,,the                                   
,,preaching ,,of ,,islam                
,a ,history of the ,propagation of the  
,muslim ,faith                          
,,by                          ,t4 ,w4   
,,arnold ,m4,a4 ,c4,i4,e4               
,,professor ,,of ,,arabic1 ,,university 
,,of ,,london1 ,,university ,,college   
,,new ,,york                            
,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons          
#aiac                                   
,,to                       ,,sir        
,,theodore ,,morison1 ,k4,c4,i4,e4      
,,to ,,whom ,,the ,,first ,,edition     
,,owes ,,its ,,existence                
,,this ,,second ,,edition ,,is          
,,dedicated                        ,,in 
,,token ,,of ,,long ,,friendship        
,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition  
,it is with considerable diffidence that
 ,i publish these pages2 the  subject   
with which they deal is so vast1 and ,i 
have had to prosecute it  under         
circumstances so disadvantageous1 that  
,i can hope but for small  measure of   

success4 ,when ,i may be better equipped
 for the task1 and  after further study 
has enabled me to fill up the gaps #a   
left in the  present work1 ,i hope to   
make it a more worthy contribution to   
this  neglected department of           
,muhammadan history2 and to this end ,i 
shall be  deeply grateful for the       
criticisms and corrections of any       
scholars who  may deign to notice the   
book4 ,to such ,i would say in the words
 of ,st4  ,augustine3 8,qui hc legens   
dicit1 intelligo quidem quid dictum sit1
 sed  non vere dictum est2 asserat ut   
placet sententiam suam1 et redarguat    
meam1 si potest4 ,quod si cum caritate  
et veritate fecerit1 mihique  etiam 7si 
in hac vita maneo7 cognoscendum facere  
curaverit1 uberrimum  fructum laboris   
huius mei cepero40 #b    ,as ,i can     
neither claim to be an authority nor a  
specialist on any of  the periods of    
history dealt with in this book1 and as 
many of the  events referred to therein 
have become matter for controversy1 ,i  

have  given full references to the      
sources consulted2 and here ,i have     
thought  it better to err on the side of
 excess rather than that of defect4 ,i  
have myself suffered so much            
inconvenience and wasted so much time in
  hunting up references to books        
indicated in some obscure or            
unintelligible manner1 that ,i would    
desire to spare others a similar        
annoyance2 and while to the general     
reader ,i may appear guilty of          
pedantry1 ,i may perchance save trouble 
to some scholar who wishes to  test the 
accuracy of a statement or pursue any   
part of the subject  further4    ,the   
scheme adopted in this book for the     
transliteration of ,arabic words  is    
that laid down by the ,transliteration  
,committee of the ,tenth  ,international
 ,congress of ,orientalists1 held at    
,geneva in #ahid1 with  the exception   
that the last letter of the article is  
assimilated to the  so-called solar     
letters4 ,in the case of geographical   

names this scheme  has not been so      
rigidly applied--in many instances      
because ,i could not  discover the      
original ,arabic form of the word1 in   
others 7e4g4 ,mecca1  ,medina71 because 
usage has almost created for them a     
prescriptive  title4    ,though this    
work is confessedly1 as explained in the
 ,introduction1 a  record of missionary 
efforts and not a history of            
persecutions1 #c ,i  have endeavoured to
 be strictly impartial and to conform to
 the ideal  laid down by the ,christian 
historian #d who chronicled the         
successes  of the ,ottomans and the fall
 of ,constantinople3       1 '          
1 '         1     1  4    ,i desire to  
thank ,her ,excellency the ,princess    
,barberini2 ,his ,excellency  the       
,prince ,chigi2 the ,most ,rev4 ,dr4    
,paul ,goethals1 ,archbishop of         
,calcutta2 the ,right ,rev4 ,fr4        
,francis ,pesci1 ,bishop of ,allahabad2 
the  ,rev4 ,s4 ,s4 ,allnutt1 of the     
,cambridge ,mission1 ,dehli2 the        

,trustees of  ,dr4 ,williams's ,library1
 ,gordon ,square1 ,london1 for the      
liberal use they  have allowed me of    
their respective libraries4    ,i am    
under an especial debt of gratitude to  
,james ,kennedy1 ,esq41 late  of the    
,bengal ,civil ,service1 who has never  
ceased to take a kindly  interest in my 
book1 though it has almost exemplified  
the ,horatian  precept1 ,nonum prematur 
in annum2 to his profound scholarship   
and wide  reading ,i have been indebted 
for much information that would         
otherwise  have remained unknown to me1 
nor do ,i owe less to the stimulus of   
his  enthusiastic love of learning and  
his helpful sympathy4 ,i am also under  
a debt of gratitude to the kindness of  
,conte ,ugo ,balzani1 but for whose     
assistance certain parts of my work     
would have been impossible to me4  ,to  
the late ,professor ,robertson ,smith ,i
 am indebted for valuable  suggestions  
as to the lines of study on which the   
history of the ,north  ,african ,church 

and the condition of the ,christians    
under ,muslim rule1  should be worked   
out2 the profound regret which all      
,semitic scholars  feel at his loss is  
to me intensified by the thought that   
this is the  only acknowledgment ,i am  
able to make of his generous help and   
encouragement4    ,i desire also to     
acknowledge my obligations to ,sir      
,sayyid ,amad ,khn  ,bahdur1            
,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,,ll4,d42 to my learned   
friend and colleague1 ,shamsu-l  ,ulam  
,mawlaw ,muammad ,shibl ,numn1 who has  
assisted me most  generously out of the 
abundance of his knowledge of early     
,muhammadan  history2 and to my former  
pupil1 ,mawlaw ,bahdur ,al1 ,m4,a4      
,lastly1 and above all1 must ,i thank my
 dear wife1 but for whom this  work     
would never have emerged out of a chaos 
of incoherent materials1  and whose     
sympathy and approval are the best      
reward of my labours4          ,aligarh1
 #ahif4                  ,,preface ,,to 
,,the ,,second ,,edition      ,the first

 edition of this book having been out of
 print for several  years and frequent  
inquiries having been made for copies1  
this new  edition has been prepared and 
an effort has been made to revise the   
work in the light of the fresh materials
 that have accumulated during  the last 
sixteen years2 but ,i can make no claim 
to have made myself  acquainted with the
 whole of the vast literature on the    
subject1 in  upwards of ten different   
languages1 which has been published     
during  this interval4 ,the growing     
interest in ,islam and the various      
branches  of study connected with it1   
may be estimated from the fact that     
since  #aijf five periodicals have made 
their appearance devoted to             
investigations cognate to the           
subject-matter of the present work1 viz4
  ,revue du ,monde ,musulman1 publie par
 ,la ,mission ,scientifique du ,maroc   
7,paris1 #aijf- 72 ,der ,islam1         
,zeitschrift fr ,geschichte und ,kultur 
des  islamischen ,orients 7,strassburg1 

#aiaj- 72 ,the ,moslem ,world1 a        
quarterly  review of current events1    
literature1 and thought among           
,mohammedans1  and the progress of      
,christian ,missions in ,moslem lands   
7,london1 #aiaa-  72 ,mir ,islama 7,st4 
,petersburg1 #aiab- 72 and ,die ,welt   
des ,islams1  ,zeitschrift der deutschen
 ,gesellschaft fr ,islamkunde 7,berlin1 
#aiac- 74  ,the ,christian missionary   
societies are also now devoting         
increased  attention to the subject of  
,muslim missionary activity and         
accordingly  it takes up a              
proportionately larger place in their   
publications than  before4    ,this     
second edition would have been completed
 several years ago but for  the         
illiberal policy which closes the       
,reading ,room of the ,british  ,museum 
at #g o'clock and has thus made it      
practically inaccessible to me  except  
on ,saturdays4 #e ,i therefore desire to
 express my grateful  thanks to those   
friends who have facilitated my labours 

by the loan of  books from the          
,libraries of the ,university of ,leiden
 and the ,university  of ,utrecht       
7through the kind offices of ,professor 
,wensinck71 and the  cole des ,langues  
,orientales ,vivantes1 ,paris2--to ,mr4 
,j4 ,a4 ,oldham1  editor of ,the        
,international ,review of ,missions1 ,i 
am indebted for the  loan of volumes of 
the ,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1 
a set of which  ,i have been unable to  
find in ,london2 my thanks are specially
 due to  ,dr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,thomas1 who has  
allowed me to study for lengthy periods 
7along with other books from the ,india 
,office ,library7 the monumental        
,annali dell' ,islam by ,leone ,caetani1
 ,principe di ,teano1--a work of        
inestimable value for the early history 
of ,islam1 but unfortunately  placed out
 of the reach of the average scholar by 
reason of its great  cost4    ,i am also
 much indebted for several valuable     
indications to those  scholars who      
reviewed the book when it first         

appeared1--above all1 to  ,professor    
,goldziher1 whose sympathetic interest  
in this work has  encouraged me to      
continue it4          ,london1 #aiac4   
,,contents      ,,chapter ,i4           
,,introduction4                         
,,page        ,a missionary religion    
defined4 ,islam a missionary religion2  
its      extent4 ,the ,qurn enjoins     
preaching and persuasion1 and forbids   
violence and force in the conversion of 
unbelievers4 ,the present      work a   
history of missions1 not of persecutions
                   #a      ,,chapter    
,,ii4    ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of 
,,mu,,ammad ,,considered ,,as ,a        
,,preacher ,,of ,,islam4        ,muammad
 the type of the ,muslim missionary4    
,account of his early      efforts at   
propagating ,islam1 and of the          
conversions made in ,mecca      before  
the ,hijrah4 ,persecution of the        
converts1 and migration to      ,medina4
 ,condition of the ,muslims in ,medina3 
beginning of the      national life of  

,islam4 ,islam offered 7a7 to the       
,arabs1 7b7 to the      whole world4    
,islam declared in the ,qurn to be a    
universal      religion1--as being the  
primitive faith delivered to ,abraham4  
,muammad as the founder of a political  
organisation4 ,the spread of      ,islam
 and the efforts made to convert the    
,arabs after the ,hijrah4      ,the     
ideals of ,islam and those of           
,pre-,islamic ,arabia contrasted   #aa  
,,chapter ,,iii4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of 
,,islam ,,among ,,the ,,christian       
,,nations ,,of ,,western ,,asia4        
,the ,arab conquests and expansion of   
the ,arab race after the death      of  
,muammad4 ,conversion of ,christian     
,bedouins4 ,causes of the early         
successes of the ,muslims4 ,toleration  
extended to those who remained          
,christian4--,the settled population of 
the towns3 failure of      ,heraclius's 
attempt to reconcile the contending     
,christian sects4      ,the ,arab       
conquest of ,syria and ,palestine3 their

 toleration3 the      ,ordinance of     
,umar3 jizyah paid in return for        
protection and in      lieu of military 
service4 ,condition of the ,christians  
under ,muslim      rule3 they occupy    
high posts1 build new churches3 revival 
in the      ,nestorian ,church4 ,causes 
of their conversion to ,islam3 revolt   
against ,byzantine ecclesiasticism3     
influence of rationalistic      thought3
 imposing character of ,muslim          
civilisation4 ,persecutions             
suffered by the ,christians4            
,proselytising efforts4 ,details of     
conversion to ,islam4--,account of      
conversions from among the              
,crusaders4--,the ,armenian and         
,georgian ,churches                     
#de      ,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,the       
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,among ,,the     
,,christian ,,nations ,,of ,,africa4    
,egypt3 conquered by the ,arabs1 who are
 welcomed by the ,copts as      their   
deliverers from ,byzantine rule4        
,condition of the ,copts under      the 

,muslims4 ,corruption and negligence of 
the clergy lead to      conversions to  
,islam4--,nubia3 relations with         
,muhammadan powers3      gradual decay  
of the ,christian faith4--,abyssinia3   
the ,arabs on the      sea-board3       
missionary efforts in the fourteenth    
century3 invasion      of ,amad ,gr3    
conversions to ,islam3 progress of      
,islam in recent      years4--,northern 
,africa3 extent of ,christianity in     
,north ,africa in      the seventh      
century3 the ,christians are said to    
have been forcibly      converted3      
reasons for thinking that this statement
 is not true3      toleration enjoyed by
 the ,christians3 gradual disappearance 
of the      ,christian ,church          
#ajb      ,,chapter ,v4    ,,the        
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,among ,,the     
,,christians ,,of ,,spain4              
,christianity in ,spain before the      
,muslim conquest3 miserable             
condition of the ,jews and the slaves4  
,early converts to ,islam4              

,corruption of the clergy4 ,toleration  
of the ,arabs1 and influence of         
their civilisation on the ,christians1  
who study ,arabic and adopt      ,arab  
dress and manners4 ,causes of conversion
 to ,islam4 ,the      voluntary martyrs 
of ,cordova4 ,extent of the conversions 
#aca      ,,chapter ,,vi4    ,,the      
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,among ,,the     
,,christian ,,nations ,,in ,,europe     
,,under ,,the  ,,turks4                 
,relations of the ,turks to their       
,christian subjects during the first    
two centuries of their rule3 toleration 
extended to the ,greek      ,church by  
,muammad ,,ii3 the benefits of ,ottoman 
rule3 its      disadvantages1 the       
tribute-children1 the capitation-tax1   
tyranny of      individuals4 ,forced    
conversion rare4 ,proselytising efforts 
made by      the ,turks4 ,circumstances 
that favoured the spread of ,islam3     
degraded condition of the ,greek        
,church3 failure of the attempt to      
,protestantise the ,greek ,church3      

oppression of the ,greek clergy3        
moral superiority of the ,ottomans3     
imposing character of their             
conquests4 ,conversion of ,christian    
slaves4--,islam in ,albania1            
conquest of the country1 independent    
character of its people1      gradual   
decay of the ,christian faith1 and its  
causes2--in ,servia1      alliance of   
the ,servians with the ,turks1          
conversions mainly from      among the  
nobles except in ,old ,servia2--in      
,montenegro2--in ,bosnia1      the      
,bogomiles1 points of similarity between
 the ,bogomilian heresy      and the    
,muslim creed1 conversion to ,islam2--in
 ,crete1 conversion in      the ninth   
century1 oppression of the ,venetian    
rule1 conquered by      the ,turks1     
conversions to ,islam                   
#ade      ,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,the     
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,in ,,persia     
,,and ,,central ,,asia4                 
,religious condition of ,persia at the  
time of the ,arab conquest4      ,islam 

welcomed by many sections of the        
population4 ,points of      similarity  
between the older faiths and ,islam4    
,toleration4      ,conversions to       
,islam4 ,the ,ismlians and their        
missionary system4      ,islam in       
,central ,asia and ,afghanistn          
#bjf      ,,chapter ,,viii4    ,,the    
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,among ,,the     
,,mongols ,,and ,,tatars4               
,account of the ,mongol conquests4      
,buddhism1 ,christianity and ,islam     
in rivalry for the allegiance of the    
,mongols4 ,their original      religion1
 ,shamanism1 described4 ,spread of      
,buddhism1 of      ,christianity1 and of
 ,islam respectively among the ,mongols4
      ,difficulties that stood in the   
way of ,islam4 ,cruel treatment of the  
,muslims by some ,mongol rulers4 ,early 
converts to ,islam4 ,baraka      ,khn1  
the first ,mongol prince converted4     
,conversion of the lkhns4               
,conversion of the ,chaghaty ,mongols4  
,history of ,islam under the            

,golden ,horde3 zbek ,khn3 failure of   
attempts to convert the      ,russians4 
,spread of ,islam in modern times in the
 ,russian ,empire4      ,the conversion 
of the ,tatars of ,siberia              
#bah      ,,chapter ,,ix4    ,,the      
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,in ,,india4     
,distribution of the ,muhammadan        
population4 ,part taken by the          
,muhammadan rulers in the propagation of
 ,islam3 conversion of      ,rajputs and
 others4--,the work of the ,muslim      
missionaries in ,india2      traditions 
of early missionary efforts in ,south   
,india1 forced      conversions under   
aydar ,al and ,tp ,suln1 the            
,mappillas3--in      the ,maldive       
,islands3--in the ,deccan1 early ,arab  
settlements1 labours      of individual 
missionaries3--in ,sind1 the rule of the
 ,arabs1 their      toleration1 account 
of individual missionaries1 conversion  
of the      ,khojahs and ,bohras3--in   
,bengal1 the ,muhammadan rule in this   
province1 extensive conversions of the  

lower castes1 religious      revival in 
recent times4--,particular account of   
the labours of      ,muslim missionaries
 in other parts of ,india4              
,propagationist      movements of modern
 times4 ,circumstances facilitating the 
progress      of ,islam3 the            
oppressiveness of the ,hindu caste      
system1 worship of      ,muslim saints1 
etc4--,spread of ,islam in ,kashmr and  
,tibet        #bed      ,,chapter ,x4   
,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,in        
,,china4        ,early notices of ,islam
 in ,china4 ,intercourse of the ,chinese
 with      the ,arabs4 ,legendary       
account of the first introduction of    
,islam      into ,china4 ,muslims under 
the ,tang dynasty3 influence of the     
,mongol conquest2 ,islam under the ,ming
 dynasty4 ,relations of the             
,chinese ,muslims to the ,chinese       
,government4 ,their efforts to spread   
their religion                          
#bid      ,,chapter ,,xi4    ,,the      
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,in ,,africa4    

,the ,arabs in ,northern ,africa3       
conversion of the ,berbers3 the         
mission of ,abd ,allh b4 ,ysn4          
,introduction of ,islam into the        
,sudan3 rise of ,muhammadan kingdoms3   
account of missionary      movements1   
,danfodio1 ,uthmn al-,amr ,ghan1 the    
,qdiriyyah1 the      ,tijniyyah1 and the
 ,sansiyyah4 ,spread of ,islam on the   
,west ,coast3      ,ashanti3 ,dahomey4  
,spread of ,islam on the ,east ,coast3  
early ,muslim      settlements3 recent  
expansion in ,german ,east ,africa3 the 
,galla3 the      ,somali4 ,islam in     
,cape ,coast ,colony4 ,account of the   
,muslim      missionaries in ,africa and
 their methods of winning converts      
#cab      ,,chapter ,,xii4    ,,the     
,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,in ,,the ,,malay
 ,,archipelago4        ,early           
intercourse between the ,malay          
,archipelago and ,arabia and            
,india4 ,methods of missionary work4    
,history of ,islam in ,sumatra2 in      
the ,malay ,peninsula2 in ,java2 in the 

,moluccas2 in ,borneo2 in      ,celebes2
 in the ,philippine and the ,sulu       
,islands2 among the ,papuans4      ,the 
,muslim missionaries3 traders3 js       
#cfc      ,,chapter ,,xiii4             
,,conclusion4        ,absence of        
missionary organisation in ,islam3 zeal 
on the part of      individuals4 ,who   
are the ,muslim missionaries8 ,causes   
that have      contributed to their     
success3 the simplicity of the ,muslim  
creed3      the rationalism and         
ritualism of ,islam4 ,islam not spread  
by the      sword4 ,the toleration of   
,muhammadan governments4 ,circumstances 
contributing to the progress of ,islam  
in ancient and in modern      times     
#djh      ,,appendix ,i4    ,letter of  
al-,hshim inviting al-,kind to embrace  
,islam             #dbh      ,,appendix 
,,ii4    ,controversial literature      
between ,muslims and the followers of   
other faiths                            
#dcf      ,,appendix ,,iii4    ,muslim  
missionary societies                    

#dch      ,titles of ,works cited by    
,abbreviated ,references                
#ddj                  ,,the ,,preaching 
,,of ,,islam      ,,chapter ,i4         
,,introduction4      ,ever since        
,professor ,max ,mller delivered his    
lecture in ,westminster  ,abbey1 on the 
day of intercession for missions1 in    
,december1 #ahgc1 it  has been a        
literary commonplace1 that the six great
 religions of the  world may be divided 
into missionary and non-missionary2     
under the  latter head fall ,judaism1   
,brahmanism and ,zoroastrianism1 and    
under the  former ,buddhism1            
,christianity and ,islam2 and he well   
defined what the  term1--a missionary   
religion1--should be taken to mean1 viz4
 one 8in  which the spreading of the    
truth and the conversion of unbelievers 
are  raised to the rank of a sacred duty
 by the founder or his immediate        
successors4444 ,it is the spirit of     
truth in the hearts of believers  which 
cannot rest1 unless it manifests itself 

in thought1 word and  deed1 which is not
 satisfied till it has carried its      
message to every  human soul1 till what 
it believes to be the truth is accepted 
as the  truth by all members of the     
human family40 #f    ,it is such a zeal 
for the truth of their religion that has
 inspired the  ,muhammadans to carry    
with them the message of ,islam to the  
people of  every land into which they   
penetrate1 and that justly claims for   
their  religion a place among those we  
term missionary4 ,it is the history of  
the birth of this missionary zeal1 its  
inspiring forces and the modes  of its  
activity that forms the subject of the  
following pages4 ,the #bjj  millions of 
,muhammadans scattered over the world at
 the present day are  evidences of its  
workings through the length of thirteen 
centuries4    ,the doctrines of this    
faith were first proclaimed to the      
people of  ,arabia in the seventh       
century1 by a prophet under whose banner
 their  scattered tribes became a       

nation2 and filled with the pulsations  
of  this new national life1 and with a  
fervour and enthusiasm that imparted  an
 almost invincible strength to their    
armies1 they poured forth over  three   
continents to conquer and subdue4       
,syria1 ,palestine1 ,egypt1 ,north      
,africa and ,persia were the first to   
fall before them1 and pressing  westward
 to ,spain and eastward beyond the      
,indus1 the followers of the  ,prophet  
found themselves1 one hundred years     
after his death1 masters of  an empire  
greater than that of ,rome at the zenith
 of its power4    ,although in after    
years this great empire was split up and
 the  political power of ,islam         
diminished1 still its spiritual         
conquests went  on uninterruptedly4     
,when the ,mongol hordes sacked ,baghdd 
7,a4,d4 #abeh7  and drowned in blood the
 faded glory of the ,abbsid             
dynasty1--when the  ,muslims were       
expelled from ,cordova by ,ferdinand of 
,leon and ,castile  7,a4,d4 #abcf71 and 

,granada1 the last stronghold of ,islam 
in ,spain1 paid  tribute to the         
,christian king1--,islam had just gained
 a footing in the  island of ,sumatra   
and was just about to commence its      
triumphant  progress through the islands
 of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,in the    
hours of  its political degradation1    
,islam has achieved some of its most    
brilliant spiritual conquests3 on two   
great historical occasions1  infidel    
barbarians have set their feet on the   
necks of the followers of  the          
,prophet1--the ,saljq ,turks in the     
eleventh and the ,mongols in the        
thirteenth century1--and in each case   
the conquerors have accepted the        
religion of the conquered4 ,unaided also
 by the temporal power1 ,muslim         
missionaries have carried their faith   
into ,central ,africa1 ,china and  the  
,east ,india ,islands4    ,at the       
present day the faith of ,islam extends 
from ,morocco to ,zanzibar1  from       
,sierra ,leone to ,siberia and ,china1  

from ,bosnia to ,new ,guinea4  ,outside 
the limits of strictly ,muhammadan      
countries and of lands1 such  as ,china 
and ,russia1 that contain a large       
,muhammadan population1 there  are some 
few small communities of the followers  
of the ,prophet1 which  bear witness to 
the faith of ,islam in the midst of     
unbelievers4 ,such  are the             
,polish-speaking ,muslims of ,tatar     
origin in ,lithuania1 that  inhabit the 
districts of ,kovno1 ,vilno and ,grodno2
 #g the  ,dutch-speaking ,muslims of    
,cape ,colony2 and the ,indian coolies  
that have  carried the faith of ,islam  
with them to the ,west ,india ,islands  
and to  ,british and ,dutch ,guiana4 ,in
 recent years1 too1 ,islam has found    
adherents in ,england1 in ,north        
,america1 ,australia and ,japan4    ,the
 spread of this faith over so vast a    
portion of the globe is due to  various 
causes1 social1 political and religious3
 but among these1 one  of the most      
powerful factors at work in the         

production of this  stupendous result1  
has been the unremitted labours of      
,muslim  missionaries1 who1 with the    
,prophet himself as their great         
ensample1  have spent themselves for the
 conversion of unbelievers4    ,the duty
 of missionary work is no after-thought 
in the history of  ,islam1 but was      
enjoined on believers from the          
beginning1 as may be  judged from the   
following passages in the ,qurn1--which 
are here quoted  in chronological order 
according to the date of their being    
delivered4          8,summon thou to the
 way of thy ,lord with wisdom and with  
kindly      warning3 dispute with them  
in the kindest manner4 7xvi4 #abf47     
8,they who have inherited the ,book     
after them 7i4e4 the ,jews and          
,christians71 are in perplexity of doubt
 concerning it4        8,for this cause 
summon thou 7them to the faith71 and    
walk uprightly      therein as thou hast
 been bidden1 and follow not their      
desires3 and      say3 ,in whatsoever   

,books ,god hath sent down do ,i        
believe3 ,i am      commanded to decide 
justly between you3 ,god is your ,lord  
and our      ,lord3 we have our works   
and you have your works3 between us and 
you      let there be no strife3 ,god   
will make us all one3 and to ,him shall 
we return40 7xlii4 #ac-ad47             
,similar injunctions are found also in  
the ,medinite ,srahs1 delivered at  a   
time when ,muammad was at the head of a 
large army and at the height  of his    
power4          8,say to those who have 
been given the ,book and to the         
ignorant1 ,do      you accept ,islam8   
,then1 if they accept ,islam1 are they  
guided      aright3 but if they turn    
away1 then thy duty is only preaching2  
and      ,god's eye is on ,his servants1
 7iii4 #ai47        8,thus ,god clearly 
showeth you ,his signs that perchance ye
 may be      guided2        8,and that  
there may be from among you a people who
 invite to the      ,good1 and enjoin   
the ,just1 and forbid the ,wrong2 and   

these are they      with whom it shall  
be well4 7iii4 #ii-ajj47        8,to    
every people have ,we appointed         
observances which they observe4         
,therefore let them not dispute the     
matter with thee1 but summon      them  
to thy ,lord3 ,verily thou art guided   
aright3        8,but if they debate with
 thee1 then say3 ,god best knoweth what 
ye      do60 7xxii4 #ff-fg47      ,the  
following passages are taken from what  
is generally supposed to be  the last   
,srah that was delivered4          8,if 
any one of those who join gods with ,god
 ask an asylum of thee1      grant him  
an asylum in order that he may hear the 
word of ,god2 then      let him reach   
his place of safety40 7ix4 #f47         
,with regard to the unbelievers who had 
broken their plighted word1 who  8sell  
the signs of ,god for a mean price and  
turn others aside from ,his  way10 and  
8respect not with a believer either ties
 of blood or good  faith10 444 it is    
said3--          8,yet if they turn to  

,god and observe prayer and give alms1  
then are      they your brothers in the 
faith3 and ,we make clear the signs for 
men of knowledge40 7ix4 #aa47      ,thus
 from its very inception ,islam has been
 a missionary religion1 both  in theory 
and in practice1 for the life of        
,muammad exemplifies the  same teaching1
 and the ,prophet himself stands at the 
head of a long  series of ,muslim       
missionaries who have won an entrance   
for their faith  into the hearts of     
unbelievers4 ,moreover it is not in the 
cruelties of  the persecutor or the fury
 of the fanatic that we should look for 
the  evidences of the missionary spirit 
of ,islam1 any more than in the         
exploits of that mythical personage1 the
 ,muslim warrior with sword in  one hand
 and ,qurn in the other1 #h--;but in the
 quiet1 unobtrusive  labours of the     
preacher and the trader who have carried
 their faith  into every quarter of the 
globe4 ,such peaceful methods of        
preaching and  persuasion were not      

adopted1 as some would have us believe1 
only when  political circumstances made 
force and violence impossible or        
impolitic1 but were most strictly       
enjoined in numerous passages of the    
,qurn1 as follows3--          8,and     
endure what they say with patience1 and 
depart from them with      a decorous   
departure4        8,and let ,me alone   
with the gainsayers1 rich in the        
pleasures 7of      this life72 and bear 
thou with them yet a little while4      
7lxxiii4      #aj-aa47        87,my7    
sole 7work7 is preaching from ,god and  
,his message4 7lxxii4      #bd47        
8,tell those who have believed to pardon
 those who hope not for the      days of
 ,god in which ,he purposeth to         
recompense men according to      their  
deserts4 7xlv4 #ac47        8,they who  
had joined other gods with ,god say1    
#8,had ,he pleased1      neither we nor 
our forefathers had worshipped aught but
 ,him2 nor      had we1 apart from ,him1
 declared anything unlawful4' ,thus     

acted      they who were before them4   
,yet is the duty of the apostles other  
than plain-spoken preaching8 7xvi4 #cg47
        8,then if they turn their backs1
 still thy office is only               
plain-spoken preaching4 7xvi4 #hd47     
8,dispute ye not1 unless in kindliest   
sort1 with the people of the      ,book2
 save with such of them as have dealt   
wrongfully 7with you73      and say ye1 
#8,we believe in what has been sent down
 to us and hath      been sent down to  
you4 ,our ,god and your ,god is one1 and
 to ,him are      we self-surrendered4' 
7xxix4 #de47        8,but if they turn  
aside from thee1 yet ,we have not sent  
thee to be      guardian over them4     
',tis thine but to preach4 7xlii4 #dg47 
8,but if thy ,lord had pleased1 verily  
all who are in the world would      have
 believed together4 ,wilt thou then     
compel men to become      believers8 7x4
 #ii47        8,and we have not sent    
thee otherwise than to mankind at large1
 to      announce and to warn40 7xxxiv4 

#bg47      ,such precepts are not       
confined to the ,meccan ,srahs1 but are 
found in  abundance also in those       
delivered at ,medina1 as follows3--     
8,let there be no compulsion in         
religion4 7ii4 #beg47      8,obey ,god  
and obey the apostle2 but if ye turn    
away1 yet is our      apostle only      
charged with plain-spoken preaching4    
7lxiv4 #ab47        8,obey ,god and obey
 the apostle3 but if ye turn back1 still
 the      burden of his duty is on him  
only1 and the burden of your duty       
rests on you4 ,and if ye obey him1 ye   
shall have guidance3 but plain          
preaching is all that devolves upon the 
apostle4 7xxiv4 #ec47        8,say3 ,o  
men6 ,i am only your plain-spoken 7open7
 warner4 7xxii4 #dh47        8,verily   
,we have sent thee to be a witness and a
 herald of good and      a warner1      
8,that ye may believe on ,god and on    
,his apostle2 and may assist ,him       
and honour ,him1 and praise ,him morning
 and evening4 7xlviii4 #h-i47           

8,thou wilt not cease to discover the   
treacherous ones among them1      except
 a few of them4 ,but forgive them and   
pass it over4 ,verily1      ,god loveth 
those who act generously40 7v4 #af47    
,it is the object of the following pages
 to show how this ideal was  realised in
 history and how these principles of    
missionary activity  were put into      
practice by the exponents of ,islam4    
,and at the outset the  reader should   
clearly understand that this work is not
 intended to be a  history of           
,muhammadan persecutions but of         
,muhammadan missions--it does  not aim  
at chronicling the instances of forced  
conversions which may be  found         
scattered up and down the pages of      
,muhammadan histories4 ,european        
writers have taken such care to         
accentuate these1 that there is no fear 
of their being forgotten1 and they do   
not strictly come within the  province  
of a history of missions4 ,in a history 
of ,christian missions  we should       

naturally expect to hear more of the    
labours of ,st4 ,liudger  and ,st4      
,willehad among the pagan ,saxons than  
of the baptisms that  ,charlemagne      
forced them to undergo at the point of  
the sword4 #i ,the  true missionaries of
 ,denmark were ,st4 ,ansgar and his     
successors rather  than ,king ,cnut1 who
 forcibly rooted out paganism from his  
dominions4  #aj ,abbot ,gottfried and   
,bishop ,christian1 though less         
successful in  converting the pagan     
,prussians1 were more truly             
representative of  ,christian missionary
 work than the ,brethren of the ,sword  
and other  ,crusaders who brought their 
labours to completion by means of fire  
and  sword4 ,the knights of the 8,ordo  
fratrum militi ,christi0 forced         
,christianity on the people of ,livonia1
 but it is not to these militant        
propagandists but to the monks ,meinhard
 and ,theodoric that we should  point as
 being the true missionaries of the     
,christian faith in this  country4 ,the 

violent means sometimes employed by the 
,jesuit  missionaries #aa cannot        
derogate from the honour due to ,st4    
,francis  ,xavier and other preachers of
 the same order4 ,nor is ,valentyn any  
the  less the apostle of ,amboyna       
because in #afii an order was           
promulgated to  the ,rajas of this      
island that they should have ready a    
certain number  of pagans to be         
baptised1 when the pastor came on his   
rounds4 #ab    ,in the history of the   
,christian church missionary activity is
 seen to  be intermittent1 and an age of
 apostolic fervour may be succeeded by a
  period of apathy and indifference1 or 
persecution and forced conversion  may  
take the place of the preaching of the  
,word2 so likewise does the  propaganda 
of ,islam in various epochs of          
,muhammadan history ebb and  flow4 ,but 
since the zeal of proselytising is a    
distinct feature of  either faith1 its  
missionary history may fittingly be     
singled out as a  separate branch of    

study1 not as excluding other           
manifestations of the  religious life   
but as concentrating attention on an    
aspect of it that  has special          
characteristics of its own4 ,thus the   
annals of propaganda  and persecution   
may be studied apart from one another1  
whether in the  history of the          
,christian or the ,muslim church1 though
 in both they may  be at times          
commingled4 ,for just as the ,christian 
faith has not always  been propagated by
 the methods adopted in ,viken 7the     
southern part of  ,norway7 by ,king     
,olaf ,trygvesson1 who either slew those
 who refused to  accept ,christianity1  
or cut off their hands or feet1 or drove
 them into  banishment1 and in this     
manner spread the ,christian faith      
throughout  the whole of ,viken1        
#ac--;and just as the advice of ,st4    
,louis has not  been made a principle of
 ,christian missionary work1--8,when a  
layman  hears the ,christian law ill    
spoken of1 he should not defend that law

  save with his sword1 which he should  
thrust into the infidel's belly1  as far
 as it will go10 #ad--so there have been
 ,muslim missionaries who  have not been
 guided in their propagandist methods by
 the savage  utterance of ,marwn1 the   
last of the ,umayyad caliphs3           
8,whosoever among  the people of ,egypt 
does not enter into my religion and pray
 as ,i pray  and follow my tenets1 ,i   
will slay and crucify him40 #ae ,nor are
  al-,mutawakkil1 al-kim and ,tp ,suln  
to be looked upon as typical            
missionaries of ,islam to the exclusion 
of such preachers as ,mawln  ,ibrhm1 the
 apostle of ,java1 ,khwjah ,mun al-,dn  
,chisht in ,india and  countless others 
who won converts to the ,muslim faith by
 peaceful means  alone4    ,but though a
 clear distinction can be drawn between 
conversion as the  result of persecution
 and a peaceful propaganda by means of  
methods of  persuasion1 it is not so    
easy to ascertain the motives that have 
induced the convert to change his faith1

 or to discover whether the  missionary 
has been wholly animated by a love of   
souls and by the high  ideal set forth  
in the first paragraph of this chapter4 
,both in  ,christianity and ,islam there
 have been at all times earnest souls to
  whom their religion has been the      
supreme reality of their lives1 and     
this absorbing interest in matters of   
the spirit has found expression  in that
 zeal for the communication of cherished
 truths and for the  domination of      
doctrines and systems they have deemed  
perfect1 which  constitutes the         
vivifying force of missionary           
movements1--and there have  likewise    
been those without the pale1 who have   
responded to their  appeal and have     
embraced the new faith with a like      
fervour4 ,but1 on the  other hand1      
,islam--like ,christianity--has reckoned
 among its adherents  many persons to   
whom ecclesiastical institutions have   
been merely  instruments of a political 
policy or forms of social organisation1 

to  be accepted either as disagreeable  
necessities or as convenient  solutions 
of problems that they do not care to    
think out for  themselves2 such persons 
may likewise be found among the converts
 of  either faith4 ,thus both           
,christianity and ,islam have added to  
the number  of their followers by       
methods and under conditions--social1   
political  and economic--which have no  
connection with such a thirst for souls 
as  animates the true missionary4       
,moreover1 the annals of missionary     
enterprise frequently record the        
admission of converts without any       
attempt to analyse the motives that have
 led them to change their  faith1 and   
especially for the history of ,muslim   
missions there is a  remarkable poverty 
of material in this respect1 since      
,muslim literature  is singularly poor  
in those records of conversions that    
occupy such a  large place in the       
literature of the ,christian church4    
,accordingly1 in  the following sketch  

of the missionary activity of ,islam1 it
 has not  always been possible to       
discover whether political1 social1     
economic or  purely religious motives   
have determined conversion1 though      
occasional  reference can be made to the
 operation of one or the other          
influence4                  ,,chapter   
,,ii4    ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of 
,,mu,,ammad ,,considered ,,as ,a        
,,preacher ,,of ,,islam4      ,it is not
 proposed in this chapter to add another
 to the already  numerous biographies of
 ,muammad1 but rather to make a study of
 his  life in one of its aspects only1  
viz4 that in which the ,prophet is      
presented to us as a preacher1 as the   
apostle unto men of a new  religion4    
,the life of the founder of ,islam and  
the inaugurator of its  propaganda may  
naturally be expected to exhibit to us  
the true  character of the missionary   
activity of this religion4 ,if the life 
of  the ,prophet serves as the standard 
of conduct for the ordinary  believer1  

it must do the same for the ,muslim     
missionary4 ,from the  pattern1         
therefore1 we may hope to learn         
something of the spirit that  would     
animate those who sought to copy it1 and
 of the methods they  might be expected 
to adopt4 ,for the missionary spirit of 
,islam is no  after-thought in its      
history2 it interpenetrates the religion
 from its  very commencement1 and in the
 following sketch it is desired to show 
how this is so1 how ,muammad the        
,prophet is the type of the missionary  
of ,islam4 ,it is therefore beside the  
purpose to describe his early  history1 
or the influences under which he grew up
 to manhood1 or to  consider him in the 
light either of a statesman or a        
general3 it is as  the preacher alone   
that he will demand our attention4      
,when1 after long internal conflict and 
disquietude1 ,muammad was at  length    
convinced of his divine mission1 his    
earliest efforts were  directed towards 
persuading his own family of the truth  

of the new  doctrine4 ,the unity of     
,god1 the abomination of idolatry1 the  
duty laid  upon man of submission to the
 will of his ,creator1--these were the  
simple truths to which he claimed their 
allegiance4 ,the first convert  was his 
faithful and loving wife1 ,khadjah1--she
 who fifteen years  before had offered  
her hand in marriage to the poor kinsman
 that had so  successfully traded with  
her merchandise as a hired agent1--with 
the  words1 8,i love thee1 my cousin1   
for thy kinship with me1 for the        
respect with which thy people regard    
thee1 for thy honesty1 for the  beauty  
of thy character and for the            
truthfulness of thy speech40 #af  ,she  
had lifted him out of poverty1 and      
enabled him to live up to the  social   
position to which he was entitled by    
right of birth2 but this  was as nothing
 to the fidelity and loving devotion    
with which she  shared his mental       
anxieties1 and helped him with tenderest
 sympathy and  encouragement in the hour

 of his despondency4    ,up to her death
 in ,a4,d4 #fai 7after a wedded life of 
five and twenty  years7 she was always  
ready with sympathy1 consolation and    
encouragement whenever he suffered from 
the persecution of his enemies  or was  
tortured by doubts and misgivings4 8,so 
,khadjah believed10 says  the biographer
 of the ,prophet1 8and attested the     
truth of that which  came to him from   
,god and aided him in his undertaking4  
,thus was the  ,lord minded to lighten  
the burden of ,his ,prophet2 for        
whenever he heard  anything that grieved
 him touching his rejection by the      
people1 he  would return to her and ,god
 would comfort him through her1 for she 
reassured him and lightened his burden  
and declared her trust in him  and made 
it easy for him to bear the scorn of    
men40 #ag    ,among the earliest        
believers were his adopted children     
,zayd and ,al1  and his bosom friend ,ab
 ,bakr1 of whom ,muammad would often say
 in  after years1 8,i never invited any 

to the faith who displayed not          
hesitation1 perplexity and              
vacillation--excepting only ,ab ,bakr2  
who  when ,i told him of ,islam tarried 
not1 neither was perplexed40 ,he was a  
wealthy merchant1 much respected by his 
fellow citizens for the  integrity of   
his character and for his intelligence  
and ability4 ,after  his conversion he  
expended the greater part of his fortune
 on the  purchase of ,muslim slaves who 
were persecuted by their masters on     
account of their adherence to the       
teaching of ,muammad4 ,through his      
influence1 to a great extent1 five of   
the earliest converts were added  to the
 number of believers1 ,sad b4 ,ab ,waqq1
 the future conqueror of  the ,persians2
 al-,zubayr b4 al-,awwm1 a relative both
 of the ,prophet  and his wife2 alah1   
famous as a warrior in after days2 a    
wealthy  merchant ,abd al-,ramn b4 ,awf1
 and ,uthmn1 the third ,khalfah4 ,the   
last was early exposed to persecution2  
his uncle seized and bound him1  saying1

 8,dost thou prefer a new religion to   
that of thy fathers8 ,i  swear ,i will  
not loose thee until thou givest up this
 new faith thou  art following after40  
,to which ,uthmn replied1 8,by the      
,lord1 ,i will  never abandon it60      
,whereupon his uncle1 seeing the        
firmness of his  attachment to his      
faith1 released him4    ,with other     
additions1 particularly from among      
slaves and poor persons1  the ,prophet  
succeeded in collecting round him a     
little band of  followers during the    
first three years of his mission4       
,encouraged by  the success of these    
private efforts1 ,muammad determined on 
more  active measures and began to      
preach in public4 ,he called his kinsmen
  together and invited them to embrace  
the new faith4 8,no ,arab10 he  urged1  
8has offered to his nation more precious
 advantages than those ,i  bring you4 ,i
 offer you happiness in this world and  
in the life to come4  ,who among you    
will aid me in this task80 ,all were    

silent4 ,only ,al1  with boyish         
enthusiasm1 cried out1 8,prophet of     
,god1 ,i will aid thee40  ,at this the  
company broke up with derisive laughter4
    ,undeterred by the ill-success of   
this preaching1 he repeatedly appealed  
to them on other occasions1 but his     
message and his warnings received  from 
them nothing but scoffing and contempt4 
,more than once the ,quraysh tried to   
induce his uncle ,ab lib1 as head  of   
the clan of the ,ban ,hshim1 to which   
,muammad belonged1 to restrain  him from
 making such attacks upon their         
ancestral faith1 or otherwise  they     
threatened to resort to more violent    
measures4 ,ab lib  accordingly appealed 
to his nephew not to bring disaster on  
himself and  his family4 ,the ,prophet  
replied3 8,were the sun to come down on 
my right  hand and the moon on my left1 
and the choice were offered me of       
abandoning my mission until ,god himself
 should reveal it1 or perishing  in the 
achievement of it1 ,i would not abandon 

it40 ,ab lib was moved  and exclaimed1  
8,go and say whatever thou wilt3 by     
,god6 ,i will never  give thee up unto  
thy enemies40    ,the ,quraysh viewed   
the progress of the new religion with   
increasing  dissatisfaction and hatred4 
,they adopted all possible means1       
threats  and promises1 insults and      
offers of worldly honour and            
aggrandisement  to induce ,muammad to   
abandon the part he had taken up4 ,the  
violent  abuse with which he was        
assailed is said to have been the       
indirect  cause of drawing to his side  
one important convert in the person of  
his  uncle1 amzah1 whose chivalrous soul
 was so stung to sudden sympathy by  a  
tale of insult inflicted on and         
patiently borne by his nephew1 that  he 
changed at once from a bitter enemy into
 a staunch adherent4 ,his was  not the  
only instance of sympathy for the       
sufferings of the ,muslims  being       
aroused at the sight of the persecutions
 they had to endure1 and  many1 no      

doubt1 secretly favoured the new        
religion who did not declare  themselves
 until the day of its triumph4    ,the  
hostility of the ,quraysh to the new    
faith increased in bitterness  as they  
watched the increase in the numbers of  
its adherents4 ,they  realised that the 
triumph of the new teaching meant the   
destruction of  the national religion   
and the national worship1 and a loss of 
wealth  and power to the guardians of   
the sacred ,kabah4 ,muammad himself was 
safe under the protection of ,ab lib and
 the ,ban ,hshim1 who1 though  they had 
no sympathy for the doctrines their     
kinsman taught1 yet with  the strong    
clan-feeling peculiar to the ,arabs1    
secured him from any  attempt upon his  
life1 though he was still exposed to    
continual insult  and annoyance4 ,but   
the poor who had no protector1 and the  
slaves1 had  to endure the cruelest     
persecution1 and were imprisoned and    
tortured in  order to induce them to    
recant4 ,it was at this time that ,ab   

,bakr  purchased the freedom of ,bill1  
#ah an ,african slave1 who was called   
by ,muammad 8the first-fruits of        
,abyssinia40 ,he had been cruelly       
tortured by being exposed1 day after    
day1 to the scorching rays of the  sun1 
stretched out on his back1 with an      
enormous stone on his stomach2  here he 
was told he would have to stay until    
either he died or  renounced ,muammad   
and worshipped idols1 to which he would 
reply only1  8,there is but one ,god1   
there is but one ,god40 ,two persons    
died under  the tortures they had to    
undergo4 ,the constancy of a few gave   
way under  the trial1 but persecution   
served only to re-kindle the zeal of    
others4  ,abd ,allh b4 ,masd made bold  
to recite a passage of the ,qurn within 
the precincts of the ,kabah itself1--an 
act of daring that none of the          
followers of ,muammad had ventured upon 
before4 ,the assembled ,quraysh         
attacked him and smote him on the face1 
but it was some time before  they       

compelled him to desist4 ,he returned to
 his companions1 prepared  to bear      
witness to his faith in a similar manner
 on the next day1 but  they dissuaded   
him1 saying1 8,this is enough for thee1 
since thou hast  made them listen to    
what they hated to hear40    ,the       
virulence of the opposition of the      
,quraysh is probably the reason  why in 
the fourth year of his mission ,muammad 
took up his residence in  the house of  
al-,arqam1 one of the early converts4   
,it was in a central  situation1 much   
frequented by pilgrims and strangers1   
and here  peaceably and without         
interruption he was able to preach the  
doctrines  of ,islam to all enquirers   
that came to him4 ,muammad's stay in    
this  house marks an important epoch in 
the propagation of ,islam in ,mecca1    
and many ,muslims dated their conversion
 from the days when the ,prophet        
preached in the house of al-,arqam4     
,as ,muammad was unable to relieve his  
persecuted followers1 he advised  them  

to take refuge in ,abyssinia1 and in the
 fifth year of his mission  7,a4,d4     
#fae71 eleven men and four women crossed
 over to ,abyssinia1 where  they        
received a kind welcome from the        
,christian king of the country4  ,among 
them was a certain ,muab b4 ,umayr whose
 history is interesting  as of one who  
had to endure that most bitter trial of 
the new  convert--the hatred of those he
 loves and who once loved him4 ,he had  
been led to embrace ,islam through the  
teaching he had listened to in  the     
house of al-,arqam1 but he was afraid to
 let the fact of his  conversion become 
known1 because his tribe and his mother1
 who bore an  especial love to him1 were
 bitterly opposed to the new religion2  
and  indeed1 when they discovered the   
fact1 seized and imprisoned him4 ,but   
he succeeded in effecting his escape to 
,abyssinia4    ,the hatred of the       
,quraysh is said to have pursued the    
fugitives even to  ,abyssinia1 and an   
embassy was sent to demand their        

extradition from the  king of that      
country4 ,but when he heard their story 
from the ,muslims1  he refused to       
withdraw from them his protection4 ,in  
answer to his  enquiries as to their    
religion1 they said3 8,o ,king1 we were 
plunged in  the darkness of ignorance1  
worshipping idols1 and eating carrion2  
we  practised abominations1 severed the 
ties of kinship and maltreated our      
neighbours2 the strong among us devoured
 the weak2 and so we remained  until    
,god sent us an apostle1 from among     
ourselves1 whose lineage we  knew as    
well as his truth1 his trustworthiness  
and the purity of his  life4 ,he called 
upon us to worship the ,one ,god and    
abandon the stones  and idols that our  
fathers had worshipped in ,his stead4   
,he bade us be  truthful in speech1     
faithful to our promises1 compassionate 
and kind to  our parents and neighbours1
 and to desist from crime and bloodshed4
 ,he  forbade to do evil1 to lie1 to rob
 the orphan or defame women4 ,he        

enjoined on us the worship of ,god      
alone1 with prayer1 almsgiving and      
fasting4 ,and we believed in him and    
followed the teachings that he  brought 
us from ,god4 ,but our countrymen rose  
up against us and  persecuted us to make
 us renounce our faith1 and return to   
the worship  of idols and the           
abominations of our former life4 ,so    
when they cruelly  entreated us1        
reducing us to bitter straits and came  
between us and the  practice of our     
religion1 we took refuge in your        
country2 putting our  trust in your     
justice1 we hope that you will deliver  
us from the  oppression of our enemies40
 ,their prayer was heard and the embassy
 of  the ,quraysh returned discomfited4 
#ai ,meanwhile1 in ,mecca1 a fresh      
attempt was made to induce the ,prophet 
to abandon his work of preaching  by    
promises of wealth and honour1 but in   
vain4    ,while the result of the       
embassy to ,abyssinia was being looked  
for in  ,mecca with the greatest        

expectancy1 there occurred the          
conversion of a  man1 who before had    
been one of the most bitter enemies of  
,muammad1  and had opposed him with the 
utmost persistence and fanaticism--a man
  whom the ,muslims had every reason    
then to look on as their most  terrible 
and virulent enemy1 though afterwards he
 shines as one of the  noblest figures  
in the early history of ,islam1 viz4    
,umar b4  al-,khab4 ,one day1 in a fit  
of rage against the ,prophet1 he set    
out1  sword in hand1 to slay him4 ,on   
the way1 one of his relatives met him   
and asked him where he was going4 8,i am
 looking for ,muammad10 he  answered1   
8to kill the renegade who has brought   
discord among the  ,quraysh1 called them
 fools1 reviled their religion and      
defamed their  gods40 8,why dost thou   
not rather punish those of thy own      
family1 and  set them right80 8,and who 
are these of my own family80 answered   
,umar4  8,thy brother-in-law ,sad and   
thy sister ,fimah1 who have become      

,muslims and followers of ,muammad40    
,umar at once rushed off to the  house  
of his sister1 and found her with her   
husband and ,khabbb1  another of the    
followers of ,muammad1 who was teaching 
them to recite a  chapter of the ,qurn4 
,umar burst into the room3 8,what was   
that sound  ,i heard80 8,it was         
nothing10 they replied4 8,nay1 but ,i   
heard you1 and ,i  have learned that you
 have become followers of ,muammad40    
,whereupon he  rushed upon ,sad and     
struck him4 ,fimah threw herself between
 them1  to protect her husband1 crying1 
8,yes1 we are ,muslims2 we believe in   
,god  and ,his ,prophet3 slay us if you 
will40 ,in the struggle his sister was  
wounded1 and when ,umar saw the blood on
 her face1 he was softened and  asked to
 see the paper they had been reading3   
after some hesitation she  handed it to 
him4 ,it contained the #bjth ,srah of   
the ,qurn4 ,when ,umar  read it1 he     
exclaimed1 8,how beautiful1 how sublime 
it is60 ,as he read  on1 conviction     

suddenly overpowered him and he cried1  
8,lead me to  ,muammad that ,i may tell 
him of my conversion40 #bj    ,the      
conversion of ,umar is a turning-point  
in the history of ,islam3 the  ,muslims 
were now able to take up a bolder       
attitude4 ,muammad left the  house of   
al-,arqam and the believers publicly    
performed their devotions  together     
round the ,kabah4 ,the situation might  
thus be expected to give  the           
aristocracy of ,mecca just cause for    
apprehension4 ,for they had no  longer  
to deal with a band of oppressed and    
despised outcasts1  struggling for a    
weak and miserable existence4 ,it was   
rather a powerful  faction1 adding daily
 to its strength by the accession of    
influential  citizens and endangering   
the stability of the existing government
 by an  alliance with a powerful foreign
 prince4    ,the ,quraysh resolved      
accordingly to make a determined effort 
to check  the further growth of the new 
movement in their city4 ,they put the   

,ban  ,hshim1 who through ties of       
kindred protected the ,prophet1 under a 
ban1  in accordance with which the      
,quraysh agreed that they would not     
marry  their women1 nor give their own  
in marriage to them2 they would sell    
nothing to them1 nor buy aught from     
them--that dealings with them of  every 
kind should cease4 ,for three years the 
,ban ,hshim are said to  have been      
confined to one quarter of the city1    
except during the sacred  months1 in    
which all war ceased throughout ,arabia 
and a truce was made  in order that     
pilgrims might visit the sacred ,kabah1 
the centre of the  national religion4   
,muammad used to take advantage of such 
times of pilgrimage to preach  to the   
various tribes that flocked to ,mecca   
and the adjacent fairs4 ,but  with no   
success1 for his uncle ,ab ,lahab used  
to dog his footsteps1  crying with a    
loud voice1 8,he is an impostor who     
wants to draw you away  from the faith  
of your fathers to the false doctrines  

that he brings1  wherefore separate     
yourselves from him and hear him not40  
,they would  taunt him with the words3  
8,thine own people and kindred should   
know  thee best3 wherefore do they not  
believe and follow thee80 ,but at       
length the privations endured by        
,muammad and his kinsmen enlisted the   
sympathy of a numerous section of the   
,quraysh and the ban was  withdrawn4    
,in the same year the loss of ,khadjah1 
the faithful wife who for  twenty-five  
years had been his counsellor and       
support1 plunged ,muammad  into the     
utmost grief and despondency2 and a     
little later the death of  ,ab lib      
deprived him of his constant and most   
powerful protector and  exposed him     
afresh to insult and contumely4         
,scorned and rejected by his own        
townsmen1 to whom he had delivered his  
message with so little success for ten  
years1 he resolved to see if  there were
 not others who might be more ready to  
listen1 among whom the  seeds of faith  

might find a more receptive and fruitful
 soil4 ,with this  hope he set out for  
if1 a city about seventy miles from     
,mecca4  ,before an assembly of the     
chief men of the city1 he expounded his 
doctrine of the unity of ,god and of the
 mission he had received as the         
,prophet of ,god to proclaim this faith2
 at the same time he besought  their    
protection against his persecutors in   
,mecca4 ,the disproportion  between his 
high claims 7which moreover were        
unintelligible to the  heathen people of
 if7 and his helpless condition only    
excited their  ridicule and scorn1 and  
pitilessly stoning him with stones they 
drove  him from their city4    ,on his  
return from if the prospects of the     
success of ,muammad  seemed more        
hopeless than ever1 and the agony of his
 soul gave itself  utterance in the     
words that he puts into the mouth of    
,noah3 8,o my ,lord1  verily ,i have    
cried to my people night and day2 and my
 cry only makes  them flee from me the  

more4 ,and verily1 so oft as ,i cry to  
them1 that  ,thou mayest forgive them1  
they thrust their fingers into their    
ears and  wrap themselves in their      
garments1 and persist 7in their error71 
and  are disdainfully disdainful40      
7lxxi4 #e-f47    ,it was the ,prophet's 
habit at the time of the annual         
pilgrimage to  visit the encampments of 
the various ,arab tribes and discourse  
with  them upon religion4 ,by some his  
words were treated with indifference1   
by others rejected with scorn4 ,but     
consolation came to him from an         
unexpected quarter4 ,he met a little    
group of six or seven persons whom  he  
recognised as coming from ,medina1 or1  
as it was then called1  ,yathrib4 8,of  
what tribe are you80 said he1 addressing
 them4 8,we are of  the ,khazraj10 they 
answered4 8,friends of the ,jews80      
8,yes40 8,then will  you not sit down   
awhile1 that ,i may talk with you80     
8,assuredly10  replied they4 ,then they 
sat down with him1 and he proclaimed    

unto them  the true ,god and preached   
,islam and recited to them the ,qurn4   
,now so  it was1 in that ,god wrought   
wonderfully for ,islam that there were  
found  in their country ,jews1 who      
possessed scriptures and wisdom1 while  
they  themselves were heathen and       
idolaters4 ,now the ,jews ofttimes      
suffered  violence at their hands1 and  
when strife was between them had ever   
said  to them1 8,soon will a ,prophet   
arise and his time is at hand2 him will 
we follow1 and with him slay you with   
the slaughter of d and of  ,iram40 ,when
 now the apostle of ,god was speaking   
with these men and  calling on them to  
believe in ,god1 they said one to       
another3 8,know  surely that this is the
 ,prophet1 of whom the ,jews have warned
 us2 come  let us now make haste and be 
the first to join him40 ,so they        
embraced  ,islam1 and said to him1 8,our
 countrymen have long been engaged in a 
most bitter and deadly feud with one    
another2 but now perhaps ,god will      

unite them together through thee and thy
 teaching4 ,therefore we will  preach to
 them and make known to them this       
religion1 that we have  received from   
thee40 ,so1 full of faith1 they returned
 to their own  country4 #ba    ,such is 
the traditional account of this event   
which was the  turning-point of         
,muammad's mission4 ,he had now met with
 a people whose  antecedents had in some
 way prepared their minds for the       
reception of  his teaching and whose    
present circumstances1 as afterwards    
appeared1  were favourable to his cause4
    ,the city of ,yathrib had been long 
occupied by ,jews whom some national    
disaster1 possibly the persecution under
 ,hadrian1 had driven from their  own   
country1 when a party of wandering      
emigrants1 the two ,arab clans of       
,khazraj and ,aws1 arrived at ,yathrib  
and were admitted to a share in the     
territory4 ,as their numbers increased  
they encroached more and more on  the   
power of the ,jewish rulers1 and        

finally1 towards the end of the  fifth  
century1 the government of the city     
passed entirely into their  hands4      
,some of the ,arabs had embraced the    
,jewish religion1 and many of the       
former masters of the city still dwelt  
there in the service of their           
conquerors1 so that it contained in     
,muammad's time a considerable  ,jewish 
population4 ,the people of ,yathrib were
 thus familiar with the  idea of a      
,messiah who was to come1 and were      
consequently more capable  of           
understanding the claim of ,muammad to  
be accepted as the ,prophet of  ,god1   
than were the idolatrous ,meccans to    
whom such an idea was entirely  foreign 
and especially distasteful to the       
,quraysh1 whose supremacy over  the     
other tribes and whose worldly          
prosperity arose from the fact that     
they were the hereditary guardians of   
the national collection of idols  kept  
in the sacred enclosure of the ,kabah4  
,further1 the city of ,yathrib was      

distracted by incessant civil discord   
through a long-standing feud between the
 ,ban ,khazraj and the ,ban ,aws4  ,the 
citizens lived in uncertainty and       
suspense1 and anything likely to  bind  
the conflicting parties together by a   
tie of common interest could  not but   
prove a boon to the city4 ,just as the  
medival republics of  ,northern ,italy  
chose a stranger to hold the chief post 
in their cities  in order to maintain   
some balance of power between the rival 
factions1  and prevent1 if possible1 the
 civil strife which was so ruinous to   
commerce and the general welfare1 so the
 ,yathribites would not look  upon the  
arrival of a stranger with suspicion1   
even though he was  likely to usurp or  
gain permission to assume the vacant    
authority4    ,on the contrary1 one of  
the reasons for the warm welcome which  
,muammad  received in ,medina would seem
 to be that the adoption of ,islam      
appeared  to the more thoughtful of its 
citizens to be a remedy for the         

disorders  from which their society was 
suffering1 by its orderly discipline of 
life and its bringing the unruly        
passions of men under the discipline  of
 laws enunciated by an authority        
superior to individual caprice4 #bb     
,these facts go far to explain how eight
 years after the ,hijrah ,muammad       
could1 at the head of #aj1jjj followers1
 enter the city in which he had         
laboured for ten years with so meagre a 
result4    ,but this is anticipating4   
,muammad had proposed to accompany his  
new  converts1 the ,khazrajites1 to     
,yathrib himself1 but they dissuaded him
  therefrom1 until a reconciliation     
could be effected with the ,ban ,aws4   
8,let us1 we pray thee1 return unto our 
people1 if haply the ,lord will  create 
peace amongst us2 and we will come back 
again unto thee4 ,let the  season of    
pilgrimage in the following year be the 
appointed time40 ,so  they returned to  
their homes1 and invited their people to
 the faith2  and many believed1 so that 

there remained hardly a family in which 
mention was not made of the ,prophet4   
,when the time of pilgrimage again came 
round1 a deputation from  ,yathrib1 ten 
men of the ,ban ,khazraj1 and two of the
 ,ban ,aws1 met him  at the appointed   
spot and pledged him their word to obey 
his teaching4  ,this1 the first pledge  
of ,aqabah1 so called from the secret   
spot at  which they met1 ran as         
follows3--8,we will not worship any but 
the one  ,god2 we will not steal1       
neither will we commit adultery or kill 
our  children2 we will abstain from     
calumny and slander2 we will obey the   
,prophet in every thing that is right40 
,these twelve men now returned to       
,yathrib as missionaries of ,islam1 and 
so well prepared was the ground1  and   
with such zeal did they prosecute their 
mission1 that the new faith  spread     
rapidly from house to house and from    
tribe to tribe4    ,they were           
accompanied on their return by ,muab b4 
,umayr2 though1  according to another   

account he was sent by the ,prophet upon
 a written  requisition from ,yathrib4  
,this young man had been one of the     
earliest  converts1 and had lately      
returned from ,abyssinia2 thus he had   
had much  experience1 and severe        
training in the school of persecution   
had not  only sobered his zeal but      
taught him how to meet persecution and  
deal  with those who were ready to      
condemn ,islam without waiting to learn 
the  true contents of its teaching2     
accordingly ,muammad could with the     
greatest confidence entrust him with the
 difficult task of directing  and       
instructing the new converts1 cherishing
 the seeds of religious  zeal and       
devotion that had already been sown and 
bringing them to  fruition4 ,muab took  
up his abode in the house of ,asad b4   
,zurrah1  and gathered the converts     
together for prayer and the reading of  
the  ,qurn1 sometimes here and sometimes
 in a house belonging to the ,ban  afar1
 which was situated in a quarter of the 

town occupied jointly by  this family   
and that of ,abd al-,ashhal4    ,the    
heads of the latter family at that time 
were ,sad b4 ,mudh and  ,usayd b4 uayr4 
,one day it happened that ,muab was     
sitting together  with ,asad in this    
house of the ,ban afar1 engaged in      
instructing some  new converts1 when    
,sad b4 ,mudh1 having come to know of   
their  whereabouts1 said to ,usayd b4   
uayr3 8,drive out these fellows who have
  come into our houses to make fools of 
the weaklings among us2 ,i would  spare 
thee the trouble did not the tie of     
kinship between me and ,asad  prevent my
 doing him any harm0 7for he himself was
 the cousin of  ,asad74 ,hereupon ,usayd
 took his spear and1 bursting in upon   
,asad and  ,muab1 8,what are you doing80
 he cried1 8leading weak-minded folk    
astray8 ,if you value your lives1 begone
 hence40 8,sit down and listen10  ,muab 
answered quietly1 8if thou art pleased  
with what thou hearest1  accept it2 if  
not1 then leave it40 ,usayd stuck his   

spear in the ground  and sat down to    
listen1 while ,muab expounded to him the
 fundamental  doctrines of ,islam and   
read several passages of the ,qurn4     
,after a  time ,usayd1 enraptured1      
cried1 8,what must ,i do to enter this  
religion80  8,purify thyself with       
water10 answered ,muab1 8and confess    
that there  is no god but ,god and that 
,muammad is the apostle of ,god40 ,usayd
 at  once complied and repeated the     
profession of faith1 adding1 8,after me 
you have still another man to convince0 
7referring to ,sad b4 ,mudh74  8,if he  
is persuaded1 his example will bring    
after him all his people4 ,i  will send 
him to you forthwith40    ,with these   
words he left them1 and soon after came 
,sad b4 ,mudh  himself1 hot with anger  
against ,asad for the patronage he had  
extended  to the missionaries of ,islam4
 ,muab begged him not to condemn the new
  faith unheard1 so ,sad agreed to      
listen and soon the words of ,muab      
touched him and brought conviction to   

his heart1 and he embraced the  faith   
and became a ,muslim4 ,he went back to  
his people burning with zeal  and said  
to them1 8,sons of ,abd al-,ashhal1 say1
 what am ,i to you80  8,thou art our    
lord10 they answered1 8thou art the     
wisest and most  illustrious among us40 
8,then ,i swear10 replied ,sad1         
8nevermore to  speak to any of you until
 you believe in ,god and ,muammad1 ,his 
apostle40 ,and from that day1 all the   
descendants of ,abd al-,ashhal  embraced
 ,islam4 #bc    ,with such zeal and     
earnestness was the preaching of the    
faith pushed  forward that within a year
 there was not a family among the ,arabs
 of  ,medina that had not given some of 
its members to swell the number of  the 
faithful1 with the exception of one     
branch of the ,ban ,aws1 which  held    
aloof under the influence of ,ab ,qays  
b4 al-,aslat1 the poet4    ,the         
following year1 when the time of the    
annual pilgrimage again came  round1 a  
band of converts1 amounting to          

seventy-three in number1  accompanied   
their heathen fellow-countrymen from    
,yathrib to ,mecca4 ,they  were         
commissioned to invite ,muammad to take 
refuge in ,yathrib from the  fury of his
 enemies1 and had come to swear         
allegiance to him as their  prophet and 
their leader4 ,all the early converts   
who had before met the  ,prophet on the 
two preceding pilgrimages1 returned to  
,mecca on this  important occasion1 and 
,muab their teacher accompanied them4   
,immediately on his arrival he hurried  
to the prophet1 and told him of  the    
success that had attended his mission4  
,it is said that his mother1  hearing of
 his arrival1 sent a message to him1    
saying3 8,ah1 disobedient  son1 wilt    
thou enter a city in which thy mother   
dwelleth1 and not first  visit her60    
8,nay1 verily10 he replied1 8,i will    
never visit the house of  any one before
 the ,prophet of ,god40 ,so1 after he   
had greeted and  conferred with         
,muammad1 he went to his mother1 who    

thus accosted him3  8,then ,i ween thou 
art still a renegade40 ,he answered1 8,i
 follow the  prophet of the ,lord and   
the true faith of ,islam40 8,art thou   
then well  satisfied with the miserable 
way thou hast fared in the land of      
,abyssinia and now again at ,yathrib80  
,now he perceived that she was          
meditating his imprisonment1 and        
exclaimed1 8,what6 wilt thou force a    
man from his religion8 ,if ye seek to   
confine me1 ,i will assuredly slay  the 
first person that layeth hands upon me40
 ,his mother said1 8,then  depart from  
my presence10 and she began to weep4    
,muab was moved1 and  said1 8,oh1 my    
mother6 ,i give thee loving counsel4    
,testify that there is  no ,god but the 
,lord and that ,muammad is ,his servant 
and messenger40  ,but she replied1 8,by 
the sparkling stars6 ,i will never make 
a fool of  myself by entering into thy  
religion4 ,i wash my hands of thee and  
thy  concerns1 and cleave steadfastly   
unto mine own faith40    ,in order not  

to excite suspicion and incur the       
hostility of the  ,quraysh1 a secret    
meeting was arranged at ,aqabah1 the    
scene of the  former meeting with the   
converts of the year before4 ,muammad   
came  accompanied only by his uncle     
,abbs1 who1 though he was still an      
idolater1 had been admitted into the    
secret4 ,abbs opened the solemn         
conclave1 by recommending his nephew as 
a scion of one of the noblest  families 
of his clan1 which had hitherto afforded
 the ,prophet  protection1 although     
rejecting his teachings2 but now that he
 wished to  take refuge among the people
 of ,yathrib1 they should bethink       
themselves  well before undertaking such
 a charge1 and resolve not to go back   
from  their promise1 if once they       
undertook the risk4 ,then ,bar b4 ,marr1
  one of the ,ban ,khazraj1 protesting  
that they were firm in their  resolve to
 protect the ,prophet of ,god1 besought 
him to declare fully  what he wished of 
them4    ,muammad began by reciting to  

them some portions of the ,qurn1 and    
exhorted them to be true to the faith   
they had professed in the one ,god  and 
the ,prophet1 ,his apostle2 he then     
asked them to defend him and his        
companions from all assailants just as  
they would their own wives and          
children4 ,then ,bar b4 ,marr1 taking   
his hand1 cried out1 8,yea1 by ,him  who
 sent thee as ,his ,prophet1 and through
 thee revealed unto us ,his  truth1 we  
will protect thee as we would our own   
bodies1 and we swear  allegiance to thee
 as our leader4 ,we are the sons of     
battle and men of  mail1 which we have  
inherited as worthy sons of worthy      
forefathers40 ,so  they all in turn1    
taking his hand in theirs1 swore        
allegiance to him4    ,as soon as the   
,quraysh gained intelligence of these   
secret proceedings1  the persecution    
broke out afresh against the ,muslims1  
and ,muammad  advised them to flee out  
of the city4 8,depart unto ,yathrib2 for
 the  ,lord hath verily given you       

brethren in that city1 and a home in    
which  ye may find refuge40 ,so quietly1
 by twos and threes they escaped to     
,yathrib1 where they were heartily      
welcomed1 their co-religionists in  that
 city vying with one another for the    
honour of entertaining them1  and       
supplying them with such things as they 
had need of4 ,within two  months nearly 
all the ,muslims except those who were  
seized and  imprisoned and those who    
could not escape from captivity had left
  ,mecca1 to the number of about #aej4  
,there is a story told of one of  these 
,muslims1 by name uhayb1 whom ,muammad  
called 8the first-fruits  of ,greece0   
7he had been a ,greek slave1 and being  
set free by his master  had amassed     
considerable wealth by successful       
trading72 when he was  about to emigrate
 the ,meccans said to him1 8,thou camest
 hither in need  and penury2 but thy    
wealth hath increased with us1 until    
thou hast  reached thy present          
prosperity2 and now thou art departing1 

not thyself  only1 but with all thy     
property4 ,by the ,lord1 that shall not 
be20 and  he said1 8,if ,i relinquish my
 property1 will ye leave me free to     
depart80 ,and they agreed thereto2 so he
 parted with all his goods4 ,and  when  
that was told unto ,muammad1 he said1   
8,verily1 uhayb hath made a  profitable 
bargain40    ,muammad delayed his own   
departure 7with the intention1 no doubt1
 of  withdrawing attention from his     
faithful followers7 until a determined  
plot against his life warned him that   
further delay might be fatal1 and  he   
made his escape by means of a stratagem4
    ,his first care after his arrival in
 ,yathrib1 or ,medina as it was called  
from this period--,madnah al-,nab1 the  
city of the ,prophet--was to build  a   
mosque1 to serve both as a place of     
prayer and of general assembly  for his 
followers1 who had hitherto met for that
 purpose in the  dwelling-place of one  
of their number4 ,the worshippers at    
first used to  turn their faces in the  

direction of ,jerusalem--an arrangement 
most  probably adopted with the hope of 
gaining over the ,jews4 ,in many other  
ways1 by constant appeals to their own  
sacred ,scriptures1 by according  them  
perfect freedom of worship and political
 equality1 ,muammad  endeavoured to     
conciliate the ,jews1 but they met his  
advances with  scorn and derision4 ,when
 all hopes of amalgamation proved       
fruitless and  it became clear that the 
,jews would not accept him as their     
,prophet1  ,muammad bade his followers  
turn their faces in prayer towards the  
,kabah in ,mecca4 7ii4 #add47 #bd       
,this change of direction during prayer 
has a deeper significance than  might at
 first sight appear4 ,it was really the 
beginning of the  ,national ,life of    
,islam3 it established the ,kabah at    
,mecca as a  religious centre for all   
the ,muslim people1 just as from time   
immemorial it had been a place of       
pilgrimage for all the tribes of        
,arabia4 ,of similar importance was the 

incorporation of the ancient ,arab      
custom of pilgrimage to ,mecca into the 
circle of the religious  ordinances of  
,islam1 a duty that was to be performed 
by every ,muslim at  least once in his  
lifetime4    ,there are many passages in
 the ,qurn that appeal to this germ of  
national feeling and urge the people of 
,arabia to realise the privilege  that  
had been granted them of a divine       
revelation in their own language  and by
 the lips of one of their own           
countrymen4          8,verily ,we have  
made it an ,arabic ,qurn that ye may    
haply      understand4 7xliii4 #b-c47   
8,and thus ,we have revealed to thee an 
,arabic ,qurn1 that thou      mayest    
warn the mother of cities and those     
around it4 7xlii4 #e47        8,and if  
,we had made it a ,qurn in a foreign    
tongue1 they had      surely said1      
#8,unless its verses be clearly         
explained 7we will not      receive     
it74' 7xli4 #dd47        8,and verily   
,we have set before men in this ,qurn   

every kind of      parable that haply   
they be monished3        8,an ,arabic   
,qurn1 free from tortuous 7wording71    
that haply they      may fear 7,god74   
7xxxix4 #bh-bi47        8,verily from   
the ,lord of all creatures hath this    
7book7 come down1      444 in the clear 
,arabic tongue4 7xxvi4 #aib1 #aie47     
8,and ,we have only made it 7i4e4 the   
,qurn7 easy1 in thine own      tongue1  
in order that thou mayest announce glad 
tidings thereby to      the             
,god-fearing1 and that thou mayest warn 
the contentious      thereby40 7xix4    
#ig47      ,but the message of ,islam   
was not for ,arabia only2 the whole     
world was  to share in it4 #be ,as there
 was but one ,god1 so there was to be   
but  one religion into which all men    
were to be invited4 ,this claim to be   
universal1 to hold sway over all men and
 all nations1 found a practical         
illustration in the letters which       
,muammad is said to have sent in the    
year ,a4,d4 #fhh 7,a4,h4 #f7 to the     

great potentates of that time4 ,an      
invitation to embrace ,islam was sent in
 this year to the ,emperor  ,heraclius1 
the king of ,persia1 the governor of    
,yaman1 the governor of  ,egypt and the 
king of ,abyssinia4 ,the letter to      
,heraclius is said to  have been as     
follows3--8,in the name of ,god1 the    
,merciful1 the  ,compassionate1         
,muammad1 who is the servant of ,god and
 ,his apostle1 to  ,hiraql the ,qayar of
 ,rm4 ,peace be on whoever has gone on  
the straight  road4 ,after this ,i say1 
,verily ,i call you to ,islam4 ,embrace 
,islam1 and  ,god will reward you       
twofold4 ,if you turn away from the     
offer of ,islam1  then on you be the    
sins of your people4 ,o people of the   
,book1 come  towards a creed which is   
fit both for us and for you4 ,it is     
this--to  worship none but ,god1 and not
 to associate anything with ,god1 and   
not  to call others ,god4 ,therefore1 ,o
 ye people of the ,book1 if ye refuse1  
beware4 ,we are ,muslims and our        

religion is ,islam40 ,however absurd    
this  summons may have seemed to those  
who then received it1 succeeding years  
showed that it was dictated by no empty 
enthusiasm4 #bf ,these letters  only    
gave a more open and widespread         
expression to the claim to the          
universal acceptance which is repeatedly
 made for ,islam in the ,qurn4          
8,of a truth it 7i4e4 the ,qurn7 is no  
other than an admonition to      all    
created beings1 and after a time shall  
ye surely know its      message4        
7xxxviii4 #hg-hh47        8,this 7book7 
is no other than an admonition and a    
clear ,qurn1 to      warn whoever       
liveth2 and that against the unbelievers
 sentence may      be justly given4     
7xxxvi4 #fi-gj47        8,we have not   
sent thee save as a mercy to all created
 beings4 7xxi4      #ajg47              
8,blessed is ,he who hath sent down     
al-,furqn upon ,his servant1 that       
he may be a warner unto all created     
beings4 7xxv4 #a47        8,and ,we have

 not sent thee otherwise than to mankind
 at large1 to      announce and to warn4
 7xxxiv4 #bg47        8,he it is who    
hath sent ,his apostle with guidance and
 the religion      of truth1 that ,he   
may make it victorious over every other 
religion1      though the polytheists   
are averse to it40 7lxi4 #i47      ,in  
the hour of his deepest despair1 when   
the people of ,mecca  persistently      
turned a deaf ear to the words of their 
prophet 7xvi4 #bc1  #aad1 etc471 when   
the converts he had made were tortured  
until they  recanted 7xvi4 #ajh71 and   
others were forced to flee from the     
country to  escape the rage of their    
persecutors 7xvi4 #dc1 #aaa7--then was  
delivered  the promise1 8,one day we    
will raise up a witness out of every    
nation40  7xvi4 #hf47 #bg    ,this claim
 upon the acceptance of all mankind     
which the ,prophet makes  in these      
passages is further prophetically       
indicated in the words  8first-fruits of
 ,abyssinia10 used by ,muammad in       

reference to ,bill1  and 8first-fruits  
of ,greece10 to uhayb2 ,salmn1 the first
 ,persian  convert1 was a ,christian    
slave in ,medina1 who embraced the new  
faith in  the first year of the ,hijrah4
 ,thus long before any career of        
conquest  was so much as dreamed of1 the
 ,prophet had clearly shown that ,islam 
was  not to be confined to the ,arab    
race4 ,the following account of the     
sending out of missionaries to preach   
,islam to all nations1 points to  the   
same claim to be a universal religion3  
8,the ,apostle of ,god said to  his     
companions1 #8,come to me all of you    
early in the morning4' ,after the       
morning prayer he spent some time in    
praising and supplicating ,god1 as  was 
his wont2 then he turned to them and    
sent forth some in one  direction and   
others in another1 and said3 #8,be      
faithful to ,god in your  dealings with 
,his servants 7i4e4 with men71 for      
whosoever is entrusted  with any matter 
that concerns mankind and is not        

faithful in his  service of them1 to him
 ,god shuts the gate of ,paradise3 go   
forth and be  not like the messengers of
 ,jesus1 the son of ,mary1 for they went
 only  to those that lived near and     
neglected those that dwelt in far       
countries4' ,then each of these         
messengers came to speak the language of
  the people to whom he was sent4 ,when 
this was told to the ,prophet he  said1 
#8,this is the greatest of the duties   
that they owe to ,god with  respect to  
,his servants4'0 #bh    ,the proof of   
the universality of ,islam1 of its claim
 on the acceptance  of all men1 lay in  
the fact that it was the religion       
divinely appointed  for the whole human 
race and was now revealed to them anew  
through  ,muammad1 8the seal of the     
prophets0 7xxxiii4 #dj71 as it had been 
to  former generations by other         
prophets4          8,men were of one    
religion only3 then they disagreed one  
with      another and had not a decree  
7of respite7 previously gone forth      

from thy ,lord1 judgment would surely   
have been given between them      in the
 matter wherein they disagree4 7x4 #bj47
        8,i am no apostle of new        
doctrines4 7xlvi4 #h47        8,mankind 
was but one people3 then ,god raised up 
prophets to      announce glad tidings  
and to warn3 and ,he sent down with them
 the      ,book with the ,truth1 that it
 might decide the disputes of men3 and  
none disagreed save those to whom the   
book had been given1 after      the     
clear tokens had reached them1 through  
mutual jealousy4 ,and ,god      guided  
those who believed into the truth       
concerning which they had               
disagreed1 by ,his will2 and ,god       
guideth whom ,he pleaseth into the      
straight path4 7ii4 #bji47        8,and 
,we revealed to thee1 #8follow the      
religion of ,abraham1 the      sound in 
faith1 for he was not of those who join 
gods with ,god4'      7xvi4 #abd47      
8,say3 ,as for me1 my ,lord hath guided 
me into a straight path3 a      true    

faith1 the religion of ,abraham1 the    
sound in faith2 for he was      not of  
those who join gods with ,god4 7vi4     
#afb47        8,say3 ,nay1 the religion 
of ,abraham1 the sound in faith and not 
one      of those who join gods with    
,god 7is our religion74 7ii4 #abi47     
8,say3 ,god speaketh truth4 ,follow     
therefore the religion of ,abraham1     
he being a anf and not one of those who 
join other gods with ,god4              
8,verily the first temple that was set  
up for men was that which is      in    
,bakka1 blessed and a guidance for all  
created beings4 7iii4 #hi1      #ij47   
8,and who hath a better religion than he
 who resigneth himself to      ,god1 who
 doth what is good and followeth the    
faith of ,abraham1 the      sound in    
faith8 7iv4 #abd47        8,he hath     
elected you1 and hath not laid on you   
any hardship in      religion1 the faith
 of your father ,abraham4 ,he hath named
 you the      ,muslims40 7xx4 #gg47     
,but to return to ,muammad in ,medina4  

,in order properly to appreciate  his   
position after the ,flight1 it is       
important to remember the peculiar      
character of ,arab society at that time1
 as far at least as this part of  the   
peninsula was concerned4 ,there was an  
entire absence of any  organised        
administrative or judicial system such  
as in modern times we  connect with the 
idea of a government4 ,each tribe or    
clan formed a  separate and absolutely  
independent body1 and this independence 
extended itself also to the individual  
members of the tribe1 each of  whom     
recognised the authority1 or leadership 
of his chief only as being  the exponent
 of a public opinion which he himself   
happened to share2  but he was quite at 
liberty to refuse his conformity to the 
7even7  unanimous resolve of his fellow 
clansmen4 ,further1 there was no regular
  transmission of the office of         
chieftain2 but he was generally chosen  
as  being the oldest member of the      
richest and most powerful family of the 

clan1 and as being personally most      
qualified to command respect4 ,if  such 
a tribe became too numerous1 it would   
split up into several  divisions1 each  
of which continued to enjoy a separate  
and independent  existence1 uniting only
 on some extraordinary occasion for     
common  self-defence or some more than  
usually important warlike expedition4   
,we  can thus understand how ,muammad   
could establish himself in ,medina at   
the head of a large and increasing body 
of adherents who looked up to  him as   
their head and leader and acknowledged  
no other  authority1--without exciting  
any feeling of insecurity1 or any fear  
of  encroachment on recognised          
authority1 such as would have arisen in 
a  city of ancient ,greece or any       
similarly organised community4 ,muammad 
thus exercised temporal authority over  
his people just as any other            
independent chief might have done1 the  
only difference being that in  the case 
of the ,muslims a religious bond took   

the place of family and  blood ties4    
,islam thus became what1 in theory at   
least1 it has always remained--a        
political as well as a religious system4
    8,it was ,muammad's desire to found 
a new religion1 and in this he          
succeeded2 but at the same time he      
founded a political system of an        
entirely new and peculiar character4 ,at
 first his only wish was to  convert his
 fellow-countrymen to the belief in the 
,one ,god--,allh2 but  along with this  
he brought about the overthrow of the   
old system of  government in his native 
city1 and in place of the tribal        
aristocracy  under which the conduct of 
public affairs was shared in common by  
the  ruling families1 he substituted an 
absolute theocratic monarchy1 with      
himself at the head as vicar of ,god    
upon earth4    8,even before his death  
almost all ,arabia had submitted to him2
 ,arabia  that had never before obeyed  
one prince1 suddenly exhibits a         
political  unity and swears allegiance  

to the will of an absolute ruler4 ,out  
of  the numerous tribes1 big and small1 
of a hundred different kinds that  were 
incessantly at feud with one another1   
,muammad's word created a  nation4 ,the 
idea of a common religion under one     
common head bound the  different tribes 
together into one political organism    
which developed  its peculiar           
characteristics with surprising         
rapidity4 ,now only one  great idea     
could have produced this result1 viz4   
the principle of  national life in      
heathen ,arabia4 ,the clan-system was   
thus for the first  time1 if not        
entirely crushed--7that would have been 
impossible7--yet  made subordinate to   
the feeling of religious unity4 ,the    
great work  succeeded1 and when ,muammad
 died there prevailed over by far the   
greater part of ,arabia a peace of ,god 
such as the ,arab tribes1 with  their   
love of plunder and revenge1 had never  
known2 it was the religion  of ,islam   
that had brought about this             

reconciliation40 #bi    ,even in the    
case of death1 the claims of            
relationship were set aside  and the    
bond-brother inherited all the property 
of his deceased  companion4 ,but after  
the battle of ,badr1 when such an       
artificial bond  was no longer needed to
 unite his followers1 it was abolished2 
such an  arrangement was only necessary 
so long as the number of the ,muslims   
was  still small and the corporate life 
of ,islam a novelty2 moreover  ,muammad 
had lived in ,medina for a very short   
space of time before the  rapid increase
 in the number of his adherents made so 
communistic a  social system almost     
impracticable4    ,it was only to be    
expected that the growth of an          
independent political  body composed of 
refugees from ,mecca1 located in a      
hostile city1 should  eventually lead to
 an outbreak of hostilities2 and1 as is 
well known1  every biography of ,muammad
 is largely taken up with the account of
 a  long series of petty encounters and 

bloody battles between his  followers   
and the ,quraysh of ,mecca1 ending in   
his triumphal entry into  that city in  
,a4,d4 #fcj1 and of his hostile         
relations with numerous other  tribes1  
up to the time of his death1 ,a4,d4     
#fcc4    ,to give any account of these  
campaigns is beyond the scope of the    
present work1 but it is important to    
show that ,muammad1 when he found       
himself at the head of a band of armed  
followers1 was not transformed  at once1
 as some would have us believe1 from a  
peaceful preacher into a  fanatic1 sword
 in hand1 forcing his religion on       
whomsoever he could4  #cj    ,it has    
been frequently asserted by ,european   
writers that from the date  of          
,muammad's migration to ,medina1 and    
from the altered circumstances  of his  
life there1 the ,prophet appears in an  
entirely new character4 ,he  is no      
longer the preacher1 the warner1 the    
apostle of ,god to men1 whom  he would  
persuade of the truth of the religion   

revealed to him1 but now  he appears    
rather as the unscrupulous bigot1 using 
all means at his  disposal of force and 
statecraft to assert himself and his    
opinions4    ,but it is false to suppose
 that ,muammad in ,medina laid aside his
 rle  of preacher and missionary of     
,islam1 or that when he had a large army
  at his command1 he ceased to invite   
unbelievers to accept the faith4  ,ibn  
,sad gives a number of letters written  
by the ,prophet from ,medina  to chiefs 
and other members of different ,arabian 
tribes1 in addition to  those addressed 
to potentates living beyond the limits  
of ,arabia1  inviting them to embrace   
,islam2 and in the following pages will 
be  found instances of his having sent  
missionaries to preach the faith to  the
 unconverted members of their tribes1   
whose very ill-success in some  cases is
 a sign of the genuinely missionary     
character of their efforts  and the     
absence of an appeal to force4 ,a       
typical example of such an  unsuccessful

 mission is that sent to preach ,islam  
to the ,ban mir b4  aaah in the year    
,a4,h4 #d4 ,the chief of this tribe1 ,ab
 ,bar mir1  visited ,muammad in ,medina1
 listened to his teaching1 but declined 
to  become a convert2 he seemed1        
however1 to be favourably disposed      
towards  the new faith and asked the    
,prophet to send some of his followers  
to  ,najd to preach to the people of    
that country4 ,the ,prophet sent a party
  of forty ,muslims1 most of them young 
men of ,medina1 who were skilled in     
reciting the ,qurn1 and had been        
accustomed to meet together at night    
for study and prayer4 ,but in spite of  
the safe conduct given them by  ,ab ,bar
 mir1 they were treacherously murdered  
and three only of the  party escaped    
with their lives4 #ca    ,the successes 
of the ,muslim arms1 however1 attracted 
every day members  of various tribes1   
particularly those in the vicinity of   
,medina1 to  swell the ranks of the     
followers of the ,prophet2 and 8the     

courteous  treatment which the          
deputations of these various clans      
experienced from  the ,prophet1 his     
ready attention to their grievances1 the
 wisdom with  which he composed their   
disputes1 and the politic assignments of
  territory by which he rewarded an     
early declaration in favour of ,islam1  
made his name to be popular and spread  
his fame as a great and generous  prince
 throughout the ,peninsula40 #cb    ,it 
not unfrequently happened that one      
member of a tribe would come to  the    
,prophet in ,medina and return home as a
 missionary of ,islam to  convert his   
brethren2 we have the following account 
of such a  conversion in the year #e    
7,a4,h474    ,the ,ban ,sad b4 ,bakr    
sent one of their number1 by name imm b4
  ,thalabah as their envoy to the       
,prophet4 ,he came and made his camel   
kneel down at the gate of the mosque and
 tied up its fore-leg4 ,then he  went   
into the mosque1 where the ,prophet was 
sitting with his  companions4 ,he went  

up close to them and said1 8,which among
 you is the  son of ,abd al-,mualib80   
8,i am10 replied the ,prophet4 8,art    
thou  ,muammad80 8,yes10 was the answer4
 8,then1 if thou wilt not take it       
amiss1 ,i would fain ask thee some      
weighty questions40 8,nay1 ask what     
thou wilt10 answered the ,prophet4 8,i  
adjure thee by ,allh1 thy ,god and  the 
,god of those who were before thee and  
of those who are to come  after thee1   
hath ,allh sent thee as a prophet unto  
us80 ,muammad  answered1 8,yea1 by      
,allh40 ,he continued1 8,i adjure thee  
by ,allh1 thy  ,god and the ,god of     
those who were before thee and of those 
who are to  come after thee1 hath ,he   
commanded thee to bid us worship ,him   
alone1  and to associate naught else    
with ,him and to abandon these idols    
that  our fathers worshipped80 ,muammad 
answered1 8,yea1 by ,allh40 ,then he    
questioned the ,prophet concerning all  
the ordinances of ,islam1 one  after    
another1 prayer and fasting1 pilgrimage1

 etc41 solemnly adjuring  him as before4
 ,at the end he said1 8,then ,i bear    
witness that there is  no ,god save     
,allh and ,i bear witness that ,muammad 
is the ,prophet of  ,allh1 and ,i will  
observe these ordinances and shun what  
thou hast  forbidden1 adding nothing    
thereto1 and taking nothing away40 ,then
 he  turned away and loosened his camel 
and returned unto his own people1  and  
when he had gathered them together1 the 
first words he spoke unto  them were3   
8,vile things are ,lt and ,uzz40 ,they  
cried out1 8,hold6  imm1 take heed of   
leprosy or madness60 8,fie on you60 he  
replied4 8,by  ,allh6 they can neither  
work you weal nor woe1 for ,allh has    
sent a  ,prophet and revealed to him a  
book1 whereby he delivers you from your 
evil plight2 ,i bear witness that there 
is no ,god save ,allh alone and  that   
,muammad is ,his servant and ,his       
,prophet2 and ,i have brought you       
tidings of what he enjoins and what he  
forbids40 ,the story goes on that  ere  

nightfall there was not a man or woman  
in the camp who had not  accepted       
,islam4 #cc    ,another such missionary 
was ,amr b4 ,murrah1 belonging to the   
tribe of  the ,ban ,juhaynah1 who dwelt 
between ,medina and the ,red ,sea4 ,the 
date  of his conversion was prior to the
 ,flight1 in the same year 7,a4,h4 #e71 
and he thus describes it3 8,we had an   
idol that we worshipped1 and ,i was  the
 guardian of its shrine4 ,when ,i heard 
of the ,prophet1 ,i broke it in  pieces 
and set off to ,muammad1 where ,i       
accepted ,islam and bore witness  to the
 truth1 and believed on what ,muammad   
declared to be allowed and  forbidden4  
,and to this my verses refer3 #8,i bear 
witness that ,god is  ,truth and that ,i
 am the first to abandon the gods of    
stones1 and ,i have  girded up my loins 
to make my way to you over rough ways   
and smooth1 to  join myself to him who  
in himself and for his ancestry is the  
noblest  of men1 the apostle of the     
,lord whose throne is above the         

clouds4'0 ,he  was sent by ,muammad to  
preach ,islam to his tribe1 and his     
efforts were  crowned with such success 
that there was only one man who refused 
to  listen to his exhortations4 #cd     
,when the truce of udaybiyyah 7,a4,h4   
#f7 made friendly relations with the    
people of ,mecca possible1 many persons 
of that city1 who had had the           
opportunity of listening to the teaching
 of ,muammad in the early days  of his  
mission1 and among them some men of     
great influence1 came out to  ,medina1  
to embrace the faith of ,islam4    ,the 
continual warfare carried on with the   
people of ,mecca had hitherto  kept the 
tribes to the south of that city almost 
entirely outside the  influence of the  
new religion4 ,but this truce now made  
communications  with southern ,arabia   
possible1 and a small band from the     
tribe of the  ,ban ,daws came from the  
mountains that form the northern        
boundary of  ,yaman1 and joined         
themselves to the ,prophet in ,medina4  

,even before the  appearance of         
,muammad1 there were some members of    
this tribe who had  had glimmerings of a
 higher religion than the idolatry      
prevailing  around them1 and argued that
 the world must have had a creator1     
though  they knew not who he was2 and   
when ,muammad came forward as the       
apostle  of this creator1 one of these  
men1 by name ufayl b4 ,amr1 came to     
,mecca to learn who the creator was4    
,though warned by the ,quraysh of the   
dangerous influence that ,muammad  might
 exercise over him if he entered into   
conversation with him1 he  followed the 
,prophet to his house one day1 after    
watching him at prayer  by the ,kabah4  
,muammad expounded to him the doctrines 
of ,islam1 and  ufayl left ,mecca full  
of zeal for the new faith4 ,on his      
return home he  succeeded in converting 
his father and his wife1 but found his  
fellow-tribesmen unwilling to abandon   
their old idolatrous worship4           
,disheartened at the ill-success of his 

mission1 he returned to the  ,prophet   
and besought him to call down the curse 
of ,god on the ,ban  ,daws2 but ,muammad
 encouraged him to persevere in his     
efforts1 saying1  8,return to thy people
 and summon them to the faith1 but deal 
gently  with them40 ,at the same time he
 prayed1 8,oh ,god6 guide the ,ban ,daws
 in  the right way40 ,the success of    
ufayl's propaganda was such that in the 
year ,a4,h4 #g he came to ,medina with  
between seventy and eighty families  of 
his tribesmen who had been won over to  
the faith of ,islam1 and after  the     
triumphal entry of ,muammad into ,mecca1
 ufayl set fire to the  block of wood   
that had hitherto been venerated as the 
idol of the  tribe4 #ce    ,in ,a4,h4   
#g1 fifteen more tribes submitted to the
 ,prophet1 and after the  surrender of  
,mecca in ,a4,h4 #h1 the ascendancy of  
,islam was assured1 and  those ,arabs   
who had held aloof1 saying1 8,let       
,muammad and his  fellow-tribesmen fight
 it out2 if he is victorious1 then is he

 a  genuine prophet10 #cf now hastened  
to give in their allegiance to the  new 
religion4 ,among those who came in after
 the fall of ,mecca were some  of the   
most bitter persecutors of ,muammad in  
the earlier days of his  mission1 to    
whom his noble forbearance and          
forgiveness now gave a place  in the    
brotherhood of ,islam4 ,the following   
year witnessed the martyrdom  of ,urwah 
b4 ,masd1 one of the chiefs of the      
people of if1 which  city the ,muslims  
had unsuccessfully attempted to capture4
 ,he had been  absent at that time in   
,yaman1 and returned from his journey   
shortly  after the raising of the siege4
 ,he had met the ,prophet two years     
before  at udaybiyyah1 and had conceived
 a profound veneration for him1 and  now
 came to ,medina to embrace the new     
faith4 ,in the ardour of his zeal  he   
offered to go to if to convert his      
fellow-countrymen1 and in  spite of the 
efforts of ,muammad to dissuade him from
 so dangerous an  undertaking1 he       

returned to his native city1 publicly   
declared that he  had renounced         
idolatry1 and called upon the people to 
follow his  example4 ,while he was      
preaching1 he was mortally wounded by an
 arrow1  and died giving thanks to ,god 
for having granted him the glory of     
martyrdom4 ,a more successful missionary
 effort was made by another  follower of
 the ,prophet in ,yaman--probably a year
 later--of which we have  the following 
graphic account3 8,the apostle of ,god  
wrote to al-rith  and ,masr1 and ,nuaym 
b4 ,abd al-,kull of imyar3 #8,peace be  
upon you  so long as ye believe on ,god 
and ,his apostle4 ,god is one ,god1     
there is  no partner with ,him4 ,he sent
 ,moses with his signs1 and created     
,jesus  with his words4 ,the ,jews say1 
8,ezra is the ,son of ,god10 and the    
,christians say1 8,god is one of three1 
and ,jesus is the ,son of ,god40' ,he   
sent the letter by ,ayysh b4 ,ab ,rabah 
al-,makhzm1 and said3 #8,when  you reach
 their city1 go not in by night1 but    

wait until the morning2  then carefully 
perform your ablutions1 and pray with   
two prostrations1  and ask ,god to bless
 you with success and a friendly        
reception1 and to  keep you safe from   
harm4 ,then take my letter in your right
 hand1 and  deliver it with your right  
hand into their right hands1 and they   
will  receive it4 ,and recite to them1  
8,the unbelievers among the people of   
the ,book and the polytheists did not   
waver10 etc4 7,srah #ih71 to the  end of
 the ,srah2 when you have finished1 say1
 8,muammad has believed1  and ,i am the 
first to believe40 ,and you will be able
 to meet every  objection they bring    
against you1 and every glittering book  
that they  recite to you will lose its  
light4 ,and when they speak in a foreign
  tongue1 say1 8,translate it10 and say 
to them1 8,god is sufficient for  me2 ,i
 believe in the ,book sent down by ,him1
 and ,i am commanded to do  justice     
among you2 ,god is our ,lord and your   
,lord2 to us belong our  works1 and to  

you belong your works2 there is no      
strife between us and  you2 ,god will   
unite us1 and unto ,him we must return40
 ,if they now  accept ,islam1 then ask  
them for their three rods1 before which 
they  gather together to pray1 one rod  
of tamarisk that is spotted white and   
yellow1 and one knotted like a cane1 and
 one black like ebony4 ,bring  the rods 
out and burn them in the market-place4' 
,so ,i set out10 tells  ,ayysh1 8to do  
as the ,apostle of ,god had bid me4     
,when ,i arrived1 ,i  found that all the
 people had decked themselves out for a 
festival3 ,i  walked on to see them1 and
 came at last to three enormous curtains
 hung  in front of three doorways4 ,i   
lifted the curtain and entered the      
middle  door1 and found people collected
 in the courtyard of the building4 ,i   
introduced myself to them as the        
messenger of the ,apostle of ,god1 and  
did as he had bidden me2 and they gave  
heed to my words1 and it fell  out as he
 had said40 #cg    ,in ,a4,h4 #i a      

deputation of thirteen men from the ,ban
 ,kilb1 a branch of  the ,ban mir b4    
aaah1 came to the ,prophet and informed 
him that  one of his followers1 ak b4   
,sufyn1 had come to them1 reciting the  
,qurn and teaching the doctrines of     
,islam1 and that his preaching had  won 
over their tribe to the new faith4 #ch  
,another branch of the same  tribe1 the 
,ban ,rus b4 ,kilb1 was converted by one
 of its members1  named ,amr b4 ,mlik1  
who had been to ,medina and accepted    
,islam1 and  then returned to his fellow
 tribes and persuaded them to follow his
  example4 #ci    ,in the same year a   
less successful attempt was made by a   
new convert1  ,wthilah b4 al-,asqa1 to  
induce his clan to accept the faith that
 he  himself had embraced after an      
interview with the ,prophet4 ,his father
  scornfully cast him off1 saying1 8,by 
,god6 ,i will never speak a word to  you
 again10 and none were found willing to 
believe the doctrines he  preached with 
the exception of his sister1 who        

provided him with the  means of         
returning to the ,prophet at ,medina4   
#dj ,this ninth year of  the ,hijrah has
 been called the year of the            
deputations1 because of the  enormous   
number of ,arab tribes and cities that  
now sent delegates to  the ,prophet1 to 
give in their submission4 ,the          
introduction into ,arab  society of a   
new principle of social union in the    
brotherhood of ,islam  had already begun
 to weaken the binding force of the old 
tribal ideal1  which erected the fabric 
of society on the basis of              
blood-relationship4  ,the conversion of 
an individual and his reception into the
 new society  was a breach of one of the
 most fundamental laws of ,arab life1   
and its  frequent occurrence had acted  
as a powerful solvent on tribal         
organisation and had left it weak in the
 face of a national life so             
enthusiastic and firmly-knit as that of 
the ,muslims had become4 ,the  ,arab    
tribes were thus impelled to give in    

their submission to the  ,prophet1 not  
merely as the head of the strongest     
military force in  ,arabia1 but as the  
exponent of a theory of social life that
 was making  all others weak and        
ineffective4 #da ,muammad had succeeded 
in  introducing into the anarchical     
society of his time a sentiment of      
national unity1 a consciousness of      
rights and duties towards one  another  
such as the ,arabs had not felt before4 
#db ,in this way1 ,islam  was uniting   
together clans that hitherto had been   
continually at feud  with one another1  
and as this great confederacy grew1 it  
more and more  attracted to itself the  
weaker among the tribes of ,arabia4 ,in 
the  accounts of the conversion of the  
,arab tribes1 there is continual        
mention of the promise of security      
against their enemies1 made to them  by 
the ,prophet on the occasion of their   
submission4 8,woe is me for  ,muammad60 
was the cry of one of the ,arab tribes  
on the news of the  death of the        

,prophet4 8,so long as he was alive1 ,i 
lived in peace and in  safety from my   
enemies20 and the cry must have found an
 echo far and  wide throughout ,arabia4 
,how superficial was the adherence of   
numbers of the ,arab tribes to the      
faith of ,islam may be judged from the  
widespread apostasy that followed       
immediately on the death of the         
,prophet4 ,their acceptance of ,islam   
would seem to have been often dictated  
more by considerations of  political    
expediency1 and was more frequently a   
bargain struck under  pressure of       
violence than the outcome of any        
enthusiasm or spiritual  awakening4     
,they allowed themselves to be swept    
into the stream of what  had now become 
a great national movement1 and we miss  
the fervent zeal  of the early converts 
in the cool1 calculating attitude of    
those who  came in after the fall of    
,mecca4 ,but even from among these must 
have  come many to swell the ranks of   
the true believers animated with a      

genuine zeal for the faith1 and ready1  
as we have seen1 to give their  lives in
 the effort to preach it to their       
brethren4    8,these men were the true  
moral heirs of the ,prophet1 the future 
apostles of ,islam1 the faithful        
trustees of all that ,muammad had       
revealed unto the men of ,god4 ,into    
these men1 through their constant       
contact with the ,prophet and their     
devotion to him1 there had really       
entered a new mode of thought and       
feeling1 loftier and more civilised     
than any they had known before2 they had
 really changed for the better  from    
every point of view1 and later on as    
statesmen and generals1 in  the most    
difficult moments of the war of conquest
 they gave magnificent  and undeniable  
proof that the ideas and the doctrines  
of ,muammad had  been seed cast on      
fruitful soil1 and had produced a body  
of men of the  very highest worth4 ,they
 were the depositaries of the sacred    
text of  the ,qurn1 which they alone    

knew by heart2 they were the jealous    
guardians of the memory of every word   
and bidding of the ,prophet1 the        
trustees of the moral heritage of       
,muammad4 ,these men formed the         
venerable stock of ,islam from whom one 
day was to spring the noble band  of the
 first jurists1 theologians and         
traditionists of ,muslim society40  #dc 
,but for such men as these1 so vast a   
movement could not have held  together1 
much less have recovered the shock given
 it by the death of  the founder4 ,for  
it must not be forgotten how distinctly 
,islam was a  new movement in heathen   
,arabia1 and how diametrically opposed  
were the  ideals of the two societies4  
#dd ,for the introduction of ,islam into
  ,arab society did not imply merely the
 sweeping away of a few barbarous  and  
inhuman practices1 but a complete       
reversal of the pre-existing  ideals of 
life4    ,herein we have the most       
conclusive proof of the essentially     
missionary  character of the teaching of

