,transcrib]'s ,notes ,text pr9t$ 9 italics 9 ! s\rce docum5t has be5 transcrib$ betwe5 und]scores1 bold face text betwe5 equal signs4 ,small capitals h be5 replac$ ) ,,all ,,capitals4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration ,,self-,,help ,,me*anical ,,draw+ ,,an ,,educational ,,treatise ,illu/ration 8,,le>n ,,to ,,d ,a ,,?+ ,,by ,,do+ ,,x40--,,old ,,prov]b ,,self-,,help ,,me*anical ,,draw+ ,,an ,,educational ,,treatise ,illu/ration ,,by ,n4 ,,hawk9s1 ,m4 ,e4 ,au?or ( ,h&book ( ,calculations1 etc4 ,new ,york3 ,,!o4 ,,audel ,,co41 ,publi%]s #aijb ,copyright$ by ,!o4 ,audel ,co4 ,new ,york #aijb ,?is "w is mo/ k9dly & respectfully d$icat$ to ,,! ,,com+ ,,man :o at ! pres5t "t is und\bt$ly devot+ a goodly %>e ( 8 sp>e "t to ! /udy ( draw+4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,,introduction ,preface4 ,x is because ( a p]sonal & practical exp]i5ce ( ! advantage to be ga9$ by ! possession ( a k ( draw+1 t ! au?or is prompt$ to und]take ! r pleasant task ( produc+ a self-help book relat+ to ! subject4 ,s9ce ! days ( y\?ful endeavor1 ! au?or has pass$ ?r\gh an ext5d$ exp]i5ce ( me*anical life1 & sc>cely ev] )\t *alk1 p5cil or in/rum5t 9 h&1 to illu/rate by sket* or draw+1 ! tools to be employ$1 or to picture ! f9i%$ product2 accord+ly1 ?r\gh\t ?is "w1 words ( explanation & ! draw+s w g toge!r to aid ! dilig5t /ud5t4 ,x has be5 said by an em95t writ]1 t 8"o workman is sup]ior to ano!r--o!r circum/ances be+ ! same--directly 9 proportion to 8 k 9 draw+1 & ^? :o are ignorant ( x mu/ 9 _m respects be subs]vi5t to o!rs :o h obta9$ t k40 ,x has be5 also said t no man is fitt$ to be =eman ( a %op :o _c draw1 & x is g5]ally true t no "o w be appo9t$ to t position1 except tempor>ily1 :o does n possess "s k ( ! art1 ei!r 8freeh&0 or in/rum5tal4 ,x is a "q h[ f> a good work+ k ( draw+ c be atta9$ )\t a tea*]2 x is true t b few h become pr(ici5t )\t su* aid1 b x is equally true t 8self-help0 has be5 ! key note to all advancem5t4 ,! au?or receiv$ p]sonal in/ruction 9 sev]al ways & times1 at home1 9 s*ool1 9 an ar*itect's (fice1 & "u an exp]i5c$ me*anical eng9e]1 b x 0 9 ! e>ly morn+ h\rs ( a bright summ] "t--lang syne--t he made 8 fir/ s]i\s attempt to ma/] ! art ( me*anical draw+4 ,x 0 a /ruggle & a battle to hold himself d[n to 8! bo>d0 to ! f9i%1 b x 0 a victory--"o1 won ov] slo?fulness & impati5ce1 & ( su* a nature z to w>rant ! use ( ! t]m 8self-help0 to ! enc\ragem5t ( o!rs4 ,9 conclusion two s5tim5ts may be add$2 if a good work+ k ( draw+ is 8wor? ! :ile0 !n1 #a1 ! /ud5t %\ld be ?or\ghly 9 e>ne/ 9 acquir+ x2 #b1 he %\ld be will+ to take suffici5t "t & give mu* h>d /udy to ga9 ! skill necess>y = success4 ,?is p]si/5ce is n irksome4 ,x c>ries its own rew>d1 & ! results are def9ite & sure4 8,"o /ep & !n ano!r1 & ! longe/ walk is end$2 ,"o /it* & !n ano!r1 & ! l>ge/ r5t is m5d$4 ,"o brick ^u ano!r1 & ! highe/ wall is made2 ,"o flake ^u ano!r1 & ! deepe/ sn[ is laid40 ,introduction4 ,draw+ is "o ( ! arts2 art relates to some?+ to be done1 & art 9 ! indu/rial & me*anical s5se aims *iefly at utility1 & is gov]n$ by exact rules2 h5ce me*anical draw+--s-call$--t5ds fir/ to be useful & helpful1 & second to accuracy 9 execution1 includ+ mo/ m9ute details2 x aspires to ! p]fection ( nature 9 adaptability ( ! means to ! end4 ,draw+ con/itutes a univ]sal language1 to acquire :i* is a matt] ( importance1 = by its use "o is able to illu/rate ! =m & dim5sions ( an object1 device1 or utility1 9 v mu* less "t1 & f> m cle>ly1 ?an by a v]bal description4 ,to a p]son :o may n be able p]fectly to und]/& ! language ( a c\ntry1 to be able to draw is an aid & a safegu>d2 to use ! words ( ,sir ,jo%ua ,reynolds1 8! p5cil speaks ! language ( e l&40 ,9 ext5sive iron works & metal-work+ e/abli%m5ts ! design] & draughtsman is always 9 dem&4 ,8 s]vices are indisp5sable & 8 position is a highly responsible "o4 ,x becomes 8 special prov9ce to design improvem5ts1 to furni% sket*es & to make f9i%$ draw+s2 to calculate /ra9s1 /r5g?1 p[]1 motion1 weight1 friction & durability4 ,all ?is & mu* m is ! pr(essional draughtsman's "w4 ,9 8directory0 classification1 he :o accompli%es su* compreh5sive results z above describ$ is t]m$ a 8,draughtsman10 b ! ^w has z wide a mean+ z 8,eng9e]10 :i* takes 9 civil1 me*anical1 naval1 sanit>y1 /eam & o!r eng9e]+ speciali/s4 ,s1 9 draft+1 x includes ! (fice boy employ$ 9 mak+ blue pr9ts1 x embraces ! copyi/s1 trac]s & assi/ants1 z well z ! head draughtsman & *ief eng9e]4 ,consequ5tly ! range is wide1 & ! l9e h>d to draw betwe5 draughtsm5 :o "w ) _! h&s1 & ^? :o "w ) _! bra9s4 ,x may be add$ t ! be/ m5 are too frequ5tly und]valu$1 ow+ to ! unavoidable difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ ! diff]5ce 9 true wor?1 betwe5 ! two widely sep>at$ classes4 ,x may be rem>k$ t !y only draw well :o draw intellig5tly2 aptness 9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r virtues1 is a matt] ( sl[ gr[?1 8"h a l9e & !re a l9e0--x's ! prop] direction1 n ! rate ( progress1 t c\nts 9 ! end4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods ( draw+--#a1 ,free-h&2 #b1 ,in/rum5tal2 #c1 ,geometrical2 #d4 ,p]spective4 ,9 ! fir/ ! "w1 also t]m$ sket*+1 is execut$ by p5cil1 p51 crayon1 or ev5 pa9t-bru%2 9 ! second ! result is atta9$ by ! use ( rule1 tee-squ>e1 draw+ p51 etc42 ?is me?od is also d5om9at$ me*anical draw+1 & sugge/s ! title ( ?is volume4 ,! great usefulness1 n to say necessity1 ( read9ess 9 execut+ accurately1 draw+s 8to scale10 is emphasiz$ by ! fact t n[1 m ?an ev]1 is all ma*9]y design$1 & x may almo/ be said1 is 8built10 9 ! draught+ room--?is is a valuable h9t relat+ to 8read+0 draw+s4 ,x is wise1 z well z easy1 to beg9 at ! beg9n+ ( ?+s2 ?us1 x is altoge!r ! good "p to m\nt a ladd] by ! fir/ & second r\nds r ?an to attempt x by tak+ ! ?ird1 six?1 n9?1 etc4--especially are fir/ & second r\nds ! v be/ to />t ^u2 8,*alk-"w10 is ! fir/ subject introduc$1 next1 t ( 8,free-h&40 ,^! are ! fir/ /eps lead+ upw>d 9 ?is mo/ agreeable atta9m5t--skill 9 illu/rat+ & design+ ( objects1 tools1 & utilities4 ,a s+le ^w ( advice be=e introduc+ ! elem5t>y "w connect$ ) me*anical draw+3 if ! /ud5t %\ld exp]i5ce difficulty 9 ma/]+ ! diagrams & curves ab\nd+ 9 ?is book1 let him consult an exp]i5c$ draughtsman or tea*]1 :o1 by a few /rokes ( a lead p5cil1 c easily make !m pla92 t k--:i* _c be pr9t$ or self-taught--t]m$ ! ,craftsman's ,art1 is communicat$ l>gely by p]sonal tell+ & %[+1 f man to man2 9 draw+1 ?is help %\ld be ?ankfully avail$ (1 :5 necessity arises4 ,,note4--,sket*+ is (t5 9 dem& because !re is no "t = f9i%$ or c>eful draw+s1 & ! "o :o c draw a few l9es 9 a mom5t to let a sudd5 necessity be kn[n1 is ! man ( ! h\r4 ,all c&idates = ,fir/ ,class ,eng9e]'s ,c]tificates 9 m>9e s]vice 9 ! navy h to und]go an exam9ation 9 r\gh draw+2 ?is is int5d$ n s mu* z a pro( ( ! applicant possess+ ! capability ( a draughtsman1 b 9 ! ev5t ( any injury to ! eng9es 9 8 *>ge1 s t he may be able to s5d to 8 ,sup]9t5d5t a r\gh draw+ ( ! p>ticul> "p1 prop]ly dim5sion$1 s t x c\ld be work$ f1 & "t sav$ on ! arrival ( ! %ip at ! port :]e ! repairs are to be done4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,,plan ,,( ,,! ,,"w 8,no matt] h[ ?or\gh our education may h be5 at ! fir/1 rules & =mulas w slip f ! memory1 & e day's exp]i5ce gives additional evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ! old adage t #8,,! ,,key ,,t ,,re/s1 ,,ru/s4'0--,,simpson ,,ball>d4 ,! ,plan ( ! ,"w4 ,! purpose or scope ( ?is "w may be briefly /at$3 ,x is to aid ! aspir+ /ud5t 9 mak+ ! fir/ advance t[>ds a ?or\gh & useful k ( draw+ 9 its sev]al divisions1 z else:]e def9$4 ,! me?od to be foll[$ 9 pres5t+ ! subject w be ! natural ord] cle>ly & simply def9$1 z 8f ! less to ! great]40 ,! fir/ subject to be discuss$ comes "u ! head+ ( *alk-"w1 i4 e41 su* draw+s z c be execut$ on a blackbo>d1 a floor1 or ev5 on m primitive surfaces1 su* z a smoo? /one or bo>d4 ,?is is inde$ a l[ly beg9n+1 b ! au?or is q confid5t x w awak5 z mu* int]e/ z any "p ( ! book--ev5 9 ! mo/ exp]i5c$ 9 ! art ( draw+1 z to !m x w revive ! ambitions & fir/ crude attempts made 9 ! gold5 days ( _! y\?4 ,let x be cle>ly und]/ood by all1 & especially by ^? :o wi% to le>n draw+1 t ! /udy ( ?is delightful art does n require any special qualification4 ,we ne$ only ask "o "q3 ,h y le>n$ to write8 ,if s1 be assur$ y may le>n to draw1 b to all ! same rule applies1 fir/ ! elem5ts ( ! art1 & aft]w>ds ! m advanc$ /udy4 ,x is n expect$ t all %\ld exhibit a decid$ ta/e = draw+1 = ! possession ( ?is is r a gift ( nature ?an ! result ( education2 b a k ( pr9ciples & a c]ta9 am\nt ( executive ability may be obta9$ by e "o ( av]age capacity1 & :atev] ! natural p[] may be1 x w be increas$ & develop$ by ex]cise2 if ! progress is /eady & cont9u\s & 9 ! "r direction1 success is sure to cr[n ! "w4 ,! second division ( ! book w be free-h& draw+1 i4 e41 t :i* is execut$ )\t in/rum5ts4 ,no?+ to in/ruct has be5 sp>$ 9 ?is important /ep 9 ! pa? ( advancem5t4 ,! illu/rations accompany+ ! two op5+ sections h be5 made design$ly elem5t>y1 = !re are _m :o h a ta/e = draw+ & :o h a desire to le>n1 :o f place ( resid5ce or o!r circum/ances h n ! opportunity ( receiv+ ! assi/ance ( a ma/]4 ,to su* ?is book pres5ts itself z a fri5d direct+ to ! "r road1 talk+1 reason+1 & expla9+ by ! way4 ,! 8*alk-"w0 & 8free-h&0 sections ( ! book relate to ! f\ndations ^u :i* all mu/ re/ :o seek ! aid to be d]iv$ f ! art2 h5ce1 ! foll[+ pages are writt5 ) a view to enc\rage all1 & ^? :o are prep>$ to foll[ ! directions giv5 9 !m may look =w>d to ! possession ( suffici5t draw+ p[] to add to _! usefulness 9 aft] life4 ,at ?is po9t ( atta9m5t !re arises a ne$ to "k ! mean+ ( _m words & phrases us$ by draughtsm52 ^! are gr\p$ alphabetically f ,a to ,z "u ! head+ (1---- ,useful ,t]ms & ,def9itions3 ,memoriz+ ^! few pages w be ( b5efit1 z an intimate k ( ! language ( ! draw+ (fice /amps a man z wor?y ( a he>+1 & assures att5tion to any?+ :i* he may write or say p]ta9+ to ! art4 ,aft] ! ,def9itions ! subject expla9$ w be ! ,in/rum5ts & ,mat]ials us$ 9 me*anical draw+s2 foll[+ 9 due c\rse appe> ,geometrical & ,me*anical ,draw+1 ,ge>+1 ,l9e> ,p]spective1 ,projection1 ,%ad+1 ,trac+1 ,lett]+1 ,draw+ ,(fice ,rules1 ,read+ ,draw+s1 ,useful ,tables & a ,g5]al ,index1 to :i* ! /ud5t is ref]r$4 ,a c>eful read+ is reque/$ to ! foll[+ helpful note4 ,grateful ackn[l$gm5t is made to ,george ,p]rott1 ,esq41 ,m4 ,e41 = practical & te*nical assi/ance ?r\gh\t ! "w1 & to ,!o4 ,lucas1 ,eng9e]1 = text & illu/rations 9 ! portions ( ! book relat+ to ,l9e> ,p]spective & ,projection4 ,,note4--,9 ,,ma*9]y ,pr(4 ,*as4 ,h4 ,b5jam9 says1 ref]r+ to draw+1 "u head+ 8,h[ & :at to /udy10 8444 ,i h s f> said no?+ ab\t draw+1 = ,i d n ?9k x ( mu* use to le>n t1 until y "k :at y want ( x4 ,all ?is "t t y h be5 /udy+ me*anism y %\ld h _h a sket* book or pad ( note pap]1 & made free h& sket*es ( me*anical movem5ts :i* int]e/$ y & ( v>i\s ma*9e details4 ,y %\ld accu/om y\rself to use draw+ z a means ( express+ ideas1 j z y use writt5 words1 s t x becomes a second nature to y to sket* any?+ y wi% to rememb] or describe4 ,if y "w f blue-pr9ts 9 ! %op1 or if y c borr[ "s to /udy1 ?is w help y to und]/& h[ a draw+ is made4 ,y c get "s draw+ in/rum5ts at any "t & beg9 to practice on draw+ /raight l9es & circles1 s z to become famili> ) ! in/rum5ts4 ,& "h x w be ( great b5efit to y if y c att5d an ev5+ draw+ s*ool = "o night 9 ! week at lea/4 8,:5 y h become suffici5tly famili> ) ! pr9ciples ( draw+1 a book on me*anism w tell y h[ to draw ge> tee? & cams1 & h[ to design v>i\s l9k motions4 ,make up y\r own problems f :at y see 9 ! %op & make y\r draw+ a means to an end & n ! pr9cipal ?+2 x is ( little use to be able to make a nice draw+ unless y "k :at to draw & :y4 8,draw+ is a conv5i5t tool z an aid 9 express+ to o!rs ! ideas :i* y wi% to convey2 9 all cases take ! problems & ! ideas f y\r e-day "w & t :i* is ar\nd y2 y\r success w dep5d ^u ! close connection :i* y keep at all times betwe5 y\r acquir$ k & y\r practical "w40 ,g5]al ,li/ ( ,cont5ts4 ,,introduction1 #a-bd ,,*alk ,,"w1 #be-ch ,,prelim9>y ,,t]ms ,,& ,,def9itions1 #ci-eb ,,freeh& ,,draw+1 #ec-gh ,,geometrical ,,draw+1 #gi-ajj ,,draw+ ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,in/rum5ts1 #aja-acd ,,me*anical ,,draw+1 #ace-ahh ,,p5cil+1 #aci-adg ,,projection1 #adh-afd ,,ink+ ,,9 ,,draw+s1 #afg-agj ,,lett]+ ,,draw+s1 #aga-age ,,dim5sion+ ,,draw+s1 #agf-agi ,,%ad+ ,,draw+s1 #ahj-aha ,,section ,,l9+ ,,& ,,colors1 #ahb-ahe ,,reproduc+ ,,draw+s1 #ahf-ahh ,,draw+ ,,(fice ,,rules1 #ahi-aie ,,ge>+1 #aig-bjh ,,design+ ,,ge>s1 #bji-baf ,,work+ ,,draw+s1 #bai-bbg ,,read+ ,,work+ ,,draw+s1 #bbh-bcj ,,pat5t ,,(fice ,,rules ,,= ,,draw+s1 #bca-bcf ,,useful ,,h9ts ,,& 8,,po9ts10 #bcg-bdd ,,l9e> ,,p]spective1 #bde-bfe ,,p]sonal1 ,,by ,,! ,,editor1 #bha ,,useful ,,tables1 #bfi-bhj ,,ref]5ce ,,index1 #bhc ,illu/ration3 ,,*alk-,,"w ,! peculi>ity ( all art is t x _c be communicat$ 9 writ+ alone1 craft is a t]m :i* is synonym\s ) art2 a craft requires manual dext]ity :i* _c be taught 9 books4 ,*alk ,"w4 ,! blackbo>d has be5 well call$ ! great weapon ( ! mod]n educator2 ?is is especially true 9 ref]5ce to in/ruction 9 an art deal+ ) l9es1 curves & figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,_m a man c *alk out on a blackbo>d1 or on a piece ( %eet-iron1 or on ! floor1 j :at he wants to %[1 & make 8 mean+ v pla92 h5ce1 9 e work%op1 & _m o!r places1 a blackbo>d is m ?an useful1 & x has be5 said t no draught+ (fice is complete )\t "o4 ,fig4 #f repres5ts a *alk-crayon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,figs4 #g & #h ne$ no explanation1 z !y repres5t two =ms ( ! well-kn[n blackbo>d4 ,*alk l9es h ?is advantage--!y are easily alt]$ or rubb$ out :5 n ne$$ any long]4 ,! "w execut$ ^u a blackbo>d is mo/ly done by h&1 )\t aid f in/rum5ts2 a few tools1 h[ev]1 are useful--su* z1 #a1 l>ge wood5 blackbo>d compasses hold+ a crayon1 :i* are made & sold by ! trade 9 size twelve in*es to ?irty in*es 9 l5g?2 #b1 a /raight-edge2 & #c1 "s crayons4 ,) ! compasses circles & "p ( ! circle c be made1 & ) ! /raight-edge ! l>g] l9es c be drawn4 ,^! in/rum5ts are %[n on page #bi1 & are1 #a1 compasses1 = hold+ *alk = mak+ circles2 #b1 a tee-squ>e2 #c1 a /raight-edge2 #d1 a protractor = measur+ angles2 #e1 a triangle #fj & #cj2 #f1 a brass hold] = crayons4 ,blackbo>d ,draw+4--,! use ( a blackbo>d comes pr9cipally & prop]ly "u ! head ( free-h& draw+1 b its importance is su* t a sep>ate division ( ! volume is assign$ to x4 ,illu/ration ,?us1 *alk-"w may be consid]$ ! fir/ lesson 9 8free-h&10 z all ! examples c also be mo/ pr(itably practic$ ) p5cil & pap]4 ,v rapid draw+ ^u ! bo>d %\ld n be enc\rag$1 z x is likely n to be accurate en\gh2 aga91 ! bo>d %\ld be entirely free f grease4 ,clo?s1 sponges or *amois sk9 rubb]s may be us$ to erase or *ange ! *alk m>ks4 ,v]tical l9es %\ld be drawn f above d[nw>d2 %ort l9es %\ld be drawn ) ! f+]s alone1 ^? some:at long] ) ! h&1 us+ ! wri/-jo9t2 ! /ill long] l9es ) ! =e>m1 us+ ! elb[-jo9t2 ^? long] yet ) ! :ole arm1 us+ ! %\ld]-jo9t2 l9es %\ld always be drawn ) a uni=m motion1 sl[ en\gh = ! eye to foll[4 ,practice 9 *alk-"w %\ld alt]nate ) sket*+ 9 a sket*book & ) geometrical draw+--to be h]eaft] describ$4 ,! /ud5t %\ld practice a %ort "t on ! bo>d1 at lea/ once a week2 l>ge sizes are ! mo/ pr(itable = ! repres5tations to be made2 :5 draw+ 9 diff]5t directions ! h& %\ld be turn$1 n ! pap] or bo>d2 ! h& %\ld nev] be all[$ to ob/ruct ! sight1 h5ce ! h& & f+]s %\ld be held 9 a position ( fre$om--) f+]s n ne>] ?an #a or #b in*es f ! bo>d4 ,,note4--,! fir/ lesson ( any k9d ! au?or receiv$ 9 draw+ 0 to make a /raight l9e2 ?is 0 effect$ by hold+ ! p5cil ne>ly erect & guid+ x along by ! aid ( ! little f+] held press$ aga9/ ! edge ( a bo>d2 ?is 0 a useful item ( k1 z prov$ by pass+ ye>s4 ,a well-kn[n arti/1 9 tell+ 8 e>ly exp]i5ce1 said3 8,! fir/ ?+ ,i 0 taught 0 to draw a l9e1 divide x1 erect a p]p5dicul> f its c5t]1 & aft]w>ds to divide ! angle made by ! p]p5dicul>40 ,9 answ] to a "q ask+ h[ long he 0 kept at ! l9es1 he repli$1 8ab\t two mon?s--or a mon? or two10 indicat+ t ev5 ! long] "t w\ld h be5 well sp5t 9 le>n+ to draw a /raight l9e4 ,,prep>atory ,,practice ,,9 ,,draw+4 ,e visible object is b\nd$ by l9es :i* enable ! obs]v] to det]m9e its %ape4 ,if ^! l9es are /raight or curv$1 ! %ape ( ! object is regul>2 if brok51 ! %ape ( ! object is irregul>4 ,! elem5ts1 !n1 ( =m are l9es1 /raight1 curv$1 or brok51 & ^!1 !re=e1 furni% ! beg9n+ ( all in/ruction 9 free-h& or me*anical draw+4 ,,p]p5dicul> ,,l9es4 ,fig4 #ae %[s six l9es--upright & p]p5dicul>1 ) po9ts or 8dots0 indicat$ at ! top & bottom ( ea* l9e2 to draw ^!1 proce$ ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,! le>n] %\ld /& ) 8 "r %\ld] opposite ! bo>d1 & ! weight ( ! h& & ! arm %\ld be all[$ to fall naturally2 n[1 make on ! bo>d two po9ts1 "o be+ six in*es above ! o!r1 ^! be+ m]ely 8dots10 %[n at ! ends ( ! l9es1 figs4 #ae1 etc41 & made ) two motions2 ! l9e betwe5 ! po9ts %\ld n[ be drawn n too quickly f ! upp] to ! l[] po9t2 ?ree movem5ts ( ! h& & arm complete ! l9e2 to draw ! o!r five l9es ! movem5ts h simply to be repeat$4 ,if ! /ud5t pron\nces to himself 8"o10 8two10 8?ree10 at ea* motion1 x w be helpful2 9 ?is ex]cise1 fig4 #ae1 ! aim is to make six l9es1 ea* l9e be+ p>allel to ! fir/4 ,aga91 9 ! example1 x is int5d$ t ! l[] po9t %\ld be made fir/1 next ! upp]1 & la/ly ! l9e drawn f ! upp] to ! l[] po9t1 b ! ord] may be rev]s$2 at "o ! upp] po9t1 at two ! l[]1 at ?ree ! /roke upw>ds to complete ! l9e4 ,,horizontal ,,l9es4 ,to make ^! z %[n 9 fig4 #af1 proce$ z foll[s3 ,) ! ^w "o make a po9t1 ) two ano!r po9t six in*es at ! left1 ) ?ree draw a /raight l9e f ! left po9t to ! "r4 ,all add$ l9es %\ld be p>allel3 = practice1 rev]se ! process ?us1 "o1 make a 8po9t10 at two ano!r po9t at ! "r1 at ?ree draw l9e to ! left4 ,! /ud5t w note t ! two motions--at ! words "o & two--are to fix ! positions ( ! ends ( ! l9es2 ?is practice w be f\nd useful 9 ! mo/ advanc$ examples & an item ( elem5t>y practice nev] to be =gott5--l ! help to be d]iv$ by ! fir/ r\nd ( a ladd]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,,oblique ,,l9es4 ,9 draw+ oblique /raight l9es z %[n 9 fig4 #ag1 at ! ^w "o let ! /ud5t make ! l[] po9t2 at ! ^w two ! upp]1 a little to ! "r ( ! l[]2 at ! ^w ?ree draw a l9e quickly f ! upp] to ! l[] po9t4 ,9 pron\nc+ ! words "o1 two1 ?ree1 let ! /ud5t make ! additional p>allel l9es4 ,z %[n 9 fig4 #ah1 at ! ^w "o make ! l[] po9t2 at ! ^w two ! upp] po9t1 a little to ! left2 at ! ^w ?ree draw a l9e rapidly f ! upp] to ! l[] po9t1 & 8tim+0 ! process by repeat+ "o1 two1 ?ree1 make ! additional p>allel l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,,brok5 ,,l9es4 ,a brok5 l9e is compos$ ( two or m /raight l9es at angles to ea* o!r 7see fig4 #ai74 ,to draw !m beg9 7say+7 "o1 make a po9t2 two a po9t bel[ at ! left2 ?ree1 a po9t above at ! left2 f\r1 draw a l9e f ! left h& po9t to ! l[] po9t2 at ! ^w five1 f ! l[] po9t to ! upp] "r h& po9t4 ,= practice draw num]\s l9es 9 ! same way1 keep+ !m p>allel to ea* o!r1 z %[n 9 fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,9 example1 fig4 #ba1 ! arrangem5t ( ! po9ts is *ang$--let ! /ud5t draw at ! words1 z foll[s3 ,"o1 a po9t2 two1 a po9t above at ! left2 ?ree1 a po9t bel[ at ! left2 f\r1 draw f ! po9t at ! left to ! upp] po9t2 five1 f ! upp] po9t to ! l[] "r h& po9t2 cont9ue to add p>allel l9es to complete ! figure z %[n4 ,figs4 #bb & #bc are giv5 z examples to practice1 mak+ fir/ ! po9ts & !n ! connect+ l9es & aft]w>d ! p>allel l9es to complete ! figures4 ,,curv$ ,,l9es4 ,to draw curv$ l9es1 z %[n 9 fig4 #bd4 ,at ! ^w "o1 po9t2 at ! ^w two1 po9t ?ree in*es directly above2 ?ree1 at ! same di/ance above aga9 make a po9t2 n[ draw a curve z %[n1 jo9+ ! middle po9t & ! upp] po9t2 n[ draw ! curve z %[n bel[ x2 f9ally complete figure z %[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,figs4 #be to #cj are to be practic$1 mak+ fir/ ! po9ts & !n connect+ !m by ! curves to complete ! figures4 ,:5 two or m /ud5ts are work+ toge!r1 ) ea* hav+ a blackbo>d1 ! c\nt+ may be 9 conc]t--or a tea*] c\ld c\nt = a class4 ,9 ^! l9e examples c>e %\ld be us$ 9 mak+ !m ( uni=m l5g?4 ,!re is a diff]5ce to be not$ betwe5 a crook$ l9e & a brok5 l9e1 ! latt] be+ a /raight l9e & ! =m] deviat+ f x4 ,squ>e *alk crayons are ! be/ = h& "w1 z l9es ( an ev5 or uni=m wid? c be drawn ) !m4 ,a v f9e effect is produc$ by us+ two ?icknesses ( *alk1 "o be+ d\ble ! ?ickness ( ! o!r2 ! heavy l9es be+ us$ on ! %ade side ( objects w produce a good effect1 giv+ ?ickness & body to ! object4 ,r\nd *alk crayons are us$ 9 ! compasses to draw circles1 b h& l9es drawn ) !m are n s neat z ^? produc$ ) ! squ>e-%ap$ *alk4 ,to oblit]ate or remove ! con/ruction1 or false l9es made on ! blackbo>d1 a wood5 h&le two in*es 9 diamet] ) a cone end #c or #d in*es long1 cov]$ ) *amois sk9 or s(t clo? tightly wrapp$ r\nd ! cone & fa/5$ ) a tack or draw+ p91 makes ! be/ implem5t to erase l9es n requir$1 ! po9t ( ! cone w remove ^! )\t de/roy+ ! l9es or curves :i* meet !m4 ,sponges1 *amois sk9 or clo? rubb]s are us$ to rub out ! *alk draw+s & clean ! blackbo>d4 ,! be/ height = a diagram on ! blackbo>d is n high] ?an ! head1 nor l[] ?an ! elb[4 ,horizontal l9es %\ld be made f ! left to ! "r2 ! body & arm be+ mov$ ) ! h&1 & kept 9 ! same relative position ) x1 w /eady ! h&4 ,curv$ l9es to ! left %\ld be drawn fir/1 enabl+ ! eye to take 9 n only ! curve 9 process ( =mation b t already made4 ,pass+ ! crayon 9 ! h&1 ov] ! int5d$ curve previ\s to m>k+ x1 w guide ! eye & give confid5ce to ! h& 9 *alk+ ! curve4 ,a prop] di/ance f ! blackbo>d is ess5tial1 ! face be+ ab\t two feet away f x4 ,draw ) ! :ole arm ext5d$ f ! %\ld]-jo9t1 n f ! elb[ or wri/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illu/ration3 8,!re are m ways ?an "o ( tell+ ?+s3 by spee*1 by writ+1 by pr9t+1 also by pictures & draw+s40 ,kn[les ,illu/ration3 ,,t]ms ,,def9itions ,illu/ration3 ,,electra4 ,prelim9>y ,t]ms & ,def9itions4 ,l all ! arts1 draw+ has a nom5clature ( its own1 & no?+ c be m helpful to ! beg9n] ?an to "k ! "n ( ?+s relat+ to ! art ( draw+4 ,?is is a language almo/ peculi> to itself1 & us$ daily & h\rly by _m ?\s&s ( sup]9t5d5ts1 =em5 & ma/] me*anics1 z well z by own]s1 design]s & draughtsm51 h5ce its introduction at ?is e>ly /age4 ,,altitude4--,?is is ! elevation ( an object above its base1 or ! p]p5dicul> di/ance betwe5 ! top & bottom ( a figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,,angle is ! diff]5ce 9 ! direction ( two l9es :i* meet or t5d to meet4 ,! l9es are call$ ! sides & ! po9t ( meet+1 ! v]tex ( ! l9es4 ,to make an angle app>5t1 ! two l9es mu/ meet 9 a po9t1 z ,a ,b & ,a ,c1 :i* meet 9 ! po9t ,a1 z %[n 9 fig4 #cc4 ,angles are measur$ by degrees4 ,a ,degree is "o ( ! ?ree hundr$ & sixty equal p>ts ( ! space ab\t a po9t 9 a plane4 ,angles are di/+ui%$ 9 respect to magnitude by ! t]ms ,"r1 ,acute & ,obtuse ,angles4 ,a ,"r ,angle is t =m$ by "o l9e meet+ ano!r1 s z to make equal angles ) t o!r4 ,! l9es =m+ a "r angle are p]p5dicul> to ea* o!r4 ,an ,acute ,angle is less ?an a "r angle4 ,see ,fig4 #ce4 ,an ,obtuse ,angle is great] ?an a "r angle4 ,see ,fig4 #cf4 ,obtuse & acute angles are also call$ oblique angles2 & l9es :i* are nei!r p>allel nor p]p5dicul> to ea* o!r are call$ oblique l9es4 ,! ,v]tex or ,apex ( an angle is ! po9t 9 :i* ! includ+ l9es meet4 ,an angle is commonly designat$ by a lett] at its v]tex2 b :5 two or m angles h _! v]tices at ! same po9t1 !y _c be ?us di/+ui%$4 ,= example1 :5 ! ?ree l9es ,a ,b1 ,a ,c1 & ,a ,d 9 fig4 #cg meet 9 ! common po9t ,a1 we designate ei!r ( ! angles =m$1 by ?ree lett]s1 plac+ t at ! v]tex betwe5 ^? at ! opposite extremities ( ! includ+ l9es4 ,?us1 we say1 ! angle ,b ,a ,c1 etc4 ,,apex4--,! summit or highe/ po9t ( an object4 ,,arc4--,see circle4 ,,axis ,,( ,a ,,solid4--,an imag9>y /raight l9e pass+ ?r\gh its c5t]4 ,,axis ,,( ,a ,,figure4--,a /raight l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! c5t] ( a figure1 & divid+ x into two equal p>ts4 ,,base4--,! base ( a solid figure is t on :i* x /&s--! l[e/ "p4 ,,bisect4--,to divide into two equal p>ts4 ,,bisector4--,a l9e :i* bisects4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,,circle4--,a ,circle is a plane figure b\nd$ by "o uni=mly curv$ l9e1 all ( ! po9ts 9 :i* are at ! same di/ance f a c]ta9 po9t )91 call$ ! ,c5t]4 ,! ,circumf]5ce ( a circle is ! curv$ l9e t b\nds x4 ,! ,diamet] ( a circle is a l9e pass+ ?r\gh its c5t]1 & t]m9at+ at bo? ends 9 ! circumf]5ce1 z ,a ,c ,b4 ,! ,radius ( a circle is a l9e ext5d+ f its c5t] to any po9t 9 ! circumf]5ce4 ,x is "o-half ( ! diamet]4 ,all ! diamet]s ( a circle are equal1 z are also all ! radii ,c ,d1 ,c ,b & ,c ,a4 ,an ,arc ( a circle is any portion ( ! circumf]5ce1 z ,b ,d & ,a ,d4 ,semi-,circle4--,half a circle =m$ by bisect+ x ) a diamet]1 z ,a ,c ,b4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,an angle hav+ its v]tex at ! c5t] ( a circle is measur$ by ! arc int]cept$ by its sides4 ,?us1 ! arc ,a ,d measures ! angle ,a ,c ,d1 & 9 g5]al1 to comp>e diff]5t angles1 we h b to comp>e ! arcs1 includ$ by _! sides1 ( ! equal circles hav+ _! c5t]s at ! v]tices ( ! angles4 ,,circumscribe4--,to draw a l9e ( figures ab\t or outside1 su* z a circle drawn ar\nd a squ>e t\*+ its corn]s or angles4 ,inscribe4--,to draw a l9e or figure inside or on ! int]ior1 su* z a circle drawn )9 a squ>e t\*+ its sides4 ,,concave4--,curv+ inw>dly4 ,,cone4--,a solid body or figure hav+ a circle = its base1 & its top t]m9at$ 9 a po9t or v]tex4 ,,con/ruction4--,! mak+ ( any object4 ,,cont\r4--,! outl9e ( ! g5]al appe>ance ( an object4 ,,conv]g5ce4--,l9es ext5d+ t[>ds a common po9t4 ,,convex4--,ris+ or swell+ into a r\nd =m--! opposite to concave4 ,,corn]4--,! po9t ( meet+ ( ! edges ( a solid1 or ! two sides ( a plane figure4 ,,cross-,,hat*es4--,9 free-h& draw+ ! use ( l9es cross+ ea* o!r to produce light & %ade effects4 ,,curve4--,a l9e ( :i* no "p is /raight4 ,rev]s$ ,curve4--,"o ^: curvature is fir/ 9 "o direction & !n 9 ! opposite direction4 ,spiral ,curve4--,a pla9 curve :i* w9ds ab\t & rec$es1 accord+ to "s law1 f its po9t ( beg9n+1 :i* is call$ its c5t]4 ,,cyl9d]4--,a solid b\nd$ by a curv$ surface & by two opposite faces call$ bases2 ! bases may be any curv$ figures & give ! "n to ! cyl9d]2 ?us a circul> cyl9d] is "o ^: bases are circles4 ,,cyl9drical4--,hav+ ! g5]al =m ( a cyl9d]4 ,,degree4--,! #cfj? "p ( a circle4 ,,describe4--,to make or draw a curv$ l9e2 to draw a plan4 ,,design4--,any arrangem5t or comb9ation to produce desir$ results 9 indu/ry or art4 ,to del9eate a =m or figure by draw+ ! outl9e--a sket*4 ,,develop4--,to unroll or lay out4 ,,diagonal4--,a "r l9e drawn f angle to angle ( a quadrilat]al or _m angl$ figure & divid+ x into two p>ts4 ,,diamet]4--,a "r l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! c5t] ( a circle or o!r r\nd figure t]m9at$ by ! curve & divid+ ! figure symmetrically into two equal p>ts4 ,,edge4--,! int]section ( any two surfaces4 ,,elevation4--,! t]m elevation1 v]tical projection & front view--appli$ to draw+s--all h ! same mean+4 ,,face4--,"o ( ! plane surfaces ( a solid2 x may be b\nd$ by /raight or curv$ edges4 ,,f9i%+4--,complet+ a draw+ ^: l9es h be5 det]m9$ by eras+ unnecess>y l9es & /r5g!n+ & acc5tuat+ :]e ?is is ne$$4 ,,=e%ort5+4--,app>5t decrease 9 l5g?1 ow+ to objects be+ view$ obliquely2 ?us a :eel1 :5 se5 obliquely1 in/ead ( appe>+ r\nd1 pres5ts ! appe>ance ( an ellipse4 ,,free-,,h&4--,execut$ by ! h& unaid$ by in/rum5ts4 ,,g5]at$4--,produc$ by4 ,,geometric4--,accord+ to geometry4 ,,half-,,t9t4--,! %ad+ produc$ by means ( p>allel equidi/ant l9es4 ,,hemisph]e4--,half a sph]e obta9$ by bisect+ a sph]e by a plane4 ,,horizontal4--,p>allel to ! surface ( smoo? wat]4 ,9 draw+1 a l9e drawn p>allel to ! top & bottom ( ! %eet is call$ horizontal4 ,,inscribe4--,see circumscribe--its opposite4 ,,in/rum5tal4--,by ! use ( in/rum5ts4 ,,l9e4--,a l9e has l5g?1 only1 z ,a ,c2 a "r l9e is a /raight l9e1 ! %orte/ l9e t c be drawn betwe5 two po9ts1 ,a----,c4 ,/raight4 ,"o :i* has ! same direction ?r\gh\t its entire l5g?4 ,curv$4 ,"o no "p ( :i* is /raight4 ,brok54 ,"o compos$ ( diff]5t successive /raight l9es4 ,mix$4 ,"o ( /raight & curv$ l9es4 ,c5t]4 ,a l9e us$ to indicate ! c5t] ( an object4 ,con/ruction4 ,a work+ l9e us$ to obta9 requir$ l9es4 ,dott$4 ,a l9e compos$ ( %ort da%es4 - - - - - - ,da%4 ,a l9e compos$ ( long da%es4 -- -- -- ,dot & ,da%4 ,a l9e compos$ ( dots & da%es alt]nat+4 -- -- -- ,dim5sion4 ,a l9e ^u :i* a dim5sion is plac$4 ,full4 ,an unbrok5 l9e1 usually repres5t+ a visible edge4 ------ ,%ad[4 ,a l9e ab\t twice z wide z ! ord9>y full l9e4 ,a /raight l9e is (t5 call$ simply a l9e1 & a curv$ l9e a curve4 ,,longitud9al4--,9 ! direction ( ! l5g? ( an object4 ,,model4--,a =m us$ = /udy4 ,,oblique4--,nei!r horizontal nor v]tical4 ,,oblong4--,a rectangle ) unequal sides4 ,,oval4--,a plane figure resembl+ ! longitud9al section ( an egg2 or elliptical 9 %ape4 ,,ov]all4--,! entire l5g?4 ,,p>allel4--,hav+ ! same direction & ev]y:]e equally di/ant4 ,,patt]n4--,t :i* is us$ z a guide or copy 9 mak+ ?