiva01 ,a4 #c--8rain falling far away01 ,a4 #d--8leaf01 ,m4 #e--8;clouds01 ,m42 ,a4 #f--8;hill01 ,m4 #g--8mountain01 ,m4 #h--8rainwater01 ,a4 #i--8;black cloud with open space through which one can see a small cloud01 ,a4 #aj--8;fringed woolen dance armlets01 ,m4 #aa--8;feather01 ,m4 #ab--8tableta 7wooden headdress7 with feathers on points01 ,m4 #ac--8rain-drops on dust01 ,a4 #ad--8tassel on man's dance-belt01 ,m4 #ae--8leaf with bugs on it01 ,m4 #af--8;feather01 ,m4 #ag--8kiva-steps1 the two small points fireplaces01 ,a4 #ah--8water dripping through holes in roof and making holes in dirt floor01 ,m4 #ai--8tassel on man's dance-belt01 ,m4 #bj--8sun01 ,a4 #ba--8;feathers on dance-pole1 spots are markings on feathers01 ,m4 #bb--8ladder-poles01 ,a4 #bc--8leaf01 ,m4 #bd--8star01 ,a4 #be--8;buffalo horn01 ,a4 ,,bibliography ,,binns1 ,c4 ,f4 #aiaj4 ,the potter's craft4 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 ,,harrington1 ,j4 ,p4 #aiaf4 ,the ethnogeography of the ,tewa ,indians4 ,twenty-ninth ,report of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology4 ,washington1 #aiaf4 #aiaf1 a4 ,ethnobotany of the ,tewa ,indians 7,in collaboration with ,w4 ,w4 ,robbins and ,b4 ,friere-,marreco74 ,bulletin #ee1 ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology4 ,washington1 #aiaf4 ,,holmes1 ,w4 ,h4 #ahhf4 ,pottery of the ancient ,pueblos4 ,fourth ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 pp4 #beg-cfj4 ,washington1 #ahhf4 ,,kidder1 ,a4 ,v4 #aibd4 ,an introduction to the study of ,southwestern archaeology1 with a preliminary account of the excavations at ,pecos4 ,papers of the ,phillips ,academy ,southwestern ,expedition1 no4 #a4 ,new ,haven1 #aibd4 ,,kidder1 ,m4 ,a4 and ,a4 ,v4 #aiag4 ,notes on the pottery of ,pecos4 ,american ,anthropologist1 n4s41 vol4 #ai1 no4 #c1 pp4 #cbe-cfj4 ,lancaster1 #aiag4 ,,stevenson1 ,j4 #ahhc4 ,illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the ,indians of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona in #ahgi4 ,second ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 pp4 #cjg-dfe4 ,washington1 #ahhc4 #ahhd4 ,illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the pueblos of ,zui1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,wolpi1 ,arizona1 in #ahha4 ,third ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 pp4 #eaa-eid4 ,washington1 #ahhd4 ,,stevenson1 ,m4 ,c4 #aijd4 ,the ,zui ,indians1 their mythology1 esoteric fraternities1 and ceremonies4 ,twenty-third ,report of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology4 ,washington1 #aijd4 #aiae4 ,ethnobotany of the ,zui ,indians4 ,thirtieth ,report of the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 pp4 #ca-ajb4 ,washington1 #aiae4 ,,wooton1 ,e4 ,o4 ,,and ,,standley1 ,,paul ,c4 #aiae4 ,flora of ,new ,mexico4 ,contributions from the ,united ,states ,national ,herbarium1 ,vol4 #ai4 ,washington #aiae4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,a brief history of ,pecos1 and a description of the work so far done at the site1 are contained in 8,an ,introduction to the ,study of ,southwestern ,archaeology1 with a ,preliminary ,account of the ,excavations at ,pecos01 by ,a4 ,v4 ,kidder2 ,no4 #a of the present series4 #b ,kidder1 #aibd4 #c ,kidder1 ,m4 ,a4 and ,a4 ,v41 #aiag1 p4 #ccj4 #d ,a searching study of ,san ,ildefonso decoration has been made by ,k4 ,m4 ,chapman of ,santa ,fe4 ,when this is published it will throw much light on the morphology of ,pueblo design1 and upon the relation of ,san ,ildefonso symbolism to that of other ,rio ,grande pueblos4 #e ,a vocabulary of the ,tewa terms for clays1 paints1 and other ingredients2 articles of paraphernalia2 types of pottery2 processes of pottery making1 etc41 was recorded by ,dr4 ,guthe1 and is available at ,andover for consultation4 #f ,see ,harrington1 #aiaf1 ,map #ai1 point #fc4 ,under the nearby point 7#fj2 p4 #cad7 he says3 8,clay 444 is obtained at this place2 just where could not be learned40 #g ,stevenson1 to whom with ,mrs4 ,stevenson we