 ,muammad1 who thus comes forward as the
  exponent of a new scheme of faith and 
practice4 ,whatever may have been  the  
conditions favourable to the formation  
of a new political  organisation1       
,muammad certainly did not find the     
society of his day  prepared to receive 
his religious teaching and waiting only 
for the  voice that would express in    
speech the inarticulate yearnings of    
their  hearts4 ,but it is just this     
spirit of expectancy that is wanting    
among  the ,arabs--those at least of the
 ,central ,arabia towards whom          
,muammad's  efforts were at first       
directed4 ,they were by no means ready  
to receive  the preaching of a new      
teacher1 least of all one who came with 
the 7to  them unintelligible7 title of  
apostle of ,god4    ,again1 the equality
 in ,islam of all believers and the     
common  brotherhood of all ,muslims1    
which suffered no distinctions between  
,arab  and non-,arab1 between free and  
slave1 to exist among the faithful1 was 

an idea that ran directly counter to the
 proud clan-feeling of the  ,arab1 who  
grounded his claims to personal         
consideration on the fame of  his       
ancestors1 and in the strength of the   
same carried on the endless  blood-feuds
 in which his soul delighted4 ,indeed1  
the fundamental  principles in the      
teaching of ,muammad were a protest     
against much that  the ,arabs had       
hitherto most highly valued1 and the    
newly-converted  ,muslim was taught to  
consider as virtues1 qualities which    
hitherto he  had looked down upon with  
contempt4    ,to the heathen ,arab1     
friendship and hostility were as a loan 
which he  sought to repay with interest1
 and he prided himself on returning evil
  for evil1 and looked down on any who  
acted otherwise as a weak  nidering4    
,he is the perfect man who late and     
early plotteth still      ,to do a      
kindness to his friends and work his    
foes some ill4      ,to such men the    
,prophet said1 8,recompense evil with   

that which is  better0 7xxiii4 #ih72 as 
they desired the forgiveness of ,god1   
they were  to pass over and pardon      
offences 7xxiv4 #bb71 and a ,paradise1  
vast as  the heavens and the earth1 was 
prepared for those who mastered their   
anger and forgave others4 7iii4 #abh47  
,the very institution of prayer was     
jeered at by the ,arabs to whom         
,muammad first delivered his message1   
and one of the hardest parts of  his    
task was to induce in them that pious   
attitude of mind towards the  ,creator1 
which ,islam inculcates equally with    
,judaism and ,christianity1  but which  
was practically unknown to the heathen  
,arabs4 ,this  self-sufficiency and this
 lack of the religious spirit1 joined   
with  their intense pride of race1      
little fitted them to receive the       
teachings of one who maintained that    
8,the most worthy of honour in the      
sight of ,god is he that feareth ,him   
most0 7xlix4 #ac74 ,no more could  they 
brook the restrictions that ,islam      

sought to lay upon the licence  of their
 lives2 wine1 women1 and song1 were     
among the things most dear  to the      
,arab's heart in the days of the        
ignorance1 and the ,prophet was  stern  
and severe in his injunctions respecting
 each of them4    ,thus1 from the very  
beginning1 ,islam bears the stamp of a  
missionary  religion that seeks to win  
the hearts of men1 to convert them and  
persuade them to enter the brotherhood  
of the faithful2 and as it was  in the  
beginning1 so has it continued to be up 
to the present day1 as  will be the     
object of the following pages to show4  
,,chapter ,,iii4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of 
,,islam ,,among ,,the ,,christian       
,,nations ,,of ,,western ,,asia4        
,after the death of ,muammad1 the army  
he had intended for ,syria was          
despatched thither by ,ab ,bakr1 in     
spite of the protestations made by      
certain ,muslims in view of the then    
disturbed state of ,arabia4 ,he         
silenced their expostulations with the  

words3 8,i will not revoke any  order   
given by the ,prophet4 ,medina may      
become the prey of wild beasts1  but the
 army must carry out the wishes of      
,muammad40 ,this was the first  of that 
wonderful series of campaigns in which  
the ,arabs overran ,syria1  ,persia and 
,northern ,africa--overturning the      
ancient kingdom of ,persia  and         
despoiling the ,roman ,empire of some of
 its fairest provinces4 ,it  does not   
fall within the scope of this work to   
follow the history of  these different  
campaigns1 but1 in view of the expansion
 of the ,muslim  faith that followed the
 ,arab conquests1 it is of importance to
 discover  what were the circumstances  
that made such an expansion possible4   
,a great historian #de has well put the 
problem that meets us here1 in  the     
following words3 8,was it genuine       
religious enthusiasm1 the new  strength 
of a faith now for the first time       
blossoming forth in all its  purity1    
that gave the victory in every battle to

 the arms of the ,arabs  and in so      
incredibly short a time founded the     
greatest empire the world  had ever     
seen8 ,but evidence is wanting to prove 
that this was the case4  ,the number was
 far too small of those who had given   
their allegiance to  the ,prophet and   
his teaching with a free and heartfelt  
conviction1  while on the other hand all
 the greater was the number of those who
 had  been brought into the ranks of the
 ,muhammadans only through pressure     
from without or by the hope of worldly  
gain4 ,khlid1 #8that sword of the       
swords of ,god1' exhibited in a very    
striking manner that mixture of  force  
and persuasion whereby he and many of   
the ,quraysh had been  converted1 when  
he said that ,god had seized them by the
 hearts and by  the hair and compelled  
them to follow the ,prophet4 ,the proud 
feeling  too of a common nationality had
 much influence--a feeling which was    
more  alive among the ,arabs of that    
time than 7perhaps7 among any other     

people1 and which alone determined many 
thousands to give the  preference to    
their countryman and his religion before
 foreign  teachers4 ,still more powerful
 was the attraction offered by the sure 
prospect of gaining booty in abundance1 
in fighting for the new  religion and of
 exchanging their bare1 stony deserts1  
which offered  them only a miserable    
subsistence1 for the fruitful and       
luxuriant  countries of ,persia1 ,syria 
and ,egypt40    ,these stupendous       
conquests which laid the foundations of 
the ,arab  empire1 were certainly not   
the outcome of a holy war1 waged for the
  propagation of ,islam1 but they were  
followed by such a vast defection  from 
the ,christian faith that this result   
has often been supposed to  have been   
their aim4 ,thus the sword came to be   
looked upon by ,christian  historians as
 the instrument of ,muslim propaganda1  
and in the light of  the success        
attributed to it the evidences of the   
genuine missionary  activity of ,islam  

were obscured4 ,but the spirit which    
animated the  invading hosts of ,arabs  
who poured over the confines of the     
,byzantine  and ,persian empires1 was no
 proselytising zeal for the conversion  
of  souls4 ,on the contrary1 religious  
interests appear to have entered but    
little into the consciousness of the    
protagonists of the ,arab armies4  #df  
,this expansion of the ,arab race is    
more rightly envisaged as the  migration
 of a vigorous and energetic people     
driven by hunger and want1  to leave    
their inhospitable deserts and overrun  
the richer lands of  their more         
fortunate neighbours4 #dg ,still the    
unifying principle of  the movement was 
the theocracy established in ,medina1   
and the  organisation of the new state  
proceeded from the devoted companions of
  ,muammad1 the faithful depositaries of
 his teaching1 whose moral weight  and  
enthusiasm kept ,islam alive as the     
official religion1 despite the          
indifference of those ,arabs who gave to

 it a mere nominal adherence4  #dh ,it  
is not1 therefore1 in the annals of the 
conquering armies that  we must look for
 the reasons which lead to the so rapid 
spread of the  ,muslim faith1 but rather
 in the conditions prevailing among the 
conquered peoples4    ,the national     
character of this ethnic movement of    
migration naturally  attracted to the   
invading ,arab hosts the outlying       
representatives of  the ,arab race      
through whom the path of the conquering 
armies lay4  ,accordingly it is not     
surprising to find that many of the     
,christian  ,bedouins were swept into   
the rushing tide of this great movement 
and  that ,arab tribes1 who for         
centuries had professed the ,christian  
religion1 now abandoned it to embrace   
the ,muslim faith4 ,among these was  the
 tribe of the ,ban ,ghassn1 who held    
sway over the desert east of  ,palestine
 and southern ,syria1 of whom it was    
said that they were 8,lords  in the days
 of the ignorance and stars in ,islam40 

#di ,after the battle  of ,qdisiyyah    
7,a4,h4 #ad7 in which the ,persian army 
under ,rustam had been  utterly         
discomfited1 many ,christians belonging 
to the ,bedouin tribes on  both sides of
 the ,euphrates came to the ,muslim     
general and said3 8,the  tribes that at 
the first embraced ,islam were wiser    
than we4 ,now that  ,rustam hath been   
slain1 we will accept the new belief40  
#ej ,similarly1  after the conquest of  
northern ,syria1 most of the ,bedouin   
tribes1 after  hesitating a little1     
joined themselves to the followers of   
the ,prophet4  #ea    ,that force was   
not the determining factor in these     
conversions may be  judged from the     
amicable relations that existed between 
the ,christian  and the ,muslim ,arabs4 
,muammad himself had entered into treaty
 with  several ,christian tribes1       
promising them his protection and       
guaranteeing them the free exercise of  
their religion and to their  clergy     
undisturbed enjoyment of their old      

rights and authority4 #eb ,a  similar   
bond of friendship united his followers 
with their  fellow-countrymen of the    
older faith1 many of whom voluntarily   
came  forward to assist the ,muslims in 
their military expeditions in the same  
spirit of loyalty to the new government 
as had caused them to hold  aloof from  
the great apostasy that raised the      
standard of revolt  throughout ,arabia  
immediately after the death of the      
,prophet4 #ec ,it  has been suggested   
that the ,christian ,arabs who guarded  
the frontier of  the ,byzantine empire  
bordering on the desert threw in their  
lot with  the invading ,muslim army1    
when ,heraclius refused any longer to   
pay them  their accustomed subsidy for  
military service as wardens of the      
marches4 #ed    ,in the battle of the   
,bridge 7,a4,h4 #ac7 when a disastrous  
defeat was  imminent and the            
panic-stricken ,arabs were hemmed in    
between the  ,euphrates and the ,persian
 host1 a ,christian chief of the ,ban   

ayy  sprang forward like another        
,spurius ,lartius to the side of an     
,arab  ,horatius1 to assist ,muthannah  
the ,muslim general in defending the    
bridge of boats which could alone afford
 the means of an orderly  retreat4 ,when
 fresh levies were raised to retrieve   
this disgrace1 among  the reinforcements
 that came pouring in from every        
direction was a  ,christian tribe of the
 ,ban ,namir1 who dwelt within the      
limits of the  ,byzantine empire1 and in
 the ensuing battle of ,buwayb 7,a4,h4  
#ac71 just  before the final charge of  
the ,arabs that turned the fortune of   
battle  in their favour1 ,muthannah rode
 up to the ,christian chief and said3   
8,ye  are of one blood with us2 come    
now1 and as ,i charge1 charge ye with   
me40 ,the ,persians fell back before    
their furious onslaught1 and another    
great victory was added to the glorious 
roll of ,muslim triumphs4 ,one of  the  
most gallant exploits of the day was    
performed by a youth belonging  to      

another ,christian tribe of the desert1 
who with his companions1 a  company of  
,bedouin horse-dealers1 had come up just
 as the ,arab army was  being drawn up  
in battle array4 ,they threw themselves 
into the right on  the side of their    
compatriots2 and while the conflict was 
raging most  fiercely1 this youth1      
rushing into the centre of the          
,persians1 slew  their leader1 and      
leaping on his richly-caparisoned horse1
 galloped  back amidst the plaudits of  
the ,muslim line1 crying as he passed in
  triumph3 8,i am of the ,ban ,taghlib4 
,i am he that hath slain the chief40    
#ee    ,the tribe to which this young   
man boasted that he belonged was one of 
those that elected to remain ,christian1
 while other tribes of  ,mesopotamia1   
such as the ,ban ,namir and the ,ban    
,quah1 became  ,muslim4 ,the ,ban       
,taghlib had sent an embassy to the     
,prophet as early as  the year ,a4,h4   
#i4 ,the heathen members of the         
deputation embraced ,islam  and he made 

a treaty with the ,christians according 
to which they were  to retain their old 
faith but were not to baptise their     
children4 ,a  condition so entirely at  
variance with the usual tolerant        
attitude of  ,muammad towards the       
,christian ,arabs1 who were allowed to  
choose  between conversion to ,islam and
 the payment of jizyah and never        
compelled to abandon their faith1 has   
given rise to the conjecture that  this 
condition was suggested by the          
,christian families of the ,ban         
,taghlib themselves1 out of motives of  
economy4 #ef ,the long survival  of     
,christianity in this tribe shows that  
this condition was certainly  not       
observed4 ,the caliph ,umar forbade any 
pressure to be put upon  them1 when they
 showed themselves unwilling to abandon 
their old faith  and ordered that they  
should be left undisturbed in the       
practice of it1  but that they were not 
to oppose the conversion of any member  
of their  tribe to ,islam nor baptise   

the children of such as became ,muslims4
 #eg  ,they were called upon to pay the 
jizyah #eh or tax imposed on the        
non-,muslim subjects1 but they felt it  
to be humiliating to their pride  to pay
 a tax that was levied in return for    
protection of life and  property1 and   
petitioned the caliph to be allowed to  
make the same kind  of contribution as  
the ,muslims did4 ,so in lieu of the    
jizyah they paid  a double adaqah or    
alms1 #ei--which was a poor tax levied  
on the  fields and cattle1 etc41 of the 
,muslims4 #fj ,it especially irked the  
,muslims that any of the ,arabs should  
remain true to the ,christian  faith4   
,the majority of the ,ban ,tankh had    
become ,muslim in the year  ,a4,h4 #ab1 
when with other ,christian ,arab tribes 
they submitted to ,khlid  b4 al-,wald1  
#fa but some of them appear to have     
remained true to  their old faith for   
nearly a century and a half1 since the  
caliph  al-,mahd 7,a4,h4 #aeh-afi7 is   
said to have seen a number of them who  

dwelt  in the neighbourhood of ,aleppo1 
and learning that they were ,christians1
  in anger ordered them to accept       
,islam--which they did to the number of 
#ejjj1 and one of them suffered         
martyrdom rather than apostatise4 #fb   
,but for the most part1 details are     
lacking for any history of the          
disappearance of ,christianity from     
among the ,christian ,arab tribes of    
,northern ,arabia2 they seem to have    
become absorbed in the surrounding      
,muslim community by an almost          
insensible process of 8peaceful         
penetration02 had attempts been made to 
convert them by force when they  first  
came under ,muhammadan rule1 it would   
not have been possible for  ,christians 
to have survived among them up to the   
times of the ,abbsid  caliphs4 #fc      
,the people of rah had likewise resisted
 all the efforts made by  ,khlid to     
induce them to accept the ,muslim faith4
 ,this city was one of  the most        
illustrious in the annals of ,arabia1   

and to the mind of the  impetuous hero  
of ,islam it seemed that an appeal to   
their ,arab blood  would be enough to   
induce them to enrol themselves with the
 followers  of the ,prophet of ,arabia4 
,when the besieged citizens sent an     
embassy to  the ,muslim general to      
arrange the terms of the capitulation of
 their  city1 ,khlid asked them1 8,who  
are you8 are you ,arabs or ,persians80  
,then  ,ad1 the spokesman of the        
deputation1 replied1 8,nay1 we are      
pure-blooded ,arabs1 while others among 
us are naturalised ,arabs40 ,kh4  8,had 
you been what you say you are1 you would
 not have opposed us or  hated our      
cause40 ,a4 8,our pure ,arab speech is  
the proof of what ,i  say40 ,kh4 8,you  
speak truly4 ,now choose you one of     
these three things3  either 7#a7 accept 
our faith1 then your rights and         
obligations will be  the same as ours1  
whether you choose to go into another   
country or stay  in your own land2 or   
7#b7 pay jizyah2 or 7#c7 war and battle4

 ,verily1 by  ,god6 ,i have come to you 
with a people who are more desirous of  
death  than you are of life40 ,a4 8,nay1
 we will pay you jizyah40 ,kh4          
8,ill-luck  to you6 ,unbelief is a      
pathless desert and foolish is the ,arab
 who1 when  two guides meet him         
wandering therein--the one an ,arab and 
the other  not--leaves the first and    
accepts the guidance of the foreigner40 
#fd    ,due provision was made for the  
instruction of the new converts1 for    
while whole tribes were being converted 
to the faith with such  rapidity1 it was
 necessary to take precautions against  
errors1 both in  respect of creed and   
ritual1 such as might naturally be      
feared in the  case of ill-instructed   
converts4 ,accordingly we find that the 
caliph  ,umar appointed teachers in     
every country1 whose duty it was to     
instruct the people in the teachings of 
the ,qurn and the observances  of their 
new faith4 ,the magistrates were also   
ordered to see that all1  whether old or

 young1 were regular in their attendance
 at public  prayer1 especially on       
,fridays and in the month of ,raman4    
,the  importance attached to this work  
of instructing the new converts may be  
judged from the fact that in the city of
 ,kfah it was no less a  personage than 
the state treasurer who was entrusted   
with this task4  #fe    ,from the       
examples given above of the toleration  
extended towards the  ,christian ,arabs 
by the victorious ,muslims of the first 
century of the  ,hijrah and continued by
 succeeding generations1 we may surely  
infer  that those ,christian tribes that
 did embrace ,islam1 did so of their own
  choice and free will4 #ff ,the        
,christian ,arabs of the present day1   
dwelling in the midst of a ,muhammadan  
population1 are a living  testimony of  
this toleration2 ,layard speaks of      
having come across an  encampment of    
,christian ,arabs at al-,karak1 to the  
east of the ,dead ,sea1  who differed in
 no way1 either in dress or in manners1 

from the ,muslim  ,arabs4 #fg           
,burckhardt was told by the monks of    
,mount ,sinai that in the  last century 
there still remained several families of
 ,christian  ,bedouins who had not      
embraced ,islam1 and that the last of   
them1 an old  woman1 died in #agej1 and 
was buried in the garden of the convent4
 #fh    ,many of the ,arabs of the      
renowned tribe of the ,ban ,ghassn1     
,arabs of  the purest blood1 who        
embraced ,christianity towards the end  
of the  fourth century1 still retain the
 ,christian faith1 and since their      
submission to the ,church of ,rome1     
about two centuries ago1 employ the     
,arabic language in their religious     
services4 #fi    ,if we turn from the   
,bedouins to consider the attitude of   
the settled  inhabitants of the towns   
and the non-,arab population towards the
 new  religion1 we do not find that the 
,arab conquest was so rapidly followed  
by conversions to ,islam4 ,the          
,christians of the great cities of the  

eastern provinces of the ,byzantine     
empire seem for the most part to  have  
remained faithful to their ancestral    
creed1 to which indeed they  still in   
large numbers cling4    ,in order that  
we may fully appreciate their condition 
under the ,muslim  rule1 and estimate   
the influences that led to occasional   
conversions1  it will be well briefly to
 sketch their situation under the       
,christian  rule of the ,byzantine      
empire which fell back before the ,arab 
arms4    ,a hundred years before1       
,justinian had succeeded in giving some 
show of  unity to the ,roman ,empire1   
but after his death it rapidly fell     
asunder1  and at this time there was an 
entire want of common national feeling  
between the provinces and the seat of   
government4 ,heraclius had made  some   
partially successful efforts to attach  
,syria again to the central  government1
 but unfortunately the general methods  
of reconciliation  which he adopted had 
served only to increase dissension      

instead of  allaying it4 ,religious     
passions were the only existing         
substitute for  national feeling1 and he
 tried1 by propounding an exposition of 
faith1  that was intended to serve as an
 eirenicon1 to stop all further         
disputes between the contending factions
 and unite the heretics to the          
,orthodox ,church and to the central    
government4 ,the ,council of ,chalcedon 
7#dea7 had maintained that ,christ was  
8to be acknowledged in two  natures1    
without confusion1 change1 division1 or 
separation2 the  difference of the      
natures being in nowise taken away by   
reason of their  union1 but rather the  
properties of each nature being         
preserved1 and  concurring into one     
person and one substance1 not as it were
 divided or  separated into two persons1
 but one and the same ,son and only     
begotten1  ,god the ,word40 ,this       
council was rejected by the             
,monophysites1 who only  allowed one    
nature in the person of ,christ1 who was

 said to be a  composite person1 having 
all attributes divine and human1 but the
  substance bearing these attributes was
 no longer a duality1 but a  composite  
unity4 ,the controversy between the     
orthodox party and the  ,monophysites1  
who flourished particularly in ,egypt   
and ,syria and in  countries outside the
 ,byzantine empire1 had been hotly      
contested for  nearly two centuries1    
when ,heraclius sought to effect a      
reconciliation  by means of the doctrine
 of ,monotheletism3 while conceding the 
duality  of the natures1 it secured     
unity of the person in the actual life  
of  ,christ1 by the rejection of two    
series of activities in this one        
person2 the one ,christ and ,son of ,god
 effectuates that which is human  and   
that which is divine by one divine human
 agency1 i4e4 there is only  one will in
 the ,incarnate ,word4 #gj    ,but      
,heraclius shared the fate of so many   
would-be peace-makers3 for not  only did
 the controversy blaze up again all the 

more fiercely1 but he  himself was      
stigmatised as a heretic and drew upon  
himself the wrath of  both parties4     
,indeed1 so bitter was the feeling he   
aroused that there is strong  reason to 
believe that even a majority of the     
orthodox subjects of the  ,roman        
,empire1 in the provinces that were     
conquered during this  emperor's reign1 
were the well-wishers of the ,arabs2    
they regarded the  emperor with aversion
 as a heretic1 and were afraid that he  
might  commence a persecution in order  
to force upon them his ,monotheletic    
opinions4 #ga ,they therefore           
readily--and even eagerly--received the 
new  masters who promised them religious
 toleration1 and were willing to        
compromise their religious position and 
their national independence if  only    
they could free themselves from the     
immediately impending danger4           
,michael the ,elder1 ,jacobite          
,patriarch of ,antioch1 writing in the  
latter  half of the twelfth century1    

could approve the decision of his       
co-religionists and see the finger of   
,god in the ,arab conquests even  after 
the ,eastern churches had had experience
 of five centuries of  ,muhammadan rule4
 ,after recounting the persecutions of  
,heraclius1 he  writes3 8,this is why   
the ,god of vengeance1 who alone is     
all-powerful1  and changes the empire of
 mortals as ,he will1 giving it to      
whomsoever  ,he will1 and uplifting the 
humble--beholding the wickedness of the 
,romans who1 throughout their dominions1
 cruelly plundered our churches  and our
 monasteries and condemned us without   
pity--brought from the  region of the   
south the sons of ,ishmael1 to deliver  
us through them  from the hands of the  
,romans4 ,and1 if in truth1 we have     
suffered some  loss1 because the        
catholic churches1 that had been taken  
away from us  and given to the          
,chalcedonians1 remained in their       
possession2 for when  the cities        
submitted to the ,arabs1 they assigned  

to each denomination  the churches which
 they found it to be in possession of   
7and at that  time the great church of  
,emessa and that of ,harran had been    
taken away  from us72 nevertheless it   
was no slight advantage for us to be    
delivered from the cruelty of the       
,romans1 their wickedness1 their wrath  
and cruel zeal against us1 and to find  
ourselves at peace40 #gb    ,when the   
,muslim army reached the valley of the  
,jordan and ,ab ,ubaydah  pitched his   
camp at ,fil1 the ,christian inhabitants
 of the country  wrote to the ,arabs1   
saying3 8,o ,muslims1 we prefer you to  
the  ,byzantines1 though they are of our
 own faith1 because you keep better     
faith with us and are more merciful to  
us and refrain from doing us  injustice 
and your rule over us is better than    
theirs1 for they have  robbed us of our 
goods and our homes40 #gc ,the people of
 ,emessa closed  the gates of their city
 against the army of ,heraclius and told
 the  ,muslims that they preferred their

 government and justice to the          
injustice and oppression of the ,greeks4
 #gd    ,such was the state of feeling  
in ,syria during the campaign of        
#fcc-fci  in which the ,arabs gradually 
drove the ,roman army out of the        
province4  ,and when ,damascus1 in #fcg1
 set the example of making terms with   
the  ,arabs1 and thus secured immunity  
from plunder and other favourable       
conditions1 the rest of the cities of   
,syria were not slow to follow4         
,emessa1 ,arethusa1 ,hieropolis and     
other towns entered into treaties       
whereby they became tributary to the    
,arabs4 ,even the patriarch of          
,jerusalem surrendered the city on      
similar terms4 ,the fear of religious   
compulsion on the part of the heretical 
emperor made the promise of  ,muslim    
toleration appear more attractive than  
the connection with the  ,roman ,empire 
and a ,christian government1 and after  
the first terrors  caused by the passage
 of an invading army1 there succeeded a 

profound  revulsion of feeling in favour
 of the ,arab conquerors4 #ge    ,for   
the provinces of the ,byzantine empire  
that were rapidly acquired by  the      
prowess of the ,muslims found themselves
 in the enjoyment of a  toleration such 
as1 on account of their ,monophysite and
 ,nestorian  opinions1 had been unknown 
to them for many centuries4 ,they were  
allowed the free and undisturbed        
exercise of their religion with some    
few restrictions imposed for the sake of
 preventing any friction  between the   
adherents of the rival religions1 or    
arousing any  fanaticism by the         
ostentatious exhibition of religious    
symbols that  were so offensive to      
,muslim feeling4 #gf ,the extent of this
  toleration--so striking in the history
 of the seventh century--may be  judged 
from the terms granted to the conquered 
cities1 in which  protection of life and
 property and toleration of religious   
belief were  given in return for        
submission and the payment of jizyah4   

#gg    ,the exact details of these      
agreements cannot easily be disentangled
  from the accretions with which they   
have become overlaid1 but whether       
verbally authentic or not1 they are     
significant as representing the         
historic tradition accepted by the      
,muslim historians of the second        
century of the ,hijrah--a tradition that
 could hardly have become  established  
had there been extant evidence to the   
contrary4 ,as an  example of such an    
agreement1 the conditions #gh may be    
quoted that  are stated to have been    
drawn up when ,jerusalem submitted to   
the caliph  ,umar b4 al-,khab3 8,in the 
name of ,god1 the ,merciful1 the        
,compassionate6 ,this is the security   
which ,umar1 the servant of ,god1  the  
commander of the faithful1 grants to the
 people of lia4 ,he grants  to all1     
whether sick or sound1 security for     
their lives1 their  possessions1 their  
churches and their crosses1 and for all 
that  concerns their religion4 ,their   

churches shall not be changed into      
dwelling places1 nor destroyed1 neither 
shall they nor their  appurtenances be  
in any way diminished1 nor the crosses  
of the  inhabitants nor aught of their  
possessions1 nor shall any constraint be
  put upon them in the matter of their  
faith1 nor shall any one of them  be    
harmed40 #gi    ,tribute was imposed    
upon them of five dnrs for the rich1    
four for the  middle class and three for
 the poor4 ,in company with the         
,patriarch1  ,umar visited the holy     
places1 and it is said while they were  
in the  ,church of the ,resurrection1 as
 it was the appointed hour of prayer1   
the  ,patriarch bade the caliph offer   
his prayers there1 but he thoughtfully  
refused1 saying that if he were to do   
so1 his followers might  afterwards     
claim it as a place of ,muslim worship4 
,it is in harmony with the same spirit  
of kindly consideration for his         
subjects of another faith1 that ,umar is
 recorded to have ordered an  allowance 

of money and food to be made to some    
,christian lepers1  apparently out of   
the public funds4 #hj ,even in his last 
testament1 in  which he enjoins on his  
successor the duties of his high office1
 he  remembers the dhimms 7or protected 
persons of other faiths73 8,i  commend  
to his care the dhimms1 who enjoy the   
protection of ,god and of  the ,prophet2
 let him see to it that the covenant    
with them is kept1 and  that no greater 
burdens than they can bear are laid upon
 them40 #ha    ,a later generation      
attributed to ,umar a number of         
restrictive  regulations which hampered 
the ,christians in the free exercise of 
their  religion1 but ,de ,goeje #hb and 
,caetani #hc have proved without doubt  
that they are the invention of a later  
age2 as1 however1 ,muslim  theologians  
of less tolerant periods accepted these 
ordinances as  genuine1 they are of     
importance for forming a judgment as to 
the  condition of the ,christian        
,churches under ,muslim rule4 ,this     

so-called  ordinance of ,umar runs as   
follows3--8,in the name of ,god1 the    
,merciful1  the ,compassionate6 ,this is
 a writing to ,umar b4 al-,khab from the
  ,christians of such and such a city4  
,when you marched against us1 we  asked 
of you protection for ourselves1 our    
posterity1 our possessions  and our     
co-religionists2 and we made this       
stipulation with you1 that we  will not 
erect in our city or the suburbs any new
 monastery1 church1  cell or hermitage2 
#hd that we will not repair any of such 
buildings  that may fall into ruins1 or 
renew those that may be situated in the 
,muslim quarters of the town2 that we   
will not refuse the ,muslims entry  into
 our churches either by night or by day2
 that we will open the  gates wide to   
passengers and travellers2 that we will 
receive any  ,muslim traveller into our 
houses and give him food and lodging for
  three nights2 that we will not harbour
 any spy in our churches or  houses1 or 
conceal any enemy of the ,muslims2 that 

we will not teach our  children the     
,qurn2 #he that we will not make a show 
of the ,christian  religion nor invite  
any one to embrace it2 that we will not 
prevent any  of our kinsmen from        
embracing ,islam1 if they so desire4    
,that we will  honour the ,muslims and  
rise up in our assemblies when they wish
 to take  their seats2 that we will not 
imitate them in our dress1 either in the
  cap1 turban1 sandals1 or parting of   
the hair2 that we will not make use  of 
their expressions of speech1 #hf nor    
adopt their surnames2 that we  will not 
ride on saddles1 or gird on swords1 or  
take to ourselves arms  or wear them1 or
 engrave ,arabic inscriptions on our    
rings2 that we will  not sell wine2 that
 we will shave the front of our heads2  
that we will  keep to our own style of  
dress1 wherever we may be2 that we will 
wear  girdles round our waists2 that we 
will not display the cross upon our     
churches or display our crosses or our  
sacred books in the streets of  the     

,muslims1 or in their market-places2 #hg
 that we will strike the  bells #hh in  
our churches lightly2 that we will not  
recite our  services in a loud voice    
when a ,muslim is present1 that we will 
not  carry palm-branches or our images  
in procession in the streets1 that at   
the burial of our dead we will not chant
 loudly or carry lighted  candles in the
 streets of the ,muslims or their       
market-places2 that we  will not take   
any slaves that have already been in the
 possession of  ,muslims1 nor spy into  
their houses2 and that we will not      
strike any  ,muslim4 ,all this we       
promise to observe1 on behalf of        
ourselves and our  co-religionists1 and 
receive protection from you in exchange2
 and if we  violate any of the          
conditions of this agreement1 then we   
forfeit your  protection and you are at 
liberty to treat us as enemies and      
rebels40  #hi    ,the earliest mention  
of this document is made by ,ibn azm1   
who died in  the middle of the fifth    

century of the ,hijrah2 its provisions  
represent  the more intolerant practice 
of a later age1 and indeed were         
regulations that were put into force    
with no sort of regularity1 some        
outburst of fanaticism being generally  
needed for any appeal to be made  for   
their application4 ,there is abundant   
evidence to show that the  ,christians  
in the early days of the ,muhammadan    
conquest had little to  complain of in  
the way of religious disabilities4 ,it  
is true that  adherence to their ancient
 faith rendered them obnoxious to the   
payment  of jizyah--a word which        
originally denoted tribute of any kind  
paid by  the non-,muslim subjects of the
 ,arab empire1 but came later on to be  
used for the capitation-tax as the      
fiscal system of the new rulers  became 
fixed2 #ij but this jizyah was too      
moderate to constitute a  burden1 seeing
 that it released them from the         
compulsory military  service that was   
incumbent on their ,muslim              

fellow-subjects4 ,conversion  to ,islam 
was certainly attended by a certain     
pecuniary advantage1 but  his former    
religion could have had but little hold 
on a convert who  abandoned it merely to
 gain exemption from the jizyah2 and    
now1 instead  of jizyah1 the convert had
 to pay the legal alms1 zakt1 annually  
levied on most kinds of movable and     
immovable property4 #ia ,the  pecuniary 
temptation to escape the incidence of   
taxation by means of  conversion was    
considerably lessened when financial    
considerations  compelled the ,arab     
government1 towards the end of the first
 century1 to  insist on the new converts
 continuing to pay jizyah even after    
they had  been received into the        
community of the faithful4 #ib ,on the  
other  hand it must be remembered that  
the non-,muslim sections of the         
population always ran the risk of       
becoming the victims of fiscal          
oppression when the state was in need of
 revenue4    ,the rates of jizyah levied

 by the early conquerors were not       
uniform1  #ic and the great ,muslim     
doctors1 ,ab anfah and ,mlik1 are not in
  agreement on some of the less         
important details2 #id the following    
facts taken from the ,kitb al-,kharj1   
drawn up by ,ab ,ysuf at the  request of
 ,hrn al-,rashd 7,a4,d4 #ghf-hji7 may be
 taken as generally  representative of  
,muhammadan procedure under the ,abbsid 
,caliphate4  ,the rich were to pay      
forty-eight dirhams #ie a year1 the     
middle  classes twenty-four1 while from 
the poor1 i4e4 the field-labourers and  
artisans1 only twelve dirhams were      
taken4 ,this tax could be paid in  kind 
if desired2 cattle1 merchandise1        
household effects1 even needles  were to
 be accepted in lieu of specie1 but not 
pigs1 wine1 or dead  animals4 ,the tax  
was to be levied only on able-bodied    
males1 and not on  women or children4   
#if ,the poor who were dependent for    
their  livelihood on alms and the aged  
poor who were incapable of work were    

also specially excepted1 as also the    
blind1 the lame1 the incurables  and the
 insane1 unless they happened to be men 
of wealth2 this same  condition applied 
to priests and monks1 who were exempt if
 dependent on  the alms of the rich1 but
 had to pay if they were well-to-do and 
lived  in comfort4 ,the collectors of   
the jizyah were particularly instructed 
to show leniency1 and refrain from all  
harsh treatment or the  infliction of   
corporal punishment1 in case of         
non-payment4 #ig    ,this tax was not   
imposed on the ,christians1 as some     
would have us  think1 as a penalty for  
their refusal to accept the ,muslim     
faith1 but  was paid by them in common  
with the other dhimms or non-,muslim    
subjects of the state whose religion    
precluded them from serving in the      
army1 in return for the protection      
secured for them by the arms of the     
,musalmans4 ,when the people of ,hrah   
contributed the sum agreed upon1  they  
expressly mentioned that they paid this 

jizyah on condition that  8the ,muslims 
and their leader protect us from those  
who would oppress  us1 whether they be  
,muslims or others40 #ih ,again1 in the 
treaty made  by ,khlid with some towns  
in the neighbourhood of ,hrah1 he       
writes3 8,if  we protect you1 then      
jizyah is due to us2 but if we do not1  
then it is  not due40 #ii ,how clearly  
this condition was recognised by the    
,muhammadans may be judged from the     
following incident in the reign of  the 
,caliph ,umar4 ,the ,emperor ,heraclius 
had raised an enormous army  with which 
to drive back the invading forces of the
 ,muslims1 who had in  consequence to   
concentrate all their energies on the   
impending  encounter4 ,the ,arab        
general1 ,ab ,ubaydah1 accordingly wrote
 to the  governors of the conquered     
cities of ,syria1 ordering them to pay  
back  all the jizyah that had been      
collected from the cities1 and wrote to 
the people1 saying1 8,we give you back  
the money that we took from you1  as we 

have received news that a strong force  
is advancing against us4  ,the agreement
 between us was that we should protect  
you1 and as this is  not now in our     
power1 we return you all that we took4  
,but if we are  victorious we shall     
consider ourselves bound to you by the  
old terms of  our agreement40 ,in       
accordance with this order1 enormous    
sums were paid  back out of the state   
treasury1 and the ,christians called    
down  blessings on the heads of the     
,muslims1 saying1 8,may ,god give you   
rule  over us again and make you        
victorious over the ,romans2 had it been
  they1 they would not have given us    
back anything1 but would have taken  all
 that remained with us40 #ajj    ,as    
stated above1 the jizyah was levied on  
the able-bodied males1 in  lieu of the  
military service they would have been   
called upon to  perform had they been   
,musalmans2 and it is very noticeable   
that when  any ,christian people served 
in the ,muslim army1 they were exempted 

from  the payment of this tax4 ,such was
 the case with the tribe of             
al-,jurjimah1 a ,christian tribe in the 
neighbourhood of ,antioch1 who  made    
peace with the ,muslims1 promising to be
 their allies and fight on  their side  
in battle1 on condition that they should
 not be called upon  to pay jizyah and  
should receive their proper share of the
 booty4 #aja  ,when the ,arab conquests 
were pushed to the north of ,persia in  
,a4,h4 #bb1  a similar agreement was    
made with a frontier tribe1 which was   
exempted  from the payment of jizyah in 
consideration of military service4 #ajb 
,we find similar instances of the       
remission of jizyah in the case of      
,christians who served in the army or   
navy under the ,turkish rule4 ,for      
example1 the inhabitants of ,megaris1 a 
community of ,albanian  ,christians1    
were exempted from the payment of this  
tax on condition  that they furnished a 
body of armed men to guard the passes   
over ,mounts  ,cithron and ,geranea1    

which lead to the ,isthmus of ,corinth2 
the  ,christians who served as pioneers 
of the advance-guard of the ,turkish    
army1 repairing the roads and bridges1  
were likewise exempt from  tribute and  
received grants of land quit of all     
taxation2 #ajc and the  ,christian      
inhabitants of ,hydra paid no direct    
taxes to the ,sultan1 but  furnished    
instead a contingent of #bej able-bodied
 seamen to the ,turkish  fleet1 who were
 supported out of the local treasury4   
#ajd    ,the ,southern ,rumanians1 the  
so-called ,armatoli1 #aje who           
constituted  so important an element of 
strength in the ,turkish army during the
  sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1  
and the ,mirdites1 a tribe of  ,albanian
 ,catholics who occupied the mountains  
to the north of ,scutari1  were exempt  
from taxation on condition of supplying 
an armed contingent  in time of war4    
#ajf ,in the same spirit1 in            
consideration of the  services they     
rendered to the state1 the              

capitation-tax was not imposed  upon the
 ,greek ,christians who looked after the
 aqueducts that supplied                
,constantinople with drinking water1    
#ajg nor on those who had charge  of the
 powder-magazine in that city4 #ajh ,on 
the other hand1 when the  ,egyptian     
peasants1 although ,muslim in faith1    
were made exempt from  military service1
 a tax was imposed upon them as on the  
,christians1 in  lieu thereof4 #aji     
,living under this security of life and 
property and such toleration of         
religious thought1 the ,christian       
community--especially in the            
towns--enjoyed a flourishing prosperity 
in the early days of the  ,caliphate4   
,muwiyah 7#ffa-fhj7 employed ,christians
 very largely in his service1  and other
 members of the reigning house followed 
his example4 #aaj  ,christians          
frequently held high posts at court1    
e4g4 a ,christian ,arab1  al-,akhal1 was
 court poet1 and the father of ,st4     
,john of ,damascus1  counsellor to the  

caliph ,abd al-,malik 7#fhe-gje74 ,in   
the service of the  caliph al-,mutaim   
7#hcc-hdb71 there were two brothers1    
,christians1 who  stood very high in the
 confidence of the ,commander of the    
,faithful3 the  one1 named ,salmyah1    
seems to have occupied somewhat the     
position of a  modern secretary of      
state1 and no royal documents were valid
 until  countersigned by him1 while his 
brother1 ,ibrhm1 was entrusted with  the
 care of the privy seal1 and was set    
over the ,bayt al-,ml or ,public        
,treasury1 an office that1 from the     
nature of the funds and their  disposal1
 might have been expected to have been  
put into the hands of a  ,muslim2 so    
great was the caliph's personal         
affection for this ,ibrhm1  that he     
visited him in his sickness1 and was    
overwhelmed with grief at  his death1   
and on the day of the funeral ordered   
the body to be brought  to the palace   
and the ,christian rites performed there
 with great  solemnity4 #aaa    ,abd    

al-,malik appointed a certain           
,athanasius1 a ,christian scholar of    
,edessa1 tutor to his brother1 ,abd     
al-,azz4 ,athanasius accompanied his    
pupil1 when he was appointed governor of
 ,egypt1 and there amassed great        
wealth2 he is said to have possessed    
#djjj slaves1 villages1 houses1         
gardens1 and gold and silver 8like      
stones02 his sons took a dnr from  each 
of the soldiers when they received their
 pay1 and as there were  #cj1jjj troops 
then in ,egypt1 some idea may be formed 
of the wealth that  ,athanasius         
accumulated during the twenty-one years 
that he spent in  that country4 #aab ,at
 the close of the eighth century1 a     
certain ,ab  ,n al-,anbr was secretary  
to ,ab ,ms b4 ,muab1 governor of ,mosul1
  and used his powerful influence for   
the benefit of his ,christian           
co-religionists4 #aac    ,in the reign  
of al-,mutadid 7#hib-ijb71 the governor 
of ,anbr1 ,umar b4  ,ysuf1 was a        
,christian1 and the caliph approved of  

the appointment on  the ground that if a
 ,christian were found to be competent1 
a post might  well be given to him1 as  
there were better reasons for trusting a
  ,christian than either a ,jew1 a      
,muslim or a ,zoroastrian4 #aad         
,al-,muwaffaq1 who was virtual ruler of 
the empire during the reign of  his     
brother al-,mutamid 7#hgj-hib71         
entrusted the administration of the     
army to a ,christian named ,israel1 and 
his son1 al-,mutaid1 had as one  of his 
secretaries another ,christian1 ,malik  
b4 al-,wald4 ,in a later  reign1 that of
 al-,muqtadir 7#ijh-icb71 a ,christian  
was again in charge  of the war office4 
#aae    ,nar b4 ,hrn1 the ,prime        
,minister of ,aud al-,dawlah 7#idi-ihb71
 of the  ,buwayhid dynasty of ,persia1  
who ruled over ,southern ,persia and    
,irq1  was a ,christian4 #aaf ,for a    
long time1 the government offices1      
especially in the department of finance1
 were filled with ,christians  and      
,persians2 #aag to a much later date was

 such the case in ,egypt1  where at     
times the ,christians almost entirely   
monopolised such posts4  #aah           
,particularly as physicians1 the        
,christians frequently amassed  great   
wealth and were much honoured in the    
houses of the great4  ,gabriel1 the     
personal physician of the caliph ,hrn   
al-,rashd1 was a  ,nestorian ,christian 
and derived a yearly income of #hjj1jjj 
dirhams from  his private property1 in  
addition to an emolument of #bhj1jjj    
dirhams a  year in return for his       
attendance on the caliph2 the second    
physician1  also a ,christian1 received 
#bb1jjj dirhams a year4 #aai ,in trade  
and  commerce1 the ,christians also     
attained considerable affluence3 indeed 
it was frequently their wealth that     
excited against them the jealous        
cupidity of the mob--a feeling that     
fanatics took advantage of1 to          
persecute and oppress them4 ,further1   
the non-,muslim communities enjoyed  an 
almost complete autonomy1 for the       

government placed in their hands  the   
independent management of their internal
 affairs1 and their  religious leaders  
exercised judicial functions in cases   
that concerned  their co-religionists   
only4 #abj ,their churches and          
monasteries were1  for the most part1   
not interfered with1 except in the large
 cities1  where some of them were turned
 into mosques--a measure that could     
hardly  be objected to in view of the   
enormous increase in the ,muslim and    
corresponding decrease in the ,christian
 population4    ,recent historical      
criticism has demonstrated the          
impossibility of the  legend that when  
,damascus was taken by the ,arabs1 the  
churches were  equally divided between  
the ,christians and the conquerors1 on  
the plea  that while one ,muslim general
 made his way into the city by the      
eastern  gate at the point of the sword1
 another at the western gate received   
the submission of the governor of the   
city2 a similar scrutiny of  historical 

documents as well as of the topography  
of the building has  shown that the     
great cathedral of ,st4 ,john could     
never have been used  in the manner     
described by some ,arabic historians as 
a common place of  worship for both     
,christians and ,muslims4 #aba ,but the 
very fact that  these historians should 
have believed that such an arrangement  
continued for nearly eighty years1      
testifies to the early recognition  of  
the liberty granted to the ,christians  
of practising the observances  of their 
religion4    ,the opinion of the        
,muhammadan legists is very diverse on  
this question1  from the more liberal   
anaf doctrine1 which declares that1     
though it  is unlawful to construct     
churches and synagogues in ,muhammadan  
territory1 those already existing can be
 repaired if they have been  destroyed  
or have fallen into decay1 while in     
villages and hamlets1  where the tokens 
of ,islam do not appear1 new churches   
and synagogues  may be built--to the    

intolerant anbalite view that they may  
neither be  erected nor be restored when
 damaged or ruined4 ,some legists held  
that  the privileges varied according to
 treaty rights3 in towns taken by       
force1 no new houses of prayer might be 
erected by dhimms1 but if a  special    
treaty had been made1 the building of   
new churches and  synagogues was        
allowed4 #abb ,but like so many of the  
lucubrations of  ,muhammadan legists1   
these prescriptions bore but little     
relation to  actual facts4 #abc         
,schoolmen might agree that the dhimms  
could build  no houses of prayer in a   
city of ,muslim foundation1 but the     
civil  authority permitted the ,copts to
 erect churches in the new capital of   
,cairo4 #abd ,in other cities also the  
,christians were allowed to erect  new  
churches and monasteries4 ,the very fact
 that ,umar ,,ii 7#gag-gbj71 at  the    
close of the first century of the       
,hijrah1 should have ordered the        
destruction of all recently constructed 

churches1 #abe and that rather  more    
than a century later1 the fanatical     
al-,mutawakkil 7#hdg-hfa7 should  have  
had to repeat the same order1 shows how 
little the prohibition of  the building 
of new churches was put into force4 #abf
 ,we have numerous  instances recorded1 
both by ,christian and ,muhammadan      
historians1 of the  building of new     
churches3 e4g4 in the reign of ,abd     
al-,malik 7#fhe-gje71  a wealthy        
,christian of ,edessa1 named            
,athanasius1 erected in his native  city
 a fine church dedicated to the ,mother 
of ,god1 and a ,baptistery in  honour of
 the picture of ,christ that was reputed
 to have been sent to  ,king ,abgar2 he 
also built a number of churches and     
monasteries in  various parts of ,egypt1
 among them two magnificent churches in 
,fus4  #abg ,some ,christian            
chamberlains in the service of ,abd     
al-,aziz b4  ,marwn 7brother of ,abd    
al-,malik71 the governor of ,egypt1     
obtained  permission to build a church  

in alwn1 which was dedicated to ,st4    
,john1 #abh though this town was a      
,muslim creation4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gaa a     
,jacobite church was built at ,antioch  
by order of the caliph al-,wald         
7#gje-gae74 #abi ,in the first year of  
the reign of ,yazd ,,ii 7,a4,d4 #gbj71  
,mr ,elias1 the ,jacobite ,patriarch of 
,antioch1 made a solemn entry into      
,antioch1 accompanied by his clergy and 
monks1 to consecrate a new  church which
 he had caused to be built2 and in the  
following year he  consecrated another  
church in the village of ,sarmada1 in   
the district  of ,antioch1 and the only 
opposition he met with was from the     
rival  ,christian sect that accepted the
 ,council of ,chalcedon4 #acj ,in the   
following reign1 ,khlid al-,qasr1 who   
was governor of ,arabian and  ,persian  
,irq from #gbd to #gch1 built a church  
for his mother1 who was a  ,christian1  
to worship in4 #aca ,in #gei the        
building of a church at  ,nisibis was   
completed1 on which the ,nestorian      

bishop1 ,cyprian1 had  expended a sum of
 #ef1jjj dnrs4 #acb ,from the same      
century dates the  church of ,ab ,sirjah
 in the ancient ,roman fortress in old  
,cairo4 #acc  ,in the reign of al-,mahd 
7#gge-ghe7 a church was erected in      
,baghdd for  the use of the ,christian  
prisoners that had been taken captive   
during  the numerous campaigns against  
the ,byzantine empire4 #acd ,another    
church was built in the same city1 in   
the reign of ,hrn al-,rashd  7#ghf-hji71
 by the people of ,saml1 who had        
submitted to the caliph and  received   
protection from him2 #ace during the    
same reign ,sergius1 the  ,nestorian    
,metropolitan of ,barah1 received       
permission to build a church  in that   
city1 #acf though it was a ,muslim      
foundation1 having been  created by the 
caliph ,umar in the year #fch1 and a    
magnificent church  was erected in      
,babylon in which were enshrined the    
bodies of the  prophets ,daniel and     
,ezechiel4 #acg ,when al-,mamn          

7#hac-hcc7 was in  ,egypt he gave       
permission to two of his chamberlains to
 erect a church  on al-,muqaam1 a hill  
near ,cairo2 and by the same caliph's   
leave1 a  wealthy ,christian1 named     
,bukm1 built several fine churches at   
,brah in  ,egypt4 #ach ,the ,nestorian  
,patriarch1 ,timotheus1 who died ,a4,d4 
#hbj1  erected a church at ,takrt and a 
monastery at ,baghdd4 #aci ,in the      
tenth century1 the beautiful ,coptic    
church of ,ab ,sayfayn was built in     
,fus4 #adj ,a new church was built at   
,jiddah in the reign of  al-hir1 the    
seventh ,fimid caliph of ,egypt         
7#ajbj-ajce74 #ada ,new  churches and   
monasteries were also built in the reign
 of the ,abbsid1  al-,musta             
7#aagj-aahj74 #adb ,in #aahg a church   
was built at ,fus and  dedicated to ,our
 ,lady the ,pure ,virgin4 #adc          
,indeed1 so far from the development of 
the ,christian ,church being  hampered  
by the establishment of ,muhammadan     
rule1 the history of the  ,nestorians   

exhibits a remarkable outburst of       
religious life and energy  from the time
 of their becoming subject to the       
,muslims4 #add  ,alternately petted and 
persecuted by the ,persian kings1 in    
whose  dominions by far the majority of 
the members of this sect were found1  it
 had passed a rather precarious         
existence and had been subjected to     
harsh treatment1 when war between       
,persia and ,byzantium exposed it to    
the suspicion of sympathising with the  
,christian enemy4 ,but1 under the  rule 
of the caliphs1 the security they       
enjoyed at home enabled them to         
vigorously push forward their missionary
 enterprises abroad4  ,missionaries were
 sent into ,china and ,india1 both of   
which were raised  to the dignity of    
metropolitan sees in the eighth century2
 about the  same period they gained a   
footing in ,egypt1 and later spread the 
,christian faith right across ,asia1 and
 by the eleventh century had  gained    
many converts from among the ,tatars4   

#ade    ,if the other ,christian sects  
failed to exhibit the same vigorous     
life1  it was not the fault of the      
,muhammadans4 ,all were tolerated alike 
by  the supreme government1 and         
furthermore were prevented from         
persecuting  one another4 #adf ,in the  
fifth century1 ,barsauma1 a ,nestorian  
bishop1  had persuaded the ,persian king
 to set on foot a fierce persecution of 
the ,orthodox ,church1 by representing  
,nestorius as a friend of the  ,persians
 and his doctrines as approximating to  
their own2 as many as  #ghjj of the     
,orthodox clergy1 with an enormous      
number of laymen1 are  said to have been
 butchered during this persecution4 #adg
 ,another  persecution was instituted   
against the ,orthodox by ,khusrau ,,ii1 
after  the invasion of ,persia by       
,heraclius1 at the instigation of a     
,jacobite1  who persuaded the ,king that
 the ,orthodox would always be          
favourably  inclined towards the        
,byzantines4 #adh ,but the principles of

 ,muslim  toleration forbade such acts  
of injustice as these3 on the contrary1 
it  seems to have been their endeavour  
to deal fairly by all their  ,christian 
subjects3 e4g4 after the conquest of    
,egypt1 the ,jacobites  took advantage  
of the expulsion of the ,byzantine      
authorities to rob the  ,orthodox of    
their churches1 but later they were     
restored by the  ,muhammadans to their  
rightful owners when these had made good
 their  claim to possess them4 #adi     
,in view of the toleration thus extended
 to their ,christian subjects in  the   
early period of the ,muslim rule1 the   
common hypothesis of the sword  as the  
factor of conversion seems hardly       
satisfactory1 and we are  compelled to  
seek for other motives than that of     
persecution4 ,but  unfortunately very   
few details are forthcoming and we are  
obliged to  have recourse to conjecture4
 #aej ,in an age so prolific of         
theological  speculation1 there may well
 have been some thinkers whose trend of 

thought had prepared them for the       
acceptance of the ,muhammadan  position4
 ,such were those ,shahrghn or landed   
proprietors in ,persia in  the eighth   
century1 who were nominally ,christians1
 but maintained that  ,christ was an    
ordinary man and that he was as one of  
the ,prophets4  #aea ,they appear at    
times to have given a good deal of      
trouble to the  ,nestorian clergy1 who  
were at great pains to draw them into   
the paths  of orthodoxy2 #aeb but their 
theological position was more closely   
akin to ,islam than to ,christian       
doctrine1 and they probably went to     
swell the ranks of the converts after   
the ,arab conquest of the ,persian      
empire4    ,many ,christian theologians 
#aec have supposed that the debased     
condition--moral and spiritual--of the  
,eastern ,church of that period must    
have alienated the hearts of many and   
driven them to seek a healthier         
spiritual atmosphere in the faith of    
,islam which had come to them in  all   

the vigour of new-born zeal4 #aed ,for  
example1 ,dean ,milman #aee  asks1      
8,what was the state of the ,christian  
world in the provinces  exposed to the  
first invasion of ,mohammedanism8 ,sect 
opposed to sect1  clergy wrangling with 
clergy upon the most abstruse and       
metaphysical  points of doctrine4 ,the  
orthodox1 the ,nestorians1 the          
,eutychians1 the  ,jacobites were       
persecuting each other with unexhausted 
animosity2 and  it is not judging too   
severely the evils of religious         
controversy to  suppose that many would 
rejoice in the degradation of their     
adversaries  under the yoke of the      
unbeliever1 rather than make common     
cause with  them in defence of the      
common ,christianity4 ,in how many must 
this  incessant disputation have shaken 
the foundations of their faith6 ,it  had
 been wonderful if thousands had not1 in
 their weariness and  perplexity1 sought
 refuge from these interminable and     
implacable  controversies in the simple1

 intelligible truth of the ,divine      
,unity1  though purchased by the        
acknowledgment of the prophetic mission 
of  ,mohammed40 ,similarly1 ,caetani    
sees in the spread of ,islam1 among the 
,christians of the ,eastern ,churches1 a
 revulsion of feeling from the  dogmatic
 subtleties introduced into ,christian  
theology by the  ,hellenistic spirit4   
8,for the ,east1 with its love of clear 
and simple  concepts1 ,hellenic culture 
was1 from the religious point of view1 a
  misfortune1 because it changed the    
sublime and simple teachings of  ,christ
 into a creed bristling with            
incomprehensible dogmas1 full of  doubts
 and uncertainties2 these ended with    
producing a feeling of deep  dismay and 
shook the very foundations of religious 
belief2 so that when  at last there     
appeared1 coming out suddenly from the  
desert1 the news  of the new revelation1
 this bastard oriental ,christianity1   
torn asunder  by internal discords1     
wavering in its fundamental dogmas1     

dismayed by  such incertitudes1 could no
 longer resist the temptations of a new 
faith1 which swept away at one single   
stroke all miserable doubts1 and        
offered1 along with simple1 clear and   
undisputed doctrines1 great  material   
advantages also4 ,the ,east then        
abandoned ,christ and threw  itself into
 the arms of the ,prophet of ,arabia40  
#aef    ,again1 ,canon ,taylor #aeg     
says3 8,it is easy to understand why    
this  reformed ,judaism spread so       
swiftly over ,africa and ,asia4 ,the    
,african  and ,syrian doctors had       
substituted abstruse metaphysical dogmas
 for the  religion of ,christ3 they     
tried to combat the licentiousness of   
the age  by setting forth the celestial 
merit of celibacy and the angelic       
excellence of virginity--seclusion from 
the world was the road of  holiness1    
dirt was the characteristic of monkish  
sanctity--the people  were practically  
polytheists1 worshipping a crowd of     
martyrs1 saints  and angels2 the upper  

classes were effeminate and corrupt1 the
 middle  classes oppressed by taxation1 
#aeh the slaves without hope for the    
present or the future4 ,as with the     
besom of ,god1 ,islam swept away this   
mass of corruption and superstition4 ,it
 was a revolt against empty  theological
 polemics2 it was a masculine protest   
against the exaltation  of celibacy as a
 crown of piety4 ,it brought out the    
fundamental dogmas  of religion--the    
unity and greatness of ,god1 that ,he is
 merciful and  righteous1 that ,he      
claims obedience to ,his will1          
resignation and faith4  ,it proclaimed  
the responsibility of man1 a future     
life1 a day of  judgment1 and stern     
retribution to fall upon the wicked2 and
 enforced  the duties of prayer1        
almsgiving1 fasting and benevolence4 ,it
 thrust  aside the artificial virtues1  
the religious frauds and follies1 the   
perverted moral sentiments1 and the     
verbal subtleties of theological        
disputants4 ,it replaced monkishness by 

manliness4 ,it gave hope to the  slave1 
brotherhood to mankind1 and recognition 
to the fundamental facts  of human      
nature40    ,islam has1 moreover1 been  
represented as a reaction against that  
,byzantine ecclesiasticism1 #aei which  
looked upon the emperor and his  court  
as a copy of the ,divine ,majesty on    
high1 and the emperor himself  as not   
only the supreme earthly ruler of       
,christendom1 but as  ,high-priest also4
 #afj ,under ,justinian this system had 
been hardened  into a despotism that    
pressed like an iron weight upon clergy 
and laity  alike4 ,in #ecb the          
widespread dissatisfaction in           
,constantinople with  both church and   
state1 burst out into a revolt against  
the government  of ,justinian1 which was
 only suppressed after a massacre of    
#ce1jjj  persons4 ,the ,greens1 as the  
party of the malcontents was termed1 had
  made open and violent protest in the  
circus against the oppression of  the   
emperor1 crying out1 8,justice has      

vanished from the world and is no  more 
to be found4 ,but we will become ,jews1 
or rather we will return  again to      
,grecian paganism40 #afa ,the lapse of a
 century had removed  none of the       
grounds for the dissatisfaction that    
here found such  violent expression1 but
 the heavy hand of the ,byzantine       
government  prevented the renewal of    
such an outbreak as that of #ecb and    
compelled  the malcontents to dissemble1
 though in #efj some secret heathens    
were  detected in ,constantinople and   
punished4 #afb ,on the borders of the   
empire1 however1 at a distance from the 
capital1 such malcontents were  safer1  
and the persecuted heretics1 and others 
dissatisfied with the  ,byzantine       
state-church1 took refuge in the ,east1 
and here the ,muslim  armies would be   
welcomed by the spiritual children of   
those who a  hundred years before had   
desired to exchange the ,christian      
religion for  another faith4            
,further1 the general adoption of the   

,arabic language throughout the  empire 
of the caliphate1 especially in the     
towns and the great centres  of         
population1 and the gradual assimilation
 in manners and customs that  in the    
course of about two centuries caused the
 numerous conquered  races to be largely
 merged in the national life of the     
ruling race1 had  no doubt a counterpart
 in the religious and intellectual life 
of many  members of the protected       
religions4 ,the rationalistic movement  
that so  powerfully influenced ,muslim  
theology from the second to the fifth   
century of the ,hijrah may very possibly
 have influenced ,christian  thinkers1  
and turned them from a religion1 the    
prevailing tone of whose  theology seems
 at this time to have been ,credo quia  
impossibile4 ,a  ,muhammadan writer of  
the fourth century of the ,hijrah has   
preserved for  us a conversation with a 
,coptic ,christian which may safely be  
taken as  characteristic of the general 
mental attitude of the rest of the      

,eastern ,churches at this period3--    
8,my proof for the truth of             
,christianity is1 that ,i find its      
teachings  contradictory and mutually   
destructive1 for they are repugnant to  
reason and revolting to the intellect1  
on account of their  inconsistency and  
mutual contrariety4 ,no reflection can  
strengthen  them1 no discussion can     
prove them2 and however thoughtfully we 
may  investigate them1 neither the      
intellect nor the senses can provide us 
with any argument in support of them4   
,notwithstanding this1 ,i have seen     
that many nations and mighty kings of   
learning and sound judgment1 have  given
 in their allegiance to the ,christian  
faith2 so ,i conclude that if  these    
have accepted it in spite of all the    
contradictions referred to1  it is      
because the proofs they have received1  
in the form of signs and  miracles1 have
 compelled them to submit to it40 #afc  
,on the other hand1 it should be        
remembered that those who passed over   

from ,christianity to ,islam1 under the 
influence of the rationalistic          
tendencies of the age1 would find in the
 ,mutazilite presentment of  ,muslim    
theology1 very much that was common to  
the two faiths1 so that  as far as the  
articles of belief and the intellectual 
attitude towards  many theological      
questions were concerned1 the transition
 was not so  violent as might be        
supposed4 ,to say nothing of the        
numerous  fundamental doctrines1 that   
will at once suggest themselves to those
  even who have only a slight knowledge 
of the teachings of the ,prophet1  there
 were many other common points of view1 
that were the direct  consequences of   
the close relationships between the     
,christian and  ,muhammadan theologians 
in ,damascus under the ,umayyad caliphs 
as also in  later times2 for it has been
 maintained that there is clear evidence
 of  the influence of the ,byzantine    
theologians on the development of the   
systematic treatment of ,muhammadan     

dogmatics4 ,the very form and           
arrangement of the oldest rule of faith 
in the ,arabic language suggest  a      
comparison with similar treatises of    
,st4 ,john of ,damascus and other       
,christian fathers4 #afd ,the oldest    
,arab fism1 the trend of which  was     
purely towards the ascetic life 7as     
distinguished from the later            
pantheistic fism7 originated largely    
under the influence of  ,christian      
thought4 #afe ,such influence is        
especially traceable in the  doctrines  
of some of the ,mutazilite sects1 #aff  
who busied themselves  with speculations
 on the attributes of the divine nature 
quite in the  manner of the ,byzantine  
theologians3 the ,qadariyyah or         
libertarians of  ,islam probably        
borrowed their doctrine of the freedom  
of the will  directly from              
,christianity1 while the ,murjiah in    
their denial of the  doctrine of eternal
 punishment were in thorough agreement  
with the  teaching of the ,eastern      

,church on this subject as against the  
generally  received opinion of orthodox 
,muslims4 #afg ,on the other hand1 the  
influence of the more orthodox doctors  
of ,islam in the conversion of          
unbelievers is attested by the tradition
 that twenty thousand  ,christians1     
,jews and ,magians became ,muslims when 
the great ,imm ,ibn  anbal died4 #afh ,a
 celebrated doctor of the same sect1    
,abu'l-,faraj b4  al-,jawz 7,a4,d4      
#aaae-abja71 the most learned man of his
 time1 a popular  preacher and most     
prolific writer1 is said to have boasted
 that just  the same number of persons  
accepted the faith of ,islam at his     
hands4  #afi    ,further1 the vast and  
unparalleled success of the ,muslim arms
 shook the  faith of the ,christian     
peoples that came under their rule and  
saw in  these conquests the hand of     
,god4 #agj ,worldly prosperity they     
associated with the divine favour and   
the ,god of battle 7they thought7  would
 surely give the victory only into the  

hands of his favoured  servants4 ,thus  
the very success of the ,muhammadans    
seemed to argue the  truth of their     
religion4    ,the ,islamic ideal of the 
brotherhood of all believers was a      
powerful  attraction towards this creed1
 and though the ,arab pride of birth    
strove to refuse for several generations
 the privileges of the ruling  race to  
the new converts1 still as 8clients0 of 
the various ,arab tribes  to which at   
first they used to be affiliated1 they  
received a  recognised position in the  
community1 and by the close of the first
  century of the ,hijrah they had       
vindicated for this ideal its true place
  in ,muslim theology and at least a    
theoretical recognition in the state4   
#aga    ,but the condition of the       
,christians did not always continue to  
be so  tolerable as under the earlier   
caliphs4 ,in the interests of the true  
believers1 vexatious conditions were    
sometimes imposed upon the  non-,muslim 
population 7or dhimms71 with the object 

of securing for the  faithful superior  
social advantages4 ,unsuccessful        
attempts were made by  several caliphs  
to exclude them from the public offices4
 ,decrees to  this effect were passed by
 al-,manr 7#ged-gge71 al-,mutawakkil    
7#hdg-hfa71 al-,muqtadir 7#ijh-icb71 and
 in ,egypt by al-mir 7#aaja-aacj71  one 
of the ,fimid caliphs1 and by the ,mamlk
 ,sultans in the fourteenth  century4   
#agb ,but the very fact that these      
decrees excluding the  dhimms from      
government posts were so often renewed1 
is a sign of the  want of any continuity
 or persistency in putting such         
intolerant  measures into practice4 ,in 
fact they may generally be traced either
 to  popular indignation excited by the 
harsh and insolent behaviour of         
,christian officials1 #agc or to        
outbursts of fanaticism which forced    
upon the government acts of oppression  
that were contrary to the  general      
spirit of ,muslim rule and were         
consequently allowed to lapse as  soon  

as possible4    ,the beginning of a     
harsher treatment of the native         
,christian population  dates from the   
reign of ,hrn al-,rashd 7#ghf-hji7 who  
ordered them to  wear a distinctive     
dress and give up the government posts  
they held to  ,muslims4 ,the first of   
these orders shows how little one at    
least of the  ordinances ascribed to    
,umar was observed1 and these decrees   
were the  outcome1 not so much of any   
purely religious feeling1 as of the     
political circumstances of the time4    
,the ,christians under ,muhammadan  rule
 have often had to suffer for the bad   
faith kept by foreign  ,christian powers
 in their relations with ,muhammadan    
princes1 and on  this occasion it was   
the treachery of the ,byzantine         
,emperor1  ,nicephorus1 that caused the 
,christian name to stink in the nostrils
 of  ,hrn4 #agd ,many of the            
persecutions of ,christians in ,muslim  
countries  can be traced either to      
distrust of their loyalty1 excited by   

the  intrigues and interference of      
,christian foreigners and the enemies of
  ,islam1 or to the bad feeling stirred 
up by the treacherous or brutal         
behaviour of the latter towards the     
,musalmans4 ,religious fanaticism is1   
however1 responsible for many of such   
persecutions1 as in the reign of  the   
,caliph al-,mutawakkil 7#hdg-hfa71 under
 whom severe measures of  oppression    
were taken against the ,christians4     
,this prince took  advantage of the     
strong ,orthodox reaction that had set  
in in ,muhammadan  theology against the 
rationalistic and freethinking          
tendencies that had  had free play under
 former rulers1--and came forward as the
 champion of  the extreme orthodox      
party1 to which the mass of the people  
as  contrasted with the higher classes  
belonged1 #age and which was eager  to  
exact vengeance for the persecutions it 
had itself suffered in the  two         
preceding reigns2 #agf he sought to     
curry their favour by  persecuting the  

,mutazilites1 forbidding all further    
discussions on the  ,qurn and declaring 
the doctrine that it was created1 to be 
heretical2  he had the followers of ,al 
imprisoned and beaten1 pulled down the  
tomb of usayn at ,karbal and forbade    
pilgrimages to be made to the  site4    
,the ,christians shared in the          
sufferings of the other heretics2  for  
al-,mutawakkil put rigorously into force
 the rules that had been  passed in     
former reigns prescribing a distinction 
in the dress of  dhimms and ,muslims1   
ordered that the ,christians should no  
longer be  employed in the public       
offices1 doubled the capitation-tax1    
forbade  them to have ,muslim slaves or 
use the same baths as the ,muslims1 and 
harassed them with several other        
restrictions4    ,it is noteworthy that 
the historians of the ,nestorian        
,church--which had  to suffer most from 
this persecution--describe it as        
something new and  individual to        
al-,mutawakkil1 and as ceasing with his 

death4 #agg ,one  of his successors1    
al-,muqtadir 7,a4,d4 #ijh-icb71 renewed 
these  regulations1 which the lapse of  
half a century had apparently caused to 
fall into disuse4    ,other outbursts of
 fanaticism led to the destruction of   
churches and  synagogues1 #agh and the  
terror of such persecution led to the   
defection of many from the ,christian   
,church4 #agi ,but such oppression  was 
contrary to the tolerant spirit of      
,islam1 and to the teaching             
traditionally ascribed to the ,prophet2 
#ahj and the fanatical party  tried in  
vain to enforce the persistent execution
 of these oppressive  measures for the  
humiliation of the non-,muslim          
population4 8,the ulama  7i4e4 the      
learned1 the clergy7 consider this state
 of things2 they weep  and groan in     
silence1 while the princes who had the  
power of putting  down these criminal   
abuses only shut their eyes to them40   
#aha ,the  rules that a fanatical       
priesthood may lay down for the         

repression of  unbelievers cannot always
 be taken as a criterion of the practice
 of  civil governments3 it is failure to
 realise this fact that has rendered    
possible the highly-coloured pictures of
 the sufferings of the  ,christians     
under ,muhammadan rule1 drawn by writers
 who have assumed  that the             
prescriptions of certain ,muslim        
theologians represented an  invariable  
practice4 ,such outbursts of persecution
 seem in some cases  to have been       
excited by the alleged abuse of their   
position by those  ,christians who held 
high posts in the service of the        
government2 they  aroused considerable  
hostility of feeling towards themselves 
by their  oppression of the ,muslims1 it
 being said that they took advantage of 
their high position to plunder and annoy
 the faithful1 treating them  with great
 harshness and rudeness and despoiling  
them of their lands  and money4 ,such   
complaints were laid before the caliphs 
al-,manr  7#ged-gge71 al-,mahd          

7#gge-ghe71 al-,mamn 7#hac-hcc71        
al-,mutawakkil  7#hdg-hfa71 al-,muqtadir
 7#ijh-icb71 and many of their          
successors4 #ahb  ,they also incurred   
the odium of many ,muhammadans by acting
 as the spies  of the ,abbsid dynasty   
and hunting down the adherents of the   
displaced  ,umayyad family4 #ahc ,at a  
later period1 during the time of the    
,crusades they were accused of          
treasonable correspondence with the     
,crusaders #ahd and brought on          
themselves severe restrictive measures  
which cannot justly be described as     
religious persecution4    ,in proportion
 as the lot of the conquered peoples    
became harder to  bear1 the more        
irresistible was the temptation to free 
themselves from  their miseries1 by the 
words1 8,there is no god but ,god3      
,muammad is the  ,apostle of ,god40     
,when the state was in need of money--as
 was  increasingly the case--the subject
 races were more and more burdened  with
 taxes1 so that the condition of the    

non-,muslims was constantly  growing    
more unendurable1 and conversions to    
,islam increased in the  same           
proportion4 ,the dreary record of       
scandals1 with which the pages of  the  
,christian historians of this later     
period are filled1 would suggest  that  
the ,christian ,churches had failed to  
develop a moral fibre strong  enough to 
endure the stress of adverse conditions1
 and when persecution  came1 the reason 
for the defection that followed         
might--as the historian  of the         
,nestorian ,church suggests #ahe--;be   
sought for in the prevailing  negligence
 in the performance of religious duties 
and the evil life of  the clergy4       
,further causes that contributed to the 
decrease of the ,christian  population  
may be found in the fact that the       
children of the numerous  ,christian    
captive women who were carried off to   
the harems of the  ,muslims had to be   
brought up in the religion of their     
fathers1 and in  the frequent temptation

 that was offered to the ,christian     
slave by an  indulgent master1 of       
purchasing his freedom at the price of  
conversion  to ,islam4 ,but of any      
organised attempt to force the          
acceptance of ,islam  on the non-,muslim
 population1 or of any systematic       
persecution intended  to stamp out the  
,christian religion1 we hear nothing4   
,had the caliphs  chosen to adopt either
 course of action1 they might have swept
 away  ,christianity as easily as       
,ferdinand and ,isabella drove ,islam   
out of  ,spain1 or ,louis ,,xiv made    
,protestantism penal in ,france1 or the 
,jews  were kept out of ,england for    
#cej years4 ,the ,eastern ,churches in  
,asia  were entirely cut off from       
communion with the rest of ,christendom1
  throughout which no one would have    
been found to lift a finger on their    
behalf1 as heretical communions4 ,so    
that the very survival of these         
,churches to the present day is a strong
 proof of the generally tolerant        

attitude of the ,muhammadan governments 
towards them4 #ahf    ,of the ancient   
,churches in ,western ,asia at the time 
of the ,muhammadan  conquest1 there     
still survive about #aej1jjj            
,nestorians1 #ahg and their  number     
would have been larger but for the      
proselytising efforts of  other         
,christian ,churches2 the ,chaldees who 
have submitted to the ,church  of ,rome 
number #gj1jjj1 in #ahih the ,nestorian 
,bishop ,mr ,jonan1 with  several of the
 clergy and #ae1jjj ,nestorians were    
received into the  ,orthodox ,russian   
,church2 and numbers of ,nestorians have
 also become  ,protestants4 #ahh ,the   
,jacobite ,patriarch of ,antioch        
exercises  jurisdiction over about      
#hj1jjj members of this ancient ,church1
 while  #be1jjj families of ,uniat      
,jacobites obey the ,syrian ,catholic   
,patriarch4  #ahi ,belonging to the     
,greek ,orthodox ,church1 there are     
#bh1hcf families  under the ,patriarch  
of ,antioch and more than #ae1jjj       

persons under the  ,patriarch of        
,jerusalem1 #aij while the ,melchites or
 ,greek-,catholics  number about        
#acj1jjj4 #aia ,the ,maronite ,church1  
which has been in  union with the ,roman
 ,catholic ,church since the year #aahb1
 has a  following of #cjj1jjj4 #aib     
,the marvel is that these isolated and  
scattered communities should have       
survived so long1 exposed as they have  
been to the ravages of war1  pestilence 
and famine1 #aic living in a country    
that was for centuries  a continual     
battle-field1 overrun by ,turks1        
,mongols and ,crusaders1  #aid it being 
further remembered that they were       
forbidden by the  ,muhammadan law to    
make good this decay of their numbers by
  proselytising efforts--if indeed they 
had cared to do so1 for they seem  7with
 the exception of the ,nestorians7 even 
before the ,muhammadan  conquest1 to    
have lost that missionary spirit1       
without which1 as  history abundantly   
shows1 no healthy life is possible in a 

,christian  ,church4 ,it has also been  
suggested that the monastic ideal of    
continence so widespread in the ,east1  
and the ,christian practice of          
monogamy1 together with the sense of    
insecurity and their servile  condition1
 may have acted as checks on the growth 
of the ,christian  population4 #aie     
,of the details of conversion to ,islam 
we have hardly any information4  ,at the
 time of the first occupation of their  
country by the ,arabs1 the  ,christians 
appear to have gone over to ,islam in   
very large numbers4  ,some idea of the  
extent of these early conversions in    
,irq for example  may be formed from the
 fact that the income from taxation in  
the reign  of ,umar was from #ajj to    
#abj million dirhams1 while in the reign
 of  ,abd al-,malik1 about fifty years  
later1 it had sunk to forty millions3   
while this fall in the revenue is       
largely attributable to the  devastation
 caused by wars and insurrections1 still
 it was chiefly due  to the fact that   

large numbers of the population had     
become ,muhammadan  and consequently    
could no longer be called upon to pay   
the  capitation-tax4 #aif    ,this same 
period witnesses the conversion of large
 numbers of the  ,christians of ,khursn1
 as we learn from a letter of a         
contemporary  ecclesiastic1 the         
,nestorian ,patriarch shyabh ,,iii1     
addressed to  ,simeon1 the ,metropolitan
 of ,rev-,ardashr and ,primate of       
,persia4 ,we  possess so very few       
,christian documents of the first       
century of the  ,hijrah1 and this letter
 bears such striking testimony to the   
peaceful  character of the spread of the
 new faith1 and has moreover been so    
little noticed by modern                
historians--that it may well be quoted  
here at  length4 8,where are thy sons1  
,o father bereft of sons8 ,where is that
  great people of ,merv1 who though they
 beheld neither sword1 nor fire or      
tortures1 captivated only by love for a 
moiety of their goods1 have  turned     

aside1 like fools1 from the true path   
and rushed headlong into  the pit of    
faithlessness--into everlasting         
destruction1 and have utterly  been     
brought to nought1 while two priests    
only 7priests at least in  name71 have1 
like brands snatched from the burning1  
escaped the  devouring flames of        
infidelity4 ,alas1 alas6 ,out of so many
 thousands  who bore the name of        
,christians1 not even one single victim 
was  consecrated unto ,god by the       
shedding of his blood for the true      
faith4  ,where1 too1 are the sanctuaries
 of ,kirmn and all ,persia8 it is not   
the  coming of ,satan or the mandates of
 the kings of the earth or the orders   
of governors of provinces that have laid
 them waste and in ruins--but  the      
feeble breath of one contemptible little
 demon1 who was not deemed  worthy of   
the honour of demons by those demons who
 sent him on his  errand1 nor was       
endowed by ,satan the seducer with the  
power of  diabolical deceit1 that he    

might display it in your land2 but      
merely by  the nod of his command he has
 thrown down all the churches of your   
,persia4444 ,and the ,arabs1 to whom    
,god at this time has given the empire  
of the world1 behold1 they are among    
you1 as ye know well3 and yet they      
attack not the ,christian faith1 but1 on
 the contrary1 they favour our          
religion1 do honour to our priests and  
the saints of the ,lord1 and  confer    
benefits on churches and monasteries4   
,why then have your people  of ,merv    
abandoned their faith for the sake of   
these ,arabs8 and that1  too1 when the  
,arabs1 as the people of ,merv          
themselves declare1 have not  compelled 
them to leave their own religion but    
suffered them to keep it  safe and      
undefiled if they gave up only a moiety 
of their goods4 ,but  forsaking the     
faith which brings eternal salvation1   
they clung to a  moiety of the goods of 
this fleeting world3 that faith which   
whole  nations have purchased and even  

to this day do purchase by the shedding 
of their blood and gain thereby the     
inheritance of eternal life1 your       
people of ,merv were willing to barter  
for a moiety of their goods--and  even  
less40 #aig ,the reign of the caliph    
,umar ,,ii 7,a4,d4 #gag-gbj7            
particularly was marked with very       
extensive conversions3 he organised a   
zealous missionary movement and offered 
every kind of inducement to the         
conquered peoples to accept ,islam1 even
 making them grants of money2 on  one   
occasion he is said to have given a     
,christian military officer the  sum of 
#ajjj dnrs to induce him to accept      
,islam4 #aih ,he instructed  the        
governors of the provinces to invite the
 dhimms to the ,muslim  faith1 and      
al-,jarr b4 ,abd ,allh1 governor of     
,khursn1 is said to  have converted     
about #djjj persons4 #aii ,he is even   
said to have  written a letter to the   
,byzantine ,emperor1 ,leo ,,iii1 urging 
on him the  acceptance of the faith of  

,islam4 #bjj ,he abrogated the decree   
passed  in ,a4,d4 #gjj for the purpose  
of arresting the impoverishment of the  
treasury1 according to which the convert
 to ,islam was not released from  the   
capitation-tax1 but was compelled to    
continue to pay it as before2  even     
though the dhimm apostatised the very   
day before his yearly  payment of the   
jizyah was due or while his contribution
 was actually  being weighed in the     
scales1 it was to be remitted to the new
 convert4  #bja ,he no longer exacted   
the kharj from the ,muhammadan owners of
  landed property1 and imposed upon them
 the far lighter burden of a  tithe4    
,these measures1 though financially most
 ruinous1 were eminently  successful in 
the way the pious-minded caliph desired 
they should be1  and enormous numbers   
hastened to enrol themselves among the  
,muslims4  #bjb    ,it must not1        
however1 be supposed that such worldly  
considerations were  the only influences
 at work in the conversion of the       

,christians to  ,islam4 ,the            
controversial works of ,st4 ,john of    
,damascus1 of the same  century1 give us
 glimpses of the zealous ,muslim        
striving to undermine  by his arguments 
the foundations of the ,christian faith4
 ,the very  dialogue form into which    
these treatises are thrown1 and the     
frequent  repetition of such phrases as 
8,if the ,saracen asks you10--8,if the  
,saracen says 444 then tell him0        
444--give them an air of vraisemblance  
and make them appear as if they were    
intended to provide the ,christians     
with ready answers to the numerous      
objections which their ,muslim          
neighbours brought against the          
,christian creed4 #bjc ,that the        
aggressive attitude of the ,muhammadan  
disputant is most prominently  brought  
forward in these dialogues is only what 
might be expected1 it  being no part of 
this great theologian's purpose to      
enshrine in his  writings an apology for
 ,islam4 ,his pupil1 ,bishop ,theodore  

,ab ,qurrah1  also wrote several        
controversial dialogues #bjd with       
,muhammadans1 in  which the disputants  
range over all the points of dispute    
between the  two faiths1 the ,muslim as 
before being the first to take up the   
cudgels1 and enabling us to form some   
slight idea of the activity with  which 
the cause of ,islam was prosecuted at   
this period4 8,the thoughts  of the     
,agarenes10 says the bishop1 8and all   
their zeal1 are directed  towards the   
denial of the divinity of ,god the      
,word1 and they strain  every effort to 
this end40 #bje ,the ,nestorian         
,patriarch1 ,timotheus1  used to hold   
discussions on religious matters in the 
presence of the  caliphs1 al-,hd and    
,hrn al-,rashd1 and embodied them in a  
work that  is now lost4 #bjf ,timotheus 
had secured his election to the         
patriarchate in the face of the active  
opposition of many of the most  powerful
 ecclesiastics of his own ,church2 among
 these was ,joseph1 the  metropolitan of

 ,merv1 who intrigued against him with  
the caliph1  al-,mahd 7#gge-ghe71 but   
was persuaded by the caliph to accept   
,islam and  was rewarded for his        
apostasy with rich presents and an      
official  appointment in ,barah4 #bjg   
,these details from the first two       
centuries of the ,hijrah are meagre in  
the extreme and rather suggest the      
existence of proselytising efforts  than
 furnish definite facts4 ,the earliest  
document of a distinctly  missionary    
character which has come down to us1    
would seem to date from  the reign of   
al-,mamn 7#hac-hcc71 and takes the form 
of a letter #bjh  written by a cousin of
 the caliph to a ,christian ,arab of    
noble birth  and of considerable        
distinction at the court1 and held in   
high esteem  by al-,mamn himself4 ,in   
this letter he begs his friend to       
embrace  ,islam1 in terms of            
affectionate appeal and in language that
 strikingly  illustrates the tolerant   
attitude of the ,muslims towards the    

,christian  ,church at this period4     
,this letter occupies an almost unique  
place in  the early history of the      
propagation of ,islam1 and has on this  
account  been given in full in an       
appendix4 #bji ,in the same work we have
 a  report of a speech made by the      
caliph at an assembly of his nobles1 in 
which he speaks in tones of the         
strongest contempt of those who had     
become ,muhammadans merely out of       
worldly and selfish motives1 and        
compares them to the ,hypocrites who    
while pretending to be friends of  the  
,prophet1 in secret plotted against his 
life4 ,but just as the  ,prophet        
returned good for evil1 so the caliph   
resolves to treat these  persons with   
courtesy and forbearance until ,god     
should decide between  them4 #baj ,the  
record of this complaint on the part of 
the caliph is  interesting as indicating
 that disinterested and genuine         
conviction was  expected and looked for 
in the new convert to ,islam1 and that  

the  discovery of self-seeking and      
unworthy motives drew upon him the      
severest censure4    ,al-,mamn himself  
was very zealous in his efforts to      
spread the faith  of ,islam1 and sent   
invitations to unbelievers even in the  
most distant  parts of his dominions1   
such as ,transoxania and ,farghnah4 #baa
 ,at the  same time he did not abuse his
 royal power1 by attempting to force his
  own faith upon others3 when a certain 
,yazdnbakht1 a leader of the  ,manichan 
sect1 came on a visit to ,baghdd #bab   
and held a disputation  with the ,muslim
 theologians1 in which he was utterly   
silenced1 the  caliph tried to induce   
him to embrace ,islam4 ,but ,yazdnbakht 
refused1  saying1 8,commander of the    
faithful1 your advice is heard and your 
words  have been listened to2 but you   
are one of those who do not force men to
  abandon their religion40 ,so far from 
resenting the ill-success of his        
efforts1 the caliph furnished him with a
 bodyguard1 that he might not  be       

exposed to insult from the fanatical    
populace4 #bac    ,some scanty          
references are made by ,christian       
historians to cases of  ecclesiastical  
dignitaries who became ,muhammadans1    
e4g4 ,george1 ,bishop  of ,barayn1 about
 the middle of the ninth century1 having
 been deposed  from his office for some 
ecclesiastical offence1 exchanged the   
,christian faith for that of ,islam1    
#bad and the conversion of a  brother of
 ,gabriel1 metropolitan of ,frs about   
the middle of the tenth  century1 only  
receives mention because the fact of his
 having become a  ,muslim was alleged as
 disqualifying ,gabriel for election to 
the  patriarchate of the ,nestorian     
church4 #bae    ,in the early part of   
the same century1 ,theodore1 the        
,nestorian ,bishop  of ,beth ,garmai1   
became a ,muslim1 and there is no       
mention of any force  or compulsion by  
the ecclesiastical historian #baf who   
records the  fact1 as there undoubtedly 
would have been1 had such existed4 ,some

  years later 7between ,a4,d4 #ifb and  
#igi71 ,philoxenos1 a ,jacobite ,bishop 
of dharbayjn1 also became a ,muslim1    
#bag and in the following  century1 in  
#ajaf1 ,ignatius1 #bah the ,jacobite    
,metropolitan of ,takrt1  who had held  
this office for twenty-five years1 set  
out for ,baghdd and  embraced ,islam in 
the presence of the caliph al-,qdir1    
taking the name  of ,ab ,muslim4 #bai   
,it would be exceedingly interesting if 
an ,apologia  pro ,vita ,sua had        
survived to reveal to us the religious  
development  that took place in the mind
 of either of these converts4 ,the      
,christian  chronicler hints at         
immorality in the last three cases1 but 
such an  accusation uncorroborated by   
any further evidence is open to         
suspicion1  #bbj much as it would be if 
brought forward by a ,roman ,catholic   
when  recording the conversion of a     
priest of his own communion to the      
,protestant faith4 ,it is doubtless     
owing to their exalted position in  the 

,church that the conversion of these    
prominent ecclesiastics of two  hostile 
,christian sects has been handed down to
 us1 while that of more  obscure        
individuals has not been recorded4 ,as  
,barhebrus brings his  ecclesiastical   
chronicle nearer to his own time1 he    
gives fuller  details of the career of  
such converts1 e4g4 in recording the    
public  lapse of some of the ,jacobite  
bishops1 in the middle of the twelfth   
century he makes particular mention of  
,aaron1 bishop of a town in  ,khursn1 as
 having become a ,muhammadan after      
having been convicted of  some moral    
fault2 repenting of this change1 he     
wished to regain his  episcopal status1 
and when this was refused him1 went to  
,constantinople  and abjured the        
,monophysite doctrines of the ,jacobite 
,church2 then  apparently dissatisfied  
with the reception he received in       
,constantinople1 he returned to the     
,jacobite ,patriarch1 but a second  time
 went over to ,islam 8without any       

reason02 then repenting again1 he       
finally ended his days among the        
,maronites of ,mount ,lebanon4 #bba ,a  
contemporary of ,barhebrus1 in the      
middle of the thirteenth                
century--,daniel1 ,bishop of            
,khabur--who is said to have been       
proficient in  secular learning1 sought 
to be appointed to the diocese of       
,aleppo1 but  disappointed in this      
ambition1 he abandoned the ,christian   
faith and to  the grief and shame of all
 ,christian people 8became a ,muslim2   
but ,god  7praise be to ,his grace67    
soon consoled his afflicted people and  
took  away the shame from the redeemed1 
the redeemed of the ,lord2 for a few    
months later that unhappy wretch died   
miserably in a caravanserai2 his  name  
perished1 he was taken away out of our  
midst1 and no man knoweth  his abiding  
place40 #bbb    ,but that these         
conversions were not merely isolated    
instances we have  the valuable evidence
 of ,jacques de ,vitry1 ,bishop of ,acre

 7#abaf-abbe71  who thus speaks of the  
,eastern ,church from his experience of 
it in the  ,holy ,land3--8,weakened and 
lamentably ensnared1 nay rather         
grievously  wounded1 by the lying       
persuasions of the false prophet and by 
the  allurements of carnal pleasure1 she
 hath sunk down1 and she that was       
brought up in scarlet1 hath embraced    
dunghills40 #bbc    ,so far the         
,christian ,churches that have been     
described as coming within  the sphere  
of ,muhammadan influence1 have been the 
,orthodox ,eastern  ,church and the     
heretical communions that had sprung out
 of it4 ,but with  the close of the     
eleventh century a fresh element was    
added to the  ,christian population of  
,syria and ,palestine1 in the large     
bodies of  ,crusaders of the ,latin rite
 who settled in the kingdom of          
,jerusalem and  the other states founded
 by the ,crusaders1 which maintained a  
precarious existence for nearly two     
centuries4 ,during this period1         

occasional conversions to ,islam were   
made from among these foreign           
immigrants4 ,in the first ,crusade1 for 
example1 a body of ,germans and         
,lombards under the command of a certain
 knight1 named ,rainaud1 had  separated 
themselves from the main body and were  
besieged in a castle  by the ,saljq     
,sultan1 ,arsln2 on pretence of making a
 sortie1 ,rainaud  and his personal     
followers abandoned their unfortunate   
companions and  went over to the ,turks1
 among whom they embraced ,islam4 #bbd  
,the history of the ill-fated second    
,crusade presents us with a very        
remarkable incident of a similar        
character4 ,the story1 as told by ,odo  
of ,deuil1 a monk of ,st4 ,denis1 who1  
in the capacity of private chaplain  to 
,louis ,,vii1 accompanied him on this   
,crusade and wrote a graphic  account of
 it1 runs as follows4 ,while            
endeavouring to make their way  overland
 through ,asia ,minor to ,jerusalem the 
,crusaders sustained a  disastrous      

defeat at the hands of the ,turks in the
 mountain-passes of  ,phrygia 7,a4,d4   
#aadh71 and with difficulty reached the 
seaport town of  ,attalia4 ,here1 all   
who could afford to satisfy the         
exorbitant demands  of the ,greek       
merchants1 took ship for ,antioch2 while
 the sick and  wounded and the mass of  
the pilgrims were left behind at the    
mercy of  their treacherous allies1 the 
,greeks1 who received five hundred marks
  from ,louis1 on condition that they   
provided an escort for the pilgrims  and
 took care of the sick until they were  
strong enough to be sent on  after the  
others4 ,but no sooner had the army     
left1 than the ,greeks  informed the    
,turks of the helpless condition of the 
pilgrims1 and  quietly looked on while  
famine1 disease and the arrows of the   
enemy  carried havoc and destruction    
through the camp of these unfortunates4 
,driven to desperation1 a party of three
 or four thousand attempted to  escape1 
but were surrounded and cut to pieces by

 the ,turks1 who now  pressed on to the 
camp to follow up their victory4 ,the   
situation of the  survivors would have  
been utterly hopeless1 had not the sight
 of their  misery melted the hearts of  
the ,muhammadans to pity4 ,they tended  
the  sick and relieved the poor and     
starving with open-handed liberality4   
,some even bought up the ,french money  
which the ,greeks had got out of  the   
pilgrims by force or cunning1 and       
lavishly distributed it among the       
needy4 ,so great was the contrast       
between the kind treatment the  pilgrims
 received from the unbelievers and the  
cruelty of their  fellow-,christians1   
the ,greeks1 who imposed forced labour  
upon them1  beat them and robbed them of
 what little they had left1 that many of
  them voluntarily embraced the faith of
 their deliverers4 ,as the old          
chronicler says3 8,avoiding their       
co-religionists who had been so cruel   
to them1 they went in safety among the  
infidels who had compassion upon  them1 

and1 as we heard1 more than three       
thousand joined themselves to  the      
,turks when they retired4 ,oh1 kindness 
more cruel than all  treachery6 ,they   
gave them bread but robbed them of their
 faith1 though  it is certain that      
contented with the services they        
performed1 they  compelled no one among 
them to renounce his religion40 #bbe    
,the increasing intercourse between     
,christians and ,muslims1 the growing   
appreciation on the part of the         
,crusaders of the virtues of their      
opponents1 which so strikingly          
distinguishes the later from the earlier
  chroniclers of the ,crusades1 #bbf the
 numerous imitations of ,oriental       
manners and ways of life by the ,franks 
settled in the ,holy ,land1 did  not    
fail to exercise a corresponding        
influence on religious opinions4  ,one  
of the most remarkable features of this 
influence is the tolerant  attitude of  
many of the ,christian ,knights towards 
the faith of ,islam--an  attitude of    

mind that was most vehemently denounced 
by the ,church4 ,when  ,usma b4         
,munqidh1 a ,syrian ,amr of the twelfth 
century1 visited  ,jerusalem1 during a  
period of truce1 the ,knights ,templar1 
who had  occupied the ,masjid al-,aq1   
assigned to him a small chapel adjoining
  it1 for him to say his prayers in1 and
 they strongly resented the             
interference with the devotions of their
 guest on the part of a  newly-arrived  
,crusader1 who took this new departure  
in the direction of  religious freedom  
in very bad part4 #bbg ,it would indeed 
have been  strange if religious         
questions had not formed a topic of     
discussion on  the many occasions when  
the ,crusaders and the ,muslims met     
together on a  friendly footing1 during 
the frequent truces1 especially when it 
was  religion itself that had brought   
the ,crusaders into the ,holy ,land and 
set them upon these constant wars4 ,when
 even ,christian theologians were  led  
by their personal intercourse with the  

,muslims to form a juster  estimate of  
their religion1 and contact with new    
modes of thought was  unsettling the    
minds of men and giving rise to a swarm 
of heresies1 it  is not surprising that 
many should have been drawn into the    
pale of  ,islam4 #bbh ,the renegades in 
the twelfth century were in sufficient  
numbers to be noticed in the statute    
books of the ,crusaders1 the  so-called 
,assises of ,jerusalem1 according to    
which1 in certain cases1  their bail was
 not accepted4 #bbi    ,it would be     
interesting to discover who were the    
,muslims who busied  themselves in      
winning these converts to ,islam1 but   
they seem to have  left no record of    
their labours4 ,we know1 however1 that  
they had at  their head the great       
,saladin himself1 who is described by   
his  biographer as setting before his   
,christian guest the beauties of ,islam 
and urging him to embrace it4 #bcj      
,the heroic life and character of       
,saladin seems to have exercised an     

especial fascination on the minds of the
 ,christians of his time2 some  even of 
the ,christian knights were so strongly 
attracted towards him  that they        
abandoned the ,christian faith and their
 own people and joined  themselves to   
the ,muslims2 such was the case1 for    
example1 with a  certain ,english       
,templar1 named ,robert of ,st4 ,albans1
 who in ,a4,d4 #aahe  gave up           
,christianity for ,islam and afterwards 
married a grand-daughter  of ,saladin4  
#bca ,two years later1 ,saladin invaded 
,palestine and  utterly defeated the    
,christian army in the battle of in1    
,guy1 king  of ,jerusalem1 being among  
the prisoners4 ,on the eve of the       
battle1 six  of his knights1 8possessed 
with a devilish spirit10 deserted the   
king  and escaped into the camp of      
,saladin1 where of their own accord they
  became ,saracens4 #bcb ,at the same   
time ,saladin seems to have had an      
understanding with ,raymund ,,iii1      
,count of ,tripoli1 according to which  

he  was to induce his followers to      
abandon the ,christian faith and go over
  to the ,muslims2 but the sudden death 
of the ,count effectually put a  stop to
 the execution of this scheme4 #bcc     
,the fall of ,jerusalem and the         
successes of ,saladin in the ,holy ,land
  stirred up ,europe to undertake the   
third ,crusade1 the chief incident of   
which was the siege of ,acre 7,a4,d4    
#aahi-aaia74 ,the fearful sufferings    
that the ,christian army was exposed to1
 from famine and disease1 drove  many of
 them to desert and seek relief from the
 cravings of hunger in  the ,muslim     
camp4 ,of these deserters1 many made    
their way back again  after some time to
 the army of the ,crusaders2 on the     
other hand1 many  elected to throw in   
their lot with the ,muslims2 some1      
taking service  under their former      
enemies1 still remained true to the     
,christian faith  and 7we are told7 were
 well pleased with their new masters1   
while  others embracing ,islam became   

good ,muslims4 #bcd ,the conversion of  
these deserters is recorded also by the 
chronicler who accompanied  ,richard ,i 
upon this ,crusade3--8,some of our men  
7whose fate cannot be  told or heard    
without grievous sorrow7 yielding to the
 severity of the  sore famine1 in       
achieving the salvation of the body1    
incurred the  damnation of their souls4 
,for after the greater part of the      
affliction  was past1 they deserted and 
fled to the ,turks3 nor did they        
hesitate to  become renegades2 in order 
that they might prolong their temporal  
life  a little space1 they purchased    
eternal death with horrid blasphemies4  
,o  baleful trafficking6 ,o shameful    
deed beyond all punishment6 ,o foolish  
man likened unto the foolish beasts1    
while he flees from the death that  must
 inevitably come soon1 he shuns not the 
death unending40 #bce    ,from this time
 onwards references to renegades are not
 infrequently to  be met with in the    
writings of those who travelled to the  

,holy ,land and  other countries of the 
,east4 ,the terms of the oath which was 
proposed  to ,st4 ,louis by his         
,muhammadan captors when he was called  
upon to  promise to pay the ransom      
imposed upon him 7,a4,d4 #abej71 were   
suggested  by certain whilom priests who
 had become ,muslims2 #bcf and while    
this  business of paying the ransom was 
still being carried on1 another         
renegade1 a ,frenchman1 born at         
,provins1 came to bring a present to the
  king3 he had accompanied ,king ,john  
of ,jerusalem on his expedition  against
 ,damietta in #abai and had remained in 
,egypt1 married a  ,muhammadan wife and 
become a great lord in that country4    
#bcg ,the  danger of the pilgrims to the
 ,holy ,land becoming converts to ,islam
 was  so clearly recognised at this time
 that in a 8,remembrance10 written      
about #abff by ,amaury de la ,roche1 the
 master of the ,knights ,templar in     
,france1 he requests the ,pope and the  
legates of ,france and ,sicily to       

prevent the poor and the aged and those 
incapable of bearing arms from  crossing
 the sea to ,palestine1 for such persons
 either got killed or  were taken       
prisoners by the ,saracens or turned    
renegades4 #bch ,ludolf  de ,suchem1 who
 travelled in the ,holy ,land from #accf
 to #acda1 speaks of  three renegades he
 found at ,hebron2 they had come from   
the diocese of  ,minden and had been in 
the service of a ,westphalian knight1   
who was  held in high honour by the     
,soldan and other ,muhammadan princes4  
#bci    ,these scattered notices are no 
doubt significant of more extensive     
conversions of ,christians to ,islam1 of
 which no record has come down to  us3  
e4g4 there were said to be about #be1jjj
 renegades in the city of  ,cairo       
towards the close of the fifteenth      
century1 #bdj and there must  have been 
many also to be found in the cities of  
the ,holy ,land after  the disappearance
 of the ,latin princedoms of the ,east4 
,but the  ,muhammadan historians of this

 period seem to have been too busily    
engaged in recording the exploits of    
princes and the vicissitudes of         
dynasties1 to turn their attention to   
religious changes in the lives of       
obscure individuals2 and 7as far as ,i  
have been able to discover7 they  as    
little notice the conversions of        
,christians to ,islam as of those of    
their own co-religionists to            
,christianity4 ,consequently1 we have to
  depend for our knowledge of both of   
these classes of events on  ,christian  
writers1 who1 while they give us        
detailed and sympathetic  accounts of   
the latter1 bear unwilling testimony to 
the existence of  instances of the      
former and represent the motives of the 
renegades in  the worst light possible4 
,the possibility of any ,christian      
becoming  converted to ,islam from      
honest conviction1 probably never       
entered into  the head of any of these  
writers1 and even had such an idea      
occurred to  them they would hardly have

 ventured to expose themselves to the   
thunders of ecclesiastical censure by   
giving open expression to it4    ,as an 
example of the rare instances of such a 
conversion being  recorded1 the account 
may here be cited which ,frer von       
,haimendorf1 who  was in ,cairo in      
#aefe1 gives of the conversion of a     
,german scholar who  had studied in the 
,university of ,leipzig4 8,sed dum nos  
hanc moram ,cairi  nectimus1 accidit ut 
,justus quidam ,stevenius ,germanus     
,hamelensis qui in  iisdem dibus        
nobiscum habitaverat1 fide              
,christianorum abnegata  ,turcarum      
religioni se initiandum atque           
circumcidendum obtulerit4 ,vir  erat    
doctus1 qui diu se ,witeberg ac ,lipsi  
studiis operam dedisse spe  nobis       
narrabat3 verum de hoc facto            
interrogatus1 peculiarem nunc sibi      
,spiritum adesse ajebat1 sine cujus     
instinctu nihil vel facere sibi1 vel    
cogitare fas esset2 qu hominis apostasia
 nimium quantum animos nostros          

commovit1 et ad fugam quasi excitavit4  
,eodem quoque die ,judus quidam1  qui   
paucis diebus ante religionem           
,mahumetanam amplexus fuerat1           
triumphali pompa per urbem              
circumducebatur2 quod idem cum ,stevenio
 isto  futurum esse1 ,janissarii quidam 
nobis affirmabant40 #bda    ,from the   
historical sources quoted above1 we have
 as little information  respecting the  
number of these converts as of the      
proselytising efforts  made to induce   
them to change their faith4 ,a motive   
frequently assigned  for going over to  
,islam is the desire to escape the death
 penalty by  means of apostasy4         
,european travellers make frequent      
mention of such  cases4 ,a late example 
of such an account may be selected1 for 
the  picturesqueness of its language1   
from the report of a ,jesuit1 who was   
in ,cairo in #afbg2 he saw a ,copt who1 
having allowed himself to be  carried   
away 8partly by passion and partly by   
the violence of an  indiscreet zeal1 had

 killed his brother with his own hand1  
in  detestation of his having in a      
dastardly manner left ,jesus ,christ to 
embrace ,mahometanism1 in order to      
deliver himself from the vexation of    
the ,turks4 ,the poor man was at once   
seized in the heat of his crime1  and he
 boldly confessed that the renegade1    
unworthy of being his  brother1 could   
only wipe out so black a spot by his    
blood4 ,he was urged  to abandon his    
faith in order to save his life10 but he
 declared that  he was resolved to die a
 ,christian2 the cruel torments1        
however1  inflicted on him by the       
executioners1 weakened his resolution   
and he  yielded at the last moment4     
8,this disaster changed him in a moment 
from  a confessor into a renegade1 from 
a martyr into an apostate1 from a  saint
 into one of the damned1 and from an    
angel into a veritable devil4  ,he made 
the profession of faith or rather of    
perfidy1 after the manner  of the       
,mahometans 444 he was set at liberty1  

the liberty not of the  sons of ,god1   
but of the sons of perdition40 ,later   
on1 the reproaches of  his conscience   
caused him again to recant and he was   
put to death by  the ,muhammadans for   
his apostasy4 #bdb    ,the monk         
,burchard1 #bdc writing about #abhc1 a  
few years before the  ,crusaders were   
driven out of their last strongholds and
 the ,latin power  in the ,east came    
utterly to an end--represents the       
,christian population  as largely       
outnumbering the ,muslims throughout the
 whole of the  ,muhammadan world1 the   
latter 7except in ,egypt and ,arabia7   
forming not  more than three or four per
 cent4 of the whole population4 ,this   
language is undoubtedly exaggerated and 
the good monk was certainly  rash in    
assuming that what he observed in the   
cities of the ,crusaders  and of the    
kingdom of ,little ,armenia held good in
 other parts of the  ,east4 ,but his    
words may be certainly taken to indicate
 that during the  period of the         

