,transcriber's ,notes ,texts printed in italics in the source document have been transcribed between underscores1 bold face text between equal signs4 ,small capitals have been changed to ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes 7also on the use of footnotes and endnotes7 may be found at the end of this text4 ,illustration3 ,yours faithfully ,charles ,henry ,ham ,,mind ,,and ,,hand ,,manual ,,training ,,the ,,chief ,,factor ,,in ,,education ,,by ,,charles ,h4 ,,ham ,,being ,,the ,,third ,,edition ,,of 8,,manual ,,training1 ,,the ,,solution ,,of ,,social ,,and ,,industrial ,,problems0 ,,illustrated ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,cincinnati ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,copyright1 #ahhf1 by ,,harper ,,brothers4 ,copyright1 #aijj1 by ,,charles ,h4 ,,ham4 ,all rights reserved4 ,w4 ,p4 #e ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,the work of which this is the third edition has been before the public of this country1 ,england1 and all ,english-speaking countries since #ahhf--thirteen years4 ,as it proposes a revolution in educational methods1 it was not to be presumed that it would escape criticism4 ,but1 while the reviews of it have been numerous1 they have1 on the whole1 been very generous4 ,my most radical postulates have1 however1 been received by educators of the old rgime with expressions of emphatic dissent4 ,in presenting the third edition of the work ,i have1 therefore1 thought it wise to support the text with many high authorities in the form of foot-notes4 ,as was to be expected1 my analysis of ,greek history and character provoked the severest criticism4 ,it is regarded1 indeed1 as conclusive evidence of gross ignorance of the entire subject4 ,to meet the charge of ignorance1 ,i have made a large number of citations from ,herodotus1 ,thucydides1 ,xenophon1 ,plutarch1 and others--authors consulted1 originally1 in the preparation of this part of the work4 ,i may venture to observe1 with due deference to those schoolmen who regard the ancient ,greeks as an ideal people1 that ,i have searched contemporaneous history in vain for evidence of the verity of this claim2 and ,i am hence constrained to adhere firmly to the extreme views expressed in the text4 ,and if these views are correct1 it follows that the passion for ,greek models in education is not only a mental dissipation1 but a moral crime4 ,the other new notes are commended to the careful consideration of the reader1 as the fruit of my added years of research and reflection4 ,the ,appendix contains a compilation1 in tabular form1 of all the facts obtainable from original sources1 through the aid of a skilled statistician1 showing the physical progress of ,manual ,training in this country1 and the chief countries of ,europe1 during the last fifteen years4 ,in this edition the disguise of the first edition is dropped4 ,in that edition a certain school was referred to as 8the ,chicago school10 whereas it was1 in fact1 purely an ideal school1 which had no existence except in the mind of the author4 ,but it embodied educational theories and ideas of ,comenius and other great men which the author desired to see adopted4 ,that desire not having been realized1 ,i content myself here by quoting the observation of ,oscar ,browning as to the proneness of the school-master to neglect opportunities3 8,the more we reflect on the method of ,comenius1 the more shall we see that it is replete with suggestiveness1 and we shall feel surprised that so much wisdom can have lain in the path of school-masters for two hundred and fifty years1 and that they never stooped to avail themselves of its treasures40 ,it is proper to state that the terms 8,kindergarten10 8,manual ,training10 and 8,the ,new ,education10 are used throughout the work as equivalents4 ,the change of title to 8,mind and ,hand3 ,manual ,training the ,chief ,factor in ,education0--is made in response to the common and just criticism of the original title as too narrow for the broad treatment of the subject which characterized the text4 ,the notes prepared especially for this edition will be found at the ends of the chapters to which they respectively belong4 ,wherever in this work apparent discrimination in favor of the male sex is indulged through the employment of the pronoun 8he10 8his10 or 8him10 rather than the corresponding feminine parts of speech1 it is merely apparent1 not real2 for ,i urge the co-education of the sexes as ,i urge the co-education of ,mind and ,hand1 because the woman is the complement of the man as the hand is the complement of the mind4 ,for ,i believe1 with ,john ,stuart ,mill1 that 8,the true virtue of human beings is fitness to live together as equals2 and to enable them to live together as equals1 they must be associated in education02 and with ,mary ,wollstonecraft1 that 8,virtue will never prevail in society till the morals of both sexes are founded on reason1 and till the affections common to both are allowed their due strength by the discharge of mutual duties40 ,,the ,,author4 ,,new ,,york ,,city1 ,march1 #aijj4 ,,preface ,,to ,,first ,,edition4 ,in #ahgi ,i read a paper before the ,chicago ,philosophical ,society on the subject of 8,the ,inventive ,genius2 or1 an ,epitome of ,human ,progress40 ,the suggestion of the subject came from ,mr4 ,charles ,j4 ,barnes1 to whom ,i desire in this public way to express my obligation for an introduction to a profoundly interesting study1 and one which has given a new direction to all my thoughts4 ,at the conclusion of my labors in the preparation of the paper1 ,i realized the force of ,bacon's remark1 that 8the real and legitimate goal of the sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches40 ,in tracing the course of invention and discovery1 ,i found that ,i was moving in the line of the progress of civilization4 ,i found that the great gulf between the savage and the civilized man is spanned by the seven hand-tools--the axe1 the saw1 the plane1 the hammer1 the square1 the chisel1 and the file--and that the modern machine-shop is an aggregation of these tools driven by steam4 ,i hence came to regard tools as the great civilizing agency of the world4 ,with ,carlyle ,i said1 8,man without tools is nothing2 with tools he is all40 ,from this point it was only a step to the proposition that1 ,it is through the arts alone that all branches of learning find expression1 and touch human life4 ,then ,i said1 ,the true definition of education is the development of all the powers of man to the culminating point of action2 and this power in the concrete1 the power to do some useful thing for man--this must be the last analysis of educational truth4 ,these ideas are not new4 ,they pervade ,lord ,bacon's writings1 are admirably formulated in ,rousseau's 8,emile10 and were restated by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer twenty-five years ago4 ,more than this1 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel attempted to carry them into practical operation in the school-room1 but with only a small measure of success4 ,it remains for the age of steel to show how powerless mere words are in the presence of things1 and so to emphasize the demand for a radical reform in educational methods4 ,in #ahhj my attention was drawn to the ,manual ,training ,department of the ,washington ,university of ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,in that school ,i found the realization of ,bacon's aphorism1 8,education is the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things40 ,i made an exhaustive study of the methods of the ,st4 ,louis school1 and reached the conclusion that the philosopher's stone in education had been discovered4 ,the columns of the ,chicago ,tribune were opened to me1 and ,i wrote constantly on the subject for the ensuing three years4 ,meantime the ,chicago ,manual-,training ,school 7the first independent institution of the kind in the world7 was founded and opened1 and the agitation spread over the whole country1 and indeed over the whole civilized world4 ,this work was commenced two years ago4 ,i found the labor much more arduous than ,i anticipated1 and its completion has hence been delayed far beyond the time originally contemplated for placing it in the hands of a publisher4 ,it may be summarized briefly as consisting of four divisions3 #a4 ,a detailed description of the various laboratory class processes1 from the first lesson to the last1 in the course of three years4 #b4 ,an exhaustive argument a posteriori and a fortiori in support of the proposition that tool practice is highly promotive of intellectual growth1 and in a still greater degree of the upbuilding of character4 #c4 ,a sketch of the historical period1 showing that the decay of civilization and the destruction of social organisms have resulted directly from defects in methods of education4 #d4 ,a brief sketch of the history of manual training as an educational force4 ,to ,dr4 ,john ,d4 ,runkle1 of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 the founder of manual training as an educational institution in this country1 ,i cannot express too strongly my deep obligation for valuable suggestions and constant encouragement4 ,to him also am ,i indebted for nearly all my illustrations1 as also particularly for the excellent portrait of ,m4 ,victor ,della ,vos1 the founder of the new system of education in ,russia4 ,i am also under obligations to ,col4 ,augustus ,jacobson1 a leading advocate of the new education1 for constant counsel and support1 as also to ,dr4 ,henry ,h4 ,belfield1 ,director of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 and ,mr4 ,john ,s4 ,clark1 of ,boston4 ,of the authors consulted1 ,i cannot forbear mention of ,lord ,bacon1 ,rousseau1 and ,herbert ,spencer1 whose great works constitute the foundation of the new system of education according to nature4 ,nor can ,i omit to acknowledge1 with all the emphasis of which words are susceptible1 my obligations to ,mr4 ,samuel ,smiles4 ,his works1 from the lives of the engineers to the shortest of his biographies1 constitute an inexhaustible treasure-house of facts from which ,i have drawn without stint4 ,mr4 ,smiles has traced the springs of ,english greatness to their true source1 the workshop4 ,i have attempted to continue his office by showing that the workshop is a great educational force1 and hence that its educational element ought to be incorporated in the system of public instruction4 ,the propositions of the following pages involve an educational revolution destined to enlighten1 and so ultimately to redeem manual labor from the scorn of the ages of slavery1 and1 in the end1 to render the skilled laborer worthy of high social distinction1 thus presenting at once a solution not only of the industrial question but of the social question4 ,,charles ,h4 ,,ham4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition ,,by ,,col4 ,,francis ,w4 ,,parker1 ,principal of the ,chicago ,normal ,school4 ,the last twenty-five years have brought much of intrinsic value into ,american education4 ,rapid increase in population and ever-changing conditions have made imperative demands for schools adequate to self-government4 ,the ,kindergarten led the way to other substantial reforms in education1 and called attention to the actual needs of childhood4 ,it proved conclusively that hand-work is one of the dominant interests of the child1 and demonstrated the absolute dependence of brain-growth upon ,manual ,training4 ,manual ,training is thus a direct outcome and sequence of the ,kindergarten4 ,it supplies a need for which there is no substitute4 ,the belief that that which is begun in the ,kindergarten should be continued and expanded in all upper grades1 forces itself more and more upon thoughtful minds4 ,modern psychology brings its potent evidence as to the tremendous value of the work of the hand in the building of the brain4 ,the trend of educational thought will always be in the direction of hand training as a fundamental element in education4 ,twenty-five years ago ,manual ,training was little known in this country as a factor in education4 ,charles ,h4 ,ham1 imbued with a fervid patriotism1 saw clearly that one of the intrinsic needs of education--an absolute necessity in the evolution of a democracy--is the training of the whole being1 hand1 brain1 and soul1 through educative work4 ,he was1 indeed1 a pioneer1 beginning his work when there was very little attention given to this important subject1 and at a time1 too1 when it was opposed by nearly all leading educators4 ,mr4 ,ham1 together with ,colonel ,jacobson1 brought a strong influence to bear upon the ,commercial ,club of ,chicago1 to found a ,manual-,training school4 ,this school is now a department of the ,chicago ,university and has been in successful operation for thirteen years4 ,there are in ,chicago to-day the ,armour ,institute1 the ,lewis ,institute1 and the ,jewish ,manual-,training ,school1 all prominent and well established4 ,there is also a high school for ,manual ,training in connection with the public schools1 and1 best of all1 there are indications which show that hand-work is making its way throughout the grades4 ,mr4 ,ham1 without doubt1 had a strong influence upon the late ,george ,m4 ,pullman1 which led him to provide1 through his will1 for a ,manual-,training school for the children of the city which he built4 ,manual-,training schools are now maintained in almost every city in the ,union4 ,much remains to be done before ,manual ,training takes its true place in education4 ,the majority of these schools now in existence are for boys who have graduated from the grammar school1 which leaves the years between six and fourteen with little or no hand-work4 ,thus the most important period for brain-growth through hand activity is neglected4 ,the future of ,manual ,training is to introduce hand-work as the principal factor in the first four years' work1 to be continued in the four years of the grammar grades1 and correlated with all other subjects4 ,indeed1 the ideal is to introduce ,manual ,training in all courses of study1 from the ,kindergarten to the ,university1 inclusive4 ,the patrons of ,cook ,county ,normal ,school owe to ,mr4 ,ham the establishment of ,manual ,training in connection with the primary grades of the school1 nearly fifteen years ago2 for without the practical aid he gave it1 it could not have been accomplished at that time4 ,the children--indeed1 all the people of this country--owe him an immense debt of gratitude for his heroic championship of hand-work4 ,manual ,training gives a true dignity to labor2 it calls attention to the place of hand-work in human progress1 and as civilization goes on it will have a higher and still higher place in the hearts of the people4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,ideal ,,school4 ,its ,situation4 -- ,its ,tall ,chimney4 -- ,the ,whir of ,machinery and ,sound of the ,sledge-hammer4 -- ,the ,school that is to dignify ,labor4 -- ,the ,realization of the ,dream of ,bacon1 ,rousseau1 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel4 -- ,the ,school that fitly represents the ,age of ,steel4 ,page #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,majesty ,,of ,,tools4 ,tools the highest ,text-books4 -- ,how to ,use them the ,test of ,scholarship4 -- ,they are the ,gauge of ,civilization4 -- ,carlyle's ,apostrophe to them4 -- ,the ,typical ,hand-tools4 -- ,the ,automata of the ,machine-shop4 -- ,through ,tools ,science and ,art are ,united4 -- ,the ,power of ,tools4 -- ,their ,educational ,value4 -- ,without ,tools ,man is ,nothing2 with ,tools he is ,all4 -- ,it is through the ,arts alone that ,education touches ,human ,life4 #g ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,engine ,,room4 ,the ,corliss ,engine4 -- ,a ,thing of ,grace and ,power4 -- ,the ,growth of ,two ,thousand ,years4 -- ,from ,hero to ,watt4 -- ,its ,duty as a ,school-master4 -- ,the ,interdependence of the ,ages4 -- ,the ,school in ,epitome4 #ad ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,drawing-,,room4 ,twenty-four ,boys bending over the ,drawing-board4 -- ,analysis and ,synthesis in ,drawing4 -- ,geometric ,drawing4 -- ,pictorial ,drawing4 -- ,the ,principles of ,design4 -- ,the sthetic in ,art4 -- ,the ,fundamentals4 -- ,object and ,constructive ,drawing4 -- ,drawing for the ,exercises in the ,laboratories4 -- ,the ,educational ,value of ,drawing4 -- ,the ,language of ,drawing4 -- ,every ,student an expert ,draughtsman at the end of the ,course4 #af ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,carpenter',s ,,laboratory4 ,the ,natural ,history of the ,pine-tree4 -- ,how it is ,converted into ,lumber1 what it is ,worth1 and how it is ,consumed4 -- ,where the ,students get ,information4 -- ,working ,drawings of the ,lesson4 -- ,asking ,questions4 -- ,the ,instructor ,executes the ,lesson4 -- ,instruction in the ,use and ,care of ,tools4 -- ,twenty-four ,boys ,making ,things4 -- ,as ,busy as ,bees4 -- ,the ,music of the ,laboratory4 -- ,the ,self-reliance of the ,students4 #ba ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,wood-,,turning ,,laboratory4 ,a ,radical ,change4 -- ,from the ,square to the ,circle2 from ,angles to ,spherical1 ,cylindrical1 and ,eccentric ,forms4 -- ,the ,rhythm of ,mechanics4 -- ,the ,potter's ,wheel of the ,ancients and the ,turning- lathe4 -- ,the ,speculation of ,holtzapffels on its ,origin4 -- ,the ,greeks as ,turners4 -- ,the ,turners of the ,middle ,ages4 -- ,george ,,iii4 at the ,lathe4 -- ,maudsley's ,slide-rest1 and the ,revolution it wrought4 -- ,the ,natural ,history of ,black-walnut4 -- ,the ,practical ,value of ,imagination4 -- ,disraeli's ,tribute to it2 ,sir ,robert ,peel's ,want of it4 -- ,the ,laboratory animated by ,steam4 -- ,the ,boys at the ,lathes4 -- ,their ,manly ,bearing4 -- ,the ,lesson4 #cj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,founding ,,laboratory4 ,the ,iron ,age4 -- ,iron the ,king of ,metals4 -- ,locke's ,apothegm4 -- ,the ,moulder's ,art is ,fundamental4 -- ,history of ,founding4 -- ,remains of ,bronze ,castings in ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,assyria4 -- ,layard's ,discoveries4 -- ,the ,greek ,sculptors4 -- ,the ,colossal ,statue of ,apollo at ,rhodes4 -- ,the ,great ,bells of ,history4 -- ,moulding and ,casting a ,pulley4 -- ,description of the ,process1 ,step by ,step4 -- ,the ,furnace ,fire4 -- ,pouring the ,hot ,metal into the ,moulds4 -- ,a ,pen ,picture of the ,laboratory4 -- ,thus were the ,hundred ,gates of ,babylon cast4 -- ,neglect of the ,practical ,arts by ,herodotus4 -- ,how ,slavery has degraded ,labor4 -- ,how ,manual ,training is to dignify it4 #de ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,forging ,,laboratory4 ,twenty-four manly-looking ,boys with ,sledge-hammer in ,hand -- their ,muscle and ,brawn4 -- ,the ,pride of ,conscious ,strength4 -- ,the ,story of the ,origin of an ,empire4 -- ,the ,greater ,empire of ,mechanics4 -- ,the ,smelter and the ,smith the ,bulwark of the ,british ,government4 -- ,coal -- its ,modern ,aspects2 its ,early ,history2 ,superstition regarding its ,use4 -- ,dud4 ,dudley utilizes 8,pit-coal0 for ,smelting -- the ,story of his ,struggles2 his ,imprisonment and ,death4 -- ,the ,english ,people import their ,pots and ,kettles4 -- 8,the ,blast is on and the ,forge ,fire sings40 -- ,the ,lesson1 first on the ,black-board1 then in ,red-hot ,iron on the ,anvil4 -- ,striking out the ,anvil ,chorus -- the ,sparks fly whizzing through the ,air4 -- ,the ,mythological ,history of ,iron4 -- ,the ,smith in ,feudal ,times4 -- ,his ,versatility4 -- ,history of ,damascus ,steel4 -- ,we should reverence the early ,inventors4 -- ,the ,useful ,arts finer than the ,fine ,arts4 -- ,the ,ancient ,smelter and ,smith1 and the ,students in the ,manual-training ,school4 #eh ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,machine-,,tool ,,laboratory4 ,the ,foundery and ,smithy are ,ancient1 the ,machine-tool ,shop is ,modern4 -- ,the ,giant1 ,steam1 reduced to ,servitude4 -- ,the ,iron ,lines of ,progress4 -- ,they converge in the ,shop2 its triumphs from the ,watchspring to the ,locomotive4 -- ,the ,applications of ,iron in ,art is the ,subject of ,subjects4 -- ,the ,story of ,invention is the ,history of ,civilization4 -- ,the ,machine-maker and the ,tool-maker are the best ,friends of ,man4 -- ,watt's ,great ,conception waited for ,automatic ,tools2 their ,accuracy4 -- ,the ,hand-made and the ,machine-made ,watch4 -- ,the ,elgin 7,illinois7 ,watch ,factory4 -- ,the ,interdependence of the ,arts4 -- ,the making of a ,suit of ,clothes4 -- ,the ,anteroom of the ,machine-tool ,laboratory4 -- ,chipping and ,filing4 -- ,the ,file-cutter4 -- ,the ,poverty of ,words as compared with ,things4 -- ,the ,graduating ,project4 -- ,the ,vision of the ,instructor4 #gh ,,chapter ,x4 ,,manual ,,and ,,mental ,,training ,,combined4 ,the new ,education is all-sided -- its ,effect4 -- ,a ,harmonious ,development of the ,whole ,being4 -- ,examination for ,admission to the ,chicago ,school4 -- ,list of ,questions in ,arithmetic1 ,geography1 and ,language4 -- ,the ,curriculum4 -- ,the ,alternation of ,manual and ,mental ,exercises4 -- ,the ,demand for ,scientific ,education -- its ,effect4 -- ,ambition to be useful4 #aje ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,intellectual ,,effect ,,of ,,manual ,,training4 ,intelligence is the ,basis of ,character4 -- ,the more ,practical the ,intelligence the ,higher the ,development of ,character4 -- ,the use of ,tools quickens the ,intellect4 -- ,making ,things rouses the ,attention1 sharpens the ,observation1 and steadies the ,judgment4 -- ,history of ,inventions in ,england1 #agdj-ahdj4 -- ,poor1 ,ignorant ,apprentices become learned ,men4 -- ,cort1 ,huntsman1 ,mushet1 ,neilson1 ,stephenson1 and ,watt4 -- ,the ,union of ,books and ,tools4 -- ,results at ,rotterdam1 ,holland2 at ,moscow1 ,russia2 at ,komotau1 ,bohemia2 and at ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 -- ,the ,consideration of ,overwhelming ,import4 #aac ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women ,a ,,necessity4 ,the ,difference between ,ancient and ,modern ,systems of ,education4 -- ,plato ,blinded by ,half-truths4 -- ,no place in the present order of things for ,dogmatisms4 -- ,education begins at ,birth4 -- ,the ,influence of ,women extends from the ,cradle to the ,grave4 -- ,the ,crime of ,crimes4 -- ,neglect to educate ,woman4 -- ,the ,superiority of ,women over ,men as ,teachers4 -- ,froebel discovered it4 -- ,nature designed ,woman to ,teach2 hence the ,importance of ,fitting her for her ,highest ,destiny4 #abc ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,effect ,,of ,,manual ,,training4 ,mental ,impulses are often ,vicious2 but the ,exertion of ,physical ,power in the ,arts is always ,beneficent -- hence ,manual ,training tends to correct vicious mental ,impulses4 -- ,every mental ,impression produces a moral ,effect4 -- ,all ,training is ,moral as well as ,mental4 -- ,selfishness is total ,depravity2 but ,selfishness has been ,deified under the name of ,prudence4 -- ,napoleon an ,example of ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,end of ,selfishness is ,disaster2 but ,prevailing ,systems of ,education promote ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,modern ,city an ,illustration of ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,ancient ,city4 -- ,existing ,systems of ,education ,negatively ,wrong4 -- ,manual ,training supplies the lacking ,element4 -- ,the ,objective must take the ,place of the ,subjective in ,education4 -- ,words without ,acts are as dead as ,faith without ,works4 #acj ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,mind ,,and ,,the ,,hand4 ,the ,mind and the ,hand are ,allies2 the ,mind speculates1 the ,hand tests its ,speculations in ,things4 -- ,the ,hand explodes the ,errors of the ,mind -- it searches after ,truth and finds it in ,things4 -- ,mental ,errors are subtile2 they elude us1 but the ,false in ,things stands self-exposed4 -- ,the ,hand is the ,mind's ,moral ,rudder4 -- ,the ,organ of ,touch the most ,wonderful of the ,senses2 all the ,others are ,passive2 it alone is ,active4 -- ,sir ,charles ,bell's ,discovery of a 8,muscular ,sense40 -- ,dr4 ,henry ,maudsley on the ,muscular ,sense4 -- ,the ,hand influences the ,brain4 -- ,connected ,thought impossible without ,language1 and ,language dependent upon ,objects2 and all ,artificial ,objects are the ,work of the ,hand4 -- ,progress is therefore the ,imprint of the ,hand upon ,matter in ,art4 -- ,the ,hand is nearer the ,brain than are the ,eye and the ,ear4 -- ,the ,marvellous ,works of the ,hand4 #add ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,trained ,,hand4 ,the ,legend of ,adam and the ,stick with which he subdued the ,animals4 -- ,the ,stick is the ,symbol of ,power1 and only the ,hand can wield it4 -- ,the ,hand imprisons ,steam and ,electricity1 and keeps them at hard ,labor4 -- ,the ,destitution of ,england ,two ,hundred and ,fifty ,years ago3 a ,pen ,picture4 -- ,the ,transformation wrought by the ,hand3 a ,pen ,picture4 -- ,it is due1 not to ,men who make ,laws1 but to ,men who make ,things4 -- ,the ,scientist and the ,inventor are the ,world's ,benefactors4 -- ,a ,parallel between the ,right ,honorable ,william ,e4 ,gladstone and ,sir ,henry ,bessemer4 -- ,mr4 ,gladstone a ,man of ,ideas1 ,mr4 ,bessemer a ,man of ,deeds4 -- ,the ,value of the latter's ,inventions4 -- ,mr4 ,gladstone represents the ,old ,education1 ,mr4 ,bessemer the ,new4 #aeg ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,inventors1 ,,civil ,,engineers1 ,,and ,,mechanics ,,of ,,england1 ,,and ,,english ,,progress4 ,a ,trade is better than a ,profession4 -- ,the ,railway1 ,telegraph1 and ,steamship are more ,potent than the ,lawyer1 ,doctor1 and ,priest4 -- ,book-makers writing the ,lives of the ,inventors of last ,century4 -- ,the ,workshop to be the ,scene of the ,greatest ,triumphs of ,man4 -- ,the ,civil ,engineers of ,england the ,heroes of ,english ,progress4 -- ,the ,life of ,james ,brindley1 the ,canal-maker2 his ,struggles and ,poverty4 -- ,the ,roll of ,honor4 -- ,mr4 ,gladstone's ,significant ,admission that ,english ,triumphs in ,science and ,art were won without ,government ,aid4 -- ,disregarding the ,common-sense of the ,savage1 ,legislators have chosen to learn of ,plato1 who declared that 8,the ,useful ,arts are ,degrading40 -- ,how ,improvements in the ,arts have been met by ,ignorant ,opposition4 -- ,the ,power wielded by the ,mechanic4 #agj ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,power ,,of ,,steam ,,and ,,contempt ,,of ,,artisans4 ,a few ,million ,people now wield twice as much ,industrial ,power as all the ,people on the ,globe exerted a ,hundred ,years ago4 -- ,a ,revolution wrought1 not by the ,schools and ,colleges1 but by the ,mechanic4 -- ,the ,union between ,science and ,art prevented by the ,speculative ,philosophy of the ,middle ,ages4 -- ,statesmen1 ,lawyers1 ,littrateurs1 ,poets1 and ,artists more highly esteemed than ,civil ,engineers1 ,mechanics1 and ,artisans4 -- ,the ,refugee ,artisan a ,power in ,england1 the ,refugee ,politician worthless4 -- ,prejudice against the ,artisan ,class shown by ,mr4 ,galton in his ,work on 8,hereditary ,genius40 -- ,the ,influence of ,slavery3 it has lasted ,thousands of ,years1 and still ,survives4 #ahd ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,automatic ,,contrasted ,,with ,,scientific ,,education4 ,the ,past tyrannizes over the ,present by ,interposing the ,stolid ,resistance of ,habit4 -- ,habits of ,thought like ,habits of the ,body become ,automatic4 -- ,there is much ,freedom of ,speech but very little ,freedom of ,thought3 ,habit1 ,tradition1 and ,reverence for ,antiquity forbid it4 -- ,the ,schools educate ,automatically4 -- ,a glaring ,defect of the ,schools shown by ,mr4 ,john ,s4 ,clark1 of ,boston4 -- ,the ,automatic ,character of the ,popular ,system of ,education shown by the ,quincy 7,mass47 ,experiment4 -- ,several ,intelligent ,opinions to the same ,effect4 -- ,the ,public ,schools as an ,industrial ,agency a ,failure4 -- ,a ,conclusive ,evidence of the ,automatic and ,superficial ,character of prevailing ,methods of ,education in the ,schools of a large ,city4 -- ,the ,views of ,colonel ,francis ,w4 ,parker4 -- ,scientific ,education is found in the ,kindergarten and the ,manual-training ,school4 -- 8,the ,cultivation of ,familiarity betwixt the ,mind and ,things40 #aia ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,automatic ,,contrasted ,,with ,,scientific ,,education -- ,continued4 ,the ,failure of ,education in ,america shown by ,statistics of ,railway and ,mercantile ,disasters4 -- ,shrinkage of ,railway ,values and ,failures of ,merchants4 -- ,only ,three per ,cent4 of those entering ,mercantile ,life achieve ,success4 -- ,business ,enterprises conducted by ,guess3 ,cause1 ,unscientific ,education4 -- ,savage ,training is better because ,objective4 -- ,mr4 ,foley1 late of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 on the ,scientific ,character of ,manual ,education -- ,prof4 ,goss1 of ,purdue ,university1 to the same ,effect -- also ,dr4 ,belfield1 of the ,chicago ,manual-training ,school4 -- ,students love the ,laboratory ,exercises4 -- ,demoralizing ,effect of ,unscientific ,training4 -- ,the ,failure of ,justice and ,legislation as contrasted with the ,success of ,civil ,engineering and ,architecture4 #baj ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,automatic ,,contrasted ,,with ,,scientific ,,education -- ,continued4 ,the ,training of the ,merchant1 the ,lawyer1 the ,judge1 and the ,legislator contrasted with that of the ,artisan4 -- ,the ,training of the ,merchant makes him ,selfish1 and ,selfishness breeds ,dishonesty4 -- ,professional ,men become ,speculative ,philosophers1 and test their ,speculations by ,consciousness4 -- ,the ,artisan forgets ,self in the ,study of ,things4 -- ,the ,search after ,truth4 -- ,the ,story of ,palissy4 -- ,the ,hero is the ,normal ,man2 those who ,marvel at his ,acts are abnormally ,developed4 -- ,savonarola and ,john ,brown4 -- ,the ,new ,england ,system of ,education contrasted with that of the ,south4 -- ,american ,statesmanship -- its ,failure in an ,educational ,point of ,view4 -- ,why the ,state ,provides for ,education2 to protect ,property4 -- ,the ,british ,government and the ,land ,question4 -- ,the ,thoroughness of the ,training given by ,schools of ,mechanic ,art and ,institutes of ,technology as shown in ,things4 -- ,story of the ,emperor of ,germany and the ,needle-maker4 -- ,the ,iron ,bridge lasts a ,century1 the ,act of the ,legislator wears out in a ,year4 -- ,the ,cause of the ,failures of ,justice and ,legislation4 -- ,the best ,act is the ,act that ,repeals a ,law2 but the ,act of the ,inventor is never ,repealed4 -- ,things the ,source and ,issue of ,ideas2 hence the ,necessity of ,training in the ,arts4 #bbi ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem -- ,,historic4 ,,egypt ,,and ,,greece4 ,fundamental ,propositions4 -- ,selfishness the ,source of ,social ,evil2 ,subjective ,education the ,source of ,selfishness and the ,cause of ,contempt of ,labor2 and ,social ,disintegration the ,result of ,contempt of ,labor and the ,useful ,arts4 -- ,the ,first ,class-distinction -- the ,strongest ,man ruled2 his ,first ,rival1 the ,ingenious ,man4 -- ,superstition4 -- ,the ,castes of ,india and ,egypt -- how came they about8 -- ,egyptian ,education based on ,selfishness4 -- ,rise of ,egypt -- her ,career2 her ,fall2 ,analysis thereof4 -- ,she ,typifies all the ,early ,nations3 ,force and ,rapacity above1 ,chains and ,slavery below4 -- ,their ,education consisted of ,selfish ,maxims for the ,government of the ,many by the ,few1 and ,government meant the ,appropriation of the ,products of ,labor4 -- ,analysis of ,greek ,character -- its ,savage ,characteristics4 -- ,greek ,treachery and ,cruelty4 -- ,greek ,venality4 -- ,her ,orators accepted ,bribes4 -- ,responsibility of ,greek ,education and ,philosophy for the ,ruin of ,greek ,civilization4 -- ,rectitude wholly left out of her ,scheme of ,education4 -- ,plato's ,contempt of ,matter3 it led to ,contempt of ,man and all his ,works4 -- ,greek ,education consisted of ,rhetoric and ,logic2 all ,useful ,things were hence held in ,contempt4 #bdg ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem -- ,,historic4 ,,rome4 ,vigor of the ,early ,romans -- their ,virtues and ,vices2 their ,rigorous ,laws2 their ,defective ,education2 their ,contempt of ,labor4 -- ,slavery3 its ,horrors and ,brutalizing ,influence4 -- ,education ,confined to the ,arts of ,politics and ,war2 it transformed ,courage into ,cruelty1 and ,fortitude into ,stoicism4 -- ,robbery and ,bribery4 -- ,the ,vices of ,greece and ,carthage imported into ,rome4 -- ,slaves construct all the great ,public ,works2 they ,revolt1 and the ,legions ,slaughter them4 -- ,the ,gothic ,invasion4 -- ,rome ,falls4 -- ,false ,philosophy and ,superficial ,education promoted ,selfishness4 -- ,deification of ,abstractions1 and ,scorn of ,men and ,things4 -- ,universal ,moral ,degradation4 -- ,neglect of ,honest ,men and ,promotion of ,demagogues4 -- ,the ,decline of ,morals and ,growth of ,literature4 -- ,darwin's ,law of ,reversion1 through ,selfishness to ,savagery4 -- ,contest between the ,rich and the ,poor4 -- ,logic1 ,rhetoric1 and ,ruin4 #bfc ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem -- ,,historic4 ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the ,trinity upon which ,civilization ,rests3 ,justice1 the ,arts1 and ,labor2 and these ,depend upon ,scientific ,education4 -- ,reason of the ,failure of ,theodoric and ,charlemagne to ,reconstruct the ,pagan ,civilization4 -- ,contempt of ,man4 -- ,serfdom4 -- ,the ,vices of the ,time3 ,false ,philosophy1 an ,odious ,social ,caste1 and ,ignorance4 -- ,the ,splendid ,career of the ,moors in ,spain1 in ,contrast4 -- ,effect upon ,spain of the ,expulsion of the ,moors4 -- ,the ,repressive ,force of ,authority and the ,atrocious ,philosophy of ,contempt of ,man4 -- ,the ,rule of ,italy -- a ,menace and a ,sneer4 -- ,the work of ,regeneration4 -- ,the ,crusades4 -- ,the ,destruction of ,feudalism4 -- ,the ,invention of ,printing4 -- ,the ,discovery of ,america4 -- ,investigation4 -- ,discoveries in ,science and ,art4 #bgh ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem -- ,,historic4 ,,europe4 ,the ,standing ,army a ,legacy of ,evil from the ,middle ,ages4 -- ,it is the ,controlling ,feature of the ,european ,situation4 -- ,its ,collateral ,evils3 ,wars and ,debts4 -- ,the ,debts of ,europe ,represent a ,series of ,colossal ,crimes against the ,people2 with the ,armies and ,navies they ,absorb the ,bulk of the ,annual ,revenue4 -- ,the ,people ,fleeing from them4 -- ,they ,threaten ,bankruptcy2 they ,prevent ,education4 -- ,germany1 the best-educated ,nation in ,europe1 losing most by ,emigration4 -- ,her ,people will not ,endure the ,standing ,army4 -- ,the ,folly of the ,european ,international ,policy of ,hate4 -- ,it is ,possible for ,europe to ,restore to ,productive ,employments #c1jjj1jjj of men1 to place at the ,disposal of her ,educators #gjj1jjj1jjj1 instead of #gj1jjj1jjj per annum1 and to pay her ,national ,debts in ,fifty-four ,years1 simply by the ,disbandment of her ,armies and ,navies4 -- ,the ,armament of ,europe ,stands in the ,way of ,universal ,education and of ,universal ,industrial ,prosperity4 -- ,standing ,armies the ,last ,analysis of ,selfishness2 they are ,coeval with the ,revival during the ,middle ,ages of the ,greco-,roman ,subjective ,methods of ,education4 -- ,they must go out when the ,new ,education comes in4 #bhi ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem -- ,,historic4 ,,america4 ,an ,old ,civilization in a ,new ,country4 -- ,old ,methods in a ,new ,system of ,schools4 -- ,sordid ,views of ,education4 -- ,the highest ,aim ,money-getting4 -- ,herbert ,spencer on the ,english ,schools4 -- ,same ,defects in the ,american ,schools4 -- ,maxims of ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,cultivation of ,avarice4 -- ,political ,incongruities4 -- ,negroes escaping from ,slavery called ,fugitives from ,justice4 -- ,the ,results of ,subjective ,educational ,processes4 -- ,climatic ,influences alone saved ,america from becoming a ,slave ,empire4 -- ,illiteracy4 -- ,abnormal ,growth of ,cities4 -- ,failure of ,justice4 -- ,defects of ,education shown in ,reckless and ,corrupt ,legislation4 -- ,waste of an ,empire of ,public ,land4 -- ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd's ,history of ,congressional ,land ,grants4 -- ,the ,growth and ,power of ,corporations4 -- ,the ,origin of large ,fortunes1 ,speculations4 -- ,old ,social ,forces producing old ,social ,evils4 -- ,still ,america is the ,hope of the ,world4 -- ,the ,right of ,suffrage in the ,united ,states justifies the ,sentiment of ,patriotism4 -- ,let ,suffrage be made ,intelligent and ,virtuous1 and all ,social ,evils will yield to it2 and all the ,wealth of the ,country is subject to the ,draft of the ,ballot for ,education4 -- ,the ,hope of ,social ,reform depends upon a complete ,educational ,revolution4 #cjg ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,manual ,,element ,,in ,,education ,,in #ahhd4 ,the ,kindergarten and the ,manual-training ,school one in ,principle4 -- ,russia solved the ,problem of ,tool ,instruction by ,laboratory ,processes4 -- ,the ,initiatory ,step by ,m4 ,victor ,della-,vos1 ,director of the ,imperial ,technical ,school of ,moscow in #ahfh4 -- ,statement of ,director ,della-,vos as to the ,origin1 ,progress1 and ,results of the ,new ,system of ,training4 -- ,its ,introduction into all the ,technical ,schools of ,russia4 -- ,dr4 ,john ,d4 ,runkle1 ,president of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 recommends the ,russian ,system in #ahgf1 and it is adopted4 -- ,statement of ,dr4 ,runkle as to how he was led to the adoption of the ,russian ,system4 -- ,dr4 ,woodward1 of ,washington ,university1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 establishes the second ,school in this ,country4 -- ,his ,historical ,note in the ,prospectus of #ahhb-hc4 -- ,first ,class graduated #ahhc4 -- ,manual ,training in the ,agricultural ,colleges4 -- ,in ,boston1 in ,new ,haven1 in ,baltimore1 in ,san ,francisco1 and other places4 -- ,manual ,training at the ,meeting of the ,national ,educational ,association1 #ahhd4 -- ,kindergarten and ,manual-training ,exhibits4 -- ,prof4 ,felix ,adler's ,school in ,new ,york ,city -- the most ,comprehensive ,school in the ,world4 -- ,the ,chicago ,manual-training ,school the first ,independent ,institution of the ,kind -- its ,inception2 its ,incorporation2 its ,opening4 ,its ,director1 ,dr4 ,belfield4 -- ,his ,inaugural ,address4 -- ,manual ,training in the ,public ,schools of ,philadelphia4 -- ,manual ,training in twenty-four ,states4 -- ,revolutionizing a ,texas ,college4 -- ,local ,option ,law in ,massachusetts4 -- ,department of ,domestic ,economy in the ,iowa ,agricultural ,college4 -- ,manual ,training in ,tennessee1 in the ,university of ,michigan1 in the ,national ,educational ,association1 in ,ohio4 -- ,the ,toledo ,school for both ,sexes4 -- ,the ,importance of the ,education of ,woman4 -- ,the ,sljd ,schools of ,europe4 #cbh ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,education -- #ahhc-ahii4 ,educational ,revolution in #ahhc-d4 -- ,urgent ,demand for ,reform4 -- ,existing ,schools denounced as ,superficial1 their ,methods as ,automatic1 their ,system as a ,mixture of ,cram and ,smatter4 -- ,the ,controversy between the ,school-master of the ,old ,rgime and the ,reformer4 -- ,the ,leaders of the ,movement1 ,col4 ,parker1 ,dr4 ,mac,alister1 and others -- followers of ,rousseau1 ,bacon1 and ,spencer4 -- 8,the ,end of ,man is an ,action1 not a ,thought40 -- ,the ,conservative ,teachers fall into ,line4 -- ,the ,new ,education becomes an ,aggressive ,force pushing on to ,victory4 -- ,the ,physical ,progress of ,manual ,training -- its ,quality not equal to its ,extent4 -- ,the ,new ,system of ,training confided to ,teachers of the ,old ,rgime4 -- ,ideal ,teachers hard to find4 -- ,teachers willing to ,learn should be ,encouraged4 -- ,the effects of ,manual ,training long antedate its ,introduction to the ,schools4 -- ,bacon's ,definition of ,education4 -- ,stephenson and the ,value of ,hand-work4 -- ,manual ,training is the union of ,thought and ,action4 -- ,it is the antithesis of the ,greek methods1 which exalted ,abstractions and debased ,things4 -- ,the ,rule of ,comenius and the ,injunction of ,rousseau -- few ,teachers comprehend them4 -- ,the ,employment of the ,hands in the ,arts is more highly ,educative than the acquisition of the rules of ,reading and ,arithmetic4 -- ,what the ,locomotive has accomplished for ,man4 -- ,education must be equal1 and ,social and ,political ,equality will follow4 -- ,the foundation of the ,new ,education is the ,baconian ,philosophy as stated by ,macaulay4 -- ,use and ,service are the ,twin-ministers of ,human ,progress4 -- ,definitions of ,genius4 -- ,attention4 -- ,sir ,henry ,maine4 -- ,manual ,training relates to all the ,arts of ,life4 -- ,mind and ,hand4 -- ,newton and the ,apple4 -- ,the ,sense of ,touch resides in the ,hand4 -- ,robert ,seidel on ,familiarity with ,objects4 -- ,material ,progress the basis of ,spiritual ,growth4 -- ,plato and the ,divine ,dialogues4 -- ,poverty1 ,society1 and the ,useful ,arts4 -- ,selfishness must give way to ,altruism4 -- ,the ,struggle of ,life4 -- ,the ,progress of the ,arts and the final ,regeneration of the ,race4 -- ,the ,arts that make ,life sweet and beautiful4 -- ,the final ,fundamental ,educational ,ideal is ,universality4 -- ,comenius's definition of ,schools -- the ,workshops of ,humanity4 -- ,that one ,man should die ignorant1 who had capacity for ,knowledge1 is a ,tragedy4 -- ,mental and ,manual ,exercises to be rendered homogeneous in the ,school of the ,future4 -- ,the hero of the ,ideal ,school4 #cgj ,,appendix #chg ,,index #dbg ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,author ,frontispiece ,,the ,,laboratory ,,of ,,carpentry #bc ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,laboratory ,,of ,,carpentry #bg ,,the ,,wood-,,turning ,,laboratory #ca ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,wood-,,turning ,,and ,,pattern ,,laboratory #da ,,the ,,founding ,,laboratory #di ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,founding ,,laboratory #ec ,,the ,,forging ,,laboratory #ei ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,forging ,,laboratory #fg ,,the ,,machine-,,tool ,,laboratory #gi ,,the ,,chipping1 ,,filing1 ,,and ,,fitting ,,laboratory #hi ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,machine-,,tool ,,laboratory #ie ,,the ,,students ,,with ,,their ,,books #ajg ,m4 ,,victor ,,della-,,vos1 ,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,russia #cbi ,,dr4 ,,john ,d4 ,,runkle1 ,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #cce ,,power4 8,his tongue was framed to music1 ,and his hand was armed with skill2 ,his face was the mould of beauty1 ,and his heart the throne of will40 --,,emerson4 ,,mind ,,and ,,hand3 ,,manual ,,training ,,the ,,chief ,,factor ,,in ,,education4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,ideal ,,school4 ,its ,situation4 -- ,its ,tall ,chimney4 -- ,the ,whir of ,machinery and ,sound of the ,sledge-hammer4 -- ,the ,school that is to dignify ,labor4 -- ,the ,realization of the ,dream of ,bacon1 ,rousseau1 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel4 -- ,the ,school that fitly represents the ,age of ,steel4 ,the ,ideal ,school is an institution which develops and trains to usefulness the moral1 physical1 and intellectual powers of man4 ,it is what ,comenius called ,humanity's workshop1 and in ,america it is becoming the natural center of the ,public ,school system4 ,the building1 well-designed for its occupancy1 is large1 airy1 open to the light on every side1 amply provided with all appliances requisite for instruction in the arts and sciences1 and finished interiorly and exteriorly in the highest style of useful and beautiful architectural effects4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of the ,ideal ,school building is its chimney1 which rises far above the roof1 from whose tall stack a column of smoke issues1 and the hum and whir of machinery is heard1 and the heavy thud of the sledge-hammer resounding on the anvil1 smites the ear4 ,it is1 then1 a factory rather than a school8 ,no4 ,it is a school2 the school of the future2 the school that is to dignify labor2 the school that is to generate power2 the school where every sound contributes to the harmony of development1 where the brain informs the muscle1 where thought directs every blow1 where the mind1 the eye1 and the hand constitute an invincible triple alliance4 ,this is the school that ,locke dreamed of1 that ,bacon wished for1 that ,rousseau described1 and that ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel struggled in vain to establish4 ,it is1 then1 science and the arts in apotheosis4 ,for if it be1 as claimed1 the ,ideal school1 it is destined to lift the veil from the face of ,nature1 to reveal her most precious secrets1 and to divert to man's use all her treasures4 ,yes2 it is to other schools what the diamond is to other precious stones--the last analysis of educational thought4 ,it is the philosopher's stone in education2 the incarnated dream of the alchemist1 which dissolved earth1 air1 and water into their original elements1 and recombined them to compass man's immortality4 ,through it that which has hitherto been impossible is to become a potential reality4 ,in this building which resembles a factory or machine-shop an educational revolution is to be wrought4 ,education is to be rescued from the domination of medival ideas1 relieved of the enervating influence of ,grecian stheticism1 and confided to the scientific direction of the followers of ,bacon1 whose philosophy is common sense and its law1 progress4 ,the philosophy of ,plato left in its wake a long line of abstract propositions1 decayed civilizations1 and ruined cities1 while the philosophy of ,bacon1 in the language of ,macaulay1 8has lengthened life2 mitigated pain2 extinguished diseases2 increased the fertility of the soil2 given new securities to the mariner2 spanned great rivers and estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers2 guided the thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth2 lighted up the night with the splendor of the day2 extended the range of the human vision2 multiplied the power of the human muscles2 accelerated motion2 annihilated distance2 facilitated intercourse1 correspondence1 all friendly offices1 all dispatch of business2 enabled man to descend to the depths of the sea1 to soar into the air1 to penetrate securely into the noxious recesses of the earth1 to traverse the land in cars which whirl along without horses1 and the ocean in ships which run ten knots an hour against the wind40 ,it is this beneficent work of ,bacon that the ,ideal school is to continue--the work of demonstrating to the world that the most useful thing is the most beautiful thing--discarding ,plato1 the apostle of idle speculation1 and exalting ,bacon1 the minister of use4 ,in laying the foundations of education in labor it is dignified and education is ennobled4 ,in such a union there is honor and strength1 and long life to our institutions4 ,for the permanence of the civil compact in this country1 as in other countries1 depends less upon a wide diffusion of unassimilated and undigested intelligence than upon such a thorough1 practical education of the masses in the arts and sciences as shall enable them to secure1 and qualify them to store up1 a fair share of the aggregate produce of labor4 ,if this school shall appear like a hive of industry1 let the reader not be deceived4 ,its main purpose1 intellectual development1 is never lost sight of fora moment4 ,it is founded on labor1 which1 being the most sacred of human functions1 is the most useful of educational methods4 ,it is a system of object-teaching--teaching through things instead of through signs of things4 ,it is the embodiment of ,bacon's aphorism--8,education is the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things40 ,the students draw pictures of things1 and then fashion them into things at the forge1 the bench1 and the turning-lathe2 not mainly that they may enter machine-shops1 and with greater facility make similar things1 but that they may become stronger intellectually and morally2 that they may attain a wider range of mental vision1 a more varied power of expression1 and so be better able to solve the problems of life when they shall enter upon the stage of practical activity4 ,it is a theory of this school that in the processes of education the idea should never be isolated from the object it represents2,e#a 7#a7 because the idea1 being the reflex perception or shadow of the object1 is less clearly defined than the object itself1 and 7#b7 because joining the object and the idea intensifies the impression4 ,separated from its object the idea is unreal1 a phantasm4 ,the object is the flesh1 blood1 bones1 and nerves of the idea4 ,without its body the idea is as impotent as the jet of steam that rises from the surface of boiling water and loses itself in the air4 ,but unite it to its object and it becomes the vital spark1 the animating force1 the ,promethean fire4 ,thus steam converts the ,corliss engine--a huge mass of lifeless iron--into a thing of grace1 of beauty1 and of resistless power4 ,suppose the teacher1 for example1 desires to convey to the mind of a child having no knowledge of form an impression of the shape of the earth2 he says1 8,it is globular40 ,the child's face expresses nothing because there is in its mind no conception of the object represented by the word globular4 ,the teacher says1 8,it is a sphere10 with no better success4 ,he adds1 8,a sphere is a body bounded by a surface1 every point of which is equally distant from a point within called the centre40 ,the child's face is still expressionless4 ,the teacher takes a handful of moist clay and moulds it into the form of a sphere1 and exhibiting it1 says1 8,the earth is like this40 ,the child claps its hands1 utters a cry of delight1 and exclaims1 8,it is round like a ball60 ,this is an illustration of the triumph of object-teaching1 the method alike of the kindergarten and the manual training school4 ,as the child is father of the man1 so the kindergarten is father of the manual training school4 ,the kindergarten comes first in the order of development1 and leads logically to the manual training school4 ,the same principle underlies both4 ,in both it is sought to generate power by dealing with things in connection with ideas4 ,both have common methods of instruction1 and they should be adapted to the whole period of school life1 and applied to all schools4 ,the ,ideal school1 most precisely representative of the present age--the age of science--is dedicated to a homogeneous system of mental and manual training1 to the generation of power1 to the development of true manhood4 ,and above all1 this school is destined to unite in indissoluble bonds science and art1 and so to confer upon labor the highest and justest dignity--that of doing and responsibility4 ,the reason of the degradation of labor was admirably stated by ,america's most distinguished educational reformer1 the late ,mr4 ,horace ,mann1 who said1 8,the labor of the world has been performed by ignorant men1 by classes doomed to ignorance from sire to son2 by the bondmen and bondwomen of the ,jews1 by the helots of ,sparta1 by the captives who passed under the ,roman yoke1 and by the villeins and serfs and slaves of more modern times40 ,when it shall have been demonstrated that the highest degree of education results from combining manual with intellectual training1 the laborer will feel the pride of a genuine triumph2 for the consciousness that every thought-impelled blow educates him1 and so raises him in the scale of manhood1 will nerve his arm1 and fire his brain with hope and courage4 ,e#a 8,and the attempt to convey scientific conceptions without the appeal to observation1 which can alone give such conceptions firmness and reality1 appears to me to be in direct antagonism to the fundamental principles of scientific education40--8,physiography10 ,preface1 p4 vii4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahgh4 ,this theory is the antithesis of that of ,plato1 namely2 8that the simplest and purest way of examining things1 is to pursue every particular by thought alone1 without offering to support our meditation by seeing or backing our reasonings by any other corporal sense40--,plato's 8,divine ,dialogues10 p4 #ahj4 ,london3 ,s4 ,cornish ,co41 #ahci4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,majesty ,,of ,,tools4 ,tools the ,highest ,text-books4 -- ,how to ,use them the ,test of ,scholarship4 -- ,they are the ,gauge of ,civilization4 -- ,carlyle's ,apostrophe to them4 -- ,the ,typical ,hand-tools4 -- ,the ,automata of the ,machine-shop4 -- ,through ,tools ,science and ,art are ,united4 -- ,the ,power of ,tools4 -- ,their ,educational ,value4 -- ,without ,tools ,man is ,nothing2 with ,tools he is ,all4 -- ,it is through the ,arts alone that ,education touches ,human ,life4 ,sacred to the majesty of tools might be appropriately inscribed over the entrance to this ,ideal school2 for its highest text-books are tools1 and how to use them most intelligently is the test of scholarship4 ,to realize the potency of tools it is only necessary to contrast the two states of man--the one without tools1 the other with tools4 ,see him in the first state1 naked1 shivering with cold1 now hiding away from the beasts in caves1 and now1 famished and despairing1 gaunt and hollow-eyed1 creeping stealthily like a panther upon his prey4 ,then see him in the poetic1 graphic apostrophe of ,carlyle3--8,man is a tool-using animal4 ,he can use tools1 can devise tools2 with these the granite mountains melt into light dust before him2 he kneads iron as if it were soft paste2 seas are his smooth highway1 winds and fire his unwearying steeds4 ,nowhere do you find him without tools2 without tools he is nothing1 with tools he is all60 ,what a picture of the influence of tools upon civilization6 ,it is through the use of tools that man has reached the place of absolute supremacy among animals4 ,as he increases his stock of tools he recedes from the state of savagery4 ,the great gulf between the aboriginal savage and the civilized man is spanned by the seven hand-tools--the axe1 the saw1 the plane1 the hammer1 the square1 the chisel1 and the file4 ,these are the universal tools of the arts1 and the modern machine-shop is an aggregation of them rendered automatic and driven by steam4 ,the ancients constructed automata which were exceedingly ingenious4 ,in the statues that could walk and talk1 the ,chinese puppets and the marionettes of the ,greeks there was a hint of the modern automatic tools1 which1 driven by steam1 fashion with equal accuracy the delicate parts of the watch and the huge segments of the marine engine4 ,the ancients knew more of science than of art4 ,they were familiar with the power of steam1 but knew not how to apply it to the wants of man4 ,they knew that steam would turn a spit1 but they had not a sufficient knowledge of art to convert the power they had discovered into a monster of force1 and train it to bear the burdens of commerce4 ,they never thought to apply the jet of steam used to turn a spit to great automatic machines1 and to fit into them saws and files1 and needles and drills1 and gimlets and planes1 and compel them to do the work of thousands of men4 ,but this is precisely what the modern mechanic has accomplished4 ,in making a slave of steam1 science and art have combined to free mankind4 ,we marvel at the dulness of the ancients as shown in their failure to utilize in the useful arts the discoveries of science4 ,that they should have studied the stars over their heads to the neglect of the earth under their feet is incomprehensible to the modern mind4 ,but will not future generations marvel at us8 ,is it not an astounding fact that1 with a knowledge of the tremendous influence of tools upon the destiny of the human race so graphically depicted by ,carlyle1 the nations have been so slow in incorporating tool-practice into educational methods8 ,the distinguishing features of modern civilization sprang as definitively from cunningly devised and skilfully handled tools as any effect from its cause4 ,and yet the world's statesmen have failed to discover the value of tool-practice as an educational agency4 ,the face of the globe has been transformed by the union of art and science1 but the world's statesmen have not discerned the importance of uniting them in the curriculum of the schools4 ,if the ancients could see us as we see them1 they would doubtless laugh at us as we laugh at them4 ,we might take a lesson from the savage4 ,he is taught to fight1 to hunt1 and to fish1 and in these arts the brain1 the hand1 and the eye are trained simultaneously4 ,he is first given object-lessons1 as the pupil of the kindergarten is taught4 ,then the tomahawk1 the spear1 and the bow and arrow are placed in his hands1 and he fights for his life1 or fishes or hunts for his dinner4 ,the young ,indian is taught all that it is necessary for him to know1 and he is educated1 practically1 in the savage's three workshops--the battle-field1 the forest and plain1 the sea and lake4 ,thus the young savage enters upon the duties of his life with an exact practical knowledge of them4 ,he has not been taught a theory of fighting1 he has used the weapons of warfare2 he has not studied the arts of fishing and hunting1 he has handled the spear and the bow and arrow1 and their use is as familiar to him as the multiplication table is to the boy in the public school4 ,we have more and better tools than the savage possesses4 ,with the aid of science and art we harness steam to our chariot and compel it to draw us whither we will4 ,we steal fire from the clouds and make it serve us as a messenger4 ,we imprison the air1 and with it stop the flying railway train2 with the aid of science and art we reduce the most subtile forces of nature to servitude4 ,but we neither teach our youth how to master their elements nor how to use them4 ,tools represent the steps of human progress--in architecture1 from the mud hut to the modern mansion2 in agriculture1 from the pointed stick used to tear the turf to a thousand and one ingenious instruments of husbandry2 in ship-building1 from the rudderless1 sailless boat to the ocean steamer2 in fabrics1 from the matted fleece of the shepherd to the varied products of countless looms2 in pottery1 from the first rude ,egyptian cup to the exquisite vase of the ,sevres factory4 ,and so of every art that contributes to the comfort and pleasure of man2 the development of each has been accomplished by tools in the hands of the laborer4 ,since1 then1 man owes so much to labor1 he has doubtless educated the laborer and showered honors upon him 7874 ,on the contrary1 the labor of the world has been performed by the most ignorant classes1 by bondmen1 by helots and captives1 by serfs and slaves4 ,the laborer has been held in such contempt1 and been so debased by ignorance1 that he has often violently protested against improvements in the tools of the trades1 and with vandal hands destroyed the mill1 the factory1 and the forge erected to ameliorate his condition4 ,at the top of the social scale the sage has studied the stars and invented systems of abstract philosophy2 at the bottom ignorance has deified itself and starved4 ,this divorce of science from art has resulted in such incongruities as the ,pyramids of ,egypt and periodical famines2 as the hanging gardens of ,babylon and the horrors of ,jewish captivity2 as the ,greek ,parthenon and dwellings without chimneys2 as the statues of ,phidias and ,praxiteles1 and royal banquets without knives1 forks1 or spoons2 as the ,roman ,forum and the ,roman populace crying for bread and circuses2 as ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,seneca and ,aurelius1 and ,caligula1 ,claudius1 ,nero and ,domitian4 ,on the other hand the union of science with art tunnels the mountain1 bridges the river1 dams the torrent1 and converts the wilderness into a fruitful field4 ,science discovers and art appropriates and utilizes2 and as science is helpless without the aid of art1 so art is dead without the help of tools4 ,tools then constitute the great civilizing agency of the world2 for civilization is the art of rendering life agreeable4 ,the savage may own a continent1 but if he possesses only the savage's tools--the spear and the bow and arrow--he will be ill-fed1 ill-housed1 ill-clothed1 and poorly protected both against cold and heat4 ,he might be familiar with all the known sciences1 but if he were ignorant of the arts his state1 instead of being improved1 would be rendered more deplorable2 for with the thoughts1 emotions1 sensibilities1 and aspirations of a sage he would still be powerless to steal from heaven a single spark of fire with which to warm his miserable hut4 ,in the light of this analysis ,carlyle's rhapsody on tools becomes a prosaic fact1 and his conclusion--that man without tools is nothing1 with tools all--points the way to the discovery of the philosopher's stone in education4 ,for if man without tools is nothing1 to be unable to use tools is to be destitute of power2 and if with tools he is all1 to be able to use tools is to be all-powerful4 ,and this power in the concrete1 the power to do some useful thing for man--this is the last analysis of educational truth4 ,there is no better definition of education than that of ,pestalozzi--8the generation of power40 ,but what kind of power8 ,not merely power to think abstractly1 to speculate1 to moralize1 to philosophize1 but power to act intelligently4 ,and the power to act intelligently involves the exertion1 in greater or less degree1 of all the powers1 both mental and physical4 ,education1 then1 is the development of all the powers of man to the culminating point of action4 ,what kind of action8 ,action in art4 ,what is art8 8,the power of doing something not taught by nature or instinct2 power or skill in the use of knowledge2 the practical application of the rules or principles of science40 ,again we have the last analysis of education--8skill in the use of knowledge2 the application of the rules or principles of science40 ,and this is tool practice4 ,it is unnecessary1 in an educational view1 to divide the arts by the employment of the terms 8useful0 and 8fine20 for the fine arts can only exist legitimately where the useful arts have paved the way4 ,in a harmonious development the artist will enter on the heels of the artisan4 ,art is cosmopolitan4 ,it is not less worthily represented by the carpenter with his square1 saw1 and plane1 and the smith with his sledge1 than by the sculptor with his mallet and chisel1 and the painter with his easel and brush2 both classes contribute to the comfort and pleasure of man2 for comfort is enhanced by pleasure1 and pleasure is intensified by comfort4 ,it follows that the ultimate object of education is the attainment of skill in the arts4 ,to this end the speculations and investigations of philosophy and the experiments of chemistry lead4 ,at the door of the study of the philosopher and of the laboratory of the chemist stands the artisan1 listening for the newest hint that philosophy can impart1 waiting for the result of the latest chemical analysis4 ,in his hands these suggestions take form2 through his skilful manipulation the faint indications of science become real things1 suited to the exigencies of human life4 ,it is the most astounding fact of history that education has been confined to abstractions4 ,the schools have taught history1 mathematics1 language and literature1 and the sciences1 to the utter exclusion of the arts1 notwithstanding the obvious fact that it is through the arts alone that other branches of learning touch human life4 ,as ,bacon has so aptly expressed it1 8,the real and legitimate goal of the sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches40 ,in a word1 public education stops at the exact point where it should begin to apply the theories it has imparted4 ,at this point the school of mental and manual training combined--the ,ideal ,school--begins2 not only books but tools are put into the hands of the pupil1 with this injunction of ,comenius2 8,let those things that have to be done be learned by doing them40 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,engine-,,room4 ,the ,corliss ,engine4 -- ,a ,thing of ,grace and ,power4 -- ,the ,growth of ,two ,thousand ,years4 -- ,from ,hero to ,watt4 -- ,its ,duty as a ,school-master4 -- ,the ,interdependence of the ,ages4 -- ,the ,school in ,epitome4 ,let us enter the ,ideal ,school building and take a bird's-eye view of the visible processes of the new education4 ,the first object that attracts attention is the engine4 ,it is a 8,corliss10 fifty-two horse-power1 and makes that peculiar kind of noise which conveys to the mind of the observer an impression of restrained power4 ,when the student1 upon entering the school1 is shown this beautiful machine he is told that it1 like all other inventions1 is a growth--the growth of at least two thousand years2 that the power of steam was known to the ancients--the ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans2 that ,hero1 a philosopher of ,alexandria1 invented a crude steam-engine before the beginning of the ,christian era1 and that the engine before us1 which throbs and trembles under the pressure of its battery of steel boilers in doing duty as a school-master1 is the latest development of ,hero's conception4 ,the educational idea underlying this fact is the interdependence of the ages2 each generation is a link between the past and the future4 8,to show10 as ,philarte ,chasles says1 8that man can only act efficiently by association with others1 it has been ordained that each inventor shall only interpret the first word of the problem he sets himself to solve1 and that every great idea shall be the rsum of the past at the same time that it is the germ of the future40 ,the first word of the solution of the steam-power problem came from ,hero down the ages1 through ,decans1 ,papin1 ,savory1 ,newcomen1 ,breighton1 and ,smeaton1 to ,watt4 ,to ,watt is awarded the honor of the invention of the modern steam-engine2 but the first conception of his engine was derived from an atmospheric machine through the accident of it having been placed in his hands for repairs4 ,smeaton was the inventor of that atmospheric engine1 and his mind was one of the links in the chain of intelligences extending back to ,egypt1 through whose united agency the steam-engine became a real thing of power in the cunning hands of ,james ,watt1 of whom the late ,dr4 ,draper said1 8,he conferred on his native country more solid benefits than all the treaties she ever made and all the battles she ever won40 ,this law governing great achievements is full of encouragement to the student of mechanics1 for while the thought of compassing any great discovery or invention may well appall even the boldest1 the most humble may hope through studious industry to contribute something to the sum of human knowledge4 ,the engine-room of our school is neater than that of the ordinary machine-shop1 but the furnace roars like any other1 its open mouth shows a bank of glowing coals1 and the 8stoker10 with grimy hands1 wipes the sweat from his sooty brow4 ,the whole school is here seen in epitome3 the 8stoker0 typifies the student toiling at the forge1 and in the polished engine1 exhibiting both grace and power in its automatic action1 we see the student's graduating project1 a machine1 the joint creation of brain1 eye1 and hand4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,drawing-,,room4 ,twenty-four ,boys bending over the ,drawing-board4 -- ,analysis and ,synthesis in ,drawing4 -- ,geometric ,drawing4 -- ,pictorial ,drawing4 -- ,the ,principles of ,design4 -- ,the sthetic in ,art4 -- ,the ,fundamentals4 -- ,object and ,constructive ,drawing4 -- ,drawing for the ,exercises in the ,laboratories4 -- ,the ,educational ,value of ,drawing4 -- ,the ,language of ,drawing4 -- ,every ,student an expert ,draughtsman at the end of the ,course4 ,passing from the engine-room we enter the room assigned to drawing1--the first step in art education--where twenty-four boys are bending over the drawing-board1 pencil in hand4 ,every school-day for three years these boys will spend an hour in this room4 ,each division of drawing--free-hand and mechanical--is thoroughly taught4 ,every graduate of the institution will be an expert draughtsman4 ,the room is very still1 only the scratching sound of twenty-four pencils is heard4 ,the instructor moves about among the students1 with here and there a hint1 a suggestion1 a correction1 or a word of commendation--8good40 ,drawing is the representation on paper of the facts1 and the appearance to the eye of forms4 ,the exercise proceeds by both analysis and synthesis4 ,a cube is divided into all the geometric figures of which it is susceptible1 and these figures are imitated with the pencil on paper4 ,then the figures are reunited1 and the cube is similarly imitated4 ,as the child in the kindergarten is taught several fundamental geometric facts through the use of variously subdivided cubes1 so the student of drawing is taught by a similar process how to represent these fundamental facts on paper4 ,for example 7#a71 the student is taught to draw the following 7sketches #a1 #b1 and #c7 geometric forms of the square1 oblong1 and circle2 7#b7 he is taught 7sketches #d1 #e1 #f1 and #g7 to represent the facts of the oblong block and cylinder2 7#c7 these facts are expressed as follows 7sketches #h and #i7 in working drawings4 ,sketches #h and #i are such drawings as would be placed in the hands of a mechanic as plans for the manufacture of the solids they represent2 and the most elaborate working drawings for building and mechanical purposes are merely the complete development of this division of the art4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,another division of drawing consists in the representation of solids or objects as they appear to the eye or pictorially4 ,the oblong block and cylinder1 for example1 appear to the eye very differently from their facts represented in the working drawings 7sketches #h and #i71 as thus--7sketches #aj and #aa74 ,illustration ,the development of this division of drawing leads to general pictorial representation4 ,finally the mastery of the art of drawing involves a study of the principles of design as applied to industrial articles with the purpose of enhancing their value1 as designs for wall-paper1 carpets1 embroideries1 tapestry1 textiles generally1 and decorative work in wood4 ,this is the sthetic element in the art which appeals to and develops the student's taste4 ,it is an important feature of drawing1 not less on this account than from the fact that the designer's profession is a very lucrative one1 but it is less important than object and constructive drawing1 because less fundamental4 ,besides1 object and constructive work in drawing come first in the order of development1 and it is an inexorable rule of the new education to follow implicitly the hints of nature4 ,the basis of the art of drawing is geometry1 and its a1 b1 c consists in a knowledge of certain geometrical lines1 curves1 and angles4 ,this knowledge is gained from examples on the black-board which are reproduced on paper4 ,but to relieve the student of this school from the tedium of reproducing1 hundreds of times in succession1 the same lines1 angles1 and curves1 object-drawing is introduced very early in the course2 and to render the exercise more attractive1 as well as to impress it more firmly upon the mind1 the objects drawn during the day are made features of the construction lesson in the carpenter's laboratory1 the wood or iron turning laboratory1 or the laboratory of founding on the following day4 ,at first the objects selected for this exercise are of a very simple character1 as a piece of plain moulding--a piece of elaborate moulding2 parts of a drawing-board--an entire drawing-board2 parts of a table or desk--an entire table or desk2 parts of a draughtsman's stool--an entire stool2 parts of a chair--an entire chair4 ,as the student advances in the general course he advances in object and constructive drawing1 from simple to complex forms4 ,he draws1 for example1 various parts of the steam-heating apparatus1 and from these draughts makes working drawings of patterns for moulding4 ,these he works out in the ,carpenter's ,laboratory1 and thence takes them to the moulding-room1 where they are used in the lesson given in moulding for casting4 ,this method of instruction leads to a critical analysis of the entire interior of the school building4 ,each article is resolved into the original elements of its construction1 and each element or part is first represented on paper1 then expanded into working drawings1 and then wrought out in wood and iron4 ,finally the student reaches the engine1 every part of which is made the subject of exhaustive study2 the facts of every part are represented on paper1 working drawings of every part are made1 and every part is reproduced in steel and iron in miniature1 and1 as a triumph of drawing1 a representation on paper of the completed engine is produced4 ,the value of drawing as an educational agency is simply incalculable4 ,it is the first step in manual training4 ,it brings the eye and the mind into relations of the closest intimacy1 and makes the hand the organ of both4 ,it trains and develops the sense of form and proportion1 renders the eye accurate in observation1 and the hand cunning in execution4 ,the students are intent upon their work4 ,the eye is busy acting as interpreter between the mind and the hand4 ,having conveyed the impression of an object to the mind1 under its direction it now photographs the object on paper1 and the hand obeying the will traces it out in lines4 ,thus the power is gained of multiplying forms of things with the pencil as words are multiplied by types4 ,drawing is a language--the language in which art records the discoveries of science4 ,it is not ,german1 it is not ,french1 it is not ,english--it is universal--common to all draughtsmen4 ,the face of the student exhibits vivid flashes of intelligence as the picture reveals itself under his hand4 ,each line is a word1 an angle completes the sentence2 with a curve and a little delicate shading we have a paragraph4 ,the picture begins to glow with thought4 ,the student's face flushes1 his heart beats quick and his hand trembles4 ,but he restrains himself1 and adds more lines1 more angles and curves1 more shading1 and the picture is complete4 ,it stands out in bold relief1 and looks like a real thing4 ,if the student knows the story of the brazen statue of ,albertus ,magnus he half expects his picture of a locomotive to move4 ,he listens for the sound of the hissing steam1 and a smile lights up his face as the illusion vanishes4 ,presently he will take his drawing to the shop1 and at the bench1 the lathe1 the anvil1 and the forge1 reproduce it in iron and steel1 and actually vitalize it with steam4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,carpenter',s ,,laboratory4 ,the ,natural ,history of the ,pine-tree4 -- ,how it is ,converted into ,lumber1 what it is ,worth1 and how it is ,consumed4 -- ,where the ,students get ,information4 -- ,working ,drawings of the ,lesson4 -- ,asking ,questions4 -- ,the ,instructor ,executes the ,lesson4 -- ,instruction in the ,use and ,care of ,tools4 -- ,twenty-four ,boys ,making ,things4 -- ,as ,busy as ,bees4 -- ,the ,music of the ,laboratory4 -- ,the ,self-reliance of the ,students4 ,passing from the ,drawing-,room down a flight of stairs we enter the ,carpenter's ,laboratory4 ,here we find twenty-four boys seated before a black-board4 ,at their left stands the instructor with a piece of white pine in his hand4 ,the piece of pine is the subject of his lecture4 ,he frequently breaks the thread of his remarks to ask questions1 and he is as frequently interrupted by questions from members of the class4 ,the scene closely resembles an animated discussion1 of which a desire to learn by asking questions is the chief characteristic4 ,the discussion is about pine-trees and pine lumber4 ,a pale-faced1 city-bred boy rises to describe the pine-tree4 ,he describes a fir-tree1 such as may be seen in well-kept urban grounds and parks1 and describes it in well-chosen1 almost poetic phrase4 ,the instructor shakes his head1 but with a genial smile1 and recognizes a boy whose face is tanned brown1 and who rises at the nod and stands rather awkwardly as he speaks4 ,he has seen the pine in its native wilds1 and he describes quite graphically its long1 bare trunk and slender limbs4 ,but he says nothing of its narrow1 linear leaves1 of a dark green color1 nor of its woody cones1 nor of the olian-harp-like sound of the wind in its branches4 ,why1 the instructor wants to know1 and he propounds a series of questions1 the answers to which afford a brief sketch of the boy's history4 ,his father is a dealer in pine logs1 and once this boy went with him into the pineries of ,northern ,michigan in mid-winter1 when the landscape was white with snow1 and there saw the huge trees sway back and forth under the woodman's axe1 saw them topple over1 and heard the loud crash of their fall1 saw them trimmed and sawed into mill-logs4 ,he took no note of the woody cones1 nor of the narrow leaves of the pine1 nor did the sound of the wind in its branches make any impression upon his mind4 ,he saw the pine as his father saw it1 with the eyes of a lumberman4 ,he learned just one thing1 and learned it so well that he is able to tell the story of the pine-tree from the moment of its fall from the stump in the great forest to its arrival at the mill1 and thence1 cut into boards1 planks1 and timber1 to the raft or schooner bound for ,chicago4 ,then the different varieties of the pine-tree are enumerated1 and the uses to which their woods are severally adapted mentioned4 ,the countries which chiefly produce the pine-tree are named1 and the climatic conditions most favorable to its growth briefly referred to4 ,this discussion leads to the subject of commerce in pine lumber--quantity consumed1 demand and supply1 etc2 and this in turn brings a boy to his feet with the statement that at the present rate of consumption the supply of pine in ,north ,america will be exhausted in fifty years4 ,in answer to a question the boy says he read the statement in a newspaper4 ,this leads to further inquiry as to the sources of information sought by the members of the class1 whereupon it appears that fifteen boys have consulted the title 8pine0 in some encyclopedia with a view to the present lesson1 and that eighteen boys have read the market report under the title 8lumber0 in a daily journal1 in order to learn the value of white-pine boards4 ,the value being stated by half a dozen boys1 each member of the class computes the cost of the piece of pine in the hands of the teacher4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,laboratory ,,of ,,carpentry4 ,ten minutes having been consumed in the inquiry into the nature and value of the wood in which the lesson of the day is to be wrought1 the instructor makes working drawings of the lesson on the black-board4 ,it may consist of a plain joint1 a mitre joint1 a dove-tail joint1 a tenon and mortise1 or a frame involving all these1 and more manipulations4 ,in the few minutes devoted to this exercise any question that occurs to the mind of the student may be asked1 and no impatience is manifested or felt if the questions are numerous and reiterated4 ,but as a matter-of-fact very few questions are asked during the black-board exercise1 because each student1 having gone over every step of it in his drawing-class the day previous1 is perfectly familiar with the subject4 ,the instructor now quits the black-board for the bench1 where1 in the presence of the whole class1 he executes the difficult parts of the lesson1 still propounding and answering questions4 ,if a new tool is brought into requisition1 instruction is given in its care and use4 ,now the boys repair to their benches1 throw off their coats1 and seize their tools4 ,in a moment the silence and repose of the recitation-room are exchanged for the noise and activity of the laboratory4 ,a quarter of an hour ago we left twenty-four boys1 with bowed heads1 making drawings of things2 for a quarter of an hour we have listened to a peculiar kind of recitation involving much practical knowledge on the subject of the pine-tree and its product1 lumber2 now we stand in the presence of twenty-four boys1 in twenty-four different attitudes of labor1 making things4 ,they are literally as busy as bees1 using the square1 the saw1 the plane1 and the chisel2 they are1 as the journeyman carpenter would say1 8getting out stuff for a job40 ,the coarse1 buzzing sound of the cross-cut saw resounds loudly through the room2 above this bass note the sharp tenor tone of the rip-saw is heard1 and the rasping sound of half a dozen planes throwing off a series of curling pine ribbons comes in as a rude refrain4 ,the faces of the boys are ruddy with the glow of exercise2 the pale-faced boy who mistook a fir-tree for a pine will have his revenge on the angular boy from the ,michigan pinery1 for he is doing a finer piece of work than the other4 ,illustration3 ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,laboratory ,,of ,,carpentry4 ,in the midst of the harmonious confusion caused by the use of saws1 planes1 mallets1 and chisels1 the instructor raps on his desk1 and silence is restored2 three or four boys stand in a group about the instructor's desk1 the others pause and wipe the perspiration from their brows4 ,it is a picture full of interest--twenty-four boys1 with flushed1 eager faces1 lifting their eyes simultaneously to the face of the instructor1 waiting for the hint which is to come1 and which is sure in these now active minds to result in a prompt solution of the main problem of the day's lesson4 ,a similar question from several boys shows the instructor that the lesson has not been made clear2 hence the general explanation which follows the call to order4 ,so the work goes on1 with now and then an interruption4 ,there is a student trying to fit a tenon into its mortise2 he is nervous and impatient2 the instructor observes him1 foresees a catastrophe1 and moves towards his bench4 ,but it is too late6 ,the tenon being forced the mortise splits1 and the discomforted student makes a wry face4 ,the instructor approaches with a word of good cheer1 but with the warning aphorism that 8haste makes waste40 ,the student's face flushes1 and he chronicles his failure as ,huntsman1 the inventor of cast-steel1 did his1 by burying the wreck under a pile of shavings1 and commencing1 as the lawyers say1 de novo4 ,thus the lesson proceeds 8by the usual laboratory methods employed in teaching the sciences20 the class learns the thing to be done by doing it4 ,the students are at their best1 because the lesson to be learned compels a close union between the three great powers of man--observation1 reflection1 and action4 ,no student seeks aid from another1 because such a course would be impossible without the knowledge of the whole class4 ,a feeling of self-reliance is thus developed1 the disposition to shirk repressed1 and a sense of sturdy independence encouraged and promoted4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,wood-,,turning ,,laboratory4 ,a ,radical ,change4 -- ,from the ,square to the ,circle2 from ,angles to ,spherical1 ,cylindrical1 and ,eccentric ,forms4 -- ,the ,rhythm of ,mechanics4 -- ,the ,potter's ,wheel of the ,ancients and the ,turning-lathe4 -- ,the ,speculation of ,holtzapffels on its ,origin4 -- ,the ,greeks as ,turners4 -- ,the ,turners of the ,middle ,ages4 -- ,george ,,iii4 at the ,lathe4 -- ,maudslay's ,slide-rest1 and the ,revolution it wrought4 -- ,the ,natural ,history of ,black-walnut4 -- ,the ,practical ,value of ,imagination4 -- ,disraeli's ,tribute to it2 ,sir ,robert ,peel's ,want of it4 -- ,the ,laboratory animated by ,steam4 -- ,the ,boys at the ,lathes4 -- ,their ,manly ,bearing4 -- ,the ,lesson4 ,when the twenty-four boys of the ,carpenter's ,laboratory have become expert in the use of the tools employed in carpentry they will be introduced to the ,wood-turning ,laboratory4 ,the change is radical--from the square to the circle1 from the prose to the poetry of mechanical manipulation4 ,carpentry is distinguished for its corners and angles1 turnery for its spherical1 cylindrical1 and eccentric forms4 ,in these forms ,nature abounds and delights1 and it is in these forms that the rhythm of mechanics exists4 ,it is by the ,turners that the arts are supplied with a thousand and one things of use and beauty4 ,the machines1 great and small1 from the locomotive to the stocking-knitter--without which the work of the modern world could not be done--these wonderful contrivances1 seemingly more cunning than the hand of man1 owe their very existence to the turning-lathe4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wood-,,turning ,,laboratory4 ,the skilled instructor in this department of the school loves to dwell upon the history of turning4 ,its origin is enveloped in the obscurity of early ,egyptian traditions4 ,it is the subject of one of the oldest myths1 which runs thus3 8,num1 the directing spirit of the universe1 and oldest of created beings1 first exercised the potter's art1 moulding the human race on his wheel4 ,having made the heavens and the earth1 and the air1 and the sun and moon1 he modelled man out of the dark ,nilotic clay1 and into his nostrils breathed the breath of life40 ,the ,potter's ,wheel of the ancients contained the germ of the turning-lathe found in every modern machine-shop1 whether for the manipulation of wood or iron4 ,holtzapffels has an ingenious speculation as to the origin of the invention of the lathe4 ,in his elaborate work on 8,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation0 he says1 8,it would appear probable that the origin of the lathe may be found in the revolution given to tools for piercing objects for ornament or use4 ,at first it may be supposed that a spine or thorn from a tree1 a splinter of bone or a tooth1 was alone used and pressed into the work as we should use a brad-awl4 ,the process would naturally be slow and unsuitable to hard materials1 and this probably suggested to the primitive mechanic the idea of attaching a splinter of bone or flint to the end of a short piece of stick1 rubbing which between the palms of his hands would give a rotary motion to the tool40 ,of the steps of progress in invention1 from the rude turning-tools of the ancients down to the beginning of the present century1 when ,maudslay's improvement made the lathe the king of the machine-shop1 little is known4 ,by the ,greeks the invention of turning was ascribed to ,ddalus4 ,phidias1 who produced the two great masterpieces of ,greek art1 ,athene and ,jupiter ,olympius1 was familiar with the then existing system of wood-turning4 ,in cutting figures on signets and gems in such stones as agate1 carnelian1 chalcedony1 and amethyst1 the ,greek artificers used the wheel and the style4 ,in the abundant ornamentation of ,roman dwellings--their elaborately carved chairs1 tables1 bedsteads1 sofas1 and stools--there is ample evidence of a knowledge of the art of turning in wood4 ,improvements were made in turning-tools1 and fine ornamental work was done by the artisans of the ,middle ,ages1 to which the cathedrals and palaces of the time bear witness4 ,later1 during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 turning became a fashionable amusement among the ,french nobility and gentry4 ,louis ,,xvi4 was an expert locksmith1 and spent much of his royal time in that pursuit4 ,the fashion extended to ,england4 ,george ,,iii4 is said to have been an expert wood-turner1 to have been 8learned in wheels and treadles1 chucks and chisels20 and as a matter of course a pursuit indulged by kings was followed by many nobles4 ,there is1 however1 no evidence that those distinguished amateurs made any improvements in the tools they used2 inventions and discoveries in this as in all departments of art came from the other end of the social scale4 ,when the ,spaniards sacked ,antwerp in #aehe the ,flemish silk-weavers fled to ,england and set up their looms there2 and a century later1 upon the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes1 the silk industry of ,england received a new accession of refugee artisans consisting of persecuted ,protestants4 ,doubtless with the ,flemish weavers there crossed the ,british ,channel representatives of all the useful arts1 including that of turning2 for in another hundred years ,england took the front rank among nations in nearly all industrial pursuits4 ,among the great inventions and discoveries which distinguished the last quarter of the eighteenth century1 ,maudslay's slide-rest attachment to the lathe was one of the greatest1 if not the greatest4 ,without it ,watt's invention would have been of little more real service to mankind than the ,french automata of the first quarter of the same century--the mechanical peacock of ,degennes1 ,vaucauson's duck1 or ,maillardet's conjurer4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,smiles1 in his admirable book on 8,iron-workers and ,tool-makers10 declares that this passion for automata1 which gave rise to many highly ingenious devices1 8had the effect of introducing among the higher order of artists habits of nice and accurate workmanship in executing delicate pieces of machinery40 ,and he adds1 8,the same combination of mechanical powers which made the steel spider crawl1 the duck quack1 or waved the tiny rod of the magician1 contributed in future years to purposes of higher import--the wheels and pinions1 which in these automata almost eluded the human senses by their minuteness1 reappearing in modern times in the stupendous mechanism of our self-acting lathes1 spinning-mules1 and steam-engines40 ,that there was a logical connection between the two eras of mechanical contrivance--that of the ingenious automata and that of the useful modern machines--is extremely probable4 ,that the refugee artisans from ,antwerp and from ,france had a stimulating effect upon ,english invention and discovery there can be little doubt2 and that the ,french automata1 which were much written about1 and exhibited as a triumph of mechanical genius1 became known to and exercised an influence upon the minds of intelligent mechanics is equally probable4 ,we are therefore surprised to find ,mr4 ,smiles arriving at a conclusion in such direct conflict with his general views of the gradual growth of inventions1 namely1 8that ,maudslay's invention was entirely independent of all that had gone before1 and that he contrived it for the special purpose of overcoming the difficulties which he himself experienced in turning out duplicate parts in large numbers40 ,but however this may be1 ,mr4 ,maudslay's invention revolutionized the workshop4 ,before its introduction the tool of the artisan was guided solely by muscular strength and the dexterity of the hand2 the smallest variation in the pressure applied rendered the work imperfect4 ,the slide-rest acting automatically changed all that4 ,with it thousands of duplicates of the most ponderous1 as well as the most minute pieces of machinery1 are executed with the utmost precision4 ,without it the steam-engine1 whether locomotive or stationary1 would have been hardly more than a dream of genius2 for the monster that is to be fed with steam can be properly constructed only by automatic steam-driven tools2 or1 as another has expressed it1 8,steam-engines were never properly made until they made themselves40 ,ten minutes are thus agreeably and profitably occupied by the instructor in a review of the history of a single invention1 and its relations to the whole field of mechanical work4 ,another branch of the lesson consists of an inquiry into the natural history1 qualities1 value1 and common uses of the wood which is to be the material of the day's manipulation--black-walnut4 ,holding a piece of the purplish brown wood high in his hand the instructor discharges1 as it were1 a volley of questions at the class1 8,what is it called80 8,where is it found80 8,how large does the tree grow80 8,for what is the wood chiefly used80 ,up go a dozen hands4 ,the owner of one of the hands is recognized1 and he rises to tell all about it1 but is only allowed to say 8black-walnut40 ,the next speaker is permitted to say that 8the black-walnut is found all over ,north ,america20 the next that it is more abundant west of the ,alleghanies1 and most abundant in the valley of the ,mississippi2 the next that in a forest it has a limbless trunk from thirty to fifty feet high1 but in the 8open0 branches near the ground2 the next that it is extensively used in house-finishing1 in furniture1 for all kinds of cabinet-work1 and especially for gunstocks4 ,further inquiry elicits the information that the black-walnut is a quick-growing1 large tree2 that its wood is hard1 fine-grained1 durable1 and susceptible of a high polish1 and that through use and exposure it turns dark1 and with great age becomes almost black4 ,one student describes the leaves1 another the fruit or nuts1 and states that they are used in dyeing2 a third states that the black-walnut is a great favorite for planting in the treeless tracts of the ,west1 on account of its rapid growth and the value of its timber4 ,when the subject appears to be nearly exhausted1 a boy at the farther end of one of the forms rises timidly and tells the story of the late ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,bryant's great black-walnut-tree at ,roslyn1 ,long ,island4 ,he concludes1 excitedly1 8,it is one hundred and seventy years old and twenty-five feet in circumference40#a ,the timid boy dwells upon his story of the 8big0 tree with evident fondness1 and his eyes dilate with satisfaction as he resumes his seat4 ,the circumstance of the great age no less than the enormous size of the tree has captivated his imagination4 ,the discriminating instructor will not fail to note such incidents of the lesson4 ,it is through them that the special aptitudes of students are disclosed4 ,the instructor will always bear prominently in mind that the purpose of the school is not to make mechanics but men4 ,nor will he forget1 as ,buckle remarked1 that ,shakespeare preceded ,newton4 ,buckle pays a glowing tribute to the usefulness of the imagination4 ,he says1 8,shakespeare and the poets sowed the seed which ,newton and the philosophers reaped4444 ,they drew attention to nature1 and thus became the real founders of all natural science4 ,they did even more than this4 ,they first impregnated the mind of ,england with bold and lofty conceptions4 ,they taught the men of their generation to crave after the unseen40 #a 8,at ,ellerslie1 the birthplace of ,wallace1 exists an oak which is celebrated as having been a remarkable object in his time1 and which can scarcely1 therefore1 be less than seven hundred years old4 ,near ,staines there is a yew-tree older than ,magna ,charta 7#abae71 and the yews at ,fountains ,abbey1 in ,yorkshire1 are probably more than twelve hundred years old4 ,eight olive-trees still exist in the ,garden of ,olives at ,jerusalem which are known to be at least eight hundred years old40--8,vegetable ,physiology40 ,by ,william ,b4 ,carpenter1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,london3 ,bell and ,daldy4 #ahfe4 p4 #gh4 ,disraeli1 in his matchless biography of ,lord ,george ,bentinck1 in summing up the character of a great ,english statesman is equally emphatic in praise of the imagination as a practical quality4 ,he says1 8,thus gifted and thus accomplished1 ,sir ,robert ,peel had a great deficiency--he was without imagination4 ,wanting imagination1 he wanted prescience4 ,no one was more sagacious when dealing with the circumstances before him2 no one penetrated the present with more acuteness and accuracy4 ,his judgment was faultless1 provided he had not to deal with the future4 ,thus it happened through his long career1 that while he always was looked upon as the most prudent and safest of leaders1 he ever1 after a protracted display of admirable tactics1 concluded his campaigns by surrendering at discretion4 ,he was so adroit that he could prolong resistance even beyond its term1 but so little foreseeing that often in the very triumph of his manuvres he found himself in an untenable position40 ,the timid boy has imagination2 if he has application and the logical faculty he may become an inventor1 or he may become an artist--an engraver or a designer of works of art--or he may become a man of letters4 ,to the man of vivid imagination and industry all avenues are open2 ,disraeli's wonderful career offers a striking illustration of the truth of this proposition4 ,the true purpose of education is the harmonious development of the whole being1 and the purpose of this turning laboratory is to educate these twenty-four boys1 not to make turners of them4 ,the laboratory is a labyrinth of belts1 large and small1 of wheels1 big and little1 of pulleys and lathes4 ,a student1 at a word from the instructor1 moves a lever a few inches1 and the breath of life is breathed into the complicated mass of machinery4 ,the throbbing heart of the engine far away sends the currents of its power along shafting and pulleys4 ,the dull1 monotonous whir of steam-driven machinery salutes the ear1 and the twenty-four students take their places at the lathes4 ,they are from fourteen to seventeen years of age1 and range in height from undersize to 8full-grown40 ,they look like little men4 ,their faces are grave1 showing a sense of responsibility4 ,they are to handle edge-tools on wood rapidly revolved by the power of steam4 ,there is peril in an uncautious step1 and death lurks in the shafting4 ,of these dangers they have been repeatedly warned2 and there is in their bearing that manifestation of wary coolness which we call 8nerve10 and which in an emergency develops into a lofty heroism capable of sublime self-sacrifice4 ,this is the very essence of education1 its informing spirit4 ,the student no longer thinks merely of becoming an expert turner2 he thinks of becoming a man6 ,all the powers of his mind are roused to vigorous action2 imagination illumes the path1 and reason1 following with firm but cautious step1 drives straight to the mark4 ,rapid development results from the combination of practice with theory--rapid because orderly1 or natural4 ,the knowledge acquired is at once assimilated1 and becomes a mental resource1 subject to draft like a bank account4 ,but unlike a bank account it increases in the ratio of the frequency with which drafts are made upon it1 and the result is the student leaves school at seventeen years of age with the reasoning experience of an ordinarily educated man of forty4 ,the lesson has been announced by the instructor1 its chief points stated and analyzed1 its place in the scale 7so to speak7 of the art of turnery defined1 its educational value to the mind1 the hand1 and the eye shown1 and the points of difficulty involved so emphasized as to lead to painstaking care in the execution of crucial parts4 ,the new tool required by the lesson is handled in presence of the waiting class by the instructor2 the time of its invention stated2 the name of its inventor given2 the method of its manufacture described2 and how to sharpen1 take care of1 and use it explained with such minuteness of detail as to insure the making of a permanent impression upon the minds of students4 ,illustration3 ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,wood-,,turning ,,and ,,pattern ,,laboratory4 ,the wood-turner's case contains more than a hundred tools1 perhaps a hundred and fifty1 but not more than a score of them are fundamental2 the others are subsidiary1 and require very little if any explanation4 ,the lesson may be one in simple turning1 as a table-leg1 the round of a chair1 or parts of a section of a miniature garden-fence2 or it may be a set of pulleys1 or patterns for various forms of pipe4 ,the pieces of wood to be wrought or manipulated lie at the feet of the student1 and the working drawing 7drawn by the student himself7 lies on the bench before him4 ,the piece of wood to be turned first is adjusted1 the student touches a lever over his head which sets the lathe in motion1 takes the required tool in hand1 and the work begins4 ,guided by the automatic slide-rest1 the sharp point of the tool chips away the revolving wood until it assumes the form of the drawing lying under the eye of the operator4 ,thus the lesson proceeds to the end of the prescribed period--two hours4 ,the master watches every step of its progress4 ,if a student is puzzled he receives prompt assistance1 so that no time may be lost4 ,indeed the relations between instructor and students are such1 or ought to be such1 that the question is asked before the puzzled mind falls into a rut of profitless speculation through revolving in a circle4 ,but if the true sequential method of study is followed the student rarely fails1 from the vantage ground of a step securely taken1 to comprehend the nature of the next step in the regular order of succession4 ,this is the ,russian system1 and it is the method of the wood-turnery as well as of every department of the ,manual ,training ,school4 ,hence a certain tool having been mastered1 the next tool in the regular order of succession is more easily understood1 because 7#a7 each tool contains a hint of the nature of its successor1 and 7#b7 each addition to the student's stock of knowledge confers an increased capability of comprehension4 ,when the lesson is concluded the whir of the machinery ceases1 and a great silence falls upon the class as the students assemble about the instructor1 each presenting his piece of work4 ,this is the moment of friendly criticism4 ,the instructor handles each specimen1 comments upon the character of the workmanship1 points out its defects1 and calls for criticisms from the class4 ,these are freely given4 ,there is an animated discussion1 involving explanations on the part of the instructor of the various causes of defects1 and suggestions as to suitable methods of amendment4 ,then the pieces of work are marked according to the various degrees of excellence they exhibit1 and the class is dismissed4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,founding ,,laboratory4 ,the ,iron ,age4 -- ,iron the ,king of ,metals4 -- ,locke's ,apothegm4 -- ,the ,moulder's ,art is ,fundamental4 -- ,history of ,founding4 -- ,remains of ,bronze ,castings in ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,assyria4 -- ,layard's ,discoveries4 -- ,the ,greek ,sculptors4 -- ,the ,colossal ,statue of ,apollo at ,rhodes4 -- ,the ,great ,bells of ,history4 -- ,moulding and ,casting a ,pulley4 -- ,description of the ,process1 ,step by ,step4 -- ,the ,furnace ,fire4 -- ,pouring the ,hot ,metal into the ,moulds4 -- ,a ,pen ,picture of the ,laboratory4 -- ,thus were the ,hundred ,gates of ,babylon cast4 -- ,neglect of the ,useful ,arts by ,herodotus4 -- ,how ,slavery has degraded ,labor4 -- ,how ,manual ,training is to dignify it4 ,as we enter the ,founding ,laboratory we recall ,locke's apothegm3 8,he who first made known the use of that contemptible mineral iron may be truly styled the father of arts and the author of plenty40 ,we reflect1 too1 that the mineral that has given its name to an age of the world--our age--is worthy of careful study4 ,the ,founding ,laboratory1 like all the laboratories of the school1 is designed for twenty-four students4 ,there are twenty-four moulding-benches1 combined with troughs for sand1 and a cupola furnace where from five hundred to one thousand pounds of iron may be melted4 ,the students we lately parted from in the ,wood-turning ,laboratory are here4 ,their training has been confined to manipulations in wood2 they are now to be made acquainted with iron--iron in considerable masses4 ,they should know something1 in outline1 of the history of the king of metals in the ,founding ,laboratory4 ,the instructor speaks familiarly to them1 somewhat as follows3 ,the art of the founder is fundamental in its nature4 ,the arts of founding and forging are1 indeed1 the essential preliminary steps which lead to the finer manipulations entering into all metal constructions4 ,whether forging preceded founding or founding forging is immaterial2 both arts are as old as recorded history--much older indeed4 ,moulding1 which is the first step in the founder's art1 should be among the oldest of human discoveries1 since man had only to take in his hand a lump of moist clay to receive ocular evidence of his power to give it any desired form4 ,moulding for casting is closely allied to the potter's art4 ,the potter selects a clay suitable for the vessel he desires to mould1 and the founder prepares a composition of sand and loam of the proper consistency to serve as a matrix for the vessel he desires to cast4 ,the art of founding was doubtless first applied to bronze4 ,the ruins of ,egypt and ,greece abound in the remains of bronze castings1 an analysis of which reveals about the same relative proportions of tin and copper in use now for the best qualities of statuary bronze4 ,the bronze castings of the ,assyrians show a high degree of art4 ,many specimens of this fine work of the ,assyrian founder have been rescued from the ruins of long-buried ,nineveh--buried so long that ,xenophon and his ten thousand ,greeks marched over its site more than two thousand years ago without making any sign of a knowledge of its existence1 and ,alexander fought a great battle in its neighborhood in apparent ignorance of the fact that he trod on classic ground4 ,but there1 delving beneath the rubbish and decayed vegetation of four thousand years or more1 ,layard found great treasures of art in the palaces of ,sennacherib and other ,assyrian monarchs--vases1 jars1 bronzes1 glass-bottles1 carved ivory and mother-of-pearl ornaments1 engraved gems1 bells1 dishes1 and ear-rings of exquisite workmanship1 besides arms and a variety of tools of the practical arts4 ,in ,greece1 in the time of ,praxiteles1 bronze was moulded into forms of rare beauty and grandeur4 ,the colossal statue of ,apollo at ,rhodes affords an example of the magnitude of the ,greek castings4 ,it was cast in several parts1 and was over one hundred feet high4 ,about fifty years after its erection it was destroyed by an earthquake4 ,its fragments lay on the ground where it fell1 nearly a thousand years2 but when the ,saracens gathered them together and sold them1 there was a sufficient quantity to load a caravan consisting of nine hundred camels4 ,one of the finest existing specimens of ancient bronze casting is that of a statue of ,mercury discovered at ,herculaneum1 and now to be seen in the museum at ,naples4 ,during the era of church bells the founder exercised his art in casting bells of huge dimensions4 ,early in the fifteenth century a bell weighing about fifty tons was cast at ,pekin1 ,china4 ,this bell still exists1 is fourteen and a half feet in height and thirteen feet in diameter4 ,but the greatest bell-founding feat was1 however1 that of #agcc1 in casting the bell of ,moscow4 ,this bell is nineteen feet three inches in height and sixty feet nine inches in circumference1 and weighs #ddc1ggb pounds4 ,the value of the metal entering into its construction is estimated at #cjj1jjj4 ,it long lay in a pit in the midst of the ,kremlin1 but ,czar ,nicholas caused it to be raised1 mounted upon a granite pedestal1 and converted into a chapel4 ,the methods of casting employed by the founder of this king of bells are not known4 ,the bell has outlived the ,works where it was cast4 ,the melting and handling of two hundred and twenty tons of bronze metal certainly required appointments1 mechanical and otherwise1 of the most stupendous character2 and the existence of such ,works presupposes an intimate acquaintance with the most minute details of the founder's art1 since the natural order of development is from the less to the greater4 ,that is to say1 the founder who could manipulate scores of tons of metal in a single great casting could doubtless manipulate a few pounds of metal2 or1 the founder who could cast a bell weighing two hundred and twenty tons1 could cast pots and kettles and hundreds of other little useful things4 ,what we hope to do in this school ,founding ,laboratory is to gain a correct conception of great things by making ourselves thoroughly familiar with many forms of little things in moulding and casting4 ,the lesson of the day is the moulding and casting of a plain pulley4 ,in the ,pattern ,laboratory each student has already executed a pattern of the pulley to be cast1 and the pattern lies before him on his moulding-bench4 ,now the instructor1 at the most conspicuous bench in the room1 proceeds to execute the first part of the lesson1 which consists of moulding4 ,taking from the trough a handful of sand1 he explains that it is only by the use of sand possessing certain properties1 as a degree of moisture1 but not enough to vaporize when the metal is poured in1 and a small admixture of clay1 but not enough to make of the compound a loam1 that the mould can be saved from ruin through vaporization1 and1 at the same time1 given the essential quality of adhesiveness and plasticity4 ,in the course of this explanation he remarks that