+s4 ,flat4 ,"o made ( pap] or o!r ?9 mat]ial4 ,solid4 ,"o :i* reproduces ! =m & size ( ! object to be made4 ,,p]imet]4--,! b\nd>y ( a clos$ plane figure4 ,,p]p5dicul>4--,at an angle ( #ij4 ,,p]spective4--,view2 draw+ objects z !y appe> to ! eye f any giv5 di/ance & situation1 real or imag9>y4 ,,plan4--,plan1 horizontal projection & top view h ! same mean+4 ,,plane ,,figure4--,a "p ( a plane surface b\nd$ by /raight or curv$ l9es1 or by bo? comb9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,,polygon4--,a plane figure b\nd$ by /raight l9es call$ ! sides ( ! polygon4 ,! lea/ numb] ( sides t c b\nd a polygon is ?ree4 ,polygons b\nd$ by a great] numb] ( sides ?an f\r are d5om9at$ only by ! numb] ( sides4 ,a polygon ( five sides is call$ a ,p5tagon2 ( six1 a ,hexagon2 ( sev51 a ,heptagon2 ( eight1 an ,octagon2 ( n9e1 a ,nonagon1 etc4 ,diagonals ( a polygon are l9es jo9+ ! v]tices ( angles n adjac5t4 ,! ,p]imet] ( a polygon is its b\nd>y consid]$ z a :ole4 ,! ,base ( a polygon is ! side ^u :i* ! polygon is suppos$ to /&4 ,! ,altitude ( a polygon is ! p]p5dicul> di/ance betwe5 ! base & a side or angle opposite ! base4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,a ,quadrilat]al is a polygon hav+ f\r sides & f\r angles4 ,a ,p>allelogram is a quadrilat]al :i* has its opposite sides p>allel4 ,! side ^u :i* a p>allelogram /&s & ! opposite side are call$ respectively its l[] & upp] bases4 ,a ,rectangle is a p>allelogram hav+ its angles "r angles4 ,a ,squ>e is an equilat]al rectangle1 fig4 #da4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4-di4 ,a ,rhomboid is an oblique-angl$ p>allelogram4 ,a ,rhombus is an equilat]al rhomboid1 fig4 #db4 ,a ,trapezium is a quadrilat]al hav+ no two sides p>allel1 fig4 #dc4 ,a ,trapezoid is a quadrilat]al 9 :i* two opposite sides are p>allel1 & ! o!r two oblique1 fig4 #dd4 ,a ,,polyh$ron is a solid b\nd$ by planes4 ,!re are five regul> solids :i* are %[n 9 figs4 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #dh & #di4 ,a regul> solid is b\nd$ by simil> & regul> plane figures4 ,fig4 #de4--,! tetrah$ron1 b\nd$ by f\r equilat]al triangles4 ,fig4 #df4--,! hexah$ron1 or cube1 b\nd$ by six squ>es4 ,fig4 #dg4--,! octah$ron1 b\nd$ by eight equilat]al triangles4 ,fig4 #dh4--,! dodecah$ron1 b\nd$ by twelve p5tagons4 ,fig4 #di4--,! icosah$ron1 b\nd$ by tw5ty equilat]al triangles4 ,,prism4--,a solid ^: bases or ends are v simil> plane figures1 & ^: sides are p>allelograms2 prisms are call$ triangul>1 squ>e1 etc41 accord+ z ! bases are triangles1 squ>es1 etc4 ,,produce4--,to cont9ue or ext5d4 ,,pr(ile4--,an outl9e or cont\r4 ,,projection4--,! view ( an object obta9$ ^u a plane by project+ l9es p]p5dicul> to ! plane4 ,,quadrant4--,! f\r? "p2 a qu>t]2 ! qu>t] ( a circle4 ,,quadrisect4--,to divide into f\r equal p>ts4 ,,section4--,a projection ^u a plane p>allel to a cutt+ plane :i* int]sects any object4 ,! section g5]ally repres5ts ! "p beh9d ! cutt+ plane1 & repres5ts ! cut surfaces by diagonal l9es4 ,,sectional4--,%[+ ! section made by a plane4 ,,%ad[4--,%ade & %ad[ h ab\t ! same mean+4 ,,solid4--,a solid has ?ree dim5sions--l5g?1 bread? & ?ickness4 ,,sph]e4--,a solid b\nd$ by a curv$ surface e po9t ( :i* is equally di/ant f a po9t )9 call$ ! c5t]4 ,,surface4--,! b\nd>y ( a solid4 ,x has b two dim5sions--l5g? & bread?4 ,surfaces are plane or curv$4 ,a ,plane ,surface is "o ^u :i* a /raight l9e c be drawn 9 any direction4 ,a ,curv$ ,surface is "o no "p ( :i* is plane4 ,! surface ( ! sph]e is curv$ 9 e direction1 :ile ! curv$ surfaces ( ! cyl9d] & cone are /raight 9 "o direction4 ,! surface ( a solid is no "p ( ! solid1 b is simply ! b\nd>y ( ! solid4 ,x has two dim5sions only1 & any numb] ( surfaces put toge!r w give no ?ickness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,,symmetry4--,design4 ,a prop] adju/m5t or adaptation ( p>ts to "o ano!r & to ! :ole4 ,,trisect4--,to divide into ?ree equal p>ts4 ,,triangle4--,a triangle is a polygon hav+ ?ree sides & ?ree angles4 ,tri is a ,lat9 prefix signify+ ?ree2 h5ce a ,triangle is lit]ally a figure conta9+ ?ree angles4 ,a ,scal5e ,triangle is "o 9 :i* no two sides are equal4 ,see fig4 #ej4 ,an ,isosceles ,triangle is "o 9 :i* two ( ! sides are equal4 ,see fig4 #ea4 ,an ,equilat]al ,triangle is "o 9 :i* ! ?ree sides are equal4 ,an ,equiangul> ,triangle is "o hav+ its ?ree angles equal4 ,an ,acute-,angl$ ,triangle is "o 9 :i* ea* angle is acute4 ,a ,"r-,angl$ ,triangle is "o :i* has "o ( ! angles a "r angle4 ,see fig4 #ec4 ,an ,obtuse-,angl$ ,triangle is "o hav+ an obtuse angle4 ,fig4 #ed4 ,equiangul> triangles are also equal sid$1 & vice v]sa4 ,,v]tical4--,upright or p]p5dicul>4 ,v]tical & p]p5dicul> are n synonym\s t]ms4 ,,v]tex4--,see ,angle1 ,quadrilat]al1 ,triangle4 ,! v]tex ( a solid is ! po9t 9 :i* its axis int]sects ! lat]al surface4 ,,view4--,see ,elevation4 ,views are call$ front1 top1 "r or left side1 back1 or bottom1 accord+ z !y are made on ! diff]5t planes ( projection4 ,!y are also sometimes nam$ accord+ to ! "p ( ! object %[n1 z edge view1 end view1 or face view4 ,,work+ ,,draw+4--,"o :i* gives all ! in=mation necess>y to enable ! workman to con/ruct ! object4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,,freeh& ,,draw+ ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,free-,h& ,draw+4 ,a free-h& draw+ is execut$ ) ! unaid$ h& & eye1 )\t guid+ in/rum5ts or o!r artificial help4 ,x is necess>y to be kn[n t all draw+ requir$ _c possibly be done by rule & compass1 b t "s portions mu/ be drawn 8free-h&10 tru/+ to ! eye alone4 ,h5ce1 x is important t ! /ud5t %\ld be able to sket* at sight f objects he may see1 or to draw r\ghly1 ) a piece ( *alk or a p5cil1 pieces ( me*anism requir$ to be repres5t$4 ,practice 9 free-h& %\ld g along ) me*anical draw+ z progress is made1 & ?us cultivat+ bo? bran*es equally4 8,a simple sket* w (t510 z has be5 r r\ghly said1 8express m ?an y>ds ( talk40 ,ev5 a slight sket* refre%es ! memory1 & 9 ! case ( ! prep>ation ( a complete set ( draw+s1 ) a view to ! mak+ ( a ?or\ghly f9i%$ me*anical draw+1 ! prop] c\rse to pursue is1 to make a g5]al sket*1 lett] ! v>i\s p>ts = ref]5ce1 & !n prep>e a s]ies ( detail$ sket*es1 simil>ly lett]$1 & diffuse ) dim5sions4 ,ev]yone1 :atev] 8 specialty1 feels to-day t ! ability to sket* rapidly & cle>ly is among ! absolute necessities = correct & prompt transactions ( bus9ess1 9 giv+ & execut+ ord]s & do+ bus9ess ) p]sons outside 8 pr(ession4 ,mi/akes & misund]/&+s may be av]t$ by means ( r\gh sket*es tak5 at ! "t & %[n = confirmation2 ?is also saves assi/ants f gett+ into tr\ble1 especially if !y p9 ! sket* to ! ord]1 = ref]5ce1 9 case ( ! aris+ ( any dispute4 ,^! are a few ( ! advantages ( kn[+ h[ to sket* quickly & correctly4 ,9 8free-h&0 any sort ( p5cil is bett] ?an none1 b !re is a consid]able advantage 9 hav+ a good s]viceable article--a p5cil n too s(t nor too h>d1 & "o :i* w reta9 its po9t = "s little "t4 ,fig4 #ee %[s ! approv$ position 9 :i* ! p5cil %\ld be held :ile sket*+4 ,! p5cil %\ld be held firmly betwe5 ! ?umb & fir/ f+] ( ! "r h&2 press ! second f+] aga9/ ! p5cil at ! opposite side to ! ?umb pressure1 s t ! p5cil is firmly held by ! contact ( ! ?umb & two f+]s--! ?ird & f\r? f+]s j com+ into easy rea* ( ! pap] surface--! wri/ or ball ( ! h& re/+ lightly on ! surface ( ! "w--! arm re/+ on ! desk or draw+-bo>d = /ead9ess4 ,! motion ( ! p5cil is produc$ f ! movem5t ( ! f+]s & ?umb1 pr9cipally 9 ! v]tical /rokes1 & ! horizontal /rokes are produc$ by f+]s & ?umb1 comb9$ ) a wri/ or elb[ motion2 ! oblique l9es & curves are produc$ ) a free movem5t1 ) no?+ cramp$ or conf9$ ab\t ! f+] jo9ts4 ,,position4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t no?+ is m prejudicial to good execution ?an ! habit ( lean+ ov] ! pap]1 :i* ought to be plac$ on a surface suffici5tly incl9$ to br+ e portion equally "u ! eye1 ?us obviat+ ! necessity ( lean+ =w>d4 ,all support to ! figure %\ld be obta9$ by re/+ on ! left arm1 ! "r be+ left free = "w4 ,by att5tion to ^! rules t awkw>dness ( position1 s detrim5tal to a good figure1 w be avoid$4 ,x is bett] to h ! light on ! left h&1 z 9 ?is direction ! %ad[ ( ! p5cil does n int]f]e ) ! view ( ! draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,cut ,a ,,p5cil4 ,hold ! p5cil firmly 9 ! left h&1 z 9 ! draw+1 all[+ ab\t an in* to project beyond ! f+]s1 & turn x gradually z ! knife removes ! wood4 ,! knife %\ld be held s t ! blade alone projects beyond ! f+]s1 & ! "p ( x ne>e/ ! h&le us$ = cutt+4 ,! p5cil %\ld be plac$ aga9/ ! inside ( ! ?umb ( ! "r h&1 z 9 ! draw+ 7fig4 #ef71 & ! wood remov$ by slight %av+4 ,! lead %\ld n be cut at ! same "t z ! wood1 b re/$ on ! ?umb & p>$ g5tly aft]w>ds2 by att5tion to ^! directions ! p5cil w be economiz$4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,draw ,,/raight ,,l9es4 ,be=e a l9e is drawn1 ! po9t at :i* x is to comm5ce & ! po9t :]e x is to end1 %\ld be kn[n2 & let x be di/9ctly und]/ood t ?is judgm5t ( ! eye1 & plac+ ( po9ts1 %\ld inv>iably prec$e ! draw+ ( e l9e4 ,! fir/ ef=t %\ld1 !re=e1 be to produce a l9e ( po9ts exactly p>allel ) ! upp] edge ( ! pap]1 & at equal di/ances f ea* o!r4 ,comm5ce ) po9t ,a & place ! po9t ,b c>efully level ) x1 n[ place a slip ( pap] aga9/ ^! po9ts 9 ! orig9al1 m>k _! di/ance ap>t1 & see if ! same proportion has be5 giv5 9 y\r copy2 if n1 make ! necess>y correction4 ,proce$ ) ! next po9t1 exam9e x1 & s on to ! end ( ! l9e4 ,:5 ?is is complete1 exam9e ea* po9t 9 succession1 to try if x is at ! same di/ance f ! top ( ! pap]2 :5 ?is is correct1 proce$ to draw ! fir/ level l9e4 ,hold ! p5cil z 9 ! draw+1 fig4 #eg1 keep+ ! elb[ ne> ! side2 jo9 ,a to ,b by "o light1 /eady /roke1 produc$ by a movem5t ( ! wri/1 & add /roke ^u /roke until ! l9e is ( ! requir$ dep?4 ,cont9ue ?is process to ! end ( ! l9e ( po9ts4 ,n[ place ! po9t ,d at ! "r di/ance bel[ ! ,a1 proce$ ) ! po9ts = ano!r l9e z be=e1 & cont9ue ! l9es until ! pap] is cov]$4 ,9 produc+ ! /roke ! p5cil %\ld n be j]k$1 or any /op be made betwe5 ! po9ts1 b ! movem5t %\ld be ev5 ?r\gh\t1 & x is mu* bett] to produce ea* l9e by sev]al s(t /rokes1 z ! repetition ( delicate l9es induces lightness ( t\* & fre$om ( h&2 & x is also no small advantage t l9es ?us produc$ are m easily remov$ by ! ,india rubb]1 %\ld !y require correction4 ,,to ,,draw ,,! ,,fir/ ,,oblique ,,l9e4 ,prep>e ?ree r[s ( po9ts d[n ! side ( ! pap]1 on ! left h&2 exam9e !m to see t !y are at equal di/ances f ! side & f ea* o!r2 hold ! p5cil z 9 ! draw+1 fig4 #eh1 move ! elb[ a little f ! side1 & jo9 ! po9ts ,a & ,b ) "o light l9e1 produc$ by a movem5t ( ! f+]s & ?umb1 repeat+ ! /rokes until ! l9e is ( ! requisite dep?2 proce$ to jo9 ,b to ,c1 tak+ c>e previ\sly to br+ ! h& a little d[n ! pap]1 z ! l9e f ,a to ,c is too long to be produc$ f "o position4 ,:5 ! ?ree r[s ( po9ts are fill$1 make ano!r set1 exam9e !m & proce$ z be=e4 ,by ^! means ! pap] w be cov]$ ) oblique l9es1 & if ! po9ts h be5 plac$ exactly1 ! %eet w h a neat & regul> appe>ance4 ,,note4--,! draw+s ( h&s are introduc$ to %[ ! positions = hold+ ! p5cil1 & are n int5d$ = copy+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,x is a common1 & at ! same "t highly injuri\s habit1 to draw ?is l9e by a movem5t ( ! wri/1 ! f+]s rema9+ rigid4 ,?is may be detect$ by wat*+ ! action ( ! ?umb2 if x b5ds z ! l9e is produc$1 all is "r2 b if x does n ! wri/ is at "w4 ,,to ,,draw ,,! ,,upright ,,or ,,p]p5dicul> ,,l9e4 ,?is l9e dem&s ! greate/ att5tion1 & any c>e be/[$ ^u x w be amply repaid 9 ! aft] /udies4 ,comm5ce by plac+ a l9e ( po9ts d[n ! side ( ! pap]1 exam9e !m v c>efully to see t !y are all ! same di/ance f its edge1 hold ! p5cil z 9 ! draw+1 fig4 #ei1 move ! elb[ well out f ! side1 & jo9 ! po9ts by a movem5t ( ! f+]s & ?umb4 ,:5 "o l9e is complete1 place ! po9ts = ! next1 & exam9e !m f ! edge ( ! pap]1 n f ! l9e j drawn4 ,proce$ 9 ?is mann] until ! pap] is cov]$4 ,!re is 9 mo/ cases a t5d5cy to place ! po9ts = ?is l9e 9 a slightly incl9$ direction1 z 9 writ+1 ?\gh 9 "s in/ances ! t5d5cy is ! opposite1 a ?or\ghly correct eye 9 ?is respect be+ a r>e gift3 & x may be useful to sugge/ t ! pap] be s plac$ t ! l9e ( po9ts to be produc$ may be exactly 9 front ( ! eye4 ,,to ,,draw ,,! ,,second ,,oblique ,,l9e4 ,prep>e ?ree r[s ( po9ts d[n ! side ( ! pap]1 exam9e !m = correctness ( position1 hold ! p5cil z 9 ! draw+1 fig4 #fj1 remove ! elb[ z f> z possible f ! side1 & jo9 ! po9ts by a movem5t ( ! f+]s & ?umb1 & cont9ue ! ex]cise until ! pap] is cov]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,x w be notic$ t ea* *ange 9 direction ( ! l9e to be drawn1 has be5 accompani$ ) a correspond+ *ange 9 ! position ( ! elb[ & wri/4 ,! foll[+ simple rule w assi/ ! memory :5 plac+ ! h& = any giv5 l9e2 ! p5cil %\ld be held s t x may =m a ,t ) ! l9e to be drawn3 ,illu/ration ,= ! horizontal l9e1 elb[ ne> ! side4 ,illu/ration ,= ! fir/ oblique1 elb[ a little remov$4 ,illu/ration ,= ! p]p5dicul>1 elb[ m remov$4 ,illu/ration ,= ! second oblique1 elb[ mo/ remov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,f+] & ?umb l9es4 ,wri/ l9es4 ,f+] & ?umb l9es4 ,wri/ l9es4 ,x may also be int]e/+ to notice1 ) reg>d to ! movem5ts by :i* l9es are produc$1 t !y are divid$ into two sy/ems2 ! fir/ is t ( ! wri/1 :i* includes ! horizontal1 & l9es 9 ne>ly ! same direction2 ! second is t ( ! f+]s & ?umb1 by :i* all o!r l9es are =m$4 ,! foll[+ diagram exhibits ! two sy/ems & _! v>i\s l9es gr\p$1 & x w be obs]v$ t !re is a space m>k$ 7a7 betwe5 ! two sets1 :i* may be consid]$ neutral gr\nd4 ,l9es 9 ?is direction may be produc$ by ei!r movem5t1 z may be mo/ conv5i5t1 b x w always be f\nd t ^! l9es are ! mo/ try+ to ! h&4 ,,on ,,figures ,,=m$ ,,( ,,/raight ,,l9es4 ,be=e comm5c+ ?is subject1 let x be cle>ly und]/ood t future success w1 9 a great measure1 dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( c>e be/[$ ^u x4 ,! aim %\ld be to obta9 absolute accuracy1 & = ?is end ! copies %\ld be te/$ by ! mo/ c>eful measurem5ts1 & correct$ until !y are true ) ! orig9als1 b x %\ld be di/9ctly und]/ood t ^! measurem5ts are only to be made aft] ! eye & h& h done _! be/4 ,,note4--,to "s x may appe> t too mu* "t & c>e has be5 be/[$ on m]e l9es1 b let x be und]/ood t a good sy/em ( l9e draw+ is ! basis ( all education--! slighte/ outl9e by a h& ?us tra9$ has a bold1 free & ma/]ly "*2 & ) reg>d to %ad+1 :i* is simply an aggregation ( good l9es1 x is only by su* a practic$ h& its mo/ *>m+ effects c be produc$4 ,fig4 #ff3 ,place ! po9ts ,a1 ,b4 ,exam9e !m to see t !y are ! same di/ance ap>t z 9 ! orig9al1 & t !y are level2 place ! po9t ,c exactly "u ,a1 & make ,a ,c equal 9 di/ance to ,a ,b2 n[ place ! po9t ,d opposite ,c & "u ,b2 try ! di/ances betwe5 ea* po9t to see t !y are ! same2 divide ea* side by a po9t half way1 & !n draw ! l9es4 ,fig4 #fg3 ,repeat ! la/ figure & add ! l9es ,a & ,b1 tak+ great c>e t ! po9ts = !m are correctly plac$4 ,fig4 #fh3 ,comm5ce ) ! squ>e z be=e2 !n jo9 ! half-way po9ts4 ,fig4 #fi3 ,aft] ! squ>e is drawn1 place ! po9ts ,a & ,b at ! "r height above ! half-way po9ts1 & ,c1 ,d at ! prop] di/ance f ! corn]s1 !n draw ! figure4 ,fig4 #gj3 ,! greate/ c>e %\ld be tak5 ) ! squ>es = ?is & ! foll[+ figure1 z ! slighte/ error 9 !m w de/roy ! symmetry ( ! draw+ )92 :5 ! squ>e is complet$1 jo9 ! opposite corn]s1 & place on ! cross$ l9es ! po9ts ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e2 exam9e ^! to see t !y are ea* at ! same di/ance f ! c5tre ,a1 & t ?is di/ance is equal to ! space f ,a to ! sides ( ! squ>e2 :5 all are prov$ to be correct1 complete ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,fig4 #ga3 ,repeat ! la/ draw+ )1 if possible1 great] exactness1 & outside ! octagon place ! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 etc42 exam9e ea* ( ^! po9ts to see t !y are all at ! same di/ance f ! c5tre1 & !n complete ! figure4 ,,on ,,curv$ ,,l9es4 ,! "r position ( ! h& = draw+ any curv$ l9e is t requir$ = a /raight l9e :i* w\ld t\* ! extremities ( ! curve4 ,! /raight l9es giv5 9 ! ex]cises are valuable1 n only z a guide to ! position ( ! h&1 b z an assi/ance to ! eye :5 =m+ ! curves or exam9+ !m aft] !y are produc$4 ,illu/ration ,! direction giv5 = draw+ a /raight l9e 0 to =m x by "o /eady movem5t f po9t to po9t1 )\t any j]k or /op by ! way4 ,?is in/ruction requires to be *ang$ = ! curve1 :i* is bett] produc$ by sev]al %ort /rokes1 ?us3 ,illu/ration or by ov]lapp+ l9es1 any outside bits be+ cle>$ away ) ,india rubb]4 ,^! ex]cises w te/ ! draw+ p[] & try ! pati5ce ( ! pupil1 b !y are wor?y ( all ! c>e :i* c be be/[$1 :i* 9 future ef=ts w meet ) its full rew>d4 ,fig4 #gf3 ,draw fir/ ! squ>e z direct$ 9 ! previ\s lesson1 jo9 ! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,c & add ! %ort l9es at ,e & ,f1 proce$ ) ! curve ,a ,b1 draw+ x ) fa9t l9es at fir/1 & add+ /roke ^u /roke until ! requir$ dep? is obta9$2 ! curve ,a ,c is m difficult to produce1 9 consequ5ce ( ! =mation ( ! h&2 x %\ld1 !re=e1 be drawn 9 %ort] pieces1 jo9+ !m toge!r aft]w>ds by ov] /rokes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,fig4 #gg3 ,draw ! squ>e & /raight l9es fir/1 !n add ! curves1 tak+ c>e to give ! greate/ fullness at ! "r place4 ,fig4 #gh3 ,draw ! squ>e & /raight l9es1 proce$ ) ! curves1 tak+ c>e to make ea* ( ! same proportion4 ,figs4 #gi & #hj3 ,! ovals conta9$ 9 ^! figures are simply =e%ort5$ circles1 & z su* =ms are ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 sket*+ f objects1 9 bridges1 :eels1 ends ( timb]1 etc41 !y %\ld be c>efully /udi$2 ! greate/ difficulty is to turn ! n>r[ ends1 & prev5t _! look+ l corn]s4 ,= ?is purpose x is bett] to draw ! %ort curves fir/1 ?us3 ,illu/ration & !n jo9 ! long] sides to !m4 ,fig4 #ha3 ,if ?is figure c be drawn correctly1 a great success has be5 a*iev$2 ! circle is a mo/ difficult =m to del9eate1 & )\t sy/em c\ld n be accompli%$4 ,draw ! squ>e & /raight l9es )9 x ) great c>e1 exam9e ea* po9t ( ! octagon to see t x is at ! same di/ance f ! c5tre1 & !n draw ! circle4 ,,examples ,,= ,,practice4 ,sev]al figures1 #hc to #if1 repres5t+ m or less famili> p>ts ( ma*9es1 utilities1 etc41 are introduc$ = practice 9 free-h&1 b-- ,x mu/ be not$ t ev5 9 free-h& ! wise /ud5t w occasionally use ! /raight edge & compasses1 s z to make 8 fir/ attempts fairly cr$itable4 ,_m good draughtsm5 h begun by simply copy+ su* figures & illu/rations z are us$ ?r\gh\t ?is volume & o!r simil> s\rces2 p]haps !re is no?+ bett] = practice or tra9+ ?an ! copy+ & reproduc+ ( samples ( good me*anical draw+s1 yet x mu/ always be rememb]$ t advancem5t 9 free-h& mu/ be made 9 ! l9e ( less to great] ef=ts1 & t ! :y & :]e=e w be con/antly ask$ by ! aspir+ /ud5t2 t good & correct draw+s are to be aim$ = at all times 9 e l9e & dim5sion--nev] =gett+ ! law ( proportion 9 ! smalle/ outl9es ( objects to be repres5t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,fig4 #hc is a section1 or end view ( a b> ( angle iron2 ! /ud5t w f9d helpful practice 9 attempt+ ?is figure2 he may be all[$ to use a /raight-edge 9 draw+ ! l9es1 b no measurem5ts2 ! "w %\ld be te/$ on completion by a rule1 or bett] by p5cil+ f ! orig9al on trac+ pap]1 & comp>+ ! free-h& ) ! copy1 :5 ! defective proportions1 if any1 w be cle>ly exhibit$4 ,fig4 #hd is a section ( tee iron1 & fig4 #he is a section ( *annel iron4 ,^! ?ree figures on page #ge %\ld be practic$ alt]nately1 al?\gh seem+ simil> 9 %ape4 ,fig4 #hf is a side & end view ( an angle plate %ad$4 ,fig4 #hg is a wr5* %ad$4 ,examples ( bolt ends are %[n 9 ! two next numb]s2 fig4 #hh exhibits ! common squ>e-head bolt1 & fig4 #hi ! hexagon or six-sid$ bolt-head2 ^! are also examples ( /raight-l9e %ad+4 ,fig4 #ij is a la!-dog1 & %[s an example ( curv$ %ad+2 fig4 #ib is an eng9e crank1 & an example ( /raight & curv$ %ad+2 fig4 #ia is a screw clamp4 ,fig4 #ic is a section ( boil] plates rivet$ toge!r2 a caulk+ tool is also %[n4 ,9 ! example1 fig4 #id--;a h&-:eel--! pr9cipal difficulty1 ev5 = ! mo/ advanc$ /ud5t 9 free-h&1 w be 9 draw+ ! circles2 a co91 if conv5i5t1 c be us$ to scribe ab\t1 9 draw+ ^!2 ! o!r p>ts c aft]w>ds be fill$ 9 ar\nd ! circle4 ,fig4 #if is introduc$ = practice 9 p5cil+ & %ad+2 ! figure repres5ts a wat]-:eel on a /one pi]4 ,! famili> oil c is %[n 9 fig4 #ie4 ,^! all are excell5t objects = practice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,fig4 #hd4--;,fig4 #he4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,fig4 #hi4--;,fig4 #ij4--;,fig4 #ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,illu/ration3 ,,geometrical ,,draw+ ,illu/ration ,geometrical ,draw+4 ,geometry is ! sci5ce ( measurem5t2 x has be5 kn[n = m ?an ?ree ?\s& ye>s2 _m lives h be5 devot$ to its developm5t1 & x exi/s to-day z ! f\ndation ( all ma!matics4 ,geometrical draw+ is ! art ( repres5t+1 to ! eye1 ! problems 8work$ out0 by geometricians1 & ! importance ( a k ( geometrical draw+ is p>am\nt4 ,! /ud5t w f9d t ! figures del9eat$ & expla9$ 9 ! next few pages con/antly occur 9 me*anical draw+4 ,says ,walt] ,smi?1 ,/ate ,director ( ,art ,education 9 ,massa*usetts1 8,i h nev] kn[n a case :]e a /ud5t did n progress m satisfactorily 9 8 /udies aft] a c\rse ( practical geometry40 ,! elem5t>y conceptions ( geometry are few3 #a4--;,a po9t4 #b4--;,a l9e4 #c4--;,a surface4 #d4--;,a solid1 & #e4--;,an angle4 ,all ( :i* elem5ts are us$ 9 me*anical draw+s4 ,f ^!1 z data1 a va/ numb] ( ma!matical problems h be5 d$uc$2 ( :i* a few ( ! mo/ elem5t>y w be illu/rat$ 9 ?is "w2 b ^! few w repay ! att5tion ( ! /ud5t4 ,9 8freeh&0 draw+ ! crayon & p5cil are us$2 9 geometrical draw+s ! divid]s1 z %[n 9 illu/ration1 fig4 #ig1 toge!r ) a rule1 are all t is necess>y to accompli% ! "w4 ,a problem is some?+ to be done1 & geometry has be5 def9$ z ! sci5ce ( measurem5t2 ! relation betwe5 geometry & me*anical draw+ is v close1 h5ce ! t]m 8geometrical problem40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,be=e proce$+ ) ! examples1 a few elem5t>y /atem5ts belong+ to ! sci5ce ( geometry are pres5t$2 ^! w be useful to ! /ud5t1 n only :ile 8do+0 ! problems1 b 9 _m cases ( e-day--future--exp]i5ce4 ,geometry is "o ( ! olde/ & simple/ ( sci5ces2 x may be def9$ z ! sci5ce ( measurem5t2 geometry is ! root f :i* all regul> ma!matical calculations issue4 ,x has claim$ ! be/ ?\ght ( practical m5 f ! times ( ! ,greeks & ,romans two ?\s& ye>s ago2 !y d]iv$ _! k ( ! sci5ce f ! ,egyptians1 :o 9 turn 7 indebt$ to ! ,*aldeans & ,h9doos 9 times beyond any au!ntic hi/ory2 h5ce x 0 "u ! op]ations ( ! laws expla9$ 9 geometry1 t ! pyramids ( ,egypt & ! temples ( ,greece 7 con/ruct$1 z well z ! eng9es ( w> & appliances ( peace ( anci5t times4 ,a po9t is m]e position1 & has no magnitude4 ,a l9e is t :i* has ext5sion 9 l5g? only4 ,! extremities ( l9es are po9ts4 ,a surface is t :i* has ext5sion 9 l5g? & bread? only4 ,a solid is t :i* has ext5sion 9 l5g?1 bread? & ?ickness4 ,an angle is ! diff]5ce 9 ! direction ( two l9es proce$+ f ! same po9t4 ,illu/ration ,l9es1 ,surfaces1 ,angles & ,solids con/itute ! diff]5t k9ds ( quantity call$ geometrical magnitudes4 ,p>allel l9es are l9es :i* h ! same direction2 h5ce p>allel l9es c nev] meet1 h[ev] f> !y may be produc$2 = two l9es tak+ ! same direction _c approa* or rec$e f ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration ,an ,axiom is a self-evid5t tru?1 n only too simple to require1 b too simple to admit ( demon/ration4 ,a ,proposition is some?+ :i* is ei!r propos$ to be done1 or to be demon/rat$1 & is ei!r a problem or a !orem4 ,a ,problem is some?+ propos$ to be done4 ,a ,!orem is some?+ propos$ to be demon/rat$4 ,a ,hypo!sis is a supposition made ) a view to draw f x "s consequ5ce :i* e/abli%es ! tru? or falsehood ( a proposition1 or solves a problem4 ,a ,lemma is some?+ :i* is premis$1 or demon/rat$1 9 ord] to r5d] :at foll[s m easy4 ,a ,coroll>y is a consequ5t tru? d]iv$ imm$iately f "s prec$+ tru? or demon/ration4 ,a ,s*olium is a rem>k or obs]vation made ^u some?+ go+ be=e x4 ,a ,po/ulate is a problem1 ! solution ( :i* is self-evid5t4 ,let x be grant$-- ,i4 ,t a /raight l9e c be drawn f any "o po9t to any o!r po9t2 ,,ii4 ,t a /raight l9e c be produc$ to any di/ance1 or t]m9at$ at any po9t2 ,,iii4 ,t ! circumf]5ce ( a circle c be describ$ ab\t any c5t]1 at any di/ance f t c5t]4 ,! common algebraic signs are us$ 9 ,geometry1 & x is necess>y t ! /ud5t 9 geometry %\ld und]/& "s ( ! m simple op]ations ( algebra4 ,z ! t]ms circle1 angle1 triangle1 hypo!sis1 axiom1 !orem1 coroll>y & def9ition are con/antly occurr+ 9 a c\rse ( geometry1 !y are abbreviat$ z %[n 9 ! foll[+ li/3 ,addition is express$ by ,subtraction is express$ by - ,multiplication is express$ by ,equality & ,equival5cy are express$ by ,great] ?an1 is express$ by ,less ?an1 is express$ by ,?us ,b is great] ?an ,a1 is writt5 ,b ,a ,b is less ?an ,a1 is writt5 ,b ,a ,a circle is express$ by ,o ,an angle is express$ by ,l ,a "r angle is express$ by ,r4 ,l ,degrees1 m9utes & seconds are express$ by ,a triangle is express$ by ,! t]m ,hypo!sis is express$ by 7,hy47 ,! t]m ,axiom is express$ by 7,ax47 ,! t]m ,!orem is express$ by 7,?47 ,! t]m ,coroll>y is express$ by 7,cor47 ,! t]m ,def9ition is express$ by 7,def47 ,! t]m ,p]p5dicul> is express$ by ,! diff]5ce ( two quantities1 :5 x is n kn[n :i* is ! great]1 is express$ by ! symbol ,?us1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,a & ,b is writt5 ,a ,b ,,geometrical ,,axioms4 #a4 ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to ea* o!r4 #b4 ,:5 equals are add$ to equals ! :oles are equal4 #c4 ,:5 equals are tak5 f equals ! rema9d]s are equal4 #d4 ,:5 equals are add$ to unequals ! :oles are unequal4 #e4 ,:5 equals are tak5 f unequals ! rema9d]s are unequal4 #f4 ,?+s :i* are d\ble ( ! same ?+1 or equal ?+s1 are equal to ea* o!r4 #g4 ,?+s :i* are halves ( ! same ?+1 or ( equal ?+s1 are equal to ea* o!r4 #h4 ,! :ole is great] ?an any ( its p>ts4 #i4 ,e :ole is equal to all its p>ts tak5 toge!r4 #aj4 ,?+s :i* co9cide1 or fill ! same space1 are id5tical1 or mutually equal 9 all _! p>ts4 #aa4 ,all "r angles are equal to "o ano!r4 #ab4 ,a /raight l9e is ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts4 #ac4 ,two /raight l9es _c enclose a space4 ,problems 9 ,geometrical ,draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,,example #a4--,to bisect 7cut 9 two7 a /raight l9e or an arc ( a circle1 ,fig4 #ii4 ,f ! ends ( ,a ,b z c5t]s1 describe arcs cutt+ ea* o!r at ,c & ,d1 & draw ,c ,d1 :i* cuts ! l9e at ,e or ! arc at ,f4 ,,ex4 #b4--,to draw a p]p5dicul> to a /raight l9e1 or a radial l9e to a circul> arc1 ,fig4 #ii4 ,op]ate z 9 ! =ego+ problem4 ,! l9e ,c ,d is p]p5dicul> to ,a ,b2 ! l9e ,c ,d is also radial to ! arc ,a ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,,ex4 #c4--,to draw a p]p5dicul> to a /raight l9e1 f a giv5 po9t 9 t l9e1 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,) any radius f any giv5 po9t ,a 9 ! l9e ,b ,c1 cut ! l9e at ,b & ,c4 ,next1 ) a long] radius1 describe arcs f ,b & ,c1 cutt+ ea* o!r at ,d1 & draw ! p]p5dicul> ,d ,a4 ,second ,me?od1 ,fig4 #aja4 ,f any c5t] ,f above ,b ,c1 describe a circle pass+ ?r\gh ! giv5 po9t ,a1 & cutt+ ! giv5 l9e at ,d2 draw ,d ,f1 & produce x to cut ! circle at ,e2 & draw ! p]p5dicul> ,a ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,?ird ,me?od1 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,f ,a describe an arc ,e ,c1 & f ,e1 ) ! same radius1 ! arc ,a ,c cutt+ ! o!r at ,c2 ?r\gh ,c draw a l9e ,e ,c ,d & set (f ,c ,d equal to ,c ,e1 & ?r\gh ,d draw ! p]p5dicul> ,a ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,,ex4 #d4--,to draw a p]p5dicul> to a /raight l9e f any po9t )\t x1 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,f ! po9t ,a ) a suffici5t radius cut ! giv5 l9e at ,f & ,g2 & f ^! po9ts describe arcs cutt+ at ,e4 ,draw ! p]p5dicul> ,a ,e4 ,if !re be no room bel[ ! l9e1 ! int]section may be tak5 above ! l9e2 t is to say1 betwe5 ! l9e & ! giv5 po9t4 ,second ,me?od1 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,f any two po9ts ,b ,c at "s di/ance ap>t1 9 ! giv5 l9e1 & ) ! radii ,b ,a1 ,c ,a1 respectively1 describe arcs cutt+ at ,a ,d4 ,draw ! p]p5dicul> ,a ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,,ex4 #e4--,to draw a p>allel l9e ?r\gh a giv5 po9t1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,) a radius equal to ! giv5 po9t ,c f ! giv5 l9e ,a ,b1 describe ! arc ,d f ,b1 tak5 consid]ably di/ant f ,c4 ,draw ! p>allel ?r\gh ,c to t\* ! arc ,d4 ,second ,me?od1 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,f ,a1 ! giv5 po9t1 describe ! arc ,f ,d1 cutt+ ! giv5 l9e at ,f2 f ,f1 ) ! same radius1 describe ! arc ,e ,a1 & set (f ,f ,d1 equal to ,e ,a4 ,draw ! p>allel ?r\gh ! po9ts ,a ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,:5 a s]ies ( p>allels are requir$ p]p5dicul> to a base l9e ,a ,b1 !y may be drawn z 9 fig4 #ajg ?r\gh po9ts 9 ! base l9e set (f at ! requir$ di/ances ap>t4 ,?is me?od is conv5i5t also :]e a succession ( p>allels are requir$ to a giv5 l9e ,c ,d1 = ! p]p5dicul> may be drawn to x1 & any numb] ( p>allels may be drawn on ! p]p5dicul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,,ex4 #f4--,to divide a l9e into a numb] ( equal p>ts1 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,to divide ! l9e ,a ,b into1 say1 five p>ts4 ,f ,a & ,b draw p>allels ,a ,c1 ,b ,d on opposite sides2 set (f any conv5i5t di/ance f\r times 7"o less ?an ! giv5 numb]71 f ,a on ,a ,c1 & on ,b on ,b ,d2 jo9 ! fir/ on ,a ,c to ! f\r? on ,b ,d1 & s on4 ,! l9es s drawn divide ,a ,b z requir$4 ,second ,me?od1 ,fig4 #aji4 ,draw ! l9e at ,a ,c1 at an angle f ,a1 set (f1 say1 five equal p>ts2 draw ,b #e1 & draw p>allels to x f ! o!r po9ts ( division 9 ,a ,c4 ,^! p>allels divide ,a ,b z requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,,ex4 #g4--,^u a /raight l9e to draw an angle equal to a giv5 angle1 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,let ,a be ! giv5 angle & ,f ,g ! l9e4 ,) any radius f ! po9ts ,a & ,f1 describe arcs ,d ,e1 ,i ,h1 cutt+ ! sides ( ! angle ,a & ! l9e ,f ,g4 ,set (f ! arc ,i ,h1 equal to ,d ,e & draw ,f ,h4 ,! angle ,f is equal to ,a z requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,,ex4 #h4--,to bisect an angle1 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,let ,a ,c ,b be ! angle2 on ! c5t] ,c cut ! sides at ,a ,b4 ,on ,a & ,b z c5t]s describe arcs cutt+ at ,d divid+ ! angle into two equal p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,,ex4 #i4--,to f9d ! c5t] ( a circle or ( an arc ( a circle4 ,fig4 #aab4 ,draw ! *ord ,a ,b1 bisect x by ! p]p5dicul> ,c ,d1 b\nd$ bo? ways by ! circle2 & bisect ,c ,d = ! c5t] ,g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,,ex4 #aj4--,?r\gh two giv5 po9ts to describe an arc ( a circle ) a giv5 radius1 ,fig4 #aac4 ,on ! po9ts ,a & ,b z c5t]s1 ) ! giv5 radius1 describe arcs cutt+ at ,c2 & f ,c1 ) ! same radius1 describe an arc ,a ,b z requir$4 ,second1 = a circle or an arc1 ,fig4 #aad4 ,select ?ree po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,c 9 ! circumf]5ce1 well ap>t2 ) ! same radius describe arcs f ^! ?ree po9ts cutt+ ea* o!r1 & draw two l9es ,d ,e1 ,f ,g1 ?r\gh _! int]sections accord+ to ,fig4 #ajg4 ,! po9t :]e !y cut is ! c5t] ( ! circle or arc4 ,,ex4 #aa4--,to describe a circle pass+ ?r\gh ?ree giv5 po9ts1 ,fig4 #aad4 ,let ,a1 ,b1 ,c be ! giv5 po9ts & proce$ z 9 la/ problem to f9d ! c5t] ,o1 f :i* ! circle may be describ$4 ,?is problem is v>i\sly useful2 9 f9d+ ! diamet] ( a l>ge fly-:eel1 or any o!r object ( l>ge diamet] :5 only a "p ( ! circumf]5ce is accessible2 9 /rik+ out ar*es :5 ! span & rise are giv51 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,,ex4 #ab4--,to draw a