,crusades there had been no widespread  
conversion to  ,islam1 and that when the
 ,muhammadans resumed their sovereignty 
over the  ,holy ,land1 they extended the
 same toleration to the ,christians as  
before1 suffering them to 8purchase     
peace and quiet0 by the payment of  the 
jizyah4 ,the presumption is that the    
conversions that took place  were of    
individual ,christians1 who were        
persuaded in their own minds  before    
they took the final step4 ,instances    
have already been given of  ,christians 
who took service under ,muhammadan      
masters1 in the full  enjoyment of their
 own faith1 and the ,assises of         
,jerusalem made a  distinction between  
8those who have denied ,god and follow  
another law0  and 8all those who have   
done armed service to the ,saracens and 
other  miscreants against the           
,christians for more than a year and a  
day40  #bdd    ,the native ,christians  
certainly preferred the rule of the     
,muhammadans  to that of the ,crusaders1

 #bde and when ,jerusalem fell finally  
and for  ever into the hands of the     
,muslims 7,a4,d4 #abdd71 the ,christian 
population of ,palestine seems to have  
welcomed the new masters and to  have   
submitted quietly and contentedly to    
their rule4 #bdf    ,this same sense of 
security of religious life under ,muslim
 rule led  many of the ,christians of   
,asia ,minor1 also1 about the same time1
 to  welcome the advent of the ,saljq   
,turks as their deliverers from the     
hated ,byzantine government1 not only on
 account of its oppressive  system of   
taxation1 but also of the persecuting   
spirit of the ,greek  ,church1 which had
 with such cruelty crushed the heresies 
of the  ,paulicians and the             
,iconoclasts4 ,in the reign of ,michael 
,,viii  7#abfa-abhb71 the ,turks were   
often invited to take possession of the 
smaller towns in the interior of ,asia  
,minor by the inhabitants1 that  they   
might escape from the tyranny of the    
empire2 and both rich and  poor often   

emigrated into ,turkish dominions4 #bdg 
,some account still remains to be given 
of two other ,christian ,churches  of   
,western ,asia1 viz4 the ,armenian and  
the ,georgian4 ,of the former it  may be
 said that of all the ,eastern ,churches
 that have come under  ,muhammadan rule1
 the ,armenian ,church has probably     
given fewer of its  members 7in         
proportion to the size of the community7
 to swell the ranks  of ,islam1 than any
 other4 ,so in spite of the interest    
that attaches to  the story of the      
struggle of this brave nation against   
overwhelming  odds and of the fidelity  
with which it has clung to the          
,christian  faith--through centuries of 
warfare and oppression1 persecution and 
exile--it does not come within the scope
 of the present volume to do  more than 
briefly indicate its connection with the
 history of the  ,muhammadans4 ,the     
,armenian kingdom survived the shock of 
the ,arab  conquest1 and in the ninth   
century rose to be a state of some      

importance and flourished during the    
decay of the caliphate of ,baghdd1  but 
in the eleventh century was overthrown  
by the ,saljq ,turks4 ,a band  of       
fugitives founded the kingdom of ,lesser
 ,armenia1 but this too  disappeared in 
the fourteenth century4 ,the national   
life of the  ,armenian people still     
survived in spite of the loss of their  
independence1 and1 as was the case in   
,greece under the ,turks1 their         
religion and the national church served 
as the rallying point of their  eager1  
undying patriotism4 ,though a certain   
number1 under the pressure  of cruel    
persecution1 have embraced ,islam1 yet  
the bulk of the race has  remained true 
to its ancient faith4 ,as ,tavernier    
#bdh rather  unsympathetically remarks1 
8,there may be some few ,armenians1 that
  embrace ,mahometanism for worldly     
interest1 but they are generally the    
most obstinate persons in the world1 and
 most firm to their  superstitious      
principles40    ,the ,georgian ,church  

7founded in the early part of the fourth
 century7  was an offshoot from the     
,greek ,church1 with which she has      
always  remained in communion1 although 
from the middle of the sixth century    
the ,patriarch or ,katholikos of the    
,georgian ,church declared himself      
independent4 ,torn asunder by internal  
discords and exposed to the  successive 
attacks of ,greeks1 ,persians1 ,arabs1  
,turks and ,mongols1 the  history of    
this heroic warrior people is one of    
almost uninterrupted  warfare against   
foreign foes and of fiercely contested  
feuds between  native chiefs3 the reigns
 of one or two powerful monarchs who    
secured  for their subjects brief       
intervals of peace1 serving only to     
bring out  in more striking contrast the
 normally unsettled state of the        
country4  ,the fierce independent spirit
 of the ,georgians that could not brook 
a  foreign rule has often exasperated   
well-nigh to madness the fury of  their 
,muhammadan neighbours1 when they failed

 to impose upon them  either their civil
 authority or their religion4 ,it is    
this  circumstance--that a change of    
faith implied loss of political         
independence--which explains in a great 
measure the fact that the  ,georgian    
,church inscribes the names of so many  
martyrs in her calendar1  while the     
annals of the ,greek ,church during the 
same period have no  such honoured roll 
to show4    ,it was not until after     
,georgia had been overrun by the        
devastating  armies of the ,mongols1    
leaving ruined churches and monasteries 
and  pyramids of human heads to mark the
 progress of their destroying hosts1    
and consequently the spiritual wants of 
the people had remained long  unprovided
 for1 owing to the decline in the       
numbers and learning of the             
clergy--that ,christianity began to lose
 ground4 #bdi ,even among those  who    
still remained ,christian1 some added to
 the sufferings of the  clergy by       
plundering the property of the ,church  

and appropriating to  their own use the 
revenues of churches and monasteries1   
and thus  hastened the decay of the     
,christian faith4 #bej    ,in #adjj the 
invasion of ,tmr added a crowning horror
 to the sufferings  of ,georgia1 and    
though for a brief period the rule of   
,alexander ,i  7#adad-addb7 delivered   
the country from the foreign yoke and   
drove out  all the ,muhammadans--after  
his death it was again broken up into a 
number of petty princedoms1 from which  
the ,turks and the ,persians  wrested   
the last shreds of independence4 ,but   
the ,muhammadans always  found ,georgia 
to be a turbulent and rebellious        
possession1 ever ready  to break out    
into open revolt at the slightest       
opportunity4 ,both ,turks  and ,persians
 sought to secure the allegiance of     
these troublesome  subjects by means of 
conversion to ,islam4 ,after the fall of
  ,constantinople and the increase of   
,turkish power in ,asia ,minor1 the     
inhabitants of ,akhaltsikh and other    

districts to the west of it became      
,muhammadans4 #bea ,in #aegi two        
,georgian princes--brothers--came on an 
embassy to ,constantinople with a large 
retinue of about two hundred  persons3  
here the younger brother together with  
his attendants became a  ,musalman1 in  
the hope 7it was said7 of thereby       
supplanting his elder  brother4 #beb ,at
 a rather later date1 the conquests of  
the ,turks  brought some of the         
districts in the very centre of ,georgia
 into their  power1 the inhabitants of  
which embraced the creed of the         
conquerors4  #bec ,from this period     
,samtzkh1 the most western portion of   
,georgia1  recognised the suzerainty of 
,turkey3 its rulers and people were     
allowed  to continue undisturbed in the 
,christian faith1 but from #afbe the    
ruling dynasty became ,muhammadan and   
many of the chiefs and the  aristocracy 
followed their example4    ,christianity
 retained its hold upon the peasants    
much longer1 but when  the clergy of    

,samtzkh refused allegiance to the      
,katholikos of ,karthli1  there ceased  
to be regular provision made for        
supplying the spiritual  needs of the   
people3 the nobles1 even before their   
conversion1 had  taken to plundering the
 estates of the ,church1 and after      
becoming  ,musalmans they naturally     
ceased to assist it with their          
offerings1 and  the churches and        
monasteries falling into decay were     
replaced by  mosques4 #bed    ,the rest 
of ,georgia had submitted to ,persia1   
and when ,tavernier visited  this part  
of the country1 about the middle of the 
seventeenth century1  he found it       
divided into two kingdoms1 which were   
provinces of the  ,persian empire1 and  
were governed by native ,georgian       
princes who had to  turn ,muhammadan    
before being advanced to this dignity4  
#bee ,one of the  first of such princes 
was the ,tsarevitch ,constantine1 son of
 ,king  ,alexander ,,ii of ,kakheth1 who
 had been brought up at the ,persian    

court  and had there embraced ,islam1 at
 the beginning of the seventeenth       
century4 #bef ,the first ,muhammadan    
king of ,karthli1 the ,tsarevitch       
,rustam 7#afcd-afeh71 had also been     
brought up in ,persia1 and he and his   
successors to the end of the century    
were all ,muhammadans4 #beg             
,tavernier describes the ,georgians as  
being very ignorant in matters of       
religion and the clergy as unlettered   
and vicious2 some of the heads of  the  
,church actually sold the ,christian    
boys and girls as slaves to the  ,turks 
and ,persians4 #beh ,from this period   
there seems to have been a  widespread  
apostasy1 especially among the higher   
classes and those who  sought to win the
 favour of the ,persian court4 #bei ,in 
#agja the  occupant of the throne of    
,georgia1 ,wakhtang ,,vi1 was a         
,christian3 for  the first seven years  
of his reign he was a prisoner in       
,ispahan1 where  great efforts were made
 to induce him to become a ,muhammadan2 

when he  declared that he preferred to  
lose his throne rather than purchase it 
at the price of apostasy1 it is said    
that his younger brother1 although  he  
was the ,patriarch of ,georgia1 offered 
to abandon ,christianity and  embrace   
,islam1 if the crown were bestowed upon 
him1 but though invested  by the        
,persians with the royal power1 the     
,georgians refused to accept  him as    
their ruler1 and drove him out of the   
kingdom4 #bfj    ,towards the close of  
the eighteenth century1 the king of     
,georgia placed  his people under the   
protection of the ,russian crown4       
,hitherto their  intense patriotic      
feeling had helped to keep the          
,christian faith alive  among them so   
long as their foreign invaders had been 
,musalmans1 but  now that the foreign   
power that sought to rob them of their  
independence was ,christian1 this same  
feeling operated in some of the         
districts north of the ,caucasus to the 
advantage of ,islam4 ,in ,daghistan  a  

certain ,darvsh ,manr endeavoured to    
unite the different tribes of  the      
,caucasus to oppose the ,russians2      
preaching the faith of ,islam he        
succeeded in converting the princes and 
nobles of ,ubichistan and  ,daghistan1  
who have remained faithful to ,islam    
ever since2 many of the  ,circassians1  
too1 were converted by his preaching1   
and preferred exile  to submitting to   
the ,russian rule4 #bfa ,but in #agia he
 was taken  prisoner1 and in #ahjj      
,georgia was formally incorporated in   
the ,russian  empire4    ,darvsh ,manr  
was not alone in his efforts to convert 
the ,circassians4  ,when the treaty of  
,kchak-,qanarji in #aggd had recognised 
the  independence of the ,crimea and    
opened the ,black ,sea to ,russian      
vessels1  the ,turkish government became
 alarmed at the prospect of a further   
movement of ,russian domination along   
the eastern coast of the ,black ,sea    
and resolved to make an attempt to stir 
the ,circassians to resistance4  ,a     

,turkish officer1 named ,fara ,al1 was  
sent in #aghb to establish a  military  
colony at ,anpa1 near the outlet of the 
sea of ,azov1 and to  enter into        
relations with the ,circassian tribes4  
,fara ,al's first  care was to seek the 
hand of a daughter of one of the        
,circassian beys1  offering rich        
presents of arms1 horses1 etc41 to her  
father2 the  marriage was celebrated    
with great pomp and ceremony1 and ,fara 
,al  encouraged his soldiers to follow  
his example1 by promising to defray  the
 expenses of their nuptials4 ,the result
 was that a number of  ,circassian women
 joined the little colony and accepted  
the religion of  their husbands1 and    
with the zeal of new converts won over  
to ,islam  their fathers and brothers4  
,an active movement of proselytism      
began1  and the ,circassians who came in
 contact with the ,turkish colony appear
  readily to have abandoned their pagan 
beliefs for the religion of the  ,qurn1 
the mollas were kept busy in instructing

 the new ,muslims1 and  help had to be  
sought from ,constantinople to deal with
 the increasing  number of conversions4 
#bfb ,but the work of ,fara ,al was     
short-lived2 he died in #aghe and his   
tomb was reverenced as that of a  saint1
 but his work perished with him4 ,anpa  
passed into the hands of  the ,russians 
in #ahab1 and when the resistance of the
 ,circassians was  finally overcome in  
#ahfd1 more than half a million         
,circassian  ,muhammadans migrated into 
,turkish territory4    ,under ,russian  
law conversions to any faith other than 
that of the  ,orthodox ,church were     
illegal1 and the further progress of    
,islam was  stayed until the            
promulgation of the edict of toleration 
in #aije4 ,one  of the results of this  
in the ,caucasus was a large accession  
to ,islam  from among the ,abkhazes1 who
 had long been nominal converts to      
,christianity1 but now became           
,muhammadans in such numbers that the   
,orthodox clergy became alarmed and     

founded a special society for the       
distribution of religious tracts among  
them1 in the hope of combating          
,muhammadan influences4 #bfc            
,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of  
,,islam ,,among ,,the ,,christian       
,,nations ,,of ,,africa4      ,islam was
 first introduced into ,africa by the   
,arab army that invaded  ,egypt under   
the command of ,amr b4 al- in ,a4,d4    
#fdj4 ,three years  later the withdrawal
 of the ,byzantine troops abandoned the 
vast  ,christian population into the    
hands of the ,muslim conquerors4 ,the   
rapid  success of the ,arab invaders was
 largely due to the welcome they        
received from the native ,christians1   
who hated the ,byzantine rule not  only 
for its oppressive administration1 but  
also--and chiefly--on account  of the   
bitterness of theological rancour4 ,the 
,jacobites1 who formed the  majority of 
the ,christian population1 had been very
 roughly handled by  the ,orthodox      
adherents of the court and subjected to 

indignities that  have not been         
forgotten by their children even to the 
present day4  #bfd ,some were tortured  
and then thrown into the sea2 many      
followed  their ,patriarch into exile to
 escape from the hands of their         
persecutors1 while a large number       
disguised their real opinions under a   
pretended acceptance of the ,council of 
,chalcedon4 #bfe ,to these ,copts1  as  
the ,jacobite ,christians of ,egypt are 
called1 the ,muhammadan conquest        
brought a freedom of religious life such
 as they had not enjoyed for a  century4
 ,on payment of the tribute1 ,amr left  
them in undisturbed  possession of their
 churches and guaranteed to them        
autonomy in all  ecclesiastical matters1
 thus delivering them from the continual
  interference that had been so grievous
 a burden under the previous  rule2 he  
laid his hands on none of the property  
of the churches and  committed no act of
 spoliation or pillage4 #bff ,in the    
early days of  the ,muhammadan rule     

then1 the condition of the ,copts seems 
to have been  fairly tolerable1 #bfg and
 there is no evidence of their          
widespread  apostasy to ,islam being due
 to persecution or unjust pressure on   
the  part of their new rulers4 ,even    
before the conquest was complete1 while 
the capital1 ,alexandria1 still held    
out1 many of them went over to  ,islam1 
#bfh and a few years later the example  
these had set was  followed by many     
others4 #bfi ,in the reign of ,uthmn    
7,a4,d4 #fdc-fee71  the revenue derived 
from ,egypt amounted to twelve millions2
 a few years  later1 in the reign of    
,muwiyah 7#ffa-fgi71 it had fallen to   
five  millions owing to the enormous    
number of conversions3 under ,umar ,,ii 
7#gag-gbj7 it fell still lower1 so that 
the governor of ,egypt #bgj  proposed   
that in future the converts should not  
be exempted from the  payment of the    
capitation-tax1 but this the pious      
caliph refused to  allow1 saying that   
,god had sent ,muammad to call men to a 

knowledge of  the truth and not to be a 
collector of taxes4 #bga    ,but later  
rulers recognised that for fiscal       
reasons such a policy was  ruinous to   
the state1 and insisted on the converts 
continuing to pay  taxes as before2     
there was1 however1 no continuity in    
such a policy1  and individual governors
 acted in an arbitrary and irregular    
manner4  #bgb ,when af b4 al-,wald1 who 
was governor of ,egypt in ,a4,d4 #gdd1  
promised that all those who became      
,muslims would be exempted from the     
payment of jizyah1 as many as #bd1jjj   
,christians are reported to have        
accepted ,islam4 #bgc ,a similar        
proclamation is said to have been made  
by al-,saff1 the first of the ,abbsid   
caliphs1 soon after his  accession in   
,a4,d4 #gej1 for 8he wrote to the whole 
of his dominions  saying that every one 
who embraced his religion and prayed    
according to  his fashion1 should be    
quit of the jizyah1 and many1 both rich 
and  poor1 denied the faith of ,christ  

by reason of the magnitude of the       
taxation and the burdens imposed upon   
them40 #bgd ,in fact many of the        
,christians of ,egypt seem to have      
abandoned ,christianity as lightly and  
as rapidly as1 in the beginning of the  
fourth century1 they had  embraced it4  
,prior to that period1 a very small     
section of the  population of the valley
 of the ,nile was ,christian1 but the   
sufferings  of the martyrs in the       
persecution of ,diocletian1 the stories 
of the  miracles they performed1 the    
national feeling excited by the sense of
  their opposition to the dictates of   
the foreign government1 #bge the        
assurance that a paradise of delights   
was opened to the martyr who died  under
 the hands of his tormentors1--all these
 things stirred up an  enthusiasm that  
resulted in an incredibly rapid spread  
of the ,christian  faith4 8,instead of  
being converted by preaching1 as the    
other countries  of the ,east were1     
,egypt embraced ,christianity in a fit  

of wild  enthusiasm1 without any        
preaching1 or instruction being given1  
with  hardly any knowledge of the new   
religion beyond the name of ,jesus1 the 
,messiah1 who bestowed a life of eternal
 happiness on all who confessed  ,him40 
#bgf    ,in the seventh century         
,christianity had probably very little  
hold on a  great mass of the people of  
,egypt4 ,the theological catchwords that
  their leaders made use of1 to stir up 
in them feelings of hatred and          
opposition to the ,byzantine government1
 could have been intelligible to  a very
 few1 and the rapid spread of ,islam in 
the early days of the ,arab  occupation 
was probably due less to definite       
efforts to attract than to  the         
inability of such a ,christianity to    
retain4 ,the theological basis  for the 
existence of the ,jacobites as a        
separate sect1 the tenets that  they had
 so long and at so great a cost         
struggled to maintain1 were  embodied in
 doctrines of the most abstruse and     

metaphysical character1  and many       
doubtless turned in utter perplexity and
 weariness from the  interminable       
controversies that raged around them1 to
 a faith that was  summed up in the     
simple1 intelligible truth of the ,unity
 of ,god and the  mission of ,his       
,prophet1 ,muammad4 ,even within the    
,coptic ,church itself  at a later      
period1 we find evidence of a movement  
which1 if not  distinctly ,muslim1 was  
at least closely allied thereto1 and in 
the  absence of any separate            
ecclesiastical organisation in which it 
might  find expression1 probably        
contributed to the increase of the      
converts  to ,islam4 ,in the beginning  
of the twelfth century1 there was in the
  monastery of ,st4 ,anthony 7near ,if  
on the ,nile71 a monk named  ,balus1    
8learned in the doctrines of the        
,christian religion and the  duties of  
the monastic life1 and skilled in the   
rules of the canon-law4  ,but ,satan    
caught him in one of his nets2 for he   

began to hold opinions  at variance with
 those taught by the ,three ,hundred and
 ,eighteen 7of  ,nica72 and he corrupted
 the minds of many of those who had no  
knowledge or instruction in the         
,orthodox faith4 ,he announced with his 
impure mouth1 in his wicked discourses1 
that ,christ our ,lord--to ,whom be     
glory--was like one of the prophets4 ,he
 associated with the lowest among  the  
followers of his religion1 clothed as he
 was in the monastic habit4  ,when he   
was questioned as to his religion and   
his creed1 he professed  himself a      
believer in the ,unity of ,god4 ,his    
doctrines prevailed during  a period    
which ended in the year #hci of the     
,righteous ,martyrs 7,a4,d4  #aabc72    
then he died1 and his memory was cut off
 for ever40 #bgg    ,further1 a theory  
of the ,christian life that found its   
highest  expression in asceticism of the
 grossest type #bgh could offer little  
attraction1 in the face of the more     
human morality of ,islam4 #bgi ,on      

account of the large numbers of ,copts  
that from time to time have  become     
,muhammadans1 they have come to be      
considered by the followers of  the     
,prophet as much more inclined to the   
faith of ,islam than any other          
,christian sect1 and though they have   
had to endure the most severe           
oppression and persecution on many      
occasions1 yet the ,copts that have     
been thus driven to abandon their faith 
are said to have been few in  comparison
 with those who have changed their      
religion voluntarily1  #bhj and even in 
the nineteenth century1 when ,egypt was 
said to be the  most tolerant of all    
,muhammadan countries1 there were yearly
  conversions of the ,copts to the      
,muslim faith4 #bha ,still1 persecution 
and oppression have undoubtedly played a
 very large part in the  reduction of   
the numbers of the ,copts1 and the story
 of the sufferings  of the ,jacobite    
,church of ,egypt1--persecuted alike by 
their fellow  ,christians #bhb and by   

the followers of the dominant faith1 is 
a very  sad one1 and many abandoned the 
religion of their fathers in order to   
escape from burdensome taxes and        
unendurable indignities4 ,the vast      
difference in this respect between their
 condition and that of the  ,christians 
of ,syria1 ,palestine and ,spain at the 
same period finds its  explanation in   
the turbulent character of the ,copts   
themselves4 ,their  long struggle       
against the civil and theological       
despotism of ,byzantium  seems to have  
welded the zealots into a national party
 that could as  little brook the foreign
 rule of the ,arabs as1 before1 that of 
the  ,greeks4 ,the rising of the ,copts 
against their new masters in #fdf1 when 
they drove the ,arabs for a time out of 
,alexandria and opened the gates  of the
 city to the ,byzantine troops 7who1    
however1 treated the  unfortunate ,copts
 as enemies1 not having yet forgotten   
the welcome they  had before given to   
the ,muhammadan invaders71 was the first

 of a long  series of risings and       
insurrections1 #bhc--;excited frequently
 by  excessive taxation1--which exposed 
them to terrible reprisals1 and  caused 
the lot of the ,jacobite ,christians of 
,egypt to be harder to bear  than that  
of any other ,christian sect in this or 
other countries under  ,muhammadan rule4
 ,but the history of these events       
belongs rather to a  history of         
,muhammadan persecution and intolerance 
than to the scope of  the present work4 
,it must not1 however1 be supposed that 
the condition  of the ,copts was        
invariably that of a persecuted sect2 on
 the contrary  there were times when    
they rose to positions of great         
affluence and  importance in the state4 
,they filled the posts of secretaries   
and  scribes in the government offices1 
#bhd farmed the taxes1 #bhe and in  some
 cases amassed enormous wealth4 #bhf    
,the annals of their ,church  furnish us
 with many instances of ecclesiastics   
who were held in high  favour and       

consideration by the reigning princes of
 the country1 under  the rule of many of
 whom the ,christians enjoyed the utmost
  tranquillity4 #bhg ,to such a period  
of the peace of the ,church belongs  an 
incident that led to the absorption of  
many ,christians into the body  of the  
faithful4    ,during the reign of al    
al-,dn 7,saladin7 7#aafi-aaic7 over     
,egypt1 the  condition of the           
,christians was very happy under the    
auspices of this  tolerant ruler2 the   
taxes that had been imposed upon them   
were  lightened and several swept away  
altogether2 they crowded into the       
public offices as secretaries1          
accountants and registrars2 and for     
nearly a century under the successors of
 ,saladin1 they enjoyed the same        
toleration and favour1 and had nothing  
to complain of except the  corruption   
and degeneracy of their own clergy4     
,simony had become  terribly rife among 
them2 the priesthood was sold to        
ignorant and  vicious persons1 while    

postulants for the sacred office who    
were unable  to pay the sums demanded   
for ordination1 were repulsed with      
scorn1 in  spite of their being worthy  
and fit persons4 ,the consequence was   
that  the spiritual and moral training  
of the people was utterly neglected  and
 there was a lamentable decay of the    
,christian life4 #bhh ,so  corrupt had  
the ,church become that when1 on the    
death of ,john1 the  seventy-fourth     
,patriarch of the ,jacobites1 in #abaf1 
a successor was to  be elected1 the     
contending parties who pushed the claims
 of rival  candidates1 kept up a fierce 
and irreconcilable dispute for nearly   
twenty years1 and all this time cared   
less for the grievous scandal and  the  
harmful consequences of their shameless 
quarrels than for the  maintenance of   
their dogged and obstinately factious   
spirit4 ,on more  than one occasion the 
reigning sultan tried to make peace     
between the  contending parties1 refused
 the enormous bribes of three1 five1 and

  even ten thousand gold pieces that    
were offered in order to induce him  to 
secure the election of one of the       
candidates by the pressure of  official 
influence1 and even offered to remit the
 fee that it was  customary for a       
newly-elected ,patriarch to pay1 if only
 they would put  aside their disputes   
and come to some agreement1--but all to 
no purpose4  ,meanwhile many episcopal  
sees fell vacant and there was no one to
 take  the place of the bishops and     
priests that died in this interval2 in  
the  monastery of ,st4 ,macarius alone  
there were only four priests left as    
compared with over eighty under the last
 ,patriarch4 #bhi ,so utterly  neglected
 were the ,christians of the western    
dioceses1 that they all  became         
,muslims4 #bij ,to this bald statement  
of the historian of the  ,coptic        
,church1 we unfortunately have no       
information to add1 of the  positive    
efforts made by the ,musalmans to bring 
these ,christians over  to their faith4 

,that such there were1 there can be very
 little doubt1  especially as we know   
that the ,christians held public        
disputations and  engaged in written    
controversies on the respective merits  
of the rival  creeds4 #bia ,that these  
conversions were not due to persecution1
 we  know from direct historical        
evidence that during this vacancy of the
  patriarchate1 the ,christians had full
 and complete freedom of public         
worship1 were allowed to restore their  
churches and even to build new  ones1   
were freed from the restrictions that   
forbade them to ride on  horses or      
mules1 and were tried in law-courts of  
their own1 while the  monks were        
exempted from the payment of tribute and
 granted certain  privileges4 #bib      
,how far this incident is a typical case
 of conversion to ,islam among  the     
,copts it is difficult to say2 a        
parallel case of neglect is  mentioned  
by two ,capuchin missionaries who       
travelled up the ,nile to  ,luxor in the

 seventeenth century1 where they found  
that the ,copts of  ,luxor had no       
priest1 and some of them had not gone to
 confession or  communion for fifty     
years4 #bic ,under such circumstances   
the decay of  their numbers can readily 
be understood4    ,a similar neglect    
probably contributed to the decay of the
 ,nubian  ,church which recognised the  
primacy of the ,jacobite ,patriarch of  
,alexandria1 as do the ,abyssinians to  
the present day4 ,the ,nubians had  been
 converted to ,christianity about the   
middle of the sixth century1  and       
retained their independence when ,egypt 
was conquered by the ,arabs2  a treaty  
was made according to which the ,nubians
 were to send every  year three hundred 
and sixty slaves1 with forty more for   
the governor  of ,egypt1 while the      
,arabs were to furnish them with corn1  
oil and  raiment4 #bid ,in the reign of 
al-,mutaim 7#hcc-hdb71 ambassadors were 
sent by the caliph renewing this treaty1
 and the king of ,nubia visited  the    

capital1 where he was received with     
great magnificence and  dismissed with  
costly presents4 #bie ,in the twelfth   
century they were  still all ,christian1
 #bif and retained their old            
independence in spite  of the frequent  
expeditions sent against them from      
,egypt4 #big ,in #abge  the nephew of   
the then king of ,nubia obtained from   
the sultan of ,egypt  a body of troops  
to assist him in his revolt against his 
uncle1 whom he  by their help succeeded 
in deposing2 in return for this         
assistance he  had to cede the two      
northernmost provinces of ,nubia to the 
sultan1 and  as the inhabitants elected 
to retain their ,christian faith1 an    
annual  tribute of one dnr for each male
 was imposed upon them4 #bih ,but  this 
,muhammadan overlordship was temporary  
only1 and the ,nubians of the  ceded    
provinces soon reasserted their         
independence4 #bii    ,but settlements  
of ,arabs had been established in ,nubia
 for several  centuries earlier and the 

,arabs on the ,blue ,nile had so        
increased in  number and wealth in the  
tenth century that they were able to ask
  permission to build a mosque in ,soba1
 #cjj the capital of the  ,christian    
kingdom4 #cja ,in the thirteenth and    
especially from the  beginning of the   
fourteenth century there began a general
 process of  interpenetration through   
the migration into ,nubia of ,arabs1    
especially  of the ,juhaynah tribe1 who 
intermarried with the women of the land 
and  gradually succeeded in breaking up 
the power of the ,nubian princes4  #cjb 
,in the latter half of the fourteenth   
century ,ibn ,baah #cjc  tells us that  
the ,nubians were still ,christians1    
though the king of  their chief city1   
,dongola1 #cjd had embraced ,islam in   
the reign of  ,nir 7probably ,nir b4    
,quln1 one of the ,mamlk sultans of     
,egypt1  who died ,a4,d4 #acdj72 the    
repeated expeditions of the ,muslims so 
late as  the fifteenth century had not  
succeeded in pushing their conquests    

south of the first cataract1 near which 
was their last fortified place1  #cje   
while ,christianity seems to have       
extended as far up the ,nile as         
,sennaar4    ,the ,christian ,nubian    
kingdom appears to have come to an end  
partly  through internal dissensions and
 partly through the attacks of ,arab and
  ,negro tribes on its borders1 and     
finally by the establishment of the     
powerful ,fnj empire in the fifteenth   
century4 #cjf    ,but it is probable    
that the progress of ,islam in the      
country was all  this time being        
promoted by the ,muhammadan merchants   
and others that  frequented it4 ,maqrz  
7writing in the early part of the       
fifteenth  century7 quotes one of those 
missionary anecdotes which occur so     
rarely  in the works of ,arabic authors2
 it is told by ,ibn ,salm al-,aswni1 and
  is of interest as giving us a living  
picture of the ,muslim propagandist  at 
work4 ,though the convert referred to is
 neither a ,christian nor a  ,nubian1   

still the story shows that there was    
such a thing as conversion  to ,islam in
 ,nubia in the fifteenth century4 ,ibn  
,salm says that he once  met a man at   
the court of the ,nubian chief of       
,muqurrah1 who told him  that he came   
from a city that lay three months'      
journey from the ,nile4  ,when asked    
about his religion1 he replied1 8,my    
,creator and thy ,creator  is ,god2 the 
,creator of the universe and of all men 
is ,one1 and his  dwelling-place is in  
,heaven40 ,when there was a dearth of   
rain1 or when  pestilence attacked them 
or their cattle1 his fellow-countrymen  
would  climb up a high mountain and     
there pray to ,god1 who accepted their  
prayers and supplied their needs before 
even they came down again4 ,when  he    
acknowledged that ,god had never sent   
them a prophet1 ,ibn ,salm  recounted to
 him the story of the prophets ,moses   
and ,jesus and  ,muammad1 and how by the
 help of ,god they had been enabled to  
perform  many miracles4 ,and he         

answered1 8,the truth must indeed have  
been with  them1 when they did these    
things2 and if they performed these     
deeds1 ,i  believe in them40 #cjg       
,very slowly and gradually the ,nubians 
seem to have drifted from  ,christianity
 into ,muhammadanism4 #cjh ,the         
spiritual life of their  ,church had    
sunk to the lowest ebb1 and as no       
movement of reform sprang  up in their  
midst1 and as they had lost touch with  
the ,christian  ,churches beyond their  
borders1 it was only natural that they  
should  seek for an expression of their 
spiritual aspirations in the religion   
of ,islam1 whose followers had so long  
borne witness to its living power  among
 them1 and had already won over some of 
their countrymen to the  acceptance of  
it4 ,a ,portuguese priest1 who travelled
 in ,abyssinia from  #aebj-aebg1 has    
preserved for us a picture of the       
,nubians in this state  of transition2  
he says that they were neither          
,christians1 ,jews nor  ,muhammadans1   

but had come to be without faith and    
without laws2 but  still 8they lived    
with the desire of being ,christians40  
,through the  fault of their clergy they
 had sunk into the grossest ignorance1  
and  now there were no bishops or       
priests left among them2 accordingly    
they  sent an embassy of six men to the 
king of ,abyssinia1 praying him to  send
 priests and monks to instruct them1 but
 this the king refused to  do without   
the permission of the ,patriarch of     
,alexandria1 and as this  could not be  
obtained1 the unfortunate ambassadors   
returned  unsuccessful to their own     
country4 #cji ,the same writer was      
informed  by a ,christian who had       
travelled in ,nubia1 that he had found  
#aej  churches there1 in each of which  
were still to be seen the figures of    
the crucified ,christ1 of the ,virgin   
,mary1 and other saints painted on  the 
walls4 ,in all the fortresses1 also1    
that were scattered throughout  the     
country1 there were churches4 #caj      

,before the close of the  following     
century1 ,christianity had entirely     
disappeared from ,nubia  8for want of   
pastors10 but the closed churches were  
to be found still  standing throughout  
the whole country4 #caa ,the ,nubians   
had yielded to  the powerful ,muhammadan
 influences that surrounded them1 to    
which the  proselytising efforts of the 
,muslims who had travelled in ,nubia for
  centuries past no doubt contributed a 
great deal2 on the north were  ,egypt   
and the ,arab tribes that had made their
 way up the ,nile and  extended their   
authority along the banks of that river2
 #cab on the  south1 the ,muhammadan    
state of the ,belloos1 separating them  
from  ,abyssinia4 ,these ,belloos1 in   
the early part of the sixteenth century1
  were1 in spite of their ,muslim faith1
 tributaries of the ,christian king  of 
,abyssinia2 #cac and--if they may be    
identified with the ,baliyyn1  who1     
together with their neighbours1 the     
,bajah 7the inhabitants of the          

so-called island of ,meroe71 are spoken 
of by ,idrs1 in the twelfth  century1 as
 being ,jacobite ,christians1 #cad--;it 
is probable that they  had only a few   
years before been converted to ,islam1  
at the same time  as the ,bajah1 who had
 been incorporated into the ,muhammadan 
empire of  the ,fnj1 when these latter  
extended their conquests in #adii-aecj  
from  the south up to the borders of    
,nubia and ,abyssinia and founded the   
powerful state of ,sennaar4 ,when the   
army of ,amad ,gr invaded  ,abyssinia   
and made its way right through the      
country from south to  north1 it        
effected a junction about #aecd with the
 army of the sultan of  ,maseggia or    
,mazaga1 a province under ,muhammadan   
rule but tributary to  ,abyssinia1 lying
 between that country and ,sennaar2 in  
the army of this  sultan there were     
#ae1jjj ,nubian soldiers who1 from the  
account given of  them1 appear to have  
been ,musalmans4 #cae ,fragmentary and  
insufficient  as these data of the      

conversion of the ,nubians are1 we may  
certainly  conclude from all we know of 
the independent character of this people
  and the tenacity with which they clung
 to the ,christian faith1 so long  as it
 was a living force among them1 that    
their change of religion was  a gradual 
one1 extending through several          
centuries4    ,let us now pass to the   
history of ,islam among the             
,abyssinians1 who had  received         
,christianity two centuries before the  
,nubians1 and like them  belonged to the
 ,jacobite ,church4    ,the tide of     
,arab emigration does not seem to have  
set across the ,red  ,sea1 the western  
shores of which formed part of the      
,abyssinian kingdom1  until many        
centuries after ,arabia had accepted the
 faith of the  prophet4 ,up to the tenth
 century only a few ,muhammadan families
 were to  be found residing in the coast
 towns of ,abyssinia1 but at the end of 
the twelfth century the foundation of an
 ,arab dynasty alienated some of  the   

coast-lands from the ,abyssinian        
kingdom4 ,in #acjj a missionary1  named 
,ab ,abd ,allh ,muammad1 made his way   
into ,abyssinia1 calling on  the people 
to embrace ,islam1 and in the following 
year1 having  collected around him      
#bjj1jjj men1 he attacked the ruler of  
,amhara in  several engagements4 #caf   
,king ,saifa ,ard 7#acdb-acgj7 took     
energetic  measures against the         
,muhammadans in his kingdom1 putting to 
death or  driving into exile all those  
who refused to embrace ,christianity4   
#cag  ,at the close of the same century 
the disturbed state of the country1     
owing to the civil wars that distracted 
it1 made it possible for the  various   
,arab settlements along the coast to    
make themselves masters of  the entire  
seaboard and drive the ,abyssinians into
 the interior1 and  the king1 ,baeda    
,mrym 7#adfh-adgh71 is said to have     
spent the greater  part of his reign in 
fighting against the ,muhammadans on the
 eastern  border of his kingdom4 #cah   

,in the early part of the sixteenth     
century1 while the powerful ,muhammadan 
kingdom of ,adal1 between  ,abyssinia   
and the southern extremity of the ,red  
,sea1 and some others  were bitterly    
hostile to the ,christian power1 there  
were others again  that formed peaceful 
tributaries of 8,prester ,john02 e4g4 in
 ,massowah  there were ,arabs who kept  
the flocks of the ,abyssinian seigniors1
  wandering about in bands of thirty or 
forty with their wives and  children1   
each band having its ,christian         
8captain40 #cai ,some  ,musalmans are   
also mentioned as being in the service  
of the king and  being entrusted by him 
with important posts2 #cbj while some of
 these  remained faithful to ,islam1    
others embraced the prevailing religion 
of  the country4 ,what was implied in   
the fact of these ,muhammadan           
communities being tributaries of the    
king of ,abyssinia1 it is difficult  to 
determine4 ,the ,musalmans of adya had  
along with other tribute to  give up    

every year to the king a maiden who had 
to become a ,christian2  this custom was
 in accordance with an ancient treaty1  
which the king of  ,abyssinia has always
 made them observe1 8because he was the 
stronger02  besides this1 they were     
forbidden to carry arms or put on       
war-apparel1  and1 if they rode1 their  
horses were not to be saddled2 8these   
orders10  they said1 8we have always    
obeyed1 so that the king may not put us 
to  death and destroy our mosques4 ,when
 the king sends his people to fetch  the
 maiden and the tribute1 we put her on a
 bed1 wash her and cover her  with a    
cloth1 and recite the prayers for the   
dead over her and give her  up to the   
people of the king2 and thus did our    
fathers and our  grandfathers before    
us40 #cba    ,these ,muhammadan         
tributaries were chiefly to be found in 
the low-lying  countries that formed the
 northern boundary of ,abyssinia1 from  
the ,red  ,sea westward to ,sennaar1    
#cbb and on the south and the south-east

 of  the kingdom4 #cbc ,what influence  
these ,muhammadans had on the           
,christian populations with which they  
were intermingled1 and whether  they    
made converts to ,islam as in the       
present century1 is matter only  of     
conjecture4 ,certain it is1 however1    
that when the independent  ,muhammadan  
ruler of ,adal1 ,amad ,gr--himself said 
to have been the son  of a ,christian   
priest of ,aijjo1 who had left his own  
country and  adopted ,islam in that of  
the ,adals #cbd--;invaded ,abyssinia    
from #aebh to  #aedc1 many ,abyssinian  
chiefs with their followers joined his  
victorious  army and became ,musalmans1 
and though the ,christian populations of
 some  districts preferred to pay       
jizyah1 #cbe others embraced the        
religion  of the conqueror4 #cbf ,but   
the contemporary ,muslim historian      
himself  tells us that in some cases    
this conversion was the result of fear1 
and  that suspicions were entertained of
 the genuineness of the allegiance  of  

the new converts4 #cbg ,but such        
apparently was not universally the      
case1 and the widespread character of   
the conversions in several  districts   
give the impression of a popular        
movement4 ,the ,christian  chiefs who   
went over to ,islam made use of their   
personal influence in  inducing their   
troops to follow their example4 ,they   
were1 as we are  told1 in some cases    
very ignorant of their own religion1    
#cbh and thus  the change of faith was a
 less difficult matter4 ,particularly   
instrumental in conversions of this kind
 were those ,muhammadan chiefs  who had 
previously entered the service of the   
king of ,abyssinia1 and  those renegades
 who took the opportunity of the        
invasion of the country  by a conquering
 ,musalman army to throw off their      
allegiance at once to  ,christianity and
 the ,christian king and declare        
themselves ,muhammadans  once more4 #cbi
    ,one of these in #aeca wrote the    
following letter to ,amad ,gr3--8,i was 

formerly a ,muslim and the son of a     
,muslim1 was taken prisoner by the      
polytheists and made a ,christian by    
force2 but in my heart ,i have  always  
clung to the true faith and now ,i seek 
the protection of ,god and  of ,his     
,prophet and of thee4 ,if thou wilt     
accept my repentance and  punish me not 
for what ,i have done1 ,i will return in
 penitence to ,god2  and ,i will devise 
means whereby the troops of the king1   
that are with  me1 may join thee and    
become ,muslims20--and in fact the      
greater part of  his army elected to    
follow their general2 including the     
women and  children their numbers are   
said to have amounted to #bj1jjj souls4 
#ccj    ,but with the help of the       
,portuguese1 the ,abyssinians succeeded 
in  shaking off the yoke of their       
,muhammadan conquerors and ,amad ,gr    
himself was slain in #aedc4 ,islam had1 
however1 gained a footing in the        
country1 which the troublous condition  
of affairs during the remainder  of the 

sixteenth and the following century     
enabled it to retain1 the  rival        
,christian ,churches being too busily   
engaged in contending with  one another1
 to devote much attention to their      
common enemy4 ,for the  successful      
proselytising of the ,jesuits and other 
,roman ,catholic  missionaries and the  
active interference of the ,portuguese  
in all civil  and political matters1    
excited violent opposition in the mass  
of the  ,abyssinian ,christians2--indeed
 so bitter was this feeling that some of
  the chiefs openly declared that they  
would rather submit to a  ,muhammadan   
ruler than continue their alliance with 
the ,portuguese2  #cca--;and the        
semi-religious1 semi-patriotic movement 
set on foot  thereby1 rapidly assumed   
such vast proportions as to lead 7about 
#afcb7  to the expulsion of the         
,portuguese and the exclusion of all    
foreign  ,christians from the country4  
,the condition of ,abyssinia then       
speedily  became one of terrible        

confusion and anarchy1 of which some    
tribes of  the ,galla race took         
advantage1 to thrust their way right    
into the very  centre of the country1   
where their settlements remain to the   
present  day4    ,the progress achieved 
by ,islam during this period may be     
estimated from  the testimony of a      
traveller of the seventeenth century1   
who tells us  that in his time the      
adherents of this faith were scattered  
throughout  the whole of ,abyssinia and 
formed a third of the entire population4
  #ccb ,during the following century the
 faith of the ,prophet seems  steadily  
to have increased by means of the       
conversion of isolated  individuals here
 and there4 ,the absence of any strong  
central  government in the country      
favoured the rise of petty independent  
chieftains1 many of whom had strong     
,muhammadan sympathies1 though 7in      
accordance with a fundamental law of the
 state7 all the ,abyssinian  princes had
 to belong to the ,christian faith2 the 

,muhammadans1 too1  aspiring to the     
dignity of the ,abyssinian aristocracy1 
abjured the  faith in which they had    
been born and pretended conversion to   
,christianity in order to get themselves
 enrolled in the order of the  nobles1  
and as governors of ,christian provinces
 made use of all their  influence       
towards the spread of ,islam4 #ccc ,one 
of the chief reasons  of the success of 
this faith seems to have been the moral 
superiority  of the ,muslims as compared
 with that of the ,christian population 
of  ,abyssinia4 ,rppell says that he    
frequently noticed in the course of his 
travels in ,abyssinia that when a post  
had to be filled which required  that a 
thoroughly honest and trustworthy person
 should be selected1 the  choice always 
fell upon a ,muhammadan4 ,in comparison 
with the  ,christians1 he says that they
 were more active and energetic2 that   
every ,muhammadan had his sons taught to
 read and write1 whereas  ,christian    
children were only educated when they   

were intended for the  priesthood4 #ccd 
,this moral superiority of the          
,muhammadans of  ,abyssinia over the    
,christian population goes far to       
explain the  continuous though slow     
progress made by ,islam during the      
eighteenth and  nineteenth centuries2   
the degradation and apathy of the       
,abyssinian  clergy and the interminable
 feuds of the ,abyssinian chiefs1 have  
left  ,muhammadan influences free to    
work undisturbed4 ,mr4 ,plowden1 who was
  ,english consul in ,abyssinia from    
#ahdd to #ahfj1 speaking of the abb1    
three ,tigr tribes dwelling between #af 
and #ag #cj lat41 the  north-west of    
,massowah1 says that they have become   
,muhammadan 8within  the last #ajj      
years1 and all1 save the latest         
generation1 bear ,christian  names4     
,they have changed their faith1 through 
the constant influence of  the          
,muhammadans with whom they trade1 and  
through the gradual and now  entire     
abandonment of the country by the       

,abyssinian chiefs1 too much  occupied  
in ceaseless wars with their            
neighbours40 #cce ,they have a          
tradition that one of their chiefs named
 ,jwej rejected ,christianity  for      
,islam1 in the belief that the latter   
faith brought good luck and  long life2 
he then said to his priest1 8,break in  
pieces the ,tbt02  #ccf the priest      
answered1 8,i dare not break in pieces  
the ,tbt of  ,mary02 so ,jwej seized the
 ,tbt with his own hands and cut it in  
pieces with an axe2 the ,christian      
priests then adopted ,islam1 and all    
their descendants are shaykhs of the    
tribe to the present day4 #ccg    ,other
 sections of the population of the      
northern districts of the  country were 
similarly converted to ,islam during the
 same period1  because the priests had  
abandoned these districts and the       
churches had  been suffered to fall into
 ruins1--apparently entirely through    
neglect1  as the ,muhammadans here are  
said to have been by no means fanatical 

nor  to have borne any particular enmity
 to ,christianity4 #cch ,similar        
testimony to the progress of ,islam in  
the early part of the nineteenth        
century is given by other travellers1   
#cci who found numbers of  ,christians  
to be continually passing over to that  
faith4 ,the  ,muhammadans were          
especially favoured by ,ras ,al1 one of 
the  vice-regents of ,abyssinia and     
practically master of the country before
  the accession of ,king ,theodore in   
#ahec4 ,though himself a ,christian1 he 
distributed posts and even the spoils of
 the churches among the  followers of   
,islam1 and during his reign one half of
 the population of  the central         
provinces of ,abyssinia embraced the    
faith of the ,prophet4  #cdj ,such deep 
roots had this faith now struck in      
,abyssinia that its  followers had in   
their hands all the commerce as well as 
all the petty  trade of the country1    
enjoyed vast possessions1 were masters  
of large  towns and central markets1 and

 had a firm hold upon the mass of the   
people4 ,indeed1 a ,christian missionary
 who lived for thirty-five years  in    
this country1 rated the success and the 
zeal of the ,muslim  propagandists so   
high as to say that were another ,amad  
,gr to arise  and unfurl the banner of  
the ,prophet1 the whole of ,abyssinia   
would  become ,muhammadan4 #cda         
,embroilments with the ,egyptian        
government  7with which ,abyssinia was  
at war from #ahge to #ahhb7 brought     
about a  revulsion of feeling against   
,muhammadanism3 hatred of the foreign   
,muslim foe reacted upon their          
co-religionists within the border4 ,in  
#ahgh1 ,king ,john summoned a           
,convocation of the ,abyssinian clergy1 
who  proclaimed him supreme arbiter in  
matters of faith and ordained that      
there should be but one religion        
throughout the whole kingdom4           
,christians of all sects other than the 
,jacobite were given two years in  which
 to become reconciled to the national   

,church2 the ,muhammadans were  to      
submit within three1 and the heathen    
within five1 years4 ,a few days  later  
the king promulgated an edict that      
showed how little worth was  the three  
years' grace allowed to the             
,muhammadans2 for not only did he  order
 them to build ,christian churches      
wherever they were needed and to  pay   
tithes to the priests resident in their 
respective districts1 but  also gave    
three months' notice to all ,muhammadan 
officials to either  receive baptism or 
resign their posts4 ,such compulsory    
conversion  7consisting as it did merely
 of the rite of baptism and the payment 
of  tithes7 was naturally of the most   
ineffectual character1 and while        
outwardly conforming1 the ,muslims in   
secret protested their loyalty to  their
 old faith4 ,massaja saw some such go   
straight from the church in  which they 
had been baptised to the mosque1 in     
order to have this  enforced baptism    
wiped off by some holy man of their own 

faith4 #cdb  ,these mass conversions    
were rendered the more ineffectual by   
being  confined to the men1 for as the  
royal edict had made no mention of the  
women they were in no way molested1--a  
circumstance that probably proved  to be
 of considerable significance in the    
future history of ,islam in  ,abyssinia1
 as ,massaja bears striking testimony to
 the important part  the ,muhammadan    
women have played in the diffusion of   
their faith in  this country4 #cdc ,by  
#ahhj ,king ,john is said to have       
compelled about  #ej1jjj ,muhammadans to
 be baptised1 as well as #bj1jjj members
 of one of  the pagan tribes and half a 
million of ,gallas1 #cdd but as their   
conversion went no further than baptism 
and the payment of tithes1 it  is not   
surprising to learn that the only result
 of these violent  measures was to      
increase the hatred and hostility of    
both the ,muslim  and the heathen       
,abyssinians towards the ,christian     
faith4 #cde ,the king  of the petty     

state of ,kafa 7which had almost always 
acknowledged the  supremacy of          
,abyssinia71--,sawo-,teheno1--took      
advantage of the  embarrassment of ,king
 ,john1 who was threatened at once by   
the ,italians  and the followers of the 
,mahd1 to assert his independence1 and  
became  a ,musalman1 in order to do so  
more effectively4 ,he successfully      
resisted all attacks until #ahig1 when  
his state was reconquered and he        
himself taken prisoner by the ,emperor  
,menelik1 the former king of ,shoa1  who
 had established his authority over the 
whole of ,abyssinia after the  death of 
,king ,john in #ahhi4 ,christianity was 
re-established as the  state religion   
throughout ,kafa and ,christian worship 
renewed in the  churches1 which had been
 left uninjured1 being either shut up or
 turned  into mosques4 #cdf ,but these  
violent measures taken in the interests 
of the ,christian faith have failed to  
arrest the growing power of ,islam      
during the nineteenth century4 ,whole   

tribes that were once ,christian  and   
still bear ,christian names1 such as    
,takls 78,plant of ,jesus071  ,hebts    
78,gift of ,jesus07 and ,temrym 78,gift 
of ,mary071 have become  ,muslim4 ,the  
two ,mnsa tribes which were entirely    
,christian about the  middle of the     
nineteenth century had become ,muslim1  
for the most part1  at the beginning of 
the twentieth century2 the propagandist 
efforts of  the ,muslims who converted  
them appear to have been facilitated    
through  the ignorance of the ,christian
 clergy4 ,a similar ,muhammadanising    
process has been going on for some time 
among other tribes also4 #cdg    ,we    
must return now to the history of       
,africa in the seventh century1  when   
the ,arabs were pushing their conquests 
from ,east to ,west along the  north    
coast4 ,the comparatively easy conquest 
of ,egypt1 where so many of  the        
inhabitants assisted the ,arabs in      
bringing the ,byzantine rule to an  end1
 found no parallel in the bloody        

campaigns and the long-continued        
resistance that here barred their       
further progress1 and half a century    
elapsed before the ,arabs succeeded in  
making themselves complete  masters of  
the north coast from ,egypt to the      
,atlantic ,ocean4 ,it was not  till #fih
 that the fall of ,carthage brought the 
,roman rule in ,africa to  an end for   
ever1 and the subjugation of the        
,berbers made the ,arabs  supreme in the
 country4    ,the details of these      
campaigns it is no part of our purpose  
to  consider1 but rather to attempt to  
discover in what way ,islam was  spread 
among the ,christian population4        
,unfortunately the materials  available 
for such a purpose are lamentably sparse
 and insufficient4  ,what became of that
 great ,african ,church that had given  
such saints and  theologians to         
,christendom8 ,the ,church of           
,tertullian1 ,st4 ,cyprian and  ,st4    
,augustine1 which had emerged victorious
 out of so many  persecutions1 and had  

so stoutly championed the cause of      
,christian  orthodoxy1 seems to have    
faded away like a mist4    ,in the      
absence of definite information1 it has 
been usual to ascribe  the disappearance
 of the ,christian population to        
fanatical persecutions  and forced      
conversions on the part of the ,muslim  
conquerors4 ,but there  are many        
considerations that militate against    
such a rough and ready  settlement of   
this question4 ,first of all1 there is  
the absence of  definite evidence in    
support of such an assertion4           
,massacres1  devastation and all the    
other accompaniments of a bloody and    
long-protracted war1 there were in      
horrible abundance1 but of actual       
religious persecution we have little    
mention1 and the survival of the  native
 ,christian ,church for more than eight 
centuries after the ,arab  conquest is a
 testimony to the toleration that alone 
could have  rendered such a survival    
possible4    ,the causes that brought   

about the decay of ,christianity in     
,north ,africa  must be sought for      
elsewhere than in the bigotry of        
,muhammadan rulers4  ,but before        
attempting to enumerate these1 it will  
be well to realise  how very small must 
have been the number of the ,christian  
population at  the end of the seventh   
century--a circumstance that renders its
  continued existence under ,muhammadan 
rule still more significant of the      
absence of forced conversion1 and leaves
 such a hypothesis much less            
plausibility than would have been the   
case had the ,arabs found a large  and  
flourishing ,christian ,church there    
when they commenced their  conquest of  
northern ,africa4    ,the ,roman        
provinces of ,africa1 to which the      
,christian population was  confined1    
never extended far southwards2 the      
,sahara forms a barrier in  this        
direction1 so that the breadth of the   
coast seldom exceeds #hj or  #ajj miles4
 #cdh ,though there were as many as #ejj

 bishoprics just  before the ,vandal    
conquest1 this number can serve as no   
criterion of  the number of the         
faithful1 owing to the practice observed
 in the  ,african ,church of appointing 
bishops to the most inconsiderable towns
  and very frequently to the most       
obscure villages1 #cdi and it is        
doubtful whether ,christianity ever     
spread far inland among the ,berber     
tribes4 #cej ,when the power of the     
,roman ,empire declined in the fifth    
century1 different tribes of this great 
race1 known to the ,romans under  the   
names of ,moors1 ,numidians1 ,libyans1  
etc41 swarmed up from the south  to     
ravage and destroy the wealthy cities of
 the coast4 ,these invaders  were       
certainly heathen4 ,the ,libyans1 whose 
devastations are so  pathetically       
bewailed by ,synesius of ,cyrene1       
pillaged and burnt the  churches and    
carried off the sacred vessels for their
 own idolatrous  rites1 #cea and this   
province of ,cyrenaica never recovered  

from their  devastations1 and           
,christianity was probably almost       
extinct here at the  time of the ,muslim
 invasion4 ,the ,moorish chieftain in   
the district of  ,tripolis1 who was at  
war with the ,vandal king ,thorismund   
7#dif-ebd71 but  respected the churches 
and clergy of the orthodox1 who had been
  ill-treated by the ,vandals1 declared 
his heathenism when he said1 8,i do  not
 know who the ,god of the ,christians   
is1 but if he is so powerful as  he is  
represented1 he will take vengeance on  
those who insult him1 and  succour those
 who do him honour40 #ceb ,there is some
 probability that  the nomads of        
,mauritania also were very largely      
heathen4    ,but whatever may have been 
the extent of the ,christian ,church1 it
  received a blow from the ,vandal      
persecutions from which it never        
recovered4 ,for nearly a century the    
,arian ,vandals persecuted the  orthodox
 with relentless fury2 sent their       
bishops into exile1 forbade  the public 

exercise of their religion and cruelly  
tortured those who  refused to conform  
to the religion of their conquerors4    
#cec ,when in  #ecd1 ,belisarius crushed
 the power of the ,vandals and restored 
,north  ,africa to the ,roman ,empire1  
only #bag bishops met in the ,synod of  
,carthage #ced to resume the direction  
of the ,christian ,church4 ,after  the  
fierce and long-continued persecution to
 which they had been  subjected the     
number of the faithful must have been   
very much reduced1  and during the      
century that elapsed before the coming  
of the  ,muhammadans1 the inroads of the
 barbarian ,moors1 who shut the ,romans 
up  in the cities and other centres of  
population1 and kept the mountains1  the
 desert and the open country for        
themselves1 #cee the prevalent  disorder
 and ill-government1 and above all the  
desolating plagues that  signalised the 
latter half of the sixth century1 all   
combined to carry  on the work of       
destruction4 ,five millions of ,africans

 are said to have  been consumed by the 
wars and government of the ,emperor     
,justinian4 ,the  wealthier citizens    
abandoned a country whose commerce and  
agriculture1  once so flourishing1 had  
been irretrievably ruined4 8,such was   
the  desolation of ,africa1 that in many
 parts a stranger might wander whole    
days without meeting the face either of 
a friend or an enemy4 ,the  nation of   
the ,vandals had disappeared2 they once 
amounted to an hundred  and sixty       
thousand warriors1 without including the
 children1 the women1  or the slaves4   
,their numbers were infinitely surpassed
 by the number of  ,moorish families    
extirpated in a relentless war2 the same
 destruction  was retaliated on the     
,romans and their allies1 who perished  
by the  climate1 their mutual quarrels1 
and the rage of the barbarians40 #cef   
,in #fdf1 the year before the victorious
 ,arabs advanced from ,egypt to the     
subjugation of the western province1 the
 ,african ,church that had  championed  

so often the purity of ,christian       
doctrine1 was stirred to  its depths by 
the struggle against ,monotheletism2 but
 when the bishops  of the four          
ecclesiastical provinces in the         
archbishopric of ,carthage1  viz4       
,mauritania1 ,numidia1 ,byzacena and    
,africa ,proconsularis1 held  councils  
to condemn ,monotheletism1 and wrote    
synodal letters to the  ,emperor and the
 ,pope1 there were only sixty-eight     
bishops who assembled  at ,carthage to  
represent the last-mentioned province1  
and forty-two for  ,byzacena4 ,the      
numbers from the other two dioceses are 
not given1 but  the ,christian          
population had undoubtedly suffered much
 more in these  than in the two other   
dioceses which were nearer to the seat  
of  government4 #ceg ,it is exceedingly 
unlikely that any of the bishops  were  
absent on an occasion that excited so   
much feeling1 when zeal for  ,christian 
doctrine and political animosity to the 
,byzantine court both  combined in      

stimulating this movement1 and when     
,africa took the most  prominent part in
 stirring up the opposition that led to 
the convening  of the great ,lateran    
,council of #fdh4 ,this diminution in   
the number of  the ,african bishops     
certainly points to a vast decrease in  
the  ,christian population1 and in      
consideration of the numerous causes    
contributing to a decay of the          
population1 too great stress even must  
not be laid upon the number of these1   
because an episcopal see may  continue  
to be filled long after the diocese has 
sunk into  insignificance4    ,from the 
considerations enumerated above1 it may 
certainly be inferred  that the         
,christian population at the time of the
 ,muhammadan invasion  was by no means a
 large one4 ,during the fifty years that
 elapsed before  the ,arabs assured     
their victory1 the ,christian population
 was still  further reduced by the      
devastations of this long conflict4 ,the
 city of  ,tripolis1 after sustaining a 

siege of six months1 was sacked1 and of 
the inhabitants part were put to the    
sword and the rest carried off  captive 
into ,egypt and ,arabia4 #ceh ,another  
city1 bordering on the  ,numidian       
desert1 was defended by a ,roman count  
with a large garrison  which bravely    
endured a blockade of a whole year2 when
 at last it was  taken by storm1 all the
 males were put to the sword and the    
women and  children carried off captive4
 #cei ,the number of such captives is   
said  to have amounted to several       
hundreds of thousands4 #cfj ,many of the
  ,christians took refuge in flight1    
#cfa some into ,italy and ,spain1  #cfb 
and it would almost seem that others    
even wandered as far as  ,germany1      
judging from a letter addressed to the  
diocese of ,st4 ,boniface  by ,pope     
,gregory ,,ii4 #cfc ,in fact1 many of   
the great ,roman cities were  quite     
depopulated1 and remained uninhabited   
for a long time or were  even left to   
fall to ruins entirely1 #cfd while in   

several cases the  conquerors chose     
entirely new sites for their chief      
towns4 #cfe    ,as to the scattered     
remnants of the once flourishing        
,christian ,church  that still remained 
in ,africa at the end of the seventh    
century1 it can  hardly be supposed that
 persecution is responsible for their   
final  disappearance1 in the face of the
 fact that traces of a native           
,christian community were to be found   
even so late as the sixteenth  century4 
,idrs1 the founder of the dynasty in    
,morocco that bore his  name1 is indeed 
said to have compelled by force         
,christians and ,jews to  embrace ,islam
 in the year ,a4,d4 #ghi1 when he had   
just begun to carve out  a kingdom for  
himself with the sword1 #cff but1 as far
 as ,i have been  able to discover1 this
 incident is without parallel in the    
history of  the native ,church of ,north
 ,africa4 #cfg    ,the very slowness of 
its decay is a testimony to the         
toleration it must  have received4      

,about #cjj years after the ,muhammadan 
conquest there were  still nearly forty 
bishoprics left1 #cfh and when in #ajec 
,pope ,leo ,,ix  laments that only five 
bishops could be found to represent the 
once  flourishing ,african ,church1 #cfi
 the cause is most probably to be       
sought for in the terrible bloodshed and
 destruction wrought by the  ,arab      
hordes that had poured into the country 
a few years before and  filled it with  
incessant conflict and anarchy4 #cgj ,in
 #ajgf1 the  ,african ,church could not 
provide the three bishops necessary for 
the  consecration of an aspirant to the 
dignity of the episcopate1 in           
accordance with the demands of canon    
law1 and it was necessary for ,pope     
,gregory ,,vii to consecrate two bishops
 to act as coadjutors of the            
,archbishop of ,carthage2 but the       
numbers of the faithful were still so   
large as to demand the creation of fresh
 bishops to lighten the burden  of the  
work1 which was too heavy for these     

three bishops to perform  unaided4 #cga 
,in the course of the next two          
centuries1 the ,christian  ,church      
declined still further1 and in #abdf the
 bishop of ,morocco was  the sole       
spiritual leader of the remnant of the  
native ,church4 #cgb ,up  to the same   
period traces of the survival of        
,christianity were still to  be found   
among the ,kabils of ,algeria2 #cgc     
these tribes had received  some slight  
instruction in the tenets of ,islam at  
an early period1 but  the new faith had 
taken very little hold upon them1 and as
 years went  by they lost even what     
little knowledge they had at first      
possessed1 so  much so that they even   
forgot the ,muslim formula of prayer4   
,shut up in  their mountain fastnesses  
and jealous of their independence1 they 
successfully resisted the introduction  
of the ,arab element into their  midst1 
and thus the difficulties in the way of 
their conversion were  very             
considerable4 ,some unsuccessful        

attempts to start a mission among  them 
had been made by the inmates of a       
monastery belonging to the  ,qdiriyyah  
order1 ,sqiyah al-amr1 but the honour of
 winning an  entrance among them for the
 ,muslim faith was reserved for a number
 of  ,andalusian ,moors who were driven 
out of ,spain after the taking of       
,granada in #adib4 ,they had taken      
refuge in this monastery and were       
recognised by the shaykh to be eminently
 fitted for the arduous task  that had  
previously so completely baffled the    
efforts of his disciples4  ,before      
dismissing them on this pious errand1 he
 thus addressed them3  8,it is a duty   
incumbent upon us to bear the torch of  
,islam into these  regions that have    
lost their inheritance in the blessings 
of religion2  for these unhappy ,kabils 
are wholly unprovided with schools1 and 
have  no shaykh to teach their children 
the laws of morality and the virtues  of
 ,islam2 so they live like the brute    
beasts1 without ,god or religion4  ,to  

do away with this unhappy state of      
things1 ,i have determined to  appeal to
 your religious zeal and enlightenment4 
,let not these  mountaineers wallow any 
longer in their pitiable ignorance of   
the grand  truths of our religion2 go   
and breathe upon the dying fire of their
  faith and re-illumine its smouldering 
embers2 purge them of whatever  errors  
may still cling to them from their      
former belief in  ,christianity2 make   
them understand that in the religion of 
our lord  ,muammad--may ,god have       
compassion upon him--dirt is not1 as in 
the  ,christian religion1 looked upon as
 acceptable in the eyes of ,god4 #cgd   
,i will not disguise from you the fact  
that your task is beset with            
difficulties1 but your irresistible zeal
 and the ardour of your faith  will     
enable you1 by the grace of ,god1 to    
overcome all obstacles4 ,go1 my         
children1 and bring back again to ,god  
and ,his ,prophet these unhappy  people 
who are wallowing in the mire of        

ignorance and unbelief4 ,go1 my         
children1 bearing the message of        
salvation1 and may ,god be with you and 
uphold you40    ,the missionaries       
started off in parties of five or six at
 a time in  various directions2 they    
went in rags1 staff in hand1 and        
choosing out  the wildest and least     
frequented parts of the mountains1      
established  hermitages in caves and    
clefts of the rocks4 ,their austerities 
and  prolonged devotions soon excited   
the curiosity of the ,kabils1 who after 
a short time began to enter into        
friendly relations with them4 ,little   
by little the missionaries gained the   
influence they desired through  their   
knowledge of medicine1 of the mechanical
 arts1 and other  advantages of         
civilisation1 and each hermitage became 
a centre of  ,muslim teaching4          
,students1 attracted by the learning of 
the new-comers1  gathered round them and
 in time became missionaries of ,islam  
to their  fellow-countrymen1 until their

 faith spread throughout all the country
  of the ,kabils and the villages of the
 ,algerian ,sahara4 #cge    ,the above  
incident is no doubt illustrative of the
 manner in which  ,islam was introduced 
among such other sections of the        
independent  tribes of the interior as  
had received any ,christian teaching1   
but  whose knowledge of this faith had  
dwindled down to the observance of a    
few superstitious rites2 #cgf for1 cut  
off as they were from the rest  of the  
,christian world and unprovided with    
spiritual teachers1 they  could have had
 little in the way of positive religious
 belief to oppose  to the teachings of  
the ,muslim missionaries4    ,there is  
little more to add to these sparse      
records of the decay of the  ,north     
,african ,church4 ,a ,muhammadan        
traveller1 #cgg who visited  al-,jard1  
the southern district of ,tunis1 in the 
early part of the  fourteenth century1  
tells us that the ,christian churches1  
although in  ruins1 were still standing 

in his day1 not having been destroyed by
 the  ,arab conquerors1 who had         
contented themselves with building a    
mosque in  front of each of these       
churches4 ,ibn ,khaldn 7writing towards 
the close  of the fourteenth century71  
speaks of some villages in the province 
of  ,qastliyyah1 #cgh with a ,christian 
population whose ancestors had  lived   
there since the time of the ,arab       
conquest4 #cgi ,at the end of  the      
following century there was still to be 
found in the city of ,tunis  a small    
community of native ,christians1 living 
together in one of the  suburbs1 quite  
distinct from that in which the foreign 
,christian  merchants resided2 far from 
being oppressed or persecuted1 they were
  employed as the bodyguard of the      
,sultan4 #chj ,these were doubtless the 
same persons as were congratulated on   
their perseverance in the  ,christian   
faith by ,charles ,v after the capture  
of ,tunis in #aece4 #cha    ,this is the
 last we hear of the native ,christian  

,church in ,north  ,africa4 ,the very   
fact of its so long survival would      
militate against  any supposition of    
forced conversion1 even if we had not   
abundant  evidence of the tolerant      
spirit of the ,arab rulers of the       
various ,north  ,african kingdoms1 who  
employed ,christian soldiers1 #chb      
granted by  frequent treaties the free  
exercise of their religion to ,christian
  merchants and settlers1 #chc and to   
whom ,popes #chd recommended the  care  
of the native ,christian population1    
while exhorting the latter to  serve    
their ,muhammadan rulers faithfully4    
#che                  ,,chapter ,v4     
,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,among     
,,the ,,christians ,,of ,,spain4        
,in #gaa the victorious ,arabs          
introduced ,islam into ,spain3 in #aejb 
an  edict of ,ferdinand and ,isabella   
forbade the exercise of the ,muhammadan 
religion throughout the kingdom4 ,during
 the centuries that elapsed  between    
these two dates1 ,muslim ,spain had     

written one of the brightest  pages in  
the history of medival ,europe4 ,her    
influence had passed  through ,provence 
into the other countries of ,europe1    
bringing into  birth a new poetry and a 
new culture1 and it was from her that   
,christian scholars received what of    
,greek philosophy and science they  had 
to stimulate their mental activity up to
 the time of the  ,renaissance4 ,but    
these triumphs of the civilised         
life--art and poetry1  science and      
philosophy--we must pass over here and  
fix our attention on  the religious     
condition of ,spain under the ,muslim   
rule4    ,when the ,muhammadans first   
brought their religion into ,spain they 
found  ,catholic ,christianity firmly   
established after its conquest over     
,arianism4 ,the sixth ,council of       
,toledo had enacted that all kings were 
to swear that they would not suffer the 
exercise of any other religion  but the 
,catholic1 and would vigorously enforce 
the law against all  dissentients1 while

 a subsequent law forbade any one under 
pain of  confiscation of his property   
and perpetual imprisonment1 to call in  
question the ,holy ,catholic and        
,apostolic ,church1 the ,evangelical    
,institutions1 the definitions of the   
,fathers1 the decrees of the  ,church1  
and the ,holy ,sacraments4 ,the clergy  
had gained for their order  a           
preponderating influence in the affairs 
of the state2 #chf the  bishops and     
chief ecclesiastics sat in the national 
councils1 which met  to settle the most 
important business of the realm1        
ratified the  election of the king and  
claimed the right to depose him if he   
refused  to abide by their decrees4 ,the
 ,christian clergy took advantage of    
their  power to persecute the ,jews1 who
 formed a very large community in       
,spain2 edicts of a brutally severe     
character were passed against such  as  
refused to be baptised2 #chg and they   
consequently hailed the  invading ,arabs
 as their deliverers from such cruel    

oppression1 they  garrisoned the        
captured cities on behalf of the        
conqueror and opened  the gates of towns
 that were being besieged4 #chh    ,the 
,muhammadans received as warm a welcome 
from the slaves1 whose  condition under 
the ,gothic rule was a very miserable   
one1 and whose  knowledge of            
,christianity was too superficial to    
have any weight when  compared with the 
liberty and numerous advantages they    
gained1 by  throwing in their lot with  
the ,muslims4    ,these down-trodden    
slaves were the first converts to ,islam
 in ,spain4  ,the remnants of the       
heathen population of which we find     
mention as late  as ,a4,d4 #fic1 #chi   
probably followed their example4 ,many  
of the  ,christian nobles1 also1 whether
 from genuine conviction or from other  
motives1 embraced the new creed4 #cij   
,many converts were won1 too1  from the 
lower and middle classes1 who may well  
have embraced ,islam1  not merely       
outwardly1 but from genuine conviction1 

turning to it from a  religion whose    
ministers had left them ill-instructed  
and uncared for1  and busied with       
worldly ambitions had plundered and     
oppressed their  flocks4 #cia ,having   
once become ,muslims1 these ,spanish    
converts showed  themselves zealous     
adherents of their adopted faith1 and   
they and their  children joined         
themselves to the ,puritan party of the 
rigid ,muhammadan  theologians as       
against the careless and luxurious life 
of the ,arab  aristocracy4 #cib    ,at  
the time of the ,muhammadan conquest the
 old ,gothic virtues are said  by       
,christian historians to have declined  
and given place to effeminacy  and      
corruption1 so that the ,muhammadan rule
 appeared to them to be a  punishment   
sent from ,god on those who had gone    
astray into the paths of  vice2 #cic but
 such a statement is too frequent a     
commonplace of the  ecclesiastical      
historian to be accepted in the absence 
of contemporary  evidence4 #cid    ,but 

certainly as time went on1 matters do   
not seem to have mended  themselves2 and
 when ,christian bishops took part in   
the revels of the  ,muhammadan court1   
when episcopal sees were put up to      
auction and  persons suspected to be    
atheists appointed as shepherds of the  
faithful1 and these in their turn       
bestowed the office of the priesthood   
on low and unworthy persons1 #cie we may
 well suppose that it was not  only in  
the province of ,elvira #cif that       
,christians turned from a  religion1 the
 corrupt lives of whose ministers had   
brought it into  discredit1 #cig and    
sought a more congenial atmosphere for  
the moral  and spiritual life in the    
pale of ,islam4    ,had ecclesiastical  
writers cared to chronicle them1 ,spain 
would  doubtless be found to offer      
instances of many a man leaving the     
,christian ,church like ,bodo1 a deacon 
at the ,french court in the reign  of   
,louis the ,pious1 who in ,a4,d4 #hch   
became a ,jew1 in order that 7as he     

said71 forsaking his sinful life1 he    
might 8abide steadfast in the law  of   
the ,lord40 #cih    ,it is very         
possible1 too1 that the lingering       
remains of the old ,gothic              
,arianism--of which1 indeed1 there had  
been some slight revival in the         
,spanish ,church just before the ,arab  
conquest #cii--may have predisposed     
men's minds to accept the new faith     
whose ,christology was in such close    
agreement with ,arian doctrine1 #djj and
 a later age may have witnessed         
parallels to that change of faith which 
is the earliest recorded  instance of   
conversion to ,islam in western ,europe 
and occurred before  the ,arab invasion 
of ,spain--namely the conversion of a   
,greek named  ,theodisclus1 who         
succeeded ,st4 ,isidore 7ob4 ,a4,d4     
#fcf7 as ,archbishop of  ,seville2 he   
was accused of heresy1 for maintaining  
that ,jesus was not  one ,god in unity  
with the ,father and the ,holy ,spirit1 
but was rather  ,son of ,god by         

adoption2 he was accordingly condemned  
by an  ecclesiastical synod1 deprived of
 his archbishopric and degraded from    
the priesthood4 ,whereupon he went over 
to the ,arabs and embraced ,islam  among
 them4 #dja    ,of forced conversion or 
anything like persecution in the early  
days of  the ,arab conquest1 we hear    
nothing4 ,indeed1 it was probably in a  
great  measure their tolerant attitude  
towards the ,christian religion that    
facilitated their rapid acquisition of  
the country4 ,the only complaint  that  
the ,christians could bring against     
their new rulers for treating  them     
differently to their non-,christian     
subjects1 was that they had to  pay the 
usual capitation-tax of forty-eight     
dirhams for the rich1  twenty-four for  
the middle classes1 and twelve for those
 who made their  living by manual       
labour3 this1 as being in lieu of       
military service1  was levied only on   
the able-bodied males1 for women1       
children1 monks1  the halt1 and the     

blind1 and the sick1 mendicants and     
slaves were  exempted therefrom2 #djb it
 must moreover have appeared the less   
oppressive as being collected by the    
,christian officials themselves4  #djc  
,except in the case of offences against 
the ,muslim religious law1 the          
,christians were tried by their own     
judges and in accordance with their  own
 laws4 #djd ,they were left undisturbed 
in the exercise of their  religion2 #dje
 the sacrifice of the mass was offered1 
with the  swinging of censers1 the      
ringing of the bell1 and all the other  
solemnities of the ,catholic ritual2 the
 psalms were chanted in the  choir1     
sermons preached to the people1 and the 
festivals of the ,church  observed in   
the usual manner4 ,they do not appear to
 have been  condemned1 like their       
co-religionists in ,syria and ,egypt1 to
 wear a  distinctive dress as sign of   
their humiliation1 and in the ninth     
century at least1 the ,christian laity  
wore the same kind of costume as  the   

,arabs4 #djf ,they were at one time even
 allowed to build new  churches4 #djg   
,we read also of the founding #djh of   
several fresh monasteries in  addition  
to the numerous convents both for monks 
and nuns that  flourished undisturbed by
 the ,muhammadan rulers4 ,the monks     
could appear  publicly in the woollen   
robes of their order and the priest had 
no need  to conceal the mark of his     
sacred office1 #dji nor at the same time
  did their religious profession prevent
 the ,christians from being  entrusted  
with high offices at court1 #daj or     
serving in the ,muslim  armies4 #daa    
,certainly those ,christians who could  
reconcile themselves to the loss  of    
political power had little to complain  
of1 and it is very noticeable  that     
during the whole of the eighth century  
we hear of only one attempt  at revolt  
on their part1 namely at ,beja1 and in  
this they appear to  have followed the  
lead of an ,arab chief4 #dab ,those who 
migrated into  ,french territory in     

order that they might live under a      
,christian rule1  certainly fared no    
better than the co-religionists they had
 left  behind4 ,in #hab ,charlemagne    
interfered to protect the exiles who had
  followed him on his retreat from      
,spain from the exactions of the        
imperial officers4 ,three years later   
,louis the ,pious had to issue  another 
edict on their behalf1 in spite of which
 they had soon again to  complain       
against the nobles who robbed them of   
the lands that had been  assigned to    
them4 ,but the evil was only checked for
 a little time to  break out afresh1 and
 all the edicts passed on their behalf  
did not  avail to make the lot of these 
unfortunate exiles more tolerable1 and  
in the ,cagots 7i4e4 canes ,gothi71 a   
despised and ill-treated class of  later
 times1 we probably meet again the      
,spanish colony that fled away  from    
,muslim rule to throw themselves upon   
the mercy of their ,christian           
co-religionists4 #dac    ,the toleration

 of the ,muhammadan government towards  
its ,christian  subjects in ,spain and  
the freedom of intercourse between the  
adherents  of the two religions brought 
about a certain amount of assimilation  
in  the two communities4                
,inter-marriages became frequent2 #dad  
,isidore of  ,beja1 who fiercely        
inveighs against the ,muslim conquerors1
 records the  marriage of ,abd al-,azz1 
the son of ,ms1 with the widow of ,king 
,roderic1 without a word of blame4 #dae 
,many of the ,christians adopted  ,arab 
names1 and in outward observances       
imitated to some extent their           
,muhammadan neighbours1 e4g4 many were  
circumcised1 #daf and in matters  of    
food and drink followed the practice of 
the 8unbaptized pagans40  #dag    ,the  
very term ,muzarabes 7i4e4 mustaribn or 
,arabicised7 applied to the  ,spanish   
,christians living under ,arab rule1 is 
significant of the  tendencies that were
 at work4 ,the study of ,arabic very    
rapidly began to  displace that of      

,latin throughout the country1 #dah so  
that the  language of ,christian        
theology came gradually to be neglected 
and  forgotten4 ,even some of the higher
 clergy rendered themselves  ridiculous 
by their ignorance of correct ,latinity4
 #dai ,it could  hardly be expected that
 the laity would exhibit more zeal in   
such a  matter than the clergy1 and in  
#hed a ,spanish writer brings the       
following complaint against his         
,christian fellow-countrymen3--8,while  
we  are investigating their 7i4e4 the   
,muslim7 sacred ordinances and meeting  
together to study the sects of their    
philosophers--or rather                 
philobraggers--not for the purpose of   
refuting their errors1 but for the      
exquisite charm and for the eloquence   
and beauty of their                     
language--neglecting the reading of the 
,scriptures1 we are but setting  up as  
an idol the number of the beast4 7,apoc4
 xiii4 #ah47 ,where nowadays  can we    
find any learned layman who1 absorbed in

 the study of the ,holy  ,scriptures1   
cares to look at the works of any of the
 ,latin ,fathers8 ,who  is there with   
any zeal for the writings of the        
,evangelists1 or the  ,prophets1 or     
,apostles8 ,our ,christian young men1   
with their elegant airs  and fluent     
speech1 are showy in their dress and    
carriage1 and are famed  for the        
learning of the gentiles2 intoxicated   
with ,arab eloquence they  greedily     
handle1 eagerly devour and zealously    
discuss the books of the  ,chaldeans    
7i4e4 ,muhammadans71 and make them known
 by praising them with  every flourish  
of rhetoric1 knowing nothing of the     
beauty of the  ,church's literature1 and
 looking down with contempt on the      
streams of  the ,church that flow forth 
from ,paradise2 alas6 the ,christians   
are so  ignorant of their own law1 the  
,latins pay so little attention to their
  own language1 that in the whole       
,christian flock there is hardly one man
  in a thousand who can write a letter  

to inquire after a friend's health      
intelligibly1 while you may find a      
countless rabble of all kinds of  them  
who can learnedly roll out the          
grandiloquent periods of the  ,chaldean 
tongue4 ,they can even make poems1 every
 line ending with the  same letter1     
which display high flights of beauty and
 more skill in  handling metre than the 
gentiles themselves possess40 #dbj      
,in fact the knowledge of ,latin so much
 declined in one part of ,spain  that it
 was found necessary to translate the   
ancient ,canons of the  ,spanish ,church
 and the ,bible into ,arabic for the use
 of the ,christians4  #dba    ,while the
 brilliant literature of the ,arabs     
exercised such a  fascination and was so
 zealously studied1 those who desired an
  education in ,christian literature had
 little more than the materials  that   
had been employed in the training of the
 barbaric ,goths1 and could  with       
difficulty find teachers to induct them 
even into this low level  of culture4   

,as time went on this want of ,christian
 education increased  more and more4 ,in
 #aabe the ,muzarabes wrote to ,king    
,alfonso of ,aragon3  8,we and our      
fathers have up to this time been       
brought up among the  gentiles1 and     
having been baptised1 freely observe the
 ,christian  ordinances2 but we have    
never had it in our power to be fully   
instructed in our divine religion2 for1 
subject as we are to the  infidels who  
have long oppressed us1 we have never   
ventured to ask for  teachers from ,rome
 or ,france2 and they have never come to
 us of their  own accord on account of  
the barbarity of the heathen whom we    
obey40  #dbb    ,from such close        
intercourse with the ,muslims and so    
diligent a study of  their              
literature--when we find even so bigoted
 an opponent of ,islam as  ,alvar #dbc  
acknowledging that the ,qurn was        
composed in such eloquent  and beautiful
 language that even ,christians could   
not help reading and  admiring it--we   

should naturally expect to find signs of
 a religious  influence3 and such indeed
 is the case4 ,elipandus1 bishop of     
,toledo  7ob4 #haj71 an exponent of the 
heresy of ,adoptionism--according to    
which  the ,man ,christ ,jesus was ,son 
of ,god by adoption and not by          
nature--is  expressly said to have      
arrived at these heretical views through
 his  frequent and close intercourse    
with the ,muhammadans4 #dbd ,this new   
doctrine appears to have spread quickly 
over a great part of ,spain1  while it  
was successfully propagated in          
,septimania1 which was under  ,french   
protection1 by ,felix1 bishop of ,urgel 
in ,catalonia4 #dbe ,felix  was brought 
before a council1 presided over by      
,charlemagne1 and made to  abjure his   
error1 but on his return to ,spain he   
relapsed into his old  heresy1 doubtless
 7as was suggested by ,pope ,leo ,,iii  
at the time7 owing  to his intercourse  
with the pagans 7meaning thereby the    
,muhammadans7  who held similar views4  

#dbf ,when prominent churchmen were so  
profoundly influenced by their contact  
with ,muhammadans1 we may judge  that   
the influence of ,islam upon the        
,christians of ,spain was very          
considerable1 indeed in ,a4,d4 #icf a   
council was held at ,toledo to  consider
 the best means of preventing this      
intercourse from  contaminating the     
purity of the ,christian faith4 #dbg    
,it may readily be understood how these 
influences of ,islamic thought  and     
practice--added to definite efforts at  
conversion #dbh--would lead  to much    
more than a mere approximation and would
 very speedily swell  the number of the 
converts to ,islam so that their        
descendants1 the  so-called             
,muwallads--a term denoting those not of
 ,arab blood--soon formed  a large and  
important party in the state1 indeed the
 majority of the  population of the     
country1 #dbi and as early as the       
beginning of the  ninth century we read 
of attempts made by them to shake off   

the ,arab  rule1 and on several         
occasions later they come forward       
actively as a  national party of        
,spanish ,muslims4    ,we have little or
 no details of the history of the       
conversion of these  ,new-,muslims4     
,instances appeared to have occurred    
right up to the last  days of ,muslim   
rule1 for when the army of ,ferdinand   
and ,isabella  captured ,malaga in      
#adhg1 it is recorded that all the      
renegade  ,christians found in the city 
were tortured to death with             
sharp-pointed  reeds1 and in the        
capitulation that secured the submission
 of ,purchena  two years later1 an      
express promise was made that renegades 
would not  be forced to return to       
,christianity4 #dcj ,some few           
apostatised to  escape the payment of   
some penalty inflicted by the           
law-courts4 #dca  ,but the majority of  
the converts were no doubt won over by  
the imposing  influence of the faith of 
,islam itself1 presented to them as it  

was  with all the glamour of a brilliant
 civilisation1 having a poetry1 a       
philosophy and an art well calculated to
 attract the reason and dazzle  the     
imagination3 while in the lofty chivalry
 of the ,arabs there was  free scope for
 the exhibition of manly prowess and the
 knightly  virtues--a career closed to  
the conquered ,spaniards that remained  
true  to the ,christian faith4 ,again1  
the learning and literature of the      
,christians must have appeared very poor
 and meagre when compared with  that of 
the ,muslims1 the study of which may    
well by itself have served  as an       
incentive to the adoption of their      
religion4 ,besides1 to the  devout mind 
,islam in ,spain could offer the        
attractions of a pious and  zealous     
,puritan party with the orthodox ,muslim
 theologians at its head1  which at     
times had a preponderating influence in 
the state and  struggled earnestly      
towards a reformation of faith and      
morals4    ,taking into consideration   

the ardent religious feeling that       
animated  the mass of the ,spanish      
,muslims and the provocation that the   
,christians  gave to the ,muhammadan    
government through their treacherous    
intrigues  with their co-religionists   
over the border1 the history of ,spain  
under  ,muhammadan rule is singularly   
free from persecution4 ,with the        
exception  of three or four cases of    
genuine martyrdom1 the only approach to 
anything like persecution during the    
whole period of the ,arab rule is  to be
 found in the severe measures adopted by
 the ,muhammadan government  to repress 
the madness for voluntary martyrdom that
 broke out in  ,cordova in the ninth    
century4 ,at this time a fanatical party
 came into  existence among the         
,christians in this part of ,spain 7for 
apparently  the ,christian ,church in   
the rest of the country had no sympathy 
with  the movement71 which set itself   
openly and unprovokedly to insult the   
religion of the ,muslims and blaspheme  

their ,prophet1 with the  deliberate    
intention of incurring the penalty of   
death by such  misguided assertion of   
their ,christian bigotry4    ,this      
strange passion for self-immolation     
displayed itself mainly among  priests1 
monks and nuns between the years #hej   
and #hfj4 ,it would seem  that brooding1
 in the silence of their cloisters1 over
 the decline of  ,christian influence   
and the decay of religious zeal1 they   
went forth to  win the martyr's         
crown--of which the toleration of their 
infidel rulers  was robbing them--by    
means of fierce attacks on ,islam and   
its founder4  ,thus1 for example1 a     
certain monk1 by name ,isaac1 came      
before the ,q  and pretended that he    
wished to be instructed in the faith of 
,islam2  when the ,q had expounded to   
him the doctrines of the ,prophet1 he   
burst out with the words3 8,he hath lied
 unto you 7may the curse of ,god        
consume him671 who1 full of wickedness1 
hath led so many men into  perdition1   

and doomed them with himself to the pit 
of hell4 ,filled with  ,satan and       
practising ,satanic jugglery1 he hath   
given you a cup of  deadly wine to work 
disease in you1 and will expiate his    
guilt with  everlasting damnation4 ,why 
do ye not1 being endowed with           
understanding1  deliver yourselves from 
such dangers8 ,why do ye not1 renouncing
 the  ulcer of his pestilential         
doctrines1 seek the eternal salvation of
 the  ,gospel of the faith of ,christ80 
#dcb ,on another occasion two           
,christians forced their way into a     
mosque and there reviled the            
,muhammadan religion1 which1 they       
declared1 would very speedily bring     
upon its followers the destruction of   
hell-fire4 #dcc ,though the  number of  
such fanatics was not considerable1 #dcd
 the ,muhammadan  government grew       
alarmed1 fearing that such contempt for 
their authority  and disregard of their 
laws against blasphemy1 argued a        
widespread  disaffection and a possible 

general insurrection1 for in fact1 in   
#hec  ,muammad ,i had to send an army   
against the ,christians at ,toledo1 who1
  incited by ,eulogius1 the chief       
apologist of the martyrs1 had risen in  
revolt on the news of the sufferings of 
their co-religionists4 #dce ,he  is said
 to have ordered a general massacre of  
the ,christians1 but when  it was       
pointed out that no men of any          
intelligence or rank among the          
,christians had taken part in such      
doings #dcf 7for ,alvar himself         
complains that the majority of the      
,christian priests condemned the        
martyrs #dcg71 the king contented       
himself with putting into force the     
existing laws against blasphemy with the
 utmost rigour4 ,the moderate  party in 
the ,church seconded the efforts of the 
government2 the bishops  anathematised  
the fanatics1 and an ecclesiastical     
council that was held  in #heb to       
discuss the matter agreed upon methods  
of repression #dch  that eventually     

quashed the movement4 ,one or two       
isolated cases of  martyrdom are        
recorded later--the last in #ihc1 after 
which there was  none as long as the    
,arab rule lasted in ,spain4 #dci       
,but under the ,berber dynasty of the   
,almoravids at the beginning of the     
twelfth century1 there was an outburst  
of fanaticism on the part of the        
theological zealots of ,islam in which  
the ,christians had to suffer  along    
with the ,jews and the liberal section  
of the ,muhammadan  population--the     
philosophers1 the poets and the men of  
letters4 ,but such  incidents are       
exceptions to the generally tolerant    
character of the  ,muhammadan rulers of 
,spain towards their ,christian         
subjects4    ,one of the ,spanish       
,muhammadans who was driven out of his  
native country  in the last expulsion of
 the ,moriscoes in #afaj1 while         
protesting  against the persecutions of 
the ,inquisition1 makes the following   
vindication of the toleration of his    

co-religionists3 8,did our  victorious  
ancestors ever once attempt to extirpate
 ,christianity out of  ,spain1 when it  
was in their power8 ,did they not suffer
 your forefathers  to enjoy the free use
 of their rites at the same time that   
they wore  their chains8 ,is not the    
absolute injunction of our ,prophet1    
that  whatever nation is conquered by   
,musalman steel1 should1 upon the       
payment of a moderate annual tribute1 be
 permitted to persevere in  their own   
pristine persuasion1 how absurd soever1 
or to embrace what  other belief they   
themselves best approved of8 ,if there  
may have been  some examples of forced  
conversions1 they are so rare as scarce 
to  deserve mentioning1 and only        
attempted by men who had not the fear of
  ,god1 and the ,prophet1 before their  
eyes1 and who1 in so doing1 have  acted 
directly and diametrically contrary to  
the holy precepts and  ordinances of    
,islam which cannot1 without sacrilege1 
be violated by any  who would be held   

worthy of the honourable epithet of     
,musulman4444 ,you  can never produce1  
among us1 any bloodthirsty1 formal      
tribunal1 on  account of different      
persuasions in points of faith1 that    
anywise  approaches your execrable      
,inquisition4 ,our arms1 it is true1 are
 ever  open to receive all who are      
disposed to embrace our religion2 but we
  are not allowed by our sacred ,qurn to
 tyrannise over consciences4 ,our       
proselytes have all imaginable          
encouragement1 and have no sooner       
professed ,god's ,unity and ,his        
,apostle's mission but they become one  
of  us1 without reserve2 taking to wife 
our daughters1 and being employed  in   
posts of trust1 honour and profit2 we   
contenting ourselves with only  obliging
 them to wear our habit1 and to seem    
true believers in outward  appearance1  
without ever offering to examine their  
consciences1  provided they do not      
openly revile or profane our religion3  
if they do  that1 we indeed punish them 

as they deserve2 since their conversion 
was  voluntarily1 and was not by        
compulsion40 #ddj    ,this very spirit  
of toleration was made one of the main  
articles in an  account of the          
8,apostacies and ,treasons of the       
,moriscoes10 drawn up by  the           
,archbishop of ,valencia in #afjb when  
recommending their expulsion to  ,philip
 ,,iii1 as follows3 8,that they         
commended nothing so much as that       
liberty of conscience1 in all matters of
 religion1 which the ,turks1 and  all   
other ,muhammadans1 suffer their        
subjects to enjoy40 #dda    ,what deep  
roots ,islam had struck in the hearts of
 the ,spanish people  may be judged from
 the fact that when the last remnant of 
the ,moriscoes  was expelled from ,spain
 in #afaj1 these unfortunate people     
still clung  to the faith of their      
fathers1 although for more than a       
century they  had been forced to        
outwardly conform to the ,christian     
religion1 and in  spite of the          

emigrations that had taken place since  
the fall of  ,granada1 nearly #ejj1jjj  
are said to have been expelled at that  
time4  #ddb ,whole towns and villages   
were deserted and the houses fell into  
ruins1 there being no one to rebuild    
them4 #ddc ,these ,moriscoes were       
probably all descendants of the original
 inhabitants of the country1  with      
little or no admixture of ,arab blood2  
the reasons that may be  adduced in     
support of this statement are too       
lengthy to be given here2  one point    
only in the evidence may be mentioned1  
derived from a letter  written in #acaa1
 in which it is stated that of the      
#bjj1jjj ,muhammadans  then living in   
the city of ,granada1 not more than #ejj
 were of ,arab  descent1 all the rest   
being descendants of converted          
,spaniards4 #ddd  ,finally1 it is of    
interest to note that even up to the    
last days of its  power in ,spain1      
,islam won converts to the faith1 for   
the historian1  when writing of events  

that occurred in the year #adii1 seven  
years  after the fall of ,granada1 draws
 attention to the fact that among the   
,moors were a few ,christians who had   
lately embraced the faith of the        
,prophet4 #dde                          
,,chapter ,,vi4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of  
,,islam ,,among ,,the ,,christian       
,,nations  ,,in ,,europe ,,under ,,the  
,,turks4      ,we first hear of the     
,ottoman ,turks at the commencement of  
the  thirteenth century1 when fleeing   
before the ,mongols1 to the number of   
about #ej1jjj1 they came to the help of 
the ,sultan of ,iconium1 and in  return 
for their services both against the     
,mongols and the ,greeks1 had  assigned 
to them a district in the north-west of 
,asia ,minor4 ,this was  the nucleus of 
the future ,ottoman empire1 which1      
increasing at first by  the absorption  
of the petty states into which the      
,saljq ,turks had  split up1 afterwards 
crossed over into ,europe1 annexing     
kingdom after  kingdom1 until its       

victorious growth received a check      
before the gates  of ,vienna in #afhc4  
#ddf    ,from the earliest days of the  
extension of their kingdom in ,asia     
,minor1  the ,ottomans exercised        
authority over ,christian subjects1 but 
it was  not until the ancient capital of
 the ,eastern empire fell into their    
hands in #adec that the relations       
between the ,muslim ,government and the 
,christian ,church were definitely      
established on a fixed basis4 ,one of   
the first steps taken by ,muammad ,,ii1 
after the capture of  ,constantinople   
and the re-establishment of order in    
that city1 was to  secure the allegiance
 of the ,christians1 by proclaiming     
himself the  protector of the ,greek    
,church4 ,persecution of the ,christians
 was  strictly forbidden2 a decree was  
granted to the newly elected patriarch  
which secured to him and his successors 
and the bishops under him1 the          
enjoyment of the old privileges1        
revenues and exemptions enjoyed under   

the former rule4 ,gennadios1 the first  
patriarch after the ,turkish  conquest1 
received from the hands of the ,sultan  
himself the pastoral  staff1 which was  
the sign of his office1 together with a 
purse of a  thousand golden ducats and a
 horse with gorgeous trappings1 on which
 he  was privileged to ride with his    
train through the city4 #ddg ,but not   
only was the head of the ,church treated
 with all the respect he had  been      
accustomed to receive from the          
,christian emperors1 but further he  was
 invested with extensive civil power4   
,the patriarch's court sat to  decide   
all cases between ,greek and ,greek3 it 
could impose fines1  imprison offenders 
in a prison provided for its own special
 use1 and in  some cases even condemn to
 capital punishment3 while the ministers
 and  officials of the government were  
directed to enforce its judgments4 ,the 
complete control of spiritual and       
ecclesiastical matters 7in which the    
,turkish government1 unlike the civil   

power of the ,byzantine empire1  never  
interfered71 was left entirely in his   
hands and those of the  grand ,synod    
which he could summon whenever he       
pleased2 and hereby he  could decide all
 matters of faith and dogma without fear
 of  interference on the part of the    
state4 ,as a recognised officer of the  
imperial government1 he could do much   
for the alleviation of the  oppressed1  
by bringing the acts of unjust governors
 to the notice of  the ,sultan4 ,the    
,greek bishops in the provinces in their
 turn were  treated with great          
consideration and were entrusted with so
 much  jurisdiction in civil affairs1   
that up to modern times they have acted 
in their dioceses almost as if they were
 ,ottoman prefects over the  orthodox   
population1 thus taking the place of the
 old ,christian  aristocracy which had  
been exterminated by the conquerors1 and
 we find  that the higher clergy were   
generally more active as ,turkish agents
  than as ,greek priests1 and they      

always taught their people that the     
,sultan possessed a divine sanction1 as 
the protector of the ,orthodox  ,church4
 ,a charter was subsequently published1 
securing to the orthodox  the use of    
such churches as had not been           
confiscated to form mosques1  and       
authorising them to celebrate their     
religious rites publicly  according to  
their national usages4 #ddh             
,consequently1 though the ,greeks were  
numerically superior to the ,turks  in  
all the ,european provinces of the      
empire1 the religious toleration  thus  
granted them1 and the protection of life
 and property they  enjoyed1 soon       
reconciled them to the change of masters
 and led them to  prefer the domination 
of the ,sultan to that of any ,christian
 power4  ,indeed1 in many parts of the  
country1 the ,ottoman conquerors were   
welcomed by the ,greeks as their        
deliverers from the rapacious and       
tyrannous rule of the ,franks and the   
,venetians who had so long disputed     

with ,byzantium for the possession of   
the ,peloponnesos and some of the       
adjacent parts of ,greece2 by           
introducing into ,greece the feudal     
system1  these had reduced the people to
 the miserable condition of serfs1 and  
as aliens in speech1 race and creed1    
were hated by their subjects1  #ddi to  
whom a change of rulers1 since it could 
not make their  condition worse1 would  
offer a possible chance of improving it1
 and  though their deliverers were      
likewise aliens1 yet the infidel ,turk  
was  infinitely to be preferred to the  
heretical ,catholics4 #dej ,the ,greeks 
who lived under the immediate government
 of the ,byzantine court1 were  equally 
unlikely to be averse to a change of    
rulers4 ,the degradation  and tyranny   
that characterised the dynasty of the   
,palologi are  frightful to contemplate4
 8,a corrupt aristocracy1 a tyrannical  
and  innumerable clergy1 the oppression 
of perverted law1 the exactions of a    
despicable government1 and still more1  

its monopolies1 its fiscality1  its     
armies of tax and custom collectors1    
left the degraded people  neither rights
 nor institutions1 neither chance of    
amelioration nor  hope of redress40 #dea
 ,lest such a judgment appear dictated  
by a  spirit of party bias1 a           
contemporary authority may be appealed  
to in  support of its correctness4 ,the 
,russian annalists who speak of the fall
  of ,constantinople bring a similar    
indictment against its government4      
8,without the fear of the law an empire 
is like a steed without reins4          
,constantine and his ancestors allowed  
their grandees to oppress the  people2  
there was no more justice in their law  
courts2 no more courage  in their       
hearts2 the judges amassed treasures    
from the tears and blood  of the        
innocent2 the ,greek soldiers were proud
 only of the magnificence  of their     
dress2 the citizens did not blush at    
being traitors2 the  soldiers were not  
ashamed to fly4 ,at length the ,lord    

poured out ,his  thunder on these       
unworthy rulers1 and raised up ,muammad1
 whose  warriors delight in battle1 and 
whose judges do not betray their        
trust40 #deb ,this last item of praise  
#dec may sound strange in the  ears of a
 generation that has constantly been    
called upon to protest  against ,turkish
 injustice2 but it is clearly and       
abundantly borne out  by the testimony  
of contemporary historians4 ,the        
,byzantine historian  who has handed    
down to us the story of the capture of  
,constantinople  tells us how even the  
impetuous ,byazd was liberal and        
generous to his  ,christian subjects1   
and made himself extremely popular among
 them by  admitting them freely to his  
society4 #ded ,murd ,,ii distinguished  
himself by his attention to the         
administration of justice and by his    
reforms of the abuses prevalent under   
the ,greek emperors1 and punished       
without mercy those of his officials who
 oppressed any of his subjects4  #dee   

,for at least a century after the fall  
of ,constantinople a series  of able    
rulers secured1 by a firm and vigorous  
administration1 peace  and order        
throughout their dominions1 and an      
admirable civil and  judicial           
organisation1 if it did not provide an  
absolutely impartial  justice for       
,muslims and ,christians alike1 yet     
caused the ,greeks to be  far better off
 than they had been before4 ,they were  
harassed by fewer  exactions of forced  
labour1 extraordinary contributions were
 rarely  levied1 and the taxes they paid
 were a trifling burden compared with   
the endless feudal obligations of the   
,franks and the countless  extortions of
 the ,byzantines4 ,the ,turkish         
dominions were certainly  better        
governed and more prosperous than most  
parts of ,christian  ,europe1 and the   
mass of the ,christian population       
engaged in the  cultivation of the soil 
enjoyed a larger measure of private     
liberty and  of the fruits of their     

labour1 under the government of the     
,sultan than  their contemporaries did  
under that of many ,christian monarchs4 
#def ,a  great impulse1 too1 was given  
to the commercial activity of the       
country1 for the early ,sultans were    
always ready to foster trade and        
commerce among their subjects1 and many 
of the great cities entered  upon an era
 of prosperity when the ,turkish        
conquest had delivered them  from the   
paralysing fiscal oppression of the     
,byzantine empire1 one of  the first of 
them being ,nica1 which capitulated to  
,urkhn in #accj  under the most         
favourable terms after a long-protracted
 siege4 #deg  ,like the ancient ,romans1
 the ,ottomans were great makers of     
roads and  bridges1 and thereby         
facilitated trade throughout their      
empire2 and  foreign states were        
compelled to admit the ,greek merchants 
into ports  from which they had been    
excluded in the time of the ,byzantine  
emperors1 but now sailing under the     