the sand used in some parts of the mould is mixed with pulverized bituminous coal1 coke1 or plumbago1 in order to give a smoother surface4 ,now he takes the 8flask0--a wooden apparatus containing the sand in which the mould is made--and explains its construction and use4 ,from this point--the sifting of facing sand on the turn-over board1 to the final one of replacing the cope and securing it with keys or clamps--every step of the process is carefully gone through with and explained4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,founding ,,laboratory4 ,meantime1 before the moulding lesson has proceeded far1 a fire is kindled in the furnace and it is 8charged20 that is to say1 filled with alternate layers of coal and pig-iron1 with occasional fluxes of limestone4 ,during the process of charging the furnace the instructor explains the principle of its construction1 and shows how it operates4 ,at every subsequent rest in moulding the students surround the furnace to witness the progress of the fire1 the position of the layers of coal1 and the state of combustion4 ,they pass the furnace in procession1 and each peeps in through the isinglass windows upon the glowing fire1 asks a question1 or a dozen questions1 perhaps1 and gives place to the next student in line4 ,in the intervals of these visits to the furnace the work of making twenty-four moulds goes on under the eye of the instructor1 the students explaining each step in advance4 ,he is omnipresent1 answering a question here1 preventing a fatal mistake there1 cheering1 inspiring1 and guiding the whole class1 but never insisting upon a slavish adherence to strict identity in processes4 ,and it is to be noted that there is in moulding more latitude for independence than in almost any other mechanical manipulation4 ,certain essentials there are1 of course1 but these being secured1 the student may exercise his ingenuity in the execution of many minor details4 ,that there is considerable individuality in the class may be seen by observation of the different methods employed by the several young moulders to compass various details of the same general process4 ,the moulds are nearly completed4 ,the instructor assists a student who is found to be a little behind in his work1 and interposes a warning against haste at the critical moment4 ,within a period of ten minutes the twenty-four patterns are 8tapped10 loosened1 and lifted from their beds1 imperfections are carefully repaired with the trowel1 or some other tool1 channels to the pouring holes are cut in the surfaces1 the pieces remaining in the copes are removed1 the particles of loose sand are blown from the surfaces of the moulds1 and the twenty-four copes are replaced1 and secured in their correct positions with keys or clamps4 ,a final visit is now made to the furnace4 ,the fusion is found to be complete2 the 8pigs0 are converted into a molten pool4 ,it only remains to pour the hot metal into the moulds4 ,the instructor seizes an iron ladle lined with clay1 holds it under the spout of the furnace reservoir until it is nearly filled with the glowing fluid1 lifts and carries it carefully across the room1 and pours the contents into a mould4 ,then the students1 in squads1 after having been cautioned as to the deadly nature of the molten mass they are to handle1 follow the example of their instructor4 ,at this moment the laboratory appeals powerfully to the imagination4 ,the picture it presents is weird in the extreme4 ,from the open furnace door a stream of crimson light floods the room4 ,the students wear paper caps and are bare-armed2 their faces glow in the reflected glare of the furnace-fire2 they march up to the furnace one by one1 each receiving a ladleful of steaming hot metal1 and countermarch to their benches1 where they pour the contents of their ladles into the moulds4 ,illustration3 ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,founding ,,laboratory4 ,still holding his empty ladle in his hand1 the instructor watches the progress of the lesson with keen interest until the last stream of metal has found its way into the throat of the last mould4 ,he recalls the story of ,vulcan1 the ,god of ,fire1 and of all the arts and industries dependent upon it1 and wonders why he was not depicted pouring tons of molten metal1 in the foundery1 rather than sledge in hand at the forge4 ,then he regards the class with a benignant expression of pride1 begs for silence1 and says1 8,thus were the hundred brazen gates of ancient ,babylon cast long before the beginning of the ,christian era40 ,herodotus did not think to tell us much of the state of the useful arts in the early time of which he wrote1 but the brazen gates attracted his attention1 and he described them3 8,at the end of each street a little gate is found in the wall along the river-side1 in number equal to the streets1 and they are all made of brass1 and lead down to the edge of the river40 ,could ,herodotus have foreseen what a deep interest his readers of this remote time would take in the history of the useful arts1 he would have written less about the walls1 palaces1 and temples of ,babylon1 and more about the artificers4 ,he would have begged admission to the forges and founderies of the city2 he would have visited the ,assyrian founder at his work1 questioned him about his processes1 and set down his answers with painstaking care4 ,then he would have sought an introduction to the smithy1 and from the grimy forger learned what he could tell of his art and of kindred arts4 ,so the father of history might have made an enduring record of the real things which throughout all time have contributed to the advancement of the human race1 rather than of events growing out of the ambitions and passions of men--the rise and fall of kingdoms and empires1 the varying fortune of battle1 the treacheries1 crimes1 and brutalities of rulers1 and the cringing submission of millions of subjects4 ,but1 alas1 the founders and smiths1 and all the other cunning artificers of the vast empire of ,syria1 were slaves6 and through their ancestry for unnumbered generations the stigma of slavery had attached to labor4 ,ay1 on the bare backs of the founders of ,babylon's brazen gates the popular scorn of labor had doubtless left its livid brand4 ,with these pariahs of ,assyrian society1 these outcasts of the social circle1 the great ,greek historian could not even speak4 ,descended from a long line of noble ,halicarnassian families1 ,herodotus felt all the prejudices of the hereditary aristocracy of his country4 ,hence he dilates upon the wonders of ,babylon1 but is silent as to its architects and artisans4 ,he describes with great minuteness of detail the tower of ,jupiter ,belus1 but gives no hint of the name of its designer and builder4 ,he declares that ,babylon was adorned in a manner surpassing any city of the time1 but in regard to the artificers through whose ingenuity and skill such pleasing effects were produced he gives no sign4 ,the silence of ,herodotus on the subject of the useful arts in ,babylon does not indicate a want of appreciation of their value1 but merely shows contempt of the ,assyrian artisan1 and this not because he was an artisan1 but because he was a slave4 ,the story of ,solon and ,crsus1 which antedates ,herodotus1 whether true or a myth1 shows that iron and artisanship were appreciated by both ,greeks and barbarians4 ,when ,crsus had exhibited to the ,greek sage his vast hoard of treasures1 ,solon said1 8,if another comes that hath better iron than you he will be master of all this gold40 ,here is a recognition of the immense value of the arts of smelting and forging1 coupled with a contemptuous silence regarding as well the smelter and the smith as the rank and file of the armies who should wield the swords and spears drawn by science from the recesses of the earth1 and by art wrought and tempered at the forge4 ,through all the early ages the brand and scorn of slavery adhered to labor1 while the arts1 the products of labor1 were often deified4 ,thus the ,scythian1 who from a grinning skull drank the warm blood of his captive1 regarded with superstitious awe as a god the iron sword with which he cut off his captive's head4 ,it was only with the revival of learning1 after the intellectual and moral gloom of the ,dark ,ages1 that labor began slowly to lift its bowed head and assert itself4 ,but it does not yet stand erect4 ,it still stoops as if in the presence of a master4 ,every now and then it winces and cringes as if the sound of the descending lash smote its ear4 ,it remains for you1 students in this school of the arts--all the arts that make mankind good and great--it remains for you to brush away from the tear-stained face of labor all the shadows accumulated there through all the dead ages of oppression and slavery4 ,it remains for you to make labor bold by making it intelligent4 ,it remains for you to dignify and ennoble labor by bestowing upon it the ripest scientific and artistic culture1 and devoting to its service the best energies of body and mind4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,forging ,,laboratory4 ,twenty-four manly-looking ,boys with ,sledge-hammer in ,hand -- their ,muscle and ,brawn4 -- ,the ,pride of ,conscious ,strength4 -- ,the ,story of the ,origin of an ,empire4 -- ,the ,greater ,empire of ,mechanics4 -- ,the ,smelter and the ,smith the ,bulwark of the ,british ,government4 -- ,coal -- its ,modern ,aspects2 its ,early ,history2 ,superstition regarding its ,use4 -- ,dud4 ,dudley utilizes 8,pit-coal0 for ,smelting -- the ,story of his ,struggles2 his ,imprisonment and ,death4 -- ,the ,english ,people import their ,pots and ,kettles4 -- 8,the ,blast is on and the ,forge ,fire sings40 -- ,the ,lesson1 first on the ,black-board1 then in ,red-hot ,iron on the ,anvil4 -- ,striking out the ,anvil ,chorus -- the ,sparks fly whizzing through the ,air4 -- ,the ,mythological ,history of ,iron4 -- ,the ,smith in ,feudal ,times4 -- ,his ,versatility4 -- ,history of ,damascus ,steel4 -- ,we should reverence the early ,inventors4 -- ,the ,useful ,arts finer than the ,fine ,arts4 -- ,the ,ancient ,smelter and ,smith1 and the ,students in the ,manual ,training ,school4 ,this is the ,forging ,laboratory4 ,it is only a few steps from the laboratory for founding1 where we lately saw twenty-four students taking off their leather aprons after a two hours' lesson in moulding and casting4 ,here we find1 also1 twenty-four students1 but not the twenty-four we saw in the laboratory for founding4 ,this class is more advanced4 ,the boys are a trifle taller2 they show more muscle1 more strength1 and bear themselves with a still more confident air4 ,in the ,forging ,laboratory there are twenty-four forges with all essential accessories1 as anvils1 tubs1 and sets of ordinary hand-tools4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,forging ,,laboratory4 ,the students1 with coats off and sleeves rolled above their elbows1 in pairs1 as smith and helper1 stand1 sledge and tongs in hand1 at twelve of the forges4 ,they are manly-looking boys4 ,their feet are firmly planted1 their bodies erect1 their heads thrown a little back4 ,their arms show brawn2 the muscles stand out in relief from the solid flesh4 ,their faces express the pride of conscious strength1 and their eyes show animation4 ,as we regard the class with a sympathetic thrill of satisfaction1 the story of the origin of the ,turkish ,empire is recalled3 8,a race of slaves1 living in the mountain regions of ,asia1 are employed by a powerful ,khan to forge weapons for his use in war4 ,a bold chief persuades them to use the weapons forged for a master to secure their own deliverance4 ,for centuries after they had thus conquered their freedom1 the ,turkish people celebrated their liberation by an annual ceremony in which a piece of iron was heated in the fire1 and a smith's hammer successively handled by the prince and his nobles40 ,the greatest empire in the world to-day is the empire of the art of mechanism1 and its most potent instrument is iron4 ,once the perpetuity of governments depended upon the mere possession of the dingy ore4 ,when ,elizabeth came to the throne1 in the middle of the sixteenth century1 ,england was almost defenceless1 owing to the short supply of iron4 ,spain1 much better equipped1 hence relied confidently upon her ability to subdue the ,english4 ,but the ,virgin ,queen1 comprehending the nature of the crisis1 imported iron from ,sweden and encouraged the ,sussex forges1 and the ,spanish ,armada was defeated4 ,thus the smelter and the smith became the bulwark of the ,british government4 ,but at an earlier period the fraternity of smiths gave direction to the course of empire4 ,the secret of the easy conquest of ,britain by the ,normans was their superior armor4 ,they were clad in steel1 and their horses were shod with iron4 ,the chief farrier of ,william became an earl2 and he was proud of his origin1 for his coat of arms bore six horseshoes4 ,iron and civilization are terms of equivalent import4 ,iron is king1 and the smelter and smith are his chief ministers4 ,it is not known when1 by whom1 or how the art of smelting iron was discovered4 ,as well ask by whom and how fire was discovered8 ,these are secrets of the early morning of human life--of that time when man made no record of his struggles4 ,in lieu of history the instructor resorts to tradition1 repeating the following legend3 8,while men were patiently rubbing sticks to point them into arrows1 a spark leapt forth and ignited the wood-dust which had been scraped from the sticks1 and so fire was found40 ,now the 8helper0 looks to his 8blast0 with keen interest2 for the management of the forge-fire is one of the niceties of the smith's art4 ,he stirs the fire a little impatiently4 ,the instructor heeds the act1 but not the movement of impatience4 ,on the contrary he seizes the occasion to introduce the subject of coal4 ,question follows question in rapid succession1 and the answers are prompt and satisfactory1 touching all modern aspects of the subject1 namely1 the magnitude of the annual 8output10 the localities of heaviest production1 the cost of mining2 the uses1 respectively1 to which different qualities are applied1 demand and supply1 and market value or price4 ,here the instructor remarks that the mining1 transportation1 and sale of coal are conducted in this country by a number of large corporations1 with an aggregate capitalization and bonded indebtedness of six or seven hundred million dollars1 and that through combinations between these corporations the price is often arbitrarily advanced4 8,but10 he concludes1 8the discussion of that branch of the subject belongs more properly to the class in political economy40 ,the history of coal in its relation to iron smelting and manufacture forms a curious chapter in the vicissitudes of the useful arts4 ,one hundred and fifty years ago not only all the smith's fires but the smelter's fires were kept up with charcoal4 ,the forests of ,england were literally swept away1 like chaff before the wind1 to feed the yawning mouths of the iron mills4 ,to make a ton of iron required the consumption of hundreds of cords of wood4 ,to save the timber restrictive legislation was adopted1 and the mills were gradually closed for want of fuel1 until1 in #aghh1 there was not one left in ,sussex1 and only a small number in the kingdom4 ,meantime the ,english iron supply came from ,sweden1 ,spain1 and ,germany4 ,england seemed to be following in the footsteps of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the ,romans accomplished in iron smelting and forging just what might be expected of a warlike people4 ,they required iron for arms and armor1 and in smelting skimmed the surface4 ,this is proved by the cinder heaps1 rich in ore1 which they left in ,britain4 ,archologists trace the decline of ,rome in her monuments1 which show a steady deterioration in the soldier's equipment4 ,alison attributes this decline to the exhaustion of her gold and silver mines4 ,a far more plausible conjecture is found in the waste of timber in fuel for smelting purposes1 and the resulting failure of the iron supply4 ,the fall of the ,roman ,empire may be accounted for by her neglect of the useful arts4 ,the nation that converts all her iron into swords and spears shall surely perish4 ,had the city of ,seven ,hills possessed seven men of mechanical genius like ,watt1 ,stephenson1 ,maudslay1 ,clement1 ,whitney1 ,neilson1 and ,nasmyth1 her fall might have been averted1 or if not averted1 it need not have involved the practical extinction of civilization1 thus imposing upon mankind the shame of the ,dark ,ages4 ,at the beginning of the seventeenth century there was much ignorant prejudice against the use of mineral coal4 ,it was believed to be injurious to health4 ,all sorts of diseases were attributed to its supposed malignant influence1 and at one time to burn it in dwellings was made a penal offence4 ,but this prejudice did not extend to its use in smelting iron1 and whatever there was of inventive genius was devoted to a solution of the problem of its adaptation to such purposes4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,smiles has collected the names of the most prominent of these ,dutch and ,german mechanics1 namely1 ,sturtevant1 ,rovenzon1 ,jordens1 ,francke1 and ,sir ,philibert ,vernatt1 and given each a niche in the temple of fame4 ,some of them had a true conception of the required processes1 but they all failed to render the application practically available4 ,it remained for ,dud4 ,dudley to succeed in making a thoroughly practical application of mineral coal to iron-smelting purposes1 and then curiously enough to fail of success in introducing it into general use4 ,dudley was born in #aeii1 in an iron-manufacturing district4 ,his father owned iron-works near the town of ,dudley1 which was a collection of forges and workshops where 8nails1 horseshoes1 keys1 locks1 and common agricultural tools0 were made4 ,brought up in the neighborhood of 8twenty thousand smiths and workers in iron10 young ,dudley 8attained considerable knowledge of the various processes of manufacture40 ,at twenty years of age he was taken from college and placed in charge of a furnace and two forges in ,worcestershire1 where there was a scarcity of wood but an abundance of mineral coal4 ,he began immediately to experiment1 with a view to the substitution of the latter for the former1 and in a year succeeded in demonstrating 8the practicability of smelting iron with fuel made from pit-coal1 which so many before him had tried in vain40 ,but the charcoal iron-masters combined to resist the new method because it cheapened the product4 ,they instigated mobs to destroy ,dudley's furnaces one after another1 as soon as they were completed1 harassed him with lawsuits1 and finally beggared and drove him to prison4 ,then they tried to wring his secret from him4 ,to this attempt ,cromwell1 who was interested in furnaces in the ,forest of ,dean1 is said to have been a party4 ,but all these efforts failed1 and ,dudley died in #afhd carrying his secret with him to the grave1 and there the secret slumbered nearly one hundred years4 ,the story of ,dud4 ,dudley1 as told by ,mr4 ,smiles in his 8,iron-workers and ,tool-makers10 is one of surpassing interest4 ,it is worthy the careful perusal not only of every school-boy but of the philosophic student in search of the lessons of history1 for it affords fresh evidence of the truth of the proposition that the progress of civilization depends upon progress in invention and discovery4 ,under the influence of ignorance1 prejudice1 and superstition the iron industry of ,england continued to decline until the beginning of the eighteenth century1 when the ,british people imported their pots and kettles4 ,fifty years later1 at the ,coalbrookdale iron-works in ,shropshire1 when the furnaces had consumed all the wood in the neighborhood and a fuel famine was imminent1 smelting with mineral coal was successfully resumed1 and in #agff two workmen of the 8works0--the brothers ,cranege--invented the reverberatory furnace1 which added immensely to the application of coal to smelting purposes4 ,but while we are discussing the history of coal we are consuming coal to little purpose1 for the blast is on and the furnace fires glow like miniature volcanic craters4 ,let us to work4 ,before the black-board1 chalk in hand1 the instructor stands and gives out the lesson4 ,he presents it in the form of drawings1 complete and in detail4 ,it may involve only the single process of 8drawing10 or it may involve several processes1 as 8drawing10 8bending10 and 8welding40 ,the first sketch1 for example1 represents a flat bar of iron1 the counterpart of the bars resting against the several forges4 ,the second sketch shows the bar wrought into the form of a cylinder4 ,the third sketch shows it 8drawn0 or lengthened1 and hence reduced in size4 ,the fourth sketch presents two rods the united lengths of which equal the length of the original rod4 ,the fifth sketch represents the two rods 8bent0 into the form of chain-links1 and a sub-sketch shows the proper shape of the ends of the links for 8welding40 ,the sixth sketch shows the two links joined and welded4 ,the black-board illustrations may be omitted if the school is provided with a complete set of samples4 ,the school of mechanic arts of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology has a hundred samples representing the successive steps in blacksmithing manipulation1 including welding1 and the welding samples consist of two parts1 the first representing the details of the piece prepared for welding1 and the second the welded piece4 ,these samples are part of a collection of three hundred and twenty pieces of exquisite workmanship1 covering every department of a complete manual training course1 presented to the ,institute in #ahgg by the ,emperor of ,russia4 ,illustration3 ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,forging ,,laboratory4 ,the black-board illustrations or the samples having been exhibited and explained as clearly as is possible in words1 the instructor takes his place at one of the forges1 and1 surrounded by the class1 goes through with the successive steps of any manipulation contained in the lesson which has not been actually wrought out in some previous lesson4 ,if the manipulation is a simple one the silence is only broken by the sound of the blast and the stroke of the hammer--the students understand every turn of the iron and every blow struck by the instructor--but if the manipulation is complicated1 involving a fresh principle1 the instructor is saluted by a volley of questions1 and he often pauses to answer them4 ,it is the time for questions2 the more questions now1 the fewer questions when all the blasts shall be on1 and all the sledges flying through the air and making music on the anvils4 ,a question now may lead to the enlightenment of twenty-four students2 a question later is sure to cost the time of twenty-four students1 and the answer to it may enlighten only one student4 ,at last the instructor drops the sledge1 straightens up to his full height1 and wipes the sweat from his brow4 ,if the students respect the instructor they will respect labor1 and they will respect the instructor if he is worthy of respect4 ,now the school-room is a smithy and yet it is not4 ,it is neither very hot nor very smoky1 for there is an exhaust fan in operation which vitalizes the circulation4 ,but the atmosphere resounds with the clangorous strokes of a dozen sledges1 mingled with the sullen roar of as many forge-fires2 and there are traces of soot on the walls1 and pale smoke-wreaths creep along the ceilings1 and hide in corners1 and circle about columns in fantastic shapes4 ,it is a smithy1 but a smithy adapted1 by its extraordinary neatness1 to the manufacture of watch-springs1 palate-arbors1 and ,damascus blades4 ,the faces of the students are aglow with the flush of health-giving exercise2 their brows are 8wet with honest sweat10 their heart-beats are full and strong1 and the crimson life-currents surge hotly through every vein to their very finger-tips4 ,they strike out the anvil chorus in all the keys and in every measure of the scale1 and the burning sparks fly whizzing through the air4 ,at a sign from the instructor there is a pause4 ,the students stand at ease and the work is inspected4 ,this is the time for more questions if any student is in doubt2 and the rest of five minutes affords opportunity for a brief lecture on the subject of the early history of the fraternity of smiths4 ,mythology gives the highest place in its pantheon to ,vulcan1 the ,god of ,fire4 ,for notwithstanding he is represented as bearded1 covered with dust and soot1 blowing the fires of his forges and surrounded by his chief ministers1 the cyclops1 he is given ,venus to wife and made the father of ,cupid4 ,among the ,scythians the iron sword was a god4 ,when ,jerusalem was taken by the ,babylonians they made captives of all the smiths and other craftsmen of the city--a more grievous act than the thousand million dollar tribute levied upon ,france by ,germany at the close of the war of #ahgj4 ,for to be deprived of the use of iron is to be relegated to a state of barbarism4 ,the vulgar accounted for the keenness of the first sword-blades on the score of magic1 and the praises of the smiths who forged were sung with the chiefs of chivalry who wielded them4 ,so highly was this mysterious power regarded by ,tancred1 the crusader1 that in return for the present of ,king ,arthur's sword1 ,excalibar1 by ,richard ,i41 he paid for it with 8four great ships and fifteen galleys40 ,the smith was a mighty man in ,england in the early time4 8,in the royal court of ,wales he sat in the great hall with the king and queen1 and was entitled to a draught of every kind of liquor served40 ,his person was sacred2 his calling placed him above the law4 ,he was necessary to the feudal state2 he forged swords 8on the temper of which life1 honor1 and victory in battle depended40 ,the smith1 after the ,norman invasion1 gained in importance in ,england4 ,he was the chief man of the village1 its oracle1 and the most cunning workman of the time4 ,his name descended to more families than that of any other profession--for the origin of the name ,smith is the hot1 dusty1 smoky smithy1 and however it may be disguised in the spelling1 it is entitled to the proud distinction which its representatives sometimes seek to conceal4 ,mr4 ,smiles draws the following graphic picture of the versatility of the smith of the ,middle ,ages3 8,the smith's tools were of many sorts1 but the chief were his hammer1 pincers1 chisel1 tongs1 and anvil4 ,it is astonishing what a variety of articles he turned out of his smithy by the help of these rude implements4 ,in the tooling1 chasing1 and consummate knowledge of the capabilities of iron he greatly surpassed the modern workman4 ,the numerous exquisite specimens of his handicraft which exist in our old gate-ways1 church doors1 altar railings1 and ornamented dogs and andirons1 still serve as types for continual reproduction4 ,he was1 indeed1 the most #8cunning workman' of his time4 ,but besides all this he was an engineer4 ,if a road had to be made1 or a stream embanked1 or a trench dug1 he was invariably called upon to provide the tools1 and often to direct the work4 ,he was also the military engineer of his day1 and as late as the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 we find the king repeatedly sending for smiths from the ,forest of ,dean to act as engineers for the royal army at the siege of ,berwick40 ,but the most signal triumph of the art1 both of the smelter and the smith1 is found in the famous swords of ,damascus1 whose edge and temper were so keen and perfect that they would sever a gauze veil floating in the air1 or crash through bones and helmets without sustaining injury4 ,these ,damascus blades1 long renowned in the ,east1 but first encountered by ,europeans during the crusades1 in the hands of the followers of ,mahomet1 were made of ,indian steel or 8wootz40 ,this steel1 produced in the form of little cakes weighing about two pounds each1 in the neighborhood of the city of ,golconda1 in ,hindostan1 was transported on the backs of camels two thousand miles to the city of ,damascus1 and there converted into swords1 sabres1 and scimitars4 ,this smith's work has never been excelled1 if equalled4 ,millions of dollars have been expended in efforts to produce the equal of ,indian steel4 ,among the investigators of the subject the most noted was a ,russian general1 ,anossoff1 who died in #ahea4 ,his experiments were of a very elaborate and exhaustive character4 ,they occupied a lifetime1 and resulted in the establishment of works in the ,ural ,mountains1 on the ,siberian border1 for the production of ,damascus steel by a process of his own invention4 ,after ,general ,anossoff's death the quality of the steel produced at his works deteriorated4 ,we should treat with reverence these obscure hints of the triumphs of the ancients in certain departments of art as suggestive of like great achievements in other directions1 for without a knowledge of types they could neither teach the many what the few knew1 nor preserve what they had acquired for the instruction of future ages4 ,all art is the product of a sequential series of ideas1 each idea containing the germ of the next2 hence the preservation of each idea is essential to progress4 ,the art of printing alone enables man to preserve such a record4 ,it follows presumptively that the art of printing constitutes the predominant feature of difference between the civilization of the moderns and that of the ancients4 ,and it is important to observe that the art of printing is far more necessary to progress in the useful arts than in the so-called fine arts4 ,the ancient temples with their sculptured splendors--the ,parthenon1 the ,jupiter ,olympius1 and scores of others--remained long to testify to the genius of ,phidias1 ,praxiteles1 and their gifted colleagues of the chisel4 ,these souvenirs of ,greek genius still serve as models for the architect and the sculptor4 ,it needs no chronicle to prove that they mark the culmination of the fine arts4 ,if the moderns have failed to excel1 or even equal them1 it is not because their conception1 design1 or construction involved occult processes4 ,it is rather because there is a limit to the development of the so-called fine arts1 and that limit in architecture and sculpture was reached in ,greece more than two thousand years ago4 ,but with the ,damascus blade1 which typifies the useful arts1 it is entirely different4 ,it1 too1 is in itself a triumph of genius not less pronounced than the ,athena of ,phidias4 ,but above and beyond this the arts of smelting and forging are so subtile as almost to elude the grasp of analysis4 ,not only the method of the fabrication of the ,damascus blade but the processes involved in the production of the steel entering into its composition--all these are shrouded in impenetrable mystery4 ,it follows that the useful arts are finer than the so-called fine arts4 ,their processes are more intricate1 and hence more difficult of comprehension4 ,to a solution of the questions presented in the course of their study an extended acquaintance with the sciences is essential4 ,the highest departments of the fine arts1 so-called1 require only a study of the features1 figure1 and character of man1 and of certain visible forms of nature1 while the useful arts make incessant demands upon the resources of natural philosophy4 ,the chemist toils in his laboratory1 and the botanist and the geologist explore forest1 field1 and mine in search of new truths1 with the single purpose of enlarging the sphere of the useful arts1 and so of ministering more effectively to the ever increasing needs of man4 ,hence there can be no limit to the development of the useful arts except the limit to be found in the exhaustion of the forces of nature4 ,we should1 then1 venerate the artisan rather than the artist4 ,let us invoke the shade of the dusky ,indian smelter4 ,see him in the dark recesses of the forest1 bending in rapt attention over his furnace1 or holding aloft a little lump of his matchless steel4 ,alas1 he is dumb6 ,his secret perished with him4 ,but the ,indian smelter and the ,damascus smith are kin to all the inventors and discoverers of all the ages4 ,across continents and seas1 over trackless wastes of history--epochs during which ignorance and superstition prevailed and the intellect of man slumbered--the ancient smelter and the ancient smith extend their shadowy hands to the students in this school of the nineteenth century--extend them in token of the fellowship of a common struggle and a common hope of triumph--the struggle after truth,e#b1 and the hope of the triumph of industry4 ,the instructor raps on the black-board1 and the school-room is at once transformed into a smithy4 ,again the forge-fires roar1 and again the anvils resound under the stroke of the hammer4 ,for half an hour the lesson goes on1 and then comes the wind-up1 and the several tests of excellence are applied to the completed task of each student4 ,form1 dimensions1 finish--these are the tests4 ,the instructor marks the several pieces of work1 makes a record of the result1 reads the record1 and is on the point of dismissing the class when an idea occurs to his mind and he enjoins silence4 ,taking in his hand a heavy sledge1 and resting it on the anvil before him1 he says1 8,this is a baby-hammer1 and all the forging we do here is baby-forging4 ,i hope soon to have an opportunity to take you to the great works of ,mr4 ,crane1 in this city1 and there show you a steam-hammer which weighs a ton striking fifty to one hundred blows a minute--blows1 too1 that shame the fabled power of ,vulcan1 the ,god of ,fire4 ,at ,pittsburg1 ,pa41 there is an anvil of #aej tons weight which serves for forging with a #ae-ton hammer4 ,but the monster steam-hammer is to be found in ,krupp's cast-steel works at ,essen1 ,germany4 ,the hammer-head is #ab feet long1 #e feet wide1 #d feet thick1 weighs #ej tons1 and has a stroke of #i feet4 ,the depth of the foundation is #ajj feet1 consisting of three parts1 masonry1 timber1 and iron1 bolted together4 ,four cranes1 each capable of bearing #bjj tons1 serve the hammer with material40 ,the steam-hammer was invented in #ahcg by ,james ,nasmyth1 of ,england1 in response to a demand for a hammer that would forge a steamship paddle-shaft of unprecedented size4 ,the nature of the emergency being presented to his mind1 ,mr4 ,nasmyth conceived the idea of the steam-hammer instantaneously1 as it were1 and at once proceeded to sketch the child of his brain on paper4 ,he was too poor to defray the cost of patenting his invention2 nor was he able to procure the necessary funds for that purpose until he had seen in ,france a hammer made from his own original sketch in operation4 ,the steam-hammer came rapidly into use1 superseding all others of the ponderous sort1 increasing the quantity of products and reducing the cost of manufacture by fifty per cent4 ,it was through the steam-hammer only that the fabrication of the immense wrought-iron ordnance and the huge plates for covering ships-of-war of modern times became possible4 ,in the hands of the giant1 steam1 ,mr4 ,nasmyth's hammer1 even if it weigh fifty tons1 is susceptible of more accurate strokes than the tack-hammer in the hands of the upholsterer1 or the sledge in the hands of the most skilled blacksmith4 ,it crushes tons of iron into a shapeless mass at one blow1 and at the next drives a tack1 or cracks an egg-shell in an egg-cup without injuring the cup4 ,mr4 ,nasmyth1 in #ahde1 applied the steam-hammer principle to the pile-driver4 ,with this wonderful machine the 8driving-block10 weighing several tons1 descends eighty times a minute on the head of the pile1 sending it home with almost incredible rapidity4 ,the saving of time as compared with the old method is in the ratio of #a to #ahjj2 that is1 a pile can be driven in four minutes that before required twelve hours4 ,the course in the ,forging ,laboratory extends from the making and care of forge-fires to case-hardening iron and hardening and tempering steel2 and competent and experienced instructors declare that the student in the educational smithy gains as much skill in a day as the smith's apprentice gains in a year in the ordinary shop4 ,e#b 8,the inquiry of truth1 which is the love-making or wooing of it2 the knowledge of truth1 which is the presence of it2 and the belief of truth1 which is the enjoying of it--is the sovereign good of human nature40--,essays of ,francis ,bacon--8,truth10 p4 #b4 ,london3 ,henry ,g4 ,bohn1 #aheb4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,machine-,,tool ,,laboratory4 ,the ,foundery and ,smithy are ,ancient1 the ,machine-tool ,shop is ,modern4 -- ,the ,giant1 ,steam1 reduced to ,servitude4 -- ,the ,iron ,lines of ,progress4 -- ,they converge in the ,shop2 its triumphs from the ,watchspring to the ,locomotive4 -- ,the ,applications of ,iron in ,art is the ,subject of ,subjects4 -- ,the ,story of ,invention is the ,history of ,civilization4 -- ,the ,machine-maker and the ,tool-maker are the best ,friends of ,man4 -- ,watt's ,great ,conception waited for ,automatic ,tools2 their ,accuracy4 -- ,the ,hand-made and the ,machine-made ,watch4 -- ,the ,elgin 7,illinois7 ,watch ,factory4 -- ,the ,interdependence of the ,arts4 -- ,the ,making of a ,suit of ,clothes4 -- ,the ,anteroom of the ,machine-tool ,laboratory4 -- ,chipping and ,filing4 -- ,the ,file-cutter4 -- ,the ,poverty of ,words as compared with ,things4 -- ,the ,graduating ,project4 -- ,the ,vision of the ,instructor4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,machine-,,tool ,,laboratory4 ,the transition from the laboratories for founding and forging to the ,machine-tool ,laboratory symbolizes a mighty revolution in the practical arts--a revolution so stupendous as to defy description1 and so far-reaching as to appall the spirit of prophecy4 ,the foundery and the smithy date back to the dawn of history2 the machine-tool shop is a creation of yesterday4 ,about the early manipulations of iron mythology wove a web of fancy3 ,vulcan forged ,jove's thunderbolts1 the iron sword of the savage was a god1 and even far down the course of time1 late in the ,middle ,ages1 ,tancred1 the crusader1 paid an almost fabulous sum for ,king ,arthur's famous sword ,excalibar--but the modern machine-tool shop is a huge iron automaton1 without sentiment1 and possessing no poetry except the rhythmic harmony of motion4 ,in this shop steam is reduced to servitude1 and compelled with giant hands to bore1 mortise1 plane1 polish1 fashion1 and fit great masses of iron1 and1 anon1 with delicate fingers to spin gossamer threads of burnished steel4 ,with the hot steam coursing through its steel-ribbed veins the brain of this automaton thinks the thoughts foreordained by its inventor2 its hands do his bidding1 its arms fetch and carry for him1 its feet come and go at his beck and nod4 ,this automaton feeds on iron1 steel1 copper1 and brass1 and produces the watch-spring and the locomotive1 the revolver and the ,krupp gun1 the surgeon's lancet and the shaft of a steamship1 the steel pen and the steam-hammer1 the vault-lock and the pile-driver1 the sewing-machine and the ,corliss engine4 ,the lever which wakens this automaton to life1 which endows its brain with genius and its fingers with cunning1 is the rod of empire4 ,all the lines of modern development converge in the machine-tool shop1 and they are all lines of iron1 whether consisting of a fine wire strung on poles in mid-air or of huge bars resting on the solid earth4 ,iron is the king of metals but the slave of man4 ,its magnetic quality guides the mariner on the sea1 and its tough fibre and density sustain the weight of the locomotive on the land4 ,it constitutes the foundation of every useful art1 from the plough of the husbandman to the ,jacquard loom of the weaver4 ,but it is only in the machine-tool shop that the great steam-driven machines of commerce and manufacture can be produced4 ,the ancients possessed iron1 which they cast in the foundery and forged in the smithy2 they knew the power of steam1 and the magicians of the time amused the populace with exhibitions of it1 but they had no machine-tool shops in which steam could be harnessed for the journey across continents and seas4 ,the thousand and one modern applications of iron to the needs of man have originated in the machine-tool shop4 ,it is through these applications of iron1 not through iron itself1 that human pursuits have been so widely diversified1 and human powers so richly developed and enlarged4 ,the contrasts presented by the development of the useful arts during the last hundred years are startling3 ,the toilsome journey of a day reduced to an hour with the maximum of comfort2 the few yards of fabric painfully woven by hand expanded into webs of cotton1 linen1 woollen1 and silk cloths1 rolling from thousands of steam-driven looms2 the stocking once requiring hours to make1 now dropping second by second from the iron fingers of the knitting-machine2 the nails1 screws1 pins1 and needles1 forged one by one in the old village smithy1 now flying from the hands of automatic machines by the thousand million2 the numberless stitches of the sewing-machine as compared with the few of the olden time1 which made the fingers and the hearts of women ache2 the vast crop of cereals planted1 cultivated1 and gathered into barns with iron hands in contrast with the toilsome processes of even fifty years ago4 ,these are only a few of the many illustrations that might be given of progress in the useful arts1 and they all emanate from the machine-tool shop4 ,at the threshold of the most important inquiry that ever occupied the mind of man stand the twenty-four students we have followed1 with more or less regularity1 through the various laboratories which constitute the preliminary steps in the manual training course4 ,it is the most important inquiry that ever engaged the attention of man1 because it touches modern civilization at more points than any other4 ,it consists of an investigation into the subject of the diversity of the applications of iron in art1 a study both of the minute and the ponderous in iron tools and machines1 and it is by these tools and machines that the bulk of the great enterprises of the men of modern times are carried forward4 ,these students are familiar with the details of the laboratories for founding and forging1 but the manipulations of those branches of iron manufacture are coarse and heavy as compared with those of the ,machine-tool ,laboratory4 ,in a word1 the difference between the iron manipulations of the ,machine-tool ,laboratory and those of the founding and forging laboratories is the exact measure of the difference between the modern and the ancient systems of civilization4 ,the ancient civilizations culminated in that of ,rome4 ,the ,romans possessed iron1 but confined their manipulations of it to the foundery and the smithy4 ,under the ,roman empire the enterprises of man--commercial1 manufacturing1 and industrial generally--reached the limit marked by the applications of iron to the useful arts4 ,it is not important in this connection to inquire why inventions and discoveries ceased4 ,it is enough that they ceased4 ,there was a pause2 man1 risen to a giddy height1 looked backward instead of forward and upward2 the struggle to advance came to an end1 ambition died out of life1 and a saturnalia of bloody crime and savage brutality ensued4 ,exhaustion followed1 then stagnation1 moral and intellectual1 and then the decay of all the arts4 ,the world stood still1 and in that state of quiescence remained until printing was invented and ,america discovered4 ,still it waited two hundred and fifty years before receiving the first hint of steam-driven machines and the machines and the machine tool-shop1 and during all that time progress was painfully slow4 ,something was required to give to human ambition a grand impulse1 and to open to human energy and industry a broad field4 ,that something did not come until the middle of the eighteenth century1 and it should never be forgotten that it came then through the humble men of the workshop4 ,to their inventive genius mankind owes more than to all the philosophers1 litterateurs1 professors1 and statesmen of all time4 ,these men of the workshop--,huntsman1 ,cort1 ,roebuck1 ,watt1 ,fulton1 ,mushet1 ,hargreaves1 ,neilson1 ,whitney1 ,bramah1 ,maudslay1 ,clement1 ,murray1 ,roberts1 the ,stephensons1 father and son1 and ,nasmyth--invented machines which seem to rival human intelligence1 and in fact far excel human precision in the execution of their work4 ,in endowing iron with the cunning of genius and the terrific power of the fabled cyclops1 the modern mechanic has revolutionized the field of human effort1 transferring it from the foundery and the smithy to the machine-tool shop4 ,it is here1 and here alone1 that steam-driven machines can be made4 ,they may be conceived in the mind of a ,watt or a ,stephenson1 but they can be made only by the automatic tools of a ,maudslay1 a ,clement1 a ,bramah1 or a ,nasmyth4 ,man was helpless without steam-driven machines1 and he could not have steam-driven machines until machine-made tools had been devised with which to make them4 ,the experience of ,watt strikingly illustrates this point4 ,when he had completed his invention of the steam-engine1 he found it nearly impossible to realize his idea in a working machine1 owing to the incompetency of the workmen of that time4 ,in reply to the inquiry of ,dr4 ,roebuck1 8,what is the principal hinderance in erecting engines80 he responds1 8,it is always the smith-work40 ,his first cylinder1 made of hammered iron soldered together by a whitesmith1 was a complete failure4 ,but even such workmen were so scarce that upon the death of this 8white-iron man0 ,watt was reduced almost to a state of despair4 8,his next cylinder was cast and bored at ,carron1 but it was so untrue that it proved next to useless4 ,the piston could not be kept steam-tight1 notwithstanding the various expedients which were adopted of stuffing it with paper1 cork1 putty1 pasteboard1 and old hats40 ,smeaton1 the best workman of the time1 8expressed the opinion1 when he saw the engine at work1 that notwithstanding the excellence of the invention it could never be brought into general use because of the difficulty of getting its various parts manufactured with sufficient precision40 ,watt constantly complained of 8villanous bad workmanship40 8,machine-made tools were unknown1 hence there were no good tools4 ,attempting to run an engine of the old regime1 the foreman of the shop gave it up in despair1 exclaiming1 8,i think we had better leave the cogs to settle their differences with one another2 they will grind themselves right in time40 ,contrast with this clumsy machine of the hand-tool era the ,corliss engine of the present day1 whose every movement possesses the noiseless grace of a woman and the conscious power of a giant2 and this giant springs full-armed from the machine-tool shop as ,minerva sprang from the brain of ,jupiter4 ,mr4 ,smiles says1 8,when the powerful oscillating engines of the ,warrior were put on board that ship1 the parts1 consisting of some five thousand separate pieces1 were brought from the different workshops of the ,messrs4 ,penn ,sons1 where they had been made by workmen who knew not the places they were to occupy1 and fitted together with such precision that so soon as the steam was raised and let into the cylinders the immense machine began as if to breathe and move like a living creature1 stretching its huge arms like a new-born giant2 and then1 after practising its strength a little1 and proving its soundness in body and limb1 it started off with the power of above a thousand horses1 to try its strength in breasting the billows of the ,north ,sea40 ,the great and small tools1 the automata of the machine-shop1 are no less triumphs of mechanical genius than the 8powerful oscillating engines of the ,warrior40 ,the prime difficulty of the hand-worker was to make two things exactly alike1 then followed the impossibility of making many things--the narrow limit of human capacity to produce4 ,at that point the inventor appeared with a machine which would make a thousand things in the time the hand-worker required to make one1 and each one of them the exact counterpart of every other4 ,a hundred years ago ,john ,arnold1 the inventor of the chronometer1 accomplished a marvel of patience and ingenuity in the form of a watch the size of twopence and the weight of sixpence4 ,the workmanship was so delicate that he was compelled not only to fashion every part with his own hand1 but to design and make the tools employed in its construction4 ,the watch was presented to ,george ,,iii41 of ,england1 who showed his appreciation of ,arnold's mechanical skill in a present of five hundred guineas4 ,the ,emperor of ,russia offered ,arnold #ejjj for a duplicate of the wonderful little time-piece1 which offer was1 however1 declined4 ,it was so difficult for the expert watch-maker of a century ago to make two things exactly alike1 that ,arnold could not afford to undertake to make another miniature watch even for the exorbitant price of #ejjj4 ,but for ten dollars the ,elgin 7,illinois7 ,national ,watch ,company will supply the ,emperor of ,russia with a machine-made watch more nearly perfect than ,arnold's masterpiece1 and on the same day turn out one thousand others exactly like it4 ,imagine yourself now in the watch factory of the ,elgin ,company2 observe that artisan holding in his hand a coil of fine steel wire weighing a pound4 ,he approaches a machine1 places one end of the wire in its iron fingers1 presses a lever1 and in a few minutes the coil is converted into two hundred thousand minute screws1 each and every one as perfect as the best that ,arnold made for his ,george ,,iii4 gem4 ,it is with the greatest effort of painstaking care that the expert sewing-woman draws two stitches closely resembling each other1 yet while she is making the toilsome exertion of her utmost skill the sewing-machine sets hundreds of stitches so exactly alike that a microscopic examination would fail to detect the least dissimilarity4 ,the sewing-machine affords an admirable illustration of the interdependence of the practical arts4 ,the sewing-woman was able to keep pace with the slow and toilsome processes of the distaff and loom1 but upon the application of steam-power to spinning and weaving the demand for sewing was augmented a thousand-fold4 ,if the sewing-machine has not emancipated woman from the drudgery so pathetically depicted by ,tom ,hood1 it has multiplied the production of garments almost beyond the power of figures to express4 ,note this instance illustrative of the triumph of automatic machinery in its application to manufactures4 8,the ,emperor of ,austria was lately presented with a suit of clothes possessing this remarkable history3 ,the wool from which the garments were made was clipped from the sheep only eleven hours before the suit was completed4 ,at #f4jh in the morning the sheep were sheared2 at #f4aa the wool was washed2 at #f4cg dyed2 at #f4ej picked2 at #g4cd the final carding process was finished2 at eight o'clock it was spun2 at #h4ae spooled2 at #h4cg the warp was in the loom2 at #h4dc the shuttles were ready2 at #aa4aj seven and three-fourth ells of cloth were completed2 at #ab4jc the cloth was fulled2 at #ab4ad washed2 at #ab4ag sprinkled2 at #ab4ca dried2 at #ab4de sheared2 at #a4jg napped2 at #a4aj brushed2 and at #a4ae prepared and ready for the shears and needle4 ,at five o'clock the suit1 consisting of a hunting-jacket1 waistcoat1 and trousers1 was finished40 ,there is a sort of anteroom to the ,machine-tool ,laboratory with which the students are thoroughly familiar4 ,it is called the ,chipping1 ,filing1 and ,fitting ,laboratory1 has twenty-four vises1 a great assortment of cold-chisels and files1 and is devoted to vise work4 ,the course in the ,chipping ,filing and ,fitting ,laboratory consists of a score or more lessons involving various file and chisel manipulations1 as1 8filing to line10 8dovetailing10 8parallel fitting tongues and grooves10 8ring-work and free-hand filing10 8chipping bevels10 8ward-filing and key-fitting10 8screw-filing10 8scraping10 etc41 each lesson being so devised as to insure the introduction of variously shaped tools1 and their application to the forms of work for which they are designed4 ,this anteroom to the ,machine-tool ,laboratory is like most anterooms plain in its appointments1 and it is also like the conventional anteroom1 a place where the student does not desire to remain long4 ,the witchery of the great laboratory beyond has already cast its spell over the boy at the vise4 ,but there is excellent hand and eye training work in the ,chipping1 ,filing1 and ,fitting ,laboratory4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,chipping1 ,,filing1 ,,and ,,fitting ,,laboratory4 ,the file is a humble tool1 but it is older than history1 dating back to the ,greek ,mythological period4 8,from the smallest mouse-tail file used in the delicate operations of the watch and philosophical instrument maker1 to the square file for the smith's heaviest work1 there is a multifarious diversity in shape1 size1 and gauge of cutting40 ,some of the files made by the ,swiss for the watch-maker 8are of so fine a cut that the unaided eye cannot discern the ridges40 ,in no department of the useful arts did the hand-worker attain to greater dexterity than in file-cutting4 ,with a sharp-edged chisel the file-cutter made from one hundred and fifty to two hundred 8burs0 a minute1 and they were so fine as to be traced by the sense of touch alone1 but as straight as though ruled by a machine4 ,the hand-working file-cutter held his ground until #ahei1 when a ,frenchman1 ,m4 ,bernot1 invented a file-cutting machine which superseded the old method of manufacture1 except in cases requiring delicacy of manipulation1 reducing the cost of files to one-eighth of their former price4 ,the lessons in the ,machine-tool ,laboratory will not be described in detail as in the other laboratories4 ,the processes are so delicate and so intricate1 and the resulting products in machines so closely approach the marvellous1 as to beggar description4 ,the poverty of words as compared with things asserts itself with unexampled force in the presence of a great variety of tools1 each of which seems to be endowed with the power of reflection1 and each of which1 instead of whispering a word in your ear1 drops into your hand a thing of use to man4 ,the laboratory is silent1 the tools are dumb1 but how eloquently they proclaim the era of comfort and luxury6 ,they have no tongue1 but through their lips you shall speak across continents and under seas4 ,they have no legs1 but through their aid you shall1 in a race round the world1 outstrip ,mercury4 ,the machines they make shall bear all your burdens2 with their brawny arms they lift a thousand tons1 and with their fingers of fairy-like delicacy pick up a pin2 with the augur of ,hercules they bore a channel through the mountain of granite1 and with a ,liliputian gimlet tunnel one of the hairs of your head4 ,these ingenious tools are worthy of careful inspection both on account of the marvels they perform and the delicacy of their construction and adjustments4 ,one of them1 a screw-engine lathe1 for example1 is taken to pieces1 and each piece described in order that the students may be made familiar with the construction of the tool1 and so rendered capable of taking good care of it4 ,during this inspection the instructor outlines the history of the tool4 ,the main feature is the slide-rest1 invented by ,maudslay while in the employ of ,bramah1 the lock-maker4 ,it is not too much to say that two things exactly alike1 or near enough alike1 practically1 to serve the same purpose very well1 were never produced on the old-fashioned turning lathe4 ,this the instructor endeavors to make clear to the class4 ,he also explains precisely how ,maudslay's improvement remedied the defects of the old-fashioned lathe4 ,still there remained something to be done to make it perfect1 and putting the pieces together the instructor shows where ,maudslay's work ended and that of ,clement began4 ,clement made two improvements in the slide-rest1 one involving the principle of self-correction1 for which he received the gold ,isis medal of the ,society of ,arts in #ahbg1 and the other consisting of the 8self-adjusting double-driving centre check10 for which he was awarded the silver medal of the same society in #ahbh4 ,thus improved or perfected1 the slide-lathe became the acknowledged king of machine-tools1 the self-adjusting two-armed driver taking the strain from the centre and dividing it between the two arms1 and so correcting all tendency to eccentricity in the work4 ,the ,machine-tool ,laboratory contains a great variety of tools1 of which the chief are lathes1 drills1 and planers2 but there are many auxiliary tools1 and in the advanced stages of the course a single lesson often affords opportunity for the introduction of several of them4 ,and1 as in the other school laboratories1 each tool1 upon its first presentation to the class1 forms the subject of a brief lecture--a practical lecture too1 for the instructor uses the tool while he sketches its history and perhaps that of its inventor1 shows what place it holds in the order of machine-tool development1 and how admirably it is adapted to its particular work1 and makes suggestions as to its care4 ,sometimes a lesson involves the use of a drawing made by the students a year before1 and the piece of iron in which it is wrought is the product of a previous lesson in forging2 and it may also have been manipulated with the file or the cold-chisel1 or both1 in the ,chipping1 ,filing1 and ,fitting ,laboratory4 ,from the first lesson in the room devoted to drawing1 to the last lesson in the ,machine-tool ,laboratory1 the course of training is orderly1 consecutive4 ,each step contains a hint of the nature of the next step1 and each succeeding step consists of a further application of the principles and processes of the last preceding step4 ,in a word1 the students follow their drawings through all the laboratories till the designs 8are brought out in a finished state either in cast or wrought iron40 ,the lathe is the fundamental machine-tool1 but a completely equipped machine-tool laboratory includes a great variety of supplementary or auxiliary tools1 a thorough knowledge of which is essential to a good mechanical education4 ,it does not follow1 because these tools are in a large degree automatic1 that skill may be dispensed with in their use4 ,many of them are very complicated in design and construction1 and they can no more be made to do efficient service under an unskilled hand than a locomotive can be made to accomplish a series of successful 8runs0 by an unskilled 8driver40 ,hence every tool in the laboratory is made the subject of an exhaustive study4 ,the principle of mechanics involved in its construction is expounded1 a practical illustration of its method of operation is given1 its peculiar liability to injury is explained1 and rules for its care are carefully formulated1 and frequently repeated4 ,there is a prevalent theory that the wide application of so-called automatic tools to mechanical work largely decreases the legitimate demand for skilled mechanics1 but it is fallacious4 ,in the first place a thousand things are now made where one thing was made fifty years ago4 ,in the second place the extensive use of steam and electricity greatly enlarges the sphere wherein accurate work becomes absolutely essential to human safety1 and hence extends the field of operations of the inventive faculty4 ,in the third place the cost of machine-tool made products having been greatly reduced1 competition is proportionately intensified1 thus narrowing the margin of profit1 and so rendering any injury to machinery through want of skill in the operator relatively more disastrous4 ,as a matter of fact a fine machine-tool is more liable than a watch to get out of order through careless handling1 and it no more than a watch1 can be properly repaired by a bungler4 ,it follows that skill in the use of machine-tools is as essential to a successful mechanical career now1 as skill in the use of hand-tools was formerly4 ,illustration3 ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,machine-,,tool ,,laboratory4 ,but another conclusion follows more irresistibly1 namely--that the mechanical engineer who devotes his attention to the construction and management of massive machinery1 such as pumps1 hydraulic and lever presses1 looms1 and steam-engines1 whether locomotive1 marine1 or other1 must1 in order to be master of his profession1 be thoroughly familiar with every step of their construction2 and such familiarity can only be acquired by a course of practical study in the machine-tool shop4 ,it is the province of the mechanical engineer to utilize certain forces of nature in the service of man1 and it is only through the machine-tool shop that such utilization can be effected4 ,it hence follows that a practical acquaintance with the manipulations of the machine-tool shop is an essential prerequisite to a successful career in the field of higher mechanics4 ,the man who aspires to construct any great mechanical engineering work1 like the ,brooklyn ,bridge1 for example1 must know the exact mechanical power of every piece of machinery he employs1 as also the exact mechanical value of every piece of iron that enters into the structure2 and these things he cannot know unless he is familiar with the entire series of iron manipulations1 from those of the foundery to those of the machine-tool shop4 ,the aspect of the ,machine-tool ,laboratory when in repose1 so to speak1 is dull and uninteresting1 not to say repellant4 ,there are twenty-four engine-lathes1 as many adjustable vises1 a milling machine1 and a variety of auxiliary tools4 ,the lathes are supported by dingy-looking cast-iron frames1 and under each lathe there is a chest of drawers containing a set of tools4 ,overhead there is a wilderness of pulleys and shafting1 which seems to the untrained eye to have very little relation to the machines below4 ,the working parts of the lathes show burnished steel surfaces1 which reflect coldly the glare of yellow sunlight flooding the room4 ,if it were moonlight instead of sunlight one might summon the ghosts of those daring men who hundreds and thousands of years ago dreamed audaciously of the future of applied mechanics4 ,roger ,bacon must have had a vision of the machine-tool shop when he said1 8,i will now mention some of the wonderful works of art and nature in which there is nothing of magic1 and which magic could not perform4 ,instruments may be made by which the largest ships1 with only one man guiding them1 will be carried with greater velocity than if they were full of sailors2 chariots may be constructed that will move with incredible rapidity without the help of animals2 a small instrument may be made to raise or depress the greatest weights2 an instrument may be fabricated by which one man may draw a thousand men to him by force and against their will2 as also machines which will enable men to walk at the bottom of seas or rivers without danger40 ,when steam is 8turned on0 the aspect of the ,machine-tool ,laboratory is completely changed4 ,steam is1 indeed1 the arch-revolutionist2 it breathes the breath of life into inanimate things--makes them think1 speak1 and act4 ,the low hum of unused machinery first salutes the ear2 then the students take their places4 ,they are three years older than when we encountered them in the engine-room4 ,they are from seventeen to twenty years of age4 ,they are no longer boys2 they are young men--robust1 hearty-looking young men4 ,their bearing is very resolute--remarkably resolute2 their attitude is erect4 ,they are full-chested1 muscular-armed1 frank-faced young men4 ,in the three years' course now drawing to a close they have learned how to do many things1 and hence they show a good degree of confidence4 ,but the dominant expression on all the interesting young faces is1 after all1 one of modesty2 so true is it that every acquisition of knowledge1 and especially useful knowledge1 not only stimulates desire to learn more1 but enlightens perception as to the magnitude of the field of further inquiry4 ,as the addition of a useful thing to the world's stock of things creates a demand for a score more of useful things1 so the addition of a fact to the student's stock of facts not only creates a desire for more facts1 but strengthens the mind for further investigation4 ,it may be that there are vain statesmen1 philosophers1 priests1 and kings1 but we should as little expect to find a vain mechanic as a vain scientist4 ,these twenty-four students may go out into the world to-morrow to make their way4 ,some of them will enter upon the stage of active life1 others will continue their studies in higher schools of literature1 science1 and art2 but whether they go or stay1 if they have made the most of their opportunities in the ,manual ,training ,school they will have learned the lesson of modesty1 and learned to respect labor1 not only as a means of earning one's daily bread1 but as the most powerful and the most healthful mental and moral stimulant4 ,steam is on1 and the students standing at the lathes are impatient to begin4 ,it is not a lesson in the ordinary sense4 ,each student works independently of special direction1 for each is engaged in making a machine--the graduating project4 ,the instructor is at hand1 not to dictate but to advise1 if requested4 ,from his fund of experience as the elder scholar he will answer questions propounded by his younger fellow-students4 ,in front of the students1 parts of the working drawings may be seen4 ,it is plain that there is to be variety in the exhibit of 8projects40 ,there are several steam-engines1 differing in model2 there is a steam-pump1 a punching machine1 a lathe1 an electric machine1 and a steam-hammer4 ,at a sign work commences--a dozen varieties of work1 emitting a dozen tones of buzzing and whizzing4 ,the instructor's face lights up with a pleased expression as he notes the progress of the work4 ,there is no sign of hesitation in the class2 no questions are asked2 the students seem to be driving straight to the mark4 ,the instructor's heart swells with pride2 he can trust 8his boys60 ,he has been regarding them with an expression of affection1 but now his eyes wander--they have a far-away look4 ,he no longer sees the students1 he is looking beyond them4 ,he drops into a reclining attitude1 sighs1 falls into a reverie1 and dreams4 ,in his dream he sees naked savages1 emerging from caves1 armed with clubs1 pursuing animals4 ,these are succeeded by men bearing rude stone implements--axes and hammers--and these in turn by men armed with bows and arrows1 but half-clothed with skins of beasts1 and crouching and shivering beneath the shelter of the branches of a tree pulled downward and secured by clods of earth4 ,this picture disappears1 and is replaced by a pastoral scene--a vast plain covered with flocks and herds4 ,in the foreground stands the shepherd1 and in the distance his tent1 consisting of skins of beasts stretched on poles1 and in the tent door a woman sits pounding a fleece into felt4 ,the shepherd1 his flocks and herds1 his tent1 and the woman in the tent door1 vanish like the mists of morning1 and where the shepherd was1 the husbandman is seen harvesting the golden grain2 and in the shadow of the cottage which has replaced the tent a woman is grinding corn4 ,the scene again changes--the plain has become the site of a great city4 ,the city is protected by thick1 high walls1 surmounted with frowning battlements4 ,sentinels pace back and forth along the parapet4 ,huge helmets protect their heads1 and their bodies are clothed in armor4 ,quivers full of bronze-tipped arrows depend from their shoulders2 in their hands they carry long bows1 and the clank1 clank of their broad1 two-edged1 bronze swords breaks the dull1 monotonous routine of their march4 ,a brazen gate swings back noiselessly on brazen hinges1 and1 bowing to the sentinel1 the dreamer as noiselessly glides into the city4 ,suddenly he feels the hot breath of the foundery furnace-fire1 and is blinded by a glare of red light4 ,shading his eyes he sees dusky forms hurrying to and fro with ladles full of molten metal4 ,turning away he hears the heavy stroke of the sledge1 and looking1 beholds a dusty1 smoky smithy4 ,the stalwart smith drops the sledge at his side1 rests one foot on the anvil-block1 and wipes the sweat from his brow2 the helper thrusts the cooling metal into the coals1 bends to the bellows1 and the forge-fire sings4 ,at the sound of a bell the dreamer starts1 the old ,assyrian city falls into ruins1 the ruins crumble into dust1 and on this dust another city rises1 flourishes1 falls1 and piles the dust of its ruins4 ,over a waste of years--twenty centuries--the dreamer's thought flashes1 and he stands in the presence of the ,alexandrian mechanic-philosopher4 ,he sees ,hero in the public street1 gazing abstractedly at his condensed-air fountain1 and follows him into his shop or laboratory1 and observes him curiously as he toys with the model of a queer little steam-engine4 8,this is the ,iron ,age1 but in its infancy10 he exclaims under his breath1 as his eyes wander from a fine ,damascus blade hanging against the wall to some poor hand-tools lying on the working-bench4 8,i will speak to this old man10 he continues1 8and ask him to step into my ,machine-tool ,laboratory1 and see my boys make steam-engines2 it will be a revelation to him4 ,come1 old friend--there--look60 ,and the dreamer looks4 ,does he see double8 ,the laboratory is unchanged2 steam is still on2 the whir of machinery and the buzzing sound of steam-driven tools salute the ear1 and the students are all busy at their benches finishing parts of 8projects0 and adjusting them in their places1 ,but there are twenty-four other men--shades of men--in the laboratory4 ,most of them are old2 some are in working clothes1 others in full dress1 wearing ribbons and orders of merit4 ,over each student one of these shades bends with an air of absorbing attention4 ,the dreamer recognizes ,papin1 ,fulton1 ,watt1 and ,stephenson shadowing the students engaged in the construction of engines4 ,they beckon ,hero1 and he joins the group1 threading his way timidly between the lines of lathes1 and looking askance at the rapidly revolving wheels and flying belts4 ,over the shoulders of other students are seen the faces of ,maudslay1 ,bramah1 ,clement1 ,roberts1 ,whitney1 ,nasmyth1 ,huntsman1 ,cort1 ,murray1 ,dudley1 ,yarranton1 ,roebuck1 and ,whitworth1 besides several unfamiliar faces4 ,suddenly they all gather about a nearly completed project--a stationary engine4 ,they witness the forcing home of the last screw2 they see the miniature machine made fast to the bench4 ,steam is let into the cylinders4 ,the student's flushed face is in sharp contrast with the colorless faces of the group of old men by whom he is surrounded4 ,the piston-rod moves languidly--the machine trembles as if awaking from slumber1 the shaft oscillates slowly1 then faster1 then regularly1 like a strong pulse-beat4 ,the project is a success--the first one completed6 ,the student's face turns pale--as pale as the white faces of the old men at his side4 ,they open their lips as if to cheer him1 but no sound escapes them4 ,he breathes quick--almost gasps2 his heart beats loudly2 he tries to shout but cannot utter a word4 ,at last he claps his hands6 ,the instructor starts from his chair1 rubs his eyes1 and stares round the laboratory4 ,all the students are there1 gathered in a group about the finished 8project10 but the ghostly shades of the old inventors have vanished like the unsubstantial fabric of a vision4 ,the 8projects0 are not all finished on the same day4 ,some of them are far more complicated than others1 and some students are more skilled than others4 ,all are very busy4 ,it is not improper to ask questions relating to work on the graduating projects2 the instructor is at hand to answer such questions4 ,but it is a point of honor not to ask a question if the difficulty can possibly be otherwise overcome4 ,hence very few questions are asked4 ,the last week of the term is a very trying one to all concerned4 ,the students are reticent and unusually silent2 all are anxious1 some are timid--the nervous tension is extreme4 ,the instructor becomes taciturn under a painful sense of compulsory isolation from his class1 towards all the members of which he has1 for three years1 sustained fraternal rather than dictatorial relations4 ,but as the projects are1 one by one1 completed1 the atmosphere clears4 ,when the student realizes that his project is certain to be a success1 his face brightens and he is pleased to discuss its 8points0 with the instructor4 ,the instructor is delighted to resume his former relations with the class1 the feeling of constraint is dispelled1 and the graduation-day exercises are contemplated with confidence4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,manual ,,and ,,mental ,,training ,,combined4 ,the new ,education is all-sided -- its ,effect4 -- ,a ,harmonious ,development of the ,whole ,being4 -- ,examination for ,admission to the ,chicago ,school4 -- ,list of ,questions in ,arithmetic1 ,geography1 and ,language4 -- ,the ,curriculum4 -- ,the ,alternation of ,manual and ,mental ,exercises4 -- ,the ,demand for ,scientific ,education -- its ,effect4 -- ,ambition to be useful4 ,we have now passed in review all the school laboratories1 from the engine-room1 or laboratory where power is generated1 to the ,machine-tool ,laboratory where power is utilized1 or harnessed1 and compelled to do the work of man4 ,we have observed the student1 in his first effort over the drawing-board1 struggling laboriously to make a straight line1 and in the ,laboratory of ,carpentry1 trying with varying success to make a tenon fit the mortise1 and we have stood by his side in the ,machine-tool ,laboratory in the moment of his triumph exhibiting his graduating 8project0--a miniature engine throbbing under the pressure of steam1 and doing its work with admirable precision4 ,but we have seen only the manual side of the curriculum4 ,the mental side is still to be shown4 ,the claim made in behalf of the new education is that it is better balanced than the old1 that it is all-sided1 that it produces a harmonious development of the whole being1 that it makes of the student a man fully furnished for the battle of life1 mentally1 morally1 and physically4 ,accordingly the curriculum of the ,manual ,training ,school combines with the laboratory exercises a variety of mental exercises of quite a comprehensive character2 and first1 certain mental requirements are necessary to admission1 as witness the following from the first catalogue of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school3 8,candidates for admission to the ,junior year must be at least fourteen years of age1 and must present sufficient evidence of good moral character4 ,they must pass a satisfactory examination in reading1 spelling1 writing1 geography1 ,english composition1 and the fundamental operations of arithmetic as applied to integers1 common and decimal fractions1 and denominate numbers4 ,ability to use the ,english language correctly is especially desired40 ,the following questions were used at the first examination for admission to the ,chicago school4 ,,arithmetic4 ,transcribe work sufficient to show processes4 ,no credit given for results alone4 #a4 ,change to decimals and find the sum of 1 1 1 1 4 #b4 ,divide the product of #bh and #ac by the difference of #h and #d4 #c4 ,divide 4#jjhge by #ab4 #d4 ,reduce 4#cie of a mile to integers4 #e4 ,if a locomotive move of a mile in of an hour1 what is its speed per hour8 #f4 ,a man invested of his money in land1 4#abe of it in stocks1 #ab1jjj in a vessel1 and had #ee1ejj remaining4 ,how much did he invest in land8 #g4 ,bought a square mile of land at #ge an acre4 ,i reserved #afj acres of it for streets and alleys1 and divided the remainder into lots each #ff feet front by #bjj feet deep1 all of which ,i sold for #ae per front foot4 ,the expense of surveying1 etc41 was #bjjj4 ,what did ,i gain8 #h4 ,how many balls1 each of an inch in diameter1 are equal in weight to a ball of the same material #a foot in diameter8 #i4 ,find cost of material for making box1 inside measurement #d by #b by #c feet1 of inch lumber1 worth #cj per ,m41 of the lumber purchased being wasted4 ,include in the cost #g dozen screws at #a4hj per gross4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,students ,,with ,,their ,,books4 #aj4 ,what is the height of a rectangular cistern capable of containing #fjj gallons1 the bottom of which is #g by #aa feet1 inside measurement8 ,,geography4 #a4 ,name the five most populous cities of the ,united ,states in order of population4 ,on what water is ,st4 ,petersburg8 ,dublin8 ,rome8 ,calcutta8 ,cairo8 #b4 ,locate the principal coal fields and iron regions of the ,united ,states4 ,what minerals occur in ,illinois8 #c4 ,draw map of ,illinois1 showing by what ,states and by what waters bounded4 ,locate the capital and the largest city of ,illinois4 #d4 ,name the outlet of ,lake ,erie2 of ,lake ,champlain2 of ,great ,salt ,lake2 of the ,black ,sea2 of ,lake ,victoria ,nyanza4 #e4 ,compare the latitude and climate of ,spain and ,illinois4 #f4 ,how does the island of ,great ,britain compare in area with the ,united ,states1 or with any one of the ,united ,states which you may mention8 #g4 ,how do the ,alps compare in height with the ,rocky ,mountains8 ,name the highest peak in ,europe2 in ,north ,america2 in ,south ,america2 in the world4 #h4 ,how does climate vary with altitude above the sea level8 ,illustrate by an example4 #i4 ,what is the cause of day and night8 ,of changes of seasons8 ,what is latitude8 ,longitude8 #aj4 ,when it is #aa ,a4,m4 by 8,central ,time0 in ,chicago1 what is the hour by 8,eastern ,time0 in ,new ,york ,city8 ,what is the hour in ,london8 ,is 8,central ,time0 in ,chicago the true time8 ,why8 ,or1 in place of the last question3 ,what are the termini of the ,illinois and ,michigan ,canal8 ,what waters are connected by the ,suez ,canal8 ,of what water route does the ,suez ,canal take the place8 ,,language4 #a4 ,correct in every particular1 and give reason for each correction3 a4 ,the man which was sick has went to his work4 b4 ,every person should attend to their own affairs4 c4 ,such expressions sound harshly4 d4 ,between you and ,i1 this is a real easy examination4 e4 ,the cause of the tides were not wholly unknown to the ancients4 #b4 8,pleasantly rose next morning the sun on the village of ,grand ,pr40 ,how is the idea of the rising of the sun modified8 #c4 8,flashed all their sabres bare1 ,flashed as they turned in air1 ,sab'ring the gunners there1 ,charging an army1 while ,all the world wondered40 ,change to good prose4 #d4 ,state the meaning of each prefix and suffix in the following words3 ,emigrate2 ,immigrate2 ,illegally2 ,admissible2 ,thoughtlessness2 ,affixing4 #e4 a4 ,why is the final e of 8service0 retained in 8serviceable80 b4 ,write the present participle of 8befit20 of 8benefit40 ,what difference in spelling8 ,why8 c4 ,define ,ancient2 ,venerable2 ,obsolete4 #f4 ,write an essay on ,chicago1 mentioning the rapid growth of the city2 its land and water communications2 its commerce and manufactures2 its public buildings2 its institutions of learning and charity1 and any other items which may occur to you4 ,having passed the ordeal of the foregoing battery of questions the student of the ,ideal ,school finds his mental exercises alternated with manual exercises throughout the entire course in something like the following order1 namely3 ,junior ,year4--7#a47 ,mathematics--,arithmetic2 ,algebra4 7#b47 ,science4--,physiology2 ,physical ,geography4 7#c47 ,language4--,english ,language and ,literature2 or ,latin ,reader4 7#d47 ,drawing4--,freehand ,model and ,object2 ,projection2 ,machine2 ,perspective4 7#e47 ,shopwork4--,carpentry1 ,joinery1 ,wood-,turning1 ,pattern-,making1 ,proper ,care and ,use of ,tools4 ,middle ,year4--7#a47 ,mathematics4--,geometry4 7#b47 ,science4--,physics4 7#c47 ,language4--,general ,history and ,literature2 or ,csar4 7#d47 ,drawing4--,orthographic ,projection and ,shadows2 ,line and ,brush ,shading2 ,isometric ,projection and ,shadows2 ,details of ,machinery2 ,machine from ,measurement4 7#e47 ,shopwork4--,molding1 ,casting2 ,forging1 ,welding1 ,tempering2 ,soldering1 ,brazing4 ,senior ,year4--7#a47 ,mathematics4--,plane ,trigonometry2 ,mechanics2 ,book-keeping4 7#b47 ,science4--,chemistry2 or ,descriptive ,geometry and ,higher ,algebra4 7#c47 ,language1 etc4--,english ,literature1 ,civil ,government1 ,political ,economy2 or ,cicero1 or ,french4 7#d47 ,drawing4--,machine from ,measurement2 ,building from ,measurement2 ,architectural ,perspective4 7#e47 ,machine ,shopwork4--,such as ,chipping1 ,filing1 ,fitting1 ,turning1 ,drilling1 ,planing1 etc4 ,study of ,machinery1 including the ,management and ,care of ,steam ,engines and ,boilers4 ,latin and ,french may be taken instead of ,english ,language1 ,literature1 and ,history4 ,instruction will be given each year in the properties of the materials--wood1 iron1 brass1 etc4--used in that year4 ,throughout the course1 one hour per day1 or more1 will be given to drawing1 and not less than two hours per day to laboratory work4 ,the remainder of the school day will be devoted to study and recitation4 ,before graduating1 each pupil will be required to construct a machine from drawings and patterns made by himself4 ,a diploma will be given on graduation4 ,the new education is a blending of manual and mental training4 ,it recognizes the fact that science discovers and art utilizes1 and that these two forces move the modern world4 ,at present the ,manual ,training ,school is a missionary enterprise4 ,its purpose is to create in the public mind an imperative demand for the incorporation of its scientific methods into the public-school course of instruction4 ,a vast majority of our people are employed in the useful arts1 and distinction in every department of labor now depends upon scientific education4 ,without technical education or manual training the laborer of the future cannot hope to rise above the grade of a piece of automatic machinery4 ,he falls into the routine of the shop like a cog or lever moved by steam4 ,to avert this dire misfortune our common schools must be made institutions for manual as well as intellectual training4 ,they must inculcate the dignity of labor not by precept merely1 but by example4 ,it is not enough that schools of technology1 polytechnic institutes1 and manual training schools are being established here and there by private subscription4 ,the supply of these classes of education is only a drop in the bucket to the public demand4 ,technical and manual training must be made part of the general public educational system4 ,in our city high-schools we now fit boys for college4 ,in those schools we must hereafter fit them for the colleges of art4 ,when this shall have become the fashion in education there will be thousands of high-school graduates with a grand passion for mechanical pursuits--boys with more curiosity on the subject of the expansive force of steam than on the subject of 8,greek roots20 with more ambition to invent something useful to man than to learn how to draw a bill in chancery2 with a stronger desire to discover a new secret in electricity than to carry off a prize for the best ,latin oration4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,intellectual ,,effect ,,of ,,manual ,,training4 ,intelligence is the ,basis of ,character4 -- ,the more ,practical the ,intelligence the ,higher the ,development of ,character4 -- ,the use of ,tools quickens the ,intellect4 -- ,making ,things rouses the ,attention1 sharpens the ,observation1 and steadies the ,judgment4 -- ,history of ,inventions in ,england1 #agdj-ahdj4 -- ,poor1 ,ignorant ,apprentices become learned ,men4 -- ,cort1 ,huntsman1 ,mushet1 ,neilson1 ,stephenson1 and ,watt4 -- ,the ,union of ,books and ,tools4 -- ,results at ,rotterdam1 ,holland2 at ,moscow1 ,russia2 at ,komotau1 ,bohemia2 and at ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 -- ,the ,consideration of ,overwhelming ,import4 ,the quality of all civilizations depends upon intelligence and character1 or morality1 in the order stated2 for morality springs from intelligence1 not intelligence from morality4 ,this is an axiomatic deduction of historic analysis4#b ,nor would it be difficult to prove that practical intelligence is more conducive to a high development of morals than mere theoretical intelligence4 ,for is it not true that the nations most skilled in the useful arts are most highly cultured in morals8 ,and if it be true1 it constitutes a potential argument in support of joining to intellectual instruction in the schools a course of training in the elements of the useful arts4 ,and of the fact which forms the basis of this argument there is a logical explanation4 #b 8,but if we contrast this stationary aspect of moral truths with the progressive aspect of intellectual truths1 the difference is1 indeed1 startling4444 ,these are to every educated man recognized and notorious facts1 and the inference to be drawn from them is immediately obvious4 ,since civilization is the product of moral and intellectual agencies1 and since that product is constantly changing1 it evidently cannot be regulated by the stationary agent2 because when surrounding circumstances are unchanged1 a stationary agent can only produce a stationary effect4 ,the only other agent is the intellectual one1 and that this is the real mover may be proved in two distinct ways3 first1 because being1 as we have already seen1 either moral or intellectual1 and being1 as we have also seen1 not moral1 it must be intellectual2 and secondly1 because the intellectual principle has an activity and a capacity for adaptation which1 as ,i undertake to show1 is quite sufficient to account for the extraordinary progress that1 during several centuries1 ,europe has continued to make40--,buckle's 8,history of ,civilization10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #acj4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahfd4 ,nothing stimulates and quickens the intellect more than the use of mechanical tools4 ,the boy who begins to construct things is compelled at once to begin to think1 deliberate1 reason1 and conclude4 ,as he proceeds he is brought in contact with powerful natural forces4 ,if he would control1 direct1 and apply these forces he must first master the laws by which they are governed2 he must investigate the causes of the phenomena of matter1 and it will be strange if from this he is not also led to a study of the phenomena of mind4 ,at the very threshold of practical mechanics a thirst for wisdom is engendered1 and the student is irresistibly impelled to investigate the mysteries of philosophy4 ,thus the training of the eye and the hand reacts upon the brain1 stimulating it to excursions into the realm of scientific discovery in search of facts to be applied in practical forms at the bench and the anvil4 ,the history of invention and discovery in ,england affords a striking confirmation of the truth of the proposition that mechanical investigation1 with tools in hand1 stimulates the intellectual faculties to the highest point of activity and excellence4 ,the germs of nearly all the great inventions in mechanics1 the benefit of which the world is now enjoying in such ample measure1 are directly traceable to the workshops of ,great ,britain during the period #agdj-ahdj4 ,england had then no popular system of education1 and the apprentices in her shops were poor1 obscure1 and1 at the start1 illiterate4 ,but to those poor apprentices the honor of the great inventions and discoveries of that age is almost wholly due4 ,and it is a notable fact that in the struggle to invent tools and machines1 to master the art of mechanism1 to steal from ,nature her secret forces1 and harness and use them for the benefit of man1 the toiling workers not infrequently became highly educated1 intellectual giants1 familiar not alone with special studies1 but masters of many branches of learning4 ,in #aggj the ,russian ,government1 aware of the inferiority of ,english iron1 and deeming ,russian iron essential to ,england1 directed the price of iron for export to be raised three hundred per cent4 ,this arbitrary act stimulated invention4 ,henry ,cort1 the son of a brick-maker1 entered upon a series of experiments1 with a view to the improvement of ,english iron4 ,they occupied several years1 and were of a very expensive character--so expensive as eventually to bankrupt the man who made them4 ,they were1 however1 so successful as to constitute a splendid epoch in the history of metallurgy4 ,in #aghf ,lord ,sheffield declared that ,cort's improvements in iron1 and the steam-engine of ,watt1 were of more value to ,great ,britain than the thirteen colonies of ,america2 and in #ahfb it was estimated that those improvements had added three thousand million dollars to the wealth of ,england alone1 to say nothing of the rest of the world of iron manufacture throughout which they had been applied4 ,but the only estate secured by this great man as a reward of his genius and a life of toil1 as his biographer pathetically remarks1 was 8the little domain of six feet by two in which he lies buried in ,hampstead churchyard40 ,in #agae ,sheffield contained two thousand inhabitants1 of whom one-third were beggars4 ,its manufactures consisted of jews-harps1 tobacco-boxes1 and knives4 ,sheffield is now the chief seat of the steel manufacture of the world4 ,the initial step in this great transformation scene was taken by ,benjamin ,huntsman4 ,he was born in #agjd1 and bred to a mechanical calling4 ,the early years of his life were spent in the occupation of clock making and repairing4 ,he was shrewd1 observant1 and practical1 and he gradually extended the scope of his profession to repairing1 and finally to making hand-tools4 ,in this branch of his trade he detected defects in the ,german steel in common use4 ,he removed from ,doncaster to ,sheffield1 and there in the privacy of his cottage studied metallurgy1 and for years labored in secret over the furnace and the crucible4 ,his numerous failures were subsequently found chronicled in masses of metal1 in various stages of imperfection1 buried in the earth4 ,but when he emerged from his long seclusion he offered to his fellow-mechanics a piece of cast-steel so hard that they declined to work it4 ,he sent the product of his works to ,france1 and the ,french knives and razors made from it and imported into ,england drove the ,sheffield cutlery from the market4 ,then the ,sheffield cutlers sought to have the export of steel prohibited4 ,failing in that they stole ,huntsman's secret4 ,this was possible1 since the process had not been patented4 ,the story of the theft is told in a little work entitled 8,the ,useful ,metals and their ,alloys40 ,it is in substance that one ,walker1 an iron-founder1 8disguised himself as a tramp1 and feigning great distress and abject poverty1 appeared shivering at the door of ,huntsman's foundery late one night when the workmen were about to begin their labors at steel-casting1 and asked for permission to warm himself by the furnace-fire40 ,he was permitted to enter1 and when he left he carried away the secret of the inventor of cast-steel4 ,huntsman was a member of the ,society of ,friends1 and it was doubtless on that account that he declined a membership of the ,royal ,society tendered to him in honor of his great discovery or invention of cast-steel4 ,david ,mushet's discovery of the extraordinary value of black-band iron-stone in #ahja made ,scotland a first-class iron-producing country2 and ,neilson's invention of the hot-blast in #ahbh revolutionized the processes of iron manufacture by vastly cheapening them4 ,both these men sprang from the labor class1 and both were self-educated4 ,through almost superhuman efforts they rose from poverty and obscurity to fame4 ,mushet's 8,papers on ,iron and ,steel10 in the language of ,smiles1 8are among the most valuable original contributions to the literature of iron manufacture that have yet been given to the world20 and ,neilson was made a member of the ,royal ,society in recognition of his distinguished ability and the great services he rendered in the cause of the useful arts4 ,george ,stephenson rose from the coal-mine to the summit of renown as a theoretical and practical mechanic4 ,while employed in various collieries as 8fireman0 and 8plugman10 he acquired a thorough knowledge of the engines then in use1 taking them apart1 repairing1 and putting them together again4 ,at eighteen years of age he could not read4 ,in the course of two years attendance at night-schools he learned to read1 write1 and cipher4#c ,continuing to work in collieries1 he employed his leisure hours in studying mechanics and engineering1 and in mending clocks and shoes4 ,when thirty-one years of age he was appointed 8enginewright0 at ,killingworth ,colliery1 at a salary of #ajj a year4 ,from this point of time dates his career as an inventor4 ,his first locomotive was completed in #ahad1 and the 8,rocket0 made its trial trip in #ahbi4 ,during the intervening fifteen years ,stephenson was largely engaged in the engineering department of railway enterprises as well as in the prosecution of experiments for the perfecting of locomotive engines4 ,the most eminent engineers of the time doubted the practicability of the locomotive1 and continued to recommend stationary engines1 while ,stephenson was leading up to the 8,rocket40 ,the success of the 8,rocket0 made its inventor the most famous mechanic in the world4 ,for the next fifteen years he was the leading spirit in all the great railway enterprises of ,england1 besides being called repeatedly to ,belgium and ,spain as consulting engineer4 ,he was offered a fellowship of the ,royal ,society1 also one in the ,civil ,engineers' ,society1 also knighthood by ,sir ,robert ,peel4 ,all these empty honors he declined4 8,i have to state10 he said1 in reply to a request for his 8ornamental initials10 8that ,i have no flourishes to my name1 either before or after1 and ,i think it will be as well if you merely say ,george ,stephenson40 ,he may justly be styled the founder of the existing railway system of the world1 which undoubtedly exerts more influence upon civilization than any other one cause or set of allied causes2 and to have risen from the humblest station in a colliery to the dignity of founding such a system is sufficient evidence of a gigantic intellectual growth4 #c 8,in conclusion1 we are of opinion that special instruction which can be applied to the material would be at once more fruitful in good results and more attractive if the pupil could go from the class-room to the workshop 7laboratory7 to practically demonstrate the theories to which he has just been listening4 ,in support of this opinion we might add the observations made in our own evening-schools1 where the most noteworthy and rapid progress is made in those cases where the pupil has occasion to put into actual practice on the material itself the instruction which he has received in the drawing-class40--8,report of ,committee of ,council of ,arts and ,manufactures of the ,province of ,quebec1 created to ,inquire into the ,question of ,practical ,schools40 ,james ,watt was an extremely fragile child1 and hence unable to join in the rude sports of robust children4 ,thus confined within-doors he early amused himself by drawing 8with a pencil upon paper1 or with chalk upon the floor40 ,he was also supplied with a few tools from his father's carpenter's shop1 8which he soon learned to handle with considerable expertness40 ,mr4 ,smiles1 in his biography of ,watt1 says1 8,the mechanical dexterity he acquired was the foundation upon which he built the speculations to which he owes his glory1 nor without this manual training is there the least likelihood that he would have become the improver and almost the creator of the steam-engine40#d ,in the parrot-power of learning or memorizing ,watt was a dull boy1 and he left the grammar-school of his native town at an early age1 never to return to the 8halls of learning40 ,but while engaged in humble mechanical employments he perfected his education1 studying after work-hours4 ,he nearly starved his body1 but constantly added to his intellectual stores4 ,he mastered the principles of engineering1 civil and military1 studied natural history1 criticism1 art1 and acquired several modern languages4 ,in a word1 without the aid of the schools1 but under the stimulating influence of mechanical investigation and work1 ,watt became an accomplished and scientific man4 ,when nearly eighty years of age he and ,sir ,walter ,scott met4 ,referring to the occasion1 and speaking of ,watt1 ,sir ,walter is reported to have said1 8,the alert1 kind1 benevolent old man had his attention alive to every one's question1 his information at every one's command4 ,his talents and fancy overflowed on every subject4 ,one gentleman was a deep philologist--he talked with him on the origin of the alphabet as if he had been coeval with ,cadmus2 another a celebrated critic--you would have said the old man had studied political economy and belles-lettres all his life2 of science it is unnecessary to speak--it was his distinguished walk40 #d 8,i believe that well-advised practice in any of the constructive arts involving not more than one-third of the student's time will yield as much mental improvement as will result if the whole time be devoted to study from text-books40--,prof4 ,wm4 ,f4 ,m4 ,goss1 six years ,director of the ,department of ,practical ,mechanics of ,purdue ,university4 8,and reflect that he will learn more by one hour of manual labor than he will retain from a whole day's verbal instructions40--8,the ,emilius and ,sophia0 of ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #fd4 ,london3 #agfg4 8,the things themselves are the best explanations4 ,i can never enough repeat it1 that we make words of too much consequence2 with our prating modes of education we make nothing but praters40--,ibid41 p4 #df4 ,these examples of remarkable intellectual development in connection with tool-practice are not phenomenal4 ,from the annals of invention and discovery numerous instances might be cited in support of the proposition of this chapter1 that tool-practice stimulates intellectual growth4 ,in the ,artisan's ,school at ,rotterdam1 ,holland1 an experience of seven years has demonstrated that 8boys who are occupied one-half the day with books in the school1 and the remaining half with tools in the laboratories1 make about as rapid intellectual progress as those of equal ability who spend the whole day in study and recitation40 ,the testimony of ,dr4 ,woodward1 director of the ,st4 ,louis 7,mo47 ,manual ,training ,school1 is to the same effect4 ,and in one of his reports he says1 8,success in drawing or shop-work has often had the effect of arousing the ambition in mathematics and history1 and vice versa4444 ,the habit of working from drawings and to nice measurements has given the students a confidence in themselves altogether new4 ,this is shown in the readiness with which they undertake the execution of small commissions in behalf of the school4444 ,in fact1 the increased usefulness of our students is making itself felt1 and in several instances the result has been the offer of business positions too tempting to be rejected40 ,of the results achieved by the ,imperial ,technical ,school1 ,moscow1 ,russia1 ,m4 ,victor ,della-,vos1 director1 speaks with the utmost confidence4 ,he says1 8,and now 7#ahgh7 we present our system of instruction1 not as a project1 but as an accomplished fact1 confirmed by the long experience of ten years of success in its results40 ,the methods of instruction of the school at ,moscow were introduced into all the technical schools of ,russia in #ahgj4 ,a similar degree of success has attended the ,royal ,mechanic ,art ,school at ,komotau1 ,bohemia4 ,the management says1 8,the school has shown the most brilliant proofs of usefulness1 and the ends gained have been acknowledged at home and abroad4 ,one proof is that in spite of the hard times all the pupils from ,komotau have found occupation in different manufacturing establishments2 and another that ,england1 a country unsurpassed in the manufactures of iron and steel1 has already sent some students to the school40 ,if the pupil in the ,manual ,training ,school makes as rapid progress intellectually as the pupil in the public or private school of corresponding grade1 it follows that whatever skill in the use of tools is acquired1 and whatever knowledge of practical mechanics is gained--these stand for the net gain of the pupil of the new system of education4 ,but much more follows by implication4 ,for if the few pupils of the world's few manual training schools are making equal intellectual progress with the many pupils of the many schools of the old rgime1 and making such progress in a little more than half the study-hours1 the consideration of overwhelming import is the loss sustained by the millions of pupils being trained under the old system4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women ,a ,,necessity4 ,the ,difference between ,ancient and ,modern ,systems of ,education4 -- ,plato ,blinded by ,half-truths4 -- ,no place in the present order of things for ,dogmatisms4 -- ,education commences at ,birth4 -- ,the ,influence of ,woman extends from the ,cradle to the ,grave4 -- ,the ,crime of ,crimes4 -- ,neglect to educate ,woman4 -- ,the ,superiority of ,women over ,men as ,teachers4 -- ,froebel discovered it4 -- ,nature designed ,woman to ,teach2 hence the ,importance of ,fitting her for her ,highest ,destiny4 ,this1 from the lips of ,plato1 was the theory of the ancients3 8,the earth is the common mother of the human race1 but it has pleased the gods to mix gold in the composition of some1 silver in that of others1 iron and copper in that of others40#e ,on this divinely established principle of caste all the ancient educational systems were founded4 ,they were limited to the development of the few in whose composition gold was supposed to be mixed4 #e 8,the ,republic of ,plato10 p4 #aad4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahha4 ,the idea of a universal education is modern1 and all other differences between the ancients and moderns combined are as nothing to this one fundamental difference between the two civilizations4 ,plato's ideal republic was based upon the assumption that the 8guardians0 might be made just and wise by educating them2 but that the other classes might also be made just and wise by education1 and the ,state be so rendered absolutely secure1 did not occur to the great philosopher4 ,plato was blinded by half-truths1 as ,rousseau was two thousand years later1 when he said1 8,the poor stand in no need of education2 that of their station is confined1 and they cannot obtain any other40#f ,that men are created unequal intellectually is only a half-truth in an educational view2 the whole truth is that every child is susceptible of the developing influence of education1 and hence the obligation of the ,state to educate relates to all children4 ,plato's simile of the gold1 the silver1 and the iron shows how autocratically even the greatest mind is controlled by its environment1 and limited by the facts which constitute the basis of its generalizations4 ,were ,plato teaching here1 now1 he would transpose the order of statement in his simile1 since iron1 not gold1 is the king of metals4 ,each generation increases the world's stock of facts2 hence there is no place in the modern order of things for the dogmatist--the dogmatisms of yesterday become apt themes for the satires of to-day1 subjecting their authors to ridicule4 ,this fact should impress upon professional teachers1 and upon all persons engaged in seeking to promote the cause of education1 the importance of a reverently studious habit of mind touching the progress of events4 ,the tyranny of tradition is an ever-present1 potent influence1 and only the growing mind can resist it4 #f 8,emilius and ,sophia10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dj4 ,london3 #agfg4 ,but there are certain principles upon which not only ancient and modern educators agree1 but about which there is no dispute between existing rival schools1 as1 for example1 this proposition of ,plato-- 8,the beginning is the most important part1 especially in dealing with anything young and tender1 for that is the time when any impression which one may desire to communicate is most readily stamped and taken40#g #g 8,the ,republic of ,plato10 p4 #fe4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahha4 ,and this proposition of ,rousseau-- 8,the education of a man commences at his birth2 before he can speak1 before he can understand1 he is already instructed4444 ,trace the progress of the most ignorant of mortals from his birth to the present hour and you will be astonished at the knowledge he has acquired40#h #h 8,emilius and ,sophia10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #ed4 ,london3 #agfg4 ,and this further proposition1 also of ,rousseau-- 8,the common profession of all men is humanity2 and whoever is well educated to discharge the duties of a man cannot be badly prepared to fill up any of those offices that have a relation to him40#i #i ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i41 p #ac4 ,the truth of these propositions being admitted1 some conception may be formed of the tremendous influence exerted by woman upon the destinies of the human race4 ,it extends literally from the cradle to the grave4 ,all other influences combined are less potent1 less comprehensive than this single1 persistent force that creates the very atmosphere in which the infant mind develops1 holding the ground alone and undisturbed until the child's plastic character has been formed1 receiving ineradicable impressions4 ,what a crime1 then1 was the neglect of the people of past ages to educate woman6 ,it is in vain that the education of man is attempted if that of woman is neglected4 ,it was ,rousseau who in despair exclaimed3 8,how can a child be properly educated by one who has not been properly educated himself80 ,since1 therefore1 the education of the man begins while he lies helpless in his mother's arms1 and since the first steps in this direction are the most important1 and since some sort of education proceeds with almost inconceivable rapidity through all the early years of life1 it follows that the kindergarten fills a place in the educational field entirely unoccupied until the time of ,froebel4 ,he first applied the ideas of ,rousseau to school life4 ,but when the kindergarten receives the child1 three or four of the most precious educational years have already passed away1 and at the still tender age of seven the child is surrendered to a very different system of training4 ,the kindergarten is therefore only a brief episode in the educational period of the child's life4 ,but if it be the true education1 it is susceptible of universal application4 ,throughout all nature the order of development is constant and harmonious1 and the child-nature cannot in reason constitute an exception to this rule4 ,froebel said1 8,the end and aim of all our work should be the harmonious growth of the whole being40 ,if his principle is the true one1 his method is susceptible of such modification and expansion as to render it applicable to the whole educational period4 ,all mothers should therefore be trained in the principles and methods of the new education--the kindergarten system should prevail in all schools1 and the kindergarten curriculum should be extended and adapted to all ages and grades of pupils4 ,several great minds1 separated by considerable intervals of time1 have united in condemning the old systems of education--,bacon1 ,comenius1 ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel4 ,bacon1 himself a university man1 said1 8,they learn nothing at the universities but to believe20 and he proposed that a college be appropriated to the discovery of new truth1 8to mix like a living spring with the stagnant waters40 ,three of these great men--,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel--were professional teachers4 ,theoretically they were in accord with and followers of ,bacon1 and in practice they were substantially agreed4 ,comenius said1 8,let things that have to be done be learned by doing them40 ,pestalozzi said1 8,education is the generation of power10 and ,froebel said1 8,the end and aim of all our work should be the harmonious growth of the whole being40 ,these are very high authorities1 and they are buttressed by seemingly impregnable educational propositions4 ,the record of ,froebel's life is worthy of great weight in support of his theory4 ,his devotion to the cause of education was absolute4 ,he never knew a selfish aim4 ,he struggled for the race1 not for self4 ,he was the victim of many misfortunes1 but none disturbed the serenity of this great soul devoted to the greatest of great causes--the cause of education4 ,and education to his apprehension was the thorough training of every faculty of the mind and every power of the body for the duties of actual practical life4 ,his love embraced the world in its entirety and in all its parts4 ,dying1 he said1 8,i love flowers1 men1 children1 ,god6 ,i love everything60 ,it was his profoundly philosophic