tang5t to a circle f a giv5 po9t 9 ! circumf]5ce1 ,fig4 #aae4 ,f ,a set (f equal segm5ts ,a ,b1 ,a ,d1 jo9 ,b ,d & draw ,a ,e1 p>allel to x1 = ! tang5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,,ex4 #ac4--,to draw tang5ts to a circle f po9ts )\t x1 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,f ,a ) ! radius ,a ,c describe an arc ,b ,c ,d1 & f ,c ) a radius equal to ! diamet] ( ! circle1 cut ! arc at ,b ,d1 jo9 ,b ,c1 ,c ,d1 cutt+ ! circle at ,e ,f1 & draw ,a ,e1 ,a ,f1 ! tang5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,,ex4 #ad4--;,betwe5 two incl9$ l9es to draw a s]ies ( circles t\*+ ^! l9es & t\*+ ea* o!r1 ,fig4 #aag4 ,bisect ! incl9ation ( ! giv5 l9es ,a ,b1 ,c ,d by ! l9e ,n ,o4 ,f a po9t ,p 9 ?is l9e draw ! p]p5dicul> ,p ,b to ! l9e ,a ,b1 & on ,p describe ! circle ,b ,d1 t\*+ ! l9es & cutt+ ! c5t] l9es at ,e4 ,f ,e draw ,e ,f p]p5dicul> to ! c5t] l9e1 cutt+ ,a ,b at ,f1 & f ,f describe an arc ,e ,g1 cutt+ ,a ,b at ,g4 ,draw ,g ,h p>allel to ,b ,p1 giv+ ,h1 ! c5t] ( ! next circle1 to be describ$ ) ! radius ,h ,e1 & s on = ! next circle1 ,i ,n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,,ex4 #ae4--,to con/ruct a triangle on a giv5 base1 ! sides be+ giv54 ,fir/4 ,an equilat]al triangle1 ,fig4 #aah4 ,on ! ends ( a giv5 base ,a ,b1 ) ,a ,b z a radius describe arcs cutt+ at ,c1 & draw ,a ,c1 ,c ,b4 ,second4 ,triangle ( unequal sides1 ,fig4 #aai4 ,on ei!r end ( ! base ,a ,d1 ) ! side ,b z a radius describe an arc2 & ) ! side ,c z a radius1 on ! o!r end ( ! base z a c5t]1 describe arcs cutt+ ! arc at ,e2 jo9 ,a ,e1 ,d ,e4 ,?is con/ruction may be us$ = f9d+ ! position ( a po9t ,c or ,e at giv5 di/ances f ! ends ( a base1 n necess>ily to =m a triangle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,,ex4 #af4--,to con/ruct a squ>e rectangle on a giv5 /raight l9e4 ,fir/4 ,a squ>e1 ,fig4 #abj4 ,on ! ends ,b ,a z c5t]s1 ) ! l9e ,a ,b z radius1 describe arcs cutt+ at ,c2 on ,c describe arcs cutt+ ! o!rs at ,d ,e2 & on ,d & ,e cut ^! at ,f ,g4 ,draw ,a ,f1 ,b ,g & jo9 ! int]sections ,h ,i4 ,second4 ,a rectangle1 ,fig4 #aba4 ,on ! base ,e ,f draw ! p]p5dicul>s ,e ,h1 ,f ,g1 equal to ! height ( ! rectangle1 & jo9 ,g ,h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,,ex4 #ag4--,to con/ruct a p>allelogram ( :i* ! sides & "o ( ! angles are giv51 ,fig4 #abb4 ,draw ! side ,d ,e equal to ! giv5 l5g? ,a1 & set (f ! o!r side ,d ,f equal to ! o!r l5g? ,b1 =m+ ! giv5 angle ,c4 ,f ,e ) ,d ,f z radius1 describe an arc1 & f ,f1 ) ! radius ,d ,e cut ! arc at ,g4 ,draw ,f ,g1 ,e ,g4 ,or1 ! rema9+ sides may be drawn z p>allels to ,d ,e1 ,d ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,,ex4 #ah4--,to describe a circle ab\t a triangle1 ,fig4 #abc4 ,bisect two sides ,a ,b1 ,a ,c ( ! triangle at ,e ,f1 & f ^! po9ts draw p]p5dicul>s cutt+ at ,k4 ,on ! c5t] ,k1 ) ! radius ,k ,a draw ! circle ,a ,b ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,,ex4 #ai4--,to describe a circle ab\t a squ>e1 & to inscribe a squ>e 9 a circle1 ,fig4 #abd4 ,fir/4 ,to describe ! circle4 ,draw ! diagonals ,a ,b1 ,c ,d ( ! squ>e1 cutt+ at ,e2 on ! c5t] ,e ) ! radius ,e ,a describe ! circle4 ,second4 ,to inscribe ! squ>e4 ,draw ! two diamet]s ,a ,b1 ,c ,d at "r angles & jo9 ! po9ts ,a ,b1 ,c ,d to =m ! squ>e4 ,9 ! same way a circle may be describ$ ab\t a triangle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,,ex4 #bj4--,to inscribe a circle on a squ>e1 & to describe a squ>e ab\t a circle1 ,fig4 #abe4 ,fir/4 ,to inscribe ! circle4 ,draw ! diagonals ,a ,b1 ,c ,d ( ! squ>e1 cutt+ at ,e2 draw ! p]p5dicul> ,e ,f to "o side1 & ) ! radius ,e ,f describe ! circle4 ,second4 ,to describe ! squ>e4 ,draw two diamet]s ,a ,b1 ,c ,d at "r angles1 & produce !m2 bisect ! angle ,d ,e ,b at ! c5t] by ! diamet] ,f ,g1 & ?r\gh ,f & ,g draw p]p5dicul>s ,a ,c1 ,b ,d1 & jo9 ! po9ts ,a ,d & ,b ,c :]e !y cut ! diagonals to complete ! squ>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,,ex4 #ba4--,to inscribe a circle 9 a triangle1 ,fig4 #abf4 ,bisect two ( ! angles ,a ,c ( ! triangle by l9es cutt+ at ,d2 f ,d draw a p]p5dicul> ,d ,e to any side1 & ) ,d ,e z radius describe a circle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,,ex4 #bb4--,to inscribe a p5tagon 9 a circle1 ,fig4 #abg4 ,draw two diamet]s ,a ,c1 ,b ,d at "r angles cutt+ at ,o2 bisect ,a ,o at ,e1 & f ,b ) radius ,b ,e cut ! circumf]5ce at ,g ,h & ) ! same radius /ep r\nd ! circle to ,i & ,k2 jo9 ! po9ts to =m ! p5tagon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,,ex4 #bc4--,to con/ruct a hexagon ^u a giv5 /raight l9e1 ,fig4 #abh4 ,f ,a & ,b1 ! ends ( ! giv5 l9e1 describe arcs cutt+ at ,g2 f ,g ) ! radius ,g ,a describe a circle4 ,) ! same radius set (f ! arcs ,a ,c1 ,c ,f & ,b ,d1 ,d ,e2 jo9 ! po9ts s f\nd to =m ! hexagon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,,ex4 #bd4--,to inscribe a hexagon 9 a circle1 ,fig4 #abi4 ,draw a diamet] ,a ,c ,b2 f ,a & ,b z c5t]s1 ) ! radius ( ! circle ,a ,c cut ! circumf]5ce at ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 & draw ,a ,d1 ,d ,e1 etc41 to =m ! hexagon4 ,! po9ts ,d ,e1 etc41 may be f\nd by /epp+ ! radius 7) ! divid]s7 six times r\nd ! circle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,,ex4 #be4--,to describe an octagon on a giv5 /raight l9e1 ,fig4 #acj4 ,produce ! giv5 l9e ,a ,b bo? ways & draw p]p5dicul>s ,a ,e1 ,b ,f2 bisect ! ext]nal angles ,a & ,b by ! l9es ,a ,h1 ,b ,c1 :i* make equal to ,a ,b4 ,draw ,c ,d & ,h ,g p>allel to ,a ,e & equal to ,a ,b2 f ! c5t] ,g ,d1 ) ! radius ,a ,b1 cut ! p]p5dicul>s at ,e ,f1 & draw ,e ,f to complete ! hexagon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,,ex4 #bf4--,to conv]t a squ>e into an octagon1 ,fig4 #aca4--;,draw ! diagonals ( ! squ>e cutt+ at ,e2 f ! corn]s ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ) ,a ,e z radius1 describe arcs cutt+ ! sides at ,g1 ,h1 etc41 & jo9 ! po9ts s f\nd to complete ! octagon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,,ex4 #bg4--,to inscribe an octagon 9 a circle1 ,fig4 #acb4 ,draw two diamet]s ,a ,c1 ,b ,d1 at "r angles2 bisect ! arcs ,a ,b1 ,b ,c1 at ,e1 ,f1 etc41 to =m ! octagon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,,ex4 #bh4--,to describe an octagon ab\t a circle1 ,fig4 #acc4 ,describe a squ>e ab\t ! giv5 circle ,a ,b1 draw p]p5dicul>s ,h & ,k1 to ! diagonals1 t\*+ ! circle to =m ! octagon4 ,or1 ! po9ts ,h1 ,k1 etc41 may be f\nd by cutt+ ! sides f ! corn]s1 by l9es p>allel to ! diagonals4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,,ex4 #bi4--,to describe an ellipse :5 ! l5g? & bread? are giv51 ,fig4 #acd4 ,on ! c5t] ,c1 ) ,a ,e z radius1 cut ! axis ,a ,b at ,f & ,g1 ! foci1 fix a c\ple ( p9s into ! axis at ,f & ,g1 & loop on a ?read or cord ^u !m equal 9 l5g? to ! axis ,a ,b1 s z :5 /ret*$ to rea* ! extremity ,c ( ! conjugate axis1 z %[n 9 dot-l9+4 ,place a p5cil or drawpo9t inside ! cord1 z at ,h1 & guid+ ! p5cil 9 ?is way1 keep+ ! cord equally 9 t5sion1 c>ry ! p5cil r\nd ! p9s ,f1 ,g1 & s describe ! ellipse4 ,,note4--,! ellipse is an oval figure1 l a circle 9 p]spective4 ,! l9e t divides x equally 9 ! direction ( its great l5g? is ! transv]se axis1 & ! l9e :i* divides ! opposite way is ! conjugate axis4 ,second ,me?od4 ,along ! /raight edge ( a piece ( /iff pap] m>k (f a di/ance a c equal to ,a ,c1 half ! transv]se axis2 & f ! same po9t a di/ance a b equal to ,c ,d1 half ! conjugate axis4 ,place ! slip s z to br+ ! po9t b on ! l9e ,a ,b ( ! transv]se axis1 & ! po9t c on ! l9e ,d ,e2 & set (f on ! draw+ ! position ( ! po9t a4 ,%ift+ ! slip1 s t ! po9t travels on ! transv]se axis1 & ! po9t c on ! conjugate axis1 any numb] ( po9ts 9 ! curve may be f\nd1 ?r\gh :i* ! curve may be trac$4 ,see fig4 #ace4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,trigonometry4 ,trigonometry is t portion ( geometry :i* has = its object ! measurem5t ( triangles4 ,:5 x treats ( plane triangles1 x is call$ ,plane ,trigonometry2 & z ! eng9e] w cont9ually meet 9 8 /udies ( high] ma!matics ! t]ms us$ 9 plane trigonometry1 x is advantage\s = him to become famili> ) "s ( ! pr9ciples & def9itions relat+ to ?is bran* ( ma!matics4 ,! circumf]5ces ( all circles conta9 ! same numb] ( degrees1 b ! great] ! radius ! great] is ! absolute measures ( a degree4 ,! circumf]5ce ( a fly :eel or ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? h ! same numb] ( degrees2 yet ! same numb] ( degrees 9 ea* & e circumf]5ce is ! measure ( precisely ! same angle4 ,! circumf]5ce ( a circle is suppos$ to be divid$ into #cfj degrees or divisions1 & z ! total angul>ity ab\t ! c5t] is equal to f\r "r angles1 ea* "r angle conta9s #ij degrees1 or #ij1 & half a "r angle conta9s #de4 ,ea* degree is divid$ into #fj m9utes1 or #fj2 & = ! sake ( /ill fur!r m9ut5ess ( measurem5t1 ea* m9ute is divid$ into #fj4 ,9 a :ole circle !re are1 !re=e1 #cfj #fj #fj #a1bif1jjj seconds4 ,! annex$ diagram1 fig4 #acf1 exemplifies ! relative positions ( ! ,s9e1 ,co-s9e1 ,v]s$ ,s9e1 ,tang5t1 ,co-,tang5t1 ,secant & ,co-secant ( an angle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,^! may be def9$ ?us3 ,,def9itions4 #a4 ,! ,complem5t ( an arc is #ij m9us ! arc4 #b4 ,! ,supplem5t ( an arc is #ahj m9us ! arc4 #c4 ,! ,s9e ( an angle1 or ( an arc1 is a l9e drawn f "o end ( an arc1 p]p5dicul> to a diamet] drawn ?r\gh ! o!r end4 #d4 ,! ,cos9e ( an arc is ! p]p5dicul> di/ance f ! c5t] ( ! circle to ! s9e ( ! arc2 or1 x is ! same 9 magnitude z ! s9e ( ! complem5t ( ! arc4 #e4 ,! ,tang5t ( an arc is a l9e t\*+ ! circle 9 "o extremity ( ! arc1 & cont9u$ f !nce1 to meet a l9e drawn ?r\gh ! c5t] & ! o!r extremity4 #f4 ,! ,cotang5t ( an arc is ! tang5t ( ! complem5t ( ! arc4 ,! ,co is b a contraction ( ! ^w complem5t4 #g4 ,! ,secant ( an arc is a l9e drawn f ! c5t] ( ! circle to ! extremity ( ! tang5t4 #h4 ,! ,cosecant ( an arc is ! secant ( ! complem5t4 #i4 ,! ,v]s$ ,s9e ( an arc is ! di/ance f ! extremity ( ! arc to ! foot ( ! s9e4 ,= ! sake ( brevity1 ^! te*nical t]ms are contract$ ?us3 = s9e ,a ,b1 we write s94 ,a ,b2 = cos9e ,a ,b1 we write cos4 ,a ,b2 = tang5t ,a ,b1 we write tan4 ,a ,b1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,in/rum5ts ,,& ,,mat]ials ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,draw+ ,mat]ials & ,in/rum5ts4 ,draw+ tools or in/rum5ts are contriv$ solely = me*anical draw+2 aside f ?is use !y are p]fectly wor?less1 h5ce ! quality ( ^! special ut5sils is a matt] ( ! fir/ consid]ation to ! e>ne/ /ud5t4 ,!re are sev]al degrees ( excell5ce to be f\nd 9 ! make-up ( draw+ in/rum5ts & mat]ials2 x may be rem>k$ ) tru? t 8any k9d are good en\gh1 & ! be/ none too good10 i4 e41 a le>n] 9 ?is delightful art %\ld n /op at ! lack ( goodness or ! l[ grade exi/+ 9 8 8tools10 b r d ! be/ "w possible ) ! means at h&4 ,h[ev]1 9 ord] t acceptable "w may be accompli%$1 fairly good in/rum5ts %\ld be procur$4 ,! advice ( "s "o exp]i5c$ 9 ! use & c>e ( draught+ tools %\ld be s\ght be=e pur*as+4 ,a draw+ bo>d1 a s+le %eet ( pap] & a p5cil is ! simple/ 8outfit0 to be ?\ght (2 to ?is small beg9n+ may be add$1 soon aft]w>ds1 an inexp5sive pair ( compasses1 a ,t-squ>e & a c\ple ( triangles2 a va/ range ( "w c be execut$ ) ^! few tools4 ,no?+ else w be ne$$ to d f9e "w except1 p]haps1 "o or two pairs ( bett] compasses & a few sweeps or means ( draw+ irregul> curves2 all ^! _h be/ be pur*as$ sep>ately2 = 9 buy+ a 8box ( in/rum5ts10 x may conta9 "s articles :i* are n desir$1 or t are ( a wrong size1 or ev5 duplicates ( ^? already possess$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,an outfit recomm5d$ by ! au?or ( 8,re$'s ,h& ,book0 is z foll[s4 ,l>ge compasses ) movable leg4 ,a pair ( divid]s4 ,b[ p5cil4 ,b[ p54 ,p5cil leg = l>ge compasses4 ,p5 leg = l>ge compasses4 ,draw+ p54 ,l\is ,r\illon1 ,b4 ,s41 ,in/ructor ( ,draw+ 9 ,pratt ,in/itute1 ,new ,york1 recomm5ds ! foll[+3 ,compasses1 #e in*es1 ) ne$le po9t2 p5 p5cil & l5g!n+ b>4 ,draw+ p51 #d in*es4 ,t-squ>e1 #bd-;in* blade4 #de-;degree triangle1 #i in*es4 #cj & #fj degree triangle1 #i in*es4 #a ,scroll4 ,dixon's ,v4 ,h4 p5cil4 #ab-;in* boxwood scale1 flat1 graduat$ in* ! entire l5g?4 ,bottle ( liquid ,india ink1 f\r ?umb-tacks1 p5 & ink eras]4 #bj %eets draw+ pap]1 #aa #ae in*es1 & a draw+-bo>d ab\t #af #bc in*es w also be necess>y2 /ud5ts c usually make ! bo>d !mselves = less money ?an x c be b\ght4 ,,note4--,! pur*as+ ( draw+ tools is "o ( ! mo/ difficult po9ts to settle t c pres5t itself to a p]son ab\t to buy a draw+ outfit = ! fir/ "t4 ,no?+ c be s productive ( di/ress to a p]son draw+ z to h 8 tools gett+ out ( ord]1 jo9ts "o day too tight1 next day too slack1 po9ts gett+ blunt or p]haps turn+ up altoge!r2 if ne$le po9ts1 !n ! ne$les slip up1 & draw+ spoil$2 9 fact1 ! pur*as] c be annoy$ 9 numb]less diff]5t ways4--,w4 ,h4 ,,?orn4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,,! ,,draw+ ,,bo>d4 ,a draw+-bo>d %\ld be made ( well season$ p9e ( a conv5i5t size1 say #bc #af1 :i* w take half a %eet ( imp]ial pap]1 leav+ -in* m>g9 all ar\nd4 ,! work+ surface ( ! bo>d--or its front side--%\ld be p]fectly smoo?1 b in/ead ( be+ flat x %\ld h a v slight camb]1 or r\nd+1 bread?ways1 ?is latt] feature 9 its con/ruction be+ to prev5t ! possibility ( a %eet ( pap] :5 /ret*$ on its surface hav+ any vacuity b5ea? x4 ,! f\r edges ( ! bo>d ne$ n =m an exact rectangle1 z mu* valuable "t is (t5 wa/$ 9 ! attempts to produce su* a bo>d2 b x w answ] e purpose ( ! draughtsman s long z ! adjac5t edges at ! l[] left-h& corn] ( x are at "r angles1 or squ>e to ea* o!r4 ,an ,engli% au?ority recomm5ds ! use ( two draw+-bo>ds1 #db in*es long & #cj in*es wide1 made ( pla9 /uff1 )\t cleets1 #a in*es ?ick--season$--) edges p]fectly /raight & at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,) two bo>ds1 "o may be us$ = sket*+ & draw+ details & ! o!r = ! f9i%$ draw+4 ,! bo>d %\ld be in* 9 ?ickness1 & fitt$ at ! back1 at "r angles to its longe/ side1 ) a c\ple ( h>dwood batt5s1 ab\t #b in*es wide & in* ?ick2 ! use ( ^! batt5s be+ to keep ! bo>d f ca/+ or w9d+ & to all[ ( its expansion or contraction ?r\gh *anges ( temp]ature4 ,?is latt] purpose1 h[ev]1 is only effect$ by atta*+ ! batt5s to ! back ( ! bo>d 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 444 ,at ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ea* batt5--:i* %\ld be "o in* less ?an ! wid? ( ! bo>d--a /\t1 well-fitt$ wood screw is firmly ins]t$ into x1 & made to p5etrate ! bo>d = ab\t in*1 ! head ( ! screw be+ made flu% ) ! surface ( ! batt52 on ei!r side ( ! c5tral screw1 two o!rs1 ab\t #c in*es ap>t1 are pass$ ?r\gh oblong holes 9 ! batt5s1 & screw$ into ! body ( ! bo>d until _! heads are flu% ) ! c5tral "o2 fitt$ 9 ?is way ! bo>d itself c exp& or contract l5g?wise or crosswise1 :ile its surface is prev5t$ f w>p+ or b5d+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,a fur!r improvem5t 9 su* a draw+ bo>d z above %[n is made by cutt+ l5g?wise along its ends a n>r[ groove & ins]t+ an ebony or h>dwood /rip2 ?is is cut or sawn ap>t at ab\t e in* to admit ( contraction2 ?is /rip s]ves z a guide to ! /ock ( ! draw+ squ>e1 all[+ an easy slid+ movem5t4 ,to produce really good "w 9 ! %ape ( a me*anical draw+1 "o p]fect /raight edge only is requir$ on a draw+ bo>d1 & t ! left "o1 :i* is always kn[n z ! work+-edge2 b = ! conv5i5ce ( be+ able to draw a long l9e across ! bo>d at "r angles to its l[] edge1 ?is edge is made truly squ>e ) t on ! left side ( ! bo>d4 ,! details = build+ ^! draw+ bo>ds are giv51 because !y are easy to be made by "o :o und]/&s ! use ( a few wood-work+ tools2 :ile ! bo>ds !mselves are difficult ( transportation--9 case ( ! *ange ( resid5ce ( _! own]s--q unlike ! in/rum5ts :i* are to accompany !m4 ,fig4 #ada repres5ts ! bo>d :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ! text1 ) provisions = ! contraction & expansion2 ! v d>k l9es are int5d$ to repres5t ! ebony ins]tions--z describ$4 ,fig4 #adj repres5ts a pla9 p9e bo>d ) dovetail$ batt5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,fig4 #adb repres5ts ! common means us$ to atta* or secure slightly or tempor>ily ! draw+ pap] to ! draw+ bo>d2 ^! are call$ ?umb-tacks1 & are usually =c$ ?r\gh ! pap] into ! wood by ! h&1 :5ce !y are easily deta*$4 ,^! are made to h z slight a projection z may be1 s z n to int]f]e ) ! free movem5t ( ! tee-squ>e4 ,= me*anical draw+ ! inv>iable practice is to secure ! pap] on :i* ! draw+ is to be made to ! draw+ bo>d by p9n+ x2 ?is is effect$ by v>i\s k9ds ( draw+ p9s or ?umb-tacks4 ,! be/ k9d = ?is purpose h a head z ?9 z possible )\t cutt+ at its edges1 slightly concave on ! "u side next ! pap]1 & only s mu* convex on its upp] side z w give x suffici5t ?ickness to enable ! p9 to be secur$ to x2 bett] use f\r or m small p9s along ! edge ( a %eet ( pap]1 ?an use "o clumsy1 badly made p9 at ea* end4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,fig4 #adc & fig4 #add repres5t a pair ( pla9 tre/les or horses 9 common use = support+ l>ge size draw+ bo>ds4 ,?is patt]n is f\nd frequ5tly 9 ! lay+-out %op4 ,fig4 #ade & fig4 #adf repres5t adju/able horses or tre/les--^! are design$1 prim>ily1 = (fice use4 ,z w be se5 by view+ ! illu/ration1 ! upp] "p is support$ by two h>d-wood slid+ pieces2 ^! are provid$ ) /rong p9s & num]\s holes1 & pass ?r\gh ! frame ( ! tre/le1 z %[n1 s t ! upp] portions c be arrang$ at any angle conv5i5t to ! draughtsman1 z he lies ov] 8 "w or /&s by x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,fig4 #acg is introduc$ to exhibit ! pap] atta*$ to ! draw+ bo>d ) ! ?umb-tacks1 & ) ! ,t-squ>e & set-squ>es arrang$ to comm5ce "w2 ! pap] %\ld n ext5d to ! edges ( ! bo>d2 ?ree1 f\r or m tacks may be us$ on ea* edge ( ! %eet ( pap]1 in/ead ( two1 z %[n 9 illu/ration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,a mo/ conv5i5t--& except = its extreme lightness1 :i* is n good 9 a draw+ /&--a mo/ admirable device is %[n 9 fig4 #ach4 ,! draw+ table is simply a draw+ bo>d ) fold+ legs2 ^! are made f h>d-wood1 :ile ! top is made ( s(t1 season$ p9e1 ) squ>e corn]s2 :ile ! device is /rong & well brac$1 x c be fold$ & easily c>ri$ ab\t--all z %[n 9 ! illu/ration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,,! ,,tee-,,squ>e4 ,?is is an in/rum5t 9 ! =m ( a lett] ,t1 z %[n 9 ! figures #adi & #aej2 ! two p>ts are kn[n z /ock & blade2 ! horizontal "p ( ! lett] 7,t7 is ! /ock1 & ! v]tical "p ! blade--h5ce ! "n1 ,t-squ>e2 to =m ! squ>e1 ! two p>ts are jo9$ toge!r 9 su* a way z to make !m exactly at "r angles to ea* o!r2 ! /ock1 :i* is appli$ to ! work+ edge ( ! draw+ bo>d1 be+ ab\t "o-?ird ! l5g? ( ! blade1 & ab\t ?ree times its ?ickness4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #adi & #aej4 ,to be p]fect 9 con/ruction1 a tee-squ>e %\ld be z light z is consi/5t ) its necess>y /r5g? & /iffness ( p>ts2 x %\ld be made ( suitable mat]ial easily manufactur$1 put toge!r1 & repair$1 & )al z truly correct z is possible to be made4 ,su* a squ>e is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #adh2 x has a tap] blade1 :i* is g5]ally ab\t d\ble ! wid? :]e secur$ to ! /ock z x is at ! end4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #aea & #aeb4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! /ock is unit$ to ! blade det]m9es its adaptability or o!rwise to ! use made ( x2 9 "s ! /ock is rectangul> 9 section1 & ! blade mortis$ into x2 9 o!rs ! blade is dovetail$ & let into ! /ock = ! :ole ( its ?ickness4 ,,adju/able ,,blad$ ,,squ>e4 ,9 cases :]e _m p>allel l9es h to be drawn1 ( l5g?s beyond ! capabilities ( ord9>y set-squ>es1 & 9 directions o!r ?an squ>e ) or p>allel to ! work+ edge ( ! draw+ bo>d x is conv5i5t to h = use an adju/able blad$ tee-squ>e1 or "o ^: blade c be set at any desir$ angle4 ,! blade ( su* a squ>e %\ld be tap]$ z 9 illu/ration1 b %ap$ at its wide end z %[n1 & hav+ a /ock wide en\gh to all[ = ! surface requir$ 9 ! wa%]s ( ! fitt+s necess>y to make ! blade adju/able4 ,^! fitt+s1 ?\gh requir+ to be well made & neatly f9i%$1 are n exp5sive or difficult to make1 z !y consi/ m]ely ( two wa%]s1 a squ>e-neck$ bolt1 & a fly nut4 ,! tee-squ>e1 z %[n1 has f\r p>ts3 #a1 blade2 #b1 fix$ head2 #c1 %ift+ head2 #d1 swivel4 ,! head is held firmly by ! left h& to ! left edge ( ! draw+ bo>d1 & ! blade s]ves z a /raight-edge = horizontal l9es t may ext5d ! :ole l5g? ( ! pap]4 ,x c be us$ = ei!r horizontal1 or1 by rev]s+ to ! bottom ( ! bo>d1 = v]tical l9es2 &1 by turn+ x ov]1 s t ! %ift+ head is aga9/ ! edge ( ! draw+ bo>d in/ead ( ! fix$ head1 l9es at diff]5t angles may be drawn4 ,! l5g? ( ! blade %\ld be ! l5g? ( ! draw+ bo>d2 if x is %ort]1 inconv5i5ce w be exp]i5c$ :5 l9es ! :ole l5g? ( ! bo>d are want$4 ,,triangles1 ,,or ,,set-,,squ>es4 ,set-squ>es are inv>iably us$ 9 connection ) ! tee-squ>e1 z %[n 9 fig4 #adh4 ,! illu/rations bel[ %[ sev]al patt]ns ( ! device2 by ^!1 v]tical l9es1 triangles1 squ>es & hexagonal1 octagonal & twelve-sid$ figures1 diagonal section l9es1 etc41 c be easily drawn4 ,= ord9>y purposes1 a triangle or set-squ>e ) angles ( #de may be #d in*es long & ! o!r #h in*es 9 l5g?1 b a six-in* set-squ>e hav+ angles #ij1 #de & #de1 & an eight-in* "o hav+ angles ( #ij1 #fj & #cj1 w be f\nd suffici5t = all purposes2 !re are o!r triangles us$ specially = mak+ lett]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4--;,fig4 #aed4--;,fig4 #aee4--;,fig4 #aef4 ,9 practice ! triangles or set-squ>es are slid along ! edge ( ! blade1 & ne$ n be any ?ick] ?an x4 ,,p>allel ,,rule4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,?is in/rum5t is us$ to m>k l9es :i* are nei!r horizontal nor v]tical 7usually ^! are drawn by ! squ>e & set-squ>e71 & :i* are p>allel to "o ano!r2 by adju/+ ! edge ( ! p>allel rul] to a l9e1 x c be ext5d$ or op5$ out 7or vice-v]sa clos$71 & ! l9e or l9es drawn w be p>allel or equally di/ant f ! base or fir/ l9e x 0 set by4 ,see fig4 #aeg4 ,fig4 #aeh is a p>allel rul]1 con/ruct$ ) two roll]s fix$ on a rod s t !y move ! same di/ance1 c>ry+ ! rul] p>allel to ! />t+ l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,,note4--,x has be5 said t 8a workman may be kn[n by 8 tools10 b ! /atem5t mu/ be tak5 ) a good deal ( all[ance4 ,"s workm5 may possess a v f9e set ( tools & nev] use !m1 because !y h n ! ability or incl9ation to le>n h[2 especially is ?is ! case ) draw+ in/rum5ts4 ,if all ! f9e sets ( draw+ in/rum5ts t are own$ by workm5 7 put to frequ5t use ! own]s w\ld f9d a m>k$ improvem5t 9 _! abilities 9 o!r l9es z well z draw+2 = x is a noticeable fact t :5 a p]son's m9d has be5 tra9$ 9 a bus9ess t requires close calculation & a k ( mat]ials1 he is capable ( %[+ good qualifications 9 o!r l9es1 & ! m skill$ he is 9 "o ! easi] c he acquire skillfulness 9 ano!r1 if he applies ! same am\nt ( en]gy1 ?\ght & int]e/ z he did to acquire skill 9 ! fir/4 ,,section ,,l9]4 ,fig4 #aei %[s an improv$ section l9] :i* c be adju/$ to any angle1 & w space ! p>allel l9es at any desir$ regul> di/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,,irregul> ,,curve ,,or ,,scroll4 ,irregul> curves1 or1 z !y are sometimes t]m$1 sweeps1 repres5t$ by figs4 #afj-aff1 are us$ = curves t _c be put 9 by ! o!r in/rum5ts4 ,!y are v useful :5 elliptical or p>abolic curves are desir$1 9 pref]5ce to circles or arcs ( a circle4 ,!y are mu* us$ 9 design & ar*itectural draw+4 ,!y are made ( ?9 h>dwood or rubb]1 & sometimes ( horn4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #afj-aff4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,curves are irregul> l9es2 a circle is a regul> l9e4 ,if a curve is to be pass$ ?r\gh a numb] ( pr$et]m9$ po9ts x %\ld be fir/ sket*$ 9 lightly1 free-h&2 a section ( ! scroll is !n appli$ to ! curve s z to embrace z _m po9ts z possible2 only ! c5tral po9ts ( ^? ?us embrac$ %\ld be ink$ 92 ?is process is cont9u$ until ! desir$ curve is complet$4 ,curves are made ( v>i\s mat]ial1 pe>wood1 c>dbo>d1 xylonite1 h>d rubb]1 & a /rip ( s(t lead is sometimes us$1 :i* may be easily adju/$ to ! curve requir$4 ,! curves g5]ally us$ 9 me*anical draw+ are %[n on previ\s page4 ,fig4 #bjh1 page #acd1 is a log>i?mic spiral curve4 ,x is ma!matically con/ruct$ & conta9s e curve )9 ! limit ( its size4 ,,ellipses4 ,an ellipse is a geometrical figure1 & c be drawn z describ$ 9 geometrical problem #bi1 page #if2 _m draw+ (fices keep sets ( h>d rubb] ellipses1 to economize "t con/ruct+ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,,draw+ ,,p5cils4 ,^! are in/rum5ts = m>k+1 draw+ or writ+1 =m$ ( graphite1 color$ *alk or mat]ials ( simil> prop]ties1 & hav+ a tap]+ end1 inclos$1 g5]ally1 9 a cyl9d] ( s(twood4 ,fig4 #afg repres5ts a rul+ p5cil2 its po9t is a p>allelogram or ( a w$ge %ape4 ,9 rul+1 ! l5g? view re/s aga9/ ! squ>e2 its %ape gives consid]able /r5g? to ! lead & all[s ! mak+ ( a v f9e l9e4 ,fig4 #afh diff]s 9 ! po9t ( ! p5cil %[n1 z may be obs]v$ 9 ! illu/ration4 ,a p5cil t is h>d is be/ = me*anical draw+2 "o t w reta9 a good po9t = "s consid]able "t4 ,p5cil l9es %\ld be made z light z possible2 ! pres5ce ( lead on ! surface ( ! pap] t5ds to prev5t ! ink pass+ to ! pap]1 & 9 rubb+ out p5cil l9es ! ink is r$uc$ 9 blackness1 & ! surface ( pap] is r\gh5$1 :i* is a disadvantage4 ,z little eras+ or rubb+ out z possible %\ld be done4 ,,divid]s ,,& ,,compasses4 ,^! in/rum5ts1 :ile !y appe> alike1 h a sep>ate use3 ! divid]s are us$ to space (f di/ances & dim5sions2 especially are !y necess>y 9 read+ draw+s made to scale4 ,compasses are us$ = describ+ circles1 curves1 etc41 divid]s are us$ = m>k+ out spaces4 ,two =ms ( ! divid]s are %[n 9 figs4 #afi & #agj2 ! simple/1 pla9e/ =m is %[n 9 fig4 #afi2 ^! are us$ = r\gh spac+s2 fig4 #agj repres5ts a pair ( divid]s fitt$ ) an adju/able screw controll$ by a /eel spr+ 9 "o leg2 by ?is a v exact measurem5t c be made4 ,fig4 #agj is int5d$ to exhibit :at is call$ a 8hair-spr+ divid]40 ,,proportional ,,divid]s4 ,^! divid]s diff] f ! ord9>y ones %[n 9 figs4 #afi & #agj 9 t !y are provid$ ) f\r /eel po9ts1 "o pair ( :i* be+ set to ! full dim5sion w be reproduc$ by ! o!r pair1 b 9 a small]1 or r$uc$ size4 ,fig4 #aga are 8bisect+0 divid]s1 be+ proportional divid]s1 :i*1 :5 op51 "o end measures d\ble ! di/ance ( ! o!r4 ,fig4 #agb are proportional divid]s2 ! po9ts at "o end are capable ( be+ *ang$1 to measure practically any desir$ proportion at ! o!r end1 by alt]+ ! position ( ! pivot :]e ! legs cross "o ano!r4 ,! l[] connect+ l9k is a micromet] adju/m5t1 = m9ute measurem5ts4 ,fig4 #agc are proportional divid]s :i* are m>k$ = ! proportions ( l9es & radii ( circles1 be+ provid$ ) a rack movem5t = adju/m5t4 ,fig4 #agd repres5ts ?ree-leg divid]s1 us$ = tak+ ! position ( ?ree po9ts2 ?is in/rum5t is v useful 9 f9d+ ! position ( a po9t 9 a figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aga4--;,fig4 #agb4--;,fig4 #agc4--;,fig4 #agd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #age4--;,fig4 #agf4--;,fig4 #agg4--;,fig4 #agh4--;,fig4 #agi4 ,,compasses4 ,compasses consi/ ( two po9t$ legs2 !y are in/rum5ts = describ+ circles or =--sometimes--measur+ figures1 9 abs5ce ( divid]s4 ,fig4 #age repres5ts compasses fitt$ z divid]s4 ,compasses %\ld h jo9t$ legs1 :i* w all[ ! po9ts to be plac$ at "r angles to ! pap]1 :atev] ! size ( ! circle to be drawn4 ,compasses %\ld n be us$ = circles :i* are too l>ge to all[ ! po9ts to be ?us plac$2 a l5g!n+ b> is g5]ally provid$1 :i* greatly increases ! diamet]s ( circles :i* may be drawn by ?is atta*m5t2 x is %[n 9 fig4 #agf4 ,"o leg ( ! compasses is usually provid$ ) a socket to :i* are fitt$ ?ree po9ts3 a divid] po9t1 fig4 #agi2 a p5cil po9t1 fig4 #agg2 & a po9t1 fig4 #agh1 c>ry+ a special p5 = ! ink+ ( circles4 ,ea* ( ^! po9ts is g5]ally provid$ ) a jo9t1 s t x may be plac$ at "r angles to ! pap]4 ,! o!r leg %\ld be jo9t$2 x is (t5 provid$ ) a socket :i* receives two po9ts1 "o a divid] po9t1 & ! o!r c>ry+ a ne$le po9t4 ,su* an in/rum5t may be us$ z divid]s = spac+1 or z compasses = p5cil+ or ink+ circles4 ,! jo9t at ! head ( ! compasses 7see fig4 #age7 is ! mo/ important feature4 ,x %\ld hold ! legs firmly 9 any position1 s t 9 go+ ov] a circle sev]al times only "o l9e w result4 ,x %\ld all[ ! legs to move smoo?ly & ev5ly1 & %\ld be capable ( adju/m5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--;,fig4 #aha4--;,fig4 #ahb4--;,fig4 #ahc4--;,fig4 #ahd4 ,z %[n 9 fig4 #agd1 "o leg has a h+e or jo9t1 & a ne$le po9t1 :i* c be regulat$ by a ?umb screw2 ! o!r leg has a socket or recess into :i* int]*angeable p>ts c be ins]t$4 ,! f\r figures to ! "r ( ! compasses %[ ! p>ts :i* are provid$ ) %anks or ins]tion pieces4 ,fig4 #ahj & fig4 #aha repres5t compasses specially us$ = mak+ small circles1 & "w too m9ute = ! l>g] in/rum5ts describ$ above4 ,to d "w ( ?is nature easily a pair ( spr+ divid]s are frequ5tly us$4 ,?is in/rum5t has "o po9t atta*$ to a spr+1 :i* is regulat$ by a screw1 s t v slight *anges 9 ! space may be made ) ease4 ,compasses specially us$ = putt+ 9 f9e circles & dim5sions are call$ 8b[s40 ,:5 a p5 po9t x is a 8b[ p510 ) a p5cil po9t a 8b[ p5cil10 & if ) ne$le po9t a 8b[ divid]s40 ,fig4 #ahj is a 8b[ divid]s01 ?is fitt$ ) screw = f9e adju/m5t 9 "o leg1 fig4 #aha1 is call$ a 8hair-spr+ b[ divid]s02 = small details1 b[s ) /eel spr+ legs )\t any jo9t are us$2 ^! are call$ 8/eel-spr+ b[s40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahe4--;,fig4 #ahf4--;,fig4 #ahg4 ,,spr+ ,,b[s4 ,^! 