,ottoman flag1 they assumed the  dress  
and manners of ,turks1 and thus secured 
from the nations of  ,western ,europe   
the respect and consideration which the 
,catholics had  hitherto always refused 
to the members of the ,greek ,church4   
#deh    ,there is1 however1 one notable 
exception to this general good treatment
  and toleration1 viz4 the tribute of   
,christian children1 who were  forcibly 
taken from their parents at an early age
 and enrolled in the  famous corps of   
,janissaries4 ,instituted by ,urkhn in  
#accj1 it formed  for centuries the     
mainstay of the despotic power of the   
,turkish  ,sultans1 and was kept alive  
by a regular contribution exacted every 
four years1 #dei when the officers of   
the ,sultan visited the districts  on   
which the tax was imposed1 and made a   
selection from among the  children about
 the age of seven4 ,the ,muhammadan     
legists attempted to  apologise for this
 inhuman tribute by representing these  
children as  the fifth of the spoil     

which the ,qurn assigns to the          
sovereign1 #dfj  and they prescribed    
that the injunction against forcible    
conversion  #dfa should be observed with
 regard to them also1 although the      
tender  age at which they were placed   
under the instruction of ,muslim        
teachers  must have made it practically 
of none effect4 #dfb ,christian ,europe 
has always expressed its horror at such 
a barbarous tax1 and travellers  in the 
,turkish dominions have painted touching
 pictures of desolated  homes and of    
parents weeping for the children torn   
from their arms4 ,but  when the corps   
was first instituted1 its numbers were  
rapidly swelled  by voluntary accessions
 from among the ,christians themselves1 
#dfc and  the circumstances under which 
this tribute was first imposed may go   
far  to explain the apathy which the    
,greeks themselves appear to have       
exhibited4 ,the whole country had been  
laid waste by war1 and families  were   
often in danger of perishing with       

hunger2 the children who were  thus     
adopted were in many cases orphans1 who 
would otherwise have been  left to      
perish2 further1 the custom so widely   
prevalent at that time of  selling      
,christians as slaves may have made this
 tax appear less  appalling than might  
have been expected4 ,this custom has1   
moreover1  been maintained to have been 
only a continuation of a similar usage  
that was in force under the ,byzantine  
emperors4 #dfd ,it has even been  said  
that there was seldom any necessity of  
an appeal to force on the  part of the  
officers who collected the appointed    
number of children1  but rather that the
 parents were often eager to have their 
children  enrolled in a service that    
secured for them in many cases a        
brilliant  career1 and under any        
circumstances a well-cared-for and      
comfortable  existence1 since these     
little captives were brought up and     
educated as  if they were the ,sultan's 
own children4 #dfe ,this institution    

appears  in a less barbarous light if it
 be true that the parents could often   
redeem their children by a money        
payment4 #dff ,metrophanes              
,kritopoulos1 who was ,patriarch of     
,constantinople and afterwards of       
,alexandria1 writing in #afbe1 mentions 
various devices adopted by the          
,christians for escaping from the burden
 of this tax1 e4g4 they  purchased      
,muhammadan boys and represented them to
 be ,christians1 or  they bribed the    
collectors to take ,christian boys who  
were of low birth  or had been badly    
brought up or such as 8deserved         
hanging40 #dfg  ,thomas ,smith1 among   
others1 speaks of the possibility of    
buying off the  children1 so impressed3 
8,some of their parents1 out of natural 
pity and  out of a true sense of        
religion1 that they may not be thus     
robbed of  their children1 who hereby   
lie under a necessity of renouncing     
their  ,christianity1 compound for them 
at the rate of fifty or a hundred       

dollars1 as they are able1 or as they   
can work upon the covetousness of  the  
,turks more or less40 #dfh ,the         
,christians of certain cities1 such  as 
,constantinople1 and of towns and       
islands that had made this  stipulation 
at the time of their submission to the  
,turks1 or had  purchased this          
privilege1 were exempted from the       
operation of this  cruel tax4 #dfi      
,these extenuating circumstances at the 
outset1 and the  ease with which men    
acquiesce in any established            
usage--though serving  in no way as an  
excuse for so inhuman an                
institution--may help us to  understand 
what a traveller in the seventeenth     
century calls the  8unaccountable       
indifference0 #dgj with which the       
,greeks seem to have  fallen in with    
this demand of the new government1 which
 so materially  improved their          
condition4    ,further1 the ,christian  
subjects of the ,turkish empire had to  
pay the  capitation-tax1 in return for  

protection and in lieu of military      
service4 ,the rates fixed by the        
,ottoman law were #b1 #e and #aj        
piastres  a head for every full-grown   
male1 according to his income1 #dga     
women  and the clergy being exempt4 #dgb
 ,in the nineteenth century the rates   
were #ae1 #cj and #fj piastres1         
according to income4 #dgc ,christian    
writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
 centuries generally speak of  this tax 
as being a ducat a head1 #dgd but it is 
also variously  described as amounting  
to #c1 #e or #e crowns or dollars4 #dge 
,the  fluctuating exchange value of the 
,turkish coinage in the seventeenth     
century is the probable explanation of  
the latter variations4 ,to  estimate    
with any exactitude how far this tax was
 a burden to those who  had to pay it1  
would require a lengthened disquisition 
on the  purchasing value of money at    
that period and a comparison with other 
items of expenditure4 #dgf ,but by      
itself it could hardly have formed a    

valid excuse for a change of faith1 as  
,tournefort points out1 when  writing in
 #agjj of the conversion of the         
,candiots3 8,it must be  confessed1     
these ,wretches sell their ,souls a     
,pennyworth3 all they get  in exchange  
for their ,religion1 is a ,vest1 and the
 ,privilege of being  exempt from the   
,capitation-,tax1 which is not above    
five ,crowns a year40  #dgg ,scheffler  
also1 who is anxious to represent the   
condition of the  ,christians under     
,turkish rule in as black colours as    
possible1 admits  that the one ducat a  
head was a trifling matter1 and has to  
lay stress  on the extraordinary taxes1 
war contributions1 etc41 that they were 
called upon to pay4 #dgh ,the land taxes
 were the same both for  ,christians and
 ,musalmans1 #dgi for the old           
distinction between lands  on which     
tithe was paid by the ,muhammadan       
proprietor1 and those on  which kharj   
was paid by the non-,muhammadan         
proprietor1 was not  recognised by the  

,ottomans4 #dhj ,whatever sufferings the
 ,christians  had to endure proceeded   
from the tyranny of individuals1 who    
took  advantage of their official       
position to extort money from those     
under  their jurisdiction4 ,such acts of
 oppression were not only contrary to   
the ,muhammadan law1 but were rare      
before the central government had  grown
 weak and suffered the corruption and   
injustice of local  authorities to go   
unpunished4 #dha ,there is a very marked
 difference  between the accounts we    
have of the condition of the ,christians
 during  the first two centuries of the 
,turkish rule in ,europe and those of a 
later date1 when the period of decadence
 had fully set in4 ,but it is           
noticeable that in those very times in  
which the condition of the  ,christians 
had been most intolerable there is least
 record of  conversion to ,islam4 ,in   
the eighteenth century1 when the        
condition of  the ,christians was worse 
than at any other period1 we find hardly

 any  mention of conversions at all1 and
 the ,turks themselves are represented  
as utterly indifferent to the progress  
of their religion and  considerably     
infected with scepticism and unbelief4  
#dhb ,a further  proof that their       
sufferings have been due to             
misgovernment rather than  to religious 
persecution is the fact that ,muslims   
and ,christians  suffered alike4 #dhc   
,the ,christians would1 however1        
naturally be more  exposed to extortion 
and ill-treatment owing to the          
difficulties that  lay in the way of    
obtaining redress at law1 and some of   
the poorest may  thus have sought a     
relief from their sufferings in a change
 of faith4    ,but if we except the     
tribute of the children1 to which the   
conquered  ,greeks seem to have         
submitted with so little show of        
resistance1 and  which owed its         
abolition1 not to any revolt or         
insurrection against its  continuance1  
but to the increase of the ,turkish     

population and of the  number of the    
renegades who were constantly entering  
the ,sultan's  service1 #dhd--the       
treatment of their ,christian subjects  
by the ,ottoman  emperors--at least for 
two centuries after their conquest of   
,greece--exhibits a toleration such as  
was at that time quite unknown in  the  
rest of ,europe4 ,the ,calvinists of    
,hungary and ,transylvania1 and the     
,unitarians of the latter country1 long 
preferred to submit to the ,turks       
rather than fall into the hands of the  
fanatical house of ,hapsburg2  #dhe and 
the ,protestants of ,silesia looked with
 longing eyes towards  ,turkey1 and     
would gladly have purchased religious   
freedom at the price  of submission to  
the ,muslim rule4 #dhf ,it was to       
,turkey that the  persecuted ,spanish   
,jews fled for refuge in enormous       
numbers at the end  of the fifteenth    
century1 #dhg and the ,cossacks who     
belonged to the  sect of the ,old       
,believers and were persecuted by the   

,russian ,state  ,church1 found in the  
dominions of the ,sultan the toleration 
which their  ,christian brethren denied 
them4 #dhh ,well might ,macarius1       
,patriarch of  ,antioch in the          
seventeenth century1 congratulate       
himself when he saw  the fearful        
atrocities that the ,catholic ,poles    
inflicted on the  ,russians of the      
,orthodox ,eastern ,church3 8,we all    
wept much over the  thousands of martyrs
 who were killed by those impious       
wretches1 the  enemies of the faith1 in 
these forty or fifty years4 ,the number 
probably amounted to seventy or eighty  
thousand souls4 ,o you infidels6  ,o you
 monsters of impurity6 ,o you hearts of 
stone6 ,what had the nuns  and women    
done8 ,what the girls and boys and      
infant children1 that you  should murder
 them8444 ,and why do ,i pronounce them 
7the ,poles7  accursed8 ,because they   
have shown themselves more debased and  
wicked  than the corrupt worshippers of 
idols1 by their cruel treatment of      

,christians1 thinking to abolish the    
very name of ,orthodox4 ,god  perpetuate
 the empire of the ,turks for ever and  
ever6 ,for they take  their impost1 and 
enter into no account of religion1 be   
their subjects  ,christians or          
,nazarenes1 ,jews or ,samarians3 whereas
 these accursed  ,poles were not content
 with taxes and tithes from the brethren
 of  ,christ1 though willing to serve   
them2 but they subjected them to the    
authority of the enemies of ,christ1 the
 tyrannical ,jews1 who did not  even    
permit them to build churches1 nor leave
 them any priests that  knew the        
mysteries of their faith40 #dhi ,even in
 ,italy there were men  who turned      
longing eyes towards the ,turks in the  
hope that as their  subjects they might 
enjoy the freedom and the toleration    
they despaired  of enjoying under a     
,christian government4 #dij ,it would   
seem1 then1  that ,islam was not spread 
by force in the dominion of the ,sultan 
of  ,turkey1 and though the want of     

even-handed justice and the oppression  
of unscrupulous officials in the days of
 the empire's decline1 may have  driven 
some ,christians to attempt to better   
their condition by a change  of faith1  
such cases were rare in the first two   
centuries of the  ,turkish rule in      
,europe1 to which period the mass of    
conversions belong4  ,it would have been
 wonderful indeed if the ardour of      
proselytising that  animated the        
,ottomans at this time had never carried
 them beyond the  bounds of toleration  
established by their own laws4 ,yet it  
has been  said by one who was a captive 
among them for twenty-two years that the
  ,turks 8compelled no one to renounce  
his faith40 #dia ,similar testimony  is 
borne by others3 an ,english gentleman  
who visited ,turkey in the  early part  
of the seventeenth century1 tells us    
that 8,there is seldom  any compulsion  
of conscience1 and then not by death1   
where no criminal  offence gives        
occasion40 #dib ,writing about thirty   

years later 7in  #affc71 the author #dic
 of a ,trcken-,schrifft says3           
8,meanwhile he 7i4e4  the ,turk7 wins   
7converts7 by craft more than by force1 
and snatches  away ,christ by fraud out 
of the hearts of men4 ,for the ,turk1 it
 is  true1 at the present time compels  
no country by violence to apostatise2   
but he uses other means whereby         
imperceptibly he roots out              
,christianity4444 ,what then has become 
of the ,christians8 ,they are not       
expelled from the country1 neither are  
they forced to embrace the  ,turkish    
faith3 then they must of themselves have
 been converted into  ,turks40    ,the  
,turks considered that the greatest     
kindness they could show a man  was to  
bring him into the salvation of the     
faith of ,islam1 #did and to  this end  
they left no method of persuasion       
untried3 a ,dutch traveller  of the     
sixteenth century1 tells us that while  
he was admiring the great  mosque of    
,santa ,sophia1 some ,turks even tried  

to work upon his  religious feelings    
through his sthetic sense1 saying to    
him1 8,if you  become a ,musalman1 you  
will be able to come here every day of  
your  life40 ,about a century later1 an 
,english traveller #die had a similar   
experience3 8,sometimes1 out of an      
excess of zeal1 they will ask a         
,christian civilly enough1 as ,i have   
been asked myself in the ,portico of    
,sancta ,sophia1 why will you not turn  
,musalman1 and be as one of us80  ,the  
public rejoicings that hailed the       
accession of a new convert to the       
faith1 testify to the ardent love for   
souls which made these men such  zealous
 proselytisers4 ,the new ,muslim was set
 upon a horse and led in  triumph       
through the streets of the city4 ,if he 
was known to be  genuinely honest in his
 change of faith and had voluntarily    
entered the  pale of ,islam1 or if he   
was a person of good position1 he was   
received  with high honour and some     
provision made for his support4 #dif    

,there  was certainly abundant evidence 
for saying that 8,the ,turks are        
preposterously zealous in praying for   
the conversion1 or perversion  rather1  
of ,christians to their irreligious     
religion3 they pray  heartily1 and every
 day in their ,temples1 that ,christians
 may imbrace  the ,alcoran1 and become  
their ,proselytes1 in effecting of which
 they  leave no means unassaied by fear 
and flattery1 by punishments and        
rewards40 #dig    ,these zealous efforts
 for winning converts were rendered the 
more  effective by certain conditions of
 ,christian society itself4 ,foremost   
among these was the degraded condition  
of the ,greek ,church4 ,side by  side   
with the civil despotism of the         
,byzantine empire1 had arisen an        
ecclesiastical despotism which had      
crushed all energy of intellectual  life
 under the weight of a dogmatism that   
interdicted all discussion in  matters  
of morals and religion4 ,the only thing 
that disturbed this  lethargy was the   

fierce controversial war waged against  
the ,latin  ,church with all the        
bitterness of theological polemics and  
race hatred4  ,the religion of the      
people had degenerated into a scrupulous
 observance  of outward forms1 and the  
intense fervour of their devotion found 
an  outlet in the worship of the ,virgin
 and the saints1 of pictures and        
relics4 ,there were many who turned from
 a ,church whose spiritual life  had    
sunk so low1 and weary of interminable  
discussions on such subtle  points of   
doctrine as the ,double ,procession of  
the ,holy ,spirit1 and  such            
trivialities as the use of leavened and 
unleavened bread in the  ,blessed       
,sacrament1 gladly accepted the clear   
and intelligible theistic  teaching of  
,islam4 ,we are told #dih of large      
numbers of persons being  converted1 not
 only from among the simple folk1 but   
also learned men of  every class1 rank  
and condition2 of how the ,turks made a 
better  provision for those monks and   

priests who embraced the ,muslim creed1 
in  order that their example might lead 
others to be converted4 ,while          
,adrianople was still the ,turkish      
capital 7e4g4 before #adec7 the court   
was thronged with renegades1 and they   
are said to have formed the  majority of
 the magnates there4 #dii ,byzantine    
princes and others  often passed over to
 the side of the ,muhammadans1 and      
received a ready  welcome among them3   
one of the earliest of such cases dates 
from #aadj  when a nephew of the emperor
 ,john ,comnenes embraced ,islam and    
married a  daughter of ,masd1 the       
,sultan of ,iconium4 #ejj ,after the    
fall of  ,constantinople1 the upper     
classes of ,christian society showed    
much more  readiness to embrace ,islam  
than the mass of the ,greeks2 among the 
converts we meet with several bearing   
the name of the late imperial  family of
 the ,palologi1 and the learned ,george 
,amiroutzes of ,trebizond  abandoned    
,christianity in his declining years1   

and the names of many  other such       
individuals have found a record4 #eja   
,the new religion only  demanded assent 
to its simple creed1 8,there is no god  
but ,god3 ,muammad  is the apostle of   
,god02 as the above-mentioned writer    
#ejb says1 8,the  whole difficulty lies 
in this profession of faith4 ,for if    
only a man  can persuade himself that he
 is a worshipper of the ,one ,god1 the  
poison  of his error easily infects him 
under the guise of religion4 ,this is   
the rock of offence on which many have  
struck and fallen into the snare  that  
has brought perdition on their souls4   
,this is the mill-stone that  hung about
 the necks of many has plunged them into
 the pit of despair4  ,for when these   
fools hear the ,turks execrate idolatry 
and express their  horror of every image
 and picture as though it were the fire 
of hell1  and so continually profess and
 preach the worship of ,one ,god1 there 
no  longer remains any room for         
suspicion in their minds40    ,the faith

 of ,islam would now be the natural     
refuge for those members of  the        
,eastern ,church who felt such yearnings
 after a purer and simpler  form of     
doctrine as had given rise to the       
,paulician heresy so fiercely           
suppressed a few centuries before4 ,this
 movement had been very largely  a      
protest against the superstitions of the
 ,orthodox ,church1 against the  worship
 of images1 relics and saints1 and an   
effort after simplicity of  faith and   
the devout life4 ,as some adherents of  
this heresy were to be  found in        
,bulgaria even so late as the           
seventeenth century1 #ejc the           
,muhammadan conquerors doubtless found  
many who were dissatisfied with  the    
doctrine and practice of the ,greek     
,church2 and as all the  conditions were
 unfavourable to the formation of any   
such ,protestant  ,churches as arose in 
the ,west1 such dissentient spirits     
would doubtless  find a more congenial  
atmosphere in the religion of ,islam4   

,there is  every reason to think that   
such was the result of the unsuccessful 
attempt to ,protestantise the ,greek    
,church in the beginning of the         
seventeenth century4 ,the guiding spirit
 of this movement was ,cyril  ,lucaris1 
five times ,patriarch of                
,constantinople1 from #afba to #afch2 as
  a young man he had visited the        
,universities of ,wittenberg and        
,geneva1  for the purpose of studying   
theology in the seats of ,protestant    
learning1 and on his return he kept up a
 correspondence with doctors of  the    
reformed faith in ,geneva1 ,holland and 
,england4 ,but neither the  doctrines of
 the ,church of ,england nor of the     
,lutherans attracted his  sympathies so 
warmly as the teachings of ,john        
,calvin1 #ejd which he  strove to       
introduce into the ,greek ,church2 his  
efforts in this  direction were warmly  
supported by the ,calvinists of ,geneva1
 who sent a  learned young theologian1  
named ,leger1 to assist the work by     

translating into ,greek the writings of 
,calvinist theologians4 #eje  ,cyril    
also found warm friends in the          
,protestant embassies at                
,constantinople1 the ,dutch and ,english
 ambassadors especially assisting  him  
liberally with funds2 the ,jesuits1 on  
the other hand1 supported by  the       
,catholic ambassadors1 tried in every   
way to thwart this attempt to           
,calvinise the ,greek ,church1 and      
actively seconded the intrigues of the  
party of opposition among the ,greek    
clergy1 who finally compassed the  death
 of the ,patriarch4 ,in #afbi ,cyril    
published a ,confession of ,faith1  the 
main object of which seems to have been 
to present the doctrines of  the        
,orthodox ,church in their opposition to
 ,roman ,catholicism in such a  way as  
to imply a necessary accord with        
,protestant teaching4 #ejf ,from        
,calvin he borrows the doctrines of     
,predestination and salvation by  faith 
alone1 he denies the infallibility of   

the ,church1 rejects the  authority of  
the ,church in the interpretation of    
,holy ,scripture1 and  condemns the     
adoration of pictures3 in his account of
 the will and in  many other questions1 
he inclines rather to ,calvinism than to
 the  teachings of the ,orthodox        
,church4 #ejg ,the promulgation of this 
,confession of ,faith as representing   
the teaching of the whole ,church of    
which he was the spiritual head1 excited
 violent opposition among the  mass of  
the ,greek clergy1 and a few weeks after
 ,cyril's death a synod  was held to    
condemn his opinions and pronounce him  
to be ,anathema2 in  #afdb a second     
synod was held at ,constantinople for   
the same purpose1  which after refuting 
each article of ,cyril's ,confession in 
detail1 as  the first had done1 thus    
fulminated its curse upon him and his   
followers3--8,with one consent and in   
unqualified terms1 we condemn this      
whole ,confession as full of heresies   
and utterly opposed to our  orthodoxy1  

and likewise declare that its compiler  
has nothing in common  with our faith1  
but in calumnious fashion has falsely   
charged his own  ,calvinism on us4 ,all 
those who read and keep it as true and  
blameless1  and defend it by written    
word or speech1 we thrust out of the    
community  of the faithful as followers 
and partakers of his heresy and         
corruptors  of the ,christian ,church1  
and command that whatever be their rank 
and  station1 they be treated as heathen
 and publicans4 ,let them be laid  under
 an anathema for ever and cut off from  
the ,father1 the ,son and the  ,holy    
,ghost in this life and in the life to  
come1 accursed1  excommunicated1 be lost
 after death1 and be partakers of       
everlasting  punishment40 #ejh ,in #afgb
 a third synod met at ,jerusalem to     
repudiate  the heretical articles of    
this ,confession of ,faith and vindicate
 the  orthodoxy of the ,greek ,church   
against those who represented her as    
infected with ,calvinism4 ,the attempt  

to ,protestantise the ,greek ,church    
thus completely failed to achieve       
success3 the doctrines of ,calvin were  
diametrically opposed to her teachings1 
and indeed inculcated many  articles of 
faith that were more in harmony with the
 tenets of ,muslim  theologians than    
with those of the ,orthodox ,church1 and
 which moreover  she had often attacked 
in her controversies with her           
,muhammadan  adversaries4 ,it is this   
approximation to ,islamic thought which 
gives  this movement towards ,calvinism 
a place in a history of the spread of   
,islam3 a man who inveighed against the 
adoration of pictures1 decried  the     
authority and the very institution of   
the priesthood1 maintained  the         
doctrines of absolute ,predestination1  
denied freedom to the human  will and   
was in sympathy with the stern spirit of
 ,calvinism that had  more in common    
with the ,old than the ,new             
,testament--would certainly find  a more
 congenial atmosphere in ,islam than in 

the ,greek ,church of the  seventeenth  
century1 and there can be little doubt  
that among the  numerous converts of    
,islam during that century were to be   
found men who  had been alienated from  
the ,church of their fathers through    
their  leanings towards ,calvinism4 #eji
 ,we have no definite information as to 
the number of the followers of ,cyril   
,lucaris and the extent of  ,calvinistic
 influences in the ,greek ,church2 the  
clergy1 jealous of the  reputation of   
their ,church1 whose orthodoxy and      
immunity from heresy  were so boastfully
 vindicated by her children1 and had    
thus been  impugned through the         
suspicion of ,calvinism1 wished to      
represent the  heretical patriarch as   
standing alone in his opinions4 #eaj    
,but a  following he undoubtedly had3   
his ,confession of ,faith had received  
the  sanction of a synod composed of his
 followers2 #eaa those who  sympathised 
with his heresies were anathematised    
both by the second  synod of            

,constantinople 7#afdb7 and by the synod
 of ,jerusalem 7#afgb7  #eab--surely a  
meaningless repetition1 had no such     
persons existed2  moreover the names of 
some few of these have come down to us3 
,sophronius1 ,metropolitan of ,athens1  
was a warm supporter of the             
,reformation2 #eac a monk named         
,nicodemus ,metaras1 who had brought a  
printing-press from ,london and issued  
heretical treatises therefrom1  was     
rewarded with a metropolitan see by     
,cyril in return for his  services2 #ead
 the philosopher ,corydaleus1 a friend  
of ,cyril1 opened a  ,calvinistic school
 in ,constantinople1 and another ,greek1
 ,gerganos1  published a ,catechism so  
as to introduce the teachings of ,calvin
 among  his fellow-countrymen2 #eae and 
,neophytus ,,ii1 who was made ,patriarch
  in #afcf1 while ,cyril was in exile in
 the island of ,rhodes1 was his         
disciple and adopted son2 he recalled   
his master from banishment and  resigned
 the patriarchal chair in his favour4   

#eaf ,in a letter to the  ,university of
 ,geneva 7dated ,july1 #afcf71 ,cyril   
writes that ,leger had  gained a large  
number of converts to ,calvinism by his 
writings and  preaching2 #eag in another
 letter addressed to ,leger1 he         
describes how  he had made his influence
 felt in ,candia4 #eah ,his successor   
#eai in  the patriarchal chair was      
banished to ,carthage and there         
strangled by  the adherents of ,lucaris 
in #afci4 #ebj ,the ,calvinists are said
 to have  entertained hopes of          
,parthenius ,i 7the successor of ,cyril 
,,ii71 but his  untimely end 7whether by
 poison or banishment is uncertain7     
disappointed their expectations4 #eba   
,parthenius ,,ii1 who was ,patriarch  of
 ,constantinople from #afdd to #afdf1   
was at heart a thorough ,calvinist1  and
 though he did not venture openly to    
teach the doctrines of ,calvin1  still  
his known sympathy with them caused him 
to be deposed1 sent into  exile and     
strangled4 #ebb ,thus the influence of  

,calvinism was  undoubtedly more        
widespread than the enemies of ,cyril   
,lucaris were  willing to admit1 and as 
stated above1 those who refused to bow  
to the  anathemas of the synods that    
condemned their leader1 had certainly   
more  in common with their ,muhammadan  
neighbours than with the ,orthodox      
clergy who cast them out of their midst4
 ,there is no actual evidence1  it is   
true1 of ,calvinistic influences in     
,turkey facilitating conversion  to     
,islam1 #ebc but in the absence of any  
other explanation it  certainly seems a 
very plausible conjecture that such were
 among the  factors that so enormously  
increased the number of the ,greek      
renegades  towards the middle of the    
seventeenth century--a period during    
which the  number of renegades from     
among the middle and lower orders of    
society  is said to have been more      
considerable than at any other time4    
#ebd  ,frequent mention is made of cases
 of apostasy from among the clergy1  and

 even among the highest dignitaries of  
the ,church1 such as a former           
,metropolitan of ,rhodes4 #ebe ,in #afgf
 it is said that in ,corinth some       
,christian people went over every day to
 8the ,turkish abomination10 and  that  
three priests had become ,musalmans the 
year before2 #ebf in #afgi  is recorded 
the death of a renegade monk4 #ebg ,on  
the occasion of the  circumcision of    
,muaf1 son of ,muammad ,,iv1 in #afge1  
there were at  least two hundred        
proselytes made during the thirteen days
 of public  rejoicing1 #ebh and numerous
 other instances may be found in        
writings  of this period4 ,a            
contemporary writer 7#affc7 has well    
described the  mental attitude of such  
converts4 8,when you mix with the ,turks
 in the  ordinary intercourse of life   
and see that they pray and sing even the
  ,psalms of ,david2 that they give alms
 and do other good works2 that they     
think highly of ,christ1 hold the ,bible
 in great honour1 and the like2  that1  

besides1 any ass may become parish      
priest who plies the ,bassa  with       
presents1 and he will not urge          
,christianity on you very much2 so  you 
will come to think that they are good   
people and will very probably  be saved2
 and so you will come to believe that   
you too may be saved1 if  you likewise  
become ,turks4 ,herewith will the ,holy 
,trinity and the  crucified ,son of     
,god1 with many other mysteries of the  
faith1 which  seem quite absurd to the  
unenlightened reason1 easily pass out of
 your  thoughts1 and imperceptibly      
,christianity will quite die out in you1
 and  you will think that it is all the 
same whether you be ,christians or      
,turks40 #ebi    ,thomas ,smith1 who was
 in ,constantinople in #affi1 speaks of 
the number  of ,christian converts about
 this period1 but assigns baser motives4
  8',tis sad to consider the great      
number of wretched people1 who turn     
,turks2 some out of meer desperation2   
being not able to support the  burthen  

of slavery1 and to avoid the revilings  
and insultings of the  ,infidels2 some  
out of a wanton light humour1 to put    
themselves into a  condition of         
domineering and insulting over others   
444 some to avoid  the penalties and    
inflictions due to their heinous crimes1
 and to enjoy  the brutish liberties1   
that ,mahomet consecrated by his own    
example1 and  recommended to his        
followers4 ,these are the great and     
tempting  arguments and motives of their
 apostasy1 meer considerations of ease1 
pleasure and prosperity1 or else of     
vanity and guilt2 for it cannot be      
presumed1 that any through conviction of
 mind should be wrought upon to  embrace
 the dotages and impostures of          
,turcisme40 #ecj ,records of            
conversions after this period are rare1 
but ,motraye gives an account of        
several renegades1 who became           
,muhammadans in ,constantinople in      
#agjc2  among them was a ,french priest 
and some other ,french ,catholics1 and  

some priests from ,smyrna4 #eca         
,another feature in the condition of the
 ,greek ,church that contributed  to the
 decay of its numbers1 was the          
corruption and degradation of its       
pastors1 particularly the higher clergy4
 ,the sees of bishops and  archbishops  
were put up to auction to the highest   
bidders1 and the  purchasers sought to  
recoup themselves by exacting levies of 
all kinds  from their flocks2 they      
burdened the unfortunate ,christians    
with taxes  ordinary and extraordinary1 
made them purchase all the sacraments at
  exorbitant rates1 baptism1 confession1
 holy communion1 indulgences1 and  the  
right of ,christian burial4 ,some of the
 clergy even formed an unholy  alliance 
with the ,janissaries1 and several      
bishops had their names and  those of   
their households inscribed on the list  
of one of their ,ortas  or regiments1   
the better to secure an immunity for    
their excesses and  escape the          
punishment of their crimes under the    

protection of this  corporation which   
the weakness of the ,ottoman rulers had 
allowed to  assume such a powerful      
position in the state4 #ecb ,the        
evidence of  contemporary eye-witnesses 
to the oppressive behaviour of the      
,greek  clergy presents a terrible      
picture of the sufferings of the        
,christians4  ,tournefort in #agjj1     
after describing the election of a new  
,patriarch1  says3 8,we need not at all 
doubt but the new ,patriarch makes the  
best of  his time4 ,tyranny succeeds to 
,simony3 the first thing he does is to  
signify the ,sultan's order to all the  
,archbishops and ,bishops of his        
clergy3 his greatest study is to know   
exactly the revenues of each  ,prelate2 
he imposes a tax upon them1 and enjoins 
them very strictly by  a second letter  
to send the sum demanded1 otherwise     
their dioceses are  adjudg'd to the     
highest bidder4 ,the ,prelates being    
used to this trade1  never spare their  
,suffragans2 these latter torment the   

,papas3 the ,papas  flea the            
,parishioners and hardly sprinkle the   
least drop of ,holy ,water1  but what   
they are paid for beforehand4 ,if       
afterwards the ,patriarch has  occasion 
for money1 he farms out the gathering of
 it to the highest  bidder among the    
,turks3 he that gives most for it1 goes 
into ,greece to  cite the ,prelates4    
,usually for twenty thousand crowns that
 the clergy  is tax'd at1 the ,turk     
extorts two and twenty2 so that he has  
the two  thousand crowns for his pains1 
besides having his charges borne in     
every diocese4 ,in virtue of the        
agreement he has made with the          
,patriarch1 he deprives and interdicts  
from all ecclesiastical  functions1     
those prelates who refuse to pay their  
tax40 #ecc ,the  ,christian clergy are  
even said to have carried off the       
children of the  parishioners and sold  
them as slaves1 to get money for their  
simoniacal  designs4 #ecd    ,the       
extortions practised in the seventeenth 

have found their  counterpart in the    
nineteenth century1 and the sufferings  
of the  ,christians of the ,greek       
,church in ,bosnia1 before the ,austrian
  occupation1 exactly illustrate the    
words of ,tournefort4 ,the              
,metropolitan of ,serajevo used to wring
 as much as #aj1jjj a year from  his    
miserable flock--a sum exactly double   
the salary of the ,turkish  ,governor   
himself--and to raise this enormous sum 
the unfortunate  parishioners were      
squeezed in every possible way1 and the 
,turkish  authorities had orders to     
assist the clergy in levying their      
exactions2  and whole ,christian        
villages suffered the fate of sacked    
cities1 for  refusing1 or often being   
unable1 to comply with the exorbitant   
demands  of ,christian ,prelates4 #ece  
,such unbearable oppression on the part 
of  the spiritual leaders who should    
protect the ,christian population1 has  
often stirred it up to open revolt1     
whenever a favourable opportunity  has  

offered itself4 #ecf ,it is not         
surprising then to learn that many  of  
the ,christians went over to ,islam1 to 
deliver themselves from such  tyranny4  
#ecg    ,ecclesiastical oppression of a 
rather different character is said to   
have been responsible for the conversion
 of the ancestors of a small  community 
of about #djjj ,southern ,rumanians1 at 
,noanta in the ,meglen  district of the 
vilayet of ,salonika2 they have a       
tradition that in the  eighteenth       
century the ,patriarch of               
,constantinople persuaded the  reigning 
,sultan that only the ,christians who   
spoke ,greek could be loyal  subjects of
 the ,turkish empire2 the ,sultan       
thereupon forbade the  ,christians to   
speak anything but ,greek1 on pain of   
having their tongues  cut out2 when the 
news of this reached ,noanta1 a part of 
the population  fled into the woods and 
founded fresh villages1 but those who   
were left  behind went over to ,islam1  
with their bishop at their head1 in     

order  thereby to retain their          
mother-tongue4 #ech    ,though the mass 
of the parish clergy were innocent of   
the charges  brought against their      
superiors1 #eci still they were very    
ignorant  and illiterate4 ,at the end of
 the seventeenth century1 there were    
said  to be hardly twelve persons in the
 whole ,turkish dominions thoroughly    
skilled in the knowledge of the ancient 
,greek language2 it was  considered a   
great merit in the clergy to be able to 
read1 while they  were quite ignorant of
 the meaning of the words of their      
service-books4  #edj    ,while there was
 so much in the ,christian society of   
the time to repel1  there was much in   
the character and life of the ,turks to 
attract1 and  the superiority of the    
early ,ottomans as compared with the    
degradation  of the guides and teachers 
of the ,christian ,church would         
naturally  impress devout minds that    
revolted from the selfish ambition1     
simony  and corruption of the ,greek    

ecclesiastics4 ,christian writers       
constantly  praise these ,turks for the 
earnestness and intensity of their      
religious  life2 their zeal in the      
performance of the observances          
prescribed by  their faith2 the outward 
decency and modesty displayed in their  
apparel  and mode of living2 the absence
 of ostentatious display and the        
simplicity of life observable even in   
the great and powerful4 #eda ,the       
annalist of the embassy from the        
,emperor ,leopold ,i to the ,ottoman    
,porte  in #affe-afff1 especially       
eulogises the devoutness and regularity 
of the  ,turks in prayer1 and he even   
goes so far as to say1 8,nous devons    
dire   la confusion des ,chrtiens1 que  
les ,turcs tmoignent beaucoup plus de   
soin et de zle  l'exercice de leur      
,religion3 que les ,chrtiens n'en  font 
parotre  la pratique de la leur4444     
,mais ce qui passe tout ce  que nous    
experimentons de dvot entre les         
,chrtiens3 c'est que pendant  le tems de

 la prire1 vous ne voyez pas une        
personne distraite de ses  yeux3 vous   
n'en voyez pas une qui ne soit attache  
l'objet de sa  prire3 et pas une qui    
n'ait toute la rvrence extrieure pour   
son  ,crateur1 qu'on peut exiger de la  
,crature40 #edb    ,even the behaviour  
of the soldiery receives its meed of    
praise4 ,during  the march of an army   
the inhabitants of the country1 we are  
told by the  secretary to the ,embassy  
sent by ,charles ,,ii to the ,sultan1   
had no  complaints to make of being     
plundered or of their women being       
maltreated4 ,all the taverns along the  
line of march were shut up and  sealed  
two or three days before the arrival of 
the army1 and no wine  was allowed to be
 sold to the soldiers under pain of     
death4 #edc    ,many a tribute of praise
 is given to the virtues of the ,turks  
even by  ,christian writers who bore    
them no love2 one such who had a very   
poor  opinion of their religion1 #edd   
speaks of them as follows3--8,even in   

the dirt of the ,alcoran you shall find 
some jewels of ,christian  ,virtues2 and
 indeed if ,christians will but         
diligently read and observe  the ,laws  
and ,histories of the ,mahometans1 they 
may blush to see how  zealous they are  
in the works of devotion1 piety1 and    
charity1 how  devout1 cleanly1 and      
reverend in their ,mosques1 how obedient
 to their  ,priest1 that even the great 
,turk himself will attempt nothing      
without  consulting his ,mufti2 how     
careful are they to observe their hours 
of  prayer five times a day wherever    
they are1 or however employed8 how      
constantly do they observe their ,fasts 
from morning till night a whole  month  
together2 how loving and charitable the 
,muslemans are to each  other1 and how  
careful of strangers may be seen by     
their ,hospitals1  both for the ,poor   
and for ,travellers2 if we observe their
 ,justice1  ,temperance1 and other moral
 ,vertues1 we may truly blush at our own
  coldness1 both in devotion and        

charity1 at our injustice1 intemperance1
  and oppression2 doubtless these ,men  
will rise up in judgment against  us2   
and surely their devotion1 piety1 and   
works of mercy are main  causes of the  
growth of ,mahometism40    ,the same    
conclusion is drawn by a modern         
historian1 #ede who  writes3--8,we find 
that many ,greeks of high talent and    
moral character  were so sensible of the
 superiority of the ,mohammedans1 that  
even when  they escaped being drafted   
into the ,sultan's household as         
tribute-children1 they voluntarily      
embraced the faith of ,mahomet4 ,the    
moral superiority of ,othoman society   
must be allowed to have had as  much    
weight in causing these conversions1    
which were numerous in the  fifteenth   
century1 as the personal ambition of    
individuals40    ,a generation that has 
watched the decay of the ,turkish power 
in ,europe  and the successive          
curtailment of its territorial          
possessions1 and is  accustomed to      

hearing it spoken of as the 8sick man10 
destined to a  speedy dissolution1 must 
find it difficult to realise the        
feelings  which the ,ottoman empire     
inspired in the early days of its rise  
in  ,europe4 ,the rapid and widespread  
success of the ,turkish arms filled     
men's minds with terror and amazement4  
,one ,christian kingdom after  another  
fell into their hands3 ,bulgaria1       
,servia1 ,bosnia1 and ,hungary  yielded 
up their independence as ,christian     
states4 ,the proud ,republic  of ,venice
 saw one possession after another       
wrested from it1 until the  ,lion of    
,st4 ,mark held sway on the shores of   
the ,adriatic alone4 ,even  the safety  
of the ,eternal ,city itself was menaced
 by the capture of  ,otranto4 ,christian
 literature of the latter half of the   
fifteenth and  of the sixteenth         
centuries is full of direful forebodings
 of the fate  that threatened ,christian
 ,europe unless the victorious progress 
of the  ,turk was arrested2 he is       

represented as a scourge in the hand of 
,god  for the punishment of the sins and
 backslidings of ,his people1 #edf or   
on the other hand as the unloosed power 
of the ,devil working for the           
destruction of ,christianity under the  
hypocritical guise of religion4         
,but--what is most important to notice  
here--some men began to ask  themselves1
 8,is it possible that ,god would allow 
the ,muhammadans to  increase in such   
countless numbers without good reason8  
,is it  conceivable that so many        
thousands are to be damned like one man8
 ,how  can such multitudes be opposed to
 the true faith8 since truth is         
stronger than error and is more loved   
and desired by all men1 it is not       
possible for so many men to be fighting 
against it4 ,how could they  prevail    
against truth1 since ,god always helps  
and upholds the truth8  ,how could their
 religion so marvellously increase1 if  
built upon the  rotten foundation of    
error80 #edg ,such thoughts1 we are     

told1 appealed  strongly to the         
,christian peoples that lived under the 
,turkish rule1  and with especial force 
to the unhappy ,christian captives who  
watched  the years drag wearily on      
without hope of release or respite from 
their  misery4 ,can we be surprised when
 we find such a one asking himself8     
8,surely if ,god were pleased with the  
faith to which you have clung1 ,he      
would not have thus abandoned you1 but  
would have helped you to gain  your     
freedom and return to it again4 ,but as 
,he has closed every avenue  of freedom 
to you1 perchance it is ,his pleasure   
that you should leave  it and join this 
sect and be saved therein40 #edh    ,the
 ,christian slave who thus describes the
 doubts that arose in his  mind as the  
slow-passing years brought no relief1   
doubtless gives  expression here to     
thoughts that suggested themselves to   
many a hapless  ,christian captive with 
overwhelming persistency1 until at last 
he broke  away from the ties of his old 

faith and embraced ,islam4 ,many who    
would  have been ready to die as martyrs
 for the ,christian religion if the     
mythical choice between the ,qurn and   
the sword had been offered them1  felt  
more and more strongly1 after long years
 of captivity1 the  influence of        
,muhammadan thought and practice1 and   
humanity won converts  where violence   
would have failed4 #edi ,for though the 
lot of many of  the ,christian captives 
was a very pitiable one1 others who held
  positions in the households of private
 individuals1 were often no worse  off  
than domestic servants in the rest of   
,europe4 ,as organised by the           
,muhammadan ,law1 slavery was robbed of 
many of its harshest features1  nor in  
,turkey at least does it seem to have   
been accompanied by such  barbarities   
and atrocities as in the pirate states  
of ,northern ,africa4  ,the slaves1 like
 other citizens1 had their rights1 and  
it is even said  that a slave might     
summon his master before the ,q for ill 

usage1 and  that if he alleged that     
their tempers were so opposite1 that it 
was  impossible for them to agree1 the  
,q could oblige his master to sell  him4
 #eej ,the condition of the ,christian  
captives naturally varied  with         
circumstances and their own capabilities
 of adapting themselves to  a life of   
hardship2 the aged1 the priests and     
monks1 and those of noble  birth        
suffered most1 while the physician and  
the handicraftsman  received more       
considerate treatment from their        
masters1 as being  servants that best   
repaid the money spent upon them4 #eea  
,the  galley-slaves naturally suffered  
most of all1 indeed the kindest         
treatment could have but little relieved
 the hardships incident to such  an     
occupation4 #eeb ,further1 the lot of   
the slaves who were state  property was 
more pitiable than that of those who had
 been purchased by  private individuals4
 #eec ,as a rule they were allowed the  
free  exercise of their religion2 in the

 state-prisons at ,constantinople1  they
 had their own priests and chapels1 and 
the clergy were allowed to  administer  
the consolations of religion to the     
galley-slaves4 #eed ,the  number of the 
,christian slaves who embraced ,islam   
was enormous2 some  few cases have been 
recorded of their being threatened and  
ill-treated  for the very purpose of    
inducing them to recant1 but as a rule  
the  masters seldom forced them to      
renounce their faith1 #eee and put the  
greatest pressure upon them during the  
first years of their captivity1  after  
which they let them alone to follow     
their own faith4 #eef ,the  majority of 
the converted slaves therefore changed  
their religion of  their own free       
choice2 and when the ,christian         
embassies were never sure  from day to  
day that some of their fellow-countrymen
 that had  accompanied them to          
,constantinople as domestic servants1   
might not turn  ,turk1 #eeg it can      
easily be understood that slaves who had

 lost all  hope of return to their      
native country1 and found little in     
their  surroundings to strengthen and   
continue the teachings of their earlier 
years1 would yield to the influences    
that beset them and would feel few      
restraints to hinder them from entering 
a new society and a new  religion4 ,an  
,english traveller #eeh of the          
seventeenth century has  said of them3  
8,few ever return to their native       
country2 and fewer have  the courage and
 constancy of retaining the ,christian  
,faith1 in which  they were educated2   
their education being but mean1 and     
their knowledge  but slight in the      
principles and grounds of it2 whereof   
some are  frightened into ,turcism by   
their impatience and too deep           
resentments of  the hardships of the    
servitude2 others are enticed by the    
blandishments  and flatteries of        
pleasure the ,mahometan ,law allows1 and
 the  allurements they have of making   
their condition better and more easy by 

a change of their ,religion2 having no  
hope left of being redeemed1 they       
renounce their ,saviour and their       
,christianity1 and soon forget their    
original country1 and are no longer     
looked upon as strangers1 but pass  for 
natives40    ,much of course depended   
upon the individual character of the    
different  ,christian slaves themselves4
 ,the anonymous writer1 so often quoted 
above1 whose long captivity made him so 
competent to speak on their  condition1 
divides them into three classes3--first1
 those who passed  their days in all    
simplicity1 not caring to trouble       
themselves to learn  anything about the 
religion of their masters2 for them it  
was enough to  know that the ,turks were
 infidels1 and so1 as far as their      
captive  condition and their yoke of    
slavery allowed1 they avoided having    
anything to do with them and their      
religious worship1 fearing lest they    
should be led astray by their errors1   
and striving to observe the  ,christian 

faith as far as their knowledge and     
power went4 ,the second  class consisted
 of those whose curiosity led them to   
study and  investigate the doings of the
 ,turks3 if1 by the help of ,god1 they  
had  time enough to dive into their     
secrets1 and understanding enough for   
the investigation of them and light of  
reason to find the  interpretation      
thereof1 they not only came out of the  
trial unscathed1  but had their own     
faith strengthened4 ,the third class    
includes those  who1 examining the      
,muslim religion without due caution1   
fail to dive  into its depths and find  
the interpretation of it and so are     
deceived2  believing the errors of the  
,turks to be the truth1 they lose their 
own  faith and embrace the false        
religion of the ,muslims1 hereby not    
only  compassing their own destruction1 
but setting a bad example to others3  of
 such men the number is infinite4 #eei  
,conversion to ,islam did not1 as some  
writers have affirmed1 release the      

slave from his captivity and make him a 
free man1 #efj for  emancipation was    
solely at the discretion of the master2 
who indeed  often promised to set any   
slave free1 without the payment of      
ransom1 if  only he would embrace       
,islam2 #efa but1 on the other hand1    
would also  freely emancipate the       
,christian slave1 even though he had    
persevered in  his religion1 provided he
 had proved himself a faithful servant1 
and  would make provision for his old   
age4 #efb    ,there were many others    
who1 like the ,christian slaves1        
separated from  early surroundings and  
associations1 found themselves cut loose
 from  old ties and thrown into the     
midst of a society animated by social   
and  religious ideals of an entirely    
novel character4 ,the crowds of         
,christian workmen that came wandering  
from the conquered countries in  the    
fifteenth century to ,adrianople and    
other ,turkish cities in search  of     
employment1 were easily persuaded to    

settle there and adopt the  faith of    
,islam4 #efc ,similarly the ,christian  
families that ,muammad ,,ii  transported
 from conquered provinces in ,europe    
into ,asia ,minor1 #efd  may well have  
become merged into the mass of the      
,muslim population by  almost           
imperceptible degrees1 as was the case  
with the ,armenians  carried away into  
,persia by ,shh ,abbs ,i 7#aehg-afbi71  
most of whom  appear to have passed over
 to ,islam in the second generation4    
#efe    ,during the eighteenth and      
nineteenth centuries there would seem to
 have  been a decay of the missionary   
spirit among the ,turks1 but the latter 
years of the reign of ,sultan ,abd      
al-amd witnessed a renewed interest  in 
,muslim propaganda1 and ,turkish        
newspapers began to record instances  of
 conversion4 ,among the most noteworthy 
of such converts were some  eighteen    
amrs of the princely family of ,shihb in
 ,mount ,lebanon1 which  had been       
,christian for about a century2 they are

 said to claim descent  from the        
,quraysh1 and the ,turks made every     
effort to bring them back to  the fold  
of ,islam2 those who became ,muslims    
were appointed to lucrative  posts in   
the ,turkish civil service4 #eff    ,in 
the following pages it is proposed to   
give a more detailed and  particular    
account of the spread of ,islam among   
the ,christian  populations of ,albania1
 ,servia1 ,bosnia and ,crete1 as the    
history of  each of these countries     
after its conquest by the ,ottomans     
presents  some special features of      
interest in the history of the          
propagation of  ,islam4    ,the         
,albanians1 with the exception of some  
settlements in ,greece1 #efg  inhabit   
the mountainous country that stretches  
along the east shore of  the ,adriatic  
from ,montenegro to the ,gulf of ,arta4 
,they form one of the  oldest and       
purest-blooded races in ,europe and are 
said to belong to the  ,pelasgic branch 
of the ,aryan stock4    ,their country  

was first invaded by the ,turks in      
#achg1 but the ,turkish  forces soon had
 to withdraw1 and the authority of the  
,sultan was  recognised for the first   
time in #adbc4 ,for a short period      
,albania  regained its independence     
under ,george ,kastriota1 who is better 
known  under his ,muhammadan name of    
,scanderbeg or ,sikandarbeg4 ,recent    
investigations have established the     
falsity of the romantic fictions  that  
had gathered round the story of his     
early days--how that as a boy  he had   
been surrendered as a hostage to the    
,turks1 had been brought up  among them 
as a ,muslim and had won the special    
favour of the ,sultan4  ,the truth is1  
that the days of his youth were passed  
in his native  mountains and his warfare
 with the ,turks began with the victory 
gained  over them in #addd2 for more    
than twenty years he maintained a       
vigorous  and successful resistance to  
their invading forces1 but after his    
death  in #adfg1 the ,turks began again 

to take possession of ,albania4 ,krya1  
the capital of the ,kastriot dynasty1   
fell into their hands eleven years      
later1 and from this date there appears 
to have been no organised  resistance of
 the whole country1 though revolts were 
frequent and the  subjection of the     
country was never complete4 ,some of the
 sea-port  towns held out much longer2  
,durazzo was captured in #aeja1 while   
,antivari1 the northernmost point of the
 sea-coast of ,albania1 did not         
surrender until #aega4 ,the terms of    
capitulation were that the city  should 
retain its old laws and magistrature1   
that there should be free  and public   
exercise of the ,christian religion1    
that the churches and  chapels should   
remain uninjured and might be rebuilt if
 they fell into  decay2 that the        
citizens should retain all their movable
 and immovable  property and should not 
be burdened by any additional taxation4 
,the ,albanians under ,turkish rule     
appear always to have maintained a  kind

 of semi-autonomy1 and the several      
tribes and clans remained as            
essentially independent as they were    
before the conquest4 ,though  vassals of
 the ,sultans1 they would not brook the 
interference of  ,turkish officials in  
their internal administration1 and there
 is reason  to believe that the ,turkish
 ,government has never been able to     
appoint  or confirm any provincial      
governor who was not a native of        
,albania1 and  had not already          
established his influence by his arms1  
policy or  connections4 #efh ,their     
racial pride is intense1 and to the     
present  day1 the ,albanian1 if asked   
what he is1 will call himself a         
,skipetar1  #efi before saying whether  
he is a ,christian or a ,muhammadan--a  
very  remarkable instance of national   
feeling obliterating the fierce         
distinction between these two religions 
that so forcibly obtrudes  itself in the
 rest of the ,ottoman empire4 ,the      
,christian and ,muhammadan  ,albanians  

alike1 just as they speak the same      
language1 so do they  cherish the same  
traditions1 and observe the same manners
 and customs2  and pride in their common
 nationality has been too strong a bond 
to  allow differences of religious      
belief to split the nation into separate
  communities on this basis4 #egj ,side 
by side they served in the  irregular   
troops1 which soon after the ,turkish   
conquest became the main  dependence of 
the government in all its internal      
administration1 and  both classes found 
the same ready employment in the service
 of the  local pashas1 being accounted  
the bravest soldiers in the empire4     
,christian ,albanians served in the     
,ottoman army in the ,crimean ,war1     
#ega and though they have perhaps been a
 little more quiet and  agricultural    
than their ,muslim fellow-countrymen1   
still the difference  has been small3   
they have always retained their arms and
 military  habits1 have always displayed
 the same fierce1 proud1 untameable     

spirit1 and been animated with the same 
intense national feeling as  their      
brethren who had embraced the creed of  
the ,prophet4 #egb    ,the consideration
 of these facts is of importance in     
tracing the spread  of ,islam in        
,albania1 for it appears to have been   
propagated very  gradually by the people
 of the country themselves1 and not     
under  pressure of foreign influences4  
,the details that we possess of this    
movement are very meagre1 as the history
 of ,albania from the close of  the     
fifteenth century to the rise of ,al    
,pasha three hundred years  later1 is   
almost a blank2 what knowledge we have1 
therefore1 of the  slow but continuous  
accession of converts to ,islam during  
this period1  is derived from the       
ecclesiastical chronicles of the various
 dioceses1  #egc and the reports sent in
 from time to time to the ,pope and the 
,congregatio de ,propaganda ,fide4 #egd 
,but it goes without saying that  the   
very nature of these sources gives the  

information derived from  them the stamp
 of imperfection--especially in the     
matter of the motives  assigned for     
conversion4 ,for an ecclesiastic of     
those times to have  even entertained   
the possibility of a conversion to      
,islam from genuine  conviction--much   
less have openly expressed such an      
opinion in writing  to his superiors--is
 well-nigh inconceivable4    ,during the
 sixteenth century1 ,islam appears to   
have made but little  progress1 though  
the tide of conversion had already set  
in4 ,in #afaj the  ,christian population
 exceeded the ,muhammadan in the        
proportion of ten  to one1 #ege and as  
most of the villages were inhabited by  
,christians1  with a very small         
admixture of ,muhammadans1 #egf the     
conversions  appear to have been more   
frequent in the large towns4 ,in        
,antivari1 for  example1 while many     
,christians elected to emigrate into the
  neighbouring ,christian countries1 the
 majority of those who remained1  both  

high-born and low1 went over gradually  
to the ,muslim faith1 so  that the      
,christian population grew less and less
 day by day4 #egg ,as  the number of    
accessions to ,islam increased1 churches
 were converted  into mosques--a measure
 which1 though contrary to the terms of 
the  capitulation1 seems justified by   
the change in the religion of the       
people4 #egh ,in #afaj two collegiate   
churches only remained in the  hands of 
the ,latin ,christians1 but these appear
 to have sufficed for  the needs of the 
community2 #egi what this amounted to   
can only  roughly be guessed from the   
words of ,marco ,bizzi3 8,there are     
about #fjj  houses inhabited            
indiscriminately by ,muhammadans and    
,christians--both  ,latin and           
,schismatics 7i4e4 of the ,orthodox     
,greek ,church73 the number  of the     
,muhammadans is a little in excess of   
the ,christians1 and that of  the       
,latins in excess of the ,schismatics40 
,in the accounts we have of the social  

relations between the ,christians  and  
the ,muslims1 and in the absence of any 
sharp line of demarcation  between the  
two communities1 we find some clue to   
the manner in which  ,muhammadan        
influences gradually gained converts    
from among the  ,christian population in
 proportion as the vigour and the       
spiritual life  of the ,church declined4
    ,it had become very common for      
,christian parents to give their        
daughters  in marriage to ,muhammadans1 
and for ,christian women to make no     
objection to such unions4 #ehj ,the male
 children born of these mixed  marriages
 were brought up as ,musalmans1 but the 
girls were allowed to  follow the       
religion of their mother4 #eha ,such    
permission was rendered  practically    
ineffective by the action of the        
,christian ecclesiastics1  who ordered  
the mothers to be excluded from the     
churches and from  participation in the 
sacraments2 #ehb and consequently       
7though the  parish priests often       

disregarded the commands of their       
superiors7 many  of these women embraced
 the faith of their husbands4 ,but even 
then they  kept up a superstitious      
observance of the rite of baptism1 which
 was  supposed to be a sovereign        
specific against leprosy1 witches and   
wolves1 #ehc and ,christian priests were
 found ready to pander to this          
superstition for any ,muhammadan woman  
who wished to have her children         
baptised4 #ehd ,this good feeling       
between the members of the two          
religions #ehe is similarly illustrated 
by the attendance of  ,muhammadans at   
the festivals of ,christian saints2 e4g4
 ,marco ,bizzi says  that on the        
feast-day of ,st4 ,elias 7for whom the  
,albanians appear to  have had a special
 devotion7 there were as many           
,muhammadans present in  the church as  
,christians4 #ehf ,even to the present  
day we are told  that ,albanian         
,muhammadans revere the ,virgin ,mary   
and the ,christian  saints1 and make    

pilgrimages to their shrines1 while     
,christians on the  other hand resort to
 the tombs of ,muslim saints for the    
cure of  ailments or in fulfilment of   
vows4 #ehg ,in the town of ,calevacci1  
where there were sixty ,christian and   
ten ,muhammadan households1 the         
followers of the ,prophet contributed   
towards the support of the parish       
priest1 as the majority of them had     
,christian wives4 #ehh ,under such      
circumstances it is hardly surprising to
 learn that many openly  professed      
,islam1 while satisfying their          
consciences by saying that they         
professed ,christianity in their hearts4
 #ehi ,marco ,bizzi has three           
explanations to offer for such a        
lapse--the attraction of worldly        
advantage1 the desire to avoid the      
payment of tribute1 and the want of  a  
sufficiently large number of intelligent
 clergy to supply the  spiritual needs  
of the country4 #eij ,conversions are   
frequently  ascribed to the pressure of 

the burden of taxation imposed upon the 
,christians1 and whole villages are said
 to have apostatised to avoid  payment  
of the tribute4 ,as no details are      
given1 it is impossible to  judge       
whether there was really sufficient     
ground for the complaint1 or  whether   
this was not the apology for their      
conduct alleged by the  renegades in    
order to make some kind of excuse to    
their former  co-religionists--or indeed
 an exaggeration on the part of         
ecclesiastics  to whom a genuine        
conversion to ,islam on rational grounds
 seemed an  absolute impossibility4 ,a  
century later 7in #agjc7 the            
capitation-tax  was six reals a head for
 each male and this 7with the exception 
of a  tax1 termed sciataraccio1 of three
 reals a year7 was the only burden      
imposed on the ,christians exclusively4 
#eia ,men must have had very  little    
attachment to their religion to abandon 
it merely in order to be  quit of so    
slight a penalty1 and with no other     

motive2 and the very  existence of so   
large a body of ,christians in ,albania 
at the present  time shows that the     
burden could not have been so heavy as  
to force  them into apostasy without any
 other alternative4    ,if only we had  
something more than vague general       
complaints against the  8,turkish       
tyranny10 we should be better able to   
determine how far this  could have had  
such a preponderating influence as is   
ascribed to it3  but the evidence       
alleged seems hardly to warrant such a  
conclusion4 ,the  vicious practice      
followed by the ,ottoman ,court of      
selling posts in the  provinces to the  
highest bidder and the uncertainty of   
the tenure of  such posts1 often        
resulted in the occupants trying to     
amass as large a  fortune as possible by
 extortions of every kind4 ,but such    
burdens are  said to have weighed as    
heavily on ,muhammadans as ,christians4 
#eib  ,though certainly an avaricious   
and unjust official may have found it   

easier to oppress the ,christians than  
the ,muslims1 especially when the       
former were convicted of treasonable    
correspondence with the ,venetians  and 
other ,christian states and were        
suspected of a wish to revolt4          
,however this may have been1 there can  
be little doubt of the influence        
exerted by the zealous activity and     
vigorous life of ,islam in the face  of 
the apathetic and ignorant ,christian   
clergy4 ,if ,islam in ,albania had  many
 such exponents as the ,mull1 whose     
sincerity1 courtesy and  friendliness   
are praised by ,marco ,bizzi1 with whom 
he used to discuss  religious questions1
 it may well have made its way4 #eic    
,the majority  of the ,christian clergy 
appear to have been wholly unlettered3  
most of  them1 though they could read a 
little1 did not know how to write1 and  
were so ignorant of the duties of their 
sacred calling that they could  not even
 repeat the formula of absolution by    
heart4 #eid ,though they  had to recite 

the mass and other services in ,latin1  
there were very few  who could          
understand any of it1 as they were      
ignorant of any language  but their     
mother tongue1 and they had only a      
vague1 traditionary  knowledge of the   
truths of their religion4 #eie ,marco   
,bizzi considered  the inadequate       
episcopate of the country responsible   
for these evils1  as for the small      
numbers of the clergy1 and their        
ignorance of their  sacred calling1 and 
for the large number of ,christians who 
grew old and  even died without being   
confirmed1 and apostatised almost       
everywhere2  #eif and unless this were  
remedied he prophesied a rapid decay of 
,christianity in the country4 #eig      
,several priests were also accused of   
keeping concubines1 and of drunkenness4 
#eih    ,it may here be observed that   
the ,albanian priests were not the      
repositories of the national aspirations
 and ideals1 as were the clergy  of the 
,orthodox ,church in other provinces of 

the ,turkish empire1 who in  spite of   
their ignorance kept alive among their  
people that devotion to  the ,christian 
faith which formed the nucleus of the   
national life of  the ,greeks4 #eii ,on 
the contrary1 the ,albanians cherished a
 national  feeling that was quite apart 
from religious belief1 and with regard  
to  the ,turks1 considered1 in true     
feudal spirit1 that as they were the    
masters of the country they ought to be 
obeyed whatever commands they  gave4    
#fjj    ,there is a curious story of    
conversion which is said to have taken  
place owing to a want of amicable       
relations between a ,christian priest   
and his people1 as follows3 8,many years
 since1 when all the country was        
,christian1 there stood in the city of  
,scutari a beautiful image of the       
,virgin ,mary1 to whose shrine thousands
 flocked every year from all  parts of  
the country to offer their gifts1       
perform their devotions1 and  be healed 
of their infirmities4 ,for some cause or

 other1 however1 it  fell out that there
 was dissension between the priest and  
the people1  and one day the latter came
 to the church in great crowds1         
declaring  that unless the priest       
yielded to them they would then and     
there abjure  the faith of ,christ and  
embrace in its stead that of ,muammad4  
,the  priest1 whether right or wrong1   
still remaining firm1 his congregation  
tore the rosaries and crosses from their
 necks1 trampled them under  their feet1
 and going to the nearest mosque1 were  
received by the  ,mollah into the fold  
of the ,true ,believers40 #fja          
,through the negligence and apathy of   
the ,christian clergy many abuses  and  
irregularities had been allowed to creep
 into the ,christian  society2 in one of
 which1 namely the practice of          
contracting marriages  without the      
sanction of the ,church or any religious
 ceremony1 we find  an approximation to 
the ,muhammadan law1 which makes        
marriage a civil  contract4 ,in order to

 remedy this evil1 the husband and wife 
were to be  excluded from the ,church1  
until they had conformed to the         
ecclesiastical law and gone through the 
service in the regular manner4  #fjb    
,in the course of the seventeenth       
century1 the social conditions and      
other factors1 indicated above1 bore    
fruit abundantly1 and the numbers  of   
the ,christian population began rapidly 
to decline4 ,in the brief  space of     
thirty years1 between #afbj and #afej1  
about #cjj1jjj ,albanians  are said to  
have gone over to ,islam4 #fjc ,in #afbd
 there were only #bjjj  ,catholics in   
the whole diocese of ,antivari1 and in  
the city itself only  one church2 at the
 close of the century1 even this church 
was no longer  used for ,christian      
worship1 as there were only two families
 of ,roman  ,catholics left4 #fjd ,in   
the whole country generally1 the        
majority of  the ,christian community in
 #afea was composed of women1 as the    
male  population had apostatised in such

 large numbers to ,islam4 #fje  ,matters
 were still worse at the close of the   
century1 the ,catholics  being then     
fewer in number than the ,muhammadans1  
the proportions being  about #a to #a1  
#fjf whereas less than a hundred years  
before1 they had  outnumbered the       
,muhammadans in the proportion of #aj to
 #a2 #fjg in the  ,archbishopric of     
,durazzo the ,christian population had  
decreased by  about half in twenty      
years1 #fjh in another town 7in the     
diocese of  ,kroia7 the entire          
population passed from ,christianity to 
,islam in the  course of thirty years4  
#fji ,in spite of the frequent protests 
and  regulations made by their          
ecclesiastical superiors1 the parish    
priests  continued to countenance the   
open profession of ,islam along with a  
secret adherence to ,christianity1 on   
the part of many male members of  their 
flocks1 by administering to them the    
,blessed ,sacrament2 the  result of     
which was that the children of such     

persons1 being brought up  as           
,muhammadans1 were for ever lost to the 
,christian ,church4 #faj  ,similarly1   
,christian parents still gave their     
daughters in marriage to  ,muhammadans1 
the parish priests countenancing such   
unions by  administering the sacrament  
to such women1 #faa in spite of the     
fulminations of the higher clergy       
against such indulgence4 #fab ,such     
action on the part of the lower clergy  
can hardly1 however1 be taken as        
indicating any great zeal on behalf of  
the spiritual welfare of their  flocks1 
in the face of the accusations brought  
against them2 the  majority of them are 
accused of being scandalous livers1 who 
very  seldom went to confession and held
 drunken revels in their parsonages  on 
festival days2 they sold the property of
 the ,church1 frequently  absented      
themselves from their parishes1 and when
 censured1 succeeded  in getting off by 
putting themselves under the protection 
of the ,turks4  #fac ,the ,reformed     

,franciscans and the ,observants who had
 been sent to  minister to the spiritual
 wants of the people did nothing but    
quarrel  and go to law with one another2
 much to the scandal of the laity and   
the neglect of the mission4 #fad ,in the
 middle of the seventeenth  century five
 out of the twelve ,albanian sees were  
vacant2 the diocese  of ,pullati had not
 been visited by a bishop for thirty    
years1 and there  were only two priests 
to #fcdh souls4 #fae ,in some parishes  
in the  interior of the country1 there  
had been no priests for more than forty 
years2 and this was in no way due to the
 oppression of the 8,turkish  tyrant10  
for when at last four ,franciscan       
missionaries were sent1 they  reported  
that they could go through the country  
and exercise their  sacred office       
without any hindrance whatever4 #faf    
,the bishop of  ,sappa1 to the great    
prejudice of his diocese1 had been long 
resident in  ,venice1 where he is said  
to have lived a vicious life1 and had   

appointed as his vicar an ignorant      
priest who was a notorious  evil-liver3 
this man had #ab1djj souls under his    
charge1 and1 says the  ecclesiastical   
visitor1 8through the absence of the    
bishop there is  danger of his losing   
his own soul and compassing the         
destruction of the  souls under him and 
of the property of the ,church40 #fag   
,the bishop of  ,scutari was looked upon
 as a tyrant by his clergy and people1  
and only  succeeded in keeping his post 
through the aid of the ,turks2 #fah and 
,zmaievich complains of the bishops     
generally that they burdened the        
parishes in their diocese with forced   
contributions4 #fai ,it appears  that   
,christian ecclesiastics were authorised
 by the ,sultan to levy  contributions  
on their flocks4 ,thus the ,archbishop  
of ,antivari  7#aeii-afjg7 was allowed  
to 8exact and receive0 two aspers from  
each  ,christian family1 twelve for     
every first marriage 7and double the    
amount for a second1 and quadruple for a

 third marriage71 and one gold  piece   
from each parish annually1 and it seems 
to have been possible to  obtain the    
assistance of the ,turkish authorities  
in levying these  contributions4 #fbj   
,throughout the whole of ,albania there 
was not a single ,christian  school1    
#fba and the priests were profoundly    
ignorant3 some were sent  to study in   
,italy1 but ,marco ,crisio condemns this
 practice1 as such  priests were in     
danger of finding life in ,italy so     
pleasant that they  refused to return to
 their native country4 ,with a          
priesthood so  ignorant and so careless 
of their sacred duties1 it is not       
surprising  to learn that the common    
people had no knowledge even of the     
rudiments  of their faith1 and that     
numerous abuses and corruptions sprang  
up  among them1 which 8wrought the      
utmost desolation to this vineyard of   
the ,lord40 #fbb ,many ,christians lived
 in open concubinage for years1  still1 
however1 being admitted to the          

sacraments1 #fbc while others  had a    
plurality of wives4 #fbd ,in this latter
 practice we notice an  assimilation    
between the habits of the two           
communities--the ,christian  and the    
,muslim--which is further illustrated by
 the admission of  ,muhammadans as      
sponsors at the baptism of ,christian   
children1 while the  old superstitious  
custom of baptising ,muhammadan children
 was still  sanctioned by the priests4  
#fbe    ,such being the state of the    
,christian ,church in ,albania in the   
latter  half of the seventeenth century1
 some very trifling incentive would     
have been enough to bring about a       
widespread apostasy2 and the  punishment
 inflicted on the rebellious ,catholics 
in the latter half of  the century was a
 determining factor more than sufficient
 to consummate  the tendencies that had 
been drawing them towards ,islam and to 
cause  large numbers of them to fall    
away from the ,christian ,church4 ,the  
rebellious movement referred to seems to

 have been instigated by  ,george1 the  
thirty-ninth ,archbishop of ,antivari   
7#afce-afdd71 who  through the bishops  
of ,durazzo1 ,scodra and ,alessio tried 
to induce the  leaders of the ,christian
 community to conspire against the      
,turkish rule  and hand over the country
 to the neighbouring ,christian power1  
the  ,republic of ,venice4 ,as in his   
time ,venice was at peace with the      
,turks a  fitting opportunity for the   
hatching of this plot did not occur1 but
 in  #afde war broke out between ,turkey
 and the ,republic1 and the ,venetians  
made an unsuccessful attempt to capture 
the city of ,antivari1 which  before the
 ,turkish conquest had been in their    
possession for more than  three         
centuries 7#abfb-aega74 ,the ,albanian  
,catholics who had sided with  the enemy
 and secretly given them assistance were
 severely punished and  deprived of     
their privileges1 while the ,greek      
,christians 7who had  everything to fear
 in the event of the restoration of the 

,venetian rule  and had remained        
faithful to the ,turkish government7    
were liberally  rewarded and were lauded
 as the saviours of their country4 ,many
 of the  ,catholics either became       
,muhammadans or joined the ,greek       
,church4 ,the  latter fact is very      
significant as showing that there was no
  persecution of the ,christians as     
such1 nor any attempt to force the      
acceptance of ,islam upon them4 ,the    
,catholics who became ,muhammadans did  
so to avoid the odium of their position 
after the failure of their  plot1 and   
could have gained the same end and have 
at the same time  retained their        
,christian faith by joining the ,greek  
,church1 which was  not only officially 
recognised by the ,turkish government   
but in high  favour in ,antivari at this
 time3 so that those who neglected to do
 so1  could have had very little        
attachment to the ,christian religion4  
,the  same remark holds good of the     
numerous conversions to ,islam in the   

succeeding years3 ,zmaievich attributes 
them in some cases to the desire  to    
avoid the payment of tribute1 but1 from 
what has been said above1 it  is very   
unlikely that this was the sole         
determining motive4    ,in #afdi a still
 more widespread insurrection broke out1
 an ,archbishop  of ,antivari1 ,joseph  
,maria ,bonaldo 7#afdf-afed71 being     
again the main  instigator of the       
movement2 and the leading citizens of   
,antivari1  ,scodra and other towns     
conspired to throw open their gates to  
the army  of the ,venetian ,republic4   
,but this plot also failed and the      
insurrection was forcibly crushed by the
 ,turkish troops1 aided by the          
dissensions that arose among the        
,christians themselves4 ,many ,albanians
  whose influence was feared were       
transported from their own country into 
the interior of the ,turkish dominions2 
a body of #cjjj men crossed the  border 
into ,venetian territory2 those who     
remained were overawed by the  erection 

of fortresses and the marching of troops
 through the  disaffected districts1    
while heavy fines were imposed upon the 
malcontents4 #fbf    ,unfortunately the 
,christian writers who complain of the  
8unjust  tributes and vexations0 with   
which the ,turks oppressed the          
,albanians1  so that they apostatised to
 ,islam1 #fbg make use only of general  
expressions1 and give us no details to  
enable us to judge whether or  not such 
complaints were justified by the facts4 
,zmaievich prefaces his  account of the 
apostasy of #bjjj persons with an       
enumeration of the  taxes and other     
burdens the ,christians had to bear1 but
 all these1 he  says1 were common also  
to the ,muhammadans1 with the exception 
of the  capitation-tax of six reals a   
year for each male1 and another tax1    
termed sciataraccio1 of three reals a   
year4 #fbh ,he concludes with the       
words3 8,the nation1 wounded by these   
taxes in its weakest part1 namely1      
worldly interest1 to the consideration  

of which it has a singular  leaning     
either by nature or by necessity1 has   
given just cause for  lamenting the     
deplorable loss of about #bjjj souls who
 apostatised from  the true faith so as 
not to be subject to the tribute40 #fbi 
,there is  nothing in his report to show
 that the taxes the ,catholics had to   
pay  constituted so intolerable a burden
 as to force them to renounce their     
creed1 and though he attributes many    
conversions to ,islam to the desire  of 
escaping the tribute1 he says expressly 
that these apostasies from  the         
,christian faith are mainly to be       
ascribed to the extreme ignorance  of   
the clergy1 #fcj in great measure also  
to their practice of  admitting to the  
sacraments those who openly professed   
,islam while in  secret adhering to the 
,christian faith3 #fca in another place 
he says1  speaking of the clergy who    
were not fit to be parish priests and   
their  practice of administering the    
sacraments to apostates and secret      

,christians3 8,these are precisely the  
two causes from which have come  all the
 losses that the ,christian ,church has 
sustained in ,albania40  #fcb ,there is 
very little doubt that the widespread   
apostasy at this  time was the result of
 a long series of influences similar to 
those  mentioned in the preceding pages1
 and that the deliverance from the      
payment of the tribute was the last link
 in the chain4    ,what active efforts  
,muhammadans themselves were making to  
gain over the  ,christians to ,islam1 we
 can hardly expect to learn from the    
report of  an ecclesiastical visitor4   
,but we find mention of a district1 the 
inhabitants of which1 from their        
intercourse with the ,turks1 had        
8contracted the vices of these          
infidels10 and one of the chief causes  
of their falling away from the          
,christian faith was their contracting  
marriages with ,turkish women4 #fcc     
,there were no doubt strong  ,muhammadan
 influences at work here1 as also in the

 two parishes of  ,biscascia and ,basia1
 whose joint population of nearly a     
thousand souls  was 8exposed to the     
obvious risk of apostatising through    
lack of any  pastor10 and were 8much    
tempted in their faith1 and needed to be
  strengthened in it by wise and zealous
 pastors40 #fcd    ,zmaievich speaks of 
one of the old noble ,christian families
 in the  neighbourhood of ,antivari     
which was represented at that time by   
two  brothers2 the elder of these had   
been 8wheedled0 by the prominent        
,muhammadans of the place1 who were     
closely related to him1 into denying    
his faith2 the younger wished to study  
for the priesthood1 in which  office 8he
 would be of much assistance to the     
,christian ,church through  the high    
esteem in which the ,turks held his     
family2 which though poor  was          
universally respected40 #fce ,this      
indeed is another indication of  the    
fact that the ,muhammadans did not      
ill-treat the ,christians1 merely  as   

such1 but only when they showed         
themselves to be politically            
disaffected4 ,zmaievich1 who was himself
 an ,albanian1 and took up his          
residence in his diocese instead of in  
,venetian territory1 as many of  the    
,archbishops of ,antivari seem to have  
done1 #fcf was received with            
8extraordinary honours0 and with        
8marvellous courtesy10 not only by the  
,turkish officials generally1 but also  
by the ,supreme ,pasha of ,albania      
himself1 who gave him the place of      
honour in his ,divan1 always            
accompanying him to the door on his     
departure and receiving him there  on   
his arrival4 #fcg ,this 8barbarian0 who 
8showed himself more like a             
generous-hearted ,christian than a      
,turk10 gave more substantial marks of  
good feeling towards the ,christians by 
remitting--at the ,archbishop's         
request--the tribute due for the ensuing
 year from four separate towns4  #fch   
,if any of the ,christian clergy were   

roughly treated by the ,turks1  it seems
 generally to have been due to the      
suspicion of treasonable  correspondence
 with the enemies of the ,turks2        
ecclesiastical visits to  ,italy seem   
also to have excited--and in many cases1
 justly--such  suspicions4 ,otherwise   
the ,christian clergy seem to have had  
no reason  to complain of the treatment 
they received from the ,muslims2        
,zmaievich  even speaks of one parish   
priest being 8much beloved by the       
principal  ,turks10 #fci and doubtless  
there were parallels in ,albania to the 
case  of a priest in the diocese of     
,trebinje in ,herzegovina1 who in the   
early  part of the eighteenth century   
was suspected1 on account of his        
familiar intercourse with ,muhammadans1 
of having formed an intention to        
embrace ,islam1 and was accordingly sent
 by his bishop to ,rome under  safe     
custody4 #fdj    ,no subsequent period  
of ,albanian history appears to have    
witnessed such  widespread apostasy as  

the seventeenth century1 but there have 
been  occasional accessions to ,islam up
 to more recent times4 ,in ,southern    
,albania1 the country of the ,tosks1 the
 preponderance of the ,muhammadan       
population placed the ,christians at a  
disadvantage1 and a story is told  of   
the ,karamurtads1 inhabitants of        
thirty-six villages near ,pogoniani1    
that up to the close of the eighteenth  
century they were ,christians1  but     
finding themselves unable to repel the  
continual attacks of the  neighbouring  
,muhammadan population of ,leskoviki1   
they met in a church  and prayed that   
the saints might work some miracle on   
their behalf2  they swore to fast till  
,easter in expectation of the divine    
assistance2  but ,easter came and no    
miracle was wrought1 so the whole       
population  embraced ,islam2 soon       
afterwards they obtained the arms they  
required  and massacred their old       
enemies in ,leskoviki and took          
possession of  their lands4 #fda        

,community of faith in ,albania is never
 allowed to  stand in the way of a      
tribal feud4 ,even up to the nineteenth 
century  ,albanian tribes and villages  
have changed their religion for very    
trivial reasons2 part of one ,christian 
tribe is said to have turned            
,muhammadan because their priest1 who   
served several villages and  visited    
them first1 insisted on saying mass at  
an unreasonably early  hour4 #fdb    ,at
 the present day the ,muhammadans in    
,albania are said to number about       
#a1jjj1jjj and the ,christians #dhj1jjj1
 but the accuracy of these figures  is  
not certain4 ,the ,mirdites are entirely
 ,christian2 they submitted to  the     
,sultan on condition that no ,muslim    
would be allowed to settle in  their    
territory1 but adherents of both the    
rival creeds are found in  almost all   
the other tribes4 ,central ,albania is  
said to be almost  entirely ,muhammadan1
 and the followers of ,islam form about 
sixty per  cent4 of the population of   

,northern ,albania2 the ,christian      
population  attains its largest         
proportion in ,southern ,albania1       
especially in the  districts bordering  
upon ,greece4    ,the kingdom of ,servia
 first paid tribute to the ,ottomans in 
#acge and  lost its independence after  
the disastrous defeat of ,kossovo       
7#achi71  where both the king of ,servia
 and the ,turkish sultan were left dead 
upon the field4 ,the successors of the  
two sovereigns entered into a  friendly 
compact1 the young ,servian prince1     
,stephen1 acknowledged the  suzerainty  
of ,turkey1 gave his sister in marriage 
to the new sultan1  ,byazd1 and formed  
with him a league of brotherhood4 ,at   
the battle of  ,nikopolis 7#acid71 which
 gave to the ,turks assured possession  
of the  whole ,balkan peninsula1 except 
the district surrounding                
,constantinople1  the ,servian          
contingent turned the wavering fortune  
of the battle and  gave the victory to  
the ,turks4 ,on the field of ,angora    

7#adjb71 when the  ,turkish power was   
annihilated and ,byazd himself taken    
prisoner by  ,tmr1 ,stephen was present 
with his ,servian troops and fought     
bravely  for his brother-in-law1 and    
instead of taking this opportunity of   
securing his independence1 remained     
faithful to his engagement1 and  stood  
by the sons of ,byazd until they        
recovered their father's  throne4 ,under
 the successor of ,stephen1 ,george     
,brankovich1 ,servia  enjoyed a         
semi-independence1 but when in #adch he 
raised the standard of  revolt1 his     
country was again overrun by the ,turks4
 ,then for a time  ,servia had to       
acknowledge the suzerainty of ,hungary1 
but the defeat of  ,john ,hunyady at    
,varna in #addd brought her once more   
under tribute1 and  in #adei she finally
 became a ,turkish province4    ,it is  
not impossible that the ,servians who   
had embraced ,islam after the  battle of
 ,kossovo had knowledge of the fate of  
the little ,muslim  community that had  

been rooted out of ,hungary about a     
century before1  and therefore preferred
 the domination of the ,turks to that of
 the  ,hungarians4 ,yqt gives the       
following account of his meeting1 about 
the  year #abbh1 with some members of   
this group of followers of the ,prophet 
in medival ,europe1 who had owed their  
conversion to ,muslims who had  settled 
among them4 8,in the city of ,aleppo1 ,i
 met a large number of  persons called  
,bashkirs1 with reddish hair and reddish
 faces4 ,they were  studying law        
according to the school of ,ab anfah    
7may ,god be well  pleased with him67 ,i
 asked one of them who seemed to be an  
intelligent  fellow for information     
concerning their country and their      
condition4 ,he  told me1 #8,our country 
is situated on the other side of        
,constantinople1  in a kingdom of a     
people of the ,franks called the        
,hungarians4 ,we are  ,muslims1 subjects
 of their king1 and live on the border  
of his  territory1 occupying about      

thirty villages1 which are almost like  
small  towns4 ,but the king of the      
,hungarians does not allow us to build  
walls  round any of them1 lest we should
 revolt against him4 ,we are situated   
in the midst of ,christian countries1   
having the land of the ,slavs on  the   
north1 on the south1 that of the ,pope1 
i4e4 ,rome 7now the ,pope is  the head  
of the ,franks1 the vicar of the        
,messiah in their eyes1 like  the       
commander of the faithful in the eyes of
 the ,muslims2 his authority  extends   
over all matters connected with religion
 among the whole of  them72 on the west1
 ,andalusia2 on the east1 the land of   
the ,greeks1  ,constantinople and its   
provinces4' ,he added1 #8,our language  
is the  language of the ,franks1 we     
dress after their fashion1 we serve with
  them in the army1 and we join them in 
attacking all their enemies1  because   
they only go to war with the enemies of 
,islam4' ,i then asked  him how it was  
they had adopted ,islam in spite of     

their dwelling in the  midst of the     
unbelievers4 ,he answered1 #8,i have    
heard several of our  forefathers say   
that a long time ago seven ,muslims came
 from ,bulgaria  and settled among us4  
,in kindly fashion they pointed out to  
us our  errors and directed us into the 
right way1 the faith of ,islam4 ,then   
,god  guided us and 7praise be to ,god67
 we all became ,muslims and ,god opened 
our hearts to the faith4 ,we have come  
to this country to study law2  when we  
return to our own land1 the people will 
do us honour and put us  in charge of   
their religious affairs4'0 #fdc ,islam  
kept its ground  among the ,bashkirs of 
,hungary until #acdj1 when ,king        
,charles ,robert  compelled all his     
subjects that were not yet ,christians  
to embrace the  ,christian faith or quit
 the country4 #fdd    ,the ,servian     
,muslims may1 therefore1 well have been 
pleased to escape  from the rule of     
,hungary1 like their ,christian         
fellow-countrymen1 for  when these were 

given the choice between the ,roman     
,catholic rule of  ,hungary and the     
,muslim rule of the ,turks1 the devotion
 of the ,servians  to the ,greek ,church
 led them to prefer the tolerance of the
 ,muhammadans  to the uncompromising    
proselytising spirit of the ,latins4 ,an
 old legend  thus represents their      
feelings at this time3--,the ,turks and 
the  ,hungarians were at war2 ,george   
,brankovich sought out ,john ,hunyady   
and  asked him1 8,if you are victorious1
 what will you do80 8,establish the     
,roman ,catholic faith10 was the answer4
 ,then he sought out the sultan  and    
asked him1 8,if you come out victorious1
 what will you do with our  religion80  
8,by the side of every mosque shall     
stand a church1 and every  man shall be 
free to pray in whichever he chooses40  
#fde ,the treachery  of some ,servian   
priests forced the garrison of ,belgrade
 to capitulate  to the ,turks2 #fdf     
similarly the ,servians of ,semendria1  
on the ,danube1  welcomed the ,turkish  

troops who in #afjj delivered them from 
the rule of  their ,catholic neighbours4
 #fdg    ,the spread of ,islam among the
 ,servians began immediately after the  
battle of ,kossovo1 when a large part of
 the old feudal nobility1 such  as still
 remained alive and did not take refuge 
in neighbouring  ,christian countries1  
went over voluntarily to the faith of   
the ,prophet1  in order to keep their   
old privileges undisturbed4 #fdh ,in    
these  converted nobles the sultans     
found the most zealous propagandists of 
the new faith4 #fdi ,but the majority of
 the ,servian people clung  firmly to   
their old religion through all their    
troubles and sufferings1  and only in   
,stara ,serbia or ,old ,servia1 #fej    
which now forms the  north-eastern      
portion of modern ,albania1 has there   
been any very  considerable number of   
conversions4 ,even here the spread of   
,muhammadanism proceeded very slowly    
until the seventeenth century1 when  the
 ,austrians induced the ,servians to    

rise in revolt and1 after the           
ill-success of this rising1 the then    
,patriarch1 ,arsenius ,,iii             
,tsernoevich1 in #afij emigrated with   
#dj1jjj ,servian families across the    
border into ,hungary2 another exodus in 
#agci of #ae1jjj families under  the    
leadership of ,arsenius ,,iv            
,jovanovich1 well nigh denuded this part
  of the country of its original        
,servian population4 #fea    ,albanian  
colonists from the south pressed into   
the country vacated by  the fugitives3  
these ,albanians at the time of their   
arrival were ,roman  ,catholics for the 
most part1 but after they settled in    
,old ,servia they  gradually adopted    
,islam and at the present time the      
remnant of ,roman  ,catholic ,albanians 
is but small1 though from time to time  
it is  recruited by fresh arrivals from 
the mountains3 the new-comers1  however1
 usually follow the example of their    
predecessors1 and after a  while become 
,muhammadans4 #feb    ,after this       

,albanian immigration1 ,islam began to  
spread more rapidly  among the remnant  
of the ,servian population4 ,the        
,servian clergy were  very ignorant and 
unlettered1 they could only manage with 
difficulty to  read their service-books 
and hardly any had learned to write2    
they  neither preached to the people nor
 taught them the catechism1             
consequently in whole villages scarcely 
a man could be found who knew  the      
,lord's ,prayer or how many commandments
 there were2 even the priests           
themselves were quite as ignorant4 #fec 
,after the insurrection of  #afhi1 the  
,patriarch of ,ipek1 the ecclesiastical 
capital of ,servia1 was  appointed by   
the ,porte1 but in #agcg1 as the result 
of another  rebellion1 the ,servian     
,patriarchate was entirely suppressed   
and the  ,servian ,church made dependent
 upon the ,greek ,patriarch of          
,constantinople4 ,the churches were     
filled with ,greek bishops1 who made    
common cause with the ,turkish ,beys and

 ,pashas in bleeding the  unfortunate   
,christians3 their national language was
 proscribed and the  ,old ,slavonic     
service-books1 etc41 were collected and 
sent off to  ,constantinople4 #fed ,with
 such a clergy it is not surprising that
 the  ,christian faith should decline3  
e4g4 in the commune of ,gora 7in the    
district of ,prizren71 which had begun  
to become ,muhammadanised soon  after   
the great exodus of #afij1 the ,servians
 that still clung to the  ,christian    
faith1 appealed again and again to the  
,greek bishop of  ,prizren to send them 
priests1 at least occasionally1 but all 
in vain2  their children remained       
unbaptised1 weddings and burials were   
conducted  without the blessing of the  
,church1 and the consecrated buildings  
fell  into decay4 #fee ,in the          
neighbouring district of ,opolje1       
similarly1  the present ,muslim         
population of #iejj souls is probably   
for the most  part descended from the   
original ,slav inhabitants of the place4

 #fef  ,at the beginning of the         
seventeenth century1 ,bizzi found in the
 city of  ,jagnevo1 #abj ,roman         
,catholic households1 #bjj ,greek and   
#ahj ,muhammadan2  #feg less than a     
hundred years later1 every house in the 
city was  looked upon as ,muhammadan1 as
 the head of each family professed this 
faith and the women only1 with some of  
the children1 were ,christian4  #feh    
,about the middle of the eighteenth     
century1 the village of ,ljurs  was     
entirely ,catholic2 in #ahfc there were 
#ij ,muslim and #bc ,christian          
families1 but at the present day this   
village1 together with the  surrounding 
villages1 has wholly given up           
,christianity4 #fei ,until  recently    
some lingering survivals of their old   
,christian faith1 such as  the burning  
of the ,yule-log at ,christmas1 etc41   
were still to be met  with in certain   
villages1 but such customs are now fast 
dying out4    ,after the battle of      
,kossovo and the downfall of the        

,servian empire1 the  wild highlands of 
,montenegro afforded a refuge to those  
,servians who  would not submit to the  
,turks but were determined to maintain  
their  independence4 ,it is not the     
place here to relate the history of the 
heroic struggles of this brave people   
against overwhelming odds1 how  through 
centuries of continual warfare1 under   
the rule of their  prince-bishops1 #ffj 
they have kept alive a free ,christian  
state when  all their brethren of the   
same race had been compelled to submit  
to  ,muhammadan rule4 ,while the very   
basis of their separate existence as a  
nation was their firm adherence to the  
,christian faith it could hardly  have  
been expected that ,islam would have    
made its way among them1 but  in the    
seventeenth century many ,montenegrins  
in the frontier districts  became       
,muhammadans and took service with the  
neighbouring ,pashas4 ,but  in #agjc1   
,daniel ,petrovich1 the then reigning   
bishop1 called the tribes  together and 

told them that the only hope for their  
country and their  faith lay in the     
destruction of the ,muhammadans living  
among them4  ,accordingly1 on ,christmas
 ,eve1 all the converted ,montenegrins  
who would  not forswear ,islam and      
embrace ,christianity were massacred in 
cold  blood4 #ffa    ,to pass now to    
,bosnia3--in this country the religious 
and social  conditions of the people1   
before the ,turkish conquest1 merit     
especial  attention4 ,the majority of   
the population belonged to a heretical  
,christian sect1 called ,bogomiles1 who 
from the thirteenth century had  been   
exposed to the persecution of the ,roman
 ,catholics and against whom  ,popes had
 on several occasions preached a        
,crusade4 #ffb ,in #acbe1 ,pope  ,john  
,,xxii wrote thus to the king of        
,bosnia3 8,to our beloved son and       
nobleman1 ,stephen1 ,prince of          
,bosnia1--knowing that thou art a       
faithful  son of the ,church1 we        
therefore charge thee to exterminate the

 heretics  in thy dominion1 and to      
render aid and assistance to ,fabian1   
our  ,inquisitor1 forasmuch as a large  
multitude of heretics from many and     
divers parts collected hath flowed      
together into the principality of       
,bosnia1 trusting there to sow their    
obscene errors and dwell there in       
safety4 ,these men1 imbued with the     
cunning of the ,old ,fiend1 and armed   
with the venom of their falseness1      
corrupt the minds of ,catholics by      
outward show of simplicity and the sham 
assumption of the name of  ,christians2 
their speech crawleth like a crab1 and  
they creep in with  humility1 but in    
secret they kill1 and are wolves in     
sheep's clothing1  covering their       
bestial fury as a means to deceive the  
simple sheep of  ,christ40 ,in the      
fifteenth century1 the sufferings of the
 ,bogomiles  became so intolerable that 
they appealed to the ,turks to deliver  
them  from their unhappy condition1 for 
the king of ,bosnia and the priests     

were pushing the persecution of the     
,bogomiles to an extreme which  perhaps 
it had never reached before2 as many as 
forty thousand of them  fled from       
,bosnia and took refuge in neighbouring 
countries2 others who  did not succeed  
in making their escape1 were sent in    
chains to ,rome4  ,but even these       
violent measures did little to diminish 
the strength of  the ,bogomiles in      
,bosnia1 as in #adfb we are told that   
heresy was as  powerful as ever in this 
country4 ,the following year1 when      
,bosnia was  invaded by ,muammad ,,ii1  
the ,catholic king found himself        
deserted by his  subjects3 the keys of  
the principal fortress1 the royal city  
of  ,bobovatz1 were handed over to the  
,turks by the ,bogomile governor2 the   
other fortresses and towns hastened to  
follow this example1 and within  a week 
seventy cities passed into the hands of 
the ,sultan1 and ,muammad  ,,ii added   
,bosnia to the number of his numerous   
conquests4 #ffc    ,from this time forth

 we hear but little of the ,bogomiles2  
they seem to  have willingly embraced   
,islam in large numbers immediately     
after the  ,turkish conquest1 and the   
rest seem to have gradually followed    
later1  while the ,bosnian ,roman       
,catholics emigrated into the           
neighbouring  territories of ,hungary   
and ,austria4 ,it has been supposed by  
some #ffd  that a large proportion of   
the ,bogomiles1 at least in the earlier 
period of the conquest1 embraced ,islam 
with the intention of returning  to     
their faith when a favourable           
opportunity presented itself2 as1  being
 constantly persecuted they may have    
learnt to deny their faith  for the time
 being2 but that1 when this favourable  
opportunity never  arrived1 this        
intention must have gradually been lost 
sight of and at  length have been       
entirely forgotten by their descendants4
 ,such a  supposition is1 however1 a    
pure conjecture and has no direct       
evidence  to support it4 ,we may rather 

find the reason for the willingness of  
the  ,bogomiles to allow themselves to  
be merged in the general mass of the    
,musalman believers1 in the numerous    
points of likeness between their        
peculiar beliefs and the tenets of      
,islam4 ,they rejected the worship of   
the ,virgin ,mary1 the institution of   
,baptism and every form of  priesthood4 
#ffe ,they abominated the cross as a    
religious symbol1 and  considered it    
idolatry to bow down before religious   
pictures and the  images and relics of  
the saints4 ,their houses of prayer were
 very  simple and unadorned1 in contrast
 to the gaudily decorated ,roman        
,catholic churches1 and they shared the 
,muhammadan dislike of bells1  which    
they styled 8the devil's trumpets40     
,they believed that ,christ was  not    
himself crucified but that some phantom 
was substituted in his  place3 in this  
respect agreeing partially with the     
teaching of the  ,qurn4 #fff ,their     
condemnation of wine and the general    

austerity of  their mode of life and the
 stern severity of their outward        
demeanour  would serve as further links 
to bind them to ,islam1 #ffg for it was 
said of them3 8,you will see heretics   
quiet and peaceful as lambs  without1   
silent1 and wan with hypocritical       
fasting1 who do not speak  much nor     
laugh loud1 who let their beard grow1   
and leave their person  incompt40 #ffh  
,they prayed five times a day and five  
times a night1  repeating the ,lord's   
,prayer with frequent kneelings1 #ffi   
and would  thus find it very little     
change to join in the services of the   
mosque4  ,i have brought together here  
the many points of likeness to the      
teachings of ,islam1 which we find in   
this ,bogomilian heresy1 but there      
were1 of course1 some doctrines of a    
distinctly ,christian character  which  
an orthodox ,muslim could not hold2     
still1 with so much in common1  it can  
easily be understood how the ,bogomiles 
may gradually have been  persuaded to   

give up those doctrines that were       
repugnant to the ,muslim  faith4 ,their 
,manichan dualism was equally           
irreconcilable with ,muslim  theology1  
but ,islam has always shown itself      
tolerant of such  theological           
speculations provided that they did not 
issue in a schism  and that a general   
assent and consent were given to the    
main principles  of its theory and      
practice4    ,the ,turks1 as was their  
usual custom1 offered every advantage to
 induce  the ,bosnians to accept their  
creed4 ,all who embraced ,islam were    
allowed  to retain their lands and      
possessions1 and their fiefs were exempt
 from  all taxation1 #fgj and it is     
probable that many rightful heirs of    
ancient houses who had been dispossessed
 for heretical opinions by the          
,catholic faction among the nobility1   
now embraced the opportunity of         
regaining their old position by         
submission to the dominant creed4 ,the  
,bosnian ,muhammadans retained their    

nationality and still for the most  part
 bear ,serb names and speak only their  
national tongue2 #fga at the  same time 
they have always evinced a lively zeal  
for their new faith1  and by their      
military prowess1 their devotion to     
,islam and the powerful  influence they 
exercised1 the ,bosnian nobility rapidly
 rose into high  favour in              
,constantinople and many were entrusted 
with important offices  of state1 e4g4  
between the years #aedd and #afaa nine  
statesmen of  ,bosnian origin filled the
 post of ,grand ,vizier4    ,the latest 
territorial acquisition of the ,ottoman 
conquests was the  island of ,crete1    
which in #affi was wrested from the     
hands of the  ,venetian ,republic by the
 capture of the city of ,candia after a 
long and  desperate siege of nearly     
three years1 which closed a struggle of 
twenty-five years between these rival   
powers for the possession of the        
island4    ,this was not the first time 
that ,crete had come under ,muslim rule4

  ,early in the ninth century the island
 was suddenly seized by a band of       
,saracen adventurers from ,spain1 and it
 remained in their power for  nearly a  
century and a half 7,a4,d4 #hbe-ifa74   
#fgb ,during this period  well nigh the 
whole population of the island had      
become ,muslim1 and the  churches had   
either fallen into ruins or been turned 
into mosques2 but  when the authority of
 the ,byzantine empire was once         
re-established  here1 the people were   
converted again to their ancient faith  
through  the skilful preaching of an    
,armenian monk1 and the ,christian      
religion  became the only one professed 
on the island4 #fgc ,in the beginning of
  the thirteenth century1 the ,venetians
 purchased the island from  ,boniface1  
,duke of ,montserrat1 to whose lot it   
had fallen after the  partition of the  
,byzantine empire1 and they ruled it    
with a heavy hand1  apparently looking  
upon it only in the light of a purchase 
that was to  be exploited for the       

benefit of the home government and its  
colonists4  ,their administration was so
 oppressive and tyrannical as to excite 
several revolts1 which were crushed with
 pitiless severity2 on one of  these    
occasions whole cantons in the provinces
 of ,sfakia and ,lassiti  were          
depopulated1 and it was forbidden under 
pain of death to sow any  corn there1 so
 that these districts remained barren   
and uncultivated  for nearly a century4 
#fgd ,the terrific cruelty with which   
the  ,venetian senate suppressed the    
last of these attempts at the beginning 
of the sixteenth century added a        
crowning horror to the miserable        
condition of the unhappy ,cretans4 ,how 
terrible was their lot at this  time we 
learn from the reports of the           
commissioners sent by the  ,venetian    
senate in the latter part of the same   
century1 in order to  inquire into the  
condition of the islanders4 ,the        
peasants were said to  be crushed down  
by the cruelest oppression and tyranny  

on the part of  the ,venetian nobles1   
their feudal lords1 being reduced to a  
worse  condition than that of slaves1 so
 that they never dared even to  complain
 of any injustice4 ,each peasant had to 
do twelve days' forced  labour for his  
feudal lord every year without payment1 
and could then  be compelled to go on   
working for as long as his lord required
 his  services at the nominal rate of a 
penny a day2 his vineyards were  mulcted
 in a full third of their produce1 but  
fraud and force combined  generally     
succeeded in appropriating as much as   
two-thirds2 his oxen  and mules could be
 seized for the service of the lord1 who
 had a  thousand other devices for      
squeezing the unfortunate peasant4 #fge 
,the  protests of these commissioners   
proved ineffectual to induce the        
,venetian senate to alleviate the       
unhappy condition of the ,cretans and   
put a stop to the cruelty and tyranny of
 the nobles3 it preferred to  listen to 
the advice of ,fra ,paolo ,sarpi who in 

#afae thus addressed the  ,republic on  
the subject of its ,greek colonies3 8,if
 the gentlemen of  these ,colonies do   
tyrannize over the villages of their    
dominion1 the  best way is not to seem  
to see it1 that there may be no kindness
  between them and their subjects40 #fgf
    ,it is not surprising to learn from 
the same sources that the ,cretans      
longed for a change of rulers1 and that 
8they would not much stick at           
submitting to the ,turk1 having the     
example of all the rest of their  nation
 before their eyes40 ,indeed1 many at   
this time fled into ,turkey  to escape  
the intolerable burden of taxation1     
following in the  footsteps of countless
 others1 who from time to time had taken
 refuge  there4 #fgg ,large numbers of  
them also emigrated to ,egypt1 where    
many  embraced ,islam4 #fgh ,especially 
galling to the ,cretans were the        
exactions of the ,latin clergy who      
appropriated the endowments that        
belonged of right to the ,greek         

ecclesiastics1 and did everything they  
could to insult the ,christians of the  
,greek rite1 who constituted            
nine-tenths of the population of the    
island4 #fgi ,the ,turks1 on the  other 
hand1 conciliated their good-will by    
restoring the ,greek  hierarchy4 ,this1 
according to a ,venetian writer1 was    
brought about in  the following manner3 
8,a certain papas or priest of ,canea   
went to  ,cusseim the ,turkish general1 
and told him that if he desired to gain 
the good-will of the ,cretan people1 and
 bring detestation upon the name  of    
,venice1 it was necessary for him to    
bear in mind that the staunchest  of the
 links which keep civilised society from
 falling asunder is  religion4 ,it would
 be needful for him to act in a way     
different from  the line followed by the
 ,venetians4 ,these did their utmost to 
root out  the ,greek faith and establish
 that of ,rome in its place1 with which 
interest they had made an injunction    
that there should be no ,greek  bishops 

in the island4 ,by thus removing these  
venerated and  authoritative shepherds1 
they thought the more easily to gain    
control  over the scattered flocks4     
,this prohibition had caused such       
distress in  the minds of the ,cretans  
that they were ready to welcome with joy
 and  obedience any sovereignty that    
would lend its will to the              
re-institution of this order in their   
hierarchy--an order so essential  for   
the proper exercise of their divine     
worship4 ,he added1 that it  would be a 
further means of conciliating the people
 if they were  assured that they would  
not only be confirmed in the old        
privileges of  their religion1 but that 
new privileges would be granted them4   
,these  arguments seemed to ,cusseim so 
plausible that he wrote at once to      
,constantinople with a statement of     
them4 ,here they were approved1 and  the
 ,greek ,patriarch was bidden to        
institute an archbishop who should be   
metropole of the ,province of ,candia4  