conception of the innate lovableness of every natural object that made him shudder at the cruel distortion wrought in the natures of little children by false methods of education4 ,hence his intense devotion to the subject of infant training1 and hence the excellence of the system which bears his name4 ,froebel's most subtile discovery was the fact of the superiority of women over men1 as teachers4 ,only an honest1 brave soul could have made this discovery1 for tradition stood like a lion in the way1 and prejudice discouraged investigation4 ,but ,froebel sought truth for truth's sake1 fearlessly defying tradition and ignoring prejudice2 and years of experiment convinced him that the greatest measure of success in infant training was surely attainable through women4 ,that this discovery1 so simple1 yet so big with grand possibilities1 was not made earlier is due to the fact that there is so little really independent thought1 so little investigation free from the trammels of prejudice4 ,now that a great mind has pointed the way it is obvious that ,nature1 having designed that the years of early childhood should be spent with the mother1 must have also designed that women should be the chief educators of children4 ,and it follows1 of course1 that the education of women is more important than that of men1 since it is from them that children receive their first impressions1 and since first impressions are indelibly stamped upon the infant mind1 giving it form1 color1 and substance4 ,in confiding to women this great trust1 ,froebel imposed upon them an incalculable weight of responsibility4 ,it comprehends the destiny of the human race1 involving the problem of its progress or retrogression4 ,a common first conception of the kindergarten is--a convenient asylum for the children of mothers who desire to be relieved of their care4 ,a more thoughtful study reveals its poetry and sentiment1 the innocent joy of the assembly of pupils1 the harmony of song1 and the grace of motion in the games and dances4 ,a final1 large view discloses the true educational principle4 ,the kindergarten is more clearly comprehended after studying the manual training school--moving from the effect to the cause2 for as the child is father of the man1 so the kindergarten is father of the manual training school4 ,the kindergarten comes first in the order of development1 and leads logically to the manual training school4 ,the same principle underlies both4 ,in both it is sought to generate power by dealing with actualities4 ,the corner-stone of both is object-teaching--teaching through things instead of through signs of things4 ,this principle1 common to both1 is the concrete as opposed to the abstract4 ,the theory of both is that1 in teaching1 ideas should never be isolated from the objects they represent4,e#c ,the kindergarten and the manual training school1 being one in principle1 should have common methods of instruction1 varied sufficiently to adapt them to the whole range of school life4 ,e#c 8,this method of object teaching is perhaps the greatest service which the naturalistic school has rendered to the cause of education4 ,hinted at by ,rabelais and ,locke1 still more largely developed by ,rousseau1 it has received1 in the last century1 a more accurate and scientific form1 and is probably destined to become the source of a new curriculum in which literature will only hold a secondary place40--8,educational ,theories10 p4 #aji4 ,by ,oscar ,browning1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhe4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,moral ,,effect ,,of ,,manual ,,training4 ,mental ,impulses are often ,vicious2 but the ,exertion of ,physical ,power in the ,arts is always ,beneficent -- hence ,manual ,training tends to correct vicious mental ,impulses4 -- ,every mental ,impression produces a moral ,effect4 -- ,all ,training is ,moral as well as ,mental4 -- ,selfishness is total ,depravity2 but ,selfishness has been ,deified under the name of ,prudence4 -- ,napoleon an ,example of ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,end of ,selfishness is ,disaster2 but ,prevailing ,systems of ,education promote ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,modern ,city an ,illustration of ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,ancient ,city4 -- ,existing ,systems of ,education ,negatively ,wrong4 -- ,manual ,training supplies the lacking ,element4 -- ,the ,objective must take the ,place of the ,subjective in ,education4 -- ,words without ,acts are as dead as ,faith without ,works4 ,education1 or training1 has two immediate and continuous effects--the development of innate mental qualities or aptitudes and the formation of character4 ,in an orderly logical system of training the development would be harmonious1 and the resulting formation of character symmetrical4 ,these are1 however1 ideal conditions requiring a perfect system of training1 and students free from the perversions and deformities growing out of the law of heredity4 ,but under any system of training there is progress--development and character formation4 ,the aphorism1 8,an idle brain is the devil's workshop10 expresses only a half-truth4 ,what it means is this3 if the mind is not well employed it will be ill employed2 or if it is not occupied with good thoughts it will be occupied with evil thoughts4 ,the mind of man is never at rest1 in equilibrium1 even in a state of barbarism4 ,indeed this is obvious1 since all civilizations are growths from states of savagery4 ,but the barbaric line once passed1 development is greatly accelerated1 assuming with the evolution of the ages the form of a geometrical progression4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of modern civilization is action4 ,in so far as this action1 which may be called the impulsive force of the spirit of the age1 is natural and orderly1 it constitutes an aid to the processes of education2 if otherwise1 it is obstructive1 hindering them4 ,the law of mental development is not the exact correlative of the law of physical development4 ,the direct aim of physical training is muscular power2 of mental training the aim is mental power and rectitude4 ,physical power is not intrinsically vicious2 it becomes vicious only when exerted under a vicious intellectual impulse4 ,but this is not necessarily true of mental power2 for mental power may be gained quite apart from the element of rectitude1 in which event it is vicious1 and may be exerted in scorn of the accepted standards of right1 truth1 and justice4 ,as a matter of fact it is often so exerted1 and the fact that it is so exerted accounts for the crimes of individuals1 the faults of society1 and the errors of governments4 ,the constitution of mental power is1 then1 complex1 while that of physical power is simple4 ,if mental power consists of sense perception1 or understanding1 and moral perception1 or rectitude1 in due proportion1 the issue is a noble character2 but if rectitude is wanting1 the issue is an evil character4 ,if1 on the other hand1 there is no interference with the orderly development of physical power1 the issue of its exertion is always skill--skill applied in innumerable forms to the uses of man4 ,only through a mental impulse rendered vicious by the absence of the element of rectitude can physical power be diverted from its naturally beneficent mission4 ,it follows that most of the evils of civilization flow from an ill-balanced mental constitution--a mental constitution wanting the essential element of rectitude4 ,since1 then1 mental development1 under certain widely prevailing conditions1 is so prolific of evil1 and physical development or skill so universally prolific of good1 it is obvious that the beneficent influence of the latter should1 if practicable1 be brought to bear upon the former in educational systems4 ,in a word1 may not the two systems of training be so connected in the schools as to cause the manual to react upon the mental1 with the effect of greatly stimulating the ethical side of the mind8 ,it is not essential to our purpose to inquire whether a perfect system of education1 and hence an ideal state of society1 is possible4 ,it will be sufficient if we are able to show wherein prevailing systems of education can be improved4 ,in a former chapter we sought to show that the use of mechanical tools stimulates the intellect2 in the present chapter it is our purpose to endeavor to show that manual training tends to the promotion of rectitude1 to the up building of character4 ,for purposes of culture the mind consists of divisions1 as the body consists of members4 ,it is susceptible of development in the line of the application of mental training1 as any member of the body is susceptible of development through physical training or use4 ,for example1 the memory may be invigorated by the constant application of certain kinds of mental training1 as the arm is strengthened by the constant use of the sledge-hammer4 ,but if the mental training which stimulates the memory is applied to the neglect of other lines of training1 the memory will be strengthened at the expense of some other faculty of the mind1 as the excessive use of the sledge-hammer strengthens the arm at the cost of other members of the body4 ,in the one case the mind1 and in the other the body will be deformed4 ,in the case of the sledge-hammer training the muscles of the arm will stand out like whip-cords1 while those of the legs will shrivel and become attenuated4 ,in the case of the training of the memory that faculty will show an abnormal development1 while some other faculty1 as the power of ratiocination1 probably1 will become weak4 ,it is not necessary in this connection to inquire into the origin of moral sentiments1 or to consider the rival theories on the subject4 ,however men may differ as between the two schools of moral philosophers--the sentimentalists and the utilitarians--they will agree that the moral side of the mind1 so to speak1 consists of divisions like the mental side2 that these divisions are the source1 respectively1 of good and evil tendencies1 and that these tendencies are susceptible of cultivation2 that the evil may be restrained and the good developed1 and vice versa4 ,nor will it be disputed that there is such a blending of the moral with the mental nature in the mind of man as to render any consideration of the subject irrational and incomplete which does not comprehend both1 and treat them1 practically1 as one and the same4 ,man is so constituted1 and his relations to society are such1 that every mental impression he receives produces a moral effect1 the character of which is1 of course1 largely dependent upon the accepted standards of right1 truth1 and justice4 ,hence all scholastic training is both mental and moral4 ,it is moral as well as mental1 whether the instructor will it so or not2 and that it is moral is well1 since it is obviously true1 as ,galton pertinently remarks1 that 8,great men have usually high moral natures1 and are affectionate and reverential1 inasmuch as mere brain without heart is insufficient to achieve eminence40 ,selfishness is the arch enemy of virtue2 from it all forms of immorality spring1 and its last analysis is total depravity4 ,but literature1 which is the fruitage of education1 is full of maxims in honor of selfishness4 ,said the ,dauphin to the ,french king1 8,self-love1 my liege1 is not so vile a sin as self-neglecting40 ,said ,herbert1 8,help thyself and ,god will help thee40 8,a penny saved is as good as a penny earned10 said ,franklin2 and the grasping 8,yankee0 stretches the maxim a point in saying to his son1 8,make money honestly if you can1 but make money40 ,the following1 also1 are current maxims3 8,every man is the architect of his own fortune20 8,every tub must stand upon its own bottom20 8,in the race of life the devil takes the hindmost20 8,look to the main chance20 and1 8,keep what you have got1 and catch what you can40 ,to the same purpose is the famous old aphorism of which ,napoleon the ,first was so fond1 8,god always favors the heaviest battalions40 ,emerson declared that ,napoleon represented 8the spirit of modern commerce1 of money1 and material power10 and he certainly was the very incarnation of selfishness4#aj ,he had a hand of iron1 and he laid it heavily on all who opposed him4 ,if it became necessary to imprison his enemies he imprisoned them2 if it became necessary to kill them he cut off their heads4 ,when charged with the commission of great crimes1 he retorted1 8,men of my stamp do not commit crimes60 8,i have always marched with the opinion of great masses and events10 he exclaimed1 with the insolence of a butcher exhibiting his bloody hands4 ,old-fashioned codes of morals were for those who opposed his plans1 not for him4 ,but the end of selfishness is disaster4 ,it is as dangerous to assume to rise above moral laws as to sink below them2 in the one case they crush1 and in the other they undermine4 8,the half0 is1 after all1 8more than the whole10 for 8the half0 may be retained1 but 8the whole0 is sure to slip from the fingers of grasping avarice4 ,napoleon1 who defied all mankind1 expiated his crimes on a rock in mid-ocean4 ,there1 whining1 protesting1 and prating of injustice1 he died miserably1 a colossal example of the folly of selfishness4 #aj 8#8,god has granted1' says the ,koran1 #8to every people a prophet in its own tongue4' ,paris1 and ,london1 and ,new ,york1 the spirit of commerce1 of money1 and material power1 were also to have their prophet2 and ,bonaparte was qualified and sent4 ,every one of the million readers of anecdotes1 or memoirs1 or lives of ,napoleon delights in the page1 because he studies in it his own history40--8,representative ,men10 p4 #bba4 ,boston3 ,phillips1 ,sampson ,co41 #aheh4 ,it would be impossible more severely to arraign existing educational methods2 for men are what education makes them4 ,selfishness seeks to wring from society a support without giving to it an equivalent return4 ,what industry creates and saves to society1 selfishness seeks to misappropriate to its own use2 hence selfishness is in conflict with the true spirit of civilization1 which is the compact of all to protect each in his rights4 ,selfishness caused the destruction of all the governments of ancient times1 and it has been the cause of all the revolutions of modern times4 ,there can be no stability in government until altruism takes the place of selfishness in the world's code of ethics4 ,the sole condition of the stability of the ,state is a disposition on the part of its people to conform to justice and correct moral principles in all social relations4 ,any system of education that does not tend to produce a state of morals conformable to this high standard is not merely defective2 it is radically wrong1 and therefore positively vicious4 ,the true purpose of education is the harmonious development of all the powers of the man--mental1 moral1 and physical4 ,but harmony in a selfish character is impossible1 for selfishness is blind of one eye1 so to speak2 it considers only one side of a cause--the side that relates to its interest1 regardless of all other interests4 ,let not prudence be confounded with selfishness4 ,prudence and selfishness are as wide apart as the poles4 ,extreme prudence is perfectly consistent with entire rectitude1 while extreme selfishness is the synonym of depravity2 hence the first step in education is to eliminate selfishness from the mind1 and the next step is to put rectitude in its place4 ,prevailing systems of education no doubt promote the spirit of selfishness3#aa witness the character of the struggle for self-aggrandizement4 ,it is more intense and more widely extended than at any period of the world's history4 ,that it is more intense is shown by the more and more rapid concentration of populations in cities1 where the struggle assumes its most intense form1 and exhibits itself in its most threatening aspect4 #aa 8,in small1 undeveloped societies1 where for ages complete peace has continued1 there exists nothing like what we call ,government2 no coercive agency1 but mere honorary headship1 if any headship at all4 ,in these exceptional communities1 unaggressive1 and from special causes unaggressed upon1 there is so little deviation from the virtues of truthfulness1 honesty1 justice1 and generosity1 that nothing beyond an occasional expression of public opinion by informally assembled elders is needful40--8,political ,institutions10 #dcg1 #egc2 8,the ,sins of ,legislators10 in 8,the ,man versus the ,state10 p4 #dd4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,cities have always been plague-spots on the body politic1 and they are not less so now than in ancient times4 ,it is in cities that all dangers to the ,state originate2 and the sole1 fundamental reason why cities are a standing menace to the integrity of the social compact is the fact that they are dominated by selfishness4 ,it is in cities that the unnatural1 unwholesome desire to live without labor1 to live by speculative enterprises1 becomes a consuming passion1 inoculating with a deeper and darker degree of selfishness an ever-widening circle of people2 and selfishness at last inevitably leads to anarchy4 ,it leads to anarchy and chaos because both classes of society become depraved--the rich and powerful through indolence and sensual indulgence1 and the poor and wretched through ignorance and privation and their attendant mean vices4 ,the modern city is the despair of the political economist4 ,it grows relatively faster in population than the rural district1 and it would be the extreme of optimism to declare that it grows better4,e#d ,it does not matter that the city is the centre of learning1 the nursery of all the active intelligences which are achieving fresh triumphs daily in every department of science1 literature1 and art4 ,it is also the centre of vice1 and the nursery of every variety of crime4 ,the difficulty--nay1 the despair--of the situation is not relieved or mitigated by the undisputed fact that the ancient city was much worse morally and politically than the modern city1 and hence that as between ,rome and ,chicago there is an immense moral and political advantage in favor of the latter4 ,if ,chicago is retrograding morally and politically1 what is to prevent it from sinking to the moral and political status of ,rome under the infamous emperors of the period of its decadence8 ,if the modern ,american city is rapidly degenerating1 both as a moral force and a political institution1 what is to arrest its downward progress8 ,what influence is to intervene to reverse the order and nature of its development8 ,rome1 in the very agonies of political dissolution1 possessed all the then known arts1 a splendid literature1 and a school of philosophy whose ethical code was more lofty1 if less human1 than that of the new system which was struggling to replace the old4 ,that the inconceivably atrocious gladiatorial games should have developed into such huge proportions in conjunction with the sublime moral teachings of ,seneca1 ,plutarch1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 and a score of others1 is the despair of students of ,roman history4 ,while they taught1 emperors and people alike feasted their eyes on bloody orgies of men and beasts1 on scenes of the most horrible barbarity4 ,caligula took special delight in watching the countenances of the dying1 8for he had learned to take an artistic pleasure in observing the variations of their agony40 ,criminals dressed in the skins of wild beasts were thrown to bulls which were maddened with red-hot irons4 8,four hundred bears were killed in a single day under ,caligula2 three hundred on another day under ,claudius4 ,under ,nero1 four hundred tigers fought with bulls and elephants2 four hundred bears and three hundred lions were slaughtered by his soldiers4 ,in a single day1 at the dedication of the ,colosseum by ,titus1 five thousand animals perished4 ,under ,trajan the games continued for one hundred and twenty-three successive days4 ,lions1 tigers1 rhinoceroses1 hippopotami1 giraffes1 bulls1 stags1 even crocodiles and serpents1 were employed to give novelty to the spectacle40 ,and yet the civilization that produced these games gave to the world1 forever1 the moral precepts of the stoics and philosophers4 ,cicero had maintained the doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man4 8,nature ordains10 he says1 8that a man should wish the good of every man1 whoever he may be1 for this very reason3 that he is a man40 ,menander maintained that 8man should deem nothing human foreign to his interest40 ,lucan looked forward to the time when 8the human race will cast aside its weapons1 and all nations learn to love40 ,in a letter on the death of his slaves ,pliny exhibited feelings of strong human affection1 and ,plutarch1 in a letter of consolation to his wife on the death of his daughter1 left a touching record of the tenderness of his heart in the recital of a simple trait of the child3 8,she desired her nurse to press even her dolls to the breast4 ,she was so loving that she wished everything that gave her pleasure to share in the best that she had40 ,says ,seneca1 8,the whole universe which you see around you1 comprising all things both divine and human1 is one4 ,we are members of one great body40 ,and ,epictetus1 8,you are a citizen and a part of the world4 ,the duty of a citizen is in nothing to consider his own interest distinct from that of others40 ,the contrast between these noble moral sentiments and the actual life of the ,roman people is truly startling4,e#e ,it is plain that the profession of lofty moral sentiments by a class1 the possession of high literary attainments1 and an extensive acquaintance with the arts1 do not always afford protection against national degradation and decay4 ,nor is it by any means certain that the ,christian religion is destined to effect more in this regard than the pagan code of morals4 ,rome embraced religion1 but its conversion was powerless to avert political and commercial destruction4 ,the modern city has for guides the example of all the ancient civilizations and political and moral systems1 and in addition it has1 in its most vital form1 the ,christian system of morals and faith4 ,but notwithstanding all these helps it is politically corrupt and morally depraved4 ,its streets are the scenes of vice scarcely less revolting than those of ancient ,rome4 ,it harbors an army of criminals which grows with its growth1 and is without any systematized effort either to reform or abolish it4 ,indeed this army of criminals is constantly reinforced in an increasing ratio to the whole population from the ranks of the rising generation1 which is to a degree enforced to ignorance by the inadequacy of educational facilities4#ab ,its power to accumulate wealth is increasing1 but this power is confined to relatively fewer hands1 and this is one of the most alarming features of the situation4 ,for the increase of ignorance1 vice1 and crime is sure to keep pace with the abnormal growth of estates1 stimulated to the highest degree by dishonest business practices and gigantic schemes of speculation4 #ab ,in support of the truth of these propositions it is sufficient merely to allude to the late disclosures by the ,pall ,mall ,gazette of the prevalence of revolting crimes in ,london1 ,england4 ,it is also pertinent to remark the attitude of hostility maintained by the higher classes 7so called7 of the ,english people towards the editor of the journal in which the disclosures were made1 as significant of an alarming degeneration of the moral sense of the ,british public4 ,it does not follow because prevailing methods of education promote the spirit of selfishness1 and hence contain the seeds of social and moral decay1 that they are wholly vicious2 but it does follow1 if they are not positively wrong1 that they are negatively wrong4 ,let us assume that they are only negatively wrong1 that they lack an essential element in all mental and moral training--the manual element2 and let us try to discover what would be the effect of the incorporation of this element into the curriculum of the schools4 ,a system of education consisting exclusively of mental exercises promotes selfishness because such training is subjective4 ,its effects flow inward2 they relate to self4 ,all mental acquirements become a part of self1 and so remain forever1 unless they are transmuted into things through the agency of the hand4 ,it is through the hand alone that the mind finally impresses itself upon matter4 ,in other words1 thought and speech must be incarnate in things or they are dead4 ,the orator appeals to the people to strike for their rights2 the people rend the air with shouts and subside into silence4 ,the orator cries1 8,to ,arms60 ,again the people shout1 and again subside into silence4 ,the orator's thoughts are of carnage1 his words of flames1 but they are as dead as if never uttered because no hand is raised to embody them in deeds4 ,manual training1 on the other hand1 promotes altruism because it is objective4 ,its effects flow outward2 they relate not to self but to the human race4 ,the skilled hand confers benefits upon man1 and each benefit so conferred exerts the natural reflex moral influence of a good act upon the mind of the benefactor4,e#f ,morality is not a mere sentiment1 a barren ideality4 ,it is true there is a negative morality which consists in refraining from the commission of wrongful acts4 ,but the morality of the great ethical teachers is positive2 it consists in doing4 ,christ said1 8,inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren1 ye have done it unto me40 ,words without acts are as dead as faith without works4 ,paul said1 8,though ,i have all faith1 so that ,i could remove mountains1 and have not charity1 ,i am nothing40 ,morality is a vital principle whose exemplification consists in doing justice2 and justice is that virtue 8which consists in giving to every one what is his due2 practical conformity to the laws and to principles of rectitude in the dealings of men with each other2 honesty1 integrity in commerce or mutual intercourse40 ,it follows that morality can no more be acquired by memorizing a series of maxims than the art of using tools can be acquired by studying the laws of mechanics and of mechanism4 ,e#d 8,no city was ever so deeply disgraced by its municipal government as the city of ,new ,york4 ,fourteen years ago the exposure of the ,tweed ,ring revealed a corruption in that government which had mastered ,legislatures and courts1 and was plotting to control the national administration2 and as we write1 all of the living ex-members of the late ,board of ,aldermen1 except two1 are held for trial for bribery and corruption1 or are in hiding4 8,such a shame is unprecedented4 ,it is in itself a sharp satire upon popular elections1 as well as upon the character and public spirit of ,new ,york2 and the worst of it is that1 bad as it is1 no citizen probably feels himself to be humiliated1 or is conscious of any personal responsibility4 ,to the most stupid man1 however1 such facts forecast a constant deterioration of the situation40--8,harper's ,weekly10 ,april #bd1 #ahhf4 ,e#e ,the morality of the present age1 like that of the ,romans1 is a mere theory1 entirely destitute of vital force4 ,selfishness is still1 as it always has been1 the controlling element in human conduct1 and selfishness and morality are utterly incompatible4 ,moral precepts are inculcated in a perfunctory way1 as ,greek is taught because it is the fashion1 but with no more idea that they will be adopted as the rule of life1 than that the language of ,homer will again be used as the instrument of speech4 ,the contempt in which morality is commonly held is well shown by the remark of a popular lecturer1 who said of ,peter the ,great1 that1 8viewed morally he was a monster1 and by the gauge of decency1 a brute1 but a giant from the lofty heights of statesmanship and civilization40 ,how vain is the hope of reform while leaders of men deem it possible for statesmanship to be rendered lofty by a moral monster1 or that the cause of civilization may be advanced by a brute6 ,e#f 8,the artisan stands between every man1 woman1 and child and the crude materials embodied in the three kingdoms of ,nature1 and by the magic of his skill they are transformed into means serviceable for use4 ,the wood in the forest1 the marble in the quarry1 the clay in the bank1 the metal in the mine pass through his hands1 take on the form of his thought1 become arranged by his intelligence1 and the product is the modern dwelling4 ,is there any fancy in fairy tale more wonderful than this8 ,by the skill of the tanner and the shoemaker the raw skin is transformed into the useful shoe4 ,do you ever think of your indebtedness to these humble toilers for your protection and comfort8 ,do they ever think of the service they are rendering you8--a service which cannot be compensated by dollars and cents4 ,the jewels which sparkle in royal crowns and add lustre to queenly beauty1 the silks and precious stuffs which clothe and give new charms to the loveliness of women1 owe their beauty1 their lustre1 their value to the artisan4 ,he stands between the worm1 the mine1 and the wearer2 and by the transforming power of his skill and patient labor they become robes of beauty and gems of light4 ,but of far greater importance is the service he is rendering to our common humanity4 ,he takes the material which our ,heavenly ,father has provided in such abundance1 puts his thought1 his intelligence1 and he has every conceivable motive for putting his love and good-will toward men1 into them and passing them on as tokens of his love and fidelity to human good4 ,everything he touches becomes a message not only of his knowledge and his skill but a fit embodiment of his regard for his fellow-men40--8,mechanical ,employments as ,means of ,human ,culture40 ,rev4 ,chauncey ,giles4 ,eleventh ,series ,tracts1 p4 #ae4 ,philadelphia3 ,new ,church ,tract and ,publication ,society4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,mind ,,and ,,the ,,hand4 ,the ,mind and the ,hand are ,allies2 the ,mind speculates1 the ,hand tests its ,speculations in ,things4 -- ,the ,hand explodes the ,errors of the ,mind -- it searches after ,truth and finds it in ,things4 -- ,mental ,errors are subtile2 they elude us1 but the ,false in ,things stands self-exposed4 -- ,the ,hand is the ,mind's ,moral ,rudder4 -- ,the ,organ of ,touch the most ,wonderful of the ,senses2 all the ,others are ,passive2 it alone is ,active4 -- ,sir ,charles ,bell's ,discovery of a 8,muscular ,sense40 -- ,dr4 ,henry ,maudsley on the ,muscular ,sense4 -- ,the ,hand influences the ,brain4 -- ,connected ,thought impossible without ,language1 and ,language dependent upon ,objects2 and all ,artificial ,objects are the ,work of the ,hand4 -- ,progress is therefore the ,imprint of the ,hand upon ,matter in ,art4 -- ,the ,hand is nearer the ,brain than are the ,eye and the ,ear4 -- ,the ,marvellous ,works of the ,hand4 ,a purely mental acquirement is a theorem--something to be proved4 ,as to whether the theorem is susceptible of proof is always a question until the doubt is solved by the act of doing4 ,hence ,comenius's definition of education--8,let those things that have to be done be learned by doing them0--is profoundly philosophical1 since nothing can be fully learned without the final act of doing1 owing to the fact of the incompleteness of all theoretical knowledge4 ,the mind and the hand are natural allies4 ,the mind speculates2 the hand tests the speculations of the mind by the law of practical application4 ,the hand explodes the errors of the mind1 for it inquires1 so to speak1 by the act of doing1 whether or not a given theorem is demonstrable in the form of a problem4 ,the hand is1 therefore1 not only constantly searching after the truth1 but is constantly finding it4#ac ,it is possible for the mind to indulge in false logic1 to make the worse appear the better reason1 without instant exposure4 ,but for the hand to work falsely is to produce a misshapen thing--tool or machine--which in its construction gives the lie to its maker4 ,thus the hand that is false to truth1 in the very act publishes the verdict of its own guilt1 exposes itself to contempt and derision1 convicts itself of unskilfulness or of dishonesty4 #ac 8,in other cases1 even by the strictest attention1 it is not possible to give complete or strict truth in words4 ,we could not1 by any number of words1 describe the color of a ribbon so as to enable a mercer to match it without seeing it4 ,but an #8accurate' colorist can convey the required intelligence at once1 with a tint on paper40--8,the ,laws of ,feesole10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #g4 ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahgi4 ,there is no escaping the logical conclusion of an investigation into the relations existing between the mind and the hand4 ,the hand is scarcely less the guide than the agent of the mind4 ,it steadies the mind4 ,it is the mind's moral rudder1 its balance-wheel4 ,it is the mind's monitor4 ,it is constantly appealing to the mind1 by its acts1 to 8hew to the line1 let the chips fly where they may40 ,dr4 ,george ,wilson says1 8,in many respects the organ of touch1 as embodied in the hand1 is the most wonderful of the senses4 ,the organs of the other senses are passive2 the organ of touch alone is active4444 ,the hand selects what it shall touch1 and touches what it pleases4 ,it puts away from it the things which it hates1 and beckons towards it the things which it desires4444 ,moreover1 the hand cares not only for its own wants1 but when the other organs of the senses are rendered useless takes their duties upon it4444 ,the blind man reads with his hand1 the dumb man speaks with it2 it plucks the flower for the nostril1 and supplies the tongue with objects of taste4 ,not less amply does it give expression to the wit1 the genius1 the will1 the power of man4 ,put a sword into it and it will fight1 a plough and it will till1 a harp and it will play1 a pencil and it will paint1 a pen and it will speak4 ,what1 moreover1 is a ship1 a railway1 a light-house1 or a palace--what indeed is a whole city1 a whole continent of cities1 all the cities of the globe1 nay the very globe itself1 so far as man has changed it1 but the work of that giant hand with which the human race1 acting as one mighty man1 has executed his will40#ad #ad 8,the ,five ,gateways of ,knowledge10 p4 #aba4 ,by ,george ,wilson1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahha4 ,there is a philosophical explanation of the versatility of the hand so graphically portrayed in the foregoing passage1 and it is found in ,sir ,charles ,bell's great discovery of a 8muscular sense40 ,the principle of this discovery is that 8there are distinct nerves of sensation and of motion or volition--one set bearing messages from the body to the brain1 and the other from the brain to the body40 ,in his work on the hand1 after reviewing the line of argument which led to his discovery1 ,sir ,charles says1 8,by such arguments ,i have been in the habit of showing that we possess a muscular sense1 and that without it we could have no guidance of the frame4 ,we could not command our muscles in standing1 far less in walking1 leaping1 or running1 had we not a perception of the condition of the muscles previous to the exercise of the will4 ,and as for the hand1 it is not more the freedom of its action which constitutes its perfection1 than the knowledge which we have of these motions1 and our consequent ability to direct it with the utmost precision40#ae #ae 8,the ,hand3 its ,mechanism and ,vital ,endowments as ,evincing ,design10 p4 #aea4 ,by ,sir ,charles ,bell1 ,k4,g4,h41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,l4 and ,e4 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahfd4 ,on the influence of the muscular sense1 ,dr4 ,henry ,maudsley has these pertinent observations3 8,those who would degrade the body1 in order1 as they imagine1 to exalt the mind1 should consider more deeply than they do the importance of our muscular expressions of feeling4 ,the manifold shades and kinds of expression which the lips present--their gibes1 gambols1 and flashes of merriment2 the quick language of a quivering nostril2 the varied waves and ripples of beautiful emotion which play on the human countenance1 with the spasms of passion that disfigure it--all which we take such pains to embody in art--are simply effects of muscular action4444 ,fix the countenance in the pattern of a particular emotion--in a look of anger1 of wonder1 or of scorn--and the emotion whose appearance is thus imitated will not fail to be aroused4 ,and if we try1 while the features are fixed in the expression of one passion1 to call up in the mind a quite different one1 we shall find it impossible to do so4444 ,we perceive1 then1 that the muscles are not alone the machinery by which the mind acts upon the world1 but that their actions are essential elements in our mental operations4 ,the superiority of the human over the animal mind seems to be essentially connected with the greater variety of muscular action of which man is capable2 were he deprived of the infinitely varied movements of hands1 tongue1 larynx1 lips1 and face1 in which he is so far ahead of the animals1 it is probable that he would be no better than an idiot1 notwithstanding he might have a normal development of brain40#af #af 8,body and ,mind10 p4 #cb4 ,by ,henry ,maudsley1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,it is through the muscular sense that the hand influences the brain4 ,according to ,sir ,charles the hand acts first4 ,it telegraphs1 for example1 that it is ready to grasp the chisel or the sledge-hammer1 or seize the pen1 whereupon the brain telegraphs back precise directions as to the work to be done4 ,these messages to and fro are lightning-like flashes of intelligence1 which blend or fuse all the powers of the man1 both mental and physical1 and inform and inspire the mass with vital force4#ag #ag ,the goldsmith's art was one of the finest among the ancients1 and so continued far into the ,middle ,ages4 ,the cutting of cameos1 for example1 required the highest skill and produced the most exquisite results4 ,mr4 ,ruskin calls attention to the fact that 8all the great early ,italian masters of painting and sculpture1 without exception1 began by being goldsmiths' apprentices20 and that 8they felt themselves so indebted to1 and formed by1 the master craftsman who had mainly disciplined their fingers1 whether in work on gold or marble1 that they practically considered him their father1 and took his name rather than their own40--8,fors ,clavigera10 ,part ,,iii41 p4 #bia4 ,by ,john ,ruskin4 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahha4 ,through constant use the muscular sense is sharpened to a marvellous degree of fineness1 and the hand1 permeated by it1 forms habits which react powerfully upon the mind4 ,if1 now1 during the period of childhood and youth1 the hand is exercised in the useful and beautiful arts1 its muscular sense will be developed normally1 or in the direction of rectitude1 and the reflex effect of this growth upon the mind will be beneficent4 ,it is thus that the trained hand comes at last to foresee1 as it were1 that a false proposition is surely destined to be exploded4 ,the habit of rectitude gives it prescience4 ,it invariably discovers1 sooner or later1 that a false proposition1 when embodied in wood or iron1 becomes a conspicuous abortion1 involving in disgrace both the designer and the maker4 ,a false proposition in the abstract may be rendered very alluring2 a false proposition in the concrete is always hideous4 ,one of the chief effects of manual training is1 then1 the discovery and development of truth2 and truth1 in its broadest signification1 is merely another name for justice2 and justice is the synonym of morality4 ,it has been shown that thought and speech are dead unless embodied in things4 ,it may also be asserted with confidence that man would lose the power of speech almost wholly if his words should cease to be realized in things4 ,mr4 ,darwin declares that 8a complex train of thought can no more be carried on without the aid of words1 whether spoken or silent1 than a long calculation without the use of figures or algebra40#ah ,and ,dr4 ,maudsley says1 8,but neither these instances nor the case of ,laura ,bridgman can be used to prove that it is possible to think without any means of physical expression4 ,on the contrary the evidence is all the other way4 ,the deaf and dumb man invents his own signs1 which he draws from the nature of objects1 seizing the most striking outline1 or the principal movement of an action1 and using them afterwards as tokens to represent the objects4 ,the deaf and dumb gesticulate also as they think2 and ,laura ,bridgman's fingers worked1 making the initial movements for letters of the finger alphabet1 not only during her waking thoughts1 but in her dreams4 ,if we substitute for #8names' the motor intuitions1 or take care to comprise in language all the modes of expressing thoughts1 whether verbal1 vocal writing1 or gesture language1 then it is unquestionable that thought is impossible without language40#ai #ah 8,the ,descent of ,man10 p4 #hh4 ,by ,charles ,darwin1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahha4 #ai 8,physiology of the ,mind10 p4 #dhj4 ,by ,henry ,maudsley1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,as connected thoughts are impossible without words1 or signs of words1 so words are dependent upon objects for their existence4 ,says ,dr4 ,maudsley1 8,words cannot attain to definiteness save as living outgrowths of realities40#bj ,and ,heyse says1 8,thought is not even present to the thinker till he has set it forth out of himself40 #bj 8,i therefore declare my conviction10 says ,max ,mller1 8whether right or wrong1 as explicitly as possible1 that thought in one sense of the word1 i4 e41 in reasoning1 is impossible without language40--8,physiology of the ,mind10 p4 #dhj4 ,by ,henry ,maudsley1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,it follows that language has its origin not less in external objects than in the mind4 ,objects make impressions upon the mind through the senses1 and words serve as the means of preserving a record of such impressions and of communicating them to other minds4 ,if1 now1 the mind should cease to receive impressions1 language would no longer be required1 since there would be nothing to express2 and the occasion for the use of language ceasing to exist1 the power of speech would ultimately be lost4 ,the power of speech1 then1 depends upon a continuous succession of impressions made upon the mind by its contact1 through the senses1 with matter in its various forms1 whether in nature or in art4 ,it may also be claimed that the power of speech depends almost entirely upon the endless succession of fresh objects presented to the mind by the hand4 ,these form the subject as well as the occasion of speech4 ,if the hand should cease to make new things1 new words would cease to be required4 ,the principal changes in language arise out of new discoveries in science and new inventions in art1 each fresh discovery of science giving rise to many new things in art4 ,art and science react upon each other4#ba ,the growth of a ,state1 its advance in the scale of civilization1 depends upon progress in the practical arts4 ,hence the fact that1 when a ,state ceases to advance1 its language ceases to grow1 becomes stationary1 stagnates4 ,in such a ,state there would be no occasion for new words4 ,if a constantly diminishing number of objects were presented to the mind1 speech would become less and less necessary4 ,if no new objects were presented1 no fresh impressions upon the mind would be made1 and speech would degenerate into a mere iteration4 ,if the hands should cease to labor in the arts1 should cease to make things1 should cease to plant and gather1 the scope of speech would be still further restricted1 would be confined to an expression of the wants of savages subsisting on the native fruits of field and forest4 #ba 8,and the great advances in science have uniformly corresponded with the invention of some instrument by which the power of the senses has been increased1 or the range of action extended40--8,physiology of the ,mind10 p4 #h4 ,by ,henry ,maudsley1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,it comes to this1 that progress can find expression only in the concrete4 ,guttenberg had an idea that he could employ movable types in the production of books4 ,suppose he had been content with the mere promulgation of his theory in words1 and that those who came after him had been similarly content8 ,there would have been no printing-presses down to the present time4 ,suppose that ,watt and ,stephenson and ,fulton had been content with the declaration1 in words1 of the discoveries they made in regard to the application of the power of steam to useful purposes1 and that those who came after them had been similarly content8 ,there would have been neither railways1 nor steamships1 nor steam-driven machinery of any kind down to the present time4 ,as words are essential to the processes of thought1 so objects are essential to words or living speech4 ,and as all objects made by man owe their existence to the hand1 it follows that the hand exerts an incalculable influence upon the mind1 and so constitutes the most potent agency in the work of civilization4 ,it was not without good reason that ,anaxagoras characterized man as the wisest of animals because of his having hands4 ,and what is it to be wise8 ,to be wise is 8to have the power of discerning and judging correctly1 or of discriminating between what is true and what is false2 between what is fit and proper and what is improper40 ,the hand is used as the synonym of wisdom because it is only in the concrete that the false is sure of detection1 and it is through the hand alone that ideas are realized in things4#bb ,again we have the hand as the discoverer of truth4 #bb 8,let him the youth once learn to take a straight shaving off a plank1 or draw a fine curve without faltering1 or lay a brick level in its mortar1 and he has learned a multitude of other matters which no lips of man could ever teach him40--8,time and ,tide10 p4 #ade4 ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahhc4 ,the assertion of the majesty of the hand by the ,ionic philosopher of the fifth century ,b4,c4 contained the germ of the manual training idea of this latter part of the nineteenth century4 ,anaxagoras was unconsciously1 no doubt1 struggling toward the light1 toward the inductive method of investigation1 toward the sole avenue through which it is possible to study the mind1 namely1 through the body4 ,the ignorance of the ancients on the subject of physiology was so dense as to leave them no resource save speculative philosophy4 ,the progress made in the study of anatomy1 and organic and inorganic chemistry at ,alexandria1 was1 however1 considerable4 ,the foundations of a systematic physiology were being securely laid by ,hippocrates1 ,herophilus1 and their compeers of the medical profession1 and the way was thus being opened to an intelligent study of the mind4 ,it is highly probable that this growing disposition to investigate things1 together with the increasing importance to civilization of the useful arts1 would soon have reacted destructively upon the speculative philosophy of the time had not a series of national disasters1 involving the fall of ,greece and ,rome1 overwhelmed both arts and philosophy in one common ruin4 ,from the fall of ,rome to the time of ,bacon speculative philosophy dominated the world4 ,progress dates from the beginning of the seventeenth century1 but it was very slow until within a hundred years4 ,philosophy has now1 however1 found a scientific basis4 ,instead of speculating about the 8theory of vitality10 it concerns itself with 8the natural phenomena of living bodies1 so far as they are appreciable by the human senses and intelligence40 ,but the schools have not moved forward with events4 ,their methods are unscientific2 they are still dominated by the medival ideas of speculative philosophy4 ,one of the ablest educators in this country has well observed that 8there has been very little change in the ideas which have controlled our methods of education1 and these ideas were formed something like four hundred years ago4 ,like nearly all the great agencies of modern civilization1 the established system of education dates from the ,renaissance1 and the direction given to the schools at that time has been followed with but slight modification ever since40#bc #bc ,mr4 ,james ,mac,alister1 ,superintendent of ,schools of the ,city of ,philadelphia1 before the ,american ,institute of ,instruction at ,saratoga1 ,july #ac1 #ahhb4 ,the justice of this arraignment of the schools for extreme conservatism is shown by the remark of a prominent educator who opposes the incorporation of manual training in the curriculum of the public schools4 ,he says1 8,some even go so far as to regard the fingers as a new avenue to the brain1 and think that great pedagogic advantages will be given by the new method1 so that boys may make equal attainments in arithmetic1 reading1 and grammar in less time4444 ,they teachers will still find the eye and ear nearer to the brain than the hand40 ,no assumption could be more false than this1 that the eye and the ear are more important organs than the hand because they are located1 physically1 nearer the brain4 ,the attribute of mobility with which the hand is endowed confers upon it not only the potency of the closest possible proximity1 but each of the countless positions it may assume1 together with its flexibility and adaptability1 multiplies its powers in the order of a geometrical ratio4 ,this disposition to undervalue the hand is an inheritance from the speculative philosophy of the ,middle ,ages1 which was based on contempt of the body and all its members4 ,the effect of this false doctrine has been vicious in the extreme4 ,contempt for the body has generated a feeling of contempt for manual labor1 and repugnance to manual labor has multiplied dishonest practices in the course of the struggle to acquire wealth by any other means than manual labor1 and so corrupted society4 ,that man should feel contempt for the most efficient member of his own body is1 indeed1 incomprehensible1 since contempt for the hand leads logically to contempt for its works1 and its works comprise all the visible results of civilization4 ,to enumerate the works of the hand would be to describe the world as it at present exists in contradistinction to the world in a state of nature4 ,everywhere we behold with admiration and wonder the marvellous triumphs of the hand1 from the iron bridge that spans the torrent of ,niagara to the steel micrometer that measures the millionth part of an inch4 ,it matters not whether the hand is nearer or farther from the brain than the eye and the ear1 it is able to afford powerful aid to them4 ,man would explore the planetary system2 he lifts his longing eyes to the starry vault1 but in vain2 it is a sealed book6 ,the hand fashions the telescope1 adjusts it1 places it at a convenient angle1 and the milky way is resolved into millions of stars1 8scattered like glittering dust on the black ground of the general heavens10 the lunar mountains are measured1 and the spots on the sun revealed4 ,man would study the anatomy and habits of the myriads of insects in which the teeming earth abounds4 ,impossible6 ,the mechanism of the eye is not adapted to such a delicate operation4 ,but the hand presents the microscope1 and a world of hitherto unknown minute existences is revealed with a distinctness which permits the most exhaustive investigation4 ,thus1 through the aid of the hand1 the eye now contemplates with philosophic interest the ever-changing aspect of the spots on the sun at a distance of ninety million miles1 and now imprisons the red ant1 measuring only of an inch in length1 and studies its physiology1 counting its pulsations1 classifying its nerves and muscles1 and weighing its brain4 ,man would speak with his friend or business correspondent miles away4 ,neither the voice nor the ear is adapted to the task4 ,but the hand fashions and presents the telephone1 and the conversation proceeds even in a whisper4 ,it will be said that the mind devises the telescope1 the microscope1 and the telephone4 ,true1 but their construction would be impossible without the hand4 ,and is it at all probable that the mind would have devised these admirable instruments if man had been made without hands8#bd #bd 8,the hand is the most marvellous instrument in the world2 it is the necessary complement of the mind in dealing with matter in all its varied forms4 ,it is the hand that #8rounded ,peter's dome2' it is the hand that carved those statues in marble and bronze1 that painted those pictures in palace and church1 which we travel into distant lands to admire2 it is the hand that builds the ships which sail the sea1 laden with the commerce of the world2 it is the hand that constructs the machinery which moves the busy industries of this age of steam2 it is the hand that enables the mind to realize in a thousand ways its highest imaginings1 its profoundest reasonings1 and its most practical inventions40--,mr4 ,james ,mac,alister1 ,superintendent of ,schools of the ,city of ,philadelphia1 before the ,american ,institute of ,instruction at ,saratoga1 ,july #ac1 #ahhb4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,trained ,,hand4 ,the ,legend of ,adam and the ,stick with which he subdued the ,animals4 -- ,the ,stick is the ,symbol of ,power1 and only the ,hand can wield it4 -- ,the ,hand imprisons ,steam and ,electricity1 and keeps them at hard ,labor4 -- ,the ,destitution of ,england ,two ,hundred ,years ago3 a ,pen ,picture4 -- ,the ,transformation wrought by the ,hand3 a ,pen ,picture4 -- ,it is due1 not to ,men who make ,laws1 but to ,men who make ,things4 -- ,the ,scientist and the ,inventor are the ,world's ,benefactors4 -- ,a ,parallel between the ,right ,honorable ,william ,e4 ,gladstone and ,sir ,henry ,bessemer4 -- ,mr4 ,gladstone a ,man of ,ideas1 ,mr4 ,bessemer a ,man of ,deeds4 -- ,the ,value of the latter's ,inventions4 -- ,mr4 ,gladstone represents the ,old ,education1 ,mr4 ,bessemer the ,new4 ,it has been remarked that man is the wisest of animals because he has hands4 ,it is equally true that he is the most powerful of animals because he has hands4 ,it is with the hand that man has subdued all the animals4 ,there is a legend to the effect that on the day when ,adam revolted against his ,maker1 the animals1 in their turn1 revolted against him1 and ceased to obey him4 8,adam called on the ,lord for help1 and the ,lord commanded him to take a branch from the nearest tree and make of it a weapon1 and strike with it the first animal that should refuse to obey him4 ,adam took the branch1 the leaves fell from it of their own accord1 and he found himself furnished with a stick proportioned to his height4 ,when the animals saw this weapon in the hands of the man they were seized with an instinctive fear mingled with wonder1 and they did not dare to attack him4 ,a lion alone1 bolder than the rest1 leaped upon him to devour him1 but ,adam1 who stood upon his guard1 swift as lightning whirled his stick and felled him to the earth with a single blow6 ,at this sight the terror of the other animals was so great that they approached him trembling1 and in token of their submission licked the stick that he held in his hand40#be #be 8,the ,story of the ,stick10 p4 #b4 ,translated and ,adapted from the ,french of ,antony ,ral ,fernand ,michel4 ,new ,york3 ,j4 ,w4 ,bouton1 #ahge4 ,throughout all the early ages the stick was both the symbol and the instrument of power2 and it is only the hand that can grasp and wield the stick4 ,the early kings reigned by virtue of the strong arm and the supple hand4 ,they claimed to be descended from ,hercules1 and their emblem of power was a knotty stick4 ,nor does empire depend less upon the hand now than it did in the morning of time4 ,the hand no longer grasps the knotty stick2 it no longer menaces mankind4 ,but it wields the mechanical powers4 ,it imprisons steam and electricity1 and keeps them at hard labor4 ,it makes ploughs1 planters1 harvesters1 sewing-machines1 locomotives1 and steamships4 ,it digs canals1 opens mines1 builds bridges1 makes roads1 erects mills and factories1 constructs harbors and docks1 reclaims waste lands1 and covers the globe with tracks of steel over which the commerce of the world is borne4 ,two hundred years ago ,england was destitute of most of these things4 ,it had then no good dirt roads even1 no good bridges1 no canals1 no public works worth mentioning1 and scarcely any manufactories of importance4 ,the post-bags were carried on horseback once a week4 ,the highways were besieged by robbers4 ,one-fifth of the community were paupers4 ,mechanics worked for from sixpence to a shilling a day4 ,the chief food of the poor was rye1 barley1 or oats4 ,the people were ignorant and brutal--masters beat their servants1 and husbands beat their wives4 ,teachers used the lash as the principal means of imparting knowledge4 ,the mob rejoiced in fights of all kinds1 and shouted with glee when an eye was torn out or a finger chopped off in these savage encounters4 ,executions were favorite public amusements4 ,the prisons were full1 and proved to be fruitful nurseries of crime4 ,from little better than a wilderness1 and almost a state of savagery1 ,england has been transformed into a fruitful field1 and its people raised in the scale of civilization4 ,its public works are the admiration of the world2 its coffers are full of gold2 its strong boxes are piled high with evidences of the indebtedness of other nations2 its ships plough the billows of every sea1 and bear the commerce of every land2 and its manufactories1 of vast extent1 are monuments of inventive genius1 industry1 perseverance1 and skill1 more imposing far than the pyramids of ,egypt or the temples of ,greece and ,rome4 ,to whom do the people of ,england and of the world owe this national progress1 this progress in the useful arts on a scale so colossal as1 by comparison1 to dwarf the achievements of all the earlier epochs of history8 ,not to statesmen or legislators4 ,they neither dig canals1 open mines1 build railways1 lay ocean cables1 nor erect factories4 ,the pen in their hands may be mightier than the sword2 but it is no match for the plough and the reaper1 the electric battery and imprisoned steam4 ,legislators make laws but mechanics make things4 ,on this subject1 after an exhaustive investigation1 ,buckle says1 8,seeing1 therefore1 that the efforts of government in favor of civilization are1 when most successful1 altogether negative1 and seeing1 too1 that when these efforts are more than negative they become injurious1 it clearly follows that all speculations must be erroneous which ascribe the progress of ,europe to the wisdom of its rulers4 ,this is an inference which rests not only on the arguments already adduced1 but on facts which might be multiplied from every page of history4444 ,we have seen that their laws in favor of industry have injured industry1 that their laws in favor of religion have increased hypocrisy1 and that their laws to secure truth have encouraged perjury4444 ,but it is a mere matter of history that our legislators1 even to the last moment1 were so terrified by the idea of innovation that they refused every reform until the voice of the people rose high enough to awe them into submission1 and forced them to grant what1 without much pressure1 they would by no means have conceded40#bf #bf 8,history of ,civilization in ,england10 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #bjd1 #bje1 #cfa4 ,by ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,it is1 then1 clearly not to the men who make laws that we are indebted for progress in civilization1 but to the men who make things4 ,the scientist who discovers a new principle in physics is a public benefactor4 ,the inventor who devises a new machine helps forward the cause of progress4 ,whitney's cotton-gin trebled the value of the cotton-fields of the ,south4 ,the mechanic who constructs a machine that will make ten or a hundred things in the time before required to make one thing is in the front rank of the civilizers of the human race4#bg #bg 8,your wealth1 your amusement1 your pride1 would all be alike impossible1 but for those whom you scorn or forget4444 ,the sailor wrestling with the sea's rage2 the quiet student poring over his book or his vial2 the common worker1 without praise1 and nearly without bread1 fulfilling his task as your horses drag your carts1 hopeless1 and spurned of all3 these are the men by whom ,england lives40--8,sesame and ,lilies10 p4 #fh4 ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahhd4 ,inventors1 not statesmen1 rule the world through their machines1 which augment the powers of man and sharpen his senses4 ,steam has made all civilized countries prosperous and great by vastly increasing man's powers--by making him hundred-handed4#bh #bh 8,the causes which most disturbed or accelerated the normal progress of society in antiquity were the appearance of great men2 in modern times they have been the appearance of great inventions40--8,history of ,european ,morals10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #abf4 ,by ,william ,edward ,hartpole ,lecky1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,in #ahji there was born to a distinguished baronet of ,liverpool1 ,england1 a son4 ,the boy was educated at ,eton and ,christ ,church ,college1 ,oxford1 graduating in #ahca4 ,in #ahcb the young man entered parliament4 ,in #ahcd he took office under ,sir ,robert ,peel4 ,the name of the young man who commenced life under such auspicious circumstances was ,william ,ewart ,gladstone4 ,for nearly half a century ,mr4 ,gladstone was a prominent figure in ,english politics and administration4 ,during that long period of time he was in the eye of the world1 so to speak4 ,he moulded the laws of an empire1 repealed old statutes and made new statutes1 largely influenced both the domestic and the foreign policy of a great nation1 and exerted a considerable degree of control over the international affairs of the continent of ,europe4 ,in #ahac1 four years after the birth of ,mr4 ,gladstone1 at ,charlton1 in ,hertfordshire1 ,england1 ,henry ,bessemer was born4 ,his father1 ,anthony ,bessemer1 had fled to ,england in #agib1 a refugee from ,france4 ,henry ,bessemer's early training consisted of the rudiments of an ordinary education received in the parish school of the neighboring town of ,hitchin4 ,his father was a skilled mechanic and inventor1 and ,henry inherited the inventive faculty4 ,he studied and practised the art of wood-turnery1 producing1 before arriving at the age of manhood1 the most difficult patterns known to the art4 ,at the age of eighteen1 in the year #ahca--the year in which ,mr4 ,gladstone completed his education--young ,bessemer appeared in ,london1 an obscure1 unknown stranger4 ,he1 however1 secured employment as a modeller and designer4 ,his attention was soon directed to the imperfections of government stamps1 in which there had been no improvement since the time of ,queen ,anne4 ,he was informed by ,sir ,charles ,persley1 of the ,stamp-office1 that the frauds in stamps probably aggregated one hundred thousand pounds per annum4 ,in the evenings of a few months he invented and made an improved stamp which obviated the objections to the one then in use4 ,the invention was at once adopted by the ,stamp-office1 and in lieu of a stipulated sum in payment therefor1 young ,bessemer was asked 8whether he would be satisfied with the position of superintendent of stamps1 with five hundred or six hundred pounds per annum80 ,the suggested appointment he agreed to accept4 ,meantime1 before the contemplated change occurred in the ,stamp-office1 the young inventor devised a further improvement in the new stamp1 which not only made it much more perfect1 but rendered it unnecessary for the government to employ a superintendent of stamps4 ,in perfect good faith young ,bessemer exhibited to the chief of the ,stamp-office his new stamp1 which was so palpably an improvement on the other that it was at once preferred and promptly adopted4 ,what is more1 the government not only declined to appoint the inventor to a place1 but declined to give him a penny for his invention4 ,this was in #ahcd1 the year in which ,mr4 ,gladstone began his long career as a representative of the ,british ,crown4 ,as young ,mr4 ,gladstone entered the ,treasury1 its 8junior lord10 young ,mr4 ,bessemer retired from it an unsuccessful suitor for the just reward of genius and toil4 ,he says1 8,thus sad and dispirited1 and with a burning sense of injustice overpowering all other feelings1 ,i went my way from the ,stamp-office1 too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably my right40#bi #bi 8,the ,creators of the ,age of ,steel10 p4 #bj4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,jeans4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhd4 ,from this point1 both of time and event1 there is a very wide divergence in the lives of these great men4 ,the one is a man of ideas1 the other a man of deeds4 ,mr4 ,gladstone thinks1 talks1 makes treaties and laws4 ,he is constantly in the public eye1 and his name ever on the public tongue4 ,he is regarded as a great financier2 he is certainly a great orator4 ,he sways the multitude with his eloquence4 ,he takes distinguished part in the wordy contests which occur every now and then in ,parliament4 ,these debates are much talked of4 ,at the conclusion of one of them there is a vote of want of confidence1 and ,mr4 ,gladstone goes out of office and ,mr4 ,disraeli comes in4 ,at the conclusion of another of them there is a vote of want of confidence1 and ,mr4 ,disraeli goes out of office and ,mr4 ,gladstone comes in4 ,but whether ,mr4 ,gladstone goes out and ,mr4 ,disraeli comes in1 or ,mr4 ,disraeli goes out and ,mr4 ,gladstone comes in1 makes very little difference with the trade and commerce of the kingdom4 ,the railway traffic continues in the one event or the other2 the steamers continue to cross and recross the ocean2 the 8post0 comes and goes2 the electric current continues to act as messenger-boy2 the telephone brings us face to face with our business correspondent or friend4 ,there is1 indeed1 no reason why a vote of want of confidence in ,mr4 ,gladstone or ,mr4 ,disraeli should imply a want of confidence in steam or electricity1 because neither ,mr4 ,gladstone nor ,mr4 ,disraeli ever had anything to do with the application of these great forces to the uses of man4 ,they were entirely absorbed1 the one in promoting the advancement of ,liberalism1 and the other in promoting the advancement of ,toryism4 ,and it is a curious fact1 as showing the mutability of political opinion1 that ,mr4 ,disraeli entered public life as a ,liberal1 and subsequently became a great ,tory leader2 and ,mr4 ,gladstone entered public life as a ,tory1 and subsequently became a great ,liberal leader4 ,for twenty-two years after he retired empty-handed from the government ,stamp-office ,mr4 ,bessemer continued his career as an inventor and manufacturer1 without1 however1 attracting any great share of public attention4 ,but in #ahef he announced that he had made a discovery of vast importance in the process of steel making4#cj ,for a hundred years previously the ,huntsman process had held the field4 ,it yielded excellent steel but was very expensive4 ,mr4 ,bessemer announced that he could produce splendid cast-steel at about the cost of making iron6 ,the announcement was received with much incredulity2 but the 8,bessemer converter0 was exhibited1 the new process shown1 and the result seemed to confirm the verity of the claim of the inventor4 ,practical difficulties1 however1 postponed its complete success till #ahfj1 when the new process supplanted all others4 #cj 8,the first patent of ,sir ,h4 ,bessemer in which air is mentioned as the oxidizing agent is dated ,october #ag1 #ahee1 and other three months were spent in experimenting before the idea of introducing the air from the bottom of a large converter struck him4 ,the patent embodying the latter idea is dated ,february #aa1 #ahef40--8,the ,creators of the ,age of ,steel10 note to p4 #ch4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,jeans4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhd4 ,mr4 ,bessemer now stood at the head of the inventors of the world1 and ,mr4 ,gladstone1 as ,chancellor of the ,exchequer under ,lord ,palmerston1 had come to be regarded as one of the most skilful governmental financiers in ,europe1 which meant that he was an adept in devising schemes of taxation calculated to yield the most revenue with the least popular discontent4 ,when it is considered that it is necessary for the ,english ,minister of ,finance to draw from the ,british people more than a million dollars every morning of the year1 including ,sundays1 before either the ,english lord or the ,english peasant can indulge in a free breakfast1 the extreme delicacy of the duties devolving upon him will be understood and appreciated4 ,if he proposes the repeal of the soap tax in order to extinguish the slave-trade1 he must impose an additional penny in the pound on malt liquors in order to put an end to the vice of drunkenness4 ,he is constantly between ,scylla and ,charybdis--in keeping off the one he is in danger of being swallowed up in the other4 ,and if he can1 at the end of the fiscal year1 find a million dollars to apply to the liquidation of the public debt1 he is extremely fortunate4 ,from #ahcf1 about the time ,mr4 ,gladstone began his public career1 down to #ahgg1 the several chancellors of the ,english ,exchequer1 including ,mr4 ,gladstone1 contrived to save1 in the aggregate1 about twelve million pounds sterling for this purpose4 ,let us recur a moment to the subject of the invention of ,mr4 ,bessemer4 ,it went into operation in #ahfj4 ,the temptation to reproduce ,mr4 ,bessemer's own description of his process1 which revolutionized the manufacture of steel1 is irresistible4 ,it is as follows3 8,the converting vessel is mounted on an axis at or near its centre of gravity4 ,it is constructed of boilerplates1 and is lined either with fire-brick1 road-drift1 or gannister1 which resists the heat better than any other material yet tried1 and has also the advantage of cheapness4 ,the vessel1 having been heated1 is brought into the requisite position to receive its charge of melted metal1 without either of the tuyeres 7or air-holes7 being below the surface4 ,no action can therefore take place until the vessel is turned up 7so that the blast can enter through the tuyeres74 ,the process is thus in an instant brought into full activity1 and small though powerful jets of air spring upward through the fluid mass4 ,the air1 expanding in volume1 divides itself into globules1 or bursts violently upward1 carrying with it some hundredweight of fluid metal1 which again falls into the boiling mass below4 ,every part of the apparatus trembles under the violent agitation thus produced2 a roaring flame rushes from the mouth of the vessel1 and as the process advances it changes its violet color to orange1 and finally to a voluminous pure white flame4 ,the sparks1 which at first were large1 like those of ordinary foundery iron1 change into small hissing points1 and these gradually give way to soft floating specks of bluish light as the state of malleable iron is approached4 ,there is no eruption of cinder as in the early experiments1 although it is formed during the process2 the improved shape of the converter causes it to be retained1 and it not only acts beneficially on the metal1 but it helps to confine the heat1 which during the process has rapidly risen from the comparatively low temperature of melted pig-iron to one vastly greater than the highest known welding heats1 by which malleable iron only becomes sufficiently soft to be shaped by the blows of the hammer2 but here it becomes perfectly fluid1 and even rises so much above the melting point as to admit of its being poured from the converter into a founder's ladle1 and from thence to be transferred to several successive moulds40#ca #ca 8,the ,creators of the ,age of ,steel10 p4 #ga4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,jeans4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhd4 ,what is the value of this process8 ,what is the extent of the service rendered by ,mr4 ,bessemer to man8 ,it is estimated that in the twenty-one years first elapsing after the successful working of the ,bessemer process1 the production of steel by it1 notwithstanding its necessarily slow progress1 amounted to twenty-five million tons4 ,at #bjj a ton1 the alleged saving in cost as compared with the old process1 this represents an aggregate saving of #e1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahhb the world's production was four million tons1 which at the rate named yielded a saving of the enormous aggregate of #hjj1jjj1jjj in a single year4,e#g ,these sums seem almost fabulous1 especially so since they result from simply blowing air through crude melted iron for a quarter of an hour6 ,but the radical character of the change wrought in the metal by the air-blowing process is shown by the fact that a steel rail is worth as much as twenty iron rails4#cb #cb 8,at the ,birmingham meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahfe1 ,sir ,henry ,bessemer explained that at ,chalk ,farm steel rails were laid down on one side of the line and iron rails on the other1 so that every engine and carriage there had to pass over both steel and iron rails at the same time4 ,when the first face was worn off an iron rail it was turned the other way upward1 and when the second face was worn out it was replaced by a new iron rail4 ,when ,sir ,henry exhibited one of these steel rails at ,birmingham only one face of it was nearly worn out1 while on the opposite side of the line eleven iron rails had in the same time been worn out on both faces4 ,it thus appeared that one steel rail was capable of doing the work of twenty-three iron ones40--8,the ,creators of the ,age of ,steel10 p4 #ic4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,jeans4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhd4 ,all the governments of ,europe honored ,mr4 ,bessemer for his great invention1 some by medals and orders of merit1 and others by appropriating without compensation his process of steel-making4 ,of these latter ,prussia stood in the front rank4 ,england alone stood aloof4 8,a prophet is not without honor save in his own country and among his own kin40 ,from #ahfj to #ahgb ,england continued to load ,mr4 ,gladstone and ,mr4 ,disraeli with honors1 but not until the latter year did the government recognize ,mr4 ,bessemer1 when the ,prince of ,wales presented him with the ,albert gold medal1 and in #ahgi he was knighted by the ,queen4 ,a comparison between the lives and services to man of two of the most distinguished statesmen of ,england1 with the life and services1 to man1 of ,sir ,henry ,bessemer1 cannot fail to be of great value to every young man who possesses the power of just discrimination4 ,but can just discrimination be expected of any young man entering upon the stage of active life when such discrimination is not possessed by the public at large8 ,for example3 ,the question being propounded1 ,what is the value of the combined services to man of ,mr4 ,gladstone and ,mr4 ,disraeli1 as compared with those of ,sir ,henry ,bessemer8 ninety-nine out of a hundred men of sound judgment would doubtless say1 8,the value of the services of the two statesmen is quite unimportant1 while the value of the services of ,mr4 ,bessemer is enormous1 incalculable40 ,but how many of these ninety-nine men of sound judgment could resist the fascination of the applause accorded to the statesmen8 ,how many of them would have the moral courage to educate their sons for the career of ,mr4 ,bessemer instead of for the career of ,mr4 ,disraeli or of ,mr4 ,gladstone899 ,not many in the present state of public sentiment4 ,it will be a great day for man1 the day that ushers in the dawn of more sober views of life1 the day that inaugurates the era of the mastership of things in the place of the mastership of words4 ,mr4 ,gladstone stands for politics and statesmanship at their best1 and his career is the product of the old system of education at its best4 ,mr4 ,bessemer stands for science and art united1 and his career is the product of the new education4 ,e#g ,but the pecuniary value of ,mr4 ,bessemer's discovery is not the consideration of chief import4 ,its social influence extends to the remotest bounds of civilization1 and includes the whole human race1 because it abridges the period of labor necessary to the production of a given quantity of useful things1 thereby enhancing the sum of life's comforts and pleasures4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,inventors1 ,,civil ,,engineers1 ,,and ,,mechanics ,,of ,,england1 ,,and ,,english ,,progress4 ,a ,trade is better than a ,profession4 -- ,the ,railway1 ,telegraph1 and ,steamship are more ,potent than the ,lawyer1 ,doctor1 and ,priest4 -- ,book-makers writing the ,lives of the ,inventors of last ,century4 -- ,the ,workshop to be the ,scene of the ,greatest ,triumphs of ,man4 -- ,the ,civil ,engineers of ,england the ,heroes of ,english ,progress4 -- ,the ,life of ,james ,brindley1 the ,canal-maker2 his ,struggles and ,poverty4 -- ,the ,roll of ,honor4 -- ,mr4 ,gladstone's ,significant ,admission that ,english ,triumphs in ,science and ,art were won without ,government ,aid4 -- ,disregarding the ,common-sense of the ,savage1 ,legislators have chosen to learn of ,plato1 who declared that 8,the ,useful ,arts are ,degrading40 -- ,how ,improvements in the ,arts have been met by ,ignorant ,opposition4 -- ,the ,power wielded by the ,mechanic4 ,the young man with a mechanical trade is better equipped for the battle of life than the young man with a learned profession4 ,the prizes may not be so dazzling1 but they are more numerous1 and they are within reach4 ,the skilled mechanic1 with industry and prudence1 is sure of a cottage1 and the cottage may grow into a mansion1 while the man of letters struggles so often in vain to mount the steps of a palace4 ,the railroad1 the telegraph1 and the steamship exert a more potent influence upon the destinies of mankind than the lawyer1 the doctor1 and the priest4 ,the giants1 steam and electricity1 which bear the great burdens of commerce1 have to be harnessed to enable them to do their work2 and to make this harness1 the furnace1 the forge1 and the shop are brought into requisition4 ,the railroad alone taxes to the utmost nearly every department of the useful arts4 ,to the construction of the passenger-coach1 for instance1 more than a hundred trades contribute the varied cunning and skill of their workmanship4 ,this is the age of steel1 and he who knows how to mould the king of metals into puissant forms has his hand nearest the rod of empire4 ,who would not rather be able to construct a ,corliss engine than learn the trick of drawing a bill in chancery8 ,there was a time1 not long ago1 when inventors and discoverers were little recognized and poorly compensated for their splendid achievements4 ,but that time is past4 ,the book-makers of to-day are groping about the old shops where the inventors of last century worked1 and the cottages where they lived1 in order to tell the simple story of their lives1 and write their names in the temple of fame4 ,huntsman1 who emerged from long seclusion over the furnace and crucible1 and presented to his fellow-workmen a piece of steel which rivalled that of old ,damascus1 and drove from the ,british markets all other steels--how resplendent his name is now6 ,how every incident in the life of ,watt is sought for--his struggles1 his disappointments1 and his final success6 ,and so of ,mushet1 ,neilson1 ,bramah1 ,maudslay1 ,clement1 ,murray1 ,nasmyth1 ,stephenson1 and ,fulton4 ,when ,watt had devised his engine he found no workmen expert enough to make it4 ,then ,maudslay1 ,clement1 and ,murray invented automatic iron hands and fingers1 and endowed them with almost human intelligence1 and far more than human precision1 and ,watt's difficulty was removed4 ,the 8greasy mechanics0 did more to hasten the world's progress in a century--#agdj to #ahdj--than had been accomplished up to that time by all the statesmen of all the dead ages4 ,but those heroes of the workshop had none of the opportunities afforded by the manual training school of the present age4 ,they toiled many hours each day for a shilling or two1 and lived in stuffy hovels1 and puzzled over the a b c of mechanics by the light of a tallow-candle4 ,some of them gained fortunes1 while others were robbed of the fruits of genius1 and slept in unknown graves2 but all their names are treasured and honored now4 ,the world moves1 and in this age it moves always toward a higher appreciation of the value of the useful arts4 ,this country is destined to become a vast workshop1 and in this workshop the best energies1 the strongest vital forces of the ,american people are eventually to be exerted4 ,how necessary1 then1 to educate the hands as well as the brain of the youth of the country4,e#h ,mr4 ,smiles1 in his 8,lives of the ,engineers10 has shown us the true springs of ,english greatness4 ,in telling the story of the struggles and triumphs of the canal-makers1 the bridge-builders1 the coal-miners1 the millwrights1 the road-makers1 the harbor and dock makers1 the ship-builders1 the iron and steel makers1 and the railway-builders--in telling this story of persistence1 of nerve1 and 8pluck10 he has sketched the career of the real heroes of ,english progress4 ,a brief sketch of the life of ,james ,brindley will serve to show how these noble men wrought1 how they suffered1 and how they conquered4 ,james ,brindley was born in #agaf4 ,his parents were poor4 ,his father was a ne'er-do-well4 ,his mother taught him to be honest and industrious4 ,james worked as a common laborer till he was seventeen years of age4 ,in #agcc he became a millwright's apprentice--bound for seven years4 ,he was a dull boy1 learning slowly1 but before the end of his 8bound0 term he became the best workman in the neighborhood4 ,he helped the now celebrated ,wedgwoods out of a difficulty by inventing and constructing flint-mills for their works4 ,he invented and constructed pumps for clearing the ,clifton coal-mines of water--an entirely new device that opened coal chambers which had long been completely drowned out4 ,his compensation for this class of work--the work of genius--was two shillings a day6 ,in #agee he built a silk-mill1 in which he made several important improvements in machinery1 etc4 ,but this man1 who possessed inventive genius of a high order and large executive ability1 could neither write legibly nor spell correctly1 and his charge for almost inestimable services was still1 in #ageg1 only two to four shillings a day4 ,his struggles to improve the steam-engine form a curious chapter in the story of his life4 ,it was to him that the ,duke of ,bridgewater owed his success in canal-making4 ,the duke was born in #agcf4 ,he was a weak and sickly child1 his mental capacity being apparently defective to a degree sufficient to debar him from his inheritance of the family title and estates4 ,an affair of the heart which resulted unfavorably rendered him morose1 and changed his whole course of life4 ,he abruptly quitted the race-track1 where he had condescended even to play the rle of 8jockey10 and turned his attention to the improvement of his estates4 ,they contained coal deposits1 which he undertook to develop through cheapening transportation1 and ,brindley became his engineer4 ,his first canal1 consisting largely of aqueducts1 was called 8,brindley's castle in the air10 and his 8river hung in the air40 ,it was this 8river hung in the air0--the first ,english canal--that made the ,manchester of to-day possible4 ,another canal enterprise of the duke cost more than a million dollars--that connecting ,liverpool with ,manchester4 ,this latter canal yielded #hj1jjj per annum income1 and it was constructed by ,brindley at a salary of #cs4 #f;d4 a day6 ,brindley was obstinate1 and often quarrelled with his employer about the methods of construction of great works2 and what is more1 the duke always yielded4 ,he humbly submitted to every demand made by his engineer except a demand for compensation4 ,brindley's 8wage0 rate during the many years occupied in the duke's great canal enterprises was #cs4 #f;d4 per day4 ,this1 at all events1 is the price named by ,smiles in his life of ,brindley4 ,in a note to the work it is1 however1 stated that his stipulated pay was a guinea a day4 ,it is agreed on all hands1 however1 that whatever the rate agreed upon was1 ,brindley was not paid1 and that his heirs were begging unsuccessfully for his just dues long after his death4 ,in a word1 ,brindley's honor as an engineer being at stake1 and it being dearer to him than any money consideration1 he worked for nothing rather than allow the enterprise to fail4 ,and the duke was parsimonious enough to take the engineer's services for nothing1 and his heirs were mean enough to refuse payment for such services when demanded by his widow4 ,in a literary point of view ,brindley was ignorant1 but in no other respect4 ,this was said of him by one of his contemporaries3 8,mr4 ,brindley is one of those great geniuses whom ,nature sometimes rears by her own force1 and brings to maturity without the necessity of cultivation4 ,his whole plan is admirable1 and so well calculated that he is never at a loss2 for if any difficulty arises he removes it with a facility which appears so much like inspiration that you would think ,minerva was at his fingers' ends40#cc #cc 8,lives of the ,engineers40 ,by ,samuel ,smiles4 ,london3 ,john ,murray1 #ahfb4 ,vol4 ,i41 8,life of ,james ,brindley40 ,the life of ,brindley is typical of a score of biographies presented in the 8,lives of the ,engineers10 among which the following are especially worthy of mention3 ,william ,edwards1 ,john ,metcalf1 ,john ,perry1 ,sir ,hugh ,myddelton1 ,cornelius ,vermuyden1 ,andrew ,yarranton1#cd ,andrew ,meikle1 ,john ,rennie1 ,john ,smeaton1 ,thomas ,telford1 ,william ,murdock1 ,dr4 ,d4 ,papin1 ,thomas ,savery1 ,dud ,dudley1 ,matthew ,boulton1 and ,william ,symington4 ,these1 and their natural coadjutors1 the discoverers of new forces in nature and the inventors of new things in art1 the iron-workers and tool-makers--these are the great names in ,english history4 ,they are the names without which there would have been no ,english history worth writing4 ,mr4 ,gladstone once said of them1 naming ,brindley1 ,metcalf1 ,smeaton1 ,rennie1 and ,telford1 8,these men who have now become famous among us had no mechanics' institutes1 no libraries1 no classes1 no examinations to cheer them on their way4 ,in the greatest poverty1 difficulties1 and discouragements their energies were found sufficient for their work1 and they have written their names in a distinguished page of the history of their country40 #cd 8,he was the founder of ,english political economy1 the first man in ,england who saw and said that peace is better than war1 that trade is better than plunder1 that honest industry is better than martial greatness1 and that the best occupation of a government is to secure prosperity at home1 and let other nations alone40--8,elements of ,political ,science40 ,by ,patrick ,edward ,dove4 ,edinburgh3 #ahed4 ,the admission of ,mr4 ,gladstone that the great achievements of these heroes of invention and discovery were won without any aid whatever1 either from the government or the people of ,england1 is a pregnant fact4 ,it is the key-note of this work1 the reason why it is written and published4 ,the neglect of the useful arts by all the governments of the world1 from the dawn of civilization down to the present time1 is an impeachment of the common-sense of mankind as shown in the conduct of public affairs4 ,the civilized man might have learned wisdom from the savage1 who is taught to fight1 to hunt1 and to fish1 the brain1 the hand1 and the eye being trained simultaneously4 ,but he chose to learn of ,plato1 who in the 8,republic0 says to ,glaucon1 8,all the useful arts1 ,i believe1 we thought degrading40 ,and further in the same work3 8,we shall tell our people1 in mythical language1 you are doubtless all brethren as many as inhabit the city1 but the ,god who created you1 mixed gold in the composition of such of you as are qualified to rule1 which gives them the highest value1 while in the auxiliaries he made silver an ingredient1 assigning iron and copper to the cultivators of the soil and the other workmen4 ,therefore1 inasmuch as you are all related to one another1 although your children will generally resemble their parents1 yet sometimes a golden parent will produce a silver child1 and a silver parent a golden child1 and so on1 each producing any4 ,the rulers1 therefore1 have received this in charge first and above all from the gods1 to observe nothing more closely1 in their character of vigilant guardians1 than the children that are born1 to see which of these metals enters into the composition of their souls2 and if a child be born in their class with an alloy of copper or iron1 they are to have no manner of pity upon it1 but giving it the value that belongs to its nature1 they are to thrust it away into the class of artisans or agriculturists4 ,and if1 again1 among these a child be born with an admixture of gold or silver1 when they have assayed it they are to raise it either to the class of guardians or to that of auxiliaries1 because there is an oracle which declares that the city shall then perish when it is guarded by iron or copper40#ce #ce 8,the ,republic of ,plato10 p4 #aad4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahha4 ,so ingrained in the public mind has this contempt for the artisan and laborer become in the course of ages1 that notwithstanding the fact of the admitted kingship of iron among metals1 and notwithstanding the fact that without iron the world would almost sink into a state of barbarism1 still the opposition to the introduction of tool practice into the public schools is violent1 and most violent among those classes who would be most benefited by it4 ,pending consideration of a bill by the ,massachusetts ,assembly in #ahhc1 providing for the admission of manual training to the public-school curriculum1 an opponent of the measure said3 8,the introduction of the use of tools is only another attempt to deprive the poorer classes of a good education4 ,it is simply an attempt to overload the course of studies in the schools so that children shall not learn anything2 so that the poor may be made poorer1 while the children of the rich having a good time in the public schools may have their thought and health preserved for higher or special education40 ,this is a repetition of the old answer of the ,inquisition to ,galileo upon the announcement and defence of his great discovery4 ,he was summoned to ,rome1 and 8accused of having taught that the earth moves1 that the sun is stationary1 and of having attempted to reconcile these doctrines with the ,scriptures40 ,bruno had been driven to and fro over the face of the civilized world1 and finally burned in the year #afjj for teaching the system of ,copernicus4 ,having the fear of ,bruno's fate before his eyes1 ,galileo recanted1 and promised neither to publish nor defend his theories4 ,but his love of science overcame his fear of oppression1 and in #afcb he published his 8,system of the ,world40 ,again he was summoned before the ,inquisition1 which was destined forever after to torment and persecute him4 ,he was driven to his knees before the cardinals1 consigned to prison1 and tortured to blindness4 ,after his death in a prison of the ,inquisition at the age of seventy-seven years1 his right to make a will was disputed1 his body was denied burial in consecrated ground1 and his friends were prohibited the privilege of raising a monument to his memory in the ,church of ,santa ,croce in ,florence4 ,eighteen hundred years ago a ,roman emperor refused to sanction the use of improved machinery in the prosecution of a great public work1 on the ground that it would deprive the poor of employment4 ,in #affc a ,dutchman erected a saw-mill in ,england1 but the hostility of the workmen compelled its abandonment4 ,more than a hundred years elapsed before the second saw-mill was put in operation in ,england1 and that was destroyed by hand-sawyers4 ,the ,flemish weavers who introduced improved weaving machinery into ,england in the seventeenth century were met by protests4 ,one of these protests1 addressed to ,parliament1 represented that the ,flemish weavers had 8made so bould as to devise engines for working of tape1 lace1 ribbin1 and such like1 wherein one man doth more among them than seven ,englishe men can doe1 so as their cheap sale of commodities beggereth all our ,englishe artificers of that trade and enricheth them40 ,a little more than a hundred years ago1 in ,england1 when the ,sankey ,canal1 six miles long1 was authorized1 it was upon the express condition that the boats plying upon it should be drawn by men only4 ,illustrations of the vis inerti of ignorance might be multiplied indefinitely4 ,ignorance reverences the past4 ,ignorance never doubts4 ,ignorance is content2 perfectly satisfied with its own knowledge1 if the paradox may be allowed1 it never seeks to increase it4 ,but it is suspicious4 ,in every effort to enlighten it discovers a conspiracy to undermine4 ,incapable of the intellectual effort of inquiry1 it stagnates1 and regards as a deadly enemy those who seek to disturb the serenity of its muddy pool4 ,when labor was only another name for a state of slavery1 to teach men to labor skilfully was merely to raise them to a little higher grade of servitude4 ,hence it is only at a very recent period that it has occurred to mankind to teach skilled labor in the schools4 ,all educational systems1 our own among the rest1 seem to have been intended to make lawyers1 doctors1 priests1 statesmen1 littrateurs1 poets4 ,but this is the age of steel1 the age of machines and machinery4 ,tremendous forces in nature have been discovered and utilized1 and these discoveries and their utilization have so multiplied vast enterprises that the importance of the mere ornamental branches of learning is dwarfed in their presence4 8,this is the practical age1 and an educational system which is not practical is nothing4 ,we shall still have our ,tennysons1 and our ,longfellows1 and our doctors of abstract philosophy2 but there is little time to sentimentalize with the poets or speculate with the philosophers4 ,there is work to do4,e#i ,the mine is to be explored and its treasures brought to the surface2 more and more powerful machines are to be constructed to bear the burdens of commerce2 new elements of force are to be discovered and applied to the constantly increasing wants of mankind4#cf #cf 8,to know the #8use' either of land or tools you must know what useful things can be grown from the one and made with the other4 ,and therefore to know what is useful1 and what useless1 and be skilful to provide the one1 and wise to scorn the other1 is the first need for all industrious men4 ,wherefore1 ,i propose that schools should be established wherein the use of land and tools shall be taught conclusively--in other words1 the sciences of agriculture 7with associated river and sea culture71 and the noble arts and exercises of humanity4--8,fors ,clavigera10 p4 #cjb4 ,part4 ,,iii4 ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahha4 ,on the subject of the demand for a more comprehensive educational system1 ,col4 ,augustus ,jacobson says1 with great force1 8,youth is the expensive period of man's existence4 ,youth produces nothing and eats all the time4 ,if the youth is not trained there can hardly be a profit to mankind on his existence4 ,as mankind is liable for1 and bound to pay1 his expenses1 he should be so trained that he may repay them4 ,he can only become a profitable investment by training4 ,if he is left unskilled1 the money spent on him is wasted4 ,there is no profit on a whole generation of ,spaniards or ,turks4 ,mankind should be wise enough to reap the profit there always is in finishing raw material1 by making human raw material into a highly finished product40 ,there are millions of intelligent little children in the public schools of the ,united ,states1 receiving1 doubtless1 excellent intellectual or mental training4 ,but they are not being trained for the actual duties of life as the savage child is taught to fight1 to fish1 and to hunt4 ,they are not taught to labor with their hands1 either skilfully or unskilfully4 ,they are not given instruction in any department of the useful arts1 notwithstanding the fact that in the case of a vast majority of them the alternative of earning their bread by the labor of their unskilled hands1 or resorting to their wits for a support1 will be presented immediately on their entrance upon the stage of active life4 ,the apprentice system gave skilled mechanics to ,england1 and her splendid manufacturing establishments are the result4 ,the trained ,english apprentice became an inventor1 and his inventions and art discoveries studded the island with workshops filled with automatic product-multiplying machinery4 ,the savage of ,australia in ,captain ,cook's time could kill a pigeon with a spear at thirty yards1 but he couldn't count the fingers on his right hand4 ,the ,southern ,esquimau turns a somersault in the water in his boat with ease4 ,but his more ,northern brother has no canoe1 and is ignorant of the existence of a boat2 he has no use for a boat1 because the sea in the latitude of his home is frozen the entire year4 ,the savage is taught what he needs to know in his condition1 and is taught nothing else2 hence his skill in the few avocations he pursues4 ,the civilized boy in school is taught many theories1 but is not required to put any of them in practice2 hence he enters upon the serious duties of life unprepared to discharge any of them4#cg ,it may be said that he is in real danger of the penitentiary until he learns a profession or a trade4 8,of four hundred and eighty-seven convicts consigned to the ,state ,prison for the ,eastern ,district of ,pennsylvania in #ahgi1 five-sixths had attended public schools1 and the same number were without trades40 ,it is noticeable also that during the same period 8not five were received who were what are called mechanics40 ,in the penitentiary of the ,state of ,illinois four out of five of the convicts have no handicraft4 ,the fact that the skilled workman is far more likely than the common laborer to keep out of the penitentiary is a powerful argument in favor of joining manual training to the mental exercises of our common schools4 #cg ,discussion of the subject of technical education at a meeting of the ,society of ,arts1 ,london1 ,england1 #ahhe4 ,dr4 ,gladstone1 ,f4,r4,s43 8,it should be their aim in elementary schools to give such a notion of the value of materials and the use of tools as could afterwards be turned to use in any required direction4 ,there were two great difficulties in the way of doing this4 ,the first and greatest was the inveterate notion that education consisted of book-learning4444 ,another difficulty was the ignorance of teachers in this respect4 ,if an endeavor were made to introduce some knowledge of science into schools1 they generally found that the teachers had some kind of theoretical knowledge1 but it had been obtained mainly from books2 and what was chiefly wanted was that things should be taught as well as words and before words40 ,prof4 ,guthrie1 ,f4,r4,s43 8,this method of bringing the hand and the mind to work together really lay at the basis of all true technical instruction2 where the mind alone was employed the knowledge acquired passed away1 but when the mind and the hand had been educated together the knowledge was never forgotten40 ,the general adoption of a comprehensive system of mechanical education in the public schools would quickly dispel the unworthy prejudice against labor which taints the minds of the youth of the country4 ,the splendid career which this age opens to the educated mechanic should be made clear to the vision of every boy in the land1 and he will see1 in the tools he is taught to handle1 the key not only to fair success1 but to wealth and fame4 ,professor ,thurston1 ,president of the ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers1 thus sums up the mighty power wielded by the mechanic3 8,the class of men from whose ranks the membership of this society is principally drawn direct the labors of nearly three millions of prosperous people in three hundred thousand mills1 with #b1ejj1jjj1jjj capital2 they direct the payment of more than #a1jjj1jjj1jjj in annual wages2 the consumption of #c1jjj1jjj1jjj worth of raw material1 and the output of #e1jjj1jjj1jjj worth of manufactured products4 ,fifty thousand steam-engines1 and more than as many water-wheels1 at their command turn the machinery of these hundreds of thousands of workshops that everywhere dot our land1 giving the strength of three million horses night or day40#ch #ch ,inaugural address1 as ,president of the ,american ,society of ,engineers1 ,new ,york1 ,november #d1 #ahhj4 ,e#h 8,deeds are greater than words4 ,deeds have such a life1 mute but undeniable1 and grow as living trees and fruit-trees do2 they people the vacuity of ,time1 and make it green and worthy40--8,past and ,present10 p4 #aci4 ,by ,thomas ,carlyle4 ,london3 ,chapman ,hall4 ,e#i 8,natural science is the point of interest now1 and ,i think it is dimming and extinguishing a good deal that was called poetry4 ,these sublime and all-reconciling revelations of nature will exact of poetry a correspondent height and scope1 or put an end to it40--,letter of ,r4 ,w4 ,emerson to ,anna ,c4 ,l4 ,botta1 8,memoirs of --4 ,by her friends10 #hvo1 pp4 #dei4 ,j4 ,selwin1 ,tait ,sons4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,power ,,of ,,steam ,,and ,,contempt ,,of ,,artisans4 ,a few ,million ,people now wield twice as much ,industrial ,power as all the ,people on the ,globe exerted a ,hundred ,years ago4 -- ,a ,revolution wrought1 not by the ,schools and ,colleges1 but by the ,mechanic4 -- ,the ,union between ,science and ,art prevented by the ,speculative ,philosophy of the ,middle ,ages4 -- ,statesmen1 ,lawyers1 ,littrateurs1 ,poets1 and ,artists more highly esteemed than ,civil ,engineers1 ,mechanics1 and ,artisans4 -- ,the ,refugee ,artisan a ,power in ,england1 the ,refugee ,politician worthless4 -- ,prejudice against the ,artisan ,class shown by ,mr4 ,galton in his ,work on 8,hereditary ,genius40 -- ,the ,influence of ,slavery3 it has lasted ,thousands of ,years1 and still ,survives4 ,what the civil engineers and mechanics of ,england have done for that country the same classes here have done for ,america4 ,it is by these classes that all civilized countries have been made prosperous and great4 ,and the agent through which the power of man has been augmented a thousand-fold is steam4 8,in the manufactures of ,great ,britain alone1 the power which steam exerts is estimated to be equal to the manual labor of four hundred millions of men1 or more than double the number of males supposed to inhabit the globe40#ci ,this is the most significant fact of all time1 namely1 that a few millions of people in a small island now wield twice as much industrial power as all the people on the globe exerted one hundred years ago4 ,and it is a fact of the utmost significance that the public educational institutions of ,england contributed scarcely anything to this industrial revolution1 whose influence now comprehends all civilized countries4 ,the men by whom it was wrought came not from the classic shades of the universities1 but from the foundery1 the forge1 and the machine-shop4 ,there has been very little change in educational methods since the time when ,bacon said1 8,they learn nothing at the universities but to believe40 ,he proposed that a college be established and devoted to the discovery of new truth4 ,no such college has1 however1 been established1 but many new truths have been discovered4 ,suppose all the universities of ,england1 of the ,united ,states1 and of all other highly civilized countries had1 from the time of ,bacon1 been conformed to his ideas1 and devoted to the discovery of new truths8 ,such a course would have united science and art1 and insured vastly greater progress1 no doubt1 than that which has actually taken place4 ,the union of science with art has thus far been rendered impossible by reason of the wide prevalence of purely speculative views4 ,the speculative philosophy of the ,middle ,ages still projects its baleful influence over our institutions of learning4 ,abstract ideas are still regarded as of more vital importance than things4 ,statesmen1 lawyers1 littrateurs1 poets1 and artists are more highly esteemed than civil engineers1 machinists1 and artisans4 ,mr4 ,smiles1 in his excellent work on the ,huguenots1 has shown that ,england owes to the ,french and the ,flemish immigrants 8almost all her industrial arts and very much of the most valuable life-blood of her modern race40#dj ,commenting upon this fact in his work on 8,hereditary ,genius10 ,mr4 ,francis ,galton says1 8,there has been another emigration from ,france of not unequal magnitude1 but followed by very different results1 namely1 that of the revolution of #aghi4 ,it is most instructive to contrast the effects of the two4 ,the ,protestant emigrants were able men1 and have profoundly influenced for good both our breed and our history2 on the other hand1 the political refugees had but poor average stamina1 and have left scarcely any traces behind them40#da #ci 8,brief ,biographies3 ,james ,watt10 p4 #a4 ,by ,samuel ,smiles4 ,chicago3 ,belford1 ,clark ,co41 #ahhc4 #dj 8,in short1 wherever the refugees settled they acted as so many missionaries of skilled work1 exhibiting the best practical examples of diligence1 industry1 and thrift1 and teaching the ,english people in the most effective manner the beginnings of those various industrial arts in which they have since acquired so much distinction and wealth40--8,the ,huguenots10 p4 #ajg4 ,by ,samuel ,smiles4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahfg4 #da 8,hereditary ,genius10 p4 #cfj4 ,by ,francis ,galton1 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhj4 ,this is the testimony of a distinguished student of biology2 and it is to the effect that the refugee artisan is of immense value to the country where he finds an asylum1 while the refugee politician is of no value at all4 ,we should naturally say1 our author having made this important discovery will enlarge upon it4 ,first of all1 he will deduce the conclusion that if the refugee politician is of no value to the country where he finds an asylum1 the home politician is an equally unimportant factor in the social problem4 ,then he will make an exhaustive study of the industrial class as the chief basis of his propositions and speculations on the subject of the science of life4 ,not at all4 ,mr4 ,galton1 in his work on 8,hereditary ,genius10 offers another striking illustration of the repressive force of habit and the influence of popular prejudice4 ,in his classifications of men according to their professions1 with a view to the inquiry whether 8genius1 talent1 or whatever we term great mental capacity1 follows the law of organic transmission--runs in families1 and is an affair of blood and breed0--in such classifications ,mr4 ,galton forgets for the time being that there is an industrial class4 ,he runs through the entire social scale1 from 8the judges of ,england between #affj and #ahfe10 not omitting ,lord ,jeffreys1 down through statesmen1 commanders1 literary men1 poets1 musicians1 men of science1 painters1 divines1 the boys in ,cambridge1 oarsmen1 and wrestlers of the ,north ,country1 but has no word to say of the civil engineers1 or of the inventors--those immortal men whose monuments in stone and iron exist in every corner of ,england4 ,buckles's caustic remark1 8the most valuable additions made to legislation have been enactments destructive of preceding legislation1 and the best laws which have been passed have been those in which some former laws have been repealed10 does not apply to the works of the civil engineers1 inventors1 and mechanics of ,england or of any other country4 ,their works live after them and never fail to reflect honor upon them4 ,the 8acts0 of the inventor may be amended but they are never repealed4 ,each inventive step1 however short and apparently unimportant1 constitutes a substantial link in the chain of progress2 and it is a substantial link1 because it invariably contains a hint of the next sequential step4 ,mr4 ,galton is an original thinker of great power1 and an untiring investigator4 ,in contrasting the politician with the artisan he discriminates admirably4 ,he finds that the politician is of no value1 practically1 to the community1 while the artisan is of almost inestimable value2 and this conclusion he states curtly1 without appearing to care a rush for the public sentiment which reverences politics and so-called statesmanship4 ,but when he 8makes up his jewels10 so to speak1 on the subject of 8hereditary genius10 ,mr4 ,galton1 as already remarked1 forgets that it is worth while to consider the class of men who in the last hundred years have literally almost created