7 orig9ally develop$ f ! common =m ( compasses1 ) a s+le spr+ leg2 lat]1 ! dem& = small] sizes made *anges necess>y1 & spr+ b[s are n[ made symmetrical1 bo? sides ( ! b[ be+ made to 8spr+40 ,fig4 #ahb are spr+ divid]s4 ,fig4 #ahc is a spr+ p5cil4 ,fig4 #ahd is a spr+ p54 ,9 ^! figures x w be se5 t ! two ?reads1 a "r & a left1 are mov$ ) "o c5tral ?umbscrew2 9 ! figs4 #ahe to #ahg a s+le screw is us$4 ,9 *oos+ spr+ b[s1 c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ to select a suffici5tly /rong1 /iff spr+1 z ! relation betwe5 spr+ pressure & ?umbscrew is important4 ,,beam ,,compasses ,,& ,,trammels4 ,9 fig4 #ahh is %[n a set ( beam compasses1 toge!r ) a portion ( ! wood5 rod or beam on :i* !y are us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,! latt]1 z w be se5 by ! section drawn to "o side1 ,a1 is 9 ! %ape ( a ,t4 ,?is =m has consid]able /r5g? & rigidity4 ,beam compasses are provid$ ) extra po9ts = p5cil or ink "w1 z %[n4 ,:ile ! g5]al adju/m5t is effect$ by means ( ! clamp aga9/ ! wood1 m9ute v>iations are made by ! screw1 ,b1 %ift+ "o ( ! po9ts1 z %[n 9 ! figure4 ,?is in/rum5t is q delicate1 &1 :5 9 good ord]1 is v accurate4 ,x %\ld be us$ only = f9e "w on pap]1 & nev] = scrib+ on metal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,a co>s] in/rum5t1 & "o especially design$ = use ^u metal1 is %[n 9 fig4 #ahi1 & is call$ a trammel4 ,!re are v>i\s =ms ( ?is in/rum5t1 all be+ ! same 9 pr9ciple4 ,! engrav+ %[s a =m 9 common use4 ,a heavi] /ick is us$ ) x ?an ) ! beam compasses1 & no o!r adju/m5t is provid$ ?an t :i* is af=d$ by clamp+ aga9/ ! /ick4 ,9 ! illu/ration1 a c>ri] at ! side is %[n1 9 :i* a p5cil may be plac$4 ,"s trammels are arrang$ 9 su* a mann]1 t ei!r ( ! po9ts may be deta*$ & a p5cil sub/itut$4 ,a trammel1 by c>eful arrangem5t1 c be made to describe v accurate curves1 & h5ce c be us$ 9 place ( ! beam compasses 9 _m in/ances4 ,= all co>se "w x is to be pref]r$ to beam compasses4 ,x is useful = all %ort sweeps ^u %eets ( metal1 b = curves ( a v long radius a /rip ( %eet iron or a piece ( wire w be f\nd ( a m practical s]vice ?an ev5 ?is tool4 ,! l5g? ( rods = bo? beam compasses & tramels1 up to c]ta9 limits1 is det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! "w to be done4 ,! extreme l5g? is det]m9$ by ! /r5g? & rigidity ( ! rod itself4 ,x is usually conv5i5t to h two rods = ea* in/rum5t1 "o ab\t #a or #b feet 9 l5g? & ! o!r consid]ably long]--z long z ! /r5g? ( ! mat]ial w admit4 ,,draw+ ,,scales4 ,scales are proportion$ rules or ma!matical in/rum5ts ( wood1 metal1 etc41 on :i* are m>k$ l9es & figures = ! purpose ( measur+ sizes & di/ances4 ,x is usual to make scales 9 ! proportion ( p>ts ( an in* equall+ a foot2 ! mo/ g5]ally adopt$ scale = ma*9e draw+ is "o & a half in*es1 equall+ "o foot2 t is1 twelve-eigh?s ( an in* 7ea* eigh? ( an in* repres5t+ "o in*72 !re is no fix$ rule 9 ! *oice ( a scale1 z !y are v>i$ accord+ to ! co>s5ess or f95ess ( ! p>ts ( ! ma*9e to be drawn & ! space or surface ( pap] to be utiliz$4 ,:5 objects are ( mod]ate proportions !y may be repres5t$ full size2 b :5 l>ge1 ! draw+s mu/ be small]4 ,/&>d scales = me*anical draw+s are 1 1 & full size4 ,^! scales are (t5 writt5 #f #a ft42 #c #a ft42 #a #a ft41 & #a ft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,in/ead ( select+ "o ( ! scales nam$ or "o f\nd ^u ! ord9>y scales us$ by draughtsm51 draw+s may be made to any scale :atev]4 ,?us1 if any object is to be repres5t$ 9 a c]ta9 space1 a scale %\ld be con/ruct$ :i* w cause ! :ole ( ! object to be %[n4 ,draw+ to ,scale4--,! mean+ ( ?is is1 t ! draw+ :5 done be>s a def9ite proportion to ! full size ( ! p>ticul> "p1 or1 9 o!r words1 is precisely ! same z x w\ld appe> if view$ ?r\gh a dim9i%+ glass4 ,! two-foot rule %[n 9 fig4 #aib is ! mo/ useful in/rum5t = ! comp>ison ( l9e> dim5sions--x c be us$ z a scale ( "o-twelf?1 or #a in* equal to a foot1 #ab in*es #ab feet1 x be+ divid$ into portions or spaces1 ea* ( :i* is subdivid$ into halves1 qu>t]s1 eigh?s & sixte5?s2 frequ5tly 9 ! latt] class ( two-foot rules !re are graduations ( scales1 & x is !n also call$ a draught+ scale4 ,fig4 #aij repres5ts a flat scale1 grad$ s t "o in* repres5ts a foot--? size--etc41 z %[n4 ,fig4 #aia repres5ts a triangul> scale 7brok574 ,! triangul> scale %\ld read on its diff]5t edges z foll[s3 ,?ree in*es & #a to "o foot1 #a & to "o foot1 & to "o foot1 & to "o foot1 & to "o foot1 & "o edge read sixte5?s ! :ole #ab ( its l5g?4 ,fig4 #aij %[s su* a scale brok54 ,an explanation ( ! #a & side w suffice = all4 ,:]e x is us$ z a scale ( #a to "o foot1 ea* l>ge space1 z f #j to #ab or #j to #a1 repres5ts a foot1 & is a foot at t scale4 ,!re be+ #ab 9 "o foot1 ! twelve long divisions at ! left repres5t in*es2 ea* in* is divid$ into two equal p>ts1 s f #j to "o division at ! left ( #i is #i & s on4 ,! #a & scales be+ at opposite ends ( ! same edge1 x is obvi\s t "o foot on ! #a scale is equal to two feet on ! scale1 & conv]sely1 "o foot on ! scale is equal to six in*es on ! #a scale2 & #a be+ equal to "o foot1 ! total feet 9 l5g? ( scale w be #ab2 at to #a foot ! total feet w be #bd4 ,9 work+ to regul> scales1 su* z 1 1 or size1 a good plan is to use a common rule1 in/ead ( a graduat$ scale4 ,!re is no?+ m conv5i5t = a me*anical draughtsman ?an to be able to readily resolve dim5sions into v>i\s scales1 & ! use ( a common rule = fractional scales tra9s ! m9d1 s t computations come naturally1 & aft] a "t almo/ )\t ef=t4 ,! protractor %[n 9 fig4 #aic is an in/rum5t = lay+ d[n & measur+ angles on pap]2 x is us$ 9 connect+ ) a scale to def9e ! incl9ation ( "o l9e to ano!r4 ,protractors h ! degrees ( a half circle m>k$ ^u !m2 z ! :ole circle conta9s #cfj degrees1 half ( x w conta9 #ahj1 "o-qu>t] #ij1 etc4 ,h5ce1 protractors %[+ #ahj exhibit all t is ne$$4 ,to protract means to ext5d1 s ?is in/rum5t is also useful 9 8ext5d+0 ! l9es ( incl9ation at ! circle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,,draw+-,,p5s4 ,a special p5 call$ a draw+-p51 & also special ink1 are requir$ to ink a draw+2 figs4 #aid & #aie repres5t two sizes ( draw+-p5s--"o be+ be/ adapt$ = f9e "w1 & ! o!r = co>se or heavy l9e "w4 ,! po9ts1 z w be obs]v$ 9 ! illu/ration1 are made ( two /eel blades :i* op5 & close z requir$ = ?ickness ( l9es by a regulat+ screw4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,a good draw+ p5 %\ld be made ( prop]ly temp]$ /eel1 nei!r too s(t nor h>d5$ to brittl5ess4 ,! nibs %\ld be accurately set1 bo? ( ! same l5g?1 & bo? equally firm :5 9 contact ) ! draw+ pap]4 ,! po9ts %\ld be s %ap$ t !y are f9e en\gh to admit ( absolute control ( ! contact ( ! p5 9 />t+ & end+ l9es1 b o!rwise z broad & r\nd$ z possible1 9 ord] to hold a conv5i5t quantity ( ink )\t dropp+ x4 ,! l[] 7"u7 blade %\ld be suffici5tly firm to prev5t ! clos+ ( ! blades ( ! p51 :5 us+ ! p5 aga9/ a /raight$ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,! spr+ ( ! p51 :i* sep>ates ! two blades1 %\ld be /rong en\gh to hold ! upp] blade 9 its position1 b n s /rong t x w\ld int]f]e ) easy adju/m5t by ! ?umbscrew4 ,! ?read ( ! ?umbscrew mu/ be deeply & ev5ly cut s z n to /rip4 ,an important requisite aft] ! p5cil l9es h be5 put 9 is ink1 ) :i* to l9e ! draw+4 ,?is %\ld be ( ! be/ t c be procur$4 ,! p5 is fill$ by dropp+ ! ink betwe5 ! blades1 or nibs1 :ile held 9 a ne>ly v]tical position1 z %[n 9 fig4 #aif4 ,liquid ,india ink c be procur$ 9 bottles ) glass tube fe$]s1 :i* are v good1 & keep ! h&s & f+]s free ( ! ink4 ,fig4 #aig is a sectional view ( su* a bottle & 8fill]10 or fe$]4 ,?is g5]ally answ]s all requirem5ts1 b ! dry ink ( good quality1 9 /icks or b>s1 _c be surpass$1 al?\gh x requires skill = its prep>ation4 ,fig4 #aih repres5ts a slop+ di% or 8tile0 = mix+1 :i* %\ld be done ) little pressure1 9 clean1 filt]$ or di/ill$ wat]1 c>e be+ tak5 to keep ! liquid free ( du/1 :i* ob/ructs ! free fl[ ( ! ink 9 ! p5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,! b>s ( ,india ink are %[n1 z !y are import$1 9 figs4 #aii to #bjb4 ,pure ,india or ,*9a ink is only made 9 ^? c\ntries1 because ! special wood f :i* x is prep>$ is f\nd only 9 ^? regions4 ,s-call$ ,india inks1 made ( lampblack & animal glue1 are only imitations2 !re=e ,india ink %\ld be pur*as$ f a reliable import+ h\se--%ape is little gu>antee ( quality4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aii4--;,fig4 #bjj4--;,fig4 #bja4--;,fig4 #bjb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,s(t gray vulcaniz$ rubb] 7fig4 #bjc7 %\ld be us$ = clean+ draw+ pap]2 = eras+ any portion ( a l9e 9 p5cil1 a piece ( prep>$ :ite vulcaniz$ rubb] is ! be/1 small 9 size & ( rectangul> %ape 7see fig4 #bje74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,an ink eras] is made ( a composition ( rubb] & gr\nd glass1 & x %\ld be us$ z sp>+ly z possible on draw+s1 z x r\gh5s ! pap] & removes ! gloss f its surface 7see fig4 #bjd74 ,/eel ink eras]s are useful 9 remov+ defects1 ov]run l9es1 jo9t ( l9es if swoll51 etc42 !y h a f9e po9t & c be us$ to advantage ) a little practice2 !y are us$ ) a scrat*+1 n a cutt+1 motion 7see figs4 #bjf1 #bjg74 ,,draw+ ,,pap]4 ,! fir/ ?+ to be consid]$ 9 select+ draw+ pap] is ! k9d mo/ suitable = ! propos$ plan4 ,pap] may be pur*as$ 9 %eets #bb #cj in*es1 t make f\r ex]cise %eets #aa #ae in*es2 ?is may be ( sev]al grades & t9ts4 ,! qualities t con/itute good pap] are /r5g?1 uni=mity ( ?ickness & surface1 nei!r repell+ nor absorb+ liquids1 admitt+ ( consid]able eras+ )\t de/roy+ ! surface1 n becom+ brittle nor discolor$ by reasonable exposure or age1 & n buckl+ :5 /ret*$1 or :5 ink or color is appli$4 ,! sizes & names ( pap] made 9 %eets is z foll[s3 ,cap #acag ins4 ,demy #aebj ,m$ium #agbb ,royal #aibd ,sup] ,royal #aibg ,imp]ial #bbcj ,atlas #bfcd ,d\ble ,elephant #bgdj ,antiqu>ian #cjec ,= l>ge draw+s pap] is made 9 rolls4 8,detail pap]0 is especially made = m>k+ out new designs2 x is made 9 rolls #cf1 #db & #ed in*es wide2 x has excell5t eras+ qualities & takes ink & color ) facility4 ,:5 work+ by artificial light x is desirable t ! pap] be ( a light-br[n color1 :i* is less try+ to ! eyes ?an a pure :ite4 ,if x is a %op draw+ or sket* n to be pres]v$1 use detail pap]1 :i* is ! mo/ economical & w /& a great deal ( h&l+ )\t becom+ soil$4 ,if x is a detail$ plan1 f9i%$ draw+ or a picture1 use ! be/ :ite draw+ pap] to be obta9$1 s t y\r draw+s c be pres]v$ indef9itely )\t dang] ( fad+1 :i* is due ei!r to ! pap] be+ poorly made & discolor+ ) age1 or be+ ( poor fib] & absorb+ ! ink or color1 & ! draw+ consequ5tly los+ its brightness4 ,aft] decid+ on ! size ( pap] mo/ suitable = ! "w1 !n c>efully select ! pap] embrac+ ! mo/ qualities ( value = ! propos$ draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,me*anical ,,draw+ ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,me*anical ,draw+4 ,9 di/9ction to 8free-h&10 me*anical draw+ is execut$ almo/ entirely by ! use ( ! in/rum5ts previ\sly describ$2 h5ce its o!r t]m1 in/rum5tal draw+4 ,to def9e x p>ticul>ly x may be said t1-- ,me*anical draw+ is ! correct reproduction ( any figure or "p ( a ma*9e1 :e!r ( full size or r$uc$ 9 ! proportion ( "o "p to ano!r2 x also comprises ! art ( del9eat+ ! int]ior p>ts :i* are hidd5 f view 9 solid bodies4 ,a me*anical draw+ is ! vehicle = convey+ ! ideas ( ! design] to ^? :o are to embody !m 9 wood & metal1 & ! consid]ations :i* %\ld gov]n its production are ^? :i* affect its cle>ness & legibility or ^? :i* facilitate ref]5ce to x4 ,draw+s consi/ ( plans1 elevations & sections2 plans be+ views on ! top ( ! object 9 a horizontal plane2 elevations1 views on ! sides ( ! object 9 v]tical planes2 & sections1 views tak5 on bisect+ planes1 at any angle ?r\gh an object4 ,draw+s 9 true elevation or 9 section are bas$ ^u flat planes1 & giv5 dim5sions p>allel to ! planes 9 :i* ! views are tak54 ,two elevations tak5 at "r angles to ea* o!r fix all po9ts1 & give all dim5sions ( p>ts t h _! axis p>allel to ! planes on :i* ! views are tak52 b :5 a ma*9e is complex1 or :5 sev]al p>ts lie 9 ! same plane1 ?ree & sometimes f\r views are requir$ to display all ! p>ts 9 a compreh5sive mann]4 ,a man mu/ h ei!r a natural tal5t = h&-draw+ or ye>s ( exp]i5ce1 be=e he c produce a sket* & 8dim5sion0 x1 fit to "w f2 h5ce ! elem5t>y "* ( ! examples giv5 = practice4 ,a 8pretty0 draw+ is n expect$ f a beg9n]2 x %\ld always be borne 9 m9d1 t correctness ( dim5sions & g5]al cle>ness1 r ?an elaborate f9i%1 are :at w save ! battle 9 ! days ( competition4 ,me*anical draw+s %\ld be made ) ref]5ce to all ! processes t are requir$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! "w1 & ! draw+s %\ld be responsible1 n only = dim5sions1 b = adaptation to fitt+1 =g+1 patt]n-mak+1 m\ld+1 & s on4 ,e "p laid d[n %\ld h some?+ to gov]n x t may be t]m$ a 8base0--"s position :i*1 if und]/ood1 w sugge/ size1 %ape & relation to o!r p>ts4 ,se>*+ aft] a base = ea* & e "p & detail1 ! draughtsman %\ld proce$ ^u a regul> sy/em1 cont9ually ma9ta9+ a te/ ( :at is done4 ,a me*anical draw+ consi/s *iefly ( ?ree views3 #a4 ,! plan or top view4 #b4 ,! side elevation4 #c4 ,! end elevation4 ,9 addition to ! above1 draw+s are us$ to %[ int]ior portions ( ! figure2 ^! are t]m$ 8sections10 & !y may be tak5 :]e any plane crosses ano!r4 ,,note4--,! ^w elevation1 z appli$ to me*anical draw+s1 means simply a view2 h5ce a side elevation is a side view1 or an end elevation is an end view4 ,! ^w plan is employ$ 9 place ( ! ^w top2 h5ce a plan view is a top view or a view look+ d[n ^u ! top ( ! piece4 ,a g5]al view means a view %[+ ! ma*9e put toge!r or assembl$1 :ile a detail draw+ is "o conta9+ a detail1 z a "p ( ! ma*9e or a s+le piece disconnect$ f ! o!r p>ts ( ! :ole ma*9e4 ,p5cil+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baa4 ,x is v ne>ly true1 z has be5 said1 t e me*anical draw+ is1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 p5cil$2 if ?is is s1 !n m "w is done ) ! p5cil ?an ) ! p52 !re=e ! fir/ att5tion ( ! /ud5t ( me*anical draw+ %\ld be direct$ to ! foll[+ in/ructions = p5cil+ a draw+4 ,) all necess>y mat]ials 9 h&1 & 9 good ord] = ! beg9n+ ( a draw+1 ! fir/ ?+ to d is to p9 ! pap] on ! bo>d q squ>e4 ,to d ?is effectively1 lay ! pap] flat & put on ! ,t-squ>e ) its head at ! left side ( ! bo>d2 slide ! squ>e up ne>ly to ! top1 & arrange ! pap] level ) ! blade2 ) ! "r h& hold ! pap] /ill & move ! squ>e d[n a little2 n[1 p9 ! top ( ! pap] ) ?umb-tacks4 ,next1 press+ ! squ>e lightly to ! pap]1 slide x d[n to ! bottom & p9 t "p ( ! pap] to ! bo>d4 ,! pap] mu/ n project outside or ov] ! edges ( ! bo>d1 & ! p9s or tack-heads %\ld be =c$ d[n flu% ) ! pap]1 s z n to int]f]e ) ! free movem5t ( ! tee-squ>e up & d[n ! bo>d z occasion may require4 ,! accuracy ( ! "w dep5d+ ^u _! condition1 x is fir/ ne$ful to see t ! p5cil & p5cil compasses are prop]ly %>p5$4 ,ref]5ce is made to valuable directions conta9$ on pages beg9n+ ) #ee1 "u ! head+ ( 8,free-h& ,draw+10 to :i* may be add$ t-- ,all l9es %\ld be drawn ) ! p5cil slightly incl9$ 9 ! direction 9 :i* x is mov$4 ,any & all l9es n ne$$ 9 ! f9i%$ draw+ %\ld be eras$ at "o "t aft] ! f9al l9es h be5 det]m9$1 = ! surface ( ! pap] is soil$ v quickly :5 work$ ^u aft] erasures h be5 made4 ,! work+ l9es & o!r l9es t are to be remov$ %\ld be eras$ :5 ! draw+ is ready to f9i% & be=e its outl9es h be5 /r5g!n$1 9 ord] t ! f9al l9es may be left 9 p]fect condition4 ,to %[ :]e ! l9es meet or t]m9ate x is ne$ful t all p5cil l9es pass ! actual end+ place1 mak+ a di/9ct int]section4 ,?is does n apply to 8ink+ 90 ! l9es1 b r to prev5t ! ov]-draw+ ( ! ink l9es1 because ! edge ( ! rule & ! p5 itself ob/ruct or p>tly cov] ! view ( ! l9e1 x is v liable to pass ov] or beyond ! requir$ po9t 9 ink+ ! l9es1 :i* mu/ n occur4 ,9 ! prelim9>y op]ation ( produc+ a regul> me*anical or in/rum5tal draw+1 x is necess>y to make a 8sket*10 9 p5cil1 ( ! object to be repres5t$4 ,! ,,am]ican ,,ma*9i/ has giv5 9 a few words ! ord] to be foll[$1 9 effect+ ! be/ results2 we quote1 z foll[s3 8,9 mak+ a free-h& sket* ( an object f ! model x is well to obs]ve ! foll[+ ord]3 ,look ! model ov] c>efully & det]m9e ! numb] ( views necess>y to illu/rate x fully1 draw+ ! same1 free-h&1 9 _! prop] relation to ea* o!r1 on sket*+ pap]4 ,look ! sket* ov] c>efully to see t no?+ has be5 omitt$1 & put on dim5sion l9es1 aft] :i* scale ! model c>efully & put on dim5sions4 ,d n put 9 ! dim5sions at ! same "t ! dim5sion l9es are drawn2 h all ! dim5sion l9es 9 place be=e attempt+ to ins]t dim5sions4 8,foll[ ! same ord] 9 mak+ ! draw+ ) in/rum5ts z 0 us$ 9 mak+ ! sket*2 t is1 draw ! views 9 _! prop] relation to ea* o!r1 put 9 dim5sion l9es1 !n dim5sions1 & la/ly notes & title4 ,if section draw+ is made1 d n draw section l9es 9 p5cil40 ,,po9ts ,,to ,,be ,,obs]v$ ,,9 ,,sket*+4 #a4 ,especial att5tion is to be paid to outl9es--edges ( plane surfaces are l9es2 :5 a l9e is made x repres5ts ! edge or outside ( some?+4 #b4 ,le>n to be accurate be=e be+ rapid4 #c4 ,a sket* %\ld be intelligible to any "o1 ev5 if !y are unacqua9t$ ) draw+4 #d4 ,horizontal & v]tical l9es & a few curves w enable "o to make almo/ any simple sket*4 #e4 ,x mu/ be also rememb]$ 9 mak+ draw+s f actual measurem5t t ! in/rum5ts are n 9 ! fir/ place employ$2 ! r\gh sket* is fir/ made & !n x is conv]t$ into a draw+4 ,! draughtsman makes a r\gh sket* entirely by ! h& & eye1 measures ! v>i\s p>ts1 & jots d[n ! measurem5ts 9 8 sket*2 aft] ?is he r$uces ! :ole to ! desir$ scale1 & proce$s to make 8 me*anical draw+4 #f4 ,let ! sket* book be ! con/ant companion ( ! /ud5t2 x may be advantage\sly fill$ ) outl9es ( ma*9e or o!r "w suitable = pres]vation1 to be made into f9i%$ draw+s1 or = ref]5ce4 ,sket*es are (t5 valuable = ref]5ce z aids 9 orig9at+ new designs4 #g4 ,a sket*1 :5 possible1 %\ld h all ! dim5sions writt5 ^u x1 b-- #h4 ,sket*es 9 %op practice %\ld n take ! place ( work+-draw+s2 ! latt] h a *eck ^u !m 9 be+ drawn to a scale--h5ce ! figures writt5 ^u !m & dim5sions by scale mu/ agree4 #i4 ,place title & date on ea* sket*--no matt] h[ seem+ly unimportant--= future ref]5ce4 #aj4 ,practice sket*+ at e favorable opportunity4 ,!re is no necessity = detail at fir/--simply ! outl9es ( ! article & its p>ts4 #aa4 ,sket*-books1 ) pap] b\nd 9 clo? cov]s1 are utiliz$ = bold1 (f-h& sket*es by exp]i5c$ draughtsm51 b a s+le %eet ( pap]1 us$ on bo? sides1 is n unwor?y ( s]vice 9 an em]g5cy--or ev5 ! blank side ( a lett] may be available4 ,sket*+-blocks1 or pap] 8pads10 #d #f1 or m1 9 size1 & conta9+ #dh %eets1 are sold by /ation]s1 & are f\nd to be mo/ conv5i5t to h 9 h& & = practical use4 ,portfolio-envelopes1 made ( extra l5g? pap] 7manila7 are useful 9 fil+ away sket*es & draw+s4 ,! size #aj #ae is us$ = ,unit$ ,/ates ,pat5t ,(fice draw+s4 ,! function ( ! p5cil--9 me*anical draw+--is to make a pa? = ! p5 to foll[4 ,if x 7 possible to make a draw+ ) all its l9es end+ at ! prop] place1 at ! fir/ "t1 !re w\ld be no necessity = us+ ! p5cil4 ,"o is oblig$1 h[ev]1 s to use ! p5cil t all l9es pass beyond ! actual end+ place1 ?us mak+ a di/9ct po9t = ! draw+ p5 to /op at4 ,! p5cil %\ld be press$ to ! pap] j en\gh to make a clean1 f9e l9e1 & no m2 once ov] ! pa? is suffici5t1 if ! l9e is visible & true4 ,to %>p5 draw+ p5cils1 #a1 use a f9e file1 aft] tak+ (f en\gh ( ! wood ) a knife2 #b1 make a conical po9t = ! free-h& draw+ p5cils & a *isel po9t = rul+ & m>k+ di/ances4 ,p5cil compasses are in/rum5ts :]e "o leg is provid$ ) a p5cil po9t4 ,fig4 #bji %[s ! mode ( manipulation ( ^? %[n 9 fig4 #ahj & fig4 #aha4 ,! p5cil compass is held by ! projection above ! jo9t betwe5 ! ?umb & fir/ f+]1 :i* enables x to be rotat$ by a movem5t ( ! f+] )\t caus+ any undue pressure on ! po9ts4 ,%\ld mu* pressure be appli$1 !re is a t5d5cy to =ce ! po9t or c5t] ?r\gh ! pap]1 mak+ an ugly c5t] m>k2 at ! same "t ! pressure t5ds to break (f ! p5cil po9t4 ,^! few illu/rations f fig4 #bab to fig4 #bai are made design$ly simple1 s t !y may be utiliz$ 9 8free-h&0 "w1 = :i* !y are good practice1 z well z s]v+ = examples 9 me*anical draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bab4 ,figs4 #bab1 %[+ a spool or bobb91 exhibit ?ree views1 viz43 front elevation or plan1 & section2 bo? are drawn ) simple l9es1 ! end elevation by circles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bac4--;,fig4 #bad4 ,figs4 #bac & #bad are two side views ( a hexagon head bolt4 ,figs4 #baf & #bag are a squ>e head bolt--two side views & end view4 ,figs4 #bah & #bai are a front & edge view ( a =k$ or d\ble jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,figs4 #bae4 ,figs4 #bae %[ ?ree views ( a file h&le2 ! front view & section are practice = comp\nd curves & curv$ l9es meet+ /raight ones2 all ^! are capable ( be+ produc$ by in/rum5ts4 ,moreov]1 _m ( ! views & illu/rations us$ to in/ruct & expla9 ma*9e tools & o!r devices 9 o!r p>ts ( ! volume1 are drawn s t !y may be us$ also z examples 9 advanc$ in/rum5tal practice4 ,?is is a 8h9t0 to ! dilig5t & pa9/ak+ /ud5t wor?y ( rememb]+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,fig4 #bag4--;,fig4 #bah4--;,fig4 #bai4 ,! design+ & draw+ ( arcs & :ole circles occupy a l>ge proportion ( space 9 ne>ly all me*anical draw+s4 ,! mak+ ( a complete circle is a matt] ( no great difficulty1 b ! beg9n+ & t]m9ation ( p>ts ( circles require bo? judgm5t & consid]able practice4 ,to aid ! /ud5t ^! two illu/rations ( circles are introduc$4 ,to draw fig4 #bbj ) a p5cil1 us+ ! upp] edge ( ! blade ( ! ,t-squ>e z a guide1 draw a c5t] l9e1 ,a ,b1 m>k on x a di/ance ( #d in*es1 space ?is into half in*es1 us+ ! divid]s & mak+ ! po9ts ) x2 !n ) ! p5cil compasses or b[ p5cil1 :i* mu/ be held z %[n on page #bji1 & rotat$ f left to "r1 or clockwise1 draw a s]ies ( circles ?r\gh ^! po9ts1 tang5t to "o ano!r or all t\*+ at ,a1 c>e be+ tak5 t ! p5cil l9es exactly meet at ,a1 & also cut ! divid$ po9ts z %[n 9 ! illu/ration4 ,= fig4 #bba divide ! c5t] l9e z be=e1 & draw ! semi-circles on x ,a ,b1 ,b ,c1 meet+ at ,b1 & ,c ,d1 ,d ,e1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,n[ f c5t] ,b draw circles ,a ,c1 ,c ,e1 meet+ 9 ,c1 & s on ) ! circles1 arcs or segm5ts2 success 9 draw+ ?is figure dep5ds on ! correct spac+ ( ! c5t] l9e 9 ! fir/ in/ance into equal p>ts4 ,! ,t-squ>e %\ld be us$ = draw+ horizontal l9es only4 ,its head %\ld always be plac$ ^u ! left edge ( ! bo>d4 ,v]tical l9es %\ld be drawn by ! use ( a triangle plac$ ^u ! ,t-squ>e & n by means ( ! ,t-squ>e only2 because ! edges ( a bo>d are seldom at "r angles to ea* o!r1 & ! blade ( ! ,t-squ>e is (t5 n at "r angles to ! head1 s t l9es at "r angles to ea* o!r w n result f ! use ( ! ,t-squ>e ^u all edges ( ! bo>d4 ,only ! upp] edge ( ! ,t-squ>e %\ld be us$1 z ! edges are (t5 n q /raight or p>allel4 ,! #de triangle has two angles ( #de & "o ( #ij4 ,! #cj & #fj triangle has an angle ( #cj1 "o ( #fj1 & "o ( #ij4 ,by plac+ ^! triangles ^u ! ,t-squ>e1 l9es at any ( ^! angles ) a v]tical or horizontal l9e may be drawn4 ,draw+s f9i%$ 9 ink are mu* m effective & desirable ?an p5cil draw+s2 b z a good ink$ draw+ _c be made except ^u an accurate p5cil draw+1 /ud5ts %\ld beg9 ) ! p5cil1 & %\ld n use ink until !y are able to produce satisfactory results 9 p5cil4 ,projection4 ,! ^w projection means to ?r[ =w>d1 & 9 ord9>y ma*9e draw+ x is ! project+ or ?r[+ =w>d ( "o view f ano!r view4 ,9 draw+s ! l9es 9 "o view or plan may be avail$ ( to f9d ^? ( o!rs ( ! same object1 & also to f9d _! %ape or curvature z !y w\ld appe> 9 ! o!r repres5tations2 ?is is call$ projection-draw+4 ,fig4 #bbb is ! illu/ration z %[n 9 fig4 #bab on page #adc1 ) ! addition ( dott$ projection l9e1 :i* illu/rates ! me?od ( ?r[+ =w>d ! section & ! end view ( ! object2 ^! two views are procur$ f ! plan or fir/ figure1 z %[n 9 fig4 #bbb4 ,fig4 #bbd repres5ts ! squ>e bolt & nut %[n 9 fig4 #baf1 & ! mode ( project+ is simil>ly %[n by dott$ l9es4 ,fig4 #bbc %[s file h&le %[n 9 fig4 #bae & ! mode ( project+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,! pr9ciples ^u :i* 8projection0 9 draw+ is bas$1 are illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ examples & text3 ,z a real object c be scal$ ) a foot rule1 s a draw+ mu/ p]mit ( scal+ & measur+4 ,?is measur+ may take place z ) ! real object 9 full size or ! draw+ may1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 be reproduc$ & measur$ 9 a r$uc$ scale1 z half1 or 9 /ill small] sizes4 ,sometimes x may prove conv5i5t to enl>ge ! draw+ to twice ! natural size ( ! object1 z a means ( mak+ x /& out m cle>ly ?an ! real size w\ld accompli%4 ,= practical purposes1 x is productive ( economy ( "t to m>k ! dim5sions ( height & wid? or dep? on ! draw+ 9 figures1 to avoid ! scal+4 ,?is m>k+ ( ! dim5sions is be/ done at ! "t ( mak+ ! draw+1 :ile ! conception ( ! object is cle>4 ,to convey a correct impression ( ! object1 all l9es t are m>k$ to be ( equal l5g? %\ld appe> equally long on ! draw+ & be capable ( be+ scal$ to su* equal l5g?2 = ?is1 x mu/ be assum$ t ! eye ( ! obs]v] is equally di/ant f all po9ts ( a plane ?r\gh ! ne>e/ po9t1 or "o ( ! axes ( ! object1 & t ! l9es ( sight are all p>allel to ea* o!r & squ>e to ?is plane4 ,9 fig4 #bbe ^! l9es ( sight are se5 z direct$ t[>d "o side ( a cube or block2 x w be readily und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t 9 ?is way no?+ is visible & accessible = scal+ & dim5sion+ except ?is front face ( ! block1 ?us1 a det]m9ation ( ! dim5sions ( only height & wid? w\ld be possible1 :ile ! dim5sion ( dep? is entirely undet]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,x is ?us necess>y to get a view ( ! block f ano!r side2 ! direction 9 :i* x w be mo/ in/ructive to obta9 additional views is 9 ! direction ( ! bread? & ( ! l5g? & squ>e to ! l9es ( sight ( ! fir/ view4 ,fig4 #bbf %[s h[ ! l9es ( sight w\ld /rike ! object 9 ! ?ree directions4 ,if ^! l9es %\ld be rays ( light1 "s ( !m w\ld pass by ! body until !y squ>ely /rike ! l>ge plane surfaces1 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii2 naturally ! rays ( light on ! faces ( ! object w be reta9$1 & _c /rike ! plane surfaces1 ?us leav+ d>k %ad[s ( exactly ! same outl9es z ! block2 ^! w\ld be exact draw+s ( ! faces1 & if by "s means !y c be fix$ & reta9$ on ! plane !y c be completely measur$ & dim5sion$4 ,?is ?r[+ =w>d ( ! outl9e ( ! object 9 diff]5t views on ! planes is call$ projection ( ! object1 & furni%es a highly important means ( fix+ ! outl9es & dim5sions 9 ! ?ree ma9 directions ( height1 wid? & dep?2 evid5tly1 ! light rays pass+ by ! front face may n all rea* ! plane ( projection1 b !y may be reta9$ by protrud+ p>ts ( ! object beh9d ! front face4 ,^! protrud+ p>ts naturally w\ld also be project$ on ! plane 9 ! same mann] z ! ma9 body ( ! block4 ,^! projections ( ! protrud+ "p are pla9ly visible 9 plane ,,ii & plane ,,iii1 :ile ! "p w\ld n be drawn 9 outl9e 9 plane ,i4 ,x may be imag9$1 h[ev]1 t ! great] ?ickness ( ! body 9 ! direction ( ! protrud+ "p w\ld int5sify also ! %ad[1 ?us outl9+ ! face ( ! protrud+ "p 9 plane ,i4 ,x is app>5t t ^! ?ree projections are all ne$$1 b z draw+ is all done 9 "o s+le plane1 ! ?ree projections w = ! sake ( conv5i5ce h to be br\ght into a s+le plane4 ,?is c be realiz$ if plane ,,ii is swung ar\nd axis ,o ,z & plane ,,iii ar\nd axis ,o ,y1 until all ?ree surfaces are 9 "o s+le plane1 :i* w\ld !n appe> z %[n 9 fig4 #bbg4 ,x is also possible to assume transp>5t planes 9 front ( ! body & ext5d ! p>allel l9es ( sight =w>d in/ead ( backw>d4 ,?us an outl9e picture w be creat$ on ea* ( ! ?ree planes ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii 9 fig4 #bbh1 9 a mann] simil> to fig4 #bbf4 ,= draw+ purposes1 all ?ree views aga9 h to be br\ght into a s+le plane1 :i* is done by sw++ ,,ii ar\nd ,o ,z1 & ,,iii ar\nd ,o ,y 9 ! same mann] z fig4 #bbg 0 evolv$ f fig4 #bbf4 ,x w be not$ t 9 fig4 #bbi plane ,,iii is n[ above ,i & plane ,,ii on ! left-h& side ( ,i1 :ile 9 fig4 #bbg !y 7 bel[ & at ! "r-h& side ( plane ,i4 ,z ! sw++ ( ! top & side planes takes place ar\nd ! edges ( ! front plane ,i two sy/ems may ?us be di/+ui%$1 accord+ to ! position ( plane ,i 9 reg>d to ! object4 ,fig4 #bbf ?us repres5ts ! sy/em ( backw>d projection1 :ile fig4 #bbh repres5ts ! sy/em ( =w>d projection4 ,ei!r sy/em c h1 h[ev]1 ! plane ,,ii at ! "r- or left-h& side edge1 :ile plane ,,iii may be atta*$ to ! top or bottom edge ( plane ,i2 x is readily und]/ood t a numb] ( comb9ations are possible = ea* sy/em1 z x is n necess>y to adh]e absolutely to "o rule4 ,! sy/em ( =w>d projection is ! "o g5]ally practic$ & fur!r examples are all execut$ by ?is sy/em1 mean+ t ! planes are always betwe5 ! obs]v] & ! object4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,= ! cle>ness ( ! draw+1 x is desirable to h all corn]s1 edges & outl9es appe> 9 su* solid l9es z !y appe> to ! eye4 ,if1 !re=e1 c]ta9 %>ply def9$ outl9es occur on "o side m ?an on ! opposite "o1 x is mo/ desirable to take ! view aga9/ ! side t has ! mo/ def9itely m>k$ outl9es4 ,if ! opposite side %\ld %[ a numb] ( :olly diff]5t features1 x may prove ev5 desirable to %[ ?is side also1 ?us ga9+ f\r views in/ead ( ! usual ?ree1 & s obta9 a m complete und]/&+ ( ! %ape ( ! object1 besides giv+ increas$ facilities = dim5sion+ ea* "p ( ! body4 ,?is additional view may be tak5 f ! sides1 z well z up or d[n1 ?us mak+ a maximum ( five views possible by :i* ! outside ( ! object may be del9eat$4 ,fig4 #bcj %[s :y x may be desirable to take five views ( a block t has a rec$+ space ( diff]5t outl9es 9 ea* ( ! side & top & bottom faces4 ,x is n necess>y1 h[ev]1 to resort to five views 9 su* a case z is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bcj1 z ! only diff]+ feature1 ! circul> space 9 ,,iii bottom1 might be %[n 9 ,,iii top by dott$ l9es1 & ! diff]5ce ( ,,ii "r might be %[n 9 ,,ii left1 also by dott$ l9es4 ,x is desirable to %[ f\r or five views only :]e great complication & consequ5t lack ( cle>ness ?r\gh num]\s dott$ l9es w\ld result f hav+ a less numb] ( views4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,s f> ! projections & views h only repres5t$ ! outl9es ( ! object2 x may (t5 be desirable1 h[ev]1 to %[ c5tral holes or o!r p]=ations or v>iations ( sections2 9 ?is case x is possible to imag9e ! object cut 9 slices1 by planes1 ?r\gh c]ta9 well def9$ axes1 or o!r l9es ( di/9ctive importance1 & !n take a view ( ?is sectional plane ) its newly creat$ int]sections or %>ply m>k$ outl9es2 ?us1 a section may (t5 take ! place ( ! ?ird1 f\r? or fif? view to great advantage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,x is n always possible to get a view aga9/ a face or side ( ! object1 b1 ) irregul>ly %ap$ bodies or "u special conditions1 x may be necess>y to take a view ( corn]s1 slop+ planes1 curv$ or irregul>ly %ap$ surfaces4 ,fig4 #bca %[s a hexagonal nut 9 ! ?ree normal projections2 f ! top view x is readily se5 t ! front view %[s ! side ( ! hexagon 9 a contract$ scale1 & t !re=e ! scal+ & dim5sion+ = ! horizontal direction h all to be done 9 ! top or plan view2 ! front & side views convey1 h[ev]1 ! dim5sion ( height correctly1 & ^! are !re=e ! "r places = scal+ & dim5sion+ 9 ! v]tical direction4 ,fig4 #bca %[s h[ a cyl9drical outl9e appe>s 9 ! ?ree views2 ! hole 9 ! nut pres5ts itself z circul> 9 ! top view1 :ile x appe>s 9 ! front & side views z a rectangle4 ,= simple objects1 x is unnecess>y to %[ ! edges ( ! planes1 & ! ?ree views are gr\p$1 z reg>ds di/ances & positions1 z mo/ conv5i5t = ! execution ( ! draw+4 ,:]e slop+ surfaces are ( irregul> =m1 x may be necess>y to employ help l9es = _! full det]m9ation 9 ! ?ree views4 ,fig4 #bcb %[s