are indebted for practically our only comparative material1 wrote in #ahgi of ,zui3 8,the clay mostly used by the ,zuians in the manufacture of pottery is a dark1 bluish1 carbonaceous clayey shale found in layers usually near the tops of the mesas0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cbi74 ,later1 ,mrs4 ,stevenson described at some length the ceremony of securing pottery clay 7#aijd1 p4 #cgd74 ,among the ,san ,ildefonso ,indians of today there is no outward evidence of any such ceremony4 #h ,at ,zui the ingredients are ground and mixed1 and the clay is kneaded on a stone slab4 7,see pl4 #bh1 facing p4 #gf47 #i ,stevenson said1 in speaking of ,zui pottery making3 8,this carbonaceous clay is first mixed with water and kneaded as a baker kneads dough until it reaches the proper consistency0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cbi74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson describes the preparation of clay at ,zui as follows3 8,the clay is ground to a powder and mixed with a small quantity of pulverized pottery1 fragments of the latter being carefully hoarded for this purpose4 ,the powder thus compounded is mixed with water enough to make a pasty mass1 which is kneaded like dough4 ,the more care taken in pulverizing the material and the more time spent in working it1 the finer becomes the paste4 ,when the mass reaches such a state of consistency that the fingers can no longer detect the presence of gritty particles1 it is still more delicately tested with the tongue1 and when found to be satisfactory it is placed in a vessel and covered with a cloth1 where it will retain the moisture until wanted for use0 7#aijd1 p4 #cgd-e74 #aj ,stevenson 7#ahhc1 p4 #cbi7 says3 8,with this 7clay71 crushed volcanic lava is sometimes mixed2 but the ,zuians more frequently pulverize fragments of broken pottery1 which have been preserved for this purpose4 ,this seems to prevent explosion1 cracking1 or fracture by rendering the paste sufficiently porous to allow the heat to pass through without injurious effect40 ,and again3 8,the clays used by the ,santa ,clara ,indians are of a brick-red color1 containing an admixture of very fine sand1 which1 no doubt1 prevents cracking in burning1 and hence dispenses with the necessity of using lava or pottery fragments1 as is the custom of the ,indians of the western pueblos0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cca74 ,binns1 in 8,the ,potter's ,craft01 describing the preparation of clay1 says1 8,if the clay prove very sandy it must be washed1 444 but all the sand should not be removed4 ,clay with no sand in it will be apt to crack in drying and burning4 ,clay with too much sand will be short and brittle in working4 ,if the clay is very smooth and shows no sand1 a little fine builder's sand may be added with advantage1 a definite proportion being used and recorded0 7#aiaj1 p4 #dj74 #aa ,stevenson1 in his catalogue of ,zui collections1 enumerated 8,tierra amarilla1 or yellow micaceous clay1 of which the ,rio ,grande ,indians make many varieties of vessels0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cfh74 #ab ,harrington1 in speaking of a clay-pit near the village of ,las ,truchas1 writes3 8,it is said that at this place the best red pottery clay known to the ,tewa is obtained4 ,it is pebbly1 but makes very strong dishes1 and it is used especially for ollas4 ,it is said that ,tewa of various pueblos visit this place frequently and carry away the clay4 ,the clay deposit is a mile or two southeast of ,truchas town0 7#aiaf1 p4 #cdj74 ,this may be the claypit referred to by the informant1 although the clay1 while pebbly1 is by no means red4 #ac ,stevenson1 writing of the ,zui1 said of their white slip3 8,a paint or solution is then made1 either of a fine white calcareous earth1 consisting mainly of carbonate of lime1 or of a milk-white indurated clay1 almost wholly insoluble in acids1 and apparently derived from decomposed feldspar with a small proportion of