a new world4 ,why is this8 ,the late ,mr4 ,horace ,mann answered the question long ago1 and he answered it so well that his answer is here reproduced in extenso3 8,mankind had made great advances in astronomy1 in geometry1 and other mathematical sciences1 in the writing of history1 in oratory and in poetry1 in painting and in sculpture1 and in those kinds of architecture which may be called regal or religious1 centuries before the great mechanical discoveries and inventions which now bless the world were brought to light2 and the question has often forced itself upon reflecting minds why there was this preposterousness1 this inversion of what would appear to be the natural order of progress8 ,why was it1 for instance1 that men should have learned the courses of the stars and the revolution of the planets before they found out how to make a good wagon-wheel8 ,why was it that they built the ,parthenon and the ,coliseum before they knew how to construct a comfortable1 healthful dwelling-house8 ,why did they build the ,roman aqueducts before they framed a saw-mill8 ,or why did they achieve the noblest models in eloquence1 in poetry1 and in the drama before they invented movable types8 ,i think we have arrived at a point where we can unriddle this enigma4 ,the labor of the world has been performed by ignorant men1 by classes doomed to ignorance from sire to son2 by the bondmen and the bondwomen of the ,jews1 by the helots of ,sparta1 by the captives who passed under the ,roman yoke1 and by the villeins and serfs and slaves of more modern times40 ,when the great educational reformer of ,massachusetts thus graphically pointed out slavery as the cause of the contempt in which the useful arts had been held from the dawn of history1 four millions of men were kept in bondage1 and compelled to toil under the lash by one of the most enlightened nations of the earth4 ,later thirteen millions of people pledged 8their lives1 their fortunes1 and their sacred honor0 to the perpetuation of slavery1 and half a million soldiers marched repeatedly to battle to do or die in behalf of the right 787 of one man to buy and sell the bodies of his fellow-men4 ,there is1 then1 a logical reason for ,mr4 ,galton's neglect of the artisan class4 ,slavery in its most odious form not only existed in the heart of a so-called 8free0 nation twenty-five years ago1 but dared ,liberty to a deadly contest4 ,nor were the upholders of slavery without moral support among the governments and peoples of the world4 ,the government of ,england1 of which ,mr4 ,galton is a subject1 under cover of a pretended neutrality aided the ,american slaveholders' ,confederacy in sweeping ,freedom's ships from the sea2 and the great families of ,england1 the families cited by ,mr4 ,galton in support of his proposition that genius 8is an affair of blood and breed0--those great families were well pleased when ,freedom's ships went down and ,freedom's armies retreated before the assaults of the slave confederacy4 ,this somewhat extended reference to ,mr4 ,galton is not intended to impugn his good faith as an author4 ,its design is simply to show that the influence of slavery is not yet extinct2 that it still moulds ideas1 controls habits of thought1 inspires literary men1 and permeates literature4 ,in a word1 the cause of the contempt in which the useful arts were held in ,babylon in the time of ,herodotus was in full force in this country down to the date of the issuance of ,mr4 ,lincoln's proclamation of emancipation2 and it is scarcely necessary to observe that the ,british ,constitution grew out of the feudal system1 which was only another name for slavery4 ,it is a proverb in ,england to this day that it is safer to shoot a man than a hare2 and the sentiment of the proverb is a complete justification of human bondage1 since it implies that property rights are more sacred than the rights of man4 ,thus slavery has kept its brand of shame upon the useful arts for thousands of years1 and the mind of man has been so deeply impressed thereby that it does not react now that slavery is extinct4 ,like the slave released from bondage1 who still feels the chain1 still winces and shrinks from the imaginary scourge1 the mind of man continues to revolve automatically in the old channels4,e#aj ,e#aj 8,it is related of the ,scythians that they became involved in a contest with the descendants of certain of their slaves1 who successfully resisted them in several battles1 whereupon one of them said3 #8,men of ,scythia1 what are we doing8 ,by fighting with our slaves1 both we ourselves by being slain become fewer in number1 and by killing them we shall hereafter have fewer to rule over4 ,now1 therefore1 it seems to me that we should lay aside our spears and bows1 and that everyone1 taking a horsewhip1 should go directly to them2 for so long as they saw us with arms1 they considered themselves equal to us1 and born of equal birth2 but when they shall see us with our whips instead of arms1 they will soon learn that they are our slaves1 and being conscious of that will no longer resist4' ,the ,scythians1 having heard this1 adopted the advice2 and the slaves1 struck with astonishment at what was done1 forgot to fight and fled40--,herodotus1 8,melpomene10 ,,iv4 #c1 #d4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,automatic ,,contrasted ,,with ,,scientific ,,education4 ,the ,past tyrannizes over the ,present by ,interposing the ,stolid ,resistance of ,habit4 -- ,habits of ,thought like ,habits of the ,body become ,automatic4 -- ,there is much ,freedom of ,speech but very little ,freedom of ,thought3 ,habit1 ,tradition1 and ,reverence for ,antiquity forbid it4 -- ,the ,schools educate ,automatically4 -- ,a glaring ,defect of the ,schools shown by ,mr4 ,john ,s4 ,clark1 of ,boston4 -- ,the ,automatic ,character of the ,popular ,system of ,education shown by the ,quincy 7,mass47 ,experiment4 -- ,several ,intelligent ,opinions to the same ,effect4 -- ,the ,public ,schools as an ,industrial ,agency a ,failure4 -- ,a ,conclusive ,evidence of the ,automatic and ,superficial ,character of prevailing ,methods of ,education in the ,schools of a large ,city4 -- ,the ,views of ,colonel ,francis ,w4 ,parker4 -- ,scientific ,education is found in the ,kindergarten and the ,manual ,training ,school4 -- 8,the ,cultivation of ,familiarity betwixt the ,mind and ,things40 -- ,colonel ,augustus ,jacobson on the ,effect of the ,new ,education4 ,all reforms must encounter the stolid resistance of habit4 ,it is not less tyrannical because it is a negative force4 ,it braces itself and holds back with all its might4 ,it is in this manner that the past dominates the present4,e#aa ,this automatic habit of mind is precisely like certain automatic habits of the body which operate quite independently of any act of volition4 ,for example3 8,when we move about in a room with the objects in which we are quite familiar1 we direct our steps so as to avoid them1 without being conscious what they are or what we are doing2 we see them1 as we easily discover if we try to move about in the same way with our eyes shut1 but we do not perceive them1 the mind being fully occupied with some train of thought40#db ,in the same way the mind under certain conditions becomes an automaton1 constantly revolving old thoughts after the causes that gave rise to them have ceased to operate4 ,piano-forte playing affords an excellent illustration of this automatic action of the mind4 8,a pupil learning to play the piano-forte is obliged to call to mind each note1 but the skilful player goes through no such process of conscious remembrance2 his ideas1 like his movements1 are automatic1 and both so rapid as to surpass the rapidity of succession of conscious ideas and movements40#dc #db 8,body and ,mind10 p4 #bb4 ,by ,henry ,maudsley1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 #dc ,ibid41 p4 #bf4 ,freedom of speech and freedom of thought are catch-penny phrases4 ,there is much of the former1 but very little of the latter4 ,speech is generally the result of automatic thought rather than of ratiocination4 ,independent thought is of all mental processes the most difficult and the most rare2 habit1 tradition1 and reverence for antiquity unite to forbid it1 and these combined influences are strengthened by the law of heredity4 ,the tendency to automatic action of the mind is still further promoted by the environment of modern life4 ,the crowding of populations into cities1 and the division and subdivision of labor in the factory and the shop1 and even in the so-called learned professions1 have a tendency to increase the dependence of the individual upon the mass of society4 ,and this interdependence of the units of society renders them more and more imitative1 and hence more and more automatic both mentally and physically4 ,another powerful influence contributes to the same end4 ,the schools educate automatically4 ,they train the absorbing powers of the brain1 but fail to cultivate the faculties of assimilation and re-creation1 and neglect almost wholly to develop the power of expression4 ,mr4 ,john ,s4 ,clark1 of ,boston1 has made this point of the failure of the schools to train the brain-power of expression to its utmost1 so plain that it is here reproduced in full1 as follows3 ,illustration3 ,five senses4 ,tongue4 ,hand4 ,fig4 #a4 8,studying the functions of the brain1 we find that for educational purposes it may be likened to an organism with a threefold form of working1 an organism with a power of absorption1 a power of assimilation and re-creation1 and a power of expressing or giving out4 ,the force or character of a brain is measured entirely by its expressing power1 by what comes out of it4 ,examining a little closer1 we find that the brain absorbs through all the five senses1 while for expressing purposes it makes use of but two of these senses1 or rather of but two organs of these senses--the tongue and the hand4 ,fig4 #a is a simple diagram representing a brain with the five senses placed on one side1 as means of absorbing power1 while on the other side the tongue and the hand are placed as organs of expressing power4 ,the other function of the brain1 that of assimilation and re-creation1 cannot of course be graphically represented4 ,it may1 however1 be said to be the result of the action of the other two functions4 ,now1 the equipping of a brain1 or the healthy education of a brain1 consists in giving it expressing power through the tongue and the hand1 coextensive with the power of absorption and the power of re-creation4 ,illustration3 ,reading4 ,mathematics4 ,geography4 ,five ,senses4 ,grammar4 ,tongue4 ,history4 ,speech4 ,languages4 ,physiology4 ,hand4 ,literature4 ,writing4 ,natural ,history4 ,theoretical ,sciences4 ,fig4 #b4 8,applying our popular schemes of education to the brain1 and especially those based on the #c-,r idea of education1 we find what is indicated in ,fig4 #b1 that provision has been made for greatly distending the absorbing side of the brain1 while for the expressing side1 the practical side1 provision has been limited to the use of the tongue in speech and to the hand in writing4 ,if now we follow the result of this brain equipment into practical life1 we find that speech and writing1 as means for expressing thought1 have their applications mainly in the commercial and financial employments and the professions1 and only incidentally in the industrial and mechanical employments4 ,with such an inadequate and one-sided brain equipment it is not possible in any broad1 practical way to bring thought or brain-power to the service of industry4 ,the fact so generally admitted1 that we are getting so few intelligent artisans or mechanics from our scheme of public education1 that we turn out pupils of both sexes with a decided repugnance to industrial labor1 is an attestation to the truth of this statement4 ,the simple fact is that our education is not broad enough on the expressing side of the brain1 that too much attention has been given to the absorbing side of this organ1 that no adequate provisions have been made whereby it can discharge its power in work connected with the industries4 ,illustration3 ,reading4 ,mathematics4 ,geography4 ,five ,senses4 ,grammar4 ,history4 ,tongue4 ,languages4 ,speech4 ,physiology4 ,literature4 ,writing4 ,natural ,history4 ,hand4 ,drawing4 ,theoretical ,sciences4 ,manual ,arts4 ,practical ,sciences4 ,fig4 #c4 8,in ,fig4 #c a remedy for this defect is indicated in the addition of the study of graphic and sthetic art1 through drawing1 and of training in the manual arts1 to the previous brain equipment4 ,observe where these features come in the scheme--on the expressing side of the brain and in the service of the hand1 thus giving the brain ample power to discharge thought in its most complete form for use or for beauty4 ,with these features added to the brain equipment its power of expressing thought in all practical directions will be coextensive with its absorbing and re-creating powers2 and just as soon as the public can clearly see that in the outcome of our public education there is no respecting of persons or of classes1 that pupils are trained for honest labor with their hands as well as to living by their wits1 are taught to produce something1 to create values by the action of their brain through the work of their hands1 a much deeper interest in public education will not only be manifested1 but generous provisions for its support will also be given40#dd #dd ,address delivered before the ,philadelphia ,board of ,trade and the ,franklin ,institute1 ,june #f1 #ahha4 ,the charge that the schools educate automatically rather than rationally is of such vital importance that it should be sustained by the best attainable proof4 ,strong proof is at hand in the history of the so-called ,quincy 7,mass47 experiment4 ,in #ahgh doubt of the efficiency of the schools of ,norfolk ,county1 long indulged1 culminated in action by the ,association of ,school ,committees and ,superintendents4 ,it was insisted by certain members of the committee that the existing methods were 8about as good as human intelligence could devise10 and by others that the people were getting 8no adequate returns for the money expended under the system in general use40 ,it was resolved to institute a searching investigation1 and the standard for the measurement of the acquirements of pupils adopted was1 8a reasonable degree of ability to read1 to write legibly1 correctly1 and grammatically1 and to deal readily with simple mathematics after about eight years of schooling40 ,the association selected ,mr4 ,george ,a4 ,walton1 an experienced educator1 to make the examination of the schools of the county1 and the number of pupils examined exceeded three thousand4 ,in their preface to ,mr4 ,walton's report the gentlemen of the association say3 8,publicity1 discussion1 and discontent are wholesome things to apply to school management in ,massachusetts4 ,that this is a fair sample of the results now accomplished cannot be questioned4 ,but though they may not be flattering to our pride1 we yet believe that they are as good as can be obtained in any other county in ,massachusetts1 or1 indeed1 of any other ,state where similar tests are applied in a similar manner4 ,if any school authorities elsewhere doubt the truth of this statement1 let the experiment be tried in the schools of their county4 8,the questions naturally arise1 ,what is the cause of this lamentable ignorance8 and what is the remedy8 ,the answer to the former suggests the reply to the latter4 ,too much has been attempted in the schools4 ,there has been a slavish adherence to text-books1 and no room given for freedom and originality of thought4 ,rules have been memorized1 and the children taught to recite from the text-book1 while they have not had the slightest conception of the true meaning of the subject4444 8,the rules and exceptions in grammar are faithfully committed to memory1 and most intricate sentences can be successfully analyzed1 the phrases separated1 and the modifiers named in true grammatical style1 while the pupils who have undergone such severe training in this respect are unable to present their own thoughts concisely or clearly1 or even correctly1 upon paper4 ,the memory is cultivated1 and the reason allowed to slumber4 8,in arithmetic the pupils show a readiness to solve a problem when they are able to fit it to some rule that they have learned2 but when they are given a simple question out of the regular course1 they are like a ship at sea without rudder or compass40 ,this is the severest and most sweeping criticism ever passed upon our ,american common-school system1 and it emanates from its friends and the friends of universal education4 ,mr4 ,walton says of reading1 as taught in the ,norfolk ,county schools1 8,as for any systematic analysis by which the pupil learns to make a careful and independent study of his piece1 it is but little practised in the schools even of the grammar grade20 and he declares that reading1 without comprehending the ideas of which the words are mere signs1 8is not merely useless1 but dangerous1 just in proportion to the facility with which the words are called40 ,of the results of his examinations in penmanship ,mr4 ,walton says1 8,most of the faults in the writing indicate imperfect teaching40 ,of his examinations in spelling he says that 8the commonest words are misspelled when used in sentences or composition1 while words of difficult orthography are spelled with accuracy when dictated for spelling40 ,for example1 he says1 8,the words #8whose1' #8which1' and #8father1' when spelled orally1 were generally correct1 but when written in sentences they were frequently1 in many schools1 in a majority of cases1 erroneous40 ,no test could more clearly demonstrate the purely mechanical character of the methods of instruction than this of a comparison between the pupils' oral and written spelling4 ,the average of excellence in spelling the three simple words 8which1 whose1 scholar10 of the primary grade for the whole county of ,norfolk1 as found by ,mr4 ,walton1 was the exceedingly low one of #ee4i1 the basis being #ajj4 ,the ingenuity in bad spelling of this grade of pupils1 who had been at least four years in school1 is well illustrated by the example of the word 8carriage10 written as follows3 8,carage1 carrage1 craidge1 caradg1 carege1 carriag1 carrige20 and of the word 8sleigh10 written 8saly1 slay1 slaig1 slaigh1 slagh1 slaw1 sleig1 sleugh1 sleight1 sligh1 sley1 slew1 slave1 sleygh20 and of the word 8,tuesday10 written 8,tusgay1 tuestay1 toesday20 and of the word 8,wednesday10 written 8wanesday1 wedenyday1 ,wedernsday1 wednest1 ,wenday1 ,wendsday1 wensday1 wenesday1 wensdaw1 wenze1 ,wenzie1 ,wendsstay1 wenstday1 ,wesday1 ,whensday1 winday1 ,windday1 ,winsday10 etc4 ,the word 8scholar0 presented one hundred and sixty different erroneous spellings2 that of 8depot0 fifty1 among which were the following3 8,deappow1 deppowe1 deaphow1 deapohoe1 teapot1 doopo10 and 8bepo40 ,an exercise in spelling by both grades of pupils1 the 8primary10 composed of pupils from eight and a half to ten and a half years old1 and the 8grammar10 composed of pupils from twelve and a half to fifteen and a half years old1 showed errors of which the following are examples3 ,any1 spelled ane and enny2 along1 aloud and alon2 amongst1 amunt2 animals1 anables2 arithmetic1 rithmes2 asked1 asted2 beautiful1 beuful2 been1 ben1 bene1 and bin2 by-and-by1 bimeby2 coat1 coot1 coth1 cote1 goat1 and coate2 ,boston1 bostone2 boy1 poy1 and bou2 city1 sitty2 eggs1 ages2 custard-pie1 custed puy2 coming1 comin1 commun1 gomming1 and comming4 ,an exercise in composition developed the following specimen errors3 8,the was two boys2 ,they was two boys2 ,how is all the boys8 ,things that was good2 ,they is not many here ,i know2 ,he come to school2 ,i see him yesterday2 ,he asked cyrus what he done that day2 ,i had saw him2 he had wore a coat10 etc4 ,the examinations in mathematics yielded similar results to those developed in reading1 writing1 spelling1 and composition4 ,mr4 ,walton says1 8,if instead of this the routine method of the school the pupil should be compelled to deal with real things1 and to find his answer by studying the conditions of his problem1 the fiction which arithmetic now is to most pupils would become to them a reality40#de #de 8,the ,new ,departure in the ,common ,schools of ,quincy10 by ,charles ,f4 ,adams1 ,jr41 and the 8,report of ,examination of ,schools in ,norfolk ,county1 ,mass410 by ,george ,a4 ,walton4 ,boston3 ,estes ,lauriat1 #ahha4 ,the prime difficulty is here stated4 ,the schools deal in 8fictions40 ,in the language of the ,norfolk ,county committee1 8,the memory is cultivated and the reason allowed to slumber40 ,now1 if to every fact memorized the pupil were required to apply the test of reason to analyze it and find out its relation to other facts1 and fix it with all its relations in his mind1 he would possess certain solid information of an ascertained practical value4 ,it is very simple4 ,it is making the pupil think for himself by showing him how to think for himself instead of thinking for him4 ,of course this is object-teaching4 ,in the reading-lesson the pupil is required to know the meaning of the words of which it is composed in order to read with correct expression4 ,when required to spell a word orally he is also required to write it4 ,in the study of arithmetic he is shown certain objects1 blocks of cubical and other forms1 and required to apply the rules of the book to the ascertainment of their contents4 ,in grammar the analysis of the sentence is followed by the writing of it1 and the construction of other sentences involving similar principles in the art of composition1 and so on4 ,this is the kindergarten system now rapidly coming into high favor as an essential preliminary step in education4 ,it is also the system of the manual training school4 ,under this system the pupil is not merely told that the saw is a thin1 flat piece of steel with teeth used for cutting boards and timbers2 a saw is placed in his hand and he is taught to use it3 and so of all the hand and machine tools of the trades4 ,he stands at the forge1 bends over the moulding-form1 shoves the plane in the carpenter-shop1 presides at the turning-lathe1 that ingenious invention of ,maudslay--an automaton truer than the human eye1 more cunning and more accurate than the human hand2 executes plans for patterns and then makes the patterns1 and finally1 from the faint lines he has traced on paper1 constructs a machine1 breathes the breath of life 7steam7 into its veins1 and with it moves mountains6 ,in further support of the charge that the schools educate automatically1 and hence superficially1 the following intelligent opinions are cited3 ,charles ,francis ,adams1 ,jr41 remarks that the common schools of ,massachusetts cost #d1jjj1jjj a year2 and adds1 8,the imitative or memorizing faculties only are cultivated1 and little or no attention is paid to the thinking or reflective powers4 ,indeed it may almost be said that a child of any originality or with individual characteristics is looked upon as wholly out of place in a public school4444 ,to skate is as difficult as to write2 probably more difficult4 ,yet in spite of hard teaching in the one case and no teaching in the other1 the boy can skate beautifully1 and he cannot write his native tongue at all40#df #df 8,scientific ,common-school ,education40--,harper's ,magazine1 ,november1 #ahhj 7see note ,e#ab at end of chapter74 ,mr4 ,edward ,atkinson says1 8,we are training no ,american craftsmen1 and unless we devise better methods than the old and now obsolete apprentice system1 much of the perfection of our almost automatic mechanism will have been achieved at the cost not only of the manual but also of the mental development of our men4 ,our almost automatic mills and machine-shops will become mental stupefactories40#dg #dg 8,elementary ,instruction in the ,mechanic ,arts40--,scribner's ,monthly1 ,april #ahha1 p4 #ijb4 ,prof4 ,barbour1 of ,yale ,college1 says1 8,our schools are suffering from congestion of the brain3 too much thought and too little putting it in practice40 ,an ,english observer of our public schools says1 8,they teach apparently for information1 almost regardless of development4 ,this system develops no special individuality or power1 forms few habits of observation1 benefits little except the memory1 and herein lies its great weakness40 ,the late ,mr4 ,wendell ,phillips said1 8,our system stops too short1 and as a justice to boys and girls as well as to society it should see to it that those whose life is to be one of manual labor should be better trained for it40 ,mr4 ,wickersham1 late ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction for the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 says1 8,it is high time that something should be done to enable our youth to learn trades and to form industrious habits and a taste for work40 ,dr4 ,runkle1 of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 says1 8,public education should touch practical life in a larger number of points2 it should better fit all for that sphere in life in which they are destined to find their highest happiness and well-being40 ,opinions of this character might be multiplied almost indefinitely4 ,they reflect the general sentiment that1 as an industrial agency1 the public school is a failure2 but its value as an enlightening and civilizing agency is not therefore underestimated4 ,it was not established as an industrial agency2 it was established as a bulwark of liberty1 and nobly did it fulfil its mission4 ,the colonial fathers had a horror of ignorance1 and as a barrier against it they raised the public school4 ,but they were without industrial interests in the higher departments of skilled labor1 and without commerce in a large way4 ,lord ,sheffield said that the ,american colonies were founded with the sole view of securing to ,england a monopoly of their trade1 and ,lord ,chatham declared that they had no right to manufacture even a nail or a horseshoe4 ,even after the ,revolution1 in #aghd1 the commerce of the country was so insignificant that eight bales of cotton shipped from ,south ,carolina were seized by the customs authorities of ,england on the ground that so large a quantity could not have been produced in the ,united ,states6 ,these humble conditions no longer exist1 and to object to the expansion of the public-school system to meet the requirements of new exigencies is to ignore the logic and march of events4 ,the nations are running an industrial race1 and the nation that applies to labor the most thought1 the most intelligence1 will rise highest in the scale of civilization1 will gain most in wealth1 will most surely survive the shocks of time1 will live longest in history4 ,in the race for industrial supremacy we are not at the front4 ,it is a fact to be pondered that we are exchanging the products of unskilled for skilled labor with the nations of ,europe4 ,in the course of a year1 for example1 ,england exports of raw material and food only about #aej1jjj1jjj in value1 while her exports of manufactures aggregate about #hej1jjj1jjj in value4 ,on the other hand1 our exports consist almost entirely of raw material and food1 their annual value being about #hjj1jjj1jjj1 while of manufactures we export only a beggarly #ge1jjj1jjj worth1 and our imports of manufactures are of the annual value of about #bej1jjj1jjj4 ,in crude1 uneducated1 unskilled labor capacity1 we have grown much more rapidly than in the departments of educated1 skilled labor2 and in the exact ratio of this growth of unskilled over skilled labor1 we are behind the age4 ,we are industrially ill-balanced4 ,we are selling brawn and buying thought--cunning1 invention1 genius2 exhausting our physical manhood and impoverishing a virgin soil4 ,we are suffering from a paucity of skilled labor1 and we hesitate to apply the needed and obviously adequate remedy--the training of the youth of the country in the elements of the useful arts1 in the public schools4 ,a final and conclusive evidence of the verity of the charge that prevailing methods of education are automatic1 and hence superficial in their character1 is found in an examination test recently made in one of the public schools in a large ,american city1 in the department of mathematics4 ,the superintendent begins to distrust his own system of abstract instruction1 and resolves to test the acquirements of certain classes of pupils ranging from ten to twelve years of age4 ,he submits a series of questions in number1 which are promptly solved either orally or in chalk on the black-board1 showing a complete mastery of the subject from the abstract side1 or point of view4 ,to test the practical value of the knowledge thus exhibited the superintendent repeats his series of questions1 applying them to things4 ,for example3 ,he passes six cards to a pupil1 and requests that one-half of them be returned4 ,this question having been promptly and correctly answered by the return of three of them1 and the six cards being again placed in the hands of the pupil1 the second question is propounded1 namely1 8,please give me one-third of one-half of the cards in your hand40 ,the pupil is puzzled2 he fumbles the cards nervously1 blushes1 and returns a wrong number or becomes entirely helpless and 8gives it up40 ,this question1 or some other question of similar general import1 is submitted to each member of the class with a like unfavorable result in eight or nine cases in a total of ten cases4 ,the superintendent is astonished2 he is more than astonished1 he is deeply chagrined2 for he knows that the kindergarten child of six or seven years of age1 with the blocks1 would answer his series of questions correctly eight or nine times in a total of ten4 ,it is impossible to conceive of a more striking illustration of the prime defects of automatic education than is afforded by the foregoing described experiment4 ,it sustains and justifies the severe criticism of the schools by ,mr4 ,charles ,francis ,adams1 ,jr41 in his magazine article of #ahhj1 in the course of which he says1 8,from one point of view children are regarded as automatons2 from another1 as india-rubber bags2 from a third1 as so much raw material4 ,they must move in step and exactly alike4 ,they must receive the same mental nutriment in equal quantities and at fixed times4 ,its assimilation is wholly immaterial1 but the motions must be gone through with4 ,finally1 as raw material1 they are emptied in at the primaries1 and marched out at the grammar grades--and it is well60#dh #dh 8,scientific ,common-school ,education40--,harper's ,new ,monthly ,magazine1 ,november1 #ahhj1 p4 #icg4 ,the testimony of ,col4 ,francis ,w4 ,parker1 of the ,cook ,county 7,illinois7 ,normal ,school1 is to the same effect4 ,he says1 8,the most important work of to-day is to collect1 reconcile1 and apply all the principles and methods of education that have been discovered in the past1 into one science and art of teaching4 ,this would certainly radically change all our school work in this country4 ,when this is done the ground will be made ready for new advances in the incomplete science of education4 ,because a complete science has not yet been discovered is a very poor reason for not applying what we already know4 ,what specific changes would the application of known mental laws1 in teaching about which all psychologists are in agreement1 bring about8 ,for it is only by a sharp comparison of what is now done according to tradition and custom in our schools1 with that which can be done by the application of the simplest principles of teaching1 that the value of the true art of instruction may be in some degree appreciated4 8,to illustrate this it may be mentioned that little children have been taught to read1 in the past1 and a great majority of them are now taught1 by a method that is utterly opposed to a mental law1 about which there can be no dispute among those who know anything of the science of teaching4 ,i refer to the ,a ,b ,c method4 ,nearly three hundred years ago ,comenius discovered a rule of teaching which may be said to embrace all rules in its category--#8,things that have to be done should be learned by doing them4' ,this rule is so simple and plain that every one1 except the teachers1 has adopted and used it since man has lived upon the earth4 ,if ,i am not very much mistaken1 the school-master for the last fifty years has been incessantly inventing ways of doing things in the school-room by doing something else4 ,we try to teach the ,english language by rules1 definitions1 analyses1 diagrams1 and parsing4 ,before the poor innocent child can write a single sentence correctly1 we teach the painful pronunciation of words without the grasping of thought as reading4 ,we vainly endeavor to give children a knowledge of number by teaching figures1 the signs of number4 ,we cram our victim's mind full of empty1 meaningless words1 instead of inspiring and developing it by the sweet and strong realities of thought4 ,this futile struggle to do things by doing something else is to-day costing the people of this country millions and millions of hard-earned dollars2 and it is much to be feared that it will one day cost their children the blessings of free government4 ,this is a serious charge4 8,the three hundred thousand teachers of this country are as faithful1 honest1 and earnest as any other class of active workers4 ,if1 then1 these great truths in education be at the doors of our educators1 why do they not acquire and use them8 ,the answer is not far to seek4 ,not one teacher in five hundred ever makes a practical1 thorough study of the history of education1 to say nothing of the science4 8,the tremendous projecting power of tradition stands stubbornly in the way of progress in education4 ,it can only be met and overcome by the most thorough searching and indefatigable study of the child's nature1 and of the means by which the possibilities for good in ,god's greatest creation may be realized40#di #di ,letter to the author under date of ,april1 #ahhc1 and by him reproduced in a communication published in the ,chicago ,tribune1 ,april #bc1 #ahhc4 ,the change from automatic to scientific education ought not to be very difficult4 ,it has been made in the kindergarten4 ,it consists in substituting things in place of signs of things4 ,the boys should be taught to read in school as he will be required to read2 to write as he will be required to write2 and to cipher as he will be required to cipher1 when he becomes a man4 ,in teaching chemistry1 for example1 there should be a laboratory with the necessary illustrative apparatus4 ,in teaching geography1 in addition to the books and the globe1 the form of the continent should be moulded in sand1 with coast lines1 mountain ranges1 rivers1 canals1 harbors1 cities1 etc4 ,in teaching number the pupil should have the things and parts of things1 represented by signs1 in his hands4 ,in teaching mechanics the pupil should handle the saw1 the plane1 the file1 the hammer1 and the chisel1 and stand at the bench1 the forge1 and the turning-lathe4 ,it is in this way only that the pupil can be taught the power of expressing1 as ,mr4 ,clark puts it1 8what has been absorbed on the receptive side40 ,mr4 ,mac,alister illustrates the force of ,mr4 ,clark's diagrams in a sentence3 8,we must not close our eyes to the fact that by far the larger number of men in every civilized community are workers to whom a skilled hand is quite as important as a well filled head40#ej ,the prevailing methods of teaching fill the head but do not provide for assimilation1 re-creation1 and expression4 ,now to assimilate1 to reduce to practical value and put to use facts memorized1 and to create1 the power of expression is an essential prerequisite2 creating is expressing ideas in concrete form4 ,but under the old rgime of education only two modes of expression are provided--speech and writing4 ,a third mode--drawing--has been very generally adopted4 ,drawing1 however1 is only the first step1 an incomplete step1 so to speak1 of expression4 ,it is a sign1 an outline1 of a thing4 ,what we want is the thing itself4 ,that thing can only be produced at the forge1 the bench1 or the lathe2 and this is manual training in the arts4 #ej ,mr4 ,james ,mac,alister1 ,superintendent of ,schools of the ,city of ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 at the meeting of the ,american ,institute of ,instruction1 ,saratoga1 ,n4 ,y41 ,july #ac1 #ahhb4 ,what manual training will do for the pupil is expressed in the following terse paragraph by ,col4 ,augustus ,jacobson3 8,the boy leaving school should carry with him mechanical1 business1 and scientific training1 fitting him for whatever it may become necessary for him to do in the world4 ,i would secure for society the advantage of all the brain capacity that is born and all the training it can take4 ,it is possible and practicable to let every child of fair capacity start in life from his school a skilled worker1 with the principal tools of all the mechanical employments1 an athlete with the maximum of health possible to him1 and thoroughly at home in science and literature4 ,the child so trained would1 when grown1 be to the ordinary man of to-day what ,jay-,eye-,see is to an ordinary plough-horse40 ,e#aa 8,fortunately the past never completely dies for man4 ,many may forget it1 but he always preserves it within him4 ,for1 take him at any epoch1 and he is the product1 the epitome1 of all the earlier epochs4 ,let him look into his own soul1 and he can find and distinguish these different epochs by what each of them has left within him40--8,the ,ancient ,city10 p4 #ac4 ,by ,fustel ,de ,coulanges4 ,boston3 ,lee ,shepard1 #ahhb4 ,e#ab 8,in fact1 memory comes from interest4 ,what children are deeply interested in they will never forget4 ,a boy who can never say his lesson by heart will remember every detail of the cricket or football matches in which his heart really lives40--8,educational ,theories10 p4 #aaf4 ,by ,oscar ,browning1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhe4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,automatic ,,contrasted ,,with ,,scientific ,,education--,continued4 ,the ,failure of ,education in ,america shown by ,statistics of ,railway and ,mercantile ,disasters4 -- ,shrinkage of ,railway ,values and ,failures of ,merchants4 -- ,only ,three ,per ,cent4 of those entering ,mercantile ,life achieve ,success4 -- ,business ,enterprises conducted by ,guess3 ,cause1 ,unscientific ,education4 -- ,savage ,training is better because ,objective4 -- ,mr4 ,foley1 late of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 on the ,scientific ,character of ,manual ,education -- ,prof4 ,goss1 of ,purdue ,university1 to the same ,effect -- also ,dr4 ,belfield1 of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school4 -- ,students love the ,laboratory ,exercises4 -- ,demoralizing ,effect of ,unscientific ,training4 -- ,the ,failure of ,justice and ,legislation as contrasted with the ,success of ,civil ,engineering and ,architecture4 ,a striking illustration of the defective character of both public and private systems of education1 in the ,united ,states1 is afforded by the statistics of commercial1 railway1 and other business failures4 ,in #ahgg a careful compilation of figures in regard to the shrinkage of railway values showed the following result3 8,in round numbers1 eighteen hundred millions of dollars1 or thirty-eight per cent4 of the capital reported as invested in two hundred of our railway companies alone1 is wholly unproductive to the investors1 and the greater part is wholly lost to them4 ,this is sufficiently appalling1 but when we consider how many companies that have managed to keep up the interest on their bonds have wholly1 or almost1 ceased to pay any interest on their capital stock1 which stock1 in turn1 has shrunk to seventy-five1 fifty1 twenty-five1 ten1 in some cases five per cent4 of its par value1 it will seem to be a reasonable conclusion that the actual shrinkage and loss to somebody on the face value of railway investments in the ,united ,states has been fully fifty per cent460#ea #ea ,the ,chicago ,railway ,age4 ,in view of this startling exhibit it is evident that in the projection1 construction1 and management of the railways of the ,united ,states there has been gross incompetency4 ,in #ahha ,messrs4 ,r4 ,g4 ,dun ,co41 the well-known commercial agents1 showed that of the wholesale merchants doing business in the city of ,chicago in #ahgj fifty per cent4 had failed1 suspended1 or compromised with their creditors4 ,forty years ago ,gen4 ,dearborn1 a prominent citizen of ,chicago1 declared that not more than three per cent4 of the individuals who embark in trade end life with success4 ,the success meant1 doubtless1 is unbroken solvency during the business experience of the merchant1 and the final accumulation of a competence4 ,the mercantile ranks in the ,united ,states afford many instances of individual merchants and firms who have settled or compromised with their creditors several times1 and finally succeeded--succeeded at the expense of their creditors4 ,but this is not the success meant by ,gen4 ,dearborn4 ,this statistical information1 furnished by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,g4 ,dun ,co41 tends to confirm1 approximately1 the verity of the common remark that in trade not one in a hundred succeeds4 ,let us suppose that three merchants in a hundred so conduct their business as never to ask their creditors for a favor1 never to 8settle0 for #ej or #be cents1 but always pay 8dollar for dollar10 and come out in the end rich4 ,this is strictly legitimate success4 ,it would be very interesting to learn what becomes of the other ninety-seven merchants4 ,most of them go down after a few years1 never again to emerge above the surface of commercial affairs4 ,they live on salaries1 enter the ranks of the speculative class1 or become genteel paupers4 ,but doubtless seven at least of the ninety-seven 8compromise0 and 8settle0 themselves over the breakers1 and finally achieve success4 ,so that of the ten successful merchants out of a hundred those who succeed at the expense of their creditors are as seven to three of those who win success by the highest degree of mercantile merit4 ,with ninety utter failures1 seven successes which involve the misfortune or wreck of others1 and only three untarnished successes in a hundred1 the general ambition to enter mercantile life is simply unaccountable4 ,of course the small number of successful merchants have to calculate upon the failures which will inevitably occur4 ,they must discount the losses they are sure to incur through those failures--provide for them by increasing the otherwise sufficient profit of each transaction4 ,in this way the public pays the cost of each failure4 ,in other words1 the consumer is taxed to pay the expense of ninety complete failures1 and seven partial failures1 in every hundred mercantile experiments4 ,this expense aggregates scores of millions of dollars in this country alone1 every year4 ,the sum of losses by the failure of merchants in good seasons is very large1 and in seasons of commercial depression it is vast4 ,it is evident that ninety-seven in every hundred merchants mistake their avocation4 ,only three in a hundred are exactly fitted for the business they undertake4 ,they are morally the 8fittest0 who survive by virtue of ability and integrity2 the seven who survive by levying contributions on their creditors may also be regarded as the 8fittest0 according to the ,darwinian theory4 ,of the ninety who go down without even a struggle to 8settle0 or 8compromise10 they answer to the received definition of dirt--8matter out of place40 ,the investigation made by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,g4 ,dun ,co41 which resulted in the statistical information here reproduced and commented upon1 was brought about by the assertion in #ahha of a life-insurance agent that fifty per cent4 of the wholesale merchants doing business in the city of ,chicago in #ahgj had meantime failed1 suspended1 or compromised with their creditors4 ,out of this investigation the question logically springs1 8,is not failing in business made too easy80#eb ,if 8compromises10 8settlements10 and 8failures0 carry with them no disgrace1 it is but natural that thousands should take the risk of them in the contest for the great prizes which are the reward of success4 ,the distinction in the public mind between the three merchants in a hundred who succeed legitimately and the seven who succeed by questionable 8compromises0 or 8settlements0 is very slight2 and too many of the ninety who fail utterly retire with large sums of money which belong honestly to their creditors4 ,doubtless the life-insurance agent1 in depicting the perils of mercantile ventures1 urged the propriety of the merchant fortifying himself against disaster by insuring his life for the benefit of his family4 ,this is a legitimate argument when addressed to the merchant in solvent condition2 but the life-insurance agent's intimate acquaintance with the shaky finances of nine-tenths of the commercial community teaches him that a large share of the money he receives in premiums1 comes not from the merchant1 but from the merchant's creditors1 who will soon be called upon1 in the natural course of events1 to consent to a composition of his claim1 while the shaky merchant will retire with a paid-up policy of insurance in favor of his family4 #eb 8,mercantile honor is held so high in some countries that the calamity of bankruptcy drives men mad4 ,in ,france there are numerous instances of almost superhuman struggles on the part of ruined merchants to regain1 by patient effort and pinching economy1 their lost station in the business community4 ,csar ,birotteau1 ,balzac's hero of such a struggle1 dies from excess of emotion in the hour of his triumph4 #8,behold the death of the just6' the ,abb ,loraux exclaims1 as he regards1 with lofty pride1 the expiring merchant40--8,ten-minute ,sketches10 p4 #bbj4 ,by ,charles ,h4 ,ham4 ,chicago and ,new ,york3 ,belford1 ,clark ,co41 #ahhd4 ,it is quite plain that in nine cases out of ten the merchant who carries a large policy of insurance on his life actually pays for it out of his creditors' instead of his own money4 ,to be sure1 it may be said that the nine merchants hope and expect to succeed1 as well as the one4 ,but is not it the duty of the merchant who owes large sums of money to think more of providing means for the payment of his immediate debts than of laying up a support for himself and family in the event of failure8 ,some disgrace ought to attach to failure in business2 that is to say1 disgrace enough to make the merchant cautious and economical1 with a view1 not to his own protection in the event of failure1 but to the protection of his creditors1 and of his own reputation as a business man4 ,these failures1 on so vast a scale1 of railway enterprises1 and the almost total wreck of mercantile ventures1 show that the business of this country is done1 as a ,yankee might say1 8by guess10 or as the mechanic of the old rgime would say1 8by the rule of thumb40 ,the conclusion is hence irresistible that the youth of the ,united ,states are not so educated as to fit them for the conduct1 to a successful issue1 of great business enterprises4 ,and this is an impeachment of what is regarded1 on the whole1 as the best system of popular education in operation in the world4 ,a system of education which turns out ninety-three or ninety-seven men who fail1 to three or seven men who succeed in business1 must be very unscientific4 ,if the savage system of education were not better adapted to the savage state1 the savage would perish from the earth in the process of civilization4 ,the savage bends his ear to the ground and robs the forest of its secrets1 not three times in a hundred1 but ninety and nine times4 ,ninety-nine times in a hundred he traces the footsteps of his enemy in the tangled mazes of the pathless wood4 ,in 8,aborigines of ,australia0#ec ,mr4 ,g4 ,s4 ,lang states that 8one day while travelling in ,australia he pointed to a footstep and asked whose it was4 ,the guide glanced at it without stopping his horse1 and at once answered1 #8,whitefellow call him ,tiger4' ,this turned out to be correct2 which was the more remarkable as the two men belonged to different tribes1 and had not met for two years40 ,among the ,arabs it is asserted that some men know every individual in the tribe by his footstep4 ,besides this1 every ,arab knows the printed footsteps of his own camels1 and of those belonging to his immediate neighbors4 ,he knows by the depth or slightness of the impression whether a camel was pasturing1 and therefore not carrying any load1 or mounted by one person only1 or heavily loaded4 ,the ,australian will kill a pigeon with a spear at a distance of thirty paces4 ,the ,esquimau in his kayak will actually turn somersaults in the water4 ,after giving many illustrations of the skill of various races of savages1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock says1 8,what an amount of practice must be required to obtain such skill as this6 ,how true1 also1 must the weapons be6 ,indeed it is very evident that each distinct type of flint implement must have been designed for some distinct purpose40 ,he adds1 8,the neatness with which the ,hottentots1 ,esquimaux1 ,north ,american ,indians1 etc41 are able to sew is very remarkable1 although awls and sinews would in our hands be but poor substitutes for needles and thread4 ,as already mentioned 7in page #ccb71 some cautious archologists hesitated to refer the reindeer caves of the ,dordogne to the ,stone ,age1 on account of the bone needles and the works of art which are found in them4 ,the eyes of the needles especially1 they thought1 could only be made with metallic implements4 ,prof4 ,lartet ingeniously removed these doubts by making a similar needle for himself with the help of flint2 but he might have referred to the fact stated by ,cook in his first voyage1 that the ,new ,zealanders succeeded in drilling a hole through a piece of glass which he had given them1 using for this purpose1 as he supposed1 a piece of jasper40#ed #ec 8,aborigines of ,australia10 p4 #bd4 #ed 8,prehistoric ,times10 pp4 #edd1 #edh4 ,by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,bart41 ,m4,p4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahge4 ,the education which enables the savage to make these extremely nice adjustments of means to ends is scientific4 ,the observation1 for example1 of the ,arab who draws such accurate conclusions from the 8printed footstep of the camel10 if applied to the problems of civilized life1 would result in success1 not failure4 ,the excellence of this savage training consists in its practical character1 in its perfect adaptation to the end in view4 ,for example1 the ,esquimau boy is not instructed in the theory of turning somersaults in the water1 in his kayak4 ,he sees his father perform the feat2 he is given a kayak and required to perform it also4 ,the result is early and complete success4 ,so of the ,arab4 ,in traversing the desert it is important for him to read every sign1 to translate every mark left in the sand4 ,upon the accuracy of his observation his life may often depend4 ,the print of the camel's footstep may tell him whether he is1 soon or late1 to meet friend or foe4 ,hence from early childhood his faculty of observation is trained until it soon becomes as delicate and nice as the sense of touch of a blind1 deaf mute4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock thinks that a great amount of practice must be required to achieve so much skill2 but the results are due1 probably1 more to the nature1 than to the extent1 of the practice4 ,it is the excellence of the training that produces results which excite wonder and admiration4 ,the savage is indolent2 he works only that he may eat1 and he works well1 simply because he has been taught objectively1 instead of subjectively4 ,the difference in results between the best and the poorest methods of instruction is very great1 as witness the testimony of ,mr4 ,thomas ,foley1 late instructor in forging1 vise-work1 and machine-tool work in the school of mechanic arts of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,he says1 8,it is a great waste of time to spend two or three years in acquiring knowledge of a given business1 profession1 or trade1 that can be acquired in the short space of twelve or thirteen days1 under a proper course of instruction4 ,twelve days of systematic school-shop instruction produces as great a degree of dexterity as two or more years' apprenticeship under the adverse conditions which prevail in the trade-shop40#ee ,the manual training methods are the same as those which enable the savage to perform such feats of skill4 ,they are the natural and hence most efficient methods of imparting instruction4 #ee ,report on 8,the ,manual ,element in ,education10 p4 #cj4 ,by ,john ,d4 ,runkle1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,walker ,professor of ,mathematics1 ,institute of ,technology1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,the manual training school is a kindergarten for boys fourteen years of age4 ,miss ,s4 ,e4 ,blow1 in formulating the theory of the kindergarten1 describes the methods of the savage's school1 and those of the manual training school1 as follows3 8,it is a truth now universally recognized by educators that ideas are formed in the mind of a child by abstraction and generalization from the facts revealed to him through the senses2 that only what he himself has perceived of the visible and tangible properties of things can serve as the basis of thought2 and that upon the vividness and completeness of the impressions made upon him by external objects1 will depend the clearness of his inferences and the correctness of his judgments4 ,it is equally true1 and as generally recognized1 that in young children the perceptive faculties are relatively stronger than at any later period1 and that while the understanding and reason still sleep1 the sensitive mind is receiving those sharp impressions of external things which1 held fast by memory1 transformed by the imagination1 and finally classified and organized through reflection1 result in the determination of thought and the formation of character4 8,these two parallel truths indicate clearly that the first duty of the educator is to aid the perceptive faculties in their work by supplying the external objects best calculated to serve as the basis of normal conceptions1 by exhibiting these objects from many different stand-points--that variety of interest may sharpen and intensify the impressions they make upon the mind1 and by presenting them in such a sequence that the transition from one object to another may be made as easy as possible40#ef #ef 8,the ,kindergarten4 ,an address1 delivered ,april #c1 #ahge1 before the ,normal ,teachers' ,association1 at ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo40 ,this admirable exposition of the theory of scientific education solves the mystery which has always enveloped savage skill4 ,it also affords a philosophic explanation of the fact discovered by ,mr4 ,foley1 namely1 that the student of the manual training school acquires as much knowledge in one hundred and twenty hours as the apprentice of the machine-shop does in two years4 ,in a word1 it shows exactly why scientific education is so incomparably superior to automatic education4 ,mr4 ,foley asserts1 in substance1 that the scientific methods of the manual training school are twenty times as valuable to the student as the unscientific methods of the trade-shop are to the apprentice4 ,in a familiar letter to the author1 ,prof4 ,goss#eg shows why the methods of the manual training school are so very valuable4 ,he says3 8,in such a school1 or course1 a student is taught to perform a series of operations1 involving practice with a variety of tools1 on pieces of suitable material4 ,it is not to be supposed that his ability to make a certain piece is directly valuable1 for the experience of a lifetime may never require him to make it again4 ,it is not expected that while making the piece he will learn a number of formulated facts relating to his work1 and its application to other work1 for that is not the best way to learn4 ,nor can we expect him to acquire a high degree of hand skill 7accuracy and rapidity of movement combined71 for this his limited time will not permit4 ,but he does this3 he works out a practical mechanical problem with every piece he makes4 ,he sees how the tool should be handled1 and how the material operated on behaves4 ,he comes to understand why the tool cuts well in some directions and not so well in others2 and all the time he queries to himself where it was that he saw a joint like the one he is making4 ,he is an investigator--as much so as a student in chemistry4 ,his mind must always guide his hand2 his reasoning opens new fields of thought with every stroke of the chisel4 #eg ,prof4 ,william ,f4 ,m4 ,goss1 a graduate of the school of mechanic arts of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 and at present instructor in the mechanic arts department of the ,purdue ,university4 8,a boy ten years old1 who was a member of a class under my direction in ,indianapolis in #ahhc1 is reported to have said1 #8,why1 mother1 ,i never looked at the doors and windows so much in all my life as ,i have since ,i began at the wood-working school4' 8,i tell my students how to go to work1 when they are likely to make mistakes1 and how mistakes may be avoided4 ,in operating along the line directed they thoroughly understand what they are doing1 and why they do it4 ,they see on all sides of their work4 8,if ,i have several different tools for doing work of the same character1 ,i frequently give a student first one and then another1 until he has tried them all4 ,then ,i ask him which he likes best1 and why4 ,suppose we are to make a drawing-board4 ,the class having already been made familiar with the principles governing the shrinkage and warping of woods1 is asked in what way the cleats1 to prevent warping1 may best be fastened to the ends4 ,the question is left open for a day or two1 and sketches are submitted and views exchanged on the subject4 8,i frequently ask my students to pass to me1 in writing1 as many facts 7not in the form of a composition7 as they can think of regarding certain stated features of their work--not facts to be obtained from books1 but from things they have seen and with which they are familiar4 ,the replies are often remarkable for accuracy and force of statement4444 8,the manual training school that does not by its work inspire thought and encourage investigation is poor indeed2 the school that assumes its work to be mind training by hand practice is the ideal school1 and the school that will succeed4444 8,my answer to your second and third questions is already evident4 ,i consider an hour in the shop as valuable for its intellectual training as an hour of book-study1 and two hours in the shop as valuable as two hours of study4 ,i do not think that a student can take two hours of shop-work in addition to a full course of outside study2 but ,i am convinced that two hours in the shop can be made to take the place of one hour of study without extra burden to the student4 ,therefore1 this being done1 the student will get as much again intellectual benefit from the shop as he would get if the shop-work equivalent in time were given to book-study40 ,this description of the mental operations which accompany the laboratory exercises of the manual training school shows the intimacy of the relations existing between the brain and the hand4 ,it shows how they act and react upon each other1 and affords an explanation of the remark of ,dr4 ,belfield1#eh that the laboratory exercises are in fact a great strain upon the mental constitution of the student4 ,this observation of ,dr4 ,belfield1 one of the most distinguished teachers of the old rgime in the ,united ,states1 entirely justifies the claim made in behalf of the scientific character of manual training as an educational agency1 for it shows that such training is in no sense automatic4 ,if manual training is a great strain upon the mental faculties1 it must be because the use of tools stimulates such faculties to great activity4 ,and if this is true1 the mental discipline derived from manual training must be proportionally great4 ,this is a pivotal point2 for if the observation of ,dr4 ,belfield is well founded in fact and reason1 it proves to a demonstration the high educational value of manual training--proves its superiority over all the methods of the old rgime4 #eh ,henry ,h4 ,belfield1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d41 ,director of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school4 ,prof4 ,goss says1 8,the manual training school student is an investigator--as much so as a student in chemistry4 ,his mind must always guide his hand1 his reasoning opens new fields of thought with every stroke of the chisel4 ,he sees on all sides of his work40#ei ,and ,dr4 ,belfield says that these varied operations of the mind cause a severe mental strain4 ,it would be difficult to find a better exemplification of scientific education than a course of training which exercises simultaneously the powers of both body and mind1 a course which with every fresh burden put upon the mind puts new vitality into the body4 ,this is1 indeed1 the very opposite of automatic education1 and we may well call it scientific education4 #ei 8,no extent of acquaintance with the meanings of words can give the power of forming correct inferences respecting causes and effects4 ,the constant habit of drawing conclusions from data1 and then of verifying those conclusions by observation and experiment1 can alone give the power of judging correctly40--8,education10 p4 #hh4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,another leaf from the experience of ,dr4 ,belfield is worthy of reproduction here4 ,on the #bjth of ,february1 #ahhd1 he took the sense of the students in his school on the question whether or not they should indulge in a vacation on ,washington's birthday anniversary4 ,somewhat to his surprise the vote was almost unanimous in the affirmative4 ,he acceded to the wishes of the students1 but no sooner was the announcement made1 than he was besieged with applications from nearly all of them for permission to convert the holiday into a work-day in the laboratories6 ,dr4 ,belfield has been compelled to post a peremptory order against the occupancy of the school laboratories by the students on ,saturdays1 which are regular vacation days4 ,natural training is scientific training4 ,the fondness of the student for the manual training school is evidence of its scientific character4 ,he is fond of it because it is natural4 ,miss ,blow says of the child3 8,only what he himself has perceived of the visible and tangible properties of things can serve as the basis of thought1 and upon the vividness and completeness of the impressions made upon him by external objects will depend the clearness of his inferences and the correctness of his judgments40 ,this is the education both of the kindergarten and the manual training school1 and it brightens1 stimulates1 and develops1 while automatic education stupefies4 ,mr4 ,foley1 formerly of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 declares1 as the result of his experience1 as already stated1 that the scientific methods of the manual training school are twenty times as valuable to the student as the unscientific methods of the trade-shop are to the apprentice4 ,but we have shown in a former chapter that the training of the trade-shops of ,england1 during the past one hundred and fifty years1 has been better than that of the ,english schools and universities2 in a word1 that ,england is more indebted for her greatness to her apprentice system than to her school system4 ,it follows that the school system of ,england must have been almost indescribably poor4 ,that the system of popular education in the ,united ,states1 which is much more comprehensive1 and presumably better1 than that of ,england1 is very poor indeed in results1 is shown by the statistics of railway and mercantile disasters2 and it is scarcely necessary to remark that these disasters show prevailing methods of education to be as defective morally as they are mentally4 ,the reason of this is that1 being automatic1 they lead neither to the discovery of truth nor to the detection of error4 ,it is easy to juggle with words1 to argue in a circle1 to make the worse appear the better reason1 and to reach false conclusions which wear a plausible aspect4 ,but it is not so with things4 ,if the cylinder is not tight the steam-engine is a lifeless mass of iron of no value whatever4 ,a flaw in the wheel of the locomotive wrecks the train4 ,through a defective flue in the chimney the house is set on fire4 ,a lie in the concrete is always hideous2 like murder1 it will out4 ,hence it is that the mind is liable to fall into grave errors until it is fortified by the wise counsel of the practical hand4 ,it is obvious that the reason of the demand for the manual element in education is not so much that industrial interests require to be promoted1 as that mental operations may be rendered more true1 and hence more scientific4 ,what we need more than we need a better class of mechanics is a better class of men--men of a higher grade both morally and intellectually4 ,the study of things so steadies and balances the mind that the attention being once turned in that direction great results soon follow1 as witness1 the history of discovery and invention in ,england4 ,the world moves very fast industrially1 but very slow morally and intellectually4 ,mechanics stand the test of scrutiny far better than merchants4 ,civil engineers and architects are more competent than railway presidents1 lawyers1 judges1 and legislators4 ,the reason of this fact is that mechanics1 civil engineers1 and architects are educated practically in the world's shops and the world's technical schools4 ,they are trained in things1 while merchants1 railway presidents1 lawyers1 judges1 and legislators have only the automatic word-training of the schools4 ,it is notorious that criminals are not punished in this country4 ,suppose there were such a failure of bridges as there is of justice4 ,that is to say1 suppose nine-tenths of the bridges constructed1 whether for railway or other purposes1 should fall within a few months of their completion4 ,what would be thought of the technical schools whence the civil engineers graduate8 ,ninety-seven merchants in a hundred fail4 ,suppose ninety-seven buildings in a hundred1 constructed under the direction of architects1 should tumble down over the heads of their occupants six months after their erection4 ,the education of the architects would no doubt be regarded as defective4 ,buckle says of ,english legislation1 8,the best laws which have been passed have been those by which some former laws were repealed40#fj ,it will be admitted that the same is true of ,american legislation4#fa ,in other words1 the average legislator is wiser in the statutes he repeals than in the bills he enacts4 ,what if the incompetency of the legislator were paralleled by that of the machinist8 ,suppose ninety-seven in every one hundred locomotives should break down on the 8trial-trip10 and be returned to the builder's shop for remanufacture4 ,such a result would be an impeachment of the education of the locomotive builder4 #fj 8,history of ,civilization in ,england10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bjj4 ,by ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahfd4 8,in a paper read to the ,statistical ,society in ,may1 #ahgc1 ,mr4 ,janson1 ,vice-president of the ,law ,society1 stated that from the statute of ,merton 7#bj ,henry ,,iii47 to the end of #ahgb there had been passed #ah1aaj public acts1 of which he estimated that four-fifths had been wholly or partially repealed4 ,he also stated that the number of public acts repealed wholly or in part1 or amended1 during the three years #ahgj-ga-gb had been #cecb1 of which #bgei had been totally repealed4 ,to see whether this rate of repeal has continued ,i have referred to the annually issued volumes of the #8,public ,general ,statutes' for the last three sessions4 ,saying nothing of the numerous amended acts1 the result is that in the last three sessions there have been totally repealed1 separately or in groups1 #fej acts belonging to the present reign1 besides many of preceding reigns4444 8,seeing1 then1 that bad legislation means injury to men's lives1 judge what must be the total amount of mental distress1 physical pain1 and raised mortality which these thousands of repealed ,acts of ,parliament represent40--8,the ,man versus the ,state10 pp4 #ej1 #ea4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #fa 8,so thoroughly have the conscience and intelligence of the ,north apprehended these facts neglect to educate and enlighten the freedmen1 that while the ,nation has done nothing they have given in private charity1 intended to remedy this evil1 nearly a million dollars a year for nearly twenty years4 ,this is the instinct of a people versus the stupidity of their legislators4444 ,of the true character of the ,south he the author was1 like all his class1 profoundly ignorant1 almost as ignorant as the men who made the ,nation's laws40--8,an ,appeal to ,csar10 pp4 #eb1 #ef4 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,tourge4 ,ninety-seven in every hundred boys who graduate from the public schools and embark in mercantile pursuits fail4 ,suppose ninety-seven in every hundred watches made in the ,american watch factories should prove to be worthless4 ,the watch companies would1 no doubt1 soon be in the hands of the sheriff4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 the ,elgin ,national ,watch ,company1 for example1 makes twelve hundred watches a day1 and each and every one of them is an almost perfect time-keeper4 ,there is1 then1 no such failure of the arts as there is of justice2 no such failure of mechanics as of merchants2 no such failure of locomotives and watches as of legislation4 ,it follows that the education of artisans is better1 more scientific1 than that of merchants1 judges1 lawyers1 and legislators4 ,and this is a very significant fact when it is considered that the ,state does much for education in belles-lettres and scarcely anything for education in the arts and sciences4#fb #fb ,the reason why statutes fail more frequently than steam-engines and bridges is not wholly because the legislator has to deal with human nature and the mechanic with inanimate matter4 ,steam and electricity are subtle forces1 but man has quickly mastered them and successfully applied them to a variety of uses4 ,it is not to the interest of any one that the machinist should make a defective locomotive1 for example2 but it is often to the interest of some one that the legislator should enact vicious laws4 ,vicious statutes are enacted with a design to injure the public in order that certain individuals may be benefited thereby4 ,if the mind should act as honestly in legislation as the hand does in construction1 statutes would not have to be repealed yearly4 ,we have fallen into the habit of regarding education as a polite accomplishment having very little to do with the real business of life2 but this is not the fact4 ,education begins in the cradle and continues through life2 and it makes the man what he is4 ,if he goes to the penitentiary it is his education that sends him there4 ,if he is sent to the ,general ,assembly of the ,state or to the ,congress of the ,nation1 and there helps to enact vicious laws1 it is his education that is responsible for such laws4 ,if the man as a citizen sells his franchise at the polls1 or his vote in the legislative hall1 for money1 it is the education he has received that is responsible for his baseness4 ,it will be said that the explanation of the greater apparent accuracy of the work of the hand is to be found in the fact that it operates upon matter while the mind deals with metaphysical subtilties4 ,the contention will not be that mind is less plastic than matter1 but that it is more difficult of comprehension4 ,but how do we know this to be the fact8 ,where has the experiment been tried of honest contact mind with mind8 ,it was not tried by the ancients4 ,it is not on trial in any part of the world to-day4 ,there is1 hence1 no place in which to seek evidence as to how mind would act upon mind if treated honestly1 as matter is treated by the hand4 ,but if the quality of selfishness is eliminated1 there will be no difficulty in bringing all minds to an agreement1 as the parts of a watch are brought into harmonious and useful action4 ,and it is through the hand that this beneficent union is destined to be effected2 for the hand is the source of wisdom1 which is simply the power of discriminating between the true and the false4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,automatic ,,contrasted ,,with ,,scientific ,,education--,continued4 ,the ,training of the ,merchant1 the ,lawyer1 the ,judge1 and the ,legislator contrasted with that of the ,artisan4 -- ,the ,training of the ,merchant makes him ,selfish1 and ,selfishness breeds ,dishonesty4 -- ,professional ,men become ,speculative ,philosophers1 and test their ,speculations by ,consciousness4 -- ,the ,artisan forgets ,self in the ,study of ,things4 -- ,the ,search after ,truth4 -- ,the ,story of ,palissy4 -- ,the ,hero is the ,normal ,man2 those who ,marvel at his ,acts are abnormally ,developed4 -- ,savonarola and ,john ,brown4 -- ,the ,new ,england ,system of ,education contrasted with that of the ,south4 -- ,american ,statesmanship -- its ,failure in an ,educational ,point of ,view4 -- ,why the ,state ,provides for ,education2 to protect ,property4 -- ,the ,british ,government and the ,land ,question4 -- ,the ,thoroughness of the ,training given by ,schools of ,mechanic ,art and ,institutes of ,technology as shown in ,things4 -- ,story of the ,emperor of ,germany and the ,needle-maker4 -- ,the ,iron ,bridge lasts a ,century1 the ,act of the ,legislator wears out in a ,year4 -- ,the ,cause of the ,failures of ,justice and ,legislation4 -- ,the best ,law is the ,act that ,repeals a ,law2 but the ,act of the ,inventor is never ,repealed4 -- ,things the ,source and ,issue of ,ideas2 hence the ,necessity of ,training in the ,arts4 ,there is a cause for the failure of the merchant1 the lawyer1 the judge1 and the legislator1 as well as for the success of the artisan4 ,and the cause must be sought in the courses of training1 respectively1 of the two classes4 ,let us assume that the artisan and the merchant1 the lawyer1 the judge1 and the legislator1 graduate at the same time from the public high school1 or from ,harvard or ,yale4 ,the merchant at once begins to trade1 to buy and sell4 ,he concerns himself with things only as they have a value1 either naturally arising from the law of demand and supply1 or arbitrarily imposed by circumstances4 ,his consideration of the relations of things is confined to the single question of the percentage of profit which may accrue to him from traffic in them4 ,these are subjective processes of thought1 and the merchant becomes absorbed in them to the exclusion of all other topics4 ,it goes without saying that he becomes intensely selfish4 ,the struggle is one of mercantile life or death--ninety-three to ninety-seven in a hundred die2 three to seven survive4 ,among merchants there is1 hence1 very little thought of the subject of justice1 and no effort to discover truth4 ,there must1 at the end of the year1 be a favorable balance on the right side of the ledger1 or the balance on the wrong side unerringly points the way to ruin4 ,this is the post-school training of the merchant4 ,that neither it nor his previous education renders him skilful we know1 since he fails ninety-three to ninety-seven times in a hundred trials4 ,that subjective training does not and never can promote rectitude has been shown in a former chapter of this work4 ,that merchants who compromise with their creditors1 and subsequently accumulate fortunes1 very rarely repay the debt formerly forgiven is a notorious fact4 ,a ,chicago merchant who himself repaid such a composition debt early in his career1 states1 at the end of twenty-five years' experience1 that of compromises involving several hundred thousand dollars1 made by him in favor of debtors1 not one dollar has ever been repaid4 ,upon leaving school or college the lawyer1 the judge1 and the legislator at once apply themselves to books2 their subsequent training is exclusively subjective4 ,their ideas receive color from1 and are verified only by reference to1 consciousness4 ,subjective truths have no relations to things1 and hence are susceptible of verification only through consciousness4 ,they are1 therefore1 mere speculations after all1 often ingenious but always problematical4 ,the result of such training is selfishness--selfishness of a very intense character2 and1 as has been already shown1 selfishness is merely another name for injustice4 ,on the other hand the artisan devotes himself to things4 ,his training is exclusively objective4 ,his ideas flow outward2 he studies the nature and relations of things4 ,in this investigation he forgets self because his life becomes a grand struggle in search of truth2 and the discovery of truth in things1 if not easy1 is ultimately sure of attainment1 since harmony is its sign1 and its opposite1 the false1 is certain of exposure through its native deformity2 for however alluring a lie may be made to appear in the abstract1 in the concrete it is a monster unmasked4 ,from the false the artisan intuitively shrinks4 ,he can only succeed by finding the truth1 and embodying it in some useful or beautiful thing which will contribute to the comfort or pleasure of man4 ,hence his watchword is utility1 or1 beauty in utility4 ,of the engrossing character of this struggle the story of ,bernard ,palissy affords a splendid illustration4 ,palissy was an artist1 a student1 and a naturalist1 but poor1 and compelled to follow the profession of surveying to support his family4 ,at the age of thirty he saw an enamelled cup1 of ,italian manufacture1 which fired his ambition4 ,ignorant of the nature of clays1 he nevertheless resolved to discover enamel1 and entered upon a laborious course of investigation and experiment with that end in view4 ,after many years of ,herculean effort and indescribable privation1 which beggared and estranged his family1 and rendered him an object of ridicule among his neighbors1 he achieved a grand success4 ,at a critical period of his experiments1 in the face of the indignant protests of his almost starving family1 having exhausted his credit to the last penny1 he consigned to the flames of his furnace the chairs1 tables1 and floors of his humble cottage1 and continued to watch his chemicals with all-absorbing attention1 while his wife in despair rushed through the streets making loud proclamation of the scandal4 ,but ,palissy was more than a potter2 he was a ,christian1 a philosopher1 and an austere reformer4 ,notwithstanding he had been petted and patronized as an ingenious artisan by the royal family of ,france1 he was finally cast into prison under charge of heresy4 ,it was there that the remarkable interview with ,king ,henry ,,iii4 occurred1 which immortalized ,palissy as a hero4 8,my good man10 said the king1 8you have been forty-five years in the service of the queen1 my mother1 or in mine1 and we have suffered you to live in your own religion1 amid all the executions and the massacres4 ,now1 however1 ,i am so pressed by the ,guise party and my people that ,i have been compelled in spite of myself to imprison these two poor women and you40 8,sire10 answered the old man1 8the count came yesterday on your part1 promising life to these two sisters upon condition of the sacrifice of their virtue4 ,they replied that they would now be martyrs to their own honor as well as for the honor of ,god4 ,you have said several times that you feel pity for me2 but it is ,i who pity you1 who have said1 #8,i am compelled6' ,that is not speaking like a king4 ,these girls and ,i1 who have part in the kingdom of heaven--we will teach you to talk royally4 ,the ,guisarts1 all your people1 and yourself1 cannot compel a potter to bow down to images of clay60#fc ,and ,palissy the potter and heretic1 at the age of seventy1 died in the ,bastile1 proudly defying a king4 #fc 8,palissy the ,potter10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,by ,henry ,morley4 ,boston3 ,ticknor1 ,reed ,fields1 #ahec4 ,the more absorbing the struggle for the discovery of truth the less room there is in the mind for selfishness2 and as selfishness recedes1 justice assumes its appropriate place as the controlling element in human conduct4 ,the hero is an honest man1 that's all1-- 8,though love repine1 and reason chafe1 ,there comes a voice without reply2 ',tis man's perdition to be safe1 ,when for the truth he ought to die40 ,if all men were heroes--honest--there would be no occasion for heroism4 ,if all education can be made scientific1 all men can be made honest4 ,the struggle to find truth is more natural than the struggle to succeed regardless of1 or against1 truth4 ,the reason why what we call heroism appears so grand is this3 the standards of public judgment have become so perverted by long custom in the abuse of truth1 that normal conduct appears strange4 ,when ,palissy burned his chairs and tables in the cause of art1 his family and his neighbors derided him1 and denounced him as a madman1 and in prison the king urged him1 as a friend1 to save himself from death by recanting his assertion of the right of freedom of religious opinion4 ,palissy was a hero neither to his family1 his friends1 nor his king2#fd but he was right1 and his discovery and his firmness rendered him immortal4 ,we now know1 three hundred years farther down the course of time1 that ,palissy's struggle over the furnace in the cause of art was mentally and morally normal1 while the opposition he encountered was abnormal2 and that his defiance of the king was mentally and morally normal1 while his persecution was abnormal and cruel4 #fd 8,i had nothing but reproaches in the house2 in place of consolation1 they gave me maledictions4 ,my neighbors1 who had heard of this affair the failure of an experiment1 said that ,i was nothing but a fool1 and that ,i might have had more than eight francs for the things that ,i had broken2 and all this talk was brought to mingle with my grief40--8,palissy the ,potter10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aij4 ,by ,henry ,morley4 ,boston3 ,ticknor1 ,reed ,fields1 #ahec4 ,palissy's mind was trained naturally in the direction of rectitude1 while the minds of the millions of men who permitted him to die unfriended1 a prisoner in the ,bastile1 were developed unnaturally4 ,their education was unscientific1 and their characters were hence deformed4 ,the one symmetrical character was that of ,palissy1 the lover of truth1 who was ready to starve1 if need be1 for his art1 and ready to die for his faith4 ,the thin ranks of the so-called heroes of the ages of history constitute the measure of the poverty of the systems of education that have prevailed among mankind4 ,these so-called heroes are merely normally developed men--men who search for the truth1 and having found it1 honor it always and everywhere4 ,they are peculiar to no clime1 to no country1 to no age4 ,they are cosmopolitan1 and the fact that they are honored1 after death1 by succeeding ages is proof positive of the world's progress1 or rather of the progress of moral ideas4 ,the civilization of ,italy in the middle of the fifteenth century presents the most violent possible contrast to that of ,america in the last half of the nineteenth century4 ,but the one produced ,savonarola1 the hater of abuses in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 and the other ,john ,brown1 the stern1 uncompromising hater of human bondage4 ,four hundred years is a long period in the history of civilization2 but the priest of the fifteenth century1 and the farmer of the nineteenth1 are as near of kin in spirit1 as if they had been born of the same mother1 and reared in the same moral atmosphere4 ,the true hero is always inexorable--as ,savonarola in the presence of the majesty of a dying1 remorse-stricken1 half-repentant prince1 and ,john ,brown in the presence of his exultant but half-terrified captors4 ,when ,lorenzo di ,medici lay terror-stricken1 on his death-bed1 ,savonarola demanded of the dying prince1 as the price of absolution1 a restoration of the liberties of the people of ,florence2 and this being refused1 the priest departed without one word of peace4 ,when ,john ,brown1 wounded and bleeding1 lay a captive at ,harper's ,ferry1 listening to the taunts of angry ,virginians1 he said1 calmly and firmly1 8,you had better--all you people of the ,south--prepare yourselves for a settlement of this question4 ,it must come up for settlement sooner than you are prepared for it1 and the sooner you commence that preparation the better for you4 ,you may dispose of me very easily--,i am nearly disposed of now--but this question is still to be settled--this negro question1 ,i mean4 ,the end of that is not yet40#fe #fe 8,the ,public ,life of ,captain ,john ,brown40 p4 #bhc4 ,by ,john ,redpath4 ,boston3 ,thayer ,eldridge1 #ahfj4 ,there is nothing grander in history1 whether real or mythological1 than the picture of the humble priest of the fifteenth century1 with no power except the justice of his cause1 shaking thrones and making proud prelates1 and even the ,pope himself1 tremble with fear6 ,and the exact parallel of this picture is found1 four hundred years down the stream of time1 in the person of the farmer1 ,john ,brown1 defying the ,constitution1 law1 and public sentiment of his country in the interest simply of the cause of justice4 ,it has been shown through citations from the ,walton report1 as well as by the opinions of many competent witnesses1 that the ,new ,england system of education1 whether correct in theory or not1 is1 in actual operation1 very defective4 ,but at the time of its establishment it was the best system in existence4 ,to it this country owes the quality of its civilization4 ,the neglect of education by the ,government of the ,united ,states is the most astonishing fact of its history4 ,it is incomprehensible how1 with a comparatively excellent educational system in operation1 and in full view in the ,new ,england1 ,middle1 and ,western ,states1 the ,national ,government could calmly and inactively contemplate the almost entire neglect of popular education in the ,states of the ,south1 and ignore1 from year to year1 the steadily accumulating horrors of ignorance and vice which were destined to lead to such deplorable political and social results4 ,the difference between the civilization of ,new ,england and that of ,south ,carolina1 for example1 is exactly measured by the difference between their respective educational systems4 ,new ,england undertook1 at a very early day1 to educate every class of its citizens2 ,south ,carolina made a monopoly of education1 confining it to a single class4 ,it must be admitted that the ,american statesmanship of the whole period of our history has been scarcely less short-sighted than that of ,england under the ,georges1 which resulted in saddling upon her people a debt that they can never pay4 ,if ,england had provided a comprehensive and scientific system of popular education at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 who doubts that the wars through which her debt was incurred would have been averted8 ,if the ,government of the ,united ,states had compelled the adoption of a scientific educational system by the ,states of the ,south1 who doubts that slavery would have peaceably passed away1 and the occasion for war passed away with it8 ,the conspicuous failure of ,american statesmanship consists in a failure to appreciate the value of scientific education1 it shows that good citizenship is impossible without good education--for good education and good citizenship are convertible terms4 ,and it is easy to show1 by the past1 that to hesitate on the subject of education is to be lost4#ff #ff 8,if you examine into the history of rogues1 you will find that they are as truly manufactured articles as anything else1 and it is just because our present system of political economy gives so large a stimulus to that manufacture that you may know it to be a false one4 ,we had better seek for a system which will develop honest men than for one which will deal cunningly with vagabonds4 ,let us reform our schools1 and we shall find little reform needed in our prisons40--8,unto ,this ,last10 p4 #ej4 ,by ,john ,ruskin4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahhc4 ,why do we provide for popular education8 ,is it out of pure generosity that the rich citizen consents to be taxed to pay for the education of his poor neighbor's children8 ,does the man who has no children willingly surrender a portion of his estate for the education of the children of others1 as an act of benevolence8 ,not at all4 ,there is no security for property in a community devoid of education and consequent intelligence4 ,intelligence alone confers upon property a sacred character4 ,in one of two ways only can property be rendered secure in the owner's hands4 ,it may be protected by a hired soldiery1 through the force of arms1,e#ac or through the force of public sentiment enlightened by education4 ,the reason why the poor but educated citizen would not lay violent hands on the rich citizen's property is the fact that he indulges the intelligent hope of himself acquiring property4 ,besides1 the morals of a community are in the ratio of its intelligence4 ,the indulgence of hope promotes self-esteem1 and self-respect1 and these qualities react ethically4 ,it should be borne in mind that while one of the main purposes of all governments is to preserve property rights1 nearly all the governments of history have been shattered in pieces in the effort to fulfil this function of their existence4 ,it may be said that there is never anything sacred about property unless it is honestly acquired4 ,all the force of our own government was exerted in a vain effort to protect property in slaves4 ,england has been compelled to disturb the property rights of the ,irish landlords1 and this is only the prelude to an attack upon the property rights of her own landlords4 ,it was the ignorance of the ,english people hundreds of years ago that permitted the establishment of a land system which is now about to crumble in pieces1 and in its fail wreck certain property rights4 ,there is nothing sacred about property unless it is honestly acquired and honestly held2 and property can only be honestly acquired and honestly held1 in communities intelligent enough to guard its acquisition1 and continued possession1 by just and adequate laws4 ,it follows that education is the sole bulwark of the ,state1 and so of property4 ,the question of the first consequence is1 therefore1 always1 ,what is the best system of education8 ,it is obvious1 also1 that the subject of cost should not enter into the discussion2 that the best education is the cheapest1 is an indisputable proposition4 ,we have seen that the ,new ,england system of education1 which has spread over the whole country1 is very much better than the system which prevailed in those ,states of the ,union where slavery continued to exist down to #ahfd4 ,but we have seen1 also1 that that system is very defective2 that it is automatic1 and hence not natural1 not practical1 not scientific4 ,it does not produce great merchants1 great lawyers1 great judges1 or great legislators4 ,that it does not1 is abundantly shown by the fact that in mercantile life there are ninety-three to ninety-seven failures in every one hundred experiments2 by the fact that there is notoriously a general failure of justice2 and by the fact that here1 as in ,great ,britain1 the chief business of statesmen is the undoing of vicious legislation4 ,there is a system of training which produces a much higher average of culture than that of the public schools and the universities4 ,we allude to the training received by the students of special mechanical and technical institutions1 and by the apprentices in trade-shops4 ,the proof of this is found in the world's railways1 ships1 harbors1 docks1 canals1 bridges1 telegraph and telephone lines1 and in a thousand and one other manifestations of skill in art4 ,in the adaptation of means to an end1 and in nicety of construction1 the mechanic and the civil engineer show1 in innumerable ways1 with what thoroughness both their minds and their hands have been trained4 ,if mercantile operations were governed by such excellent rules in projection1 and by such precision in execution1 ninety-seven merchants in a hundred would not go to the wall4 ,a story has lately gone the round of the public prints to the effect that1 during a visit to a needle factory by the ,emperor of ,germany1 a workman begged a hair of his head1 bored an eye in it1 threaded it1 and handed it back to the monarch1 who had expressed surprise that eyes could be bored in the smaller sizes of needles4 ,it does not matter whether or not this story is literally true2 it illustrates the delicacy of modern mechanical operations4 ,hundreds of similar illustrations might be given1 showing how marvellously skilful the hand has become4 ,it is not claimed that the hand is a nicer instrument than the mind4 ,as a matter of fact1 in drilling the hole in the hair the mind and the hand work together--the mind directs the hand1 we will say4 ,the mind devises or invents a watch--every wheel1 pinion1 screw1 and spring--and directs the hand how to make it1 and how to set it up1 and it ticks off the time4 ,why does the mind succeed so admirably when it employs the hand to execute its will1 but so ill when it devises and attempts1 itself1 to execute8 ,how is it that the mind invents a watch which1 being made by the hand1 records the hour to a second1 ninety-nine times in a hundred1 but fails ninety-three to ninety-seven times in a hundred to devise and carry into execution a mercantile venture8 ,how is it that the mind invents a steam-engine consisting of a hundred pieces1 so that1 each piece being made by a different hand1 the machine shall1 when set up1 ninety-nine times in a hundred1 at once perform the work of five hundred horses without strain or friction1 but when it grapples with law and fact in the chair of lawyer or judge produces a most pitiable wreck of justice8 ,how is it that the mind devises and the hand executes with such nice adaptation of means to the end in view1 a bridge1 that resembles a spider's web1 and yet bears thousands of tons and endures for ages1 but when it undertakes to legislate evolves statutes that wear out in a year8 ,the first iron bridge constructed spanned the ,severn1 in ,england4 ,it was opened to traffic a hundred years ago1 but it is still a stanch structure likely to stand for centuries4 ,where are the ,english statutes of that time8 ,repealed to give place to a long line of others which in turn have been repealed4 ,when the famous iron bridge across the ,severn was constructed1 ,english legislators were passing bills to compel the ,american colonies to trade only with the mother country1 and to tax them without their consent4 ,lord ,sheffield said1 with charming frankness1 that the colonies were founded with the sole view of securing to ,england a monopoly of their trade2 and ,lord ,chatham declared that they would not be permitted to make even a nail or a horseshoe4 ,in #aeaf ,sir ,thomas ,more denounced the criminal law of ,england1 declaring that 8the loss of money should not cause the loss of man's life40#fg ,but this humane and enlightened sentiment had so little weight that during the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 seventy-two thousand thieves were hanged--at the rate of two thousand a year4 ,in #aghe twenty men were executed in ,london at one time for thefts of five shillings4 ,the ,lord ,chief-justice and the ,lord ,chancellor agreed that it would be dangerous to repeal the law punishing pilfering by youths4 ,in #ahaf the ,commons passed a bill abolishing capital punishment for shoplifting--stealing the value of five shillings--but the ,lords defeated it1 ,lord ,ellenborough1 ,chief-justice1 observing1 peevishly1 8,they want to alter these laws which a century has proved to be necessary1 and which are now to be overturned by speculation and modern philosophy40#fh #fg 8,the ,history of ,england10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #hc4 ,by ,harriet ,martineau4 ,philadelphia3 ,porter ,coates4 #fh 8,the ,history of ,england10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #he4 ,by ,harriet ,martineau4 ,philadelphia3 ,porter ,coates4 ,the cause of these failures--of mercantile ventures1 of justice1 and of legislation--is this3 ,subjective mental processes are automatic1 and hence they neither generate power nor promote rectitude2 they enfeeble rather than energize the brain4 ,men whose characters are formed by such educational processes never originate anything4 ,they become selfish1 they venerate the past1 their eyes are turned backward2 hence1 if they sometimes make a feeble effort to move forward they stumble4 ,the lawyer1 the judge1 and the legislator are examples of this class4 ,their guide-books are musty folios in a dead language2 they look for 8precedents0 in an age whose civilization perished with its language1 and whose maxims and rules of life were long ago exploded4 ,such men can be compelled to move forward only by the lash of public opinion4 ,buckle1 speaking of the reforms extorted from the legislators of ,england1 says1 8,but it is a mere matter of history that our legislators1 even to the last moment1 were so terrified by the idea of innovation that they refused every reform until the voice of the people rose high enough to awe them into submission1 and forced them to grant what without such pressure they would by no means have conceded40#fi #fi 8,history of ,civilization10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cfa4 ,by ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahfd4 ,on the other hand1 the inventor1 the discoverer1 and the artisan are always in the advance1 and always moving forward4 ,they never look back except to catch the vital principle of the invention or discovery of yesterday for utilization in the improved machine of to-day4 ,their acts are never repealed because they never become odious4 ,they never become odious because they contain the germs of imperishable truth4 ,they are never false2 they are suitable to their time and the stage of development2 they constitute links in the chain of progress4 ,while the legislator is horrified at the thought of innovation1 the inventor1 the discoverer1 and the artisan are electrified by the discovery of a new principle in physics1 and delighted at its application in a new invention1 and its practical operation in a new and useful machine4 ,the difference in effects upon the mental and moral nature1 between purely mental training and mental and manual training combined1 is susceptible of logical explanation4 ,it is only in things that the truth stands clearly revealed1 and only in things that the false is sure of exposure4#gj ,hence exclusively mental training stops far short of the objective point of true education4 ,for if it be true that the last analysis of education is art1 progress can find expression only in things--in the work of men's hands4 ,and it is true2 for ideas are mere vain speculations until they are embodied in things4 ,nor is this materialism unless all civilization is material2 for the prime difference between barbarism and civilization consists in the presence1 in a state of civilization1 of more things of use and beauty than are found in a state of barbarism4 ,to exalt things is not materialistic2 they are both the source and issue of ideas1 and the measure of civilization4 ,ideas and things are hence indissolubly connected2 and it follows that any system of education which separates them is radically defective4#ga ,exclusively mental training does not produce a symmetrical character1 because at best it merely teaches the student how to think1 and the complement of thinking is acting4 ,before thoughts can have any influence whatever upon the world of mind and matter external to the mind originating them they must be expressed4 ,they may be expressed feebly1 through the voice1 in words2 more durably1 and therefore more forcibly1 with the pen1 on paper2 more forcibly still in drawing--pictures of things2 and1 with the superlative degree of force1 in real things4 #gj 8,to know the truth it is necessary to do the truth40444 8,we rightly seek the meaning of the abstract in the concrete1 because we cannot act in relation to the abstract1 which is only a representative sign2 we must give it a concrete form in order to make it a clear and distinct idea2 until we have done so we do not know that we really believe--only believe that we believe it4 ,a truth is best certified to be a truth when we live it and have ceased to talk about it40--8,body and ,will10 p4 #di4 ,by ,henry ,maudsley1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhd4 #ga 8,prof4 ,huxley seems to hold that zoology cannot be learned with any degree of sufficiency unless the student practises dissection4 ,in support of this position there are strong reasons4 ,in the first place1 the impression made on the mind by the actual objects1 as seen1 handled1 and operated upon1 is far beyond the efficacy of words or description4 ,and not only is it greater1 but it is more faithful to the fact4 ,while diagrams have a special value in bringing out links of connection that are disguised in the actual objects1 they can never show the things exactly as they appear to our senses2 and this full and precise conception of actuality is the most desirable form of knowledge2 it is truth1 the whole truth1 and nothing but the truth4 ,moreover1 it enables the student to exercise a free and independent judgment upon the dicta of the teacher40--8,education as a ,science10 p4 #cjc4 ,by ,alexander ,bain1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhd4 ,the object of education is the generation of power4 ,but to generate and store up power1 whether mental or physical1 or both1 is a waste of effort1 unless the power is to be exerted4 ,why generate steam if there is no engine to be operated8 ,steam may be likened to an idea which finds expression through the engine--a thing4 ,why store the mind with facts--historical1 philosophical1 or mathematical--which are useless until applied to things1 if they are not to be applied to things8 ,and if they are to be applied to things1 why not teach the art of so applying them8 ,as a matter of fact1 the system of education which does not do this is one-sided1 incomplete1 unscientific4 ,rousseau says1 8,education itself is certainly nothing but habit40 ,if this be true1 it will be conceded that the habit of expressing ideas in things should be formed in the schools1 because the chief way in which man is benefited is through the expression of ideas in things4 ,the system of education which tends to form this habit is that of the kindergarten and that of the manual training school4 ,these systems are one in principle4 ,they are not new2 they at least date back to ,bacon1 who declared that he would 8employ his utmost endeavors towards restoring or cultivating a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things40 ,the kindergarten and the manual training school exactly realize ,bacon's idea4 ,the idea of the manual training school was in the mind of ,comenius when he said1 8,let things that have to be done be learned by doing them40 ,it was in the mind of ,pestalozzi when he said1 8,education is the generation of power40 ,it was in the mind of ,froebel1 not less than the kindergarten1 when he said1 8,the end and aim of all our work should be the harmonious growth of the whole being40 ,these are excellent definitions of education1 and they are sequential4 ,if things that have to be done are learned by doing them1 there will be in the course of the process a wholesome exercise of both body and mind1 and this exercise will result in the generation of power--power to think well1 and to do well2 and the process being continued1 the result cannot fail to be the harmonious growth of the whole being4 ,this is scientific1 as opposed to automatic1 education4#gb #gb 8,intellectual progress is of necessity from the concrete to the abstract4 ,but regardless of this1 highly abstract subjects such as grammar1 which should come quite late1 are begun quite early4 ,political geography1 dead and uninteresting to a child1 and which should be an appendage of sociological studies1 is commenced betimes1 while physical geography1 comprehensible and comparatively attractive to a child1 is in great part passed over4 ,nearly every subject dealt with is arranged in abnormal order--definitions and rules and principles being put first1 instead of being disclosed1 as they are in the order of nature1 through the study of cases4 ,and then1 pervading the whole1 is the vicious system of rote learning--a system of sacrificing the spirit to the letter4444 8,a leading fact in human progress is that every science is evolved out of its corresponding art4 ,it results from the necessity we are under1 both individually and as a race1 of reaching the abstract by way of the concrete1 that there must be practice and an accruing experience with its empirical generalizations before there can be science40--8,education10 pp4 #fa1 #abd4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,e#ac ,but the protection to property afforded by arms is only temporary4 ,an increase of the standing army involves an increase of ignorance and poverty1 and the last analysis of ignorance and poverty is anarchy4 ,the anarchists of ,chicago #ahhf were of foreign birth4 ,they came to the ,united ,states from the standing-army-ridden countries of ,europe4 ,they were the product1 the victims1 of the ,european governmental system4 ,hence1 the proposal to adopt arms as a remedy for anarchy is a proposal to abandon the ,american idea of government for that of ,europe4 ,to preserve the society of to-day from violent dissolution1 it is necessary to shoot the anarchist4 ,but to assure the permanence of society it is necessary to educate the child of the anarchist4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem--,,historic4 ,,egypt ,,and ,,greece4 ,fundamental ,propositions4 -- ,selfishness the ,source of ,social ,evil2 ,subjective ,education the ,source of ,selfishness and the ,cause of ,contempt of ,labor2 and ,social ,disintegration the ,result of ,contempt of ,labor and the ,useful ,arts4 -- ,the ,first ,class-distinction -- the ,strongest ,man ruled2 his ,first ,rival1 the ,ingenious ,man4 -- ,superstition4 -- ,the ,castes of ,india and ,egypt -- how came they about8 -- ,egyptian ,education based on ,selfishness4 -- ,rise of ,egypt -- her ,career2 her ,fall2 ,analysis thereof4 -- ,she ,typifies all the ,early ,nations3 ,force and ,rapacity above1 ,chains and ,slavery below4 -- ,their ,education consisted of ,selfish ,maxims for the ,government of the ,many by the ,few1 and ,government meant the ,appropriation of the ,products of ,labor4 -- ,analysis of ,greek ,character -- its ,savage ,characteristics4 -- ,greek ,treachery and ,cruelty4 -- ,greek ,venality4 -- ,her ,orators accepted ,bribes4 -- ,responsibility of ,greek ,education and ,philosophy for the ,ruin of ,greek ,civilization4 -- ,rectitude wholly left out of her ,scheme of ,education4 -- ,plato's ,contempt of ,matter3 it led to ,contempt of ,man and all his ,works4 -- ,greek ,education consisted of ,rhetoric and ,logic2 all ,useful ,things were hence held in ,contempt4 ,it is a fundamental proposition of this work that selfishness is the essence of depravity1 and hence the source of all social evil2 and in previous chapters it has been shown1 argumentatively1 that exclusively subjective processes of education tend1 in a high degree1 to promote selfishness4 ,another fundamental proposition of this work is that the useful arts are the true measure of civilization1 and that1 as they are the product of labor1 contempt of the laborer leads inevitably to social disintegration and the destruction of the ,state4 ,if these propositions are true1 the solution of all social problems is to be sought through a radical change in educational methods4 ,if they are true1 it is of the first importance that they be proved1 not only by argument1 but by the citation of such facts of history as bear upon the subject4 ,civilization is the product of education4,e#ad ,if the education is good the product will be good1 if evil the product will be evil4 ,the purpose of this and the four following chapters is1 therefore1 to trace the progress of civilization1 to sketch in bold outline the social history of man4 ,the aphorism1 all men are created equal1 is a fine phrase1 but its truth is reserved for realization by the civilization of the future4 ,a tendency to the formation of class-distinctions in human society1 whether savage or civilized1 is disclosed by all history4 ,the first class-distinction sprang from the physical superiority of one savage over his fellows4 ,he whose powerful frame and commanding eye enabled him best to cope with the beasts of field and forest became chief of the tribe4 ,he held the first place by virtue of his brawny arm1 and the less athletic1 and more timid1 became his