,under the metropolitan seven other     
bishops were also to be nominated40 #fhj
    ,the ,turkish conquest seems to have
 been very rapidly followed by the      
conversion of large numbers of the      
,cretans to ,islam4 ,it is not          
improbable that the same patriotism as  
made them cling to their old  faith     
under the foreign domination of the     
,venetians who kept them at  arm's      
length and regarded any attempt at      
assimilation as an  unpardonable        
indignity1 #fha and always tried to     
impress on their  subjects a sense of   
their inferiority--may have led them to 
accept the  religion of their new       
masters1 which at once raised them from 
the  position of subjects to that of    
equals and gave them a share in the     
political life and government of their  
country4 ,whatever may have been  the   
causes of the widespread conversion of  
the ,cretans1 it seems almost           
incredible that violence should have    
changed the religion of a people  who   

had for centuries before clung firmly to
 their old faith despite  the           
persecution of a hostile and a foreign  
creed4 ,whatever may have  been the     
means by which the ranks of ,islam were 
filled1 thirty years  after the conquest
 we are told that the majority of the   
,muslims were  renegades or the children
 of renegades1 #fhb and in little more  
than a  century half the population of  
,crete had become ,muhammadan4 ,from one
  end of the island to the other1 not   
only in the towns but also in the       
villages1 in the inland districts and in
 the very heart of the  mountains1 were 
7and are still7 found ,cretan ,muslims  
who in figure1  habits and speech are   
thoroughly ,greek4 ,there never has     
been1 and to  the present day there is  
not1 any other language spoken on the   
island  of ,crete except ,greek2 even   
the few ,turks to be found here had to  
adopt  the language of the country and  
all the firmans of the ,porte and       
decrees of the ,pashas were read and    

published in ,greek4 #fhc ,the  bitter  
feelings between the ,christians and    
,muhammadans of ,crete that  have made  
the history of this island during the   
nineteenth century so  sad a one1 was by
 no means so virulent before the        
outbreak of the ,greek  revolution1 in  
days when the ,cretan ,muslims were very
 generally in the  habit of taking as   
their wives ,christian maidens1 the     
children of their  ,christian friends4  
#fhd ,the social communication between  
the two  communities was further        
signified by their common dress1 as the 
,cretans  of both creeds dressed so much
 alike that the distinction was often   
not  even recognised by residents of    
long standing or by ,greeks of the      
neighbouring islands4 #fhe    ,recent   
political events have brought about a   
considerable diminution in  the         
,muhammadan population of ,crete4 ,in   
#ahha the number of ,muhammadans  in the
 island was #gc1bcd2 in #aiji1 in       
consequence of continual  emigrations1  

it had been reduced to #cc1dif4 #fhf    
,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of 
,,islam ,,in ,,persia ,,and ,,central   
,,asia4      ,in order to follow the    
course of the spread of ,islam eastward 
into  ,central ,asia1 we must retrace   
our steps to the period of the first    
,arab  conquests4 ,by the middle of the 
seventh century1 the great dynasty of   
the ,ssnids had fallen1 and the vast    
empire of ,persia that for four         
centuries had withstood the might of    
,rome and ,byzantium1 now became the    
heritage of the ,muslims4 ,when the     
armies of the state had been routed1    
the mass of the people offered little   
resistance2 the reigns of the  last     
representatives of the ,ssnid dynasty   
had been marked by terrible  anarchy1   
and the sympathies of the people had    
been further alienated  from their      
rulers on account of the support they   
gave to the  persecuting policy of the  
state religion of ,zoroastrianism4 ,the 
,zoroastrian priests had acquired an    

enormous influence in the state2  they  
were well-nigh all-powerful in the      
councils of the king and  arrogated to  
themselves a very large share in the    
civil administration4  ,they took       
advantage of their position to persecute
 all those religious  bodies--7and they 
were many7--that dissented from them4   
,besides the  numerous adherents of     
older forms of the ,persian religion1   
there were  ,christians1 ,jews1 ,sabans 
and numerous sects in which the         
speculations  of ,gnostics1 ,manichans  
and ,buddhists found expression4 ,in all
 of  these1 persecution had stirred up  
feelings of bitter hatred against the   
established religion and the dynasty    
that supported its oppressions1  and so 
caused the ,arab conquest to appear in  
the light of a  deliverance4 #fhg ,the  
followers of all these varied forms of  
faith  could breathe again under a rule 
that granted them religious freedom  and
 exemption from military service1 on    
payment of a light tribute4 ,for  the   

,muslim law granted toleration and the  
right of paying jizyah not  only to the 
,christians and ,jews1 but to           
,zoroastrians and ,sabans1 to           
worshippers of idols1 of fire and of    
stone4 #fhh ,it was said that the       
,prophet himself had distinctly given   
directions that the ,zoroastrians  were 
to be treated exactly like 8the people  
of the book10 i4e4 the ,jews  and       
,christians1 and that jizyah might also 
be taken from them in return  for       
protection1 #fhi--;a tradition that     
probably arose in the second  century of
 the ,hijrah1 when apostolic sanction   
was sought for the  toleration that had 
been extended to all the followers of   
the various  faiths that ,arabs had     
found in the countries they had         
conquered1  whether such non-,muslims   
came under the category ,ahl al-,kitb or
 not4  #fij    ,to the distracted       
,christian ,church in ,persia the change
 of government  brought relief from the 
oppression of the ,ssnid kings1 who had 

fomented the bitter struggles of        
,jacobites and ,nestorians and added to 
the confusion of warring sects4 ,some   
reference has already #fia been  made to
 earlier persecutions1 and even during  
the expiring agony of the  ,ssnid       
dynasty1 ,khusrau ,,ii1 exasperated at  
the defeat he had suffered  at the hands
 of the ,christian emperor1 ,heraclius1 
ordered a fresh  persecution of the     
,christians within his dominions1 a     
persecution from  which all the various 
,christian sects alike had to suffer4   
,these  terrible conditions may well    
have prepared men's minds for that      
revulsion of feeling that facilitates a 
change of faith4 8,side by side  with   
the political chaos in the state was the
 moral confusion that  filled the minds 
of the ,christians2 distracted by such  
an accumulation  of disasters and by the
 moral agony wrought by the furious     
conflict of  so many warring doctrines  
among them1 they tended towards that    
peculiar  frame of mind in which a new  

doctrine finds it easy to take root1    
making a clean sweep of such a          
bewildering babel and striving to       
reconstruct faith and society on a new  
basis4 ,in other words the people  of   
,persia1 and especially the ,semitic    
races1 were just in the very  mental    
condition calculated to make them       
welcome the ,islamic revolution  and    
urge them on to enthusiastically embrace
 the new and rugged creed1  which with  
its complete and virile simplicity swept
 away at one stroke  all those dark     
mists1 opened the soul to new1 alluring 
and tangible  hopes1 and promised       
immediate release from a miserable state
 of  servitude40 #fib    ,but the       
,muslim creed was most eagerly welcomed 
by the townsfolk1 the  industrial       
classes and the artisans1 whose         
occupations made them impure  according 
to the ,zoroastrian creed1 because in   
the pursuance of their  trade or        
occupations they defiled fire1 earth or 
water1 and who thus1  outcasts in the   

eyes of the law and treated with scant  
consideration in  consequence1 embraced 
with eagerness a creed that made them at
 once  free men1 and equal in a         
brotherhood of faith4 #fic ,nor were the
  conversions from ,zoroastrianism      
itself less striking3 the fabric of the 
,national ,church had fallen with a     
crash in the general ruin of the        
dynasty that had before upheld it2      
having no other centre round which  to  
rally1 the followers of this creed would
 find the transition to  ,islam a simple
 and easy one1 owing to the numerous    
points of similarity  in the old creed  
and the new4 ,for the ,persian could    
find in the ,qurn  many of the          
fundamental doctrines of his old faith1 
though in a rather  different form3 he  
would meet again ,ahuramazda and        
,ahriman under the  names of ,allh and  
,ibls2 the creation of the world in six 
periods2 the  angels and the demons2 the
 story of the primitive innocence of    
man2 the  resurrection of the body and  

the doctrine of heaven and hell4 #fid   
,even in the details of daily worship   
there were similarities to be  found and
 the followers of ,zoroaster when they  
adopted ,islam were  enjoined by their  
new faith to pray five times a day just 
as they had  been by the ,avesta4 #fie  
,those tribes in the north of ,persia   
that had  stubbornly resisted the       
ecclesiastical organisation of the state
  religion1 on the ground that each man 
was a priest in his own household  and  
had no need of any other1 and believing 
in a supreme being and the  immortality 
of the soul1 taught that a man should   
love his neighbour1  conquer his        
passions1 and strive patiently after a  
better life--such men  could have needed
 very little persuasion to induce them  
to accept the  faith of the ,prophet4   
#fif ,islam had still more points of    
contact with  some of the heretical     
sects of ,persia1 that had come under   
the  influence of ,christianity4    ,in 
addition to the causes above enumerated 

of the rapid spread of ,islam  in       
,persia1 it should be remembered that   
the political and national  sympathies  
of the conquered race were also enlisted
 on behalf of the  new religion through 
the marriage of usayn1 the son of ,al   
with  ,shhbn1 one of the daughters of   
,yazdagird1 the last monarch of the     
,ssnid dynasty4 ,in the descendants of  
,shhbn and usayn the ,persians  saw the 
heirs of their ancient kings and the    
inheritors of their  national           
traditions1 and in this patriotic       
feeling may be found the  explanation of
 the intense devotion of the ,persians  
to the ,alid  faction and the first     
beginnings of ,shism as a separate sect4
 #fig    ,that this widespread          
conversion was not due to force or      
violence is  evidenced by the toleration
 extended to those who still clung to   
their  ancient faith4 ,even to the      
present day there are some small        
communities  of fire-worshippers to be  
found in certain districts of ,persia1  

and  though these have in later years   
often had to suffer persecution1 #fih   
their ancestors in the early centuries  
of the ,hijrah enjoyed a  remarkable    
degree of toleration1 their fire-temples
 were respected1 and  we even read of a 
,muhammadan general 7in the reign of    
al-,mutaim1 ,a4,d4  #hcc-hdb71 who      
ordered an imm and a muadhdhin to be    
flogged because  they had destroyed a   
fire-temple in ,sughd and built a mosque
 in its  place4 #fii ,in the tenth      
century1 three centuries after the      
conquest  of the country1 fire-temples  
were to be found in ,irq1 ,frs1 ,kirmn1 
,sijistn1 ,khursn1 ,jibl1 dharbayjn and 
,arrn1 i4e4 in almost every  province of
 ,persia4 #gjj ,in ,frs itself there    
were hardly any cities  or districts in 
which fire-temples and ,magians were not
 to be found4  #gja ,al-,shahrastn also 
7writing as late as the twelfth         
century71  makes mention of a           
fire-temple at ,isfniy1 in the          
neighbourhood of  ,baghdd itself4 #gjb  

,in the face of such facts1 it is surely
 impossible to attribute the  decay of  
,zoroastrianism entirely to violent     
conversions made by the  ,muslim        
conquerors4 ,the number of ,persians who
 embraced ,islam in the  early days of  
the ,arab rule was probably very large  
from the various  reasons given above1  
but the late survival of their ancient  
faith and  the occasional record of     
conversions in the course of successive 
centuries1 render it probable that the  
acceptance of ,islam was both  peaceful 
and voluntary4 ,about the close of the  
eighth century1 ,smn1 a  noble of       
,balkh1 having received assistance from 
,asad b4 ,abd-,allh1 the  governor of   
,khursn1 renounced ,zoroastrianism1     
embraced ,islam and  named his son ,asad
 after his protector3 it is from this   
convert that  the dynasty of the ,smnids
 7,a4,d4 #hgd-iii7 took its name4 ,about
 the  beginning of the ninth century1   
,karm b4 ,shahriyr was the first king   
of the ,qbsiyyah dynasty who became a   

,musalman1 and in #hgc a large  number  
of fire-worshippers were converted to   
,islam in ,daylam through  the influence
 of ,nir al-aqq ,ab ,muammad4 ,in the   
following century1  about ,a4,d4 #iab1  
asan b4 ,al1 of the ,alid dynasty on the
 southern  shore of the ,caspian ,sea1  
who is said to have been a man of       
learning  and intelligence and well     
acquainted with the religious opinions  
of  different sects1 invited the        
inhabitants of abaristn and ,daylam1 who
  were partly idolaters and partly      
,magians1 to accept ,islam2 many of them
  responded to his call1 while others   
persisted in their former state of      
unbelief4 #gjc ,in the year ,a4,h4 #cid 
7,a4,d4 #ajjc-ajjd71 a famous poet1     
,abu'l asan ,mihyr1 a native of ,daylam1
 who had been a fire-worshipper1  was   
converted to ,islam by a still more     
famous poet1 the ,sharf al-,ri1  who was
 his master in the poetic art4 #gjd     
,it was probably about the same period  
that the grandfather of the great       

geographer1 ,ibn ,khrddbih1 was         
converted through the influence of one  
of the ,barmecides1 #gje whose ancestor 
had been likewise a ,magian and  high   
priest of the great ,fire ,temple of    
,nawbahr at ,balkh4    ,scanty as these 
notices of conversion are1 they appear  
to have been  voluntary1 and the        
,zoroastrians would seem to have enjoyed
 on the whole  toleration for the       
exercise of their religion up to the    
close of the  ,abbsid period4 ,with the 
,mongol invasion a darker period in     
their  history begins1 and the miseries 
which the ,persian ,muslims themselves  
suffered seems to have generated in them
 a spirit of fanatical  intolerance     
which exposed the ,zoroastrians at times
 to cruel  sufferings4 #gjf    ,in the  
middle of the eighth century1 ,persia   
gave birth to a movement  that is of    
interest in the missionary history of   
,islam1 viz4 the sect  of the ,ismlians4
 ,this is not the place to enter into a 
history of  this sect or of the         

theological position taken up by its    
followers1 or  of the social and        
political factors that lent it strength1
 but it  demands attention here on      
account of the marvellous missionary    
organisation whereby it was propagated4 
,the founder of this                    
organisation--which rivals that of the  
,jesuits for the keen insight into      
human nature it displays and the        
consummate skill with which the         
doctrines of the sect were accommodated 
to varying capacities and               
prejudices--was a certain ,abd ,allh b4 
,maymn1 who early in the ninth  century 
infused new life into the ,ismlians4 ,he
 sent out his  missionaries in all      
directions under various guises1 very   
frequently as  fs but also as merchants 
and traders and the like2 they were     
instructed to be all things to all men  
and to win over different  classes of   
men to allegiance to the grandmaster of 
their sect1 by  speaking to each man1 as
 it were1 in his own language1 and      

accommodating their teaching to the     
varying capacities and opinions of      
their hearers4 ,they captivated the     
ignorant multitude by the  performance  
of marvels that were taken for miracles 
and by mysterious  utterances that      
excited their curiosity4 ,to the devout 
they appeared as  models of virtue and  
religious zeal2 to the mystics they     
revealed the  hidden meaning of popular 
teachings and initiated them into       
various  grades of occultism according  
to their capacity4 ,taking advantage of 
the eager looking-forward to a deliverer
 that was common to so many  faiths of  
the time1 they declared to the          
,musalmans the approaching  advent of   
the ,imm ,mahd1 to the ,jews that of the
 ,messiah1 and to the  ,christians that 
of the ,comforter1 but taught that the  
aspirations of  each could alone be     
realised in the coming of ,al as the    
great  deliverer4 ,with the ,shah1 the  
,ismlian missionary was to put  himself 
forward as the zealous partisan of all  

the ,shah doctrine1 was  to dwell upon  
the cruelty and injustice of the ,sunns 
towards ,al and  his sons1 and liberally
 abuse the ,sunn ,khalfahs2 having thus 
prepared  the way1 he was to insinuate1 
as the necessary completion of the ,shah
  system of faith1 the more esoteric    
doctrines of the ,ismlian sect4 ,in     
dealing with the ,jew1 he was to speak  
with contempt of both ,christians  and  
,muslims and agree with his intended    
convert in still looking  forward to a  
promised ,messiah1 but gradually lead   
him to believe that  this promised      
,messiah could be none other than ,al1  
the great ,messiah  of the ,ismlian     
system4 ,if he sought to win over the   
,christian1 he  was to dwell upon the   
obstinacy of the ,jews and the ignorance
 of the  ,muslims1 to profess reverence 
for the chief articles of the ,christian
  creed1 but gently hint that they were 
symbolic and pointed to a deeper        
meaning1 to which the ,ismlian system   
alone could supply the key2 he  was also

 cautiously to suggest that the         
,christians had somewhat  misinterpreted
 the doctrine of the ,paraclete and that
 it was in ,al  that the true ,paraclete
 was to be found4 ,similarly the        
,ismlian  missionaries who made their   
way into ,india endeavoured to make     
their  doctrines acceptable to the      
,hindus1 by representing ,al as the     
promised tenth ,avatr of ,viu who was to
 come from the ,west1 i4e4  7they       
averred7 from ,alamt4 ,they also wrote a
 ,mahd ,pura and composed  hymns in     
imitation of those of the ,vmcrins or   
left-hand ktas1  whose mysticism already
 predisposed their minds to the         
acceptance of  the esoteric doctrines of
 the ,ismlians4 #gjg    ,by such means  
as these an enormous number of persons  
of different  faiths were united        
together to push forward an enterprise1 
the real aim  of which was known to very
 few4 ,the aspirations of ,abd ,allh b4 
,maymn  seem to have been entirely      
political1 but as the means he adopted  

were  religious and the one common      
bond--if any--that bound his followers  
together was the devout expectation of  
the coming of the ,imm ,mahd1  the      
missionary activity connected with the  
history of this sect  deserves this     
brief mention in these pages4 #gjh      
,the history of the spread of ,islam in 
the countries of ,central ,asia to  the 
north of ,persia presents little in the 
way of missionary activity4  ,when      
,qutaybah b4 ,muslim went to ,samarqand1
 he found many idols there1  whose      
worshippers maintained that any man who 
dared outrage them would  perish2 the   
,muslim conqueror1 undeterred by such   
superstitious fears1  set fire to the   
idols2 whereupon a number of persons    
embraced ,islam4  #gji ,there is1       
however1 but scanty record of such      
conversions in the  early history of the
 ,muslim advance into ,central ,asia2   
moreover the  people of this country    
seem often to have pretended to embrace 
,islam  for a time and then to have     

thrown off the mask and renounced their 
allegiance to the caliph as soon as the 
conquering armies were  withdrawn1 #gaj 
and it was not until ,qutaybah had      
forcibly occupied  ,bukhr for the fourth
 time that he succeeded in compelling   
the  inhabitants to conform to the faith
 of their conquerors4    ,in ,bukhr and 
,samarqand the opposition to the new    
faith was so violent  and obstinate that
 none but those who had embraced ,islam 
were allowed  to carry arms1 and for    
many years the ,muslims dared not appear
 unarmed  in the mosques or other public
 places1 while spies had to be set to   
keep a watch on the new converts4 ,the  
conquerors made various efforts  to gain
 proselytes1 and even tried to encourage
 attendance at the  ,friday prayers in  
the mosques by rewards of money1 and    
allowed the  ,qurn to be recited in     
,persian instead of in ,arabic1 in order
 that it  might be intelligible to all4 
#gaa    ,the progress of ,islam in      
,transoxania was certainly very slow3   

some of  the inhabitants accepted the   
invitation of ,umar ,,ii 7,a4,d4        
#gag-gbj7 to  embrace ,islam1 #gab and  
large numbers were converted through the
  preaching of a certain ,ab ayd who    
commenced this mission in  ,samarqand in
 the reign of ,hishm 7#gbd-gdc71 #gac   
but it was not until  the reign of      
,al-,mutaim 7,a4,d4 #hcc-hdb7 that      
,islam was generally  adopted there1    
#gad one of the reasons probably being  
the more  intimate relations established
 at this time with the then capital of  
the ,muhammadan world1 ,baghdd1 through 
the enormous numbers of ,turks  that had
 flocked in thousands to join the army  
of the caliph4 #gae  ,islam having thus 
gained a footing among the ,turkish     
tribes seems to  have made but slow     
progress until the middle of the tenth  
century1 when  the conversion of some of
 their chieftains to ,islam1 like that  
of  ,clovis and other barbarian kings of
 ,northern ,europe to ,christianity1    
led their clansmen to follow their      

example in a body4    ,pious legends    
have grown up to supply the lack of     
sober historical  record of such        
conversions4 ,the city of ,khva reveres 
as its national  saint a ,muslim        
wrestler--,pahlavn--who was in the      
service of a heathen  king of ,khwrizm4 
,the king of ,india1 hearing of the fame
 of this  ,pahlavn1 sent his own court  
wrestler with a challenge to the king of
  ,khwrizm4 ,a day was fixed for the    
trial of strength and the nobles and    
people of ,khva were summoned to view   
the spectacle2 the vanquished man  was  
to have his head cut off4 ,on the day   
before1 the saintly ,pahlavn  was       
praying in the mosque when he overheard 
the prayer of an old woman3  8,o ,god1  
suffer not my son to be beaten by this  
invincible ,pahlavn1 for  ,i have no    
other child40 ,touched with compassion  
for the mother1  ,pahlavn lets the      
,indian wrestler win the day2 the       
enraged king orders  his head to be cut 
off1 but at that very moment the horse  

on which the  king is sitting1 bolts1   
carrying his master straight towards a  
dangerous precipice4 ,pahlavn springs   
forward1 catches the horse and  rescues 
the king from a horrible death4 ,in     
gratitude the king embraces  the true   
faith1 and the saintly wrestler1 full of
 joy1 goes away into  the desert and    
becomes a hermit4 #gaf    ,a strange    
legend is told of the conversion of ,stq
 ,bughr ,khn1 the  founder of the       
,muhammadan dynasty of the lik-,khns of 
,kshgar1 about  the middle of the tenth 
century4 ,a prince of the ,smnid house1 
,khwjah  ,abu'l-,nar ,smn1 a man of     
great piety and humility of character1  
finding no scope for the exercise of his
 talent for administration1  resolved to
 become a merchant1 with the purpose of 
spreading the true  faith in the lands  
of the unbelievers4 ,instead of trying  
to acquire a  fortune by his commercial 
enterprises1 he devoted all his gains to
 the  furtherance of his proselytising  
efforts4 ,one night the ,prophet        

appeared to him in a dream1 saying3     
8,arise1 and go into ,turkistan where   
the prince ,stq ,bughr ,khn only awaits 
your coming to be converted to  ,islam40
 ,the young prince had in a similar     
manner been warned in a  vision to      
expect the arrival of an instructor in  
the faith1 and when  some days later he 
met ,abu'l-,nar ,smn he was prepared to 
accept his  teaching and become a       
,musalman4 ,this legend would appear to 
have been  based on the historic fact   
that ,islam made its way from the ,smnid
  kingdom into the neighbouring country 
of ,turkistan1 and the example of  the  
ruler seems to have been followed by his
 subjects1 for in ,a4,d4 #ifj  as many  
as #bjj1jjj tents of the ,turks1 i4e4   
probably the greater part  of the       
,turkish population of ,bughr ,khn's    
kingdom1 professed the faith  of ,islam4
 #gag ,legend credits him with          
miraculous powers in his wars  against  
the heathen1 when a devouring flame     
would issue from his mouth  and the     

sword that he brandished would become   
forty feet long4 ,by the  time he had   
reached the age of ninety-six1 the      
terror of his sword is  said to have    
converted the unbelievers from the banks
 of the ,oxus in  the south to ,qurquram
 in the north1 and just before his death
 he is  said to have led his victorious 
army into ,china1 and spread ,islam as  
far as ,turfan4 #gah ,this picturesque  
account of a dynastic struggle  with the
 ,buddhist kingdom of ,khotan credits   
the hero with a measure of  success     
which was not really achieved until the 
fourteenth century4 ,how  limited the   
success of ,stq ,bughr ,khn really was1 
may be judged from  the fact that when  
his successors among the lik-,khns      
sought in #ajbf  to contract matrimonial
 alliances with princesses of the house 
of  ,mamd of ,ghazna1 ,mamd replied that
 he was a ,musalman1 while they  were   
unbelievers1 and that it was not the    
custom to give the sisters  and         
daughters of ,musalmans in marriage to  

unbelievers1 but that1 if  they would   
embrace ,islam1 the matter would be     
considered4 #gai ,a few  years later1 in
 #ajda-ajdb1 a number of ,turks who were
 still heathen and  living in ,tibetan  
territory sought permission from ,arsln 
,khn b4 ,qadr  ,khn to settle in his    
dominions1 having heard of the justice  
and  mildness of his rule2 when they    
arrived in the neighbourhood of  ,blsghn
 #gbj he sent a message to them urging  
them to accept ,islam2  but they        
refused1 and as he found them to be     
peaceable and obedient  subjects1 he    
left them alone4 ,there is no record of 
their conversion1  which probably ensued
 in course of time2 but they can hardly 
be  identified with the group of ten    
thousand tents of infidel ,turks who    
embraced ,islam in the following year1  
as these latter are expressly  stated to
 have harried and plundered the         
,musalmans before their  conversion4    
#gba ,the invasion of the ,qar ,khity   
into ,turkistan #gbb  dealt a severe    

blow to the power of ,islam1 and as late
 as the  thirteenth century the reports 
of ,european travellers show that there 
were still important groups of          
,buddhists1 ,manichans and ,christians  
in  these parts4 #gbc    ,of supreme    
importance to ,islam was the conversion 
of the ,saljq ,turks1  but no record of 
their conversion remains beyond the     
statement that in  ,a4,d4 #ief ,saljq   
migrated from ,turkistan with his clan  
to the province  of ,bukhr1 where he and
 his people enthusiastically embraced   
,islam4  #gbd ,this was the origin of   
the famous ,saljq ,turks1 whose wars and
  conquests revived the fading glory of 
the ,muhammadan arms and united  into   
one empire the ,muslim kingdoms of      
,western ,asia4    ,when at the close of
 the twelfth century1 the ,saljq empire 
had lost  all power except in ,asia     
,minor1 and when ,muammad ,ghr was      
extending  his empire from ,khursn      
eastward across the north of ,india1    
there was  a great revival of the       

,muslim faith among the ,afghns and     
their country  was overrun by ,arab     
preachers and converts from ,india1 who 
set about  the task of proselytising    
with remarkable energy and boldness4    
#gbe  ,the traditions of the ,afghns    
represent ,islam as having been         
peaceably  introduced among them4 ,they 
say that in the first century of the    
,hijrah  they occupied the ,ghr country 
to the east of ,hert1 and that ,khlid b4
  ,wald came to them there with the     
tidings of ,islam and invited them to   
join the standard of the ,prophet2 he   
returned to ,muammad accompanied  by a  
deputation of six or seven              
representative men of the ,afghan       
people1 with their followers1 and these1
 when they went back to their  own      
country1 set to work to convert their   
fellow-tribesmen4 #gbf ,this  tradition 
is1 however1 devoid of any historical   
foundation1 and the  earliest authentic 
record of conversion to ,islam from     
among the ,afghans  seems to be that of 

a king of ,kbul in the reign of         
al-,mamn4 #gbg  ,his successors1        
however1 seem to have relapsed to       
,buddhism1 for when  ,yaqb b4 ,layth1   
the founder of the affrid dynasty1      
extended his  conquests as far as ,kbul 
in #hga1 he found the ruler of the land 
to be  an 8idolater10 and ,kbul now     
became really ,muhammadan for the first 
time1 the ,afghans probably being quite 
willing to take service in the  army of 
so redoubtable a conqueror as ,yaqb b4  
,layth1 #gbh but it was  not until after
 the conquests of ,sabaktign and ,mamd  
of ,ghazna that  ,islam became          
established throughout ,afghanistan4    
,of the further history of ,islam in    
,persia and ,central ,asia some details 
will be found in the following chapter4 
,,chapter ,,viii4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of
 ,,islam ,,among ,,the ,,mongols ,,and  
,,tatars4      ,there is no event in the
 history of ,islam that for terror and  
desolation can be compared to the       
,mongol conquest4 ,like an avalanche1   

the hosts of ,chingz ,khn swept over the
 centres of ,muslim culture and         
civilisation1 leaving behind them bare  
deserts and shapeless ruins  where      
before had stood the palaces of stately 
cities1 girt about with  gardens and    
fruitful corn-land4 ,when the ,mongol   
army had marched out of  the city of    
,hert1 a miserable remnant of forty     
persons crept out of  their             
hiding-places and gazed horror-stricken 
on the ruins of their  beautiful        
city--all that were left out of a       
population of over #ajj1jjj4  ,in       
,bukhr1 so famed for its men of piety   
and learning1 the ,mongols  stabled     
their horses in the sacred precincts of 
the mosques and tore up  the ,qurns to  
serve as litter2 those of the           
inhabitants who were not  butchered were
 carried away into captivity and their  
city reduced to  ashes4 ,such too was   
the fate of ,samarqand1 ,balkh and many 
another city  of ,central ,asia1 which  
had been the glories of ,islamic        

civilisation and  the dwelling-places of
 holy men and the seats of sound        
learning--such  too the fate of ,baghdd 
that for centuries had been the capital 
of the  ,abbsid dynasty4    ,well might 
the ,muhammadan historian shudder to    
relate such horrors2  when ,ibn al-,athr
 comes to describe the inroads of the   
,mongols into the  countries of ,islam1 
8for many years10 he tells us1 8,i      
shrank from  giving a recital of these  
events on account of their magnitude and
 my  abhorrence4 ,even now ,i come      
reluctant to the task1 for who would    
deem  it a light thing to sing the      
death-song of ,islam and of the         
,muslims1 or  find it easy to tell this 
tale8 ,o that my mother had not given me
  birth6 #8,oh1 would that ,i had died  
ere this1 and been a thing forgotten1   
forgotten quite6' #gbi ,many friends    
have urged me and still ,i stood        
irresolute2 but ,i saw that it was of no
 profit to forego the task and  so ,i   
thus resume4 ,i shall have to describe  

events so terrible and  calamities so   
stupendous that neither day nor night   
have ever brought  forth the like2 they 
fell on all nations1 but on the ,muslims
 more than  all2 and were one to say    
that since ,god created ,adam the world 
has not  seen the like1 he would but    
tell the truth1 for history has nothing 
to  relate that at all approaches it4   
,among the greatest calamities in       
history is the slaughter that           
,nebuchadnezzar wrought among the       
children  of ,israel and his destruction
 of the ,temple2 but what is ,jerusalem 
in  comparison to the countries that    
these accursed ones laid waste1 every   
town of which was far greater than      
,jerusalem1 and what were the  children 
of ,israel in comparison to those they  
slew1 since the  inhabitants of one of  
the cities they destroyed were greater  
in numbers  than all the children of    
,israel8 ,let us hope that the world may
 never  see the like again40 #gcj ,but  
,islam was to rise again from the ashes 

of its former grandeur and through its  
preachers win over these savage         
conquerors to the acceptance of the     
faith4 ,this was a task for the         
missionary energies of ,islam that was  
rendered more difficult from the  fact  
that there were two powerful competitors
 in the field4 ,the  spectacle of       
,buddhism1 ,christianity and ,islam     
emulously striving to win  the          
allegiance of the fierce conquerors that
 had set their feet on the  necks of    
adherents of these great missionary     
religions1 is one that is  without      
parallel in the history of the world4   
,before entering on a recital of this   
struggle1 it will be well in order  to  
the comprehension of what is to follow  
briefly to glance at the  partition of  
the ,mongol empire after the death of   
,chingz ,khn1 when it  was split up into
 four sections and divided among his    
sons4 ,his third  son1 ,ogoty1 succeeded
 his father as ,khqn and received as his
 share  the eastern portion of the      

empire1 in which ,qbly afterwards       
included  the whole of ,china4 ,chaghaty
 the second son took the middle kingdom4
  ,bt1 the son of his first-born ,jj1   
ruled the western portion as ,khn  of   
the ,golden ,horde2 ,tuly the fourth son
 took ,persia1 to which ,hlg1  who      
founded the dynasty of the lkhns1 added 
a great part of ,asia  ,minor4    ,the  
primitive religion of the ,mongols was  
,shamanism1 which while  recognising a  
supreme ,god1 offered no prayers to     
,him1 but worshipped a  number of       
inferior divinities1 especially the evil
 spirits whose powers  for harm had to  
be deprecated by means of sacrifices1   
and the souls of  ancestors who were    
considered to exercise an influence on  
the lives of  their descendants4 ,to    
propitiate these powers of the heaven   
and of the  lower world1 recourse was   
had to the ,shamans1 wizards or         
medicine-men1  who were credited with   
possessing mysterious influence over the
  elements and the spirits of the       

departed4 ,their religion was not one   
that was calculated to withstand long   
the efforts of a proselytising  faith1  
possessed of a systematic theology      
capable of satisfying the  demands of   
the reason and an organised body of     
religious teachers1 when  once the      
,mongols had been brought into contact  
with civilised races1  had responded to 
their civilising influences and begun to
 pass out of  their nomadic barbarism4  
,it so happened that the civilised races
 with  which the conquest of the        
,mongols brought them in contact        
comprised  large numbers of ,buddhists1 
,christians and ,muhammadans1 and the   
adherents of these three great          
missionary faiths entered into rivalry  
with one another for the conversion of  
their conquerors4 ,when not  carried    
away by the furious madness for         
destruction and insult that  usually    
characterised their campaigns1 the      
,shamanist ,mongols showed  themselves  
remarkably tolerant of other religions1 

whose priests were  exempted from       
taxation and allowed perfect freedom of 
worship4 ,buddhist  priests held        
controversies with the ,shamans in the  
presence of ,chingz  ,khn2 and at the   
courts of ,mang ,khn and ,qbly the      
,buddhist and  ,christian priests and   
the ,muslim ,imms alike enjoyed the     
patronage of  the ,mongol prince4 #gca  
,in the reign of the latter monarch the 
,mongols  in ,china began to yield to   
the powerful influences of the          
surrounding  ,buddhism1 and by the      
beginning of the fourteenth century the 
,buddhist  faith seems to have gained a 
complete ascendancy over them4 #gcb ,it 
was the ,lamas of ,tibet who showed     
themselves most zealous in this work  of
 conversion1 and the people of ,mongolia
 to the present day cling to  the same  
faith1 as do the ,kalmuks who migrated  
to ,russia in the  seventeenth century4 
,although ,buddhism made itself finally 
supreme in the eastern part of  the     
empire1 at first the influence of the   

,christian ,church was by no  means     
inconsiderable and great hopes were     
entertained of the conversion  of the   
,mongols4 ,the ,nestorian missionaries  
in the seventh century had  carried the 
knowledge of the ,christian faith from  
west to east across  ,asia as far as the
 north of ,china1 and scattered         
communities were still  to be found in  
the thirteenth century4 ,the famous     
,prester ,john1 around  whose name      
cluster so many legends of the ,middle  
,ages1 is supposed to  have been the    
chief of the ,karats1 a ,christian      
,tartar tribe living to  the south of   
,lake ,baikal4 ,when this tribe was     
conquered by ,chingz  ,khn1 he married  
one of the daughters of the then chief  
of the tribe1  while his son ,ogoty took
 a wife from the same family4 ,ogoty's  
son1  ,kuyk1 although he did not himself
 become a ,christian1 showed great      
favour towards this faith1 to which his 
chief minister and one of his           
secretaries belonged4 ,the ,nestorian   

priests were held in high favour at  his
 court and he received an embassy from  
,pope ,innocent ,,iv4 #gcc ,the         
,christian powers both of the ,east and 
the ,west looked to the ,mongols to     
assist them in their wars against the   
,musalmans4 ,it was ,hayton1 the        
,christian ,king of ,armenia1 who was   
mainly instrumental in persuading  ,mang
 ,khn to despatch the expedition that   
sacked ,baghdd under the  leadership of 
,hlg1 #gcd the influence of whose       
,christian wife led  him to show much   
favour to the ,christians1 and          
especially to the  ,nestorians4 ,many of
 the ,mongols who occupied the countries
 of ,armenia  and ,georgia were         
converted by the ,christians of these   
countries and  received baptism4 #gce   
,the marvellous tales of the greatness  
and  magnificence of ,prester ,john1    
that fired the imagination of medival   
,europe1 had given rise to a belief that
 the ,mongols were ,christians--a       
belief which was further strengthened by

 the false reports that reached  ,europe
 of the conversion of various ,mongol   
princes and their zeal for  the         
,christian cause4 ,it was under this    
delusion that ,st4 ,louis sent an       
ambassador1 ,william of ,rubruck1 to    
exhort the great ,khqn to persevere  in 
his supposed efforts for the spread of  
the ,christian faith4 ,but  these       
reports were soon discovered to be      
without any foundation in  fact1 though 
,william of ,rubruck found that the     
,christian religion was  freely         
tolerated at the court of ,mang ,khn1   
and the adhesion of some  few ,mongols  
to this faith made the ,christian       
priests hopeful of still  further       
conquests4 ,but so long as ,latins1     
,greeks1 ,nestorians and  ,armenians    
carried their theological differences   
into the very midst of  the ,mongol     
camp1 there was very little hope of much
 progress being  made1 and it is        
probably this very want of union among  
the preachers of  ,christianity that    

caused their efforts to meet with so    
little success  among the ,mongols2 so  
that while they were fighting among one 
another1  ,buddhism and ,islam were     
gaining a firm footing for themselves4  
,the  haughty pretensions of the ,roman 
,pontiff soon caused the proud          
conquerors of half the world to withdraw
 from his emissaries what  little favour
 they might at first have been inclined 
to show1 and many  other circumstances  
contributed to the failure of the ,roman
 mission4  #gcf    ,as for the          
,nestorians1 who had been first in the  
field1 they appear to  have been too    
degraded and apathetic to take much     
advantage of their  opportunities4 ,of  
the ,nestorians in ,china1 ,william of  
,rubruck #gcg  says that they were very 
ignorant and could not even understand  
their  service books1 which were written
 in ,syriac4 ,he accuses them of        
drunkenness1 polygamy and covetousness1 
and makes an unfavourable  comparison   
between their lives and those of the    

,buddhist priests4 ,their  bishop paid  
them very rare visits--sometimes only   
once in fifty years3  on such occasions 
he would ordain all the male children1  
even the  babies in their cradles4 ,the 
priests were eaten up with simony1 made 
a  traffic of the sacred rites of their 
,church and concerned themselves  more  
with money-making than with the         
propagation of the faith4 #gch    ,in   
the western parts of the ,mongol empire1
 where the ,christians looked  to the   
newly-risen power to help them in their 
wars with the ,musalmans  and to secure 
for them the possession of the ,holy    
,land1 the alliance  between the        
,christians and the lkhns of ,persia was
 short-lived1 as  the victories of      
,baybars1 the ,mamlk ,sultan of ,egypt  
7#abfj-abgg7 and  his alliance with     
,baraka ,khn1 gave the lkhns quite      
enough to do to  look after their own   
interests4 ,the excesses that the       
,christians of  ,damascus and other     
cities committed during the brief period

 in which  they enjoyed the favour of   
this ,mongol dynasty of ,persia1 did    
much to  discredit the ,christian name  
in ,western ,asia4 #gci    ,in the      
course of the struggle1 the adherents of
 either faith were at  times guilty of  
much brutality4 ,one example may be     
taken from the  middle of the thirteenth
 century as told by al-,jzjn1 who claims
 to  have heard the story1 while in     
,delhi1 from the lips of a certain      
,sayyid  ,ashraf al-,dn who had come    
there from ,samarqand4 8,the eminent    
,sayyid  thus related1 that one of the  
,christians of ,samarqand attained unto 
the  felicity of ,islam1 and the        
,musalmans of ,samarqand1 who are       
staunch in  their faith1 paid him great 
honour and reverence1 and conferred     
great  benefits upon him4 ,unexpectedly1
 one of the haughty ,mongol infidels of 
,china1 who possessed power and         
influence1 and the inclinations of which
  accursed one were towards the         
,christian faith1 arrived at ,samarqand4

  ,the ,christians of that city repaired
 to that ,mongol1 and complained        
saying3 #8,the ,musalmans are enjoining 
our children to turn away from the      
,christian faith and from serving       
,jesus--on whom be peace--and calling   
upon them to follow the religion of     
,muaf #gdj--on whom be peace--and1  in  
case that gate becomes unclosed1 the    
whole of our dependents will  turn away 
from the ,christian faith4 ,by thy power
 and authority devise a  settlement of  
our case4' ,the ,mongol commanded that  
the youth1 who had  turned ,musalman1   
should be produced1 and they tried with 
blandishment  and kindness1 and money   
and wealth to induce the newly-converted
  ,musalman to recant1 but he refused to
 recant1 and put not off from his  heart
 and spirit that garment of             
freshness--the ,muslim faith4 ,the      
,mongol  ruler then turned over a leaf  
in his temper1 and began to speak of    
severe punishment2 and every punishment1
 which it was in his power to  inflict1 

or his severity to devise1 he inflicted 
upon the youth1 who1  from his great    
zeal for the faith of ,islam1 did not   
recant1 and did not  in any way cast    
away from his hand the sweet draught of 
religion  through the blow of infidel   
perverseness4 ,as the youth continued   
firm  in the true faith1 and paid no    
heed to the promises and threats of that
  depraved company1 the accursed ,mongol
 commanded that they should bring  the  
youth to public punishment2 and he      
departed from the world in the  felicity
 of religion--may ,god reward and       
requite him6--and the ,musalman         
community in ,samarqand were overcome   
with despondency and consternation  in  
consequence4 ,a petition was got up1 and
 was attested with the  testimony of the
 chief men and credible persons of the  
,musalman  religion dwelling at         
,samarqand1 and we proceeded with that  
petition to  the camp of ,baraka ,khn1  
and presented to him an account of the  
proceedings and disposition of the      

,christians of that city4 ,zeal for  the
 ,muslim religion was manifested in the 
mind of that monarch of  exemplary      
faith1 and the defence of the truth     
became predominant in his  disposition4 
,after some days1 he showed honour to   
this ,sayyid1  appointed a body of      
,turks and confidential persons among   
the chief  ,musalmans1 and commanded    
that they should slaughter the          
,christian  company who had committed   
that dire oppression1 and despatch them 
to  hell4 ,when that mandate had been   
obtained1 it was preserved until that   
wretched sect had assembled in the      
church1 then they seized them all       
together1 and despatched the whole of   
them to hell1 and reduced the  church   
again to bricks40 #gda    ,for ,islam to
 enter into competition with such       
powerful rivals as  ,buddhism and       
,christianity were at the outset of the 
period of ,mongol  rule1 must have      
appeared a well-nigh hopeless           
undertaking4 ,for the  ,muslims had     

suffered more from the storm of the     
,mongol invasions than  the others4     
,those cities that had hitherto been the
 rallying points of  spiritual          
organisation and learning for ,islam in 
,asia1 had been for the  most part laid 
in ashes3 the theologians and pious     
doctors of the  faith1 either slain or  
carried away into captivity4 #gdb ,among
 the  ,mongol rulers--usually so        
tolerant towards all religions--there   
were some  who exhibited varying degrees
 of hatred towards the ,muslim faith4   
,chingz ,khn ordered all those who      
killed animals in the ,muhammadan       
fashion to be put to death1 and this    
ordinance was revived by ,qbly1  who by 
offering rewards to informers set on    
foot a sharp persecution  that lasted   
for seven years1 as many poor persons   
took advantage of  this ready means of  
gaining wealth1 and slaves accused their
 masters in  order to gain their        
freedom4 #gdc ,during the reign of ,kuyk
  7#abdf-abdh71 who left the conduct of 

affairs entirely to his two  ,christian 
ministers and whose court was filled    
with ,christian monks1  the ,muhammadans
 were made to suffer great severities4  
#gdd    ,a contemporary historian1      
al-,jzjn1 gives the following account of
  the kind of treatment to which a      
,muhammadan theologian might be exposed 
at the court of ,kuyk4 8,trustworthy    
persons have related that ,kuyk was     
constantly being incited by the         
,buddhist priests to acts of oppression 
towards the ,musalmans and the          
persecution of the faithful4 ,there was 
an  ,imm in that country1 one of the men
 of learning among the ,muslims 444     
named ,nr al-,dn1 al-,khwrazm4 ,a number
 of ,christian laymen and  priests and a
 band of idol-worshipping ,buddhist     
priests made a request  to ,kuyk1 asking
 him to summon that ,imm of the         
,musalmans that they  might hold a      
controversy with him and get him to     
prove the superiority  of the faith of  
,muammad and his prophetic              

mission--otherwise1 he should  be put to
 death4 ,the ,khn agreed1 the ,imm was  
sent for1 and a  discussion ensued upon 
the claim of ,muammad to be a prophet   
and the  manner of his life as compared 
with that of other prophets4 ,at length1
  as the arguments of those accursed    
ones were weak and devoid of the  force 
of truth1 they withdrew their hand from 
contradiction and drew  the mark of     
oppression and outrage on the pages of  
the business and  asked ,kuyk ,khn to   
tell the ,imm to perform two            
genuflexions in  prayer1 according to   
the rites and ordinances of the         
,muhammadan law1 in  order that his     
unbecoming movements in the performance 
of this act of  worship might become    
manifest to them and to the ,khn40 ,kuyk
 gave the  order accordingly1 and the   
,imm and another ,musalman who was with 
him  performed the ritual of the prayer 
according to the prescribed forms4      
8,when the godly ,imm and the other     
,musalman who was with him1 had  placed 

their foreheads on the ground in the act
 of prostration1 some  infidels whom    
,kuyk had summoned1 greatly annoyed them
 and knocked  their heads with force    
upon the ground1 and committed other    
abominable  acts against them4 ,but that
 godly ,imm endured all this oppression 
and  annoyance and performed all the    
required forms and ceremonies of the    
prayer and in no way curtailed it4 ,when
 he had repeated the salutation1  he    
lifted up his face towards heaven and   
observed the form of #8,invoke  your    
,lord with humility and in secret1' and 
having asked permission to  depart1 he  
returned unto his own house40 #gde      
,arghn 7#abhd-abia7 the fourth lkhn     
persecuted the ,musalmans and took  away
 from them all posts in the departments 
of justice and finance1 and  forbade    
them to appear at his court4 #gdf    ,in
 spite of all difficulties1 however1 the
 ,mongols and the savage  tribes that   
followed in their wake #gdg were at     
length brought to  submit to the faith  

of those ,muslim peoples whom they had  
crushed  beneath their feet4            
,unfortunately history sheds little     
light on the  progress of this          
missionary movement and only a few      
details relating to  the conversion of  
the more prominent converts have been   
preserved to  us4 ,scattered up and down
 throughout the length and breadth of   
the  ,mongol empire1 there must have    
been many of the followers of the       
,prophet who laboured successfully and  
unknown1 to win unbelievers to  the     
faith4 ,in the reign of ,ogoty          
7#abbi-abda71 we read of a certain      
,buddhist governor of ,persia1 named    
,kurguz1 who in his later years  abjured
 ,buddhism and became a ,musalman4 #gdh 
,in the reign of ,tmr  ,khn             
7#acbc-acbh71 nanda1 a grandson of ,qbly
 and viceroy of ,kan-,su1  was a zealous
 ,musalman and had converted a great    
many persons in ,tangut  and won over a 
large number of the troops under his    
command to the same  faith4 ,he was     

summoned to court and efforts were made 
to induce him to  conform to ,buddhism1 
and on his refusing to abandon his faith
 he was  cast into prison4 ,but he was  
shortly after set at liberty1 for fear  
of  an insurrection among the           
inhabitants of ,tangut1 who were much   
attached  to him4 #gdi    ,the author of
 the ,muntakhab al-,tawrkh asserts that 
nanda built four  mosques in ,khnbligh  
7the modern ,peking71 which provided    
accommodation  for #a1jjj1jjj men at the
 time of the ,friday prayer2 but no     
credence can  be given to this or to his
 other statements regarding the spread  
of  ,islam in ,china1 in view of the    
fact that he represents nanda to have   
been the successor of ,tmr ,khn on the  
imperial throne and gives an  entirely  
fictitious account of his descendants1  
several of whom are  represented as     
having professed ,islam1 though none of 
the five had any  existence except in   
the imagination of the writer4 #gej     
,the first ,mongol ruling prince who    

professed ,islam was ,baraka ,khn1 who  
was chief of the ,golden ,horde from    
#abef to #abfg4 #gea ,according to      
,abu'l-,ghz he was converted after he   
had come to the throne4 ,he is  said one
 day to have fallen in with a caravan   
coming from ,bukhr1 and  taking two of  
the merchants aside1 to have questioned 
them on the  doctrines of ,islam1 and   
they expounded to him their faith so    
persuasively that he became converted in
 all sincerity4 ,he first  revealed his 
change of faith to his youngest brother1
 whom he induced  to follow his example1
 and then made open profession of his   
new belief4  #geb ,but1 according to    
al-,jzjn1 ,baraka ,khn was brought up as
 a  ,musalman from infancy1 and1 as soon
 as he was old enough to learn1 was     
taught the ,qurn by one of the ,ulam of 
the city of ,khujand4 #gec  ,the same   
author 7who compiled his history during 
the lifetime of ,baraka  ,khn71 states  
that the whole of his army was          
,musalman4 8,trustworthy  persons have  

also related that1 throughout his whole 
army1 it is the  etiquette for every    
horseman to have a prayer-carpet with   
him1 so that1  when the time for prayer 
arrives1 they may occupy themselves in  
their  devotions4 ,not a person in his  
whole army takes any intoxicating drink 
whatever2 and great ,ulam1 consisting of
 commentators1 traditionists1  jurists1 
and disputants1 are in his society4 ,he 
has a great number of  religious books1 
and most of his receptions and debates  
are with  ,ulam4 ,in his place of       
audience debates on ecclesiastical law  
constantly take place2 and1 in his      
faith1 as a ,musalman1 he is            
exceedingly strict and orthodox40 #ged  
,baraka ,khn entered into a  close      
alliance with the ,mamlk ,sultan of     
,egypt1 ,rukn al-,dn ,baybars4  ,the    
initiative came from the latter1 who had
 given a hospitable  reception to a body
 of troops1 two hundred in number1      
belonging to the  ,golden ,horde2 these 
men1 observing the growing enmity       

between their  ,khn and ,hlg1 the       
conqueror of ,baghdd1 in whose army they
 were  serving1 took flight into ,syria1
 whence they were honourably conducted  
to ,cairo to the court of ,baybars1 who 
persuaded them to embrace ,islam4  #gee 
,baybars himself was at war with ,hlg1  
whom he had recently  defeated and      
driven out of ,syria4 ,he sent two of   
the ,mongol fugitives1  with some other 
envoys1 to bear a letter to ,baraka     
,khn4 ,on their  return these envoys    
reported that each princess and amr at  
the court  of ,baraka ,khn had an imm   
and a muadhdhin1 and the children were  
taught the ,qurn in the schools4 #gef   
,these friendly relations  between      
,baybars and ,baraka ,khn brought many  
of the ,mongols of the  ,golden ,horde  
into ,egypt1 where they were prevailed  
upon to become  ,musalmans4 #geg    ,in 
,persia1 where ,hlg founded the dynasty 
of the lkhns1 the  progress of ,islam   
among the ,mongols was much slower4 ,in 
order to  strengthen himself against the

 attacks of ,baraka ,khn and the ,sultan
 of  ,egypt1 ,hlg accepted the alliance 
of the ,christian powers of the  ,east1 
such as the king of ,armenia and the    
,crusaders4 ,his favourite wife  was a  
,christian and favourably disposed the  
mind of her husband towards  her        
co-religionists1 and his son ,abq ,khn  
married the daughter of the  ,emperor of
 ,constantinople4 ,though ,abq ,khn did 
not himself become a  ,christian1 his   
court was filled with ,christian        
priests1 and he sent  envoys to several 
of the princes of ,europe--,st4 ,louis  
of ,france1 ,king  ,charles of ,sicily  
and ,king ,james of ,aragon--to solicit 
their alliance  against the             
,muhammadans2 to the same end also1 an  
embassy of sixteen  ,mongols was sent to
 the ,council of ,lyons in #abgd1 where 
the spokesman  of this embassy embraced 
,christianity and was baptised with some
 of his  companions4 ,great hopes were  
entertained of the conversion of ,abq1  
but they proved fruitless4 ,his brother 

,takdr1 #geh who succeeded  him1 was the
 first of the lkhns who embraced ,islam4
 ,he had been  brought up as a          
,christian1 for 7as a contemporary      
,christian writer  #gei tells us71 8he  
was baptised when young and called by   
the name of  ,nicholas4 ,but when he was
 grown up1 through his intercourse with 
,saracens of whom he was very fond1 he  
became a base ,saracen1 and1  renouncing
 the ,christian faith1 wished to be     
called ,muammad ,khn1 and  strove with  
all his might that the ,tartars should  
be converted to the  faith and sect of  
,muammad1 and when they proved          
obstinate1 not daring  to force them1 he
 brought about their conversion by      
giving them honours  and favours and    
gifts1 so that in his time many ,tartars
 were converted  to the faith of the    
,saracens40 ,this prince sent the news  
of his  conversion to the ,sultan of    
,egypt in the following letter3--8,by   
the  power of ,god ,almighty1 the       
mandate of ,amad to the ,sultan of      

,egypt4 ,god  ,almighty 7praised be ,his
 name67 by ,his grace preventing us and 
by the  light of ,his guidance1 hath    
guided us in our early youth and vigour 
into the true path of the knowledge of  
,his deity and the confession of  ,his  
unity1 to bear witness that ,muammad 7on
 whom rest the highest  blessings67 is  
the ,prophet of ,god1 and to reverence  
,his saints and ,his  pious servants4   
#8,whom ,god shall please to guide1 that
 man's breast will  ,he open to ,islam4'
 #gfj ,we ceased not to incline our     
heart to the  promotion of the faith and
 the improvement of the condition of    
,islam  and the ,muslims1 up to the time
 when the succession to the empire came 
to us from our illustrious father and   
brother1 and ,god spread over us  the   
glory of ,his grace and kindness1 so    
that in the abundance of ,his  favours  
our hopes were realised1 and ,he        
revealed to us the bride of the         
kingdom1 and she was brought forth to us
 a noble spouse4 ,a ,qrilty or  general 

assembly was convened1 wherein our      
brothers1 our sons1 great  nobles1      
generals of the army and captains of the
 forces1 met to hold  council2 and they 
were all agreed on carrying out the     
order of our  elder brother1 viz4 to    
summon here a vast levy of our troops   
whose  numbers would make the earth1    
despite its vastness1 appear too narrow1
  whose fury and fierce onset would fill
 the hearts of men with fear1  being    
animated with a courage before which the
 mountain peaks bow down1  and a firm   
purpose that makes the hardest rocks    
grow soft4 ,we reflected  on this their 
resolution which expressed the wish of  
all1 and we  concluded that it ran      
counter to the aim we had in view--to   
promote the  common weal1 i4e4 to       
strengthen the ordinance of ,islam2     
never1 as far  as lies in our power1 to 
issue any order that will not tend to   
prevent  bloodshed1 remove the ills of  
men1 and cause the breeze of peace and  
prosperity to blow on all lands1 and the

 kings of other countries to  rest upon 
the couch of affection and benevolence1 
whereby the commands  of ,god will be   
honoured and mercy be shown to the      
people of ,god4  ,herein1 ,god inspired 
us to quench this fire and put an end to
 these  terrible calamities1 and make   
known to those who advanced this        
proposal  7of a levy7 what it is that   
,god has put into our hearts to do1     
namely1  to employ all possible means   
for the healing of all the sickness of  
the  world1 and putting off what should 
only be appealed to as the last  remedy4
 ,for we desire not to hasten to appeal 
to arms1 until we have  first declared  
the right path1 and will permit it only 
after setting  forth the truth and      
establishing it with proofs4 ,our       
resolve to carry  out whatever appears  
to us good and advantageous has been    
strengthened  by the counsels of the    
,shaykh al-,islm1 the model of divines1 
who has  given us much assistance in    
religious matters4 ,we have appointed   

our  chief justice1 ,qutb al-,dn and the
 ,atbak1 ,bah al-,dn1 both  trustworthy 
persons of this flourishing kingdom1 to 
make known to you  our course of action 
and bear witness to our good intentions 
for the  common weal of the ,muslims2   
and to make it known that ,god has      
enlightened us1 and that ,islam annuls  
all that has gone before it1 and  that  
,god ,almighty has put it into our      
hearts to follow the truth and  those   
who practice it4444 ,if some convincing 
proof be required1 let men  observe our 
actions4 ,by the grace of ,god1 we have 
raised aloft the  standards of the      
faith1 and borne witness to it in all   
our orders and  our practice1 so that   
the ordinances of the law of ,muammad   
may be  brought to the fore and firmly  
established in accordance with the      
principles of justice laid down by      
,amad4 ,whereby we have filled the      
hearts of the people with joy1 have     
granted free pardon to all  offenders1  
and shown them indulgences1 saying1     

#8,may ,god pardon the  past6' ,we have 
reformed all matters concerning the     
pious endowments of  ,muslims given for 
mosques1 colleges1 charitable           
institutions1 and the  rebuilding of    
caravanserais2 we have restored their   
incomes to those to  whom they were due 
according to the terms laid down by the 
donors4444  ,we have ordered the        
pilgrims to be treated with respect1    
provision to  be made for their caravans
 and for securing their safety on the   
pilgrim  routes2 we have given perfect  
freedom to merchants1 travelling from   
one  country to another1 that they may  
go wherever they please2 and we have    
strictly prohibited our soldiers and    
police from interfering with them  in   
their comings or goings40 ,he seeks the 
alliance of the ,sultan of  ,egypt 8so  
that these countries and cities may     
again be populated1 these  terrible     
calamities be put down1 the sword be    
returned to the scabbard2  that all     
peoples may dwell in peace and          

quietness1 and the necks of the         
,muslims be freed from the ills of      
humiliation and disgrace40 #gfa    ,to  
the student of the history of the       
,mongols it is a relief to pass  from   
the recital of nameless horrors and     
continual bloodshed to a  document      
emanating from a ,mongol prince and     
giving expression to such  humane and   
benevolent sentiments1 which sound      
strange indeed coming  from such lips4  
,this conversion of their chief and the 
persecutions that he inflicted  on the  
,christians gave great offence to the   
,mongols1 who1 although not  ,christians
 themselves1 had been long accustomed to
 intercourse with the  ,christians1 and 
they denounced their chief to ,qbly ,khn
 as one who  had abandoned the footsteps
 of his forefathers4 ,a revolt broke out
  against him1 headed by his nephew     
,arghn1 who compassed his death and     
succeeded him on the throne4 ,during his
 brief reign 7#abhd-abia71 the          
,christians were once more restored to  

favour1 while the ,musalmans had  to    
suffer persecution in their turn1 were  
dismissed from their posts  and driven  
away from the court4 #gfb    ,the       
successors of ,takdr were all heathen1  
until1 in #abie1 ,ghzn1 the  seventh and
 greatest of the lkhns1 became a        
,musalman and made ,islam  the ruling   
religion of ,persia4 ,during the last   
three reigns the  ,christians had       
entertained great hopes of the          
conversion of the ruling  family of     
,persia1 who had shown them such        
distinguished favour and  entrusted them
 with so many important offices of      
state4 ,his immediate  predecessor1 the 
insurgent ,bayd ,khn1 who occupied the  
throne for a  few months only in #abie1 
carried his predilection for            
,christianity so  far as to try to put a
 stop to the spread of ,islam among the 
,mongols1  and accordingly forbade any  
one to preach the doctrines of this     
faith  among them4 #gfc    ,ghzn himself
 before his conversion had been brought 

up as a ,buddhist  and had erected      
several ,buddhist temples in ,khursn1   
and took great  pleasure in the company 
of the priests of this faith1 who had   
come into  ,persia in large numbers     
since the establishment of the ,mongol  
supremacy  over that country4 #gfd ,he  
appears to have been naturally of a     
religious turn of mind1 for he studied  
the creeds of the different  religions  
of his time1 and used to hold           
discussions with the learned  doctors of
 each faith4 #gfe ,rashd al-,dn1 his    
learned minister and  the historian of  
his reign1 maintained the genuineness of
 his  conversion to ,islam1 the         
religious observances of which he       
zealously  kept throughout his whole    
reign1 though his contemporaries 7and   
later  writers have often re-echoed the 
imputation7 represented him as having   
only yielded to the solicitations of    
some ,amrs and ,shaykhs4 #gff           
8,besides1 what interested motive10 asks
 his apologist1 8could have led  so     

powerful a sovereign to change his      
faith3 much less1 a prince whose  pagan 
ancestors had conquered the world80 ,his
 conversion1 however1  certainly won    
over to his side the hearts of the      
,persians1 when he was  contending with 
,bayd for the throne1 and the           
,muhammadan ,mongols in the  army of his
 rival deserted to support the cause of 
their  co-religionist4 ,these were the  
very considerations that were urged upon
  ,ghzn by ,nawrz1 a ,muhammadan ,amr   
who had espoused his cause and who      
hailed him as the prince who1 according 
to a prophecy1 was to appear  about this
 time to protect the faith of ,islam and
 restore it to its  former splendour3 if
 he embraced ,islam1 he could become the
 ruler of  ,persia3 the ,musalmans1     
delivered from the grievous yoke of the 
,pagan  ,mongols1 would espouse his     
cause1 and ,god1 recognising in him the 
saviour of the true faith from utter    
destruction1 would bless his arms  with 
victory4 #gfg ,after hesitating a       

little1 ,ghzn made a public  profession 
of the faith1 and his officers and      
soldiers followed his  example3 he      
distributed alms to men of piety and    
learning and visited  the mosques and   
tombs of the saints and in every way    
showed himself an  exemplary ,muslim    
ruler4 ,his brother1 ,uljyt1 who        
succeeded him in  #acjd1 under the name 
of ,muammad ,khudbandah1 had been       
brought up as a  ,christian in the faith
 of his mother and had been baptised    
under the  name of ,nicholas1 but after 
his mother's death1 while he was still a
  young man1 he became a convert to     
,islam through the persuasions of his   
wife4 #gfh ,ibn ,baah says that his     
example exercised a great  influence on 
the ,mongols4 #gfi ,from this time      
forward ,islam became the  paramount    
faith in the kingdom of the lkhns4      
,the details that we possess of the     
progress of ,islam in the ,middle       
,kingdom1 which fell to the lot of      
,chaghaty and his descendants1 are      

still more meagre4 ,several of the      
princes of this line had a ,muhammadan  
minister in their service1 but they     
showed themselves unsympathetic to  the 
faith of ,islam4 ,chaghaty harassed his 
,muhammadan subjects by  regulations    
that restricted their ritual observances
 in respect of the  killing of animals  
for food and of ceremonial washings4    
,al-,jzjn says  that he was the         
bitterest enemy of the ,muslims among   
all the ,mongol  rulers and did not wish
 any one to utter the word ,musalman    
before him  except with evil purpose4   
#ggj ,orghana1 the wife of his grandson 
and  successor1 ,qar-,hlg1 brought up   
her son as a ,musalman1 and under the   
name of ,mubrak ,shh he came forward in 
#abfd as one of the claimants of  the   
disputed succession to the ,chaghaty    
,khnate2 but he was soon  driven from   
the throne by his cousin ,burq ,khn1 and
 appears to have  exercised no influence
 on behalf of his faith1 indeed judging 
from  their names it would not appear   

that any of his own children even       
adopted the religion of their father4   
#gga ,burq ,khn is said to have  8had   
the blessedness of receiving the light  
of the faith0 a few days  before his    
death in #abgj1 and to have taken the   
name of ,suln ,ghiyth  al-,dn1 #ggb but 
he was buried according to the ancient  
funeral rites  of the ,mongols1 and not 
as a ,musalman1 and those who had been  
converted  during his reign relapsed    
into their former heathenism4 ,it was   
not  until the next century that the    
conversion of armshrn ,khn1 about       
#acbf1 caused ,islam to be at all       
generally adopted by the ,chaghaty      
,mongols1 who when they followed the    
example of their chief this time        
remained true to their new faith4 ,but  
even now the ascendancy of ,islam  was  
not assured1 for ,bzun who was ,khn in  
the next decade--the  chronology is     
uncertain--drove armshrn from his       
throne1 and  persecuted the ,muslims1   
#ggc and it was not until some years    

later  that we hear of the first        
,musalman king of ,kshgar1 which the    
break-up  of the ,chaghaty dynasty had  
erected into a separate kingdom4 ,this  
prince1 ,tqluq ,tmr ,khn 7#acdg-acfc71  
is said to have owed his  conversion to 
a holy man from ,bukhr1 by name ,shaykh 
,jaml al-,dn4  ,this ,shaykh1 in company
 with a number of travellers1 had       
unwittingly  trespassed on the          
game-preserves of the prince1 who       
ordered them to be  bound hand and foot 
and brought before him4 ,in reply to his
 angry  question1 how they had dared    
interfere with his hunting1 the ,shaykh 
pleaded that they were strangers and    
were quite unaware that they were       
trespassing on forbidden ground4        
,learning that they were ,persians1 the 
prince said that a dog was worth more   
than a ,persian4 8,yes10 replied  the   
,shaykh1 8if we had not the true faith1 
we should indeed be worse  than the     
dogs40 ,struck with his reply1 the ,khn 
ordered this bold  ,persian to be       

brought before him on his return from   
hunting1 and taking  him aside asked him
 to explain what he meant by these words
 and what  was 8faith40 ,the ,shaykh    
then set before him the doctrines of    
,islam with  such fervour and zeal that 
the heart of the ,khn that before had   
been  hard as a stone was melted like   
wax1 and so terrible a picture did the  
holy man draw of the state of unbelief1 
that the prince was convinced  of the   
blindness of his own errors1 but said1  
8,were ,i now to make  profession of the
 faith of ,islam1 ,i should not be able 
to lead my  subjects into the true path4
 ,but bear with me a little2 and when ,i
 have  entered into the possession of   
the kingdom of my forefathers1 come to  
me again40 ,for the empire of ,chaghaty 
had by this time been broken up  into a 
number of petty princedoms1 and it was  
many years before ,tqluq  ,tmr succeeded
 in uniting under his sway the whole    
empire as before4  ,meanwhile ,shaykh   
,jaml al-,dn had returned to his home1  

where he fell  dangerously ill3 when at 
the point of death1 he said to his son  
,rashd  al-,dn1 8,tqluq ,tmr will one   
day become a great monarch2 fail not to 
go and salute him in my name and        
fearlessly remind him of the promise  he
 made me40 ,some years later1 when      
,tqluq ,tmr had re-won the empire  of   
his fathers1 ,rashd al-,dn made his way 
to the camp of the ,khn to  fulfil the  
last wishes of his father1 but in spite 
of all his efforts  he could not gain an
 audience of the ,khn4 ,at length he    
devised the  following expedient3 one   
day in the early morning1 he began to   
chant  the call to prayers1 close to the
 ,khn's tent4 ,enraged at having his    
slumbers disturbed in this way1 the     
prince ordered him to be brought  into  
his presence1 whereupon ,rashd al-,dn   
delivered his father's  message4 ,tqluq 
,khn was not unmindful of his promise1  
and said3 8,ever  since ,i ascended the 
throne ,i have had it on my mind that ,i
 made that  promise1 but the person to  

whom ,i gave the pledge never came4 ,now
 you  are welcome40 ,he then repeated   
the profession of faith and became a    
,muslim4 8,on that morn the sun of      
bounty rose out of the east of divine   
favour and effaced the dark night of    
unbelief4444 ,they then decided  that   
for the propagation of ,islam they      
should interview the princes one  by    
one1 and it should be well for those who
 accepted the faith1 but  those who     
refused should be slain as heathens and 
idolaters40 ,the first  to be examined  
was a noble named ,amr ,tlik4 ,the ,khn 
asked him1 8,will  you embrace ,islam80 
,amr ,tlik burst into tears and said3   
8,three years  ago ,i was converted by  
some holy men at ,kshgar and became a   
,musalman1  but from fear of you ,i did 
not openly declare it40 ,then ,tqluq    
,khn  rose up and embraced him1 and the 
three sat down again together4 ,in  this
 manner they examined the princes one by
 one1 and they all accepted  ,islam1    
with the exception of one named ,jars1  

who suggested a trial of  strength      
between the ,shaykh and his servant1 an 
infidel who was above  the ordinary     
stature of man and so strong that he    
could lift a  two-year-old camel4 ,the  
,shaykh accepted the challenge1 saying3 
8,if ,i do  not throw him1 ,i will not  
require you to become a ,musalman4 ,if  
it is  ,god's wish that the ,mongols    
become honoured with the blessed state  
of  ,islam1 ,he will doubtless give me  
sufficient power to overcome this  man40
 ,tqluq ,khn and those who had become   
,musalmans with him tried to  dissuade  
the holy man1 but he persisted in his   
purpose4 8,a large crowd  assembled1 the
 infidel was brought in1 and he and the 
,shaykh advanced  towards one another4  
,the infidel1 proud of his own strength1
 advanced  with a conceited air4 ,the   
,shaykh looked very small and weak      
beside him4  ,when they came to blows1  
the ,shaykh struck the infidel full in  
the  chest1 and he fell senseless4      
,after a little he came to again1 and   

having raised himself1 fell again at the
 feet of the ,shaykh1 crying out  and   
uttering words of belief4 ,the people   
raised loud shouts of  applause1 and on 
that day #afj1jjj persons cut off the   
hair of their  heads and became         
,musalmans4 ,the ,khn was circumcised1  
and the lights of  ,islam dispelled the 
shades of unbelief40 ,from that time    
,islam became  the established faith in 
the settled countries under the rule of 
the  descendants of ,chaghaty4 #ggd ,but
 many of the nomad ,mongols appear to   
have remained outside the pale of ,islam
 up to the early part of the  fifteenth 
century1 judging from the violent       
methods adopted for their  conversion by
 ,muammad ,khn1 who was ,khn of         
,mughalistn #gge about  #adaf4 8,muammad
 ,khn was a wealthy prince and a good   
,musalman4 ,he  persisted in following  
the road of justice and equity1 and was 
so  unremitting in his exertions1 that  
during his blessed reign most of the    
tribes of the ,mongols became           

,musalmans4 ,it is well known what      
severe  measures he had recourse to1 in 
bringing the ,mongols to be believers in
  ,islam4 ,if1 for instance1 a ,mongol  
did not wear a turban1 a horseshoe  nail
 was driven into his head3 and treatment
 of this kind was common4  ,may ,god    
recompense him with good40 #ggf    ,even
 such drastic measures were ineffectual 
in bringing about a general  acceptance 
of ,islam1 for as late as at the close  
of the following  century1 #ggg a       
dervish named ,isq ,wal found scope for 
his  proselytising activities in        
,kshgar1 ,yrkand and ,khotan1 where he  
spent  twelve years in spreading the    
faith2 #ggh he also worked among the    
,kirghiz and ,kazaks1 from among whom he
 made #ahj converts and destroyed       
eighteen temples of idols4 #ggi    ,in  
the preceding pages some attempt has    
been made to indicate some of  the steps
 by which the ,muslims won over to their
 faith the savage  hordes who had       
destroyed their centres of culture4 ,by 

slow degrees1  ,islam thus began to     
emerge out of the ruins of its former   
ascendancy  and take its place again as 
a dominant faith1 after more than a     
century  of depression4 ,in the course  
of the struggle between the followers of
  rival creeds for the adherence of the 
,mongols1 considerations of  political  
expediency undoubtedly operated in      
favour of the ,muslim  party1 and the   
intrigues of ,western ,christendom      
caused the ,christians  to become       
suspect1 as agents of a foreign power2  
but at the beginning  such of the       
,mongols as were ,nestorians could put  
forward a better claim  to be the       
national party and could attack the     
,musalmans as adherents of  a foreign   
faith4 ,amad ,takdr was denounced by    
,arghn as a traitor to  the law of his  
fathers1 in that he had followed the way
 of the ,arabs  which none of his       
ancestors had known4 #ghj ,the          
insurrection that  caused armshrn to be 
driven into exile1 gained strength from 

the  complaint that this monarch had    
disregarded the ,yassq or ancient code  
of ,mongol institutes4 #gha ,but though 
the issue of the struggle long  remained
 doubtful1 ,islam gradually gained      
ground in the lands of which  it had    
been dispossessed4 ,the means whereby   
this success was achieved  are obscure1 
and the scanty details set forth above  
leave much of the  tale untold1 but     
enough has been recorded to indicate    
some of the  proselytising agencies that
 led to individual conversions4 nanda   
drank  in ,islam with his               
foster-mother's milk2 #ghb and the      
remnant of the  faithful1 especially the
 older families of ,muhammadan ,turks1  
exercised  an almost insensible         
influence on the ,mongols who settled   
down in their  midst4 ,but of special   
importance among the proselytising      
agencies at  work was the influence of  
the pr and his spiritual disciples4 ,in 
the  midst of the profound              
discouragement which filled the         

,musalmans after  the flood of the      
,mongol conquest had poured over them1  
their first  refuge was in mysticism1   
and the pr1 or spiritual guide1 and     
religious  orders--such as the          
,naqshband1 which in the fourteenth     
century entered  on a new period of its 
development--breathed new life into the 
,muslim  community and inspired it with 
fresh fervour4 8,in the hands of the pr 
and his monks1 the ,musalman in ,asia   
came to be an agent1 at first  passive  
and unconscious1 later on the adherent  
of a party--the party of  the national  
faith1 in opposition to the rule of the 
,mongols1 which was  at once foreign1   
barbaric and secular40 #ghc    ,let us  
now return to the history of ,islam in  
the ,golden ,horde4 ,the  chief camping 
ground of this section of the ,mongols  
was the grassy  plain watered by the    
,volga1 on the bank of which they       
founded their  capital city ,serai1     
whither the ,russian princes sent their 
tribute to  the khn4 ,the conversion of 

,baraka ,khn1 of which mention has been 
made  above1 and the close intercourse  
with ,egypt that subsequently sprang    
up1 contributed considerably to the     
progress of ,islam1 and his example     
seems to have been gradually followed by
 those of the aristocracy and  leaders  
of the ,golden ,horde that were of      
,mongol descent4 ,but many  tribes of   
the ,golden ,horde appear to have       
resented the introduction of  ,islam    
into their midst1 and when the          
conversion of ,baraka ,khn was  openly  
proclaimed1 they sent to offer the      
crown1 of which they  considered him now
 unworthy1 to his rival ,hlg4 ,indeed1  
so strong was  this opposition1 that it 
seems to have largely contributed to the
  formation of the ,nogais as a separate
 tribe4 ,they took their name from      
,nogy1 who was the chief commander of   
the ,mongol forces under ,baraka  ,khn4 
,when the other princes of the ,golden  
,horde became ,musalmans1  ,nogy        
remained a ,shamanist and thus became a 

rallying point for those  who refused to
 abandon the old religion of the        
,mongols4 ,his daughter1  however1 who  
was married to a ,shamanist1 became     
converted to ,islam some  time after her
 marriage and had to endure the         
ill-treatment and  contempt of her      
husband in consequence4 #ghd    ,to zbek
 ,khn1 who was leader of the ,golden    
,horde from #acac to #acdj1  and who    
distinguished himself by his            
proselytising zeal1 it was said1        
8,content yourself with our obedience1  
what matters our religion to you8  ,why 
should we abandon the faith of ,chingz  
,khn for that of the ,arabs80  ,but in  
spite of the strong opposition to his   
efforts1 zbek ,khn  succeeded in winning
 many converts to the faith of which he 
was so  ardent a follower and which owed
 to his efforts its firm establishment  
in the country under his sway4 #ghe ,a  
further sign of his influence is  found 
in the tribes of the zbeks of ,central  
,asia1 who take their name  from him and

 were probably converted during his     
reign4 ,he is said to  have formed the  
design of spreading the faith of ,islam 
throughout the  whole of ,russia1 #ghf  
but here he met with no success4        
,indeed1 though  the ,mongols were      
paramount in ,russia for two centuries1 
they appear to  have exercised very     
little influence on the people of that  
country1 and  least of all in the matter
 of religion4 ,it is noticeable1        
moreover1  that in spite of his zeal for
 the spread of his own faith1 zbek ,khn 
was very tolerant towards his ,christian
 subjects1 who were left  undisturbed in
 the exercise of their religion and even
 allowed to  pursue their missionary    
labours in his territory4 ,one of the   
most  remarkable documents of           
,muhammadan toleration is the charter   
that zbek  ,khn granted to the          
,metropolitan ,peter in #acac3--8;,by   
the will and power1  the greatness and  
mercy of the most ,high6 zbek to all our
 princes1  great and small1 etc41 etc4  

,let no man insult the metropolitan     
church  of which ,peter is the head1 or 
his servants or his churchmen2 let no   
man seize their property1 goods or      
people1 let no man meddle with the      
affairs of the metropolitan church1     
since they are divine4 ,whoever  shall  
meddle therein and transgress our edict1
 will be guilty before  ,god and feel   
,his wrath and be punished by us with   
death4 ,let the  metropolitan dwell in  
the path of safety and rejoice1 with a  
just and  upright heart let him 7or his 
deputy7 decide and regulate all         
ecclesiastical matters4 ,we solemnly    
declare that neither we nor our         
children nor the princes of our realm   
nor the governors of our  provinces will
 in any way interfere with the affairs  
of the church and  the metropolitan1 or 
in their towns1 districts1 villages1    
chases and  fisheries1 their hives1     
lands1 meadows1 forests1 towns and      
places under  their bailiffs1 their     
vineyards1 mills1 winter quarters for   

cattle1 or  any of the properties and   
goods of the church4 ,let the mind of   
the  metropolitan be always at peace and
 free from trouble1 with uprightness  of
 heart let him pray to ,god for us1 our 
children and our nation4  ,whoever shall
 lay hands on anything that is sacred1  
shall be held  guilty1 he shall incur   
the wrath of ,god and the penalty of    
death1 that  others may be dismayed at  
his fate4 ,when the tribute or other    
dues1  such as custom duties1           
plough-tax1 tolls or relays are levied1 
or when  we wish to raise troops among  
our subjects1 let nothing be exacted    
from  the cathedral churches under the  
metropolitan ,peter1 or from any of his 
clergy3 444 whatever may be exacted from
 the clergy1 shall be returned          
threefold4444 ,their laws1 their        
churches1 their monasteries and chapels 
shall be respected2 whoever condemns or 
blames this religion1 shall not  be     
allowed to excuse himself under any     
pretext1 but shall be punished  with    

death4 ,the brothers and sons of priests
 and deacons1 living at the  same table 
and in the same house1 shall enjoy the  
same privileges40  #ghg    ,that these  
were no empty words and that the        
toleration here promised  became a      
reality1 may be judged from a letter    
sent to the ,khn by ,pope  ,john ,,xxii 
in #acah1 in which he thanks the ,muslim
 prince for the favour  he showed to his
 ,christian subjects and the kind       
treatment they  received at his hands4  
#ghh ,the successors of zbek ,khn do not
 appear  to have been animated by the   
same zeal for the spread of ,islam as he
  had shown1 and could not be expected  
to succeed where he failed4 ,so  long as
 the ,russians paid their taxes1 they   
were left free to worship  according to 
their own desires1 and the ,christian   
religion had become  too closely        
intertwined with the life of the people 
to be disturbed1  even had efforts been 
made to turn them from the faith of     
their  fathers2 for ,christianity had   

been the national religion of the       
,russian  people for well-nigh three    
centuries before the ,mongols           
established  themselves in ,russian     
territory4    ,another race many years  
before had tried to win the ,russians to
 ,islam  but had likewise failed1 viz4  
the ,muslim ,bulgarians who were found  
in  the tenth century on the banks of   
the ,volga1 and who probably owed  their
 conversion to the ,muslim merchants1   
trading in furs and other  commodities  
of the ,north2 their conversion must    
have taken place some  time before      
,a4,d4 #iba1 when the caliph            
al-,muqtadir sent an envoy to  confirm  
them in the faith and instruct them in  
the tenets and  ordinances of ,islam4   
#ghi    ,these ,bulgarians attempted the
 conversion of ,vladimir1 the then      
sovereign of ,russia1 who 7the ,russian 
chronicler tells us7 had found it       
necessary to choose some religion better
 than his pagan creed1 but they  failed 
to overcome his objections to the rite  

of circumcision and to  the prohibition 
of wine1 the use of which1 he declared1 
the ,russians  could never give up1 as  
it was the very joy of their life4      
,equally  unsuccessful were the ,jews   
who came from the country of the        
,khazars on  the ,caspian ,sea and had  
won over the king of that people to the 
,mosaic  faith4 #gij ,after listening to
 their arguments1 ,vladimir asked them  
where their country was4 8,jerusalem10  
they replied1 8but ,god in ,his  anger  
has scattered us over the whole world40 
8,then you are cursed of  ,god10 cried  
the king1 8and yet want to teach others3
 begone6 we have no  wish1 like you1 to 
be without a country40 ,the most        
favourable  impression was made by a    
,greek priest who1 after a brief        
criticism of  the other religions1 set  
forth the whole scheme of ,christian    
teaching  beginning with the creation of
 the world and the story of the fall of 
man and ending with the seven cumenical 
councils accepted by the ,greek         

,church2 then he showed the prince a    
picture of the ,last ,judgment with  the
 righteous entering paradise and the    
wicked being thrust down into  hell1 and
 promised him the heritage of heaven1 if
 he would be baptised4  ,but ,vladimir  
was unwilling to make a rash choice of a
 substitute for  his pagan religion1 so 
he called his boyards together and      
having told  them of the accounts he had
 received of the various religions1     
asked  them for their advice4 8,prince10
 they replied1 8every man praises his   
own religion1 and if you would make     
choice of the best1 send wise men  into 
the different countries to discover     
which of all the nations  honours ,god  
in the manner most worthy of ,him40 ,so 
the prince chose out  for this purpose  
ten men who were eminent for their      
wisdom4 ,these  ambassadors found among 
the ,bulgarians mean-looking places of  
worship1  gloomy prayers and solemn     
faces2 among the ,german ,catholics     
religious  ceremonies that lacked both  

grandeur and magnificence4 ,at length   
they  reached ,constantinople3 8,let    
them see the glory of our ,god10 said   
the  ,emperor4 ,so they were taken to   
the church of ,santa ,sophia1 where the 
,patriarch1 clad in his pontifical      
robes1 was celebrating mass4 ,the       
magnificence of the building1 the rich  
vestments of the priests1 the  ornaments
 of the altars1 the sweet odour of the  
incense1 the reverent  silence of the   
people1 and the mysterious solemnity of 
the ceremonial  filled the savage       
,russians with wonder and amazement4 ,it
 seemed to them  that this church must  
be the dwelling of the ,most ,high1 and 
that ,he  manifested ,his glory therein 
to mortals4 ,on their return to ,kief1  
the  ambassadors gave the prince an     
account of their mission2 they spoke    
with contempt of the religion of the    
,prophet and had little to say for  the 
,roman ,catholic faith1 but were        
enthusiastic in their eulogies of  the  
,greek ,church4 8,every man10 they said1

 8who has put his lips to a  sweet      
draught1 henceforth abhors anything     
bitter2 wherefore we having  come to the
 knowledge of the faith of the ,greek   
,church desire none  other40 ,vladimir  
once more consulted his boyards1 who    
said unto him1  8,had not the ,greek    
faith been best of all1 ,olga1 your     
grandmother1 the  wisest of mortals1    
would never have embraced it40          
,whereupon ,vladimir  hesitated no      
longer and in ,a4,d4 #ihh declared      
himself a ,christian4 ,on  the day after
 his baptism he threw down the idols his
 forefathers had  worshipped1 and issued
 an edict that all the ,russians1       
masters and  slaves1 rich and poor1     
should submit to be baptised into the   
,christian  faith4 #gia    ,thus        
,christianity became the national       
religion of the ,russian people1  and   
after the ,mongol conquest1 the         
distinctive national characteristics  of
 ,russians and ,tatars that have kept   
the two races apart to the  present day1

 the bitter hatred of the ,tatar yoke1  
the devotion of the  ,russians to their 
own faith and the want of religious zeal
 on the part  of the ,tatars1 kept the  
conquered race from adopting the        
religion of  the conqueror4 ,especially 
has the prohibition of spirituous       
liquors by  the laws of ,islam been     
supposed to have stood in the way of the
  adoption of this religion by the      
,russian people4    ,it would appear    
that not until after the promulgation of
 the edict of  religious toleration in  
#aije throughout the ,russian empire and
 the  active ,muslim propaganda that    
followed it1 were cases observed of     
,russians being converted to ,islam1 and
 those that have occurred are  ascribed 
to the strong attraction of the material
 help offered by the  ,tatars to such   
converts and the influence of the moral 
strength of the  ,muslims themselves4   
#gib    ,not that the ,tatars in ,russia
 had been altogether inoperative in     
promoting the spread of ,islam during   

the preceding centuries4 ,the           
distinctly ,hellenic type of face that  
is to be found among the  so-called     
,tatars of the ,crimea has led to the   
conjecture that these  ,muhammadans have
 absorbed into their community the      
,greek and ,italian  populations that   
they found settled on the ,crimean      
peninsula1 and that  we find among them 
the ,muhammadanised descendants of the  
indigenous  inhabitants1 and of the     
,genoese colonists4 #gic ,a traveller of
 the  seventeenth century tells us that 
the ,tatars of the ,crimea tried to     
induce their slaves to become           
,muhammadans1 and won over many of them 
to  this faith by promising them their  
liberty if they would be persuaded4     
#gid ,conversions to ,islam from among  
the ,tatars of the ,crimea are also     
reported after the proclamation of      
religious liberty in #aije4 #gie    ,a  
brief reference may here be made to the 
,tatars in ,lithuania1 where  small     
groups of them have been settled since  

the early part of the  fifteenth        
century2 these ,muslim immigrants1      
dwelling in the midst of a  ,christian  
population1 have preserved their old    
faith1 but 7probably for  political     
reasons7 do not appear to have attempted
 to proselytise4 ,but  they have been in
 the habit of marrying ,lithuanian and  
,polish women1  whose children were     
always brought up as ,muslims1 whereas  
no ,muhammadan  girl was permitted to   
marry a ,christian4 ,the grand dukes of 
,lithuania  in the fifteenth century    
encouraged the marriage of ,christian   
women  with their ,tatar troops1 on whom
 they bestowed grants of land and other 
privileges4 #gif    ,one of the most    
curious incidents in the missionary     
history of ,islam is  the conversion of 
the ,kirghiz of ,central ,asia by ,tatar
 mulls1 who  preached ,islam among them 
in the eighteenth century1 as emissaries
 of  the ,russian government4 ,the      
,kirghiz began to come under ,russian   
rule  about #agca1 and for #abj years   

all diplomatic correspondence was       
carried  on with them in the ,tatar     
language under the delusion that they   
were  ethnographically the same as the  
,tatars of the ,volga4 ,another         
misunderstanding on the part of the     
,russian government was that the        
,kirghiz were ,musalmans1 whereas in the
 eighteenth century they were  nearly   
all ,shamanists1 as a large number of   
them were still up to the  middle of the
 nineteenth century4 ,at the time of the
 annexation of  their country to the    
,russian empire only a few of their     
,khns and  ,sulns had any knowledge of  
the faith of ,islam--and that very      
confused  and vague4 ,not a single      
mosque was to be found throughout the   
whole of  the ,kirghiz ,steppes1 or a   
single religious teacher of the faith of
 the  ,prophet1 and the ,kirghiz owed   
their conversion to ,islam to the fact  
that the ,russians1 taking them for     
,muhammadans1 insisted on treating  them
 as such4 ,large sums of money were     

given for the building of  mosques1 and 
mulls were sent to open schools and     
instruct the young in  the tenets of the
 ,muslim faith3 the ,kirghiz scholars   
were to receive  every day a small sum  
to support themselves on1 and the       
fathers were to  be induced to send     
their children to the schools by        
presents and other  means of persuasion4
 ,an incontrovertible proof that the    
,musalman  propaganda made its way into 
the ,kirghiz ,steppes from the side of  
,russia1 is the circumstance that it was
 especially those ,kirghiz who  were    
more contiguous to ,europe that first   
became ,musalmans1 and the old          
,shamanism lingered up to the nineteenth
 century among those who  wandered in   
the neighbourhood of ,khiva1 ,bukhr and 
,khokand1 though  these for centuries   
had been ,muhammadan countries4 #gig    
,this is probably the only instance of a
 ,christian government  co-operating in 
the promulgation of ,islam1 and is the  
more remarkable  inasmuch as the        

,russian government of this period was  
attempting to  force ,christianity on   
its ,muslim subjects in ,europe1 in     
continuation of  the efforts made in the
 sixteenth century soon after the       
conquest of  the ,khanate of ,kazan4    
,at the beginning of the nineteenth     
century many of the ,kirghiz dwelling   
in the vast plains stretching southwards
 from the district of ,tobolsk  towards 
,turkistan were still heathen1 and the  
,russian government was  approached for 
permission for a ,christian mission to  
be established  among them4 ,but this   
request was not granted1 on the ground  
that 8these  people were as yet too wild
 and savage to be accessible to the     
,gospel4  ,but soon after other         
missionaries1 not depending on the      
good-will of  any government1 and having
 more zeal and understanding1 occupied  
this  field and won the whole of the    
,kirghis tribe to the faith of ,islam40 
#gih    ,after the conquest of ,kazan by
 the ,russians in the sixteenth century1

  the occupation of the former ,tatar   
,khanate was followed up by an  official
 ,christian missionary movement1 and a  
number of the heathen  population of the
 ,khanate were baptised1 the labours of 
the clergy  being actively seconded by  
the police and the civil authorities1   
but as  the ,russian priests did not    
understand the language of their        
converts  and soon neglected them1 it   
had to be admitted that the new converts
  8shamelessly retain many horrid       
,tartar customs1 and neither hold nor   
know the ,christian faith40 ,when       
spiritual exhortations failed1 the      
government ordered its officials to     
8pacify1 imprison1 put in irons1  and   
thereby unteach and frighten from the   
,tartar faith those who1  though        
baptised1 do not obey the admonitions of
 the ,metropolitan40    ,in the         
eighteenth century the ,russian         
government made fresh efforts to        
convert the heathen tribes and the      
relapsed ,tatars1 and held out many     

inducements to them to become baptised4 
,catherine ,,ii in #aggh ordered  that  
all the new converts should sign a      
written promise to the effect  that     
8they would completely forsake their    
infidel errors1 and1 avoiding  all      
intercourse with unbelievers1 would hold
 firmly and unwaveringly  the ,christian
 faith and its dogmas40 ,but in spite of
 all1 these  so-called 8baptised        
,tartars0 were ,christians only in name1
 and soon  began to try to escape from  
the propagandist efforts of the         
,orthodox  ,church and abandoned        
,christianity for ,islam1 their         
so-called conversion  merely serving as 
a stepping-stone to their entrance into 
the faith of  the ,prophet4    ,they    
may1 indeed1 have been inscribed in the 
official registers as  ,christians1 but 
they resolutely stood out against any   
efforts that were  made to ,christianise
 them4 ,in a semi-official article1     
published in  #ahgb1 the writer says3   
8,it is a fact worthy of attention that 

a long  series of evident apostasies    
coincides with the beginning of measures
  to confirm the converts in the        
,christian faith4 ,there must be1       
therefore1 some collateral cause        
producing those cases of apostasy       
precisely at the moment when the        
contrary might be expected40 ,the fact  
seems to be that these ,tatars having   
all the time remained ,muhammadan  at   
heart1 resisted the active measures     
taken to make their nominal  profession 
of ,christianity in any way a reality4  
#gii ,but in the  latter part of the    
nineteenth century efforts were made to 
,christianise  these heathen and ,muslim
 tribes by means of schools established 
in  their midst4 ,in this way it was    
hoped to win the younger generation1    
since otherwise it seemed impossible to 
gain an entrance for  ,christianity     
among the ,tatars1 for1 as a ,russian   
professor said1 8,the  citizens of      
,kazan are hard to win1 but we get some 
little folk from the  villages on the   

steppe1 and train them in the fear of   
,god4 ,once they  are with us they can  
never turn back40 #hjj ,for the ,russian
 criminal  code used to contain severe  
enactments against those who fell away  
from  the ,orthodox ,church1 #hja and   
sentenced any person convicted of       
converting a ,christian to ,islam to the
 loss of all civil rights and to        
imprisonment with hard labour for a term
 varying from eight to ten  years4 ,in  
spite1 however1 of the edicts of the    
government1 ,muslim  propagandism       
succeeded in winning over whole villages
 to the faith of  ,islam1 especially    
among the tribes of north-eastern       
,russia4 #hjb    ,the town of ,kazan is 
the chief centre of this missionary     
activity2 a  large number of ,muslim    
publications are printed here every     
year1 and  mulls go forth from the      
,university to convert the pagans in the
  villages and bring back to ,islam the 
,tatars who have allowed themselves  to 
be baptised4 ,the increasing number of  

these ,christian ,tatars1 who  have gone
 to swell the ranks of ,islam1 has      
alarmed the clergy of the  ,orthodox    
,church1 but their efforts have failed  
to check the success of  the mulls4 #hjc
 ,especially since the edict of         
toleration in #aije1  mass conversions  
have been reported1 e4g4 in #aiji1      
ninety-one families  in the village of  
,atomva are said to have become         
,muhammadan1 #hjd and  as many as       
#ec1jjj persons between #aijf and #aiaj4
 #hje ,this propaganda  is said to owe  
much of its success to the higher moral 
level of life in  ,muslim society1 as   
well as to the stronger feeling of      
solidarity that  prevails in it2 #hjf   
moreover1 the methods adopted by the    
,russian  clergy1 supported by the      
government1 to make the so-called       
,christian  ,tatars more orthodox1 have 
caused the ,christian faith to become   
unpopular among them4 #hjg ,on the other
 hand1 the propaganda of ,islam  is very
 zealously carried forward2 8every      

simple1 untaught ,moslem is a           
missionary of his religion1 and the     
poor1 dark1 untaught heathen or         
half-heathen tribes cannot resist their 
force4 ,in many villages of  baptised   
aborigines the men go away for the      
winter to work as tailors  in ,moslem   
villages4 ,there they are converted to  
,islam1 and they return  to their       
villages as fanatics bringing with them 
,moslem ideas with  which to influence  
their homes40 #hjh    ,the tribes that  
have chiefly come under the influence of
 this  missionary movement are the      
,votiaks1 the greater part of whom are  
baptised ,christians1 but many became   
,muslims in the eighteenth and the      
beginning of the nineteenth centuries2  
and the influence of ,islam is          
continually growing both among those    
that are ,christian and among the  small
 remnant that is still heathen4 ,the    
,cheremiss1 like the ,votiaks1  are a   
,finnish tribe1 about a quarter of whom 
are still heathen1 but  many have       

already embraced ,islam and it is       
probable that most of them  will soon   
adopt the same religion4 ,the movement  
of the ,cheremiss  towards ,islam made  
itself manifest in the nineteenth       
century and though  many of them were   
nominally ,christian1 whole villages of 
them became  ,muhammadan despite the    
laws forbidding conversion except to the
  ,orthodox ,church4 #hji ,they became  
,muhammadan through their immediate     
contact with the ,bashkirs and ,tatars1 
whose family and social customs  were   
very similar to their own4 ,the process 
sometimes began with  intermarriages    
with ,muhammadans--e4g4 in one village a
 ,cheremiss family  intermarried with   
some ,bashkirs and adopted their faith2 
the converts  being persecuted as       
8circumcised dogs0 in their own village1
 moved away  and founded a new          
settlement some miles off1 some wealthy 
,bashkirs  helping them with money2 but 
as they were officially registered as   
heathen1 they could not get permission  

for the building of a mosque1 so  a few 
,bashkir families in the neighbourhood  
moved into the new  settlement1 in order
 to make up the number requisite for    
obtaining the  necessary official       
permission4 #haj ,a similar process has 
several  times occurred in other        
villages in which ,muhammadans have come
 to  settle and have intermarried with  
,cheremiss4 #haa ,in other cases there  
has been a definite missionary          
movement--e4g4 in the beginning of the  
nineteenth century the village of       
,karakul was inhabited by ,christian    
,cheremiss1 but shortly after the middle
 of the century some families  were     
converted to ,islam by a ,cheremiss who 
had become a mull2 on his  death he was 
succeeded by a ,bashkir from another    
village4 ,later on1 the  converts moved 
away to ,tatar and ,bashkir villages1   
their place being  taken by ,tatars1    
until the whole village became          
practically ,tatar1 few  of the younger 
generation retaining any knowledge of   

the ,cheremiss  language1 and           
intermarriages taking place only with   
,tatars4 #hab ,apart  from this         
proselytising activity1 there has been a
 very distinct spread  of ,tatar        
influence in speech and manners among   
the ,cheremiss4 ,the ,tatar  language   
has spread among them1 bringing with it 
the moral and  religious ideas of       
,islam2 the adoption of the ,tatar dress
 is held to be  a sign of superior      
culture1 and if a ,cheremiss does not   
dress like a  ,tatar he runs the risk of
 being laughed at by the first ,tatar he
 meets  or by his fellow ,cheremiss2 all
 this cultural movement tends to the    
ultimate adoption of the ,tatar         
religion4 #hac ,after their conversion1 
the ,cheremiss are said to be very      
zealous in the propagation of their  new
 faith and receive the assistance of    
wealthy ,tatars2 #had on the  other     
hand1 the ,russians despise the         
,cheremiss as an inferior race and      
apply opprobrious epithets even to those

 among them who are ,christians4  #hae  
,about one-fourth of the ,cheremiss are 
still heathen1 but ,muslim  influences  
are so powerful among them that it is   
probable that in  course of time they   
will for the most part become           
,muhammadans4 #haf  ,the ,chuvash1 who  
number about #a1jjj1jjj1 have nearly all
 been baptised2  there are about #bj1jjj
 of them that are still heathen but     
these are  gradually being absorbed by  
,islam1 while some of the ,christian    
,chuvash  have become ,muhammadans and  
the rest are coming under ,muslim       
influences4 ,the extent of their zeal   
for their converts may be judged  from  
the instance of a ,christian ,chuvash   
village1 the priest of which  had spent 
several years in collecting the #cjj    
roubles necessary for the  repair of the
 church2 eight ,chuvash families became 
,muhammadan and in  the course of a few 
months #bjjj roubles were collected for 
the building  of a mosque4 #hag ,such   
ready activity is characteristic of the 

,muslim  propaganda now being carried   
among the aboriginal tribes4 ,each      
family  that accepts ,islam receives    
help either in money or in kind3 a house
 is  built for one2 a field1 cattle1    
etc41 are purchased for another2 when   
several families in a village are       
converted1 a mosque is built for them   
and a school established for their      
children4 #hah    ,of the spread of     
,islam among the ,tatars of ,siberia1 we
 have a few  particulars4 ,it was not   
until the latter half of the sixteenth  
century  that it gained a footing in    
this country1 but even before this      
period  ,muhammadan missionaries had    
from time to time made their way into   
,siberia with the hope of winning the   
heathen population over to the          
acceptance of their faith1 but the      
majority of them met with a martyr's    
death4 ,when ,siberia came under        
,muhammadan rule1 in the reign of ,kchum
  ,khn1 the graves of seven of these    
missionaries were discovered by an  aged

 ,shaykh who came from ,bukhr to search 
them out1 being anxious  that some      
memorial should be kept of the devotion 
of these martyrs to  the faith3 he was  
able to give the names of this number1  
and up to the  last century their memory
 was still revered by the ,tatars of    
,siberia4  #hai ,when ,kchum ,khn 7who  
was descended from ,jj ,khn1 the eldest 
son of ,chingz ,khn7 became ,khn of     
,siberia 7about the year #aegj71  either
 by right of conquest or 7according to  
another account7 at the  invitation of  
the people whose ,khn had died without  
issue1 #hbj he  made every effort for   
the conversion of his subjects1 and sent
 to  ,bukhr asking for missionaries to  
assist him in this pious  undertaking4  
,one of the missionaries who was sent   
from ,bukhr has left  us an account of  
how he set out with a companion to the  
capital of  ,kchum ,khn1 on the bank of 
the ,irtish4 ,here1 after two years1 his
  companion died1 and1 for some reasons 
that the writer does not mention1  he   

went back again2 but soon afterwards    
returned to the scene of his  labours1  
bringing with him another coadjutor1    
when ,kchum ,khn had  appealed for help 
once more to ,bukhr4 #hba ,missionaries 
also came to  ,siberia from ,kazan4 ,but
 the advancing tide of ,russian conquest
 soon  brought the proselytising efforts
 of ,kchum ,khn to an end before much   
had been accomplished1 especially as    
many of the tribes under his rule       
offered a strong opposition to all      
attempts made to convert them4    ,but  
though interrupted by the ,russian      
conquest1 the progress of ,islam  was by
 no means stopped4 ,mulls from ,bukhr   
and other cities of  ,central ,asia and 
merchants from ,kazan were continually  
active as  missionaries of ,islam in    
,siberia4 ,in #agde an entrance was     
first  effected among the ,baraba       
,tatars 7between the ,irtish and the    
,ob71 and  though at the beginning of   
the nineteenth century many were still  
heathen1 they have now all become       