mica0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cbi74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson1 in a later publication1 said3 8,a white clay is dissolved in water and then made into cones which are dried in the sun4 ,when required for use these cones are rubbed to powder on a stone1 again mixed with water1 and applied in a liquid state to the object0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge74 #ad ,harrington mentions this bed as 8a deposit of bright red paint situated about two miles east of ,santa ,fe1 the informants think north of ,santa ,fe ,creek1 in high land a few hundred yards from that creek4 ,this paint was used for body painting4 ,it is said that ,jicarilla ,apache still go to the deposit to get this paint and sometimes sell it to the ,tewa0 7#aiaf1 p4 #ced74 ,stevenson is speaking of the black ware of ,santa ,clara and other ,rio ,grande pueblos1 mentions 8a solution of very fine ochre-colored clay0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cca71 which was probably this same substance4 ,mrs4 ,stevenson also mentions 8red ochre0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge74 #ae ,stevenson1 writing of the ,zuis in #ahha1 said3 8,the material used to produce the red or brown colors is a yellowish impure clay1 colored from oxide of iron2 indeed it is mainly clay1 but contains some sand and a very small amount of carbonate of lime02 it 8is generally found in a hard1 stony condition1 and is ground in a small stone mortar 444 and mixed with water so as to form a thin solution0 7#ahhc1 p4 #ccj74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson added later3 8,ferruginous clays which on heating burn to yellow1 red1 or brown are employed for decorating0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge74 #af ,peritoma serrulatum 7,pursh72 synonyms3 ,cleome serrulata1 and ,cleome integrifolia2 7,wooton and ,standley1 #aiae1 p4 #bij74 ,stevenson wrote3 8,it is said that among the ,cochiti1 ,santa ,clara1 and some other pueblos a vegetable matter is employed to produce some of their decorative designs2 this1 however1 ,i was unable to verify1 though some of the ,indians assured me of the fact1 and furnished me a bunch of the plant1 which ,dr4 ,vasey1 of the ,agricultural ,department1 found to be ,cleome integrifolia1 a plant common throughout the ,western ,territories0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cca74 ,again1 8,that of the decorated class is ornamented with the juice of ,cleome integrifolia1 which is fixed to the ware in the process of burning0 7loc4 cit41 p4 #dcj74 ,harrington writes3 8,this is a very important plant to the ,tewa1 inasmuch as black paint for pottery decoration is made from it4 ,large quantities of young plants are collected1 usually in ,july4 ,the plants are boiled well in water2 the woody parts are then removed and the decoction is again allowed to boil until it becomes thick and attains a black color4 ,this thick fluid is poured on a board to dry and soon becomes hardened4 ,it may be kept in hard cakes for an indefinite period4 ,when needed these are soaked in hot water until of the consistency needed for paint4 ,guaco is also used as a food4 ,the hardened cakes are soaked in hot water1 and then fried in grease4 ,the finely ground plants are mixed with water and the liquid is drunk as a remedy for stomach disorders2 or sometimes fresh plants wrapped in a cloth are applied to the abdomen0 7#aiaf1 a1 pp4 #eh1 #ei74 7,it should be noted that the accounts obtained by the writer from the informants of ,san ,ildefonso do not agree in detail with the one given by ,harrington47 ,mrs4 ,stevenson wrote of ,zui3 8,water from boiled ,cleome serrulata 7,mexican name waco7 is mixed with black pigment 7a manganiferous clay containing organic matter7 in decorating pottery0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge72 and in more detail3 8,the entire plant1 minus the root1 is boiled for a considerable time1 and the water in which it is cooked is allowed to evaporate4 ,the firm paste secured from precipitation is used in conjunction with a black mineral paint for decorating pottery0 7#aiae1 p4 #ib74 #ag ,stevenson1 in #ahgi1 saw the ,rio ,grande ,pueblo potters use 8coarsely broken dried manure obtained from the corrals01 and added that for the polished black ware 8another application of fuel1 finely pulverized1 is made0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cca74 #ah ,stevenson1 in #ahgi1 observed at ,zui that 8the bottoms of old water jars and bowls form stands for the articles while being worked by the potter4 ,the bowls are filled with sand when objects of a globular form are to be made0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cbi74 ,at ,pojuaque 7a ,tewa pueblo near ,san ,ildefonso1 now nearly extinct7 he collected two 8pottery moulds for bottoms of vessels0 7loc4 cit4 p4 #dci74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson also noticed these olla bottoms at ,zui 7#aijd1 p4 #cgd74 #ai ,harrington writes3 8,variously shaped section of gourd are used by women to smooth and shape pottery in the making0 7#aiaf1 a1 p4 #ajb74 ,stevenson1 in #ahgi1 noted at ,zui 8a small trowel fashioned from a piece of gourd or fragment of pottery1 the only tool employed in the manufacture of pottery0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cbi74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson also speaks of these trowels 7#aijd1 p4 #cgd74 #bj ,stevenson1 in speaking of the making of pottery at ,santa ,clara1 mentions 8the process of polishing--with smooth1 fine-grained stones01 7#ahhc1 p4 #cca74 ,in his catalogue of stone objects collected at ,zui in #ahha1 he differentiates between 8small stones used in polishing pottery01 8small stones used in polishing unburned vessels01 and the 8small polisher for glazing and smoothing pottery01 giving three different ,indian names for the three kinds4 ,he does not1 however1 explain the difference 7#ahhd1 pp4 #ebe1 #ebf74 ,he also catalogues 8fifteen rubbing or smoothing stones for pottery0 obtained at ,walpi 7#ahhd1 p4 #ehg74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson remarked3 8,polishing stones are used to finish the surface0 of vessels at ,zui 7#aijd1 p4 #cge74 #ba ,stevenson1 in #ahgi at ,zui1 noted that the paint was applied to pottery 8with brushes made of the leaves of the yucca4 ,these brushes are made of flat pieces of the leaf1 which are stripped off and bruised at one end1 and are of different sizes adapted to the coarse or fine lines the artist may wish to draw0 7#ahhc1 p4 #ccj74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson wrote1 again of ,zui3 8,yucca glauca ,nutt4 ,soapweed4444 ,the brushes employed for decorating pottery are made from the leaves of this plant1 which1 for this purpose1 are cut the proper lengths and fringed at one end0 7#aiae1 p4 #hb74 #bb ,mrs4 ,stevenson says the ,zuis used a 8rabbit skin mop0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge74 #bc ,mrs4 ,stevenson wrote of ,zui3 8,the pieces to be fired are placed upon stones to raise them a few inches from the ground01 implying the absence of a grate 7#aijd1 p4 #cgf74 #bd ,i use the words 8very skillfully0 advisedly4 ,repeated attempts on my part to imitate the process resulted in rolls of exceedingly variable diameter4 ,at ,zui the roll is made by the apparently simpler and more efficient method of rolling the clay back and forth on a flat stone slab with one hand 7see pl4 #bi1 a74 #be ,zui potters apply the roll to the outside instead of the inside of the growing vessel wall2 otherwise the handling of the roll is exactly as at ,san ,ildefonso 7see pl4 #bi1 b74 #bf ,throughout this report1 the puki is spoken of as moving 8clockwise0 or 8counterclockwise0 and the sectors worked in are referred to the numerals on the face of the clock1 as1 8the six-to-eight-o'clock sector04 ,the point of view taken is that of the potter with 8six o'clock0 referring to that part of the bowl nearest her4 #bg ,the 8rim0 of an unfinished vessel