subjects4 ,but he was not long without rivals4 ,his first rival was the dwarf1 or hunchback1 who1 struggling to overcome the misfortune of his deformity1 in the seclusion of his mud hut1 invented the stone hatchet and stone-pointed arrow-head4 ,his next rival was the puny1 pale-faced youth who converted pantomimic signs and rude gestures into a language of sounds1 and so armed communities with the power of combination for mutual protection4 ,those who soonest mastered the first alphabet took high rank in the social circle1 while those who could still only make themselves understood by grimaces and gestures fell to the grade of ciphers in the body politic1 and came to be looked upon as dunces in society4 ,thereafter the women1 who had previously been won as wives by personal prowess1 were more equally parcelled out4 ,the savage who had invented the bow and the arrow was exempted from the toils of the chase1 and from the general contention at the courting season2 a wife was assigned to him1 and his tent was supplied with game in the hope that he would invent some other useful thing4 ,thus mind began to assert its empire over matter1 the division of labor commenced1 and a class-distinction was formed4 ,doubtless the youth who invented language cultivated superstition among the ignorant1 and so1 increasing his already considerable influence1 secured the first social rank4 ,hence the castes of ,india and ,egypt1 consisting1 in their order1 of the priesthood1 the army1 the mercantile class1 and1 at the bottom of the scale1 the servile laborer4 ,of the long period of social progress from a state of savagery to the proud civilization of historic ,egypt the record is faint and fragmentary4 ,ages passed1 during which men struggled1 and died1 and left no sign--neither hieroglyphic character1 monument1 nor buried city4 ,through what mental alchemy was the savage chief transformed1 in the course of hundreds of generations1 into the learned1 accomplished1 and astute ,egyptian priest1 from whose courtly lips ,herodotus received the chronicles of the ,egyptian kings and the romantic story of the residence in ,egypt of ,helen of ,troy8#gc ,how were the members of the savage tribe converted1 one into an obedient soldier1 another into an adroit1 self-seeking merchant1 and another into a cringing slave8 ,these are secrets of antiquity1 destined1 doubtless1 to remain forever unrevealed4 ,we do know1 however1 that the civilization of ,egypt1 like all other civilizations1 was the product of training or education2 and the nature of the education may be inferred from the character and fate of the civilization4 #gc 8,herodotus1 #8,euterpe1'0 ,,ii41 #aab-aaf4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,of the ,egyptian system of education selfishness was the basis4 ,given chains and slavery for the lowest class and there were force and rapacity in the highest class4#gd ,before the free-born savage was reduced to slavery and made to toil under the lash1 whole hecatombs of lives were sacrificed4 ,before the mind of the savage was degraded to the baseness of slavery1 his body1 hacked and hewn1 bent submissively to the scourge4 ,for the ,egyptian boy there was1 doubtless1 a 8,poor ,richard's ,almanack10 which taught him that he must 8look to the main chance20 that 8in the race of life the devil takes the hindmost20 and that 8self-preservation is the first law of nature40 ,thus trained he entered the ranks of the priesthood1 one of his brothers took a commission in the army1 and the others embarked in mercantile life4 ,for the servile class there was no education beyond their several occupations4 ,each man was compelled to follow the trade of his father1 to marry within his own class1 to die as he was born4 #gd 8,the ,martyrdom of ,man10 p4 #ah4 ,by ,winwood ,reade4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,p4 ,somerby1 #ahgf4 ,ruled by the priests1 and the army1 ,egypt grew rich4 ,her commerce1 conducted by means of caravans1 embraced the whole civilized world and included all its products4 ,she became a great military and naval power1 her armies overrunning ,asia1 and her fleets sweeping the ,indian ,ocean4 ,her victorious campaigns opened new markets to her commerce1 and through these channels wealth poured into the empire4 ,in the track of the wheels of the ,egyptian war-chariots the ,egyptian merchant quickly followed4 ,at the point of the arrows of her archers she offered her linen goods to conquered peoples1 as ,england1 at the point of the bayonet1 subsequently offered her cotton goods to prostrate ,india4 ,in ,egypt all the learning of the time was concentrated4 ,it was the university of ,greece4 ,every intellectual ,greek made a voyage to ,egypt2 it was regarded as a part of education1 as a pilgrimage to the cradle-land of their mythology4,e#ae ,the possession of great wealth led to habits of luxury4 ,the house of the ,egyptian gentleman was a palace adorned with the triumphs of art1 and devoted to pleasure4 ,its walls1 its floors1 and its furniture reflected the skill1 not to say genius1 of slaves--for all the manual labor of ,egypt was performed by slaves4 ,at the end of the fashionable dinner1 given in the palace by its rich master1 a mummy1 richly painted and gilded1 was presented to each guest in turn by a servant1 who said1 8,look on this2 drink and enjoy thyself1 for such as it is now so thou shalt be when thou art dead40#ge #ge 8,herodotus1 #8,euterpe1'0 ,,ii41 p4 #gh4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,one day when the priests were sacrificing in the temples1 and the chief officers of the army were dining with a contractor for army supplies1 a band of mountaineers rushed out of the recesses of ,persia and swept like a wind across the plains4 ,they were dressed in leather2 they had never tasted fruit nor wine2 they had never seen a market2 they knew not how to buy or sell4 ,they were taught three things--to ride on horseback1 to hurl the javelin1 and to speak the truth4#gf ,all ,asia was covered with blood and flames4 ,the allied kingdoms fell at once1 and ,india and ,egypt were soon afterwards added to the ,persian empire4 #gf 8,herodotus1 #8,clio1'0 ,i41 #ga1 #acf1 #aec4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,egypt typifies all the early nations4 ,in its rise1 progress1 and fall1 the course of the others may be traced4 ,first there is a band of hardy men whose prowess renders them irresistible4 ,they are inured to toil2 they practise all the manly virtues2 they are trained to labor with their hands2 they are taught to speak the truth4 ,they lay the foundations of the ,state in industry,e#af and prudence2 their children develop its resources2 their children's children1 through many generations1 gradually accumulate wealth4 ,the arts flourish1 and luxuries are multiplied4 ,there are many great estates1 and those who inherit them cease to labor1 and1 ceasing to labor1 they become a charge upon the public2 for the value of an estate created one hundred years ago1 or one year ago1 can be maintained in no other way than by the labor of to-day4#gg ,the idlers increase in number1 and the struggle for existence1 of the workers1 becomes more intense4 ,idleness breeds vice1 and the public morals are debauched4,e#ag ,we see this class at the feast of ,belshazzar and at the dinner of the ,egyptian bon vivant4 ,on the wall of every such banqueting room there is an ominous handwriting1 provided1 only1 that there is a ,daniel to interpret it4 ,it means that the nation that degrades labor1 tolerates idleness1 and deifies vice1 is ripe for annihilation4 ,if1 now1 there is on the frontier of the effete nation a virile people1 it is only a question of time and opportunity1 when they will make slaves of the revellers1 and spoil of their inherited estates4 ,the worn-out1 exhausted nation disappears in blood and flames4 ,the rich idler1 the poor sycophant1 the rulers and the ruled1 the slave and his master1 the priest1 the soldier1 the merchant1 and the laborer1 all go to destruction together4 #gg 8,it is not equitable that what one man hath done for the public should discharge another of what it has a right to expect from him2 for one1 standing indebted in himself to society1 cannot substitute anything in the room of his personal service4 ,the father cannot transmit to his son the right of being useless to his fellow-creatures4444 ,the man who earns not his subsistence1 but eats the bread of idleness1 is no better than a thief4444 ,to labor1 then1 is the indispensable duty of social or political man4 ,rich or poor1 strong or weak1 every idle citizen is a knave40--8,emilius and ,sophia10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #ib1 #ic4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau4 ,london3 #agfg4 ,in the ancient nations there was always force and rapacity above1 and chains and slavery below4 ,education was confined to a small class1 and consisted of selfish maxims for the government of the many1 and government was only another name for the appropriation of the products of their labor4 ,selfishness bred injustice1 and the practice of injustice undermined the ,state4 ,whether the ,state survived or fell was a matter of indifference to the slave4 ,a slave he remained in any event--if not of the ,egyptian then of the ,persian4 ,but the importance of labor is shown by those bloody revolutions4 ,the battles of antiquity were contests for the possession of the labor class4 ,which nationality--the ,egyptian or the ,persian--should drive the toilers to their daily tasks2 which should reap the fruit of the sweat of their brows2 which should buy and sell them2 which scourge them to their dungeons8 ,these were the questions which agitated the minds of ancient rulers4 ,they were the questions which agitated the mind of ,xerxes when he invaded ,greece1 with millions of followers1 to encounter defeat at the hands of a few thousand men of a superior type4 ,the ,greek civilization sprung from mythology and ended in anarchy4 ,in the ,east the ,greeks were called the people of youth4 ,their religion was of the savage type4 ,their gods were immortalized men2 they loved and hated1 transgressed and suffered2 they resorted to stratagems to compass their ends2 they were a kind of exalted but unscrupulous aristocracy4 ,greek patriotism was narrow2 each city was politically independent1 and the citizen of one city was an alien and a stranger in the territory of every other4 ,the ,greeks were superstitious4 ,if the omens were unfavorable the general refused to give battle2 the plague was a visible sign of the wrath of the gods2 the priests sacrificed perpetually2 the oracle of ,apollo outlived ,grecian independence hundreds of years4,e#ah ,grecian national festivals were childish1 consisting of wrestling1 boxing1 running1 jumping1 and chariot-racing4 ,but the victor in those games conferred everlasting glory upon his family and his country1 and was rewarded with distinguished honors4 ,like savages1 the ,greeks were treacherous4 ,the destiny of ,greece was controlled by renegades4 ,there was disloyalty in every camp1 a ,greek deserter in every opposing army1 and a traitor1 or a band of traitors1 in every besieged ,greek city4,e#ai ,they were cruel2 of their captives they butchered the men and enslaved the women1 and they stripped and robbed the bodies of the slain1 on the battle-field4 ,like savages they assassinated ambassadors1 and like savages surrendered prisoners to their personal enemies to be massacred4,e#bj ,their sense of honor was dull4 ,xenophon1 after winning imperishable renown1 in conducting the famous retreat of the 8,ten ,thousand10 led a detachment of them on a pillaging expedition1 and so amassed a fortune4 8,my patriotism10 says ,alcibiades1 8,i keep not at a time when ,i am being wronged40 8,for there was neither promise that could be depended on1 nor oath that struck them with fear10 exclaims ,thucydides4#gh #gh 8,the ,history of the ,peloponnesian ,war10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #baj4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons4 ,venality was the predominating trait in ,greek character1 and venality unrestrained is savagery4 ,in the ,greek ,pantheon the highest niche was reserved for the ,god of ,gain4 ,the early ,greeks were pirates2 they plundered one another2 they sometimes actually sold themselves into slavery1 so great was their lust of gold4 ,the richest cities ruled the poor cities4 ,pericles boasted that he could not be bribed1 but he robbed all ,greece to embellish ,athens1 and was accused of peculation1 tried1 convicted1 and fined4 ,the ,athenians declared that the ,spartans were taught to steal1 and the ,spartans retorted that the best ,athenians were invariably thieves4 ,when ,persia could no longer fight she defended her territory against ,greek invasion with gold coins4 ,the ,greek orators never refused a bribe1 and oratory ruled ,greece4,e#ba ,greek oratory was very persuasive4 ,a discriminating writer declares that1 with their fine phrases and rhetorical expressions1 the ,greek orators swindled history1 obtaining a vast amount of admiration under false pretences4#gi #gi 8,the ,martyrdom of ,man10 p4 #hh4 ,by ,winwood ,reade4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,p4 ,somerby1 #ahgf4 ,for these defects in ,greek character1 and for the resulting decay of ,greek civilization1 ,greek philosophy and ,greek education must be held responsible4 ,metaphysics and rhetoric ruined ,greece4 ,it was in the schools of rhetoric that the young ,greeks received their training for the duties of public life4 ,there they were taught the art of oratory2 there they learned how to make the worse appear the better reason4 ,there they were taught1 not to expound the truth1 but to indulge in the arts of sophistry4 ,it was in those schools that the young ,greek was trained to be eloquent1 to win applause in the courts of law1 not to convince the judgments of judge1 or juror2 for judicial decisions were notoriously subjects of the most shameful traffic4 ,the element of rectitude was wholly left out of the ,greek system of education1 and hence wholly wanting in ,greek character4 ,the ,greeks had a profound distrust of one another4 ,they were dishonest2 they were treacherous2 they were cruel2 they were false2 and all these vices are peculiar to a state of savagery4,e#bb ,in ethics they never emerged from the savage state1 and hence in politics their failure was complete2 for the prime condition of the most simple form of civil society is mutual confidence4 ,but the mutual distrust of the ,greeks1 based on want of integrity1 was so absolute that political unity was impossible1 and the failure to combine the several cities under one government led1 eventually1 to the destruction of ,greek civilization4 ,to this result ,greek philosophy also contributed4 ,plato's contempt for matter was so profound that he regarded the soul's residence in the body as an evil4 ,he taught that the philosopher should emancipate himself from the illusions of sense1 devoting his life to reflection1 and surrendering his mind 8to communion with its kindred eternal essences40,e#bc ,contempt of matter led logically to contempt of the physical man1 and hence to contempt of things1 the work of man's hands4 ,such a philosophy was necessarily 8in the air40 ,it afforded no aid to the sciences2 for science is the product of generalizations from matter4 ,it scorned art2 for the arts are applications of the sciences in useful things4 ,with the ,greek school-master rhetoric was the chief part of education2 with the ,greek philosopher dialectics was the science par eminence4 ,thus the ,greek system of education was confined to rhetoric and logic--the art of speaking with propriety1 elegance1 and force1 and the power of deducing legitimate conclusions from assumed premises4,e#bd ,in the ,greek schools of rhetoric there was no struggle to find the truth2 in the schools of philosophy there was no respect for the evidence of the senses4 ,the ,greek orator harangued the jury eloquently while his client bargained with the court for the price of justice6 ,the ,greek philosopher confounded his audience with the force of his unanswerable logic1 and appealed to his inner consciousness in support of the soundness of his premises6 ,the explanation of ,greek duplicity is found in ,greek metaphysics4 ,to scorn things is to disregard facts1 and disregard of facts is contempt of the truth4 ,greek education was confined to a consideration of the subject of the nature and relations of abstract ideas1 while the subject of the nature and relations of things was wholly neglected4 ,such a system of education led logically to selfishness1 and out of selfishness grew inordinate ambition and greed2 and these passions led1 through treachery and dishonesty1 to factional contests1 which1 eventuating in bloodshed1 could only end in anarchy4 ,distracted by the jealousies and rivalries of ,states constantly in hostile conflict1 and enfeebled by the never-ending strife between the rich and the poor1 ,greece fell a prey to the rapacity1 and lust of power1 of her unscrupulous ,roman neighbor4 ,e#ad 8,all the happiness of families depends upon the education of children1 and houses rise or sink according as their children are virtuous or vicious40--,plato's 8,divine ,dialogues10 p4 #bfb4 ,london3 ,s4 ,cornish ,co41 #ahci4 ,e#ae 8,the ,egyptians were1 in the opinion of the ,greeks1 the wisest of mankind40--,herodotus1 8,euterpe10 ,,ii41 #afj4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 8,for my part1 ,i think that ,melampus1 being a wise man1 both acquired the art of divination1 and having learned many other things in ,egypt1 introduced them among the ,greeks1 and particularly the worship of ,bacchus40--,ibid1 8,euterpe10 ,,ii41 #di4 8,and indeed the names of almost all the ,gods came from ,egypt into ,greece40--,ibid1 8,euterpe10 ,,ii41 #ej4 8,the manner in which oracles are delivered at ,thebes in ,egypt and at ,dodona1 is very similar2 and the art of divination from victims came likewise from ,egypt40--,ibid1 8,euterpe10 ,,ii41 #eg4 8,the ,egyptians were also the first who introduced public festivals1 processions1 and solemn supplications3 ,and the ,greeks learned these from them40--,ibid1 8,euterpe10 ,,ii41 #eg4 ,to the same effect1 see also3 ,ibid1 8,euterpe10 ,,ii41 #fd4 #aji4 #abc4 #afj4 #afd-aff4 #aga4 ,and ,ibid1 8,melpomene10 ,,iv41 #ahj4 ,e#af 8,amasis it was who established the law among the ,egyptians that every ,egyptian should annually declare to the governor of his district by what means he maintained himself2 and if he failed to do this1 or did not show that he lived by honest means1 he should be punished with death4 ,solon1 the ,athenian1 having brought this law from ,egypt1 established it at ,athens2 and that people still continue to observe it1 as being an unobjectionable regulation40--,herodotus1 8,euterpe10 ,,ii41 #agg4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,e#ag 8,lysimachus1 son of ,aristides the ,just1 and ,melesias1 son of ,thucydides1 to the ,athenian generals1 ,nicias and ,laches3 8,both he and ,i have entertained our children with thousands of brave actions done by our fathers both in peace and war1 while they headed the ,athenians and their allies2 but to our great misfortune we can tell them no such thing of ourselves4 ,this covers us with shame2 we blush for it before our children1 and are forced to cast the blame upon our fathers2 who1 after we grew up1 suffered us to live in effeminacy and luxury2 while they were employing all their care for the interest of the public40--,plato's 8,divine ,dialogues10 p4 #bef4 ,london3 ,s4 ,cornish ,co41 #ahci4 ,e#ah 8,after the encounter between the cavalry had taken place1 ,agesilaus1 on offering sacrifice the next day with a view to advancing1 found the victims inauspicious and in consequence of this indication turned off and proceeded toward the coast40--,xenophon1 8,hellenics10 p4 #cfi4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahha4 ,see1 also1 ,thucydides1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #cdh4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhj4 ,and ,ibid1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #dhd4 ,and1 8,plutarch's ,lives ,timoleon10 p4 #agg4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahej4 ,e#ai ,alcibiades to the ,lacedmonians3 8,and now1 ,i beg that ,i may not be the worse thought of by any among you1 because ,i am now strenuously attacking my country with its bitterest enemies1 though ,i formerly had a reputation for patriotism40--,thucydides1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #dci4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhj4 ,of ,pausanias and ,themistocles1 who were both traitors1 ,thucydides says3 8,such was the end of ,pausanias the ,lacedmonian and ,themistocles the ,athenian1 who had been the most distinguished of all the ,greeks in their day40--8,history of the ,peloponnesian ,war10 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #ge-hc4 ,see also ,ibid1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bhh4 pp4 #bib-bic4 p4 #cjd4 pp4 #cjf-cjg4 p4 #bda4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #eaj4 ,see also ,herodotus1 8,melpomene10 ,,iv41 #adb4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,e#bj 8,when the ,corcyrans had got possession of them prisoners surrendered by their allies the ,athenians they shut them up in a large building1 and1 afterward taking them out by twenties1 led them through two rows of heavy-armed soldiers posted on each side2 the prisoners being bound together were beaten and stabbed by the men ranged in the lines1 whenever any of them happened to see a personal enemy2 while men carrying whips went by their side1 and hastened on the way those that were proceeding too slowly40--,thucydides1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #bef-beg4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhj4 ,ibid1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #fb4 ,,ii41 p4 #cgf4 ,,ii41 p4 #dfh4 ,,ii41 p4 #die4 ,,ii41 pp4 #eaj-eaa4 ,,ii41 p4 #ebc4 ,see also ,herodotus1 8,terpsichore10 ,v41 #f4 ,ibid1 8,terpsichore10 ,v41 #ba4 ,ibid1 8,urania10 ,,vii41 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,see also ,xenophon1 8,hellenics10 p4 #cbh4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhb4 ,see also 8,plutarch's ,lives ,lycurgus10 p4 #db4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahej4 ,e#ba 8,for the ,grecians in old time1 444 turned to piracy1 444 and falling upon towns that were unfortified1 444 they rifled them1 and made most of their livelihood by this means40444 8,for through desire of gain the lower orders submitted to be slaves to their betters2 and the more powerful1 having a superabundance of money1 brought the smaller cities into subjection40--,thucydides1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhj4 8,yet that the boys might not suffer too much from hunger1 ,lycurgus1 though he did not allow them to take what they wanted without trouble1 gave them leave to steal certain things to relieve the cravings of nature2 and he made it honorable to steal as many cheeses as possible40--,xenophon's 8,minor ,works10 p4 #bjh4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhb4 8,demosthenes could not resist the temptation2 it made all the impression upon him that was expected2 he received the money1 like a garrison into his house1 and went over to the interest of ,harpalus4 ,next day he came into the ,assembly with a quantity of wool and bandages about his neck2 and when the people called upon him to get up and speak1 he made signs that he had lost his voice1 upon which some that were by said1 #8it was no common hoarseness that he got in the night2 it was a hoarseness occasioned by swallowing gold and silver4'0--8,plutarch's ,lives ,demosthenes10 pp4 #eid-eie4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahej4 ,see also1 8,plutarch's ,lives ,agesilaus10 p4 #dca4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahej4 ,ibid ,demosthenes1 p4 #eia4 ,aristides1 p4 #bcb4 8,and ,plato1 among all that were accounted great and illustrious men in ,athens1 judged none but ,aristides worthy of real esteem40--8,plutarch's ,lives ,aristides10 p4 #bdc4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahej4 ,but it was ,aristides who said of a public measure3 8,it is not just1 but it is expedient40 8,as to the proceedings in courts of law they the ,athenians have less regard to what is just than to what is profitable to themselves40--,xenophon's 8,minor ,works10 pp4 #bce-bcf4 ,london3 ,george ,bell ,sons1 #ahhb4 ,ibid1 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,when ,mardonius the ,persian consulted with the ,thebans how to subdue ,greece1 they said3 8,send money to the most powerful men in the cities1 and by sending it you will split ,greece into parties1 and then1 with the assistance of those of your party1 you may easily subdue those who are not in your interest40--,herodotus1 8,calliope10 ,,ix41 #b4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,ibid1 8,urania10 ,,viii41 #abh-acd4 8,calliope10 ,,ix41 #dd4 ,see also 8,plutarch's ,lives ,pericles10 p4 #abc4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahej4 ,ibid1 8,pericles10 p4 #aah4 8,pericles10 p4 #aae1 note4 8,accordingly1 as the ,athenians state1 these men while staying at ,delphi1 prevailed on the ,pythian by money1 when any ,spartans should come thither to consult the oracle1 either on their own account or that of the public1 to propose to them to liberate ,athens from servitude40--,herodotus1 8,terpsichore10 ,v41 #fc4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,ibid1 8,erato10 ,,vi41 #gb1 #ajj4 ,e#bb ,euripides makes ,andromache say3 8,o1 ye inhabitants of ,sparta1 most hated of mortals among all men1 crafty in counsel1 king of liars1 concoctors of evil plots1 crooked and thinking nothing soundly1 but all things tortuously1 unjustly are ye prospered in ,greece4 ,and what evil is there not in you8 ,are there not abundant murders8 ,are ye not given to base gain8 ,are ye not detected speaking ever one thing with the tongue but thinking another8 ,a murrain seize you60--8,the ,tragedies of ,euripides ,andromache10 ,vol1 ,,ii41 p4 #ach4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #aheg4 ,e#bc 8,is it not by reasoning that the soul embraces truths8 ,and does it not reason better than before when it is not encumbered by seeing or hearing1 by pain or pleasure8 ,when shut up within itself it bids adieu to the body1 and entertains as little correspondence with it as possible2 and pursues the knowledge of things without touching them4444 ,is it not especially upon this occasion that the soul of a philosopher despises and avoids the body and wants to be by itself8444 ,now1 the purgation of the soul1 as we were saying just now1 is only its separation from the body1 its accustoming itself to retire and lock itself up1 renouncing all commerce with it as much as possible1 and living by itself1 whether in this or the other world1 without being chained to the body40--,plato's 8,divine ,dialogues10 pp4 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,london3 ,s4 ,cornish ,co41 #ahci4 ,e#bd 8,during most of the flourishing age of ,hellenistic culture the rhetor was the acknowledged practical teacher2 and his course1 which occupied several years1 with the interruption of the summer holidays1 comprised first a careful reading of classical authors1 both poetical and prose1 with explanations and illustrations4 ,this made the student acquainted with the language and literature of ,greece4 ,but it was only introductory to the technical study of expression1 of eloquence based on these models1 and of accurate writing as a collateral branch of this study4 ,when a man had so perfected himself1 he was considered fit for public employment40--8,old ,greek ,education10 p4 #acg4 ,by ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy1 ,m4 ,a4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhb4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem--,,historic4 ,,rome4 ,vigor of the ,early ,romans -- their ,virtues and ,vices2 their ,rigorous ,laws2 their ,defective ,education2 their ,contempt of ,labor4 -- ,slavery3 its ,horrors and ,brutalizing ,influence4 -- ,education ,confined to the ,arts of ,politics and ,war2 it transformed ,courage into ,cruelty1 and ,fortitude into ,stoicism4 -- ,robbery and ,bribery4 -- ,the ,vices of ,greece and ,carthage imported into ,rome4 -- ,slaves construct all the great ,public ,works2 they ,revolt1 and the ,legions ,slaughter them4 -- ,the ,gothic ,invasion4 -- ,rome ,falls4 -- ,false ,philosophy and ,superficial ,education promoted ,selfishness4 -- ,deification of ,abstractions1 and ,scorn of ,men and ,things4 -- ,universal ,moral ,degradation4 -- ,neglect of ,honest ,men and ,promotion of ,demagogues4 -- ,the ,decline of ,morals and ,growth of ,literature4 -- ,darwin's ,law of ,reversion1 through ,selfishness1 to ,savagery4 -- ,contest between the ,rich and the ,poor4 -- ,logic1 ,rhetoric1 and ,ruin4 ,in the city of the ,seven ,hills there was no statue to ,pity1 as at ,athens4 ,in the long line of ,roman conquerors there was no one possessing the title to fame1 of which1 on his death-bed1 ,pericles boasted1 namely1 that 8no ,athenian had ever worn mourning on his account40 ,the dominion of ,rome was logical4 ,in the legend of ,romulus and ,remus1 suckled by the she-wolf1 there is a hint of the rugged vigor which characterized the ,roman people1 and distinguished them from the earlier nationalities4 ,in all the civilizations anterior to that of ,rome there was an element of pliability or softness which belongs to the youth of man4 ,but from the day on which ,romulus1 with the brazen ploughshare1 drew a furrow around the ,palatine1 both the sinews and the souls of his followers hardened into maturity4 ,the rising walls of the city1 so the legend runs1 were moistened with the life-drops of ,remus1 whose derisive remark and act cost him his life1 his slayer exclaiming1 haughtily1 8,so perish all who dare to climb these ramparts40 ,the rape of the ,sabines1 the conflicts which ensued with that outraged people1 their incorporation with the conquerors1 their subsequent joint conquests1 and the shrewdness displayed in the conservation of the fruits of victory--these events show that man had attained his majority4 ,under the shadow of the walls of the ,eternal ,city all the great races were associated and mingled--,latins1 ,trojans1 ,greeks1 ,sabines1 and ,etruscans4 ,the ,roman civilization was the product of all that had gone before1 as it was destined to be the father of all that should follow it4 ,the ,roman had no peer either in courage or fortitude4 ,aspiring to universal dominion1 he toughened himself to achieve it4 ,dooming his enemy to death or slavery1 he was not less self-exacting1 his own life1 through the cup of poison1 the sword1 or the opened vein1 becoming the forfeit equally of misfortune and shame4 ,the tragic fate of ,lucretia1 the resulting revolution1 the banishment of the ,tarquins1 and the abolition of the kingly government show the swiftness of ,roman retribution and the terrible force of ,roman resolution4 ,roman persistence in the path of conquest for many centuries is typified by ,cato in his invocation of destruction upon ,carthage4 ,the masculine character of the ,roman vices finds illustration in the struggle of ,appius1 the ,decemvir1 to possess the person of ,virginia by wresting the law from its true purpose1 the conservation of justice1 and converting it into a shield for lust2 and the vigor of ,roman virtue is exemplified in the act of ,virginius plunging the knife into the heart of his beloved daughter to save her honor4 ,the rigorous laws of ,rome testify to the stamina of her people4 ,the father to whom a deformed son was born must cause the child to be put to death1 and any citizen might kill the man who betrayed the design of becoming king4 ,a scientific system of education would have conserved and developed the noble and eliminated the ignoble traits of ,roman character4 ,but neither ,roman education1 philosophy1 nor ethics inculcated either respect for labor or reverence for human rights2 and hence the laborer was reduced to slavery1 and the slave made the victim of every known atrocity4 ,slavery became the corner-stone of the ,roman ,state1 and slavery and labor were synonymous terms4 ,the ,roman supply of laborers was maintained by depopulating conquered countries4 ,in the train of the legions1 returning to ,rome in triumph1 there were not only statues1 paintings1 and other works of art1 but thousands of men1 women1 and children destined to slavery4 ,and the laws in regard to slaves were terrible1 as laws touching slavery must always be--for a state of slavery is a state of war4 ,it was a law of ,rome that if a slave murdered his master the whole family of slaves should be put to death2 and ,tacitus relates an instance of the execution of four hundred slaves for the murder of a citizen1 their master4 ,in the course of the servile rebellion in ,sicily a million slaves were killed2 and it should be borne in mind that they were valuable laborers--many of them skilled artisans4 ,vast numbers of them were exposed to wild beasts in the arena1 for the popular amusement4 ,the rebellion of the gladiators was put down only by a resort to awful atrocities1 among which was the crucifixion of prisoners4 ,the revolt of the allies was quelled at the cost of half a million lives4 ,but slaves were plenty1 for ,rome had her bloody hand at the throat of all mankind1 and her hoarse cry was1 8,your life or your liberty60 ,every ,roman freeman was a soldier1 and the cultivation of the land1 manufactures1 and all the pursuits of industry1 were carried on by slaves4 ,slave labor was cheaper than the labor of animals2 cattle were taken from the plough and slaughtered for beef that slaves--men--might take their places4 ,labor fell to the lowest degree of contempt1 and the laborer was a thing to be spurned--for the free citizen to labor with his hands was more disgraceful than to die of starvation4 ,hence there was a class of citizen paupers to whom largesses of corn were doled out by the demagogues of the ,senate and the army4 ,ultimately these citizen-paupers became so vile and filthy that they engendered leprosy and other loathsome diseases1 as they dragged their palsied limbs through the streets of the city1 crying1 8,bread and circuses6 bread and circuses60 ,roman education was confined almost exclusively to the training of the sons of rich citizens in the arts of politics and war2 and in a ,state where labor was despised1 and whose corner-stone was slavery1 and whose shibboleth was conquest1 the baseness of these arts may be imagined but hardly described4 ,it promoted selfishness1 and in the course of centuries selfishness transformed ,roman courage into cruelty1 and ,roman fortitude into brutal stoicism4 ,the ,roman sense of justice was swallowed up in ,roman lust of power4 ,rome became the great robber nation of the world4 ,she was on the land what ,greece had once been on the sea--a pirate4 ,she made the streets of the cities she conquered run with blood4 ,thousands of captives she doomed to death2 other thousands graced the triumphs of her generals1 and the spoil saved from the fury of the flames1 and the more ungovernable fury of the licentious soldiery1 was carried home to the ,eternal ,city1 there to fall into the hands of the most cunning among the demagogues1 for use in the bribery of courts1 senators1 and the populace4 ,tacitus deplored the decline of public virtue4 ,he declared1 mournfully1 that 8,nothing was sacred1 nothing safe from the hand of rapacity40 ,his environment blinded him to the true cause of the depravity he so eloquently deplored--selfishness4 ,had he been familiar with the inductive method he would have found in a defective system of education the cause of ,roman venality and corruption4 ,he might thus have realized the weakness of a community of men who wanted the necessary force and virtue to depose a ,tiberius and elevate to his place a ,germanicus2 or to dethrone a ,domitian and crown in his stead an ,agricola4 ,education in ,rome deified selfishness1 and hence realized its last analysis--total depravity4 ,of course nothing was sacred in a community where men were ruthlessly trampled underfoot6 ,of course nothing was 8safe from the hand of rapacity0 where the laborer was degraded to a place in the social scale below the leprous pauper whose filthy person provoked disgust1 and whose poisonous breath1 as he cried for bread1 spread abroad disease and death6 ,it was inevitable that the nation that grew rich through plunder should grow poor in public and private virtue4 ,and such was the fact4 ,the eagles that protected robbers abroad1 spread their sheltering wings over defaulters1 bribers1 and thieves at home4 ,there had been a time in ,rome when bribery was punishable with death1 but now candidates for office sat at tables in the streets near the polling-places and openly paid the citizens for their votes4 ,the change in the habits of the people was as pronounced as the change in the laws4 ,the early triumphs of the ,romans were industrial--flocks and herds2 their trophies1 obtained in single combat1 consisted of spears and helmets4 ,when ,cincinnatus was sent for to assume the dictatorship he was found in his field following the plough4 ,valerius1 four times consul1 and by ,livy characterized as the first man of his time1 died so poor that he had to be buried at the public charge4 ,but with the fall of ,greece and ,carthage1 and the reduction of ,asia1 there was a great social change at ,rome4 ,the ,roman legions not only carried home the wealth of the countries they conquered but the vices of the peoples they subdued4 ,an ancient writer summarizes the situation in the following graphic sentence3 8,the only fashionable principles were to acquire wealth by every means of avarice and injustice1 and to dissipate it by every method of luxury and profusion40 ,the end is not far off4 ,the story of ,persia1 of ,egypt1 and of ,greece is the story equally of ,rome4 ,avarice and injustice1 luxury and profusion do their sure work4 ,the ,roman civilization is more than a thousand years old4 ,asiatic wealth1 the luxury and false philosophy of ,greece1 and a vicious system of education1 promoting selfishness1 have united to sap its foundations4 ,society is divided into three classes--an aristocracy based solely upon wealth1 cruel and profligate1 a mob of free citizens1 otherwise paupers1 who live by beggary and the sale of their votes1 and laborers who are slaves4 ,on the occasion of the presentation of spectacles1 among a variety of presents slaves 7laborers7 are thrown into the arena to be scrambled for by the free citizens6 ,but men are cheap4 ,in ,asia they sell for sixpence apiece1 and ,rome has only to send an army there to get them for nothing4 ,to this class1 to these slaves1 however1 the ,roman people are indebted for all the arts which make life agreeable4 ,they construct all the great public works4 ,they build the splendid roads over which the ,roman legions follow their generals in triumph home to ,rome4 ,they make the aqueducts1 dig the canals1 and construct the buildings1 public and private1 whose remains still attest their magnificence--the ,forum1 the amphitheatres1 and the golden house of the ,csars4 ,they build the villas overlooking the ,bay of ,naples1 in which the nobles live in riot and wantonness2 they cook the dinners given in those villas2 they make the clothes the nobles wear1 and the jewels that adorn their persons4 ,they cultivate the fields1 follow the plough1 train and trim the vine1 and gather in the harvest4 ,they raise the corn that is distributed by the nobles among the soldiery1 and given as a bribe to the diseased and debauched free citizens for their votes4 ,they feel deeply the injustice of their lot1 and1 like men1 strike for liberty4 ,but the ,roman legions are set on them like blood-hounds1 and hundreds of thousands of them are slaughtered and made food for birds of prey1 and other thousands are thrown into the arena to be torn by wild beasts1 and still others are bestowed as gifts upon the populace at the games4 ,the contest between the rich and the poor is at an end2 the rich are millionaires1 the poor are beggars4 ,it is the story of ,dives and ,lazarus over again4 ,the rich are clothed in purple and fine linen1 and fare sumptuously every day2 the poor are full of sores1 and live upon the crumbs that fall from the tables of the rich4 ,rome topples to her fall4 ,the ,gothic invader is at her gates1 and there is no army to defend them4 ,the barbarian demands a ransom4 ,to obtain it the statues are despoiled of their ornaments and precious stones1 and the gods of gold and silver are melted in the fire4 ,the ransom is given1 and ,alaric retires4 ,but he returns1 and this time to pillage4 ,the city is sacked2 rich and poor1 bond and free1 are whelmed in one common ruin4 ,at last the diabolic wish of the infamous ,caligula is realized4 ,the ,roman people have but one neck1 and the ,goth puts his foot upon it4 ,rome falls1 the victim of her own crimes1 strangled by her own gluttony4 ,thus ends the first period of the world's manhood--ends in exhaustion1 and a syncope which is destined to last a thousand years4 ,long before the fall of the republic ,rome had become the seat of all the world's learning4 ,in robbing conquered countries she not only took their gold and silver1 a share of their people for slaves1 and their works of art1 but their libraries1 their philosophy1 and their literature4 ,but neither the ,greek nor the ,roman philosophy contributed in the least to a solution of the pressing social problems of the time4 ,the wise men of ,rome were powerless to help either themselves or their fellow-men1 because their philosophy was false4 ,it was purely speculative2 it had no body of facts to rest upon4 ,the ,roman educators and philosophers were almost as ignorant of physiology as ,plato was hundreds of years before1 hence they were unable to study the mind in the sole way in which it is intelligently approachable1 namely1 through its bodily manifestations4 ,in studying the mind as an independent entity there could be no general rules of investigation4 ,the metaphysical philosopher did not study the mind of man2 he explored his own mind merely--consulted his own inner consciousness4 ,hence there were1 in ,rome1 as many systems of philosophy1 more or less clearly defined and distinct1 as there were philosophers4 ,but they were merely metaphysical speculations1 dreams1 dependent upon purely subjective processes2 and those processes were in turn dependent upon the ever-changing states of mind of each philosopher4 ,it is obvious that these systems of philosophy could exert no influence upon the community at large1 for the community formed no part of the subject matter of their speculations4 ,but they did exert an influence1 and a very pernicious one1 upon the philosophers themselves1 and indeed upon all the cultured men of ,rome2 for they were thereby made thoroughly selfish1 and so rendered incapable of forming a just judgment of public affairs4 ,in considering the mind apart from the body1 the body naturally fell into utter contempt4 ,this was the great crime of speculative philosophy2 for in engendering a feeling of contempt for the human body it furnished an excuse for slavery4 ,and this contempt logically included manual labor1 for the only manual laborer was a slave2 and it also extended to the useful arts1 for all those arts were the work of slaves4 ,hence the laborer1 being a slave1 was placed lower in the social scale than the pauper who sold his vote for a glass of wine4 ,and thus it came about that a factitious right--the right of suffrage--was more highly esteemed by the public than the cardinal virtue of industry1 upon which alone the perpetuity of the social compact depends4 ,and1 again1 the wretched state of public morals may be inferred from the fact that the right of suffrage1 through which the idle1 leprous pauper was elevated above the industrious laborer and above the useful arts1 was notoriously the subject of open traffic in the streets of ,rome on every election day4 ,thus ,roman philosophy landed the ,roman people in the last ditch1 for it led to the deification of abstract ideas and to scorn of things4 ,that this utter perversion of the truth and wreck of justice was the cause of the decline of the ,roman ,empire there is no doubt4 ,it is equally plain that the noted men of ,rome were utterly ignorant of the cause of the disorders which afflicted the body politic4 ,there is no evidence1 either in their lives or their works1 that they brought to the consideration of the great social problems of the time any practical philosophy whatever4 ,suetonius1 with a graphic pen1 portrays the cruelties of the ,csars1 but hints at no cause therefor inherent in the social system4 ,cicero forecasts the doom of the republic1 but has no remedy to propose except that of the elevation of ,pompey rather than ,csar4 ,livy and ,tacitus deplore the decay of public and private virtue1 but are silent on the subject of the infamy of slavery and on the shame of degrading labor4 ,the moral sentiments of ,seneca and ,aurelius are of the most elevated character1 but the fact that they ignore slavery1 the slave1 the laborer1 and the useful arts1 shows either that they never thought upon those fundamental social questions1 or that their thoughts ran in the popular channel2 in a word1 that their philosophy was so shallow as to render them callous to the great crimes upon which the ,roman ,state rested4 ,that the subjective philosophy and the defective educational system of the ,romans rendered them selfish1 and hence corrupt1 there is abundant evidence4 ,cicero professed the most lofty patriotism1 but he was without moral courage4 ,it was he who congratulated the public men of ,rome1 after the usurpation of ,csar1 upon the privilege of remaining 8totally silent60 ,he regarded ,pompey as 8the greatest man the world had ever produced10 but deserted him in his extremity1 which was equally the extremity of his country4 ,he denounced ,csar as the cause of the culminating misfortunes of ,rome1 but went down upon his knees to him1 and rose to his feet only to exhaust all the resources of his matchless eloquence in fulsome adulation of the destroyer of the ,republic4 ,seneca's moral precepts are sublime1 but his political maxims are atrocious4 ,witness this pretence of an all-embracing love for man--8,whenever thou seest a fellow-creature in distress know that thou seest a human being40 ,contrast with this exalted sentiment of the great stoic his political maxim--8,terror is the safeguard of a kingdom0--and reflect that he lived under the reigns of ,claudius and ,nero4 ,the millions of slaves in the ,roman dominions were 8human beings10 but ,seneca had no practical regard for them as 8fellow-creatures in distress40 ,his beautiful humanitarian sentiment was a barren ideality--it bore no fruit2 but his brutal political maxim caused him to thrive4 ,under the favor of ,claudius he amassed a vast fortune4 ,his palace in the city was sumptuously furnished1 his country-seats were splendidly appointed1 and he possessed abundance of ready money4 8,there can be no happiness without virtue10 exclaims this prosperous ,roman citizen4 ,but while he pens this lofty sentiment he is accused of avarice1 usury1 and extortion1 charged with complicity in the ,piso conspiracy1 and banished for the crime of adultery4 ,the debasing influence of the ,greek philosophy1 upon the ,roman people1 is shown by contrasting the characters of the distinguished men who were honored by the public at widely separated periods of time4 ,thus1 during the period #djj-cej ,b4,c41 ,camillus1 noted above all his contemporaries for the purity of his public life1 was uninterruptedly honored with the highest offices in the ,state1 and loved and respected by all classes of the community4 ,but three hundred years later ,csar1 who involved the country in civil war to compass his ambition1 and in which struggle liberty perished--he was preferred1 in all the political struggles preliminary to his assumption of supreme power1 to ,cato1 whose patriotism was unquestioned1 and whose rigid virtue was proverbial throughout the ,roman ,empire4 ,so also of a still later period1 ,agricola and ,germanicus were renowned for the possession of the highest qualities of true manhood1 joined to the practice in public life of the most austere and self-sacrificing virtue4 ,both served the ,state with courage1 ability1 and zeal2 but the one1 after a brilliant career in the ,west1 was forced into retirement1 and the other1 after splendid services in the ,east1 was exiled and poisoned4 ,previous to the introduction of the ,greek philosophy1 and the ,greek education and social habits1 the ,roman people were worthy of their noblest representative--,camillus4 ,at that early period of their history they rewarded virtue and punished vice4 ,but during the ,empire1 after the invasion of ,greek manners1 they were unworthy of their best representatives--,cato1 ,germanicus1 and ,agricola4 ,to those great and good men they preferred ,csar1 ,caligula1 and ,nero3 they rewarded vice and punished virtue4 ,there is in this circumstance unquestionable evidence of a great declension in character4 ,but the remarkable fact in regard to this period of ,roman history is that the declension in character was accompanied by a species of great mental growth or power4 ,during this period a literature was created which has ever since been famous1 and which still exerts a considerable influence upon man4 ,csar's ,commentaries1 the ,orations of ,cicero1 the ,annals of ,tacitus1 ,livy's ,history1 the ,odes and ,satires of ,horace1 the ,meditations of ,aurelius1 and the ,morals of ,seneca are in all the world's libraries1 and1 in the universities1 are placed in the hands of the most favored youth of all the civilized countries of the world1 as models of style and exponents of a civilization whence all modern civilizations sprung4 ,but this literature possessed no saving quality1 because in so far as it was elevated in morals it did not represent the ,roman people1 not even the authors themselves generally1 as has been shown4 ,as a matter of fact1 during the period of the creation of the great literature of ,rome1 ,darwin's law of 8reversion0 was in active operation4 ,there was a 8black sheep0 in every noble ,roman family4 ,bad men appeared1 not now and then1 at long intervals1 as in all civilizations1 but every day and everywhere2 and these men were political and social leaders4 ,they moulded the policy of the ,state and set the fashion in society4 ,under their direction the ,roman people retrograded towards a state of savagery1 and savagery is but another name for selfishness4 ,selfishness in its worst estate is the essence of human depravity1 and to that condition the ,roman people fell1 at the time when their moralists were inditing those sublime sentiments which still challenge the admiration of all great and good men4 ,that the ,roman people were as dead to the influence of high moral sentiments as the ,britons were when first encountered by ,csar1 shows that they had degenerated to a similar condition of savagery1 or to a condition of absolute selfishness1 which is its moral equivalent4 ,given a savage state1 two savages and one dinner2 the savages will fight to the death for the dinner4 ,given a state of civilization absolutely selfish1 two contestants and one prize2 each contestant will exhaust all the resources of artifice1 duplicity1 and falsehood to secure the prize4 ,to this deplorable condition the ,roman people were reduced by subjective educational processes4 ,selfishness causes the individual to seek his own interest in total disregard of the interest of others4 ,hence it tends directly to the disintegration of society1 since the essence of the civil compact is the pledge of each member of the community that he will do no injury to his fellows4 ,selfishness violates this pledge2 for to gain its end it ruthlessly crushes whatever appears in its path4 ,in ,rome selfishness did its complete work4 ,it transformed the government from a pure democracy into an oligarchy composed of wealthy citizens1 who called themselves nobles4 ,by this class wealth was made the sole standard of social and political distinction1 and in its presence1 and through its influence1 the old strife between the patricians and the plebeians gave way to a state of hostility between the rich and the poor--always the last analysis of social disorder4 ,the contest was distinguished by assassinations1 embezzlements of the public money1 the quarrels of rival demagogues1 and civil wars1 and it culminated in ,csar and the empire4 ,the nobles1 or aristocrats1 who wrought the work of transformation1 were refined and elegant in their manners1 and accomplished in the tricks of finance1 the technicalities of the law1 and the arts of oratory4 ,they were the product of the ,roman schools of rhetoric and logic1 whose subjective methods obscured the truth1 promoted vanity1 and deified selfishness4 ,all the guards of honor and rectitude having been swept away by ,csar1 a savage contest for supremacy ensued among the aristocrats4 ,the prize for which they contended consisted of the spoil of the ,roman legions and the product of the labor of the ,roman slaves4 ,this was the ,roman patrimony--the price of blood and of the sweat of enforced toil4 ,for this prize the ,roman aristocrats struggled like savages fighting for the one dinner4 ,it is the old struggle1 the struggle witnessed by each1 in turn1 of the nations of antiquity--the struggle in which selfishness vanquishes itself4 ,but this is a struggle of giants1 is on a grander scale1 and is more conspicuous1 for the historian1 pen in hand1 records its bloody scenes4 ,it is the last act in a great drama1 a drama that has lasted a thousand years4 ,it is the conclusion of the long struggle of a few large-brained1 unscrupulous individuals1 to grasp the fruits of the toil of all men4 ,the conspirators are about to fail1 as such conspiracies have always failed and must always fail1 and like ,samson in his blind fury they will pull down upon their own devoted heads the pillars of the temple4 ,the struggle culminates in a hand-to-hand conflict for the mastery between the baffled chiefs of the conspiracy to enslave mankind--the supreme effort of selfishness--and it involves the authors and their victims in one common disaster4 ,once more it is proved that a false system of education1 a system which exalts abstract ideas and degrades things1 promotes selfishness2 that selfishness is the equivalent of savagery1 and that savagery1 however refined1 wrecks society4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem--,,historic4 ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the ,trinity upon which ,civilization ,rests3 ,justice1 the ,arts1 and ,labor2 and these ,depend upon ,scientific ,education4 -- ,reason of the ,failure of ,theodoric and ,charlemagne to ,reconstruct the ,pagan ,civilization4 -- ,contempt of ,man4 -- ,serfdom4 -- ,the ,vices of the ,time3 ,false ,philosophy1 an ,odious ,social ,caste1 and ,ignorance4 -- ,the ,splendid ,career of the ,moors in ,spain1 in ,contrast4 -- ,effect upon ,spain of the ,expulsion of the ,moors4 -- ,the ,repressive ,force of ,authority and the ,atrocious ,philosophy of ,contempt of ,man4 -- ,the ,rule of ,italy -- a ,menace and a ,sneer4 -- ,the work of ,regeneration4 -- ,the ,crusades4 -- ,the ,destruction of ,feudalism4 -- ,the ,invention of ,printing4 -- ,the ,discovery of ,america4 -- ,investigation4 -- ,discoveries in ,science and ,art4 ,civilization languishes in an atmosphere of injustice1 and if the injustice is gross1 as slavery1 for example1 and long continued1 the ,state perishes in the social convulsion which ensues4 ,thus perished the nations of antiquity4 ,civilization depends upon the useful arts2 in them it had its origin1 and with them it advances4 ,the savage1 in his most primitive state1 is ignorant of all the arts2 the most highly civilized man is familiar with1 and under obligations to1 all of them4 ,the useful arts depend upon labor4 ,if the laborer is degraded1 the useful arts decline1 as he sinks1 in the social scale2 if he is honored1 they advance1 as he rises4 ,the trinity upon which civilization rests is1 therefore1 justice1 the useful arts1 and labor2 and this trinity of saving forces depends in turn upon the scientific education of man4 ,rome held all these things in contempt1 and ,rome perished4 ,anarchy ensued1 and1 from a state of governmental chaos1 the feudal system was evolved4 ,a brief analysis of the history of the medival period will show that education was unscientific1 and consequently that justice was scorned1 the useful arts neglected1 and labor despised4 ,theodoric strove to stem the tide of demoralization which succeeded the overthrow of the pagans in ,italy4 ,he was a semi-barbarian1 but a man of genius1 and ten years of his youth1 spent at ,constantinople1 taught him the value of civilization4 ,under his reign there was a restoration of the common industries1 work on internal improvements was resumed1 and there was a revival of polite literature and the fine arts4 ,but there was no general prosperity because there was no general system of education4 ,polite literature must rest upon a basis of general culture1 or it is valueless to the country in which it flourishes4 ,so of the fine arts2 they can exist legitimately only as the natural outgrowth and embellishment of the useful arts4#hj ,in the due order of development the useful precede the fine arts4 ,theodoric began the reconstruction of the exhausted ,roman civilization from the top1 and his work was a complete failure1 of course1 because it had no foundation4 ,it was like the ,greek and ,roman philosophy1 it had no basis of things to rest upon4 ,hence the order evoked from chaos by the great ,ostrogoth to chaos soon returned4 #hj 8,but it is one thing to admit that sthetic culture is in a high degree conducive to human happiness1 and another thing to admit that it is a fundamental requisite to human happiness4 ,however important it may be1 it must yield precedence to those kinds of culture which bear more directly upon the duties of life4 ,as before hinted1 literature and the fine arts are made possible by those activities which make individual and social life possible2 and manifestly that which is made possible must be postponed to that which makes it possible40--8,education10 p4 #gb4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,charlemagne also attempted to reconstruct a worn-out civilization through the revival of polite literature and the fine arts4 ,he assembled at his court distinguished littrateurs from all parts of the world1 with the view of reviving classical learning4 ,he established a normal school called 8,the ,palatine10 whence classically trained teachers were sent into the provinces4 ,he constructed gorgeous palaces1 some of which were ornamented with columns and sculptural fragments1 the spoil of the earlier architectural triumphs of ,italy4 ,but he did not found schools for the education of the common people4 ,the common people were serfs4 ,the theory of ,plato still prevailed1 namely1 that the majority is always dull1 and always wrong2 that wisdom and virtue reside in the minority4 ,in pursuance of this theory1 which happens1 curiously enough1 to inure to the exclusive benefit of its inventors and supporters1 education was confined to a small class4 ,the training of the masses was wholly neglected1 and they were poor1 ignorant1 and brutal4 ,the state of medival society is graphically summarized by a modern historian3 8,in the castle sits the baron1 with his children on his lap1 and his wife leaning on his shoulder2 the troubadour sings1 and the page and the demoiselle exchange a glance of love4 ,the castle is the home of music and chivalry and family affection2 the convent is the home of religion and of art4 ,but the people cower in their wooden huts1 half starved1 half frozen1 and wolves sniff at them through the chinks in the walls4 ,the convent prays and the castle sings2 the cottage hungers and groans and dies40#ha #ha 8,the ,martyrdom of ,man40 ,by ,winwood ,reade4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,p4 ,somerby1 #ahgf4 ,enterprise was the slave of superstition and ignorance4 ,some monks in ,germany desired to erect a corn-mill1 but a neighboring lord objected1 declaring that the wind belonged to him4 ,the useful arts were unknown and unstudied except by the monks1 and their practice of them was confined chiefly to fashioning utensils for the use of the altar4 ,mankind lay in a state of intellectual and moral paralysis4 ,feudalism emasculated human energy4 ,one art only flourished--the art of war4 ,the pursuit of any of the useful arts1 beyond that of agriculture1 by the serfs1 was impracticable1 since sufficient time could not be spared from feudal strife for the proper tillage of the soil4 ,the vassal was always subject to summary call to arms4 ,if in the spring the noble wished to fight1 the fields remained unplanted2 if he wished to fight in the fall1 the harvest remained ungathered4 ,the serf1 therefore1 led a precarious life4 ,if he escaped death in battle1 he was still quite likely to die of starvation4 ,in the fertile plains of ,lombardy1 in the first half of the thirteenth century1 there were five famines6 ,nothing happens without due cause4 ,the misfortunes suffered by the people of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages did not fall upon them from the clouds4 ,the moral darkness which veiled the face of justice1 and the intellectual stupor which prevented scientific and art researches1 are not inexplicable mysteries4 ,the vices1 the cruelties1 the poverty1 and the pitiable superstitions of that time were the product of a false philosophy1 an odious social caste1 and a state of general ignorance4 ,it happens that for hundreds of years of this period of wretchedness and crime there was in the heart of ,europe an industrious1 cultured1 prosperous1 and happy people4 ,their religion forbade the taking of usurious interest under terrible moral penalties2 it also forbade 8all distinctions of caste10 and enjoined full social equality4 ,they were the friends of education4 8,to every mosque was attached a public school1 in which the children of the poor were taught to read and write40 ,they established libraries in their chief cities1 and were the patrons of the sciences and of the useful arts in all their forms4 ,in a word1 to the general prevalence of superstition and ignorance in ,europe the ,moors in ,spain constituted a glowing exception4 ,wherever the ,saracen went he carried science and art4 ,he honored labor1 and genius and learning followed in his footsteps4 ,taught by learned ,jews1 he studied the works of the ancient philosophers1 and preserved and extended their knowledge of astronomy1 chemistry1 algebra1 and geography4 ,cordova was the abode of wealth1 learning1 refinement1 and the arts4 ,its mosques and palaces were models of architectural splendor1 and its industries employed #bjj1jjj families4 ,seville contained #af1jjj silk-looms1 and employed #acj1jjj weavers4 ,the banks of the ,guadalquivir were thickly studded with those gems of free labor1 manufacturing villages4 ,the dyeing of silk and wool fabrics was carried to great perfection1 and the ,moorish metal-workers were the most expert of the time4 ,the ,saracen invented cotton paper1 introduced into ,spain cotton and leather manufactures1 and promoted the cultivation of sugar-cane1 rice1 and the mulberry4 ,nor did he neglect agriculture in any of its branches2 he created a new era in husbandry4 ,his kingdom in ,spain was the richest and most prosperous in the ,western world2 indeed1 its prosperity was in striking contrast with the poverty and misery of the peoples by whom it was surrounded4 ,under the third caliph its revenue reached #f1jjj1jjj sterling1 a sum1 as ,gibbon remarks1 which in the tenth century probably surpassed the united revenues of all the ,christian monarchs4 ,but these industrious1 cultured people were the descendants of invaders1 and the ,spaniards1 under the influence of a blind and unreasoning impulse of religious and patriotic zeal1 drove them from the soil they had literally made to 8blossom like the rose10 and themselves relapsed into a state of indolence1 ignorance1 and poverty4 ,from the effects of the persecution of a race of artificers1 and the proscription of the useful arts1 ,spain has never recovered4 ,she has since always been1 and is to-day1 a striking exemplification of the verity of the proposition that stagnation in the useful arts is the death of civilization4 ,in the last half of the seventeenth century the people of ,madrid were threatened with starvation4 ,to avert the impending calamity the adjacent country was scoured by the military1 and the inhabitants compelled to yield supplies4 ,there was danger that the ,royal family would go hungry to bed4 ,the tax-gatherer sold houses and furniture1 and the inhabitants were forced to fly2 the fields were left uncultivated1 and multitudes died from want and exposure4 ,during the seventeenth century ,madrid lost half its population2 the looms of ,seville were silenced2 the woollen manufactures of ,toledo were transferred by the exiled ,moriscoes to ,tunis2 ,castile1 ,segovia1 and ,burgos lost their manufactures1 and their inhabitants were reduced to poverty and despair4#hb #hb 8,the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,chap4 ,,ii4 ,by ,john ,william ,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers2 8,history of ,civilization in ,england10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,chap4 ,i4 ,by ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahfd4 ,two leading causes contributed to reduce the people of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages to a state of moral obliquity1 intellectual torpor1 and physical incapacity--the repressive force of authority and the atrocious philosophy of contempt of man formulated by ,machiavelli4 ,the one forbade scientific investigation1 the other strangled the spirit of invention in the grip of enforced ignorance4 ,authority chilled courage1 and contempt withered hope4 ,italy governed the world1 and her rule consisted of a menace and a sneer4 ,under this rgime of cruelty and cynicism man shrunk into a state of moral cowardice and intellectual lethargy4 ,the political maxims which bear the name of ,machiavelli were not invented by him4 ,when he formulated them1 in #aeac1 they had been in force in ,italy a thousand years4 ,these maxims explain the fact of the existence of a period of the world's history known as 8the ,dark ,ages40 ,the chief of them divides the human race into three classes1 the members of the first of which understand things by their own natural powers2 the second when they are explained to them2 the third not at all4 ,the third class embraces a vast majority of men2 the second only a small number2 the first a very small number4 ,the first class is to rule both the other classes1 the second by craft and duplicity1 the third by authority1 and1 that failing1 by force4 ,other maxims assume the despicable character of all men1 and justify falsehood1 duplicity1 cruelty1 and murder1 in the ruling class4 ,a single proposition shows the infamy of the whole system1 namely1 8,there are three ways of deciding any contest--by fraud1 by force1 or by law1 and a wise man will make the most suitable choice40#hc ,these are maxims not of civilization but of barbarism4 ,they involve a state of slavery1 and where slavery exists the useful arts decline1 and ultimately perish4 ,and so it was in the ,middle ,ages4 #hc 8,the ,prince10 ,chap4 ,,xviii4 ,by ,niccolo ,machiavelli4 ,several great events led to the emancipation of the people of ,europe from the joint reign of authority and contempt4 ,the learning of the ,jews and ,saracens--their knowledge of the arts and sciences--gradually spread1 and occupied the minds of cloistered students1 giving to them an intellectual impulse4 ,the ,crusades1 pitiful and prolific of horrors as they were1 shed a great light upon ,europe4 ,they brought the men of the ,west face to face with a practical progressive civilization--a civilization that 8filled the earth with prodigies of human skill40 ,the ,crusaders were told that they would be led against hordes of barbarians4 ,what astonishment must have seized them when they stood under the walls of ,constantinople and beheld its splendors6 ,nor was their surprise less1 doubtless1 in the character of the foe they encountered4 ,they had expected to meet with treachery and cruelty2 they found chivalry1 courtesy1 and high culture4#hd #hd 8,the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #ace1 #acf4 ,by ,john ,william ,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers4 ,these surprises and contrasts profoundly impressed the ,crusaders1 and they returned to ,europe relieved of many illusions1 and notably of the fallacy that the wealth of ,eastern princes was destined to supply the waste of their own squandered estates4 ,they returned1 too1 to find a new civilization in process of development4 ,two hundred years of comparative freedom from the repressive force of feudalism changed the face of the country and the character of its people4 ,during the absence of the nobles1 in the ,holy ,land1 a middle class sprung into existence1 possessing the qualities which always distinguish that class--thrift and prudence4 ,the mortgaged estates of the ,crusaders had fallen partly into their hands1 and partly into the hands of the ,crown4 ,towns had sprung up1 and a commercial class and a manufacturing class had been formed4 ,the artisan became a factor in the social problem4 ,he offered his wares to the lords and ladies of the castles1 and they bought themselves poor4 ,as ,emerson says1 8,the banker with his seven per cent4 drove the earl out of his castle40 ,in the eleventh century nobility was above price1 in the thirteenth it was for sale1 and soon afterwards it was offered as a gift4 ,the invention of printing1 the art preservative of all arts1 removed the seal from the lips of learning4 ,the desire to conceal is no match for the desire to print4 ,thenceforth1 through the medium of types1 the voice of genius was destined to reach to the ends of the earth2 and1 more important still1 every discovery in science1 and every invention in art1 became the sure heritage of future ages4 ,the discovery of ,america was the crowning act of man's emancipation4 ,in sweeping away the last vestige of the theory on which patristic geography was based1 ,columbus freed mankind4 ,in the cry of 8land ho60 with which he greeted the new continent1 he sounded the death-knell of intellectual slavery4 ,his was the last act in a series of acts which struck off the shackles of thought1 and let in upon the long night of the ,middle ,ages the clear light of day4 ,leonardo da ,vinci took up the interrupted work of ,archimedes1 and the science of mechanics made rapid progress4 ,at last it was correctly observed that 8experiment is the only interpreter of nature10 and the development of natural philosophy began4 ,bruno was still to be burned1 and ,galileo imprisoned4 ,but the persecutors of those great men were no longer moved by mere blind zeal4 ,they believed and trembled1 and in seeking to drown the truth in the blood of the votaries of science1 they rendered it more conspicuous4 ,by the light of the flames which consumed the body of the too daring philosopher a thousand scientists studied the stars1 the earth1 and the air4 ,the invention of printing paralyzed authority1 and the discovery of ,america gave wings to hope4 ,a few manuscripts could be locked in vaults or burned1 but millions of books must inevitably1 ultimately1 find their way to the people4 ,books were1 therefore1 the sure promise of universal culture--the precursor of the common school4 ,the discovery of another continent startled the people of ,europe from the deep sleep of a thousand years1 and sent a fresh current of blood surging through their veins4 ,it seemed like a sort of new creation1 and appealed powerfully to the imagination4 ,and it is always the imagination that 8blazes0 the path to glorious achievements4 ,it is through the imagination that men are moved to 8crave after the unseen10 and through the imagination that the human mind becomes big with 8bold and lofty conceptions40 ,a new world having been discovered by one man1 it was natural that all men should be put upon inquiry4 ,hence the era of investigation1 the resulting discoveries of science1 and their innumerable applications1 through the useful arts1 to the fast multiplying needs of man4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem--,,historic4 ,,europe4 ,the ,standing ,army a ,legacy of ,evil from the ,middle ,ages4 -- ,it is the ,controlling ,feature of the ,european ,situation4 -- ,its ,collateral ,evils3 ,wars and ,debts4 -- ,the ,debts of ,europe ,represent a ,series of ,colossal ,crimes against the ,people2 with the ,armies and ,navies they ,absorb the ,bulk of the ,annual ,revenue4 -- ,the ,people ,fleeing from them4 -- ,they ,threaten ,bankruptcy2 they ,prevent ,education4 -- ,germany1 the best-educated ,nation in ,europe1 losing most by ,emigration4 -- ,her ,people will not ,endure the ,standing ,army4 -- ,the ,folly of the ,european ,international ,policy of ,hate4 -- ,it is ,possible for ,europe to ,restore to ,productive ,employments #c1jjj1jjj of men1 to place at the ,disposal of her ,educators #gjj1jjj1jjj1 instead of #gj1jjj1jjj per annum1 and to pay her ,national ,debts in ,fifty-four ,years1 simply by the ,disbandment of her ,armies and ,navies4 -- ,the ,armament of ,europe ,stands in the ,way of ,universal ,education and of ,universal ,industrial ,prosperity4 -- ,standing ,armies the ,last ,analysis of ,selfishness2 they are ,coeval with the ,revival during the ,middle ,ages of the ,greco-,roman ,subjective ,methods of ,education4 -- ,they must go out when the ,new ,education comes in4 ,the medival period conferred upon man two great blessings--a new continent and the art of printing4 ,it also left a legacy of evil4 ,with the partition of ,europe into great ,states the modern age began1 and it began with this inheritance of evil from the ,middle ,ages--the standing army4 ,the feudal lords wrecked their estates and sacrificed their lives during the ,crusades1 and a middle class arose and united with the kings in the government of the ,state4 ,but this alliance was of short duration2 it soon gave way to an alliance which proved to be enduring--an alliance between the aristocracy and the kings4 ,by the ruin of feudalism thousands of serfs were set free4 ,trained to arms1 it was easy to make soldiers of them4 ,they were accordingly converted into mercenary troops--mustered into the service of the new alliance as guards of the modern ,state4 ,thus the standing armies of the 8great powers0 originated4 ,this legacy of evil has so increased in magnitude that it is1 to-day1 the dominant feature of ,european public economy1 and the portentous fact of the social problem4 ,the standing armies of ,europe number two million five hundred thousand men1 and their naval auxiliaries consist of three thousand vessels1 thirty thousand guns1 and two hundred thousand men4 ,this is the mammoth evil bequeathed to ,europe by the ,middle ,ages1 and out of it many collateral evils have sprung1 as wars1 debts1 and exorbitant tax levies4,e#be ,thirty years ago the national debts of the governments of ,europe had risen to #i1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,since that time they have almost trebled6 ,the cause of this vast increase is easy to find4 ,it consists chiefly of four great wars1 namely1 the ,crimean war of #ahed-ef1 the ,franco-,sardinian war against ,austria in #ahei1 the ,german-,italian war of #ahff1 and the ,franco-,prussian war of #ahgj-gb4 ,these wars were waged to maintain what is termed the balance of power2 they involved no principle affecting the rights of man4 ,whatever their issue1 no gain could hence accrue to the people of ,europe4 ,and this is the nature of most of the wars in which the standing armies of ,europe have been employed since their organization4 ,but the ,european budget shows that they are the overshadowing feature of the ,european governmental systems4 ,the annual revenue of the ,states of ,europe is about #a1gbe1jjj1jjj4 ,of this sum #gjj1jjj1jjj is devoted to the support of the standing armies and navies1 and as much more is required to meet the interest charge on the debts created in the prosecution of wars waged to maintain the balance of power6 ,thus1 of the aggregate of ,european revenue1 the sum of #a1djj1jjj1jjj is devoted to the purely supposititious theory that the subjects of the great powers are inflamed with an intense desire to cut one another's throats1 while the small sum of #cbe1jjj1jjj is left for the support of the civil service1 comprising all the strictly legitimate objects of government1 and including education6 ,the national debts of ,europe represent a series of colossal crimes against the people4 ,they were incurred in the prosecution of unnecessary wars1 and for the support of unnecessary standing armies4 ,with relation to these debts the people are divided into two classes--one class owns them and the other class pays interest on them4 ,this relationship comprehends future generations in perpetuity4 ,every child born in ,europe inherits either an estate in these debts or an obligation to contribute towards the payment of the interest upon them4 ,thus the fruits of a great crime have been transmuted into a vested right in one class of people1 and into a vested wrong in another class4#he #he 8,for instance1 ,i have seven thousand pounds in what we call the ,funds or ,founded things2 but ,i am not comfortable about the founding of them4 ,all that ,i can see of them is a square bit of paper1 with some ugly printing on it1 and all that ,i know of them is that this bit of paper gives me the right to tax you every year1 and make you pay me two hundred pounds out of your wages2 which is very pleasant for me2 but how long will you be pleased to do so8 ,suppose it should occur to you1 any summer's day1 that you had better not8 ,where would my seven thousand pounds be8 ,in fact1 where are they now8 ,we call ourselves a rich people2 but you see this seven thousand pounds of mine has no real existence--it only means that you1 the workers1 are poorer by two hundred pounds a year than you would be if ,i hadn't got it4 ,and this is surely a very odd kind of money for a country to boast of40--8,fors ,clavigera10 ,part ,i41 p4 #fg4 ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahhj4 ,if the ,european standing armies and navies had not been raised and kept up1 and if the revenue devoted to their support had been expended for schools1 there would not now be an uneducated person in ,europe4 ,if these standing armies and navies were now disbanded1 and the revenue at present expended for their support diverted to the support of schools1 and so applied continuously for half a century1 there would not be1 at the end of that period1 an illiterate person in ,europe4 ,under existing conditions the debts of the ,european nations cannot be paid4 ,but vast as the sum of them is1 their payment is not only possible1 but practicable in a very short time4 ,disband the standing armies and navies1 and continue the present rate of taxation1 and there would be an annual surplus revenue of #gjj1jjj1jjj4 ,apply this sum1 together with the surplus of the interest appropriation1 accruing through the resulting yearly decrease of the interest charge1 to the liquidation of these debts1 and they would be extinguished in about twenty years4,e#bf ,but if the period during which provision is made for the extinguishment of these debts be extended to fifty-four years1 and1 meantime1 the present rate of taxation be maintained1 there would be released and rendered available for educational purposes1 annually1 the sum of #fjj1jjj1jjj4 ,what is the purpose1 it may be inquired1 of these calculations8 ,their purpose is to show what the armies and navies of ,europe cost1 and what they stand in the way of4 ,they cost so much that not a dollar of the national debts of ,europe can be paid while they continue to exist4 ,they cost so much that the people who are taxed to support them are fleeing from them as from a scourge4 ,they cost so much that the decline of the nations which support them has already begun1 and this decline can be arrested only by their disbandment4 ,that the nations of ,europe are declining is shown by the statistics of emigration4 ,the foundation of national prosperity is manual labor4 ,there must be a solid basis of industrial growth for the superstructure of elegance1 refinement1 luxury1 and culture4 ,manual labor is as essential to triumphs in literature1 music1 and the fine arts as the foundations of the ,brooklyn ,bridge1 buried in the earth1 are to the beautiful arch which spans the great river4 ,and in the strife for supremacy between the nations of the world the maintenance of these triumphs depends1 also1 upon manual labor4#hf ,the real flower of a population is1 therefore1 its labor class4 ,all other classes depend upon it1 and all national triumphs spring from it4 ,hence a drain upon the labor class of a nation is a drain upon its most vital resource4 ,the nation that suffers such a drain continuously is in its decadence4 ,it loses some of its vigor1 some of its productive power1 and the loss is not supplied4 ,true1 the poor emigrant takes with him no part of the splendors of the country he leaves1 but his brawny arm and skilled hand have contributed to the support of national pomp and social elegance1 and as he steps aboard the steamer he withdraws that support forever4 #hf 8,now1 therefore1 see briefly what it all comes to4 ,first1 you spend eighty millions of money in fireworks war1 doing no end of damage in letting them off4 8,then you borrow money to pay the firework-maker's bill1 from any gain-loving persons who have got it4 8,and then1 dressing your bailiff's men in new red coats and cocked hats1 you send them drumming and trumpeting into the fields1 to take the peasants by the throat1 and make them pay the interest on what you have borrowed1 and the expense of the cocked hats besides4 8,that is #8financiering1' my friends1 as the mob of the money-makers understand it4 ,and they understand it well4 ,for that is what it always comes to1 finally--taking the peasant by the throat4 ,he must pay--for he only can4 ,food can only be got out of the ground1 and all these devices of soldiership1 and law1 and arithmetic1 are but ways of getting at last down to him1 the furrow-driver1 and snatching the roots from him as he digs40--8,fors ,clavigera10 ,part ,,ii41 p4 #bg4 ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahhb4 ,napoleon the ,infamous plundered the conquered capitals of ,europe to beautify and enrich the art treasuries of ,paris4 ,the art treasures of ,europe are destined to cross the ocean1 in the track of the column of emigration1 if the flower of her labor class continues to flee from her standing armies and navies1 as the statues of ,rome followed the army of the modern ,csar4 ,for where the flower of the world's labor class gathers1 there wealth most abounds4 ,labor1 not gold and silver1 is the source of wealth1 hence it is to the laborer that art triumphs are due1 and this is the order of their development4 ,the laborer provides for immediate1 pressing wants2 he is prudent1 and accumulates a surplus2 he hungers for education2 he develops a love of the beautiful2 he seeks to dignify his life and adorn his home2 he patronizes art2 he draws to himself the art treasures of the world4 ,the standing armies and navies of ,europe have cost the ,european laborer the sacrifice of all these pleasing and noble aspirations4,e#bg ,beyond the point of providing for 8immediate pressing wants0 he has not been able to pass4 ,his surplus goes to the tax-gatherer1 to feed and clothe the army and the navy4 ,his desire for education1 his love of the beautiful1 his hope of a dignified life1 and of a home adorned by art--these all are dreams1 illusions1 which vanish into thin air in the presence of the substantial fact of the annual ,european budget--for the support of the standing armies and navies #gjj1jjj1jjj6 ,in the way of the payment of the national debts of ,europe her standing armies and navies rear themselves like an impassable wall4 ,against any general educational system they have hitherto constituted an insurmountable barrier2 and in the future1 as in the past1 their maintenance dooms the masses to illiteracy4 ,they stand in the way especially of the incorporation1 in the curriculum of the public schools1 of the manual element in education1 because it is the most expensive1 as it is the most important part of instruction4 ,germany affords an admirable example of the power of education1 even though defective in character1 and of the disgust with which standing armies inspire an intelligent people4 ,the ,germans are the best-educated people in ,europe4 ,the educational system of ,germany was established by ,prussia as a politico-economic measure after the humiliation of the ,german ,states by ,bonaparte4 ,said ,frederick ,william1 8,though territory1 power1 and prestige be lost1 they can be regained by acquiring intellectual and moral power40 ,the outcome of the ,franco-,prussian war of #ahgj verified the truth of this prediction4 ,her freedom from debt enabled ,prussia to inaugurate and carry forward a comprehensive educational system1 which in turn enabled her not only to vanquish her ancient enemy1 but to make ,france pay the cost of her own humiliation4 ,thus at a single stroke ,prussia avenged the defeats suffered at the hands of the first ,napoleon1 and permanently weakened ,france by compelling her vastly to increase her national debt4 ,the alacrity with which the ,french people subscribed for the new bonds was much remarked upon1 at the time1 as evincing both financial soundness and patriotism4 ,but the really grave feature of the situation--the vast augmentation of the public burdens of ,france--was scarcely mentioned1 and was1 perhaps1 philosophically considered only by that astute statesman1 ,prince ,bismarck4 ,the war with ,germany cost ,france #b1jjj1jjj1jjj1 and compelled an enormous increase of taxation4 ,the debt statement for #ahgg was #d1fce1jjj1jjj--the expenditures #ecc1jjj1jjj2 and of this latter sum #cgc1jjj1jjj were absorbed by the army1 the navy1 and the national debt6 ,the significant feature of the ,european situation is the freedom from debt of ,germany4 ,it is by virtue of this fact that she holds the first place in ,europe4 ,her rate of taxation is as low as that of little ,switzerland4 ,all the other ,great ,powers are hampered by great debts4 ,spain is bankrupt2 she does not pay the interest on her debt4 ,austria increases her debt every year2 she is practically bankrupt4 ,it is only a question of time1 if standing armies and navies continue to be maintained and wars to occur1 when all the debtor nations will be reduced to bankruptcy4#hg ,the nation sinks as the column of debt rises4 ,france cannot double her debt again and make her people pay interest on it4 ,england draws from her citizens a larger per capita revenue than any other nation of ,europe1 except ,france1 and she has nearly touched the limit of their capacity to pay taxes4 ,a sudden and considerable increase of her debt would strain the ,government1 and might shatter it4 #hg 8,the progress of the enormous debts which at present oppress1 and will in the long run probably ruin1 all the great ,nations of ,europe1 has been pretty uniform40--8,wealth of ,nations10 ,vol4 ,,iii41 p4 #cib4 ,by ,adam ,smith1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,edinburgh1 #ahai4 ,thus1 the more searching the analysis of the ,european situation1 the more clear does the exceptional strength of ,germany appear4 ,but out of her abundant strength a weakness has been evolved4 ,the system of education that rendered the ,germans so powerful against ,france as soldiers1 has made them thoughtful citizens4 ,it has revolutionized the public sentiment of ,germany on the subject of government4 ,in the place of passion it has substituted reason4 ,the ,prussian 8subject0 for whom the king thought1 has become a ,german citizen who thinks for himself1 and one of his earliest reflections is that1 in modern civilization1 a standing army is a solecism4 ,the ignorant ,prussian hated the ,french because hatred of them was enjoined upon him as the correlative of the duty of blind devotion to his king4 ,but the educated ,german knows that the sole motive of the continuance of the standing army is the maintenance of the balance of power1 which is merely a tacit agreement between the ,european rulers1 by divine right1 to perpetuate their own lease of power4 ,hence the 8intellectual and moral power0 conferred upon the ,german people1 by education1 reacts upon ,germany in the form of a drain of the flower of her population by emigration4 ,the citizenship of ,germany is more valuable1 in an economic sense1 than that of any other country of ,europe--more valuable because ,germany is the most powerful nation of the ,european family of ,states2 more valuable because of them all she alone is free from debt2 more valuable by reason of her more moderate scale of taxation4 ,but she still furnishes the heaviest contingent to the column of emigration steadily moving towards the ,united ,states4 ,in a word1 the most valuable citizenship in ,europe--that of ,germany--is least regarded and most freely surrendered4 ,why8 ,because the ,germans are the best-educated people in ,europe4 ,poor as the ,german primary school system is1 it is universal1 and it has destroyed what it was founded chiefly to promote and perpetuate1 namely1 reverence for1 and loyalty to1 government by ,divine right4 ,german intelligence revolts from taxation for the support of a standing army4 ,it revolts from the theory and policy of hate upon which standing armies are based4 ,it comprehends perfectly that the standing army is a menace to the freedom of the citizen1 at home1 rather than a defence against pretended danger from abroad4 ,it scorns1 as absurd1 the threadbare assumption that ,englishmen1 ,frenchmen1 ,italians1 ,russians1 and ,germans desire to fly at one another's throats1 and that they can be restrained only by a cordon of bayonets4,e#bh ,it realizes that the perpetuation of the era of hate1 through the standing army1 retards the mental and physical progress of the human race1 which would be greatly promoted by the free intermingling of the various nationalities of ,europe4#hh ,that it is from the standing army that the emigrant flees is shown by the records of the military department of the ,german government4 #hh ,the multiplicity of languages is due to the policy of international hate1 inaugurated by the nations of ,europe to promote the selfish purposes of rulers4 ,barbarism is diversity2 civilization is unity4 ,the human race is one1 provided it is civilized1 and it should have but one language4 ,language is a tool1 and time consumed in acquiring skill in the use of more than one tool designed for the same end1 is wasted4 ,the standing armies of ,europe obstruct the way to unity of language4 ,the time will come when all civilized peoples will speak one tongue1 probably the ,english4 ,then language will cease to be a mere vain accomplishment1 and become what it ought always to have been1 the simple means of familiarizing the mind with things1 and of the communication of knowledge4 ,in the year #ahhc twenty-nine thousand men were arrested for attempting to emigrate from ,germany to avoid the required military service1 and more than a hundred thousand others1 from whom service was due1 refused1 both to report for duty1 and to furnish the required excuses for the failure to enroll themselves4 ,the law of ,germany requires every male citizen1 capable of bearing arms1 to serve three years in the standing army--to devote three of the best years of his life to the preservation of the balance of power in ,europe6 ,in addition1 he must serve four years in the reserve1 and five years in the landwehr4 ,and this service is regarded as a debt due the government4 ,every male child born in ,germany contracts this debt1 in contemplation of law1 in the act of drawing his first breath1 and nothing but death releases him from the obligation4 ,having been taught in the emperor's schools to love the emperor1 when he reaches the military age1 a musket is placed in his hands1 and he is taught to shoot the emperor's enemies4 ,if he refuses to enter the army he is fined2 if he refuses to pay the fine he is imprisoned4 ,the ,german emperor attributes the decline in the military organization to the negligence of his military staff1 but its true cause is the ,german educational system4 ,the steady augmentation of the rolls of military delinquents is the measure of the growth of ,german intelligence4 ,the ease with which ,germany conquered ,france flattered the vanity of the educated ,german1 but it did not prevent him from emigrating to ,america4 ,to the cultured mind the army that wins the contest in which no principle is involved is as odious as the army that loses4 ,to the cultured mind all standing armies are odious1 because they are an embodied assumption of the barbarism of man1 and a denial of the efficacy of reason4 ,the great stream of ,german emigration attests the superiority of ,german culture4 ,the educated ,german declines to learn the art of shooting the emperor's enemies1 but he knows that ,germany is1 in fact1 governed by its standing army--by muskets--and he quits the country4 ,thus the chief power of ,germany becomes her chief weakness4 ,a system of education which has made her the first nation in ,europe produces wide-spread discontent among her people1 because she is governed by obsolete ideas4 ,nor can the loss in virile force suffered by ,germany1 through emigration1 be made good by a counter movement of immigrants from the less favored countries of ,europe4 ,the economic condition of ,germany--her freedom from debt and her comparatively low rate of taxation--invite such a movement4 ,but the ,european policy of international hate1 created and perpetuated by standing armies1 forbids ,germany to recoup her losses of men to ,america1 through corresponding gains of men from the overtaxed populations of neighboring countries4 ,the grinning skeletons of a hundred battles in which the rival nationalities of ,europe have been pitted against one another1 rise to challenge the social intermingling of peoples separated for centuries by the arts of diplomacy1 traditions of blood and flames1 and the serried ranks of standing armies4 ,the disposition of ,germans to emigrate irritates the emperor and his prime-minister4 ,the loss of numbers might be borne1 for notwithstanding the steady outward flow of emigrants there is a slight increase of population in ,germany4 ,but it is the quality of the exodus that annoys the emperor and his chancellor4 ,the ,german emigrants are strong men and women--strong mentally and physically4 ,all the weaklings1 all the paupers1 all the imbeciles1 the aged1 and the infirm remain1 only the young and vigorous go4 ,those who go have been taught at the expense of the ,state to love the emperor and hate his enemies1 but they do neither4 ,the ,german system of education1 from the point of view of rulers by divine right1 is1 hence1 a conspicuous failure4 ,it makes better men but poorer subjects4 ,the more thoroughly the man is educated the more valuable he is to himself and to the community1 but the less valuable to his king4 ,his growth in intelligence is the measure of his decline in reverence for rulers by divine right1 and the standing armies by which they are alone supported4 ,this is the cause of ,german emigration1 and its effect is to weaken the ,german ,empire4 ,germany is not so strong as she was when her armies swept over ,france2 she declines in power each year1 through the loss of men--the sole support of a ,state4,e#bi ,they flee from her standing army to the ,united ,states1 a republic with only a handful of soldiers4 ,the system of education established to increase the power of ,prussia in ,europe has accomplished its purpose4 ,but it has done much more--something never thought of by its founders4 ,it has produced a wide-spread feeling of intelligent discontent2 and discontent is an inarticulate cry for reform4 ,the cultured ,german scorns the standing army1 refuses to serve in it1 protests against its longer existence1 and demands more and better education for his children4 ,his protest is unheeded1 and he quits the country4 ,but the demand for higher education is not1 cannot be1 disregarded4 ,intelligence is contagious2 it infects with a thirst for knowledge all with whom it comes in contact4 ,education is the arch-revolutionist whose onward march is irresistible4 ,soon a riper culture will make the ,german ,protestants more courageous and more imperative in their demands1 and they will remain in the country to enforce them4 ,education made ,germany the first military power in ,europe2 but education could not have been put to a more ignoble service4 ,the desire of intelligent ,germans is that ,germany shall become the first industrial power in ,europe1 and this desire can be realized by the disbandment of her standing army4 ,this review of the situation in ,europe shows that it is practicable for her to restore1 at once1 to productive employments three millions of men--the flower of her population--now not only idle1 but a public charge4 ,it shows1 also1 that it is practicable for ,europe to place1 at once1 at the disposal of her educators #gjj1jjj1jjj per annum instead of #gj1jjj1jjj per annum1 as at present4 ,the corollary of these two propositions is a third1 namely1 that it is practicable for ,europe to extinguish her national debts in fifty-four years4 ,it follows that the regular armies of ,europe alone stand in the way of universal education1 and of universal industrial prosperity4 ,standing armies everywhere within the lines of advanced civilization must soon disappear before the march of education4#hi ,social questions cannot much longer be settled by emigration4 ,the world's virgin soil is being rapidly appropriated4 ,when the surface of the whole earth shall have become occupied1 barbarisms of every nature will be intolerable4 ,man must then be highly civilized1 and the only highly civilizing influence is education4 ,the age of force is passing away2 the age of science and art--the age of industrial development--has begun1 and standing armies are as abnormal in ,europe now as slavery was in the ,united ,states twenty-five years ago4#ij #hi 8,this nation to-day is in profound peace with the world2 but in my judgment it has before it a great duty1 which will not only make that profound peace permanent1 but shall set such an example as will absolutely abolish war on this continent1 and by a great example and a lofty moral precedent shall ultimately abolish it in other continents4 ,i am justified in saying that every one of the seventeen independent ,powers of ,north and ,south ,america is not only willing but ready--is not only ready but eager--to enter into a solemn compact in a congress that may be called in the name of peace1 to agree that if1 unhappily1 differences shall arise--as differences will arise between men and nations--they shall be settled upon the peaceful and ,christian basis of arbitration4 8,and1 as ,i have often said before1 ,i am glad to repeat1 in this great centre of civilization and power1 that in my judgment no national spectacle1 no international spectacle1 no continental spectacle1 could be more grand than that the republics of the ,western world should meet together and solemnly agree that neither the soil of ,north nor that of ,south ,america shall be hereafter stained by brothers' blood40--,extract from the ,speech of ,hon4 ,james ,g4 ,blaine at the ,delmonico ,dinner1 ,october #bi1 #ahhd4 #ij 8,it is only slowly1 and after having been long in contact with society1 that man becomes more indulgent towards others and more severe towards himself40--8,suicide3 an ,essay on ,comparative ,moral ,statistics10 p4 #bbf4 ,by ,henry ,morselli1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhb4 ,standing armies are the instruments of tyranny2 they are the last analysis of selfishness1 the incarnation of depravity2 for they do not reason--they strike4 ,it is worthy of note that the standing armies of ,europe are coeval with the revival of learning1 and the revival of learning was a revival of the ,greco-,roman subjective educational methods4 ,the logical effect of those methods was the promotion of selfishness1 and the standing armies conserved the selfish designs of the rulers of the newly-formed ,states4 ,it is hence not a mere coincidence that standing armies and the revival of learning through subjective processes of thought are of common origin4 ,the ,machiavellian philosophy of cruelty1 duplicity1 and contempt of man sprung logically from egoism1 and as logically led to the formation of standing armies--bodies of armed men1 trained1 under compulsion1 to kill1 burn1 and destroy4 ,the synonyms of the standing army are selfishness and its vile issue1 feudalism1 serfdom1 slavery1 ignorance1 and contempt of man4 ,these conditions are passing away1 and the standing army1 the worst1 as it is the most costly relic of savagery1 must pass away with them4 ,it cannot withstand the advance of the new education1 whose mission is peace1 whose quest is the truth1 whose premise is a fact1 whose conclusion is a thing of use and beauty1 and whose goal is justice4 ,e#be ,war is not merely a relic of barbarism2 it is barbarism triumphant4 ,it is evidence of the presence1 active and malignant1 of all the bad passions of man4 ,nor are idle armies less infamous than armies in deadly conflict4 ,carlyle well says that the one monster in the world is the idle man2 and the standing army is a vast horde of idle men quartered on the community4 ,the standing armies of ,europe1 on parade1 in barracks1 and in forts1 are as unmixed an evil as the legions of ,rome were in ,gaul1 in ,greece1 or before ,carthage4 ,it is a shame to civilization that arbitration did not long ago take the place of the coarse brutality of war4 ,the duello between ,nations is not less absurd1 and it is a thousand-fold more wicked1 than the duello between individuals4 ,it is savagery pure and simple1 the child of selfishness1 and not less inconsistent with a high state of civilization than slavery4 ,e#bf ,of the ,british funding system when it was in its infancy1 as early as #agdh1 ,lord ,bolingbroke said3 8,it is a method by which one part of the nation is pawned to the other1 with hardly any hope left of ever being redeemed40 ,see1 also1 in the ,north ,american ,review for ,september1 #ahhf1 an exhaustive article on the impolicy of national debt perpetuation1 by ,n4 ,p4 ,hill1 in which it is alleged that 8great interests are at work to prevent the payment of the national debt of the ,united ,states40 ,e#bg ,in his recent great work--8,the ,wonderful ,century0--,mr4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 on the authority of 8,the ,statesman's ,year ,book0 for #ahig1 states that the standing armies and navies of ,europe number three millions of men2 cost #ahj1jjj1jjj pounds sterling per annum1 and withdraw from useful employments ten millions of men engaged in repairing the waste of war4--8,the ,wonderful ,century10 pp4 #cce-ccf4 ,new ,york3 ,dodd1 ,mead ,co41 #ahih4 ,e#bh 8,i know now that my fellowship with others cannot be shut off by a frontier1 or by a government decree which decides that ,i belong to some particular political organization4 ,i know now that all men are everywhere brothers and equals4 ,when ,i think now of all the evil ,i have done1 that ,i have endured1 and that ,i have seen about me1 arising from national enmities1 ,i see clearly that it is all due to that gross imposture called patriotism--love for one's native land40 444 8,i understand now that true welfare is possible for me only on condition that ,i recognize my fellowship with the whole world40--8,my ,religion10 p4 #bef4 ,by ,count ,leo ,tolstoi4 ,new ,york3 ,thomas ,y4 ,crowell ,co4 ,e#bi ,there is another cause of the decline of ,germany3 ,war degrades2 it is a reversion toward barbarism4 ,not only is the soldier brutalized by martial exercises and scenes of carnage1 but the moral and mental fibre of the people of a nation which indulges in war is rendered coarser4 ,the remark of ,m4 ,renan on the subject is profoundly philosophical3 8,the man who has passed years in the carriage of arms after the ,german fashion is dead to all delicate work whether of the hand or brain40--8,recollections of my ,youth10 p4 #aei4 ,by ,ernest ,renan4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 #ahhc4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,education ,,and ,,the ,,social ,,problem--,,historic4 ,,america4 ,an ,old ,civilization in a ,new ,country4 -- ,old ,methods in a ,new ,system of ,schools4 -- ,sordid ,views of ,education4 -- ,the highest ,aim ,money-getting4 -- ,herbert ,spencer on the ,english ,schools4 -- ,same ,defects in the ,american ,schools4 -- ,maxims of ,selfishness4 -- ,the ,cultivation of ,avarice4 -- ,political ,incongruities4 -- ,negroes escaping from ,slavery called ,fugitives from ,justice4 -- ,the ,results of ,subjective ,educational ,processes4 -- ,climatic ,influences alone saved ,america from becoming a ,slave ,empire4 -- ,illiteracy4 -- ,abnormal ,growth of ,cities4 -- ,failure of ,justice4 -- ,defects of ,education shown in ,reckless and ,corrupt ,legislation4 -- ,waste of an ,empire of ,public ,land4 -- ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd's ,history of ,congressional ,land ,grants4 -- ,the ,growth and ,power of ,corporations4 -- ,the ,origin of large ,fortunes1 ,speculations4 -- ,old ,social ,forces producing old ,social ,evils4 -- ,still ,america is the ,hope of the ,world4 -- ,the ,right of ,suffrage in the ,united ,states justifies the ,sentiment of ,patriotism4 -- ,let ,suffrage be made ,intelligent and ,virtuous1 and all ,social ,evils will yield to it2 and all the ,wealth of the ,country is subject to the ,draft of the ,ballot for ,education4 -- ,the ,hope of ,social ,reform depends upon a complete ,educational ,revolution4 ,the discovery of ,america startled ,europe4 ,it was a great blow to prevailing dogmatisms4 ,it upset many learned 787 theories4 ,it swept away patristic geography4 ,it completed the figure of the earth1 rendering it susceptible of intelligent study4 ,the advantages of such investigation accrued to man1 to a degree1 before the social and civil life of ,america began4 ,in the century and a quarter which elapsed between the landing of ,columbus and that of the ,pilgrims1 on these shores1 considerable social and political progress was made in ,europe1 and especially in ,england4 ,from the turbulent scenes of the reigns of ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i41 which eventuated in the ,cromwellian rebellion and victory of the ,commons1 the ,pilgrims escaped4 ,they not only bore with them1 to the new continent1 the impress of the long struggle for liberty waged by the ,english people1 but they were1 in a certain sense1 the product of the progress of all the ages4 ,but they constituted only a small part of the column of immigrants4 ,detachments of the ,cavaliers came also1 and ,germans1 ,frenchmen1 and ,irishmen came with them4 ,the discovery of ,america was a sort of new creation1#ia but its almost virgin soil was destined to become the home of an old civilization4 ,from all the nationalities of the ,old ,world the ,new ,world was to be peopled4 ,the ambitious1 the restless1 the adventurous1 the enterprising1 and the hardy of every tongue1 were gradually to assemble in the new field of action4 ,the manner in which they treated the natives of the new country1 both north and south1 showed their origin and their training4 ,their determination to conquer and hold the new territory was but thinly disguised4 ,their descent upon the ,atlantic coast was not the exact counterpart of that of ,csar upon the coast of ,britain1 but it was the same in spirit2 and the active trade in slaves which soon sprang up1 and which was thereafter vigorously prosecuted for two hundred years1 showed the taint of savagery--the impress of ,roman cruelty1 rapacity1 and injustice4 #ia 8,the discovery of ,america is the greatest event which has ever taken place in this world of ours1 one half of which had hitherto been unknown to the other4 ,all that until now appeared extraordinary seems to disappear before this sort of new creation40--,voltaire4 ,it is evident that in its most important feature--the formation of character--education had made little if any progress at the time of the organization of civil society in ,america4 ,the democratic idea was not new4 ,it found expression in every form during the struggles of ,greece and ,rome1 and the revival of learning had led to the discussion of governmental questions in the light of history4 ,besides1 the reformation of ,luther had opened the way to the last analysis of dissent in the person of ,roger ,williams1 who asserted the right of absolute freedom of thought and speech4 ,of the religious right of private judgment the political right of an equal voice in public affairs is the corollary4 ,hence1 that the ,puritans should establish the town organizations so justly lauded by ,m4 ,tocqueville was quite logical4#ib ,nor was the public-school system less logical2 all citizens being members of the government1 all children must be prepared for