,musalmans4 #hbb ,the conversion of  the
 ,kirghiz has already been spoken of    
above3 the history of most of  the other
 ,muslim tribes of ,siberia is very     
obscure1 but their  conversion is       
probably of a recent date4 ,among the   
instruments of  ,muhammadan propaganda  
at the present time1 it is interesting  
to note  the large place taken by the   
folk-songs of the ,kirghiz1 in which1   
interwoven with tale and legend1 the    
main truths of ,islam make their  way   
into the hearts of the common people4   
#hbc                  ,,chapter ,,ix4   
,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,in        
,,india4      ,the ,muhammadan invasions
 of ,india and the foundation and growth
 of the  ,muhammadan power in that      
country1 have found many historians1    
both  among contemporary and later      
writers4 ,but hitherto no one has       
attempted  to write a history of the    
spread of ,islam in ,india1 considered  
apart  from the military successes and  
administrative achievements of its      

adherents4 ,indeed1 to many1 such a task
 must appear impossible4 ,for  ,india   
has often been picked out as a typical  
instance of a country in  which ,islam  
owes its existence and continuance in   
existence to the  settlement in it of   
foreign1 conquering ,muhammadan races1  
who have  transmitted their faith to    
their descendants1 and only succeeded in
  spreading it beyond their own circle  
by means of persecution and forced      
conversions4 ,thus the missionary spirit
 of ,islam is supposed to show  itself  
in its true light in the brutal         
massacres of ,brahmans by ,mamd  of     
,ghazn1 in the persecutions of          
,aurangzeb1 the forcible circumcisions  
effected by aydar ,al1 ,tp ,suln and the
 like4    ,but among the sixty-six      
millions of ,indian ,musalmans there are
 vast  numbers of converts or           
descendants of converts1 in whose       
conversion  force played no part and the
 only influences at work were the       
teaching  and persuasion of peaceful    

missionaries4 ,this class of converts   
forms a  very distinct group by itself  
which can be distinguished from that of 
the forcibly converted and the other    
heterogeneous elements of which  ,muslim
 ,india is made up4 ,the entire         
community may be roughly divided  into  
those of foreign race who brought their 
faith into the country  along with them1
 and those who have been converted from 
one of the  previous religions of the   
country under various inducements and at
 many  different periods of history4    
,the foreign settlement consists of     
three  main bodies3 first1 and          
numerically the most important1 are the 
immigrants from across the north-west   
frontier1 who are found chiefly  in     
,sind and the ,panjb2 next come the     
descendants of the court and  armies of 
the various ,muhammadan dynasties1      
mainly in ,upper ,india and  to a much  
smaller extent in the ,deccan2 lastly1  
all along the west  coast are           
settlements probably of ,arab descent1  

whose original founders  came to ,india 
by sea4 #hbd ,but the number of families
 of foreign  origin that actually       
settled in ,india is nowhere great      
except in the  ,panjb and its           
neighbourhood4 ,more than half the      
,muslim population of  ,india has indeed
 assumed appellations of distinctly     
foreign races1 such  as ,shaykh1 ,beg1  
,khn1 and even ,sayyid1 but the greater 
portion of them  are local converts or  
descendants of converts1 who have taken 
the title  of the person of highest rank
 amongst those by whom they were        
converted  or have affiliated themselves
 to the aristocracy of ,islam on even   
less  plausible grounds4 #hbe ,of this  
latter section of the community--the    
converted natives of the country--part  
no doubt owed their change of  religion 
to force and official pressure1 but by  
far the majority of  them entered the   
pale of ,islam of their own free will4  
,the history of  the proselytising      
movements and the social influences that

 brought  about their conversion has    
hitherto received very little attention1
 and  most of the commonly accessible   
histories of the ,muhammadans in ,india1
  whether written by ,european or by    
native authors1 are mere chronicles  of 
wars1 campaigns and the achievements of 
princes1 in which little  mention of the
 religious life of the time finds a     
place1 unless it has  taken the form of 
fanaticism or intolerance4 ,from the    
biographies of  the ,muslim saints1     
however1 and from local traditions1     
something may be  learned of the        
missionary work that was carried on     
quite independently  of the political   
life of the country4 ,but before dealing
 with these it  is proposed to give an  
account of the official propagation of  
,islam and  of the part played by the   
,muhammadan rulers in the spread of     
their  faith4    ,from the fifteenth    
year after the death of the ,prophet1   
when an ,arab  expedition was sent into 
,sind1 up to the eighteenth century1 a  

series  of ,muhammadan invaders1 some   
founders of great empires1 others mere  
adventurers1 poured into ,india from the
 north-west4 ,while some came  only to  
plunder and retired laden with spoils1  
others remained to found  kingdoms that 
have had a lasting influence to the     
present day4 ,but of  none of these do  
we learn that they were accompanied by  
any  missionaries or preachers4 ,not    
that they were indifferent to their     
religion4 ,to many of them1 their       
invasion of ,india appeared in the      
light of a holy war4 ,such was evidently
 the thought in the minds of  ,mamd of  
,ghazn and ,tmr4 ,the latter1 after his 
capture of ,dehli1  writes as follows in
 his autobiography3--8,i had been at    
,dehli fifteen  days1 which time ,i     
passed in pleasure and enjoyment1       
holding royal  ,courts and giving great 
feasts4 ,i then reflected that ,i had   
come to  ,hindustn to war against       
infidels1 and my enterprise had been so 
blessed that wherever ,i had gone ,i had

 been victorious4 ,i had triumphed  over
 my adversaries1 ,i had put to death    
some lacs of infidels and  idolaters1   
and ,i had stained my proselyting sword 
with the blood of the  enemies of the   
faith4 ,now this crowning victory had   
been won1 and ,i  felt that ,i ought not
 to indulge in ease1 but rather to exert
 myself in  warring against the infidels
 of ,hindustn40 #hbf ,though he speaks  
much  of his 8proselyting sword10 it    
seems1 however1 to have served no other 
purpose than that of sending infidels to
 hell4 ,most of the ,muslim  invaders   
seem to have acted in a very similar    
way2 in the name of  ,allh1 idols were  
thrown down1 their priests put to the   
sword1 and  their temples destroyed2    
while mosques were often erected in     
their  place4 ,it is true that the offer
 of ,islam was generally made to the    
unbelieving ,hindus before any attack   
was made upon them4 #hbg ,fear          
occasionally dictated a timely          
acceptance of such offers and led to    

conversions which1 in the earlier days  
of the ,muhammadan invasion at  least1  
were generally short-lived and ceased to
 be effective after the  retreat of the 
invader4 ,an illustration in point is   
furnished by the  story of ,hardatta1 a 
rs of ,bulandshahr1 whose submission to 
,mamd  of ,ghazn is thus related in the 
history of that conqueror's campaigns   
written by his secretary4 8,at length   
7about ,a4,d4 #ajai7 he 7i4e4 ,mamd7    
arrived at the fort of ,barba1 #hbh in  
the country of ,hardat1 who was  one of 
the rs1 that is 8kings10 in the ,hind   
language4 ,when ,hardat  heard of this  
invasion by the protected warriors of   
,god1 who advanced  like the waves of   
the sea1 with the angels around them on 
all sides1 he  became greatly agitated1 
his steps trembled1 and he feared for   
his  life1 which was forfeited under the
 law of ,god4 ,so he reflected that  his
 safety would best be secured by        
conforming to the religion of  ,islam1  
since ,god's sword was drawn from the   

scabbard1 and the whip of  punishment   
was uplifted4 ,he came forth1 therefore1
 with ten thousand  men1 who all        
proclaimed their anxiety for conversion 
and their  rejection of idols40 #hbi    
,these new converts probably took the   
earliest opportunity of  apostatising   
presented to them by the retreat of the 
conqueror--a kind  of action which we   
find the early ,muhammadan historians of
 ,india  continually complaining of4    
,for when ,qub al-,dn bak attacked      
,baran in  #aaic1 he was stoutly opposed
 by ,chandrasen1 the then ,rj1 who was a
  lineal descendant of ,hardatta and    
whose very name betrays his ,hindu      
faith3 nor do we hear of there being any
 ,musalmans remaining under his  rule4  
#hcj    ,but these conquerors would     
appear to have had very little of that  
8love  for souls0 which animates the    
true missionary and which has achieved  
such great conquests for ,islam4 ,the   
,khiljs 7#abij-acbj71 the ,tughlaqs     
7#acbj-adab71 and the ,lods 7#adea-aebf7

 were generally too busily  engaged in  
fighting to pay much regard to the      
interests of religion1 or  else thought 
more of the exaction of tribute than of 
the work of  conversion4 #hca ,not that 
they were entirely lacking in religious 
zeal3 e4g4 the ,ghakkars1 a barbarous   
people in the mountainous  districts of 
the ,north of the ,panjb1 who gave the  
early invaders much  trouble1 are said  
to have been converted through the      
influence of  ,muammad ,ghor at the end 
of the twelfth century4 ,their chieftain
 had  been taken prisoner by the        
,muhammadan monarch1 who induced him to 
become a ,musalman1 and then confirming 
him in his title of chief of  this      
tribe1 sent him back to convert his     
followers1 many of whom having  little  
religion of their own were easily       
prevailed upon to embrace  ,islam4 #hcb 
,according to ,ibn ,baah1 the ,khiljs   
offered some  encouragement to          
conversion by making it a custom to have
 the new  convert presented to the      

sultan1 who clad him in a robe of honour
 and  gave him a collar and bracelets of
 gold1 of a value proportionate to  his 
rank4 #hcc ,but the monarchs of the     
earlier ,muhammadan dynasties as  a rule
 evinced very little proselytising zeal1
 and it would be hard to  find a        
parallel in their history to the        
following passage from the              
autobiography of ,frz ,shh ,tughlaq     
7#acea-achh73 8,i encouraged my  infidel
 subjects to embrace the religion of the
 ,prophet1 and ,i  proclaimed that every
 one who repeated the creed and became a
 ,musalman  should be exempt from the   
jizyah1 or poll tax4 ,information of    
this came  to the ears of the people at 
large and great numbers of ,hindus      
presented themselves1 and were admitted 
to the honour of ,islam4 ,thus  they    
came forward day by day from every      
quarter1 and1 adopting the  faith1 were 
exonerated from the jizyah1 and were    
favoured with presents  and honours40   
#hcd    ,as the ,muhammadan power became

 consolidated1 and particularly under   
the  ,mughal dynasty1 the religious     
influences of ,islam naturally became   
more  permanent and persistent4 ,these  
influences are certainly apparent in    
the ,hindu theistic movements that arose
 in the fifteenth and sixteenth         
centuries1 and ,bishop ,lefroy has      
conjectured that the positive  character
 of ,muslim teaching attracted minds    
that were dissatisfied  with the        
vagueness and subjectivity of a         
,pantheistic system of thought4  8,when 
,mohammedanism1 with its strong grasp of
 the reality of the ,divine  existence  
and1 as flowing from this1 of the       
absolutely fixed and  objective         
character of truth1 came into conflict  
with the haziness of  ,pantheistic      
thought and the subjectivity of its     
belief1 it necessarily  followed1 not   
only that it triumphed in the struggle1 
but also that it  came as a veritable   
tonic to the life and thought of ,upper 
,india1  quickening into a fresh and    

more vigorous life many minds which     
never  accepted for themselves its      
intellectual sway40 #hce    ,a powerful 
incentive to conversion was offered1    
when adherence to an  idolatrous system 
stood in the way of advancement at the  
,muhammadan  courts2 and though a spirit
 of tolerance1 which reached its        
culmination  under the eclectic ,akbar1 
was very often shown towards ,hinduism1 
and  respected even1 for the most part1 
the state endowments of that  religion2 
#hcf and though the dread of            
unpopularity and the desire of          
conciliation dictated a policy of       
non-interference and deprecated such    
deeds of violence and such outbursts of 
fanaticism as had characterised  the    
earlier period of invasion and triumph1 
still such motives of  self-interest    
gained many converts from ,hinduism to  
the ,muhammadan  faith4 ,many ,rajputs  
became converts in this way1 and their  
descendants  are to this day to be found
 among the landed aristocracy4 ,the most

  important perhaps among these is the  
,musalman branch of the great  ,bachgoti
 clan1 the head of which is the premier 
,muhammadan noble of  ,oudh4 ,according 
to one tradition1 their ancestor ,tilok 
,chand was taken  prisoner by the       
,emperor ,bbar1 and to regain his       
liberty adopted the  faith of ,islam2   
#hcg but another legend places his      
conversion in the  reign of ,humyn4     
,this prince having heard of the        
marvellous beauty of  ,tilok ,chand's   
wife1 had her carried off while she was 
at a fair4 ,no  sooner1 however1 was she
 brought to him than his conscience     
smote him  and he sent for her husband4 
,tilok ,chand had despaired of ever     
seeing  her again1 and in gratitude he  
and his wife embraced the faith 8which  
taught such generous purity40 #hch      
,these converted ,rajputs are very      
zealous in the practice of their        
religion1 yet often betray their ,hindu 
origin in a very striking manner4 ,in   
the district of ,bulandshahr1 for       

example1 a large ,musalman family1 which
 is known as the ,llkhn  ,pahns1 still  
7with some exceptions7 retains its old  
,hindu titles and  family customs of    
marriage1 while ,hindu branches of the  
same clan still  exist side by side with
 it4 #hci ,in the ,mirzapur district1   
the  ,gaharwr ,rajputs1 who are now     
,muslim1 still retain in all domestic   
matters ,hindu laws and customs and     
prefix a ,hindu honorific title to      
their ,muhammadan names4 #hdj           
,official pressure is said never to have
 been more persistently brought  to bear
 upon the ,hindus than in the reign of  
,aurangzeb4 ,in the eastern  districts  
of the ,panjb1 there are many cases in  
which the ancestor of  the ,musalman    
branch of the village community is said 
to have changed  his religion in the    
reign of this zealot1 8in order to save 
the land of  the village40 ,in ,gurgaon1
 near ,dehli1 there is a ,hindu family  
of ,banys  who still bear the title of  
,shaykh 7which is commonly adopted by   

converted ,hindus71 because one of the  
members of the family1 whose line  is   
now extinct1 became a convert in order  
to save the family property  from       
confiscation4 #hda ,many ,rajput        
landowners1 in the ,cawnpore  district1 
were compelled to embrace ,islam for the
 same reason4 #hdb ,in  other cases the 
ancestor is said to have been carried as
 a prisoner or  hostage to ,dehli1 and  
there forcibly circumcised and          
converted4 #hdc  ,it should be noted    
that the only authority for these forced
 conversions  is family or local        
tradition1 and no mention of such 7as   
far as ,i have  been able to discover7  
is made in the historical accounts of   
,aurangzeb's reign4 #hdd ,it is         
established without doubt that forced   
conversions have been made by           
,muhammadan rulers1 and it seems        
probable  that ,aurangzeb's well-known  
zeal on behalf of his faith has caused  
many  families of ,northern ,india 7the 
history of whose conversion has been    

forgotten7 to attribute their change of 
faith to this1 the most easily          
assignable cause4 ,similarly in the     
,deccan1 ,aurangzeb shares with aydar   
,al and ,tp ,suln 7these being the best 
known of modern ,muhammadan  rulers7 the
 reputation of having forcibly converted
 sundry families and  sections of the   
population1 whose conversion undoubtedly
 dates from a  much earlier period1 from
 which no historical record of the      
circumstances of the case has come down4
 #hde    ,tp ,suln is probably the      
,muhammadan monarch who most            
systematically  engaged in the work of  
forcible conversion4 ,in #aghh he issued
 the  following proclamation to the     
people of ,malabar3 8,from the period of
  the conquest until this day1 during   
twenty-four years1 you have been a      
turbulent and refractory people1 and in 
the wars waged during your  rainy       
season1 you have caused numbers of our  
warriors to taste the  draught of       
martyrdom4 ,be it so4 ,what is past is  

past4 ,hereafter you  must proceed in an
 opposite manner1 dwell quietly and pay 
your dues  like good subjects2 and since
 it is the practice with you for one    
woman  to associate with ten men1 and   
you leave your mothers and sisters      
unconstrained in their obscene          
practices1 and are thence all born in   
adultery1 and are more shameless in your
 connections than the beasts of  the    
field1 ,i hereby require you to forsake 
these sinful practices and  to be like  
the rest of mankind2 and if you are     
disobedient to these  commands1 ,i have 
made repeated vows to honour the whole  
of you with  ,islam and to march all the
 chief persons to the seat of           
,government40  ,this proclamation       
stirred up a general revolt in ,malabar1
 and early in  #aghi ,tp ,suln prepared 
to enforce his proclamation with an army
 of  more than twenty thousand men1 and 
issued general orders that 8every  being
 in the district without distinction    
should be honoured with  ,islam1 that   

the houses of such as fled to avoid that
 honour should be  burned1 that they    
should be traced to their lurking       
places1 and that  all means of truth and
 falsehood1 force or fraud should be    
employed to  effect their universal     
conversion40 ,thousands of ,hindus were 
accordingly circumcised and made to eat 
beef2 but by the end of #agij  the      
,british army had destroyed the last    
remnant of ,tp ,suln's power  in        
,malabar1 and this monarch himself      
perished early in #agii at the  capture 
of ,seringapatam4 ,most of the ,brahmans
 and ,nayars who had been  forcibly     
converted1 subsequently disowned their  
new religion4 #hdf    ,how little was   
effected towards the spread of ,islam by
 violence on the  part of the           
,muhammadan rulers may be judged from   
the fact that even in  the centres of   
the ,muhammadan power1 such as ,dehli   
and ,agra1 the  ,muhammadans in modern  
times in the former district hardly     
exceeded  one-tenth1 and in the latter  

they did not form one-fourth of the     
population4 #hdg ,a remarkable example  
of the worthlessness of forced          
conversion is exhibited in the case of  
,bodh ,mal1 ,raja of ,majhauli1 in  the 
district of ,gorakhpur2 he was arrested 
by ,akbar in default of  revenue1       
carried to ,dehli1 and there converted  
to ,islam1 receiving the  name of       
,muammad ,salm4 ,but on his return his  
wife refused to let him  into the       
ancestral castle1 and1 as apparently she
 had the sympathy of  his subjects on   
her side1 she governed his territories  
during the  minority of his son ,bhawni 
,mal1 so that the ,hindu succession     
remained  undisturbed4 #hdh ,until      
recently there were some strange        
survivals of  a similarly futile false  
conversion1 noticeable in certain       
customs of a  ,hindu sect called the    
,bishnois1 the principal tenet of whose 
faith is  the renunciation of all ,hindu
 deities1 except ,viu4 ,they used       
recently  to bury their dead1 instead of

 burning them1 to adopt ,ghulm ,muammad 
and other ,muhammadan names1 and use the
 ,muslim form of salutation4 ,they      
explained their adoption of these       
,muhammadan customs by saying that      
having once slain a ,q1 who had         
interfered with their rite of           
widow-burning1 they had compounded for  
the offence by embracing ,islam4  ,they 
have now1 however1 renounced these      
practices in favour of ,hindu  customs4 
#hdi    ,but though some ,muhammadan    
rulers may have been more successful in 
forcing an acceptance of ,islam on      
certain of their ,hindu subjects than   
in the last-mentioned cases1 and        
whatever truth there may be in the      
assertion #hej that 8it is impossible   
even to approach the religious  side of 
the ,mahomedan position in ,india       
without surveying first its  political  
aspect10 we undoubtedly find that ,islam
 has gained its  greatest and most      
lasting missionary triumphs in times and
 places in  which its political power   

has been weakest1 as in ,southern ,india
 and  ,eastern ,bengal4 ,of such        
missionary movements it is now proposed 
to  essay some account1 commencing with 
,southern ,india and the ,deccan1 then  
after reviewing the history of ,sind1   
,cutch and ,gujart1 passing to  ,bengal1
 and finally noticing some missionaries 
whose work lay outside  the above       
geographical limits4 ,of several of the 
missionaries to be  referred to1 little 
is recorded beyond their names and the  
sphere of  their labours2 accordingly1  
in view of the general dearth of such   
missionary annals1 any available details
 have been given at length4    ,the     
first advent of ,islam in ,south ,india 
dates as far back as the  eighth        
century1 when a band of refugees1 to    
whom the ,mappillas trace  their        
descent1 came from ,irq and settled in  
the country4 #hea ,the  trade in spices1
 ivory1 gems1 etc41 between ,india and  
,europe1 which for  many hundred years  
was conducted by the ,arabs and         

,persians1 caused a  continual stream of
 ,muhammadan influence to flow in upon  
the west coast  of ,southern ,india4    
,from this constant influx of foreigners
 there  resulted a mixed population1    
half ,hindu and half ,arab or ,persian1 
in  the trading centres along the coast4
 ,very friendly relations appear to     
have existed between these ,muslim      
traders and the ,hindu rulers1 who      
extended to them their protection and   
patronage in consideration of the       
increased commercial activity and       
consequent prosperity of the country1   
that resulted from their presence in it1
 #heb and no obstacles were  placed in  
the way of proselytising1 the native    
converts receiving the  same            
consideration and respect as the foreign
 merchants1 even though  before their   
conversion they had belonged to the     
lowest grades of  society4 #hec    ,the 
traditionary account of the introduction
 of ,islam into ,malabar1 as  given by a
 ,muhammadan historian of the sixteenth 

century1 represents  the first          
missionaries to have been a party of    
pilgrims on their way to  visit the     
foot-print of ,adam in ,ceylon2 on their
 arrival at ,cranganore  the ,raja sent 
for them and the leader of the party1   
,shaykh ,sharaf b4  ,mlik1 who was      
accompanied by his brother1 ,mlik b4    
,dnr1 and his  nephew1 ,mlik b4 abb1    
took the opportunity of expounding to   
him the  faith of ,islam and the mission
 of ,muammad1 8and ,god caused the truth
  of the ,prophet's teaching to enter   
into the king's heart and he  believed  
therein2 and his heart became filled    
with love for the ,prophet  and he bade 
the ,shaykh and companions come back to 
him again on their  return from their   
pilgrimage to ,adam's foot-print40 #hed 
,on the return  of the pilgrims from    
,ceylon1 the king secretly departed with
 them in a  ship bound for the coast of 
,arabia1 leaving his kingdom in the hand
 of  viceroys4 ,here he remained for    
some time1 and was just about to return 

to his own country1 with the intention  
of erecting mosques there and  spreading
 the faith of ,islam1 when he fell sick 
and died4 ,on his  death-bed he solemnly
 enjoined on his companions not to      
abandon their  proposed missionary      
journey to ,malabar1 and to assist them 
in their  labours1 he gave them letters 
of recommendation to his viceroys1 at   
the  same time bidding them conceal the 
fact of his death4 ,armed with these    
letters1 ,sharaf b4 ,mlik and his       
companions sailed for ,cranganore1      
where the king's letter secured for them
 a kindly welcome and a grant  of land1 
on which they built a mosque4 ,mlik b4  
,dnr decided to settle  there1 but ,mlik
 b4 abb set out on a missionary tour    
with the object  of building mosques    
throughout ,malabar4 8,so ,mlik b4 abb  
set out for  ,quilon with his worldly   
goods and his wife and some of his      
children1  and he built a mosque there2 
then leaving his wife there1 he went on 
to  ,hl ,mrw1 #hee where he built a     

mosque02 and so the narrative           
continues1 giving a list of seven other 
places at which the missionary  erected 
mosques1 finally returning to           
,cranganore4 ,later on1 he visited  all 
these places again to pray in the mosque
 at each of them1 and came  back        
8praising and giving thanks to ,god for 
the manifestation of the  faith of      
,islam in a land filled with            
unbelievers40 #hef    ,in spite of the  
circumstantial character of this        
narrative1 there is no  evidence of its 
historicity4 ,popular belief puts the   
date of the events  recorded as far back
 as the lifetime of the ,prophet2 with a
 mild  scepticism ,zayn al-,dn thought  
that they could not have been earlier   
than the third century of the ,hijrah2  
#heg but there is no more  authority for
 the one date than for the other1 or for
 the common  ,mappilla tradition of the 
existence of the tomb of a ,hindu king  
at  ,zafr1 on the coast of ,arabia1     
bearing the inscription1 8,abd al-,ramn 

al-,smir1 arrived ,a4,h4 #bab1 died     
,a4,h4 #baf02 #heh and the mosque at    
,madyi1 said to have been founded by    
,mlik b4 ,dnr1 bears an  inscription    
commemorating its erection in ,a4,d4    
#aabd4 #hei    ,but the legend certainly
 bears witness to the peaceful character
 of the  proselytising influences that  
were at work on the ,malabar coast for  
centuries4 ,the agents in this work were
 chiefly ,arab merchants1 but ,ibn      
,baah makes mention of several professed
 theologians from ,arabia and           
elsewhere1 whom he met in various towns 
on the ,malabar coast4 #hfj ,the        
,zamorin of ,calicut1 who was one of the
 chief patrons of ,arab trade1 is  said 
to have encouraged conversion to ,islam1
 in order to man the ,arab  ships on    
which he depended for his               
aggrandisement1 and to have ordered     
that in every family of fishermen in his
 dominion one or more of the  male      
members should be brought up as         
,muhammadans4 #hfa ,at the  beginning of

 the sixteenth century the ,mappillas   
were estimated to have  formed one-fifth
 of the population of ,malabar1 spoke   
the same language  as the ,hindus1 and  
were only distinguished from them by    
their long  beards and peculiar         
head-dress4 ,but for the arrival of the 
,portuguese1  the whole of this coast   
would have become ,muhammadan1 because  
of the  frequent conversions that took  
place and the powerful influence        
exercised by the ,muslim merchants from 
other parts of ,india1 such as  ,gujart 
and the ,deccan1 and from ,arabia and   
,persia4 #hfb    ,but there would appear
 to be no record of the individuals who 
took part  in the propaganda1 except in 
the case of the historian ,abd          
al-,razzq1  who has himself left an     
account of his unsuccessful mission to  
the  court of the ,zamorin of ,calicut4 
,he was sent on this mission in the     
year #adda by the ,tmrid ,shh ,rukh     
,bahdur1 in response to an appeal  made 
by an ambassador who had been sent by   

the ,zamorin of ,calicut to  this       
monarch4 ,the ambassador was himself a  
,musalman and represented to  the       
,sultan how excellent and meritorious an
 action it would be to send  a special  
envoy to the ,zamorin1 8to invite him to
 accept ,islam in  accordance with the  
injunction #8,summon thou to the ways of
 thy ,lord  with wisdom and with kindly 
warning1' #hfc and open the bolt of     
darkness and error that locked his      
benighted heart1 and let the  splendour 
of the light of the faith and the       
brightness of the sun of  knowledge     
shine into the window of his soul40 ,abd
 al-,razzq was chosen  for this task and
 after an adventurous journey reached   
,calicut1 but  appears to have met with 
a cold reception1 and after remaining   
there  for about six months abandoned   
his original purposes and made his way  
back to ,khursn1 which he reached after 
an absence of three years4  #hfd        
,another community of ,musalmans in     
,southern ,india1 the ,ravuttans1 #hfe  

ascribe their conversion to the         
preaching of missionaries whose tombs   
are held in veneration by them to the   
present day4 ,the most famous of  these 
was ,sayyid ,nathar ,shh #hff 7,a4,d4   
#ifi-ajci7 who after many  wanderings in
 ,arabia1 ,persia and ,northern ,india1 
settled down in  ,trichinopoly1 where he
 spent the remaining years of his life  
in prayer  and works of charity1 and    
converted a large number of ,hindus to  
the  faith of ,islam2 his tomb is much  
resorted to as a place of pilgrimage    
and the ,muhammadans re-named           
,trichinopoly ,natharnagar1 after the   
name  of their saint4 #hfg ,sayyid      
,ibrhm ,shahd 7said to have been born   
about the middle of the twelfth         
century71 whose tomb is at ,ervadi1 was 
a militant hero who led an expedition   
into the ,pandyan kingdom1  occupied the
 country for about twelve years1 but was
 at length slain2  his son's life was1  
however1 spared in consideration of the 
beneficent  rule of his father1 and a   

grant of land given to him1 which his   
descendants enjoy to the present day4   
,the latest of these saints1 ,shh       
al-amd 7#aecb-afjj71 was born at        
,manikpur in ,northern ,india1 and spent
  most of his life in visiting the holy 
shrines of ,islam and in  missionary    
tours chiefly throughout ,southern      
,india2 he finally settled  in ,nagore1 
where the descendants of his adopted son
 are still in charge  of his tomb4 #hfh 
,another group of ,muhammadans in       
,southern ,india1 the ,dudekulas1 who   
live  by cotton cleaning 7as their name 
denotes7 and by weaving coarse  fabrics1
 attribute their conversion to ,bb      
,fakhr al-,dn1 whose tomb  they revere  
at ,penukonda4 ,legend says that he was 
originally a king of  ,sstn1 who        
abdicated his throne in favour of his   
brother and became a  religious         
mendicant4 ,after making the pilgrimage 
to ,mecca and ,medina1  he was bidden by
 the ,prophet in a dream to go to       
,india2 here he met  ,nathar ,shh1 of   

,trichinopoly1 and became his disciple  
and was sent by  him in company with    
#bjj religious mendicants on a          
proselytising  mission4 ,the legend goes
 on to say that they finally settled at 
,penukonda in the vicinity of a ,hindu  
temple1 where their presence was        
unwelcome to the ,raja of the place1 but
 instead of appealing to force  he      
applied several tests to discover       
whether the ,muhammadan saint or  his   
own priest was the better qualified by  
sanctity to possess the  temple4 ,as a  
final test1 he had them both tied up in 
sacks filled with  lime and thrown into 
tanks4 ,the ,hindu priest never         
re-appeared1 but  ,bb ,fakhr al-,dn     
asserted the superiority of his faith by
 being  miraculously transported to a   
hill outside the town4 ,the ,raja       
hereupon  became a ,musalman1 and his   
example was followed by a large number  
of  the inhabitants of the              
neighbourhood1 and the temple was turned
 into a  mosque4 #hfi    ,the history of

 ,islam in ,southern ,india by no means 
always continued to  be of so peaceful a
 character1 but it does not appear that 
the forcible  conversions of the ,hindus
 and others to ,islam which were        
perpetrated  when the ,muhammadan power 
became paramount under aydar ,al        
7#agfg-aghb7 and ,tp ,suln 7#aghb-agii71
 can be paralleled in the  earlier      
history of this part of ,india4 ,however
 this may be1 there is no  reason to    
doubt that constant conversions by      
peaceful methods were made  to ,islam   
from among the lower castes1 #hgj as is 
the case at the  present day when       
accessions to ,islam from time to time  
occur from among  the ,tiyans1 who are  
said to form one of the most progressive
  communities in ,india1 the ,mukkuvans 
or fisherman caste1 as well as from  the
 ,cherumans or agricultural labourers1  
and other serf castes1 to whom  ,islam  
brings deliverance from the disabilities
 attaching to the  outcasts of the      
,hindu social system2 occasionally1     

also1 converts are  drawn from among the
 ,nayars and the native ,christians4 ,in
 ,ponnani1 the  residence of the        
spiritual head of the majority of the   
,muhammadans of  ,malabar1 there is an  
association entitled ,minnat al-,islm   
,sabh1 where  converts are instructed in
 the tenets of their new faith and      
material  assistance rendered to those  
under instruction2 the average number of
  converts received in this institution 
in the course of the first three  years 
of the twentieth century1 was #gej4 #hga
 ,so numerous have these  conversions   
from ,hinduism been1 that the tendency  
of the ,muhammadans of  the west as well
 as the east coast of ,southern ,india  
has been to  reversion to the ,hindu or 
aboriginal type1 and1 except in the case
 of  some of the nobler families1 they  
now in great part present all the       
characteristics of an aboriginal people1
 with very little of the  original      
foreign blood in them4 #hgb ,in the     
western coast districts  the tyranny of 

caste intolerance is peculiarly         
oppressive2 to give but  one instance1  
in ,travancore certain of the lower     
castes may not come  nearer than        
seventy-four paces to a ,brahman1 and   
have to make a  grunting noise as they  
pass along the road1 in order to give   
warning of  their approach4 ,similar    
instances might be abundantly           
multiplied4 ,what  wonder1 then1 that   
the ,musalman population is fast        
increasing through  conversion from     
these lower castes1 who thereby free    
themselves from  such degrading         
oppression1 and raise themselves and    
their descendants  in the social scale8 
,in fact the ,mappillas on the west     
coast are said to be increasing so      
considerably through accessions from the
 lower classes of ,hindus1 as to  render
 it possible that in a few years the    
whole of the lower races of  the west   
coast may become ,muhammadans4 #hgc     
,it was most probably from ,malabar that
 ,islam crossed over to the  ,laccadive 

and ,maldive ,islands1 the population of
 which is now entirely  ,muslim4 ,the   
inhabitants of these islands owed their 
conversion to the  ,arab and ,persian   
merchants1 who established themselves in
 the country1  intermarrying with the   
natives1 and thus smoothing the way for 
the work  of active proselytism4 ,the   
date of the conversion of the first     
,muhammadan ,sultan of the ,maldive     
,islands1 ,amad ,shanrzah1 #hgd has     
been conjectured to have occurred about 
,a4,d4 #abjj1 but it is very  possible  
that the ,muhammadan merchants had      
introduced their religion  into the     
island as much as three centuries       
before1 and the process of  conversion  
must undoubtedly have been a gradual    
one4 #hge ,no details1  however1 have   
come down to us4    ,at ,ml1 the seat of
 government1 is found the tomb of       
,shaykh ,ysuf  ,shams al-,dn1 a native  
of ,tabrz1 in ,persia1 who is said to   
have been a  successful missionary of   
,islam in these islands4 ,his tomb is   

still held  in great veneration1 and    
always kept in good repair1 and in the  
same  part of the island are buried some
 of his countrymen who came in search   
of him1 and remained in the ,maldives   
until their death4 #hgf    ,the         
introduction of ,islam into the         
neighbouring ,laccadive ,islands is     
attributed to an ,arab preacher1 known  
to the islanders by the name of  ,mumba 
,mulyaka2 his tomb is still shown at    
,androth and as the present  q of that  
place claims to be twenty-sixth in      
descent from him1 he  probably reached  
these islands some time in the twelfth  
century4 #hgg    ,the ,deccan also was  
the scene of the successful labours of  
many ,muslim  missionaries4 ,it has     
already been pointed out that from very 
early  times ,arab traders had visited  
the towns on the west coast2 in the     
tenth century we are told that the      
,arabs were settled in large numbers  in
 the towns of the ,konkan1 having       
intermarried with the women of the      

country and living under their own laws 
and religion4 #hgh ,under the           
,muhammadan dynasties of the ,bahmanid  
7#acdg-adij7 and ,bjpr  7#adhi-afhf7    
kings1 a fresh impulse was given to     
,arab immigration1 and  with the trader 
and the soldier of fortune came the     
missionaries  seeking to make spiritual 
conquests in the cause of ,islam1 and   
win over  the unbelieving people of the 
country by their preaching and example1 
for of forcible conversions we have no  
record under the early ,deccan          
dynasties1 whose rule was characterised 
by a striking toleration4 #hgi    ,one  
of these ,arab preachers1 ,pr ,mahbr    
,khamdyat1 came as a  missionary to the 
,deccan as early as ,a4,d4 #acjd1 and   
among the  cultivating classes of ,bjpr 
are to be found descendants of the      
,jains  who were converted by him4 #hhj 
,about the close of the same century a  
celebrated saint of ,gulbarga1 ,sayyid  
,muammad ,gsdarz1 #hha  converted a     
number of ,hindus of the ,poona         

district1 and twenty years  later his   
labours were crowned with a like success
 in ,belgaum4 #hhb ,at  ,dahanu still   
reside the descendants of a relative of 
one of the  greatest saints of ,islam1  
,sayyid ,abd al-,qdir ,jln of ,baghdd2  
he  came to ,western ,india about the   
fifteenth century1 and after making     
many converts in the ,konkan1 died and  
was buried at ,dahanu4 #hhc ,in  the    
district of ,dharwar1 there are large   
numbers of weavers whose  ancestors were
 converted by ,hshim ,pr ,gujart1 the   
religious teacher  of the ,bjpr king1   
,ibrhm dil ,shh ,,ii1 about the close of
 the  sixteenth century4 ,these men     
still regard the saint with special     
reverence and pay great respect to his  
descendants4 #hhd ,the  descendants of  
another saint1 ,shh ,muammad diq        
,sarmast usayn1 are  still found in     
,nasik2 he is said to have been the most
 successful of  ,muhammadan             
missionaries2 having come from ,medina  
in #aefh1 he travelled  over the greater

 part of ,western ,india and finally    
settled at ,nasik--in  which district   
another very successful ,muslim         
missionary1 ,khwjah  ,khunmir usayn1 had
 begun to labour about fifty years      
before4 #hhe  ,two other ,arab          
missionaries may be mentioned1 the scene
 of whose  proselytising efforts was    
laid in the district of ,belgaum1 namely
  ,sayyid ,muammad b4 ,sayyid ,al and   
,sayyid ,umar ,aydrs ,basheban4 #hhf    
,another missionary movement may be said
 roughly to centre round the  city of   
,multan4 #hhg ,this in the early days of
 the ,arab conquest was  one of the     
outposts of ,islam1 when ,muammad b4    
,qsim had established  ,muhammadan      
supremacy over ,sind 7,a4,d4 #gad74     
,during the three centuries  of ,arab   
rule there were naturally many          
accessions to the faith of the          
conquerors4 ,several ,sindian princes   
responded to the invitation of the      
,caliph ,umar b4 ,abd al-,azz to embrace
 ,islam4 #hhh ,the people of            

,swandari--who submitted to ,muammad b4 
,qsim and had peace granted to  them on 
the condition that they would entertain 
the ,musalmans and  furnish guides--are 
spoken of by al-,baldhur 7writing about 
a hundred  years later7 as professing   
,islam in his time2 and the despatches  
of the  conqueror frequently refer to   
the conversion of the unbelievers4      
,that these conversions were in the main
 voluntary1 may be judged from  the     
toleration that the ,arabs1 after the   
first violence of their  onslaught1     
showed towards their idolatrous         
subjects4 ,the people of  ,brahmanbd1   
for example1 whose city had been taken  
by storm1 were  allowed to repair their 
temple1 which was a means of livelihood 
to the  ,brahmans1 and nobody was to be 
forbidden or prevented from following   
his own religion1 #hhi and generally1   
where submission was made1  quarter was 
readily given1 and the people were      
permitted the exercise  of their own    
creeds and laws4    ,during the troubles

 that befell the caliphate in the latter
 half of the  ninth century1 ,sind1     
neglected by the central government1    
came to be  divided among several petty 
princes1 the most powerful of whom were 
the  ,amrs of ,multan and ,mansra4 ,such
 disunion naturally weakened the        
political power of the ,musalmans1 which
 had in fact begun to decline  earlier  
in the century4 ,for in the reign of    
al-,mutaim 7,a4,d4 #hcc-hdb71  the      
,indians of ,sindn #hij declared        
themselves independent1 but they  spared
 the mosque1 in which the ,musalmans    
were allowed to perform their  devotions
 undisturbed4 #hia ,the ,muhammadans of 
,multan succeeded in  maintaining their 
political independence1 and kept        
themselves from  being conquered by the 
neighbouring ,hindu princes1 by         
threatening1 if  attacked1 to destroy an
 idol which was held in great veneration
 by the  ,hindus and was visited by     
pilgrims from the most distant parts4   
#hib  ,but in the hour of its political 

decay1 ,islam was still achieving       
missionary successes4 ,al-,baldhur #hic 
tells the following story of  the       
conversion of a king of ,usayfn1 a      
country between ,kashmr and  ,multan and
 ,kbul4 ,the people of this country     
worshipped an idol for  which they had  
built a temple4 ,the son of the king    
fell sick1 and he  desired the priests  
of the temple to pray to the idol for   
the recovery  of his son4 ,they retired 
for a short time1 and then returned     
saying3  8,we have prayed and our       
supplications have been accepted40 ,but 
no long  time passed before the youth   
died4 ,then the king attacked the       
temple1  destroyed and broke in pieces  
the idol1 and slew the priests4 ,he     
afterwards invited a party of           
,muhammadan traders1 who made known to  
him  the unity of ,god2 whereupon he    
believed in the unity and became a      
,muslim4 ,a similar missionary influence
 was doubtless exercised by the         
numerous communities of ,muslim         

merchants who carried their religion    
with them into the infidel cities of    
,hindustan4 ,arab geographers of the    
tenth and twelfth centuries mention the 
names of many such cities1 both  on the 
coast and inland1 where the ,musalmans  
built their mosques1 and  were safe     
under the protection of the native      
princes1 who even granted  them the     
privilege of living under their own     
laws4 #hid ,the ,arab  merchants at this
 time formed the medium of commercial   
communication  between ,sind and the    
neighbouring countries of ,india and the
 outside  world4 ,they brought the      
produce of ,china and ,ceylon to the    
sea-ports of  ,sind and from there      
conveyed them by way of ,multan to      
,turkistan and  ,khursn4 #hie    ,it    
would be strange if these traders1      
scattered about in the cities of  the   
unbelievers1 failed to exhibit the same 
proselytising zeal as we  find in the   
,muhammadan trader elsewhere4 ,to the   
influence of such  trading communities  

was most probably due the conversion of 
the ,sammas1  who ruled over ,sind from 
,a4,d4 #acea to #aeba4 ,while the reign 
of ,nanda b4  ,bbiniyyah of this dynasty
 is specially mentioned as one of such  
8peace  and security1 that never was    
this prince called upon to ride forth to
  battle1 and never did a foe take the  
field against him10 #hif it is at  the  
same time described as being 8remarkable
 for its justice and an  increase of    
,islam40 ,this increase could thus only 
have been brought  about by peaceful    
missionary methods4 ,one of the most    
famous of these  missionaries was the   
celebrated saint1 ,sayyid ,ysuf al-,dn1 
a  descendant of ,abd al-,qdir ,jln1 who
 was bidden in a dream to leave  ,baghdd
 for ,india and convert its inhabitants 
to ,islam4 ,he came to ,sind  in #adbb  
and after labouring there for ten years1
 he succeeded in  winning over to ,islam
 #gjj families of the ,lohna caste1 who 
followed  the example of two of their   
number1 by name ,sundarj and ,hansrj2   

these  men embraced ,islam1 after seeing
 some miracles performed by the saint1  
and on their conversion received the    
names of ,adamj and ,tj ,muammad        
respectively4 ,under the leadership of  
the grandson of the former1 these       
people afterwards migrated to ,cutch1   
where their numbers were increased  by  
converts from among the ,cutch ,lohnas4 
#hig    ,sind was also the scene of the 
labours of ,pr adr al-,dn1 an ,isml     
missionary1 who was head of the ,khojah 
sect about the year #adcj4 ,in          
accordance with the principles of       
accommodation practised by this sect1   
he took a ,hindu name and made certain  
concessions to the religious  beliefs of
 the ,hindus whose conversion he sought 
to achieve1 and  introduced among them a
 book entitled ,dasavatr in which ,al   
was made  out to be the tenth ,avatr or 
incarnation of ,viu2 this book has been 
from the beginning the accepted         
scripture of the ,khojah sect1 and it is
  always read by the bedside of the     

dying and periodically at many          
festivals2 it assumes the nine          
incarnations of ,viu to be true as far  
as they go1 but to fall short of the    
perfect truth1 and supplements  this    
imperfect ,vaiav system by the cardinal 
doctrine of the  ,ismlians1 the         
incarnation and coming manifestation of 
,al4 ,further1  he made out ,brahm to be
 ,muammad1 ,viu to be ,al and ,adam     
,siva4 ,the  first of ,pr adr al-,dn's  
converts were won in the villages and   
towns  of ,upper ,sind3 he preached also
 in ,cutch and from these parts the     
doctrines of this sect spread southwards
 through ,gujart to ,bombay2 and  at the
 present day ,khojah communities are to 
be found in almost all the  large       
trading towns of ,western ,india and on 
the seaboard of the ,indian  ,ocean4    
#hih    ,pr adr al-,dn was not however  
the first of the ,ismlian  missionaries 
who came into ,india4 ,he was preceded  
by ,abd ,allh1 a  missionary sent from  
,yaman about #ajfg2 he is said to have  

been a man of  great learning1 and is   
credited with the performance of many   
miracles1  whereby he convinced a large 
number of ,hindus of the truth of his   
religion4 #hii ,the second ,isml        
missionary1 ,nr al-,dn1 generally  known
 by the ,hindu name he adopted1 ,nr     
,satgar1 was sent into ,india  from     
,alamt1 the stronghold of the ,grand    
,master of the ,ismls1 and  reached     
,gujart in the reign of the ,hindu king1
 ,siddh ,rj 7,a4,d4  #ajid-aadc74 #ijj  
,he adopted a ,hindu name but told the  
,muhammadans that  his real name was    
,sayyid ,sadat2 he is said to have      
converted the  ,kanbs1 ,khrws and ,kors1
 low castes of ,gujart4 #ija    ,as ,nr 
,satgar is revered as the first         
missionary of the ,khojahs1 so is  ,abd 
,allh believed by some to have been the 
founder of the sect of the  ,bohras1 a  
large and important community of ,shahs1
 mainly of ,hindu  origin1 who are found
 in considerable numbers in the chief   
commercial  centres of the ,bombay      

,presidency4 ,but others ascribe the    
honour of  being the first ,bohra       
missionary to ,mull ,al1 of whose       
proselytising  methods the following    
account is given by a ,shah historian3  
8,as the  people of ,gujart in those    
days were infidels and accepted as their
  religious leader an old man whose     
teaching they blindly followed1 ,mull   
,al saw no alternative but to go to the 
old man and ask to become his  disciple1
 intending to set before him such       
convincing arguments that he  would     
become a ,musalman1 and afterwards to   
attempt the conversion of  others4 ,he  
accordingly spent some years in the     
service of the old man1  and having     
learned the language of the people of   
the country1 read  their books and      
acquired a knowledge of their sciences4 
,step by step he  unfolded to the       
enlightened mind of the old man the     
truth of the faith  of ,islam and       
persuaded him to become a ,musalman4    
,after his conversion1  some of his     

disciples followed the old man's        
example4 ,finally1 the  chief minister  
of the king of that country became aware
 of the old  man's conversion to ,islam1
 and going to see him submitted to his  
spiritual guidance and likewise became a
 ,musalman4 ,for a long time1 the  old  
man1 the minister and the rest of the   
converts to ,islam1 kept the  fact of   
their conversion concealed and through  
fear of the king always  took care to   
prevent it coming to his knowledge2 but 
at length the king  received a report of
 the minister's having adopted ,islam   
and began to  make inquiries4 ,one day1 
without giving previous notice1 he went 
to the  minister's house and found him  
bowing his head in prayer and was vexed 
with him4 ,the minister recognised the  
purpose of the king's visit1 and        
realised that his displeasure had been  
excited by suspicions aroused by  his   
prayer1 with its bowing and             
prostrations2 but the guidance of ,god  
and divine grace befitting the occasion1

 he said that he was making  these      
movements because he was watching a     
serpent in the corner of the  room4     
,when the king turned towards the corner
 of the room1 by divine  providence he  
saw a snake there1 and accepted the     
minister's excuse and  his mind was     
cleared of all suspicions4 ,in the end  
the king also  secretly became a        
,musalman1 but for reasons of state     
concealed his  change of mind2 when     
however1 the hour of his death drew     
near1 he gave  orders that his body was 
not to be burnt1 as is the custom of the
  infidels4 ,subsequently to his        
decease1 when ,suln ,zafar1 one of the  
trusty nobles of ,suln ,frz ,shh1 king  
of ,dehl1 conquered ,gujart1  some of   
the ,sunn nobles who accompanied him    
used arguments to make the  people join 
the ,sunn sect of the ,muslim faith2 so 
some of the ,bohras  are ,sunns1 but the
 greater part remain true to their      
original faith40  #ijb    ,several small
 groups of ,musalmans in ,cutch and     

,gujart trace their  conversion to ,imm 
,shh of ,prna1 #ijc who was actively    
engaged in  missionary work during the  
latter half of the fifteenth century4   
,he is  said to have converted a large  
body of ,hindu cultivators1 by bringing 
about a fall of rain after two seasons  
of scarcity4 ,on another occasion       
meeting a band of ,hindu pilgrims       
passing through ,prna on their way to   
,benares1 he offered to take them there2
 they agreed and in a moment  were in   
the holy city1 where they bathed in the 
,ganges and paid their  vows2 they then 
awoke to find themselves still in ,prna 
and adopted  the faith of the saint who 
could perform such a miracle4 ,he died  
in  #aeab and his tomb in ,prna is still
 an object of pilgrimage for ,hindus  as
 well as for ,muhammadans4 #ijd    ,many
 of the ,cutch ,musalmans that are of   
,hindu descent reverence as  their      
spiritual leader ,dwal ,shh ,pr1 whose  
real name was ,malik ,abd  al-,laf1 #ije
 the son of one of the nobles of ,mamd  

,bgarah  7#adei-aeaa71 the famous       
monarch of the ,muhammadan dynasty of   
,gujart1  to whose reign popular        
tradition assigns the date of the       
conversion of  many ,hindus4 #ijf    ,it
 is in ,bengal1 however1 that the       
,muhammadan missionaries in ,india  have
 achieved their greatest success1 as far
 as numbers are concerned4  ,a          
,muhammadan kingdom was first founded   
here at the end of the twelfth  century 
by ,muammad ,bakhtiyr ,khilj1 who       
conquered ,bihar and ,bengal  and made  
,gaur the capital of the latter         
province4 ,the long continuance  of the 
,muhammadan rule would naturally assist 
the spread of ,islam1 and  though the   
,hindu rule was restored for ten years  
under the tolerant  ,rj ,kns1 whose rule
 is said to have been popular with his  
,muhammadan  subjects1 #ijg his son1    
,jatmall1 renounced the ,hindu religion 
and  became a ,musalman4 ,after his     
father's death in #adad he called       
together  all the officers of the state 

and announced his intention of embracing
  ,islam1 and proclaimed that if the    
chiefs would not permit him to ascend   
the throne1 he was ready to give it up  
to his brother2 whereupon they  declared
 that they would accept him as their    
king1 whatever religion he  might adopt4
 ,accordingly1 several learned men of   
the ,muslim faith were  summoned to     
witness the ,raja renounce the ,hindu   
religion and publicly  profess his      
acceptance of ,islam3 he took the name  
of ,jall al-,dn  ,muammad ,shh1 and     
according to tradition numerous         
conversions were  made during his reign4
 #ijh ,many of these were however due to
 force1  for his reign is signalised as 
being the only one in which any         
wholesale persecution of the subject    
,hindus is recorded1 during the  five   
centuries and a half of ,muhammadan rule
 in ,eastern ,bengal4 #iji              
,conversions1 however1 often took place 
at other times under pressure  from the 
,muhammadan government4 ,the ,rajas of  

,kharagpur were originally  ,hindus1 and
 became ,muhammadans because1 having    
been defeated by one of  ,akbar's       
generals1 they were only allowed to     
retain the family estates  on the       
condition that they embraced ,islam4    
,the ,hindu ancestor of the  family of  
,asad ,al ,khn1 in ,chittagong1 was     
deprived of his caste by  being forced  
to smell beef and had perforce to become
 a ,muhammadan1 and  several other      
instances of the same kind might be     
quoted4 #iaj    ,murshid ,qul ,khn 7son 
of a converted ,brahman71 who was made  
governor  of ,bengal by the ,emperor    
,aurangzeb at the beginning of the      
eighteenth  century1 enforced a law that
 any official or landlord1 who failed to
  pay the revenue that was due or was   
unable to make good the loss1  should   
with his wife and children be compelled 
to become ,muhammadans4  ,further1 it   
was the common law that any ,hindu who  
forfeited his caste  by a breach of     
regulations could only be reinstated by 

the ,muhammadan  government2 if the     
government refused to interfere1 the    
outcast had no  means of regaining his  
position in the social system of the    
,hindus1 and  would probably find no    
resource but to become a ,musalman4 #iaa
    ,the ,afghn adventurers who settled 
in this province also appear to have    
been active in the work of              
proselytising1 for besides the children 
that  they had by ,hindu women1 they    
used to purchase a number of boys in    
times of scarcity1 and educate them in  
the tenets of ,islam4 #iab ,but  it is  
not in the ancient centres of the       
,muhammadan government that the         
,musalmans of ,bengal are found in large
 numbers1 but in the country  districts1
 in districts where there are no traces 
of settlers from the  ,west1 and in     
places where low-caste ,hindus and      
outcasts most abound4  #iac ,the        
similarity of manners between these     
low-caste ,hindus and the  followers of 
the ,prophet1 and the caste distinctions

 which they still  retain1 as well as   
their physical likeness1 all bear the   
same testimony  and identify the ,bengal
 ,musalmans with the aboriginal tribes  
of the  country4 ,here ,islam met with  
no consolidated religious system to bar 
its progress1 as in the north-west of   
,india1 where the ,muhammadan  invaders 
found ,brahmanism full of fresh life and
 vigour after its  triumphant struggle  
with ,buddhism2 where1 in spite of      
persecutions1 its  influence was an     
inspiring force in the opposition       
offered by the  ,hindus1 and retained   
its hold on them in the hour of their   
deepest  distress and degradation4 ,but 
in ,bengal the ,muslim missionaries were
  welcomed with open arms by the        
aborigines and the low castes on the    
very outskirts of ,hinduism1 despised   
and condemned by their proud ,aryan     
rulers4 8,to these poor people1         
fishermen1 hunters1 pirates1 and        
low-caste tillers of the soil1 ,islam   
came as a revelation from on high4  ,it 

was the creed of the ruling race1 its   
missionaries were men of zeal  who      
brought the ,gospel of the unity of ,god
 and the equality of men in  its sight  
to a despised and neglected population4 
,the initiatory rite  rendered relapse  
impossible1 and made the proselyte and  
his posterity  true believers for ever4 
,in this way ,islam settled down on the 
richest  alluvial province of ,india1   
the province which was capable of       
supporting the most rapid and densest   
increase of population4  ,compulsory    
conversions are occasionally recorded4  
,but it was not to  force that ,islam   
owed its permanent success in ,lower    
,bengal4 ,it  appealed to the people1   
and it derived the great mass of its    
converts  from the poor4 ,it brought in 
a higher conception of ,god1 and a      
nobler  idea of the brotherhood of man4 
,it offered to the teeming low castes of
  ,bengal1 who had sat for ages abject  
on the outermost pale of the ,hindu     
community1 a free entrance into a new   

social organisation40 #iad    ,the      
existence in ,bengal of definite        
missionary efforts is said to be        
attested by certain legends of the zeal 
of private individuals on  behalf of    
their religion1 and the graves of some  
of these missionaries  are still        
honoured1 and are annually visited by   
hundreds of pilgrims4  #iae ,one of the 
earliest of these was ,shaykh ,jall     
al-,dn ,tabrz1 who  died in ,a4,d4      
#abdd4 ,he was a pupil of the great     
saint1 ,shihb al-,dn  ,suhraward4 ,in   
the course of his missionary journeys he
 visited ,bengal1  where a shrine to    
which is attached a rich endowment was  
erected in his  honour1 the real site of
 his tomb being unknown4 ,many miracles 
are  ascribed to him2 among others1 that
 he converted a ,hindu milkman to       
,islam by a single look4 #iaf    ,in the
 nineteenth century there was a         
remarkable revival of the  ,muhammadan  
religion in ,bengal1 and several sects  
that owe their origin  to the influence 

of the ,wahhb reformation1 have sent    
their  missionaries through the province
 purging out the remnants of ,hindu     
superstitions1 awakening religious zeal 
and spreading the faith among           
unbelievers4 #iag    ,some account still
 remains to be given of ,muslim         
missionaries who have  laboured in parts
 of ,india other than those mentioned   
above4 ,one of the  earliest of these is
 ,shaykh ,isml1 one of the most famous  
of the  ,sayyids of ,bukhr1             
distinguished alike for his secular and 
religious  learning2 he is said to have 
been the first ,muslim missionary who   
preached the faith of ,islam in the city
 of ,lahore1 whither he came in  the    
year ,a4,d4 #ajje4 ,crowds flocked to   
listen to his sermons1 and the  number  
of his converts swelled rapidly day by  
day1 and it is said that  no unbeliever 
ever came into personal contact with him
 without being  converted to the faith  
of ,islam4 #iah    ,the conversion of   
the inhabitants of the western plains of

 the ,panjb  is said to have been       
effected through the preaching of ,bah  
al-aqq of  ,multan #iai and ,bb ,fard   
al-,dn of ,pakpattan1 who flourished    
about  the end of the thirteenth and    
beginning of the fourteenth centuries4  
#ibj ,a biographer of the latter saint  
gives a list of sixteen tribes  who were
 won over to ,islam through his         
preaching1 but unfortunately  provides  
us with no details of this work of      
conversion4 #iba    ,one of the most    
famous of the ,muslim saints of ,india  
and a pioneer of  ,islam in ,rajputana  
was ,khwjah ,mun al-,dn ,chisht1 who    
died in ,ajmr  in ,a4,d4 #abcd4 ,he was 
a native of ,sajistn to the east of     
,persia1 and is  said to have received  
his call to preach ,islam to the        
unbelievers in  ,india while on a       
pilgrimage to ,medina4 ,here the        
,prophet appeared to him  in a dream and
 thus addressed him3 8,the ,almighty has
 entrusted the  country of ,india to    
thee4 ,go thither and settle in ,ajmr4  

,by ,god's  help1 the faith of ,islam   
shall1 through thy piety and that of thy
  followers1 be spread in that land40   
,he obeyed the call and made his way  to
 ,ajmr which was then under ,hindu rule 
and idolatry prevailed  throughout the  
land4 ,among the first of his converts  
here was a ,yog1  who was the spiritual 
preceptor of the ,raja himself3         
gradually he  gathered around him a     
large body of disciples whom his        
teachings had  won from the ranks of    
infidelity1 and his fame as a religious 
leader  became very widespread and      
attracted to ,ajmr great numbers of     
,hindus  whom he persuaded to embrace   
,islam4 #ibb ,on his way to ,ajmr he is 
said to have converted as many as #gjj  
persons in the city of ,delhi4    ,of   
immense importance in the history of    
,islam in ,india was the arrival  in    
that country of ,sayyid ,jall al-,dn1   
who is said to have been born  at ,bukhr
 in #aaii4 ,he settled in ,uch1 now in  
the ,bahawalpur territory1  in #abdd1   

and converted numbers of persons in the 
neighbourhood to  ,islam2 he died in    
#abia1 and his descendants1 many of whom
 are also  revered as saints1 have      
remained as guardians of his shrine up  
to the  present day and form the centre 
of a widespread religious influence4    
,his grandson1 ,sayyid ,amad ,kabr1     
known as ,makhdm-i-,jahniyn1 is         
credited with having effected the       
conversion of several tribes in the     
,punjab4 #ibc ,about a mile to the east 
of ,uch is situated the shrine of  asan 
,kabr al-,dn1 son of ,sayyid adr al-,dn1
 who was a contemporary  of             
,jall-al-,dn2 both father and son are   
said to have made many  converts1 and   
such was the influence attributed to    
asan ,kabr al-,dn  that it was said as  
soon as his glance fell upon any ,hindu1
 the latter  would accept ,islam4 #ibd  
,rather later in the same century1 a    
native of ,persian ,irq1 by name  ,ab   
,al ,qalandar1 came into ,india and took
 up his residence at  ,panipat1 where he

 died at the ripe age of #ajj1 in ,a4,d4
 #acbd4 ,the ,muslim  ,rajputs of this  
city1 numbering about #cjj males1 are   
descended from a  certain ,amr ,singh   
who was converted by this saint4 ,his   
tomb is still  held in honour and is    
visited by many pilgrims4    ,another   
such was ,shaykh ,jall al-,dn1 a        
,persian who came into ,india  about the
 latter half of the fourteenth century  
and settled down at  ,silha1 in ,lower  
,assam1 in order to convert the people  
of these parts  to ,islam4 ,he achieved 
a great reputation as a holy man1 and   
his  proselytising labours were crowned 
with eminent success4 #ibe    ,in more  
recent years there have been abundant   
witnesses for ,islam  seeking to spread 
this faith in ,india--and with very     
considerable  success2 the second half  
of the nineteenth century especially    
witnessed  a great revival of missionary
 activity1 the number of annual         
conversions being variously estimated at
 ten1 fifty1 one hundred and  six       

hundred thousand4 #ibf ,but it is       
difficult to obtain accurate            
information on account of the peculiarly
 individualistic character of  ,muslim  
missionary work and the absence of any  
central organisation or  of anything in 
the way of missionary reports1 and the  
success that  attends the labours of    
,muslim preachers is sometimes much     
exaggerated1  e4g4 in the ,panjb a      
certain j ,muammad is said to have      
converted as  many as #bjj1jjj ,hindus1 
#ibg and a mawlav in ,bangalore boasted 
that  in five years he had made as many 
as #ajjj converts in this city and its  
suburbs4 ,but that there are ,muslim    
missionaries engaged in active and      
successful propagandist labours is      
undoubted1 and the following  examples  
are typical of the period referred to4  
,mawlav ,baq usayn ,khn1 an itinerant   
preacher1 in the course of  several     
years converted #bbh persons1 residents 
of ,bombay1 ,cawnpore1  ,ajmr1 and other
 cities4 ,mawlav asan ,al converted     

twenty-five  persons1 twelve in ,poona1 
the rest in aydarabad and other parts of
  ,india4 #ibh ,in the district of      
,khandesh1 in the ,bombay ,presidency1  
the  preaching of the ,q of ,nasirabad1 
,sayyid ,safdar ,al1 won over to  ,islam
 a large body of artisans1 who follow   
the trade of armourers or  blacksmiths4 
#ibi ,a number of persons of the same   
trade1 who form a  small community of   
about #bjj souls in the district of     
,nasik1 were  converted in a curious way
 about #ahgj4 ,the ,presbyterian        
missionaries of  ,nasik had for a long  
time been trying to convert them from   
,hinduism1  and they were in a state of 
hesitation as to whether or not to      
embrace  ,christianity when a           
,muhammadan faqr from ,bombay1 who was  
well  acquainted with their habits of   
thought1 expounded to them the          
doctrines of ,islam and succeeded in    
winning them over to that faith4  #icj  
,in ,patiala1 ,mawlav ,ubayd ,allh1 a   
converted ,brahman of great  learning1  

proved himself to be a zealous preacher 
of ,islam1 and in  spite of the         
obstacles that were at first thrown in  
his way by his  relatives1 achieved so  
great a success that his converts almost
 filled  an entire ward of the city4 ,he
 wrote controversial works1 which have  
passed through several editions1        
directed against the ,christian and     
,hindu religions4 ,in one of these books
 he thus speaks of his own  conversion3 
8,i1 ,muammad ,ubayd ,allh1 the son of  
,munshi ,ko ,mal1  resident of ,payal1  
in the ,patiala ,state1 declare that    
this poor man in  his childhood and     
during the lifetime of his father was   
held in the  bondage of idol-worship1   
but the mercy of ,god caught me by the  
hand and  drew me towards ,islam1 i4e4  
,i came to know the excellence of ,islam
 and  the deficiencies of ,hinduism1 and
 ,i accepted ,islam heart and soul and  
counted myself one of the servants of   
the ,prophet of ,god 7peace be upon     
him674 ,at that time intelligence1 which

 is the gift of ,god1 suggested  to me  
that it was mere folly and laziness to  
blindly follow the customs  of one's    
forefathers and be misled by them and   
not make researches into  matters of    
religion and faith1 whereon depend our  
eternal bliss or  misery4 ,with these   
thoughts ,i began to study the current  
faiths and  investigated each of them   
impartially4 ,i thoroughly explored the 
,hindu  religion and conversed with     
learned ,paits1 gained a thorough       
knowledge of the ,christian faith1 read 
the books of ,islam and conversed  with 
learned men4 ,in all of them ,i found   
errors and fallacies1 with the          
exception of ,islam1 the excellence of  
which became clearly manifest to  me2   
its leader1 ,muammad the ,prophet1      
possesses such moral excellences  that  
no tongue can describe them1 and he     
alone who knows the beliefs  and the    
liturgy1 and the moral teachings and    
practice of this faith1  can fully      
realise them4 ,praise be to ,god6 ,so   

excellent is this religion  that        
everything in it leads the soul to ,god4
 ,in short1 by the grace of  ,god1 the  
distinction between truth and falsehood 
became as clear to me  as night and day1
 darkness and light4 ,but although my   
heart had long  been enlightened by the 
brightness of ,islam and my mouth       
fragrant with  the profession of faith1 
yet my evil passions and ,satan had     
bound me  with the fetters of the luxury
 and ease of this fleeting world1 and ,i
  was in evil case because of the       
outward observances of idolatry4 ,at    
length1 the grace of ,god thus          
admonished me3 #8,how long wilt thou    
keep  this priceless pearl hidden within
 the shell and this refreshing  perfume 
shut up in the casket8 thou shouldest   
wear this pearl about thy  neck and     
profit by this perfume4' ,moreover the  
learned have declared  that to conceal  
one's faith in ,islam and retain the    
dress and habits of  infidels brings a  
man to ,hell4 ,so 7,god be praised67 on 

the d al-,fir  #abfd the sun of my      
conversion emerged from its screen of   
clouds1 and ,i  performed my devotions  
in public with my ,muslim brethren40    
#ica    ,many ,muhammadan preachers have
 adopted the methods of ,christian      
missionaries1 such as street preaching1 
tract distribution1 and other  agencies4
 ,in many of the large cities of ,india1
 ,muslim preachers may be  found daily  
expounding the teachings of ,islam in   
some principal  thoroughfare4 ,in       
,bangalore this practice is very        
general1 and one of  these preachers1   
who was the imm of the mosque about the 
year #ahij1  was so popular that he was 
even sometimes invited to preach by     
,hindus3  he preached in the            
market-place1 and in the course of seven
 or eight  years gained forty-two       
converts4 ,in ,bombay a ,muhammadan     
missionary  preaches almost daily near  
the chief market of the city1 and in    
,calcutta there are several             
preaching-stations that are kept        

constantly  supplied4 ,among the        
converts are occasionally to be found   
some  ,europeans1 mostly persons in     
indigent circumstances2 the mass1       
however1  are ,hindus4 #icb ,some of the
 numerous ,anjumans that have of recent 
years sprung up in the chief centres of 
,musalman life in ,india1 include  among
 their objects the sending of           
missionaries to preach in the  bazaars2 
such are the ,anjuman imyat-i-,islm of  
,lahore1 and the  ,anjuman m ,islm of   
,ajmr4 ,these particular ,anjumans      
appoint paid  agents1 but much of the   
work of preaching in the bazaars is     
performed  by persons who are engaged in
 some trade or business during the      
working  hours of the day and devote    
their leisure time in the evenings to   
this  pious work4    ,much of the       
missionary zeal of the ,indian          
,musalmans is directed towards          
counteracting the anti-,islamic         
tendencies of the instruction given by  
,christian missionaries and the         

preachers of the rya ,samj1 and the     
efforts made are thus defensive rather  
than directly proselytising4  ,some     
preachers too turn their attention      
rather to the strengthening of  the     
foundation already laid1 and endeavour  
to rid their ignorant  co-religionists  
of their ,hindu superstitions1 and      
instil in them a  purer form of faith1  
such efforts being in many cases the    
continuation  of earlier missionary     
activity4 ,the work of conversion has   
indeed been  often very imperfect4 ,of  
many1 nominally ,muslims1 it may be said
 that  they are half ,hindus3 they      
observe caste rules1 they join in ,hindu
  festivals and practise numerous       
idolatrous ceremonies4 ,in certain      
districts also1 e4g4 in ,mewt and       
,gurgaon1 large numbers of ,muhammadans 
may be found who know nothing of their  
religion but its name2 they have  no    
mosques1 nor do they observe the hours  
of prayer4 ,this is especially  the case
 among the ,muhammadans of the villages 

or in parts of the  country where they  
are isolated from the mass of believers2
 but in the  towns the presence of      
learned religious men tends1 in great   
measure1 to  counteract the influence of
 former superstitions1 and makes for a  
purer  and more intelligent form of     
religious life4 ,in recent years1       
however1  there has been1 speaking      
generally1 a movement noticeable among  
the  ,indian ,muslims towards a         
religious life more strictly in         
accordance  with the laws of ,islam4    
,the influence of the ,christian mission
 schools  has also been very great in   
stimulating among some ,muhammadans of  
the  younger generation a study of their
 own religion and in bringing about  a  
consequent awakening of religious zeal4 
,indeed1 the spread of  education       
generally1 has led to a more intelligent
 grasp of religious  principles and to  
an increase of religious teachers in    
outlying and  hitherto neglected        
districts4 ,this missionary movement of 

reform 7from  whatever cause it may     
originate71 may be observed in very     
different  parts of ,india4 ,in the     
eastern districts of the ,panjb1 for    
example1  after the ,mutiny1 a great    
religious revival took place4 ,preachers
  travelled far and wide through the    
country1 calling upon believers to      
abandon their idolatrous practices and  
expounding the true tenets of  the      
faith4 ,now1 in consequence1 most       
villages1 in which ,muhammadans own  any
 considerable portion1 have a mosque1   
while the grosser and more  open        
idolatries are being discontinued4 #icc 
,in ,rajputana also1 the  ,hindu tribes 
who have been from time to time         
converted to ,islam in the  rural       
districts1 are now becoming more        
orthodox and regular in their  religious
 observances1 and are abandoning the    
ancient customs which  hitherto they had
 observed in common with their          
idolatrous neighbours4  ,the ,merts1 for
 example1 now follow the orthodox       

,muhammadan form of  marriage instead of
 the ,hindu ritual they formerly        
observed1 and have  abjured the flesh of
 the wild boar4 #icd ,a similar revival 
in ,bengal  has already been spoken of  
above4    ,such movements and the       
efforts of individual missionaries are1 
however1  quite inadequate to explain   
the rapid increase of the ,muhammadans  
of  ,india1 and one is naturally led to 
inquire what are the causes other  than 
the normal increase of population1 #ice 
which add so enormously  to their       
numbers4 ,the answer is to be found in  
the social conditions of  life among    
,hindus4 ,the insults and contempt      
heaped upon the lower  castes of ,hindus
 by their co-religionists1 and the      
impassable obstacles  placed in the way 
of any member of these castes desiring  
to better his  condition1 show up in    
striking contrast the benefits of a     
religious  system which has no outcasts1
 and gives free scope for the indulgence
  of any ambition4 ,in ,bengal1 for     

example1 the weavers of cotton          
piece-goods1 who are looked upon as vile
 by their ,hindu  co-religionists1      
embrace ,islam in large numbers to      
escape from the low  position to which  
they are otherwise degraded4 #icf ,a    
very remarkable  instance of a similar  
kind occurs in the history of the       
north-eastern  part of the same         
province4 ,here in the year #aeej the   
aboriginal tribe  of the ,kocch         
established a dynasty under their great 
leader1 ,haju2 in  the reign of his     
grandson1 when the higher classes in the
 state were  received into the pale of  
,hinduism1 #icg the mass of the people  
finding themselves despised as outcasts1
 became ,muhammadans4 #ich    ,the      
escape that ,islam offers to ,hindus    
from the oppression of the  higher      
castes was strikingly illustrated in    
,tinnevelli at the close of  the        
nineteenth century4 ,a very low caste1  
the ,shanars1 had in recent  years      
become prosperous and many of them had  

built fine houses2 they  asserted that  
they had the right to worship in        
temples1 from which they  had hitherto  
been excluded4 ,a riot ensued1 in the   
course of which the  ,shanars suffered  
badly at the hands of ,hindus of a      
higher caste1 and  they took refuge in  
the pale of ,islam4 ,six hundred        
,shanars in one  village became ,muslims
 in one day1 and their example was      
quickly  followed in other places4 #ici 
,similar instances might be given from  
other parts of ,india4 ,a ,hindu who    
has in any way lost caste and been in   
consequence repudiated by his  relations
 and by the society of which he has been
 accustomed to move1  would naturally be
 attracted towards a religion that      
receives all  without distinction1 and  
offers to him a grade of society equal  
in the  social scale to that from which 
he has been banished4 ,such a change of 
religion might well be accompanied with 
sincere conviction1 but men  also who   
might be profoundly indifferent to the  

number or names of the  deities they    
were called upon to worship1 would feel 
very keenly the  social ostracism       
entailed by their loss of caste1 and    
become ,muhammadan  without any         
religious feelings at all4 ,the         
influence of the study of  ,muhammadan  
literature also1 and the habitual       
contact with ,muhammadan  society1 must 
often make itself insensibly felt4      
,among the ,rajput  princes of the      
nineteenth century in ,rajputana and    
,bundelkhand1 such  tendencies towards  
,islamism were to be observed1 #idj     
tendencies  which1 had the ,mughal      
empire lasted1 would probably have led  
to their  ultimate conversion4 ,they not
 only respected ,muhammadan saints1 but 
had  ,muhammadan tutors for their sons2 
they also had their food killed in      
accordance with the regulations laid    
down by the ,muhammadan law1 and  joined
 in the ,muhammadan festivals dressed as
 faqrs1 and praying like  true          
believers4 ,on the other hand1 it has   

been conjectured that the  present      
position of affairs1 under a government 
perfectly impartial in  matters         
religious1 is much more likely to       
promote conversions among the  ,hindus  
generally than was the case under the   
rule of the ,muhammadan  kingdoms1 when 
,hinduism gained union and strength from
 the constant  struggle with an         
aggressive enemy4 #ida ,hindus1 too1    
often flock in  large numbers to the    
tombs of ,muslim saints on the day      
appointed to  commemorate them1 and a   
childless father1 with the feeling that 
prompts  a polytheist to leave no ,god  
unaddressed1 will present his petition  
to  the ,god of the ,muhammadans1 and if
 children are born to him1 apparently   
in answer to this prayer1 the whole     
family will in such a case 7and         
examples are not infrequent7 embrace    
,islam4 #idb    ,love for a ,muhammadan 
woman is occasionally the cause of the  
conversion  of a ,hindu1 since the      
marriage of a ,muslim woman to an       

unbeliever is  absolutely forbidden by  
the ,muslim law4 ,hindu children1 if    
adopted by  wealthy ,musalmans1 would be
 brought up in the religion of their new
  parents2 and a ,hindu wife1 married to
 a follower of the ,prophet1 would  be  
likely to adopt the faith of her        
husband4 #idc ,as the contrary  process 
can rarely take place1 the number of    
,muhammadans is bound to  increase in   
proportion to that of the ,hindus4      
,hindus1 who for some  reason or other  
have been driven out of their caste2 the
 poor who have  become the recipients of
 ,muhammadan charity1 or women and      
children who  have been protected when  
their parents have died or deserted     
them--7such  cases would naturally be   
frequent in times of famine7--form a    
continuous  though small stream of      
additions from the ,hindus4 #idd ,there 
are often  local circumstances          
favourable to the growth of ,islam2 for 
example1 it  has been pointed out #ide  
that in the villages of the ,terai1 in  

which  the number of ,hindus and        
,muhammadans happen to be equally       
balanced1 any  increase in the          
predominance of the ,muhammadans is     
invariably followed  by disputes about  
the killing of cows and other practices 
offensive to  ,hindu feeling4 ,the      
,hindus gradually move away from the    
village1 leaving  behind of their creed 
only the ,chamr ploughman in the service
 of the  ,muhammadan peasants4 ,these   
latter eventually adopt the religion of 
their masters1 not from any conviction  
of its truth1 but from the              
inconvenience their isolation entails4  
,some striking instances of conversions 
from the lower castes of ,hindus  are   
also found in the agricultural districts
 of ,oudh4 ,although the  ,muhammadans  
of this province form only one-tenth of 
the whole  population1 still the small  
groups of ,muhammadan cultivators form  
8scattered centres of revolt against the
 degrading oppression to which  their   
religion hopelessly consigns these lower

 castes40 #idf ,the  advantages ,islam  
holds out to such classes as the ,kors  
and ,chamrs1  who stand at the lowest   
level of ,hindu society1 and the        
deliverance  which conversion to ,islam 
brings them1 may be best understood from
 the  following passage descriptive of  
their social condition as ,hindus4  #idg
 8,the lowest depth of misery and       
degradation is reached by the  ,kors and
 ,chamrs1 the weavers and               
leather-cutters to the rest4 ,many of   
these in the northern districts are     
actually bond-slaves1 having hardly     
ever the spirit to avail themselves of  
the remedy offered by our  courts1 and  
descend with their children from        
generation to generation  as the value  
of an old purchase4 ,they hold the      
plough for the ,brahman  or ,chhattri   
master1 whose pride of caste forbids him
 to touch it1 and  live with the pigs1  
less unclean than themselves1 in        
separate quarters  apart from the rest  
of the village4 ,always on the verge of 

starvation1  their lean1 black1 and     
ill-formed figures1 their stupid faces1 
and  their repulsively filthy habits    
reflect the wretched destiny which      
condemns them to be lower than the beast
 among their fellow-men1 and  yet that  
they are far from incapable of          
improvement is proved by the  active and
 useful stable servants drawn from among
 them1 who receive  good pay and live   
well under ,european masters4 ,a change 
of religion is  the only means of escape
 open to them1 and they have little     
reason to  be faithful to their present 
creed40    ,it is this absence of class 
prejudices which constitutes the real   
strength of ,islam in ,india1 and       
enables it to win so many converts from 
,hinduism4    ,to complete this survey  
of ,islam in ,india1 some account still 
remains  to be given of the spread of   
this faith in ,kashmr and thence beyond 
the borders of ,india into ,tibet4 ,of  
all the provinces and states of  ,india 
7with the exception of ,sind7 ,kashmr   

contains the largest number  of         
,muhammadans 7namely #gj per cent47 in  
proportion to the whole  population2 but
 unfortunately historical facts that    
should explain the  existence in this   
state of so many ,musalmans1 almost     
entirely of ,hindu  or ,tibetan origin1 
are very scanty4 ,but all the evidence  
leads us to  attribute it on the whole  
to a long-continued missionary movement 
inaugurated and carried out mainly by   
faqrs and dervishes1 among whom  were   
,ismlian preachers sent from ,alamt4    
#idh    ,it is difficult to say when    
this ,islamising influence first made   
itself  felt in the country4 ,the first 
,muhammadan king of ,kashmr1 adr al-,dn1
  #idi is said to have owed his         
conversion to a certain ,darwesh ,bulbul
  ,shh in the early part of the         
fourteenth century4 ,this saint was the 
only religious teacher who could satisfy
 his craving for religious  truth when1 
dissatisfied with his own ,hindu faith1 
he looked for a more  acceptable form of

 doctrine4 ,towards the end of the same 
century 7in  #achh7 the progress of     
,islam was most materially furthered by 
the advent  of ,sayyid ,al ,hamadn1 a   
fugitive from his native city of ,hamadn
 in  ,persia1 where he had incurred the 
wrath of ,tmr4 ,he was accompanied by   
#gjj ,sayyids1 who established          
hermitages all over the country and by  
their influence appear to have assured  
the acceptance of the new  religion4    
,their advent appears1 however1 to have 
also stirred up  considerable           
fanaticism1 as ,sultan ,sikandar        
7#acic-adag7 acquired the  name of      
,butshikan from his destruction of      
,hindu idols and temples1 and  his prime
 minister1 a converted ,hindu1 set on   
foot a fierce persecution  of the       
adherents of his old faith1 but on his  
death toleration was  again made the    
rule of the kingdom4 #iej ,towards the  
close of the  fifteenth century1 a      
missionary1 by name ,mr ,shams al-,dn1  
belonging to  a ,shah sect1 came from   

,irq1 and1 with the aid of his          
disciples1 won  over a large number of  
converts in ,kashmr4    ,when under     
,akbar1 ,kashmr became a province of the
 ,mughal empire1 the  ,muhammadan       
influence was naturally strengthened and
 many men of  learning came into the    
country4 ,in the reign of ,aurangzeb1   
the ,rajput  ,raja of ,kishtwar was     
converted by the miracles of a certain  
,sayyid ,shh  ,fard al-,dn and his      
conversion seems to have been followed  
by that of  the majority of his         
subjects1 and along the route which the 
,mughal  emperors took on their         
progresses into ,kashmr we still find   
,rajas who  are the descendants of      
,muhammadanised ,rajputs4 #iea    ,to   
the north and north-east of ,kashmr1 the
 provinces of ,baltistan and  ,ladakh   
are inhabited by a mixed ,tibetan race1 
among whom ,islam has been  firmly      
established for several centuries1 but  
the date and manner of  its introduction
 is unknown4 ,the ,muhammadans of       

,baltistan tell of four  brothers who   
came from ,khursn and brought about a   
revival of the  faith1 but appear to    
have no tradition regarding the earliest
  propagandists4 #ieb ,up to the middle 
of the nineteenth century ,islam        
appeared to be making progress1 but this
 tendency was counteracted by  the      
encouragement which ,maharaja ,ranbir   
,singh gave to the followers of  the    
,buddhist faith4 ,in ,ladakh there are a
 number of half-castes1 called          
,arghons1 #iec born of ,tibetan mothers 
and ,muhammadan fathers1 traders  who   
have come to ,leh and persuaded the     
,tibetan women they marry to  accept    
,islam4 ,these ,arghons are all         
,musalmans and1 like their fathers1     
marry ,tibetan wives2 they are said to  
be increasing in numbers more  rapidly  
than the pure ,tibetan stock4 #ied      
,islam has also been carried  into      
,tibet ,proper by ,kashmr merchants4    
,settlements of such merchants  are to  
be found in all the chief cities of     

,tibet2 they marry ,tibetan  wives1 who 
often adopt the religion of their       
husbands2 and there are  now said to be 
as many as #bjjj ,muhammadan families in
 ,lhasa4 #iee  ,islam has made its way  
into ,tibet also from ,yunnan1 #ief and 
at  ,su-ching1 on the border of the     
,sze-chwan province and ,tibet1 converts
  are being won from among the ,tibetan 
inhabitants4 #ieg ,muhammadan           
influences are also said to have come   
from ,persia #ieh and from  ,turkestan4 
#iei                  ,,chapter ,x4     
,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,islam ,,in        
,,china4      ,tradition ascribes to    
,muammad the saying1 8,seek for         
knowledge1 even  unto ,china40 #ifj     
,though there is no historical evidence 
for these  words having ever been       
uttered by the ,prophet1 it is not      
impossible  that the name of this       
country may have been known to him1 for 
commercial relations between ,arabia and
 ,china had been established long       
before his birth4 ,it was through       

,arabia1 in great measure1 that ,syria  
and the ports of the ,levant received   
the produce of the ,east4 ,in the  sixth
 century1 there was a considerable trade
 between ,china and ,arabia  by way of  
,ceylon1 and at the beginning of the    
seventh century the  commerce between   
,china1 ,persia and ,arabia was still   
further extended1  the town of ,srf on  
the ,persian ,gulf being the chief      
emporium for the  ,chinese traders4 ,it 
was at this period1 at the commencement 
of the  ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijg7 that   
mention is first made of the ,arabs in  
the  ,chinese ,annals2 #ifa they note   
the rise of the ,muslim power in ,medina
  and briefly describe the religious    
observances of the new faith4    ,the   
,annals of ,kwangtung thus record the   
coming of the first ,muslims  into      
,china3--8,at the beginning of the ,tang
 dynasty there came to ,canton  a large 
number of strangers1 from the kingdoms  
of ,annam1 ,cambodia1  ,medina and      
several other countries4 ,these         

strangers worshipped heaven  7i4e4 ,god7
 and had neither statue1 idol nor image 
in their temples4 ,the  kingdom of      
,medina is close to that of ,india1 and 
it is in this kingdom  that the religion
 of these strangers1 which is different 
to that of  ,buddha1 originated4 ,they  
do not eat pork or drink wine1 and they 
regard  as unclean the flesh of any     
animal not killed by themselves4 ,they  
are  nowadays called ,hui ,hui4 #ifb444 
,having asked and obtained from the     
emperor permission to reside in ,canton1
 they built magnificent houses  of a    
style different to that of our country4 
,they were very rich and  obeyed a chief
 chosen by themselves40 #ifc ,though    
direct historical  evidence is lacking1 
#ifd it is most probable that ,islam was
 first  introduced into ,china by       
merchants who followed the              
old-established sea  route4 ,but the    
earliest record we can trust refers to  
diplomatic  relations carried on by     
land1 through ,persia4 ,when ,yazdagird1

 the last  ,ssnid king of ,persia1 had  
perished1 his son1 ,frz1 appealed to    
,china  for help against the ,arab      
invaders2 #ife but the emperor replied  
that  ,persia was too far distant for   
him to send the required troops4 ,but he
  is said to have despatched an         
ambassador to the ,arab court to plead  
the  cause of the fugitive              
prince--probably also with instructions 
to  ascertain the extent and power of   
the new kingdom that had arisen in  the 
,west1 and the caliph ,uthmn is said to 
have sent one of the ,arab  generals to 
accompany the ,chinese ambassador on his
 return in #fea1 and  this first ,muslim
 envoy was honourably received by the   
emperor4 ,in the  reign of ,wald        
7#gje-gae71 the famous ,arab general1   
,qutaybah b4 ,muslim1  having been      
appointed governor of ,khursn1 crossed  
the ,oxus and began  a series of        
successful campaigns1 in which he       
successively subjugated  ,bukhr1        
,samarqand and other cities1 and carried

 his conquests up to  the western       
frontier of the ,chinese empire4 ,in    
#gac he sent envoys to  the emperor1 who
 7according to ,arab accounts7 dismissed
 them with  valuable presents4 ,a few   
years later1 the ,chinese ,annals make  
mention  of an ambassador1 named        
,sulaymn1 who came from the caliph      
,hishm in  #gbf to the ,emperor ,hsuan  
,tsung4 ,these diplomatic relations     
between the  ,arab and the ,chinese     
empires assumed a new importance at the 
close of  this emperor's reign1 when1   
driven from his throne by a usurper1 he 
abdicated in favour of his son1 ,su     
,tsung 7,a4,d4 #gef74 ,the latter sought
  the help of the ,abbsid caliph1       
al-,manr1 who responded to this  appeal 
by sending a body of ,arab troops1 and  
with their assistance the  emperor      
succeeded in recovering his two         
capitals1 ,si-ngan-fu and  ,ho-nan-fu1  
from the rebels4 ,at the end of the war1
 these ,arab troops  did not return to  
their own country1 but married and      

settled in ,china4  ,various reasons are
 assigned for this action on their part2
 one account  represents them as having 
returned to their native land but1 being
  refused permission to remain on the   
ground that they had been so long  in a 
land where pork was eaten1 they went    
back again to ,china2  according to     
another account they were prepared to   
embark for ,arabia1  at ,canton1 when   
they were taunted with having eaten pork
 during their  campaign1 and in         
consequence they refused to return home 
and run the  risk of similar taunts from
 their own people2 when the governor of 
,canton tried to compel them1 they      
joined with the ,arab and ,persian      
merchants1 their co-religionists1 and   
pillaged the principal commercial       
houses in the city2 the governor saved  
himself by taking refuge on the  city   
wall1 and was only able to return after 
he had obtained from the  emperor       
permission for these ,arab troops to    
remain in the country2  houses and lands

 were assigned to them in different     
cities1 where they  settled down and    
intermarried with the women of the      
country4 #iff    ,the ,chinese          
,muhammadans have a legend that their   
faith was first  preached in ,china by a
 maternal uncle of the ,prophet1 and his
 reputed  tomb at ,canton is highly     
venerated by them4 ,but there is not the
  slightest historical base for this    
legend1 and it appears to be of late    
growth4 #ifg ,it doubtless arose from a 
desire to connect the history  of the   
faith in their own land as closely as   
possible with apostolic  times--a       
fruitful source of legends in countries 
far removed from the  centres of ,muslim
 history4 #ifh ,but of the existence of 
,muslims in  ,china1 especially of      
merchants in the port towns1 during the 
,tang  dynasty there is clear evidence4 
,the ,chinese annalist of this period   
7,a4,d4 #gac-gdb7 says that 8the        
barbarians of the ,west came into the   
,middle ,kingdom in crowds1 like a      

deluge1 from a distance of at least     
#ajjj leagues and from more than #ajj   
kingdoms1 bringing as tribute their     
sacred books1 which were received and   
deposited in the hall set apart  for    
translations of sacred and canonical    
books1 in the imperial palace3  from    
this period the religious doctrines of  
these different countries  were thus    
diffused and openly practised in the    
empire of ,tang40 #ifi  ,an ,arab       
geographer1 writing about the year #hea1
 describes these  settlements and the   
mosques which these merchants were      
allowed to build  for their religious   
exercises2 #igj he states that he knew  
of no  ,chinaman having embraced ,islam1
 but as he makes the same remark of the 
people of ,india1 it may be that he was 
as ill-informed in the one case  as the 
other4 #iga    ,but there is certainly  
no distinct evidence of any             
proselytising  activity on the part of  
the ,muslims in ,china1 and indeed very 
little  information about them at all   

until the period of ,mongol conquests1  
in  the thirteenth century4 ,these      
conquests resulted in a vast immigration
  of ,musalmans of various              
nationalities1 ,arabs1 ,persians1 ,turks
 and  others into the ,chinese empire4  
#igb ,some came as merchants1 artisans1 
soldiers or colonists1 others were      
brought in as prisoners of war4 ,a      
large number of them settled permanently
 in the country and developed  into a   
populous and flourishing community1     
which gradually lost its  original      
racial peculiarities through            
intermarriage with ,chinese women4      
,several ,muhammadans occupied high     
posts under the ,mongol rulers1 e4g4    
,abd al-,ramn1 who in #abdd was         
appointed head of the ,imperial finances
  and allowed to farm the taxes imposed 
upon ,china1 #igc and ,umar ,shams      
al-,dn1 commonly known as ,sayyid       
,ajall1 a native of ,bukhr1 to whom     
,qbly ,khn1 on his accession in #abei1  
entrusted the management of the         

,imperial finances2 he was subsequently 
governor of ,yunnan1 after this         
province had been conquered and added to
 the ,chinese empire4 #igd  ,sayyid     
,ajall died in #abgj1 leaving behind him
 a reputation as an  enlightened and    
upright administrator2 he built         
,confucian temples as  well as mosques  
in ,yunnan city4 #ige    ,the           
descendants of ,sayyid ,ajall played a  
great part in the establishing  of      
,islam in ,china2 it was his grandson   
who in #acce obtained from the  emperor 
the recognition of ,islam as the 8,true 
and ,pure ,religion0--a name  which it  
has kept to the present day1--and       
another descendant of ,sayyid  ,ajall   
was authorised by the emperor in #adbj  
to build mosques in the  capitals1      
,si-ngan-fu and ,nan-kin4 #igf    ,the  
,chinese historians of the reign of     
,qbly ,khn make it a ground of          
complaint against this monarch that he  
did not employ ,chinese officials  in   
place of the immigrant ,turks and       

,persians4 #igg ,the exalted  position  
occupied by ,sayyid ,ajall and the      
facilities of communication  between    
,china and the ,west established by     
,mongol conquest1 attracted a  number of
 such persons into the north of ,china1 
and it was probably as  a result of     
these immigrations that those scattered 
,muhammadan  communities began to be    
formed1 which have grown to large       
proportions  in most of the provinces of
 ,china4 ,marco ,polo1 who enjoyed the  
favour  of ,qbly ,khn and lived in      
,china from #abge to #abib1 notes the   
presence of ,muhammadans in various     
parts of ,yunnan4 #igh ,at the          
beginning of the fourteenth century1 all
 the inhabitants of ,talifu1 the        
capital of ,yunnan1 are said by a       
contemporary historian to have been     
,musalmans2 #igi and ,ibn ,baah1 who    
visited several coast towns in  ,china  
towards the middle of the fourteenth    
century1 speaks of the  hearty welcome  
he received from his co-religionists1   

#ihj and reports  that 8,in every town  
there is a special quarter for the      
,muslims1  inhabited solely by them1    
where they have their mosques2 they are 
honoured and respected by the ,chinese40
 #iha    ,up to this period the         
,muhammadans appear to have been looked 
upon as a  foreign community in ,china1 
but after the expulsion of the ,mongol  
dynasty in the latter part of the       
fourteenth century they received no     
fresh addition to their numbers from    
abroad1 in consequence of the  policy of
 isolation which the ,chinese government
 now adopted2 and being  thus cut off   
from communication with their           
co-religionists in other  countries1    
they tended1 in most parts of the       
empire1 gradually to  become merged into
 the mass of the native population1     
through their  marriages with ,chinese  
women and their adoption of ,chinese    
habits and  manners4 ,the founder of the
 new ,ming dynasty1 the emperor ,hungwu1
  extended to them many privileges1 and 

their flourishing condition  during the 
period that this dynasty lasted         
7#acfh-afdd7 is shown by the  large     
number of mosques erected4    ,the      
emperors of this dynasty cultivated     
friendly relations with the  ,muhammadan
 princes on their western frontier1 and 
there was a frequent  interchange of    
embassies between them and the ,tmrid   
princes4 ,one of  these is of interest  
in the missionary history of ,islam1    
inasmuch as  ,shh ,rukh ,bahdur in #adab
 took advantage of the arrival of a     
,chinese  embassy at his court in       
,samarqand1 to include in his answer an 
invitation to the emperor to embrace    
,islam4 ,he sent with his envoy1 who    
accompanied the ,chinese ambassadors on 
their return1 two letters1 the  first of
 which1 written in ,arabic1 was to the  
following effect3--8,in the  name of    
,god1 the ,merciful1 the ,compassionate4
 ,there is no god save ,god3  ,muammad  
is the ,apostle of ,god4 ,the ,apostle  
of ,god1 ,muammad 7peace be  on him67   

said3 #8,there shall not cease to be in 
my church a people  abiding in the      
commandments of ,god2 whosoever fails to
 help them or  opposes them1 shall never
 prosper1 until the commandment of the  
,lord  cometh4' ,when the ,most ,high   
,god purposed to create ,adam and his   
race1  he said #8,i was a hidden        
treasure1 but it was my pleasure to     
become  known2 ,i therefore created man 
that ,i might be known'2 ,it is manifest
  from hence that the divine purpose    
7great is ,his power and exalted is     
,his word67 in the creation of man was  
to make ,himself known and uplift  the  
banners of right guidance and faith4    
,wherefore ,he sent ,his ,apostle  with 
guidance and the religion of truth that 
it might prevail over all  other faiths1
 though the polytheists turn away from  
it1 that he might  make known the laws  
and the ordinances and the observances  
of what is  lawful and unlawful1 and ,he
 gave him the holy ,qurn miraculously   
that  thereby he might put to silence   

the unbelievers and stop their mouths   
when they discussed and disputed with   
him1 and by ,his perfect grace and  ,his
 all-pervading guidance ,he has caused  
it to remain even unto the day  of      
judgment4 ,by ,his power ,he hath       
established in all ages and times and   
in all parts of the world1 in east and  
west1 and in ,china1 a mighty  monarch1 
lord of great armies and authority1 to  
administer justice and  mercy and spread
 the wings of peace and security over   
the heads of men2  to enjoin upon them  
righteousness and warn them against evil
 and  disobedience and lift up among    
them the banners of the noble religion2 
and he drives away idolatry and         
infidelity from among them through      
belief in the unity of ,god4 ,the ,most 
,high ,god thus disposeth our hearts  by
 ,his past mercies and ,his ensuing     
grace to strive for the  establishing of
 the laws of pure religion and the      
continuance of the  ordinances of the   
shining path4 ,he also bids us          

administer justice to  our subjects in  
all suits and cases in accordance with  
the religion of  the ,prophet and the   
ordinances of the ,chosen ,one1 and     
build mosques and  colleges and         
monasteries and hermitages and places of
 worship1 that the  teaching of the     
sciences and the schools of learning may
 not cease nor  the memorials and       
injunctions of religion be swept away4  
,seeing that  the continuance of worldly
 prosperity and dominion1 and the       
permanence  of authority and rule depend
 upon the assistance given to truth and 
righteousness and the extirpation of the
 evils caused by idolatry and  unbelief 
from the earth1 in the expectation of   
blessing and reward1 we1  therefore1    
hope that your ,majesty and the nobles  
of your realm will  agree with us in    
these matters and join us in            
strengthening the  foundations of the   
established law40 ,the other letter1    
written in  ,persian1 makes a more      
direct appeal1 without the rhetorical   

embellishments of the ,arabic3--8,the   
,most ,high ,god1 having in the depth   
of ,his wisdom and the perfection of    
,his power created ,adam 7peace be  upon
 him671 made some of his sons prophets  
and apostles and sent them  among men to
 summon them to the truth4 ,to certain  
of these prophets1  such as ,abraham1   
,moses1 ,david and ,muammad 7peace be   
upon them67 ,he  gave a book and taught 
a law1 and ,he bade the people of their 
time  follow the law and the religion of
 each of them4 ,all these apostles      
invited men to faith in the unity and to
 the worship of ,god and forbade  the   
adoration of the sun1 moon and stars1 of
 kings and idols2 and  though each one  
of these apostles had a separate law1   
yet they were all  agreed in the        
doctrine of the unity of the ,most ,high
 ,god4 ,at length1  when the apostolic  
and prophetic office devolved on the    
,apostle  ,muammad ,muaf 7the peace and 
blessing of ,god be upon him67 all other
  systems of law were abrogated4 ,he was

 the apostle and the prophet of  the    
latter age1 and it behoves the whole    
world--lords and kings and  ministers1  
rich and poor1 small and great1--to     
observe his law and  forsake all past   
creeds and laws4 ,this is the true and  
perfect faith  and is called ,islam4    
,some years ago1 ,chingz ,khn took up   
arms and sent  his sons into various    
countries and kingdoms--,jj ,khn to the 
confines  of ,sary1 ,qrim and ,dasht    
,qafchq1 where some monarchs1 such as   
zbek  ,khn1 ,chn ,khn and ,urus ,khn1   
became ,musalmans and observed the law  
of ,muammad 7peace be upon him674 ,hlg  
,khn was set over ,khursn1  ,irq and the
 neighbouring countries1 and some of his
 sons who  succeeded him received into  
their hearts the light of the law of    
,muammad 7peace be upon him671 and in   
like manner became ,musalmans1 and      
honoured with the blessedness of ,islam 
passed into the other world1  such as   
the truthful king1 ,ghzn1 and ,uljyt    
,suln and the fortunate  king1 ,ab ,sad 

,bahdur1 until my honoured father1 ,amr 
,tmr ,grgn1  succeeded to the throne4   
,he too observed the law of ,muammad    
7peace be  upon him67 in all the        
countries under his rule1 and throughout
 his  reign the followers of the faith  
of ,islam enjoyed complete prosperity4  
,now that by the goodness and favour of 
,god this ,kingdom of ,khursn1  ,irq1   
,m-war-al-nahr1 etc41 has passed into my
 hands1 the  administration is carried  
on throughout the whole kingdom in      
accordance  with the pure law of the    
,prophet2 righteousness is enjoined and 
wrong  forbidden1 and the ,yargh and the
 institutes of ,chingz ,khn have been   
abolished4 ,since1 then1 it is sure and 
certain that salvation and  deliverance 
in the day of judgment1 and sovereignty 
and felicity in the  present world1     
depend upon true faith and ,islam1 and  
the favour of the  ,most ,high ,god1 it 
is incumbent upon us to treat our       
subjects with  justice and equity4 ,i   
hope that by the bounty and benevolence 

of ,god  you too will observe the law of
 ,muammad1 the ,apostle of ,god 7peace  
be  upon him67 and strengthen the       
religion of ,islam1 so that you may     
exchange the transitory sovereignty of  
this world for the sovereignty  of the  
world to come40 #ihb    ,it is not      
improbable that these letters gave rise 
to the later legend  of one of the      
,chinese emperors having become a       
convert to ,islam4 #ihc  ,this legend is
 referred to1 among others1 by a        
,muhammadan merchant1  ,sayyid ,al      
,akbar1 who spent some years in ,peking 
at the end of the  fifteenth and the    
beginning of the sixteenth century2 he  
speaks of the  large number of          
,musalmans who had settled in ,china2 in
 the city of  ,kenjanfu there were as   
many as #cj1jjj ,muslim families2 they  
paid no  taxes and enjoyed the favour of
 the emperor1 who gave them grants of   
land2 they enjoyed complete toleration  
for the exercise of their  religion1    
which was favourably viewed by the      

,chinese1 and conversions  were freely  
permitted2 in the capital itself there  
were four great  mosques and about      
ninety more in other provinces of the   
empire1--all  erected at the cost of the
 emperor4 #ihd    ,up to the            
establishment of the ,manchu dynasty in 
#afdd there is no  record of any        
,muhammadan uprising1 and the followers 
of ,islam appear to  have been entirely 
content with the religious liberty they 
enjoyed2 but  difficulties arose soon   
after the advent of the new ruling      
power1 and  an insurrection in the      
province of ,kansu in #afdh was the     
first occasion  on which any            
,muhammadans rose in arms against the   
,chinese government1  though it was not 
until the nineteenth century that any   
such revolt  entailed very disastrous   
consequences1 or seriously interrupted  
the  amicable relations that had        
subsisted from the beginning between the
  ,chinese ,muslims and their rulers4   
,the official view of the ,chinese      

,government of these relations is set   
forth in an edict published by the      
emperor ,yung ,chen in #agca3--8;,in    
every province of the empire1 for many  
centuries past1 have been found a large 
number of ,muhammadans who form  part of
 the people whom ,i regard as my own    
children just as ,i do my  other        
subjects4 ,i make no distinction between
 them and those who do not  belong to   
their religion4 ,i have received from   
certain officials secret  complaints    
against the ,muhammadans on the ground  
that their religion  differs from that  
of the other ,chinese1 that they do not 
speak the same  language1 and wear a    
different dress to the rest of the      
people4 ,they  are accused of           
disobedience1 haughtiness1 and          
rebellious feelings1 and  ,i have been  
asked to employ severe measures against 
them4 ,after  examining these complaints
 and accusations1 ,i have discovered    
that  there is no foundation for them4  
,in fact1 the religion followed by the  

,musalmans is that of their ancestors2  
it is true their language is not  the   
same as that of the rest of the         
,chinese1 but what a multitude of       
different dialects there are in ,china4 
,as to their temples1 dress and  manner 
of writing1 which differ from those of  
the other ,chinese--these  are matters  
of absolutely no importance4 ,these are 
mere matters of  custom4 ,they bear as  
good a character as my other subjects1  
and there  is nothing to show that they 
intend to rebel4 ,it is my wish1        
therefore1  that they should be left in 
the free exercise of their religion1    
whose  object is to teach men the       
observance of a moral life1 and the     
fulfilment of social and civil duties4  
,this religion respects the  fundamental
 basis of ,government1 and what more can
 be asked for8 ,if  then the            
,muhammadans continue to conduct        
themselves as good and loyal  subjects1 
my favour will be extended towards them 
just as much as  towards my other       

children4 ,from among them have come    
many civil and  military officers1 who  
have risen to the very highest ranks4   
,this is  the best proof that they have 
adopted our habits and customs1 and have
  learned to conform themselves to the  
precepts of our sacred books4 ,they     
pass their examinations in literature   
just like every one else1 and  perform  
the sacrifices enjoined by law4 ,in a   
word1 they are true  members of the     
great ,chinese family and endeavour     
always to fulfil  their religious1 civil
 and political duties4 ,when the        
magistrates have  a civil case brought  
before them1 they should not concern    
themselves  with the religion of the    
litigants4 ,there is but one single law 
for all  my subjects4 ,those who do good
 shall be rewarded1 and those who do    
evil  shall be punished40 #ihe    ,about
 thirty years later1 his successor1 the 
,emperor ,kien ,lung1 showed            
distinguished marks of his favour       
towards the ,muhammadans by ennobling   

two ,turk ,begs who had materially      
helped in suppressing a revolt in the   
north-west and ,kshgar1 and building    
palaces for them in ,peking2 he  also   
erected a mosque for the use of the     
,turk ,begs who visited the  ,imperial  
court and for the prisoners of war who  
had been brought to the  capital from   
,kshgar4 ,among these prisoners was a   
beautiful girl who  became a favourite  
concubine of the emperor1 and it is     
stated that for  love of her he built   
this mosque immediately opposite his own
 palace  and erected a pavilion within  
the palace grounds1 from which the      
concubine could watch her               
fellow-countrymen at prayer and could   
join in  their devotions4 ,this mosque  
was built in the years #agfc-agfd and   
contains an inscription in four         
languages1 the ,chinese text of which   
was written by the emperor himself4 #ihf
    ,after crushing the revolt in       
,zungaria1 this same emperor ,kien      
,lung1 in  #aggj transported thither    

from other parts of ,china ten thousand 
military colonists1 who were followed by
 their families and other  persons1 to  
re-people the country1 and they are all 
said to have  embraced the religion of  
the surrounding ,muhammadan population4 
#ihg  ,whether such mass conversions    
occurred in other parts of the empire   
also1 we have no means of telling1 but  
the existence of a considerable         
,muhammadan population in every province
 of ,china can hardly be  explained     
merely by reference to foreign          
immigration and the natural  growth of  
population1 #ihh though the numbers are 
larger in those  provinces in which     
foreign ,muhammadans have settled4 #ihi 
,it is  unlikely that the ,muhammadans  
in ,china during the many centuries of  
their residence in this country1 in the 
enjoyment of religious freedom  and the 
liberal patronage of several of the     
emperors1 should have been  entirely    
devoid of that proselytising zeal which 
modern observers have  noted in their   

descendants at the present day4 #iij ,to
 such direct  proselytising efforts must
 have been due the conversion of        
,chinese ,jews  to ,islam2 their        
establishment in this country dates from
 an early  period1 they held employments
 under the ,government and were in      
possession of large estates2 but by the 
close of the seventeenth  century a     
great part of them had been converted to
 ,islam4 #iia ,such  propaganda must    
have been quite quiet and unobtrusive1  
and indeed more  public methods might   
have excited suspicions on the part of  
the  ,government1 as is shown by an     
interesting report which was sent to the
  ,emperor ,kien ,lung in #aghc by a    
governor of the province of ,khwang-,se4
  ,it runs as follows3 8,i have the     
honour respectfully to inform your      
,majesty that an adventurer named       
,han-,fo-,yun1 of the province of       
,khwang-,se1 has been arrested on a     
charge of vagrancy4 ,this adventurer    
when interrogated as to his occupation1 

confessed that for the last ten  years  
he had been travelling through the      
different provinces of the  ,empire in  
order to obtain information about his   
religion4 ,in one of his  boxes were    
found thirty books1 some of which had   
been written by  himself1 while others  
were in a language that no one here     
understands4  ,these books praise in an 
extravagant and ridiculous manner a     
,western  king1 called ,muammad4 ,the   
above-mentioned ,han-,fo-,yun1 when put 
to the  torture1 at last confessed that 
the real object of his journey was to   
propagate the false religion taught in  
these books1 and that he  remained in   
the province of ,shen-,si for a longer  
time than anywhere  else4 ,i have       
examined these books myself4 ,some are  
certainly written in  a foreign         
language2 for ,i have not been able to  
understand them3 the  others that are   
written in ,chinese are very bad1 ,i may
 add1 even  ridiculous on account of the
 exaggerated praise given in them to    

persons who certainly do not deserve it1
 because ,i have never even  heard of   
them4 ,perhaps the above-mentioned      
,han-,fo-,yun is a rebel from  ,kan-,su4
 ,his conduct is certainly suspicious1  
for what was he going to  do in the     
provinces through which he has been     
travelling for the last  ten years8 ,i  
intend to make a serious inquiry into   
the matter4  ,meanwhile1 ,i would       
request your ,majesty to order the      
stereotyped  plates1 that are in the    
possession of his family1 to be burnt1  
and the  engravers to be arrested1 as   
well as the authors of the books1 which 
,i  have sent to your ,majesty desiring 
to know your pleasure in the  matter40  
#iib    ,this report bears testimony to 
the activity of at least one ,muhammadan
  missionary in the eighteenth century1 
and the growth of ,islam1 which  the    
,jesuit missionaries #iic noted in the  
eighteenth century1 was  probably not so
 little connected with direct           
proselytism as some of  them supposed4  