means the upper edge of the last roll added to it4 #bh ,see1 however1 pl4 #bi4 b2 the ,zui potter in this case has not obliterated the preceding rolls4 #bi ,stevenson1 #ahhc1 p4 #cca4 #cj ,m4 ,c4 ,stevenson1 #aijd1 p4 #cge4 #ca ,binns1 #aiaj1 pp4 #fi-ga4 #cb ,the process is identical at ,zui1 see pl4 #cj1 a4 #cc ,from the earliest periods ,southwestern pottery has been made in more or less the manner just described1 that is1 by the addition of successive rings of clay4 ,during prehistoric times1 however1 there was developed a ware usually known as 8corrugated01 in the building of which the roll was so lengthened as to become a spiral coil4 ,the roll of paste forming the coil was very thin1 averaging a little over one-quarter of an inch in diameter2 and it was applied to the outside of the temporary rim1 as at ,zui 7see pl4 #bi1 b71 instead of to the inside1 as at ,san ,ildefonso4 ,furthermore1 the junctions between the coils were not obliterated on the exterior of the vessel1 thus producing a ridged or corrugated effect4 ,corrugated pottery was principally used for cooking pots 7see ,holmes1 #ahhf1 p4 #bgc74 #cd ,one informant stated that these bowls1 both with and without the terraces1 were formerly1 and are still1 used to hold sacred meal4 #ce ,the two-mouthed vase is rarely made at ,san ,ildefonso4 ,it is a type more commonly produced by the potters of ,santa ,clara4 #cf ,potsherds from pre-,spanish ruins show that handles have been applied to vessels in the ways described above for many centuries4 ,the lug-type of handle1 which is frequently found in ancient pottery1 is no longer made at ,san ,ildefonso4 ,the probabilities are1 however1 that these lugs were welded to the exterior of the vessel1 as in the first method described1 rather than riveted on as in the second method4 #cg ,the potter placed the responsibility for this crack upon a kitten which had jumped into the olla during the night4 ,in the animal's attempt to climb out1 the vessel suffered some rather severe bumps4 ,the story of the kitten's adventure was told before the crack was noticed4 ,later it was used to explain the presence of the imperfection4 #ch ,the expression 8get warm0 comes from the fact that while the vessel is damp the evaporating moisture causes it to feel cool2 when thoroughly dry it feels warm4 #ci ,the red slips are not used today in the designs1 although some of the older vessels contain red elements which appear to have been made of the dark-red slip4 #dj ,stevenson says of the ,zui3 8,this solution 7of a fine white calcareous earth7 is applied to the surface of the vessel and allowed to dry2 it is then ready for the decorations0 7#ahhc1 pp4 #cbi1 #ccj74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson1 writing at a later date1 gives more details3 8,a white clay is dissolved in water and then made into cones which are dried in the sun4 ,when required for use these cones are rubbed to powder on a stone1 again mixed with water1 and applied in a liquid state to the object with a rabbit-skin mop4 ,polishing-stones are used to finish the surface0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge74 #da ,at ,santa ,clara and ,san ,juan some polished ware is polished only from the rim to the shoulder and the lower half is apparently unslipped4 #db ,stevenson in speaking of the polished black pottery of the ,rio ,grande pueblos says3 8,a solution of very fine ochre-colored clay is applied to the outside and inside near the top1 or to such parts of the surface as are to be polished4 ,while this solution thus applied is still moist1 the process of polishing begins by rubbing the part thus washed with smooth1 fine-grained stones until quite dry and glossy4 ,the parts thus rubbed still retain the original red color of the clay4 ,the vessels are again placed in the sun and allowed to become thoroughly dry1 when they are ready for baking0 7#ahhc1 p4 #cca74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson also gives an account somewhat similar3 8,in many of the