the duties of citizenship4 ,but unfortunately the old system of education was put into the new schools1 as the old civilizations had been transferred to the new country4 ,the system of education under which the kings and ruling classes of ,england and of the continent of ,europe were trained to selfishness1 cruelty1 and injustice1 was heedlessly adopted in the schools of ,new ,england1 which became the models of schools throughout the country4 #ib 8,town meetings are to liberty what primary schools are to science2 they bring it within the people's reach1 they teach men how to use and how to enjoy it4444 ,the township institutions of ,new ,england form a complete and regular whole2 they are old2 they have the support of the laws1 and the still stronger support of the manners of the community1 over which they exercise a prodigious influence40--8,democracy in ,america10 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #gf4 ,by ,alexis ,de ,tocqueville4 ,boston3 ,john ,allyn1 #ahgf4 ,the popular idea in regard to the schools was 7#a7 that they fitted their pupils for the duties of citizenship1 or1 more properly1 for the art of governing1 and 7#b7 that they taught the art of getting on in the world2 and getting on in the world was interpreted to mean getting and keeping money4 ,that this sordid view of education was generally held in the rural districts of ,new ,england is shown by the fact that any culture beyond a limited and imperfect knowledge of reading1 writing1 and arithmetic was regarded as superfluous4 ,not even the rudiments of either the sciences or the arts were imparted1 and yet it is only through a knowledge of the sciences and the arts that progress in civilization is made4 ,the early settlers of ,new ,england devised a new system of schools1 but they imported into them an old system of education1 the ,greco-,roman subjective system1 introduced into ,england with the revival of learning4 ,of this system ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer says1 8,had there been no teaching but such as is given in our public schools1 ,england would now be what it was in feudal times40 ,and he adds3 8,the vital knowledge1 that by which we have grown as a nation to what we are1 and which now underlies our whole existence1 is a knowledge that has got itself taught in nooks and corners1 while the ordained agencies for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead formulas40#ic #ic 8,that which our school courses leave almost entirely out1 we thus find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life4 ,all our industries would cease were it not for that information which men begin to acquire as they best may after their education is said to be finished40--8,education10 p4 #ed4 ,by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahhc4 ,but these are merely negative effects of subjective methods of education4 ,the positive evil effect of them is selfishness1 the sum of all villanies4 ,under the new system of schools--schools for all--the old philosophy of life flourished4 ,under the name of prudence1 selfishness was deified4 ,the maxim of ,herbert--8,help thyself and ,god will help thee0--was reproduced by ,franklin in a hundred forms4 ,the child was taught1 not that 8,the half is more than the whole10 but that 8,in the race of life the devil takes the hindmost40 ,thus greed and avarice were cultivated to the sacrifice of honesty4 ,calling selfishness prudence led to confounding right and wrong--freedom and slavery4 ,hence we have the ,declaration of ,independence containing the lofty sentiment1 8,all men are created equal10 and the ,constitution throwing the shield of its protection over human bondage4 ,a false system of education led to political incongruities of the grossest character1 as1 in the preamble to the ,constitution1 the declaration of its high purpose--to establish justice and secure the blessings of liberty--and in the body of the instrument a guaranty of the slave-trade for twenty-five years1 and a compact that it should be the duty of the national army to shoot rebellious slaves1 and the duty of free citizens1 of the free ,states1 to hunt down escaping slaves and surrender them to their owners in the slave ,states4 ,the failure of the prevailing system of education to promote rectitude and right thinking was so complete that negroes escaping from slavery were called 8fugitives from justice60 ,its failure was so complete that the very streets of ,boston in which patriots had struggled to the death in the cause of liberty now echoed the groans of the slave1 and resounded with the clank of his chains4 ,its failure was so complete that in ,faneuil ,hall1 the cradle of liberty1 slavery was justified4 ,its failure was so complete that a senator1 for daring to characterize slavery as barbaric1 was stricken down and beaten with a club1 until he lay helpless in a pool of blood on the floor of the legislative hall of the great1 free republic4 ,these are characteristics of the early civilizations1 the civilizations of ,greece and ,rome4 ,they are the product of selfishness1 and they show that subjective educational processes--processes which proceed from the abstract to the concrete1 thus violating the natural law of investigation--produce the same effects in the nineteenth century as they did in the first century4 ,ethically1 slavery was tried only by the test of self-interest4 ,in the ,north1 as in ,europe1 it was not profitable1 and it faded away2 in the ,south1 in the cotton and rice fields1 it was thought to be profitable1 and it spread and flourished4 ,that the opposition to slavery1 at the ,north1 did not grow out of education in the schools1 is evident1 because the sons of the ,southern ruling class were educated in the high schools and colleges of the ,north2 but they became1 notwithstanding such training1 almost to a man1 slavery propagandists4 ,the heinousness of slavery was perceptible only to those who had no personal interest in its perpetuation4 ,it is plain that the effect of the education of the schools upon the youth of the country was to make them callous to the common impressions of right and wrong2 in a word1 to render them thoroughly selfish4 ,it is difficult to resist the conclusion that1 if slavery had been as profitable at the ,north as it was at the ,south1 it would have been perpetuated1 and would have poisoned the infant civilization of ,america as that of ,rome was vitiated and destroyed4 ,assuming the truth of this hypothesis1 climate conditions1 not education1 saved this continent from the scourge of slavery4 ,to the fact that a large part of the territory of the ,united ,states is situated in the temperate zone we owe the elimination of slavery from the social problem4 ,existing social conditions in the ,united ,states do not differ materially from those of the chief countries of ,europe4 ,we have only a small standing army2 but the sole great question which divided the people during the first hundred years of our political existence--slavery--had to be settled as such questions have been settled from the beginning of history1 as savages settle all questions--by violence1 by an appeal to the logic of brute force4 ,our government differs from the governments of ,europe both in principle and form1 but the governmental influence is only one of many influences which unite to mould social habits4 ,the democratic principle1 adopted as the foundation of our political institutions1 has not served to counteract the tendency to the formation of social class distinctions4 ,the people lack the wisdom1 or the virtue1 or both1 to insist upon the first prerequisite to even an approximation to social equality1 namely1 universal education4 ,of our population of fifty millions1 five millions of persons1 ten years old and over1 are unable to read1 and six millions are unable to write4 ,in the last census decade we made the paltry gain of three per cent1 in intelligence1 but in #ahhj we had six hundred thousand more illiterates than in #ahgj4 ,nearly two millions of the legal voters in the ,united ,states are illiterates4 ,every sixth man who offers his ballot at the polls is unable to write his name4 ,under such circumstances class distinctions of the most pronounced type are inevitable4 ,the tendency to the concentration of populations in cities in the ,united ,states is not less decided than it is in the countries of ,europe4 ,in #ahbj the population of our cities constituted less than one-twentieth of the whole population of the country1 but in #ahhj it constituted more than one-fifth of the whole4 ,cities have always been the chief source of societary disturbances4 ,in the worst days of the ,roman ,empire tranquillity and prosperity reigned in many of the distant provinces4 ,while at the city of ,rome 8every kind of vice paraded itself with revolting cynicism10 in the provinces 8there was a middle class in which good-nature1 conjugal fidelity1 probity1 and the domestic virtues were generally practised40 ,of one of the youngest large cities in the ,united ,states the late superintendent of a ,training ,school for ,waifs says1 8,never in the history of this city has infant wretchedness stalked forth in such multiplied and such humiliating forms4 ,it is hard to suppress the conviction that even ,pagan ,rome1 in the corrupt age of ,augustus1 did not witness a more rapid and frightful declension in morals than that which can to-day be found in the city of ,chicago40 ,the most graphic description ever given of a waif came from the lips of ,john ,morrissey4#id ,he said of himself1 8,i was1 at the age of seven years1 thrown a waif upon the streets of ,dublin4 ,i slept in alleys and under sidewalks4 ,i disputed with other waifs the possession of a crust4 ,we fought like young savages for the garbage that fell from the basket of the scullion4 ,the strongest won and satisfied the cravings of hunger2 the weakest starved4 ,i had no idea that anything was to be gained by other means than brute force4 ,hence my code of moral and political ethics--the strongest man is the best man4 ,i became a pugilist40 #id ,a noted pugilist1 proprietor of gambling-houses in ,new ,york ,city and at ,saratoga ,springs1 and a politician who represented a ,new ,york ,city district in ,congress4 ,the substantial citizen who passes the street waif with contempt should reflect that ten or a dozen years later he will meet him1 a full-grown man1 at the polls1 still clothed in rags1 perhaps1 but his peer in all the rights of citizenship4 ,it was the unfortunates of the dark alleys and noxious streets of ,new ,york--the waifs1 the savages of the ,john ,morrissey type--that made ,tweedism#ie possible1 that made robbery in the name of law possible1 that made taxation the equivalent of confiscation in that city4 #ie ,for an account of the career of ,william ,marcy ,tweed1 see 8,the ,american ,cyclopdia10 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 p4 #he4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #ahha4 ,mr4 ,charles ,dickens1 in 8,bleak ,house10 in the course of a pen-picture of a wretched quarter of ,london1 under the name of 8,tom-all-alones10 shows how ignorance1 poverty1 and vice react upon society4 ,he says1 8,there is not an atom of ,tom's slime1 not a cubic inch of any pestilential gas in which he lives1 not one obscenity or degradation about him1 not an ignorance1 not a wickedness1 not a brutality of his committing but shall work its retribution through every order of society1 up to the proudest of the proud1 and to the highest of the high40 ,the presence of the poison is already shown in the failure of justice4 ,these waifs1 grown to man's estate1 but destitute of education and moral principle1 wielding the power of the ballot1 desecrate the jury-room with their vile presence1 and tug at the skirts of sheriffs1 prosecuting officers1 and judges1 and notorious criminals escape punishment6 ,so grievous has the abuse become that ,judge ,lynch has opened his summary1 awful court in almost every ,state of the ,union4 ,to say that this class menaces the government with destruction is to state it mildly4 ,in every case of the failure of justice the government is in part subverted2 for when crime goes unpunished1 the law1 violated in that particular instance1 becomes a dead letter2 and when lynching shall have become the rule1 and the execution of the law the exception1 government by law will have ceased to exist--it will have given way to government by force4 ,then the army will be invoked to shoot down the men for whose education the law failed to provide1 in every city of the land1 as it was invoked in ,pittsburg in #ahgg4 ,what are we doing to avert this danger which threatens our institutions8 ,with the exception of here and there a weak effort on the part of a few humanitarians1 as in the training school referred to1 we are leaving hundreds of thousands of waifs to develop into savages1 and1 what is worse1 savages with the power to tax civilized people6 ,we have a system of public schools into which such children as choose may enter to a certain limit1 remain as long as they please1 and depart when they please4 ,but there are thousands of children in every large city who could not enter if they would1 and who are not compelled to receive the civilizing benefits of education1 and who hence join the army of waifs and study the art of savagery2 and1 as has been remarked1 they go to swell the ranks of a populace as depraved as that which in ,rome cried for 8bread and circuses60 and sacked the city while it was in flames4 ,the defective1 not to say vicious character of our system of education1 is shown by the reckless course of our legislators on the subject of the disposition of the public domain4 ,william the ,conqueror1 conceiving that any social revolution is incomplete until it disturbs the proprietorship of land1 confiscated the entire landed estates of ,england1 and conferred what remained of the proprietary1 after reservations in the ,crown1 upon his retainers1 the ,normans4 ,eight hundred years have elapsed since the issue of ,william's land-tenure edict1 but it still remains the controlling feature of the ,british ,constitution4 ,it has compelled the deportation of millions of ,englishmen2 it has reduced the masses of ,scotland to a grinding poverty1 and converted their country into hunting-grounds for the amusement of the landlord class2 it has depopulated ,ireland1 and exasperated almost to madness the remnant of her people4 ,but we have failed to profit by the example of ,england4 ,our legislators have been blind to the lessons of history1 or they have been corrupt4 ,they have been ignorant of political and social laws1 or they have been wanting in rectitude4 ,in the period of thirty years1 ended in #ahhj1 ,congress gave to railway corporations over #bdj1jjj square miles1 or #aed1jfg1eec acres1 of the best public lands in the ,states and ,territories of the ,union--an area double that of the whole kingdom of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 including the adjacent isles4 ,on the #agth of ,march1 #ahhc1 the ,chicago ,daily ,tribune published a history of these land grants1 compiled by ,mr4 ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd1 under the following summary3 8,the story of the dissipation of our great national inheritance--thrown away by ,congress1 wasted by the ,land ,office1 stolen by thieves4 ,a land monopoly worse than that of ,england1 begotten in ,america4 ,english monopoly is in families2 ,american monopoly is in corporations2 and corporations are the only aristocrats that have no souls1 and never die40 ,the following passages from the opening paragraphs of ,mr4 ,lloyd's history are reproduced here by permission of the author3 8,the public are profoundly ignorant of the facts about the public land4 ,they know1 in a dim way1 that it is passing out of their hands1 and that huge monopolies are being created out of the lands which they meant should be the inheritance of the settler4 ,the land set apart for homes for families has been made into empires for corporations4 ,in the story recited below1 every element of human fault and fraud will be seen to have been at work in the spoliation of the land of the people4 ,congress has been extravagant and has failed to act when part of the results of its extravagance might have been saved4 ,the ,land ,office has been inadequately equipped by ,congress1 and has on its own account been careless1 dishonest1 and traitorous to the interests of the people4 ,it has been wax in the hands of the great railroad corporations1 but double-edged steel in the side of the poor settler4 ,it has overruled decisions of the ,supreme ,court and nullified acts of ,congress to betray its trust and enrich the railroads1 but has refused even to exercise its discretion when the home of a settler1 held by a righteous title1 was to be confiscated at the demand of corporate greed4 ,the niggardliness of ,congress makes clerks1 on salaries of twelve hundred to eighteen hundred dollars a year1 untrained in the law1 knowing nothing of the rules of evidence1 judges of the law and facts in cases involving millions of dollars and thousands of homes4 ,there is no worse chapter in the history of government than the facts we have to give showing the deliberate and heartless evictions of the ,european immigrant and the ,american settler in order to give their farms to covetous corporations4 ,the land-grant roads have had millions of acres granted them by the ,land ,office in excess of the grants by ,congress4 ,the whole story is summed up in the recent remark of one who had thoroughly investigated the subject--that the history of the management of the land-grant roads by the ,land ,office is a history of the management of the ,land ,office by the railroads4 8,no chapter in this story will be found of more sombre interest than the statements made as to the ,supreme ,court by the ,senate ,committee on ,public ,lands1 in a report submitted by ,senator ,van ,wyck recommending a bill to compel the railroads to pay taxes on their lands4 ,its decisions as to the titles of the railroads and the settlers to the lands1 like those of a weathercock1 have pointed the way the corporation blew its breath40 ,the summary of ,mr4 ,lloyd's paper by the editor of the ,tribune1 as a preface to its publication1 and the foregoing characterization of the acts of ,congress1 of the ,land ,office1 and of the ,supreme ,court1 by ,mr4 ,lloyd1 are fully justified by the alleged facts marshalled in the body of the sketch2 and these allegations1 after a year and a half of public scrutiny1 stand unchallenged4 ,it would be difficult to conceive of a more reckless series of legislative acts than those through which the public domain in the ,united ,states has been squandered2 and they are rendered either ignorant or vicious by the fact that in the vast empire surrendered almost totally without consideration1 each legislator1 in common with the people by and for whom he was deputed to act1 had a personal interest4 ,through this series of acts of ,congress the public domain was rudely wrested from its rightful owners1 the people2 the abnormal growth of corporate power unduly promoted1 and a tendency to the concentration1 in a few hands1 of the landed estates of the country fostered4 ,the social and economic effects of this land legislation must be very great and far-reaching4 ,of the effects of the concentration of landed estates in a few hands we need not speak2 they are sufficiently plain in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland4#if ,but great corporations are a creation of yesterday2 they are the product of steam4 ,the railway1 the factory1 the mine of iron or coal1 the furnace1 the foundery1 and the forge--these vast interests1 chartered and endowed with certain muniments of sovereignty1 are1 as property1 almost as indestructible as landed estates protected by the law of primogeniture4 ,men are trained from generation to generation to the care and conduct of them1 and hence they are far less liable to waste and dispersion than private estates1 which1 in transmission1 may be subjected to disastrous changes of management4 ,being also enterprises of a semi-public character1 the public is bound1 as well as their owners1 to see to their preservation4 #if 8,the more essential and important consideration is this--that whenever the few rapidly accumulate excessive wealth1 the many must1 necessarily1 become comparatively poorer4444 ,in every case in which we have traced out the efficient causes of the present depression we have found it to originate in customs1 laws1 or modes of action which are ethically unsound1 if not positively immoral4 ,wars and excessive war armaments1 loans to despots or for war purposes1 the accumulation of vast wealth by individuals1 excessive speculation1 adulteration of manufactured goods1 and1 lastly1 our bad land system1 with its insecurity of tenure1 excessive rents1 confiscation of tenants' property1 its common enclosures1 evictions1 and depopulation of the rural districts--all come under this category40--8,bad ,times10 pp4 #fe1 #aag4 ,by ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 ,,ll4,d4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahhe4 ,it is to a small number of the greatest of these great companies that ,congress has given an empire of land in the ,west--an area double that owned by the lords of ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland4 ,in the railway proprietor of the ,united ,states the two great elements of power are united--steam and land4 ,it needs no argument to show that only the nation can control the proprietor of both the land and the railway--the sole means of reaching a market for the products of the land4 ,the appellative--kingship--to the railway proprietor is not a misnomer4 ,he is a real potentate1 both by virtue of the multitudes of men over whom he rules autocratically1 and of the magnitude of the revenue he wields4 ,presidents come and go1 but he remains4 ,legislators investigate him and report upon him1 but they are met by a flat denial of the authority of either ,state or nation to interfere with his 8vested rights40 ,he claims the right of himself and associates to control1 absolutely1 the internal commerce of the country2 and this claim involves the pretence that they may confiscate merchandise seeking a market by charging1 for carriage1 the full value of the thing transported4 ,the railway and the factory1 the two great products of steam1 are new factors in the social problem1 and to properly control them will require new wisdom2 and the new wisdom is not to be drawn from old educational fountains4 ,state legislation has been as vicious as that of the nation4 ,the people of nearly every ,state in the ,union have been made the victims of great frauds and gross ignorance at the hands of their representatives4 ,in nearly every ,state syndicates have been formed with the design of securing valuable franchises without consideration2 and to effectuate such designs bribery has been freely and successfully resorted to in a vast number of cases4 ,but rarely has the guilty agent of the guilty syndicate1 or the perjured1 purchased legislator been brought to justice1 notwithstanding the fact that exposure has often followed the iniquity4 ,evidence of the essentially ,european character of the ,american civilization is afforded by the prevalence of speculation4,e#cj ,in ,wall ,street1 ,new ,york1 on the ,board of ,trade1 ,chicago1 and on the exchanges of all large cities speculation rages4 ,the real transactions of those business marts are very small1 indeed1 as compared with the transactions of a speculative character4 ,on the ,new ,york ,cotton ,exchange the speculative trades in 8futures0 are thirty times more than the cotton sales4 ,on the ,chicago ,board of ,trade the speculative trades in 8futures0 are fifteen times more than the sales of grain and provisions1 and so of the exchanges of all other large cities4 ,to support these speculative operations fresh money is required to be constantly poured into the pool1 and it is drawn from every class in the community4 ,very little of the 8fresh money0 is ever returned4 ,most of it remains in the hands of the pool managers1 of those whose profession it is to manipulate the markets4 ,thus the fever of speculation extends from centre to circumference of the country1 stimulating bad passions1 creating distaste for labor1 relieving the countryman of his surplus1 and increasing the already overgrown fortune of the city operator4 ,a writer on current topics1 discussing this subject1 says1 8,put your finger on one of our great fortunes1 and nine times out of ten you will feel underneath it the cold heart of some one who has mined on the ,san ,francisco ,stock ,exchange1 or packed pork on the ,chicago ,board of ,trade1 or built railroads in ,wall ,street40#ig #ig 8,america does not now suffer from this cause standing armies1 but nowhere in the world have colossal fortunes1 rabid speculation1 and great monopolies reached so portentous a magnitude1 or exerted so pernicious an influence40--8,bad ,times10 p4 #hj4 ,by ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 ,,ll4,d4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co14 #ahhe4 ,a sufficient number of the salient features of ,american civilization have been brought under review to show that the new continent has not borne new social fruits4 ,under extremely favorable physical conditions--a country of vast resources1 a wide range of climates1 and a soil of great fertility--we planted old social forces1 and old social evils are in process of rapid development4 ,we are transplanted ,europeans1 controlled by ,european mental and moral habitudes4 ,and the virile force1 evoked by the splendid physical opportunities of a vast new country1 so intensifies the struggle for wealth and power1 that ,european social abuses are not only reproduced1 but sometimes exaggerated in this land of boasted equal political rights4 ,but notwithstanding the fact that social tendencies in ,america seem to be similar to those of ,europe1 it is upon ,america alone that the eyes of mankind rest with an expression of ardent hopefulness4 ,nor is this hope destitute of a basis of rationality4 ,it is in the ,united ,states1 for the first time in all the ages1 that a good reason can be given for indulging the sentiment of patriotism4 ,love of country here is a due appreciation of the value of the right of suffrage4 ,the private soldier who goes forth to fight the battles of the ,united ,states is a man and citizen1 and upon his return from the field he may1 with the ballot1 devote to the education of his children a share of the estate of the army contractor who amassed a fortune while he defended the country4 ,all the property in the ,united ,states1 whether honestly or dishonestly acquired1 is subject to the order of the ballot of the citizen4 ,it may be taken for war purposes1 and it may be taken for educational purposes4 ,in the universality of the right of suffrage lies the power of correcting all social evils4 ,it is through the right of suffrage that the wrongs inflicted upon a too patient people by corrupt and ignorant legislation may be ultimately righted4 ,by the suffrages of the people the tax bill is voted2 and it is through the tax bill that the vast estates of corporations and individuals1 whether obtained by dishonest practices or not1 may be made to contribute to the thorough education of all the children of the country4 ,and it is through the sentiment of patriotism thus inspired that the right of universal suffrage in the ,united ,states is destined to preservation forever4 ,the late proposition to limit suffrage in the city of ,new ,york is explainable only on the theory put forth in this chapter1 that our civilization is the product of ,european ideas--that we are ,europeans in disguise4 ,on any other hypothesis it would be amazing4 ,it is even now sufficiently startling that the proposition to restrict suffrage should precede the proposition to make education universal by making it compulsory1 and to purge it of its glaring defects4 ,every attempt to restrict the right of suffrage in the ,united ,states will1 however1 fail4 ,the right of self-government can be taken from the ,american people only by force4 ,the ,american citizen will not vote away his right to vote1 as the careless ,greek sold his freedom1 and as the ,chinaman sells his life4 ,that ,american social abuses do not spring from free suffrage is evident1 because similar abuses exist in countries where the masses have little or no share in the government4 ,social evils are the product of defective education4 ,so long as ,european educational methods prevail in this country1 so long ,european social abuses will characterize our civilization4 ,our education is scant in quantity and poor in quality2 hence the standard of the suffrage is lowered by the presence of ignorance and depravity4 ,but when the suffrage shall be better informed1 it will be more honest2 and when it shall have become more honest and more intelligent1 it will have gained the power to grapple with social abuses4 ,such examination of history as we have been able to make fails to disclose any radical change in educational methods for three thousand years4 ,the charge of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer against the schools of ,england1 to wit1 8,that which our school courses leave almost entirely out we thus find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of life0--this charge applies with almost as much force to the schools of the ,united ,states as to the ,greek and ,roman schools of rhetoric and logic4 ,bacon's aphorism--8,education is the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things0--is two hundred and fifty years old1 but it has as yet exerted scarcely an appreciable influence upon the methods of our public schools4 ,we still reverse the natural order of investigation proceeding from the abstract to the concrete1 thus lumbering the mind of the student with trash which must be removed as a preliminary to the first step in the real work of education4 ,we still impart a knowledge of words instead of a knowledge of things2 we still ignore art1 notwithstanding the fact that it is through art alone that education touches human life4 ,we still inculcate contempt of labor1 and teach the student how to 8make his way in the world0 by his wits1 rather than by giving an equivalent for what he shall receive2 and1 worst of all1 we continue1 through subjective processes of thought1 to charge the mind with selfishness1 the essence of depravity4 ,meantime1 social problems press for a solution1 a solution here and now4 ,our social problems cannot be settled as those of ,europe have been1 for two hundred years1 by emigration4 ,we have no ,columbus1 and if we had such an explorer1 there is no new hemisphere for him to discover4 ,the lesson of all history is1 that selfish people cannot dwell together in unity4 ,the struggle to secure more than a fair share of the products of the labor of all is sure to end in a quarrel2 the quarrel ends in a revolution1 and the revolution1 under the glare of flames1 drowns in blood the records of civilization4 ,but in ,america the man must live with his fellows4 ,as ,mr4 ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd well says1 in 8,lords of ,industry10 8,our young men can no longer go ,west2 they must go up or down4 ,not new land1 but new virtue must be the outlet for the future4 ,our halt at the shores of the ,pacific is a much more serious affair than that which brought our ancestors to a pause before the barriers of the ,atlantic1 and compelled them to practise living together for a few hundred years4 ,we cannot hereafter1 as in the past1 recover freedom by going to the prairies2 we must find it in the society of the good40 #ih #ih ,north ,american ,review1 ,june1 #ahhd1 p4 #eeb4 ,if we are to find freedom only in the society of the good1 we must create such a society--a society free from selfishness2 for to the stability of society public spirit is essential1 and with a pure public spirit selfishness is at war4 ,hence1 in a system of education like the prevailing one1 which promotes selfishness1 the germs of social disintegration are present1 and1 from the beginning1 the end may with absolute certainty be predicted4 ,it follows that any hope of social reform is wholly irrational that does not spring from the postulate of a complete educational revolution4 ,e#cj ,the speculative habit has so debauched public sentiment in ,england and ,america that distinguished authors hesitate not to give free expression to a feeling of contempt for the ancients because of their failure to engage in colossal swindling operations1 as witness the following3 8,the charges of fraud in the ,attic courts1 which are many1 are of the vulgarest and simplest kind1 depending upon violence1 on false swearing1 and upon evading judgment by legal devices4 ,there is not a single case of any large or complicated swindling1 such as is exhibited by the genius of modern ,english and ,american speculators4 ,there is not even such ingenuity as was shown by ,verres in his government of ,sicily to be found among the clever ,athenians40--8,social ,life in ,greece10 p4 #djh4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy1 ,f4,t4,c4,d4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahhc4 ,e#ca 8,on all hands of us1 there is the announcement1 audible enough1 that the ,old ,empire of ,routine has ended2 that to say a thing has long been1 is no reason for its continuing to be4 ,the things which have been are fallen into decay1 are fallen into incompetence2 large masses of mankind1 in every society of our ,europe1 are no longer capable of living at all by the things which have been4 ,when millions of men can no longer by their utmost exertion gain food for themselves1 and #8the third man for thirty-six weeks each year is short of third-rate potatoes1' the things which have been must decidedly prepare to alter themselves60--8,lectures on ,heroes10 p4 #aeg4 ,by ,thomas ,carlyle4 ,chapman ,hall's ,people's ,edition4 8,change the sources of a river1 and you will change it throughout its whole course2 change the education of a people1 and you will alter their character and their manners30--8,studies of ,nature10 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ege4 ,by ,bernardin ,st4 ,pierre4 ,london3 ,henry ,g4 ,bohn1 #ahdf4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,manual ,,element ,,in ,,education ,,in #ahhd4 ,the ,kindergarten and the ,manual ,training ,school one in ,principle4 -- ,russia solved the ,problem of ,tool ,instruction by ,laboratory ,processes4 -- ,the ,initiatory ,step by ,m4 ,victor ,della-,vos1 ,director of the ,imperial ,technical ,school of ,moscow in #ahfh4 -- ,statement of ,director ,della-,vos as to the ,origin1 ,progress1 and ,results of the ,new ,system of ,training4 -- ,its ,introduction into all the ,technical ,schools of ,russia4 -- ,dr4 ,john ,d4 ,runkle1 ,president of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 recommends the ,russian ,system in #ahgf1 and it is adopted4 -- ,statement of ,dr4 ,runkle as to how he was led to the adoption of the ,russian ,system4 -- ,dr4 ,woodward1 of ,washington ,university1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 establishes the second ,school in this ,country4 -- ,his ,historical ,note in the ,prospectus of #ahhb-hc4 -- ,first ,class graduated #ahhc4 -- ,manual ,training in the ,agricultural ,colleges -- ,in ,boston1 in ,new ,haven1 in ,baltimore1 in ,san ,francisco1 and other places4 -- ,manual ,training at the ,meeting of the ,national ,educational ,association1 #ahhd4 -- ,kindergarten and ,manual ,training ,exhibits4 -- ,prof4 ,felix ,adler's ,school in ,new ,york ,city -- the most ,comprehensive ,school in the ,world4 -- ,the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school the first ,independent ,institution of the ,kind -- its ,inception2 its ,incorporation2 its ,opening4 ,its ,director1 ,dr4 ,belfield4 -- ,his ,inaugural ,address4 -- ,manual ,training in the ,public ,schools of ,philadelphia4 -- ,manual ,training in twenty-four ,states4 -- ,revolutionizing a ,texas ,college4 -- ,local ,option ,law in ,massachusetts4 -- ,department of ,domestic ,economy in the ,iowa ,agricultural ,college4 -- ,manual ,training in ,tennessee1 in the ,university of ,michigan1 in the ,national ,educational ,association1 in ,ohio4 -- ,the ,toledo ,school for both ,sexes4 -- ,the ,importance of the ,education of ,woman4 -- ,the ,sljd ,schools of ,europe4 ,the principle of the manual training school exists in the kindergarten1 and for that principle we are indebted directly to ,froebel1 and indirectly to ,pestalozzi1 ,comenius1 ,rousseau1 and ,bacon4 ,but it was reserved for ,russia to solve the problem of tool instruction by the laboratory process1 and make it the foundation of a great reform in education4 ,the initiatory step was taken in #ahfh by ,m4 ,victor ,della-,vos1 ,director of the ,imperial ,technical ,school of ,moscow4 ,the following statement is extracted from the account given by ,director ,della-,vos of the exhibit of the ,moscow school at ,philadelphia 7,centennial of #ahgf71 and at the ,paris ,exposition in #ahgh1 as best showing the inception of the new education3 ,illustration3 ,m4 ,,victor ,,della-,,vos1 ,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,russia4 8,in #ahfh the school council considered it indispensable1 in order to secure the systematical teaching of elementary practical work1 as well as for the more convenient supervision of the pupils while practically employed1 to separate entirely the school workshops from the mechanical works in which the orders from private individuals are executed1 admitting pupils to the latter only when they have perfectly acquired the principles of practical labor4 8,by the separation alone of the school workshops from the mechanical works1 the principal aim was1 however1 far from being attained4 ,it was found necessary to work out such a method of teaching the elementary principles of mechanical art as1 firstly1 should demand the least possible length of time for their acquirement2 secondly1 should increase the facility of the supervision of the graded employment of the pupils2 thirdly1 should impart to the study of practical work the character of a sound systematical acquirement of knowledge2 and fourthly and lastly1 should facilitate the demonstration of the progress of every pupil at every stated time4 ,everybody is well aware that the successful study of any art whatsoever1 free-hand or linear drawing1 music1 singing1 painting1 etc41 is only attainable when the first attempts at any of them are strictly subject to the laws of gradation and successiveness1 when every student adheres to a definite method or school1 surmounting little by little1 and by certain degrees1 the difficulties encountered4 8,all those arts which we have just named possess a method of study which has been well worked out and defined1 because1 since they have long constituted a part of the education of the well-instructed classes of people1 they could not but become subject to scientific analysis1 could not but become the objects of investigation1 with a view of defining those conditions which might render the study of them as easy and well regulated as possible4 8,if we except the attempts made in ,france in the year #ahfg by the celebrated and learned mechanical engineer1 ,a4 ,cler1 to form a collection of models for the practical study of the principal methods of forging and welding iron and steel1 as well as the chief parts of joiners' work1 and this with a purely demonstrative aim1 no one1 as far as we are aware1 has hitherto been actively engaged in the working out of this question in its application to the study of hand labor in workshops4 ,to the ,imperial ,technical ,school belongs the initiative in the introduction of a systematical method of teaching the arts of turning1 carpentering1 fitting1 and forging4 8,to the knowledge and experience in these specialties1 of the gentlemen intrusted with the management of the school workshops1 and to their warm sympathy in the matter of practical education1 we are indebted for the drawing up of the programme of systematical instruction in the mechanical arts1 its introduction in the year #ahfh into the workshops1 and also for the preparation of the necessary auxiliaries to study4 ,in the year #ahgj1 at the exhibition of manufactures at ,st4 ,petersburg1 the school exhibited its methods of teaching mechanical arts1 and from that time they have been common to all the technical schools of ,russia4 8,and now 7#ahgh7 we present our system of instruction1 not as a project1 but as an accomplished fact1 confirmed by the long experience of ten years of success in its results40 ,for the introduction of the manual element in education to the ,united ,states we are indebted to the intellectual acumen of ,dr4 ,john ,d4 ,runkle1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,walker ,professor of ,mathematics1 ,institute of ,technology1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,in #ahgf ,doctor ,runkle was ,president of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,in his official report for that year he gave an exhaustive exposition of the ,russian system1 in the course of which he said1 8,we went to ,philadelphia1 therefore1 earnestly seeking for light in this as well as in all other directions1 and this special report is now made to ask your attention to a fundamental1 and1 as ,i think1 complete solution of this most important problem of practical mechanism for engineers4 ,the question is simply this1 ,can a system of shop-work instruction be devised of sufficient range and quality which will not consume more time than ought to be spared from the indispensable studies8 8,this question has been answered triumphantly in the affirmative1 and the answer comes from ,russia4 ,it gives me the greatest pleasure to call your attention to the exhibit made by the ,imperial ,technical ,schools of ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow1 consisting entirely of collections of tools and samples of shop-work by students1 illustrating the system which has made these magnificent results possible40 ,in conclusion ,doctor ,runkle made the following earnest recommendation3 8,in the light of the experience which ,russia brings us1 not only in the form of a proposed system1 but proved by several years of experience in more than a single school1 it seems to me that the duty of the ,institute is plain4 ,we should1 without delay1 complete our course in ,mechanical ,engineering by adding a series of instruction shops1 which ,i earnestly recommend40 ,in accordance with this recommendation the 8new school of ,mechanic ,arts0 was created1 and made part of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,in his report for #ahgg ,doctor ,runkle said1 8,the plan announced in my last report1 of building a series of shops laboratories in which to teach the students in the department of ,mechanical ,engineering and others the use of tools1 and the fundamental steps in the art of construction1 in accordance with the ,russian system1 as exhibited at ,philadelphia in #ahgf1 has been carried steadily forward1 and ,i have now the pleasure of announcing its near completion40 ,reference is also made in the same report to the action of the trustees of the ,institute in acknowledging the reception of certain models illustrating the system of ,mechanic ,art education1 presented by the government of ,russia1 as follows3 8,at a meeting of the ,corporation of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 held ,november #bj1 #ahgg1 a communication from his ,excellency1 ,hon4 ,george ,h4 ,boker1 ,american ,minister at ,st4 ,petersburg1 was read1 announcing the gift to this ,institute of eight cases of models1 illustrating the system of ,mechanic ,art education1 as devised and so successfully applied at the ,imperial ,technical ,school of ,moscow4 ,the undersigned have been charged with the agreeable duty of transmitting to his ,imperial ,highness the following resolutions3 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,john ,d4 ,,runkle1 ,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 8,resolved1 ,that the ,corporation of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology takes this opportunity to cordially congratulate his ,imperial ,highness1 ,prince ,pierre d',oldenbourg1 that1 at the ,imperial ,technical ,school of ,moscow1 education in the ,mechanic ,arts has been for the first time based upon philosophical and purely educational grounds1 fully justifying for it the title of the #8,russian system4' 8,resolved1 ,that this ,corporation hereby tenders its grateful thanks to his ,imperial ,highness for his most valuable gift1 with the assurance that these models will be of the greatest aid in promoting ,mechanic ,art education not only in the ,school of this ,institute1 but in all similar schools throughout the ,united ,states40 ,appreciating the value of the services rendered to the cause of the new education by ,dr4 ,runkle1 in introducing to the schools of the ,united ,states tool practice by laboratory methods1 and desiring to inform the public of the course of thought which led to results so important1 the author addressed him on the subject4 ,his reply1 under date of ,may #bb1 #ahhd1 is in substance as follows3 8,from the first the course in ,mechanical ,engineering has been an important one in the ,institute of ,technology4 ,a few students came with a knowledge of shop-work1 and had a clear field open to them on graduation1 but the larger number found it difficult to enter upon their professional work without first taking one or two years of apprenticeship4 ,this always seemed to me a fault in the education1 and yet ,i did not see the way to remedy it without building up manufacturing works in connection with the school--a step which ,i knew to be an inversion of a true educational method4 8,at ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf1 almost the first thing ,i saw was a small case containing three series of models--one of chipping and filing1 one of forging1 and one of machine-tool work4 ,i saw at once that they were not parts of machines1 but simply graded models for teaching the manipulations in those arts4 ,in an instant the problem ,i had been seeking to solve was clear to my mind2 a plain distinction between a ,mechanic ,art and its application in some special trade became apparent4 8,my first work was to build up at the ,institute a series of ,mechanic ,art shops1 or laboratories1 to teach these arts1 just as we teach chemistry and physics by the same means4 ,at the same time ,i believed that this discipline could be made a part of general education1 just as we make the sciences available for the same end through laboratory instruction4 8,all teaching has in an important sense a double purpose3 first1 the cultivation of the powers of the individual1 and second1 the pursuit of similar subjects1 by substantially the same means1 as a professional end4 ,now we use our shops laboratories both for educational and professional ends4444 ,in brief1 we teach the mechanic arts by laboratory methods1 and the student applies the special skill and knowledge acquired1 or not1 as circumstances or his inclinations dictate40 ,the second manual training school in this country was founded as a department of ,washington ,university1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 by ,dr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,woodward4 ,in a paper read before the ,st4 ,louis ,social ,science ,association1 ,may #af1 #ahgh1 ,dr4 ,woodward discussed the subject of education both philosophically and practically4 ,in the course of his address he gave a full account of the ,russian system of manual training as expounded by ,dr4 ,runkle1 endorsed it1 and recommended it to the people of ,st4 ,louis as the true method of education in the following pregnant sentence3 8,the manual education which begins in the kindergarten1 before the children are able to read a word1 should never cease40#ii #ii ,the pressing problem of the time in methods of practical education is to devise suitable manual exercises for the school period embraced in the interim between the end of the kindergarten series of lessons and the beginning of the series of laboratory exercises described in this work--the grammar-school period--for children of both sexes from six to fourteen years of age4 ,in the same paper ,dr4 ,woodward thus modestly describes the beginning of the school which is now one of the most highly-esteemed educational institutions of ,st4 ,louis3 8,with the aid of our stanch friend1 ,mr4 ,gottlieb ,conzelman1 we fitted up during last summer a wood-working shop1 with work-benches and vises for eighteen students2 a second shop for vise-work upon metals and for machine-work2 and a third with a single outfit of blacksmith's tools4 ,during the last few months systematic instruction has been given to different classes in all these shops4 ,special attention has been paid to the use of wood-working hand-tools1 to wood-turning1 and to filing40 ,these tentative steps promoted a healthy public sentiment1 and attracted the attention of several wealthy men1 who in #ahgi contributed the funds for the permanent foundation of the school4 ,the prospectus for the year #ahhb-hc contains the following 8historical note10 which shows great progress3 8,the ordinance establishing the ,manual ,training ,school was adopted by the ,board of ,directors of the ,university1 ,june #f1 #ahgi4 8,the lot was purchased and the building begun in ,august of the same year4 ,in the ,november following a prospectus of the school was published4 ,in ,june1 #ahhj1 the building being partially equipped1 was opened for public inspection1 and a class of boys was examined for admission4 ,on ,september #f1 #ahhj1 the school began with a single class of about fifty pupils4 ,the whole number enrolled during the year was sixty-seven4 ,a public exhibition of drawing and shop-work was given ,june #af1 #ahha4 8,the second year of the school opened ,september #ab1 #ahha1 and closed ,june #ad1 #ahhb4 ,there were two classes1 sixty-one pupils belonging to the first year1 and forty-six to the second year1 making one hundred and seven in all4 ,of the second-year class1 forty-two had attended the school the previous year4 8,the third year of the school will open on ,september #aath1 when three classes will be present4 8,the large addition now in progress 7,june1 #ahhb7 is to be completed and furnished by the day set for the examination of candidates for admission1 ,september #hth4 ,the number of pupils in the new first-year class is to be limited to one hundred4 ,nearly one-half of that number have already been received40 ,the capacity of the school since the completion of the 8addition0 alluded to in the 8historical note0 is two hundred and forty students4 ,the first class was graduated in ,june1 #ahhc2 the second class in ,june1 #ahhd4 ,the establishment of this excellent school is due first to the energy and educational foresight of ,dr4 ,woodward1 and second1 to the munificent money donations of three citizens of ,st4 ,louis--,mr4 ,edwin ,harrison1 ,mr4 ,samuel ,cupples1 and ,mr4 ,gottlieb ,conzelman4 ,other citizens emulated their noble example1 and the result was a sufficient fund for the support of the school1 whose purpose is to demonstrate the practicability of uniting manual and mental instruction in the public schools of ,st4 ,louis and of the country4 ,with a single further quotation from the prospectus of the second great manual training school in the ,united ,states1 on the subject of labor1 we close this too brief notice3 8,one great object of the school is to foster a higher appreciation of the value and dignity of intelligent labor1 and the worth and respectability of laboring men4 ,a boy who sees nothing in manual labor but mere brute force despises both labor and the laborer4 ,with the acquisition of skill in himself comes the ability and willingness to recognize skill in his fellows4 ,when once he appreciates skill in handicraft1 he regards the workman with sympathy and respect40 ,considerable progress in manual training has been made in the ,state agricultural colleges of the country4 ,in twelve of these colleges drawing and tool practice have been introduced4 ,generally the tool practice covers pattern-making1 blacksmithing1 moulding and founding1 forging and bench-work1 and machine-tool work in iron4 ,the most pronounced success has been achieved at ,purdue ,university1 ,lafayette1 ,ind41 under the directorship of ,prof4 ,wm4 ,f4 ,m4 ,goss1 who graduated from the school of ,mechanic ,arts of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology in #ahgi4 ,manual training in connection with the public-school system of education has been inaugurated in ,boston and ,milford1 ,mass42 ,new ,haven1 and the ,state ,normal ,school1 ,new ,britain1 ,conn42 ,omaha1 ,neb42#ajj ,eau ,claire1 ,wis42#aja ,moline1 ,peru1 and the ,cook ,county ,normal ,school1 ,normal ,park1 ,ill42 ,montclair1 ,n4 ,j42 ,cleveland and ,barnesville1 ,ohio2 ,san ,francisco1 ,cal42 and ,baltimore1 ,md4 #ajj ,in charge of ,albert ,m4 ,bumann1 ,b4,s41 graduate of the ,st4 ,louis ,manual ,training ,school1 class of #ahhe4 #aja ,in charge of ,william ,f4 ,barnes1 ,b4,s41 graduate of the ,st4 ,louis ,manual ,training ,school1 class of #ahhe4 ,on the occasion of the annual meeting of #ahhd of the ,national ,educational ,association of the ,united ,states1 at ,madison1 ,wis41 manual training received a very large share of the attention of educators4 ,very creditable exhibits of various manipulations in wood1 iron1 and steel were made by the following institutions1 namely1 the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 ,purdue ,university1 the ,st4 ,louis ,manual ,training ,school1 the ,illinois ,industrial ,university1 the ,university of ,wisconsin1 and the ,spring ,garden ,institute of ,philadelphia4 ,there were also about thirty kindergarten exhibits1 and a large number of exhibits of specimens of drawing from public schools in various parts of the country4 ,prof4 ,felix ,adler's educational enterprise in the city of ,new ,york--,the ,workingman's ,school and ,free ,kindergarten--is unique in this that1 while it is entirely a work of charity1 it is the most comprehensive educational institution in existence1 as appears from the following description of its course of instruction3 8,the ,workingman's ,school and ,free ,kindergarten form one institution4 ,the children are admitted at the age of three to the kindergarten4 ,they are graduated from it at six1 and enter the workingman's school4 ,they remain in the school till they are thirteen or fourteen years of age4 ,thereafter those who show decided ability receive higher technical instruction4 ,for the others who leave the school proper and are sent to work1 a series of evening classes will be opened1 in which their industrial and general education will be continued in various directions4 ,this graduate course of the workingman's school is intended to extend up to the eighteenth or twenty-first year4 8,from the third year up to manhood and womanhood--such10 says ,prof4 ,adler1 8is the scope embraced by the purposes of our institution60 ,the following extracts from a late report of the principal of the school1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,bamberger1 on its 8purposes10 show that they are identical with those of the so-called manual training school1 and also that its methods are similar3 8,we1 therefore1 have undertaken to institute a reform in education in the following two ways3 ,we begin industrial instruction at the very earliest age possible4 ,already in our kindergarten we lay the foundation for the system of work instruction that is to follow4 ,in the school proper1 then1 we seek to bridge over the interval lying between the preparatory kindergarten training and the specialized instruction of the technical school1 utilizing the school age itself for the development of industrial ability4 ,this1 however1 is only one characteristic feature of our institution4 ,the other1 and the capital one1 is1 that we seek to combine industrial instruction organically with the ordinary branches of instruction1 thus using it not only for the material purpose of creating skill1 but also ideally as a factor of mind-education4 ,to our knowledge1 such an application of work instruction has nowhere as yet been attempted1 either abroad or in this country4444 8,in the teaching of history to these young children we hold it essential that the teacher should be entirely independent of any text-book1 and able to freely handle the vast material at his disposal1 and to draw from it1 as from an endless storehouse1 with fixed and definite purpose4 ,we attach even greater importance to the moral than to the intellectual significance of history4 ,the benefits which the understanding1 the memory1 and the imagination derive from the study of history are not small4 ,but history1 considered as a realm of actions1 can be made especially fruitful of sound influence upon the active1 moral side of human nature4 ,the moral judgment is strengthened by a knowledge of the evolution of mankind in good and evil4 ,the moral feelings are purified by abhorrence of the vices of the past1 and by admiration of examples of greatness and virtue4 ,text-books are not to be discarded1 but their choice is a matter of great difficulty4 ,thus1 all books in which historical instruction is given in the shape of printed questions and answers are highly objectionable4 ,they are convenient bridges which lead to nothing40 ,the following extract from a late report of ,prof4 ,adler shows the purpose of the establishment of what he calls the 8model school0 to be identical with that of the projectors of the ,st4 ,louis and ,chicago manual training schools1 namely1 the ultimate adoption by the public schools of the country of a far more rational system of instruction than that which at present prevails4 ,he says1 8,it seemed to us1 therefore1 far more necessary1 far more calculated to really advance the public good1 that one model school should be erected in which the entire system of rational and liberal education for the children of the poorer class might be exhibited from beginning to end4 ,we ventured to hope that such an example1 having once been set1 would not be without effect upon the common-school system at large1 and that the extension of our work would proceed by the natural course of the #8survival of what is fittest4' ,it was decided1 therefore1 that the twenty-five graduates from the kindergarten should be invited to remain with us1 that a complete school should be instituted1 and that a teacher should be at once appointed to take in hand the instruction of the lowest class4 ,the munificence of ,mr4 ,joseph ,seligman1 to whose name we cannot refer without gratitude and respect1 at this stage enabled us to go on with our undertaking1 when the dearth of funds would otherwise have compelled us to wait1 or perhaps desist altogether4 ,his timely gift of ten thousand dollars was the means of starting the school1 and on this as well as on other accounts his memory deserves to be cherished by those who cherish the educational interests of the people40 ,the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school is the only independent educational institution of the kind in the world4 ,all the schools of this character to which reference has been made in this chapter are departments of colleges or institutes of technology4 ,the ,chicago school is unique in another respect3 it owes its origin entirely to laymen4 ,professional educators labored long and earnestly to found the schools we have described1 but the ,chicago school was inspired by men unknown in the field of educational enterprise1 advocated by a secular daily journal1 and established by an association of merchants1 manufacturers1 and bankers4 ,for many years the ,chicago ,tribune had very freely and severely criticised the educational methods of the public schools4 ,early in the year #ahha its editorial columns were opened to the author of this work1 who began and continued1 therein1 the advocacy of the establishment of a manual training school in ,chicago1 as a tentative step towards the incorporation in the curriculum of the public schools1 of more practical methods of instruction4 ,the editorial advocacy of the ,tribune was continued for twelve months1 articles appearing about once a week1 without apparent effect beyond provoking a controversy with certain professional educators1 who attacked the positions assumed by the ,tribune4 ,but a public sentiment had been created on the subject1 and the ,commercial ,club was destined soon to embody that sentiment in action4 ,at its regular monthly meeting1 ,march #be1 #ahhb1 the subject of reform in methods of education was discussed by members of the club1 and by men invited to be present for that purpose2 the establishment of a school was resolved upon1 and #ajj1jjj pledged for its support4 ,the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association was incorporated ,april #aa1 #ahhc2 the corner-stone of its building was laid ,september #bd1 #ahhc2 and the sessions of the school commenced on the #dth of ,february1 #ahhd1 with a class of seventy-two students1 8selected by examination from one hundred and thirty applicants1 under the directorship of ,henry ,h4 ,belfield1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d40 ,the ,board of ,trustees consists of ,e4 ,w4 ,blatchford1 president2 ,r4 ,t4 ,crane1 vice-president2 ,marshall ,field1 treasurer2 ,william ,a4 ,fuller1 secretary2 ,john ,crerar1 ,john ,w4 ,doane1 ,n4 ,k4 ,fairbank1 ,edson ,keith1 and ,george ,m4 ,pullman4 ,the object of the school is stated in the articles of incorporation as follows3 8,instruction and practice in the use of tools1 with such instruction as may be deemed necessary in mathematics1 drawing1 and the ,english branches of a high-school course4 ,the tool instruction as at present contemplated shall include carpentry1 wood-turning1 pattern-making1 iron chipping and filing1 forge-work1 brazing and soldering1 the use of machine-shop tools1 and such other instruction of a similar character as may be deemed advisable to add to the foregoing from time to time1 it being the intention to divide the working hours of the students1 as nearly as possible1 equally between manual and mental exercises40 ,from the first annual catalogue1 under the title 8,building and ,equipment10 we extract the following3 8,the school building is beautifully located on ,michigan ,avenue1 and contains ample accommodations1 in rooms for study and work1 for several hundred pupils4 8,the equipment in the mechanical department consists mainly1 at present1 of twenty-four cabinet-makers' benches2 bench and lathe tools of the best quality for seventy-two boys2 twenty-four speed lathes1 twelve-inch swing1 thirty inches between centres2 a fifty-two horse-power ,corliss engine1 twelve-inch cylinder1 thirty-six inch stroke2 two tubular boilers1 forty inches in diameter1 fourteen feet long4 ,the ,corliss engine1 boilers1 and lathes were made especially for the school4 8,a very valuable scientific library of nearly five hundred volumes1 the property of the ,american ,electrical ,society1 has been placed in the school4 ,to this library1 which is particularly rich in works pertaining to electricity and chemistry1 but which contains also cyclopedias1 dictionaries1 and other works of reference1 the pupils have access4 8,the ,blatchford ,literary ,society1 an organization of pupils for improvement in composition1 debate1 etc41 has lately had a handsome donation of money for the purchase of books to be placed in their alcove in the school library4 ,several periodicals are regularly placed on the library tables through the generosity of the publishers4 8,by the kindness of ,dr4 ,wm4 ,f4 ,poole1 librarian1 pupils are able to obtain books from the ,chicago ,public ,library on unusually favorable conditions40 ,thus the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 a practical school1 a school of instruction in things1 a school after ,bacon's 8own heart10 sprang from the brains of a number of plain1 practical business men1 full-armed1 as ,minerva from the brain of ,jupiter4 ,the ,trustees were fortunate in securing ,dr4 ,belfield for the directorship of the school4 ,before the introduction of the new education to this country1 eleven years ago1 while ,russia was struggling with the problem of tool practice by the laboratory method1 ,dr4 ,belfield urged the need of manual training in the public schools of ,chicago1 in which he was a teacher4 ,he was met with derision2 but the president of the ,board of ,education of ,chicago and the superintendent of schools are now advocates of the new system of training4 ,in conclusion we present the following extracts from the inaugural address of ,dr4 ,belfield1 delivered before the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 ,june #ai1 #ahhd1 as embodying the results of his experience and observation as to the value of the new system of training3 8,the distinctive feature of the manual training school is the education of the mind1 and of the hand as the agent of the mind4 ,the time of the pupil in school is about equally divided between the study of books and the study of things2 between the academic work on the one hand1 and the drawing and shop-work on the other4 ,observe1 ,i do not say between school-work and shop-work1 for the shop is as much a school as is any other part of the establishment4 ,nor do ,i mean that the shop gives an education of the hand alone1 and the class-room an education of the brain2 but ,i mean that the shop educates hand and brain4 ,that the hand is educated ,i need not stop to prove2 but the shop educates the mind also4 8,had you been in the wood-working room of this school a few hours ago1 what would you have seen8 ,twenty-four boys at work at lathes driven by a powerful engine4 ,are any idle8 ,no4 ,are any inattentive to their work8 ,no2 you notice the closest and most earnest attention1 frequently approaching abstraction4 ,here1 then1 is the cultivation of a most important faculty of the mind1 attention1 the power of concentration2 and it is worthy of remark that this attention is not an enforced attention1 but is cheerful1 voluntary1 and unremitting4 8,the young workman is engaged on a problem in wood1 just as1 a few hours earlier1 he was engaged on a problem in algebra4 ,he has before him a drawing made to a scale4 ,the problem is this3 ,he must gain a clear conception of the object represented by the drawing2 he must imagine it2 he must select or cut a block of wood of the proper dimensions and of the right quality4 ,it must not be too large1 for he must guard against waste of material and waste of time4 ,it must be large enough1 for there must be no incompleteness about the finished product of his labor4 ,observe him as the work grows under his hand2 observe the selecting of the proper tools for the different parts of the process2 observe the careful measuring1 the watchful eye upon the position of the chisel1 the speed of the lathe1 the gradual approach of the once rectangular block to the model which exists in his brain--and you must admit that this work demands and develops1 not manual dexterity alone1 but attention1 observation1 imagination1 judgment1 reasoning4444 8,my own opinion is that an hour in the shop of a well-conducted manual training school develops as much mental strength as an hour devoted to ,virgil or ,legendre4444 8,but of this ,i am confident1 that three years of a manual training school will give at least as much purely intellectual growth as three years of the ordinary high school1 because1 as has been said1 every school hour1 whether spent in the class-room1 the drawing-room1 or in the shop1 is an hour devoted to intellectual training4 ,and ,i am also convinced that the manual training school boy's comprehension of some essential branches of knowledge will be as far superior to that of the other boy's1 as the realization of the grandeur and beauty of the ,alps to the man who has seen their glories is superior to the conception of him who has merely read of them4444 8,and here is the mistake of those who would degrade a manual training school into a manufacturing establishment4 ,the fact should never be lost sight of for an instant that the product of the school should be1 not the polished article of furniture1 not the perfect piece of machinery1 but the polished1 perfect boy4 ,the acquisition of industrial skill should be the means of promoting the general education of the pupil2 the education of the hand should be the means of more completely and more efficaciously educating the brain4444 8,take two boys1 one with little or no education1 the other a high-school graduate2 let them enter the machine-shop of a large manufactory1 beginning1 as boys ignorant of the technique of the trade must begin1 at the lowest round of the ladder4 ,it cannot be doubted that in three or four years the high-school graduate1 if he had been willing to do the drudgery incident to the place1 would have reached a higher position than the other boy1 and would be in a fair way to succeed to some responsible post in the establishment4 ,but the graduate of the manual training school1 by reason of his superior knowledge of machinery and materials1 his skill in the use of tools1 added to his general mental training1 would begin at the point reached by the high-school boy after his years of apprenticeship4 ,from the day of his entrance into the factory he would be conspicuous4 ,while the other boys would stand in the presence of the huge ,titan of the shop lost in the wonder of ignorance1 the manual training boy would gaze with delight on the marvel of mechanism1 wrapped in the admiration begotten of a thorough understanding of its construction1 and strong in the consciousness of his mastery of it40 ,manual training was introduced in the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college1 experimentally1 about three years ago4 ,in #ahhc the course was 8greatly extended10 and in ,september1 #ahhd1 it went into full operation4 ,the course is substantially the same as that of the ,chicago school2 and that it was the outgrowth of the ,russian system1 and inspired by ,dr4 ,runkle1 is shown by the following extract from a circular lately issued by ,prof4 ,louis ,e4 ,reber3 8,some may think that the variety of operations in the mechanic arts is so great as to make it impossible to give the student any real knowledge in the time at his disposal4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that this multiplicity of processes may be reduced to a small number of manual operations1 and the numerous tools employed are only modifications of1 or convenient substitutes for1 a few tools which are in general use40 ,a course in tool practice by the laboratory method has been made part of the curriculum of the ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york4#ajb ,i am permitted to make an extract from a letter written in ,august last by ,alfred ,g4 ,compton1 ,professor of ,applied ,mathematics of the ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york1 to ,dr4 ,runkle4 ,i print this extract to show the exacting nature of the demands made upon instructors by the new education4 ,it is as follows3 #ajb 8,the first report of the ,industrial ,educational ,association of ,new ,york gives a list of thirty-one schools in that city in which industrial education is furnished40--,address of ,prof4 ,s4 ,r4 ,thompson1 ,industrial ,department of the ,national ,educational ,association1 ,saratoga ,springs1 ,n4 ,y41 ,july1 #ahhe4 8,we are anxious to find1 by the opening of our term in ,september1 a competent instructor in wood-working for our course in mechanic arts1 now in its second year4 ,he should be a good and ready draughtsman1 skilful in perspective and projections1 and ready in black-board sketching1 besides being acquainted with the use of tools1 and apt at class-teaching4 ,he will have at first #ajjj a year40 ,the lack of competent instructors is the most serious difficulty which the new education is destined to encounter4 ,the desire to adopt tool practice is so widespread among the people that educators1 whether willing or otherwise1 are compelled to attempt to gratify the demand4 ,at the same time the force of competent instructors is very small1 and the danger is that the new system of education will be brought into disrepute through the failure of its proper administration4 ,in #ahhb ,mr4 ,paul ,tulane1 of ,princeton1 ,n4 ,j41 made a large donation1 consisting of his realty in the city of ,new ,orleans1 in aid of education in the ,state of ,louisiana4 ,in #ahhd the ,university bearing its donor's name--,tulane--came into existence4 ,in the deed of donation ,mr4 ,tulane declared that by the term education he meant to 8foster such a course of intellectual development as shall be useful and of solid worth1 and not be merely ornamental or superficial40 ,hence manual training has been made a prominent feature of the institution4#ajc #ajc ,john ,m4 ,ordway1 ,a4,m41 late ,professor of ,metallurgy and ,industrial ,chemistry of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 has been called to ,new ,orleans to organize and direct the manual training department of the institution2 and he is assisted by ,charles ,a4 ,heath1 ,b4,s41 and ,everett ,e4 ,hapgood1 graduates of the ,school of ,mechanic ,arts of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,there is in operation at ,crozet1 ,va41 a manual training school called1 after its founder1 ,mr4 ,samuel ,miller1 8,the ,miller ,manual ,labor ,school20 but of the methods of training pursued at this school the author is not accurately informed4 ,girard ,college1 dedicated nearly forty years ago1 has adopted manual training4 ,in response to a letter by the author1 asking for information1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,heyward ,drayton1 of ,philadelphia1 gives the following historical sketch of the introduction and progress of tool practice by the laboratory method in that noble institution3 8,from time to time some of the directors recognized the importance of mechanical instruction1 but after one or two attempts further efforts in this direction were abandoned1 as those proved utter failures4 ,it was not until ,dr4 ,runkle1 of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 at the instance of the late ,mr4 ,william ,welsh1 then president of the ,board of ,directors of ,city ,trusts1 delivered a short address on the subject in the lecture-room of the ,franklin ,institute in this city1 that any practical mode of introducing this branch of study into the college was presented4 8444 ,following as nearly as possible the scheme suggested by ,dr4 ,runkle1 and aided by many suggestions from him1 in ,april1 #ahhb1 we began to instruct the larger boys to use tools in several kinds of metals4 ,we were so fortunate as to secure the services of a very competent and enthusiastic instructor1 who confined his instruction merely to teaching the use of tools1 but without any pretence of teaching any trade4 ,the result of two years' experience has been so satisfactory that our boys leave the college to go to workshops1 where they secure sufficient wages to support them at once2 and they have1 in many cases1 been found so expert that in a few months their wages have been increased4 ,we have been so encouraged by this as a substitute for apprenticing lads1 which is fast becoming impossible1 that we have just erected commodious workshops laboratories1 in which1 on the same system1 but to many more boys1 we propose to teach the use of tools in wood-work also1 as we have heretofore taught in metals4 ,to this time we have been compelled1 from want of facilities1 to confine our instruction to about one hundred and seventy-five boys4 ,we expect next month 7,october1 #ahhd7 to increase the number to three hundred--only being limited by the youth of the pupils1 many of whom are too young to permit of their handling tools40 ,manual training has been made part of the curriculum of the ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college of ,auburn1 ,ala41 and the department is under the direction of a graduate of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4#ajd #ajd ,george ,h4 ,bryant1 ,b4,s41 graduate of the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 class of #ahhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,manual training has been adopted as a branch of education in the ,denver 7,col47 ,university1 and the director of the department is a graduate of the manual training department of the ,washington ,university of ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4#aje #aje ,c4 ,h4 ,wright1 ,b4,s41 graduate of the ,st4 ,louis ,manual ,training ,school1 class of #ahhe4 ,the present year 7#ahhe7 witnesses a very important addition to the list of manual training schools--that of ,philadelphia4 ,it is not too much to say that ,mr4 ,james ,mac,alister has revolutionized the public schools of ,philadelphia in the short period of two years during which he has held the office of superintendent2 and the last wave of the revolution reveals a fully-equipped manual training school as part of the public-school system of the conservative1 grand old ,quaker city4 ,and this practical element in education is to be free to all public-school boys fourteen years of age1 who can show themselves qualified to enter1 as witness the following 8rules0 of the ,philadelphia public schools3 8,promotions to the ,manual ,training ,school shall be made at the close of the ,june term1 from the ,twelfth ,grade1 or any higher grade1 of the ,boys' ,grammar1 ,consolidated and ,combined ,schools2 but no boy shall be promoted who is under fourteen years of age4 8,it shall be the duty of the ,principals of the several ,boys' ,grammar1 ,consolidated and ,combined ,schools1 to certify to the superintendent of schools the names of all boys of the proper age who have finished the course of study in the ,twelfth ,grade1 or any higher grade1 and are desirous of promotion to the ,manual ,training ,school40 ,in calling the attention of the public to the establishment of a manual training school as part of the educational system of ,philadelphia1 a committee of the ,city ,board of ,education say1 under date of ,june #aj1 #ahhe1 8,the undersigned desire to call attention to the new manual training school to be opened in this city next ,september4 ,it is intended for boys who have finished the ,twelfth ,grade1 or any higher grade1 of the ,grammar-school course4 ,the instruction will embrace a thorough course1 so far as it goes1 in ,english1 mathematics1 free-hand and mechanical drawing1 and the fundamental sciences2 but in addition to these branches a carefully graded course of manual training will form a leading feature of the school4 ,this manual training is intended to give the boys such a knowledge of the tools and materials employed in the chief industrial pursuits of our time as shall place them in more direct and sympathetic relations with the great activities of the business world4 ,the school will make our public education not only more complete and symmetrical in character than it has been heretofore1 but it will be at the same time better adapted to enable the pupils to win their way in life4 ,no matter what future a parent may have marked out for his boy--whether he be intended for an industrial1 a mercantile1 or a professional occupation1 it is believed that such an education will be of immense advantage to him4 ,upon the industries of the world1 to a much larger extent than ever before in its history1 depend the progress1 the prosperity1 the happiness of society4 ,to prepare boys for this condition of things will be the aim of this school4 ,the entire course of instruction and training will be practical in the largest and best sense of that term4 ,the culture it gives will include the hand as well as the head1 and its graduates will be trained to work as well as to think4 ,the course will extend over a period of three years1 but it is so arranged that boys whose intended pursuits in life will not warrant spending so much time may participate in its advantages for a shorter period before entering upon other studies or a permanent occupation4 8,the ,manual ,training ,school has been organized in response to a growing sentiment respecting the character of public education which has been strongly manifested in ,philadelphia1 and the ,board of ,public ,education believe that the movement1 when fully understood1 will meet with the cordial approval of our people4 ,your careful consideration of the nature and objects which the school seeks to accomplish is respectfully solicited40 ,this act of the school authorities of the city of ,philadelphia is the strongest popular endorsement the theory of manual training as an element of education has received4 ,it commits a great city to a fair trial of the new education under the most favorable auspices--under the conduct of ,mr4 ,james ,mac,alister1 one of the most accomplished1 as well as most sternly practical educators in the ,united ,states4 ,but this is only part of a general system of manual training introduced throughout the whole course of instruction given in the public schools of ,philadelphia4 ,there are kindergartens 7sub-primaries7 for children from three to six years of age1 and an industrial art department for all the students 7of both sexes7 of the grammar schools4 ,in this latter department the course of training comprises 8drawing and design10 8modelling10 8wood-carving10 8carpentry and joinery10 and 8metal work40 ,these courses1 including manual training proper1 8at the top10 form a comprehensive system of head and hand training known as the new education4 ,mr4 ,mac,alister says1 8,the conviction is gradually obtaining among the members of the ,board of ,education of ,philadelphia1 and in the public mind1 that every child should receive manual training2 that a complete education implies the training of the hand in connection with the training of the mind2 and that this feature must ultimately be incorporated into the public education4 ,what is this but the realization of the principles which every great thinker and reformer in education has insisted upon1 from ,comenius1 ,locke1 and ,rousseau1 to ,pestalozzi1 ,froebel1 and ,spencer60#ajf #ajf ,in a letter to the author1 ,mr4 ,mac,alister re-enforces the observations quoted in the text4 ,he says1 8,i wish you to understand that all my own convictions and action in connection with this movement are based upon what in my judgment should constitute an education fitted to prepare a human being for the social conditions of to-day1 and not merely upon the industrial demands of our time4444 ,i believe there is a great future for the manual training movement in ,philadelphia4 ,i feel encouraged to go forward with the work4 ,the great principles which underlie the system are with me intense convictions2 they mean nothing less than a revolution in education4 ,the great ideas of the reformers of school training must be realized in the public schools1 or they will fail in accomplishing the ends for which they were instituted and have been maintained40 ,the rapid progress of the revolution in education is shown by the fact that manual training in some form has been adopted in certain of the schools of at least twenty-four of the ,states of the ,american ,union4 ,in some of the higher educational institutions the new education is warmly welcomed1 while in others public sentiment alone compels its adoption4 ,the ,state ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college of ,texas has been revolutionized in this way4 ,a member of the ,faculty#ajg writes as follows3 #ajg ,h4 ,h4 ,dinwiddie1 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,chairman of the ,faculty4 8,this institution was opened on the #dth of ,october1 #ahgf4 ,in spite of its name1 the conditions of its endowment1 and its avowed object1 it was founded on the plan of the old classical and mathematical college1 and had no industrial features whatever till the beginning of the year #ahhj4 ,at that time the public sentiment of the ,state had condemned so decidedly and repeatedly the misappropriation of the funds1 and perversion of the energies of the college under its administration as a literary school1 that the directors found it necessary to reorganize it by accepting the resignation of the members of the faculty without exception1 and calling in a new corps of instructors4 ,in #ahhj-ha a large dormitory building was converted into a shop laboratory4 ,this was fitted with tools for elementary instruction in wood-working for the accommodation of about fifty students4 ,a small metal-working plant was also erected1 the whole being furnished with power from a twelve-horse-power engine4 ,since that time a brick shop laboratory has been provided for the accommodation of the metal-working machinery1 which now includes the principal machines used in ordinary iron-working1 all driven by a twenty-horsepower engine40 ,massachusetts1 the cradle of the ,american common-school system1 is the first ,state to legalize by statute the new education1 placing manual training on an equal footing with mental training1 by the following act3 8,section ,i4 of ,chapter ,,xliv4 of the ,public ,statutes1 relating to the branches of instruction to be taught in public schools1 is amended by striking out in the eighth line the words #8and hygiene1' and inserting instead the words #8hygiene and the elementary use of hand-tools2' and in any city or town where such tools shall be introduced they shall be purchased by the school committee at the expense of such city or town1 and loaned to such pupils as may be allowed to use them free of charge1 subject to such rules and regulations1 as to care and custody1 as the school committee may prescribe40#ajh #ajh 8,school ,laws of ,massachusetts4 ,supplement to the ,edition of #ahhc1 containing the ,additional ,legislation to the ,close of the ,legislative ,session of #ahhe2 issued by the ,state ,board of ,education40 ,the ,legislature of ,connecticut adopted a similar statute last year 7#ahhd74 ,the ,iowa ,agricultural ,college is the first educational institution in the country to recognize the importance of instruction in the arts of home life4 ,in this college domestic economy has been elevated to the dignity of a department called the 8,school of ,domestic ,economy10 with the following 8special faculty30 ,the ,president1 ,mrs4 ,emma ,p4 ,ewing1 ,dean4 ,domestic ,economy4 ,j4 ,l4 ,budd ,horticulture and ,gardening4 ,a4 ,a4 ,bennett ,chemistry4 ,b4 ,d4 ,halsted ,botany4 ,d4 ,s4 ,fairchild ,hygiene and ,physiology4 ,laura ,m4 ,saunderson ,elocution4 ,the course of study is as follows3 ,,first ,,year4 ,first ,term4 ,second ,term4 ,domestic ,economy4 ,domestic ,economy4 ,botany4 ,physiology and ,hygiene4 ,physical ,training4 ,dress-fitting and ,millinery4 ,household ,accounts4 ,essays4 ,,second ,,year4 ,first ,term4 ,second ,term4 ,domestic ,economy4 ,domestic ,economy4 ,chemistry4 ,home ,architecture4 ,duties of the ,nurse4 ,home ,sanitation4 ,designing and ,free-hand ,drawing4 ,home sthetics and ,decorative ,art4 ,landscape and ,floral ,gardening4 ,essays and ,graduating ,thesis4 ,mrs4 ,ewing1 dean of the school1 thus states1 clearly and powerfully1 the reasons for its establishment and its purposes3 8,this school is based upon the assumption that no industry is more important to human happiness than that which makes the home2 and that a pleasant home is an essential element of broad culture1 and one of the surest safeguards of morality and virtue4 ,it was organized to meet the wants of pupils who desire a knowledge of the principles that underlie domestic economy1 and the course of study is especially arranged to furnish women instruction in applied house-keeping and the arts and sciences relating thereto--to incite them to a faithful performance of the every-day duties of life1 and to inspire them with a belief in the nobleness and dignity of a true womanhood4 8,no calling requires for its perfect mastery a greater amount of practice and theory combined than that of domestic economy1 and students1 in addition to recitations and lectures on the various topics of the course1 receive practical training in all branches of house-work1 in the purchase and care of family supplies1 and in general household management4 ,they are not1 however1 required to perform a greater amount of labor than is necessary for the desired instruction4 8,the course of study is for graduates of colleges and universities4 ,it extends through two years1 and leads to the degree of ,master of ,domestic ,economy40#aji #aji ,annual ,catalogue of the ,iowa ,agricultural ,college4 ,the ,le ,moyne ,normal ,institute of ,memphis1 ,tenn41 is a private school1 8sustained chiefly by benevolently disposed people at the ,north1 for colored youth40 ,in a letter to the author the principal of this school thus describes the manual features of its curriculum3 8,besides our ,normal work proper1 we give girls of the school two years' training in needle-work of different kinds1 one year's instruction in choice and preparation of foods1 with practice in an experimental kitchen1 and six months' training in nursing or care of the sick4 ,one hour a day is given to each of the foregoing subjects for the time indicated4 8,i am about to erect workshops for training for our boys in the use of wood-working tools1 and in iron-working and moulding--the course to comprise two years' time1 two hours per day at the benches4 ,we shall also have type-setting and printing as specialties for individual students4 ,this work will be in operation in ,january1 #ahhf40aaj #aaj ,a4 ,j4 ,steele4 ,the professor in charge of the ,mechanical ,engineering ,department of the ,university of ,michigan writes to the author as follows3 8,there can be no doubt in the mind of a sane man that this practical instruction laboratory work is exactly what is needed by our engineering students4 ,we are assured of that fact by the expression of gratification on the part of our engineering alumni to find here the very instruction which they were obliged to spend two or three years to secure after graduating4 ,we give our students work of an elementary character for a few weeks1 or until they become accustomed to tools1 when we put them to work on some part of a machine4 ,if they spoil it1 well and good--it goes into the scrap-heap2 if they succeed1 they have the pleasure of seeing a perfect machine grow up under their eyes and hand4 ,students having matured minds1 as most of ours have1 work better with a definite plan in view4 ,we always require them to work from drawings4 ,our course in forging is very popular2 and it is especially useful1 as it gives our young men that knowledge of the different kinds of iron and steel which will be of the greatest benefit to them as engineers40#aaa #aaa ,mortimer ,e4 ,cooley1 ,assistant ,engineer1 ,u4 ,s4 ,navy4 ,the ,national ,educational ,association of the ,united ,states1 at its last meeting1 at ,saratoga ,springs1 ,n4 ,y4 7#ahhe71 took a great step forward in the adoption of a resolution#aab endorsing the kindergarten4 ,the association was1 however1 singularly illogical in its subsequent action1 in voting to lay upon the table a resolution#aac recommending the introduction of manual training to the public schools4 ,the kindergarten and manual training are one in principle1 and should be one in practice4 ,all educators will soon see this1 and the ,national ,educational ,association will no doubt soon place itself as heartily on record in support of manual training as it has already done in support of the kindergarten4 #aab 8,resolved1 that we trust the time is near at hand when the true principles of the kindergarten will guide all elementary training1 and when public sentiment and legislative enactment will incorporate the kindergarten into our public-school system40 #aac 8,resolved1 ,that we recognize the educational value of training the hand to skill in the use of tools1 and recommend that provision be made1 as far as practicable1 for such training in public schools40 ,ohio ranks as the third ,state in the ,union industrially1 and she is making great strides in the direction of a more practical system of education4 ,this is shown by the prominent place given to instruction in the mechanic arts in the ,state ,university at ,columbus1 by the prosperity of the ,case ,school of ,applied ,science1 and the introduction of manual training to the public-school system at ,cleveland1 and by the establishment of the ,scott ,manual ,training ,school at ,toledo4 ,the city of ,toledo owes the inception of the movement in support of the new education to the munificence of the late ,jesup ,w4 ,scott1 who during his life conveyed to trustees for purposes of industrial education1 in connection with the public-school system1 certain valuable real estate4 ,after the death of ,mr4 ,scott1 his three sons1#aad still residents of ,toledo1 supplemented their father's donation with a sufficient sum of money to secure the erection and complete equipment of a manual training school for three hundred and fifty pupils4 #aad ,william ,f41 ,frank ,j41 and ,maurice ,scott4 ,the school is modelled after the schools of ,st4 ,louis and ,chicago2 but it gives only the manual side of the curriculum1 because it is conducted in connection with the public ,high ,school1 receiving its pupils therefrom4 ,it opened in the autumn of #ahhd with sixty pupils1 ten of whom were girls4 ,its register now numbers two hundred1 fifty of whom are girls4 ,its course for boys is substantially the same as that of the ,chicago school4 ,the course for girls includes free-hand and mechanical drawing1 designing1 modelling1 wood-carving1 cutting1 fitting1 and making garments1 and domestic science1 including food preparation and household decoration4 ,a distinguished lawyer and citizen of ,toledo1#aae who has been prominent in the work of establishing the school1 says1 #aae ,hon4 ,a4 ,e4 ,macomber4 8,the brightest and most faithful pupils of the ,high ,school have eagerly availed themselves of the opportunity for manual instruction1 and the zeal with which this new work is pursued has added a new charm to school life40 ,the school is in charge of ,mr4 ,ralph ,miller1 ,b4,s41 who is assisted by ,mr4 ,geo4 ,s4 ,mills1 ,b4,s4#aaf ,it is especially interesting1 both as the newest educational enterprise and because it places the sexes on a footing of absolute equality4 ,reform in education must begin with woman1 for it is from her that man inherits his notable traits1 and from her that he receives the earliest and most enduring impressions4 ,in the arms of the mother the infant mind rapidly unfolds4 ,it is in the cradle1 in the nursery1 and at the fireside that the child becomes father of the man4 ,the regeneration of the race through education must1 then1 begin with the child1 and be directed by the mother2 and this being the fact1 the education of woman becomes far more imperative than that of man4 #aaf ,graduates of the ,st4 ,louis ,manual ,training ,school1 class of #ahhd4 ,that the ancients made so little progress in morals is due to the fact of their neglect of the education of woman4 ,neither in ,egypt nor ,persia was provision made for her mental or moral training4 ,there were schools for boys in ,greece1 but none for girls2 and not till late in the ,empire was there any special culture for girls in ,rome4 ,in the ,middle ,ages learning was confined to the religious orders4 ,the narrow bounds of the convent contained all there was of science and art4 ,in the castle and at the tournament woman ministered to man's pride and vanity2 and in the peasant's hut1 which was the abode equally of poverty and ignorance1 she endured both mental and moral starvation4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 ,lord ,bacon1 ,swift1 ,addison1 ,lord ,chesterfield1 ,dr4 ,johnson1 and ,southey treated woman with mingled contempt and pity1 and yet they were familiar with the story of ,lucretia1 of ,virginia1 and of the ,maid of ,orleans6 ,but ,shakespeare1 with a sublimer genius1 portrayed a ,cordelia1 a ,desdemona1 an ,imogen1 and a ,queen ,catharine1 and with rare prevision of a future better than the age he knew1 wrote these glowing lines3 8,falsehood and cowardice ,are things that women highly hold in hate40 ,this is the rational age1 though not less truly chivalrous than that of ,arthur and his knights2 for1 as ,ruskin well says1 8,the buckling on of the knight's armor by his lady's hand is the type of an eternal truth--that the soul's armor is never well set to the heart unless a woman's hand has braced it40#aag #aag 8,sesame and ,lilies10 p4 #ig4 ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons1 #ahhd4 ,the distinguishing features of this time are its homes and its schools1 and the purity of the one and the efficiency of the other depends upon woman4 ,it was reserved for ,froebel to rescue woman from the scorn of preceding ages by declaring her superior fitness for the office of teacher--the most exalted of civil functions4 ,the growth of the kindergarten has not been commensurate with its importance4 ,indifference and prejudice have united to discourage progress4 ,ancient contempt of childhood--that contempt which in ,persia excluded the boy from the presence of his father until the fifth year of his age#aah--projects its sombre shadow down the ages4 ,but manual training1 which is the kindergarten in another form1 is leading captive the imagination of the ,american people1 and where the imagination leads1 woman is in the van4 ,woman is to man what the poet is to the scientist1 what ,shakespeare was to ,newton1 the celestial guide4 ,she tempts to deeds of heroism and self-sacrifice4 ,she is less selfish than man1 because a more vivid imagination inspires her with a deeper feeling of compassion for the misfortunes and follies of the race4 ,her intuitions are truer than those of man1 her ideals higher1 her sense of justice finer1 and of duty stronger2 and she has a better appreciation of the moral value of industry1 remembering the temptations of her sex to evil through habits of idleness1 enforced by the decrees of custom4 ,and she is our teacher1 whether we will or no--our teacher from the cradle to the grave--and it is through her ministry that we are destined to realize our highest mental and moral ideals4,e#cb #aah 8,herodotus10 ,clio ,i41 p4 #acf4 ,this sketch of the history of manual training in the ,united ,states is doubtless incomplete4 ,it is1 however1 sufficient to show that the subject is already one of absorbing interest in all parts of the country4 ,manual training in the public schools of ,europe can scarcely be called educational1 since the pupils usually make articles for household use4 ,the purpose is purely industrial1 and hence the mental culture received in the course of the manual exercise is the mere incident of a mechanical pursuit4 ,but the making of things in the schools of ,europe is gradually extending4 ,in ,denmark an annual appropriation 7#bjjj7 is made by the ,legislature for the encouragement of sljd 7hand-cunning7 in the schools4 ,all pupils in ,danish and ,swedish schools make things4 ,in ,germany1 ,dr4 ,erasmus ,schwab published in ,vienna1 in #ahgc1 a book1 8,the ,work ,school in the ,common ,school40 ,rittmeister ,claussen ,von ,kaas1 of ,denmark1 travelled through ,germany and delivered lectures on manual training1 and now there is a considerable agitation of the subject4 ,in ,finland all the country schools are sljd schools4 ,in #ahha the ,legislature of ,norway appropriated #abej for the support of sljd in the schools4 ,in ,france a law 7#ahhb7 makes manual training obligatory1 and a school for training teachers has been established--8,l'cole ,normale ,superieure de travail ,manuel0--in which there are about fifty students4 ,prof4 ,g4 ,solicis was the chief supporter of manual training in ,france4 ,in ,sweden1 in #ahgf1 there were eighty sljd schools4 ,in #ahgg the number had increased to one hundred2 in #ahgh1 to one hundred and thirty2 in #ahgi1 to two hundred2 in #ahhj1 to three hundred2 in #ahha1 to four hundred2 and in #ahhb1 to five hundred4 ,in ,ns1 in ,sweden1 there is a seminary for the training of sljd teachers4#aai ,of this seminary ,otto ,salomon is director4 ,in the sljd schools small articles are made for use in the house1 kitchen1 on the farm1 etc4 ,the course of instruction embraces one hundred models4 ,the materials for the first series of twenty-five models cost about #dj cents2 for the second series of twenty-five the cost is #ge cents2 and for the third series of fifty the cost is #c4be4 ,the annual expense of the manual training in a ,swedish country school is about ten to eleven dollars4 #aai 8,four young women have graduated from the ,sljd ,teacher's ,seminary at ,ns1 ,sweden1 and two of them are now engaged in teaching manual arts40--,letter from ,john ,m4 ,ordway1 ,a4,m41 ,chair of ,applied ,chemistry and ,biology1 and ,director of ,manual ,training1 ,tulane ,university of ,louisiana4 ,the technical and mechanic art or trade schools of ,europe1 generally1 whether public or private1 do not come within the scope of this work1 since their purpose is industrial1 not educational4 ,e#cb 8,in fine1 ,i have been beloved by the four women whose love was of the most comfort to me3 ,my mother1 my sister1 my wife and my daughter4 ,i have had the better part1 and it will not be taken from me1 for ,i often fancy that the judgments which will be passed upon us in the ,valley of ,jehoshaphat1 will be neither more nor less than those of women1 countersigned by the ,almighty40--8,recollections of ,my ,youth10 p4 #cjf4 ,by ,ernest ,renan4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 #ahhc4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,education--#ahhc-ahih4 ,educational ,revolution in #ahhc-d4 -- ,urgent ,demand for ,reform -- ,existing ,schools ,denounced as ,superficial1 their ,methods as ,automatic1 their ,system as a ,mixture of ,cram and ,smatter -- ,the ,controversy between the ,school-master of the ,old ,rgime and the ,reformer -- ,the ,leaders of the ,movement1 ,col4 ,parker1 ,dr4 ,mac,alister1 and ,others -- ,followers of ,rousseau1 ,bacon1 and ,spencer -- 8,the ,end of ,man is an ,action1 not a ,thought0 -- ,the ,conservative ,teachers ,fall into ,line -- ,the ,new ,education ,becomes an ,aggressive ,force1 ,pushing on to ,victory -- ,the ,physical ,progress of ,manual ,training -- ,its ,quality ,not ,equal to its ,extent -- ,the ,new ,system of ,training ,confided to ,teachers of the ,old ,rgime -- ,ideal ,teachers ,hard to ,find -- ,teachers ,willing to ,learn ,should ,be ,encouraged -- ,the ,effects of ,manual ,training ,long ,antedate its ,introduction to the ,schools -- ,bacon's ,definition of ,education -- ,stephenson and the ,value of ,hand-work -- ,manual ,training is the ,union of ,thought and ,action -- ,it is the ,antithesis of the ,greek ,methods1 which ,exalted ,abstractions and ,debased ,things -- ,the ,rule of ,comenius and the ,injunction of ,rousseau -- ,few ,teachers ,comprehend ,them -- ,the ,employment of the ,hands in the ,arts is ,more ,highly ,educative than the ,acquisition of the ,rules of ,reading and ,arithmetic -- ,what the ,locomotive has ,accomplished for ,man -- ,education ,must be ,equal1 and ,social and ,political ,equality will ,follow -- ,the ,foundation of the ,new ,education is the ,baconian ,philosophy as ,stated by ,macaulay -- ,use and ,service are the ,twin-ministers of ,human ,progress -- ,definitions of ,genius -- ,attention -- ,sir ,henry ,maine -- ,manual ,training ,relates to all the ,arts of ,life -- ,mind and ,hand -- ,newton and the ,apple -- ,the ,sense of ,touch ,resides in the ,hand -- ,robert ,seidel on ,familiarity with ,objects -- ,material ,progress the ,basis of ,spiritual ,growth -- ,plato and the ,divine ,dialogues -- ,poverty1 ,society1 and the ,useful ,arts -- ,selfishness ,must ,give ,way to ,altruism -- ,the ,struggle of ,life -- ,the ,progress of the ,arts and the ,final ,regeneration of the ,race -- ,the ,arts that ,make ,life ,sweet and ,beautiful -- ,the ,final ,fundamental ,educational ,ideal is ,universality -- ,comenius's ,definition of ,schools -- ,the ,workshops of ,humanity -- ,that ,one ,man ,should ,die ,ignorant who had ,capacity for ,knowledge is a ,tragedy -- ,mental and ,manual ,exercises to be ,rendered ,homogeneous in the ,school of the ,future -- ,the ,hero of the ,ideal ,school4 ,fifteen years ago a great wave of educational awakening swept over this country4 ,it penetrated every nook and corner of the land1 pervading both cities1 large and small1 and the rural districts4 ,it took the shape of a demand1 often almost inarticulate1 for reform4 ,the schools were denounced as superficial2 their methods as automatic2 their teachers as unintelligent and untrained1 their system of instruction as a mixture of cram and smatter4 ,the school-master is a conservative1 and with his champions he came promptly to the defence of the old schools and their old methods4 ,the controversy became heated1 and soon the rival forces joined battle4 ,col4 ,francis ,w4 ,parker1 of the ,chicago ,normal ,school1 and ,dr4 ,james ,mac,alister1 now ,president of the ,drexel ,institute of ,philadelphia1 and others were prominent leaders of the new reform movement1 whose banner was 8,manual ,training10 or 8,the ,new ,education40 ,under this brilliant and enthusiastic leadership the movement became a crusade in the interest of the educational ideas of ,montaigne1 ,rousseau1 ,bacon1 ,locke1 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 ,froebel1 ,spencer1 ,mann1 and their long array of sympathizers and supporters1 who1 with ,bacon1 declare that 8the end of man is an action1 not a thought40 ,but the work of the reformers was too serious to be long controlled1 either by emotion or passion4 ,the more intelligent and better educated and trained teachers gradually came to the support of the new system and methods1 and the mass of the teaching fraternity caught something of the enthusiasm by which the reformers were inspired to struggle for a great cause4 ,thereafter ,manual ,training became an aggressive force openly demanding recognition1 and pushing for victory and ultimate control4 ,in the ,appendix hereto the physical progress of ,manual ,training is shown in tabulated form2 and the extent of such progress is all1 if not more1 than its most ardent friends and advocates could rationally desire4 ,but it is not to be doubted that the quality of the progress the new education has made in the period of fifteen years under consideration is far inferior to its extent4 ,the statistics here presented relate mainly to the village1 town1 and city schools of this country1 and especially to its public schools1 with some general observations and facts in relation to the progress of the new education in ,england and the chief countries in ,europe4 ,in a few instances the tabulations include institutions designed for industrial rather than strictly educational purposes4 ,but it is deemed wise to retain them1 on the ground that whether so designed or not all industrial training is educative4 ,it is worthy of intelligent inquiry whether as a matter of fact1 not only in this country1 but in all countries1 the progress of ,manual ,training has not been very unsatisfactory in quality4 ,in most cases the new education was necessarily confided to teachers of the old rgime1 who1 as a preliminary1 were compelled to unlearn what was false and erroneous in the old system1 to overcome the prejudices of years1 sometimes of a lifetime1 and to become faithful and laborious students of a new and scientific scheme of education4 ,the main difficulty in matters educational has always been to secure ideal teachers4 ,education is the first of human considerations1 and its professors should be the most learned of human beings4 ,if the teachers who have been called to the ,priesthood1 of the ,new ,education1 have proved incompetent in many instances1 instead of being hastily condemned they should be helped forward towards the goal of competency by all friends of that progress in education which is the sole hope of human perfection4 ,the most striking effects of ,manual ,training long antedate its introduction to the schools4 ,for thousands of years1 in every shop where the humble mechanic wrought2 at every fireside where the domestic arts obtained a foothold2 in every field where a step forward was made through the invention of some less crude implement of husbandry than the one that preceded it1 the mind and the hand expressed their joint struggle towards the achievement of that skill in useful things which constitutes the very kernel of civilization4 ,bacon's definition of education--8the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt the mind and things0--is a recognition of the philosophic fact that the hand is the source of wisdom2 and the life of ,george ,stephenson1 the inventor of the locomotive1 affords a most impressive illustration of the educative value of hand-work4 ,at the coal-pit's mouth ,stephenson1 meantime learning his 8,a ,b ,c's10 invented the 8,rocket10 while the bookish engineers were declaring it to be a mechanical impossibility4 ,stephenson's achievement was the realization in things of ,bacon's luminous precept--8,the end of man is an action1 not a thought40--,this is the philosophy1 the rationale1 of ,manual ,training2 it is the union of thought and action1 and it therefore demands the elimination from educational methods of the abstract philosophy of the ,greeks4 ,in his declaration1 8,all the useful arts are degrading10 ,plato defined the character of the revival of learning which was to occur hundreds of years afterwards2 it was a revival of ,greek methods1 which exalted abstractions1 and debased