,du ,halde1 in one of the few passages  
he devotes to the  ,muhammadans in his  
great work1 #iid attributes the increase
 in their  numbers largely to their     
habit of purchasing children in times of
  famine4 8,the ,mahometans have been   
settled for more than six hundred  years
 in various provinces1 where they live  
quite quietly1 because they  do not make
 any great efforts to spread their      
doctrines and gain  proselytes1 and     
because in former times they only       
increased in numbers  by the alliances  
and marriages they contracted4 ,but for 
several years  past they have continued 
to make very considerable progress by   
means of  their wealth4 ,they buy up    
heathen children everywhere2 and the    
parents1  being often unable to provide 
them with food1 have no scruples in     
selling them4 ,during a famine that     
devastated the ,province of ,chantong1  
they bought more than #aj1jjj of them4  
,they marry them1 and either  purchase  
or build for them separate quarters in a

 town1 or even whole  villages2         
gradually in several places they gain   
such influence that  they do not let any
 one live among them who does not go to 
the mosque4  ,by such means they have   
multiplied exceedingly during the last  
century40    ,similarly1 in the famine  
that devastated the province of         
,kwangtung in  #agij1 as many as ten    
thousand children are said to have been 
purchased  by the ,muhammadans from     
parents who1 too poor to support them1  
were  willing to part with them to save 
them from starvation2 these were all    
brought up in the faith of ,islam4 #iie 
,a ,chinese ,musalman1 from  ,yunnan1   
named ,sayyid ,sulaymn1 who visited     
,cairo in #ahid and was there           
interviewed by the representative of an 
,arabic journal1 #iif declared  that the
 number of accessions to ,islam gained  
in this way every year  was beyond      
counting4 ,similar testimony is given by
 ,m4 d',ollone1 who  reports that this  
practice of buying children in times of 

famine  prevails among the ,muhammadans 
throughout the whole of ,china to the   
present day2 in the same way1 they      
purchased the children of ,christian    
parents who were massacred by the       
,boxers in #aijj1 and brought them up   
as ,musalmans4 #iig    ,the ,muhammadans
 in ,china tend to live together in     
separate villages and  towns or to form 
separate ,muhammadan quarters in the    
towns1 where they  will not allow any   
person to dwell among them who does not 
go to the  mosque4 #iih ,though they    
thus in some measure hold themselves    
apart1  they are careful to avoid the   
open exhibition of any specially        
distinguishing features of the religious
 observances of their faith1  which may 
offend their neighbours1 and they have  
been careful to make  concessions to the
 prejudices of their ,chinese           
fellow-countrymen4 ,in  their ordinary  
life they are completely in touch with  
the customs and  habits that prevail    
around them2 they wear the pigtail and  

the ordinary  dress of the ,chinese1 and
 put on a turban1 as a rule1 only in the
  mosque4 ,to avoid offending against a 
superstitious prejudice on the  part of 
the ,chinese1 they also refrain from    
building tall minarets1  wherever they  
build them at all4 #iii ,but for the    
most part1 their  mosques conform to the
 ,chinese type of architecture1 often   
with nothing  to distinguish them from  
an ordinary temple or dwelling4 #ajjj   
,every  mosque is obliged by law to have
 a tablet to the emperor1 with the      
inscription on it1 8,the emperor1 the   
immortal1 may he live for ever10  and   
the ,muhammadans prostrate themselves   
before it in accordance with  the       
regular ,chinese custom1 though with    
various expedients to satisfy  their    
consciences and avoid the imputation of 
idolatry4 #ajja ,even in  ,chinese      
,tartary1 where the special privilege is
 allowed to the ,musalman  soldiers1 of 
remaining unmixed1 and of forming a     
separate body1 the  higher ,muhammadan  

officials wear the dress prescribed to  
their rank1  long moustaches and the    
pigtail1 and on holidays they perform   
the usual  homage demanded from         
officials1 to a portrait of the emperor1
 by  touching the ground three times    
with their forehead4 #ajjb ,similarly   
all ,muhammadan mandarins and other     
officials in other provinces perform    
the rites prescribed to their official  
position1 in the temples of  ,confucius 
on festival days2 in fact every         
precaution is taken by the  ,muslims to 
prevent their faith from appearing to be
 in opposition to  the state religion1  
and hereby they have succeeded in       
avoiding the  odium with which the      
adherents of foreign religions1 such as 
,judaism  and ,christianity are         
regarded4 ,they even represent their    
religion to  their ,chinese             
fellow-countrymen as being in agreement 
with the  teachings of ,confucius1 with 
only this difference1 that they follow  
the  traditions of their ancestors with 

regard to marriages1 funerals1 the      
prohibition of pork1 wine1 tobacco1 and 
games of chance1 and the  washing of the
 hands before meals4 #ajjc ,similarly   
the writings of the  ,chinese           
,muhammadans treat the works of         
,confucius and other ,chinese  classics 
with great respect1 and where possible1 
point out the harmony  between the      
teachings contained therein and the     
doctrines of ,islam4  #ajjd    ,the     
,chinese government1 in its turn1 has   
always given to its ,muhammadan         
subjects 7except when in revolt7 the    
same privileges and advantages as  are  
enjoyed by the rest of the population4  
,no office of state is closed  to them2 
and as governors of provinces1 generals1
 magistrates and  ministers of state    
they enjoy the confidence and respect   
both of the  rulers and the people4 ,not
 only do ,muhammadan names appear in the
  ,chinese annals as those of famous    
officers of state1 whether military  or 
civil1 but they have also distinguished 

themselves in the mechanical  arts and  
in sciences such as mathematics and     
astronomy4 #ajje    ,the ,chinese       
,muhammadans are also said to be keen   
men of business and  successful traders2
 they monopolise the beef trade and     
carry on other  trades with great       
success4 #ajjf ,they are thus in touch  
with every  section of the national life
 and have every opportunity for carrying
 on  a propaganda1 but the few          
,christian missionaries who have        
concerned  themselves with this matter  
are of opinion that they are not        
animated  with any particular           
proselytising zeal4 #ajjg ,still1 many  
recent  converts are to be met with1 and
 the fact that a large number of        
,chinese ,muslims can cite the name of  
the particular ancestor who first       
embraced ,islam points to a continuous  
process of conversion4 #ajjh            
,apparently the ,muslims are not allowed
 to preach their faith in the  streets1 
as ,protestant missionaries do1 #ajji   

but 7as we have seen  above7 #ajaj they 
do not fail to make use of such         
opportunities as  present themselves for
 adding to the number of their sect4    
,one of their  religious text-books1 8,a
 ,guide to the ,rites of the ,true      
,religion0  7published in ,canton in    
#affh71 commends the work of            
proselytising and  makes reference to   
such as may have recently become        
converts from among  the heathen4 #ajaa 
,the fundamental doctrines of ,islam are
 taught to  the new converts by means of
 metrical primers1 #ajab and to the     
influence of the religious books of the 
,chinese ,muslims1 ,sayyid  ,sulaymn    
attributes many of the conversions made 
in recent years4  #ajac ,the ,muslim    
seminary at ,hochow in ,kansu is said to
 train  theological students who return 
to their several provinces1 at the      
completion of their studies1 to         
promulgate their faith there1 #ajad  and
 in upwards of ten provinces centres are
 said to have been started  where mulls 

are to be trained for ,muslim           
propaganda4 #ajae ,military  officers   
convert many of the soldiers serving    
under them1 to ,islam1 and  ,muslim     
mandarins take advantage of the         
authority they enjoy1 to win  converts1 
but as they are frequently transferred  
from one place to  another1 they are not
 able to exercise so much influence as  
,muslim  military officers4 #ajaf       
,conversions may also occasionally      
occur1  which are not the result of a   
direct propagandist appeal1 e4g4 a      
,turkish traveller who visited ,peking  
in #ahie reported that he found  thirty 
mosques there1 among them one that had  
originally been a temple2  this had been
 the family temple of a wealthy         
,chinaman1 whose life had  been saved   
during the ,boxer insurrection by the   
,mufti ,wa-,ahonad 7,abd  al-,ramn72 as 
a token of his gratitude1 he embraced   
the faith of his  deliverer4 #ajag      
,turkish and other ,muslim missionaries 
have in recent years been  visiting     

,china and endeavouring to stir up among
 the ,chinese ,muslims a  more thorough 
knowledge of their faith and to awaken  
their zeal1 but  their efforts seem so  
far to have borne but little fruit4     
#ajah    ,in #ahfg a ,russian writer1   
#ajai in a remarkable work on ,islam in 
,china1 expressed the opinion that it   
was destined to become the  national    
faith of the ,chinese empire and thereby
 entirely change the  political         
conditions of the ,eastern world4       
,nearly half a century has  elapsed     
since this note of alarm was sounded1   
but nothing has occurred  since to      
verify these prognostications4 ,on the  
contrary1 it would  appear that ,islam  
has been losing rather than gaining     
ground during the  last century1 since  
the wholesale massacres that accompanied
 the  suppression of the ,panthay       
risings in ,yunnan from #ahee to #ahgc  
and the  ,tungan rebellion in ,shen-si  
and ,kan-su in #ahfd-ahgg and           
#ahie-ahif1  reduced the ,muhammadan    

population by millions4 #ajbj ,the      
establishment  of the new ,republic has 
given to the ,chinese ,muslims a freedom
 of  activity unknown under any         
preceding government1 but it is too     
early  yet to discover how far they are 
likely to avail themselves of the       
opportunities offered by the altered    
conditions of life4 ,the  proselytism   
that still goes on1 restricted as its   
sphere may be1  indicates a still       
cherished hope of expansion4 ,though    
four centuries  have elapsed since a    
,muslim traveller #ajba in ,china could 
discuss the  possibility of the         
conversion of the emperor being followed
 by that of  his subjects1 it was still 
possible for a ,chinese ,muslim of the  
present  generation to state that his   
co-religionists in that country looked  
forward with confidence to the day when 
,islam would be triumphant  throughout  
the length and breadth of the ,chinese  
empire4 #ajbb                  ,,chapter
 ,,xi4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,islam   

,,in ,,africa4      ,the history of     
,islam in ,africa1 covering as it does a
 period of  well-nigh thirteen centuries
 and embracing two-thirds of this vast  
continent1 with its numerous and diverse
 tribes and races1 presents  especial   
difficulties in the way of systematic   
treatment1 as it is  impossible to give 
a simultaneous account in chronological 
order of the  spread of this faith in   
all the different parts of the          
continent4 ,its  relations to the       
,christian ,churches of ,egypt and the  
rest of ,north  ,africa1 of ,nubia and  
,abyssinia have already been dealt with 
in a former  chapter2 in the present    
chapter it is proposed to trace its     
progress  first among the heathen       
population of ,north ,africa1 then      
throughout the  ,sudan and along the    
,west coast1 and lastly along the ,east 
coast and in  ,cape ,colony4 #ajbc      
,the information we possess of the      
spread of ,islam among the heathen      
population of ,north ,africa is hardly  

less meagre than the few facts  recorded
 above regarding the disappearance of   
the ,christian ,church4 ,the  ,berbers  
offered a vigorous resistance to the    
progress of the ,arab arms1  and force  
seems to have had more influence than   
persuasion in their  conversion4        
,whenever opportunity presented itself1 
they rebelled  against the religion as  
well as the rule of their conquerors1   
and ,arab  historians declare that they 
apostasised as many as twelve times4    
#ajbd ,in the annals of the long        
struggle a few scanty references to     
conversions are to be found4 ,these     
would appear sometimes to have been     
prompted by the recognition of the fact 
that further resistance to the  ,arab   
arms was useless4 ,when in #gjc the     
,berbers made their last stand  against 
the invaders1 their intrepid leader and 
prophetess1 al-,khinah1  #ajbe          
foreseeing that the fortune of battle   
was to turn against them1  sent her sons
 into the camp of the ,muslim general   

with instructions  that they were to    
embrace ,islam and make common cause    
with the enemy2  she herself elected to 
fall fighting with her countrymen in the
 great  battle that crushed the         
political power of the ,berbers and gave
  ,northern ,africa into the hands of   
the ,arabs4 ,peace was made on          
condition that the ,berbers would       
furnish #ab1jjj combatants to the ranks 
of the ,arab troops1 and of these men   
two army-corps were formed1 each  of    
which was placed under the command of   
one of the sons of al-,khinah4  #ajbf   
,by this device of enlisting the        
,berbers in their armies1 the  ,arab    
generals hoped to win them to their own 
religion by the hope of  booty4    ,the 
army of seven thousand ,berbers that    
sailed from ,africa in #gaa under  the  
command of riq 7himself a ,berber7 to   
the conquest of ,spain1 was  composed of
 recent converts to ,islam1 and their   
conversion is expressly  said to have   
been sincere3 learned ,arabs and        

theologians were  appointed1 8to read   
and explain to them the sacred words of 
the ,qurn1  and instruct them in all and
 every one of the duties enjoined by    
their  new religion40 #ajbg ,ms1 the    
great conqueror of ,africa1 showed his  
zeal for the progress of ,islam by      
devoting the large sums of money        
granted him by the caliph ,abd al-,malik
 to the purchase of such  captives as   
gave promise of showing themselves      
worthy children of the  faith3 8for     
whenever after a victory there was a    
number of slaves put  up for sale1 he   
used to buy all those whom he thought   
would willingly  embrace ,islam1 who    
were of noble origin1 and who looked1   
besides1 as if  they were active young  
men4 ,to these he first proposed the    
embracing of  ,islam1 and if1 after     
cleansing their understanding and making
 them fit  to receive its sublime       
truths1 they were converted to the best 
of  religions1 and their conversion was 
a sincere one1 he then would1 by  way of

 putting their abilities to trial1      
employ them4 ,if they evinced  good     
disposition and talents he would        
instantly grant them liberty1  appoint  
them to high commands in his army1 and  
promote them according  to their merits2
 if1 on the contrary1 they showed no    
aptitude for their  appointments1 he    
would send them back to the common dept 
of captives  belonging to the army1 to  
be again disposed of according to the   
general  custom of drawing out the spoil
 by arrows40 #ajbh    ,how superficial  
the conversion of the ,berbers was may  
be judged from  the fact that when the  
pious ,umar b4 ,abd al-,azz in ,a4,h4   
#ajj 7,a4,d4  #gah7 appointed ,isml b4  
,abd ,allh governor of ,north ,africa1  
ten  learned theologians were sent with 
him to instruct the ,muslim ,berbers  in
 the ordinances of their faith1 since up
 to that time they do not  seem to have 
recognised that their new religion      
forbade to them  indulgence in wine4    
,the new governor is said to have shown 

great zeal  in inviting the ,berbers to 
accept ,islam1 but the statement that   
his  efforts were crowned with such     
success that not a single ,berber       
remained unconverted is certainly not   
correct4 #ajbi ,for the  conversion of  
the ,berbers was undoubtedly the work of
 several  centuries2 even to the present
 day they retain many of their primitive
  institutions which are in opposition  
to ,muslim law4 #ajcj ,islam took  no   
firm root among them until it assumed   
the form of a national  movement and    
became connected with the establishment 
of native  dynasties1 under which many  
,berbers came within the pale of ,islam 
who  before had looked upon the         
acceptance of this faith as a sign of   
loss  of political independence4 ,of    
these various changes of political      
condition it is not the place to speak  
here1 but in a history of ,muslim       
propaganda the rise of the ,almoravids  
deserves special mention as a  great    
national movement that attracted a great

 many of the ,berber  tribes to join the
 ,muslim community4 ,in the early part  
of the eleventh  century1 ,yay b4       
,ibrhm1 a chief of the anhja1 one of the
 ,berber  tribes of the ,sahara1 on his 
return from a pilgrimage to ,mecca1     
sought  in the religious centres of     
,northern ,africa for a learned and     
pious  teacher1 who should accompany him
 as a missionary of ,islam to his       
benighted and ignorant tribesmen3 at    
first he found it difficult to  find a  
man willing to leave his scholarly      
retreat and brave the dangers  of the   
,sahara1 but at length he met in ,abd   
,allh b4 ,ysn the fit  person1 bold     
enough to undertake so difficult a      
mission1 pious and  austere in his life1
 and learned in theology1 law and other 
sciences4  ,so far back as the ninth    
century the preachers of ,islam had made
 their  way among the ,berbers of the   
,sahara and established among them the  
religion of the ,prophet1 but this faith
 had found very little  acceptance      

there1 and ,abd ,allh b4 ,ysn found even
 the professed  ,muslims to be very lax 
in their religious observances and given
 up to  all kinds of vicious practices4 
,he ardently threw himself into the task
  of converting them to the right path  
and instructing them in the duties  of  
religion2 but the sternness with which  
he rebuked their vices and  sought to   
reform their conduct1 alienated their   
sympathies from him1  and the           
ill-success of his mission almost drove 
him to abandon this  stiff-necked people
 and devote his efforts to the          
conversion of the  ,sudan4 ,being       
persuaded1 however1 not to desert the   
work he had once  undertaken1 he retired
 with such disciples as his preaching   
had  gathered around him1 to an island  
in the river ,senegal1 where they       
founded a monastery and gave themselves 
up unceasingly to devotional  exercises4
 ,the more devout-minded among the      
,berbers1 stung to  repentance by the   
thought of the wickedness that had      

driven their holy  teacher from their   
midst1 came humbly to his island to     
implore his  forgiveness and receive his
 instructions in the saving truths of   
religion4 ,thus day by day there        
gathered around him an increasing band  
of disciples1 especially from among the 
,lamna1 a branch of the  anhja clan1    
whose numbers swelled at length to about
 a thousand4 ,abd  ,allh b4 ,ysn then   
recognised that the time had come for   
launching out  upon a wider sphere of   
action1 and he called upon his followers
 to show  their gratitude to ,god for   
the revelation he had vouchsafed them1  
by  communicating the knowledge of it to
 others3 8,go to your  fellow-tribesmen1
 teach them the law of ,god and threaten
 them with ,his  chastisement4 ,if they 
repent1 amend their ways and accept the 
truth1  leave them in peace2 if they    
refuse and persist in their errors and  
evil lives1 invoke the aid of ,god      
against them1 and let us make war  upon 
them until ,god decide between us40     

,hereupon each man went to his  own     
tribe and began to exhort them to repent
 and believe1 but without  success3     
equally unsuccessful were the efforts of
 ,abd ,allh b4 ,ysn  himself1 who left  
his monastery in the hope of finding the
 ,berber  chiefs more willing now to    
listen to his preaching4 ,at length in  
#ajdb  he put himself at the head of his
 followers1 to whom he had given the    
name of al-,murbin 7the so-called       
,almoravids7--a name derived from the   
same root as the rib #ajca or monastery 
on his island in the  ,senegal1--and    
attacked the neighbouring tribes and    
forced the acceptance  of ,islam upon   
them4 ,the success that attended his    
warlike expeditions  appeared to the    
tribes of the ,sahara a more persuasive 
argument than  all his preaching1 and   
they very soon came forward voluntarily 
to  embrace a faith that secured such   
brilliant successes to the arms of  its 
adherents4 ,abd ,allh b4 ,ysn died in   
#ajei1 but the movement he  had         

initiated lived after him and many      
heathen tribes of ,berbers came  to     
swell the numbers of their ,muslim      
fellow-countrymen1 embracing their      
religion at the same time as the cause  
they championed1 and poured out  of the 
,sahara over ,north ,africa and later on
 made themselves masters of  ,spain     
also4 #ajcb    ,it is not improbable    
that the other great national movement  
that  originated among the ,berber      
tribes1 viz4 the rise of the ,almohads  
at  the beginning of the twelfth        
century1 may have attracted into the    
,muslim community some of the tribes    
that had up to that time still  stood   
aloof4 ,their founder1 ,ibn ,tmart1     
popularised the sternly  ,unitarian     
tenets of this sect by means of works in
 the ,berber language  which expounded  
from his own point of view the          
fundamental doctrines of  ,islam1 and he
 made a still further concession to the 
nationalist spirit  of the ,berbers by  
ordering the call to prayer to be made  

in their own  language4 #ajcc    ,some  
of the ,berber tribes1 however1 remained
 heathen up to the close of  the        
fifteenth century1 #ajcd but the general
 tendency was naturally  towards an     
absorption of these smaller communities 
into the larger4    ,the sixteenth      
century witnessed the birth of a        
movement of active  proselytising in the
 ,maghrib1 which has been traced to the 
reaction  excited by the successes of   
the ,christian powers in ,spain and     
,north  ,africa4 ,this gave an immense  
impulse to the institution of the       
8marabouts10 #ajce and large numbers of 
them set out from the monastic          
settlements in the south of ,morocco to 
carry a peaceful missionary  campaign   
throughout the ,maghrib1 renewing the   
faith of the lukewarm  adherents of     
,islam and converting their heathen     
neighbours4 #ajcf ,to  this             
proselytising movement the ,muslim      
refugees from ,spain contributed  their 
part1 as has been shown above 7p4 #abg71

 coming to the aid of the  ,shuraf or   
descendants of ,idrs b4 ,abd ,allh1 who 
had fled to ,morocco  to escape the     
wrath of ,hrn al-,rashd4 #ajcg    ,from 
the ,sahara the knowledge of ,islam     
first spread among the ,negroes  of the 
,sudan4 ,the early history of this      
movement is wrapped in  obscurity1 but  
there seems little doubt that it was the
 ,berbers who  first introduced ,islam  
into the lands watered by the ,senegal  
and the  ,niger2 here they came in      
contact with pagan kingdoms1 some of    
them  7e4g4 ,ghna and ,songhay7 of great
 antiquity4 #ajch ,the two ,berber      
tribes1 the ,lamna and the ,jadla1      
belonging to the anhja clan1  especially
 distinguished themselves by their      
religious zeal in the work  of          
conversion1 #ajci and through their     
agency the ,almoravid movement  reacted 
on the pagan tribes of the ,sudan4 ,the 
reign of ,ysuf b4  ,tshfn1 the founder  
of ,morocco 7,a4,d4 #ajfb7 and the      
second amr of the  ,almoravid dynasty1  

was very fruitful in conversions1 and   
many ,negroes  under his rule came to   
know of the doctrines of ,muammad4 #ajdj
 ,in  #ajgf the ,berbers who had been   
spreading ,islam in the kingdom of ,ghna
  for some time1 drove out the reigning 
dynasty1 which was probably  ,fulbe1 and
 this ancient kingdom became throughout 
,muhammadan2 at the  beginning of the   
thirteenth century it lost its          
independence and was  conquered by the  
,mandingos4 #ajda    ,of the            
introduction of ,islam into the ancient 
kingdom of ,songhay1 which  is said to  
have been in existence as early as      
,a4,d4 #gjj1 we have only  the record   
that the first ,muhammadan king was     
named ,z-kassi1 the  fifteenth monarch  
of the ,z dynasty2 his conversion took  
place in the  year ,a4,h4 #djj 7,a4,d4  
#ajji-ajaj71 and in the ,songhay        
language he was  styled ,muslim-dam1    
which implied that he had adopted ,islam
 of his own  free will and not by       
compulsion1 but there is no mention of  

the  influences to which he owed his    
conversion4 #ajdb    ,in the same       
century there were founded on the ,upper
 ,niger two cities1  destined in        
succeeding centuries to exercise an     
immense influence on  the development of
 ,islam in the ,western ,sudan1--,jenne1
 #ajdc founded in  ,a4,h4 #dce 7,a4,d4  
#ajdc-ajdd71 #ajdd and destined to      
become an important  trading centre1 and
 ,timbuktu1 the great emporium for the  
caravan trade  with the north1 founded  
about the year ,a4,d4 #aajj4 ,the king  
of ,jenne1  ,kunburu1 became a ,muslim  
towards the end of the sixth century of 
the  ,hijrah 7i4e4 about ,a4,d4 #abjj7  
and his example was followed by the     
inhabitants of the city2 when he had    
made up his mind to embrace ,islam1  he 
is said to have collected together all  
the ulam in his kingdom1  to the number 
of #dbjj--7;however exaggerated this    
number may be1 the  story would seem to 
imply that ,islam had already made      
considerable  progress in his           

dominions7--and publicly in their       
presence declared  himself a ,muslim and
 exhorted them to pray for the          
prosperity of his  city2 he then had his
 palace pulled down and built a great   
mosque  #ajde in its place4 #ajdf       
,timbuktu1 on the other hand1 was a     
,muhammadan city from the beginning2    
8never did the worship of idols  defile 
it1 never did any man prostrate himself 
on its soil except in  prayer to ,god   
the ,merciful40 #ajdg ,in later years it
 became  influential as a seat of       
,muhammadan learning and piety1 and     
students  and divines flocked there in  
large numbers1 attracted by the         
encouragement and patronage they        
received4 ,ibn ,baah1 who travelled     
through this country in the middle of   
the fourteenth century1 praises  the    
,negroes for their zeal in the          
performance of their devotions and in   
the study of the ,qurn3 unless one went 
very early to the mosque on  ,friday1 he
 tells us1 it was impossible to find a  

place1 so crowded was  the attendance4  
#ajdh ,in his time1 the most powerful   
state of the  ,western ,sudan was that  
of ,melle or ,mll1 which had risen to   
importance  about a century before1     
after the conquest of ,ghna by the      
,mandingos1  one of the finest races of 
,africa3 ,leo ,africanus #ajdi calls    
them the  most civilised1 the most      
intellectual and most respected of all  
the  ,negroes1 and modern travellers    
praise them for their industry1         
cleverness and trustworthiness4 #ajej   
,these ,mandingos have been among  the  
most active missionaries of ,islam1     
which has been spread by them  among the
 neighbouring peoples4 #ajea            
,according to the ,kano ,chronicle it   
was the ,mandingos who brought the      
knowledge of ,islam to the ,hausa       
people2 the date is uncertain1 #ajeb  as
 are most dates connected with the      
history of the ,hausa states1  because  
the ,fulbe1 who conquered them at the   
beginning of the  nineteenth century1   

destroyed most of their historical      
records4 ,but the  importance of the    
adoption of ,islam by the ,hausas cannot
 be  exaggerated2 they are an energetic 
and intelligent people1 and their       
remarkable aptitude for trade has won   
for them an immense influence  among the
 various peoples with whom they have    
come in contact2 their  language has    
become the language of commerce for the 
,western ,sudan1 and  wherever the      
,hausa traders go--and they are found   
from the coast of  ,guinea to           
,cairo--they carry the faith of ,islam  
with them4 ,references to  their        
missionary activity will be found in the
 following pages4 ,but of  their own    
adoption of the faith1 as well as of the
 rise of the seven  ,hausa states and   
their dependencies1 #ajec historical    
evidence is  almost entirely wanting2   
#ajed one of the missionaries of ,islam 
to  ,kano and ,katsena would certainly  
seem to have been a learned and pious   
teacher from ,tlemsen1 ,muammad b4 ,abd 

al-,karm b4 ,muammad al-,majl1  who     
flourished about the year #aejj2 #ajee  
possibly they were affected  by the     
great wave of ,muhammadan influence     
which moved southward from  ,egypt in   
the twelfth century4 #ajef ,the         
merchants of ,kordofan and in  the      
,eastern ,sudan generally1 boast that   
they are descended from ,arabs  who made
 their way thither after the fall of the
 ,fimid caliphate of  ,egypt in #aaga4  
,but there were probably still earlier  
instances of  ,muslim influence coming  
into ,central ,africa from the          
north-east4 ,it was  from ,egypt that   
,islam spread into ,kanem1 a kingdom on 
the ,n4 and ,n4,e4  of ,lake ,chad1     
which shortly after the adoption of     
,islam rose to be a  state of           
considerable importance and extended its
 sway over the tribes  of the ,eastern  
,sudan to the borders of ,egypt and     
,nubia2 the first  ,muhammadan king of  
,kanem is said to have reigned either   
towards the  close of the eleventh or in

 the first half of the twelfth century4 
#ajeg ,but the details we possess of the
 spread of ,islam from the  north-east  
are even more scanty than those already 
given for the  history of the states of 
the ,western ,sudan4 ,the mere dates of 
the  conversion of kings and the        
establishment of ,muhammadan dynasties  
tell  us very little2 but one fact      
stands out clearly from this meagre     
record1 namely the extreme slowness of  
the process4 ,the survival of           
considerable groups of                  
fetish-worshippers in the midst of      
territories  which for centuries were   
under ,muhammadan rule1 would seem to   
indicate  that the influence of ,islam  
was long confined to the towns and only 
by  degrees made its way among the pagan
 population1 if indeed it did not  meet 
with such stubborn resistance as has    
kept the ,bambara pagan1  though        
7dwelling between the ,upper ,senegal   
and the ,upper ,niger7 they  have been  
hemmed in by a ,muhammadan population   

for centuries4    ,an unsuccessful      
attempt to convert the ,bambara was made
 by a marabout1  named ,umaru ,kaba1    
early in the twentieth century4 ,this   
man had founded  a new religious        
confraternity1 connected with the       
,qdiriyyah1 and  having failed to       
attract his co-religionists to it1 he   
turned his  attention to the pagan      
,bambara1 and endeavoured to convert    
them to  ,islam and enrol them in his   
order4 ,he seemed to be on the road to  
success and had already converted a     
pagan village in the province of        
,sansanding1 when the chief of the      
province drove the missionary across    
the frontier and ordered the            
newly-converted ,bambara to return to   
their  old religious observances4 #ajeh 
,where intermarriages with such races as
 ,arabs and ,berbers have been          
frequent1 a steady process of           
infiltration has gone on1 and this1     
added  to the propagandist activities of
 those races--,fulbe1 ,hausa and        

,mandingo--who have distinguished       
themselves for their zeal on behalf of  
their religion1 would have contributed  
to the more rapid growth of a           
,muhammadan population1 had it not been 
for the internecine wars that  caused   
one ,muhammadan state to work the       
destruction of another4 ,melle  rose on 
the ruins of ,ghna in the thirteenth    
century1 to be crushed at  the beginning
 of the sixteenth by ,songhay1 which in 
its turn was  desolated by the ,moors a 
century later4 ,as these ,muhammadan    
empires  declined1 with the wholesale   
massacres characteristic of warfare in  
the  ,sudan1 fetishism regained much of 
the ground it had lost2 and as in the   
,christian1 so in the ,muhammadan world1
 there have been periods when           
missionary zeal has sunk to a low ebb1  
and ,muhammadans in some parts of  the  
,sudan have been content to leave the   
paganism that surrounded them  untouched
 by any proselytising efforts4    ,in   
the fourteenth century the ,tunjar      

,arabs1 emigrating south from  ,tunis1  
made their way through ,bornu and ,wadai
 to ,darfur2 others came in  later from 
the east2 #ajei one of their number     
named ,amad met with a  kind reception  
from the heathen king of ,darfur1 who   
took a fancy to  him1 made him director 
of his household and consulted him on   
all  occasions4 ,his experience of more 
civilised methods of government  enabled
 him to introduce a number of reforms   
both into the economy of  the king's    
household and the government of the     
state4 ,by judicious  management1 he is 
said to have brought the unruly         
chieftains into  subjection1 and by     
portioning out the land among the poorer
 inhabitants  to have put an end to the 
constant internal raids1 thereby        
introducing  a feeling of security and  
contentment before unknown4 ,the king   
having  no male heir gave ,amad his     
daughter in marriage and appointed him  
his  successor1--a choice that was      
ratified by the acclamation of the      

people1  and the ,muhammadan dynasty    
thus instituted has continued down to   
the  present century4 ,the civilising   
influences exercised by this chief and  
his descendants were doubtless          
accompanied by some work of proselytism1
  but these ,arab immigrants seem to    
have done very little for the spread  of
 their religion among their heathen     
neighbours4 ,darfur only  definitely    
became ,muhammadan through the efforts  
of one of its kings  named ,sulaymn who 
began to reign in #aeif1 #ajfj and it   
was not until  the sixteenth century    
that ,islam gained a footing in the     
other kingdoms  lying between ,kordofan 
and ,lake ,chad1 such as ,wadai and     
,baghirmi4 ,the  first ,muhammadan king 
of ,baghirmi was ,sultan ,abd ,allh1 who
 reigned  from #aefh to #afjh1 but the  
chief centre of ,muhammadan influence at
 this  time was the kingdom of ,wadai1  
which was founded by ,abd al-,karm about
  ,a4,d4 #afab1 and it was not until the
 latter part of the eighteenth  century 

that the mass of the people of ,baghirmi
 were converted to  ,islam4 #ajfa       
,but the history of the ,muhammadan     
propaganda in ,africa during the        
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is 
very slight and wholly  insignificant   
when compared with the remarkable       
revival of missionary  activity during  
the present century4 ,some powerful     
influence was needed  to arouse the     
dormant energies of the ,african        
,muslims1 whose condition  during the   
eighteenth century seems to have been   
almost one of  religious indifference4  
,their spiritual awakening owed itself  
to the  influence of the ,wahhb         
reformation at the close of the         
eighteenth  century2 whence it comes    
that in modern times we meet with some  
accounts of proselytising movements     
among the ,negroes that are not  quite  
so forbiddingly meagre as those just    
recounted1 but present us  with ample   
details of the rise and progress of     
several important  missionary           

enterprises4    ,towards the end of the 
eighteenth century1 a remarkable man1   
,shaykh  ,uthmn ,danfodio1 #ajfb arose  
from among the ,fulbe #ajfc as a        
religious reformer and                  
warrior-missionary4 ,from the ,sudan he 
made the  pilgrimage to ,mecca1 whence  
he returned full of zeal and enthusiasm 
for  the reformation and propagation of 
,islam4 ,influenced by the doctrines  of
 the ,wahhbs1 who were growing powerful 
at the time of his visit to  ,mecca1 he 
denounced the practice of prayers for   
the dead and the honour  paid to        
departed saints1 and deprecated the     
excessive veneration of  ,muammad       
himself2 at the same time he attacked   
the two prevailing sins  of the ,sudan1 
drunkenness and immorality4    ,up to   
that time the ,fulbe had consisted of a 
number of small scattered  clans living 
a pastoral life2 they had early embraced
 ,islam1 and  hitherto had contented    
themselves with forming colonies of     
shepherds  and planters in different    

parts of the ,sudan4 ,the accounts we   
have of  them in the early part of the  
eighteenth century1 represent them to be
  a peaceful and industrious people2 one
 #ajfd who visited their  settlements on
 the ,gambia in #agca speaks of them    
thus3 8,in every  kingdom and country on
 each side of the river are people of a 
tawny  colour1 called ,pholeys 7i4e4    
,fulbe71 who resemble the ,arabs1 whose 
language most of them speak2 for it is  
taught in their schools1 and the        
,koran1 which is also their law1 is in  
that language4 ,they are more  generally
 learned in the ,arabic1 than the people
 of ,europe are in  ,latin2 for they can
 most of them speak it2 though they have
 a vulgar  tongue called ,pholey4 ,they 
live in hordes or clans1 build towns1   
and  are not subject to any of the kings
 of the country1 tho' they live in      
their territories2 for if they are used 
ill in one nation they break up  their  
towns and remove to another4 ,they have 
chiefs of their own1 who  rule with such

 moderation1 that every act of          
government seems rather an  act of the  
people than of one man4 ,this form of   
government is easily  administered1     
because the people are of a good and    
quiet disposition1  and so well         
instructed in what is just and right1   
that a man who does  ill is the         
abomination of all4444 ,they are very   
industrious and frugal1  and raise much 
more corn and cotton than they consume1 
which they sell  at reasonable rates1   
and are so remarkable for their         
hospitality that  the natives esteem it 
a blessing to have a ,pholey town in    
their  neighbourhood2 besides1 their    
behaviour has gained them such          
reputation  that it is esteemed infamous
 for any one to treat them in an        
inhospitable manner4 ,though their      
humanity extends to all1 they are       
doubly kind to people of their own race2
 and if they know of any of  their body 
being made a slave1 all the ,pholeys    
will unite to redeem  him4 ,as they have

 plenty of food they never suffer any of
 their own  people to want2 but support 
the old1 the blind1 and the lame1       
equally  with the others4 ,they are     
seldom angry1 and ,i never heard them   
abuse  one another2 yet this mildness   
does not proceed from want of courage1  
for they are as brave as any people of  
,africa1 and are very expert in  the use
 of their arms1 which are the assagay1  
short cutlasses1 bows and  arrows and   
even guns upon occasion4444 ,they are   
strict ,mahometans2 and  scarcely any of
 them will drink brandy1 or anything    
stronger than  water40    ,danfodio     
united into one powerful organisation   
these separate  communities1 scattered  
throughout the various ,hausa states4   
,the first  outbreak occurred in the    
year #ahjb1 in the still pagan kingdom  
of  ,gober1 which had gained ascendancy 
over the northernmost of the ,hausa     
states2 the attempt of the king of      
,gober to check the growing power of    
the ,fulbe in his dominions caused      

,danfodio to raise the standard of      
revolt2 he soon found himself at the    
head of a powerful army1 which  attacked
 not only the pagan tribes1 forcing upon
 them the faith of the  ,prophet1 but   
also the ,muhammadan ,hausa states4     
,these fell one after  another and the  
whole of ,hausaland came under the rule 
of ,danfodio  before his death in #ahaf4
 ,his grave in ,sokoto is still an      
object of  reverence to large numbers of
 pilgrims4 ,he divided his kingdom among
  his two sons1 who still further       
extended the boundary of ,fulbe rule2   
,adamaua1 founded in #ahcg on the ruins 
of several pagan kingdoms1 marks  the   
limit of their conquests to the         
south-east2 and the city of ,ilorin1  in
 the ,yoruba country1 founded in the    
lifetime of ,danfodio1 was the  bulwark 
of the ,pul empire to the south-west4   
,with varying fortunes the  dominant    
power remained throughout the nineteenth
 century in the hands  of the ,fulbe1   
who showed themselves cruel and         

fanatical propagandists  of ,islam1     
until ,british administration was       
established in ,nigeria in  #aijj4      
,the introduction of law and order into 
,southern ,nigeria has favoured  the    
propaganda of ,islam as in other parts  
of ,africa that have come  under        
,european rule4 ,the ,hausa ,muslims1   
some of whom belong to the  ,tijniyyah  
order1 have been able to move freely    
about the country and  to penetrate     
among pagan tribes which had hitherto   
kept all ,muhammadan  influences rigidly
 at bay4 ,in the ,yoruba country        
particularly ,islam is  said to be      
rapidly gaining ground4 ,there is a     
legend of an unsuccessful  attempt made 
by a ,muslim missionary as early as the 
eleventh or twelfth  century2 he was a  
,hausa who came to ,ife1 the religious  
capital of the  pagan ,yoruba country1  
and used to call the people together and
 read  them passages from the ,qurn2 he 
could only speak the ,yoruba language   
imperfectly1 and with a foreign accent  

he would repeat to his  listeners1 8,let
 us worship ,allh3 ,he created the      
mountain1 ,he created  the lowland1 ,he 
created everything1 ,he created us40 ,he
 did this from  time to time without    
succeeding in winning a single convert1 
and died a  few months after his arrival
 in ,ife4 ,after his death his ,qurn was
  found hanging on a peg in the wall of 
his room1 and it came to be  worshipped 
as a fetish4 #ajfe ,where this early    
apostle of the faith  failed1 his modern
 co-religionists have achieved a        
remarkable success4  ,during the period 
of anarchy before the ,british          
occupation1 the ,muslims  were for the  
most part congregated in large1 walled  
towns1 but under  the new conditions of 
security they are able to reside        
permanently in  villages1 and near the  
scenes of their agricultural labours1   
and  ,muhammadan influences have thus   
become more widely extended over the    
country4 ,as in ,german ,east ,africa1  
the presence of ,muhammadans among  the 

native troops has been found to be      
favourable to the extension of  their   
faith1 and the pagan recruits often     
adopt ,islam in order to  escape        
ridicule and gain in self-respect4 #ajff
 ,in the ,ijebu country  also1 in       
,southern ,nigeria1 a quite recent      
propagandist movement has  been         
observed2 ,islam was only introduced    
into this part of the country  in #ahic1
 and in #aijh there was one town with   
twenty1 and another with  twelve        
mosques4 #ajfg ,this rapid spread of the
 ,muslim faith is  particularly         
noticeable along the banks of the river 
,niger in ,southern  ,nigeria2 a        
,christian missionary reports3 8,when ,i
 came out in #ahih there  were few      
,mohammedans to be seen below ,iddah4   
#ajfh ,now they are  everywhere1        
excepting below ,abo1 and at the present
 rate of progress  there will scarcely  
be a heathen village on the river-banks 
by #aiaj40  #ajfi    ,there has thus    
been much missionary work done for      

,islam in this part of  ,africa by men  
who have never taken up the sword to    
further their  end1--the conversion of  
the heathen4 ,such have been the members
 of some  of the great ,muhammadan      
religious orders1 which form such a     
prominent  feature of the religious life
 of ,northern ,africa4 ,their efforts   
have  achieved great results during the 
nineteenth century1 and though          
doubtless much of their work has never  
been recorded1 still we have  accounts  
of some of the movements initiated by   
them4    ,of these one of the earliest  
owed its inception to ,s ,amad b4 ,idrs1
  #ajgj who enjoyed a wide reputation as
 a religious teacher in ,mecca  from    
#agig to #ahcc1 and was the spiritual   
chief of the ,khariyyah2  before his    
death in #ahce he sent one of his       
disciples1 by name ,muammad  ,uthmn     
al-,amr ,ghan1 on a proselytising       
expedition into ,africa4  ,crossing the 
,red ,sea to ,kossayr1 he made his way  
inland to the ,nile2  here1 among a     

,muslim population1 his efforts were    
mainly confined to  enrolling members of
 the order to which he belonged1 but in 
his journey  up the river he did not    
meet with much success until he reached 
,awn2  from this point up to ,dongola1  
his journey became quite a triumphant   
progress2 the ,nubians hastened to join 
his order1 and the royal pomp  with     
which he was surrounded produced an     
impressive effect on this  people1 and  
at the same time the fame of his        
miracles attracted to him  large numbers
 of followers4 ,at ,dongola ,muammad    
,uthmn left the valley  of the ,nile to 
go to ,kordofan1 where he made a long   
stay1 and it was  here that his         
missionary work among unbelievers began4
 ,many tribes in  this country and about
 ,sennaar were still pagan1 and among   
these the  preaching of ,muammad ,uthmn 
achieved a very remarkable success1 and 
he sought to make his influence         
permanent by contracting several        
marriages1 the issue of which1 after his

 death in #ahec1 carried on the  work of
 the order he founded--called after his 
name the ,amrghaniyyah4  #ajga    ,a few
 years before this missionary tour of   
,muammad ,uthmn1 the troops  of ,muammad
 ,al1 the founder of the present dynasty
 of ,egypt1 had  begun to extend their  
conquests into the ,eastern ,sudan1 and 
the  emissaries of the various religious
 orders in ,egypt were encouraged by    
the ,egyptian government1 in the hope   
that their labours would assist in  the 
pacification of the country1 to carry on
 a propaganda in this  newly-acquired   
territory1 where they laboured with so  
much success1  that the recent          
insurrection in the ,sudan under the    
,mahd has been  attributed to the       
religious fervour their preaching       
excited4 #ajgb    ,in the ,west of      
,africa two orders have been especially 
instrumental in  the spread of ,islam1  
the ,qdiriyyah and the ,tijniyyah4 ,the 
former1 the  most widespread of the     
religious orders of ,islam1 was founded 

in the  twelfth century by ,abd al-,qdir
 al-,jln1 said to be the most popular   
and most universally revered of all the 
saints of ,islam1 #ajgc--;and was       
introduced into ,western ,africa in the 
fifteenth century1 by emigrants  from   
,tuat1 one of the oases in the western  
half of the ,sahara2 they  made ,walata 
the first centre of their organisation1 
but later on their  descendants were    
driven away from this town1 and took    
refuge in  ,timbuktu1 further to the    
east4 ,in the beginning of the          
nineteenth  century the great spiritual 
revival that was so profoundly          
influencing  the ,muhammadan world1     
stirred up the ,qdiriyyah of the ,sahara
 and the  ,western ,sudan to renewed    
life and energy1 and before long1       
learned  theologians or small colonies  
of persons affiliated to the order were 
to be found scattered throughout the    
,western ,sudan from the ,senegal to    
the mouth of the ,niger4 ,the chief     
centres of their missionary             

organisation are in ,kanka1 ,timbo      
7,futah-,jallon7 and ,musardu 7in the   
,mandingo country74 #ajgd ,these        
initiates formed centres of ,islamic    
influence in the midst of a pagan       
population1 among whom they received  a 
welcome as public scribes1 legists1     
writers of amulets1 and  schoolmasters3 
gradually they would acquire influence  
over their new  surroundings1 and       
isolated cases of conversion would soon 
grow into a  little band of converts1   
the most promising of whom would often  
be sent  to complete their studies at   
the chief centres of the order1 or even 
to  the schools of ,kairwan or ,tripoli1
 or to the universities of ,fez and     
al-,azhar in ,cairo4 #ajge ,here they   
might remain for several years1  until  
they had perfected their theological    
studies1 and would then  return to their
 native place1 fully equipped for the   
work of spreading  the faith among their
 fellow-countrymen4 ,in this way a      
leaven has been  introduced into the    

midst of fetish-worshippers and         
idolaters1 which  has gradually spread  
the faith of ,islam surely and steadily1
 though by  almost imperceptible        
degrees4 ,up to the middle of the       
nineteenth  century most of the schools 
in the ,sudan were founded and conducted
 by  teachers trained under the auspices
 of the ,qdiriyyah and their            
organisation provided for a regular and 
continuous system of propaganda  among  
the heathen tribes4 ,the missionary work
 of this order has been  entirely of a  
peaceful character1 and has relied      
wholly on personal  example and precept1
 on the influence of the teacher over   
his pupils1  and on the spread of       
education4 #ajgf ,in this way the       
,qdiriyyah  missionaries of the ,sudan  
have shown themselves true to the       
principles  of their founder and the    
universal tradition of their order4 ,for
 the  guiding principles that governed  
the life of ,abd al-,qdir were love of  
his neighbour and toleration3 though    

kings and men of wealth showered  their 
gifts upon him1 his boundless charity   
kept him always poor1 and  in none of   
his books or precepts are to be found   
any expressions of  ill-will or enmity  
towards the ,christians2 whenever he    
spoke of the  people of the ,book1 it   
was only to express his sorrow for their
  religious errors1 and to pray that    
,god might enlighten them4 ,this        
tolerant attitude he bequeathed as a    
legacy to his disciples1 and it  has    
been a striking characteristic of his   
followers in all ages4 #ajgg    ,the    
,tijniyyah1 belonging to an order       
founded in ,algiers towards the  end of 
the eighteenth century1 have1 since     
their establishment in the  ,sudan about
 the middle of the nineteenth century1  
pursued the same  missionary methods as 
the ,qdiriyyah1 and their numerous      
schools have  contributed largely to the
 propagation of the faith2 but1 unlike  
the  former1 they have not refrained    
from appealing to the sword to assist   

in the furtherance of their scheme of   
conversion1 and1 unfortunately  for a   
true estimate of the missionary work of 
,islam in ,western ,africa1  the fame of
 their ,jihds or religious wars has     
thrown into the shade  the successes of 
the peaceful propagandist1 though the   
labours of the  latter have been more   
effectual towards the spread of ,islam  
than the  creation of petty1 short-lived
 dynasties4 ,the records of campaigns1  
especially when they have interfered    
with the commercial projects or  schemes
 of conquest of the white men1 have     
naturally attracted the  attention of   
,europeans more than the unobtrusive    
labours of the  ,muhammadan preacher and
 schoolmaster4 ,but the history of such 
movements  possesses this importance1   
that--as has often happened in the case 
of  ,christian missions also--conquest  
has opened out new fields for           
missionary activity1 and forcibly       
impressed on the minds of the  faithful 
the existence of large tracts of country

 whose inhabitants  still remained      
unconverted4    ,the first of these     
militant propagandist movements on the  
part of the  members of the ,tijniyyah  
order owes its inception to al-jj ,umar1
  who had been initiated into this order
 by a leader of the sect whose          
acquaintance he made in ,mecca4 ,he was 
born in #agig1 near ,podor on the       
,lower ,senegal1 and appears to have    
been a man of considerable  endowments  
and personal influence1 and of a        
commanding presence4 ,he was  the son of
 a marabout and received a careful      
religious education2 he  was already    
famed for his learning and piety when he
 set out on the  pilgrimage to ,mecca in
 #ahbg4 ,he did not return to his own   
country until  #ahcc1 when he commenced 
an active propaganda of the teaching of 
the  ,tijniyyah order1 fiercely         
attacking his co-religionists for their 
ignorance and their lukewarmness1       
especially the adepts of the  ,qdiriyyah
 order1 whose toleration particularly   

excited his wrath4 ,he  traversed the   
,central ,sudan1 winning many adherents 
and receiving  honour as a new prophet1 
until about #ahda he reached            
,futah-,jallon1  where he armed his     
followers and commenced a series of     
proselytising  expeditions against those
 tribes that still remained pagan about 
the  ,upper ,niger and the ,senegal4 ,it
 was in one of these expeditions that he
  met his death in #ahfe4 ,his son1     
,amadu ,shaykhu1 succeeded in holding   
together the various provinces of his   
father's kingdom for a few years  only2 
internal conflicts and the advance of   
the ,french broke up the  ,tijniyyah    
empire1 and their territories passed    
under the rule of  ,france4 #ajgh       
,some mention has already been made of  
the introduction of ,islam into  this   
part of ,africa4 ,the seed planted here 
by ,abd ,allh b4 ,ysn and  his          
companions1 was fructified by continual 
contact with ,muhammadan  merchants and 
teachers1 and with the ,arabs of the    

oasis of al-aw and  others4 ,a traveller
 of the fifteenth century tells how the 
,arabs strove  to teach the ,negro      
chiefs the law of ,muammad1 pointing out
 how  shameful a thing it was for them1 
being chiefs1 to live without any of    
,god's laws1 and to do as the base folk 
did who lived without any law at  all4  
,from which it would appear that these  
early missionaries took  advantage of   
the imposing character of the ,muslim   
religion and  constitution to impress   
the minds of these uncivilised savages4 
#ajgi    ,we have ampler details of a   
more recent movement of the same kind1  
which had been set on foot in the south 
of ,senegambia by a ,mandingo1  named   
amudu1 commonly known by the name       
,samory1 a pagan soldier of  fortune    
born about #ahdf1 who became a          
,muhammadan early in the course of  his 
career and founded an empire1 south of  
,senegambia1 in the country  watered by 
the upper basin of the ,niger and its   
tributaries4 ,an ,arabic  account of the

 career of ,samory1 written by a native 
chronicler1 gives  us some interesting  
details of his achievements4 ,it begins 
as follows3  8,this is an account of the
 ,jihd of the ,imm ,amadu amudu1 a      
,mandingo4444 ,god conferred upon him   
,his help continually after he began    
the work of visiting the idolatrous     
pagans1 who dwell between the sea  and  
the country of ,wasulu1 with a view of  
inviting them to follow the  religion of
 ,god1 which is ,islam4 ,know all ye who
 read this--that the  first effort of   
the ,imm amudu was a town named         
,fulindiyah4 ,following  the ,book and  
the ,law and the ,traditions1 he sent   
messengers to the king  at that town1   
,sindidu by name1 inviting him to submit
 to his  government1 abandon the worship
 of idols and worship one ,god1 the     
,exalted1 the ,true1 whose service is   
profitable to ,his people in this  world
 and in the next2 but they refused to   
submit4 ,then he imposed a  tribute upon
 them1 as the ,qurn commands on this    

subject2 but they  persisted in their   
blindness and deafness4 ,the ,imm then  
collected a  small force of about five  
hundred men1 brave and valiant1 for the 
,jihd1 and he fought against the town1  
and the ,lord helped him against  them  
and gave him the victory over them1 and 
he pursued them with his  horses until  
they submitted4 ,nor will they return to
 their idolatry1  for now all their     
children are in schools being taught the
 ,qurn1 and  a knowledge of religion and
 civilisation4 ,praise be to ,god for   
this40  #ajhj ,it is not possible here  
to trace the course of his conquests1   
which were marked by wholesale massacres
 and devastation4 #ajha ,he  reached the
 height of his power about #ahha1       
shortly after which he came  in conflict
 with the ,french1 who took him prisoner
 in #ahih after a  series of harassing  
campaigns4 ,he died in #aijj4 ,though   
the effect of  his conquests was the    
destruction of large numbers of pagans  
who were  massacred by his ruthless     

armies1 while others were terrified into
 a  nominal acceptance of ,islam1 he    
does not appear to have put before him  
the same distinctly religious aim as    
al-jj ,umar did4 #ajhb ,he left  to the 
,qdiriyyah marabouts the task of        
propaganda1 and they with their         
accustomed traditions of toleration are 
said to have done much to  mitigate the 
savagery of his proceedings4 #ajhc ,they
 opened schools in  the conquered towns1
 established there the organisation of  
their order1  and both instructed the   
new converts and sought to win fresh    
ones4    ,with regard to these militant 
movements of ,muhammadan propagandism1  
it  is important to notice that it is   
not the military successes and          
territorial conquests that have most    
contributed to the progress of  ,islam  
in these parts2 for it has been pointed 
out that1 outside the  limits of those  
fragments of the empire of al-jj ,umar  
that have  definitively remained in the 
hands of his successors1 the forced     

conversions that he made have quickly   
been forgotten1 and in spite of  the    
momentary grandeur of his successes and 
the enthusiasm of his  armies1 very few 
traces remain of this armed propaganda4 
#ajhd ,the  real importance of these    
movements in the missionary history of  
,islam  in ,western ,africa is the      
religious enthusiasm they stirred up1   
which  exhibited itself in a widespread 
missionary activity of a purely         
peaceful character among the heathen    
populations4 ,these ,jihds1 rightly     
looked upon1 are but incidents in the   
modern ,islamic revival and are by  no  
means characteristic of the forces and  
activities that have been  really       
operative in the promulgation of ,islam 
in ,africa3 indeed1 unless  followed up 
by distinctly missionary efforts they   
would have proved  almost wholly        
ineffectual in the creation of a true   
,muslim community4  ,in fact1 the       
devastating wars and cruel violence of  
conquerors such as  al-jj ,umar and     

,samory and especially the emissaries of
 the  ,tijniyyah have caused the faith  
of ,islam to be bitterly hated by the   
pagan tribes of the ,sudan in the       
countries watered by the ,senegal and   
the ,niger4 ,hostility to the ,muslim   
faith has almost assumed with them  the 
form of a national movement1 but still  
this ,muhammadan propaganda  has spread 
the faith of the ,prophet in many parts 
of ,guinea and  ,senegambia1 to which   
the ,fulbe #ajhe and merchants from the 
,hausa  country in their frequent       
trading expeditions have brought the    
knowledge of their religion1 and have   
succeeded during the last and the       
present century in winning large numbers
 of converts4 ,especially  noteworthy is
 the activity of those ,qdiriyyah       
preachers and ,muslim  traders who have 
won fresh converts to their faith since 
the ,french  occupation has brought     
peace to the country2 this peaceful     
penetration  has been facilitated in the
 ,french ,sudan1 as in other parts of   

,africa  that have recently come under  
the sway of ,european powers1 by the    
consideration shown by ,french officials
 to the educated classes1 who  are of   
course all ,muhammadans1 and by the open
 contempt with which the  degraded      
habits and superstitions of the pagan   
fetish-worshippers are  regarded4 #ajhf 
,but the proselytising work of the order
 that is now to be described has  never 
in any way been connected with violence 
or war and has employed  in the service 
of religion only the arts of peace and  
persuasion4 ,in  #ahcg a religious      
society was founded by an ,algerian     
jurisconsult1 named  ,sd ,muammad b4 ,al
 al-,sans1 with the object of reforming 
,islam and  spreading the faith2 before 
his death in #ahei1 he had succeeded in 
establishing1 by the sheer force of his 
genius and without the shedding  of     
blood1 a theocratic state1 to which his 
followers render devoted  allegiance and
 the limits of which are every day being
 extended by his  successors4 #ajhg ,the

 members of this sect are bound by rigid
 rules to  carry out to the full the    
precepts of the ,qurn in accordance with
 the  most strictly monotheistic        
principles1 whereby worship is to be    
given  to ,god alone1 and prayers to    
saints and pilgrimages to their tombs   
are  absolutely interdicted4 ,they must 
abstain from coffee and tobacco1  avoid 
all intercourse with ,jews or           
,christians1 contribute a certain       
portion of their income to the funds of 
the society1 if they do not  give       
themselves up entirely to its service1  
and devote all their  energies to the   
advancement of ,islam1 resisting at the 
same time any  concessions to ,european 
influences4 ,this sect is spread over   
the whole  of ,north ,africa1 having    
religious houses scattered about the    
country  from ,egypt to ,morocco1 and   
far into the interior1 in the oases of  
the  ,sahara and the ,sudan4 ,the centre
 of its organisation was in the oasis   
of ,jaghabb #ajhh in the ,libyan desert 

between ,egypt and ,tripoli1  where     
every year hundreds of missionaries were
 trained and sent out as  preachers of  
,islam to all parts of northern ,africa4
 ,it is to the  religious house in this 
village that all the branch             
establishments  7said to be #aba in     
number7 looked for counsel and          
instruction in all  matters concerning  
the management and extension of this    
vast theocracy1  which embraced in a    
marvellous organisation thousands of    
persons of  numerous races and nations1 
otherwise separated from one another by 
vast differences of geographical        
situation and worldly interests4 ,for   
the success that has been achieved by   
the zealous and energetic  emissaries of
 this association is enormous2 convents 
of the order are  to be found not only  
all over the north of ,africa from      
,egypt to  ,morocco1 throughout the     
,sudan1 in ,senegambia and ,somaliland1 
but  members of the order are to be     
found also in ,arabia1 ,mesopotamia and 

the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 
#ajhi ,though primarily a  movement of  
reform in the midst of ,islam itself1   
the ,sansiyyah sect is  also actively   
proselytising1 and several ,african     
tribes that were  previously pagan or   
merely nominally ,muslim1 have since the
 advent of  the emissaries of this sect 
in their midst1 become zealous adherents
 of  the faith of the ,prophet4 ,thus1  
for example1 the ,sans missionaries     
laboured to convert that portion of the 
,baele 7a tribe inhabiting the  hill    
country of ,ennedi1 ,e4 of ,borku7 which
 was still heathen1 and  communicated   
their own religious zeal to such other  
sections of the  tribe as had only a    
very superficial knowledge of ,islam1   
and were  ,muhammadan only in name2     
#ajij the ,tedas of ,tu or ,tibesti1 in 
the  ,sahara1 ,s4 of ,fezzan1 who were  
likewise ,muhammadans only in name when 
the ,sansiyyah came among them1 also    
bear witness to the success of  their   
efforts4 #ajia ,the missionaries of this

 sect also carry on an  active          
propaganda in the ,galla country and    
fresh workers are sent  thither every   
year from ,harar1 where the ,sansiyyah  
are very strong and  include among their
 numbers all the chiefs in the court of 
the ,amr  almost without exception4     
#ajib ,in the furtherance of their      
proselytising efforts these missionaries
 open schools1 form settlements  in the 
oases of the desert1 and--noticeably in 
the case of the  ,wadai--they have      
gained large accessions to their numbers
 by the  purchase of slaves1 who have   
been educated at ,jaghabb and when      
deemed  sufficiently well instructed in 
the tenets of the sect1 enfranchised    
and then sent back to their native      
country to convert their brethren4      
#ajic ,it would appear1 however1 that   
the influence of this order is  now on  
the decline4 #ajid    ,slight as these  
records are of the missionary labours of
 the ,muslims  among the pagan tribes of
 the ,sudan1 they are of importance in  

view of  the general dearth of          
information regarding the spread of     
,islam in this  part of ,africa4 ,but   
while documentary evidence is wanting1  
the  ,muhammadan communities dwelling in
 the midst of fetish-worshippers and    
idolaters1 as representatives of a      
higher faith and civilisation1 are a    
living testimony to the proselytising   
labours of the ,muhammadan              
missionaries1 and 7especially on the    
south-western borderland of  ,islamic   
influence7 present a striking contrast  
to the pagan tribes  demoralised by the 
,european gin traffic4 ,this contrast   
has been well  indicated by a modern    
traveller1 #ajie in speaking of the     
degraded  condition of the tribes of the
 ,lower ,niger3 8,in steaming up the    
river  7i4e4 the ,niger71 ,i saw little 
in the first #bjj miles to alter my     
views1 for there luxuriated in congenial
 union fetishism1 cannibalism  and the  
gin trade4 ,but as ,i left behind me the
 low-lying coast region1  and found     

myself near the southern boundary of    
what is called the  ,central ,sudan1 ,i 
observed an ever-increasing improvement 
in the  appearance of the character of  
the native2 cannibalism disappeared1    
fetishism followed in its wake1 the gin 
trade largely disappeared1  while on the
 other hand1 clothes became more        
voluminous and decent1  cleanliness the 
rule1 while their outward more dignified
 bearing still  further betokened a     
moral regeneration4 ,everything         
indicated a  leavening of some higher   
element1 an element that was clearly    
taking a  deep hold on the negro nature 
and making him a new man4 ,that element 
you will perhaps be surprised to learn  
is ,mahommedanism4 ,on passing  ,lokoja 
at the confluence of the ,benu with the 
,niger1 ,i left behind me  the          
missionary outposts of ,islam1 and      
entering the ,central ,sudan1 ,i  found 
myself in a comparatively well-governed 
empire1 teeming with a  busy populace of
 keen traders1 expert manufacturers of  

cloth1 brass  work and leather2 a       
people1 in fact1 who have made enormous 
advances  towards civilisation40    ,in 
order to form a just estimate of the    
missionary activity of ,islam in        
,nigritia1 it must be borne in mind     
that1 while on the coast and along  the 
southern boundary of the sphere of      
,islamic influence1 the  ,muhammadan    
missionary is the pioneer of his        
religion1 there is still  left behind   
him a vast field for ,muslim propaganda 
in the inland  countries that stretch   
away to the north and the east1 though  
it is  long since ,islam took firm root 
in this soil4 ,some sections of the     
,fnj1 the predominant ,negro race of    
,sennaar1 are partly ,muhammadan and    
partly heathen1 and ,muhammadan         
merchants from ,nubia are attempting the
  conversion of the latter4 #ajif       
,the pagan tribe of the ,jukun1 #ajig   
whose once powerful kingdom  disappeared
 before the victorious development of   
the ,fulbe1 has  withstood the advancing

 influence of ,muhammadanism1 though the
 foreign  minister of their king has    
always been a ,muslim and colonies of   
,hausas  and other ,muhammadans have    
settled among them2 but these ,muslim   
settlers do not succeed in making any   
converts from among the ,jukun1  whose  
traditions of their past greatness make 
them cling to the  national faith whose 
spiritual headship is vested in their   
king4 #ajih    ,it would be easy also to
 enumerate many sections of the         
population of  the ,sudan and           
,senegambia1 that still retain their    
heathen habits and  beliefs1 or cover   
these only with a slight veneer of      
,muhammadan  observance even though they
 have been 7in most cases7 surrounded   
for  centuries by the followers of the  
,prophet4 ,the ,konnohs1 an offshoot of 
the great tribe of the ,mandingos1 are  
still largely pagan1 and it is  only in 
recent years that ,islam has been making
 progress among them4  #ajii            
,consequently1 the remarkable zeal for  

missionary work that has  displayed     
itself among the ,muhammadans of these  
parts during the  present century1 has  
not far to go in order to find abundant 
scope for  its activity4 ,hence the     
importance1 in the missionary history of
 ,islam  in this continent1 of the      
movements of reform in the ,muslim      
religion  itself and the revivals of    
religious life1 to which attention has  
been  drawn above4    ,the ,west ,coast 
is another field for ,muhammadan        
missionary enterprise  where ,islam     
finds itself confronted with a vast     
population still  unconverted1 in spite 
of the progress it has made on the      
,guinea ,coast1  in ,sierra ,leone and  
,liberia1 in which last there are more  
,muhammadans  than heathen4 ,one of the 
earliest notices of ,muslim missionary  
activity  in the neighbourhood of       
,sierra ,leone is to be found in a      
petition for  the dissolution of the    
,sierra ,leone ,company1 ordered to be  
printed by  the ,house of ,commons1 on  

the #beth ,may1 #ahjb4 8,not more than  
seventy  years ago1 a small number of   
,mahomedans established themselves in a 
country about forty miles to the        
northward of ,sierra ,leone1 called from
  them the ,mandingo ,country4 ,as is   
the practice of the professors of that  
religion they formed schools1 in which  
the ,arabic language and the  doctrines 
of ,mahomet were taught1 and the customs
 of ,mahomedans1  particularly that of  
not selling any of their own religion as
 slaves1  were adopted4 ,laws founded on
 the ,koran were introduced4 ,those     
practices which chiefly contribute to   
depopulate the coast were  eradicated1  
and in spite of many intestine          
convulsions1 a great  comparative degree
 of civilisation1 union and security    
were introduced4  ,population1 in       
consequence1 rapidly increased and the  
whole power of  that part of the country
 in which they are settled has gradually
 fallen  into their hands4 ,those who   
have been taught in their schools are   

succeeding to wealth and power in the   
neighbouring countries1 and carry  with 
them a considerable portion of their    
religion and laws4 ,other  chiefs are   
adopting the name assumed by these      
,mahomedans1 on account of  the respect 
which attends it2 and the religion of   
,islam seems likely to  diffuse itself  
peaceably over the whole district in    
which the colony is  situated1 carrying 
with it those advantages which seem ever
 to have  attended its victory over     
,negro superstition40 #aajj ,in the     
,mendi  country1 about one hundred miles
 south of ,sierra ,leone1 ,islam appears
  to have found an entrance only in the 
present century1 but to be now  making  
steady progress4 8,the propagandism is  
not conducted by any  special order of  
priests set apart for the purpose1 but  
every ,musalman  is an active           
missionary4 ,some half a dozen of them1 
more or less1  meeting in a town1 where 
they intend to reside for any length of 
time1  soon run up a mosque and begin   

work4 ,they first approach the chief of 
the town and obtain his consent to their
 intended act1 and perhaps his  promise 
to become an adherent4 ,they teach him  
their prayers in ,arabic1  or as much as
 he can1 or cares to1 commit to memory4 
,they put him  through the forms and    
ceremonies used in praying1 forbid him  
the use of  alcoholic beverages--a      
restriction as often observed as        
not--and lo6 the  man is a convert40    
#aaja ,on the ,guinea ,coast1 ,muslim   
influences are  spread chiefly by ,hausa
 traders who are to be found in all the 
commercial towns on this coast2 whenever
 they form a settlement1 they  at once  
build a mosque and by their devout      
behaviour1 and their  superior culture1 
they impress the heathen inhabitants2   
whole tribes of  fetish-worshippers pass
 over to ,islam as the result of their  
imitation  of what they recognise to be 
a higher civilisation than their own1   
without any particular efforts being    
necessary for persuading them4  #aajb   

,in ,ashanti there was a nucleus of a   
,muhammadan population to be found  as  
early as #agej and the missionaries of  
,islam have laboured there ever  since  
with slow but sure success1 #aajc as    
they find a ready welcome  in the       
country and have gained for themselves  
considerable influence at  the court2 by
 means of their schools they get a hold 
on the minds of  the younger generation1
 and there are said to be significant   
signs that  ,islam will become the      
predominant religion in ,ashanti1 as    
already many  of the chiefs have adopted
 it4 #aajd ,in ,dahomey and the ,gold   
,coast1  ,islam is daily making fresh   
progress1 and even when the heathen     
chieftains do not themselves embrace it1
 they very frequently allow  themselves 
to come under the influence of its      
missionaries1 who know  how to take     
advantage of this ascendancy in their   
labours among the  common people4 #aaje 
,dahomey and ,ashanti are the most      
important  kingdoms in this part of the 

continent that are still subject to     
pagan  rulers1 and their conversion is  
said to be a question of a short time   
only4 #aajf ,in ,lagos there are        
well-nigh #aj1jjj ,muslims1 and all the 
trading stations of the ,west ,coast    
include in their populations numbers  of
 ,musalmans belonging to the superior   
,negro tribes1 such as the ,fulbe1  the 
,mandingos and the ,hausa4 ,when these  
men come down to the cities of  the     
coast1 as they do in considerable       
numbers1 either as traders or to  serve 
as troops in the armies of the ,european
 powers1 they cannot fail  to impress by
 their bold and independent bearing the 
,negro of the  coast-land2 he sees that 
the believers in the ,qurn are          
everywhere  respected by ,european      
governors1 officials and merchants2 they
 are not  so far removed from him in    
race1 appearance1 dress or manners as to
  make admission into their brotherhood 
impossible to him1 and to him too  is   
offered a share in their privileges on  

condition of conversion to  their faith4
 #aajg ,as soon as the pagan ,negro1    
however obscure or  degraded1 shows     
himself willing to accept the teachings 
of the ,prophet1  he is at once admitted
 as an equal into their society1 and    
admission  into the brotherhood of      
,islam is not a privilege grudgingly    
granted1  but one freely offered by     
zealous and eager proselytisers4 ,for1  
from  the mouth of the ,senegal to      
,lagos1 over two thousand miles1 there  
is  said to be hardly any town of       
importance on the seaboard in which     
there  is not at least one mosque1 with 
active propagandists of ,islam1 often   
working side by side with the teachers  
of ,christianity4 #aajh    ,we must now 
turn to the history of the spread of    
,islam on the other  side of the        
continent of ,africa1 the inhabitants of
 which were in  closer proximity to the 
land where this faith had its birth4    
,the facts  recorded respecting the     
early settlements of the ,arabs on the  

,east  ,coast are very meagre2 according
 to an ,arabic chronicle which the      
,portuguese found in ,kiloa #aaji when  
that town was sacked by ,don  ,francisco
 d',almeda in #aeje1 the first settlers 
were a body of ,arabs  who were driven  
into exile because they followed the    
heretical  teachings of a certain ,zayd1
 #aaaj a descendant of the ,prophet1    
after  whom they were called ,emozaydij 
7probably   or people of  ,zayd74 ,the  
,zayd here referred to is probably ,zayd
 b4 ,al1 a grandson  of usayn and so    
great-grandson of ,al1 the nephew of    
,muammad3 in the  reign of the caliph   
,hishm he claimed to be the ,imm ,mahd  
and stirred  up a revolt among the ,shah
 faction1 but was defeated and put to   
death  in ,a4,h4 #abb 7,a4,d4 #gdj74    
#aaaa    ,they seem to have lived in    
considerable dread of the original pagan
  inhabitants of the country1 but       
succeeded gradually in extending their  
settlements along the coast1 until the  
arrival of another band of  fugitives   

who came from the ,arabian side of the  
,persian ,gulf1 not far  from the island
 of ,barayn4 ,these came in three ships 
under the  leadership of seven brothers1
 in order to escape from the persecution
  of the king of ,lasah1 #aaab a city   
hard by the dwelling-place of their     
tribe4 ,the first town they built was   
,magadaxo1 #aaac which afterwards  rose 
to such power as to assume lordship over
 all the ,arabs of the  coast4 ,but the 
original settlers1 the ,emozaydij1      
belonging as they did  to a different   
,muhammadan sect1 being ,shahs1 while   
the new-comers  were ,sunns1 were       
unwilling to submit to the authority of 
the rulers of  ,magadaxo1 and retired   
into the interior1 where they became    
merged into  the native population1     
intermarrying with them and adopting    
their  manners and customs4 #aaad       
,magadaxo was founded about the middle  
of the tenth century and remained  the  
most powerful city on this coast for    
more than seventy years1 when  the      

arrival of another expedition from the  
,persian ,gulf led to the  establishment
 of a rival settlement further south4   
,the leader of this  expedition was     
named ,al1 one of the seven sons of a   
certain ,sultan  asan of ,shiraz3       
because his mother was an ,abyssinian1  
he was looked  down upon with contempt  
by his brothers1 whose cruel treatment  
of him  after the death of their father1
 determined him to leave his native     
land and seek a home elsewhere4         
,accordingly1 with his wife and children
  and a small body of followers1 he set 
sail from the island of ,ormuz1  and    
avoiding ,magadaxo1 whose inhabitants   
belonged to a different sect1  and      
having heard that gold was to be found  
on the ,zanzibar coast1 he  pushed on to
 the south and founded the city of      
,kiloa1 where he could  maintain a      
position of independence and be free    
from the interference  of his           
predecessors further north4 #aaae    ,in
 this way a number of ,arab towns sprang

 up along the east coast from  the ,gulf
 of ,aden to the ,tropic of ,capricorn1 
on the fringe of what was  called by the
 medival ,arab geographers the country  
of the ,zanj4  ,whatever efforts may    
have been made by the ,muhammadan       
settlers to  convert the ,zanj1 no      
record of them seems to have survived4  
,there is a  curious story preserved in 
an old collection of travels written    
probably in the early part of the tenth 
century1 which represents ,islam  as    
having been introduced among one of     
these tribes by the king of it  himself4
 ,an ,arab trading vessel was driven out
 of its course by a  tempest in the year
 ,a4,d4 #ibb and carried to the country 
of the  man-eating ,zanj1 where the crew
 expected certain death4 ,on the        
contrary1 the king of the place received
 them kindly and entertained  them      
hospitably for several months1 while    
they disposed of their  merchandise on  
advantageous terms2 but the merchants   
repaid his  kindness with foul          

treachery1 by seizing him and his       
attendants when  they came on board to  
bid them farewell1 and then carrying    
them off as  slaves to ,omam4 ,some     
years later the same merchants were     
driven by a  storm to the same port1    
where they were recognised by the       
natives who  surrounded them in their   
canoes2 giving themselves up for lost   
this  time1 they repeated for one       
another the prayers for the dead4 ,they 
were  taken before the king1 whom they  
discovered to their surprise and        
confusion to be the same they had so    
shamefully treated some years  before4  
,instead1 however1 of taking vengeance  
upon them for their  treacherous        
conduct1 he spared their lives and      
allowed them to sell  their goods1 but  
rejected with scorn the rich presents   
they offered4  ,before they left1 one of
 the party ventured to ask the king to  
tell the  story of his escape4 ,he      
described how he had been taken as a    
slave to  ,barah and thence to ,baghdd1 

where he was converted to ,islam and    
instructed in the faith2 escaping from  
his master1 he joined a caravan  of     
pilgrims going to ,mecca1 and after     
performing the prescribed rites1        
reached ,cairo and made his way up the  
,nile in the direction of his own       
country1 which he reached at length     
after encountering many dangers and     
having been more than once enslaved4    
,restored once again to his  kingdom1 he
 taught his people the faith of ,islam2 
8and now ,i rejoice in  that ,god hath  
given to me and to my people the        
knowledge of ,islam and  the true faith2
 to no other in the land of the ,zanj   
hath this grace  been vouchsafed2 and it
 is because you have been the cause of  
my  conversion1 that ,i pardon you4     
,tell the ,muslims that they may come to
  our country1 and that we--,muslims    
like themselves--will treat them as     
brothers40 #aaaf    ,from the same      
source we learn that even at this early 
period1 this  coast-land was frequented 

by large numbers of ,arab traders1 yet  
in  spite of centuries of intercourse   
with the followers of ,islam1 the       
original inhabitants of this coast 7with
 the exception of the ,somalis7  have   
been remarkably little influenced by    
this religion4 ,even before  the        
,portuguese conquests of the sixteenth  
century1 what few conversions  had been 
made1 seem to have been wholly confined 
to the sea-border1 and  even after the  
decline of ,portuguese influence in this
 part of the  world1 and the restoration
 of ,arab rule under the ,sayyids of    
,omam1  hardly any efforts were made    
until the twentieth century to spread   
the  knowledge of ,islam among the      
tribes of the interior1 with the        
exception  of the ,galla and ,somali4   
,as a modern traveller has said3        
8,during the  three expeditions which ,i
 conducted in ,east ,central ,africa ,i 
saw  nothing to suggest ,mohammedanism  
as a civilising power4 ,whatever living 
force might be in the religion remained 

latent4 ,the ,arabs1 or their           
descendants1 in these parts were not    
propagandists4 ,there were no           
missionaries to preach ,islam1 and the  
natives of ,muscat were content  that   
their slaves should conform1 to a       
certain extent1 to the forms of  the    
religion4 ,they left the ,east ,african 
tribes1 who indeed1 in their  gross     
darkness1 were evidently content to     
remain in happy ignorance4  ,their      
inaptitude for civilisation was         
strikingly shown in the strange  fact   
that five hundred years of contact with 
semi-civilised people had  left them    
without the faintest reflection of the  
higher traits which  characterised their
 neighbours--not a single good seed     
during all these  years had struck root 
and flourished40 #aaag ,given up wholly 
to the  pursuits of commerce or to      
slave-hunting1 the ,arabs in ,eastern   
,africa  exhibited a lukewarmness in    
promoting the interests of their faith1 
which is in striking contrast to the    

missionary zeal displayed by their      
co-religionists in other parts of       
,africa4    ,a notable exception is the 
propagandist activity of the ,arab      
traders  who were admitted into ,uganda 
in the first half of the nineteenth     
century2 they probably recognised that  
the sturdy independence of the  ,baganda
 made slave-raiding among them          
impossible1 so they sought to  gain     
their confidence by winning them over to
 their own faith4 ,many of  the ,baganda
 became ,muhammadans during the reign of
 ,king ,mutesa1 but  ,stanley's visit to
 this monarch in #ahge led to the       
introduction of  ,christian missions in 
the following year1 and the power of the
  ,muhammadans in the state declined    
with the rapid increase in the  numbers 
of the ,christian converts and the      
establishment of a ,british             
,protectorate4 #aaah ,but a number of   
,muhammadans still hold important       
positions in ,uganda1 and it is stated  
that there is a possibility of  the     

,eastern ,province becoming ,muslim4 ,in
 the rich tributary country of  ,busoga1
 to the north of ,uganda1 a large number
 of those in authority  were said1 in   
#aijf1 to be ,muhammadans4 #aaai ,but   
with this exception  ,islam in ,east    
,equatorial ,africa was up to the latter
 part of the  nineteenth century        
confined to the coast-lands and the     
immediately  adjoining country4 ,the    
explanation would appear to be that it  
was not  to the interests of the        
slave-dealers to spread ,islam among the
 heathen  tribes from among whom they   
obtained their unhappy victims2 for1    
once  converted to ,islam1 the native   
tribes would enter into the brotherhood 
of the faith and could not be raided and
 carried off as slaves4 #aabj    ,the   
suppression of the slave-trade1 with the
 extension of ,european rule  over ,east
 ,equatorial ,africa1 was followed by a 
remarkable expansion of  ,muslim        
missionary activity2 peace and order    
were established in the  interior1      

railways and high roads were made1 and  
the peaceful ,muslim  trader could now  
make his way into districts hitherto    
closed to him4  ,the administration     
selected its officials from among the   
more  cultivated ,muhammadan section of 
the population2 thousands of posts  were
 created by the government of ,german   
,east ,africa and given to  ,muhammadan 
officials1 whose influence was used to  
bring over whole  villages to ,islam4   
#aaba ,the teachers of the state schools
 were  likewise ,muhammadans1 and as    
early as the last decades of the        
nineteenth century ,swahili             
schoolmasters were observed to be       
carrying  on a lively and successful    
mission work among the people of ,bondi 
and  the ,wadigo 7who dwell a little    
inland from the coast7 in ,german ,east 
,africa4 #aabb ,but it was in the       
beginning of the twentieth century1     
especially after the suppression of the 
insurrection of #aije in ,german  ,east 
,africa1 that the activity of this new  

missionary movement became  strikingly  
noticeable in the interior4 #aabc ,this 
movement of  expansion has especially   
followed the railroads and the great    
trade  routes1 and has spread right     
across ,german ,east ,africa to its     
western  boundary on ,lake ,tanganyika1 
northward from ,usambara to the         
,kilimanjaro  district1 and southward to
 ,lake ,nyasa4 #aabd ,the workers in    
this  propaganda are merchants1         
especially ,swahilis from the coast1    
soldiers  and government officials4     
#aabe ,the acceptance of ,islam is      
looked upon  as a sign of an elevation  
to a higher civilisation and social     
status1  and the ridicule with which the
 pagans are regarded by the ,muhammadans
  is said often to be a determining     
factor in their conversion4 #aabf ,an   
instance of the operation of this       
feeling may be taken from ,west         
,usambara1 which was said in #ahia to be
 still closed to ,islam2 the  feeling of
 both chiefs and people was hostile to  

the ,muhammadans1 who  were hated and   
feared as slave-dealers2 but when the   
days of the  slave-trade were over and  
an ordered administration was           
established1  the first native officials
 appointed were almost entirely         
,muhammadans2  they impressed upon the  
chiefs and other notables who came in   
touch  with them that it was the correct
 thing for those who moved in official  
circles to be ,muhammadans1 and thereby 
achieved the conversion of some  of the 
greater chiefs1 who afterwards exercised
 a similar influence on  chiefs of an   
inferior degree4 #aabg ,there seems to  
be little evidence  of the activity of  
professional missionaries or of any of  
the religious  orders1 but there are not
 wanting evidences of systematic        
efforts1 such  as those of a ,muslim    
teacher1 who is reported to have        
regularly visited  a district in the    
,kilimanjaro country every week for five
 months1  preaching the faith of ,islam2
 his ministrations were welcomed by the 

people1 whom he entertained with feasts 
of rice1 etc4 #aabh ,in this  zealous   
propaganda it is noticeable that the    
preachers of ,islam do not  confine     
their attention to pagans only1 but seek
 also to win converts  from among the   
native ,christians4 #aabi    ,islam made
 its way into ,nyasaland also from the  
,east ,coast1 having been  introduced by
 the slave-raiding ,arabs and their     
allies the ,yaos1 whose  ancestors came 
from near the ,east ,coast where they   
had long since  accepted ,islam4 ,it is 
said that an ,arab is now seldom seen in
  ,nyasaland1 but the ,yaos constitute  
one of the most powerful native  tribes 
in ,nyasaland1 and look upon ,islam as  
their national faith4  ,though there    
appears to be no organised propaganda1  
,islam has spread  very rapidly during  
the first decade of the twentieth       
century1 and that  among some of the    
most intelligent tribes in the country4 
#aacj    ,islam has achieved a similar  
success among the ,galla and the        

,somali4  ,mention has already been made
 of the ,galla settlements in           
,abyssinia2  these immigrants1 who are  
divided into seven principal clans1 with
 the  generic name of ,wollo-,galla1    
were probably all heathen at the time of
  their incursion into the country1     
#aaca and a large part of them  remain  
so to the present day4 ,after settling  
in ,abyssinia they soon  became         
naturalised there1 and in many instances
 adopted the language1  manners and     
customs of the original inhabitants of  
the country4 #aacb    ,the story of     
their conversion is obscure3 while some 
of them are said  to have been forcibly 
baptised into the ,christian faith1 the 
absence of  any political power in the  
hands of the ,muhammadans precludes the 
possibility of any converts to ,islam   
having been made in a similar  fashion4 
,in the eighteenth century1 those in the
 south were said to be  mostly          
,muhammadans1 those to the east and west
 chiefly pagans4 #aacc  ,more recent    

information points to a further increase
 in the number of  the followers of the 
,prophet1 and in #ahfg ,munzinger       
prophesied that in  a short time all the
 ,galla tribes would be ,muhammadan1    
#aacd and as  they were said to be 8very
 fanatical10 we may presume that they   
were by  no means half-hearted or       
lukewarm in their adherence to this     
religion4  #aace    ,the ,galla freedman
 whom ,doughty met at ,khaybar certainly
 exhibited a  remarkable degree of zeal 
for his own faith4 ,he had been carried 
off  from his home when a child and sold
 as a slave in ,jiddah2 when ,doughty   
asked him whether no anger was left in  
his heart against those who had  stolen 
him and sold his life to servitude in   
the ends of the earth1  8,yet one       
thing10 he answered1 8has recompensed   
me1--that ,i remained not  in ignorance 
with the heathen6--,oh1 the wonderful   
providence of ,ullah6  whereby ,i am    
come to this country of the ,apostle1   
and to the knowledge  of the religion60 

#aacf 8,oh6 what sweetness is there in  
believing6  ,trust me1 dear comrade1 it 
is a thing above that which any heart   
may  speak2 and would ,god thou wert    
come to this 7heavenly7 knowledge2 but  
the ,lord will surely have a care of    
thee1 that thou shouldst not perish     
without the religion4 ,ay1 how good a   
thing it were to see thee a  ,moslem1   
and become one with us2 but ,i know that
 the time is in ,god's  hand3 the       
,lord's will be done40 #aacg    ,among  
the ,galla tribes of the true ,galla    
country1 the population is  partly      
,muhammadan 7some tribes having been    
converted about #aejj7 #aach  and partly
 heathen1 with the exception of those   
tribes immediately  bordering on        
,abyssinia who in the latter part of the
 nineteenth century  were forced by the 
king of that country to accept          
,christianity4 #aaci  ,among the        
mountains1 the ,muhammadans are in a    
minority1 but on the  plains the        
missionaries of ,islam have met with    

striking success1 and  their teaching   
found a rapidly increasing acceptance   
during the last  century4 ,antonio      
,cecchi1 who visited the petty kingdom  
of ,limmu in  #ahgh1 gives an account of
 the conversion of ,abba ,baghib1 #aadj 
the  father of the then reigning        
chieftain1 by ,muhammadans who for some 
years had been pushing their            
proselytising efforts in this country in
  the guise of traders4 ,his example was
 followed by the chiefs of the          
neighbouring ,galla kingdoms and by the 
officers of their courts2 part  of the  
common people also were won over to the 
new faith1 and it  continued to make    
progress among them1 but the greater    
part cling  firmly to their ancient     
cult4 #aada ,these traders received a   
ready  welcome at the courts of the     
,galla chiefs1 inasmuch as they found   
them  a market for the commercial       
products of the country and imported    
objects of foreign manufacture in       
exchange4 ,as they made their journeys  

to the coast once a year only1 or even  
once in two years1 and lived all  the   
rest of the time in the ,galla country1 
they had plenty of  opportunities1 which
 they knew well how to avail themselves 
of1 for the  work of propagating ,islam1
 and wherever they set their foot they  
were  sure in a short space of time to  
gain a large number of proselytes4      
#aadb ,islam here came in conflict with 
,christian missionaries from  ,europe1  
whose efforts1 though winning for       
,christianity a few converts1  have been
 crowned with very little success1      
#aadc--;even the converts of  ,cardinal 
,massaja 7after he was expelled from    
these parts7 either  embraced ,islam or 
ended by believing neither in ,christ   
nor in ,allh1  #aadd--whereas the       
,muslim missionaries achieved a         
continuous success1  and pushed their   
way far to the south1 and crossed the   
,wbi river4  #aade ,the majority of the 
,galla tribes dwelling in the west of   
the  ,galla country were still heathen  

towards the end of the nineteenth       
century1 but among the most westerly of 
them1 viz4 the ,lega1 #aadf the  old    
nature worship appeared to be on the    
decline and the growing  influence of   
the ,muslim missionaries made it        
probable that within a few  years the   
,lega would all have entered into the   
pale of ,islam4 #aadg    ,the           
,north-,east ,africa of the present day 
presents indeed the spectacle  of a     
remarkably energetic and zealous        
missionary activity on the part  of the 
,muhammadans4 ,several hundreds of      
missionaries come from ,arabia  every   
year1 and they have been even more      
successful in their labours  among the  
,somali than among the ,galla4 #aadh    
,the close proximity of  the ,somali    
country to ,arabia must have caused it  
very early to have  been the scene of   
,muhammadan missionary labours1 but of  
these  unfortunately little record seems
 to have survived4 ,the people of       
,zayla were said by ,ibn awqal #aadi in 

the second half of the ninth  century to
 be ,christians1 but in the first half  
of the fourteenth  century ,abu'l-,fid  
speaks of them as being ,musalmans4     
#aaej ,the new  faith was probably      
brought across the sea by ,arab         
merchants or  refugees4 ,the ,somalis of
 the north have a tradition of a certain
 ,arab  of noble birth who1 compelled to
 flee his own country1 crossed the sea  
to ,adel1 where he preached the faith of
 ,islam among their forefathers4  #aaea 
,in the fifteenth century a band of     
forty-four ,arabs came as  missionaries 
from aramawt1 landing at ,berberah on   
the ,red ,sea1 and  thence dispersed    
over the ,somali country to preach      
,islam4 ,one of them1  ,shaykh ,ibrhm   
,ab ,zarbay1 made his way to the city of
 ,harar about ,a4,d4  #adcj1 and gained 
many converts there1 and his tomb is    
still honoured in  that city4 ,a hill   
near ,berberah is still called the      
,mount of ,saints in  memory of these   
missionaries1 who are said to have sat  

there in solemn  conclave before        
scattering far and wide to the work of  
conversion4  #aaeb ,islam gradually     
became predominant throughout the whole 
of  ,north-,east ,africa1 but the       
growing power of the ,emperor ,menelik  
and his  occupation of ,harar in #ahhf  
resulted in a certain number of         
conversions  to ,christianity4 #aaec    
,in order to complete this survey of    
,islam in ,africa1 it remains only to   
draw attention to the fact that this    
religion has also made its  entrance    
into the extreme south of this          
continent1 viz4 in ,cape ,colony4       
,these ,muhammadans of the ,cape are    
descendants of ,malays1 who were        
brought here by the ,dutch #aaed either 
in the seventeenth or  eighteenth       
century2 #aaee they speak a corrupt form
 of the ,boer  dialect1 with a          
considerable admixture of ,arabic1 and  
some ,english and  ,malay words4 ,a     
curious little book published in this   
dialect and  written in ,arabic         

characters was published in             
,constantinople in #ahgg by  the        
,turkish minister of education1 to serve
 as a handbook of the  principles of the
 ,muslim faith4 #aaef ,the thoroughly   
,dutch names that  some of them bear1   
and the type of face observable in many 
of them1  point to the probability that 
they have at some time received into    
their community some persons of ,dutch  
birth1 or at least that they have  in   
their veins a considerable admixture of 
,dutch blood4 ,they have also  gained   
some converts from among the            
,hottentots4 ,very little notice has    
been taken of them by ,european         
travellers1 #aaeg or even by their      
co-religionists until recently4 ,in     
#ahai ,colebrooke had drawn attention   
to the growth of ,islam in some         
interesting notes he wrote on the ,cape 
,colony3 8,mohammedanism is said to be  
gaining ground among the slaves  and    
free people of colour at the ,cape2 that
 is to say1 more converts  among negroes

 and blacks of every description are    
made from ,paganism to  the ,musleman1  
than to the ,christian religion1        
notwithstanding the  zealous exertions  
of pious missionaries4 ,one cause of    
this perversion  is asserted to be a    
marked disinclination of slave owners to
 allow  their slaves to be baptized2    
arising from some erroneous notions or  
over-charged apprehensions of the rights
 which a baptized slave  acquires4      
,slaves are certainly impressed with the
 idea that such a  disinclination       
subsists1 and it is not an unfrequent   
answer of a slave1  when asked his      
motives for turning ,musleman1 that     
#8some religion he  must have1 and he is
 not allowed to turn ,christian4'       
,prejudices in this  respect are wearing
 away2 and less discouragement is now   
given to the  conversion of slaves than 
heretofore4 ,masters1 it is affirmed1   
begin to  find that their slaves serve  
not the worse for instruction received  
in  religious duties4 ,missionaries who 

devote themselves especially to the     
religious instruction of slaves 7and    
there is one in each of the  principal  
towns7 have increasing congregations1   
and hope that their  labours are not    
unfruitful4 ,but the ,musleman priest1  
with less  exertion1 has a greater      
flock40 #aaeh ,during the last fifty    
years the  ,muhammadans in ,cape ,colony
 have been visited by some zealous      
co-religionists from other countries1   
and more attention is now paid by  them 
to education1 and a deeper religious    
life has been stirred up  among them1   
and they are said to carry on a zealous 
propaganda1  especially among the       
coloured people at the ,cape and to     
achieve a  certain success4 #aaei ,this 
proselytising movement is especially    
strong in the western part of ,cape     
,colony4 ,it is said that there is a    
movement on foot for the founding of a  
college at ,claremont1 in the  vicinity 
of ,cape ,town1 which shall become a    
centre for the propagation  of ,islam4  

,one of the methods at present employed 
is the adoption of  neglected or        
abandoned children1 who are brought up  
in the ,muslim  faith4 #aafj ,every year
 some of them make the pilgrimage to    
,mecca1  where a special ,shaykh has    
been appointed to look after them4 #aafa
  ,the ,indian coolies that come to work
 in the diamond fields of ,south        
,africa are also said to be             
propagandists of ,islam4 #aafb    ,on   
account of its isolated position1 #bbj  
to #edj miles from the  mainland1 the   
island of ,madagascar calls for separate
 mention4 ,the only  tribe that has     
adopted ,islam is that of the           
,antaimorona1 occupying a  part of the  
south-east coast2 they undoubtedly owed 
their conversion to  missionaries from  
,arabia1 but the date at which this     
change of faith  took place is entirely 
unknown2 tradition would carry it back  
to the  very days of ,muammad himself1  
but it is not until the sixteenth       
century that we get1 in the works of    

,italian and ,portuguese  geographers1  
authentic mention of ,muhammadans on the
 island4 #aafc    ,from the historical  
sketch given above it may be seen that  
peaceful  methods have largely          
characterised the ,muhammadan missionary
 movement  in ,africa1 and though ,islam
 has often taken the sword as an        
instrument  to further its spiritual    
conquests1 such an appeal to violence   
and  bloodshed has in most cases been   
preceded by the peaceful efforts of  the
 missionary1 and the preacher has       
followed the conqueror to complete  the 
imperfect work of conversion4 ,it is    
true that the success of ,islam  has    
been very largely facilitated in many   
parts of ,africa by the  worldly        
successes of ,muhammadan adventurers1   
and the erection of  ,muhammadan states 
on the ruins of pagan kingdoms1 and fire
 and  bloodshed have often marked the   
course of a ,jihd1 projected for the    
extermination of the infidel4 ,the words
 of the young ,arab from ,bornu  whom   