pueblos the pottery is undecorated1 the surface being finished in plain red or black4 ,the ware is made of a yellowish clay1 in the manner heretofore described1 and the vessels are placed in the sun1 where they remain for hours4 ,they are then washed with a solution of red ochre1 and while wet the process of polishing begins1 the woman with untiring energy going over the surface again and again with her polishing-stone1 every little while passing a wet cloth over the vessel to keep the surface moist4 ,when the polishing is completed1 the vessel is again placed in the sun for a short time before receiving its final baking in the oven0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge47 #dc ,this second potter1 however1 did use lard in polishing vessels to which the red slip had been applied4 #dd ,the substitution of the chamois for a cloth was inaugurated by the potter using it4 #de ,the use of this paint for producing designs upon polished black ware was discovered by ,maria ,martinez in ,june1 #aiba4 ,on inquiring why other potters did not copy the process1 it was learned that because of certain taboo-like restrictions the secret of making this kind of ware would not be disclosed until a year after its discovery4 ,although the matter could not be further investigated because of the unwillingness of the ,indians to discuss such things1 it would appear that we have in this case a sort of primitive patent-right4 ,at the present time 7#aibe7 practically all ,san ,ildefonso potters make this ware1 which has proved extraordinarily popular2 ,maria1 however1 still produces by far the finest pieces 7see pl4 #h1 a74 #df ,occasionally such precautions are disregarded1 apparently through laziness4 ,one potter did her painting in the same room in which some meat was being cooked4 ,the combined odors of the cooking meat and the guaco attracted all the flies in the neighborhood1 but fortunately screens kept some of them out of the room4 #dg ,stevenson gives no details of the painting at ,zui2 8,when the pigment is properly reduced1 and mixed with water so as to form a thin solution1 it is applied with brushes made of the leaves of the yucca4 ,these brushes are made of flat pieces of the leaf1 which are stripped off and bruised at one end1 and are of different sizes adapted to the coarse or fine lines the artist may wish to draw4 ,in this manner all the decorations on the pottery are produced0 7#ahhc1 p4 #ccj74 ,mrs4 ,stevenson is just as brief3 8,after a thorough drying of this foundation1 the slip1 the designs are painted with brushes made of yucca needles1 the pigments having been ground in stone mortars and made into a paste with water to which a syrup of yucca fruit is added0 7#aijd1 p4 #cge74 ,the stone mortar for pigment grinding may be seen in pl4 #ca1 a4 #dh ,on pp4 #gh to #hd will be found notes on the actual painting of several typical designs4 #di ,one woman tried her best to teach me how to tell these shades apart1 but it proved utterly impossible for me to distinguish the darker from the lighter4 #ej ,this variant in polished black ware is a new departure4 ,it was discovered1 probably accidentally1 by one of the ,san ,ildefonso potters early in the summer of #aiba4 ,the process by which the red blotch is made has not as yet been brought completely under control4 #ea ,it is interesting to note that in making the preliminary pencil draft1 she uses entirely different strokes from those made by the brush4 #eb ,the subject of symbolism is touched upon in this report only with the greatest diffidence4 ,no two students of ,southwestern ceramics seem to entertain the same theory1 in all details1 upon this subject4 ,the statements made here are given for what they may be worth4 ,the time devoted to the work did not permit of a careful and exhaustive study of the subject4 #ec ,one potter1 after glancing at a small vessel which was undoubtedly old1 informed the writer that it had once belonged to the 8summer people01 a social-religious division of the community4