things4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer refers to its baleful effects upon the schools of ,england in the severest terms of condemnation4 ,that ,mr4 ,spencer's arraignment of the schools is just1 is shown by its antithesis expressed in the dictum of ,dr4 ,dwight1 of ,yale ,college1 who says3 8,education is for the purpose of developing and cultivating the thinking power4 ,it is to the end of making a knowing1 thinking mind40 ,bacon discovered1 and did not hesitate to declare1 that 8the understanding is more prone to error than the senses02 and this fact constitutes the basis of his philosophy of 8things10 which is another name for the law of induction4 8,for if we would look into and dissect the nature of this real world10 he says1 8we must consult only things themselves40 ,if we would find the corner-stone of education1 we must consult labor4 ,nothing great is accomplished without a due mingling of drudgery and humility2 for of all the virtues humility is the most excellent4 ,the ,greeks failed to comprehend the true educational idea because of their pride4 ,they associated use with slavery1 because in ,greece all labor was performed by slaves2 and1 scorning labor1 they scorned use1 and1 by consequence1 service1 the greatest of the moralities4 ,upon the foundation laid by ,bacon1 ,rabelais1 and ,montaigne1 ,comenius1 ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel raised a great superstructure of educational ideas4 ,words were subordinated1 and things ennobled4 ,comenius's rule1 to 8leave nothing until it has been impressed by means of the ear1 the eye1 the tongue1 the hand10 and the injunction of ,rousseau that 8the student will learn more by one hour of manual labor than he will retain from a whole day's verbal instructions2 that the things themselves are the best explanations0--these are the maxims of the new education4 ,but to what extent has the old school-master adopted the new education1 to what extent occupied the old school-room with new ideas8 ,how many school-masters of even the present rgime comprehend with ,john ,ruskin that 8the youth who has once learned to take a straight shaving off a plank1 or to draw a fine curve without faltering1 or to lay a brick level in its mortar1 has learned a multitude of other matters which no lips of man could ever teach him80 ,in other words1 to what extent does the conviction pervade the ranks of the fraternity of teachers1 whether of public-schools1 private schools1 colleges1 or universities1 that the employment of the hands in the useful arts is more highly educative than the acquisition of the rules of reading1 writing1 and arithmetic8 ,or1 considering the subject of the history and career of ,george ,stephenson1 for instance1 what1 in the opinion of the modern school-master1 contributed most to his development as a man and citizen of the world--the mental exercise of learning to read1 write1 and cipher1 which task he accomplished while engaged in inventing the locomotive1 or the combined mental and manual exercise of taking apart1 repairing1 and putting together the stationary engine used at the colliery where he was employed8 ,if1 in the course of our investigation1 it should be found that doing things as ,stephenson did is more conducive to intellectual development than memorizing words and reciting poetry1 as the ,greeks did1 some light may be thrown on the general subject of existing educational methods4 ,their chief defect is their lack of moral power4 ,morality does not reside in the letters of the alphabet1 but there is in the locomotive1 for example1 a great moral principle--the principle of the brotherhood of man4 ,for1 in devising the locomotive1 ,stephenson made man's neighborhood coterminous with earth's utmost bounds2 thus1 in a single act1 achieving his own apotheosis1 and assuring1 ultimately1 the moral and intellectual kinship of the race4 ,for the hand stands for use1 for service1 and for unyielding integrity2 and it may be confidently asserted on the conviction of observation1 experience1 and a studious consideration of historic facts1 that its drill and discipline as enforced in the world's workshops1 and in the best of existing ,manual-training schools1 results in a far greater degree of mind development than is produced by any exclusively academic course1 and hence that ,manual ,training is the most important of all methods of education4 ,the most sacred of human rights is the right of the poor child1 born in a highly civilized1 wealthy community1 to the same kind and degree of education as that received by the child of the most opulent citizen4 ,it was long ago remarked that 8the inequalities of intellect1 like the inequalities of the surface of our globe1 bear so small a proportion to the mass that in calculating its great revolutions they may safely be neglected20 and the late ,henry ,george declared that the differences in men1 intellectually1 are no greater than their physical differences4 ,the perpetuity of free institutions depends upon social not less than upon political equality4 ,but social equality is impossible without educational equality3 the very thought of intimate relations with the ignorant is repulsive to the learned4 ,education1 impartial and universal1 is1 therefore1 the sole guarantee of an ideal civilization1 and so of an imperishable state4 ,old social evils constantly recur because the old crime of inequality in education is forever and ever repeated4 ,it follows that we shall make all things equal through equal education4 ,but what sort of education8 ,we shall not train the child1 as the ancients did1 8to dispute in learned phrase as to whether we can be certain that we are certain of nothing60 ,nor shall we stuff his memory with the grammar and rhetoric of an ancient tongue1 in view of the profound observation of ,dr4 ,draper1 that a living thought can no more be embodied in a dead language than activity can be imparted to a corpse4 ,but we shall rather instruct him in the principles of the ,baconian philosophy1 of which ,macaulay so aptly says3 8,its characteristic distinction1 its essential spirit1 is its majestic humility--the persuasion that nothing can be too insignificant for the attention of the wisest which is not too insignificant to give pleasure or pain to the meanest40 ,the end sought in education by the ancients was ornament1 and its strict analogy is found in barbaric life4 ,spencer has pointed out that the savage smeared his body with yellow ochre before he covered it with clothes1 and that he adorned his head with feathers before he built a hut4 ,so1 under the laws of evolution1 before a ,bacon could arise1 whole generations of philosophers were born1 lived1 speculated1 and died1 without leaving to mankind the smallest heritage of that common sense by which we nevertheless live4 ,a philosophy which scorned the useful in all its aspects was essentially barbaric2 for art differentiates civilized from savage life3 its law was stagnation1 as the law of scientific investigation is progress4 ,use is the greatest thing in the material world1 as service is the greatest thing in the moral world2 and they are united in the philosophy of ,bacon1 which1 beginning in observation and ending in art1 multiplies useful things that are beautiful1 and beautiful things that are useful4 ,the old education was an outgrowth of the old philosophy2 the new education springs as logically from the new1 or ,baconian1 philosophy4 ,the old education was ornamental2 the new is scientific1 or useful4 ,the old education was designed to make masters2 the new is designed to make men4 ,president ,eliot1 of ,harvard ,university1 admits that his method of education is to compel the student to work4 ,on the other hand1 the method of the new education is to attract him4 ,genius has many definitions1 one of which is 8a capacity for taking infinite pains40 ,but its humblest equivalent is 8attention02 and we propose to secure the student's attention through his hands3 for the most significant fact in all the realm of certitude is the fact that man impresses himself upon nature through the hand alone6 ,let us then1 in the new school1 unite mind and hand in a crusade after the truths that are hidden in things4 ,for ,manual ,training1 educationally1 is the blending of thought and action4 ,the thought that does not lead to an act is both mentally and materially barren4 ,for as it confers no benefit upon the human race1 neither does it profit the mind that conceives it4 ,nay1 more4 ,an unprolific thought exhausts the mind to no purpose1 as an unfruitful tree cumbers the ground4 ,it follows that the integrity of the mind can be maintained only by the submission of its immature judgments to the verification of things4 ,hence the correlation of thoughts and things is as necessary to mental and moral growth as the application of the principles of abstract mechanics to the arts of peace is essential to human progress4 ,sir ,henry ,maine supports this doctrine in a graphic paragraph3 8,unchecked by external truth the mind of man has a fatal facility for ensnaring and entrapping and entangling itself4 ,but happily1 happily for the human race1 some fragment of physical speculation has been built into every false system40 ,things are the source of ideas4 ,action generates thought4 ,he who has tools in his hand thinks best as well as acts best4 ,the man whose finger is on ,nature's pulse feels her heart-throbs1 and so discovers and utilizes her secrets4 ,the men and women who do the world's work are better educated than the schoolmen who vainly tell them how to do it2 and they are better educated because they are in closer relationship with things1 through the supreme sense of touch1 which refines and spiritualizes the hand--that wonderful member which differentiates man from the other animals1 and makes him their master4 ,manual ,training educationally1 then1 relates to all the arts whose sum is the art of living4 ,for whether it be the chair on which we sit2 or the bed on which we lie2 or the garments we wear2 or the house that shelters us2 or the railway train on which we cross continents2 or the ship that takes us over seas2 or the unspeakable marvels of the world's museums and galleries upon which we gaze with rapture2 or the orchestra of an hundred instruments1 whose music enchants us2 or the treasures of dead cities--long buried--now unearthed2 or the temples in which we worship2 or the monuments which commemorate our heroes and martyrs2 or the tombs in which we moulder away to dust--they are all the work of the hand6 ,manual ,training is the acquisition by the hand of the arts through which man expresses himself in things4 ,it is a series of educational generalizations in things4 ,the purpose of it is to put the mind and hand en rapport with each other2 to make the hand acquainted with the elementary manipulations of the typical arts1 by actual exercises1 as the mind is familiarized with the fundamental principles of the sciences by studying their laws4 ,superior observation is only another name for genius4 ,to the dull eye the falling apple taught no lesson1 but to ,newton's quick apprehension it revealed the law of gravitation6 ,it is not alone1 however1 in the sense of sight that observation resides2 nor is it keenest there4 ,we have recently learned the value of object teaching2 but we have yet to learn1 popularly and practically1 what has long been known to science--that the sense of touch is the master sense1 whence all the other senses spring4 ,it is because of this fact1 and of the further fact that the sense of touch is most highly developed in the hand1 that man is the wisest of animals4 ,it follows that more than in the sense of seeing1 hearing1 tasting1 or smelling--nay1 more than in all these senses combined--the faculty of observation resides in the hand4 ,dr4 ,wilson declares that touch 8reigns throughout the body1 and is the token of life in every part02 and ,dr4 ,maudsley says3 8,it is the fundamental sense1 the mother-tongue of language40 ,how apt is this definition of the sense of touch--8the token of life in every part0--and how comprehensive this--8the mother-tongue of language60 ,and of this master sense the hand is the chief organ and minister4 ,how versatile it is2 what adaptability it possesses2 what helpfulness6 ,in the moment of danger how reassuring its supporting grasp2 how consoling its gentle touch when grief overwhelms6 ,in defeat how it trembles with emotion1 and how tense with exaltation it becomes in the hour of victory6 ,with what infinite loathing it shrinks from a hated contact1 and with what sympathetic vibrations of ardor responds to the clinging pressure of love6 ,if we would become familiar with objects we must subject them to the test of touch1 we must handle them4 ,as ,robert ,seidel1 a great teacher1 well says3 8,we must stretch them1 beat them1 cool them1 expose them to the sun1 the water1 the air--we must work them40 ,it is through these processes of loving manipulation that the mechanic and the artisan transform things crude and ugly into forms of use and beauty4 ,and it is in this way1 and this way only1 that man has trod the path of progress4 ,it is a rugged road1 whose steeps are to be climbed alone by those whose hearts are warm with holy zeal1 whose souls are aglow with enthusiasm1 and whose hands are endowed with the rich experiences of thoughtful toil4 ,and we shall fit all mankind for this noble task by training them to usefulness--that is1 by teaching them1 not merely how to think1 but how to act1 how to work4 ,it is a broad and conclusive generalization of ,herbert ,spencer that since literature and the fine arts are made possible by the useful arts1 manifestly that which is made possible must be postponed to that which makes it possible4 ,nor does this rational and sober view of art detract in the least from its dignity or sentiment4 ,on the contrary1 it provides a foundation for works of the imagination--a basis for that spirituality which is the fruit of the happy conjunction of a multitude of material conditions evolved from the humblest as well as the noblest of the useful arts--a basis without which the beautiful arts could never exist4 ,it thus becomes plain that social and economic conditions are the product of education in things4 ,art education differentiates the civilized from the savage man4 ,the pathway of progress which now blazes with the glory of electricity stretches back to the gloom of the caves where our early ancestors dwelt2 and the steps of this advance consist of improvements in the useful and beautiful arts4 ,from gesture to speech2 from pictures to types2 from the canoe to the steamship1 and from the canal to the locomotive1 the race has moved forward1 always and only1 through art triumphs4 ,so all the generations of men have lived and toiled for us4 ,we are the heirs of the hoarded learning1 of the accumulated mental and moral fibre1 and of the treasured arts of the ages4 ,and we are hence the elders1 as ,bacon says1 of the philosophers1 the sages1 and the inventors and discoverers of all time4 ,their achievements are heights whence we may discern and occupy new and wider fields of human endeavor4 ,the precise relation of the useful arts to social and economic conditions is1 therefore1 that of creator4 ,as your art education is1 so shall your society be4 ,there are persons who unconsciously dissociate art and civilization--who think that things are not essential to spiritual development1 who fail to realize the fact that the main reason of the barbaric character of the savage is the absence from his environment of the arts of peace and plenty4 ,if1 for example1 ,plato had not been provided with food and clothing and shelter1 he would doubtless not have composed the divine dialogues2 and if there had been neither mechanics1 nor architects1 nor sculptors to adorn with palaces and temples the ,greek cities1 his ideal republic would not have had a place in classic literature2 and finally1 if there had been no 7slave7 hand-workers in ,greece 7for art products are all1 directly or indirectly1 the work of the hand71 instead of being the most venerated of philosophers1 ,plato might have been1 perhaps1 the most wretched of savages1 prolonging a miserable existence by means the most inglorious4 ,but so unconscious was he of the true relation of the useful arts to life that he denounced them all as 8degrading06 ,poverty is the chief scourge of society2 and it is a familiar economic fact that where the useful arts are most flourishing poverty is least pressing1 so that to abolish poverty it would seem to be only necessary to multiply and extend the arts4 ,and if poverty is to be abolished2 if there is ever to be an ideal civilization1 the controlling motive of humanity must be changed from selfishness to altruism2 and this change can come only through love of work4 ,so long as work shall be regarded as a 8curse10 the paramount purpose of the individual will be to avoid it1 and to compel others to submit to it4 ,hence the antagonisms that arise at every point of human contact4 ,the sum of these antagonisms is what we call the struggle of life1 which is merely the struggle of each to survive at the expense of his fellows1 and is therefore barbaric4 ,now as we have seen that it is through the arts that man has been civilized--that1 in a word1 the arts differentiate the civilized from the savage man--it is evident that the further regeneration of the race is to be wrought by analogous means--that is to say1 by a wider expansion of the arts of peace4 ,and the way to achieve this result is to transform our schools1 which were modelled after the classic methods of ,greece and ,rome1 into laboratories for the development of useful men and women1 through the mastery of the useful arts2 the arts that make life sweet and beautiful2 the arts that adorn our homes1 that render the earth fertile and make it blossom as the rose2 the arts that annihilate distance and so promote man's brotherhood by enlarging his neighborhood--these are the arts that inspire us with just and generous impulses1 the arts in which the noblest moral sentiments are made manifest in things4 ,these1 then1 are the arts which ought to be made the subject of thorough and exhaustive education--the arts that led ,comenius to define schools as the workshops of humanity4 ,the final essential educational condition is universality2 for it is obvious that inequality of educational opportunity is the grossest injustice of which organized society is capable4 ,it is against this injustice that ,carlyle exclaims3 8,that there should one man die ignorant1 who had capacity for knowledge1 this ,i call a tragedy1 were it to happen more than twenty times in the minute40 ,this is indeed the tragedy of tragedies--the tragedy on the heels of which slavery stalks2 in whose train caste rides in scornful state2 in whose hideous shadow war waits to shed blood and spread pestilence and famine4 ,all these are the satellites of ignorance1 and hardly less of partial education than of total unenlightenment2 and hence the only hope that civilization shall finally triumph over barbarism rests in universal1 impartial1 and scientific education4 ,the contrasts between the old and the new school methods pointed out in this chapter show along what lines educational progress is to be sought4 ,the ideal school is to consist1 not of one academic department1 and a department of ,manual ,training1 but of mental and manual exercises so related as to produce homogeneity4 ,the tabulations of facts which will be found in the ,appendix show that a vast number of schools have been dedicated to the new education4 ,if they are to be developed into ideal schools thousands of ideal teachers must devote themselves to the arduous task4 ,each school transformed from the dull routine of mediocrity to the vigor and elasticity which wait on development will cost the life of a hero4 ,the school that has no hero to struggle for its salvation will surely languish and die4 ,every great school of the future must therefore have its hero1 for it is only the hero who toils without thought of reward4 ,as ,carlyle so well says3 8,the wages of every noble work do yet lie in heaven or else nowhere40 ,and he has left this message of advice and encouragement to the hero of the school of the future which is to revolutionize the world3 8,thou wilt never sell thy life in a satisfactory manner4 ,give it like a royal heart2 let the price be nothing3 thou hast then1 in a certain sense1 got all for it60 ,,appendix ,,statistics4--,,manual ,,training1 #ahhc-ahih1 ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,public ,,high-,,schools ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,manual ,teachers ,pupils ,training of ,taking ,estab- ,manual ,manual ,,name ,,of ,,school ,,city ,,or ,,town ,,state lished ,training,training ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,high-school ,peru ,ill4 #ahhc #b #da ,polytechnic ,high-school,baltimore ,md4 #ahhc #af #fgd ,high-school ,eau ,claire ,wis4 #ahhd #a #ej ,central ,manual-training ,school ,philadelphia ,penn4 #ahhe #ac #djf ,industrial ,training ,high-school ,indianapolis ,ind4 #ahhe #aj #fgf ,rochester ,free ,academy ,rochester ,n4 ,y4 #ahhe 44 #ijh ,high-school ,toledo ,ohio #ahhe #aa #cid ,central ,manual-training ,school ,cleveland ,ohio #ahhe #d #bjj ,central ,high-school ,washington ,d4 ,c4 #ahhf 44 #bce ,manual-training ,high- school ,new ,haven ,conn4 #ahhf #ac 44 ,manual-training ,school ,springfield ,mass4 #ahhf #c #cd ,high-school ,minneapolis ,minn4 #ahhf #d #cge ,newburg ,free ,academy ,newburg ,n4 ,y4 #ahhf #b #acc ,manual-training ,school ,galesburg ,ill4 #ahhg #a #gd ,high-school ,st4 ,paul ,minn4 #ahhg #e #cej ,manual-training ,high- school ,stillwater ,minn4 #ahhg #a #ab ,high-school ,jamestown ,n4 ,y4 #ahhg #a #dh ,central ,high-school ,easton ,del4 #ahhh 44 44 ,high-school ,easton ,md4 #ahhh 44 44 ,ridge ,manual-training ,school ,cambridge ,mass4 #ahhh #i #agh ,high-school ,concord ,n4 ,h4 #ahhh #d #eb ,orange ,high-school ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahhh #c #ahj ,high-school ,albany ,n4 ,y4 #ahhh #c #gej ,dist4 #bj ,central ,high- school ,pueblo ,col4 #ahhi #a #afj ,manual-training ,high- school ,davenport ,iowa #ahhi #a #hb ,west ,des ,moines ,high- school ,des ,moines ,iowa #ahhi #a #ej ,manual-training ,high- school ,fall ,river ,mass4 #ahhi #a #fb ,high-school ,duluth ,minn4 #ahhi #b #hj ,high school ,omaha ,neb4 #ahhi 44 #ajj ,high-school ,union ,n4 ,j4 #ahhi #c #bjj ,high-school ,westchester ,penn4 #ahhi #d #bdj ,english ,high and ,manual-training ,school ,chicago ,ill4 #ahij #ag #dcj ,manual-training ,high- school ,louisville ,ky4 #ahij #ac #bab ,approved ,high-school ,vineland ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #a #aej ,high-school ,passaic ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #b #ec ,high-school ,south ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #a #aej ,west ,manual-training ,school ,cleveland ,ohio #ahij #c #ajj ,east and ,west ,high- schools ,milwaukee ,wis4 #ahij #d #add ,norwich ,free ,academy ,norwich ,conn4 #ahia #a #cc ,high-school ,waterbury ,conn4 #ahia #a 44 ,high-school ,springfield ,ill4 #ahia #a #bj ,moline ,high-school ,moline ,ill4 #ahia #a #dg ,manual training ,high- school ,waltham ,mass4 #ahia #b #ah ,high-school ,bay ,city ,mich4 #ahia #abj #abj ,ridgewood ,high-school ,ridgewood ,n4 ,j4 #ahia #c #ce ,manual training ,high- school ,camden ,n4 ,j #ahia #c #aej ,manual training ,high- school ,seattle ,wash4 #ahia #b #gj ,high-school ,menominee ,wis4 #ahia #e #ajc ,high-school ,bristol ,conn4 #ahib #a #cj ,willard ,hall ,high- school ,wilmington ,del4 #ahib #c #baj ,fremont ,manual-training ,school ,fremont ,ohio #ahib #a #ej ,north ,east ,manual- training ,school ,philadelphia ,penn4 #ahib #i #cfi ,high-school ,norristown ,penn4 #ahib #b #bij ,manual-training ,high- school ,providence ,r4 ,i4 #ahib #ah #bhj ,high-school ,spokane ,wash4 #ahib #c #he ,polytechnical ,high- school ,san ,francisco,cal4 #ahic #d #bej ,manual-training ,high- school ,mason ,city ,iowa #ahic #a #abe ,high-school ,manchester ,n4 ,h4 #ahic #a #ab ,high-school ,atlantic ,city,n4 ,j4 #ahic #a #bce ,east ,orange ,high-school,east ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahic #c #abe ,manual-training ,high- school ,denver ,col4 #ahid 44 #djj ,high-school ,frankfort ,ky4 #ahid #b #ajj ,mechanics ,arts ,high- school ,boston ,mass4 #ahid #aa #cbd ,manual-training ,high- school ,brooklyn ,n4 ,y4 #ahid 44 #hjj ,washington ,high-school ,washington ,penn4 #ahid 44 #bg ,townsend ,industrial ,school ,newport ,r4 ,i4 #ahid #b #bf ,ryan ,high-school ,appleton ,wis4 #ahid #a #bf ,manual-training ,school ,lowell ,mass4 #ahie #b #ej ,english ,high-school ,somerville ,mass4 #ahie #b #ge ,english and ,classical ,high-school ,worcester ,mass4 #ahie #d #bhc ,high-school ,medford ,mass4 #ahie #b #bj ,english ,high-school ,lynn ,mass4 #ahie #c #gb ,high-school ,lawrence ,mass4 #ahie #a #cc ,royen ,high-school ,youngstown ,ohio #ahie #a #bjj ,high-school ,fitchburg ,mass4 #ahie 44 44 ,high-school ,burlington ,wis4 #ahif 44 44 ,high-school ,los ,angeles ,cal4 #ahif #f #cae ,high-school ,rockford ,ill4 #ahif #a #bg ,high-school ,florence ,wis4 #ahif #b #cf ,brookline ,high-school ,brookline ,mass4 #ahif #a #ej ,high-school ,janesville ,wis4 #ahif 44 44 ,high-school ,malden ,mass4 #ahif #b #fj ,hackley ,manual-training ,school ,muskegon ,mich4 #ahif #d #cej ,ishpeming ,manual- training ,school ,ishpeming ,mich4 #ahif #a #ge ,menominee ,manual- training ,school ,menominee ,mich4 #ahif #a #be ,high-school ,summit ,n4 ,j4 #ahif #a #dj ,barlow ,school of ,industrial ,art ,binghamton ,n4 ,y4 #ahif #c #agc ,high-school ,syracuse ,n4 ,y4 #ahif 44 #ej ,high-school ,akron ,ohio #ahif #b #ahj ,cross ,creek ,school ,washington ,penn4 #ahif 44 #ad ,high-school ,waupaca ,wis4 #ahig #a #af ,high-school ,winnetka ,ill4 #ahig #a #af ,high-school ,fond du ,lac ,wis4 #ahig #a #ej ,manual-training ,high- school ,kansas ,city ,mo4 #ahig #bg #hjj ,high-school ,oshkosh ,wis4 #ahig #c #bej ,central and ,martin ,park ,high-schools ,buffalo ,n4 ,y4 #ahig #a #ej ,high-school ,mayville ,wis4 #ahig #a #cj ,high-school ,red ,bank ,n4 ,j4 #ahig #a #cge ,high-school ,hartford ,conn4 #ahih #d #adj ,manual-training ,high school ,newark ,n4 ,j4 #ahih 44 44 ,howard ,school ,wilmington ,del4 #aba #a #de ,high-school ,iowa ,city ,iowa #aba 44 44 ,high-school ,brockton ,mass4 #aba 44 44 ,high-school ,south ,omaha ,neb4 #aba 44 44 ,high-school ,stamford ,conn4 #aba 44 44 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aja ,cities #bc #cbj #ae1idb ,states ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #abj ,abandoned temporarily for want of funds4 #aba ,date of establishment not reported4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,public ,,schools--,,grammar ,,grades ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,manual ,training ,separate,teachers ,pupils ,established ,manual- of ,taking in ,grammartraining ,manual ,manual ,,city ,,or ,,town ,,state ,grades ,schools,training,training ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,montclair ,n4 ,j4 #ahhb ,all #d #ecj ,peru ,ill4 #ahhc #b #b 44 ,new ,haven ,conn4 #ahhd 44 44 44 ,jamestown ,n4 ,y4 #ahhd #b #b #hjj ,eau ,claire ,wis4 #ahhd #a 44 #ajj ,waltham ,mass4 #ahhe #a #b #dbe ,rochester ,n4 ,y4 #ahhe 44 44 #ccf ,toledo ,ohio #ahhe #aa #aa #b1beg ,washington ,d4 ,c4 #ahhf #dj #dc #i1deb ,springfield ,mass4 #ahhf #a #c #bfg ,boston ,mass4 #ahhf ,all #ha #cg1bdj ,newburg ,n4 ,y4 #ahhf #a #b #ie ,tidioute ,penn4 #ahhf 44 44 44 ,beardstown ,ill4 #ahhg #a #b 44 ,easton ,del4 #ahhh 44 44 44 ,brookline ,mass4 #ahhh #a #b #ebe ,winchester ,mass4 #ahhh #a #b #djh ,concord ,n4 ,h4 #ahhh #b #d #djb ,hoboken ,n4 ,j4 #ahhh #f #f #a1bbi ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahhh #e #c #hdb ,new ,york ,n4 ,y4 #ahhh #cg #cb #aj1ahg ,meadville ,penn4 #ahhh 44 #b #bfc ,wilmington ,del4 #ahhi #a 44 #de ,davenport ,iowa #ahhi #a #a #aja ,vineland ,n4 ,j4 #ahhi ,all #a #ejj ,union ,n4 ,j4 #ahhi ,all ,all #fdc ,st4 ,louis ,mo4 #ahij #a #h #aaf #abb #abb #abb ,duluth ,minn4 #ahij #ab #be #a1jjj ,passaic ,n4 ,j4 #ahij 44 #b #aeb ,garfield ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #a #b #eej ,paterson ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #a #a #cjj ,ridgewood ,n4 ,j4 #ahij 44 #d #bjj ,knoxville ,tenn4 #ahij 44 44 44 ,south ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #a #a #cjj ,waterbury ,conn4 #ahia 44 44 44 ,springfield ,ill4 #ahia #a #a #ej ,moline ,ill4 #ahia #a #a #bgi ,salem ,mass4 #ahia #a #a #afj ,northampton ,mass4 #ahia #a #a #ijj ,bay ,city ,mich4 #ahia #abc #abc #abc ,san ,francisco ,cal4 #ahib #c #b #efj ,st4 ,paul ,minn4 #ahib 44 #d #b1cff ,camden ,n4 ,j4 #ahib 44 #d #d1fjj ,norristown ,penn4 #ahib #b #c #a1dcj ,providence ,r4 ,i4 #ahib #ac 44 44 ,menominee ,wis4 #ahib #b #d #bjj ,bristol ,conn4 #ahic #b 44 #bgf ,haverhill ,mass4 #ahic #a #a #aij ,manistee ,mich4 #ahic 44 44 44 ,minneapolis ,minn4 #ahic #e #e #a1bad ,st4 ,cloud ,minn4 #ahic #a #a #aej ,manchester ,n4 ,h4 #ahic ,all #a #aif ,bayonne ,n4 ,j4 #ahic ,all ,all ,all ,east ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahic ,all #b #gee ,cleveland ,ohio #ahic #b #a #c1ejj ,newport ,r4 ,i4 #ahic 44 #d #fcc ,staunton ,va4 #ahic 44 #a #bjj ,santa ,barbara ,cal4 #ahid #a #b #bcb ,san ,diego ,cal4 #ahid #e #a #bgj ,portland ,maine #ahid #a #c #ijj ,medford ,mass4 #ahid #a #b #djj ,new ,bedford ,mass #ahid #a #a #djj ,ithaca ,n4 ,y4 #ahid #b #b #dbj ,mason ,city ,iowa #ahid #a #a #ej ,denver ,colo4 #ahie ,all 44 #b1ejj ,chicago ,ill4 #ahie #bh #cb #h1bjj ,cape ,may ,n4 ,j4 #ahie ,all #c #daa ,fitchburg ,mass4 #ahie 44 44 44 ,buffalo ,n4 ,y4 #ahie 44 #a #bjj ,pittsburg ,penn4 #ahie #c #b #djj ,barbadoes ,township ,n4 ,j4 #ahie #c #c #gac ,woonsocket ,r4 ,i4 #ahie 44 #a #aej ,oakland ,cal4 #ahif #a #a #dbe ,carlstadt ,n4 ,j4 #ahif ,all #e #bdj ,los ,angeles ,cal4 #ahif #g 44 #b1jhj ,summit ,n4 ,j4 #ahif #c #c #bjj ,hartford ,conn4 #ahif ,all #e #hjj ,des ,moines ,iowa #ahif #b #b #hj ,florence ,wis4 #ahif #a 44 44 ,menominee ,mich4 #ahif #a #a #hj ,brooklyn ,n4 ,y4 #ahif 44 44 44 ,glens ,falls ,n4 ,y4 #ahif #a #a #fj ,utica ,n4 ,y4 #ahif 44 #d #b1cjj ,akron ,ohio #ahif 44 #b #baj ,washington ,penn4 #ahif #e #c #aab ,pueblo ,dist4 ,no4 #a ,colo4 #ahig 44 #b #ahj ,winnetka ,ill4 #ahig #a #a #dh ,oshkosh ,wis4 #ahig #be #bh #a1djj ,indianapolis ,ind4 #ahig #a #b #a1jjj ,north ,adams ,mass4 #ahig #a #a #bdg ,lynn ,mass4 #ahig #a #a #cea ,newton ,mass4 #ahig #a #a #ace ,worcester ,mass4 #ahig 44 #b #cig ,cambridge ,mass4 #ahig #a #b #acf ,muskegon ,mich4 #ahig #b #d #gjj ,kansas ,city ,mo4 #ahig 44 44 44 ,newark ,n4 ,j4 #ahig 44 #c #b1bfe ,milwaukee ,wis4 #ahig #a #a #ae ,pueblo ,dist4 ,no4 #bj;,colo4 #ahih 44 #b #cjj ,new ,britain ,conn4 #ahih 44 44 #aij ,peabody ,mass4 #ahih 44 44 44 ,moberly ,mo4 #ahih 44 44 44 ,stockton ,cal4 #abd 44 44 44 ,santa ,cruz ,cal4 #abd 44 44 44 ,manchester ,conn4 #abd 44 44 44 ,stamford ,conn4 #abd 44 44 44 ,iowa ,city ,iowa #abd 44 44 44 ,augusta ,me4 #abd 44 44 44 ,baltimore ,md4 #abd ,all 44 ,all ,hyde ,park ,mass4 #abd #c #c #bjd ,holyoke ,mass4 #abd #a 44 44 ,easton ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,fall ,river ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,dedham ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,malden ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,milton ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,waterbury ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,wellesley ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,canton ,mass4 #abd 44 44 44 ,richmond ,va4 #abd 44 44 44 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aai ,cities #bd #bhg #ddd #aah1hce ,states ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #abb ,colored ,school4 #abc ,abandoned temporarily for want of funds4 #abd ,date of establishment not reported4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,public ,,schools--,,primary ,,grades ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,manual ,separate ,training ,manual ,teachers ,pupils ,established,training of ,taking in ,primary ,primary ,manual ,manual ,,city ,,or ,,town#abe ,,state ,grades ,grades ,training,training ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,montclair ,n4 ,j4 #ahhb ,all ,all #a1jdg ,jamestown ,n4 ,y4 #ahhb ,all ,all #b1djj ,baltimore ,md4 #ahhd 44 44 44 ,washington ,d4 ,c4 #ahhf #ee 44 #ab1ijj ,newburg ,n4 ,y4 #ahhf 44 44 44 ,tidioute ,penn4 #ahhf 44 44 44 ,oakland ,cal4 #ahhh 44 #b #b1aei ,springfield ,mass4 #ahhh ,all 44 #bi1bef ,concord ,n4 ,h4 #ahhh 44 44 44 ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahhh #d #c #b1acb ,new ,york ,n4 ,y4 #ahhh 44 44 #ab1jjj ,union ,n4 ,j4 #ahhi ,all ,all #efj ,vineland ,n4 ,j4 #ahhi ,all #a #gjj ,westchester ,penn4 #ahhi 44 #a 44 ,garfield ,n4 ,j4 #ahij 44 #a #bjj ,south ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #a #a #bjj ,waterbury ,conn4 #ahia 44 #a 44 ,moline ,ill4 #ahia 44 44 44 ,northampton ,mass4 #ahia 44 #a #ijj ,ridgewood ,n4 ,j4 #ahia 44 #c #bjj ,san ,francisco ,cal4 #ahib #a #a #agf ,st4 ,paul ,minn4 #ahib #dj 44 #d1ejj ,camden ,n4 ,j4 #ahib 44 44 #c1jhj ,providence ,r4 ,i4 #ahib #ej 44 44 ,bristol ,conn4 #ahic #b #b #add ,minneapolis ,minn4 #ahic #dd 44 #d1ddf ,stillwater ,minn4 #ahic 44 44 44 ,cleveland ,ohio #ahic 44 44 #c1ejj ,staunton ,va4 #ahic 44 #a #bjj ,menominee ,wis4 #ahic 44 #b #bjj ,st4 ,cloud ,minn4 #ahid 44 #b #dhh ,philipsburg ,n4 ,j4 #ahid ,all ,all #gjj ,elyria ,ohio #ahid ,all ,all #gjj ,newport ,r4 ,i4 #ahid 44 #b #aja ,denver ,colo4 #ahie 44 44 44 ,oshkosh ,wis4 #ahif #bj #be #hjj ,waltham ,mass4 #ahif 44 44 #ajj ,carlstadt ,n4 ,j4 #ahif ,all #e 44 ,utica ,n4 ,y4 #ahif 44 44 44 ,akron ,ohio #ahif ,all ,all #a1hjj ,san ,diego ,cal4 #ahig #e #c #bej ,newark ,n4 ,j4 #ahig 44 44 44 ,indianapolis ,ind4 #ahig 44 #b #ejj ,moberly ,mo4 #ahig 44 44 44 ,passaic ,n4 ,j4 #ahig 44 #a #cge ,pueblo ,dist4 ,no4 #a;,colo4 #ahih 44 #a #ahj ,santa ,cruz ,cal4 44 44 44 44 ,elgin ,ill4 44 44 #a 44 ,augusta ,me4 44 44 44 44 ,detroit ,mich4 44 44 44 44 ,toledo ,ohio 44 44 44 44 ,pittsburg ,penn4 44 44 44 44 ,shenandoah ,penn4 44 44 44 44 ,la ,crosse ,wis4 44 44 44 44 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ed ,cities #bj #bbb #fb #hh1cih ,states ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #abe ,of the #ed cities tabulated1 only #i report the number of separate primary schools in which ,manual ,training is taught4 ,these #i cities report #bjb schools1 or an average of #bb4d schools per city4 ,nine cities report all4 ,thirty-four cities do not report4 ,if the average obtained from the cities reporting can be applied to all1 then #aabj primary schools have ,manual ,training4 ,thirty-one cities do not report the number of teachers4 ,twenty cities report #cd4 ,applying the above method shows #he teachers of ,manual ,training in primary schools4 ,it must be remembered that there are special or supervising teachers2 the regular teachers doing most of this work under supervision4 ,thirty-two cities report #hg1eih pupils taking ,primary ,manual ,training2 or #bgcg on the average to each city reporting4 ,applying this average to the #ea cities reporting1 the total is #aci1ehg4 ,,kindergartens ,,in ,,public ,,schools ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,kinder- ,separate ,kinder-,kinder- garten ,kinder- garten garten ,,city ,,or ,,town ,,state,established gartens,teachers,pupils ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,st4 ,louis ,mo4 #ahgc #fj #djj #g1fid ,milwaukee ,wis4 #ahhj #db #hc #c1haf ,cedar ,rapids ,iowa #ahha #ab #af #gff ,newport ,r4 ,i4 #ahhb #d #h #bej ,lowell ,mass4 #ahhc #ab #be #djj ,pawtucket ,r4 ,i4 #ahhc #d #i #bie ,la ,porte ,ind4 #ahhd #c #e #afc ,muskegon ,mich4 #ahhd #h #aj #eha ,philadelphia ,penn4 #ahhd #ace #ahj #f1ejj ,traverse ,city ,mich4 #ahhe #d #d #ahj ,san ,jos ,cal4 #ahhe #g #ag #ccg ,augusta ,ga4 #ahhg #d #h #ahc ,des ,moines ,iowa #ahhg #ad #bh #hjg ,marshalltown ,iowa #ahhg #g #aj #bfj ,louisville ,ky4 #ahhg #aj #ei #gej ,albany ,n4 ,y4 #ahhg #ai #cj #gej ,boston ,mass4 #ahhh #fg #abf #c1ibe ,brookline ,mass4 #ahhh #aa #ah #cgc ,rochester ,n4 ,y4 #ahhh #ac #fh #a1igb ,sheboygan ,wis4 #ahhh #i #bg #ihj ,bristol ,conn4 #ahhi #c #g #bec ,richmond ,ind4 #ahhi #b #b #ge ,cambridge ,mass4 #ahhi #aa #bb #ehc ,grand ,rapids ,mich4 #ahhi #h #g #ceb ,montclair ,n4 ,j4 #ahhi #e #ab #bgc ,louisburg ,n4 ,y4 #ahhi #e #aj #afe ,north ,tonawanda ,n4 ,y4 #ahhi #d #d #bjj ,norwich ,conn4 #ahij #c #g #abj ,lexington ,ky4 #ahij #e #aj #cfj ,grand ,haven ,mich4 #ahij #a #c #aje ,garfield ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #b #b #hj ,east ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #f #f #ahj ,south ,orange ,n4 ,j4 #ahij #a #b #ee ,providence ,r4 ,i4 #ahij #ae #ca #gjj ,los ,angeles ,cal4 #ahia #bi #gh #a1hjj ,covington ,ky4 #ahia #e #aj #fjj ,frankfort ,ky4 #ahia #a #b #ej ,somerville ,mass4 #ahia #e #aa #bjj ,iron ,mountain ,mich4 #ahia #aa #aa #ehf ,ironwood ,mich4 #ahia #c #i #bij ,negaunee ,mich4 #ahia #b #b #gh ,concord ,n4 ,h4 #ahia #e #g #bhh ,passaic ,n4 ,j4 #ahia #f #h #bhd ,greenwich ,conn4 #ahib #a #a #eb ,terre ,haute ,ind4 #ahib #af #aa #dce ,worcester ,mass4 #ahib #aj #ai #eah ,lowell ,mass4 #ahib #ab #bf #ijj ,duluth ,minn4 #ahib #af #bg #a1jjj ,omaha ,neb4 #ahib #bf #dj #a1fjj ,plainfield ,n4 ,j4 #ahib #e #e #bcj ,utica ,n4 ,y4 #ahib #aa #bf #gej ,cohoes ,n4 ,y4 #ahib #b #d #abg ,niagara ,falls ,n4 ,y4 #ahib #d #f #aef ,san ,diego ,cal4 #ahic #f #f #bej ,denver ,colo4 #ahic #be #ej #b1ecd ,chicago ,ill4 #ahic #ea #aba #b1ejj ,newton ,mass4 #ahic #ac #bi #efi ,lincoln ,neb4 #ahic #h #bb #gjj ,menominee ,mich4 #ahic #e #e #cej ,kansas ,city ,mo4 #ahic #e #e #bjj ,ridgewood ,n4 ,j4 #ahic #a #b #ge ,union ,n4 ,j4 #ahic #b #c #abj ,saratoga ,springs,n4 ,y4 #ahic #i #bd #ejj ,flushing ,n4 ,y4 #ahic #c #d #fj ,new ,rochelle ,n4 ,y4 #ahic #e #g #dgf ,el ,paso ,tex4 #ahic #a #c #ajj ,burlington ,vt4 #ahic #d #h #acg ,racine ,wis4 #ahic #f #aa #egc ,fond du ,lac ,wis4 #ahid #e #aa #bej ,hammond ,ind4 #ahid #a #b #hj ,oskaloosa ,iowa #ahid #e #e #baj ,sioux ,city ,iowa #ahid #c #f #abe ,springfield ,mass4 #ahid #h #ag #cdf ,peabody ,mass4 #ahid #c #f #abf ,medford ,mass4 #ahid #d #h #bbj ,superior ,wis4 #ahid #e #aa #bbe ,lawrence ,mass4 #ahid #a #b #cf ,escanaba ,mich4 #ahid #d #d #bbe ,winona ,minn4 #ahid #h #ac #djj ,natchez ,miss4 #ahid #a #a #ej ,portsmouth ,n4 ,h4 #ahid #d #f #ahj ,binghamton ,n4 ,y4 #ahid #ac #ad #fjj ,geneva ,n4 ,y4 #ahid #d #e #aej ,sing ,sing ,n4 ,y4 #ahid #c #c #ia ,wilkesbarre ,penn4 #ahid #b #b #hj ,marinette ,wis4 #ahid #e #e #cjj ,la ,crosse ,wis4 #ahid #c #c #aej ,madison ,wis4 #ahid #b #f #acd ,oakland ,cal4 #ahie #a #a #fj ,jeffersonville ,ind4 #ahie #g #g #bjj ,burlington ,iowa #ahie #e #aj #bjj ,north ,adams ,mass4 #ahie #c #f #abj ,vicksburg ,miss4 #ahie #d #e #ahj ,fremont ,ohio #ahie #c #e #afj ,oshkosh ,wis4 #ahie #i #be #hjj ,winnetka ,ill4 #ahif #a #e #eg ,indianapolis ,ind4 #ahif #a #a #ec ,dubuque ,iowa #ahif #d #h #bcb ,malden ,mass4 #ahif #b #e #he ,northampton ,mass4 #ahif #b #d #ij ,ishpeming ,mich4 #ahif #b #f #cjj ,detroit ,mich4 #ahif #f #ab #ia ,nashua ,n4 ,h4 #ahif #b #d #abj ,syracuse ,n4 ,y4 #ahif #b #d #ig ,mt4 ,vernon ,n4 ,y4 #ahif #b #b #cj ,cleveland ,ohio #ahif #ab #bd #ejj ,stevens ,point ,wis4 #ahif #d #e #ahj ,new ,bedford ,mass4 #ahig #c #f #adj ,walden ,mass4 #ahig #a #b #dj ,newark ,n4 ,j4 #ahig #bf #ej #b1ajj ,hoboken ,n4 ,j4 #ahig #g #ae #cfh ,bayonne ,n4 ,j4 #ahig #abf #abf #abf ,brooklyn ,n4 ,y4 #ahig #ad #bh 44 ,woonsocket ,r4 ,i4 #ahig #a #b #cj ,pueblo ,colo4 #ahih #a #b #fe ,akron ,ohio #ahih #a #c #cj ,seattle ,wash4 #ahih #a #b #ea ,appleton ,wis4 #ahih #d #h #bjj ,anniston ,ala4 44 #b 44 #abb ,hot ,springs ,ark4 44 #a #a #af ,sacramento ,cal4 44 #d #h #agb ,santa ,cruz ,cal4 44 #a #b #ec ,manchester ,conn4 44 #a #h #baj ,new ,britain ,conn4 44 #f #ac #daj ,new ,haven ,conn4 44 #h #ai #fgf ,hartford ,conn4 44 #ab #ach #a1cbf ,norwalk ,conn4 44 #c #f #ie ,rockville ,conn4 44 #a #a 44 ,willimantic ,conn4 44 #b #f #bbi ,rome ,ga4 44 #a #a #af ,evanston ,ill4 44 #b #f #ajj ,augusta ,me4 44 #a #a 44 ,portland ,me4 44 #f #aj #abe ,fall ,river ,mass4 44 #b #d #bjb ,sault ,ste4 ,marie,mich4 44 #c #e #cjj ,st4 ,paul ,minn4 44 #bh #eg 44 ,trenton ,n4 ,j4 44 #a #a #fe ,paterson ,n4 ,j4 44 #ae #ag #ejj #abg;,buffalo ,n4 ,y4 44 #aj #ae #ibe ,gloversville ,n4 ,y4 44 #d #d #daa ,new ,york ,n4 ,y4 44 #ae #af #ega ,schenectady ,n4 ,y4 44 #a #b #dj ,newark ,ohio 44 #b #c #cc ,pittsburg ,penn4 44 #af #dh #hjj ,oil ,city ,penn4 44 #b #b #ajd ,allegheny ,penn4 44 #c #ab #abj ---------------------------------------- --------------- #adf ,cities #bf 44 #a1bjb #b1fie #gc1edc ,states ---------------------------------------- --------------- #abf ,all first-grade schools have kindergartens4 #abg ,kindergartens are conducted by a private association financially assisted from public-school funds4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,schools ,,for ,,the ,,colored ,,race ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,manual ,teachers ,pupils ,grade of ,training of ,taking ,,name ,,of ,academic ,estab- ,manual ,manual ,,institution ,,location ,work lished ,training,training ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,storrs ,school ,atlanta1 ,ga4 ,grammar #ahfe 44 #abj ,shaw ,university,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c4 ,collegiate #ahfe #f #baf ,storer ,college ,harper's ,ferry1,high #ahfg #i #aba ,w4 ,v4 ,hampton ,normal ,hampton1 ,va4 ,gram4 and #ahfh #dh #feh ,institute ,high ,mt4 ,hermon ,clinton1 ,miss4 ,high #ahge #b #af ,female ,seminary ,southland ,col4 ,southland1 ,ark4,primary to #ahgf 44 #ef and ,normal ,coll4 ,inst4 ,princess ,anne ,princess ,anne1 ,high #ahgh #g #aja ,academy ,md4 ,colored ,huntsville1 ,high #ahgi #d #aej ,industrial ,ala4 ,school ,knoxville ,knoxville1 ,gram4 and #ahgi #d #abe ,college ,tenn4 ,high ,penn ,normal and,frogmore1 ,s4 ,c4,high #ahhj #c #afd ,ind4 ,school ,state ,colored ,salisbury1 ,gram4 and #ahha #d #aah ,normal ,school ,n4 ,c4 ,high ,allen ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c4,primary to #ahha #d #ccb ,university ,coll4 ,tuskegee ,nor4 ,tuskegee1 ,ala4 ,gram4 and #ahhb 44 #ffa and ,ind4 ,high ,institute ,tougaloo ,tougaloo1 ,miss4,primary to #ahhb 44 #age ,university ,coll4 ,albion ,academy ,franklinton1 ,high #ahhb #e #ajj ,n4 ,c4 ,spelman ,atlanta1 ,ga4 ,gram4 and #ahhc #af #cge ,seminary ,high ,ballard ,normal ,macon1 ,ga4 ,gram4 and #ahhc #ab #dae and ,ind4 ,school ,high ,scotia ,seminary,concord1 ,n4 ,c4 ,gram4 and #ahhc #af #bhf ,high ,central ,nashville1 ,gram4 to #ahhd #g #ajc ,tennessee ,tenn4 ,coll4 ,college ,hartshorn ,richmond1 ,va4 ,high #ahhd #h #ajh ,memorial ,college ,biddle ,charlotte1 ,gram4 to #ahhe #f #acf ,university ,n4 ,c4 ,coll4 ,fisk ,university,nashville1 ,gram4 and #ahhe #d #bge ,tenn4 ,high ,roger ,williams ,nashville1 ,high and #ahhe #a #fh ,university ,tenn4 ,coll4 ,paul ,quinn ,waco1 ,tex4 ,high #ahhe #c #ca ,college ,norfolk ,mission,norfolk1 ,va4 44 #ahhf #b #cbj ,college ,howard ,washington1 44 #ahhg #f #afi ,university ,d4 ,c4 ,colored ,public ,jacksonville1 ,prim4 to #ahhg 44 44 ,schools ,fla4 ,gram4 ,straight ,new ,orleans1 ,high #ahhg #c #ej ,university ,la4 ,wilberforce ,wilberforce1 ,gram4 and #ahhh #g #acc ,university ,ohio4 ,high ,mary ,allen ,crockett1 ,tex4 ,gram4 and #ahhh 44 #dde ,seminary ,high ,virginia ,petersburg1 ,va4,high #ahhh #e #chi ,institute ,scofield ,aiken1 ,s4 ,c4 ,grammar #ahhi #f #aee ,industrial ,school ,institute for ,philadelphia1 ,high and #ahhi #i #bei ,colored ,youth ,penn4 ,norm4 ,burrell ,academy,selma1 ,ala4 ,grammar #ahij #h #bch ,emerson ,mem4 ,ocala1 ,fla4 ,gram4 and #ahij #b #cj ,home ,school ,high ,state ,normal ,tallahassee1 ,high #ahij #a #bg and ,ind4 ,fla4 ,college ,state ,nor4 ,frankfort1 ,ky4 ,high #ahij #c #if ,school for ,col4 ,persons ,southern ,new ,orleans1 ,gram4 to #ahij #e #ajg ,university ,la4 ,coll4 ,alcon ,agr4 and ,west ,side1 ,collegiate #ahij #e #bih ,mech4 ,college ,miss4 ,state ,normal ,goldsboro1 ,high #ahij #d #afc ,school ,n4 ,c4 ,lincoln ,academy,king's ,mount'n1,gram4 and #ahij #f #ahf ,n4 ,c4 ,high ,st4 ,augustine ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c4 ,gram4 to #ahij #d #hh ,school ,coll4 ,lincoln ,academy,jefferson ,city1,high #ahia #h #djj ,mo4 ,arkansas ,pine ,bluff1 ,high #ahib #f #fb ,industrial ,ark4 ,university ,berea ,college ,berea1 ,ky4 ,high and #ahib #b #ef ,coll4 ,colored ,bordentown1 ,gram4 and #ahib #f #ed ,industrial ,n4 ,j4 ,high ,school ,bishop ,college ,marshall1 ,tex4 ,gram4 and #ahib #e #aji ,high ,brewer ,normal ,greenwood1 ,gram4 and #ahic #a #abj ,school ,s4 ,c4 ,high ,hearne ,academy ,hearne1 ,tex4 ,high #ahic #a #ce ,shorter ,arkadelphia1 ,gram4 and #ahid #a #bj ,university ,ark4 ,high ,knox ,institute ,athens1 ,ga4 ,gram4 and #ahid #b #hg ,high ,walker ,baptist ,augusta1 ,ga4 ,high #ahid #b #fg ,institute ,chandler ,normal,lexington1 ,ky4 ,gram4 and #ahid #b #aej ,school ,high ,washburn ,beaufort1 ,n4 ,c4,gram4 and #ahid #a #gg ,seminary ,high ,state ,col'd ,normal1 ,ala4 ,high 44 #aj #bdh ,nor4 and ,ind4 ,school ,cookman ,jacksonville1 ,high 44 44 44 ,institute ,fla4 ,beach ,institute,savannah1 ,ga4 ,gram4 and 44 #g #he ,high ,allen ,thomasville1 ,high 44 #b #hj ,industrial ,ga4 ,school ,leland ,new ,orleans1 ,high and 44 44 44 ,university ,la4 ,coll4 ,new ,orleans ,new ,orleans1 44 44 44 44 ,university ,la4 ,mississippi ,holly ,springs1 ,high 44 #a #he ,state ,normal ,miss4 ,school ,state ,colored ,elizabeth ,city1,high 44 44 44 ,normal ,school ,n4 ,c4 ,plymouth ,state ,plymouth1 ,n4 ,c4,high 44 44 44 ,normal ,school ,rankin-,richards,orangeburg1 ,gram4 and 44 #bj #ded ,institute ,s4 ,c4 ,high ,slater ,training,knoxville1 ,gram4 and #abh #a #be ,school ,tenn4 ,high ,tillotson ,austin1 ,tex4 44 44 #d #ee ,institute ,emerson ,mobile1 ,ala4 ,gram4 and 44 44 44 ,institute ,high ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #fg ,manual-training ,schools #cbg #aj1ccb ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #abh ,the date given is that of establishment of school4 ,date of establishment of ,manual ,training was not ascertained in these instances4 ,,private ,,manual-,,training ,,schools ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,teachers ,grade of,date of of ,,name ,,of ,academic ,estab- ,manual ,,institution ,,location ,work lishment,training,pupils ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,massachusetts ,inst4 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,high #ahgf 44 44 of ,technology#abi ,penn4 ,school of ,philadelphia1 ,high #ahgf 44 44 ,industrial ,arts ,penn4 ,working-men's ,school,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4,grammar #ahgh #ai #cec ,miller ,manual-labor ,crozet1 ,va4 ,high #ahgh 44 #aih ,school ,washington ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,high #ahgi #ad #cjj ,university ,m4 ,t4 ,school ,girard ,college ,philadelphia ,gram4 #ahhb #aa #fej ,penn4 and ,high ,chicago ,manual- ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,high #ahic #ac #bfc training ,school ,hebrew ,technical ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4,grammar #ahhc #aa #bed ,institute ,m4 ,t4 ,school of ,new ,orleans1 ,high #ahhd #f #aad ,tulane ,university ,la4 ,h4 ,mann ,school and ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4,primary #ahhd #ab #beg ,teachers' ,coll4 to ,coll4 ,haish ,manual- ,denver1 ,col4 44 #ahhf #b #aa training ,school ,pratt ,institute ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4,high #ahhg 44 #abe ,h4 ,s4 ,newcom ,new ,orleans1 ,high and #ahhg 44 44 ,memorial ,college ,la4 ,coll4 ,sloyd ,manual- ,boston1 ,mass4 ,normal #ahhi #c #ajd training ,school ,tyler ,school ,providence1 ,gram4 #ahij #f #ccj ,r4 ,i4 and ,high ,jewish ,training ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,prim4 #ahij #bg #gjj ,school and ,gram4 ,national ,university ,chicago1 ,ill4 44 #ahij #e #ejj ,miss ,sayer's ,school ,newport1 ,r4 ,i4 ,gram4 #ahia #b #bj and ,high ,swedenborgian ,school,waltham1 ,mass4 ,grammar #ahia #a #fj ,thorp ,polytechnic ,pasadena1 ,cal4 ,gram4 to #ahib #h #cjj ,institute ,coll4 ,friends' ,select ,philadelphia1 ,high #ahib 44 #abc ,school ,penn4 ,providence ,training ,providence1 ,normal #ahic #a #di ,school for ,sloyd ,r4 ,i4 ,plainfield ,academy ,plainfield1 ,prim4 to #ahic #b #be ,n4 ,j4 ,high ,california ,school of,san ,francisco1 ,high #ahie #g #caj ,mechanical ,arts ,cal4 ,st4 ,andrew's ,rochester1 ,high #ahie #a #fj ,n4 ,y4 ,lewis ,institute ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,high and #ahif #aj #bjj ,coll4 ,free ,industrial ,san ,diego1 ,cal4,gram4 #ahif #b #hj ,school and ,high ,commons ,manual- ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,grammar #ahif #a #dj training ,school ,hull ,house ,manual- ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,gram4 #ahig #b #gj training ,school and ,high ,elmwood ,school ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 44 44 44 44 ,franklin ,school ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 44 44 44 44 ,lasell ,seminary ,auburndale1 44 44 44 44 ,mass4 ,talladega ,college ,talladega1 ,ala444 44 44 44 ,kenilworth ,academy ,kenilworth1 44 44 44 44 ,ill4 ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 ,manual- ,hartford1 ,conn444 44 44 44 training ,dep't4 ,clark ,university ,atlanta1 ,ga4 44 44 44 44 ,private ,manual- ,winnetka1 ,ill4 44 44 44 44 training ,class ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #abi ,the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology was established in #ahfe2 but in #ahgf it adopted ,manual ,training as a system into all its grades1 and thus became the first distinctive ,manual-training ,school without prejudice to its high standing as an ,institute of ,technology4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,public ,,normal ,,schools ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,manual ,teachers ,pupils ,training of ,taking ,estab- ,manual ,manual ,,name ,,of ,,school ,,location lished ,training,training ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,santee ,normal ,training ,santee ,agency1 ,neb4 #ahgj #ab #gb ,school ,cook ,county ,normal ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ahhc 44 #dej ,school#acj ,state ,normal ,school ,whitewater1 ,wis4 #ahhc #b #ajj ,state ,normal ,training ,new ,britain1 ,conn4 #ahhd #e #bec ,school ,industrial ,institute ,columbus1 ,miss4 #ahhe #a #abc and ,college ,west ,chester ,state ,west ,chester1 ,penn4 #ahhi #b #bbj ,normal ,school ,state ,normal ,school ,san ,jos1 ,cal4 #ahij #c #gjj ,georgia ,normal and ,milledgeville1 ,ga4 #ahia #ae #bhd ,industrial ,college ,state ,normal and ,model ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j4 #ahia #a #bbe ,school ,state ,female ,normal ,farmville1 ,va4 #ahia #b #ge ,school ,normal ,college of ,new ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahib #ab #beg ,york ,normal and ,industrial ,greensboro1 ,n4 ,c4 #ahib #e #cjj ,school ,keystone ,state ,normal ,kutztown1 ,penn4 #ahib #b #ajf ,school ,state ,normal ,school ,framingham1 ,mass4 #ahic #a #be ,westfield ,normal ,school,westfield1 ,mass4 #ahic #e #gj ,state ,normal ,school ,los ,angeles1 ,cal4 #ahid #b #dge ,alabama ,normal ,college ,livingston1 ,ala4 44 #a 44 for ,girls ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #acj ,the ,cook ,county 7,illinois7 ,normal ,school was originally established as a private school4 ,it is now the public training school for teachers in the public schools4 ,,private ,,trade ,,schools ,,and ,,institutes ,,of ,,technology ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,date of ,estab- ,,name ,,of ,,institution ,,location lishment,teachers,pupils ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,troy1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahbd #ah 44 ,institute ,ohio ,mechanics' ,institute ,cincinnati1 #ahbh 44 #gbj ,ohio4 ,massachusetts ,institute of ,boston1 ,mass4 #ahfe #f #bbb ,technology ,cornell ,university ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahfe #cf #eii ,worcester ,polytechnic ,worcester1 #ahfh 44 44 ,institute ,mass4 ,stevens ,institute of ,hoboken1 #ahga #bb #bef ,technology ,n4 ,j4 ,lowell ,school of ,practical ,boston1 ,mass4 #ahgb 44 #fe ,designing ,rhode ,island ,school of ,design ,providence1 #ahgh 44 #cda ,r4 ,i4 ,chicago ,college of ,horology ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ahhj 44 44 ,case ,school of ,applied ,cleveland1 #ahha #aa 44 ,sciences ,ohio4 ,school of ,ind4 ,art and ,tech4 ,new ,york1 #ahha 44 44 ,design for ,women ,n4 ,y4 ,new ,york ,trade ,school ,new ,york1 #ahha #bf #eef ,n4 ,y4 ,rose ,polytechnic ,institute ,terre ,haute1 #ahhc #f 44 ,ind4 #aca,textile ,schools ,philadelphia1 #ahhc 44 #fe ,penn4 ,milwaukee ,cooking ,school ,milwaukee1 #ahhd #b 44 ,wis4 ,newark ,technical ,school ,newark1 ,n4 ,j4 #ahhe #f #bej ,technical ,school of ,cincinnati1 #ahhf 44 44 ,cincinnati ,ohio4 ,technical ,drawing ,school ,providence1 #ahhg 44 44 ,r4 ,i4 ,cogswell ,polytechnic ,school ,san ,francisco1 #ahhh #g #aej ,cal4 ,institute for ,artisans ,new ,york1 #ahhh 44 44 ,n4 ,y4 ,watchmakers' ,trade ,school ,la ,porte1 ,ind4 #ahhh 44 44 ,institute for ,colored ,youth ,philadelphia1 #ahhi #i #bei ,penn4 ,master-,builders' ,mechanical ,philadelphia1 #ahij #f #fg ,school of ,phil'a4 ,penn4 ,lawrence ,scientific ,school of ,cambridge1 #ahia #c #fd ,harvard ,univ'ty ,mass4 ,baron de ,hirsch ,trade ,school ,new ,york1 #ahia 44 44 ,n4 ,y4 #acb,university of ,cincinnati ,cincinnati1 #ahia 44 44 ,ohio4 ,leland ,stanford ,university ,palo ,alto1 #ahia 44 44 ,cal4 ,williamson ,free ,school of ,williamson #ahia #aj #afj ,mechanical ,trades ,schools1 ,pa4 ,springfield ,industrial ,springfield1 #ahia #e #aje ,institute ,mass4 ,drexel ,institute ,philadelphia1 #ahib #ch 44 ,penn4 ,armour ,institute ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ahic #ae #cjj ,mechanics' ,institute ,rochester1 #ahic #ae #igb ,n4 ,y4 ,private ,school of ,carpentry ,racine1 ,wis4 #ahif #a #cj ,lafayette ,college ,easton1 ,penn4 44 44 44 ,vanderbilt ,university ,nashville1 44 44 44 ,tenn4 ,boston ,normal ,school of ,boston1 ,mass4 44 44 44 ,cookery ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,note4--,private trade schools for teaching watch-making1 some fifteen in number1 are united1 because no data was secured4 ,private cooking schools1 dress-making schools1 barber schools1 etc41 have within the last five years sprung up in various parts of the country4 ,some of these are of considerable importance1 but most are small1 and no effort has been made to secure reports from them4 #aca ,these schools are supported by both legislative appropriations and private endowments4 ,they are not public schools in the usual sense of the term4 #acb ,the ,university of ,cincinnati is supported by both public funds and private endowments4 ,it is unique in this1 that1 although a university in its grade of work1 it is essentially a part of the public-school system4 ,the city collects a one-tenth mill tax annually for its benefit2 and the university1 including its technical and ,manual-training course1 is free to residents of the city4 ,the necessary expenses1 such as laboratory fees1 are kept to the lowest possible limit2 and every family in the municipality is entitled to educate its children in this thoroughly equipped university1 practically without cost4 ,,technology ,,in ,,public ,,educational ,,institutions ,,of ,,collegiate ,,grade--,,exclusive ,,of ,,purely ,,agricultural ,,colleges ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,technical ,training ,estab- ,,institution ,,location lished ,teachers,pupils ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,united ,states ,naval ,annapolis1 ,md4 #ahde 44 44 ,academy ,state ,agricultural ,agricultural #aheg #ad #ccb ,college ,college1 ,mich4 ,maine ,state ,college ,orono1 ,me4 #ahfd #ac #aia ,university of ,vermont ,burlington1 ,vt4 #ahfe #aa #aai ,illinois ,university ,urbana1 ,ill4 #ahfh 44 44 ,university of ,minnesota ,minnesota1 ,minn4 #ahfi #i #aei ,university of ,tennessee ,knoxville1 ,tenn4 #ahfi #f #aej ,university of ,iowa ,ames1 ,iowa4 #ahfi #i #bhd ,kansas ,state ,agricultural,manhattan1 ,kan4 #ahgc #bj #ecj ,college ,ohio ,state ,university ,columbus1 ,ohio4 #ahgc #i #cgc ,university of ,california ,berkeley1 ,cal4 #ahgd #c #hd #acc,purdue ,university ,lafayette1 ,ind4 #ahgd #aj #bhj ,agricultural and ,college ,station1 #ahgf #af #cac ,mechanical ,college ,tex4 ,state ,agricultural ,fort ,collins1 ,col4 #ahgi #b #acg ,college ,agricultural and ,agricultural #ahhj #c 44 ,mechanical ,college ,college1 ,miss4 ,agricultural and ,blacksburg1 ,va4 #ahhj #ah #aij ,mechanical ,college ,mechanical ,college of ,baton ,rouge1 ,la4 #ahhj #a #ef ,state ,university ,storrs ,agricultural ,storrs1 ,conn4 #ahha #d #ade ,college ,agricultural and ,auburn1 ,ala4 #ahhe #d #bjj ,mechanical ,college ,arkansas ,industrial ,fayetteville1 ,ark4 #ahhe #g #aej ,university ,michigan ,mining ,school ,houghton1 ,mich4 #ahhf #aa #hb ,agricultural ,college of ,brookings1 ,s4 ,d4 #ahhg #aa #afj ,south ,dakota ,florida ,agricultural ,lake ,city1 ,fla4 #ahhh #b #fb ,college ,oregon ,state ,agricultural,corvallis1 ,ore4 #ahhh #i #bcg ,college ,agricultural ,college of ,logan1 ,utah4 #ahhi #g #aai ,utah ,new ,mexico ,college of ,messilla ,park1 #ahij 44 44 ,mechanical ,arts ,n4 ,m4 ,university of ,michigan ,ann ,arbor1 ,mich4 #ahij #e 44 ,delaware ,college ,newark1 ,del4 #ahia #c #bc ,agricultural and ,lexington1 ,ky4 #ahia #c #ca ,mechanical ,coll4 of ,kentucky ,state ,university ,columbia1 ,mo4 #ahia #b #ade ,college of ,mining ,rolla1 ,mo4 #ahia #g #bbe ,university of ,nebraska ,lincoln1 ,neb4 #ahia #c #baj ,nevada ,state ,university ,reno1 ,nev4 #ahia #a #ajf ,university of ,wyoming ,laramie1 ,wy4 #ahia #d #fj ,north ,dakota ,agricultural,fargo1 ,n4 ,d4 #ahib #b #bd ,college ,west ,virginia ,university ,morgantown1 ,w4 ,va4 #ahib #e #gi ,clemson ,agricultural ,clemson ,college1 #ahic #i #fce ,college ,s4 ,c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #acc ,purdue ,university is partially supported by endowment1 but as it secures regular appropriations1 it is here classified as a ,state ,university4 ,,industrial ,,training ,,in ,,charity ,,schools#acd ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,indus- ,teachers ,pupils trial of ,taking ,training ,indus- ,indus- ,estab- trial trial ,,name ,,of ,,school ,,location lished ,training,training ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,baltimore ,manual-labor ,arbutus1 ,md4 #ahda #b #fj ,school ,wilson ,industrial ,school ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahec #c #ajj for ,girls ,industrial ,home ,school ,washington1 #ahfg #f #fj ,d4 ,c4 ,mc,donough ,school ,mc,donough1 ,md4 #ahgc #e #adj ,south ,end ,industrial ,school,roxbury1 ,mass4 #ahhd #ba #cac ,five ,points ,house of ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahhe #i #cca ,industry ,indiana ,soldiers' ,orphans' ,kingstown1 ,ind4 #ahhe #g #hj ,home ,skyland ,institute ,blowing ,rock1 #ahhf 44 44 ,n4 ,c4 ,samuel ,ready ,school for ,baltimore1 ,md4 #ahhg #c #fj ,female ,orphans ,chicago ,waifs' ,mission and ,chicago1 ,ill4 #ahhh #c #cj ,training ,school ,industrial ,school ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahhh #h #hj ,association ,kalamazoo ,industrial ,school,kalamazoo1 #ahhi #ah #bbd ,mich4 ,industrial ,school of ,rochester1 #ahij #e #abj ,rochester ,n4 ,y4 ,industrial ,school for ,boys ,glenwood1 ,ill4 #ahij 44 #djj ,jewish ,orphan ,asylum ,cleveland1 ,ohio #ahia #h #aeg ,st4 ,george's ,boys' ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahib #f #bei ,industrial ,trade ,school ,boys' ,club in ,carpentry ,lynn1 ,mass4 #ahie #a #be ,polish ,orphans' ,home ,chicago1 ,ill4 44 44 44 ,unity ,church ,manual- ,chicago1 ,ill4 44 44 44 training ,school ,iowa ,orphans' ,home ,davenport1 44 44 44 ,iowa4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #acd ,industrial ,training1 rather than ,manual ,training1 characterizes the ,charity ,schools1 the central idea being to prepare the child for some occupation by which it can become self-supporting4 ,as will be seen by the table1 this idea found very early expression in the ,manual-labor ,school at ,arbutus1 ,maryland4 ,the co-education of mind and hand1 because of its equal1 or greater1 educational value1 was not thought of in these charity institutions until recently1 and cannot be said to obtain in any of them even now4 ,,progress ,,of ,,manual ,,training ,,by ,,years1 ,,in ,,cities ,the following table shows growth by years1 as represented by cities establishing ,manual ,training or ,kindergartens in ,public ,schools4 ,the number refers to cities adopting this feature of education in the years named4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,high ,,schools ,,grammar ,,grades,,primary ,,grades,,kindergartens ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,number ,number ,number ,number ,year of ,year of ,year of ,year of ,cities ,cities ,cities ,cities ---------------------------------------- ----------- 44 44 44 44 44 44 #ahgc #a 44 44 44 44 44 44 #ahhj #a 44 44 44 44 44 44 #ahha #a 44 44 #ahhb #a #ahhb #b #ahhb #a #ahhc #b #ahhc #a #ahhc #j #ahhc #b #ahhd #a #ahhd #c #ahhd #a #ahhd #c #ahhe #e #ahhe #c #ahhe #j #ahhe #b #ahhf #e #ahhf #e #ahhf #c #ahhf #j #ahhg #d #ahhg #a #ahhg #j #ahhg #e #ahhh #f #ahhh #h #ahhh #e #ahhh #d #ahhi #h #ahhi #d #ahhi #c #ahhi #g #ahij #g #ahij #h #ahij #b #ahij #g #ahia #aj #ahia #f #ahia #d #ahia #i #ahib #g #ahib #f #ahib #d #ahib #aj #ahic #e #ahic #aa #ahic #f #ahic #ae #ahid #g #ahid #g #ahid #d #ahid #bj #ahie #h #ahie #h #ahie #a #ahie #g #ahif #ae #ahif #ac #ahif #e #ahif #ab #ahig #h #ahig #ac #ahig #e #ahig #g #ahih #b #ahih #d #ahih #a #ahih #d #ace #e #ace #ah #ace #h #ace #bh ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ace ,not reported4 ,,note ,,on ,,state ,,laws ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,manual ,,training4 ,connecticut1 in #ahhh1 authorized and empowered school boards to introduce ,manual ,training in public schools4 ,congress appropriated #hjjj to ,manual ,training equipment in the ,district of ,columbia in #ahif4 ,in #ahhe the ,state of ,georgia passed a law authorizing and recommending school boards to introduce ,manual ,training in the public schools of the state4 ,the law was simply a moral indorsement1 and had little practical effect4 ,indiana has a law authorizing the introduction of ,manual ,training into the public schools of all cities of #ajj1jjj inhabitants or over4 ,massachusetts passed an authorizing act in #ahhd1 and on ,april #ad1 #ahid1 a law was adopted1 section one of which is as follows3 8,after the first day of ,september in the year eighteen hundred and ninety five1 every city of twenty thousand or more inhabitants shall maintain as part of its high-school system the teaching of ,manual ,training4 ,the course to be pursued in said instruction shall be subject to the approval of the state board of education40 ,in #ahhg ,new ,jersey passed a law to encourage the introduction of ,manual ,training in public schools4 ,the chief provision of the act was1 that whenever any school district should raise by taxation1 subscription1 or both1 a sum of money not less than #ajjj1 for the establishment of ,manual ,training in such school district1 the state should appropriate a sum equal to that raised by the district1 to aid in the establishment of such school2 provided that no one district should receive over #ejjj in any one year from state funds4 ,in #ahhh this law was amended so as to include districts that should raise not to exceed #ejj1 the state agreeing to duplicate the sum raised4 ,the effect of this law was very marked in #ahij1 resulting in the establishment of a large number of schools4 ,in #ahhh ,new ,york passed a law authorizing local school boards to establish ,manual ,training within their respective jurisdictions4 ,the same law makes the teaching of ,manual ,training compulsory in normal schools1 subject1 however1 to recommendations of the state superintendent of public instruction1 which provision has practically nullified it4 ,ohio has a law authorizing a tax levy of of a mill for cities of a certain size1 and of a mill for certain other cities1 in excess of other taxes2 the sums so raised to be used for the purpose of introducing ,manual ,training into the public schools4 ,in #ahie ,wyoming authorized school boards to establish ,manual ,training in the public schools4 ,in #ahie ,wisconsin authorized the establishment of ,manual ,training in its public schools providing state aid for the same1 but limiting the number to receive state aid to ten high-schools to be selected by the state superintendent of schools4 ,the best of existing state-aid laws is that of ,maryland1 enacted ,april #g1 #ahih4 ,it is very liberal and will doubtless greatly stimulate the progress of the new education in that state4 ,the ,wisconsin law gives #bej to each of its schools per year1 and the ,new ,jersey law duplicates whatever the school board raises for that purpose4 ,but the ,maryland law gives #aejj to each school the first year1 and #ej per pupil per year thereafter1 up to the limit of #aejj per school per year--enough1 probably1 to pay the entire expense of the system4 ,following is the text of the statute3 8,whereas1 ,the establishment of well-conducted and liberally supported schools1 or departments1 in one of the large graded schools or high-schools in each county of the state1 for the development and training of the manual ability of pupils1 must tend to supply a growing want in each county of the state2 and ,whereas1 ,it is especially the duty of the state to afford the best educational facilities to its youth in those technical studies which are directly associated with the material prosperity of its people2 and ,whereas1 ,it is for the best interests of this state that the colored population of each county shall have an opportunity for the establishment of separate industrial schools2 therefore1 ,,sec4 #a4 ,be it enacted by the ,general ,assembly of ,maryland1 ,that it shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners1 when a suitable building1 or room or rooms connected with one of the large graded schools or high-schools shall be provided by the county1 or money sufficient for the erection of such building1 or room or rooms1 to accept the same 7if1 in the judgment of the board1 there is any necessity therefor71 and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of a ,manual ,training school1 or ,manual ,training department1 for said county1 and the salaries of teachers and ,manual ,training instructors1 out of the general school fund and the state aid hereinafter provided4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that whenever a ,manual ,training school1 or ,manual ,training department1 is opened in any county1 the president and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said county shall report to the secretary of the state board of education1 and the state board of education shall1 without delay1 proceed to appoint the principal of the state normal school1 or one of the teachers in said school1 well qualified for such service1 to visit the school and give a certificate of approval of its condition and the plan upon which it is conducted2 and thereafter the president and secretary of the board of county school commissioners shall report to the comptroller the condition of the school1 the number of instructors1 and the number of pupils enrolled1 on or before the twentieth day of ,january in each year4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that the comptroller of the treasury1 after receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county ,manual ,training school1 or ,manual ,training department1 according to the provisions of the second section of this act1 is hereby authorized and directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for the sum of fifteen hundred dollars1 payable to the order of the treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county filing the certificate of approval aforesaid1 out of any moneys in the state treasury not otherwise appropriated1 on the first day of ,october in each year1 for the support of said ,manual ,training school1 or ,manual ,training department4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that the county ,manual ,training school1 or the ,manual ,training department and the school to which it is attached1 shall be under the management and control of the board of county school commissioners4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that it shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners of each county in this state1 whenever a suitable building1 or room or rooms connected with one of the colored schools of said county1 shall be provided by the county to accept the same1 if in the judgment of the said board there is any necessity therefor1 and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of such member number of separate colored industrial schools as in their judgment may be needed1 and the salaries of such teachers as may be required for that purpose shall be paid out of the general fund and the state aid hereinafter provided4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that whenever any such separate colored industrial school or schools are opened in any county1 the president and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said county shall report the fact to the secretary of the state board of education1 and the state board of education shall without delay proceed to appoint a proper person well qualified for such service1 to visit the said school or schools and give a certificate of approval of its condition and the plan upon which it is conducted1 and thereafter the president and secretary of the said board shall report to the comptroller of this state the condition of said school or schools1 the number of instructors and the number of pupils enrolled during the school year last ended1 on or before the #bjth day of ,august in each year4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that the comptroller of the treasury upon receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county colored industrial school or schools1 as aforesaid1 according to the provisions of the sixth section of this act1 is hereby authorized and directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for the sum of fifteen hundred dollars1 payable to the order of the treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county1 upon the filing of the certificates of approval aforesaid1 out of any moneys in the state treasury not otherwise appropriated1 on the first day of ,october in each year1 for the support of said colored industrial school or schools1 and thereafter the said industrial school or schools shall be under the management and control of the said board of county school commissioners4 ,,sec4 #h4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that no entire appropriation for the benefit of any ,manual ,training school1 provided for under this act1 shall be paid as authorized1 after the first annual appropriation1 unless said school have had an average daily attendance of thirty scholars for the preceding year2 and in case said attendance shall fall short of said number1 then there shall only be paid towards the maintenance of said school at the rate of fifty 7#ej4jj7 dollars for each scholar of its daily average annual attendance1 to be determined by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the comptroller4 ,,sec4 #i4 ,and be it enacted1 ,that no appropriation for the benefit of the colored industrial schools of any county1 provided for under this act1 shall be paid after the first annual appropriation1 unless the average daily attendance at such school or schools shall have been1 for the preceding year1 at least thirty scholars2 and in case said attendance shall fall short of said number1 then there shall be paid to the treasurer of the county school commissioners maintaining said school or schools1 only at the rate of fifty 7#ej4jj7 dollars a scholar1 for the daily average annual attendance at the same1 to be determined by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the comptroller4 ,approved ,april #g1 #ahih40 ,the report of the state superintendent of public instruction for ,michigan1 for the year #ahig1 shows that ,kindergartens exist in the public schools of the following cities and towns3 ,cities of over #djjj population as shown by state census of #ahid--;,albion1 ,big ,rapids1 ,cadillac1 ,calumet1 ,detroit1 ,escanaba1 ,grand ,haven1 ,grand ,rapids1 ,holland1 ,ionia1 ,ironwood1 ,ishpeming1 ,jackson1 ,menonimee1 ,mt4 ,clemens1 ,muskegon1 ,negamee1 ,niles1 ,st4 ,joseph1 ,traverse ,city1 ,west ,bay ,city1 ,wyandotte--twenty-two cities of over #djjj population4 ,the twenty-four cities and towns with less than #djjj population as shown by state census of #ahid1 and having ,kindergartens in their public schools1 are3 ,algonac1 ,alma1 ,au ,sable1 ,caro1 ,crystal ,falls1 ,dowagiac1 ,fremont1 ,greenville1 ,hartford1 ,houghton1 ,ithaca1 ,lake ,linden1 ,lake ,view1 ,mancelona1 ,manistique1 ,montague1 ,morenci1 ,nashville1 ,pentwater1 ,reed ,city1 ,sand ,beach1 ,stanton1 ,union ,city1 ,vassar4 ,such of these cities and towns as furnished reports will be found in the accompanying tables2 from the others no data was received4 ,two thoroughly equipped ,manual ,training schools are projected3 one1 to be in ,pullman1 ,illinois1 is to result from a bequest in the will of the late ,mr4 ,george ,m4 ,pullman1 who left a large sum for its construction1 and an annuity of #be1jjj for its maintenance2 the other school is to be built by the ,calumet and ,hecla ,mining ,company1 at ,calumet1 ,michigan4 ,both these schools will be free1 and will probably become a part of the public-school system of their respective towns4 ,the legislature of ,massachusetts in #ahih passed an act establishing a trade-school for weavers1 to be located at ,lowell1 ,massachusetts1 provided the city would raise half the money necessary for its construction1 the state to pay the other half4 ,this is the first well-defined movement in this country to establish public trade-schools to teach the trades prevailing in the locality of the school4 ,europe has many such schools4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,russia4 ,there is1 as yet1 no established national school system in ,russia4 ,the school systems of ,finland and other ,russian dependencies are provincial and local4 ,an imperial decree of ,march #g1 #ahhh1 however1 contained an elaborate plan for elementary national education1 in which ,manual ,training1 ,technical1 and ,trade education were given not only prominence but precedence4 ,the doctrine of state aid to educational institutions is1 however1 fully and liberally recognized4 ,manual ,training was founded in ,russia in #ahfh1 as mentioned in the first edition of this work1 by ,m4 ,victor ,della ,vos1 and revived and extended in #ahhd by the then ,minister of ,finance1 who sent two teachers to ,nas1 ,sweden1 to take a six weeks' course of instruction1 and a workshop for boys' hand labor was the same year established in connection with the ,teachers' ,institute in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in #ahhe this was made a permanent feature of ,teachers' ,institute work1 and an annual grant of #cjjj rubles 7#afei7 was voted2 and in #ahhg a course in metal work was added to this school4 ,in #ahhh three normal courses for instructing teachers in ,manual ,training were instituted and subsidized by the imperial government4 ,one of these at ,novaia ,ladoga trains both city and country school-teachers2 at ,riga1 city teachers only1 while at ,kiev only country teachers are trained4 ,the instruction of teachers in ,manual ,training was also made part of the teachers' institutes at ,glookhov1 ,vilna1 and ,orenboorg in #ahhi4 ,besides these there were in #ahij eleven vacation institutes1 training two hundred and fifty teachers for the work of imparting manual instruction4 ,these teachers' institutes1 vacation and permanent 7or normal schools71 have increased rapidly and received rich subsidies from the imperial treasury4 ,in #ahia the ,russian ,minister of ,war introduced ,manual ,training into all the cadet schools4 ,the most recent available data indicate the introduction of ,manual ,training into one hundred and sixteen establishments1 as follows3 four teachers' institutes1 fourteen teachers' seminaries1 four intermediate schools1 forty-four higher public schools1 and thirty-four elementary common schools4 ,a more recent report--which1 however1 is not at hand--is said to show remarkable developments in ,manual ,training in common and rural schools4 ,a brief survey of technical and trade schools in ,russia follows4 ,the technical schools at ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg are imperial schools of university grade1 richly endowed1 and reputed to be the best equipped schools in ,europe4 ,the oldest and best technical school in ,moscow below university rank1 and making no attempt to teach trades1 is the ,komisarof ,technical ,school1 founded in #ahfe by two railroad contractors4 ,it now receives government aid1 and has about four hundred pupils4 ,the ,society for the ,promotion of ,technical ,education in #ahgc founded a school called the 8,mechanical ,handicraft ,school of ,moscow40 ,the government contributes #ajjj per year to this school4 ,there are five technical schools having a grade of academic work comparable with our high schools--the ,komisarof ,technical ,school of ,moscow1 mentioned above1 founded in #ahfe2 the ,lodz1 in #ahfi2 ,irkootsk1 #ahgc2 ,kungursk1 #ahgg2 and the ,omsk1 in #ahhb4 ,the five schools had #ajeb students at date of latest available report4 ,trade-schools of grammar grade1 twenty-three in number1 had #bdgd pupils4 ,of these schools three were established in #ahfh2 one in #ahga2 two in #ahgb2 one in #ahgc2 one in #ahgd2 one in #ahge2 two in #ahgg2 one in #ahgh2 two in #ahgi2 one in #ahhj2 two in #ahhc2 two in #ahhe2 three in #ahhf2 one in #ahhg4 ,trade-schools of primary grade1 sixty-three in number1 with #befb pupils4 ,one was established in #ahfe2 one in #ahff2 two in #ahfg2 one in #ahgj2 one in #ahga2 three in #ahgb2 two in #ahgc2 five in #ahgd2 six in #ahge2 one in #ahgf2 six in #ahgg2 four in #ahgh2 three in #ahgi2 two in #ahhj2 two in #ahha2 four in #ahhb2 five in #ahhc2 five in #ahhd2 one in #ahhe2 one in #ahhf2 four in #ahhg2 two in #ahhh2 one in #ahhi4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,finland4 ,finland was the birthplace of the man who first devised and practised that method of education known as ,sloyd--a form of ,manual ,training4 ,otto ,cygneans1 of ,helsingfors ,teachers' ,seminary1 after a thorough study of ,froebel and ,pestalozzi 7to whom he gives ample credit71 originated in #aheh a system for carrying the education of the hand beyond the kindergarten into all grades of schools4 ,to ,finland also belongs the credit of being the first country to officially recognize the value of such education4 ,since #ahff 7sometimes stated #ahfh7 ,manual ,training 7,sloyd7 has been compulsory in all the elemental and normal schools of ,finland4 ,in #ahif there were four normal schools with #efi students1 and #ge1gab pupils taking ,manual ,training in the elementary schools of the cities4 ,statistics of rural schools are not obtainable4 ,in addition to these1 there were in #ahif forty-two separate and distinctively ,manual-training high-schools1 with #ajcj pupils1 besides eight industrial schools1 with #ef teachers and #chj pupils4 ,all are public schools4 ,there are technical and trade schools of all grades1 from the ,polytechnic ,school at ,helsingfors to the elementary trade and weaving schools4 ,there are seven schools where navigation is taught1 twelve weaving1 dyeing1 and sewing schools1 supported wholly or in part by the government1 fourteen elementary technical schools1 five high-grade technical schools1 and ten trade-schools other than weaving and navigation4 ,government aid is granted to all of these schools4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,england4 ,the activity of ,germany along the line of trade and technical schools1 immediately following the ,centennial ,exposition at ,philadelphia1 alarmed the people of ,england1 producing in #ahhb what has been termed a 8,technical education scare40 ,the friends of ,manual ,training1 acting upon this popular and commercial anxiety1 secured the passage of the 8,technical ,instruction ,act of #ahhi40 ,by the terms of this act the schools organized under it were not to be trade-schools2 and the construction put upon the expression 8,manual ,instruction0 makes the term practically synonymous with our term ,manual ,training4 ,the following table shows the growth of these schools4 ,the growth of cooking schools is also statistically represented in the table4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,manual ,,instruction ,,schools ,,of ,,cookery ,,and ,,date ,,number ,,of ,,schools ,,domestic ,,science ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,number of ,number of ,schools ,number of ,number of ,schools ,established ,schools ,schools ,existing in ,during ,existing in,established,number of ,,year ,year ,named ,year ,named ,year ,named,during ,year ,pupils ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #ahgf 44 44 #bi #bi 44 #ahgg 44 44 #abe #if 44 #ahgh 44 44 #agh #ec 44 #ahgi 44 44 #bbc #de 44 #ahhj 44 44 #bgf #ec 44 #ahha 44 44 #bii #bc 44 #ahhb 44 44 #cdg #dh 44 #ahhc 44 44 #dbj #gc #a1bea #ahhd 44 44 #eda #aba #g1eig #ahhe 44 44 #gae #agd #ag1ged #ahhf 44 44 #hab #ig #bd1ebf #ahhg 44 44 #iba #aji #cj1dca #ahhh 44 44 #a1jhf #afe #db1aei #ahhi 44 44 #a1cee #bfi #eg1eci #ahij #cj #cj #a1eed #aii #ff1hbj #ahia #ade #aae #a1gif #bdb #fh1bia #ahib #bhe #adj #b1aac #cag #ij1gid #ahic #dcj #ade #b1dai #cjf #ajh1aib #ahid #fgg #bdg #b1fcd #bae #abb1cbe #ahie #idi #bgb #b1gge #ada #acd1icj #acf ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #acf ,the number of pupils taking ,manual ,training cannot be given2 as an indication1 however1 it may be said that the ,london ,school ,board reports that in #ahie1 #cj1ejh boys were instructed in wood work in ,london schools alone4 ,governmental aid to drawing and ,manual ,training1 when incorporated in the curriculum of day grammar-grade schools1 evening 8continuation schools10 and teachers' training colleges1 is bestowed through the executive department1 styled 8,the ,science and ,art ,department40 ,special attention is paid to training teachers in the teachers' colleges1 so that they will be able to give instruction in ,manual ,training4 ,this is specially true to grammar-grade teachers4 ,in #ahid #ef teachers' colleges were giving ,manual ,training to #d1dcd teacher-pupils1 the government granting #ac1bij in aid of such training4 ,in #ahie1 the science and art department1 upon examinations aided #iaj elementary ,manual-training schools1 giving instruction to #fg1dgj pupils2 the amount of aid granted was #ha1ecg4 ,in #ahij a law was passed empowering county councils to use the surplus from duties on liquor to aid ,manual-training and technical schools4 ,many districts use the 8liquor money0 to establish purely ,manual-training schools1 attaching them to municipal technical schools4 ,generally1 however1 the 8liquor money0 goes to technical and art schools4 ,the report for #ahie shows #e1fii1jdf applied by local authorities to technical instruction under the 8liquor money0 law4 ,scotland secured in #ahhg a law empowering local authorities to levy a tax of a penny in the pound for the support of technical schools4 ,in #ahhi a similar law was passed for ,england4 ,the ,welsh law of #ahhi organizing intermediate schools1 recognizes and defines ,manual ,training4 ,these acts led up to the 8liquor money0 law referred to4 ,the ,city and ,guilds of ,london ,institute1 organized in #ahgf1 is the principal private promoter of technical education in ,england4 ,this organization has founded three schools of its own1 besides aiding liberally similar schools in all parts of the kingdom4 ,with the exception of the well-known ,south-,kensington school1 the ,manchester school1 and the ,birmingham schools1 the technical schools of ,england1 as well as its ,manual-training schools and kindergartens1 are of recent origin4 ,huddersfield ,technical ,school1 founded as a mechanics' institute in #ahda1 is another exceptionally old and especially good school of its class4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,switzerland4 ,as each canton regulates its own school system1 the federal constitution requiring only that education must be obligatory and free1 the same diversity of conditions exists in the cantons of ,switzerland that is found in the states of our own ,union3-- ,thus in the canton of ,geneva1 kindergartens and ,manual-training schools are a part of the public-school system1 entirely supported by public funds1 and ,manual ,training is compulsory for all male pupils1 in all grades of the public schools4 ,the gradual advance from kindergarten work to primary1 grammar1 and high-school1 makes a complete course in ,manual ,training in the schools of ,geneva--perhaps the most complete to be found in any single public-school system4 ,in other cantons1 however1 kindergartens exist generally as private institutions1 aided by public funds and contributions from societies and individuals4 ,the growth of kindergartens in ,switzerland by years cannot be shown from any data at hand2 the following table1 however1 shows the status at the date of most recent available data3 ,,pupils ,,and ,,teachers ,,in ,,kindergartens ,,of ,,switzerland ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,number of ,separate ,number of,number of ,,canton ,kindergartens ,pupils ,teachers ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,zurich #fa #c1ecb #gi ,berne #fb #b1eej #fc ,lucerne #c #bfj #f ,uri #a 44 44 ,schwytz #d #ia #d ,unterwalden #b #he #b ,zug #e #ahh #f ,freyburg #aj #iab #aj ,soleure #h 44 44 ,basel ,town #cb #b1aag #df ,basel ,land #h #deb #h ,appenzell ,outer ,rhodes #af #hdc #ai ,appenzell ,inner ,rhodes #a #fj #b ,grisons #b #hj #d ,aargau #ac 44 #ac ,ticino #bc #a1cea #dc ,vaud #afj #d1jjj #afj ,valais #c #bdi #c ,neuchtel #cf #iig #cf ,geneva #fe #c1hgb #he ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,total #eae #ba1fci #ehi ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,manual ,training for boys was introduced into the ,switzerland schools in #ahhd by ,m4 ,rudin1 who in that year instructed a class of forty teachers2 in #ahia over one hundred teachers were taking a ,manual-training course under his instruction4 ,the following table shows the growth of ,manual ,training to #ahhi1 or five years after its introduction4 ,more recent data are unfortunately not available4 ,,manual-,,training ,,classes ,,in ,,switzerland --------------------------------------- ,number of,number of,number of ,,canton ,classes ,pupils ,teachers --------------------------------------- ,zurich #ai #cje #ac ,basel #cb #eeh #ai ,saint ,gall #f #abb #h ,schaffhausen #b #abj #b ,grisons #b #dh #b ,thurgau #b #df #a ,soleure 44 #dj #a ,aargau #a 44 #a ,berne #e #age #e --------------------------------------- ,classes in ,manual ,training are reported from the cantons of ,vaud1 ,neuchtel1 ,appenzell1 ,freyburg1 and ,glarus2 but statistics are not given4 ,manual ,training for girls has been an integral part of the public schools of ,switzerland for many years1 and in practically all of the cantons this instruction is obligatory4 ,the instruction consists in knitting1 sewing1 mending1 cutting1 and fitting1 with lectures on house-keeping1 and was introduced into the schools rather for its industrial use than in recognition of its educational value4 ,switzerland early recognized the importance of technical instruction and the development of artisan skill4 ,the ,municipal ,school of ,art at ,geneva was founded in #agea1 and is intended as a school for working-men4 ,it is the oldest in ,switzerland4 ,the working-man's school at ,berne was founded in #ahbi1 and1 though a private institution1 it is subsidized by the federal government4 ,the ,polytechnic ,school at ,zurich was founded by the federal government in #ahed4 ,the ,industrial ,school in that city1 founded in #ahgc by a society1 is subsidized by the city1 canton1 and federal government4 8,the ,tecknikum0 of ,winterthur1 probably the most complete of its class of schools1 was founded as a cantonal institution in #ahgc4 ,the most extensive are the technical institutions for the education of working-men4 ,the government began the establishment of these at the beginning of this century4 ,by #ahfe1 ninety-one had been established2 in #ahhi1 eleven hundred and eighty-four of these schools1 having #bf1gaf pupils1 were reported4 ,trade-schools have sprung up everywhere1 adapting themselves to local industries and common needs4 ,the ,school of ,watchmaking1 at ,fleurier1 was founded as a private institution in #ahej1 but has been municipal property since #ahge4 ,municipal ,schools of ,watchmaking exist at ,chaux-de-,fonds1 #ahfe2 ,st4 ,imier1 #ahff2 ,locle1 #ahfh2 ,neuchtel1 #ahga2 ,bienne1 #ahgb2 ,porentruy1 #ahhc1 is a municipal and state school1 as is also that at ,soleure1 #ahhd4 ,the ,trade ,school for ,women is a private institution of ,basel1 founded in #ahgi2 that of ,berne1 in #ahhh4 ,these schools are founded by ,societies for the ,advancement of ,public ,utility1 and teach women the millinery and dress-making trades1 and give instruction in household work1 and all the means by which women can become self-supporting4 ,the societies have also founded numerous ,house-keeping ,schools1 and ,schools for ,domestic ,servants4 ,no attempt is here made to give a complete list of ,switzerland's trade-schools1 or the efforts being made to advance the skill of her artisans4 ,it is but proper1 however1 to mention the latest efforts to overcome the difficulties growing out of the decline in apprenticeship4 ,in #ahhd the ,mannheim ,trade ,unions asked for a committee of investigation into the condition of the small trades4 ,the committee reported1 recommending the adoption of a suggestion received from the ,karlsruhe ,trades ,union4 ,it was in effect1 that master-workmen who are willing to train apprentices systematically1 according to regulations prescribed by school authorities1 shall be aided by the state treasury4 ,in #ahhh ,baden appropriated #ejjj marks per annum for this purpose1 and in #ahib twenty-two trades1 or one hundred and twenty-two workshops1 having one hundred and eighty apprentices1 were subsidized4 ,in #ahie the appropriation was increased4 ,in #ahih the federal government of ,switzerland adopted the plan and purposes to greatly extend it4 ,the result of this is1 practically1 that every skilled master-workman who desires may become to a certain extent a public-school teacher1 and every factory or workshop is1 or may become1 a school-house4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,germany4 ,the officials of the regular school systems of ,germany1 while for some years past active in advancing trade-schools1 have never recognized ,manual ,training as worthy a place in the public schools1 except as regards female handiwork1 which is everywhere a part of the course in grammar and high schools for girls4 ,individuals1 and 8societies for the promotion of practical education10 must therefore take the initiative in ,manual ,training1 and this results either in private schools1 or in persuading municipal or state authorities to annex a ,manual-training department to some public school4 ,of the #cbh ,manual-training schools for boys existing in #ahib1 #abf were independent schools1 and #bjb were annexes attached to other educational institutions of various kinds4 ,special societies maintain #ej schools and #gb annexes1 of the above total1 while municipal authorities maintain #gj schools and state authorities #ff annexes4 ,the growth by years since #ahgh is shown in the following table3 ------------------------------------- ,,established ,independent ,annexes to ,schools ,other ,schools ------------------------------------- ,prior to #ahgh 44 #bf #ahgh #a 44 #ahgi #c 44 #ahhj #d #d #ahha #i #f #ahhb #d #c #ahhc #b #f #ahhd #c #aj #ahhe #b #aa #ahhf #a #i #ahhg #h #aa #ahhh #ac #aa #ahhi #ai #bc #ahij #ba #cj #ahia #bg #cf #ahib #i #af ------------------------------------- ,total #abf #bjb ------------------------------------- ,in #ahib there were #bhe teachers and #gcgd pupils in the independent schools2 #cfc teachers and #fhda pupils in the annexes1 or #fdh teachers and #ad1bce pupils in both4 ,while something had been done in ,germany in the way of trade-schools prior to that date1 the general interest and official zeal was created by the ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia in #ahgf1 when ,professor ,reuleaux cabled to ,bismarck1 8,our goods are cheap but wretched40 ,the various states began to inaugurate the educational system that had made the manufactures of ,france so superior to those of her competitor1 and from #ahgi to #ahij over #ej trade-schools were established in ,prussia4 ,some of the ,german states1 notably ,saxony and ,wrtemberg1 had early established trade-schools4 ,in #ahcg three royal labor-schools were established by the state of ,saxony2 one in #ahch1 and two in #ahdj4 ,special schools for instruction in weaving1 embroidery1 and lace-making were established2 one in #ahce1 one in #aheg1 one in #ahfa1 one in #ahff1 and one in #ahha4 ,of the #cb trade-schools in ,saxony seven have been established since #ahhf4 ,in the #bj 8,kleinstaaten0 or so-called small states of ,germany there were1 in #ahie1 #bah trade-schools having #bjdg pupils4 ,practically all of these have been established since #ahgi4 ,the city of ,berlin in #ahie reported #ba trade-schools with #hiib pupils1 #ccb teachers1 and expenditures 7exclusive of state aid7 for these schools of #abi1ajb2 besides #hj1cci spent for trade education in so-called 8continuation0 schools4 ,in ,february1 #ahig1 the number of students attending these schools in ,berlin was #ad1gej1 or #a per cent4 of the population4 ,it will be interesting1 in view of the antagonistic attitude of the school authorities to the introduction of ,manual-training methods in public schools from kindergartens up1 to note how long ,germany will follow the trade-school experiment of ,france1 without learning1 as did ,france1 to fit her boys for the trade-schools by putting their little hands to school in the kindergarten1 the primary school1 and so on through grammar and high school2 so that by the time the trade-school comes in to differentiate and accentuate special skill1 the boy will have learned equally the use and control of muscle and of mind4 ,the highest results of trade-schools upon a nation's manufactures1 and therefore upon its exports and its wealth1 cannot be realized until the ,manual-training school has furnished the educated hand as raw material for the trade-school to work upon4 ,the nation that begins with the trade-school first will have a long and expensive lesson to learn4 ,france learned it4 ,will ,germany require as long and expensive a tuition8 ,germany has1 however1 the advantage1 in that many of her private citizens1 and 8societies for practical education10 are1 as usual1 far more intelligent than her school authorities4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,france4 ,the thorough reorganization of the public schools of ,france by the law of ,june #af1 #ahha1 renders any reference to the prior system unnecessary here4 ,by this law primary education was rendered absolutely free2 and by the law of ,march #bh1 #ahhb1 compulsory education for all children between the ages of #f and #ac years was established4 ,the law of ,october #cj1 #ahhf1 systematized the public schools1 classifying and grading them1 and fixing a curriculum4 ,kindergartens admitting pupils from the ages of #b to #f years were made general by this law1 and in #ahhf-hg there were #ceig kindergartens with #edc1hci pupils4 ,in #ahie this number had grown to #dgcd kindergartens1 #gad1gcd pupils1 and #iaii teachers1 all women4 ,the government programme contemplates that ,manual ,training proper shall begin where its elements in the kindergarten leave off1 and be continued throughout the four grades of primary instruction4 ,but the full purpose of the law seems slow of realization1 for in #ahij1 four years after the passage of the law1 only #djj shop-schools of primary grade had been established1 #aja of these in ,paris4 ,manual ,training has been compulsory in all public high-schools of ,france since #ahhf4 ,these may be either independent schools or classes annexed to an elementary school4 ,in the latter case they are called cours complmentaires4 ,in #ahhf there were #af1bag boys and #eaej girls in public high-schools2 in #ahie there were #ba1iif boys and #hffj girls1 a rise of #ce per cent4 for boys and of #fh per cent4 for girls in the ten years4 ,in the cours complmentaires there were #aa1eah boys and #ebbc girls in #ahie1 an increase of #cg per cent4 for boys and #bf per cent4 for girls over the figures for #ahhf4 ,this result was not1 however1 accomplished at once4 ,there had been the usual struggle for ,manual-training schools before the law of #ahhf made them universal and compulsory4 ,the school authorities of ,paris introduced sewing into the public schools in #ahfg1 and in #ahgc ,m4 ,salicis began the introduction of ,manual ,training into what we would term grammar-schools4 ,shops were annexed to the boys' school in the ,rue ,tournefort in #ahgc4 ,from that time until the general law of #ahhf the growth was gradual4 ,there are in ,france a large number of ,manual ,apprenticeship schools4 ,they are a kind of primary trade-school4 ,prior to #ahhj various cities1 as ,paris1 ,havre1 ,rheims1 etc41 had founded apprenticeship schools4 ,private schools of the same character had been established by individuals and industrial associations4 ,the law of #ahhj organized these efforts1 assimilated all these institutions1 and brought them under the control of the public4 ,the tendency to bring all industrial institutions1 whether classical1 manual1 trade1 or technical1 under control of the state has been very marked since #ahhj in ,france1 and still more so since the law of #ahhf4 ,of the six industrial and house-keeping schools for girls in ,paris four were founded by the city2 the others were private institutions absorbed by the city--one in #ahhd1 the other in #ahhf4 ,they are of high-school grade1 and1 in addition to general domestic economy1 teach special trades to women1 such as millinery and artificial flower work4 ,the nation maintains high-class trade and technical schools in all industries important to her commerce4 ,and there can be no doubt that the excellence of her manufactures has its origin in the large number1 variety1 and excellence of her free schools4 ,the ,national ,school of ,watch-makers was founded in #ahdh by the government of ,savoy1 and reorganized by the ,french government in #ahij4 ,the ,national ,schools of ,arts and ,trades1 four in number1 are the oldest and most important of the public institutes of technology and trades4 ,the first of these was founded as a private institution in #aghj1 and became national property during the ,first ,republic4 ,the second of these schools was established in #ahjd1 the third in #ahdc1 and the fourth completed in #ahib4 ,these schools instruct fully in the mechanical arts1 the purpose being to educate at public expense thoroughly equipped superintendents and masters of workshops for industrial establishments4 ,such1 too1 is the purpose of the ,central ,school of ,arts and ,manufactures at ,paris1 which1 founded as a private institution in #ahbi1 became the property of the state in #aheg4 ,schools of ,mining1 such as the one at ,houghton1 ,michigan1 are located1 one at ,paris 7,national ,high-school of ,mines72 one at ,st4 tienne 7,school of ,mines72 and schools for master miners at ,alais and at ,douai4 ,the ,national ,conservatory of ,arts and ,trades1 founded by the ,national ,convention in #agid1 began in #ahai1 under special ordinance of the government1 gratuitous courses of instruction upon the application of the sciences and industrial arts4 ,it is to industrial education what the ,college of ,france is to classicism and 8pure science0--whatever that may mean4 ,no attempt is here made to give a complete list of the trade and technical schools of ,france1 whether public or private4 ,they are exceedingly numerous1 and cover every phase of industry4 ,the purpose here1 however1 is to call attention to the fact that ,france began with trade-schools1 and1 after a hundred years of experimenting with trade and technical institutions1 she reached the wisdom embodied in the laws of #ahhf and #ahij1 which provide for the training of the hand of the child in the kindergarten and continuously throughput the school age1 thus furnishing aptest possible pupils for her higher trade and technical institutes1 and the greatest possible development of skill for her industries4 ,the character of her manufactures shows the importance of the scholar in industry4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,italy4 ,discussions in #ahhb and #ahhe led to an official adoption of ,manual ,training in normal schools in #ahib1 when twenty selected teachers were given one month's gratuitous training4 ,in #ahic ,sloyd was made obligatory in the practice department of all normal schools4 ,in #ahic1 #cd men and #cd women teachers were taking the ,manual-training course at ,repatrausone4 ,the school authorities in ,italy acting upon the ,english idea of teaching ,manual ,training to the teachers first1 and so interest them that they will introduce ,sloyd into the elementary schools of their districts4 ,beyond the statement that ,manual ,training was experimentally taught to #djj pupils in ,genoa in #ahib1 no data is at present obtainable as to the success of this plan4 ,there are #aid industrial schools1 seeking to teach special industries4 ,in #ahhg there were #dai technical schools1 of more or less importance1 and #gd institutes of secondary technology4 ,with the exception of the ,aldini-,valeriani institute in ,bologna1 founded in #ahcd1 and the ,scuola ,professionale at ,foggia1 established by the state in #ahgb1 the trade and technical schools of ,italy seem to be of recent origin4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,belgium4 ,the law of ,july #a1 #ahgi1 reorganizing the public-school system of ,belgium1 made kindergartens a universal and integral part of the public schools4 ,children are admitted at #c years of age1 remaining till seven4 8,at ,brussels1 ,liege1 and ,verviers1 experimental transition classes exist1 which prolong kindergarten methods in the primary grades1 the ,manual-training exercises of ,froebel reappearing in the primary schools1 and there developing into some simple form of actual hand labor1 with paper1 pasteboard1 or clay4 ,the results have been very satisfactory40 ,in #ahia the city of ,liege reported #dgag children attending public kindergartens4 ,a normal school for training kindergarten teachers is maintained at ,liege4 ,in #ahij ,belgium maintained #ajdb kindergartens having #ajd1gfj pupils4 ,the movement to generalize ,manual ,training in the public schools began in #ahhb1 took definite shape three years later1 and by #ahhg the state made ,manual ,training obligatory in all state normal schools1 sixteen in number4 ,fifty cities also reported ,manual ,training established in their public schools in #ahhh4 ,the more recent reports1 while not given much to statistics1 show satisfactory growth in the system4 ,schools of apprenticeship and of trade have received more encouragement in ,belgium than ,manual ,training has in the schools of grammar and high-school grades4 ,apprenticeship schools to teach lace-making to the indigent peasantry were established by the state as early as #aggf4 ,with the introduction of machinery1 and the expansion of industries1 the character of these schools was changed4 ,abuses grew up4 ,academic tuition was abandoned for work1 and the schools practically turned over to financial interests of the exploiters of the labor of children4 ,a reorganization occurred in #ahij when the state subsidized some forty of these apprenticeship schools1 and abolished many others4 ,trade-schools of every variety1 from the schools for fishermen at ,ostend and ,blankenberg to the famous trade-schools of ,brussels1 abound in ,belgium4 ,while these schools are for the most part private schools1 they are usually subsidized by the city or local government4 ,the industrial school at ,ghent is a technical school of importance founded in #ahbh4 ,that at ,tournay was opened in #ahda4 ,these are the oldest schools of their type in ,belgium4 ,a new impetus was given to these schools in #ahhe1 and from that date many have sprung up in all parts of the country1 the local industries determining the character of the trade-schools4 ,the trade-school at ,ghent1 established in #ahij1 is the best expression of modern methods1 as distinguished from the early ideas represented by ,tournay4 ,this school was overcrowded with pupils in #ahib4 ,the state grants a subsidy of #fjjj francs 7#aaeh71 and the province also aids the school4 ,in #ahhi1 #ed industrial schools were reported in ,belgium4 ,in #ahgb a house-keeping school for girls was established by ,m4 ,smits1 of ,couillet1 the first of its kind in ,belgium4 ,in #ahij there were #afj1 and in #ahib1 #bej such schools1 and classes in house-keeping attached to other schools4 ,practically all of these were either public schools or free classes in private institutions4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,austria4 ,in ,austria no attempt is made to combine in the same institutions the discipline of shop-work and the academics of the public schools4 ,the first shop-school was established in ,vienna by a private association1 ,august #aj1 #ahhc4 ,the second followed1 ,february #af1 #ahhg4 ,in #ahhd a normal school for the training of ,manual-training teachers was established4 ,at ,budapest a ,manual-training school was organized by private initiative in #ahhf4 ,the municipal statutes almost immediately required one such school to be maintained by each school district1 and in #ahhi there were in the twelve districts sixteen such schools4 ,one unimportant trade-school dates back to #ahga2 but with the exception of the work done in ,vienna and ,budapest1 and a few so-called 8continuation schools0 and trade-schools1 nothing of importance was done by ,austria until #ahif4 ,the activity of the empire since the latter date has been directed towards the establishment of apprenticeship schools4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,sweden1 ,,norway1 ,,and ,,denmark4 ,from ,finland the new educational ideals developed by ,otto ,cygnaeus spread to ,sweden1 and thence to the world at large4 ,dr4 ,salomon of ,nas introduced ,manual ,training 7,sloyd7 into his school in #ahgb1 and in #ahgh there were #ajc ,sloyd schools in ,sweden4 ,in #ahgi there were #afc2 in #ahhj1 #bcd2 in #ahha1 #cjj2 in #ahhb1 #cgg2 in #ahhc1 #dfc2 in #ahhd1 #ehd2 in #ahhe1 #gbg2 in #ahhf1 #hgb2 in #ahhg1 #iia2 in #ahhh1 #aafg2 in #ahij1 #abgh2 in #ahia1 #adib2 in #ahib1 #afbd2 in #ahic1 #aghg2 in #ahid1 #ahhg2 in #ahie1 #bdhc2 or an increase of #bchj in #ag years4 ,in #ahgg parliament voted #djjj per annum to advance ,sloyd instruction2 in #ahia this was increased to #cj1jjj per annum1 in addition to amounts given by provincial authorities1 agricultural and private societies1 and parish authorities4 ,the ,nas seminary for the instruction of teachers of ,sloyd 7,dr4 ,salomon's school7 reports that #bfbg teachers of ,sloyd had been taught between #ahge and #ahif4 ,in the ,sloyd teachers training-school at ,stockholm #egc women instructors were taught in the years from #ahhe to #ahig1 inclusive4 ,there are #cb evening and holiday schools1 which in #ahie received a subsidy of #ab1jfj4 ,there is no definite data on ,manual ,training in ,norway earlier than #ahhi1 though ,sloyd had doubtless been introduced from adjacent countries prior to that time4 ,by law1 however1 ,sloyd was made compulsory in all city elementary and intermediate grade schools in #ahib1 and optional in village schools4 ,in #ahia1 #ejfj was given as a subsidy for teaching ,sloyd in #agh schools4 ,the number of students in rural elementary schools in which ,sloyd is optional is given at #bcf1afa2 number of students in city schools where ,sloyd is compulsory1 #eh1hga4 ,in #ahhc the first ,danish ,sloyd school was established4 ,the ,copenhagen ,seminary for instructing teachers of ,sloyd was established in #ahhe4 ,in #ahhh1 #df schools reported ,sloyd courses with #bjjj pupils under instruction2 this number in #ahhi had grown to #ei1 and in #ahif to #aad4 ,of this latter number #cj are regular ,sloyd schools2 the others educational institutions having ,sloyd as a part of the course4 ,in #ahij1 #dcfh was appropriated to further the introduction of ,sloyd into the schools of ,denmark4 ,in this connection must be mentioned the 8,home ,industry0 schools of ,denmark4 ,not less than #ejj of these schools exist1 generally attached to other schools1 and supported by #djj societies for promotion of home industries and by state aid4 ,it was the powerful advocacy of these schools by their champion1 ,clauson-,kaas1 that delayed the introduction of ,sloyd into ,danish schools until #ahhc1 when the influence of ,professor ,mikkelsen began to gain the ascendency4 ,not only was ,clauson-,kaas a powerful man in his advocacy of these home industry schools1 but equally vociferous and partisan in his opposition to ,manual ,training or ,sloyd as a means of education and intellectual development4 ,in the terrific