h[ ! surface t is produc$ by a slant+ cut ?r\gh a cyl9d] w\ld appe> 9 ! ?ree views4 ,! help l9es are plac$ 9 ! top view 9 eight equal divisions ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! cyl9d]4 ,^! division l9es are %[n by dott$ l9es on ! cyl9d] 9 ! front & side views4 ,_! int]sections1 ) ! slop+ cut 9 ! front view1 furni% also ! height ( ! correspond+ po9ts = ! side view4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,by progressive det]m9ation ( po9ts1 l9es & surfaces1 ev5 ! mo/ complicat$ bodies c be completely repres5t$ = _! reproduction 9 any application to me*anical or indu/rial purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,! spur :eel %[n on page #afc is an example ( projection draw+4 ,! :eel is illu/rat$ 9 ?ree views3 fig4 #bce is a side view1 or elevation2 fig4 #bcd is a front elevation2 fig4 #bcc is a section view on ,c ,d4 ,! section is project$ f ! front elevation by draw+ p>allel l9es f ! po9ts 9 front elevation :]e ! l9es are int]sect$ by ! c5t] l9e ,c ,d1 cutt+ ! plane ( view & %[+ ! int]ior %ape at ,c ,d4 ,! side elevation1 fig4 #bce1 is project$ f ! front elevation1 fig4 #bcd1 by draw+ p>allel l9es f ! edges 9 ! front view across its face4 ,9 actual draw+ practice ! figures %\ld be made ab\t ?ree times l>g] ?an ! example1 & z foll[s3 ,= ! front elevation draw ! c5t] l9es ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 & f _! po9t ( int]section z a c5t]1 ) ! compasses draw ! inn] circle or hole1 also ! pit* l9e ,e ,e4 ,) ! divid]s space ?is l9e into n9ete5 equal divisions2 ea* po9t on ?is l9e w be ! c5t] ( a too?1 & ! di/ance f "o po9t to ! next "o is ! pit* ( ! too?4 ,n[1 ) ! divid]s m>k (f ! ?ickness ( too? at ea* side ( ^! po9ts on pit* l9e2 ) ! compasses draw ! out] circle = po9ts ( tee?1 ! inn] circle = ! root ( tee?1 & circles = ?ickness ( rim & hub2 also circles repres5t+ ! fillets at rim & hub4 ,= cle>ness & to prev5t confusion ^! l9es are %[n on "o-half ! :eel only1 t]m9at+ 9 c5t] l9e ,c ,d2 all ! l9es ( ! front elevation are n[ complete except+ ! tee?4 ,9 ! draw+ (fice x is unusual to del9eate all ! tee? 9 a ge> :eel1 ! l9es )\t ! tee? z n[ complet$ be+ deem$ suffici5t1 giv+ all p>ticul>s2 h[ev]1 to prev5t ! error ( mi/ak+ ! circles x is well to repres5t "o or two tee? on ! draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--;,fig4 #bcd4--;,fig4 #bce4 ,9 ! example1 proce$ & complete ! entire :eel1 tak+ on ! compasses a radius equal to ! pit* ( ! too?2 set !m on ! pit* l9e at ! po9t ,g1 already spac$ = ?ickness ( too?1 draw l9e ,h f pit* l9e to root ( too?2 proce$ simil>ly all ar\nd ! circle1 complet+ "o side4 ,next1 rev]se ! op]ation & draw ! correspond+ side ( ! root ( too?4 ,n[ take a radius equal to half ! space betwe5 tee? & ! ?ickness ( too? on pit* l9e1 &1 ) c5t] 9 pit* l9e1 z %[n at ,i1 draw ! outside or add5dum ( too?1 ,j2 x w be app>5t t ! rev]se add5dum ( ! too? next adjo9+ c be =m$ at ! same "t1 ) "o sett+ ( ! compasses2 f9i% all ! tee? simil>ly2 ! front elevation w ?us be complet$4 ,fig4 #bcc is an excell5t example ( sectional draw+1 to be execut$ z foll[s3 ,fir/ draw ! c5t] l9e ,l ,m ( fig4 #bcc1 lay (f at ea* side ( x half ! bread? ( face & ( ! hub2 n[ project1 f c5t] l9e ,c ,d1 9 ! front elevation1 fig4 #bcd1 ) ! ,t-squ>e ! upp] & l[] tee?1 ! fillets1 ! *amf]s1 ! hub & c5t] hole1 also dot 9 ! pit* l9e ,f ,f1 take ! radii & draw ! fillets & *amf]s2 draw section l9es & ! view w appe> z %[n 9 fig4 #bcc4 ,fig4 #bce is a side elevation ( fig4 #bcd1 & is a f9e sample ( projection1 to be execut$ z foll[s3 ,proce$ simil>ly z = fig4 #bcc1 project+ ! l9es f ! outside edges ( ! front elevation1 in/ead ( f ! c5t] l9e ,c ,d z 9 la/ figure1 & ! end elevation w be z %[n 9 fig4 #bce4 ,! /ud5t w be assi/$ 9 und]/&+ ?is work+ draw+ by consult+ ! pages "u ! head+ ( 8,ge>+40 ,illu/ration3 ,,lett]+1 ,,ink+ ,,section ,,l9+ ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 8,ink+ ,90 ,draw+s4 ,:5 a draw+ is completely f9i%$ 9 p5cil+1 x %\ld next be 8ink$ 90 = pres]vation4 ,c>e %\ld be us$ t ! p5 may be p]fectly clean2 ! p5 %\ld be held ne>ly v]tical1 lean+ j en\gh to prev5t x f cat*+ on ! pap]2 ! p5 %\ld be held betwe5 ! ?umb & fir/ & second f+]s1 ! knuckles be+ b5t1 s t x may be at "r angles ) ! l5g? ( ! h&4 ,! ink %\ld be rubb$ up fre% :5ev] x is ab\t to be us$1 = x is bett] to wa/e a little "t 9 prep>+ ink sl[ly ?an to be at a cont9ual tr\ble ) p5s1 :i* w occur if ! ink is gr\nd too rapidly or on a r\gh surface4 ,to te/ ink1 a few l9es c be drawn on ! m>g9 ( a %eet1 not+ ! %ade1 h[ ! ink fl[s f ! p51 & :e!r ! l9es are %>p4 ,aft] ! l9es h dri$1 cross !m ) a wet bru%2 if !y wa% readily1 ! ink is too s(t2 if !y resi/ ! wat] = a "t & !n wa% t>dily1 ! ink is good4 ,c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ n to ov]load ! p5 ) ink1 &1 l ! p5cil1 ! p5 %\ld always be mov$ f left to "r & f ! bottom to ! top ( ! bo>d4 ,:5 ink+1 bo? 8nibs0 ( ! p5 po9t mu/ re/ ev5ly on ! pap] & ! p5 be press$ only lightly aga9/ ! ,t-squ>e4 ,nev] ink any portion ( a draw+ until ! p5cil+ is complete4 ,9 ink+ long1 f9e l9es x is well to g ov] ea* l9e twice1 )\t mov+ ! ,t-squ>e1 try+ n to wid5 ! l9e on ! second passage2 also see t ! p5 conta9s ink en\gh to f9i% a l9e1 z x is difficult to cont9ue ) ! same wid? ( l9e aft] re-fill+4 ,to produce f9i%$ draw+s1 x is necess>y t no portion %\ld be eras$1 o!rwise ! color appli$ w be unequal 9 tone2 ?us1 :5 highly f9i%$ me*anical draw+s are requir$1 x is usual to draw an orig9al & to copy x4 ,:]e suffici5t "t _c be giv5 to draw & copy1 a v good way is to take ! surface (f ! pap] ) f9e s&-pap] be=e comm5c+ ! draw+2 if ?is be done1 ! color w fl[ equally ov] any erasure x may be necess>y to make aft]w>ds4 ,! rules ( proc$ure 9 draw+ ! l9es 9 8ink+0 are1 #a1 ink 9 ! small circles & curves2 #b1 ink 9 ! l>g] circles & curves2 #c1 !n all ! horizontal l9es1 beg9n+ at ! top ( ! draw+ & work+ d[nw>d2 #d1 next ink 9 all ! v]tical l9es1 comm5c+ at ! left & mov+ back to ! "r2 #e1 draw 9 ! oblique l9es2 #f1 all ! c5t] l9es & dim5sion & ref]5ce l9es4 ,! figur+ & lett]+ %\ld be always done ) ,india ink1 ?or\ghly black2 ! la/ l9es to be drawn are ! section l9es4 ,! reason :y irregul> curves & arcs ( circles are ink$ 9 fir/ is1 t x is easi] to draw a /raight l9e up to a curve ?an to take a curve up to a /raight l9e4 ,9 practice1 ! flat side ( ! draw+-p5 is laid aga9/ ! tee-squ>e or rul]2 ! tap] ( ! blade ( ! p5 is suffici5t to ?r[ ! po9t en\gh away f ! edge to prev5t blott+2 ! p5 is drawn f left to "r & f ! bottom to ! top ( ! bo>d4 ,?is is %[n 9 fig4 #bcg1 int5d$ to repres5t 8%ort "w0 ) ! draw+-p54 ,! wri/ is %[n re/+ ^u ! blade ( ! squ>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,9 a simil> figure1 #bch1 ! position ( ! h& hold+ ! p5 indicates ! be/ relative po/ure = ink+ long l9es4 ,9 "o ( ^! illu/rations ! "w is execut$ pr9cipally by ! wri/--9 ! o!r by ! arms & f+]s work+ toge!r4 ,! p5 %\ld be held ) ev5 pressure aga9/ ! /raight-edge or curve4 ,if ! pressure v>ies1 ! blades w spr+ & ! wid? ( ! l9e w *ange4 ,! blades %\ld be ( su* l5g? t bo? w be> equally ^u ! pap] :5 ! p5 is incl9$ slightly1 s z to br+ ! inn] blade ne> ! /raight-edge2 ! angle ( ! p5 %\ld n be *ang$ :ile draw+ any l9e4 ,:5 ! ink+ is f9i%$1 ! :ole draw+ may be clean$ by rubb+ x ) bread :i* is n greasy or s fre% z to /ick to ! pap]4 ,if ! pap] is mu* soil$ x may be necess>y to use an eras]4 ,a s(t p5cil eras] %\ld be us$ & great c>e tak5 t ! ink l9es are n light5$ & brok5 by x4 ,to avoid ! necessity ( us+ an eras] ^u a f9i%$ draw+1 in/rum5ts & pap] mu/ be kept free f du/ & dirt4 ,! triangles & ,t-squ>e %\ld be clean$ (t51 by rubb+ !m vigor\sly ^u r\gh1 clean pap]4 ,p\nce is a p[d] us$ to prev5t blott+ 9 rewrit+ ov] erasures2 x is held 9 a bag or small box ) a p]=at$ lid = conv5i5ce 9 spr9kl+ on pap]2 :5 us$ x %\ld be di/ribut$ ev5ly ) a piece ( *amois1 & ! surplus or loose p>ticles remov$ be=e apply+ ! ink4 ,a draw+ is made to be read1 & ! skill 9 ink+1 z 9 8free-h&0 & 9 p5cil+1 does n consi/ s mu* 9 ! f95ess ( ! l9es z 9 _! cle>ness4 ,lett]+ ,draw+s4 ,lett]+ is an important "p ( mak+ draw+s1 ! object aim$ at be+ to id5tify any portion by ref]5ce lett] or lett]s2 ?us 9 fig4 #bci ! l9e ,a ,c describes ! l9e ext5d+ f ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,any in=mation :i* _c be express$ 9 ! draw+ is always express$ by lett]+1 & x is desirable to conf9e ! lett]+ ( draw+s to "o or two /&>d alphabets t are pla9 & di/9ct1 & ! pr9ciples ( :i* are easily acquir$4 ,^! conditions are fulfill$ 9 ! ,go?ic fonts %[n on page #agc4 ,bo? lett]s & figures mu/ be c>efully made & ( uni=m proportion2 x is well to 8lay out0 ^! by regul> measurem5t be=e p]man5tly ink+ !m4 ,lett]s %\ld n be less ?an "o-eigh? ( an in* 9 height & p5cil$ c>efully be=e ink+4 ,on page #agc are pr9t$ two =ms ( num]als & lett]s ( ! alphabet2 x is recomm5d$ t ^! be us$ bo? = practice 9 free-h& & = regul> (fice "w4 ,= easy ref]5ce1 lett]s %\ld n be cr[d$ nor all[$ to int]f]e ) "o ano!r2 !y %\ld be drawn neatly1 avoid+ all l9es ( ! draw+2 pla9 lett]s are always us$ on me*anical draw+s1 :e!r = title1 scale1 ref]5ce1 etc4 ,arr[-heads1 figures & lett]s %\ld be 9 black1 & made ) a writ+ p54 ,a p5 ) a ball po9t is pref]able1 giv+ an equal ?ickness ( l9e1 no matt] 9 :i* direction ! /roke is made4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,neat1 well-lett]$ draw+s g f> t[>ds e/abli%+ a high /&+ = ! aspir+ draughtsman4 ,all lett]+ %\ld be done free-h&1 fir/ ) ! p5cil1 %>p5$ to a f9e r\nd po9t1 & aft]w>ds writt5 9 ink4 ,= ?is purpose common writ+ p5s are be/ to be us$2 fig4 #bdj repres5ts ! sev]al numb]s ( ! approv$ ,gillott's p5s adapt$ to ?is purpose4 ,9 lett]+1 x is well1 = a guide = size & location1 to draw1 ) a r\nd-po9t$ p5cil1 two horizontal l9es j ! height ! lett]s are to be2 ! lett]s are also be/ made ) c>eful use ( ! in/rum5ts1 r ?an free-h&4 ,9 ord] to lett] sy/ematically1 x is a good plan to />t ) ! middle lett] ( ! inscription & "w 9 bo? directions2 mak+ too prom95t lett]s %\ld be avoid$1 pla9 & di/9ct lett]s be+ mo/ desirable4 ,f9ally1 ) an ord9>y writ+ p51 trace ov] ! p5cil+ 9 ink2 ! p5cil guide l9es be+ eras$ aft] ! lett]s are ink$ 9 completes ! op]ation4 ,illu/ration ,an important matt] 9 connection ) lett]+ a draw+ is ! location ( ! lett]s2 ^! %\ld be s plac$ z n to int]f]e ) ! l9es ( ! draw+ & %\ld cle>ly po9t out ! "p int5d$ to be describ$4 ,:5 s+le lett]s are us$1 !y %\ld be ink$ 9 be=e ! %ade or section l9es are drawn4 ,fig4 #bda is an example introduc$ to %[ ! me?od ( lett]+ a descriptive me*anical draw+4 ,! figure %[s a 8bl[-(f valve0 ( approv$ design drawn 9 section2 ! lett]s designate ! sev]al p>ts2 ! read+ to accompany ! lett]+ is z foll[s3 ,a--,inlet communicat+ ) annul> passage 7,c7 to admit /eam1 :i* bl[s (f scale & s$im5t f seat 7,e7 be=e disc 7,l7 comes 9 contact ) same4 ,b--,plug to p]mit passage ( rod to clean out bl[-(f pipe4 ,c--,annul> /eam passage ar\nd cas+ 7,d7 & communicat+ ) inlet 7,a74 ,d--,removable bronze cas+1 9 :i* plug 7,l7 fits snugly4 ,e--,removable bronze seat r+1 :i* also holds cas+ 7,d7 9 place4 ,j--,slot 9 cas+ 7,d7 arrang$ to dis*>ge %eet ( /eam f ,c1 :i*1 bl[+ across seat 7,e71 cleans (f scale & s$im5t be=e contact ) disc 7,l74 ,k--,non-rotat+ wa%] to prev5t loos5+ ( locknut 7,h7 :5 op5+ valve4 ,l--,rev]sible disc1 hav+ two ,babbitt-metal seat+ faces 7,f7 7,f74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bda4 ,dim5sion+ ,draw+s4 ,to 8dim5sion0 work+ draw+s is to place measurem5ts ^u ! p>ts repres5t$1 to enable ! workman to proce$ )\t measur+ ! draw+ itself4 ,^! dim5sions %\ld be plac$ s z n to int]f]e ) nor cr[d ! l9es ( ! draw+1 nor yet int]f]e ) "o ano!r4 ,arr[-heads are us$ at ! extreme po9ts ( measurem5t1 ! figures are g5]ally ins]t$ midway betwe5 ! arr[s2 a dot & da% l9e rea*es f ! figure to ! arr[-heads1 z %[n bel[4 ,illu/ration ,:5 ! dim5sion is %ort ^! l9es are omitt$ & ! dim5sion is plac$ outside ! draw+1 ?us ,illu/ration & connect$ by a curv$ l9e2 at o!r times x is f\nd ne$ful to place arr[-heads outside ! draw+ & ! measurem5t inside4 ,illu/ration ,:5 ! dim5sion is long & n>r[ x is usual to c>ry ! dim5sions "u ! draw+ by dott$ & da% l9es1 z %[n bel[4 ,illu/ration ,arr[-heads & figures %\ld be drawn free-h& ) a common writ+ p54 ,usually dim5sions are giv5 9 in*es1 up to #bd in*es1 z x is f\nd less confus+2 = in/ance1 if writt5 #a #a x may be mi/ak5 = #aa2 if writt5 #ac no mi/ake c\ld be made4 ,aga91 #a #j may be mi/ak5 = #aj2 if writt5 #ab x w\ld n2 9 addition to be+ m di/9ct1 x occupies less space on ! draw+4 ,9 l>ge measurem5ts !re is m room = ! figures1 &1 !re=e1 !y c be spac$ fur!r ap>t--9 feet & in*es4 ,all figures %\ld be made ( a fairly l>ge size4 ,v]tical dim5sions %\ld read f ! "r h&1 ?us1 z %[n3 ,illu/ration ,measurem5ts ( importance1 su* z ! diamet] ( a circle1 ! pit* or di/ance ap>t ( rivets & bolts1 etc41 %\ld be m>k$ 9 figures on ! draw+4 ,:5 r\gh or unf9i%$ "w is mix$ ) ma*9$ or f9i%$ portions1 x is usual to m>k ,f1 or 8f9410 aft] ! latt] dim5sion4 ,9 practice1 at times1 in/ead ( dim5sions ref]5ce lett]s are us$1 ?us3 ,illu/ration3 ,d diam4 ( %aft1 #b in*es4 ,l l5g? ( be>+1 #c in*es4 ,t ?ickness ( coll>1 in*4 d diam4 ( coll>1 #c in*es4 ,g5]ally x is pref]able to give ! diamet]s ( turn$ & bor$ "w on a section1 in/ead ( an end drawn sep>ately2 confusion is sometimes caus$ by a numb] ( radial dim5sions4 ,fig4 #bdb & fig4 #bdc are introduc$ to %[ ! pr9cipal measurem5ts requir$ 9 practical "w1 & ! usual way 9 :i* su* dim5sions are m>k$ :5 ord]+ p>ts ( ma*9]y4 ,fig4 #bdb is a p$e/al1 or metal frame2 ?ree views are %[n1 ! c5t] figure be+ an elevation1 ! l[] figure is ! plan ( ! base1 ! upp] figure is a view ( ! top1 on :i* is bolt$ ! be>+ block1 x be+ on ! outside ( ! c5t] figure4 ,! ess5tial measurem5ts are m>k$ by lett]s4 ,h is ! v]tical height f base to ! seat ( be>+ block3 ,l be+ ! l5g?1 & ,w ! wid? ( ! base2 ,p is ! l5g? betwe5 *ecks1 & ,b ! wid? ( seat = be>+ block2 ,c is ! di/ance f c5t] to c5t] ( ! hold+ d[n bolt holes1 & ,t is ! dep? ( ! holes 9 ! base2 ,k is ! di/ance f c5t] to c5t] ( ! bolt holes 9 ! top = be>+ block4 ,fig4 #bdc is a hang]1 or metal bracket1 & %[s ! c5t] figure or elevation1 ! plan ( ! top & ! plan ( ! seat = be>+ block1 :i* is bolt$ on ! int]ior ( ! c5t] figure4 ,h is ! v]tical di/ance f ! top to ! seat = be>+ block2 ! o!r measurem5ts requir$ are m>k$ by lett]s simil> to figure #bdb4 ,n[1 "o ( ! important matt]s 9 connection ) dim5sion+ a draw+ is ! location ( ! figures4 ,"o rule1 ^: utility _c be ga9said1 is t !y %\ld be s locat$ t !y c be alt]$ or eras$ )\t damage to ! l9es ( ! draw+1 z *anges may be necessitat$ ei!r by orig9al errors 9 writ+ d[n ! figures or by *anges 9 ! design be+ f\nd desirable dur+ ! con/ruction ( ! ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--;,fig4 #bdd4 ,%ad+ ,draw+s4 ,to produce an effect1 draw+s are %ad$2 t is1 %ad[ l9es ab\t twice ! wid? ( ! regul> l9e are drawn accord+ to a recogniz$ rule1 :i* always repres5ts ! same peculi>ity ( =m 9 ! same way4 ,9 work+ draw+s light l9es only are p]mitt$2 %ade l9es are wid] ?an ! work+ l9es1 & 9 read+ scale measurem5ts ! extra ?ickness ( l9e w\ld make a diff]5ce4 ,in/ead ( repres5t+ ! %ad[ z x is really ca/ by ! object1 ! edges :i* ca/ ! %ad[ are det]m9$1 & all ! views are treat$ z if ! light came f beh9d & f ! left1 d[nw>ds1 at an angle ( #de to ! horizontal l9e1 z %[n by ! arr[s 9 figs4 #bde to #bdh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bde4--;,fig4 #bdf4--;,fig4 #bdg4--;,fig4 #bdh4 ,! l[] & "r-h& outl9es ( project+ p>ts w ca/ %ad[s1 & ! /ud5t %\ld make !m ( extra wid?4 ,fig4 #bdi3 ,9 %ad+ curves1 divide ! c5t] l9e z be=e 7see page #adf7 & describe circles f c5t]1 ,d2 ^! l9es are n to be %ad$ 9 p5cil+1 b :5 ink+4 ,! figures repres5t two r+s1 ,a & ,c1 & spaces1 ,b & ,d4 ,! outside ( a surface is %ad$ accord+ to circle #a1 & ! inside surface accord+ to circle #b4 ,?is w give ! desir$ %ad+1 b x makes a draw+ incorrect1 & !re=e %ad+ is n us$ 9 work+ draw+s4 ,?is %ad+ is accompli%$ by ink+ ! circle fir/ ) regul> wid? ( l9e2 !n ) ! same radius remove ! po9t ( compasses f ! true c5t]1 plac+ x outside1 accord+ to ! desir$ position ( ! %ad$ l9e1 & describe an arc ( a circle4 ,9 fig4 #bej divide c5t] l9e z be=e2 ) ! #de triangle or set squ>e1 draw ?r\gh ! c5t] ! diagonals %[n by dott$ l9es2 & ?r\gh ! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 draw ! p]p5dicul>s1 cutt+ ! diagonals2 f ! po9ts ( int]section draw ! horizontal l9es1 complet+ ! squ>es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,n[1 take a radius ( half an in*1 & 9 ! corn] ( ea* squ>e draw ) ! b[-p5cil a circul> arc meet+ ! p5cil l9es exactly2 ) ! b[-p5 ink 9 ! arcs fir/1 !n ink c>efully ! l9es jo9+ ) ! arcs2 all l9es mu/ be ( ! same wid?2 put 9 ! %ade on arcs & l9es z 9 fig4 #bdi2 &1 f9ally1 erase ! p5cil l9es at corn]s1 etc4 ,section-,l9+4 ,cross-hat*+ has be5 def9$ 9 ! 8prelim9>y def9itions0 to draw+2 ?is t]m repres5ts ! practice ( draw+ diagonal l9es repres5t+ ! int]ior ( an object1 %[n z a piece cut 9 half or :5 a piece is brok5 away4 ,?is is done to make m ( ! p>ts %[1 or to exhibit m cle>ly ! nature ( ! mat]ials2 h5ce section l9+ & cross-hat*+ tell ! same ?+1 i4 e41 ! draw+ ( diagonal l9es1 usually at an angle ( #de1 to %[ t ! object is brok5 away & ! int]ior design$ to be repres5t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,ca/ iron4 ,fig4 #bea4 ,illu/ration3 ,wr\ght iron4 ,fig4 #beb4 ,illu/ration3 ,/eel4 ,fig4 #bec4 ,illu/ration3 ,composition4 ,fig4 #bed4 ,illu/ration3 ,vulcanite4 ,fig4 #bee4 ,illu/ration3 ,wood4 ,fig4 #bef4 ,illu/ration3 ,lea!r4 ,fig4 #beg4 ,illu/ration3 ,brick4 ,fig4 #beh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bei4 ,figs4 #bea to #beh1 inclusive1 %[ ! section l9+ & cross-hat*+ by :i* x is cu/om>y to repres5t ! v>i\s mat]ials ent]+ into a con/ruction4 ,9 fig4 #bei is outl9$ a repres5tation ( a section ( a cog-:eel2 section #a be+ ! wood cogs2 #b1 ! iron :eel1 & #c ! w$ges at ! root ( ! ge>4 ,x w\ld be impossible to convey ! same ideas by ord9>y plan or elevation draw+2 all ! objects on ! same page are m cle>ly repres5t$ by ! use ( section l9es or cross-hat*+4 ,section+ is execut$ by draw+ a s]ies ( p>allel l9es ab\t in*es ap>t4 ,lay ! #de triangle on ! upp] edge ( ! ,t-squ>e & draw ! top-mo/ l9e ( ! section+4 ,!n slide ! triangle along ! ,t-squ>e = ea* successive l9e4 ,! section+ %\ld be ink$ 9 )\t previ\s p5cil+ & ! l9es %\ld be f9] ?an ! l9es ( ! g5]al draw+4 ,v>i\s devices are 9 use = me*anically equaliz+ ! di/ances 9 section l9+1 b ! tra9$ eye is ! mo/ practical me?od4 ,:5 two abutt+ pieces are section$1 ! section l9+ on "o piece slants 9 an opposite direction to t on ! o!r4 ,to draw an object to be section$ on bo? sides ( its c5t] l9e1 only "o side is section$1 :ile ! o!r side is drawn 9 full4 ,sections are necess>y 9 ne>ly all ma*9e draw+s2 !y are usually tak5 horizontally or v]tically1 b !y may be tak5 9 any direction2 ! position ( a section %\ld be %[n by a l9e ^u ! object2 ?is l9e is call$ ! cutt+ plane4 ,9 fig4 #bfa is %[n ! hub ( a :eel1 x is also a sample ( "w = practice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,fig4 #bfj %[s ! mode ( repres5t+ two diff]5t mat]ials 9 "o plane1 or a section may be repres5t$ by ! d>k] portion1 & ! light] %ad$ portion be+ a surface re/+ on ! section4 ,fig4 #bfa %[s ! section ( a %aft surr\nd$ by ! surface ( a :eel4 ,,t9ts ,,& ,,colors4 ,= special purposes ( illu/ration draw+s are made :i* mu/ be t9t$4 ,9 su* cases ! pap] mu/ be exp&$ & /ret*$ ev5ly all ov] its surface2 o!rwise :5 ! moi/ t9t is appli$ ! pap] w wr9kle & get out ( %ape2 to d ?is cut ! pap] at lea/ half an in* less 9 size ?an ! draw+ bo>d2 lay ! pap] face d[n1 turn up a m>g9 or edge ( ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( an in* all r\nd1 !n damp5 ! pap] ) a sponge & clean wat]2 all[ x to soak = a few m9utes until x is ev5ly damp5$ or moi/5$ all ov]1 turn ! pap] upside d[n 7face up74 ,apply /rong pa/e to ! "u side ( ! m>g9 all r\nd2 rub d[n1 on ! draw+-bo>d1 work+ f ! c5t] ( ! bo>d outw>ds s z to exclude ! air & prev5t creases or furr[s4 ,! bo>d is !n incl9$ & left to dry sl[ly2 make sure t ! pap] is all well pa/$ & e "p ( ! edges atta*$ to ! bo>d4 ,if trac+s are requir$ to be t9t$ or %ad$1 ! color may be appli$ be=e ! trac+ is cut (f1 or :at is m usual1 ! color may be appli$ on ! back ( ! trac+2 !n !re is no liability to wa% out ! l9es4 ,me*anical draw+s are seldom t9t$1 b are ma9ly produc$ 9 ,india ink4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 a f9e effect is desir$1 work+ draw+s are color$1 s z to %[ at a glance ! mat]ial ( :i* ! diff]5t p>ts are to be made4 ,! colors requir$ are few b %\ld be ( ! be/ quality4 ,besides ,india ink ! foll[+ wat]-colors are g5]ally us$3 #a1 ,neutral-t9t4 #b1 ,prussian ,blue4 #c1 ,*rome ,yell[4 #d1 ,gamboge4 #e1 ,raw ,si5na4 #f1 ,c>m9e4 #g1 ,v]million4 #h1 ,v5etian ,r$4 #i1 ,sepia4 #aj1 ,indigo4 ,^! come 9 h>d cakes4 ,c]ta9 colors & t9ts repres5t diff]5t metals & mat]ials z foll[s3 ,wr\ght ,iron--,prussian ,blue4 ,/eel--,c>m9e & ,prussian ,blue1 mix$ to give a purple %ade4 ,/eel ,ca/+--,same z ! above d>k5$ by ,v5etian ,r$4 ,ca/-,iron--,neutral ,t9t made ( ,india ,ink1 indigo1 mix$ ) a little c>m9e4 ,brass--,gamboge or ,*rome ,yell[4 ,babbitt--,em]ald ,gre52 sometimes light mixture ( ,india ,ink4 ,copp]--,purple ,lake4 ,x is sometimes f\nd necess>y to prep>e a highly f9i%$ & %ad$ draw+ ( ! "w 9 h&4 ,su* elaborations1 9 fact1 are mu* admir$ by ! un9itiat$1 al?\gh ! complete %ad+ ( ! draw+ is no crit]ion z to ! sci5tific value ( ! ma*9e4 ,an illu/ration ( ?is is told 9 ! note4 ,,note4--,a consult+ eng9e] _h to lay be=e a bo>d ( directors plans ( horizontal eng9es = _! consid]ation4 ,"o ( ^! draw+s 0 ( a v sup]ior ma*9e1 b be+ only depict$ l9eally 0 at once reject$ by !m1 = a highly f9i%$ repres5tation ( a v inf]ior app>atus4 ,! eng9e]1 wi%+ to induce ! bo>d to decide = ! be/1 sugge/$ t ! matt] %\ld be po/pon$ to a future day1 & 9 ! meantime _h ! draw+ ( ! sup]ior ma*9e highly color$ & f9i%$4 ,at ! next meet+ ! directors unanim\sly decid$ t ?is 0 ! v "o :i* !y pref]r$ & _h *os54 ,reproduc+ ,draw+s4 ,:5 once f9i%$1 "o or m copies ( draw+s are frequ5tly requir$2 ^! are produc$1 #a1 by blue pr9t+1 z describ$ be=e2 #b1 by trac+4 ,a trac+ is a me*anical copy ( a design or draw+1 made by reproduc+ its l9es z se5 ?r\gh a transp>5t m$ium--z trac+-clo? or trac+-pap]4 ,trac+-clo? is a ?9 l95 fabric1 coat$ ) size2 ?is is call$ trac+-l9es2 trac+-pap] is s prep>$ z to be transp>5t1 s t x w receive m>ks ei!r 9 p5cil or ) p5 & ink4 ,trac+-clo? mu/ be fa/5$ to ! bo>d1 ov] ! draw+1 by p9s or o!r tacks2 moi/ure or dampness %\ld be c>efully avoid$ & ! draw+ done on ! smoo? side ( ! clo?4 ,:5 trac+ clo? w n take ink readily a small quantity ( p\nce may be appli$ to ! surface ( ! clo? & di/ribut$ ev5ly ) a piece ( cotton wa/e1 *amois1 or simil> mat]ial1 b ! p\nce %\ld be ?or\ghly remov$--by wa%+--be=e apply+ ! ink4 ,9 mak+ trac+s ! same ord] is foll[$ z describ$ "u ! section 8,ink+0--to repeat3 #a1 ink 9 ! small circles & curves2 #b1 ink 9 ! l>g] circles & curves2 #c1 !n all ! horizontal l9es1 beg9n+ at ! top ( ! draw+ & work+ d[nw>d2 #d1 next ink 9 all ! v]tical l9es1 comm5c+ at ! left & mov+ back to ! "r2 #e1 draw 9 ! oblique l9es2 #f1 all ! c5t] l9es r$ 7c>m9e71 & dim5sion & ref]5ce l9es 9 blue 7,prussian blue7 or vice v]sa4 ,! figur+ & lett]+ %\ld always be done ) ,india ink1 ?or\ghly black4 ,,blue ,,pr9t+4 ,copies ( draw+s or p>ts repres5t+ details & measurem5ts are frequ5tly ne$$ = ! (fice1 patt]n %op1 ma*9e & blacksmi? %op1 etc4 ,^! copies are be/ made by pr9t+ on s5sitiz$ or specially prep>$ pap]1 f trac+s drawn on transp>5t clo? or pap]1 z h]eabove describ$4 ,! orig9al design may be gu>d$ ) ! utmo/ c>e = long pres]vation1 b ! blue pr9ts1 s call$1 are = ready ref]5ce & use )\t mu* reg>d to ! l5g? ( "t !y are to be 9 exi/5ce4 ,! usual practice is to c>efully trace f ! draw+ on transp>5t clo? or pap] an exact reproduction ( x1 fill+ 9 all detail lett]+ & sizes or figur$ dim5sions4 ,?is trac+ is fix$ 9 a frame simil> to a picture frame1 ) ! side on :i* ! draw+ is made next to ! glass3 #a1 place ! s5sitiz$ side ( ! pap] 7:i* has be5 prep>$ previ\sly7 aga9/ ! back ( ! trac+2 #b1 fix s(t padd+ aga9/ ! back ( ! pap] & fa/5 x up s t bo? pap] & trac+ are compress$ firmly aga9/ ! glass1 p]mitt+ no creases or air spaces betwe5 !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,?is %\ld be done 9 a d>k5$ room2 #c1 expose = ?ree to six m9utes1 accord+ to ! int5sity ( ! sun2 #d1 take ! s5sitiz$ pap] out ( ! frame & quickly wa% well 9 clean runn+ cool wat]1 & ! draw+ w appe> 9 :ite l9es on blue gr\nd2 #e1 hang ! pr9t up by "o edge s t ! wat] w run (f & ! pr9t w soon dry & be ready = use4 ,,te/-,,pieces4 ,to make good bluepr9ts1 be+ guid$ only by ! appe>ance ( ! expos$ edge ( s5sitiz$ pap]1 requires consid]able exp]i5ce4 ,v (t51 especially on a cl\dy day1 ! edge looks j ab\t "r1 b :5 tak5 out ( ! frame & giv5 a r9s+1 x is only to f9d t ! pr9t looks pale because x %\ld h be5 all[$ to rema9 expos$ = a long] p]iod4 ,n[ simply take a small te/-piece ( ! same pap] 7say ab\t #d in*es squ>e7 & a piece ( trac+ clo? ) sev]al l9es on its surface & lay ^! small pieces out at ! same "t ! real pr9t is be+ expos$1 & cov] ^! samples ) a piece ( glass ab\t #d in*es squ>e4 ,z a g5]al rule1 we c f9d a place on top ( ! frame = ! te/+-piece1 & by hav+ a small di% ( wat] at h& = te/+ ! pr9t by te>+ (f a small bit & wa%+ same to note its appe>ance1 ! novice c get j z good results z ! exp]i5c$ h& )\t dang] ( failure4 ,,black ,,process ,,copy+4 ,?is is accompli%$ by specially s5sitiz$ pap] by :i* a fac-simile ( ! orig9al draw+ c be made2 t is1 black l9es ^u :ite gr\nd4 ,x also avoids ! objection to ! blue pr9t pap] ( %ad$ draw+s :i* %[ light & %ade rev]s$4 ,! pr9ts made by ! process are said to be absolutely p]man5t & c be alt]$1 add$ to or color$ ! same z orig9al draw+s4 ,! s5sitiz$ pap] is sold ready = use1 b x c be prep>$ by dissolv+ two ounces ( citrate ( iron & ammonium 9 eight ounces ( s(t wat]2 keep 9 a d>k bottle1 also1 "o & "o-?ird ounces ( r$ prussiate ( pota% 9 eight ounces ( wat]2 keep 9 ano!r d>k bottle2 :5 ab\t to use mix an equal quantity ( ea* 9 a cup & apply 9 a d>k room ) a s(t bru% or sponge to "o side ( :ite rag pap]1 simil> to envelope pap]1 let x dry & put away 9 a d>k place until requir$ = use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,draw+ ,,(fice ,,rules ,draw+ ,(fice ,rules4#a #a ,,note4--,a4 ,w4 ,rob9son1 ,m4,e41 ,montreal1 mu/ h all cr$it = ^! admirable rules & regulations4 ,!y br+ into a s+le focus ! :ole sci5ce & art ( me*anical draw+4 ,!re are draw+ (fices :]e f t5 to ne>ly "o hundr$ p are busily employ$ 9 mak+ new plans & sket*es by ! hundr$s1 & :]e ?\s&s ( complet$ draw+s are fil$ = ref]5ce or = *anges1 z ^! are ne$$ 9 ! %op managem5t4 ,to be introduc$ = ! fir/ "t into su* a company is a trial = ! 8new man0 bo? ( n]ve & mann]s1 & a te/ z well ( skill2 no?+ helps m at su* a "t ?an an acqua9tance ) ! rules & r\t9e ( ! (fice1 = ! old say+ holds good 9 a draw+ (fice1 ( 8do+ 9 ,rome z ! ,romans d40 ,! au?or ( ?is book has felt ?is /rang5ess 9 a new position & s adds ! foll[+ model-rules = ! guidance ( ! /ud5t :5 fir/ ent]+ a regul> position 9 an (fice :]e _m are employ$ & :]e success dep5ds ^u a sy/ematic ord]+ ( ! "w 9 h&4 ,,size ,,( ,,draw+s4 #a4 ,! /&>d size %all be #bc in*es by #cf in*es1 subdivid$ into half1 qu>t] & eigh? %eets4 #b4 ,full-size draw+s %all be res]v$1 z f> z possible1 = g5]al views & p>ts n capable ( be+ %[n on small] %eets4 #c4 ,all %op detail %all1 z f> z possible1 be %[n on qu>t] & eigh? %eets4 ,,"* ,,( ,,draw+s4 #d4 ,detail draw+s %all1 z f> z possible1 classify ! diff]5t k9ds ( works1 su* z ca/+s1 =g+s1 %afts1 lev]s1 pip+1 etc4 ,diff]5t k9ds ( "w %all n be %[n on ! same detail draw+4 #e4 ,all %op draw+s liable to repetition %all be trac$ & blue-pr9t$4 ,all tempor>y details1 requir+ only "o copy1 may be made on sket* %eets & press copi$4 #f4 ,a %op draw+ is to be consid]$ z an ord] or in/ruction to ! %op1 & n m]ely z a /atem5t or illu/ration4 ,= ?is purpose x mu/ convey cle>ly & di/9ctly all ! in=mation necess>y to make ! article4 #g4 ,e dim5sion necess>y to ! execution ( ! "w is to be cle>ly /at$ by figures on ! draw+1 s t no measurem5ts ne$ to be tak5 9 ! %op by scale4 ,all measurem5ts to be giv5 ) ref]5ce to ! base or />t+ po9t f :i* ! "w %\ld be laid out1 & also ) ref]5ce to c5t] l9es4 #h4 ,all figur$ dim5sions on draw+s to be pla91 r\nd v]tical figures1 n less ?an "o-eigh? in* high1 & =m$ by a l9e ( uni=m wid? & suffici5tly heavy to insure pr9t+ well4 ,no ?91 slop+1 or d\btful figures1 or diagonal-b>r$ fractions w be tol]at$4 ,all figur$ dim5sions bel[ two feet to be express$ 9 in*es4 #i4 ,all c5t] l9es to be alt]nate dot & da% 9 f9e black l9e4 ,all dim5sion l9es to be d\ble dot & da%1 ) a c5tral space = ! figure1 & ( su* /r5g? z to %[ on blue-pr9t m fa9tly ?an l9es ( draw+4 ,l9es ( draw+ to be bold & cle>ly def9$ 9 proportion to ! scale1 & may be %ade-l9$ by mak+ ! "r-h& & bottom l9es heavi]4 ,no ornam5tal %ad+ or o!r 8frills0 all[$ on %op draw+s4 #aj4 ,e draw+1 :e!r :ole or half-%eet1 %all h ! title1 date1 scale & numb] ( ! %eet /amp$ 9 l[] "r-h& corn]1 & ! qu>t] & eigh? %eets pr9t$ on top4 #aa4 ,! "n ( ! draw+1 z giv5 9 ! title1 is inv>iably to consi/ ( two divisions 9 "o l9e sep>at$ by a hyph54 ,! fir/ division is to /ate ! g5]al "n ( ! ?