strife of partisan school-teachers as to what constituted education1 the schools of ,denmark not only deteriorated but were wellnigh closed4 ,that the home industry schools had their use is witnessed by the fact that practically every ,danish housewife is not only an expert needlewoman and house-keeper1 but expert in all those arts that go by the name of female handicraft4 ,grade schools and technical education have not developed greatly in ,scandinavian countries4 ,sweden has two important schools for weaving1 the ,eskilstuna school for metal-workers1 and four technical schools4 ,norway has two schools for teaching the wood-carver's trade1 two of carpentry1 a school for mechanics1 three technical schools1 and four industrial schools for women4 ,apart from the numerous schools of home industries1 difficult if not impossible to classify1 ,denmark has a trade-school for shoemakers1 and one of considerable importance for watch-makers4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,the normal course in the ,netherlands includes ,manual ,training for boys1 it being the intention to teach teachers first1 and to establish ,manual ,training in the schools later4 ,there are a large number of trade and apprenticeship schools1 the government taking far more interest in these than in ,manual ,training4 ,in #ahie there were twenty 8,ambachtscholen0 7for training tinners1 carpenters1 and dyers71 with #bbie students4 ,there are forty-eight industrial schools4 ,,manual ,,training ,,in ,,argentine ,,republic4 ,january #ac1 #ahif1 a commission was appointed to report a plan for the introduction of kindergartens and ,manual ,training into the public-school system4 ,in #ahig the report was made1 and its recommendations were enacted into a law going into effect ,january #a1 #ahih4 ,the introduction of ,manual ,training is to begin with the national colleges1 sixteen in number1 with #bfbi pupils2 the normal schools1 thirty-five in number1 with #aggj pupils4 ,ultimately under the law ,manual ,training will be adopted in the #cgdi elementary schools1 having #bfd1bid pupils1 though no statistics are at hand showing to what extent this has been already accomplished4 ,the papers presented before the commission which sat through ,february1 #ahif1 were upon the importance of kindergartens as a basis for ,manual ,training2 ,manual ,training as a means of education2 ,manual ,training from the hygienic standpoint1 etc4 ,some speakers favored industrial rather than ,manual-training schools1 but the commission reported that the system of ,sloyd used at ,nas1 ,sweden1 with certain modifications to suit local conditions1 was the proper one to adopt4 ,the kindergarten system recommended is purely ,froebelian4 ,from one of the papers read before the commission it is learned that ,manual ,training is a recognized part of the course of instruction in the national colleges of ,uruguay1 and to some extent in its elementary schools4 ,definite data for ,uruguay schools are not1 however1 at hand4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,abstract ideas regarded as of more vital importance than things1 #ahe4 ,adam1 legend of1 and the stick1 #aeg4 ,adams1 ,charles ,francis1 ,jr41 arraigns the schools of ,massachusetts for automatism1 #bja2 declares that1 in the public schools1 children are regarded as automatons1 etc41 #bje4 ,adler1 ,prof4 ,felix1 declaration of in note1 that manual training promotes rectitude1 #adb2 unique educational enterprise of1 in ,new ,york ,city1 #cdb2 extracts from report of1 as to purposes of the 8model school101 #cdd1 #cde4 ,age of force1 the1 is passing away1 #cjc4 ,age of science and art1 the1 has begun1 #cjc4 ,agricola1 noted for the practice of the most austere virtue1 #bgd2 after great services1 was retired1 #bgd4 ,agricultural colleges1 manual training in twelve1 of the ,state1 #cda4 ,agriculture nearly perishes in the ,middle ,ages--prevalence of famines1 #bha4 ,alabama1 ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college of1 adopts manual training1 #cee4 ,alcibiades kept not his patriotism when he was being wronged1 #bee4 ,alison1 his theory of the cause of the decline of ,rome1 #fc4 ,altruism1 stability of government depends upon1 #ace4 ,america1 discovery of1 the crowning act of man's emancipation from the gloom of the ,dark ,ages1 #bhf2 gives wings to hope1 #bhg2 startles the people of ,europe from the deep sleep of a thousand years1 #bhg2 a great blow to prevailing dogmatisms1 #cjg2 completes the figure of the earth1 rendering it susceptible of intelligent study1 #cjg4 ,america1 early immigration to1 consisted of ,puritans and ,cavaliers1 ,germans1 ,frenchmen1 and ,irishmen1 #cjf2 destined to become the home of an old civilization1 #cjf2 the manner in which the colonists of1 treated the natives showed the ,roman taint of savagery1 #cjf2 ,european social abuses exaggerated in1 #cbc2 the eyes of mankind rest upon1 alone with hope1 #cbc4 ,americans1 are transplanted ,europeans controlled by ,european mental and moral habitudes1 #cbc2 will not vote away their right to vote1 #cbd1 #cbe4 ,anaxagoras1 his characterization of man as the wisest of animals because he has hands1 #aeb4 ,ancients1 reverence due them for their art triumphs1 #gc2 temples of1 remained long as instructors of succeeding generations1 #gc2 educational theory of1 contrasted with that of moderns1 #abc2 ignorance of1 on the subject of physiology1 #aec2 speculative philosophy the only resource of1 #aec2 slow growth of1 in morals due to the fact of their neglect of the education of woman1 #cff2 contempt of1 for children1 #cfg4 ,anossoff1 a ,russian general1 experiments of1 in the effort to produce ,damascus steel1 #gb4 ,antwerp1 ,flemish silk-weavers of1 flee to ,england upon the sacking of1 #cd4 ,apollo1 bronze statue of1 at ,rhodes1 #dg4 ,apprentice system1 the1 gives skilled mechanics to ,england1 #aha4 ,apprentices better educated than school and college graduates1 #bci4 ,architecture1 limit of1 attained in ,greece and ,rome1 #gc4 ,aristocracy1 alliance of1 with the kings1 #bij4 ,arithmetic1 automatism in teaching it in the schools of the ,united ,states1 as shown by the ,walton report1 #aig2 ,colonel ,parker's declaration in regard to the defective methods of instruction in1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,arnold1 ,john1 inventor of the chronometer1 #hf2 his ingenious watch1 of the size of twopence and weight of sixpence1 #hf4 ,art1 its cosmopolitan character1 #ab2 the product of a sequential series of steps1 #gc2 the preservation of a record of each step essential to progress1 #gc2 printing makes every invention in1 the heritage of all the ages1 #bhf2 triumphs due to the laborer1 #bid2 ignored in educational systems1 #cbf4 ,artisan1 the1 embodies the discoveries of science in things1 #ac2 more deserving of veneration than the artist1 #gd2 regarded with disdain by statesmen1 lawyers1 littrateurs1 poets1 and artists1 #ahe2 education of1 more scientific than that of merchants1 lawyers1 judges1 etc41 #bbg2 training of1 is objective1 #bca2 intuitively shrinks from the false1 and struggles to find the truth1 #bca2 always in the advance1 #bdb4 ,artists more highly esteemed than engineers1 machinists1 and artisans1 #ahe4 ,arts1 the fine1 not so fine as the useful1 #gd2 can exist legitimately only as the natural outgrowth of the useful arts1 #bgi2 the so-called fine arts must wait for the expansion and perfection of the useful arts1 #chc2 civilization and the1 are one1 #chd4 ,arts1 the useful1 finer than the so-called fine arts--their processes more intricate1 #gd2 no limit to their development except the exhaustion of the forces of nature1 #gd2 neglect of1 by all the governments of the world is amazing1 #agf2 ,plato's contempt of1 #agf2 no instruction is given in the public schools1 #aha2 slavery's brand of shame still upon1 #aij2 no such failure of the1 as there is of justice1 #bbg2 the true measure of civilization1 #bdg2 depend upon labor1 #bgh2 precede the fine arts1 #bgi2 unknown in the ,middle ,ages1 #bha2 stagnation in1 is the death of civilization1 #bhc4 ,athenians and ,spartans as thieves1 #bee4 ,atkinson1 ,edward1 declares that the perfection of our almost automatic mechanism is achieved at the cost not only of the manual but of the mental development of our men1 #bja4 ,attention--the equivalent of genius1 #chj4 ,aurelius1 ,marcus1 sublime moral teachings of1 #ach4 ,austria1 ,emperor of1 has a suit of clothes made from the fleece in eleven hours1 #hg2 increases her debt each year1 #bif4 ,authority1 in the ,middle ,ages1 chilled courage1 #bhd4 ,automata1 of the ancients--hint of modern automatic tools in1 #h2 of the moderns1 triumphs of mechanical genius1 #hf4 ,automatism1 of mind and body1 #aia2 of mind promoted by the environment of modern life1 #aib2 promotion of1 by the schools1 #aic2 in the schools of ,norfolk ,county1 ,mass41 as shown by the ,walton report1 #aif2 as shown in the ,walton report in grammar1 in arithmetic1 in reading1 in penmanship1 in spelling1 and in composition1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii2 a final and conclusive test of the prevalence of1 in the schools1 #bjd4 ,b4 ,babylon1 the hundred brazen gates of1 #ee2 influence of ideas of1 in full force in the ,united ,states down to the time of the emancipation proclamation of ,president ,lincoln1 #aij4 ,bacon1 ,lord1 the school he wished for1 #b2 his aphorism1 #d2 his apothegm on the sciences1 #ac2 condemns the old system of education1 #abf2 his opinion of the universities1 #abg2 his proposal that a college be established for the discovery of new truth1 #ahe2 his proposal to bring the mind into accord with things1 #bde2 foresees the kindergarten and the manual training school1 #bde2 celebrated aphorism of1 has had but little influence upon the methods of our public schools1 #cbe2 the basis of his philosophy of things1 #cgd4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 his daring prediction of mechanical wonders1 #ih4 ,ballot1 power of1 in the ,united ,states1 #cbd4 ,baltimore1 ,md41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,bamberger1 ,mr4 ,g41 ,principal of the ,workingman's ,school1 ,new ,york ,city--extracts from report of1 on purposes of the school1 #cdc1 #cdd4 ,barnesville1 ,o41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,belfield1 ,dr4 ,henry ,h41 ,director of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 #cdf2 his early appreciation of the mental value of manual training1 #cdh2 extracts from the inaugural address of1 #cdh-cea4 ,bell1 ,sir ,charles1 his great discovery of the muscular sense1 #adf2 his definition of the office of the sixth sense1 #adf4 ,bells1 that of ,pekin1 ,china1 #dg2 that of ,moscow1 #dg2 they show an intimate knowledge of the founder's art1 #dh4 ,bernot1 ,m41 inventor of file-cutting machine1 #ia4 ,bessemer1 ,sir ,henry1 his birth and early training1 #afb2 his appearance in ,london1 a poor young man--his first invention1 #afb2 as young ,gladstone enters the ,treasury1 he retires an unsuccessful suitor for the just reward of genius and toil1 #afc2 his burning sense of outrage1 #afc2 announcement of his discovery of a new process in steel-making1 #afd2 his declaration that he could make steel at the cost of iron received with incredulity1 #afe2 his process of steel-making a complete success in #ahfj1 #afe2 compared with ,mr4 ,gladstone1 #afe1 #aff2 description of the process that revolutionized the steel manufacture1 #aff1 #afg2 value of process of1 #afg2 the government of ,england slow in honoring1 #afh2 comparison between the life and services of1 to man and those of ,mr4 ,gladstone and ,mr4 ,disraeli1 #afh1 #afi2 stands for the new education1 #afi4 ,black-walnut1 its natural history studied in the wood-turning laboratory1 #cf2 its structure1 growth1 and uses1 #cg2 the poet ,bryant's great tree1 #cg4 ,blatchford1 ,e4 ,w41 ,president of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,blatchford ,literary ,society1 an organization of students of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 #cdh4 ,blow1 ,miss ,s4 ,e41 in formulating the theory of the kindergarten1 describes the method equally of the savage and the manual training school1 #bah1 #bai4 ,board of ,trade of ,chicago1 the speculative trades in futures on1 are fifteen times more than the sales of grain and provisions1 #cbb4 ,body1 contempt of the1 by the ancients1 led to contempt of manual labor1 #aee4 ,book-makers1 the1 writing the lives of the old inventors in the temple of fame1 #aga4 ,books1 the sure promise of universal culture1 #bhg2 the precursor of the common school1 #bhg4 ,boston1 the streets of1 in which patriots had struggled for liberty1 now echoed the groans of the slave1 #caa2 manual training in1 #cda4 ,boy1 the civilized1 is not trained in school for the actual duties of life1 #aha2 is taught many theories1 but not required to put any of them in practice1 #aha2 is in danger of the penitentiary until he learns a trade or profession1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,boys1 ninety-seven in a hundred1 who graduate from the public schools and embark in mercantile pursuits1 fail1 #bbg4 ,brain1 the1 its absorbing and expressing powers--diagram illustrating1 #aic2 the healthy education of1 consists in giving to the expressing side power equal to that of the absorbing side1 #aic1 #aid2 the functions of the absorbing side extended1 while those of the expressing side are restricted--diagram illustrating1 #aid2 functions of the expressing side of1 increased by adding drawing and the manual arts1 #aie4 ,bramah1 ,joseph1 inventor of automatic tools1 #hd4 ,breighton helps to solve the steam-power problem1 #ae4 ,bridge1 the first iron1 across the ,severn1 one hundred years old1 but likely to last for centuries1 #bda4 ,bridgman1 ,laura1 used the finger alphabet in her dreams1 #aej4 ,brindley1 ,james1 sketch of the life of1 #agb2 a common laborer--a millwright's apprentice--a man of honor--an illiterate1 but a genius and an originator of great canal enterprises1 #agb-age2 the engineer of the ,duke of ,bridgewater1 #agc2 his 8castle in the air0 and 8river hung in the air10 #agc2 his obstinacy1 poverty1 and poor pay for splendid services of which he was robbed by the duke1 #agd2 his life and career typical of a score of biographies presented in ,mr4 ,smiles's 8,lives of the ,engineers10 #age4 ,bronze1 castings of1 in the ruins of ,egypt and ,greece1 #df4 ,brooklyn ,bridge illustrates the necessity of practical training for the civil engineer1 #ig4 ,brown1 ,john1 ,captain1 in the presence of his exultant but half-terrified captors1 #bce2 defying the constitution1 the laws1 and public sentiment in the interest of the cause of justice1 #bcf4 ,bruno1 his fate1 condemned by the ,inquisition and burned as a heretic1 #agh2 persecution of1 a link in the chain of progress1 #bhg4 ,buckle1 ,henry ,thomas1 his testimony to the practical uses of imagination1 #ch2 his scathing arraignment of ,english statesmen and legislators1 #afj2 his declaration that the best ,english laws are those by which former laws are repealed1 #ahg2 his declaration in regard to the obstinacy and stupidity of ,english legislators1 #bdb4 ,budget1 the ,european1 shows that the standing armies are the overshadowing feature of the situation1 #bij2 the portion of1 that goes to the maintenance of the standing armies1 #bia4 ,burgos1 manufactures of1 destroyed by the expulsion of the ,moors from ,spain1 #bhc4 ,c4 ,csar preferred to ,cato1 whose patriotism was above question1 #bgd2 commentaries of1 in all the world's universities1 #bge4 ,caligula1 his pleasure in witnessing the countenances of dying gladiators1 #ach4 ,camillus honored in the early days of ,rome1 #bgd4 ,carlyle1 his apostrophe to tools1 #g4 ,carpenter's laboratory1 class of students at the black-board in1 discussing the history and nature of certain woods1 #ba2 working drawings of the lesson put on the black-board by the instructor in1 #be2 parts of the lesson executed by the instructor in1 #be2 new tools introduced1 and their care and use explained1 #be2 the students at their benches in1 making things1 as busy as bees1 #bf2 a call to order and a solution of the main problem of the day's lesson1 #bf2 a tenon too large for its mortise1 #bi4 ,caste1 a tendency to1 disclosed in all history1 #bdh2 illustration of1 the earliest--the chief of the brawny arm1 #bdh2 illustrations of1 in savage and half-civilized communities1 #bdh1 #bdi2 in ,egypt--in ,india1 #bdi2 in the ,united ,states1 #cac4 ,castile1 manufactures of1 destroyed by the expulsion of the ,moors from ,spain1 #bhc4 ,castle of the ,middle ,ages1 the home of music and chivalry1 #bhj4 ,cato a type of ,roman persistence in the path of conquest1 #bfd2 patriotism and virtue of1 #bgd4 ,centennial ,exposition1 exhibit of models of tool-practice in the ,imperial ,technical ,school1 ,moscow1 ,russia1 at the1 #cca4 ,charcoal1 the forests of ,england swept away to provide it for the smith's and smelter's fires1 in the early time1 #fc4 ,charlemagne1 attempt of1 to reconstruct a worn-out civilization1 #bhj2 neglect of the education of the people the cause of the failure of1 #bhj4 ,chatham1 ,lord1 declaration of1 that the ,american colonies had no right to make a nail or a horseshoe1 #bjc4 ,chicago1 comparison of1 with ancient ,rome1 #ach4 ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 description of building1 #a2 its main purpose intellectual development1 #c2 theory of1 #d2 engine-room of1 #ad2 engine of1 doing duty as a school-master1 #ad2 an epitome of1 in the engine-room1 #ae2 its purpose not to make mechanics1 but men1 #ch2 conditions of admission to1 #ajf2 detail of questions used in examination of candidates for the first class in1 #ajf-aaj2 curriculum of1 #aaj1 #aaa2 optional studies of1 #aaa2 blending of manual and mental instruction in1 #aaa2 missionary character of1 #aaa2 the only independent educational institution of the kind in the world1 #cde2 owes its origin entirely to laymen1 #cde2 established by an association of merchants1 manufacturers1 and bankers1 #cde1 #cdf2 incorporated ,april #aa1 #ahhc1 #cdf2 corner-stone of1 laid ,september #bd1 #ahhc1 #cdf2 opened ,february #d1 #ahhd1 #cdj2 officers and trustees of association of1 #cdf2 object of1 mental and manual culture1 #cdg2 equipment of1 #cdg2 library of1 #cdg2 ,dr4 ,henry ,h4 ,belfield director of1 #cdh4 ,chicago ,tribune1 criticism of the methods of the public schools by the1 #cdf2 columns of1 opened to the author1 #cdf2 effect of advocacy of manual training by the1 #cdf4 ,child1 the1 becomes father of the man1 in the cradle1 the nursery1 and at the fireside1 #cfe2 contempt of1 by the ancients1 #cfg4 ,chipping1 filing1 and fitting laboratory1 #hh2 course in the1 #hh2 the ante-room to the machine-tool laboratory1 #hh4 ,christian religion1 the1 its failure to save ,rome1 #adj4 ,cicero1 his doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man1 #aci2 forecasts the doom of the ,roman ,republic1 but has no remedy for the public ills to propose1 #bgb2 without moral courage1 #bgc4 ,cincinnatus found at the plough1 #bfh4 ,cities1 rapid concentration of population in1 #acg2 plague-spots on the body politic1 #acg2 dominated by selfishness1 #acg2 statistics of increase of population in1 #cac1 #cad2 the chief sources of society disturbances1 #cad4 ,city1 the modern1 the despair of the political economist1 #acg2 the centre of vice1 #acg2 pen-picture of its vices and crimes1 #adj2 picture of vice in1 #cad4 ,city of ,new ,york1 ,college of1 manual training in1 #ceb2 first report of the industrial educational association of1 gives a list of thirty-one schools in1 where industrial education is furnished 7note71 #ceb4 ,civil engineer1 the modern1 must be familiar with all the processes of the machine-tool shop1 #ig2 his works may be amended1 but never repealed1 #ahg2 more competent than the railway president1 the lawyer1 the judge1 or the legislator1 #bbe2 trained in things1 #bbe4 ,civilization1 progress of1 depends upon progress in invention and discovery1 #fe2 a growth from the state of savagery1 #aca2 evils of1 flow from mental development wanting the element of rectitude1 #acb2 contrast presented by that of ,italy in the fifteenth century1 and that of ,america in the nineteenth1 #bcd2 difference between1 and barbarism1 #bdd2 the useful arts the true measure of1 #bdg2 the product of education1 #bdh2 of ,greece sprang from mythology and ended in anarchy1 #bed2 languishes in an atmosphere of injustice1 #bgh2 the trinity upon which it rests is justice1 the useful arts1 and labor1 #bgh2 ,american1 has not borne new social fruits1 #cbc4 ,clark1 ,john ,s41 his elaborate exposition of the defects of existing educational methods1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie4 ,claudius1 under the favor of1 ,seneca amassed a vast fortune1 #bgc4 ,clement1 ,joseph1 great ,english inventor of the eighteenth century1 #hd2 his two improvements in the slide-rest1 and the medals he received for them1 #ib4 ,cleveland1 ,o41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,coal1 subject of production1 cost1 demand1 and supply discussed in forging laboratory1 #fb2 history of application of1 to useful arts1 #fc2 prejudice against use of mineral1 in the beginning of the seventeenth century1 #fd2 smelting with mineral1 successfully introduced in ,england in #agff1 #ff4 ,coalbrookdale ,iron-works1 mineral coal first used at1 for smelting purposes1 #fe1 #ff4 ,columbus1 in proving that the world is round1 frees mankind1 #bhf2 sounds the death-knell of intellectual slavery1 #bhf1 #bhg4 ,comenius1 the school he struggled in vain to establish1 #b2 his theory of learning by doing1 #ac2 condemns the old system of education1 #abf2 his definition of education1 #abg2 foresees the kindergarten and the manual training school1 #bde4 ,commerce1 early1 of ,america1 so insignificant that in #aghd eight bales of cotton shipped from ,south ,carolina were seized by the custom authorities of ,england on the ground that so large a quantity could not have been produced in the ,united ,states1 #bjc4 ,commercial ,club1 the1 founds the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 #b2 guarantees #ajj1jjj for its support1 #c2 meeting of1 ,march #be1 #ahhb1 #cdf4 ,common-school system of the ,united ,states1 glaring defects of1 shown by the ,walton report1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii4 ,composition1 automatism in teaching1 in the schools of the ,united ,states1 as shown by the ,walton report1 #aii4 ,compton1 ,prof4 ,alfred ,g41 on the exacting nature of the demands made upon instructors by the new education1 #ceb4 ,concrete1 progress can find expression only in the1 #aea1 #aeb2 a lie always hideous in the1 #bbd4 ,connecticut1 manual training in ,state ,normal ,school1 #cdb2 legislature of1 adopts manual training as part of the course of public instruction1 #cfj4 ,contempt1 in the ,middle ,ages1 withered hope1 #bhd4 ,convent1 of the ,middle ,ages1 the home of religion and of art1 #bhj4 ,cook ,county ,normal ,school1 ,ill41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,cooley1 ,lieut4 ,mortimer ,e41 letter of1 to the author on effects of manual training in the ,university of ,michigan1 #cfc4 ,cordova the abode of wealth1 learning1 refinement1 and the arts1 #bhb4 ,corporate power unduly promoted by reckless legislation on the subject of land in the ,united ,states1 #cbj4 ,corporations1 a creation of yesterday1 the product of steam1 #cbj2 almost as indestructible as landed estates1 #cbj2 men trained from generation to generation to the care of1 #cbj4 ,cort1 ,henry1 an ,english inventor of the eighteenth century1 #hd2 experiments of1 with a view to the improvement of ,english iron1 #aae4 ,cotton-gin1 the1 trebled the value of the cotton-fields of the ,south1 #afj4 ,cotton ,exchange of ,new ,york1 speculative trades in futures on1 thirty times more than the actual cotton sales1 #cbb4 ,crane1 ,r4 ,t41 ,vice-,president of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,cranege1 the ,brothers1 inventors of the reverberatory furnace1 #ff4 ,crerar1 ,john1 ,trustee of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,crusaders1 their astonishment at the splendors of ,constantinople1 #bhe2 they expected to meet with treachery and cruelty--they found chivalry and high culture1 #bhe2 they returned to ,europe relieved of many illusions1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,crusades1 the1 pitiful and prolific of horrors as they were1 shed a great light upon ,europe1 #bhe2 brought the men of the ,west face to face with a progressive civilization1 #bhe4 ,d4 ,ddalus1 invention of turning ascribed to1 by the ,greeks1 #cc4 ,damascus blades1 the most signal triumph of the art of the smelter and the smith1 #gb2 the material of which they were made1 and their temper1 #gb2 first encountered by ,europeans during the ,crusades1 #gb2 triumphs of genius not less pronounced than the ,athena of ,phidias1 #gd4 ,dark ,ages1 the shame of1 caused by the neglect of the useful arts1 #fd2 maxims of ,machiavelli explain the fact of the existence of1 #bhd2 gloom of1 dispelled by the discovery of ,america1 #bhf4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 declares that a complex train of thought cannot be carried on without the aid of words1 #adi2 law of reversion of1 in operation during the decay of the ,roman civilization1 #bge4 ,da ,vinci1 ,leonardo1 took up the work of ,archimedes1 and the science of mechanics made progress1 #bhg4 ,de ,caus helps to solve the steam-power problem1 #ae4 ,della ,vos1 ,m4 ,victor1 ,director of the ,imperial ,technical ,school1 ,moscow1 #aba2 testimony of1 as to value of manual training1 #aba2 author of the laboratory process of tool instruction1 #cca4 ,democratic idea1 the1 not new when adopted in ,america1 #cji4 ,democratic principle in the ,united ,states ,government does not prevent class distinctions1 #cac4 ,denmark appropriates money for teaching hand-cunning in the schools1 #cfh4 ,denver 7,col47 ,university1 manual training in1 #cee4 ,dickens1 ,charles1 his pen-picture of 8,tom ,all-alone's0--philosophy of1 #cae4 ,dinwiddie1 ,prof4 ,h4 ,h41 his account of the manner in which the ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college of ,texas was revolutionized in the interest of manual training1 #cei4 ,disasters1 mercantile and other1 show that business is done by the 8rule of thumb10 #bad4 ,disraeli 7,lord ,beaconsfield71 his tribute to the value of the imagination as a useful quality1 #ch2 his alternations of political power with ,mr4 ,gladstone--from ,liberalism to ,toryism an easy transition1 #afd2 ,england heaps honors upon him while it neglects ,mr4 ,bessemer1 #afh2 comparison between the life services of1 to man and those of ,sir ,henry ,bessemer1 #afi4 ,doane1 ,john ,w41 ,trustee of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,dogmatist1 the1 no place for1 in the modern order of things1 #abd4 ,domestic economy made a department of the ,iowa ,agricultural ,college1 #cfj2 part of the curriculum of the ,le ,moyne ,normal ,institute1 #cfb4 ,draper1 ,dr4 ,john ,w41 profound observation by1 #cgg2 drudgery and humility1 the value of1 #cgd4 ,drawing1 thoroughness of training in1 #af2 definition of1 #af2 sketches of certain geometric forms1 #ag2 working drawings1 pictorial drawings1 and designs applied to industrial art1 #ah2 its sthetic element1 #ah2 geometry its basis1 examples of1 #ah2 from objects in the school laboratories1 #ai2 value of1 as an educational agency1 #ai2 language of1 common to all draughtsmen--pen-picture of class in1 #bj2 first step of expression1 #bjh4 ,drayton1 ,w4 ,heyward1 historical sketch of origin of manual training in ,girard ,college by1 #cec-cee4 ,dudley1 ,dud1 inventor of machinery for the application of mineral coal to smelting purposes1 #fd2 sketch of career of1 #fd1 #fe2 combinations against1 by the charcoal iron-masters1 #fd1 #fe2 furnaces of1 destroyed by mobs1 and their owner reduced to beggary and driven to prison1 #fd1 #fe4 ,dun1 ,r4 ,g41 ,co41 statistics of1 in relation to commercial failures1 #baa4 ,e4 ,ear not a more important organ than the hand because situated nearer the brain1 #aed4 ,eau ,claire1 ,wis41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,edict of ,nantes1 revocation of1 drove artisans to ,england1 #cd4 ,education1 the philosopher's stone in1 #b2 laying the foundation of1 in labor1 #c2 the power to do some useful thing the last analysis of1 #ab2 definition of1 #ab2 confined to abstractions in the past1 #ac2 the new--claims made in its behalf1 #aje2 universal1 a modern idea1 #abc2 difference in systems of1 constitutes difference between ancient and modern civilizations1 #abc1 #abd2 every child entitled to receive1 #abd2 certain fundamentals of1 upon which all are agreed1 #abe2 ,rousseau's definition of1 #abe2 begins at birth and continues to the end of life1 #abf2 ,froebel's definition of1 #abf2 old system of1 condemned by ,bacon1 ,comenius1 ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel1 #abf2 of woman more important than that of man1 #abh2 develops innate mental qualities and forms character1 #acj2 all1 is both mental and moral1 #acc2 any system of1 that does not produce altruism is vicious1 #acf2 first step in1 to eliminate selfishness and put rectitude in its place1 #acf2 a system of1 consisting exclusively of mental exercises1 promotes selfishness1 #ada2 methods of1 controlled by the ,classicism of the ,renaissance1 #aed2 of the hands as well as the brain necessary1 #agb2 the old1 designed to make lawyers1 doctors1 priests1 statesmen1 littrateurs1 and poets1 #agi2 that is not practical1 in the ,age of ,steel1 is nothing1 #agi2 not broad enough on the expressing side of the brain1 #aid2 illustrations of defects of1 shown by the ,walton report1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii2 in existing systems of1 the memory is cultivated while the reason is allowed to slumber1 #bjj2 defective methods of1 result in vast mercantile and railway disasters1 #bae2 defective morally1 since the truth is to be found only in things1 #bbd2 the ,new ,england system of1 very defective1 but to it the country owes the quality of its civilization1 #bce2 in ,south ,carolina the monopoly of a class1 #bce2 a scientific system of1 would have averted the ,war of ,rebellion in the ,united ,states1 and kept down the debt of ,england1 #bcg2 why popular1 is provided for by the ,state1 #bcg2 the sole bulwark of the ,state1 #bch2 the best is the cheapest1 #bci2 of ,new ,england does not produce great lawyers1 great judges1 or great legislators1 #bci2 exclusively mental1 stops far short of the objective point of true1 #bdc2 the last analysis of1 is art1 #bdc2 any system of1 which separates ideas and things1 is radically defective1 #bdd2 the object of1 is the generation of power1 #bdd2 the system of1 which does not teach the application of facts to things1 is unscientific1 #bde2 among the ancients1 was confined to a small class1 and consisted of selfish maxims for the government of the many1 #bec2 of the ,greeks responsible for the destruction of ,greek civilization1 #bef2 defects of the ,roman1 #bfe2 ,roman1 deified selfishness and so realized its last analysis--total depravity1 #bfg2 a false system of1 wrecks the ,roman civilization1 #bgg2 scientific1 essential to the salvation of the trinity upon which civilization rests1 #bgh2 how to make it universal in ,europe1 #bib1 #bic2 possible only in ,europe through the disbandment of the standing armies1 #bie2 in ,germany1 has taught the people to hate standing armies1 #bih1 #bii2 is causing the emigration of ,germany's best citizens1 #cjb2 is the arch-revolutionist whose march is irresistible1 #cjb2 the new1 will come in as the standing armies go out1 #cjd2 had made little progress at the time of the organization of civil society in ,america1 #cji2 the system of1 under which the kings and ruling classes of ,europe had been trained to selfishness1 cruelty1 and injustice1 put into the ,new ,england common schools1 #cji2 sordid view of1 generally held in the rural districts of ,new ,england1 #caj2 ,herbert ,spencer's view of the prevailing methods of1 #caj2 positive ill effects of the prevailing methods of1 #caj1 #caa2 a false system of1 in the ,united ,states1 led to political incongruities of the grossest character1 #caa2 complete failure of1 to promote rectitude1 #caa2 defects of system of1 in the ,united ,states1 shown by the ignorance and crimes of legislators1 #cag2 may be made universal through the ballot1 #cbd2 all property may be taken for1 by the ballot1 #cbd2 ,american1 is scant in quantity and poor in quality1 #cbe2 no radical change in methods of1 for #cjjj years1 #cbe2 a complete revolution in1 essential to social reform1 #cbg2 must begin with the child and be directed by the mother1 #cff2 the new1 becomes one aggressive force1 #cgb2 the new1 confided to the teachers of the old rgime1 #cgb2 the first of human considerations1 #cgc2 its professors should be the most learned of human beings1 #cgc2 the new1 maxims of1 #cge2 what form and character shall our education take81 #cgg2 the old1 was designed to make masters1 the new to make men1 #cgh2 universality and equality of1 the first and last essential1 #chd4 ,edward ,,iii4 of ,england uses the smiths at the siege of ,berwick1 #gb4 ,egypt1 how the castes of1 arose1 #bdi2 progress of the civilization of1 #bdi2 civilization of1 the product of education1 #bej2 selfishness the basis of the system of education of1 #bej2 wealth1 commerce1 and military and naval power of1 #bej2 learning of1 #bea2 luxury of1 #bea2 conquered by ,persia1 #bea1 #beb2 no provision in1 for the training of woman1 #cff4 ,electricity must be 8harnessed0 at the forge and in the shop to enable it to do its work1 #agj4 ,elizabeth1 ,queen1 use of iron by1 to defeat the ,spanish ,armada1 #fa4 ,emerson1 his declaration that ,napoleon was typical of the modern man1 #acd2 his observation that during the ,crusades 8the banker with his seven per cent4 drove the earl out of his castle10 #bhf4 ,emigrant1 the1 withdraws his support from the fatherland1 #bij4 ,emigration1 social questions cannot much longer be settled by1 #bii4 ,empire1 art of mechanism greatest of modern times1 #fa4 ,england1 history of the early iron manufacture of1 #fc2 decline of the iron industry of1 during the seventeenth century1 #fe2 the people of1 import their pots and kettles1 #fe2 workshops of1 originate great inventions during the period #agdj-ahdj1 #aae2 apprentices of1 become learned men1 #aae2 material condition of1 #bej years ago1 #aeh1 #aei2 civilization and transformation of--how accomplished1 #aei2 studded with workshops1 filled with automatic machines through the apprentice system1 #aha2 debt of1 to the ,french and ,flemish immigrants1 #ahe2 constitution of1 grew out of the feudal system1 #aij2 safer to shoot a man than a hare in1 #aij2 school system of1 indescribably poor1 #bbd2 a scientific system of education in1 would have averted wars and kept down the national debt of1 #bcg2 criminal laws of1 #bda2 draws from her people a larger per capita revenue than any nation of ,europe1 #big2 has nearly reached the limit of the power of her people to pay taxes1 #big2 land system of--its terrible effect upon the ,english1 ,scotch1 and ,irish1 #cag4 ,english history1 the great names in--the names without which there would have been no ,english history1 #age4 ,enterprise1 in the ,middle ,ages1 the slave of superstition and ignorance1 #bgg4 ,epictetus1 lofty patriotism of1 #aci4 ,equality1 social and educational1 essential to an ideal civilization1 #cge4 ,europe1 face of1 and civilization of1 changed during the ,crusades1 #bhf2 growth of the middle class of1 #bhf2 the artisan became a factor in the social problem of1 #bhf2 art treasures of1 destined to follow in the track of her fleeing population1 #bid2 may restore to productive employments three millions of men1 #cjb2 may place at the disposal of her educators seven hundred million dollars per annum1 instead of seventy million dollars1 as at present1 #cjb2 may extinguish her national debts in fifty-four years1 #cjc2 progress in1 previous to the discovery of ,america1 #cjg1 #cjh4 ,ewing1 ,mrs4 ,emma ,p41 ,dean of the ,domestic ,economy ,department of the ,iowa ,agricultural ,college1 #cfa2 on the importance of the study of domestic economy1 #cfa1 #cfb4 ,expression1 power of1 quite as important as that of absorption1 #bjh2 susceptible of being made clear only in things1 #bjh4 ,eye1 not a more important organ than the hand1 because it is situated nearer the brain1 #aed4 ,f4 ,fairbank1 ,n4 ,k41 ,trustee of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,faneuil ,hall1 slavery justified in1 #caa4 ,feudalism emasculated human energy1 #bha2 the ruin of1 set thousands of serfs free1 #bij4 ,field1 ,marshall1 ,treasurer of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,file1 the1 older than history1 dating back to the ,greek mythological period1 #ia2 of the ,swiss watch-makers1 #ia2 dexterity of the hand-working cutter of1 #ia2 invention of file-cutting machine in #ahei1 #ia4 ,finland1 all the schools of1 give instruction in hand-cunning1 #cfh4 ,fire1 legend in regard to its discovery1 #fb4 ,foley1 ,thomas1 on the excellence of the laboratory methods of instruction1 #bag1 #bah4 ,force1 new elements of1 to be discovered and applied to the needs of man1 #ahj4 ,forging1 laboratory of1 #eh2 pen-picture of a class of students in1 #fa2 story of the origin of the ,turkish ,empire related by the instructor in1 #fa2 the management of the forge fires in1 #fb2 lessons in1 on the black-board and at the forges1 in detail1 #ff2 the instructor in1 at the forge1 #fi2 questions by the students in1 #fi2 the school-room converted into a smithy which resounds with the clang of sledges1 #fi1 #gj2 healthful effects of the exercise--the anvil chorus1 #gj2 the tests of merit in1 applied1 #ge2 the instructor in1 gives a lecture on the steam-hammer1 #ge2 extent of the course in1 #gg4 ,founding1 laboratory of1 #de2 history of the art of1 #df2 first applied to bronze1 #df2 lesson of the day1 casting a pulley1 #dh2 the process in detail1 #ea2 pen-picture of the students pouring the steaming metal into moulds1 #eb4 ,france1 permanently weakened by the increase of her national debt1 #bif2 debt1 statement of--what the war with ,germany cost her1 #bif2 cannot double her debt again and make her people pay interest on it1 #big2 a law of1 makes manual training obligatory1 #cfh2 supports a school for training teachers of manual training1 #cfh2 ,prof4 ,g4 ,solicis the chief supporter of manual training in1 #cfh4 ,franklin1 the famous selfish maxims of1 #caa4 ,froebel1 the school be struggled in vain to establish1 #b2 first applies ,rousseau's ideas to school life1 #abf2 his definition of education1 #abf2 condemns the old system of education1 #abf2 a character of1 #abg2 his discovery of the superior fitness of woman for the office of teacher1 #abg1 #abh2 foresees the manual training school1 #bde2 it was reserved for him to rescue woman from the scorn of the ages1 #cfg4 ,fuller1 ,william ,a41 ,secretary of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,fulton1 ,robert1 an ,american inventor1 #hd4 ,g4 ,galileo1 persecution of1 for his great discovery1 #agg1 #agh2 persecutors of1 believed and trembled1 #bhg4 ,galton1 ,francis1 declaration of1 that brain without heart is insufficient to achieve eminence1 #acd2 his testimony to the great value of artisan immigration1 and the worthless character of political refugees1 #ahf2 his neglect of the artisan class in his speculations on the subject of the science of life1 #ahf1 #ahg2 reason of his neglect of the artisan class stated by ,horace ,mann--the influence of slavery1 #ahh4 ,george ,,iii4 an expert wood-turner1 #cd2 gives ,john ,arnold five hundred guineas for a miniature watch1 #hf4 ,germanicus noted for the highest public virtue1 #bgd2 after great services1 is exiled and poisoned1 #bgd4 ,germany1 ,emperor of1 experience of1 in a needle factory1 illustrative of the delicacy of mechanical operations1 #bdj4 ,germany1 foundation of her educational system1 #bie1 #bif2 superior training of her people enabled her to humiliate ,france1 #bif2 freedom from debt of1 the significant feature of the ,european situation1 #bif2 low rate of taxation in1 #bif2 weakness of1 through emigration1 #big2 the educated subject of1 has become a thoughtful citizen1 who rebels against the standing army1 and flees from it1 #big1 #bih2 high value of citizenship of1 #bih2 citizenship freely abandoned1 because the educated ,german revolts at the standing army1 #bih2 the military records of1 show the cause of ,german emigration to be disgust of the policy of international hate1 #bii2 increase in the number of military delinquents in1 is the measure of the growth of ,german intelligence1 #cjj2 the chief power of1 becomes her chief weakness1 #cjj2 cannot recoup her losses to ,america through gains from neighboring countries1 on account of the policy of international hate1 #cjj1 #cja2 losing the flower of her population--the strong--the weaklings1 the paupers1 the aged1 and the infirm remain1 #cja2 is growing weaker each year1 #cja2 agitation on the subject of manual training in1 #cfh4 ,gibbon on the wealth of the ,saracens in ,spain1 #bhc4 ,girard ,college1 manual training in1 #cec2 ,dr4 ,runkle's influence in promoting the adoption of manual training in1 #ced4 ,gladiatorial games1 atrocities of1 in ,rome1 contrasted with the sublime precepts of ,seneca1 ,plutarch1 and ,marcus ,aurelius1 #ach2 extent of slaughter of animals at their celebration1 #ach4 ,gladstone1 ,william ,ewart1 political power and popularity of1 #afa2 enters upon his long official career as young ,henry ,bessemer retires from the ,stamp-office without his just reward1 #afc2 a great orator1 and a great financier1 a talker1 a maker of laws and treaties1 constantly in the public eye1 #afc2 in office and out of office1 #afc1 #afd2 from ,toryism to ,liberalism--an easy transition1 #afd2 compared with ,sir ,henry ,bessemer1 #afe1 #aff2 ,england heaps honors upon him while she neglects ,mr4 ,bessemer1 #afh2 comparison of the life and services of1 to man1 with those of ,mr4 ,bessemer1 #afi2 stands for the old system of education1 #afi2 admission of1 that the great mechanics of ,england had no aid from the government1 #age4 ,gold1 once the king of metals1 surrenders its sceptre to iron1 #abd4 ,goss1 ,william ,f4 ,m41 his exposition of the methods of the manual training school in detail1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb2 pronounced success of the ,manual ,training ,department of ,purdue ,university1 under directorship of1 #cda4 ,grammar1 automatism in teaching1 in the common schools of the ,united ,states1 as shown in the ,walton report1 #aig2 criticism of ,colonel ,parker on methods of instruction in1 #bjf4 ,great ,powers of ,europe all hampered by great debts1 #bif4 ,greece1 ,egypt the ,university of1 #bea2 every intellectual ,greek made a voyage to ,egypt1 #bea2 the destiny of1 was controlled by renegades--there was disloyalty in every camp1 a traitor in every army1 and a band of traitors in every besieged city1 #bed2 the orators of1 never refused bribes1 and oratory ruled in1 #bee2 philosophy and education of1 responsible for decay of the civilization of1 #bef2 ruined by metaphysics and rhetoric1 #bef2 no schools in1 for girls1 #cff4 ,greeks1 the people of youth1 #bed2 religion and patriotism of1 #bed2 were treacherous1 cruel1 and their sense of honor dull1 #bed2 they enslaved women and robbed the bodies of the slain on the battle-field1 #bed2 declaration of ,thucydides that there was neither promise that could be depended upon1 nor oath that struck them with fear1 #bee2 in the ,pantheon the highest niche was reserved for the ,god of ,gain1 #bee2 the early1 were pirates1 and some sold themselves into slavery1 so great was their lust of gold1 #bee2 armies of the1 bribed by ,persia1 #bee2 young1 taught the arts of sophistry in the schools of rhetoric1 #bef2 never emerged from the savage state1 #bef4 ,guttenberg and the printing-press1 #aeb4 ,h4 ,habit1 all reforms must encounter the stolid resistance of1 #aia4 ,hand1 it is through the1 alone1 that the mind impresses itself upon matter1 #ada2 the skilled1 confers benefits upon man1 #ada2 and the mind are natural allies1 #add2 tests the speculations of the mind by the law of practical application1 #add2 explodes the errors of the mind1 #add2 finds the truth1 #ade2 if it works falsely1 publishes its own guilt in the false thing it makes1 #ade2 ,dr4 ,wilson's graphic picture of the versatility of the1 #ade2 not less the guide than the agent of the mind1 #ade2 influences the mind through the muscular sense1 #adh2 how its habit of labor leads to the discovery of the truth and the exposure of the false1 #adi2 the preserver of the power of speech through the endless succession of objects it presents to the mind1 #aea2 the1 ceasing to labor in the arts1 to plant and to gather1 speech would degenerate into a mere iteration of the wants of savages subsisting on fruits1 #aea2 the most potent agency in the work of civilization1 #aeb2 mobility of1 multiplies its powers in a geometrical ratio1 #aed2 contempt of1 an inheritance from the speculative philosophy of the ,middle ,ages1 #aee2 the works of1 comprise all the visible results of civilization1 #aee2 marvels wrought by the1 #aee1 #aef2 ,james ,mac,alister on the power and versatility of the note1 #aef2 wields the mechanical powers--its works1 #aeh2 the wise counsel of the practical1 steadies the mind1 #bbe2 not a nicer instrument than the mind1 #bdj2 the1 stands for use1 for service1 and for integrity1 #cgf2 its drill and discipline more highly educative than any exclusively academic course1 #cgf2 through it alone man impresses himself upon ,nature1 #cgh2 is refined and spiritualized by the sense of touch1 #cgi2 the multitudinous works of the1 #cgi1 #chj4 ,hand-work1 difficulties of1 illustrated1 #hf2 educative value of1 #cge4 ,hargreaves1 ,james1 inventor of the 8spinning-jenny10 #hd4 ,herbert1 the famous selfish maxim of1 #caa4 ,hero1 of ,alexandria1 the inventor of the steam-engine1 #ad4 ,hero1 the1 is an honest man1 #bcc2 the1 in education1 #che4 ,herodotus1 his description of the hundred brazen gates of ,babylon1 #ee2 his contempt for the artisan1 #ef4 ,heroes1 the thin ranks of1 constitute the measure of the poverty of the systems of education that have prevailed among mankind1 #bcd2 are normally developed men who honor the truth everywhere1 #bcd2 the fact that they are honored after death evidence of progress1 #bcd4 ,heroism rendered grand by contrast with the debased standards of public judgment1 #bcc4 ,herophilus opens the way to an intelligent study of the mind1 #aec4 ,hippocrates opens the way to an intelligent study of the mind1 #aec4 ,holtzapffels1 speculation of1 as to the origin of the invention of the lathe1 #cc4 ,honesty1 only another name for heroism1 #bcc2 scientific education will make it universal1 #bcc4 ,hood1 ,tom1 his song of the shirt1 #hg4 ,huntsman1 ,benjamin1 an ,english inventor of the eighteenth century1 #hd2 sketch of the career of1 #aaf2 his invention of cast-steel1 and its effect upon the ,sheffield cutlery market1 #aaf2 how his secret was stolen1 #aag2 declines a membership of the ,royal ,society1 #aag2 how resplendent his name is now1 #aga4 ,i4 ,ideas are mere vain speculations till embodied in things1 #bdc2 and things are indissolubly connected1 #bdd4 ,ignorance1 illustration of1 in the opposition of a ,roman ,emperor to the use of improved machinery1 #agh2 reverences the past1 never doubts1 is suspicious1 an enemy of all progress1 #agi2 in the schools of ,norfolk ,county1 ,mass41 #aig4 ,illinois ,penitentiary1 statistics of show that four out of five of the inmates of have no handicraft1 #ahb4 ,imagination1 ,buckle's tribute to the1 #ch2 ,disraeli on ,sir ,robert ,peel's want of1 #ch2 ,disraeli's career an illustration of the value of1 #ci2 the discovery of ,america appealed powerfully to the1 #bhg2 blazes the path to glorious achievements1 #bhg4 ,imperial ,technical ,school1 ,moscow1 manual training adopted as part of curriculum of the1 in #ahfh1 #cca2 sketch of the history of manual training in1 by ,director ,della ,vos1 #cca-ccc4 ,india1 how the castes of1 arose1 #bdi4 ,injustice1 civilization languishes in an atmosphere of1 #bgh4 ,inquisition1 the1 its persecution of ,galileo1 #agg1 #agh4 ,instructors1 lack of competent1 in the new education1 #ceb1 #cec4 ,intelligence1 the basis of morality1 #aac4 ,inventions1 a growth1 #ad2 each step of constitutes a link in the chain of progress1 #ahg2 contain the germs of imperishable truth1 #bdc4 ,inventive genius1 to the1 mankind owes more than to the philosophers1 littrateurs1 professors1 and statesmen of all time1 #hd4 ,inventor1 the1 produces a machine that will make a thousand things in the time required by the hand-worker to make one1 #hf2 helps on the cause of progress1 #afj2 rules the world1 #afa2 his works are never repealed1 #ahg2 is always in the advance1 #bdb4 ,iowa1 ,agricultural ,college of1 makes domestic economy a part of its curriculum1 #cfj2 faculty and course of study in the department of domestic economy of1 #cfj1 #cfa4 ,iron1 ,locke's famous apothegm on the value of1 #de2 the most potent instrument of power1 #fa2 use of by ,queen ,elizabeth to defeat the ,spanish ,armada1 #fa2 the equivalent of civilization1 #fb2 is king1 and the smelter and smith are his chief ministers1 #fb2 to make a ton of1 required hundreds of cords of wood before the introduction of 8pit0 coal for smelting purposes1 #fc2 the foundation of every useful art1 #ha4 ,italy1 government of1 during the ,middle ,ages1 consisted of a menace and a sneer1 #bhd4 ,j4 ,jacobson1 ,col4 ,augustus1 on the demand for a more comprehensive system of education1 #ahj2 on the proper equipment of the boy upon leaving school1 #bji4 ,jerusalem1 when conquered1 its smiths and other craftsmen were carried away as captives by the ,babylonians1 #gj4 ,jews1 learning of1 exerted an ameliorating influence upon the darkness of the ,middle ,ages1 #bhe4 ,judges1 training of1 is exclusively subjective1 #bcj2 rendered selfish by subjective processes of thought1 #bca2 venerate the past1 #bdb4 ,justice assumes the place of selfishness in the mind of the hero1 #bcc2 cause of the failure of1 #bdb4 ,k4 ,keith1 ,edson1 ,trustee of ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdj4 ,kindergarten1 the1 father of the manual training school1 #e2 fills a place unoccupied until the time of ,froebel1 #abf2 educational principles of1 susceptible of universal application1 #abf2 analysis of1 #abh2 leads logically to the manual training school1 #abi2 method of1 is scientific1 #bjg2 method of1 is the expression of ideas in things1 #bde2 realizes the dream of ,bacon1 ,comenius1 and ,pestalozzi1 #bde2 exhibits of work of1 at the meeting of the ,national ,educational ,association in #ahhd1 #cdb2 endorsed by the ,national ,educational ,association1 #cfc2 the growth of1 prevented by prejudice and indifference1 #cfg4 ,kings1 alliance of1 with the aristocracy1 #bhf4 ,l4 ,labor class1 the real flower of a population1 #bic2 all other classes depend upon the1 #bid2 a drain upon the1 is a drain upon the most vital resource of the ,state1 #bid2 where the flower of gathers1 wealth most abounds1 #bid4 ,labor1 manual1 scorn of1 among the ancients1 #ef2 its slow recovery of independence1 its destined dignity through scientific and art culture1 #eg2 repugnance to1 has multiplied dishonest practices1 #aee2 respect for1 would be increased by the adoption in the public schools of a comprehensive system of mechanical training1 #ahb2 cause of the scorn of--the slavery of the laborer1 #ahh2 of to-day alone maintains the value of property1 #beb2 of men cheaper than that of cattle1 in ,rome1 #bff2 the useful arts depend upon1 #bgh2 the foundation of national prosperity1 #bic2 essential to triumphs in literature1 music1 and the fine arts1 #bic2 not gold and silver1 is the source of wealth1 #bid2 draws to itself the art treasures of the world1 #bid1 #bie2 contempt of1 inculcated by educational systems1 #cbf4 ,laborer1 the1 degraded through slavery1 #aj2 contempt of1 ingrained in the public mind1 #agg2 contempt of1 leads inevitably to social disintegration1 #bdg2 the battles of antiquity were contests for the possession of1 #bec2 reduced to slavery in ,rome1 #bfe2 spurned in ,rome1 #bff2 the useful arts decline if he is degraded1 #bgh1 and advance if he is honored1 #bgh2 the standing armies of ,europe have cost him all his noble ambitions1 #bie2 surplus of1 goes to the tax-gatherer1 #bie2 forced to sacrifice his desire for education1 his love of the beautiful1 of dignity1 and of a home adorned by art1 #bie4 ,laborers thrown into the arena in ,rome to be scrambled for1 #bfi4 ,landed estates1 effect of concentration of1 in a few hands1 #cbj2 vast1 conferred upon a few corporations in the ,united ,states--double the area of that owned by the lords of ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 #cba4 ,language1 thought impossible without1 #aej2 changes in1 arise out of new discoveries in science and new inventions in art1 #aea2 stagnates when the ,state ceases to advance1 #aea2 invention of1 #bdh2 when nations shall dwell together in unity there will be but one1 #bii note4 ,lawyers more highly esteemed than civil engineers1 machinists1 and artisans1 #ahe2 training of1 is exclusively subjective1 #bcj2 rendered selfish by subjective processes of thought1 #bca2 look for precedents in an age whose civilization perished with its language1 #bdb4 ,layard1 discoveries of1 in the ruins of ,nineveh1 #df4 ,learning1 the revival of exalted abstractions and debased things1 #cgd4 ,legislation1 restrictive1 in ,england1 to prevent the conversion of timber into charcoal for smelting purposes1 #fc2 the best1 in ,england1 is that by which former statutes were repealed1 #bbf2 of the ,united ,states no better than that of ,england1 #bbf2 cause of failure of1 #bdb2 reckless1 in the ,united ,states1 on the subject of the public domain1 #cai2 of the ,states of the ,union vicious and corrupt1 #cbb4 ,legislators1 not the authors of ,english progress1 #aei2 ,buckle's scathing arraignment of1 #afj2 wiser in the statutes they repeal than in those they enact1 #bbf1 #bbg2 training of1 is exclusively subjective1 #bcj2 rendered selfish by subjective processes of thought1 #bca2 become selfish1 and venerate the past1 #bdb2 refuse to grant reforms until awed into submission1 #bdb4 ,le ,moyne ,normal ,institute1 manual training and domestic economy in1 #cef4 ,life ,insurance1 ethical aspect of1 #bad4 ,literature1 full of maxims in honor of selfishness1 #acd2 polite1 must rest upon a basis of general culture1 or it is valueless1 #bgi4 ,littrateurs more highly esteemed than civil engineers1 machinists1 and artisans1 #ahe4 ,livy characterizes ,valerius as the first man of his time1 #bfd2 deplores the decay of virtue1 #bgb4 ,lloyd1 ,henry ,d41 his history of the land system of the ,united ,states--syllabus of1 #cag2 opening paragraphs of the history of the ,united ,states by1 #cah1 #cai2 declaration of1 that we must hereafter find freedom in the society of the good1 #cbf4 ,locke1 the school he dreamed of1 #b2 famous apothegm of1 on iron1 #de4 ,locomotive1 the--stands for the brotherhood of man1 #cgf4 ,locomotives1 no such failure of1 as there is of legislation1 #bbg4 ,lombardy1 five famines in1 #bha4 ,louis ,,xvi4 an expert locksmith1 #cd4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john1 on the skill of the savage1 #baf4 ,lucan1 his gospel of universal love1 #aci4 ,lucretia1 political effects of the tragic fate of1 #bfd4 ,luther1 the reformation of1 opened the way to the last analysis of dissent in ,america1 #cji4 ,m4 ,mac,alister1 ,james1 declaration of1 that there has been but little change in the ideas that have controlled our methods of education in four hundred years1 #aed2 his graphic description of the power and versatility of the hand note1 #aef2 observation of1 that a skilled hand1 to the majority of men1 is quite as important as a well-filled head1 #bjh2 has revolutionized the public schools of ,philadelphia in two years1 #cee2 one of the most accomplished as well as sternly practical educators in the ,united ,states1 #ceg2 opinion of1 that every child should receive manual training1 #ceh2 opinion of1 that the great principles which underlie the system mean nothing less than a revolution in education note1 #ceh1 #cfd4 ,macaulay's1 ,lord1 analysis of the ,baconian philosophy1 #cgg4 ,machiavelli1 philosophy formulated by1 #bhd2 political maxims of1 not invented by him1 #bhd2 maxims of1 atrocious character of1 #bhd1 #bhe2 maxims of1 promote barbarism1 #bhe4 ,machines1 automatic1 nails1 screws1 pins1 and needles flying from the fingers of1 by the thousand million1 #hb2 more powerful to be constructed in the future1 #ahj4 ,machine-tool laboratory1 the students of1 enter upon a most important inquiry1 #hb2 the study of minute and ponderous tools in1 #hc2 delicacy of the processes of1 #ia2 the poverty of words as compared with things asserted in1 #ia2 silence of1 how eloquent1 #ia1 #ib2 a screw-engine lathe taken to pieces in1 #ib2 improvements in the lathe explained in1 #ib2 fundamental and auxiliary tools of1 explained1 #ic2 course of training in1 orderly1 #ic2 students work from their own drawings in1 #id2 why skill is required to handle steam-driven tools of the1 #id2 aspect of the1 when in repose1 #ig2 aspect of the1 when steam is on1 #ih2 pen-picture of students of1 #ii2 students of1 at work on graduating projects in1 #ajj2 dream of instructor in1 #ajj-ajc2 completing graduating projects in1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,machine-tool shop1 the modern1 an aggregation of hand-tools made automatic1 and driven by steam1 #h2 revolution in the useful arts caused by the1 #gh2 what this creation of modern times1 a huge automaton with steam coursing through its veins1 does1 #gh-ha2 its arms1 its hands1 its brain1 its food1 and its products1 #ha2 lines of modern development converge in the1 #ha2 human pursuits widely diversified by1 #hb4 ,macomber1 ,a4 ,e41 on the ,toledo ,manual ,training ,school1 #cfe4 ,madrid1 people of1 threatened with starvation1 #bhc2 lost half its population in the seventeenth century1 #bhc4 ,maine1 ,sir ,henry--his tribute to things1 #cgi4 ,man1 the two states of--with and without tools--contrasted1 #g2 the gulf between the civilized and savage1 spanned by the seven-hand-tools1 #h2 the wisest of animals because he has hands1 #aeb2 the most powerful of animals because he has hands1 #aeg2 powers of1 increased by steam1 #afa2 the most highly civilized1 familiar with all the arts1 #bgh2 in the ,middle ,ages1 shrunk into a state of moral cowardice and intellectual lethargy1 #bhd4 ,mann1 ,horace1 cause of the degradation of labor stated by1 #e2 reason for the scorn of labor given by1 in extenso1 #ahh4 ,manual training1 promotes rectitude1 #acb2 promotes altruism because it is objective1 #ada2 its effects relate to the human race1 #ada2 ,prof4 ,felix ,adler in support of its tendency to promote rectitude1 #adb2 idea of1 grasped by the ,ionic philosopher1 #aec2 exactly what it is1 #bjj2 is natural and hence efficient1 #bah2 required to render mental operations more true1 #bbe2 possible in ,europe only through the disbandment of the standing armies1 #bie2 in all the technical schools of ,russia1 #ccc2 theory of1 by ,dr4 ,john ,d4 ,runkle1 #cch2 in the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 #ccc1 #ccd2 in the ,st4 ,louis school1 #cch1 #cci2 in twelve of the ,state agricultural colleges1 #cda2 in ,purdue ,university1 #cda2 in ,boston and ,milford1 ,mass41 ,new ,haven1 and the ,state ,normal ,school1 ,conn41 ,omaha1 ,neb41 ,eau ,claire1 ,wis41 ,moline1 ,peru1 and the ,cook ,county ,normal ,school1 ,normal ,park1 ,ill41 ,montclair1 ,n4 ,j41 ,cleveland and ,barnesville1 ,o41 ,san ,francisco1 ,cal41 and ,baltimore1 ,md41 #cdb2 exhibits of work of1 at the meeting of the ,national ,educational ,association in #ahhd1 #cdb2 in ,prof4 ,felix ,adler's ,workingman's ,school1 #cdb2 in ,chicago1 #cde2 ,dr4 ,belfield on the mental effect of1 #cej2 in the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college1 #cea2 ,prof4 ,louis ,e4 ,reber in support of1 #cea1 #ceb2 in the ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york1 #ceb2 in thirty-one schools in the city of ,new ,york note1 #ceb2 in the ,tulane ,university1 #cec2 in the ,miller ,school at ,crozet1 ,va41 #cec2 in ,girard ,college1 #cec2 in the ,alabama ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college1 #cee2 in the ,denver 7,col47 ,university1 #cee2 in the public schools of ,philadelphia1 #cef2 in twenty-four of the ,states of the ,union1 #cei2 in the ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college of ,texas1 #cei2 part of the course of public instruction by ,massachusetts and ,connecticut1 #cfj2 in the ,le ,moyne ,normal ,institute1 #cfb2 in the ,university of ,michigan1 #cfc2 laid on the table by the ,national ,educational ,association1 #cfc1 #cfd2 in the ,state ,university1 ,cleveland1 and ,toledo1 ,o41 #cfd2 is leading captive the imagination of the ,american people1 #cfg2 the purpose of1 in the schools of ,europe1 #cfh2 progress of--its extent greater than its quality1 #cgb2 acquisition by the hand of the arts through which man expresses himself in things1 #chj2 a series of educational generalizations in things1 #chj4 ,manual training school the child of the kindergarten1 #e2 destined to unite science and art1 #e2 its highest text-books tools1 #g2 must be made part of the public system of education1 #aab2 gain of the pupil of1 #abb2 pupil of1 constructs a machine1 breathes into it the breath of life1 and with it moves mountains1 #bja2 methods of1 twenty times more valuable than the unscientific methods of the trade-shop1 #bai2 pupil of1 is an investigator1 his reasoning opens new fields of thought with every stroke of the chisel1 #bbj2 pupil of1 gets as much again intellectual benefit from the laboratory as he would if the laboratory equivalent in time were given to book study1 #bba2 laboratory exercises of1 a great strain upon the mental constitution1 and hence highly educational1 #bbb2 pupils of1 love it--an incident1 #bbc2 method of the1 is the expression of ideas in things1 #bde2 realizes the idea of ,bacon1 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel1 #bde4 ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 its models of mechanical manipulation presented by the ,emperor of ,russia1 #ff2 first institution of learning in the ,united ,states to adopt manual training1 #ccc2 manual training adopted by1 in #ahgf1 #ccd2 resolution of thanks for a series of models1 presented by the ,emperor of ,russia1 adopted by1 #ccd1 #cce4 ,massachusetts1 legislature of1 adopts manual training as part of the public school course of1 #cfj4 ,maudslay1 ,henry1 his improvement of the lathe made it the king of the machine-tool shop1 #cc2 without his slide-rest ,watt's engine could not have been made1 #ce2 through his slide-rest alone the mechanic is able to make two things exactly alike1 #ib2 slide-rest of1 an automaton truer than the human eye1 more cunning than the human hand1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,maudsley1 ,dr4 ,henry1 on the contribution of the muscular sense to mental operations1 #adg2 on the impossibility of thinking without physical expression1 #adi4 ,mechanic1 the1 who makes a machine that multiplies products is in the front rank of the civilizers of the race1 #afj2 prospects of the skilled1 in life1 #agj2 did more to hasten the world's progress from #agdj to #ahdj than all the statesmen of previous ages1 #aga2 splendid career which this age opens to the educated1 #ahb2 tremendous power wielded by1 #ahc2 has wrought an industrial revolution1 #ahe2 works of1 reflect honor upon1 #ahg2 stands the test of scrutiny better than the merchant1 #bbe2 trained in things1 #bbe4 ,mechanics1 skilled1 the use of automatic tools increases rather than diminishes the demand for1 #id2 of the early time had none of the advantages of the manual training school1 #agb2 their sufferings and misfortunes1 #agb2 no such failure of1 as there is of merchants1 #bbg2 thoroughness of training of1 #bci4 ,medival period1 the speculative philosophy of1 still projects its baleful influence over our institutions of learning1 #ahe2 graphic picture of society in1 by ,winwood ,reade1 #bhj1 #bha2 the art of war only flourished in1 #bha2 precarious condition of the serfs in--fate of--to be killed in battle or die of starvation1 #bha2 causes of the moral and intellectual darkness of the1 #bha1 #bhb2 causes of the moral and intellectual torpor of the people of1 #bhd2 conferred upon man two great blessings1 and left a legacy of evil1 #bhi2 degradation of woman in the1 #cff4 ,memory cultivated at the expense of the reason1 #bjj4 ,men sold for sixpence apiece in ,asia1 #bfi4 ,menander1 lofty moral precepts of1 #aci4 ,mental acquirement1 a1 is a theorem--something to be proved1 #add4 ,mental development1 law of1 #aca2 which is most conducive to1 doing things1 or memorizing words1 #cgf4 ,mental training1 exclusively1 does not produce a symmetrical character1 #bdd4 ,merchants1 percentage of failure of1 in ,chicago from #ahgj to #ahha1 #baa2 three per cent4 of1 only1 succeed1 #baa2 ninety-seven per cent4 of1 go to the wall1 #bab2 cost of failures of1 borne by the public1 #bab2 ninety-seven per cent4 of1 mistake their avocation1 #bab2 failure of1 made too easy1 #bac2 honor of1 in ,france note1 #bac2 ninety-seven in one hundred fail1 #bbe2 cause of failures of1 #bbi2 selfishness of--do not seek for justice1 or to find truth1 #bcj2 who compromise with their creditors1 and subsequently accumulate fortunes1 rarely repay the forgiven debt1 #bcj2 cause of failure of1 #bdb4 ,mercury1 bronze statue of1 at the ,museum of ,naples1 #dg4 ,michigan1 ,university of1 manual training in1 as described by ,instructor ,lieut4 ,m4 ,e4 ,cooley1 #cfc4 ,microscope1 the work of the hand1 #aef4 ,milford1 ,mass41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,miller ,manual ,training ,school1 the1 of ,crozet1 ,va41 #cec4 ,mind1 the1 mental laws of1 #acb1 #acc2 moral laws of1 #acc2 and the hand are natural allies1 #add2 indulges in false logic without instant detection1 #ade2 the hand its moral rudder1 its balance-wheel1 #ade2 influenced by the hand through the muscular sense1 #adh2 steadied by the wise counsel of the practical hand1 #bbe2 steadied and balanced by the study of things1 #bbe2 devises a watch1 and the hand makes it1 #bdj2 fails when it attempts to execute its devices1 #bdj2 succeeds when the hand executes its plans1 but fails in merchandizing1 law1 and justice1 #bdj2 should not be stored with facts unless they are to be applied to things1 #bde2 how it began to assert its empire over matter1 #bdi4 ,moline1 ,ill41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,montclair1 ,n4 ,j41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,moors1 the1 in ,spain in the ,middle ,ages constituted a glowing exception to the general prevalence of superstition and ignorance1 #bhb2 skilled in all the arts1 #bhb4 ,morality1 springs from intelligence1 #aac2 is not a mere sentiment1 a barren ideality1 #adb2 of ,christ and ,paul1 #adb2 is a vital principle whose exemplification consists in doing justice1 #adb2 cannot be acquired by memorizing a series of maxims1 #adc2 of a community is in the ratio of its intelligence1 #bch4 ,morrissey1 ,john1 his brief autobiography1 #cad1 #cae4 ,mother1 the1 in the arms of1 the infant mind rapidly unfolds1 #cfe4 ,moulding1 the oldest of human discoveries1 #df4 ,murray1 ,matt1 inventor of flax machinery1 #hd4 ,muscular sense1 the1 its discovery by ,sir ,charles ,bell1 #adf2 its power over the movements of the frame--walking1 etc41 #adf2 ,dr4 ,henry ,maudsley on the1 #adg2 actions of essential elements in mental operations1 #adg2 sharpened to marvellous fineness by constant use1 #adh2 if trained in the direction of truth1 it will react in the direction of rectitude1 on the mind1 #adh1 #adi4 ,mushet1 ,david1 an ,english inventor and author1 #hd2 his discovery of the value of black band iron-stone1 #aag2 his papers on iron and steel1 #aag2 sprung from the labor class1 #aag4 ,mythology1 the highest place in its ,pantheon given to ,vulcan1 the ,god of ,fire1 #gj4 ,n4 ,napoleon1 the incarnation of selfishness1 #acd1 #ace2 the infamous1 plundered the conquered capitals of ,europe1 #bid4 ,nasmyth1 ,james1 invented the steam-hammer in #ahcg1 and applied the principle of it to the pile-driver in #ahde1 #gf4 ,nation1 the1 that degrades labor is ripe for destruction1 #bec2 that loses its population by emigration is in its decadence1 #bid4 ,national debts of ,europe1 amount of1 thirty years ago1 #bhf2 doubled since #ahej1 #bij2 cause of the rapid increase of1 #bij2 represent a series of colossal crimes against the people1 #bia2 with relation to them1 the people are divided into two classes--one class owns them1 the other class pays interest on them1 #bia2 in one class they are a vested right1 in the other a vested wrong1 #bia2 how they can be paid1 and education promoted at the same time1 #bib2 can be paid only by disbanding the standing armies1 #bie2 will reduce their governments to bankruptcy unless standing armies are disbanded1 #bif4 ,national ,educational ,association1 manual training exhibits at1 #ahhd1 meeting of1 #cdb2 meeting of #ahhe adopts a resolution endorsing the kindergarten1 #cfc2 illogical action of1 in laying upon the table a resolution endorsing manual training1 #cfc1 #cfd4 ,nations1 the rise1 progress1 and decay of1 #beb1 #bec2 sink as the column of debt rises1 #big4 ,neilson1 ,james ,b41 inventor of the hot-blast1 #hd2 revolutionizes the processes of iron manufacture1 #aag2 sprang from the labor class1 and is made a member of the ,royal ,society1 #aag4 ,new ,england1 system of education of1 moulded the character of the civilization of the ,united ,states1 #bce2 difference between the civilization of1 and that of ,south ,carolina1 measured by the difference in their respective educational systems1 #bce2 educational system of1 is unscientific1 #bci4 ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,newcomen helps to solve the steam-power problem1 #ae4 ,nineveh1 bronze castings recovered from the ruins of1 #df4 ,nobility above price in the eleventh century1 for sale in the thirteenth1 and soon afterwards offered as a gift1 #bhf4 ,norway appropriates money for teaching hand-cunning in the schools1 #cfh4 ,o4 ,object teaching1 example of1 #d2 the corner-stone of the kindergarten and the manual training school1 #abi2 an analysis of1 with examples1 #bjj4 ,observation1 the power of1 resides chiefly in the hand1 #chj4 ,ohio1 high rank of1 industrially1 #cfd2 making great strides towards a more practical system of education1 #cfd2 ,state ,university of1 manual training in1 #cfd2 prosperity of the ,case ,school of ,applied ,science in1 #cfd2 manual training schools of ,cleveland and ,toledo1 in1 #cfd4 ,omaha1 ,neb41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,p4 ,palissy1 ,bernard1 sketch of his career1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc2 burns the furniture of his house in the cause of art1 #bcb2 is cast into prison for heresy--his defiance of ,king ,henry ,,iii41 #bcb2 dies in the ,bastile1 #bcc2 was right1 and his devotion to art rendered him immortal1 #bcc1 #bcd2 struggle of1 over the furnace in the cause of art1 was mentally and morally normal1 while the opposition he encountered was abnormal1 #bcd2 mind of1 was developed normally1 while the minds of the millions of men who permitted him to die unfriended were developed abnormally1 #bcd2 willing to starve for his art1 and ready to die for his faith1 #bcd4 ,papin helps to solve the steam-power problem1 #ae4 ,paris ,exposition1 exhibit of models of tool practice in the ,imperial ,technical ,school1 ,moscow1 ,russia1 at the1 #cca4 ,parker1 ,col4 ,francis ,w41 declares that the application of science to methods of instruction would produce a radical change in all school work1 #bje2 his forcible exposition of the defects of prevailing methods of instruction1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg2 asserts that teachers are faithful1 honest1 and earnest1 but ignorant of the history and science of education1 #bjg1 #cfd4 ,patriotism can be indulged with good reason only in the ,united ,states1 #cbc4 ,penmanship1 automatism in teaching1 in the schools of the ,united ,states1 as shown by the ,walton report1 #aih4 ,pennsylvania ,state ,college1 manual training in the1 #cea4 ,pennsylvania ,state ,prison1 statistics--five-sixths of the inmates of1 had attended public schools1 and the same number were without trades1 #ahb4 ,pericles boasted that he could not be bribed1 but robbed all ,greece to embellish ,athens1 and was convicted of peculation and fined1 #bee4 ,persia1 no provision in1 for either the mental or moral training of woman1 #cff2 the boy in1 excluded from the presence of his father till the fifth year1 #cfg4 ,peru1 ,ill41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,pestalozzi1 the school he struggled in vain to establish1 #b2 his definition of education1 #ab2 his condemnation of the old system of education1 #abf2 foresaw the kindergarten and the manual training school1 #bde4 ,phidias familiar with the turning lathe1 #cc4 ,philadelphia1 manual training made part of the public school system of1 #cec2 rules of the public schools of1 #cee1 #cef2 report of a committee of the ,board of ,education of1 in regard to manual training1 #cef1 #ceg2 hand-training introduced into the public schools of1 #ceh4 ,philosophers1 the1 little time to speculate with1 #ahj4 ,philosophy established on a scientific basis--the study of natural phenomena1 #aec2 of the ,greeks scorned both science and art1 #beg4 ,physical development1 law of1 #aca4 ,pile-driver1 the steam-hammer principle applied to the1 #gf2 power of the1 #gf4 ,pilgrims1 the product of the progress of all the ages1 #cjh4 ,pine1 in the forest and in lumber1 #ba2 description of the tree by the son of a lumberman1 #ba2 uses of1 commerce in1 supply of1 #bb2 sources of information of students in regard to--newspapers and encyclopedias1 #be4 ,plato1 his theory of the divine origin of caste1 #abc2 blinded by half-truths1 #abd2 how he was controlled by his environment1 #abd2 his theory of the importance of early training1 #abe2 his contempt for the useful arts1 #agf1 #agg1 #cfi2 regarded the soul's residence in the body as an evil1 #bef2 opinion of1 that the majority is always dull and always wrong1 #bhj2 the creation of his ,divine ,dialogues depended upon the useful arts1 #chc4 ,pliny1 affection of1 for his slaves1 #aci4 ,plutarch1 sublime moral teachings of1 #ach2 on the death of his daughter1 #aci4 ,poets1 the1 little time to sentimentalize with1 #ahj2 more highly esteemed than civil engineers1 machinists1 and artisans1 #ahe4 ,poole1 ,dr4 ,william ,f41 courtesy of1 to the students of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 #cdh4 ,poverty1 its final abolition depends upon the multiplication of the useful arts1 #chc4 ,power1 generation of1 the object of education1 #bdd2 to generate and store up either mental or physical1 not to be exerted1 is a waste of energy1 #bde4 ,printing1 the art of1 essential to progress in the useful arts1 #gc2 not so necessary to progress in the so-called fine arts1 #gc2 removes the seal from the lips of learning1 #bhf2 makes every discovery in science and every invention in art the heritage of all the ages1 #bhf2 the invention of1 paralyzed authority1 #bhg4 ,progress1 if ,guttenberg had rested content with an idea1 there would have been no printing-press1 #aeb2 if ,watt1 ,stephenson1 and ,fulton had stopped at words1 there would have been neither railways nor steamships1 #aeb2 dates from the beginning of the seventeenth century1 #aec2 slow until within one hundred years1 #aec2 due not to the men who make laws1 but to the men who make things1 #afj2 of the world towards a higher appreciation of the value of the useful arts1 #agb2 of moral ideas shown by the honors lavished upon the memory of heroes1 #bcd2 can find expression only in things1 #bdc2 the path of1 a rugged road1 #cha2 its steps consist of improvements in the useful and beautiful arts1 #chb2 the lines on which educational1 is to be sought1 #che4 ,property1 no security for1 in a community devoid of education1 #bcg2 intelligence alone confers a sacred character upon1 #bcg2 may be protected by a hired soldiery1 or by public sentiment enlightened by education1 #bch2 the main purpose of governments is to protect1 but nearly all the governments of history have been destroyed in the effort to fulfil this function of their existence1 #bch2 in slaves1 failure of the ,united ,states to protect1 #bch2 rights of1 in ,english land1 about to be disturbed1 #bch2 not sacred unless honestly acquired and honestly held1 #bch2 all in the ,united ,states may be devoted to education by the ballot1 #cbd4 ,prudence1 extreme1 consistent with rectitude1 #acf2 selfishness deified under the name of1 #caa4 ,public lands of the ,united ,states squandered by ,congress1 #cag2 history of waste of1 by ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd1 in the ,chicago ,tribune1 #cag1 #cah1 #cai4 ,public schools of ,new ,england1 #cji2 the old system of education put into the1 #cjc2 popular idea of the1 #caj2 neither science nor art taught in the1 #caj2 revived the ,greco-,roman subjective system1 #caj4 ,public schools of the ,united ,states1 attendance in1 not compulsory--some children enter them1 and some do not1 #caf2 leave out that which most nearly concerns the business of life1 #cbe4 ,pugilist1 how ,john ,morrissey became a1 #cad1 #cae4 ,pullman1 ,george ,m41 ,trustee of the ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school ,association1 #cdf4 ,purdue ,university1 pronounced success achieved in manual training in1 under the directorship of ,professor ,goss1 #cda4 ,r4 ,railroad1 the1 influence of1 upon the destinies of mankind1 #agj2 taxes to the utmost nearly every department of the useful arts1 #aga2 incompetency of management of1 as shown by shrinkage in values of stocks of1 #baj2 in the proprietor of1 the two great elements of modern power1 land and steam1 are united1 #cba2 proprietor of the1 is a king1 #cba2 monstrous claims of the proprietor of1 #cae4 ,reading1 automatism of teaching1 in the schools of the ,united ,states1 as shown by the ,walton report1 #aig2 ,colonel ,parker declares that prevailing methods of instruction in1 are 8utterly opposed to a mental law about which there can be no dispute10 #bjf4 ,reason1 in existing systems of education1 allowed to slumber1 #bjj4 ,reber1 ,prof4 ,louis ,e41 in support of manual training1 #ceb4 ,reform--demand for1 #cga4 ,revolution--educational1 #ahhc-d1 #cga4 ,richard ,i4 presents ,king ,arthur's sword ,excalibar to ,tancred1 #ga4 ,right1 of the poor child to equal education sacred1 #cgf4 ,roberts1 ,richard1 a great ,english inventor of the eighteenth century1 #hd4 8,rocket10 the1 ,george ,stephenson's first locomotive1 #aah4 ,roebuck1 ,dr4 ,john1 a patron of ,watt1 #hd4 ,roman aristocrats1 were refined and accomplished1 #bgf1 #bgg2 savage contest for supremacy among the1 #bgg4 ,roman civilization the product of all that had gone before1 #bfj4 ,roman literature1 possessed no saving quality1 #bge2 did not represent the ,roman people1 #bge4 ,roman ,state1 the1 slavery the corner-stone of1 #bfe4 ,romans1 the1 had no peer either in courage or fortitude1 #bfd2 vices of1 shown in the character of ,appius1 the ,decemvir1 #bfd2 virtues of1 shown in the character of ,virginius1 #bfe2 sense of justice of1 swallowed up in lust of power1 #bff2 early triumphs of industrial1 #bfh2 indebted to slaves for all the arts1 #bfi2 philosophy of1 so shallow as to render them callous to the great crimes upon which the ,state rested1 #bgb2 debasing influence of the ,greek philosophy upon1 #bgd2 under the ,empire rewarded vice and punished virtue1 #bgd2 preferred ,csar1 ,caligula1 and ,nero to ,cato1 ,germanicus1 and ,agricola1 #bgd2 retrograded towards a state of savagery under the ,empire1 #bge2 became absolutely selfish1 and hence totally depraved1 #bgf4 ,rome1 the decline of1 caused by the failure of the fuel supply1 and by her neglect of the useful arts1 #fc1 #fd2 had she possessed great mechanics her fall might have been averted1 #fd2 her civilization culminated at the limit of the application of iron to the useful arts1 #hc2 a pen-picture of the decline of1 #hc2 her splendors and her degradation1 #ach2 fall of1 stopped the study of physiology1 #aec2 the dominion of1 logical--vigorous but pitiless1 #bfc2 all the great races mingled in1 #bfd2 laws of1 show the stamina of her people1 #bfe2 supply of laborers for1 maintained by depopulating conquered countries1 #bfe2 in the train of the legions returning to1 were men1 women1 and children destined to slavery1 #bfe2 laws of1 in regard to slaves1 terrible1 #bfe2 for the free citizen of1 to labor with his hands was more disgraceful than to die of starvation1 #bff2 free citizen paupers of1 crying 8bread and circuses10 #bff2 education in1 confined to politics and war1 #bff2 became the great robber nation of the world1 #bff2 was on the land what ,greece had been on the sea--a pirate1 #bff2 the spoil of conquered countries used to bribe courts1 senators1 and the populace1 #bfg2 nothing safe in1 from the hand of rapacity1 #bfg2 grew rich through plunder1 and poor in public and private virtue1 #bfg2 bribery in1 #bfh2 great social change in1 after the fall of ,greece and ,carthage and the reduction of ,asia1 #bfh2 summary of the causes of the fall of1 #bfh2 scenes immediately preceding the fall of1 #bfi1 #bgj2 the seat of all the world's learning1 #bgj2 the wise men of1 powerless to help their fellow-men1 because their philosophy was false1 #bgj2 metaphysical philosophy of1 #bgj1 #bga2 the philosophy of1 furnished an excuse for slavery1 #bga2 suffrage in1 the subject of open traffic1 #bga1 #bgb2 noted men of1 ignorant of the cause of the disorders which afflicted the body politic1 #bgb2 in the city of1 vice reigned supreme1 while in the provinces there was a middle class by whom all the domestic virtues were practised1 #cad2 no culture in1 for girls till late in the ,empire1 #cff4 ,romulus and ,remus1 legend of1 #bei4 ,rousseau1 the school he described1 #b2 his opinion that the poor need no education1 #abd2 his theory of the vital importance of early training1 #abe2 his definition of education1 #abe2 his appreciation of the importance of the education of woman1 #abe1 #abf2 his condemnation of the old system of education1 #abf2 declaration of1 that education is nothing but habit1 #bde4 ,runkle1 ,dr4 ,john ,d41 his declaration that public education should touch practical life in a larger number of points1 #bjb2 the founder of manual training in the ,united ,states1 #ccc2 excerpts from the report of1 in #ahgf1 recommending the adoption of manual training by the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 #ccc1 #ccd2 letter of1 to the author1 containing an exposition of the theory of manual training1 with an account of its origin in the mind of1 #ccg1 #cch2 assists in introducing manual training into ,girard ,college1 #ced4 ,ruskin1 on finding the truth in things note1 #ade2 on disciplining the fingers in the laboratory of the goldsmiths note1 #adh2 on learning by labor what the lips of man could never teach note1 #aeb2 tribute of1 to labor note1 #afa2 on rogues1 a manufactured article note1 #bcg2 on how national debts bear upon labor note1 #bia2 on how standing armies are supported note1 #bic4 ,russia1 arbitrary act of1 in #aggj1 in relation to the export of iron1 #aae2 solves the problem of tool instruction by the laboratory process1 #cca2 manual training introduced into all the technical schools of1 #ccc4 ,russia1 ,emperor of1 presents one hundred models of mechanical manipulations to the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 #fi2 offers ,john ,arnold five thousand dollars for a duplicate of his ,george ,,iii4 watch1 #hf4 ,s4 ,san ,francisco1 ,cal41 manual training in1 #cdb4 ,sankey ,canal1 the1 authorized upon condition that boats plying upon it should be drawn by men only1 #agi4 ,saracens1 the friends of education1 of science1 and art1 #bhb2 inventors of cotton-paper1 promoters of all the industries1 including agriculture1 #bhb1 #bhc2 driven from the soil they had made to blossom like the rose1 #bhc2 ameliorating influence of1 upon the ignorance and superstition of the ,middle ,ages1 #bhe4 ,savage1 the1 how he is trained1 #i2 helplessness of1 #aa2 how he is taught to hunt and fish1 #agf2 is taught what he needs to know in his condition1 and nothing else1 #aha2 if his education were as unscientific as that of the civilized boy1 the race would perish1 #bae2 ninety-nine times in a hundred he traces the footsteps of his enemy in the forest1 #bae1 #baf2 education of1 is scientific1 #baf2 in the practical character of the training of1 consists its excellence1 #bag2 mystery which envelops skill of1 solved1 #bai2 ignorant1 in his primitive state1 of all the arts1 #bgh4 ,savonarola1 the hater of abuses in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 #bcd2 at the death-bed of ,lorenzo de ,medici1 #bce2 shaking thrones and making proud prelates tremble1 #bce4 ,savory helps to solve the steam-power problem1 #ae4 ,saw-mills1 opposition to their introduction in ,england1 #agh4 ,school1 of the future1 #b2 proposed by ,ruskin note1 #ahj4 ,schools1 the1 have not moved forward with events1 #aed2 are still dominated by medival ideas of speculative philosophy1 #aed2 as an industrial agency are a failure1 #bjb2 were established as a bulwark of liberty1 #bjb2 denounced1 #cga2 must be transformed from the ornamental type of ,greece into laboratories for the development of useful men and women1 #chd2 a vast number of1 have been dedicated to the new education--are they to be developed into ideal schools81 #che4 ,schoolmaster1 the1 and the ,reformer1 #cga2 the old1 and the new education1 #cge4 ,schools of ,england1 arraignment of1 by ,herbert ,spencer1 #cbe4 ,schwab1 ,dr4 ,erasmus1 and 8,the ,work ,school in the ,common ,school10 #cfh4 ,science1 effect of divorce of1 from art1 #aa2 through printing every discovery in1 becomes the heritage of future ages1 #bhf4 ,scientific education1 simplicity of1 #bjg1 #bjh2 difference between1 and unscientific1 #bag2 description of1 by ,miss ,s4 ,e4 ,blow1 #bah1 #bai2 is natural education1 #bbc2 brightens1 stimulates1 and develops1 while automatic stupefies1 #bbc1 #bbd4 ,scientist1 the1 a public benefactor1 #afj2 studies the stars1 the earth1 and the air in the light of the flames of persecution1 #bhg4 ,scott1 ,frank ,j41 contributor to the fund for the founding of the ,toledo1 ,ohio1 ,manual ,training ,school1 #cfd4 ,scott1 ,jesup ,w41 the founder of the ,toledo ,manual ,training ,school1 #ceh4 ,scott1 ,maurice1 contributor to the fund for the founding of the ,toledo ,manual ,training ,school1 #cfd4 ,scott1 ,william ,f41 contributor to the fund for the founding of the ,toledo ,manual ,training ,school1 #cfd4 ,sculpture1 limit of1 reached in ,greece1 #gc4 ,scythians1 among the1 the iron sword was a god1 #gj4 ,segovia1 manufactures of1 destroyed by the expulsion of the ,moors from ,spain1 #bhc4 ,seligman1 ,mr4 ,joseph1 munificence of1 established ,professor ,adler's ,workingman's ,school in ,new ,york ,city on a firm basis1 #cde4 ,selfishness1 the arch-enemy of virtue1 #acd2 maxims in honor of1 #acd2 ,napoleon a colossal example of the folly of1 #ace2 in conflict with the true spirit of civilization1 #ace2 causes revolutions and destroys governments1 #ace2 is blind of one eye--sees only one side of a cause1 #acf2 let not prudence be confounded with1 #acf2 extreme1 the synonym of depravity1 #acf2 promoted by prevailing systems of education1 #acf2 promoted by a mercantile career1 #bcj2 of the lawyer1 the judge1 and the legislator1 #bcj1 #bca2 as it recedes from the mind1 justice assumes its appropriate place as the controlling element in human conduct1 #bcc2 the source of all social evil1 #bdg2 transformed ,roman courage into cruelty1 and ,roman fortitude into brutal stoicism1 #bff2 transformed the government of ,rome from a pure democracy into an oligarchy of wealth1 #bgf2 vanquishes itself in ,rome1 #bgg2 the equivalent of savagery1 #bgg2 deified under the name of prudence1 #caa2 calling it prudence led to confounding right and wrong1 #caa2 effects of1 in the nineteenth century the same as in the first1 #cab2 the mind charged with1 through subjective educational processes1 #cbf2 ends in a struggle which ends in a revolution1 #cbf4 ,seneca1 sublime moral precepts of1 contrasted with the horrors of the gladiatorial games1 #ach2 his doctrine of humanity1 #aci2 ignores slavery1 the slave1 the laborer1 and the useful arts1 #bfh2 morals of1 glittering generalities1 politics of1 practical1 #bfi2 put money in his purse1 #bfi2 charged with complicity in the ,piso conspiracy1 and banished for the crime of adultery1 #bfi4 ,serfs of the ,middle ,ages the mercenary troops of the modern ,state1 #bij4 ,service--the greatest thing in the moral world1 #cgh4 ,seville1 silk industry of1 #bib2 looms of1 silenced in the seventeenth century1 #bhc4 ,sewing-machine1 the1 its accuracy1 #hg2 it illustrates the interdependence of the practical arts1 #hg2 it multiplies garments beyond the power of figures to express1 #hg4 ,sheffield1 ,lord1 his estimate of the value of ,henry ,cort's improvements in iron and the steam-engine of ,watt1 #aae2 his declaration of the purpose of the establishment of the ,american colonies1 #bjb4 ,sheffield1 town of1 its insignificance in #agae1 #aaf2 its manufacturing importance now1 #aaf4 ,skill being prolific of good should be brought to bear upon educational systems1 #acb4 ,slavery existed in the ,united ,states when ,horace ,mann declared it to be the cause of the degradation of labor and the laborer1 #ahi2 aided by ,england in its struggle for survival1 #ahi2 influence of1 not yet extinct1 #ahi2 has kept its brand of shame upon the useful arts for thousands of years1 #aij2 how the ,egyptian was reduced to1 #bej2 and labor were synonymous terms in ,rome1 #bfe2 a state of1 is a state of war1 #bfe2 confounded with freedom in the ,united ,states1 #caa2 negroes escaping from1 called fugitives from justice1 #caa2 justified in ,faneuil ,hall1 the cradle of liberty1 #caa2 tried only by the test of self-interest1 #cab2 in the ,north it faded away1 in the ,south it flourished1 #cab2 climate conditions1 not education1 saved this continent from the scourge of1 #cab1 #cac2 question of continuance of1 in the ,united ,states1 settled by violence1 as savages settle controversies1 #cac4 ,slaves1 in ,rome1 laws in relation to1 #bfe2 a million killed in the course of the servile rebellion in ,sicily1 #bfe2 exposed to wild beasts in the arena for the popular amusement1 #bfe2 all industrial pursuits in ,rome carried on by1 #bff2 labor of1 in ,rome1 cheaper than that of cattle1 #bff2 construct all the great public works in ,rome1 #bfi2 strike for liberty in ,rome1 and are slaughtered1 #bga2 clank of the chains of1 in the streets of ,boston1 #caa4 ,smeaton helps to solve the steam-power problem1 #ae2 the best workman of his time1 #he4 ,smiles1 ,samuel1 declares that the automata of the ,middle ,ages led to the useful automatic tools of the eighteenth century1 #ce2 his peculiar views about ,maudslay's great invention1 #cf2 his history of the ,dutch and ,german mechanics who contributed to the solution of the problem of the application of mineral coal to smelting purposes1 #fd2 his graphic picture of the versatility of the smith1 #ga2 his pen-picture of the steamship ,warrior 8breasting the billows of the ,north ,sea10 #he2 shows the true springs of ,english greatness in his 8,lives of the ,engineers10 #agb2 shows the origin of useful arts in ,england in his great work on the ,huguenots1 #ahe4 ,smith1 the1 gives direction to the course of ,empire1 #fb2 a man of great consequence in ,england in the early time1 #ga2 name of1 descends to more families than that of any other profession1 #ga2 versatility of1 #ga1 #gb2 conducts the engineering at the siege of ,berwick1 #gb2 ancient1 kin to all the ages through his works1 #gd4 ,social evils1 are the product of defective education1 #cbe4 ,social problems1 solution of1 to be sought through a radical change in educational methods1 #bdh2 the railway and factory are new factors in1 #cba2 of ,america cannot be settled as those of ,europe are1 by emigration1 #cbf4 ,solicis1 ,prof4 ,g41 the chief supporter of manual training in ,france1 #cfh4 ,south ,carolina1 educational system of1 confined to a class1 as opposed to universal education in ,new ,england1 #bce4 ,spain1 ruined by the expulsion of the ,moors1 #bhc2 destitution in the chief cities of1 #bhc2 danger that the royal family of1 would go hungry to bed1 #bhc2 is bankrupt1 #bif4 ,speculation1 rages on the exchanges of all large ,american cities1 #cbb2 affects every class in the community1 #cbb2 stimulates bad passions1 and creates a distaste for labor1 #cbb4 ,speculative philosophy1 only resource of the ancients1 #aec2 dominated the world from the fall of ,rome to the time of ,bacon1 #aec4 ,speech1 must be incarnate in things or it is dead1 #ada2 man would lose the power of1 if his words should cease to be realized in things1 #adi2 dependent upon objects for its existence1 #aej2 has its origin not less in external objects than in the mind1 #aej2 would be lost if the senses should cease to be impressed by things1 #aej2 freedom of1 and of thought1 catch-penny phrases1 #aib4 ,spelling1 automatism in teaching1 in the schools of the ,united ,states1 as shown by the ,walton report1 #aih1 #aii4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 on the defects of the schools of ,england1 #cbe2 the contrast between his views and the dictum of ,dr4 ,dwight of ,yale ,university1 #cgd2 pointed out1 the analogy between early methods of education and barbarism1 #cgg4 ,standing armies1 a legacy of evil from the ,middle ,ages1 #bhi2 recruited from the ranks of the serfs1 #bij2 the dominant feature of ,european public economy1 #bij2 number of1 #bij2 collateral evils of1 #bij2 responsible for illiteracy and pauperism1 #bib2 what they cost and what they stand in the way of1 #bic2 how they are supported note1 #bic2 an assumption of the barbarism of man1 #cjj2 stand in the way of education and prosperity1 #cjc2 must everywhere soon disappear before the march of education1 #cjc2 are as abnormal in ,europe as slavery was in the ,united ,states1 #cjc1 #cjd2 are the instruments of tyranny1 the last analysis of selfishness1 #cjd2 the result of the ,greco-,roman methods of education1 #cjd4 ,state1 a1 growth of1 depends upon progress in the practical arts1 #aea2 ceasing to advance1 its language ceases to grow1 becomes stationary1 stagnates1 #aea4 ,statesmen1 not the authors of ,english progress1 #aei2 ,buckle's scathing arraignment of1 #afj2 more highly esteemed than civil engineers1 machinists1 and artisans1 #ahe4 ,statutes1 that wear out in a year1 #bda4 ,steam1 power of1 known to the ancients1 #ad2 makes all civilized countries prosperous and great1 #afa2 must be harnessed at the forge and in the shop to enable it to do its work1 #agj2 power exerted by1 in the manufactories of ,great ,britain equal to the manual labor of four hundred millions of men1 #ahd2 may be likened to an idea which finds expression through the engine--a thing1 #bde2 the railway and the factory two great products of1 #cba4 ,steam-hammer1 the1 in works of ,mr4 ,crane1 ,chicago1 #ge2 in ,pittsburg1 ,pa41 and at ,krupp's cast-steel works1 ,essen1 ,germany1 #ge2 invention of1 in #ahcg1 its accuracy1 power1 and delicacy1 #gf2 application of the principle of1 to the pile-driver in #ahde1 #gf4 ,steamship1 the1 influence of1 upon the destinies of mankind1 #agj4 ,steel1 ,age of1 great enterprises of the1 dwarf the merely ornamental branches of learning1 #agi4 ,steele1 ,prof4 ,a4 ,j41 ,principal of the ,le ,moyne ,normal ,institute--letter of1 to the ,author1 #cfb4 ,stephenson1 ,george1 inventor of the locomotive1 #hd2 sketch of his remarkable career1 #aah1 #aai2 declines knighthood and a membership in the ,royal ,society1 #aai2 the founder of the railway system of the world1 #aai4 ,stephenson1 ,robert1 an ,english railway engineer1 #hd4 ,stick1 ,adam and the1 #aeg2 the symbol and instrument of power1 #aeh4 ,stoics and philosophers of ,rome1 lofty moral sentiments of1 in contrast with the ,roman vices1 #aci4 ,suetonius1 portrays the cruelties of the ,csars1 but hints at no cause therefor inherent in the social system1 #bgb4 ,suffrage1 love of country in the ,united ,states is a due appreciation of the right of1 #cbc2 in the universality of the right of1 lies the power of correcting all social evils1 #cbd2 destined to preservation forever in the ,united ,states1 #cbd2 attempt to limit1 in ,new ,york accounted for by the prevalence of ,european ideas1 #cbd2 the right of1 can be taken from the ,american people only by force1 #cbd2 standard of1 lowered by ignorance and depravity1 #cbe2 when better informed it will be more honest1 #cbe2 with increased intelligence it will gain the power to grapple with social abuses1 #cbe4 ,superstition1 how it arose through ignorance and selfishness1 #bdi4 ,sweden1 five hundred sljd schools in1 in #ahhb1 #cfh2 supports a school for the training of teachers of sljd schools at ,ns1 #cfi4 ,syria1 the founders1 smiths1 and all the artisans of1 were slaves1 #ef4 ,t4 ,tacitus1 his account of the execution of four hundred slaves for the murder of one man1 #bfe2 his lament at the decline of public virtue1 #bfg2 is silent on the subject of the infamy of slavery1 and on the shame of degrading labor1 #bgb4 ,tancred the ,crusader pays for ,king ,arthur's sword ,excalibar 8four great ships and fifteen galleys10 #ga4 ,tarquins1 the banishment of the1 #bfd4 ,telegraph1 the1 influence of1 upon the destinies of mankind1 #agj4 ,telephone1 the work of the hand1 #aef4 ,telescope1 the work of the hand1 #aee4 ,texas1 ,agricultural and ,mechanical ,college of1 #cei4 ,theodoric1 attempt of1 to reconstruct the ,roman civilization1 #bgi2 the order evoked from chaos by1 to chaos soon returned1 #bhj4 ,theorem1 a1 always a question solved1 #add4 ,things both the subject and occasion of speech1 #aea2 regarded as of less vital importance than abstract ideas1 #ahe2 the false1 easily detected in--examples1 #bbd2 the study of1 steadies and balances the mind1 #bbe2 the truth revealed only in1 #bdc2 ideas are mere vain speculations till embodied in1 #bdc2 the habit of expressing ideas in1 should be formed in the schools1 #bde2 the truths that are hidden in1 #cgh2 the integrity of the mind can be maintained only by the submission of its immature judgments to the verification of1 #cgi2 the source of ideas1 #cgi2 essential to spiritual development1 #chd4 ,thinking1 acting is the complement of1 #bdd4 ,thought1 must be incarnate in things1 or it is dead1 #ada2 is not even present to the thinker until he has set it forth1 out of himself1 #aej2 independent1 of all mental processes the most difficult--habit1 tradition1 and reverence for antiquity unite to forbid it1 #aib4 ,thoughts must be expressed to have influence1 #bdd2 may be expressed most forcibly in things1 #bdd4 ,thucydides arraigns the ,greeks as falsifiers and perjurers1 #bee4 ,thurston1 ,robert ,h41 on the tremendous power wielded by the mechanic1 #ahc4 ,toledo1 ,o41 ,manual ,training ,school1 inception of1 due to the generosity of the late ,jesup ,w4 ,scott and his three sons1 #cfd2 connected with the public high-school1 #cfd1 #cfe2 students of1 consist of both sexes1 #cfe2 the course for girls in1 #cfe4 ,toledo1 ,spain1 woollen manufactures of1 transferred by the exiled ,moors to ,tunis1 #bhc4 8,tom ,all-alone's0 in 8,bleak ,house0--social philosophy of1 #cae4 ,tool practice1 quickens the intellect1 #aad2 engenders a thirst for wisdom1 #aad2 history of1 in ,england confirms this view1 #aad2 the foundation of ,james ,watt's culture1 #aai2 ,george ,stephenson's career an illustration of the intellectual effect of1 #aai2 testimony of the ,director of the ,artisans' ,school at ,rotterdam1 ,holland1 as to intellectual effect of1 #aba2 testimony of ,dr4 ,woodward1 ,director of the ,st4 ,louis ,manual ,training ,school1 as to intellectual effect of1 #aba2 testimony of ,m4 ,victor ,della ,vos1 ,director of the ,imperial ,technical ,school of ,moscow1 as to intellectual effect of1 #aba2 effect of1 as shown by the experience of the ,mechanic ,art ,school at ,komotan1 ,bohemia1 #abb4 ,tools1 influence of1 upon modern civilization1 #i2 represent the steps of human progress1 #aj2 the great civilizing agency of the world1 #aa4 ,touch1 the master sense1 whence all the other senses spring1 #chj2 reigns throughout the body1 and is the token of life in every part1 #cha2 is the fundamental sense1 the mother-tongue of1 language1 #cha2 its versatility1 #cha4 ,townships of ,new ,england1 their establishment logical1 #cji4 ,tradition1 tyranny of1 #abd4 ,truth1 the struggle after1 #bcc2 the love of1 natural1 #bcc2 heroes honor it1 #bcd2 conspicuous through efforts to suppress it1 #bhg4 ,tulane1 ,paul1 founder of the ,tulane ,university of ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 #cec4 ,tulane ,university1 manual training a prominent feature in the1 #cec4 ,turkish ,empire1 story of its origin through the art of forging1 #fa4 ,tweedism1 what made it possible in the city of ,new ,york1 #cae4 ,types1 through the medium of1 the voice of genius is destined to reach to the ends of the earth1 #bhf4 ,u4 ,united ,states1 the1 not at the front in the race of nations for industrial supremacy1 #bjc2 comparison of imports and exports of1 with those of ,england1 #bjc2 industrially ill-balanced1 #bjd2 suffering from a paucity of skilled labor1 #bjd2 educational system of1 very poor1 as shown by the statistics of railway and commercial disasters1 #bbd2 educational system of1 as poor morally as mentally1 #bbd2 neglect of education by1 the most astonishing fact in the history of1 #bce2 a scientific educational system forced upon the ,south by1 would have averted the war of rebellion1 #bcg2 could not protect property in slaves1 #bch2 social conditions in1 similar to those prevailing in ,europe1 #cac2 illiteracy in1 #cac2 increase of illiteracy in1 #cac2 every sixth man who votes in1 is unable to write his name1 #cac2 land system of1 rivals that of ,england in injustice1 #cag2 history of the land system of1 by ,henry ,d4 ,lloyd1 in the ,chicago ,tribune1 #cag-cai2 the sentiment of patriotism justifiable only in1 #cbc2 the soldier of1 is a citizen of1 #cbc1 #cbd4 ,universities1 the men who have transformed the face of the earth came not from the1 #ahe2 ,bacon's caustic remark in relation to the1 #ahe2 on ,bacon's plan would have united science and art1 #ahe4 ,use--the greatest thing in the material world1 #cgh4 ,v4 ,valerius1 died so poor that he was buried at the public charge1 #bfh4 ,venus1 made the wife of ,vulcan1 the ,god of ,fire1 #gj4 ,von ,kaas1 ,rittmeister ,claussen1 lectures on the subject of manual training in ,germany1 #cfh4 ,vulcan1 the ,god of ,fire1 given ,venus to wife1 the father of ,cupid1 #gj4 ,w4 ,waif1 the1 description of1 by ,john ,morrissey1 #cad2 destined to become an equal citizen1 #cae2 made ,tweedism in ,new ,york ,city possible1 #cae2 pollutes the fountains of justice1 #cae1 #caf2 menaces the government with destruction1 #caf2 permitted by the hundred thousand to develop into a savage1 #caf2 power of1 to tax civilized people1 #caf4 ,walton1 ,george ,a41 report of1 in regard to investigation of the schools of ,norfolk ,county1 ,mass41 #aif-aii4 ,wars1 modern1 of ,european nations involve no principle1 #bij4 ,washington ,university1 manual training department of1 established in #ahgh1 #cch1 #cci2 excerpts from the prospectus of1 #ahhb-hc1 showing the progress of manual training1 #cci1 #cdj2 founding of manual training department of1 due to the energy and foresight of ,dr4 ,woodward first1 and second1 to the donations of private citizens1 #cdj1 #cda4 ,watch ,company1 ,elgin ,national1 makes a thousand watches a day--all perfect1 #hg2 makes two hundred thousand watch-screws in a few minutes1 #hg4 ,watt1 ,james1 the last link in the chain of steam-engine inventors1 #ae2 ,dr4 ,draper's eulogy of1 #ae2 chief difficulty of1 in perfecting the steam-engine1 #hd1 #he2 ,smeaton's opinion that the engine of1 could not be made to work with hand-made tools1 #he2 sketch of the life and career of1 #aai1 #abj2 a dull boy in school1 #abj2 tribute of ,sir ,walter ,scott to the greatness of1 #abj2 every incident in the life of1 now eagerly sought for1 #aga4 ,weaving ,machinery1 improved1 opposition to introduction of1 in ,england1 #agh4 ,whitney1 ,eli ,b41 inventor of the cotton-gin1 #hd4 ,william the ,conqueror1 his appreciation of the importance of land proprietorship1 #cag4 ,williams1 ,roger1 the champion of absolute freedom of thought and speech1 #cji4 ,wilson1 ,dr4 ,george1 his panegyric on the hand1 #ade4 ,wisdom1 the power of discriminating between what is true and what is false1 #aeb2 the hand used as the synonym of1 because it is only in the concrete that the false is sure of detection1 #aeb4 ,woman1 tremendous influence of1 upon the destinies of the human race1 #abe2 neglect of past ages to educate1 a crime1 #abe2 education of1 more important than that of man1 #abh2 condition of1 in a state of savagery1 #bdi2 reform in education must begin with1 #cfe2 the education of1 more imperative than that of man1 #cfe2 neglect of the education of1 among the ancients1 #cff2 degradation of1 in the ,middle ,ages1 #cff2 contempt of1 by ,bacon1 ,swift1 ,addison1 and ,johnson1 #cff2 ,shakespeare's tribute to1 #cff2 ,ruskin's worship of1 #cff2 the purity of the home and the efficiency of the school depends upon1 #cfg2 in the van where the imagination leads1 #cfg2 less selfish than man1 #cfg2 intuitions of1 truer1 ideals higher1 sense of justice finer1 and of duty stronger than those of man1 #cfg2 the teacher of man from the cradle to the grave1 #cfg4 ,woodward1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,m41 ,director of the ,st4 ,louis ,manual ,training ,school1 #aba2 statement of1 as to intellectual effect of manual training1 #aba2 his account of the origin of the ,st4 ,louis school1 #cci4 ,wood-turning laboratory1 radical change of1 from carpentry--from angles to spherical1 cylindrical1 and eccentric forms1 #cj2 the value in the arts of the lathe1 #cj2 its mythical origin1 #cc2 its application and uses among the ancients1 #cd2 fashionable in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in ,england and ,france1 #cd2 purpose of1 is not to make turners1 but to educate boys1 #ci2 the machinery of1 in motion1 #ci2 pen-picture of the students in1 #ci2 the lesson in detail in1 #dj2 the students at their lathes in1 #dc2 the instructor passes upon the work of the class in1 #dd4 ,wootz1 or ,indian steel1 produced near ,golconda1 and used in the fabrication of ,damascus blades1 #gb2 millions of dollars expended in efforts to produce the equal of1 #gb4 ,words1 weakness of1 #ada2 cannot attain to definiteness save as living outgrowths of realities1 #aej2 easy to juggle with1 and make the worse appear the better reason1 #bbd2 educational systems still train in1 rather than in things1 #cbe1 #cbf4 ,workingman's ,school and ,free ,kindergarten of ,new ,york ,city1 the most comprehensive educational institution in the world1 #cdb2 scope of1 #cdc2 purpose of1 identical with that of the manual training school1 #cdc2 methods of instruction in the1 #cdc1 #cdd4 ,y4 ,yarranton1 ,andrew1 according to ,patrick ,edward ,dove1 was the founder of ,english political economy1 #age4 ,z4 ,zenophon1 after conducting the retreat of the ,ten ,thousand1 led a detachment of ,greeks on a pillaging expedition1 #bee4 ,,the ,,end ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation1 etc4 7including in proper names7 have been retained1 except as mentioned below4 ,depending on the hard- and software and their settings used to read this text1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,as explained in the ,preface1 the book contains both endnotes per chapter and footnotes4 ,this distinction has been kept in this text1 with the endnotes being numbered ,e#a1 ,e#b1 ,e#c1 444 and the footnotes having numbers #a1 #b1 #c1 4444 ,page #he1 8,machine-made tools were unknown 4443 either the closing quote mark is missing1 or the opening quote mark was included erroneously4 ,page #afi3 there is a footnote marker 99 on this page1 but no footnote4 ,page #agi1 paragraph starting ,when labor was only another name 444 and related foot- and endotes3 several quote marks appear to be lacking4 ,page #ahj1 ,footnote #cf3 there probably should have been a closing quote mark after 444 exercises of humanity4 ,page #cbg1 ,endnote ,e#ca3 there is no marker in the text for this note4 ,page #djj1 ,minnesota1 ,minn43 as printed in the source document2 probably an error for ,minneapolis1 ,minn4 ,page #dfd1 ,zenophon3 the text consistently uses ,xenophon4 ,changes3 ,illustrations and footnotes have been moved out of text paragraphs4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,table of ,contents3 ,several page numbers have been corrected to the book's actual page numbers4 ,page #f1 ,endnote #a3 closing quote mark inserted after 444 principles of scientific education4 ,page #ac3 closing quote mark inserted after 444 be learned by doing them4 ,page #eh3 444 accessaries1 as anvils1 444 changed to 444 accessories1 as anvils1 4444 ,page #gg1 ,endnote #b3 opening quote mark inserted before ,the inquiry of truth 4444 ,page #aga3 ,maudslay1 ,clement ,murray1 ,nasmyth changed to ,maudslay1 ,clement1 ,murray1 ,nasmyth4 ,page #aid3 ,opening quote mark inserted before ,applying our popular schemes 4444 ,page #beg3 ,endnote marker numbering ,e#a corrected to ,e#aa to conform to endnotes for this chapter4 ,page #cib1 footnote #abe3 ,of the #ea cities tabulated 444 changed to ,of the #ed cities tabulated 4444 ,page #dcb3 ,chicago ,manual ,training ,school1 equipment of3 #cda changed to #cdg4