+ or ma*9e1 & ! second "n is to cle>ly designate ! "p or p>ts repres5t$ 7or if a g5]al view %\ld s /ate74 ,! word+ ( titles %\ld be submitt$ to ! *ief eng9e] or head draughtsman = approval4 #ab4 ,ea* draw+ %all be> ! "n ( ! draughtsman & exam9]1 ! surname be+ us$ )\t initials4 #ac4 ,draw+s ( pip+ details %all be made 9 diagram =m1 us+ /&>d symbols4 #ad4 ,all detail p>ts = /&>d or repetition "w %all be %[n unassembl$ z f> z possible4 ,,draw+ ,,symbols4 #ae4 ,detail %op draw+s %\ld /ate3 7a7 ,! patt]n numb] ( e ca/+ 9 pla9 figures ( l>g] size ?an ! dim5sion figures4 7b7 ,! mat]ial ( :i* ! p>ts are made1 us+ symbols z foll[s3 ,c4,i4--,ca/ iron4 ,w4,i4--,wr\ght iron4 ,m4,s4--,ma*9]y /eel4 ,h4,s4--,hamm]$ /eel4 ,bs4--,brass4 ,bbt4--,babbitt4 ,bz4--,bronze4 ,c4,r4,s4--,cold roll$ /eel4 ,o!r mat]ials write full "n4 7c7 ,f9i%$ surfaces w be indicat$ by 8f0 writt5 on ! l9e or surface to be f9i%$4 ,:5 n s m>k$ x is und]/ood t ! "p is to be left black or r\gh4 ,9 cases :]e f9i% might be presum$ b n requir$1 foll[ ! figur$ dim5sions by ! ^w 8ca/10 if a ca/+1 & 8r\gh10 if a =g+4 ,,/&>ds4 #af4 ,! foll[+ /&>ds %all be /rictly adh]$ to z giv5 9 ! tables not$3 7#a47 ,table ( /&>d diamet]s ( %aft+ & key seats4 7#b47 ,table ( /&>d /ock sizes ( r\nds4 7#c47 ,table ( /&>d /ock sizes ( flat /eel4 7#d47 ,table ( /&>d cle>ance fits4 7#e47 ,table ( /&>d symbols = notation ( rivet+4 7#f47 ,table ( /&>d symbols = pipe fitt+s4 ,also su* o!r /&>ds z may be adopt$ f "t to "t4 ,,numb]+ ,,( ,,draw+s4 #ag4 ,draw]s & fil+ cases %all be numb]$ consecutively4 ,draw]s %all conta9 #ajj %eets ea*1 & fil+ cases #bjj %eets ea*1 & to be fully index$4 ,draw+s %all be numb]$ by a numb] indicat+ bo? draw] numb] & s]ial numb] 9 ! draw]--?us1 #g1fjd is ! f\r? %eet 9 draw] #gf1 etc4 #ah4 ,draw+ numb]s %all be *eck$ (f ! index z requir$1 & ! index po/$ up 9 uni=m h&writ+ by ! cl]k4 #ai4 ,/&>d size draw+s %all be kept 9 draw]s & qu>t] & eigh? %eets 9 fil+ cases4 ,all draw+s %all be index$ by an index %eet kept 9 ea* draw] or case4 ,,*eck+4 #bj4 ,all draw+s mu/ be approv$ be=e be+ trac$4 ,:5 trac+ is complet$ x w be giv5 imm$iately to ! *ief draughtsman1 :o w h a prelim9>y pr9t made & c>efully *eck$1 be=e be+ us$4 ,,patt]ns4 #ba4 ,all patt]ns %all be> ! numb] ( ! draw+ on :i* !y are fir/ detail$1 foll[$ by a s]ial lett]1 accord+ to ! numb] ( patt]ns on ! draw+4 #bb4 ,/&>d patt]ns us$ repeat$ly & liable to be ord]$ f 9 repairs mu/ n be *ang$4 ,o!r patt]ns may only be *ang$ :5 absolutely necess>y & by ord]4 ,:5 s *ang$ !y w be> ! orig9al numb] & lett]1 foll[$ by ,a = ! fir/ *ange1 ,b = ! second *ange1 & s on ?us3 #dhfj ,,ab is ! second *ange 9 patt]n #dhfj ,a4 ,,sket* ,,books4 #bc4 ,ea* draughtsman w be suppli$ ) a sket* book by ! company1 9 :i* he %all make all 8 notes1 calculations & data ref]r+ to 8 "w1 & "u no circum/ances %all notes ( value be made on loose %eets4 ,ea* entry %\ld inv>iably be comm5c$ ) ! subject & date1 & full notes made ( data on :i* ! calculations 7 bas$1 & ! results obta9$ cle>ly /at$4 ,^! books are to rema9 ! prop]ty ( ! company4 ,,9 ,,g5]al4 #bd4 ,*anges 9 draw+s1 sket*es or ord] li/s issu$ to ! %op %all only be made :5 au?oriz$ by ! *ief eng9e]1 or1 9 8 abs5ce1 by ! *ief draughtsman1 & :5 s au?oriz$ %all be made by ! ord] cl]k4 #be4 ,! names ( all simil> p>ts 9 ord] li/s & draw+s are to be uni=m4 #bf4 ,trac+s mu/ be kept 9 safe1 = blue-pr9t+ purposes only4 ,(fice copies ( blue-pr9ts mu/ be us$ = ref]5ces4 #bg4 ,no draw+1 pr9t or photograph %all be tak5 f (fice )\t p]mission4 ,,numb]+ ,,work+ ,,draw+s4 ,!re are a great _m diff]5t sy/ems us$ 9 index+ draw+s1 mo/ ( :i* h "s good po9ts1 b v few are suffici5tly ela/ic to cov] a wide field4 ,a plan bas$ ^u ! decimal sy/em ( notation is v simple1 &1 z !re is no practical limit to ! numb] ( subdivisions1 x c be exp&$ indef9itely4 ,foll[+ are ! ma9 outl9e features ( ! sy/em z adapt$ to ! ne$s ( draw+ (fices belong+ to l>ge works4 ,! ma9 division numb]s1 #jjj1 #ajj1 #bjj1 #cjj1 etc41 are us$ respectively = all plans & g5]al %eets ref]r+ to ! division conc]n$4 #ajj includes g5]al plans cov]+ m ?an "o dep>tm5t1 & all small-scale plans ) cross ref]5ces to dep>tm5ts cov]$4 ,! class or t5s divisions conta9 g5]al draw+s ( ! subdivisions1 ! subclasses or units divisions be+ limit$ to details only4 ,fur!r subdivisions w\ld probably be necess>y 9 "s cases4 ,a c>d index ) cross ref]5ces & writt5 by someone :o knew :at to d is an ess5tial "p ( ! sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ge>+ ,,& ,,design ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,ge>+4 ,"u ?is head+ ! au?or has gr\p$ "s in=mation relat+ to a subject ( wide int]e/ & "o sure to int]e/ a /ud5t ( me*anical draw+4 ,! diagrams are int5d$ = ex]cises 9 draw+1 i4 e41 to be r$rawn z p>ts ( practice2 ! text is to be /udi$ n only = ! good to be ga9$ f ! /udy ( ge>+1 b z an example ( ! way 9 :i* writt5 or pr9t$ descriptions are necess>y to expla9 a subject illu/rat$ by draw+s4 ,a ge> is prim>ily a too!d :eel2 ge>+ is a tra9 ( too!d :eels = transmitt+ motions2 !re are two *ief sorts ( too!d ge>+1 viz41 spur ge>+ & bevel ge>+4 ,a spur :eel has tee? ar\nd ! edge po9t+ to ! c5t]2 comm5c+ at ! c5t]1 a spur :eel may be said to consi/ ( a hole1 squ>e1 octagonal or r\nd1 = its axle or %aft2 a hub2 ! web1 body or arms2 a rim1 & ! tee?2 see fig4 #bfc4 ,a spur :eel has tee? on its circumf]5ce :i* run p>allel to its %aft2 :eels z %[n 9 fig4 #bga are t]m$ helical :eels2 ^! are simil> to spur :eels except _! tee? are arrang$ ^u diff]5t angles to ! %aft4 ,a bevel is a slant or incl9ation ( a surface f a "r l9e1 h5ce a bevel :eel is "o ^: tee? /& bevel+ or at an oblique angle to ! %aft1 or t[>ds ! c5t]2 see fig4 #bfg4 ,mit] :eels are bevel :eels ( ! same size1 work+ at "r angles ) "o ano!r2 see fig4 #bfh4 ,! diamet] ( bo? spur & bevel :eels is measur$ & calculat$ nei!r f ! outside nor f ! bottom ( ! tee?1 b on ! pit* circle4 ,:5 we speak ( ! diamet] ( a spur or bevel :eel1 we mean ! diamet] ( ! pit* circle1 )\t any ref]5ce to ! =m ( too?4 ,! add5dum circle ( a too!d :eel is z %[n 9 illu/ration1 fig4 #bfd2 add5dum means 8some?+ add$10 &1 z %[n 9 ! figure1 x is ! "p add$ beyond ! pit* 8l9e0 or circle4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,! pit* l9e is ! mo/ important "o 9 ge>+2 ! 8pit* l9e0 or 8pit* circle0 is suppos$ to be ! work+ circle4 ,?is is %[n 9 ,p--,p 9 fig4 #bgd4 ,! p]iph]y ( a :eel is ! extreme circumf]5ce1 z ,n 9 fig4 #bgd4 ,all p>ts ( ge>-:eels consi/ ( portions1 to :i* h be5 giv5 g5]ally accept$ names4 ,fig4 #bfd %[s ! 8add5dum circle0 & ! 8pit* l9e0 z m>k$4 ,! tee? & rim are %[n 9 :ite1 & ! o!r portions are indicat$ by ! names4 ,! circul> pit* l9e1 z oppos$ to ! diametral pit*1 is ! same z ! pit* circle4 ,x is a l9e :i* bisects all ! tee? ( a too!d :eel4 ,! roll+ circle is ! same z ! circul> pit* l9e4 ,diametral means p]ta9+ to a diamet] or ! l5g? ( a diamet]2 h5ce a diametral pit* is a sy/em ( measures or enum]ation bas$ ^u ! diamet] in/ead ( ! circul> pit* l9e2 x is us$ v g5]ally 9 spac+ = f9e too? ge>4 ,:eels ( ?is description usually h _! tee? cut 9 a ge>-cutt+ ma*9e1 i4 e41 m$ium & f9e too? ge>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,a cog :eel is ! g5]al "n = any :eel :i* has a numb] ( cogs plac$ ar\nd its circumf]5ce4 ,:5 ! tee? ( a :eel are made ( ! same mat]ial & =m$ ( ! same piece z ! body ( ! :eel1 !y are call$ tee?2 :5 !y are made ( wood or "s o!r mat]ial & fix$ to ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 !y are call$ cogs2 see fig4 #bfe4 ,a p9ion is a small :eel4 ,:5 two too!d :eels act ^u "o ano!r1 ! small] is g5]ally call$ ! p9ion4 ,! t]ms trundle & lant]n are appli$ to small :eels hav+ cyl9drical b>s in/ead ( tee?4 ,! tee? 9 p9ions are sometimes t]m$ leaves2 9 a trundle1 /aves4 ,see fig4 #bgc4 ,! :eel :i* acts is call$ a lead] or driv]2 & ! :eel :i* is act$ ^u by ! =m] is call$ a foll[] or ! driv54 ,:5 a screw or worm revolves 9 ! tee? ( a :eel1 ! latt] is t]m$ a worm :eel or worm ge>2 see fig4 #bgj4 ,:5 a p9ion acts ) a rack hav+ tee?1 we speak ( rack & p9ion4 ,:5 ! tee? are on ! inside ( ! rim1 & n on ! p]iph]y1 ! :eel is t]m$ an int]nal ge>2 see fig4 #bgb4 ,two :eels act+ ^u "o ano!r 9 ! same plane are call$ spur ge>2 ! tee? are p>allel ) ! axis4 ,:5 :eels act at an angle1 !y are call$ bevel ge>4 ,friction ge>-:eels are ^? :i* communicate motion "o to ! o!r by ! simple contact ( _! surfaces4 ,9 frictional ge>+ ! :eels are too?less & "o :eel drives ! o!r by means ( ! friction betwe5 ! two surfaces :i* are press$ toge!r4 ,groov$ friction :eels are us$ to give great] cohesion ?an c be obta9$ by ! pla9 surface4 ,fig4 #bfc %[s a pair ( spur-:eels 9 ge>4 ,! dott$ circles :i* meet are ! roll+ circles1 call$ ! 8pit* l9e0 or 8pit* circle40 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bff4 ,a spur mortise :eel is simil>ly %[n 9 fig4 #bff2 x is v l 9 appe>ance to a spur :eel2 x diff]s ess5tially 9 t ! tee? are sep>ate cogs1 fix$ 9 s+ly to ! rim2 see also fig4 #bfe1 page #bja4 ,,note4--,! tee? ( spur :eels ca/ f a patt]n mu/ ( necessity be l>g] at "o side ?an at ! o!r1 because ! tee? mu/ h tap] to p]mit ! extraction ( ! patt]n f ! m\ld2 !re=e1 9 fix+ :eels to ge>1 ! l>ge side ( "o %\ld meet ! small] side ( ! o!r2 %\ld ! two l>ge sides come toge!r ! tee? w meet only at ! l>ge side1 & ! tee? w probably break away f ! excessive /ra9 on t po9t4 ,skew ge>+ are bevel :eels work+ out ( c5t]2 ! tee? d n =m radial l9es f ! :eel c5t]4 ,fig4 #bfg %[s a pair ( bevel :eels 9 ge> z describ$ on page #aii4 ,a bevel mortise :eel1 i4 e41 "o hav+ cogs ins]t$ 9 its rim in/ead ( tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,a bevel :eel & p9ion mu/ be made to suit "o ano!r by bo? hav+ tee? =m+ toge!r an angle ( #ij1 !re=e !y are pairs1 or proportion$ 9 ! numb] ( tee? "o to ! o!r4 ,any o!r proportion us$ w\ld n exactly ge> & w\ld be t]m$ a 8ba/>d0 ge>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,fig4 #bfh repres5ts a pair ( mit] :eels 9 ge>2 x w be not$ t ! %afts1 :5 connect$1 w be at "r angles to ea* o!r1 ! :eels be+ 9 all p>ticul>s ( ! same dim5sions2 ! figure answ]s ! purpose ( a mu* long] description1 if giv5 9 words4 ,a mit]-:eel c easily be kn[n by putt+ a squ>e ^u ! face ( ! tee?1 :i* are always at an angle ( #de ) "o ano!r1 irrespective ( size4 ,a mit]-:eel is a p>ticul> k9d ( bevel-:eel1 ! bevel be+ limit$ to an angle ( #de 9 ea* :eel4 ,! curve ( ! tee? 9 bevel-ge>s1 :5 correctly =m$1 *anges con/antly f "o end ( ! too? to ! o!r1 !re=e bevel-ge>s ^: tee? are produc$ ) a =c$ cutt] are n !oretically correct4 ,fig4 #bfi repres5ts a rack & p9ion3 ! tee? 9 ?is =m ( ge> are %ap$ simil>ly to ^? 9 ! spur :eel1 %[n on page #aih1 ) ! diff]5ce t ! tee? ( "o are on a circle & on ! rack are made on a /raight l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,a flange or addition to ! end ( a too? & ! rim connect+ !m toge!r is us$ to /r5g!n ! tee?4 ,?is ext5ds f ! root to pit* l9e :5 ! :eel & p9ion are bo? flang$3 if only "o is flang$ x ext5ds f ! root to ! add5dum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,fig4 #bgj illu/rates a worm & a worm :eel1 sometimes call$ screw ge>s4 ,?is is a sl[ b p[]ful me?od ( transmitt+ p[]1 "o revolution ( ! worm only mov+ ! :eel ! di/ance ( "o too? & space4 ,a worm ge> is a spur :eel ) tee? at an angle to ! axis1 s z to "w ) a worm :i* is a screw1 or has tee? %ap$ 9 ! =m ( a spiral w\nd r\nd its circumf]5ce2 ! screw or worm is call$ an endless screw1 because x nev] comes to a /opp+ place 9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,fig4 #bga repres5ts a ge> ) helical tee?4 ,x is simil> to a spur :eel1 & is us$ 9 place ( same 9 heavy & sl[ mov+ ma*9]y1 ! =mation ( tee? prev5t+--9 l>ge measure--! j> or concussion noticeable 9 common spur ge>s4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! spe$ at :i* ge>+ is run has be5 greatly increas$4 ,a /rik+ in/ance is t ( a pair ( ca/-iron helical :eels1 #f ft4 #c 94 diamet]1 #ab 94 wide1 mak+ #bbj revolutions p] m9ute1 ! spe$ ( ! pit* l9e be+ #d1cai feet p] m9ute2 ^! :eels are runn+ cont9u\sly & ) little noise4 ,!re is also a cut ge> 9 a mill 9 ,massa*usetts1 #cj feet 9 diamet]1 & ! spe$ ( pit* l9e is #d1fgj feet p] m9ute4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,an int]nal or annul> ge> :eel is "o 9 :i* ! faces ( ! tee? are )9 & ! flank )\t ! pit* circle1 h5ce ! p9ion op]ates )9 ! :eel4 ,see fig4 #bgb4 ,9 int]nal ge>$ :eels !re is almo/ an entire abs5ce ( friction & consequ5t we> ( ! tee?1 z comp>$ to ord9>y spur ge>+4 ,fig4 #bgc %[s a cr[n-:eel :i* has p9 tee? :i* are fix$ by "o end only1 on its side face & ge> into a trundle :eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,a trundle :eel has no tee?1 prop]ly speak+4 ,in/ead ( tee?1 x has p9s z %[n on illu/ration1 fig4 #bgc1 arrang$ l ! rungs ( a ladd] betwe5 two walls4 ,see page #bja4 ,tra9s ( ,ge>s4--,:5 two :eels me%--t is1 engage ) ea* o!r--z 9 fig4 #bfc1 "o axle revolves 9 ! opposite direction to ! o!r2 b :5 int]nal ge>s me% z %[n 9 fig4 #bgb1 ! %afts revolve 9 ! same direction2 ?ree or m ge>s runn+ toge!r are (t5 call$ a tra9 ( ge>s4 ,maximum spe$ ( ge>s "u favorable conditions = safety is comp>atively-- ,ord9>y ca/-iron :eels1 #a1hjj feet p] m9ute4 ,helical ca/-iron :eels1 #b1djj feet p] m9ute4 ,mortise wood cog :eels1 #b1djj feet p] m9ute4 ,ord9>y ca/-/eel :eels1 #b1fjj feet p] m9ute4 ,helical ca/-/eel :eels1 #c1jjj feet p] m9ute4 ,ca/-iron ma*9e cut :eels1 #c1jjj feet p] m9ute4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 advisable to run ge>s at _! maximum spe$s1 z great noise & vibration are caus$4 ,design+ ,ge>s4 ,?is section is introduc$ into ! "w = a d\ble purpose2 #a1 z an ex]cise 9 draw+2 #b1 z a /udy 9 accurate measurem5ts4 ,x is a sample ( ! "w t ! advanc$ /ud5t 9 me*anical draw+ w be confront$ ) z he puts 9 practice ! !ory ( ! art ( draw+4 ,"s sample rules are giv5 9 ! foll[+ pages to aid 9 calculations relat+ to ge>s1 & /ill o!rs are giv5 "u ! section 8,useful ,rules & ,tables0 at ! end ( ! volume2 ^! are to be c>efully /udi$4 ,to accurately divide ! pit* circle ( a ge> :eel by h& requires bo? pati5ce & skill4 ,on ! accuracy ( spac+ lies ! ess5tial requisite ( a good ge> :eel4 ,! draw+ 9 plate1 fig4 #bgd1 illu/rates a pair ( spur :eels1 %[n 9 ge>1 ! (fice in/ructions = :i* be+3 8,requir$1 a detail plan ( a pair ( spur :eels2 dim5sions3 :eel1 #gf tee?1 #c in*es pit*1 #g-;in* eye1 #f arms2 p9ion1 #ai tee?2 scale1 #a in*es #a foot40 ,! draw+1 z illu/rat$1 is ! result ( ! above in/ructions1 all p5cil l9es be+ remov$1 & ?is result is work$ out z foll[s3 #gf tee? #c in*es1 pit* #bff in*es 9 circum4 #g ft4 #j 94 diam4 #c ft4 #f 94 radius2 ) ?is measurem5t z repres5t$ on scale1 draw l9e ,p ,p on draw+4 ,?is is call$ ! pit* l9e4 ,draw next diamet] l9e1 produce or ext5d ?is diamet] l9e = p9ion1 & ) radius ( #aj 7#ai tee? #c7 f pit* l9e ( :eel1 draw pit* l9e ( p9ion4 ,take any po9t 9 ?is pit* l9e ( :eel1 m>k (f #c in*es z repres5t$ on scale1 m>k ?is ar\nd ! pit* l9e1 x w be ! c5t] ( ea* ( ! #gf tee?2 !n ! bread? ( ?ickness ( ea* too? 7 pit* #j4dge7 mu/ be m>k$ f ^! c5t]s1 !n m>k f ,p ,l1 l5g? ( too? to po9t 7 pit* #j4ce7 & ,p ,l to root 7 pit* #j4d71 draw circles = outside ( tee? ,n & root ( too? ,o2 n[ ) compass set to ! pit* 7#c7 ( ! :eel1 draw ! out] portion f pit* l9e ( too?4 ,! radius w c5t] 9 ! pit* l9e ( next too? :]e ?ickness ( too? has be5 m>k$2 aft] f9i%+ out] portion ( bo? sides ( tee?1 set ! compass f c5t] ( too? ) radius to ! ?ickness m>k$ on pit* l9e & draw ! portion ( too? f pit* l9e to root4 ,n[ m>k (f ) divid]s & draw ?ickness ( rim 7 pit* #j4e71 divide ?is l9e into six p>ts1 draw radii = c5t]s ( arms2 draw ! bore hole #g & ! ?ickness ( metal = hub same z pit*4 ,on radii l9es ( arms1 draw ! bread? ( arm at rim 7 pit* & ?ickness ( too?71 increase 9 bread? approa*+ ! c5t] 7#a p] foot71 draw ! ?ickness ( fea!r ( arm 7 pit* #j4ce72 draw web on inside ( rim 7 pit* #j4cge72 fill 9 arcs = ! jo9+ ( arms 9 rim & hub 7radii pit* #j4h7 & fea!r to rim & hub 7radii pit* #j4cg74 ,proce$ 9 simil> mann]1 complet+ ! tee? ( p9ion1 & :5 p5cil l9es are all 91 ink ! draw+1 eras+ all ne$less l9es4 ,p ,p %[s ! pit* l9e2 ,b1 ?ickness ( too?2 c1 bread? ( space2 ,a1 ! pit*2 ,e1 cle>ance at root2 ,n1 ! add5dum ( too?2 ,o1 ! root ( too?2 ,h1 l5g? ( too? f pit* l9e to po9t2 ,i1 l5g? ( too? pit* l9e to root2 ,g1 :ole l5g? ( too?2 ,f1 ?ickness ( rim2 ,j1 web or fea!r on rim2 ,k1 bread? ( arm2 ,l1 ?ickness ( fea!r2 ,m1 hub1 or ?ickness r\nd ! eye4 ,,note4--,x mu/ be rememb]$ t no fix$ /&>d has ev] be5 agre$ ^u = ^! proportions1 & work%ops diff] consid]ably 9 practice4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,! numb] ( tee?1 _! proportions1 pit* & diamet] ( pit* circle are frequ5tly det]m9$ on ! 8,man*e/]0 pr9ciple4 ,?is sy/em orig9at$ 9 ,man*e/] 7,eng471 & is n[ g5]ally us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = det]m9+ diamet]s & numb] ( tee?1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 regulate spe$s4 ,! pr9ciple is n applicable to l>ge :eels1 b is limit$ 9 its application to small :eels1 or :eels hav+ 8f9e pit*10 z w be se5 9 ! foll[+ explanation1 :i* is introduc$ z v useful & indisp5sable k = ! acquisition ( ! /ud5t 9 me*anical draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bge4 ,! 8pit*0 ( tee? has already be5 /at$ to be ! di/ance f c5t] ( "o too? to ! c5t] ( ano!r on ! 8pit* l9e10 measur$ on ! *ord ( ! arc4 ,9 det]m9+ ! numb] ( tee? or pit* ( :eels on ?is pr9ciple1 ! pit* is reckon$ on ! diamet] ( ! :eel1 9 place ( ! circumf]5ce1 & di/+ui%$ z :eels ( 8#d pit*10 8#f pit*10 8#h pit*10 etc4 ,9 o!r words1 ?is means t !re are f\r1 six1 or eight tee? 9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel = e in* ( diamet]4 ,9 design+ ge>s to transmit p[] ! /ress on a too? is calculat$2 x det]m9es ! bread? or wid? & also ! ?ickness ( ! too? on pit* l9e2 ! space betwe5 ! tee? is 9 proportion to ! ?ickness ( too?1 & ! ?ickness ( bo? comb9$ 7"o too? & "o space71 measur$ on ! pit* l9e or circle1 is ! pit* ( ! :eel4 ,f ! pit* all ! proportions & measurem5ts = ! sizes & /r5g? ( ! p>ts ( ! :eel are tak5 by rule1 & a symmetrical =m is produc$4 ,9 ma*9e draw+ ! practice is to repres5t :eels by circles only2 ! tee? are nev] %[n except on enl>g$ details & !n only 9 v r>e in/ances2 ! circles drawn are always ! pit* l9es or ! roll+ po9ts ( contact ( ! :eels4 ,! add5dum circle is seldom if ev] us$ 9 practical draw+4 ,%\ld x be necess>y to %[ x 9 an exceptional case1 ! circle w\ld be repres5t$ by 8dott$0 l9e4 ,! %ape ( too? & mode ( con/ruct+ x1 z practic$ 9 draw+ (fices1 diff]s f ! true !oretical curve ( ! too?1 al?\gh v m9utely4 ,9 all calculations = ! spe$ ( too!d ge>s ! e/imates are bas$ ^u ! pit* l9e1 ! latt] /&+ 9 ! same place z ! circumf]5ce ( a pulley4 ,to f9d ! diamet] ( a ge>-:eel multiply ! numb] ( tee? by ! pit*1 divide by #c4adaf4 ,to f9d ! pit* ( a ge>-:eel multiply ! diamet] by #c4adaf & divide by ! numb] ( tee?4 ,to f9d ! numb] ( tee? 9 a ge>-:eel multiply ! diamet] by #c4adaf & divide by ! pit*4 ,! bread? ( :eels1 :]e practicable1 %\ld be at lea/ ?ree times ! pit*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,fig4 #bgf %[s a scale = proportions ( tee?2 x is divid$ into t5?s & us$ ?us3 ,say :eel is #b pit*1 !n f pit* circle to add5dum w be #c t5?s1 & f pit* circle to root ( too? w be #d t5?s measur$ at ! #b l9e on scale1 & s on4 ,! decimal proportions already giv5 9 example1 page #baj1 are adopt$ 9 _m work%ops4 ,_m o!rs use ! proportions approv$ ( by ,sir ,william ,fairbairn1 :i* are3 ,table ( proportion ( ge>s3 ,dep? ( too? above pit* l9e 4#ce ( ! pit*4 ,dep? ( too? bel[ pit* l9e 4#dj ( ! pit*4 ,work+ dep? ( too? 4#gj ( ! pit*4 ,total dep? ( too? 4#ge ( ! pit*4 ,cle>ance at root 4#je ( ! pit*4 ,?ickness ( too? 4#de ( ! pit*4 ,wid? ( space 4#ee ( ! pit*4 ,! diamet] ( a :eel or p9ion is inv>iably ! diamet] measur$ on pit* circle1 except x is specially describ$ o!rwise1 ?us ! diamet] 8ov] all10 etc4 ,! %ape ( ! curv$ face ( ! tee? ( ge>s ext5d+ f ! root to ! add5dum is ! curve con=m+ to ! passage ( ! tee? describ$ on its fell[ ent]+ & leav+1 z !y rotate or roll toge!r on _! pit* circles4 ,! curve ( tee? outside ! pit* circle is call$ 8! face10 & ! curve f pit* circle to root is call$ 8! flank40 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! wid? ( a space & ! ?ickness ( a too? is call$ cle>ance or side cle>ance4 ,! play or movem5t p]mitt$ by cle>ance is call$ ! backla%2 cle>ance is necess>y to prev5t ! tee? ( "o :eel becom+ lock$ 9 ! spaces ( ! o!r4 ,:eels are 9 ge> or ge>$ toge!r :5 _! pit* l9es engage1 i4 e41 :5 ! pit* circles meet4 ,:eels to be ge>$ toge!r mu/ h _! tee? spac$ ! same di/ance ap>t1 or 9 o!r words1 ( ! same pit*4 ,! tee? ( spur :eels are arrang$ on its p]iph]y p>allel to ! :eel axis1 or %aft on :i* x is hung4 ,! tee? ( a bevel :eel or bevel ge>s are always arrang$ at an angle to ! %aft4 ,:5 ! tee? ( bevel ge>s =m an angle ( #de !y are call$ mit] :eels4 ,mit] :eels to ge> mu/ be ( equal sizes4 ,a cr[n :eel is a disc t has tee? :i* are on its side face2 t is1 tee? on a flat circul> surface all p>allel to ! axis ( ! :eel4 ,a rack has tee? on a flat surface or plane all p>allel to "o ano!r4 ,a ge> cut by ma*9e is call$ a cut ge>4 ,x has tee? ) less cle>ance ?an ca/ :eels1 :i* are n s true or p]fect1 & !re=e require m cle>ance4 ,a worm ) ev5 a light load is liable to heat & cut if run at ov] #cjj feet ( rubb+ surface travel4 ,! :eel tee? w keep cool1 z !y =m "p ( a l>ge radiat+ surface2 ! worm itself is s small t its heat is dissipat$ sl[ly4 ,a worm ?r[s a sev]e end ?ru/ or /ra9 on its %aft4 ,/eel ,ge>s4--,!re is great economy 9 ! use ( ca/-/eel ov] ca/-iron 9 ge>s2 ! av]age life ( ! =m] is ne>ly twice z great z ( ca/-iron ge>s4 ,&1 ap>t f _! long] life & effici5cy1 !re is less dang] ( break+4 ,! mo/ accurate tee?1 /ronge/ & mo/ uni=m 9 we>+1 are to be f\nd 9 /eel ge>s cut f solid /ock1 or made by cutt]s ( prop] %ape4 ,fig4 #bge %[s an elevation & a v]tical section ( a spur :eel4 ,f ^! views ! v>i\s p>ts 9 spur ge>s c be bett] und]/ood1 z !y are repres5t$ "h 9 comb9ation1 & ! :eel 9 its entirety4 ,,aa is ! horizontal c5t] l9e1 ,,bb1 ,,bb ! v]tical c5t] l9es1 ,,ii & ,,ii ! pit* l9es1 ,n ?ickness ( too?1 ,o space ( too?1 ,d total dep? ( too?1 ,c bread? ( face1 ,f diamet] on pit* l9e1 ,p diamet] ov] all1 ,g diamet] ( hub1 ,e diamet] ( hole1 ,h dep? ( hole1 ,l ?ickness ( rim1 ,m ?ickness ( web4 ,mu* has be5 & /ill is be+ writt5 on ge>+4 ,no g5]al rule is foll[$ by ! writ]s2 ! elem5t>y pr9ciples giv5 w enable ! /ud5t to ma/] spur ge>+1 & bevel & comb9ations ( _m k9ds ( :eels w aft]w>ds be f\nd easi] to del9eate ?an ! num]\s l9es seem to indicate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,work+ ,,draw+s ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,work+ ,draw+s4 ,f ! 8plans0 made 9 ! (fice are produc$ 8work+ draw+s0--:i* repres5t 9 detail ! "w to be done to exact measurem5t & ( mat]ial1 z indicat$1 by ! patt]n-mak]1 ! f\ndry1 ! =ge1 ! %op1 & f9ally1 by ! erector ( ! complet$ me*anism4 ,h[ to satisfactorily fulfill ! directions conta9$ 9 ^! draw+s1 repres5t+ only a "p ( ! "w1 s t x w fit1 ) ne$$ accuracy1 to all o!r p>ts ( ! design1 is ! task be=e ea* sep>ate work]4 ,x is by means ( ?is division ( ! process ( manufacture ?r\gh ^! draw+s1 t scores & hundr$s ( m5 c be employ$ at ! same "t ^u a s+le eng9e or ma*9e2 ?us1 :ile h&work has be5 sup]s$$ by ma*9es 9 _m qu>t]s1 ! art ( draw+ has n be5 n>r[$ nor dim9i%$1 = no draw+s or designs h yet be5 made by ma*9]y1 nor are !y likely to be4 ,x is ?us t a good design] & draughtsman 8projects0 or ext5ds himself1 to ! advantage ( _m fell[ work]s4 ,! draw+1 fig4 #bgg1 %[s a simple =m ( pill> crane3 x consi/s ( an upright ca/-iron pill>1 :i* is bolt$ on a cap /one1 "u :i* is ! f\ndation plate n %[n 9 ! draw+2 ! boom is ( roll$ /eel1 support$ by /eel tie rods1 & provid$ ) roll]s at ! base2 ! hoi/+ ge> is %[n 9 brok5 l9es & circles2 all z se5 9 ! draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgh4--;,fig4 #bgi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,figs4 #bgh1 #bgi & #bhj %[ a draw+ ( a 8hydraulic beam b5d+ ma*9e0 9 ?ree views2 fig4 #bhj is a plan1 fig4 #bgh is an end elevation1 & fig4 #bgi a side elevation1 & a portion ( ! latt] 9 section %[s ! int]ior con/ruction4 ,,note4--,^! ?ree views are a practical illu/ration ( draw+s = a ma*9e ( ! foll[+ dim5sions3 ?is ma*9e has a b$ #c #e feet 9 area1 ) #bg holes 9 ea* side = ! b5d+ p9s4 ,! frame & cyl9d]s are made ( ca/ iron1 ! rams ( ma*9]y /eel1 & ! slides = hold+ ! b5d+ blocks1 ( /eel ca/+4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! b5d+ blocks is #ag in*es4 ,! cyl9d]s are copp] l9$1 #h in*es diamet]1 & ! rams h a #f-;in* /roke4 ,! rams1 :i* are indep5d5t & s+le act+1 are return$ by c\nt]weights plac$ z %[n "u ! table4 ,! cyl9d]s c be op]at$ indep5d5tly f ei!r side ( ! ma*9e by an arrangem5t ( valves & lev]s4 ,! ma*9e complete weighs ab\t #g1ejj lbs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bha4--;,fig4 #bhb4--;,fig4 #bhc4 ,! draw+1 page #bbb1 %[s ?ree views ( a p[] pun*+ press4 ,fig4 #bhb is a side elevation4 ,fig4 #bhc a front elevation4 ,fig4 #bha a v]tical sectional view2 f ^! views ! proportion1 g5]al arrangem5t & disposition ( ! automatic devices c be easily und]/ood2 x may be well to call p>ticul> att5tion to ! automatic clut* on ! top %aft & ! tripp+ device4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,?is draw+1 fig4 #bhd1 %[s a side elevation 9 section ( a self-adju/+ pi/on-rod pack+4 ,a is ! gl&1 ,b is ! pi/on rod1 ,c is a brass sleeve :i* conta9s ! pack+ ,d1 ,e is ! cyl9d] cov]1 ,f is a coil spr+4 ,x w be se5 t ! spr+ ,f abuts on a bu%+ 9 ! bottom ( ! /uff+ box & is prev5t$ f scor+ ! pi/on rod by /epp+ ov] ! ends ( ! bu%+ & foll[]4 ,all z %[n 9 ! draw+4 ,! draw+1 fig4 #bhe1 %[s a sectional view ( a l>ge pulley fix$ on a 8quill10 or holl[ %aft3 ! driv+ %aft passes ?r\gh ! holl[ %aft & is atta*$ to ! friction clut* %[n at ! "r-h& end2 ?is friction clut* drives ! holl[ %aft & pulley4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,fig4 #bhf %[s ! me*anism1 call$ ! l9k-motion1 employ$ to rev]se an eng9e1 or to enable x to be run 9 ei!r direction4 ,_m =ms ( l9k-motion h be5 devis$1 b ! ,/eph5son =m1 z %[n 9 ! figure1 is1 h[ev]1 ! "o 9 almo/ univ]sal use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,?is draw+ %[s %ad+ & ! mode ( figur+ ! p>ts = id5tification4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhg4--;,fig4 #bhh4--;,fig4 #bhi4 ,figs4 #bhg to #bhi repres5t a bump+-po/ = ! end ( railway tracks1 reproduc$ on an enl>g$ scale f ! columns ( ! ,eng9e]+ ,news4 ,9 addition to ! lett]+ & dim5sions1 admirably %[n 9 ! draw+s1 ! foll[+ description is app5d$ to %[ h[ pr9t$ text & me*anical draw+s mutually aid 9 practical--or comm]cial--usage4 ,! unique feature ( ! arrangem5t %[n1 is t ! c5t] l9e ( ! po/ does n co9cide ) ! track1 ?us adapt+ itself to ! nature ( ! bl[s ( a c>-bump]1 z receiv$ 9 ! s+le-po/ /yle ( ! me*anism4 ,,bump+ ,,po/ ,,= ,,railway ,,tracks4 ,! po/ is a #ae-;94 /eel ,i-beam1 re/+ on a base plate -94 ?ick1 & support$ by an*or rods #a ins4 diamet]1 ) upset ends held by nuts on a heavy =g+ bolt$ to ! top ( ! po/4 ,^! rods ext5d =w>d & outw>d to cle> ! rails1 & !n pass v]tically ?r\gh a #d #f-;94 angle iron cros/ie1 & an ord9>y wood5 tie1 ext5d+ d[n to an an*or block or deadman buri$ 9 ! gr\nd #f ft4 bel[ ! top ( ! rail4 ,v]tical braces or spread]s are fitt$ betwe5 ! an*or timb] & a longitud9al timb] "u ! ties1 s z to prev5t ! loos5+ ( ! an*or rods :5 ! po/ is /ruck4 ,! rods are held 9 position aga9/ ! rails by /eel =g+s bolt$ to ! rail ) #a-;94 turn$ bolts4 ,an oak /rik+ block1 #ab #ab ins41 #c ft4 long1 is bolt$ betwe5 angle iron brackets on ! face ( ! po/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bij4 ,front ,view4 ,fig4 #bia4 ,side ,view4 ,scale1 #c 94 #a ft4 ,to ,read ,work+ ,draw+s4 ,"o ( ! advantages result+ f a k ( practical draught+ is1 t x enables a me*anic to read a draw+ :5 giv5 him z a guide = 8 "w4 ,x is gett+ e day m g5]al among draughtsm5 to figure exactly & m9utely e "p ( _! draw+s :i* are made to a scale4 ,draw+s are almo/ always made 8f9i%$ size10 t is1 ! dim5sions are = ! "w :5 x is complet$4 ,consequ5tly all ! figures writt5 on ! diff]5t p>ts indicate ! exact size ( ! "w :5 f9i%$1 )\t any reg>d to ! size ( ! draw+ itself1 :i* may be made to any r$uc$ & conv5i5t scale4 ,ev5 9 full size draw+s ?is sy/em ( figur+ is n objectionable4 ,x is a sy/em :i* %\ld be foll[$ :5ev] a draw+ is made 8to "w to10 = x all[s ! workman to compreh5d at a glance ! size ( 8 "w & ! pieces he has to get made4 ,figur+ makes a draw+ compreh5sible ev5 to ^? :o _c make draw+s4 ,a work+ draw+ %\ld be made1 prim>ily1 z pla9 z possible by ! draughtsman2 second1 ! workman %\ld pati5tly & c>efully /udy x1 s t x is ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,9 /udy+ a draw+1 ! object x is int5d$ to repres5t %\ld be made z famili> z possible to ! m9d ( ! /ud5t1 s t he may fill out 9 imag9ation ! p>ts design$ly left incomplete--z 9 a ge> :eel :]e only two or ?ree tee? are drawn 91 t he may see1 m5tally1 ! :ole4 ,! foll[+ is a description ( read+ draw+s :5 dim5sions are n figur$4 ,"h we h a piece ( ma*9]y repres5t$ by fig4 #bij1 & ! in=mation we h is t x is to scale1 ?ree in*es "o foot4 ,n[1 ) scale & divid]s1 we c arrive at its actual dim5sions4 ,measurem5ts %\ld be fir/ tak5 ) ! divid]s f ! draw+1 & !n ! divid]s appli$ to ! scale to :i* ! draw+ is made2 ?is scale is always m>k$ on ! work+ draw+2 if ! divid]s are set to ! l5g? ( ! base ( ! example1 fig4 #bij1 !y w measure1 on an ord9>y two-foot rule1 ?ree & ?ree-f\r?s in*es1 b if appli$ to ! ?ree-in* scale !y w read "o foot ?ree in*es1 ! actual l5g? ( ! "p2 ! 8read+0 is f ! scale2 ?us1 9 bo? figures ! draw+s are 8?ree-in* scale40 ,n[1 #c in*es is "o-f\r? ( a foot1 h5ce #c #d #a ft4 #c 941 ! full size1 & s on = all p>ts ( ! draw+4 ,fig4 #bia %[s a side view ( ! 8/eady re/10 illu/rat$ 9 front elevation1 fig4 #bij2 f ! scale z be=e we get ! sizes2 ! two views comb9$ give l5g?1 bread? & ?ickness ( ! p>ts4 ,9 "s figures x is necess>y to %[ end views1 also section views1 to enable all measurem5ts to be read f ! draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pat5t ,,(fice ,,draw+s ,pat5t ,(fice ,draw+ ,rules4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,pat5t ,,(fice ,,rules4 ,,z ,,appli$ ,,to ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,draw+s4 ,ea* applicant = a pat5t is requir$ by law to furni% a draw+ ( 8 inv5tion :5ev] ! nature ( ! case admits ( x4 ,! draw+ mu/ be sign$ by ! inv5tor or ! "n ( ! inv5tor may be sign$ on ! draw+ by 8 attorney-9-fact1 & 9 ei!r case mu/ be atte/$ by two witnesses4 ,! draw+ mu/ %[ e feature ( ! inv5tion cov]$ by ! claims4 ,:5 ! inv5tion consi/s ( an improvem5t on an old ma*9e1 ! draw+ mu/ exhibit1 9 "o or m views1 ! inv5tion prop]1 disconnect$ f ! old /ructure1 & also1 9 ano!r view1 s mu* only ( ! old /ructure z w cle>ly %[ ! connection ( ! inv5tion ) ! old ma*9e4 ,sev]al editions ( ! pat5t-draw+s are pr9t$1 ! smalle/ ( :i* is ab\t #c #d in*es1 s t ! draw+ mu/ be s made t x w /& a r$uction ( ab\t "o-f\r?4 ,?is "w is done by ! photo-li?ographic process1 & !re=e ! "* ( ! orig9al draw+ mu/ be br\ght z ne>ly z possible to a uni=m /&>d ( excell5ce suit$ to ! requirem5ts ( ! process4 ,,note4--,^! rules w be f\nd mo/ useful to _m read]s ( ?is "w--h5ce _! introduction at ?is po9t4 ,ne>ly #ej1jjj pat5ts are 8appli$ =0 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates e ye>4 ,! foll[+ rules are giv5 by ! ,pat5t ,(fice = guidance3 #a4 ,draw+s mu/ be made ^u pure :ite pap] ( a ?ickness correspond+ to ?ree-%eet ,bri/ol bo>d4 ,! surface ( ! pap] mu/ be cal5d]$ & smoo?4 ,india ink alone mu/ be us$1 s z to secure p]fectly black & solid l9es4 #b4 ,! size ( a %eet on :i* a draw+ is made mu/ be exactly #aj #ae in*es4 ,"o in* f its edges a s+le m>g9al l9e is to be drawn1 leav+ ! 8sight0 precisely #h #ac in*es4 ,)9 ?is m>g9 all "w & signatures mu/ be includ$4 ,"o ( ! %ort] sides ( ! %eet is reg>d$ z its top1 & measur+ d[nw>dly f ! m>g9al l9e1 a space ( n less ?an #a in*es is to be left blank = ! head+ ( title1 "n1 numb] & date4 #c4 ,all draw+s mu/ be made ) ! p5 only4 ,e l9e & lett]1 signature includ$1 mu/ be absolutely black4 ,?is direction applies to all l9es1 h[ev] f9e1 to %ad+1 & to l9es repres5t+ cut surfaces 9 sectional views4 ,all l9es mu/ be clean1 %>p1 & solid1 & !y mu/ n be too f9e or cr[d$4 ,surface %ad+1 :5 us$1 %\ld be op54 ,sectional %ad+ %\ld be made by oblique p>allel l9es ab\t ( an in* ap>t4 ,solid black %\ld n be us$ = sectional or surface %ad+4 #d4 ,draw+ mu/ be made ( ! fewe/ l9es possible1 consi/5t ) cleanness4 ,! plane ^u :i* a sectional view is tak5 %\ld be indicat$ by a brok5 or dott$ l9e4 ,heavy l9es on ! %ade side ( objects %\ld be us$1 except :]e !y t5d to ?ick5 ! "w & obscure lett]s ( ref]5ce4 ,! light is always suppos$ to come f ! upp] left h& corn] at an angle ( #de degrees4 #e4 ,! scale to :i* a draw+ is made %\ld be l>ge en\gh to %[ ! me*anism )\t cr[d+4 ,! numb] ( %eets us$ mu/ nev] be m ?an is absolutely necess>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bib4 #f4 ,! diff]5t views %\ld be consecutively numb]$4 ,lett]s & figures ( ref]5ce mu/ be c>efully =m$4 ,!y %\ld1 if possible1 measure at lea/ "o-eigh? ( an in* 9 height4 ,if ! same "p ( an inv5tion appe>s 9 m ?an "o view ( ! draw+ x mu/ always be repres5t$ by ! same "*4 #g4 ,! signature ( ! inv5tor is to be plac$ 9 ! l[] "r-h& corn] ( ea* %eet1 & ^? ( ! witnesses at ! l[] left-h& corn]4 ,! title %\ld be writt5 ) p5cil on ! back ( ! %eet4 ,draw+s %\ld be roll$ = transmission1 nev] fold$4 ,on page #bce1 fig4 #bib exhibits a reproduction ( a pat5t (fice draw+1 us$ 9 connection ) specification pap]s 9 an application = a ,unit$ ,/ates pat5t4 ,,engli% ,,practice4 ,! rules = pat5t draw+s 9 ,engl& are practically ! same z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ! pap] sizes are1 h[ev]1 diff]5t4 ,!y mu/ be on %eets ( "o ( ! two foll[+ sizes 7! small] be+ pref]able71 #ac in*es at ! sides by #h in*es at ! top & bottom1 or #ac in*es at ! sides by #af in*es at ! top & bottom1 includ+ m>g91 :i* mu/ be "o-half an in* wide4 ,if !re are m figures ?an c be %[n on "o ( ! small]-siz$ %eets1 two or m ( ^! %eets %\ld be us$ 9 pref]5ce to employ+ ! l>ge size4 ,:5 an exceptionally l>ge draw+ is requir$1 x %\ld be 8cont9u$0 on subsequ5t %eets4 ,!re is no limit to ! numb] ( %eets t may be s5t 94 ,illu/ration3 ,,practical ,,po9ts ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bic4 ,see page #bdd4 ,useful ,h9ts & 8,po9ts40 ,_m ( ^! 8po9ts0 are repetitions1 ) b little v>iation f ! way !y h be5 previ\sly /at$2 !y are ?us repeat$ to emphasize _! practical wor?4 ,a good draughtsman leaves 8 "w 9 su* a /ate t any compet5t p]son c )\t difficulty ink 9 :at he has drawn4 ,! crit]ion ( a good set ( draw+s is t ) a prop]ly prep>$ specification !y are complete 9 !mselves & require no explanation4 ,a 8break0 9 a figure or object 9 a draw+ is %[n 9 r\gh irregul> l9es1 z 9 fig4 #acd1 on page #aca2 ?is is useful :5 ! pap] is n l>ge en\gh to %[ ! :ole4 ,nev] use a slop+ l9e 9 writ+ fractions on a draw+4 ,! objection arises f ! fact t su* a dim5sion z #a1 if writt5 ) ! incl9$ l9e1 unless v di/9ctly execut$1 may be read z 4 ,9 ink+ d n draw ! l9es fur!r ?an y wi% !m to g1 b 9 p5cil+ x is well to ext5d ! l9es1 free up4 ,nev] use a scale = a rul]4 ,d n ov]load ! p5 ) ink4 ,hav+ fill$ ! p51 ne>ly close ! nibs & try ! wid? ( ! l9e on a piece ( pap] or ! m>g9 ( ! draw+4 ,nev] refill or lay ! p5 aside )\t fir/ clean+ x4 ,! application ( ! sci5ce ( geometry to ! draw+-bo>d is absolutely necess>y to success1 = ! reason t ! :ole fabric ( me*anical draw+ re/s on ! pr9ciples ( geometry1 :i* is well t]m$ ! sci5ce ( measurem5ts4 ,section l9es %\ld be ! la/ ink$ & always )\t previ\s p5cil+4 ,c5t] l9es are necess>y 9 work+ draw+s4 ,9 *oos+ ,t-squ>es1 c>e %\ld be ex]cis$ to see t ! head slides up & d[n ! left-h& side ( ! bo>d easily1 & t :5 press$ aga9/ ! bo>d ) ! left h& !re is no 8slogg+0 ( ! blade up or d[n1 or 9 o!r words1 t ! head is be>+ firmly = its :ole l5g? aga9/ ! bo>d4 ,! be/ place = ! title ( a draw+ is said to be ! upp] left-h& corn]2 ?is facilitates ! fil+ ( ! %eet4 ,nev] use a s(t p5cil except = f9i%+ 9 %ad[ l9es4 ,! rubb] %\ld always be kept clean4 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 to keep draw+ bo>ds out ( ! way ( heat or damp1 z ^! cause ! wood to w>p4 ,circles & curves are to be 8ink$ 90 be=e /raight l9es4 ,fir/ ink ! smalle/ & aft]w>ds ! l>g] curves4 ,d n press heavily on ! p5cil s z to cut ! pap]1 b draw lightly1 s t ! m>k c be eras$ & leave no trace1 especially if ! draw+ is to be ink$4 ,! draughtsman %\ld comm5ce 8 "w at ! top ( ! pap]1 keep+ ! l[] "p cov]$ ov] until he ne$s to use x4 ,%ade l9es %\ld be avoid$ 9 all work+ draw+s1 z _! use int]f]es ) accurate measurem5ts4 ,to make ink /ick to ! trac+ clo?1 ) a wool5 clo? rub "s p[d]$ *alk or p\nce ov] ! surface on :i* ! ink l9es are to be drawn1 !n wipe ! surface clean & use a good quality ( ink4 ,= /rik+ small circles a small b[ p5 %\ld be us$4 ,to fix lead p5cil m>ks on sket*es s t !y _c be readily eras$1 sponge !m ) milk c>efully skimm$1 !n lay blott+ pap] ov] !m & iron ) a hot flat-iron4 ,to h ! ink pres]ve its fluidity & to keep out all dirt & du/1 keep ! cov] on ! ink slab2 ! mi/ake is (t5 made ( putt+ too lib]al a supply ( wat] 9 ink well1 :i* causes a wa/e ( bo? "t & ink2 no m %\ld be prep>$ ?an to meet imm$iate requirem5ts4 ,always draw on ! "r side ( ! %eet1 :i* c be f\nd by hold+ ! %eet up to ! light & look+ across its surface ) ! eye ne>ly 9 ! same plane z ! pap]2 note :i* side is ! smoo!/ & has ! lea/ numb] ( blemi%es on x2 ?is is ! "r side to draw on4 ,z to %>p5+ p5cils1 x is always be/ to cut a *isel po9t on ! p5cil us$ = draw+1 & put a circul> po9t on ! p5cils 9 ! b[ p5cil & p5cil leg4 ,! *isel po9t makes a f9] l9e & la/s mu* long] ?an a r\nd po9t4 ,! v>ni% us$ 9 _m l>ge draw+-rooms is simply :ite %ellac dissolv$ 9 alcohol2 x requires a little exp]i5ce to mix ^! to a prop] consi/5cy1 b ?is is soon acquir$4 ,nev] %>p5 y\r p5cil ov] ! draw+4 ,a c5t] l9e ( a draw+ is ! l9e ^u :i* ! figure is to be con/ruct$2 ! c5t] l9e is ! fir/ l9e to be drawn4 ,! ,t-squ>e belongs to ! left side ( ! draw+-bo>d1 & is op]at$ by ! left h&4 ,! "r h& %\ld be kept free = ! purpose ( pick+ up p5cil1 p5 & b[s1 adju/+ & m>k+ (f4 ,! left h& controls ! ,t-squ>e & ! triangle t slides along ! upp] edge ( ! squ>e2 ! "r h& is = ! in/rum5ts4 ,! advantage ( a pap] rule or scale is t ! pap] w exp& & contract "u v>y+ degrees ( atmosph]ic moi/ure ! same z ! draw+ does4 ,avoid rubb+ out & con/antly clean+ ! draw+ ) ,india rubb]2 if wrong l9es are made or x is desir$ to make alt]ations1 ! "p to be *ang$ %\ld be rubb$ out & completely re-drawn4 ,:5 us+ ! b[s see to x t ! /eel-po9t$ leg t is put d[n fir/ on ! pap]1 to secure a c5t] = a curve or a circle1 is a trifle long] ?an ! p5cil or p5 leg4 ,to cle>ly indicate ! position ( a c5t] :i* is to be us$ aga91 lightly p5cil a small circle ab\t x2 nev] put ! po9t ( a p5cil 9 ! c5t] hole to enl>ge or black5 x2 ! prick po9t made by ! divid]s & ne$le po9ts %\ld be no m ?an c be j se51 h5ce ! circle to be made z advis$ above4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,be p>ticul> 9 hav+ ! legs ( ! divid]s exactly ! same l5g?1 & %>p1 s t 9 prick+ (f di/ances1 & dim5sions1 & c5t]s1 ! ind5t or hole made 9 ! pap] is z small z possible4 ,! t]m 8plane0 means a p]fectly flat surface2 t is1 some?+ :i* has l5g? & bread? b no ?ickness4 ,! be/ way to indicate on ! draw+ ! surfaces :i* are to be f9i%$ is to write on ! l9es :i* repres5t ! f9i%$ surfaces 8f9i%$10 tool-f9i%1 or 8fac$10 accord+ to ! degree ( f9i% requir$4 ,! s+le lett] f is frequ5tly us$4 ,avoid f+]+ ! draw+ %eet z mu* z possible2 9 po9t+ to any "p ( ! draw+ use a p5cil & n ! f+]4 ,rememb] t a draw+ is made to be read4 ,! skill 9 ink+ does n dep5d on ! f95ess ( ! l9e1 b on its cle>ness4 ,a s(t p5cil %\ld nev] be us$ on a me*anical draw+ unless 9 r>e cases :5 x is us$ = p5cil %ad+2 ! h>dness or s(tness ( p5cils is d5ot$ by lett]s4 ,nev] ink any portion ( a draw+ until ! p5cil+ is entirely f9i%$4 ,/ret*+ or pa/+ ! pap] to ! bo>d is v seldom resort$ to1 = ! reason t ! me*anical draw+s are to scale & ! pap] is natural :5 p9n$ to ! bo>d & m correct ?an if "u a /ra94 ,me*anical draw+s are always requir$ 9 practice "r away1 & "t w\ld be wa/$ & lo/ 9 damp+ & pa/+ & dry+ aga94 ,a work+ draw+1 :e!r made to a scale or n1 mu/ h all ! dim5sions pla9ly writt5 ^u x1 = a workman %\ld nev] be compell$ to measure a draw+4 ,9 m>k+ (f di/ances1 c5t]s1 etc41 a f9e ne$le po9t is useful2 ! hole %\ld n be punctur$ ?r\gh ! pap]1 m]ely a prick po9t1 s t x w leave an impression1 :i* w n be oblit]at$ by ! use ( rubb]2 draw+-p5s are (t5 equipp$ ) su* a ne$le po9t 9 ! end ( ! h&le1 t is visible only :5 ! p5 is unscrew$ f ! h&le2 b 9 ! abs5ce ( "o ( ?is k9d ! po9t ( ! divid] leg w be ( use4 ,me*anical con/ruction draw+s repres5t a l>ge am\nt ( m5tal & manual "w1 z well z a consid]able co/ 9 money2 h5ce1 !y are ( value q z mu* z prop]ty :i* has be5 acquir$ by ! exp5diture ( ei!r labor or capital4 ,x is wise to keep copies ( orig9al designs & sket*es1 z well z data & =mul1 = record & comp>ison4 ,! be/ sy/em = keep+ draw+s is to make !m ( c]ta9 /&>d sizes1 & to keep !m flat1 unroll$1 9 draw]s1 numb]$1 lett]$ & label$4 ,9 an (fice :]e space is limit$ & draw+s h to be roll$ x is well to use a numb] ( pa/ebo>d cases ab\t ?ree feet long & ?ree in*es 9 diamet]4 ,^! are %[n 9 fig4 #bid4 ,a puncture c be made ne> ! top &1 :5 a new draw+ or blue-pr9t is ins]t$ 9 ?is cyl9drical case1 a c>dbo>d tag c be loop$ ?r\gh ! puncture4 ,?is label w give ! title & numb] ( draw+s 9 t case4 ,a manuscript book me?odically & neatly kept %\ld tell imm$iately ! numb] ( ! draw+ & ! case4 ,fig4 #bic is good = practice 9 l9e draw+ & also z an optical illusion4 8,y look & are deceiv$4 ,at fir/ glance y say1 #8,( c\rse1 ^? two l9es are curv$4' ,y are mi/ak54 ,!y are exactly p>allel4 ,9 ord] to prove ?is hold !m up edgewise to ! eye4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 ! subsidi>y l9es :i* lead ! vision a/ray4 ,x is a case ( fir/ impressions be+ q wrong40 ,illu/ration3 ,,l9e> ,,p]spective ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,l9e> ,p]spective4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ t ?is subject is outside ! limits ( me*anical draw+1 :i* only deals ) objects t c be measur$1 project$ or dim5sion$ to an accurate scale4 ,b1 9 r\nd+ out ! m =mal subjects x is well to look a little outside ! rigid l9es ( me*anics into ! me?ods ( nature1 = no sy/em ( tea*+ draw+ is complete t does n include "s explanations = sket*+ f nature--! objects be+ always ar\nd ! /ud5t1 ! eye always cle> to see & ! h& only ne$+ ! tra9+ to make p]man5t ! impressions receiv$4 ,! ^w p]spective means to see ?r\gh2 ! ^w p]spective be+ d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 ^w p]spic]e1 to look ?r\gh1 h5ce1 p]spective is a sci5ce :i* tea*es u to see correctly & enables u to repres5t ! appe>ance ( any?+ we may wi% to draw2 c>e %\ld be tak5 9 p]spective draw+1 to select objects int]e/+ 9 !mselves1 & ! be/ specim5s ( _! class1 s z to cultivate ta/e1 :ile !y at ! same "t af=d useful & in/ructive draw+ lessons4 ,! mean+ ( ! t]m l9e> p]spective is a l9e view2 ! previ\s examples h be5 compos$ ( surfaces plac$ front+ ! eye2 p]spective is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! *anges ( =m produc$ by view+ !m 9 v>i\s oblique positions4 ,! slighte/ alt]ation ( position w *ange ! appe>ance ( an object2 ?is c be easily %[n--= illu/ration take a co91 ! actual %ape ( :i* is a p]fect r\nd2 or1 /rictly speak+1 a circle4 ,if we take ! co9 betwe5 ! ?umb & ! fir/ f+]1 hold+ x 9 an upright position1 & exactly fac+ ! eyes1 z 9 ,fig4 #bif1 x appe>s ( its true =m1 viz41 a circle4 ,if we alt] its position1 balanc+ x ^u ! ?umb1 9 a level position1 ) its edge directly opposite ! eye1 z 9 ,fig4 #big1 its appe>ance is *ang$1 & :at we "k to be really a circle1 appe>s to u z a /raight l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bif4--;,fig4 #big4--;,fig4 #bih4 ,n[1 /ill balanc+ ! co9 ^u ! ?umb1 b *ang+ its position ) reg>d to ! eye1 by hold+ x a little l[] ?an 9 ! la/ position1 t is slightly b5ea? ! level ( ! eye1 z 9 fig4 #bih1 we see bo? ! edge & ! surface1 ! co9 n[ appe>+ nei!r a circle nor a /raight l9e1 b a curv$ figure ( an elliptical =m4 ,?us ! same co9 held 9 ?ree diff]5t positions has assum$ ?ree diff]5t %apes4 ,let u take two co9s ( ! same size1 hold+ 79 ! position %[n at fig4 #bif7 "o 9 ea* h&4 ,n[1 clos+ "o eye1 7:i* w make ! exp]im5t m cle>71 hold "o co9 out at arm's l5g?1 & ! o!r at ab\t ! di/ance ( a foot f ! eye4 ,on comp>+ !m1 we f9d t ! co9 :i* is fur!r f ! eye appe>s less ?an ! ne>] "o4 ,we "k t ! co9s are really equal 9 size1 yet "o appe>s small] ?an ! o!r4 ,we ?us see t :5 we *ange ! position ( an object1 we h z a consequ5ce a *ange ( appe>ance2 also t ! *ange ( appe>ance may affect bo? ! %ape & ! size ( ! object4 ,^! div]sities ( appe>ance may be rem>k$ 9 ev]y?+ ar\nd u4 ,we c obs]ve !m 9 ! /reet by look+ at a build+ f diff]5t po9ts ( view1 or by comp>+ ! app>5t sizes ( ! /reet lamps2 9 ! railway /ation1 by wat*+ ! arriv+ or dep>t+ tra92 & at sea1 by notic+ ! vessels z !y approa*1 or z !y retire1 ultimately vani%+ f our sight 9 t l9e :]e ! sea & sky appe> to meet4 ,all ^! int]e/+ v>iations ( appe>ance are 9 /rict accordance ) ! laws ( ,,geometry & ,,optics4 ,! =m] subject has be5 enl>g$ ^u beg9n+ ) page #ha ( ?is "w1 :]e a l9e1 a po9t1 an angle1 etc41 are def9$2 o!r t]ms are expla9$ at page #da & ! foll[+ pages2 to ^! we add a few def9itions ess5tial to ! subject4 ,a ,,plane is a surface :i* is p]fectly ev5 & flat2 to use a famili> illu/ration1 a plane is l ! surface ( a %eet ( plate glass2 recollect p>ticul>ly1 t a surface :i* is at all curv$1 is n a plane4 ,! ,,gr\nd-,,plane is ! plane on :i* we /&2 ! base-l9e is an imag9>y l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! middle ( ! feet z we /& squ>e & erect2 & ! v]tical plane is suppos$ to /& on ! base-l9e & p]p5dicul> to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bii4--,see page #bee4 ,planes are p>allel to ea* o!r :5 !y are ?r\gh\t _! entire surfaces ! same di/ance ap>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,,! ,,p]spective ,,plane is an upright squ>e ( glass1 usually fram$ l a picture1 ) a base1 s t x c /& up alone4 ,?is is plac$ betwe5 ! eye ( ! spectator & ! subject to be drawn1 & z ! draw+ is sometimes made directly ^u x1 x is sometimes call$ ! ,picture or ! ,plane ( ! ,picture4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cja4 ,,horizontal means p]fectly level1 l ! surface ( /ill wat]4 ,we mu/ be c>eful to und]/& p]fectly ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! t]ms 8level0 & 8ev50 or 8flat40 ,a surface may be ev5 or flat1 )\t be+ level4 ,?us ! wall is ev5 & flat1 b x is upright1 n level2 level means a fix$1 con/ant position4 ,9 fig4 #cja a h\se is %[n 9 p]spective 9 :i* ! l9e ,h ,l is ! l9e ( ! horizon & ,v ,p is !1-- ,,vani%+ ,,po9t4--,! vani%+ po9t is famili>ly repres5t$ by ! rails on a trolley track on a /raight road1 :i* seem to approa* ea* o!r 9 ! di/ance1 z %[n 9 fig4 #cjb at ,v ,p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,all p>allel l9es se5 9 p]spective appe> to meet 9 ! same vani%+ po9t4 ,! value ( ! vani%+ po9t may be se5 9 ! view ( a wood5 h\se1 fig4 #cjc1 :]e x 7,v ,p7 gives direction to ! retir+ l9es ( ! ro(1 side planks & door4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,,po9t ,,( ,,sight4--,?is is t po9t 9 ! eye :]e ! l9es or rays f ! object cross ea* o!r1 z %[n at ,p 9 fig4 #cje1 also 9 fig4 #bii at ,s4 ,,v]tical means p]fectly upright4 ,if we atta* a piece ( ?read to a weight1 a small piece ( lead = example1 & hold ! ?read ) ! lead hang+ d[nw>ds1 ! ?read w fall 9 an upright or v]tical position4 ,,p>allel l9es are said to be p>allel to ea* o!r :5 !y are ?r\gh\t _! :ole l5g?s ! same di/ance ap>t4 ,,p]p5dicul>4 ,:5 "o /raight l9e1 meet+ ano!r1 makes ! angles at ! po9t ( contact equal1 ea* ( ! angles is call$ a "r angle1 & ! l9es are said to be p]p5dicul> to ea* o!r4 ,rememb] especially t p]p5dicul> & v]tical h n ! same mean+4 ,v]tical means an unv>y+ upright position4 ,p]p5dicul> means t "o l9e or plane meets ano!r l9e or plane at "r angles4 ,! fig4 #bie on page #bdf is a /udy 9 p]spective1 %[+ a wat] reflection4 ,z rays f e visible "p ( ! object are reflect$1 all foll[+ ! same law1 ! reflection w appe> to ! eye inv]t$1 & ( ! same size z ! object4 ,! ar* itself =ms ! upp] half ( a holl[ cyl9d]1 & ! reflection =ms ! l[] half4 ,! reflection %[s mu* m ( ! int]ior ( ! ar* ?an c be se5 directly4 ,! lean+ tree1 ! boy fi%+1 & ! rec$+ banks1 all are se5 9 accordance ) ! laws ( reflection & p]spective4 ,,! ,,horizontal ,,l9e1 ,,! ,,po9t ,,( ,,sight ,,& ,,! ,,vani%+ ,,po9ts are ! pr9cipal items4 ,^! %\ld be /udi$ 9 e room & dur+ e walk1 & ! m pleas+ accid5ts ( =m /or$ 9 ! m9d or committ$ to pap] = future use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,,optics1 ! sci5ce ( sight1 gives u ! foll[+ laws3 #a4 ,t we see by ! ag5cy ( light4 #b4 ,t light passes f objects to our eyes4 #c4 ,t light travels 9 /raight l9es1 :i* are call$ ,visual ,rays4 ,! human eye may be briefly describ$ z a *amb] ( a sph]ical or globul> =m1 ) a circul> op5+ 9 front4 ,?is circul> op5+ is call$ ! pupil1 & ?r\gh x ! visual rays pass to ! int]ior ( ! eye4 ,! visual rays1 pass+ f space 9 all directions ?r\gh ! small pupil1 are receiv$ ^u :at may be call$ ! int]ior wall ( ! globul> *amb] =m+ ! eye 7see fig4 #cje74 ,?is int]ior wall is call$ ! ret9a1 & ^u x ! impressions ( ext]nal objects are receiv$1 j z !y are receiv$ ^u a scre5 9 a d>k *amb]4 ,^! impressions are convey$ by ! optic n]ve f ! ret9a to ! bra94 ,9 front ( ! pupil is a segm5t ( a small sph]e1 compos$ ( ! cornea & ! aque\s humor1 bo? ( :i* are transp>5t1 & f _! %ape & d5sity h a conv]g5t effect ^u ! rays pass+ ?r\gh !m4 ,beh9d ! pupil is ! transp>5t cry/all9e l5s1 :i*1 f its %ape & its ela/icity1 is a p[]ful ag5t 9 aid+ ! conv]g5ce ( ! rays1 & 9 br++ objects at v>i\s di/ances to a cle> focus ^u ! ret9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cje4 ,! pupil has ! p[] ( contraction & dilation1 :i* is influ5c$ by ! quantity ( light ent]+ ! eye1 b :5 x is dilat$ to ! utmo/ its size is v small 9 comp>ison ) ! great *amb] =m+ ! body ( ! eye4 ,9 fig4 #cje we h a r\gh sectional diagram ( ! eye & an object 9 front ( x4 ,?is object1 an arr[1 is se5 by means ( ! visual rays proce$+ f x1 ! pr9cipal two ( :i* are %[n4 ,! visual ray f ,a passes ?r\gh ! pupil & is receiv$ ^u ! ret9a at a4 ,9 ! same way ! visual ray f ,b passes ?r\gh ! pupil & is receiv$ ^u ! ret9a at b4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ! impressions or images receiv$ ^u ! ret9a are inv]t$2 b1 by long reason & exp]i5ce1 ! m9d has acquir$ ! habit ( det]m9+ ! real positions ( objects1 & does n1 ?\gh ! image is s receiv$1 imag9e !m to be upside d[n4 ,x w also be obs]v$1 9 ! same way1 t t portion ( an object :i* is ^u ! "r w be pictur$ ^u ! ret9a ^u ! left1 & vice v]sa1 b ! m9d1 = ! reasons be=e /at$1 nev] imag9es ! object to be rev]s$4 ,?is fact is ano!r pro( t1 z m5tion$ at ! comm5cem5t ( our /udy1 to see accurately is a matt] ( education & practice4 ,& fir/ ( ,optics2 x 0 ass]t$1 page #beb1 t we see by ! ag5cy ( light :i* passes f objects to our eyes 9 /raight l9es :i* are call$ ,visual ,rays4 ,we see by ! ag5cy ( light1 z all objects1 except su* z may be /yl$ self-lum9\s1 :5 plac$ 9 a d>k *amb] are n p]ceivable by u1 except by t\*1 smell or he>+2 we _c see !m2 !y are invisible4 ,b :51 by remov+ a %utt] or ignit+ a flame1 we introduce some?+ to ! *amb] :i* 0 n pres5t :5 ! *amb] 0 d>k1 we become at once consci\s ( ! appe>ance ( ! object1 we p]ceive x by ! s5se ( sight4 ,?is some?+ :i* mu/ always be pres5t to enable u to see1 is call$ ,light2 all objects are made visible to ! s5se ( see+ by its ag5cy4 ,)\t light1 natural or artificial1 x w\ld be impossible to di/+ui% "o object f ano!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjf4 ,t ! ,visual ,rays pass f objects 9 /raight l9es to ! eye may be prov$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t 7see fig4 #cjf73--,pi]ce two scre5s ) a l>ge p91 & place !m s t ! holes are 9 a /raight l9e ) a flame1 z ! light ( a c&le or lamp4 ,on fix+ ! eye to "o ( ^! holes we are able to see ! flame2 b if we slightly move ! flame1 "o ( ! scre5s1 or ! eye1 ! flame is no long] visible4 ,to be visible1 ! flame1 ! holes 9 ! scre5s1 & ! eye mu/ all be 9 ! same /raight l9e4 ,see fig4 #cjf4 ,9 fig4 #bii ! picture plane is repres5t$ by ! rectangle ,w ,x ,y ,z4 ,al?\gh ! picture plane is "h %[n z a rectangle1 x may be ( any %ape or ( any size4 ,! obs]v] is at ,s1 look+ ?r\gh ! picture plane at ! cross ,r ,c ,o ,h4 ,! obs]v] is /&+ ^u a horizontal surface1 :i* is call$ ! gr\nd plane4 ,if we are 9 a room1 ! w9d[ may be call$ a picture plane & ! floor a gr\nd plane4 ,! picture plane re/s1 z x 71 ^u ! gr\nd plane1 9 a l9e :i* passes f ,y to ,z4 ,! two planes meet or int]sect 9 ?is l9e1 :i* is call$ ! gr\nd l9e4 ,! gr\nd l9e is sometimes call$ ! picture l9e1 or ! measur+ l9e4 ,! visual rays1 by means ( :i* ! obs]v] sees ! cross1 w1 9 _! c\rse f x to ! eye1 pass ?r\gh ! picture plane4 ,^! visual rays w int]sect ! picture plane 9 a numb] ( po9ts1 & if we m>k ! true positions ( ^! po9ts ! result w be a p]spective image ( ! cross4 ,! rays are %[n pass+ f ! cross to ! eye ( ! obs]v]1 & meet+ ! picture plane 9 po9ts r1 c1 o1 h2 r be+ jo9$ to o1 & c to h1 we h ! p]spective image ( ! cross z x w\ld appe> to ! obs]v] at ,s4 ,( c\rse an inf9ite numb] ( rays proce$ f ! cross to ! eye ( ! obs]v]2 b x is q evid5t t we ne$ only consid] ^? proce$+ f ! extremities ( ! object4 ,scale or ,approximate ,p]spective4 ,real1 or true p]spective1 repres5ts ! object exactly z x is se5 9 nature1 :]e ! p>ts t are f> away f ! eye ( ! obs]v] appe> small] ?an ^? ne>by4 ,occasions arise1 h[ev]1 9 practical life1 ) its num]\s phases ( indu/rial requirem5ts1 :]e ! conv5i5ce ( %[+ ! complete =m ( ! object 9 a s+le view might pref]ably be c\pl$ ) ! conv5i5ce ( scale dim5sions4 ,?is has l$ to a modifi$ p]spective1 t sacrifices "s ( ! accuracy 9 ! appe>ance ( ! object to ga9 ! advantage ( scale dim5sions2 ?is =m ( p]spective may be di/+ui%$ by ! "n--approximate or scale p]spective--:i* does n repres5t ! object exactly z se5 9 nature1 b :]e ^? p>ts t are af> (f are %[n ( ! same size z ^? t are ne> by1 & :]e ! l9es t run out into space are p>allel to ea* o!r & d n conv]ge into a vani%+ po9t4 ,to repres5t an object 9 p]spective1 ! horizon & ! po9t ( vision w h to appe> 9 ! draw+ z ! fundam5tal />t+ po9ts4 ,?ree dim5sions are di/+ui%$ = ! fix+ ( an object 9 space f a c]ta9 ref]5ce po9t4 ,!y are height1 bread? & ?ickness1 & are 9 _! direction squ>e to ea* o!r4 ,! height is ! fundam5tal direction1 be+ d]iv$ f ! direction ( gravity1 t inv>iably ext5ds to ! c5t] ( ! e>?4 ,all directions 9 ! p]spective det]m9ation ( an object are p>allel to ^!4 ,v]tical l9es & planes po9t t[>d ! c5t] ( ! e>?1 :ile horizontal planes1 includ+ ! directions ( bread? & ?ickness1 are squ>e to ! v]tical direction4 ,9 ?is1 ! pr9cipal visual ray ext5ds 9 ! direction ( ?ickness4 ,= a cle> und]/&+ ( p]spective1 x mu/ be firmly fix$ 9 m9d1 t = ea* prom95t po9t ( ! object beh9d ! picture plane1 a correspond+ po9t lies 9 ! picture plane1 9 t position :]e a /raight l9e or ray ( sight t is go+ f ! eye to ! po9t ( ! object1 cuts ?r\gh ! picture plane4 ,suppose we c\ld replace ^! rays ( sight by ?91 visible ?reads ( wire t w\ld g ?r\gh little holes 9 ! picture plane1 we c\ld !n walk ar\nd ?is bundle ( rays1 & by look+ at x f ?ree diff]5t directions1 we w\ld get ?ree diff]5t views ( x4 ,we may look ^u x f ! top1 f ! side or f ! end1 :]e ! bundle ( rays all conc5trate 9 ! eye ( ! obs]v]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjg4 ,figs4 #cjg & #cjh %[1 9 two cases1 h[ ^! ?ree views w\ld appe>4 ,! end views are ^? :]e ! p]spective picture appe>s on ! plane1 :ile ! top & side views only %[ :]e ! rays int]sect ! picture plane4 ,! top view %[s h[ f>1 = example1 po9t ,a is di/ant f a v]tical l9e ,o ,z1 :ile ! side view %[s h[ f> po9t ,a is bel[ horizontal l9e ,o ,x1 :i* is at ! same height above ! gr\nd z ! eye ( ! obs]v]1 ,o4 ,?us1 all po9ts ( ! cube c be locat$ on ! picture plane1 & ! outl9es ( ! cube reproduc$ 9 p]spective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjh4 ,modifi$ arrangem5ts are %[n 9 figs4 #cji & #caj = p>allel & angul> p]spective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cji4 ,! views are s arrang$ 9 relation to ea* o!r t ! picture plane 9 ! top view is p>allel to ! horizon & ! gr\nd-l9e1 :i* latt] is ! int]section ( ! picture plane ) ! level gr\nd ( ! end or p]spective view4 ,at ! same "t ! eye ( ! obs]v] is 9 "o & ! same v]tical l9e = bo? views1 two vani%+ po9ts may be f\nd 9 ! horizon outside ( ! pr9cipal visual ray4 ,to f9d ! position ( ^! two vani%+ po9ts 9 ! picture plane1 ! modifi$ top view1 fig4 #caj1 is us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caj4 ,z all l9es t end 9 a vani%+ po9t mu/ be p>allel 9 reality1 ?is p>allelism may be se5 9 ! top view & l9es ?r\gh ! eye ( ! obs]v]1 p>allel to ! directions ( ! ma9 l9es ( ! object1 w cut ! picture plane at ! vani%+ po9ts4 ,?r\gh ^! two vani%+ po9ts ! directions ( two sets ( l9es are f\nd1 ! />t+ po9ts ( :i* are det]m9$ f ! plane ( measurem5t4 ,! ?ird set ( l9es1 be+ v]tical1 also appe>s v]tical & p>allel 9 ! picture4 ,! position ( ea* v]tical l9e is f\nd 9 ! top view1 :]e ! light rays f ! obs]v+ eye to ! ends ( ! v]tical l9es int]sect ) ! picture plane4 ,project+ ^! po9ts d[n ^u ! rays to ! vani%+ po9ts produces ! v]tical l9es 9 ! picture4 ,= example1 9 fig4 #caa1 ! purpose ( p]spective is entirely defeat$ by plac+ ! eye ( ! obs]v] directly 9 front ( ! object & arriv+ at ! view tak5 9 me*anical draw+ :i* ne$s supplem5t>y views = complete compreh5sion ( ! =m ( ! object4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caa4 ,9 fig4 #cab ! eye ( ! obs]v] is fir/ plac$ directly opposite ! object1 !n x sees ! object to ! left b a %ort di/ance away1 :ile 9 ! ?ird figure ! obs]v] is f>!r away f ! object4 ,9 ea* case ! picture plane & plane ( measurem5t is at ! front face ( ! cube4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cab 7second "p74 ,= su* simple objects1 x is n necess>y to draw ! top view at all4 ,! only rem9d] ( ! top view is ! eye or po9t ( vision1 ! picture plane t falls toge!r = ! sake ( conv5i5ce ) ! horizon ( ! end view & ! ray t det]m9es ! measurem5t po9t ,m1 :i* is1 9 ?is suppress$ reproduction1 absolutely necess>y1 9 ord] to f9d ! app>5t position ( ! real corn]s beh9d ! picture plane4 ,s f>1 only squ>e or %>p-corn]$ objects h be5 repres5t$ 9 p]spective4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t r\nd objects c also be %[n 9 l9e> p]spective1 plac+ ref]5ce l9es on ! object & repres5t+ ^! z if !y 7 real l9es4 ,a cyl9d] is ?us %[n 9 fig4 #cac ( :i* ! end planes w appe> v di/9ctly 9 %>p outl9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cac4 ,v]tically1 only ! outl9es ( ! cyl9d]1 z contra/$ aga9/ space1 w appe> z di/9ct outl9es1 :ile ! ref]5ce l9es w n appe> & are !re=e %[n only z dott$ l9es4 ,fig4 #cad %[s ! approximate or scale p]spective ) all ! axes drawn & ! correspond+ angles & scales m>k$4 ,! outl9es ( ! object runn+ 9 ^! directions appe> all p>allel to ! axes4 ,! approximate or scale p]spective completely avoids all ! difficulties ( *oos+ a po9t ( sight1 ( hav+ sev]al views1 vani%+ po9ts & measurem5t po9ts1 & ?us (f]s a repres5tative view1 ) a great sav+ ( "t & labor4 ,p>ticul>ly = me*anical purposes1 :]e an arti/ic impression is n call$ =1 x pres5ts a di/9ct advantage ov] ! true or real p]spective4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tables ,,& ,,index ,illu/ration3 ,,m>9]s' ,,compass4 ,useful ,tables = ,draughtsm54 ,,table ,,( ,,decimal ,,equival5ts4 #h?s1 #af?s1 #cb;ds & #fd?s ( an ,in*4 #h?s4 4#abe 4#bej 4#cge 4#ejj 4#fbe 4#gej 4#hge #af?s4 4#jfbe 4#ahge 4#cabe 4#dcge 4#efbe 4#fhge 4#habe 4#icge #cbnds4 4#jcabe 4#jicge 4#aefbe 4#bahge 4#bhabe 4#cdcge 4#djfbe 4#dfhge 4#ecabe 4#eicge 4#fefbe 4#gahge 4#ghabe 4#hdcge 4#ijfbe 4#ifhge #fd?s4 4#jaefbe 4#jdfhge 4#jghabe 4#ajicge 4#adjfbe 4#agahge 4#bjcabe 4#bcdcge 4#bfefbe 4#bifhge 4#cbhabe 4#ceicge 4#cijfbe 4#dbahge 4#decabe 4#dhdcge 4#eaefbe 4#edfhge 4#eghabe 4#fjicge 4#fdjfbe 4#fgahge 4#gjcabe 4#gcdcge 4#gfefbe 4#gifhge 4#hbhabe 4#heicge 4#hijfbe 4#ibahge 4#iecabe 4#ihdcge ,,table ,,( ,,decimal ,,equival5ts ,( ,millimet]s & ,fractions ( ,millimet]s4 mm4 ,in*es4 4#jjjgi 4#jjaeg 4#jjbcf 4#jjcae 4#jjcid 4#jjdgb 4#jjeea 4#jjfcj 4#jjgji 4#jjghg 4#jjhff 4#jjide 4#jajbd 4#jaajb 4#jaaha 4#jabfj 4#jacci 4#jadag 4#jadif 4#jaege 4#jafed 4#jagcb 4#jahaa 4#jahij 4#jaifi 4#jbjdg 4#jbabf 4#jbbje 4#jbbhc 4#jbcfb 4#jbdda 4#jbebj 4#jbeih 4#jbfgg 4#jbgef 4#jbhce 4#jbiac 4#jbiib 4#jcjga 4#jcaej 4#jcbbh 4#jccjg 4#jcchf 4#jcdfe 4#jcedc 4#jcfbb 4#jcgja 4#jcghj 4#jcheh #a 4#jcicg #b 4#jghgd #c 4#aahaa #d 4#aegdh #e 4#aifhe #f 4#bcfbb #g 4#bgeei #h 4#cadif #i 4#cedcc #aj 4#cicgj #aa 4#dccjg #ab 4#dgbdd #ac 4#eaaha #ad 4#eeaah #ae 4#eijee #af 4#fbiib #ag 4#ffibi #ah 4#gjhff #ai 4#gdhjc #bj 4#ghgdj #ba 4#hbfgg #bb 4#hffad #bc 4#ijeea #bd 4#iddhh #be 4#ihdbe #bf #a4jbcfb #aj mm4 #a ,c5timet] #j4cicg in*es4 #aj cm4 #a ,decimet] #c4icg #aj dm4 #a ,met] #ci4cg #be4d mm4 #a ,engli% ,in*4 ,,rules ,,relative ,,to ,,! ,,circle4 ,! circle conta9s a great] area ?an any o!r plane figure b\nd$ by an equal p]imet] or outl9e4 ,,to ,,f9d ,,circumf]5ce-- ,multiply diamet] by #c4adaf4 ,or divide diamet] by #j4cahc4 ,,to ,,f9d ,,diamet]-- ,multiply circumf]5ce by #j4cahc4 ,or divide circumf]5ce by #c4adaf4 ,,to ,,f9d ,,radius-- ,multiply circumf]5ce by #j4aeiae4 ,or divide circumf]5ce by #f4bhcah4 ,,to ,,f9d ,,side ,,( ,,an ,,inscrib$ ,,squ>e-- ,multiply diamet] by #j4gjga4 ,or multiply circumf]5ce by #j4bbea4 ,or divide circumf]5ce by #d4ddbh4 ,,to ,,f9d ,,side ,,( ,,an ,,equal ,,squ>e-- ,multiply diamet] by #j4hhfb4 ,or divide diamet] by #a4abhd4 ,or multiply circumf]5ce by #j4bhba4 ,or divide circumf]5ce by #c4ede4 ,,squ>e-- ,a side multipli$ by #a4dadb equals diamet] ( its circumscrib+ circle4 ,a side multipli$ by #d4ddc equals circumf]5ce ( its circumscrib+ circle4 ,a side multipli$ by #a4abh equals diamet] ,a side multipli$ by #c4ede equals circumf]5ce ( an equal circle4 ,a side multipli$ by #a4bgc equals circle in*es ,,to ,,f9d ,,! ,,area ,,( ,a ,,circle-- ,multiply circumf]5ce by "o-qu>t] ( ! diamet]4 ,or multiply ! squ>e ( diamet] by #j4ghed4 ,or multiply ! squ>e ( circumf]5ce by 4#jgieh4 ,or multiply ! squ>e ( diamet] by #c4adaf4 ,cont5ts ( cyl9d] area ( end l5g?4 ,cont5ts ( w$ge area ( base altitude4 ,surface ( cyl9d] area ( bo? ends l5g? circumf]5ce4 ,surface ( sph]e diamet] squ>$ #c4adaf1 or diamet] circumf]5ce4 ,cont5ts ( sph]e diamet] cub$ 4#ebcf4 ,cont5ts ( pyramid or cone1 "r or oblique1 regul> or irregul> area ( base altitude4 ,area ( triangle base altitude4 ,area ( p>allelogram base altitude4 ,area ( trapezoid altitude ! sum ( p>allel sides4 ,,roman ,,table4 ,i4 d5otes ,"o4 ,,ii4 ,two4 ,,iii4 ,?ree4 ,,iv4 ,f\r4 ,v4 ,five4 ,,vi4 ,six4 ,,vii4 ,sev54 ,,viii4 ,eight4 ,,ix4 ,n9e4 ,x4 ,t54 ,,xi4 ,elev54 ,,xii4 ,twelve4 ,,xiii4 ,?irte54 ,,xiv4 ,f\rte54 ,,xv4 ,fifte54 ,,xvi4 ,sixte54 ,,xvii4 ,sev5te54 ,,xviii4 ,eighte54 ,,xix4 ,n9ete54 ,,xx4 ,tw5ty4 ,,xxx4 ,?irty4 ,,xl4 ,=ty4 ,l4 ,fifty4 ,,lx4 ,sixty4 ,,lxx4 ,sev5ty4 ,,lxxx4 ,eighty4 ,,xc4 ,n9ety4 ,c4 ,"o hundr$4 ,d4 ,five hundr$4 ,m4 ,"o ?\s&4 ,x4 ,t5 ?\s&4 ,m4 ,"o million4 ,,solid ,,measure1 ,,or ,,cubic ,,measure4 ,?is is us$ 9 measur+ bodies1 or ?+s hav+ l5g?1 bread? & height or dep?4 ,,table4 #agbh cubic in*es 7cu4 947 make #a cubic foot 7cu4 ft474 #bg cubic feet1 #a cubic y>d 7cu4 yd474 #abh cubic feet1 #a cord 7,c474 ,,circul> ,,measure4 #fj seconds 77 make #a m9ute 774 #fj m9utes #a degree 774 #cfj degrees #a circum4 7,c474 ,! circumf]5ce ( e circle :atev]1 is suppos$ to be divid$ into #cfj equal p>ts1 call$ degrees4 ,a degree is ( ! circumf]5ce ( any circle1 small or l>ge4 ,a quadrant is a f\r? ( a circumf]5ce1 or an arc ( #ij degrees4 ,a degree is divid$ into #fj p>ts call$ m9utes1 express$ by ! sign 771 & ea* m9ute is divid$ into #fj seconds1 express$ by 772 s t ! circumf]5ce ( any circle conta9s #ba1fjj m9utes1 or #a1bif1jjj seconds4 ,,long ,,measure--,,measures ,,( ,,l5g?4 #ab in*es #a foot4 #c feet #a y>d4 #e y>ds #a rod4 #dj rods #a furlong4 #h furlongs #a common mile4 #c miles #a league4 ,! mile 7#e1bhj feet7 ( ! above table is ! legal mile ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,engl&1 & is call$ ! /atute mile4 ,tables ( ,diamet]s1 ,circumf]5ces & ,areas ( ,circles4 -------------------------- ,diam4 ,area4 ,circum4 -------------------------- #j4j 4#a 4#jjghed 4#cadaf 4#b 4#jcadaf 4#fbhcb 4#c 4#jgjfhf 4#idbdh 4#d 4#abeff #a4beff 4#e 4#aigce #a4egjh 4#f 4#bhbgd #a4hhej 4#g 4#chdhe #b4aiia 4#h 4#ejbff #b4eacc 4#i 4#fcfag #b4hbgd #a4j 4#ghed #c4adaf 4#a 4#iejc #c4deeh 4#b #a4acaj #c4gfii 4#c #a4cbgc #d4jhda 4#d #a4ecid #d4cihb 4#e #a4gfga #d4gabd 4#f #b4jajf #e4jbfe 4#g #b4bfih #e4cdjg 4#h 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,,iron ,,weld$ ,,pipe4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,l5g? ,l5g? ( pipe ( pipe p] p] ,inside ,actual ,actual squ>e squ>e diam-outside ,inside,ext]nal,int]nal foot ( foot ( et] ,diam- ,?ick- ,diam- circum- circum- outside inside nom4 et]4 ness4 et]4f]5ce4f]5ce4surface4surface4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- 4#dje 4#jfh #j4bfi #a4bgb #j4hdh #i4ddj #ad4ae 4#ed 4#jhh #j4cfd #a4fif #a4add #g4jge #aj4ej 4#fge 4#jia #j4dic #b4aba #a4eeb #e4feg #g4fg 4#hdj 4#aji #j4fbb #b4feb #a4ieg #d4ejb #f4ac #a4jej 4#aac #j4hbd #c4bii #b4ehi #c4fcg #d4fce #a #a4cae 4#acd #a4jdg #d4acd #c4bib #b4ijc #c4fgi #a #a4ffj 4#adj #a4ch #e4bae #d4cce #b4cja #b4gfh #a #a4ij 4#ade #a4fa #e4ifi #e4jfa #b4jaj #b4cga #b #b4cge 4#aed #b4jfg #g4dfa #f4did #a4faa #a4hdh #b #b4hge 4#bjd #b4dfg #i4jcb #g4ged #a4cbh #a4edg #c #c4ej 4#bag #c4jff #aj4iif #i4fcf #a4jia #a4bde #c #d4j 4#bbf #c4edh #ab4eff #aa4adf 4#iee #a4jgg #d #d4ej 4#bcg #d4jbf #ad4acg #ab4fdh 4#hdi #j4idi #d #e4j 4#bdg #d4ejf #ae4gjh #ad4aec 4#gfe #j4hdh #e #e4efc 4#bei #e4jde #ag4dge #ae4hdi 4#fbi #j4geg #f #f4fbe 4#bhj #e4jfe #bj4hac #ai4jed 4#egg #j4fcj #g #g4fbe 4#cja #g4jbc #bc4ied #bb4jfc 4#eje #j4edd #h #h4fbe 4#cbb #g4iha #bg4jif #be4jgf 4#ddd #j4dgh #i #i4fhh 4#cdd #i4jj #cj4dcc #bh4bgg 4#cid #j4dbe #aj #aj4gej 4#cff #aj4jah #cc4ggb #ca4dge 4#cee #j4cha ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,l5g? ( pipe con- ,weight,no4 ( ,inside ,actualta9+ p] ?reads,l5g? diam- ,ex- 9- "o foot p] p]- et] t]nal t]nal cubic ( ,in* ( fect nom4 area4 area4 foot4 l5g?4 screw4screw4 ---------------------------------------- ------ 4#abi 4#jegbbejj4 4#bdc #bg #j4ai 4#bbi 4#ajdaache4 4#dbb #ah #j4bi 4#ceh 4#aiaf #gea4e 4#efa #ah #j4cj 4#eed 4#cjdh #dgb4d 4#hde #ad #j4ci 4#hff 4#eccc #bgj4j #a4abf #ad #j4dj #a #a4ceg 4#hfbg #aff4i #a4fgj #aa #j4ea #a #b4afd #a4dif #if4be #b4beh #aa #j4ed #a #b4hce #b4jch #gj4fe #b4fid #aa #j4ee #b #d4dcj #c4cee #db4cf #c4ffg #aa #j4eh #b #f4dia #d4ghc #cj4aa #e4ggc #h #j4hi #c #i4fba #g4chh #ai4dj #g4edg #h #j4ie #c #ab4eff #i4hcg #ad4ef #i4jee #h #a4jj #d #ae4ijaab4gcj #aa4ca #aj4gbh #h #a4je #d #ai4fceae4ici #i4jc #ab4dib #h #a4aj #e #bd4biiai4iij #g4bj #ad4efd #h #a4af #f #cd4dgabh4hhi #d4ih #ah4gfg #h #a4bf #g #de4ffcch4gcg #c4gb #bc4daj #h #a4cf #h #eh4dbfej4jci #b4hh #bh4cdh #h #a4df #i #gc4gaefc4fcc #b4bf #cd4fgg #h #a4eg #aj #ij4gfbgh4hch #a4hj #dj4fda #h #a4fh ---------------------------------------- ------ ,?read tap] ?ree-f\r?s in* to "o foot4 ,all pipe bel[ #a in*es is butt-weld$1 & prov$ to #cjj p\nds p] squ>e in*2 #a in* & above is lap-weld$ & prov$ to #ejj p\nds p] squ>e in*4 ,,/&>ds ,,= ,,wire ,,gauges ,,9 ,,use ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,dim5sions ( ,sizes 9 ,decimal ,p>ts ( an ,in*4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,wa%burn ,numb],am]ican,birm+- ,mo5 ,impe- ,u4 ,s4 ,numb] ( or ,br[n ham1 or,mfg4 ,co41 rial ,/ubs' ,/&4 ( ,wire ,/ubs' ,worces- ,wire ,/eel = ,wire ,gauge4 ,%>pe4 ,wire4 t]1 ,ms4,gauge4 ,wire4 ,plate4 ,gauge4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #jjjjjj 4444 4444 4444 4#dfd 4444 4#dfhge #jjjjjj #jjjjj 4444 4444 4444 4#dcb 4444 4#dcge #jjjjj #jjjj 4#df 4#ded 4#cich 4#djj 4444 4#djfbe #jjjj #jjj 4#djifd 4#dbe 4#cfbe 4#cgb 4444 4#cge #jjj #jj 4#cfdh 4#ch 4#ccaj 4#cdh 4444 4#cdcge #jj #j 4#cbdhf 4#cd 4#cjfe 4#cbd 4444 4#cabe #j #a 4#bhic 4#c 4#bhcj 4#cjj 4#bbg 4#bhabe #a #b 4#begfc 4#bhd 4#bfbe 4#bgf 4#bai 4#bfefbe #b #c 4#bbidb 4#bei 4#bdcg 4#beb 4#bab 4#be #c #d 4#bjdca 4#bch 4#bbec 4#bcb 4#bjg 4#bcdcge #d #e 4#ahaid 4#bb 4#bjgj 4#bab 4#bjd 4#bahge #e #f 4#afbjb 4#bjc 4#aibj 4#aib 4#bja 4#bjcabe #f #g 4#addbh 4#ah 4#aggj 4#agf 4#aii 4#ahge #g #h 4#abhdi 4#afe 4#afbj 4#afj 4#aig 4#agahge #h #i 4#aaddc 4#adh 4#adhc 4#add 4#aid 4#aefbe #i #aj 4#ajahi 4#acd 4#acej 4#abh 4#aia 4#adjfbe #aj #aa 4#jijgdb 4#ab 4#abje 4#aaf 4#ahh 4#abe #aa #ab 4#jhjhjh 4#aji 4#ajee 4#ajd 4#ahe 4#ajicge #ab #ac 4#jgaifa 4#jie 4#jiae 4#jib 4#ahb 4#jicge #ac #ad 4#jfdjhd 4#jhc 4#jhjj 4#jhj 4#ahj 4#jghabe #ad #ae 4#jegjfh 4#jgb 4#jgbj 4#jgb 4#agh 4#jgjcabe #ae #af 4#jejhb 4#jfe 4#jfbe 4#jfd 4#age 4#jfbe #af #ag 4#jdebeg 4#jeh 4#jedj 4#jef 4#agb 4#jefbe #ag #ah 4#jdjcjc 4#jdi 4#jdge 4#jdh 4#afh 4#je #ah #ai 4#jcehi 4#jdb 4#jdaj 4#jdj 4#afd 4#jdcge #ai #bj 4#jcaifa 4#jce 4#jcdh 4#jcf 4#afa 4#jcge #bj #ba 4#jbhdfb 4#jcb 4#jcage 4#jcb 4#aeg 4#jcdcge #ba #bb 4#jbecdg 4#jbh 4#jbhf 4#jbh 4#aee 4#jcabe #bb #bc 4#jbbega 4#jbe 4#jbeh 4#jbd 4#aec 4#jbhabe #bc #bd 4#jbja 4#jbb 4#jbcj 4#jbb 4#aea 4#jbe #bd #be 4#jagi 4#jb 4#jbjd 4#jbj 4#adh 4#jbahge #be #bf 4#jaeid 4#jah 4#jaha 4#jah 4#adf 4#jahge #bf #bg 4#jadaie 4#jaf 4#jagc 4#jafd 4#adc 4#jagahge #bg #bh 4#jabfda 4#jad 4#jafb 4#jadi 4#aci 4#jaefbe #bh #bi 4#jaabeg 4#jac 4#jaej 4#jacf 4#acd 4#jadjfbe #bi #cj 4#jajjbe 4#jab 4#jadj 4#jabd 4#abg 4#jabe #cj #ca 4#jjhibh 4#ja 4#jacb 4#jaaf 4#abj 4#jajicge #ca #cb 4#jjgie 4#jji 4#jabh 4#jajh 4#aae 4#jajaefbe #cb #cc 4#jjgjh 4#jjh 4#jaah 4#jajj 4#aab 4#jjicge #cc #cd 4#jjfcjd 4#jjg 4#jajd 4#jjib 4#aaj 4#jjheicge #cd #ce 4#jjefad 4#jje 4#jjie 4#jjhd 4#ajh 4#jjghabe #ce #cf 4#jje 4#jjd 4#jjij 4#jjgf 4#ajf 4#jjgjcabe #cf #cg 4#jjddec 4444 4444 4#jjfh 4#ajc 4#jjffdjfbe #cg #ch 4#jjcife 4444 4444 4#jjfj 4#aja 4#jjfbe #ch #ci 4#jjceca 4444 4444 4#jjeb 4#jii 4444 #ci #dj 4#jjcadd 4444 4444 4#jjdh 4#jig 4444 #dj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,/&>d ,,sizes ,,( ,,bolts4 ------------------------------ ,,di/ance ,,across ,,di/ance ,,flats1 ,,across ,,?ick- ,,diam- ,,squ>e ,,corn]s1 ,,ness ,,et]4,,& ,,hex4 ,,hex4 ,,( ,,head4 ------------------------------ #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #b #a #b #b #a #a #b #b #a #a #b #b #a #a #b #b #a #a #b #c #a #a #b #c #a #b #c #c #a #b #c #d #a #b #c #d #a #b #d #d #b #c #d #e #b ------------------------------ ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,/&>d ,,screw ,,?read ,,gauge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caf4 ,"s ,?+s ,p]sonal4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ?is "w ! idea ( self-help has nev] be5 =gott52 no?+ has be5 held back or omitt$ :i* w\ld1 9 ! au?or's op9ion1 t5d to advance ! /ud5t 9 ! draughtsman's art4 ,! volume conta9s ! exp]i5ce 9 practical draw+1 z relat$ to eng9e]+ & me*anics1 ( ov] "o hundr$ ye>s1 i4 e41 ! au?or's1 ,mr4 ,p]rott's & ,mr4 ,lucas' exp]i5ces add$ toge!r exce$ t p]iod4 ,h5ce1 ! 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"w 9 ! mo/ ?or\gh /yle possible--z to pap]1 pr9t+ & b9d+--& to sell x at a v g5]\sly l[ price1 consid]+ all ?+s4 ,) ! clos+ words 8hail & f>ewell10 ! au?or bids adieu 7,god be ) y7 to ! read] & ! /ud5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,beacon ,,light4 ,self ,hawk9s' ,me*anical ,draw+4 ,help ,index4 ,,page ,acute ,angle1 def4 #db ,acute-,angl$ ,triangle1 def4 #ej ,add5dum ,circle1 illus4 #bjj ,alphabets1 ,go?ic1 desc4 #aga ,altitude1 def4 #da ,altitude ( a ,polygon1 def4 #dg ,am]ican ,ma*9i/1 ,quotation f #ada ,angle1 def4 #da1 #hc ,to bisect an #hi ,to draw an #hi ,angle-,iron1 illus4 #ge ,angle-,plate1 illus4 #ge ,angul> ,p]spective ,draw+1 illus4 #bfj1 #bfe ,apex1 def4 #db ,apex ( an ,angle1 def4 #db ,arc1 def4 #db ,complem5t ( an #ii ,cosecant ( an #ii ,cotang5t ( an #ii ,s9e ( an #ii ,supplem5t ( an #ii ,tang5t ( an #ii ,v]s$ ,s9e ( an #ii ,arc ( ,circle1 ,to f9d ! c5t] ( an #ij ,arcs1 ,draw+ #adf ,illus4 #adf ,arr[-,heads1 h[ made #agb1 #agf ,axiom1 def4 #hc ,axis1 ,conjugate1 def4 #if ,( a ,figure1 def4 #dc ,( a ,solid1 def4 #db ,transv]se1 def4 #if ,backla% 9 ,ge>+ #bae ,backw>d ,projection desc4 #aeb1 illus4 #aeb-c ,base1 def4 #dc ,( a ,polygon1 def4 #dg ,beacon ,light1 illus4 #bhb ,beam ,compasses desc4 #abd1 illus4 #abd ,b5d+ ,ma*9e1 ,hydraulic desc4 #bba1 illus4 #bbj-a ,b5jam91 ,pr(4 ,*as41 8,h[ & ,:at to ,/udy0 #bc ,bevel-,ge>1 desc4 #bja ,bevel ,mortise ,:eel1 desc4 #bjc ,bevel ,:eel desc4 #aii1 illus4 #bjc ,bisect1 def4 #dc ,bisector1 def4 #dc ,blackbo>d1 illus4 & desc4 #bg ,blackbo>d ,draw+ #bh ,blue ,pr9t+ desc4 #ahf1 illus4 #ahg ,te/ pieces #ahh ,blue ,pr9ts1 ,(fice rules = #aif ,black ,process ,copy+ #ahh ,boil]-,plate1 ,rivet$1 illus4 #gf ,bolt1 ,squ>e-head1 illus4 #gf ,bolt & ,nut1 ,squ>e-head desc4 #add1 illus4 #ade ,hexagon desc4 #add1 illus4 #gf1 #add ,b[-,divid]s desc4 #abc1 illus4 #abb ,b[-,p5cil1 desc4 #abc ,b[s1 ,use ( #bdb ,brick1 ,section ,l9+1 illus4 #ahb ,brok5 ,l9es1 ,h[ to ,draw #cc ,def4 #df ,bump+ ,po/1 illus4 #bbf ,calip]s1 illus4 vi ,ca/-,iron1 ,section-,l9+1 illus4 #ahb ,caulk+ ,tool1 illus4 #gf ,c5t] ,l9e1 def4 #df ,c5t] ,l9es1 ,9 ,draw+s #bdj-a ,9 ,%op ,draw+s #aib ,*alk-,crayon desc4 #bg1 illus4 #bg1 #cg ,*alk-,"w #bg ,in/rum5ts = ,draw+1 illus4 #bi ,*annel-,iron1 illus4 #ge ,*eck+ ,draw+s #aid ,circle1 def4 #dc ,to describe ab\t a squ>e #ic ab\t a triangle #ic ?r\gh two po9ts #ij ?r\gh ?ree po9ts #ij ,to f9d ! c5t] #ij ,to inscribe 9 a squ>e #id 9 a triangle #id ,circles1 ,draw+ desc4 #adf1 illus4 #adf ,circumf]5ce ( a ,circle #dc ,circumscribe1 def4 #dc ,circul> ,pit* ,l9e1 illus4 #bjj ,classify+ ,draw+s1 ,(fice ,rules = #aia ,cle>ance 9 ,:eel ,tee? #bae ,cog-,:eel def4 #bja1 illus4 #bja ,section ,l9+1 illus4 #ahc ,co91 ,p]spective ,view ( a1 illus4 #bdh ,color & ,t9ts #ahe ,compass1 ,m>9]s'1 illus4 #bfh ,compasses1 ,beam1 desc4 & illus4 #abd ,desc4 & illus4 #aba ,= hold+ *alk1 illus4 #bi ,h[ to hold1 illus4 #acf ,complem5t ( an ,arc #ii ,composition1 ,section-,l9+1 illus4 #ahb ,concave1 def4 #dd ,cone1 def4 #dd ,conjugate ,axis1 def4 #if ,con/ruction1 def4 #dd ,l9e1 def4 #df ,cont5ts1 ,table ( #bd ,cont\r1 def4 #dd ,conv]g5ce1 def4 #dd ,convex1 def4 #dd ,copy+ ,draw+s1 ,black ,process #ahh ,blue ,pr9t+ #ahf ,trac+ #ahd ,copyright viii ,corn]1 def4 #dd ,coroll>y1 def4 #hc ,co-secant ( an ,arc1 def4 #ii ,co-s9e ( an ,arc1 def4 #ii ,co-tang5t ( an ,arc1 def4 #ii ,crane1 desc4 #bai ,work+ draw+ (1 illus4 #bah ,cross-,hat*es1 def4 #dd ,cross-hat*+ ,draw+s #ahb ,cr[n ,:eel1 illus4 #bjh ,curve1 def4 #dd ,curv$ ,l9e1 def4 #df ,curv$ ,l9es1 ,draw+1 desc4 #fi ,draw+ ,figures ( #gj1 #gb1 #gc ,h[ to ,draw #ce ,illus4 #gj ,curv$ ,surface1 def4 #di ,curve or ,scroll1 illus4 #aag ,cut ,ge>s1 desc4 #bae ,cyl9d]1 def4 #dd ,cyl9drical1 def4 #dd ,cyl9drical ,projection1 illus4 #afa ,da% ,l9e1 def4 #df ,decimal ,equival5ts1 ,table ( #bfi ,d$ication ix ,def9itions1 ,prelim9>y #da ,degree1 def4 #da1 #dd ,describe1 def4 #dd ,design1 def4 #dd ,symmetry 91 def4 #ej ,design+ ,ge>s #bji ,detail ,draw+s1 ,(fice ,rules = #aia ,develop1 def4 #de ,diagonal1 def4 #de ,diagonals ( a ,polygon1 def4 #dg ,diamet]1 def4 #de ,diamet]1 ,( a ,circle #dc ,diamet]s ( ,:eels1 ,h[ to ,measure #aii ,diametral ,pit*1 desc4 #bjj ,( ,ge>s #bab ,dim5sion+ ,draw+s desc4 #agf1 illus4 #agg1 #agi ,dim5sion ,l9e1 def4 #df ,dim5sions on ,draw+s1 ,(fice ,rules = #aib ,divid]s & ,compasses1 desc4 #aai ,divid]s1 illus4 #hb1 #aai ,bisect+1 desc4 #aai ,b[1 illus4 #abb 8,po9t0 #bdb ,proportional desc4 #aai1 illus4 #abj ,spr+ ,b[1 desc4 #abd ,dodecah$ron1 def4 #dh ,dot-&-,da% ,l9e1 def4 #df ,dott$ ,l9e1 def4 #df ,draughtsm51 ,useful ,tables = #bfi-bhj ,draw+1 ,blackbo>d #bh ,free h& #ee ,l9e> ,p]spective #bdg ,p>allel ,p]spective #bfj-a ,projection1 desc4 #adh ,scale ,p]spective #beg ,spur ,ge>1 illus4 #afc1 #baa ,spur ,:eel1 desc4 #afb ,/raight ,l9e ,figures desc4 #fe1 illus4 #ff-g-h ,symbols #aic ,! ,pit* ,l9e #bji ,to ,scale1 desc4 #abf ,work+1 def4 #ea ,draw+-,bo>d desc4 #ajg1 illus4 #ajb1 #ajf1 #ajh ,expansion & ,contraction ( #ajh ,h[ to ,con/ruct #ajg ,tre/les1 illus4 #aaj1 #aaa ,draw+ ,in/rum5ts1 desc4 #ajc ,h[ to ,select #ajd ,illus4 #aje ,outfit ,recomm5d$ #ajd ,draw+ ,mat]ials1 desc4 #ajc ,draw+ ,(fice ,rules #aia ,draw+ ,pap]1 desc4 #acb ,eras+ ,l9es #adj ,fix+ (1 illus4 #ajb ,fix+ on ! ,bo>d #aci ,pa/+ #ahd 8,po9ts0 #bdc ,pat5t ,(fice ,sizes #bcd ,sizes ( #acc ,draw+ ,p5cils1 desc4 & illus4 #aah ,h[ to ,use #ef ,draw+ ,p51 ,fill+ ) ink1 illus4 #acj ,draw+ ,p5s1 desc4 & illus4 #abi ,draw+-,p9s1 desc4 #aaj ,draw+ ,scales1 desc4 #abf ,draw+s1 ,clean+1 desc4 #afi ,color & ,f9i%1 note #ahe ,dim5sion+1 desc4 #agf ,ink+ 91 desc4 #afg ,lett]+1 desc4 #aga ,pat5t ,(fice ,rules = #bcc ,reproduc+ #ahf ,section-,l9+1 desc4 #ahb ,%ad+ desc4 #ahj1 illus4 #ahj1 #bbe ,size (1 ,(fice ,rules #aia ,t9t & ,color1 desc4 #ahd ,draw+-,table1 desc4 #aaa ,fold+ ,legs1 illus4 #ajd ,edge1 def4 #de ,elevation1 def4 #de ,elevation & ,section1 ,spur ,:eel desc4 #baf1 illus4 #bab ,ellipse1 ,an1 desc4 #if1 #aah ,to describe :5 l5g? & bread? are giv5 #if ,envelopes1 ,portfolio1 desc4 #adb ,equiangul> ,triangle1 def4 #de ,equilat]al ,triangle1 def4 #ej ,eras+1 8,po9ts0 on #bdb ,eye1 illus4 & desc4 #bec ,effect ( ,light on #bec ,face1 def4 #de ,fac$ ,surfaces1 ,po9ts1 etc4 #bdb ,figures1 ,draw+ ,/raight-l9e #fe ,num]als1 examples ( #agc ,/raight-l9e1 illus4 #ff ,file ,h&le1 desc4 & illus4 #add ,f+] & ,?umb ,l9es1 illus4 #fd ,f9i%$ ,surfaces1 ,h[ to indicate #aic 8,po9ts0 #bdb ,f9i%+1 def4 #de ,flang$-too? ,:eel1 desc4 #bje ,flat ,patt]n1 def4 #dg ,=e%ort5+1 def4 #de ,=w>d ,projection desc4 #aea1 #aeb1 illus4 #aee ,free-h&1 def4 #de ,free-h& ,draw+ #ee1 #gh ,fir/ ,lesson 9 #cj ,p5cil+1 illus4 #ed ,free-h& ,illu/ration1 a ,wat] ,:eel #gh ,friction-,clut* & ,pulley1 desc4 #bbd ,friction ,ge>-,:eels1 desc4 #bja ,full ,l9e1 def4 #df ,ge>1 def4 #aii ,ge>+1 desc4 #aii ,draw+ desc4 #afb1 illus4 #afc ,ge>+ & ,design #aig ,ge>s1 ,a ,tra9 (1 desc4 #bjh ,spe$ ( #bjh ,ge>-,:eels1 ,spur1 illus4 #aih ,g5]at$1 def4 #de ,geometric1 def4 #de ,geometrical ,axioms #hd ,geometrical ,draw+1 desc4 #ha ,problems 9 #hf ,geometrical ,signs #hd ,geometry1 defs4 #bdi ,elem5ts ( #ha ,go?ic ,lett]s1 illus4 #agc ,groov$ ,friction ,:eels1 desc4 #bja ,gr\nd-,plane def4 #bdi1 #bee1 illus4 #bdi ,half-,t9t1 def4 #de ,h&-,:eel1 illus4 #gg ,hang]1 illus4 #agi ,helical ,:eel desc4 #aii1 illus4 #bjg ,hemisph]e1 def4 #de ,heptagon1 def4 #dg ,hexagon1 def4 #dg ,to ,con/ruct a #ie ,hexagon-,head ,bolt1 illus4 #add ,hexah$ron1 def4 #dh ,horizontal1 def4 #de1 #bej ,horizontal ,l9e1 9 ,draw+1 illus4 #bej ,h[ to ,draw #cb ,9 ,p]spective #beb ,hypo!sis1 def4 #hc ,icosah$ron1 def4 #dh ,india ,ink1 desc4 & illus4 #aca ,di% or ,tile1 illus4 #aca ,india ,rubb] ,eras]1 illus4 #acb ,use ( #bdj ,ink1 ,prep>+1 = ,draw+s1 desc4 #afg ,te/ = ,good1 desc4 #afg ,ink ,eras]1 ,/eel1 desc4 & illus4 #acb ,ink+1 illus4 #aff1 #afi ,long ,l9es1 illus4 #agj ,rules ( ,proc$ure #afh ,%ort ,"w1 illus4 #afi 8,ink+ 90 ,draw+s1 desc4 #afg 8,po9ts10 etc4 #bci1 #bdc ,pat5t ,(fice ,draw+s #bcd ,inscribe1 def4 #de ,in/rum5tal1 def4 #de ,in/rum5ts = ,*alk-"w1 illus4 #bi ,int]nal ,ge>1 desc4 #bja ,int]nal-,ge> ,:eel1 illus4 #bjg ,introduction #ae ,isosceles ,triangle1 def4 #ej ,lant]n-,:eel1 desc4 #bja ,la!-,dog1 illus4 #gf ,lemma1 def4 #hc ,lett]+1 ,bl[-,(f ,valve1 illus4 #age ,draw+s1 desc4 #aga ,light1 & ,s5se ( ,see+ #bed ,exp]im5t )1 illus4 #bee ,laws ( #beb ,l9e1 def4 #hb ,to ,divide into ,equal ,p>ts #hi ,l9e> ,p]spective ,draw+ #bdg ,l9es1 def4 #de ,note #fe ,p>allel1 def4 #hc ,l9k ,motion1 ,/eph5son's1 illus4 #bbe ,longitud9al1 def4 #df ,lucas1 ,!o41 ,ackn[l$gem5t #bc1 #bff ,m>k+ ,measurem5ts on ,draw+s #bdc ,me*anical ,draw+ #acg1 #bdg ,elevation #ach ,examples #adc ,proc$ure #ada ,m9]va1 ,free-h& ,sket* ( iii ,mit]-,:eel desc4 #aii1 #bjd1 illus4 #bjd ,model1 def4 #df ,nonagon1 def4 #dg ,numb]+ ,draw+s1 ,(fice ,rules = #aid-e ,num]als1 illus4 #agc ,oblique1 def4 #df ,oblique ,l9es ,h[ to ,draw1 #cb1 #eh1 illus4 #ei1 #fc ,oblong1 def4 #df ,obtuse ,angle1 def4 #db ,obtuse-,angl$ ,triangle1 def4 #ej ,octah$ron1 def4 #dh ,octagon1 def4 #dg ,to ,describe on a giv5 /raight l9e #ie ,to ,inscribe 9 a circle #if ,oil ,c1 illus4 #gg ,optic ,n]ve1 illus4 #bec ,optics1 9 ,draw+1 def4 #beb ,outl9e ,picture1 desc4 #aeb ,oval1 def4 #df ,h[ to ,draw an #ga ,ov]all1 def4 #df ,pap]1 ,fa/5+ ,draw+ on #ahd ,rule or ,scale #bdb ,s5sitiz$1 desc4 #ahh ,! ,"r ,side ( #bda ,p>allel1 def4 #df ,p>allel ,l9es1 def4 #hc1 #beb ,to ,draw #hh ,9 ,p]spective #bea ,p>allel ,p]spective ,draw+1 illus4 #bfj to #bfc ,p>allel ,rule desc4 #aae1 illus4 #aad-e ,p>allelogram1 def4 #dg ,to ,con/ruct #ic ,pa/+ ,draw+ ,pap]1 8,po9ts0 #bdc ,pat5t ,(fice ,draw+s #bce1 illus4 #bcf ,rules ( ,great ,brita9 #bcf ,rules ( ,u4 ,s4 #bcc ,patt]ns1 def4 #df ,numb]+1 f draw+s #aid ,p$e/al1 illus4 #agh-i ,p51 ,h& hold+1 illus4 #aff1 #afi1 #agj ,p5cil1 ,function ( a #adb ,h[ to ,cut1 illus4 #eg ,h[ to ,hold1 illus4 #ed1 #ei1 #fj ,h[ to ,use #ef ,p5cil-,compasses1 desc4 #adc ,h[ to ,hold #adc ,p5cil+1 desc4 & illus4 #aci 8,po9ts0 #adc1 #bdj ,p5cil ,l9es1 ,h[ to ,make #aai ,p5cils1 ,%>p5+ ,po9ts ( #adc1 #bda ,p5knife1 illus4 #eb ,p5s1 ,draw+1 illus4 #abi ,lett]+ & ,figur+1 illus4 #agb ,p5tagon1 def4 #dg ,to ,inscribe 9 a circle #id ,p]imet]1 def4 #dg ,( a ,polygon1 def4 #dg ,p]iph]y ( a ,:eel1 def4 #bjj ,p]p5dicul>1 def4 #dg1 #beb ,p]p5dicul> ,l9es1 ,h[ to ,draw #ca1 #fa1 #fb ,p]rott1 ,geo41 ,ackn[l$gem5t #bc1 #bff ,p]sonal1 ,note f ! ,au?or #bff ,p]spective ,draw+ def4 #dg1 illus4 #bej ,def9itions ( ,t]ms us$ 9 #bdi ,geometrical ,t]ms us$ 9 #bdh ,( a ,bridge1 illus4 #bdi ,scale or ,approximate #beg ,vani%+ ,po9t1 illus4 #bea ,wat] ,reflection1 illus4 #bdf ,p]spective1 ,l9e>1 def4 #bdg ,p]spective ,plane1 def4 #bej ,picture ,plane1 desc4 #bee ,9 ,draw+1 illus4 #bdi1 #bej ,9 ,p]spective1 illus4 #beh ,p9ion-,:eel1 desc4 #bja ,pi/on ,rod1 desc4 #bbc ,pit* ,circle 9 ,ge>+ #bjj ,pit* ,l9e1 ,draw+ ! #bji ,9 ,ge>+ #bjj ,plan1 def4 #dg ,plan ( ! ,"w #ba ,plane1 9 ,p]spective1 def4 #bdi ,plane ( ! ,picture1 def4 #bej ,plane ,surface1 def4 #di ,po9t1 def4 #hb ,po9t ( ,sight1 9 ,p]spective ,draw+ #bea ,po9ts1 relat+ to ,*alk ,draw+s #cf ,to be obs]v$ 9 ,sket*+ #ada-b ,useful ,h9ts & #agj1 #bci ,polygon1 def4 #dg ,polyh$ron1 def4 #dh ,po/ulate1 def4 #hc ,p\nce1 ,h[ to ,use1 desc4 #agj1 #ahf ,preface #ac ,prep>atory ,practice 9 ,draw+ #cj ,prism1 def4 #di ,problems1 def4 #hc ,geometrical #hf ,produce1 def4 #di ,pr(ile1 def4 #di ,projection1 ,backw>d1 illus4 #aec-d ,def4 #di ,cyl9drical ,outl9e1 desc4 #aei ,cyl9drical ,surface1 illus4 #afa ,=w>d desc4 #aeb1 illus4 #aee ,hexagon ,nut1 illus4 #afj ,m>k+ ,dim5sions #aej ,l9es ( ,sight #aej ,scal+ & ,measur+ 9 #adi ,sight-,l9es1 illus4 #aea ,slop+ ,surface1 desc4 #aei ,spur-,:eel1 desc4 #afb ,projection ,draw+1 desc4 #adh ,illus4 #adi1 #aea1 #aec1 #aed1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #afc ,pr9ciples ( #adh ,spur-,:eel1 illus4 #afc1 #bab ,proportional ,divid]s1 illus4 #abj ,proportions ( ,tee? ( ,:eels #baj ,proposition1 def4 #hc ,protractor1 desc4 #abh ,pulley & ,friction ,clut*1 illus4 #bbd ,pun*+ ,press illus4 #bbb1 desc4 #bbc ,quadrant1 def4 #di ,quadrilat]al1 def4 #dg ,quadrisect1 def4 #di ,rack & ,p9ion1 desc4 #bje ,radius ( a ,circle #dc ,read+ ,work+ ,draw+s1 desc4 #bbi ,rectangle1 def4 #dh ,to ,con/ruct a #ib ,reproduc+ ,draw+s1 desc4 #ahf ,rev]se ,curve1 def4 #dd ,rhomboid1 def4 #dh ,rhombus1 def4 #dh ,"r-,angle1 def4 #db ,triangle1 def4 #ej ,rob9son1 ,a4 ,w41 ,m4 ,e41 note1 ,(fice ,rules #aia ,roll+-,circle 9 ,ge>-,:eel #bjj ,rule1 ,area ( a ,circle1 ,to f9d ! #bga ,circumf]5ce ( a ,circle1 ,to f9d ! #bga ,cyl9d]1 ,to f9d ! cont5ts ( a #bga ,diamet] ( a ,circle1 ,to f9d ! #bga ,illus4 #hb ,inscrib$ ,squ>e1 ,to f9d side ( an #bga ,p>allelogram1 ,to f9d ! area ( a #bga ,pyramid or ,cone1 ,to f9d ! cont5ts ( a #bga ,radius ( a circle1 ,to f9d ! #bga ,sph]e1 ,to f9d ! cont5ts ( a #bga ,squ>e1 ,to f9d ! side ( an equal #bga ,trapezoid1 ,to f9d ! area ( a #bga ,triangle1 ,to f9d ! area ( a #bga ,two-foot desc4 #abg1 #abh1 illus4 #abh ,w$ge1 ,to f9d ! cont5ts ( a #bga ,rules = ,draw+ ,(fice #aia ,:eels1 ,to f9d proportions ( #bji ,s& ,pap]1 ,remov+ surface ( pap] #afh ,scale1 ,draw+ to1 desc4 #abf ,scale ,draw+s1 ,to read #bcj ,scale1 ,flat1 illus4 #abg ,triangul>1 illus4 #abg ,scal5e ,triangle1 def4 #ej ,scale or ,approximate ,p]spective #beg ,scale ,rule1 = ,proportions ( ,tee? #bad ,scales1 ,draw+1 desc4 #abf ,s*olium1 def4 #hc ,screw-,?read1 ,u4 ,s4 ,/&>d ,gauge #bhj ,scroll or ,curve1 desc4 #aag ,univ]sal ,curve1 illus4 #acd ,secant ( an ,arc #ii ,section1 def4 #di ,draw+ illus4 #afc1 desc4 #afj ,sectional1 def4 #di ,section-,l9]1 illus4 #aaf ,section ,l9es 9 ,draw+s #bdj ,section-,l9+1 ,ca/-iron1 etc41 illus4 #ahb ,cog-,:eel1 illus4 #ahc ,section-,l9+ ,draw+s desc4 #ahb1 illus4 #ahc ,:eel ,hub1 illus4 #ahd ,select+ ,draw+ ,in/rum5ts #ajc1 #bdj ,semi-,circle1 def4 #dc ,s5sitiz$ ,pap]1 desc4 #ahh ,set-,squ>e1 illus4 #ajb1 #aad ,%ad+ ,curves1 illus4 #aha ,%ad+ ,draw+s #ahj ,%ad[1 def4 #di ,%ad[ ,l9e1 def4 #df ,%ad[ ,l9es1 8,po9ts0 #bda ,%>p5+ ,p5cils #eg ,%op ,draw+s1 ,(fice ,rules #aib ,sight1 ,po9t (1 9 ,p]spective ,draw+ #beb ,s5se ( #bed ,sight ,l9es 9 ,projection1 illus4 #aeg ,s9e ( an ,arc #ii ,skew-,ge>+1 desc4 #bjc ,sket* ,books1 desc4 #adb ,(fice ,practice #aid ,sket*es1 details #adb ,sket*1 ,free-h&1 ,advantage ( #ee ,sket*+ desc4 #ada1 note #ag ,po9ts to be obs]v$ 9 #ada-b ,slop+ ,surface 9 ,projection desc4 #aei1 illus4 #aff ,solid1 def4 #di1 #hc ,solid ,patt]n1 def4 #dg ,spe$ ( ,ge>s #bjh ,sph]e1 def4 #di ,spiral ,curve1 def4 #dd ,spr+ ,b[s illus4 #abb1 #abc1 desc4 #abd ,spur-,ge> desc4 #bja1 illus4 #baa ,spur ,mortise-,:eel1 illus4 #bjb ,spur-,:eel1 desc4 #aii1 #baf ,h[ to ,draw #bji ,illus4 #aih ,projection desc4 #afb1 illus4 #afc ,tee? ( ca/-iron1 desc4 #bjb ,squ>e1 def4 #dh ,to ,conv]t into an ,octagon #ie ,to ,describe ab\t a ,circle #id ,to ,inscribe 9 a ,circle #ic ,/&>ds1 = ,u4 ,s4 #bgh ,(fice ,rules = #aic ,/eady ,re/1 ,scale1 illus4 #bbh ,/raight ,l9e1 def4 #df ,to ,draw a ,p]p5dicul> to a #hf ,draw+ ,figures ( #ff-g-h ,h[ to ,draw a #eg1 #ei ,to ,bisect a #hf ,/eel1 ,section-,l9+1 illus4 #ahb ,/eel ,ge>s1 ,economy ( #baf ,surface1 def4 #di1 #hb ,symbols1 repres5t+ ,mat]ials #aic ,table ( ,areas ( ,circles #bgc-bgg ,bolts1 ,/&>d ,sizes ( #bhj ,circul> ,measure #bgb ,circumf]5ces ( ,circles #bgc-bgg ,cont5ts #bd ,decimal ,equival5ts #bfi ,diamet]s ( ,circles #bgc-bgg ,l& ,measure #bgb ,metric ,equival5ts #bgj ,pipe1 ,/&>d ,sizes ( ,weld$ #bgi ,roman ,figures #bgb ,solid ,measure #bgb ,wire ,gauges #bgh ,useful = ,draughtsm5 #bff-bhj ,tang5t ( an ,arc1 def4 #ii ,to ,draw a1 to a ,circle #ia ,tee-,iron1 illus4 #ge ,tee-,squ>e1 ,adju/able1 desc4 & illus4 #aac ,desc4 #aab ,h[ to ,use1 illus4 #aaa1 #adg ,illus4 #ajb1 #aab ,po9ts ab\t #bdb ,tee? 9 ,bevel ,ge>s1 desc4 #bjd ,t]ms & ,def9itions1 ,prelim9>y #da ,te/-,pieces1 ,use (1 9 ,blue ,pr9ts #ahh ,tetrah$ron1 def4 #dh ,!orem1 def4 #hc ,?umb-,tack illus4 #aji1 desc4 #aaj ,t9ts & ,colors1 desc4 #ahd ,title & ,date1 on ,sket*es #adb ,title1 ,date1 ,scale1 etc41 ,(fice ,rules = #aib ,title ,page vii ,trac+-,clo?1 desc4 #ahf ,trac+s1 ,(fice ,rules = ,keep+ #aie ,t9t$ & ,%ad$1 desc4 #ahd ,trammels1 desc4 & illus4 #abe ,trapezium1 def4 #dh ,trapezoid1 def4 #dh ,tre/les1 ,draw+-,bo>d1 desc4 & illus4 #aaj ,triangle1 def4 #ej ,to ,describe a ,circle ab\t a #ic ,triangle1 or ,set-,squ>e1 desc4 & illus4 #aad ,h[ to ,use desc4 #adg1 illus4 #aff ,triangles1 illus4 #ajb ,to ,con/ruct #ib ,trigonometry1 pr9ciples & def4 #ih ,trisect1 def4 #ej ,trundle ,:eel desc4 #bja1 illus4 #bjh ,two-foot ,rule1 illus4 #abh ,u4 ,s4 ,/&>ds1 ,pipes #bgi ,upright ,l9es1 ,h[ to ,draw #fa ,useful ,tables = ,draughtsm5 #bfi-bhj ,valve1 ,bl[-(f desc4 #agd1 illus4 #age ,valve ,ge>1 or ,l9k ,motion1 illus4 #bbe ,vani%+ ,po9t1 def4 & illus4 #bea ,9 ,draw+1 illus4 #bej ,9 ,p]spective ,draw+ #beb ,v>ni%1 ,%ellac1 = ,draw+s #bda ,v]s$ ,s9e ( an ,arc #ii ,v]tex1 def4 #ea ,( an ,angle1 def4 #db ,v]tical1 def4 #ea1 #bea ,v]tical ,l9es1 9 ,p]spective #beg ,v]tical-,plane1 def4 #bdi ,view1 def4 #ea ,visual ,ray 9 ,p]spective ,draw+ #bef ,visual ,rays ( ,light desc4 #beb1 illus4 #bee ,vulcanite1 ,section-,l9+1 illus4 #ahb ,wat] ,reflection 9 ,p]spective ,draw+1 illus4 #bdf ,:eel1 ,bevel1 ,a1 illus4 #bjc ,cr[n1 illus4 #bjh ,helical1 ,a1 illus4 #bjg ,hub1 ,section-,l9+1 illus4 #ahd ,int]nal ,ge>1 desc4 #bja1 #bjg ,mit]1 ,a1 illus4 #bjd ,proportions ( ! ,tee? ( a #baj ,spur illus4 #aih1 desc4 #aii1 #bja ,worm1 desc4 #bja ,wood1 ,section-,l9+1 illus4 #ahb ,work+ ,draw+1 ,b5d+ ,ma*9e #bbj-a ,def4 #ea ,illus4 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bbh ,bump+ ,po/1 illus4 #bbf ,po9ts1 etc4 #bdc ,p[] ,pun*+ ,press #bbb ,numb]+ a1 ,(fice ,rules = #aie ,to ,read a #bbi ,work+ ,draw+s1 desc4 #bai1 #bbg ,worm-,ge>1 desc4 #bjf ,worm-,:eel desc4 #bja1 illus4 #bjf ,spe$ ( a #baf ,wr5*1 illus4 #ge ,wri/-,l9es1 illus4 #fd ,wr\ght-,iron1 ,section-,l9+1 illus4 #ahb ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,inconsi/5t & unusual spell+1 capitalisation & hyph5ation h be5 reta9$1 unless m5tion$ bel[4 ,! discrepancies betwe5 ! ,g5]al ,li/ ( ,cont5ts & ! /ructure ( ! text h n be5 correct$4 ,dep5d+ on ! h>d- & s(tw>e us$ to read ?is text & _! sett+s1 n all elem5ts may display z int5d$4 ,:]e scales are giv5 = illu/rations1 ^! c1 ( c\rse1 n be reli$ ^u = measurem5ts4 ,! numb]+ ( illu/rations 9 ! book is inconsi/5t4 ,illu/rations t h no numb]$ captions may or may n be c\nt$2 ?is has n be5 /&>dis$1 except z li/$ bel[4 ,miss+ illu/ration numb]s h be5 add$ only :]e !y are ref]5c$ 9 ! text4 ,! illu/rations ref]r$ to 9 ! text z ,figs4 #bdb & #bdc are caption$ ,fig4 #bdc & #bdd4 ,page #fe-fi & ,figs4 #ff-ga3 ! text uses upp] case ref]5ce lett]s1 ! illu/rations l[] case1 :i* has n be5 /&>dis$4 ,page #hd1 table ( symbols3 ! s\rce docum5t uses lett]s 7,o & ,l7 r ?an symbols = circle & angle4 ,page #id1 ,bisect two ( ! angles ,a ,c ( ! triangle3 presumably ! unm>k$ po9t ,a is 9 ! l[] left-h& corn] ( ! illu/ration4 ,page #aac1 ,! tee-squ>e1 z %[n1 4443 !re is no illu/ration ) ! relevant ref]5ce numb]s2 probably ! ref]5ce is to ,fig4 #aea_/aeb4 ,page #bci1 r\gh irregul> l9es1 z 9 fig4 #acd1 on page #aca3 !re is no ,fig4 #acd on page #aca2 page #acd nor page #aca %[ ! r\gh irregul> l9es4 ,sev]al o!r illu/rations 9 ! book d %[ su* l9es4 ,index3 ! ord] ( entries is z pr9t$ 9 ! s\rce docum5t4 ,*anges made3 ,illu/rations & ,notes h be5 mov$ out ( text p>agraphs4 ,"s obvi\s m9or punctuation & typographical errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly4 ,9 "s tables ! ditto symbol 77 has be5 replac$ ) ! ditto$ text2 "s tables h be5 split or re-arrang$4 ,! use ( & x 9 multiplications & dim5sions has be5 /&>dis$ to 4 ,page #dh3 ,figure numb]s #de-di add$ to illu/ration4 ,page #hi3 & on ,b on ,b ,i *ang$ to & on ,b on ,b ,d4 ,page #agg3 ,d diam4 ( coll> *ang$ to d diam4 ( coll>4 ,page #aic3 ,bbt4--,babbit4 *ang$ to ,bbt4--,babbitt4 ,page #bjc3 z describ$ on page #aia *ang$ to z describ$ on page #aii4 ,page #bad3 #d t5?s measur$ at ! #b l9e *ang$ to #d t5?s measur$ at ! #b l9e4