,captain ,burton #aafd met in the palace
 of the ,king of ,abeokuta  doubtless   
express the aspirations of many an      
,african ,muhammadan3 8,give  those guns
 and powder to us1 and we will soon     
,islamise these dogs03 and  they find an
 echo in the message that ,mungo ,park  
#aafe gives us as  having been sent by  
the ,muslim ,king of ,futah ,toro to his
 pagan  neighbour3 8,with this knife    
,abdulkader will condescend to shave the
  head of ,damel1 if ,damel will embrace
 the ,mahommedan faith2 and with  this  
other knife ,abdulkader will cut the    
throat of ,damel1 if ,damel  refuses to 
embrace it2 take your choice40    ,but  
much as ,islam may have owed to the     
martial prowess of such fanatics  as    
these1 there is the overwhelming        
testimony of travellers and others  to  
the peaceful missionary preaching1 and  
quiet and persistent labours  of the    
,muslim propagandist1 which have done   
more for the rapid spread  of ,islam in 
modern ,africa than any violent         

measures3 by the latter its  opponents  
may indeed have been exterminated1 but  
by the former chiefly1  have its        
converts been made1 and the work of     
conversion may still be  observed in    
progress in many regions of the coast   
and the interior4  #aaff ,wherever      
,islam has made its way1 there is the   
,muhammadan  missionary to be found     
bearing witness to its doctrines1--the  
trader1 be  he ,arab1 ,pul or ,mandingo1
 who combines proselytism with the sale 
of his  merchandise1 and whose very     
profession brings him into close and    
immediate contact with those he would   
convert1 and disarms any possible       
suspicion of sinister motives2 such a   
man when he enters a pagan  village soon
 attracts attention by his frequent     
ablutions and regularly  recurring times
 of prayer and prostration1 in which he 
appears to be  conversing with some     
invisible being1 and by his very        
assumption of  intellectual and moral   
superiority1 commands the respect and   

confidence  of the heathen people1 to   
whom at the same time he shows himself  
ready  and willing to communicate his   
high privileges and knowledge2--the j   
or pilgrim who has returned from ,mecca 
full of enthusiasm for the  spread of   
the faith1 to which he devotes his whole
 energies1 wandering  about from place  
to place1 supported by the alms of the  
faithful who  bear witness to the truth 
in the midst of their pagan             
neighbours2--the  student who1 in       
consequence of his knowledge of ,islamic
 theology and  law1 receives honour as a
 man of learning3 sometimes1 too1 he    
practises  medicine1 or at least he is  
in great requisition as a writer of     
charms1  texts from the ,qurn1 which are
 sewn up in pieces of leather or cloth  
and tied on the arms1 or round the neck1
 and which he can turn to  account as a 
means of adding to the number of his    
converts3 for  instance1 when childless 
women or those who have lost their      
children in  infancy1 apply for these   

charms1 as a condition of success the   
obligation is always imposed upon them  
of bringing up their future  children as
 ,muhammadans4 #aafg ,these religious   
teachers1 or marabouts1  or alfas as    
they are variously termed1 are held in  
the highest  estimation4 ,in some tribes
 of ,western ,africa every village      
contains a  lodge for their reception1  
and they are treated with the utmost    
deference and respect3 in ,darfur they  
hold the highest rank after those  who  
fill the offices of government3 among   
the ,mandingos they rank still  higher1 
and receive honour next to the king1 the
 subordinate chiefs  being regarded as  
their inferiors in point of dignity3 in 
those states  in which the ,qurn is made
 the rule of government in all civil    
matters1 their services are in great    
demand1 in order to interpret its       
meaning4 ,so sacred are the persons of  
these teachers esteemed1 that  they pass
 without molestation through the        
countries of chiefs1 not only  hostile  

to each other1 but engaged in actual    
warfare4 ,such deference is  not only   
paid to them in ,muhammadan countries1  
but also in the pagan  villages in which
 they establish their schools1 where the
 people  respect them as the instructors
 of their children1 and look upon them  
as the medium between themselves and    
,heaven1 either for securing a  supply  
of their necessities1 or for warding off
 or removing calamities4  #aafh ,many of
 these teachers have studied in the     
mosques of ,qayrwn1  ,fas1 ,tripoli     
#aafi and other centres of ,muslim      
learning2 but  especially in the mosque 
of al-,azhar in ,cairo4 ,students flock 
to it  from all parts of the ,muslim    
world1 and among them is often to be    
found  a contingent from ,negro         
,africa1--students from ,darfur1 ,wadai 
and ,bornu1  and some who even make     
their way on foot from the far distant  
,west  ,coast2 when they have finished  
their courses of study in ,muslim       
theology and jurisprudence1 there are   

many of them who become  missionaries   
among the heathen population of their   
native land4 ,schools  are established  
by these missionaries in the towns they 
visit1 which  are frequented by the     
pagan as well as the ,muslim children4  
,they are  taught to read the ,qurn1 and
 instructed in the doctrines and        
ceremonies of ,islam4 ,having thus      
gained a footing1 the ,muhammadan       
missionary1 by his superior knowledge   
and attainments1 is not slow to  obtain 
great influence over the people among   
whom he has come to live4  ,in this he  
is aided by the fact that his habits and
 manner of life are  similar in many    
respects to their own1 nor is he looked 
upon with  suspicion1 inasmuch as the   
trader has already prepared the way for 
him2  and by intermarriage with the     
natives1 being thus received into their 
social system1 his influence becomes    
firmly rooted and permanent1 and  so in 
the most natural manner he gradually    
causes the knowledge of  ,islam to      

spread among them4    ,his propagandist 
efforts are further facilitated by the  
fact that the  deism which forms the    
background of the religious             
consciousness of many                   
fetish-worshippers may pass by an easy  
transition into the theism of  ,islam1  
together with some other aspects of     
their theology1 while their  general    
outlook upon life and several of their  
religious institutions  are capable of  
taking on a ,muslim colouring and of    
being transferred to  the new system of 
faith without undergoing much           
modification4 #aagj    ,the arrival of  
the ,muhammadan in a pagan country is   
also the beginning  of the opening up of
 a more extensive trade1 and of         
communication with  great ,muhammadan   
trading centres such as ,jenne1 ,segu or
 ,kano1 and a  share in the advantages  
of this material civilisation is        
offered1  together with the religion of 
the ,prophet4 ,thus 8among the          
uncivilised  negro tribes the missionary

 may be always sure of a ready audience3
 he  can not only give them many truths 
regarding ,god and man which make  their
 way to the heart and elevate the       
intellect1 but he can at once           
communicate the ,shibboleth of admission
 to a social and political  communion1  
which is a passport for protection and  
assistance from the  ,atlantic to the   
,wall of ,china4 ,wherever a ,moslem    
house can be found  there the negro     
convert who can repeat the dozen        
syllables of his  creed1 is sure of     
shelter1 sustenance and advice1 and in  
his own  country he finds himself at    
once a member of an influential1 if not 
of  a dominant caste4 ,this seems the   
real secret of the success of the       
,moslem missionaries in ,west ,africa4  
,it is great and rapid as regards       
numbers1 for the simple reason that the 
,moslem missionary1 from the  very first
 profession of the convert's belief1    
acts practically on  those principles   
regarding the equality and brotherhood  

of all  believers before ,god1 which    
,islam shares with ,christianity2 and he
 does  this1 as a general rule1 more    
speedily and decidedly than the         
,christian  missionary1 who generally   
feels bound to require good evidence of 
a  converted heart before he gives the  
right hand of ,christian fellowship1    
and who has always to contend with race 
prejudices not likely to die  out in a  
single generation where the white       
,christian has for  generations been    
known as master1 and the black heathen  
as slave40  #aaga    ,it is important1  
too1 to note that neither his colour nor
 his race in  any way prejudice the     
,negro in the eyes of his new           
co-religionists4 ,the  progress of      
,islam in ,negritia has no doubt been   
materially advanced by  this absence of 
any feeling of repulsion towards the    
,negro--indeed ,islam  seems never to   
have treated the ,negro as an inferior1 
as has been  unhappily too often the    
case in ,christendom4 #aagb    ,this    

consideration goes partly to explain the
 success of ,muslim as  contrasted with 
,christian missions among the ,negro    
peoples4 ,it has  frequently been       
pointed out that the ,negro convert to  
,christianity is  apt to feel that his  
,european co-religionists belong to a   
stratum of  civilisation alien to his   
own habits of life1 whereas he feels    
himself  to be more at home in a ,muslim
 society4 ,this has been well stated by 
a  modern observer1 in the following    
passage3--8,islam1 despite its          
shortcomings1 does not1 from the        
,nigerian point of view1 demand race    
suicide of the ,nigerian as an          
accompaniment of conversion4 ,it does   
not  stipulate revolutionary changes in 
social life1 impossible at the  present 
stage of ,nigerian development2 nor does
 it undermine family or  communal       
authority4 ,between the converter and   
converted there is no  abyss4 ,both are 
equal1 not in theory1 but in practice1  
before ,god4 ,both  are ,african2 sons  

of the soil4 ,the doctrine of the       
brotherhood of man  is carried out in   
practice4 ,conversion does not mean for 
the converted  a break with his         
interests1 his family1 his social life1 
his respect  for the authority of his   
natural rulers4444 ,no one can fail to  
be  impressed with the carriage1 the    
dignity of the ,nigerian--indeed of the 
,west ,african--,mohammedan2 the whole  
bearing of the man suggests a           
consciousness of citizenship1 a pride of
 race which seems to say3 #8,we  are    
different1 thou and ,i1 but we are men4'
 ,the spread of ,islam in  ,southern    
,nigeria which we are witnessing to-day 
is mainly social in its  action4 ,it    
brings to those with whom it comes in   
contact a higher  status1 a loftier     
conception of man's place in the        
universe around him1  release from the  
thraldom of a thousand superstitious    
fears40 #aagc    ,according to          
,muhammadan tradition ,moses was a black
 man1 as may be seen  from the following

 passages in the ,qurn4 8,now draw thy  
hand close to  thy side3 it shall come  
forth white1 but unhurt3--another sign60
 7xx4  #bc74 8,then drew he forth his   
hand1 and lo6 it was white to the       
beholders4 ,the nobles of ,pharaoh's    
people said3 #8,verily this is an       
expert enchanter'0 7vii4 #aje-f74 ,the  
following story also1 handed down  to us
 from the golden period of the ,abbsid  
dynasty1 is interesting as  evidence of 
,muhammadan feeling with regard to the  
,negro4 ,ibrhm1 a  brother of ,hrn      
al-,rashd and the son of a negress1 had 
proclaimed  himself ,caliph at ,baghdd1 
but was defeated and forgiven by        
al-,mamn1  who was then reigning 7,a4,d4
 #hai74 ,he thus describes his interview
 with  the ,caliph3--8,al-,mamn said to 
me on my going to see him after having  
obtained pardon3 #8,is it thou who art  
the ,negro khalfah8' to which ,i        
replied3--#8,commander of the faithful6 
,i am he whom thou hast deigned to      
pardon2 and it has been said by the     

slave of ,banul-ass3--8,when men  extol 
their worth1 the slave of the family of 
ass can supply1 by his  verses1 the     
defect of birth and fortune40 ,though ,i
 be a slave1 my soul1  through its noble
 nature1 is free2 though my body be     
dark1 my mind is  fair4' ,to this       
al-,mamn replied3 #8,uncle6 a jest of   
mine has put you in  a serious mood4'   
,he then repeated these verses3         
#8,blackness of skin  cannot degrade an 
ingenious mind1 or lessen the worth of  
the scholar  and the wit4 ,let darkness 
claim the colour of your body3 ,i claim 
as  mine your fair and candid soul4'0   
#aagd    ,thus1 the converted ,negro at 
once takes an equal place in the        
brotherhood of believers1 neither his   
colour nor his race nor any             
associations of the past standing in the
 way4 ,it is doubtless the ready        
admission they receive1 that makes the  
pagan ,negroes willing to enter  into a 
religious society whose higher          
civilisation demands that they  should  

give up many of their old barbarous     
habits and customs2 at the  same time   
the very fact that the acceptance of    
,islam does imply an  advance in        
civilisation and is a very distinct step
 in the  intellectual1 moral and        
material progress of a ,negro tribe1    
helps very  largely to explain the      
success of this faith4 ,the forces      
arrayed on its  side are so powerful and
 ascendant1 that the barbarism1         
ignorance and  superstition which it    
seeks to sweep away have little chance  
of making  a lengthened resistance4     
,what the civilisation of ,muslim       
,africa implies  to the ,negro convert1 
is admirably expressed in the following 
words3  8,the worst evils which1 there  
is reason to believe1 prevailed at one  
time over the whole of ,africa1 and     
which are still to be found in many     
parts of it1 and those1 too1 not far    
from the ,gold ,coast and from our  own 
settlements--cannibalism and human      
sacrifice and the burial of  living     

infants--disappear at once and for ever4
 ,natives who have  hitherto lived in a 
state of nakedness1 or nearly so1 begin 
to dress1  and that neatly2 natives who 
have never washed before begin to wash1 
and that frequently2 for ablutions are  
commanded in the ,sacred ,law1 and  it  
is an ordinance which does not involve  
too severe a strain on their  natural   
instincts4 ,the tribal organisation     
tends to give place to  something which 
has a wider basis4 ,in other words1     
tribes coalesce into  nations1 and1 with
 the increase of energy and             
intelligence1 nations  into empires4    
,many such instances could be adduced   
from the history of  the ,soudan and the
 adjoining countries during the last    
hundred years4  ,if the warlike spirit  
is thus stimulated1 the centres from    
which war  springs are fewer in number  
and further apart4 ,war is better       
organised1  and is under some form of   
restraint2 quarrels are not picked for  
nothing2 there is less indiscriminate   

plundering and greater security  for    
property and life4 ,elementary schools1 
#aage like those described  by ,mungo   
,park a century ago1 spring up1 and even
 if they only teach  their scholars to  
recite the ,koran1 they are worth       
something in  themselves1 and may be a  
step to much more4 ,the well-built and  
neatly-kept mosque1 with its call to    
prayer repeated five times a day1  its  
,mecca-pointing niche1 its ,imm and its 
weekly service1 becomes the  centre of  
the village1 instead of the ghastly     
fetish or ,juju house4 ,the  worship of 
one ,god1 omnipotent1 omnipresent1      
omniscient1 and  compassionate1 is an   
immeasurable advance upon anything which
 the  native has been taught to worship 
before4 ,the ,arabic language1 in which 
the ,mussulman scriptures are always    
written1 is a language of  extraordinary
 copiousness and beauty2 once learned it
 becomes a lingua  franca to the tribes 
of half the continent1 and serves as an 
introduction to literature1 or rather1  

it is a literature in itself4 ,it       
substitutes moreover1 a written code of 
law for the arbitrary caprice  of a     
chieftain--a change which is1 in itself1
 an immense advance in  civilisation4   
,manufactures and commerce spring up1   
not the dumb trading  or the elementary 
bartering of raw products which we know 
from  ,herodotus to have existed from   
the earliest times in ,africa1 nor the  
cowrie shells1 or gunpowder1 or tobacco1
 or rum1 which still serve as a  chief  
medium of exchange all along the coast1 
but manufactures  involving considerable
 skill1 and a commerce which is         
elaborately  organised2 and under their 
influence1 and that of the more settled 
government which ,islam brings in its   
train1 there have arisen those  great   
cities of ,negroland whose very         
existence1 when first they were         
described by ,european travellers1 could
 not but be half discredited4 ,i  am far
 from saying that the religion is the   
sole cause of all this  comparative     

prosperity4 ,i only say it is consistent
 with it1 and it  encourages it4        
,climatic conditions and various other  
influences  co-operate towards the      
result2 but what has ,pagan ,africa1    
even where  the conditions are very     
similar1 to compare with it8 ,as regards
 the  individual1 it is admitted on all 
hands that ,islam gives to its new      
,negro converts an energy1 a dignity1 a 
self-reliance1 and a  self-respect which
 is all too rarely found in their ,pagan
 or their  ,christian                   
fellow-countrymen40 #aagf    ,the words 
above quoted were written before the    
partition of the greater  part of       
,africa among the governments of        
,christian ,europe--,england1  ,france  
and ,germany--but the imposing character
 of ,muslim civilisation  has not ceased
 to impress the ,negro mind1 or to      
operate as one of the  influences       
favourable to the conversion of the     
,african  fetish-worshippers4 ,brought  
suddenly into contact with ,european    

culture1 these have received an impulse 
to advance in the path of  civilisation1
 but being unable to bridge over the    
gulf that separates  them from their    
foreign rulers1 they find in ,islam a   
culture  corresponding to their needs   
and capable of understanding their      
requirements and aspirations4 #aagg ,so 
far1 therefore1 from the  extension of  
,european domination tending to hamper  
the activities of  ,muhammadan          
propagandists1 it has to a very         
remarkable degree  contributed towards  
the progress of ,islam4 ,the bringing of
 peace to  countries formerly harassed  
by wars of extermination or the raids of
  slave-hunters1 the establishment of   
ordered methods of government and       
administration1 and the increased       
facilities of communication by the      
making of roads and the building of     
railways1 have given a great  stimulus  
to trade and have enabled that active   
propagandist1 the ,muslim  trader1 to   
extend his influence in districts       

previously untrodden1 and  traverse     
familiar ground with greater security4  
,further1 the  suppression of the       
slave-trade has removed one of the great
 obstacles  to the spread of ,islam in  
pagan ,africa1 because it was to the    
interest  of the ,arab and other        
,muhammadan slave-dealers not to narrow 
the field  of their operations by       
admitting their possible victims into   
the  brotherhood of ,islam4 #aagh       
,converts are now won from pagan tribes 
which in the days of the slave-trade    
were untouched by missionary  effort4   
,to this result the ,european           
governments have contributed by         
employing ,muhammadans to fill the      
subordinate posts in the civil          
administration 7since among the         
,muhammadans alone were educated persons
  to be found7 and distributing them    
throughout pagan districts1 by          
employing ,muhammadan teachers in the   
,government schools1 and by  recruiting 
their armies from among ,muhammadan     

tribes2 they have thus  added to the    
prestige of ,islam in the eyes of the   
pagan ,africans--a  circumstance that   
the ,muslims have not been slow to make 
use of1 to the  advantage of their own  
faith4 #aagi    ,so little truth is     
there in the statement that ,islam makes
 progress  only by force of arms1 #aahj 
that on the contrary the partition of   
,africa among the ,european powers1 who 
have wrested the sword from the  hands  
of the ,muslim chiefs now under their   
control1 has initiated a  propaganda    
which seems likely to succeed where     
centuries of ,muhammadan  domination    
have failed4                  ,,chapter 
,,xii4    ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,islam   
,,in ,,the ,,malay ,,archipelago4       
,the history of the ,malay ,archipelago 
during the last #fjj years  furnishes us
 with one of the most interesting       
chapters in the story of  the spread of 
,islam by missionary efforts4 ,during   
the whole of this  period we find       
evidences of a continuous activity on   

the part of the  ,muhammadan            
missionaries1 in one or other at least  
of the ,east ,india  islands4 ,in every 
instance1 in the beginning1 their work  
had to be  carried on without any       
patronage or assistance from the rulers 
of the  country1 but solely by the force
 of persuasion1 and in many cases in    
the face of severe opposition1          
especially on the part of the           
,spaniards4  ,but in spite of all       
difficulties1 and with varying success1 
they have  prosecuted their efforts with
 untiring energy1 perfecting their work 
7more especially in the present day7    
wherever it has been partial or         
insufficient4    ,it is impossible to   
fix the precise date of the first       
introduction of  ,islam into the ,malay 
,archipelago4 ,it may have been carried 
thither by  the ,arab traders in the    
early centuries of the ,hijrah1 long    
before we  have any historical notices  
of such influences being at work4 ,this 
supposition is rendered the more        

probable by the knowledge we have of    
the extensive commerce with the ,east   
carried on by the ,arabs from very      
early times4 ,in the second century     
,b4,c4 the trade with ,ceylon was       
wholly in their hands4 ,at the beginning
 of the seventh century of the          
,christian era1 the trade with ,china1  
through ,ceylon1 received a great       
impulse1 so that in the middle of the   
eighth century ,arab traders were  to be
 found in great numbers in ,canton2     
while from the tenth to the  fifteenth  
century1 until the arrival of the       
,portuguese1 they were  undisputed      
masters of the trade with the ,east4    
#aaha ,we may therefore  conjecture with
 tolerable certainty that they must have
 established  their commercial          
settlements on some of the islands of   
the ,malay  ,archipelago1 as they did   
elsewhere1 at a very early period3      
though no  mention is made of these     
islands in the works of the ,arab       
geographers  earlier than the ninth     

century1 #aahb yet in the ,chinese      
annals1 under  the date ,a4,d4 #fgd1 an 
account is given of an ,arab chief1 who 
from later  notices is conjectured to   
have been the head of an ,arab          
settlement on  the west coast of        
,sumatra4 #aahc    ,missionaries must   
also1 however1 have come to the ,malay  
,archipelago  from the south of ,india1 
judging from certain peculiarities of   
,muhammadan theology adopted by the     
islanders4 ,most of the ,musalmans of   
the ,archipelago belong to the          
,shfiiyyah sect1 which is at the present
  day predominant on the ,coromandel and
 ,malabar coasts1 as was the case  also 
about the middle of the fourteenth      
century when ,ibn ,baah  visited these  
parts4 #aahd ,so when we consider that  
the ,muhammadans of  the neighbouring   
countries belong to the anafiyyah sect1 
we can only  explain the prevalence of  
,shfiiyyah teachings by assuming them to
  have been brought thither from the    
,malabar coast1 the ports of which  were

 frequented by merchants from ,java1 as 
well as from ,china1 ,yaman  and        
,persia4 #aahe ,from ,india1 too1 or    
from ,persia1 must have come the        
,shism1 of which traces are still found 
in ,java and ,sumatra4 ,from ,ibn  ,baah
 we learn that the ,muhammadan ,sultan  
of ,samudra had entered into  friendly  
relations with the court of ,dehli1 and 
among the learned  doctors of the law   
whom this devout prince especially      
favoured1 there  were two of ,persian   
origin1 the one coming from ,shiraz and 
the other  from ,ispahan4 #aahf ,but    
long before this time merchants from the
  ,deccan1 through whose hands passed   
the trade between the ,musalman  states 
of ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago1  
had established themselves  in large    
numbers in the trading ports of these   
islands1 where they  sowed the seed of  
the new religion4 #aahg    ,it is to the
 proselytising efforts of these ,arab   
and ,indian merchants  that the native  
,muhammadan population1 which we find   

already in the  earliest historical     
notices of ,islam in these parts1 owes  
its  existence4 ,settling in the centres
 of commerce1 they intermarried with    
the people of the land1 and these       
heathen wives and the slaves of their   
households thus formed the nucleus of a 
,muslim community which its  members    
made every effort in their power to     
increase4 ,the following  description of
 the methods adopted by these merchant  
missionaries in  the ,philippine        
,islands1 gives a picture of what was no
 doubt the  practice of many preceding  
generations of ,muhammadan              
traders3--8,the  better to introduce    
their religion into the country1 the    
,muhammadans  adopted the language and  
many of the customs of the natives1     
married  their women1 purchased slaves  
in order to increase their personal     
importance1 and succeeded finally in    
incorporating themselves among the      
chiefs who held the foremost rank in the
 state4 ,since they worked  together    

with greater ability and harmony than   
the natives1 they  gradually increased  
their power more and more1 as having    
numbers of  slaves in their possession1 
they formed a kind of confederacy among 
themselves and established a sort of    
monarchy1 which they made  hereditary in
 one family4 ,though such a confederacy 
gave them great  power1 yet they felt   
the necessity of keeping on friendly    
terms with  the old aristocracy1 and of 
ensuring their freedom to those classes 
whose support they could not afford to  
dispense with40 #aahh ,it must  have    
been in some such way as this that the  
different ,muhammadan  settlements in   
the ,malay ,archipelago laid a firm     
political and social  basis for their   
proselytising efforts4 ,they did not    
come as conquerors1  like the ,spanish  
in the sixteenth century1 or use the    
sword as an  instrument of conversion2  
nor did they arrogate to themselves the 
privileges of a superior and dominant   
race so as to degrade and oppress  the  

original inhabitants1 but coming simply 
in the guise of traders  they employed  
all their superior intelligence and     
civilisation in the  service of their   
religion1 rather than as a means towards
 their  personal aggrandisement and the 
amassing of wealth4 #aahi ,with this    
general statement of the subsidiary     
means adopted by them1 let us  follow in
 detail their proselytising efforts     
through the various  islands in turn4   
,tradition represents ,islam as having  
been introduced into ,sumatra from      
,arabia4 ,but there is no sound         
historical basis for such a belief1 and 
all the evidence seems to point to      
,india as the source from which the     
people of ,sumatra derived their        
knowledge of the new faith4 ,active     
commercial relations had existed for    
centuries between ,india and the  ,malay
 ,archipelago1 and the first            
missionaries to ,sumatra were probably  
,indian traders4 #aaij ,there is1       
however1 no historical record of their  

labours1 and the ,malay chronicles      
ascribe the honour of being the first   
missionary to ,atjeh1 in the north-west 
of ,sumatra1 to an ,arab named  ,abd    
,allh rif1 who is said to have visited  
the island about the  middle of the     
twelfth century2 one of his disciples1  
,burhn al-,dn1 is  said to have carried 
the knowledge of the faith down the west
 coast as  far as ,priaman4 #aaia       
,untrustworthy as this record is1 it may
 yet  possibly indicate the existence of
 some proselytising activity about  this
 period2 for the ,malay chronicle of    
,atjeh gives #abje as the date of  the  
accession of ,jhan ,shh1 the            
traditionary founder of the ,muhammadan 
dynasty4 ,he is said to have been a     
stranger from the ,west1 #aaib and  to  
have come to these shores to preach the 
faith of the ,prophet2 he  made many    
proselytes1 married a wife from among   
the people of the  country1 and was     
hailed by them as their king1 under the 
half-,sanskrit1  half-,arabic title of  

,sr ,padka ,suln4 ,for some time the new
 faith  would in all probability have   
been confined to the ports at which     
,muhammadan merchants touched1 and its  
progress inland would be slower1  as    
here it would come up against the strong
 ,hindu influences that had  their      
centre in the kingdom of ,menangkabau4  
,marco ,polo1 who spent five months on  
the north coast of ,sumatra in  #abib1  
speaks of all the inhabitants being     
idolaters1 except in the  petty kingdom 
of ,parlk on the north-east corner of   
the island1 where1  too1 only the       
townspeople were ,muhammadans1 for 8this
 kingdom1 you must  know1 is so much    
frequented by the ,saracen merchants    
that they have  converted the natives to
 the ,law of ,mahommet10 but the        
hill-people were  all idolaters and     
cannibals4 #aaic ,further1 one of the   
,malay  chronicles says that it was     
,sultan ,al ,mughyat ,shh1 who reigned  
over  ,atjeh from #aejg to #aebb1 who   
first set the example of embracing      

,islam1  in which he was followed by his
 subjects4 #aaid ,but it is not         
improbable that the honour of being the 
first ,muslim ruler of the state  has   
been here attributed as an added glory  
to the monarch who founded  the         
greatness of ,atjeh and began to extend 
its sway over the  neighbouring country1
 and that he rather effected a revival  
of1 or  imparted a fresh impulse to1 the
 religious life of his subjects than    
gave to them their first knowledge of   
the faith of the ,prophet4 ,for  ,islam 
had certainly set firm foot in ,sumatra 
long before his time4  ,according to the
 traditionary account of the city of    
,samudra1 the  ,sharf of ,mecca sent a  
mission to convert the people of        
,sumatra4 ,the  leader of the party was 
a certain ,shaykh ,isml3 the first place
 on  the island at which they touched1  
after leaving ,malabar1 was ,pasuri     
7probably situated a little way down the
 west coast71 the people of  which were 
persuaded by their preaching to embrace 

,islam4 ,they then  proceeded northward 
to ,lambri and then coasted round to the
 other side  of the island and sailed as
 far down the east coast as ,aru1 nearly
  opposite ,malacca1 and in both of     
these places their efforts were  crowned
 with a like success4 ,at ,aru they made
 inquiries for ,samudra1 a  city on the 
north coast of the island1 which seems  
to have been the  special object of     
their mission1 and found that they had  
passed it4  ,accordingly they retraced  
their course to ,parlk1 where ,marco    
,polo had  found a ,muhammadan community
 a few years before1 and having gained  
fresh converts here also1 they went on  
to ,samudra4 ,this city and the  kingdom
 of the same name had lately been       
founded by a certain ,mara  ,silu1 who  
was persuaded by ,shaykh ,isml to       
embrace ,islam1 and took  the name of   
al-,malik al-li4 ,he married the        
daughter of the king of  ,parlk1 by whom
 he had two sons1 and in order to have a
 principality to  leave to each1 he     

founded the ,muhammadan city and kingdom
 of ,pasei1  also on the north coast4   
#aaie    ,the king1 al-,malik al-,zhir1 
whom ,ibn ,baah found reigning in       
,samudra  when he visited the island in 
#acde1 was probably the elder of these  
two  sons4 ,this prince displayed all   
the state of ,muhammadan royalty1 and   
his dominions extended for many days'   
journey along the coast2 he was a       
zealous and orthodox ,muslim1 fond of   
holding discussions with  jurisconsults 
and theologians1 and his court was      
frequented by poets  and men of         
learning4 ,ibn ,baah gives us the names 
of two  jurisconsults who had come      
thither from ,persia and also of a noble
 who  had gone on an embassy to ,dehli  
on behalf of the king--which shows that 
,sumatra was already in touch with      
several parts of the ,muhammadan  world4
 ,al-,malik al-,zhir was also a great   
general1 and made war on the  heathen of
 the surrounding country until they     
submitted to his rule and  paid tribute4

 #aaif    ,islam had undoubtedly by this
 time made great progress in ,sumatra1  
and  after having established itself    
along the coast1 began to make its way  
inland4 ,the mission of ,shaykh ,isml   
and his party had borne fruit           
abundantly1 for a ,chinese traveller who
 visited the island in #adac1  speaks of
 ,lambri as having a population of #ajjj
 families1 all of whom  were ,muslims   
8and very good people10 while the king  
and people of the  kingdom of ,aru were 
all of the same faith4 #aaig ,it was    
either about  the close of the same     
century or in the fifteenth century1    
that the  religion of the ,prophet found
 adherents in the great kingdom of      
,menangkabau1 whose territory at one    
time extended from one shore to         
another1 and over a great part of the   
island1 north and south of the  equator4
 #aaih ,though its power had by this    
time much declined1 still  as an ancient
 stronghold of ,hinduism it presented   
great obstacles in  the way of the      

progress of the new religion4 ,despite  
this fact1 ,islam  eventually took      
firmer root among the subjects of this  
kingdom than  among the majority of the 
inhabitants of the interior of the      
island4  #aaii ,it is very remarkable   
that this1 the most central people of   
the  island1 should have been more      
thoroughly converted than the           
inhabitants  of so many other districts 
that were more accessible to foreign    
influences4 ,to the present day the     
inhabitants of the ,batak country are   
still1 for the most part1 heathen2 but  
,islam has gained a footing among  them1
 e4g4 some living on the borders of     
,atjeh have been converted1 by  their   
,muhammadan neighbours1 #abjj others    
dwelling in the mountains of  the ,rau  
country on the equator have likewise    
become ,musalmans2 #abja  on the east   
coast also conversions of ,bataks1 who  
come much in contact  with ,malays1 are 
not uncommon4 #abjb    ,the fanatical   
,padris 7p4 #cgb7 made strenuous        

efforts1 in vain1 to force  ,islam upon 
the ,bataks at the point of the sword1  
laying waste their  country and putting 
many to death2 but these violent methods
 did not  win converts4 ,when1 however1 
the ,dutch ,government suppressed the   
,padri  rising and annexed the southern 
part of the ,batak country1 ,islam began
  to spread by peaceful means1 chiefly  
through the zealous efforts of the      
native subordinate officials of the new 
rgime1 who were all ,muhammadan         
,malays1 #abjc but also through the     
influence of the traders who  wandered  
through the country1 whose proselytising
 activity was followed  up by the js and
 other recognised teachers of the faith4
 ,it is a  remarkable fact that the     
,bataks1 who for centuries had offered a
  pertinacious resistance to the        
entrance of ,islam into their midst1    
though they were hemmed in between two  
fanatical ,muhammadan  populations1 the 
,achinese on the north and the ,malays  
on the south1  have in recent years     

responded with enthusiasm to the        
peaceful efforts  made for their        
conversion4 ,an explanation would appear
 to be found in  the breaking down of   
their exclusive national characteristics
 through  the ,dutch occupation and the 
conquest opening up their country to    
foreign influences1 which implied the   
commencement of a new era in  their     
cultural development1 as well as in the 
skilful procedure of the  exponents of  
the new faith1 who knew how to          
accommodate their teachings  to the     
existing beliefs of the ,bataks and     
their deep-rooted  superstitions4 #abjd 
,a considerable impulse seems to have   
been given  to ,muslim propaganda by the
 establishment of ,christian missions   
among  the ,bataks in #ahig1 and they   
appear even to have paved the way for   
its  success4 ,two ,batak villages1 the 
entire population of which had been     
baptised1 are said to have gone over in 
a body to ,islam shortly  afterwards4   
#abje    ,in ,central ,sumatra there is 

still a large heathen population1 though
  the majority of the inhabitants are   
,muslims2 but these latter are very     
ignorant of their religion1 with the    
exception of a few js and  religious    
teachers3 even among the people of      
,korintji1 who are for the  most part   
zealous adherents of the faith1 there   
are certain sections of  the population 
who still worship the gods of their     
pagan ancestors4  #abjf ,efforts are1   
however1 being made towards a religious 
revival1  and the ,muslim missionaries  
are making fresh conquests from among   
the  heathen1 especially along the west 
coast4 #abjg ,in the district of        
,sipirok a religious teacher attached to
 the mosque in the town of the  same    
name1 in a quarter of a century1        
converted the whole population of  this 
district to ,islam1 with the exception  
of the ,christians who were  to be found
 there1 mostly descendants of former    
slaves1 #abjh and a  later missionary   
movement in the first decade of the     

twentieth century  succeeded in winning 
over to ,islam many of the ,christians  
of this  district1 even some living in  
the centre of the sphere of influence of
  the ,christian mission4 #abji         
,islam is traditionally represented to  
have been introduced into  ,palembang   
about #addj by ,raden ,ramat1 of whose  
propagandist activity an  account will  
be given below 7p4 #cha74 ,but ,hindu   
influences appear to  have been firmly  
rooted here1 and the progress of the new
 faith was  slow4 ,even up to the       
nineteenth century the ,muslims of      
,palembang were  said to know little of 
their religion except the external      
observances  of it1 with the exception  
of the inhabitants of the capital who   
come  into daily contact with ,arabs2   
#abaj but in the first decade of the    
twentieth century there would appear to 
have been a revival of the  religious   
life and a growing propaganda1 as the   
,colonial ,reports of the  ,dutch       
,government draw attention to the       

continual spread of ,islam among  the   
heathen population of various districts 
of ,palembang4 #abaa    ,it was from    
,java that ,islam was first brought into
 the ,lampong  districts which form the 
southern extremity of ,sumatra1 by a    
chieftain  of these districts1 named    
,minak ,kamala ,bumi4 ,about the end of 
the  fifteenth century he crossed over  
the ,strait of ,sunda to the kingdom of 
,bantam on the west coast of ,java1     
which had accepted the teachings of  the
 ,muslim missionaries a few years before
 the date of his visit2 here  he1 too1  
embraced ,islam1 and after making the   
pilgrimage to ,mecca1  spread the       
knowledge of his newly adopted faith    
among his  fellow-countrymen4 #abab     
,this religion has made considerable    
progress  among the ,lampongs1 and most 
of the villages have mosques in them1   
but  the old superstitions still linger 
on in parts of the interior4 #abac      
,in the early part of the nineteenth    
century a religious revival was set  on 

foot in ,sumatra1 which was not without 
its influence in promoting  the further 
propagation of ,islam4 ,in #ahjc three  
,sumatran js returned  from ,mecca to   
their native country3 during their stay 
in the holy city  they had been         
profoundly influenced by the ,wahhb     
movement for the  reformation of ,islam1
 and were now eager to introduce the    
same reforms  among their               
fellow-countrymen and to stir up in them
 a purer and more  zealous religious    
life4 ,accordingly they began to preach 
the strict  monotheism of the ,wahhb    
sect1 forbade prayers to saints1        
drinking and  gambling and all other    
practices contrary to the law of the    
,qurn4  ,they made a number of          
proselytes both from among their        
co-religionists  and the heathen        
population4 ,they later declared a ,jihd
 against the  ,bataks1 and in the hands 
of unscrupulous and ambitious men the   
movement  lost its original character   
and degenerated into a savage and bloody

  war of conquest4 ,in #ahba these      
so-called ,padris came into conflict    
with  the ,dutch ,government and it was 
not until #ahch that their last         
stronghold was taken and their power    
broken4 #abad    ,all the civilised     
,malays of the ,malay ,peninsula trace  
their origin to  migrations from        
,sumatra1 especially from ,menangkabau1 
the famous  kingdom mentioned above1    
which is said at one time to have been  
the  most powerful on the island2 some  
of the chiefs of the interior states  of
 the southern part of the ,malay        
,peninsula still receive their          
investiture from this place4 ,at what   
period these colonies from the  heart of
 ,sumatra settled in the interior of the
 ,peninsula1 is matter of  conjecture1  
but ,singapore and the southern         
extremity of the ,peninsula  seem to    
have received a colony in the middle of 
the twelfth century1 by  the descendants
 of which ,malacca was founded about a  
century later4  #abae ,from its         

advantageous situation1 in the highway  
of eastern  commerce it soon became a   
large and flourishing city1 and there is
  little doubt but that ,islam was      
introduced by the ,muhammadan merchants 
who settled here4 #abaf ,the ,malay     
chronicle of ,malacca assigns the       
conversion of this kingdom to the reign 
of a certain ,suln ,muammad  ,shh who   
came to the throne in #abgf4 ,he is said
 to have been reigning  some years      
before a ship commanded by ,sd ,abd     
al-,azz came to  ,malacca from ,jiddah1 
and the king was persuaded by the       
new-comers to  change his faith and to  
give up his ,malay name for one         
containing the  name of the ,prophet4   
#abag ,but the general character of this
 document  makes its trustworthiness    
exceedingly doubtful1 #abah in spite of 
the  likelihood that the date of so     
important an event would have been      
exactly noted 7as was done in many parts
 of the ,archipelago7 by a  people who1 
proud of the event1 would look upon it  

as opening a new  epoch in their        
history4 ,a ,portuguese historian gives 
a much later date1  namely #achd1 in    
which year1 he says1 a ,q came from     
,arabia and having  converted the king1 
gave him the name of ,muammad after the 
,prophet1  adding ,shh to it4 #abai     
,in the annals of ,queda1 one of the    
northernmost of the states of the       
,malay ,peninsula1 we have a curious    
account of the introduction of ,islam   
into this kingdom1 about ,a4,d4 #aeja1  
#abbj which 7divested of certain        
miraculous incidents7 is as follows3 ,a 
learned ,arab1 by name ,shaykh  ,abd    
,allh1 having come to ,queda1 visited   
the ,raja and inquired what  was the    
religion of the country4 8,my religion10
 replied the ,raja1 8and  that of all my
 subjects is that which has been handed 
down to us by the  people of old4 ,we   
all worship idols40 8,then has your     
highness never  heard of ,islam1 and of 
the ,qurn which descended from ,god to  
,muammad1  and has superseded all other 

religions1 leaving them in the          
possession  of the devil80 8,i pray you 
then1 if this be true10 said the ,raja1 
8to  instruct and enlighten us in this  
new faith40 ,in a transport of holy     
fervour at this request1 ,shaykh ,abd   
,allh embraced the ,raja and then       
instructed him in the creed4 ,persuaded 
by his teaching1 the ,raja sent  for all
 his jars of spirits 7to which he was   
much addicted71 and with  his own hands 
emptied them on the ground4 ,after this 
he had all the  idols of the palace     
brought out2 the idols of gold1 and     
silver1 and  clay1 and wood were all    
heaped up in his presence1 and were all 
broken  and cut to pieces by ,shaykh    
,abd ,allh with his sword and with an   
axe1  and the fragments consumed in the 
fire4 ,the ,shaykh asked the ,raja to   
assemble all his women of the fort and  
palace4 ,when they had all come  into   
the presence of the ,raja and the       
,shaykh1 they were initiated into  the  
doctrines of ,islam4 ,the ,shaykh was   

mild and courteous in his  demeanour1   
persuasive and soft in his language1 so 
that he gained the  hearts of the       
inmates of the palace4 ,the ,raja soon  
after sent for his  four aged ministers1
 who1 on entering the hall1 were        
surprised at  seeing a ,shaykh seated   
near the ,raja4 ,the ,raja explained to 
them the  object of the ,shaykh's       
coming2 whereupon the four chiefs       
expressed  their readiness to follow the
 example of his highness1 saying1 8,we  
hope  that ,shaykh ,abd ,allh will      
instruct us also40 ,the latter hearing  
these  words1 embraced the four         
ministers and said that he hoped that1  
to  prove their sincerity1 they would   
send for all the people to come to  the 
audience hall1 bringing with them all   
the idols that they were wont  to       
worship and the idols that had been     
handed down by the men of former  days4 
,the request was complied with and all  
the idols kept by the  people were at   
that very time brought down and there   

destroyed and  burnt to dust2 no one was
 sorry at this demolition of their false
 gods1  all were glad to enter the pale 
of ,islam4 ,shaykh ,abd ,allh after this
  said to the four ministers1 8,what is 
the name of your prince80 ,they         
replied1 8,his name is ,pra ,ong        
,mahwngs40 8,let us change it for one in
  the language of ,islam10 said the     
,shaykh4 ,after some consultation1 the  
name of the ,raja was changed at his    
request to ,sultan ,muzlaf al-,shh1     
because1 the ,shaykh averred1 it is a   
celebrated name and is found in  the    
,qurn4 #abba    ,the ,raja now built    
mosques wherever the population was     
considerable1  and directed that to each
 there should be attached forty-four of 
the  inhabitants at least as a settled  
congregation1 for a smaller number      
would have been few for the duties of   
religion4 ,so mosques were erected  and 
great drums were attached to them to be 
beaten to call the people  to prayer on 
,fridays4 ,shaykh ,abd ,allh continued  

for some time to  instruct the people in
 the religion of ,islam2 they flocked to
 him from  all the coasts and districts 
of ,queda and its vicinity1 and were    
initiated by him into its forms and     
ceremonies4    ,the news of the         
conversion of the inhabitants of ,queda 
by ,shaykh ,abd  ,allh reached ,atjeh1  
and the ,sultan of that country and a   
certain  ,shaykh ,nr al-,dn1 an ,arab   
missionary1 who had come from ,mecca1   
sent  some books and a letter1 which ran
 as follows3--8,this letter is from the 
,sultan of ,atjeh and ,nr al-,dn to our 
brother the ,sultan of ,queda and       
,shaykh ,abd ,allh of ,yaman1 now in    
,queda4 ,we have sent two religious     
books1 in order that the faith of ,islam
 may be firmly established and  the     
people fully instructed in their duties 
and in the rites of the  faith40 ,a     
letter was sent in reply by the ,raja   
and ,shaykh ,abd ,allh1  thanking the   
donors4 ,so ,shaykh ,abd ,allh redoubled
 his efforts1 and  erected additional   

small mosques in all the different      
villages for  general convenience1 and  
instructed the people in all the rules  
and  observances of the faith4 ,the     
,raja and his wife were constantly with 
the ,shaykh1 learning to read the ,qurn4
 ,the royal pair searched also  for some
 maiden of the lineage of the ,rajas of 
the country1 to be the  ,shaykh's wife4 
,but no one could be found who was      
willing to give his  daughter thus in   
marriage because the holy man was about 
to return to  ,baghdd1 and only waited  
until he had sufficiently instructed    
some  person to supply his place4 ,now  
at this time the ,sultan had three sons1
  ,raja ,muazzam ,shh1 ,raja ,muammad   
,shh1 and ,raja ,sulaymn ,shh4 ,these   
names had been borrowed from the ,qurn  
by ,shaykh ,abd ,allh and  bestowed upon
 the princes1 whom he exhorted to be    
patient and slow to  anger in their     
intercourse with their slaves and the   
lower orders1 and  to regard with pity  
all the servants of ,god1 and the poor  

and needy4  #abbb    ,it must not be    
supposed that the labours of ,shaykh    
,abd ,allh were  crowned with complete  
success1 for we learn from the annals of
 ,atjeh  that a ,sultan of this country 
who conquered ,queda in #afdi1 set      
himself  to 8more firmly establish the  
faith and destroy the houses of the     
,liar0  or temples of idols4 #abbc ,thus
 a century and a half elapsed before    
idolatry was completely rooted out4     
,we possess no other details of the     
history of the conversion of the        
,malays of the ,peninsula1 but in many  
places the graves of the ,arab          
missionaries who first preached the     
faith to them are honoured by these     
people4 #abbd ,their long intercourse   
with the ,arabs and the ,muslims of  the
 east coast of ,india has made them very
 rigid observers of their  religious    
duties1 and they have the reputation of 
being the most  exemplary ,muhammadans  
of the ,archipelago2 at the same time   
their  constant contact with the        

,hindus1 ,buddhists1 ,christians and    
pagans of  their own country has made   
them liberal and tolerant4 ,they are    
very  strict in the keeping of the fast 
of ,raman and in performing the         
pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,the religious    
interests of the people are always      
considered at the same time as their    
temporal welfare2 and when a  village is
 found to contain more than forty houses
 and is considered to  be of a size that
 necessitates its organisation and the  
appointment of  the regular village     
officers1 a public preacher is always   
included  among the number and a mosque 
is formally built and instituted4 #abbe 
,in the north1 where the ,malay states  
border on ,siam1 ,islam has  exercised  
considerable influence on the ,siamese  
,buddhists2 those who  have here been   
converted are called ,samsams and speak 
a language that  is a mixed jargon of   
the languages of the two people4 #abbf  
,converts  are also made from among the 
wild tribes of the ,peninsula4 #abbg    

,the history of the spread of ,islam in 
,indo-,china is obscure2 ,arab and      
,persian merchants probably introduced  
their religion into the sea-port  towns 
from the tenth century onwards1 but its 
most important expansion  was due to the
 immigrations of ,malays which began at 
the close of the  fourteenth century4   
#abbh    ,we must now go back several   
centuries in order to follow out the    
history of the conversion of ,java4 ,the
 preaching and promulgation of  the     
doctrines of ,islam in this island were 
undoubtedly for a long time  entirely   
the result of the labours of individual 
merchants or of the  leaders of small   
colonies1 for in ,java there was no     
central ,muhammadan  power to throw in  
its influence on the side of the new    
religion or  enforce the acceptance of  
it by warlike means4 ,on the contrary1  
the  ,muslim missionaries came in       
contact with a ,hindu civilisation1 that
 had  thrust its roots deep into the    
life of the country and had raised the  

,javanese to a high level of culture and
 progress--expressing itself  moreover  
in institutions and laws radically      
different to those of  ,arabia4 ,even up
 to the present day1 the ,muhammadan law
 has failed to  establish itself        
absolutely1 even where the authority of 
,islam is  generally predominant1 and   
there is still a constant struggle      
between  the adherents of the old       
,malayan usages and the js1 who having  
made  the pilgrimage to ,mecca1 return  
enthusiastic for a strict observance of 
,muslim ,law4 ,consequently the work of 
conversion must have proceeded  very    
slowly1 and we can say with tolerable   
certainty that while part of  the       
history of this proselytising movement  
may be disentangled from  legends and   
traditions1 much of it must remain      
wholly unknown to us4 ,in  the ,malay   
,chronicle1 which purports to give us an
 account of the first  preachers of the 
faith1 what was undoubtedly the work of 
many  generations and must have been    

carried on through many centuries1 is   
compressed within the compass of a few  
years2 and1 as frequently  happens in   
popular histories1 a few well-known     
names gain the fame and  credit that    
belongs of right to the patient labours 
of their unknown  predecessors4 #abbi   
,further1 the quiet1 unobtrusive labours
 of many of  these missionaries would   
not be likely to attract the notice of  
the  chronicler1 whose attention would  
naturally be fixed rather on the  doings
 of kings and princes1 and of those who 
came in close  relationship to them4    
,but failing such larger knowledge1 we  
must fain  be content with the facts    
that have been handed down to us4    ,in
 the following pages1 therefore1 it is  
proposed to give a brief  sketch of the 
establishment of the ,muhammadan        
religion in this island1  as presented  
in the native chronicle1 which1 though  
full of  contradictions and fables1 has 
undoubtedly a historical foundation1 as 
is attested by the inscriptions on the  

tombs of the chief personages  mentioned
 and the remains of ancient cities1 etc4
 ,the following account  therefore may1 
in the want of any other authorities1 be
 accepted as  substantially correct1    
with the caution above mentioned against
  ascribing too much efficacy to the    
proselytising efforts of  individuals4  
,the first attempt to introduce ,islam  
into ,java was made by a native of  the 
island about the close of the twelfth   
century4 ,the first king of  ,pajajaran1
 a state in the western part of the     
island1 left two sons2 of  these1 the   
elder chose to follow the profession of 
a merchant and  undertook a trading     
expedition to ,india1 leaving the       
kingdom to his  younger brother1 who    
succeeded to the throne in the year     
#aaij with the  title of ,prabu ,munding
 ,sari4 ,in the course of his           
wanderings1 the elder  brother fell in  
with some ,arab merchants1 and was by   
them converted to  ,islam1 taking the   
name of j ,purwa4    ,on his return to  

his native country1 he tried with the   
help of an ,arab  missionary to convert 
his brother and the royal family to his 
new  faith2 but1 his efforts proving    
unsuccessful1 he fled into the jungle   
for fear of the king and his unbelieving
 subjects1 and we hear no more  of him4 
#abcj    ,in the latter half of the     
fourteenth century1 a missionary        
movement1  which was attended with      
greater success1 was instituted by a    
certain  ,mawln ,malik ,ibrhm1 who      
landed on the east coast of ,java with  
some  of his co-religionists1 and       
established himself near the town of    
,gresik1 opposite the island of ,madura4
 ,he is said to have traced his  descent
 to ,zayn al-bidn1 a great-grandson of  
the ,prophet1 and to  have been cousin  
of the ,raja of ,chermen4 #abca ,here he
 occupied  himself successfully in the  
work of conversion1 and speedily        
gathered a  small band of believers     
around him4 ,later on1 he was joined by 
his  cousin1 the ,raja of ,chermen1 who 

came in the hope of converting the      
,raja of the ,hindu ,kingdom of         
,majapahit1 and of forming an alliance  
with  him by offering his daughter in   
marriage4 ,on his arrival he sent his   
son1 diq ,muammad1 to ,majapahit to     
arrange an interview1 while he  busied  
himself in the building of a mosque and 
the conversion of the  inhabitants4 ,a  
meeting of the two princes took place   
accordingly1 but  before the favourable 
impression then produced could be       
followed up1 a  sickness broke out among
 the people of the ,raja of ,chermen1   
which  carried off his daughter1 three  
of his nephews who had accompanied him1 
and a great part of his retinue2        
whereupon he himself returned to his    
own kingdom4 ,these misfortunes         
prejudiced the mind of the ,raja of     
,majapahit against the new faith1 which 
he said should have better  protected   
its votaries3 and the mission           
accordingly failed4 ,mawln  ,ibrhm1     
however1 remained behind1 in charge of  

the tombs #abcb of his  kinsfolk and    
co-religionists1 and himself died       
twenty-one years later1  in #adai1 and  
was buried at ,gresik1 where his tomb is
 still venerated as  that of the first  
apostle of ,islam to ,java4    ,a       
,chinese ,musalman1 who accompanied the 
envoy of the ,emperor of ,china  to     
,java in the capacity of interpreter1   
six years before the death of  ,mawln   
,ibrhm1 i4e4 in #adac1 mentions the     
presence of his  co-religionists in this
 island in his 8,general ,account of the
 ,shores of  the ,ocean10 where he says1
 8,in this country there are three kinds
 of  people4 ,first the ,muhammadans1   
who have come from the west1 and have   
established themselves here2 their dress
 and food is clean and proper2  second1 
the ,chinese who have run away and      
settled here2 what they eat  and use is 
also very fine1 and many of them have   
adopted the ,muhammadan  religion and   
observe its precepts4 ,the third kind   
are the natives1 who  are very ugly and 

uncouth1 they go about with uncombed    
heads and naked  feet1 and believe      
devoutly in devils1 theirs being one of 
the countries  called devil-countries in
 ,buddhist books40 #abcc    ,we now     
approach the period in which the rule of
 the ,muhammadans became  predominant in
 the island1 after their religion had   
been introduced  into it for nearly a   
century2 and here it will be necessary  
to enter a  little more closely into the
 details of the history in order to show
  that this was not the result of any   
fanatical movement stirred up by  the   
,arabs1 but rather of a revolution      
carried out by the natives of the       
country themselves1 #abcd who 7though   
they naturally gained strength  from the
 bond of a common faith7 were stirred up
 to unite in order to  wrest the supreme
 power from the hands of their heathen  
fellow-countrymen1 not by the preaching 
of a religious war1 but through  the    
exhortations of an ambitious aspirant to
 the throne who had a wrong  to avenge4 

#abce    ,the political condition of the
 island may be described as             
follows3--,the  central and eastern     
provinces of the island1 which were the 
most  wealthy and populous and the      
furthest advanced in civilisation1 were 
under the sway of the ,hindu kingdom of 
,majapahit4 ,further west were          
,cheribon and several other petty1      
independent princedoms2 while the  rest 
of the island1 including all the        
districts at its western  extremity1 was
 subject to the ,king of ,pajajaran4    
,the ,king of ,majapahit had married a  
daughter of the prince of ,champa1 a    
small state in ,cambodia1 east of the   
,gulf of ,siam4 #abcf ,she being        
jealous of a favourite concubine of the 
,king1 he sent this concubine  away to  
his son ,arya ,damar1 governor of       
,palembang in ,sumatra1 where she  gave 
birth to a son1 ,raden ,patah1 who was  
brought up as one of the  governor's own
 children4 ,this child 7as we shall see7
 was destined in  after years to work a 

terrible vengeance for the cruel        
treatment of his  mother4 ,another      
daughter of the prince of ,champa had   
married an ,arab  who had come to       
,champa to preach the faith of ,islam4  
#abcg ,from this  union was born ,raden 
,ramat1 who was carefully brought up by 
his father  in the ,muhammadan religion 
and is still venerated by the ,javanese 
as  the chief apostle of ,islam to their
 country4 #abch    ,when he reached the 
age of twenty1 his parents sent him with
 letters  and presents to his uncle1 the
 ,king of ,majapahit4 ,on his way1 he   
stayed  for two months at ,palembang1 as
 the guest of ,arya ,damar1 whom he     
almost  persuaded to become a ,musalman1
 only he dared not openly profess ,islam
  for fear of the people who were       
strongly attached to their ancient      
superstitions4 ,continuing his journey  
,raden ,ramat came to ,gresik1  where an
 ,arab missionary1 ,shaykh ,mawln ,jumda
 'l-,kubr1 hailed him as  the promised  
,apostle of ,islam to ,east ,java1 and  

foretold that the fall  of paganism was 
at hand1 and that his labours would be  
crowned by the  conversion of many to   
the faith4 ,at ,majapahit he was very   
kindly  received by the ,king and the   
princess of ,champa4 ,although the ,king
 was  unwilling himself to become a     
convert to ,islam1 yet he conceived such
  an attachment and respect for ,raden  
,ramat1 that he made him governor  over 
#cjjj families at ,ampel1 on the east   
coast1 a little south of  ,gresik1      
allowed him the free exercise of his    
religion and gave him  permission to    
make converts4 ,here after some time he 
gained over most  of those placed under 
him1 to ,islam4    ,ampel was now the   
chief seat of ,islam in ,java1 and the  
fame of the  ruler who was so zealously 
working for the propagation of his      
religion1  spread far and wide4         
,hereupon a certain ,mawln ,isq came to 
,ampel to  assist him in the work of    
conversion1 and was assigned the task of
  spreading the faith in the kingdom of 

,balambangan1 in the extreme  eastern   
extremity of the island4 ,here he cured 
the daughter of the  ,king1 who was     
grievously sick1 and the grateful father
 gave her to him  in marriage4 ,she     
ardently embraced the faith of ,islam   
and her father  allowed himself to      
receive instruction in the same1 but    
when the  ,mawln urged him to openly    
profess it1 as he had promised to do1 if
  his daughter were cured1 he drove him 
from his kingdom1 and gave orders  that 
the child that was soon to be born of   
his daughter1 should be  killed4 ,but   
the mother secretly sent the infant away
 to ,gresik to a  rich ,muhammadan widow
 #abci who brought him up with all a    
mother's  care and educated him until he
 was twelve years old1 when she         
entrusted  him to ,raden ,ramat4 ,he1   
after learning the history of the child1
 gave  him the name of ,raden ,paku1 and
 in course of time gave him also his    
daughter in marriage4 ,raden ,paku      
afterwards built a mosque at ,giri1 to  

the south-west of ,gresik1 where he     
converted thousands to the faith2  his  
influence became so great1 that after   
the death of ,raden ,ramat1  the ,king  
of ,majapahit made him governor of      
,ampel and ,gresik4 #abdj  ,meanwhile   
several missions were instituted from   
,gresik4 ,two sons of  ,raden ,ramat    
established themselves at different     
parts of the  north-east coast and made 
themselves famous by their religious    
zeal and  the conversion of many of the 
inhabitants of those parts4 ,raden      
,ramat  also sent a missionary1 by name 
,shaykh ,khalfah usayn1 across to the   
neighbouring island of ,madura1 where he
 built a mosque and won over  many to   
the faith4    ,we must now return to    
,arya ,damar1 the governor of           
,palembang4 7,see p4  #chj47 ,he appears
 to have brought up his children in the 
religion which  he himself feared openly
 to profess1 and he now sent ,raden     
,patah1 when  he had reached the age of 
twenty1 together with his               

foster-brother1  ,raden usayn1 who was  
two years younger1 to ,java1 where they 
landed at  ,gresik4 ,raden ,patah1 aware
 of his extraction and enraged at the   
cruel  treatment his mother had         
received1 refused to accompany his      
foster-brother to ,majapahit1 but stayed
 with ,raden ,ramat at ,ampel  while    
,raden usayn went on to the capital1    
where he was well received  and placed  
in charge of a district and afterwards  
made general of the  army4    ,meanwhile
 ,raden ,patah married a granddaughter  
of ,raden ,ramat1 and  formed an        
establishment in a place of great       
natural strength called  ,bintara1 in   
the centre of a marshy country1 to the  
west of ,gresik4 ,as  soon as the ,king 
of ,majapahit heard of this new         
settlement1 he sent  ,raden usayn to    
persuade his brother to come to the     
capital and pay  homage4 ,this ,raden   
usayn prevailed upon him to do1 and he  
went to the  court1 where his likeness  
to the king was at once recognised1 and 

where  he was kindly received and       
formally appointed governor of ,bintara4
  ,still burning for revenge and bent on
 the destruction of his father's        
kingdom1 he returned to ,ampel1 where he
 revealed his plans to ,raden  ,ramat4  
,the latter endeavoured to moderate his 
anger1 reminding him  that he had never 
received anything but kindness at the   
hands of the  king of ,majapahit1 his   
father1 and that while the prince was so
 just  and so beloved1 his religion     
forbade him to make war upon or in any  
way  to injure him4 ,however1           
unpersuaded by these exhortations 7as   
the  sequel shows71 ,raden ,patah       
returned to ,bintara1 which was now     
daily  increasing in importance and     
population1 while great numbers of      
people  in the surrounding country were 
being converted to ,islam4 ,he had      
formed  a plan of building a great      
mosque1 but shortly after the work had  
been  commenced1 news arrived of the    
severe illness of ,raden ,ramat4 ,he    

hastened to ,ampel1 where he found the  
chief missionaries of ,islam  gathered  
round the bed of him they looked upon as
 their leader4 ,among  them were the two
 sons of ,raden ,ramat mentioned above  
7p4 #chb71 ,raden  ,paku of ,giri1 and  
five others4 ,a few days afterwards     
,raden ,ramat  breathed his last1 and   
the only remaining obstacle to ,raden   
,patah's  revengeful schemes was thus   
removed4 ,the eight chiefs accompanied  
him  back to ,bintara1 where they       
assisted in the completion of the       
mosque1  #abda and bound themselves by a
 solemn oath to assist him in his       
attempt against ,majapahit4 ,all the    
,muhammadan princes joined this         
confederacy1 with the exception of      
,raden usayn1 who with all his          
followers remained true to his master1  
and refused to throw in his lot  with   
his rebellious co-religionists4    ,a   
lengthy campaign followed1 into the     
details of which we need not  enter1 but
 in #adgh1 #abdb after a desperate      

battle which lasted seven  days1        
,majapahit fell and the ,hindu supremacy
 in eastern ,java was  replaced by a    
,muhammadan power4 ,a short time after1 
,raden usayn was  besieged with his     
followers in a fortified place1         
compelled to  surrender and brought to  
,ampel1 where he was kindly received by 
his  brother4 ,a large number of those  
who remained faithful to the old ,hindu 
religion fled in #adha to the island of 
,bali1 where the worship of ,siva  is   
still the prevailing religion4 #abdc    
,others seem to have formed  small      
kingdoms1 under the leadership of       
princes of the house of  ,majapahit1    
which remained heathen for some time    
after the fall of the  great ,hindu     
capital4    ,even under ,muslim chiefs  
the population of central ,java long    
remained  heathen1 and the progress of  
,islam southward from the early centres 
of  missionary effort on the north coast
 was the work of centuries2 even to  the
 present day the influence of their old 

,hindu faith is strikingly  manifest in 
the religious notions of the ,muslim    
population of central  ,java4 ,one      
remarkable evidence of the deep roots   
that ,hinduism had  struck in this part 
of the island is the fact that it was   
not until  #agfh that the authority of  
the ,hindu law-books1 particularly the  
code  of ,manu1 gave way before a code  
of laws more in accordance with the     
spirit of ,muslim legislation4 #abdd    
,islam was introduced into the eastern  
parts of the island some years  later1  
probably in the beginning of the        
following century1 through the          
missionary activity of ,shaykh ,nr      
al-,dn ,ibrhm of ,cheribon4 ,he won  for
 himself a great reputation by curing a 
woman afflicted with  leprosy1 with the 
result that thousands came to him to be 
instructed in  the tenets of the new    
faith4 ,at first the neighbouring chiefs
 tried to  set themselves against the   
movement1 but finding that their        
opposition  was of no avail1 they       

suffered themselves to be carried along 
with the  tide and many of them became  
converts to ,islam4 #abde ,shaykh ,nr   
al-,dn ,ibrhm of ,cheribon sent his son1
 ,mawln asan al-,dn1 to  preach the     
faith of ,islam in ,bantam1 the most    
westerly province of the  island1 and a 
dependency of the heathen kingdom of    
,pajajaran4 ,here his  efforts were     
attended with considerable success1     
among the converts  being a body of     
ascetics1 #hjj in number4 ,it is        
especially mentioned in  the annals of  
this part of the country that the young 
prince won over  those whom he converted
 to ,islam1 solely by the gentle means  
of  persuasion1 and not by the sword4   
#abdf ,he afterwards went with his      
father on a pilgrimage to ,mecca1 and on
 his return extended his power  over the
 neighbouring coast of ,sumatra1 without
 ever having to draw the  sword1 and    
winning converts to the faith by        
peaceful methods alone4  #abdg    ,but  
the progress of ,islam in the west of   

,java seems to have been much  slower   
than in the east2 a long struggle ensued
 between the worshippers  of ,siva and  
the followers of the ,prophet1 and it   
was probably not until  the middle of   
the sixteenth century that the ,hindu   
kingdom of  ,pajajaran1 which at one    
period of the history of ,java seems to 
have  exercised suzerainty over the     
princedoms in the western part of the   
island1 came to an end1 #abdh while     
other smaller heathen communities       
survived to a much later period1        
#abdi--some even to the present day4    
,the history of one of these--the       
so-called ,baduwis--is of especial      
interest2 they are the descendants of   
the adherents of the old  religion1 who 
after the fall of ,pajajaran fled into  
the woods and the  recesses of the      
mountains1 where they might             
uninterruptedly carry out  the          
observances of their ancestral faith4   
,in later times1 when they  submitted to
 the rule of the ,musalman ,sultan of   

,bantam1 they were  allowed to continue 
in the exercise of their religion1 on   
condition  that no increase should be   
allowed in the numbers of those who     
professed this idolatrous faith2 #abej  
and strange to say1 they still  observe 
this custom1 although the ,dutch rule   
has been so long  established in ,java  
and sets them free from the necessity of
 obedience  to this ancient agreement4  
,they strictly limit their number to    
forty  households1 and when the         
community increases beyond this limit1  
one  family or more has to leave this   
inner circle and settle among the       
,muhammadan population in one of the    
surrounding villages4 #abea    ,but1    
though the work of conversion in the    
west of ,java proceeded more  slowly    
than in the other parts of the island1  
yet1 owing largely to the  fact that    
,hinduism had not taken such deep root  
among the people here  as in the centre 
of the island1 the victory of ,islam    
over the heathen  worship which it      

supplanted was more complete than in the
 districts  which came more immediately 
under the rule of the ,rajas of         
,majapahit4  ,the ,muhammadan law is    
here a living force and the civilisation
 brought  into the country from ,arabia 
has interwoven itself with the          
government  and the life of the people2 
and it has been remarked that at the    
present day the ,muhammadans of the west
 of ,java1 who study their  religion at 
all or have performed the pilgrimage to 
,mecca1 form as a  rule the most        
intelligent and prosperous part of the  
population4 #abeb    ,we have already   
seen that large sections of the         
,javanese remained  heathen for         
centuries after the establishment of    
,muhammadan kingdoms in  the island2 at 
the present day the whole population of 
,java1 with some  trifling exceptions1  
is ,muhammadan1 and though many         
superstitions and  customs have survived
 among them from the days of their pagan
  ancestors1 still the tendency is      

continually in the direction of the     
guidance of thought and conduct in      
accordance with the teaching of  ,islam4
 ,this long work of conversion has      
proceeded peacefully and  gradually1 and
 the growth of ,muslim states in this   
island belongs  rather to its political 
than to its religious history1 since the
  progress of the religion has been     
achieved by the work rather of          
missionaries than of princes4    ,while 
the ,musalmans of ,java were plotting   
against the ,hindu ,government  and     
taking the rule of the country into     
their own hands by force1 a  revolution 
of a wholly peaceful character was being
 carried on in other  parts of the      
,archipelago through the preaching of   
the ,muslim  missionaries who were      
slowly but surely achieving success in  
their  proselytising efforts4 ,let us   
first turn our attention to the history 
of this propagandist movement in the    
,molucca islands4    ,the trade in      
cloves must have brought the ,moluccas  

into contact with  the islanders of the 
western half of the ,archipelago from   
very early  times1 and the converted    
,javanese and other ,malays who came    
into these  islands to trade1 spread    
their faith among the inhabitants of the
  coast4 #abec ,the companions of       
,magellan brought back a curious story  
of the way in which these men introduced
 their religious doctrines  among the   
,muluccans4 8,the kings of these islands
 #abed a few years  before the arrival  
of the ,spaniards began to believe in   
the immortality  of the soul1 induced by
 no other argument but that they had    
seen a very  beautiful little bird1 that
 never settled on the earth nor on      
anything  that was of the earth1 and the
 ,mahometans1 who traded as merchants in
  those islands1 told them that this    
little bird was born in paradise1  and  
that paradise is the place where rest   
the souls of those that are  dead4 ,and 
for this reason these seignors joined   
the sect of ,mahomet1  because it       

promises many marvellous things of this 
place of the souls40  #abee    ,islam   
seems first to have begun to make       
progress here in the fifteenth  century4
 ,a heathen king of ,tidor yielded to   
the persuasions of an ,arab1  named     
,shaykh ,manr1 and embraced ,islam      
together with many of his  subjects4    
,the heathen name of the king1 ,tjireli 
,lijatu1 was changed to  that of ,jaml  
al-,dn1 while his eldest son was called 
,manr after  their ,arab teacher4 #abef 
,it was the latter prince who           
entertained the  ,spanish expedition    
that reached ,tidor in #aeba1 shortly   
after the  ill-fated death of ,magellan4
 ,pigafetta1 the historian of this      
expedition1 calls him ,raia ,sultan     
,mauzor1 and says that he was more  than
 fifty-five years old1 and that not     
fifty years had passed since  the       
,muhammadans came to live in these      
islands4 #abeg    ,islam seems to have  
gained a footing on the neighbouring    
island of  ,ternate a little earlier4   

,the ,portuguese1 who came to this      
island the  same year as the ,spaniards 
reached ,tidor1 were informed by the    
inhabitants that it had been introduced 
a little more than eighty  years4 #abeh 
,according to the ,portuguese account   
#abei also the ,sultan of ,ternate  was 
the first of the ,muluccan chieftains   
who became a ,muslim4 ,the  legend of   
the introduction of ,islam into this    
island tells how a  merchant1 named     
,datu ,mull usayn1 excited the curiosity
 of the people  by reading the ,qurn    
aloud in their presence2 they tried to  
imitate  the characters written in the  
book1 but could not read them1 so they  
asked the merchant how it was that he   
could read them1 while they could  not2 
he replied that they must first believe 
in ,god and ,his ,apostle2  whereupon   
they expressed their willingness to     
accept his teaching1 and  became        
converted to the faith4 #abfj ,the      
,sultan of ,ternate1 who  occupied the  
foremost place among the independent    

rulers in these  islands1 is said to    
have made a journey to ,gresik1 in      
,java1 in order to  embrace the         
,muhammadan faith there1 in #adie4 #abfa
 ,he was assisted in  his propagandist  
efforts by a certain ,pati ,putah1 who  
had made the  journey from ,hitu in     
,amboina to ,java in order to learn the 
doctrines of  the new faith1 and on his 
return spread the knowledge of ,islam   
among  the people of ,amboina4 #abfb    
,islam1 however1 seems at first to have 
made but slow progress1 and to have met 
with considerable opposition  from those
 islanders who clung zealously to their 
old superstitions and  mythology1 so    
that the old idolatry continued for some
 time crudely  mixed up with the        
teachings of the ,qurn1 and keeping the 
minds of the  people in a perpetual     
state of incertitude4 #abfc ,the        
,portuguese  conquest also made the     
progress of ,islam slower than it would 
otherwise  have been4 ,they drove out   
the ,q1 whom they found instructing the 

people in the doctrines of ,muammad1 and
 spread ,christianity among the  heathen
 population with some considerable1     
though short-lived success4  #abfd ,for 
when the ,muluccans took advantage of   
the attention of the  ,portuguese being 
occupied with their own domestic        
troubles1 in the  latter half of the    
sixteenth century1 to try to shake off  
their power1  they instituted a fierce  
persecution against the ,christians1    
many of  whom suffered martyrdom1 and   
others recanted1 so that ,christianity  
lost  all the ground it had gained1     
#abfe and from this time onwards1 the   
opposition to the political domination  
of the ,christians secured a  readier   
welcome for the ,muslim teachers who    
came in increasing numbers  from the    
west4 #abff ,the ,dutch completed the   
destruction of  ,christianity in the    
,moluccas by driving out the ,spanish   
and ,portuguese  from these islands in  
the seventeenth century1 whereupon the  
,jesuit  fathers carried off the few    

remaining ,christians of ,ternate with  
them  to the ,philippines4 #abfg        
,from these islands ,islam spread into  
the rest of the ,moluccas2 though  for  
some time the conversions were confined 
to the inhabitants of the  coast4 #abfh 
,most of the converts came from among   
the ,malays1 who  compose the whole     
population of the smaller islands1 but  
inhabit the  coast-lands only of the    
larger ones1 the interior being         
inhabited by  ,alfurs4 ,but converts in 
later times were drawn from among the   
latter  also4 #abfi ,even so early as   
#aeba1 there was a ,muhammadan king of  
,gilolo1 a kingdom on the western side  
of the northern limb of the  island of  
,halemahera4 #abgj ,in modern times the 
existence of certain  regulations1      
devised for the benefit of the          
state-religion1 has  facilitated to some
 extent the progress of the ,muhammadan 
religion  among the ,alfurs of the      
mainland1 e4g4 if any one of them is    
discovered  to have had illicit         

intercourse with a ,muhammadan girl1 he 
must marry  her and become a ,muslim2   
any of the ,alfur women who marry       
,muhammadans  must embrace the faith of 
their husbands2 offences against the law
 may  be atoned for by conversion to    
,islam2 and in filling up any vacancy   
that may happen to occur among the      
chiefs1 less regard is paid to the      
lawful claims of a candidate than to his
 readiness to become a  ,musalman4 #abga
    ,similarly1 ,islam in ,borneo is    
mostly confined to the coast1 although  
it  had gained a footing in the island  
as early as the beginning of the        
sixteenth century4 ,about this time1 it 
was adopted by the people of            
,banjarmasin1 a kingdom on the southern 
side1 which had been tributary  to the  
,hindu kingdom of ,majapahit1 until its 
overthrow in #adgh2 #abgb  they owed    
their conversion to one of the          
,muhammadan states that rose on  the    
ruins of the latter4 #abgc ,the story is
 that the people of  ,banjarmasin asked 

for assistance towards the suppression  
of a revolt1  and that it was given on  
condition that they adopted the new     
religion2  whereupon a number of        
,muhammadans came over from ,java1      
suppressed the  revolt and effected the 
work of conversion4 #abgd ,on the       
north-west  coast1 the ,spaniards found 
a ,muhammadan king at ,brunai1 when they
  reached this place in #aeba4 #abge ,a 
little later1 #aeej1 it was  introduced 
into the kingdom of ,sukadana1 #abgf in 
the western part of  the island1 by     
,arabs coming from ,palembang in        
,sumatra4 #abgg ,the  reigning king     
refused to abandon the faith of his     
fathers1 but during  the forty years    
that elapsed before his death 7in       
#aeij71 the new  religion appears to    
have made considerable progress4 ,his   
successor  became a ,musalman and       
married the daughter of a prince of a   
neighbouring island1 in which apparently
 ,islam had been long  established2     
#abgh during his reign1 a traveller1    

#abgi who visited  the island in #afjj1 
speaks of ,muhammadanism as being a     
common religion  along the coast4 ,the  
inhabitants of the interior1 however1 he
 tells us1  were all idolaters--as      
indeed they remain for the most part to 
the  present day4 ,the progress of      
,islam in the kingdom of ,sukadana seems
 now  to have drawn the attention of the
 centre of the ,muhammadan world to     
this distant spot1 and in the reign of  
the next prince1 a certain  ,shaykh     
,shams al-,dn came from ,mecca bringing 
with him a present of a  copy of the    
,qurn and a large hyacinth ring1        
together with a letter in  which this   
defender of the faith received the      
honourable title of  ,sultan ,muammad af
 al-,dn4 #abhj    ,in the latter part of
 the eighteenth century one of the      
inland tribes1  called the ,idaans1     
dwelling in the interior of north       
,borneo1 is said to  have looked upon   
the ,muhammadans of the coast with very 
great respect1  as having a religion    

which they themselves had not yet got4  
#abha  ,dalrymple1 who obtained his     
information on the ,idaans of ,borneo   
during  his visit to ,sulu from #agfa to
 #agfd1 tells us that they 8entertain a 
just regret of their own ignorance1 and 
a mean idea of themselves on  that      
account2 for1 when they come into the   
houses1 or vessels1 of the  ,mahometans1
 they pay them the utmost veneration1 as
 superior  intelligences1 who know their
 ,creator2 they will not sit down where 
the  ,mahometans sleep1 nor will they   
put their fingers into the same chunam1 
or betel box1 but receive a portion with
 the utmost humility1 and in  every     
instance denote1 with the most abject   
attitudes and gesture1 the  veneration  
they entertain for a ,god unknown1 in   
the respect they pay to  those who have 
a knowledge of ,him40 #abhb ,these      
people appear since  that time to have  
embraced the ,muhammadan faith1 #abhc   
one of the  numerous instances of the   
powerful impression that ,islam produces

 upon  tribes that are low down in the  
scale of civilisation4 ,from time to    
time other accessions have been gained  
in the persons of the numerous          
colonists1 ,arabs1 ,bugis and ,malays1  
as well as ,chinese 7who have had       
settlements here since the seventh      
century71 #abhd and of the slaves       
introduced into the island from         
different countries2 so that at the     
present day the ,muhammadans of ,borneo 
are a very mixed race4 #abhe  ,many of  
these foreigners were still heathen when
 they first came to  ,borneo1 and of a  
higher civilisation than the ,dyaks whom
 they conquered  or drove into the      
interior1 where they mostly still remain
 heathen1  except in the western part of
 the island1 in which from time to time 
small tribes of ,dyaks embrace ,islam4  
#abhf ,when the pagan ,dyaks change     
their faith1 it is more commonly the    
case that they yield to the  persuasions
 of the ,muhammadan rather than to those
 of the ,christian  missionary1 or1     

having first embraced ,christianity they
 then pass over  to ,islam1 and the     
,muhammadans are making zealous efforts 
to win  converts both from among the    
heathen and the ,christian ,dyaks4 #abhg
    ,in the island of ,celebes we find a
 similar slow growth of the  ,muhammadan
 religion1 taking its rise among the    
people of the coast and  slowly making  
its way into the interior4 ,only the    
more civilised  portion of the          
inhabitants has1 however1 adopted       
,islam2 this is mainly  divided into two
 tribes1 the ,macassars and the ,bugis1 
who inhabit the  south-west peninsula1  
the latter1 however1 also forming a     
large  proportion of the coast          
population on the other peninsulas4 ,the
  interior of the island1 except in the 
south-west peninsula where nearly  all  
the inhabitants are ,muhammadan1 is     
still heathen and is populated  chiefly 
by the ,alfurs1 a race low in the scale 
of civilisation1 who  also form the     
majority of the inhabitants of the      

north1 the east and  the south-east     
peninsulas2 at the extremity of the     
first of these  peninsulas1 in          
,minahassa1 they have in large numbers  
been converted to  ,christianity2 the   
,muhammadans did not make their way     
hither until after  the ,portuguese had 
gained a firm footing in this part of   
the island1  and the ,alfurs whom they  
converted to ,roman ,catholicism were   
turned  into ,protestants by the ,dutch1
 whose missionaries have laboured in    
,minahassa with very considerable       
success4 ,but ,islam is slowly making   
its way among the heathen tribes of     
,alfurs in different parts of the       
island1 both in the districts directly  
administered by the ,dutch  ,government1
 and those under the rule of native     
chiefs4 #abhh    ,when the ,portuguese  
first visited the island about #aedj1   
they found  only a few ,muhammadan      
strangers in ,gowa1 the capital of the  
,macassar  kingdom1 the natives being   
still unconverted1 and it was not until 

the  beginning of the seventeenth       
century that ,islam began to be         
generally  adopted among them4 ,the     
history of the movement is especially   
interesting1 as we have here one of the 
few cases in which ,christianity  and   
,islam have been competing for the      
allegiance of heathen people4 ,one  of  
the incidents in this contest is thus   
admirably told by an old  compiler3     
8,the discovery of so considerable a    
country was looked upon  by the         
,portuguese as a ,matter of ,great      
,consequence1 and ,measures were  taken 
to secure the ,affections of those whom 
it was not found easy to  conquer2 but1 
on the other hand1 capable of being     
obliged1 or rendered  useful1 as their  
allies1 by good usage4 ,the ,people were
 much braver1  and withal had much      
better ,sense than most of the ,indians2
 and  therefore1 after a little         
,conversation with the ,europeans1 they 
began1  in general1 to discern that     
there was no ,sense or ,meaning in their

 own  ,religion2 and the few of them who
 had been made ,christians by the care  
of ,don ,antonio ,galvano 7,governor of 
the ,moluccas71 were not so  thoroughly 
instructed themselves as to be able to  
teach them a new  ,faith4 ,the whole    
,people1 in general1 however1 disclaimed
 their old  ,superstitions1 and became  
,deists at once2 but1 not satisfied with
 this1  they determined to send1 at the 
same time1 to ,malacca and to ,achin1   
#abhi to desire from the one1 ,christian
 ,priests2 and from the other1  ,doctors
 of the ,mohammedan ,law2 resolving to  
embrace the ,religion of  those         
,teachers who came first among them4    
,the ,portugeze have hitherto  been     
esteemed zealous enough for their       
,religion2 but it seems that ,don  ,ruis
 ,perera1 who was then ,governor of     
,malacca1 was a little deficient  in his
 ,concern for the ,faith1 since he made 
a great and very  unnecessary delay in  
sending the ,priests that were desired4 
,on the  other hand1 the ,queen of      

,achin being a furious ,mohammedan no   
sooner  received an ,account of this    
,disposition in the people of the       
,island of  ,celebes than she           
immediately dispatched a vessel full of 
,doctors of the  ,law1 who in a short   
time1 established their ,religion       
effectually among  the ,inhabitants4    
,some time after came the ,christian    
,priests1 and  inveighed bitterly       
against the ,law of ,mohammed but to no 
,purpose2 the  ,people of ,celebes had  
made their ,choice1 and there was no    
,possibility  of bringing them to alter 
it4 ,one of the ,kings of the ,island1  
indeed1  who had before embraced        
,christianity1 persisted in the ,faith1 
and most  of his ,subjects were         
converted to it2 but still1 the ,bulk of
 the ,people  of ,celebes continued     
,mohammedans1 and are so to this ,day1  
and the  greatest ,zealots for their    
,religion of any in the ,indies40 #abij 
,this event is said to have occurred in 
the year #afjc4 #abia ,the  frequent    

references to it in contemporary        
literature make it impossible  to doubt 
the genuineness of the story4 #abib ,in 
the little  principality of ,tallo1 to  
the north of ,gowa1 with which it has   
always  been confederated1 is still to  
be seen the tomb of one of the most     
famous missionaries to the ,macassars1  
by name ,khab ,tungal4 ,the prince  of  
this state1 after his conversion proved 
himself a most zealous  champion of the 
new faith1 and it was through his       
influence that it was  generally adopted
 by all the tribes speaking the         
,macassar language4 ,the  sequel of the 
movement is not of so peaceful a        
character4 ,the ,macassars  were carried
 away by their zeal for their newly     
adopted faith1 to make  an attempt to   
force it on their neighbours the ,bugis4
 ,the king of ,gowa  made an offer to   
the king of ,boni to consider him in all
 respects as an  equal if he would      
worship the one true ,god4 ,the latter  
consulted his  people on the matter1 who

 said1 8,we have not yet fought1 we have
 not  yet been conquered40 ,they tried  
the issue of a battle and were          
defeated4 ,the king accordingly became a
 ,muhammadan and began on his own       
account to attempt by force to impose   
his own belief on his subjects  and on  
the smaller states1 his neighbours4     
,strange to say1 the people  applied for
 help to the king of ,macassar1 who sent
 ambassadors to  demand from the king of
 ,boni an answer to the following       
questions1--,whether the king1 in his   
persecution1 was instigated by a        
particular revelation from the          
,prophet8--or whether he paid obedience 
to  some ancient custom8--or followed   
his own personal pleasure8 ,if for the  
first reason1 the king of ,gowa         
requested information2 if for the       
second1 he would lend his cordial       
co-operation2 if for the third1 the     
king of ,boni must desist1 for those    
whom he presumed to oppress were  the   
friends of ,gowa4 ,the king of ,boni    

made no reply and the ,macassars  having
 marched a great army into the country  
defeated him in three  successive       
battles1 forced him to fly the country1 
and reduced ,boni  into a province4     
,after thirty years of subjection1 the  
people of ,boni1  with the assistance of
 the ,dutch1 revolted against the       
,macassars1 and  assumed the headship of
 the tribes of ,celebes1 in the place of
 their  former masters4 #abic ,the      
propagation of ,islam certainly seems to
 have  been gradual and slow among the  
,bugis1 #abid but when they had once    
adopted the new religion1 it seems to   
have stirred them up to action1  as it  
did the ,arabs 7though this             
newly-awakened energy in either case    
turned in rather different              
directions71--and to have made them what
 they  are now1 at once the bravest men 
and the most enterprising merchants  and
 navigators of the ,archipelago4 #abie  
,in their trading vessels they  make    
their way to all parts of the           

,archipelago1 from the coast of ,new    
,guinea to ,singapore1 and their        
numerous settlements1 in the            
establishment of which the ,bugis have  
particularly distinguished  themselves1 
have introduced ,islam into many a      
heathen island3 e4g4 one  of their      
colonies is to be found in a state that 
extends over a  considerable part of the
 south coast of ,flores1 where1         
intermingling  with the native          
population1 which formerly consisted    
partly of ,roman  ,catholics1 they have 
succeeded in converting all the         
inhabitants of  this state to ,islam4   
#abif    ,in their native island of     
,celebes also the ,bugis have combined  
proselytising efforts with their        
commercial enterprises1 and in the      
little kingdom of ,bolang-,mongondou in 
the northern peninsula #abig  they have 
succeeded1 in the course of the present 
century1 in winning  over to ,islam a   
,christian population whose conversion  
dates from the  end of the seventeenth  

century4 ,the first ,christian king of  
,bolang-,mongondou was ,jacobus ,manopo 
7#afhi-agji71 in whose reign            
,christianity spread rapidly1 through   
the influence of the ,dutch ,east       
,india ,company and the preaching of the
 ,dutch clergy4 #abih ,his  successors  
were all ,christian until #ahdd1 when   
the reigning ,raja1  ,jacobus ,manuel   
,manopo1 embraced ,islam4 ,his          
conversion was the crown of  a series of
 proselytising efforts that had been in 
progress since the  beginning of the    
century1 for it was about this time that
 the zealous  efforts of some           
,muhammadan traders--,bugis and         
others--won over some  converts to      
,islam in one of the coast towns of the 
southern kingdom1  ,mongondou2 from this
 same town two trader missionaries1 akm 
,bagus and  ,imm ,tuwko by name1 set out
 to spread their faith throughout the   
rest  of this kingdom4 ,they made a     
beginning with the conversion of some   
slaves and native women whom they       

married1 and these little by little     
persuaded their friends and relatives to
 embrace the new faith4 ,from           
,mongondou ,islam spread into the       
northern kingdom ,bolang2 here1 in      
#ahcj1 the whole population was either  
,christian or heathen1 with the         
exception of two or three ,muhammadan   
settlers2 but the zealous  preachers of 
,islam1 the ,bugis1 and the ,arabs who  
assisted them in their  missionary      
labours1 soon achieved a wide-spread    
success4 ,the  ,christians1 whose       
knowledge of the doctrines of their     
religion was very  slight and whose     
faith was weak1 were ill prepared with  
the weapons of  controversy to meet the 
attacks of the rival creed2 despised by 
the  ,dutch ,government1 neglected and  
well-nigh abandoned by the authorities  
of the ,church1 they began to look on   
these foreigners1 some of whom  married 
and settled among them1 as their        
friends4 ,as the work of  conversion    
progressed1 the visits of these ,bugis  

and ,arabs1--at first  rare1--became    
more frequent1 and their influence in   
the country very  greatly increased1 so 
much so that about #ahcb an ,arab       
married a  daughter of the king1        
,cornelius ,manopo1 who was himself a   
,christian2  many of the chiefs1 and    
some of the most powerful among them1   
about the  same time1 abandoned         
,christianity and embraced ,islam4 ,in  
this way ,islam  had gained a firm      
footing in his kingdom before ,raja     
,jacobus ,manuel  ,manopo became a      
,muslim in #ahdd2 this prince had made  
repeated  applications to the ,dutch    
authorities at ,manado to appoint a     
successor  to the ,christian            
schoolmaster1 ,jacobus ,bastiaan1--whose
 death had been a  great loss to the    
,christian community--but to no purpose1
 and learning  from the resident at     
,manado that the ,dutch ,government was 
quite  indifferent as to whether the    
people of his state were ,christians or 
,muhammadans1 so long as they were      

loyal1 openly declared himself a        
,musalman and tried every means to bring
 his subjects over to the same  faith4  
,an ,arab missionary took advantage of  
the occurrence of a  terrible earthquake
 in the following year1 to prophecy the 
destruction  of ,bolang-,mongondou1     
unless the people speedily became       
converted to  ,islam4 ,many in their    
terror hastened to follow this advice1  
and the  ,raja and his nobles lent their
 support to the missionaries and ,arab  
merchants1 whose methods of dealing with
 the dilatory were not always  of the   
gentlest4 ,nearly half the population1  
however1 still remains  heathen1 but the
 progress of ,islam among them1 though  
slow1 is  continuous and sure4 #abii    
,the neighbouring island of ,sambawa    
likewise probably received its          
knowledge of this faith from ,celebes1  
through the preaching of  missionaries  
from ,macassar between #aedj and #aeej4 
,all the more  civilised inhabitants are
 true believers and are said to be      

stricter in  the performance of their   
religious duties than any of the        
neighbouring  ,muhammadan peoples4 ,this
 is largely due to a revivalist movement
 set on  foot by a certain j ,ali after 
the disastrous eruption of ,mount       
,tambora in #ahae1 the fearful suffering
 that ensued thereon being made  use of 
to stir up the people to a more strict  
observance of the  precepts of their    
religion and the leading of a more      
devout life4  #acjj ,at the present time
 ,islam still continues to win over     
fresh  converts in this island4 #acja   
,the ,sasaks of the neighbouring island 
of ,lombok also owed their  conversion  
to the preaching of the ,bugis1 who form
 a large colony here1  having either    
crossed over the strait from ,sambawa or
 come directly  from ,celebes3 at any   
rate the conversion appears to have     
taken place in  a peaceable manner4     
#acjb ,the population of ,lombok falls  
into two  distinct divisions1 the       
,sasaks and the ,balinese2 the first of 

these1  consisting of the ,muhammadan   
,sasaks1 the original inhabitants of the
  island1 far outnumbers the second1 but
 about the middle of the  eighteenth    
century they came under the rule of the 
,balinese and soon  found their island  
overrun by swarms of the ,hindu         
neighbours4 #acjc  ,the rule of the     
,balinese was very oppressive1 and they 
made  efforts--though with little       
success--to bring their ,muslim subjects
 over  to ,hinduism2 the ,sasaks tried  
in vain to shake off the yoke of their  
oppressors1 and more than once appealed 
to the ,dutch ,government1 before  the  
expedition of #ahid brought peace to the
 island and established an  orderly     
administration under ,dutch rule4 ,the  
new government brought  with it a large 
number of native ,muhammadan officials1 
who throw in  their influence on the    
side of their own faith1 and it is thus 
expected  that one of the results of the
 ,dutch conquest of ,lombok will be to  
give  a great impetus to ,islam in this 

island4 #acjd    ,in the ,philippine    
,islands we find a struggle between     
,christianity and  ,islam for the       
allegiance of the inhabitants1 somewhat 
similar in  character to that in        
,celebes1 but more stern and enduring1  
entangling  the ,spaniards and the      
,muslims in a fierce and bloody         
conflict1 even up  to the nineteenth    
century4 ,it is uncertain when ,islam   
first reached  these islands4 #acje ,the
 traditionary annals of ,mindanao       
represent  ,islam as having been        
introduced from ,johore1 in the ,malay  
,peninsula1 by  a certain ,sharf        
,kabungsuwan1 who settled with a number 
of followers in  the island and married 
there4 ,he is said to have refused to   
land until  the men who came to meet him
 on his arrival promised to embrace     
,islam1  and these early records give   
the impression that the landing of      
,kabungsuwan and the conversion of the  
people of ,mindanao at first  proceeded 
quite peacefully2 but after he had      

established his power1 he  began to     
conquer the neighbouring chiefs and     
tribes1 and they accepted  his religion 
in submitting to his authority4 #acjf   
,the ,spaniards who  discovered them in 
#aeba1 found the population of the      
northern islands  to be rude and simple 
pagans1 while ,mindanao and the ,sulu   
,islands were  occupied by more         
civilised ,muhammadan tribes4 #acjg ,the
 latter up to  the close of the         
nineteenth century successfully resisted
 for the most  part all the efforts of  
the ,christians towards conquest and    
conversion1  so that the ,spanish       
missionaries despaired of ever effecting
 their  conversion4 #acjh ,the success  
of ,islam as compared with ,christianity
  has been due in a great measure to the
 different form under which these  two  
faiths were presented to the natives4   
,the adoption of the latter  implied the
 loss of all political freedom and      
national independence1  and hence came  
to be regarded as a badge of slavery4   

,the methods  adopted by the ,spaniards 
for the propagation of their religion   
were  calculated to make it unpopular   
from the beginning2 their violence and  
intolerance were in strong contrast to  
the conciliatory behaviour of  the      
,muhammadan missionaries1 who learned   
the language of the people1  adopted    
their customs1 intermarried with them1  
and melting into the  mass of the       
people1 neither arrogated to themselves 
the exclusive  rights of a privileged   
race nor condemned the natives to the   
level of a  degraded caste4 ,the        
,spaniards1 on the other hand1 were     
ignorant of the  language1 habits and   
manners of the natives2 their           
intemperance and  above all their       
avarice and rapacity brought their      
religion into odium2  while its         
propagation was intended to serve as an 
instrument of their  political          
advancement4 #acji ,it is not difficult 
therefore to  understand the opposition 
offered by the natives to the           

introduction of  ,christianity1 which   
indeed only became the religion of the  
people in  those parts in which the     
inhabitants were weak enough1 or the    
island  small enough1 to enable the     
,spaniards to effect a total            
subjugation2  the native ,christians    
after their conversion had to be forced 
to  perform their religious duties      
through fear of punishment1 and were    
treated exactly like school-children4   
#acaj ,up to the time of the  ,american 
occupation of the ,philippine ,islands  
the independent  ,muhammadan kingdom of 
,mindanao was a refuge for those who    
wished to  escape from the hated        
,christian government2 #acaa the island 
of ,sulu1  also1 though nominally a     
,spanish possession since #ahgh1 formed 
another  centre of ,muhammadan          
opposition to ,christianity1            
,spanish-knowing  renegades even being  
found here4 #acab    ,we have no certain
 historical evidence as to how long the 
inhabitants  of the ,sulu ,islands had  

been ,muhammadan1 before the arrival of 
the  ,spaniards4 ,the annals of ,sulu   
give the name of ,sharf ,karm al-,makhdm
  as the first missionary of ,islam in  
these islands4 ,he is said to have  been
 an ,arab who went to ,malacca about the
 middle of the fourteenth  century and  
converted ,suln ,muammad ,shh and the   
people of ,malacca to  ,islam4          
,continuing his journey eastward1 he    
reached ,sulu about the year  #achj and 
settled in ,bwansa1 #acac the old       
capital of ,sulu1 where the  people     
built a mosque for him and many of the  
chiefs accepted his  teachings4 ,he is  
said to have visited almost every island
 of the  ,archipelago and to have made  
converts in many places2 his grave is   
said  to be on the island of ,sibutu4   
#acad ,the next missionary is said to   
have been ,ab ,bakr1 who is also stated 
to have been an ,arab1 and to  have     
commenced his missionary labours in     
,malacca and to have made his  way to   
,palembang and ,brunei1 and reached     

,sulu about #adej2 he built  mosques and
 carried on a successful propaganda4    
,the ,muslim king of  ,bwansa1 ,raja    
,baginda1 gave him his daughter in      
marriage1 and appointed  him his heir1  
and ,ab ,bakr is credited with having   
organised the  government and           
legislation of ,sulu on orthodox ,muslim
 lines as far as  local custom would    
allow4 #acae ,though so long converted1 
the people  of ,sulu are far from being 
rigid ,muhammadans1 indeed1 the         
influence of  the numerous ,christian   
slaves that they carried off from the   
,philippines in their predatory         
excursions used to be so great that it  
was even asserted #acaf that 8they would
 long ere this have become  professed   
,christians but from the prescience that
 such a change1 by  investing a         
predominating influence in the          
priesthood1 would inevitably  undermine 
their own authority1 and pave the way to
 the transfer of  their dominions to the
 ,spanish yoke1 an occurrence which     

fatal  experience has too forcibly      
instructed all the surrounding nations  
that  unwarily embrace the ,christian   
persuasion40 ,further1 the aggressive   
behaviour of the ,spanish priests who   
established a mission in ,sulu  created 
in the mind of the people a violent     
antipathy to the foreign  religion4     
#acag    ,since the ,american occupation
 of the ,philippines1 the influence of  
,islam has been considerably restricted1
 and is now confined to the  island of  
,palawan1 the south coast of ,mindanao  
and the archipelago of  ,sulu4 #acah    
,but it is said to be seeking to extend 
its propaganda  among the northern      
islands1 and to have made a beginning of
 missionary  activity even in ,manila4  
,certain conditions are said to favour  
its  success1 especially the fact that  
the ,filipinos are prejudiced against   
,christianity on account of the abuses  
that led them to take up arms  against  
the ,spanish friars4 #acai    ,as has   
been already mentioned1 ,islam has been 

most favourably received  by the more   
civilised races of the ,malay           
,archipelago1 and has taken but  little 
root among the lower races4 ,such are   
the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea1  and the  
islands to the north-west of it1 viz4   
,waigyu1 ,misool1 ,waigama  and         
,salawatti4 ,these islands1 together    
with the peninsula of ,onin1 on  the    
north-west of ,new ,guinea1 were in the 
sixteenth century subject to  the       
,sultan of ,batjan1 #acbj one of the    
kings of the ,moluccas4 ,through  the   
influence of the ,muhammadan rulers of  
,batjan1 the ,papuan chiefs of  these   
islands adopted ,islam1 #acba and though
 the mass of the people  in the interior
 have remained heathen up to the present
 day1 the  inhabitants of the coast are 
,muhammadans largely no doubt owing to  
the  influence of settlers from the     
,moluccas4 #acbb ,in ,new ,guinea       
itself1  very few of the ,papuans seem  
to have become ,muhammadans4 ,islam was 
introduced into the west coast 7probably

 in the peninsula of ,onin7 by          
,muhammadan merchants1 who propagated   
their religion among the  inhabitants1  
as early as #afjf4 #acbc ,but it appears
 to have made very  little progress     
during the centuries that have elapsed  
since then1  #acbd and the ,papuans have
 shown as much reluctance to become     
,muhammadans as to accept the teachings 
of the ,christian missionaries1  who    
have laboured among them without much   
success since #ahee4 ,the  ,muhammadans 
of the neighbouring islands have been   
accused of holding  the ,papuans in too 
great contempt to make efforts to spread
 ,islam among  them4 #acbe ,the name of 
one missionary1 however1 is found1 a    
certain  ,imm ,dikir 78 ,dhikr71 who    
came from one of the islands on the     
south-east of ,ceram about #ahef and    
introduced ,islam into the little       
island of ,adi1 south of the peninsula  
of ,onin2 after fulfilling his  mission 
he returned to his own home1 resisting  
the importunities of the  inhabitants to

 settle among them4 #acbf ,muhammadan   
traders from ,ceram  and ,goram are     
reported to have made a number of       
converts from among the  heathen during 
the first decade of the twentieth       
century4 #acbg  ,similar efforts are    
being made to convert the ,papuans of   
the  neighbouring ,kei ,islands4 ,in the
 middle of the nineteenth century there 
were said to be hardly any ,muhammadans 
on these islands1 with the  exception of
 the descendants of immigrants from the 
,banda ,islands2 some  time before1     
missionaries from ,ceram had succeeded  
in making some  converts1 but the       
precepts of the ,qurn were very little  
observed1  both forbidden meats and     
intoxicating liquors being indulged in4 
,the  women1 however1 were said to be   
stricter in their adherence to their    
faith than the men1 so that when their  
husbands wished to indulge in  swine's  
flesh1 they had to do so in secret1     
their wives not allowing it  to be      
brought into the house4 #acbh ,but in   

#ahhg it was noted that  there had been 
a revival of religious life among the   
,kei islanders1 and  the number of      
,muhammadans was daily increasing4 ,arab
 merchants from  ,madura1 ,java1 and    
,bali proved themselves zealous         
propagandists of ,islam  and left no    
means untried to win converts1 sometimes
 enforcing their  arguments by threats  
and violence1 and at other times by     
bribes3 as a  rule new converts were    
said to get #bjj florins' worth of      
presents1  while chiefs received as much
 as a thousand florins4 #acbi ,at the   
close of the nineteenth century about   
#hjjj of the ,kei islanders were  said  
to be ,muhammadan out of a total        
population of #bc1jjj4 #accj    ,the    
above sketch of the spread of ,islam    
from west to east through the  ,malay   
,archipelago comprises but a small part 
of the history of the  missionary work  
of ,islam in these islands4 ,many of the
 facts of this  history are wholly      
unrecorded1 and what can be gleaned from

 native  chronicles and the works of    
,european travellers1 officials and     
missionaries is necessarily fragmentary 
and incomplete4 ,but there is  evidence 
enough to show the existence of peaceful
 missionary efforts to  spread the faith
 of ,islam during the last six hundred  
years3 sometimes  indeed the sword has  
been drawn in support of the cause of   
religion1  but preaching and persuasion 
rather than force and violence have been
  the main characteristics of this      
missionary movement4 ,the marvellous    
success that has been achieved has been 
largely the work of traders1  who won   
their way to the hearts of the natives1 
by learning their  language1 adopting   
their manners and customs1 and began    
quietly and  gradually to spread the    
knowledge of their religion by first    
converting  the native women they       
married and the persons associated with 
them in  their business relations4      
,instead of holding themselves apart in 
proud  isolation1 they gradually melted 

into the mass of the population1        
employing all their superiority of      
intelligence and civilisation for  the  
work of conversion and making such      
skilful compromises in the  doctrines   
and practices of their faith as were    
needed to recommend it  to the people   
they wished to attract4 #acca ,in fact1 
as ,buckle said of  them1 8,the         
,mahometan missionaries are very        
judicious40 #accb    ,beside the        
traders1 there have been numbers of what
 may be called  professional            
missionaries--theologians1 preachers1   
jurisconsults and  pilgrims4 ,the latter
 have1 in recent years1 been especially 
active in  the work of proselytising1 in
 stirring up a more vigorous and        
consistent religious life among their   
fellow-countrymen1 and in purging  away 
the lingering remains of heathen habits 
and beliefs4 ,the number of  those who  
make the pilgrimage to ,mecca from all  
parts of the  ,archipelago is constantly
 on the increase1 and there is in       

consequence  a proportionate growth of  
,muhammadan influence and ,muhammadan   
thought4  ,up to the middle of the      
nineteenth century the ,dutch           
,government tried  to put obstacles in  
the way of the pilgrims and passed an   
order that no  one should be allowed to 
make the pilgrimage to the holy city    
without a  passport1 for which he had to
 pay #aaj florins2 and any one who      
evaded  this order was on his return    
compelled to pay a fine of double that  
amount4 #accc ,accordingly it is not    
surprising to find that in #aheb  the   
number of pilgrims was so low as        
seventy1 but in the same year this      
order was rescinded1 and since then1    
there has been a steady increase4       
,the average number of pilgrims during  
the last decade of the nineteenth       
century was #gjjj--;during the first    
decade of the twentieth1 #gcjj2 #accd   
but the numbers vary considerably from  
year to year1 the largest  recorded     
number from the ,dutch ,indies being    

#ad1bcd in #aiaj4 #acce    ,such an     
increase is no doubt largely due to the 
increased facilities of  communication  
between ,mecca and the ,malay           
,archipelago1 but1 as a  ,christian     
missionary has observed1 this by no     
means 8diminishes the  importance of the
 fact1 especially as the ,hadjis1 whose 
numbers have  grown so rapidly1 have by 
no means lost in quality what they      
gained in  quantity2 on the contrary1   
there are now amongst them many more    
thoroughly acquainted with the doctrines
 of ,islam1 and wholly imbued  with     
,moslem fanaticism and hatred against   
the unbelievers1 than there  formerly   
were40 #accf ,the reports of the ,dutch 
,government and of  ,christian          
missionaries bear unanimous testimony to
 the influence and  the proselytising   
zeal of these pilgrims who return to    
their homes as  at once reformers and   
missionaries4 #accg ,beside the pilgrims
 who  content themselves with merely    
visiting the sacred places and          

performing the due ceremonies1 and those
 who make a longer stay in  order to    
complete their theological studies1     
there is a large colony of  ,malays in  
,mecca at the present time1 who have    
taken up their residence  permanently in
 the sacred city4 ,these are in constant
 communication  with their              
fellow-countrymen in their native land1 
and their efforts  have been largely    
effectual in purging ,muhammadanism in  
the ,malay  ,archipelago from the       
contamination of heathen customs and    
modes of  thought that have survived    
from an earlier period4 ,a large number 
of  religious books is also printed in  
,mecca in the various languages  spoken 
by the ,malay ,muhammadans and carried  
to all parts of the  ,archipelago4      
,indeed ,mecca has been well said to    
have more influence on  the religious   
life of these islands than on ,turkey1  
,india or ,bukhr4  #acch    ,as might be
 anticipated from a consideration of    
these facts1 there has  been of recent  

years a very great awakening of         
missionary activity in  the ,malay      
,archipelago1 and the returned pilgrims1
 whether as merchants  or religious     
teachers1 become preachers of ,islam    
wherever they come in  contact with a   
heathen population4 ,the religious      
orders moreover have  extended their    
organisation to the ,malay ,archipelago1
 #acci even the  youngest of them--the  
,sansiyyah--finding adherents in the    
most distant  islands1 #acdj one of the 
signs of its influence being the        
adoption of  the name ,sans by many     
,malays1 when in ,mecca they change     
their native  for ,arabic names4 #acda  
,the ,dutch ,government has been accused
 by ,christian missionaries of          
favouring the spread of ,islam2 however 
this may have been1 it is  certain that 
the work of the ,muslim missionaries is 
facilitated by the  fact that ,malay1   
which is spoken by hardly any but       
,muhammadans1 has  been adopted as the  
official language of the ,dutch         

,government1 except  in ,java2 and as   
the ,dutch civil servants are everywhere
 attended by a  crowd of ,muhammadan    
subordinate officials1 political agents1
 clerks1  interpreters and traders1 they
 carry ,islam with them into every place
  they visit4 ,all persons that have to 
do business with the ,government  are   
obliged to learn the ,malay language1   
and they seldom learn it  without at the
 same time becoming ,musalmans4 ,in this
 way the most  influential people       
embrace ,islam1 and the rest soon follow
 their  example4 #acdb ,thus ,islam is  
at the present time rapidly driving out 
heathenism from the ,malay ,archipelago4
                  ,,chapter ,,xiii4     
,,conclusion4      ,to the modern       
,christian world1 missionary work       
implies missionary  societies1 paid     
agents1 subscriptions1 reports and      
journals2 and  missionary enterprise    
without a regularly constituted and     
continuous  organisation seems a        
misnomer4 ,the ecclesiastical           

constitution of the  ,christian ,church 
has1 from the very beginning of its     
history1 made  provision for the        
propagation of ,christian teaching among
 unbelievers2  its missionaries have    
been in most cases1 regularly ordained  
priests or  monks2 the monastic orders  
7from the ,benedictines downwards7 and  
the  missionary societies of more modern
 times have devoted themselves with     
special and concentrated attention to   
the furthering of a department of       
,christian work that1 from the first1   
has been recognised to be one of  the   
prime duties of the ,church4 ,but in    
,islam the absence of any kind of       
priesthood or any ecclesiastical        
organisation whatever has caused the    
missionary energy of the ,muslims to    
exhibit itself in forms very  different 
to those that appear in the history of  
,christian missions3  there are no      
missionary societies1 #acdc no specially
 trained agents1  very little continuity
 of effort4 ,the only exception appears 

to be  found in the religious orders of 
,islam1 whose organisation resembles to 
some extent that of the monastic orders 
of ,christendom4 ,but even here  the    
absence of the priestly ideal1 of any   
theory of the separateness of  the      
religious teacher from the common body  
of believers or of the  necessity of a  
special consecration and authorisation  
for the  performance of religious       
functions1 makes the fundamental        
difference in  the two systems stand out
 as clearly as elsewhere4    ,whatever  
disadvantages may be entailed by this   
want of a priestly  class1 specially set
 apart for the work of propagating the  
faith1 are  compensated for by the      
consequent feeling of responsibility    
resting on  the individual believer4    
,there being no intermediary between the
 ,muslim  and his ,god1 the             
responsibility of his personal salvation
 rests upon  himself alone3 consequently
 he becomes as a rule much more strict  
and  careful in the performance of his  

religious duties1 he takes more  trouble
 to learn the doctrines and observances 
of his faith1 and thus  becoming deeply 
impressed with the importance of them to
 himself1 is  more likely to become an  
exponent of the missionary character of 
his  creed in the presence of the       
unbeliever4 ,the would-be proselytiser  
has  not to refer his convert to some   
authorised religious teacher of his     
creed who may formally receive the      
neophyte into the body of the  ,church1 
nor need he dread ecclesiastical censure
 for committing the sin  of ,korah4     
,accordingly1 however great an          
exaggeration it may be to say1  as has  
been said so often1 #acdd that every    
,muhammadan is a  missionary1 still it  
is true that every ,muhammadan may be   
one1 and few  truly devout ,muslims1    
living in daily contact with            
unbelievers1 neglect  the precept of    
their ,prophet3 8,summon them to the way
 of thy ,lord with  wisdom and with     
kindly warning40 #acde ,thus it is that1

 side by side  with the professional    
propagandists1--the religious teachers  
who have  devoted all their time and    
energies to missionary work1--the annals
 of  the propagation of the ,muslim     
faith contain the record of men and     
women  of all ranks of society1 from the
 sovereign #acdf to the peasant1 and  of
 all trades and professions1 who have   
laboured for the spread of  their       
faith1--the ,muslim trader1 unlike his  
,christian brother1 showing  himself    
especially active in such work4 ,in a   
list of ,indian  missionaries published 
in the journal of a religious and       
philanthropic  society of ,lahore #acdg 
we find the names of schoolmasters1     
,government  clerks in the ,canal and   
,opium ,departments1 traders 7including 
a dealer  in camel-carts71 an editor of 
a newspaper1 a book-binder and a workman
  in a printing establishment4 ,these   
men devote the hours of leisure left    
them after the completion of the day's  
labour1 to the preaching of  their      

religion in the streets and bazaars of  
,indian cities1 seeking to  win converts
 both from among ,christians and        
,hindus1 whose religious  beliefs they  
controvert and attack4    ,it is        
interesting to note that the propagation
 of ,islam has not been  the work of men
 only1 but that ,muslim women have also 
taken their part  in this pious task4   
,several of the ,mongol princes owed    
their conversion  to the influence of a 
,muslim wife1 and the same was probably 
the case  with many of the pagan ,turks 
when they had carried their raids into  
,muhammadan countries4 ,the ,sansiyyah  
missionaries who came to work  among the
 ,tb1 to the north of ,lake ,chad1      
opened schools for girls1  and took     
advantage of the powerful influence     
exercised by the women  among these     
tribes 7as among their neighbours1 the  
,berbers71 in their  efforts to win them
 over to ,islam4 #acdh ,in ,german ,east
 ,africa1 the  pagan natives who leave  
their homes for six months or more1 to  

work on  the railways or plantations1   
are converted by the ,muhammadan women  
with  whom they contract temporary      
alliances2 these women refuse to have   
anything to do with an uncircumcised    
kfir1 and to escape the disgrace        
attaching to such an appellation1 their 
husbands become circumcised and  thus   
receive an entry into ,muslim society4  
#acdi ,the progress of ,islam  in       
,abyssinia during the first half of the 
last century has been said to  be in    
large measure due to the efforts of     
,muhammadan women1 especially  the wives
 of ,christian princes1 who had to      
pretend a conversion to  ,christianity  
on the occasion of their marriage1 but  
brought up their  children in the tenets
 of ,islam and worked in every possible 
way for  the advancement of that faith4 
#acej ,on the western frontier of       
,abyssinia1 there is a pagan tribe      
called the ,boruns2 some of these men   
who had enlisted in a negro regiment1   
under the ,anglo-,egyptian  government  

of the ,sudan1 were converted to ,islam 
by the wives of the  black soldiers     
while the battalion was returning to    
,khartum4 #acea ,the  ,tatar women of   
,kazan are said to be especially zealous
 as propagandists  of ,islam4 #aceb ,the
 professed devotee1 because she happens 
to be a  woman1 is not thereby debarred 
from taking her place with the male     
saint in the company of the preachers of
 the faith4 ,the legend of the  holy    
women1 descended from ,al1 who are said 
to have flown through the  air from     
,karbal to ,lahore1 and there by the    
influence of their devout  lives of     
prayer and fasting to have won the first
 converts from  ,hinduism to ,islam1    
#acec could hardly have originated if   
the influence  of such holy women were a
 thing quite unknown4 ,one of the most  
venerated tombs in ,cairo is that of    
,nafsah1 the great-granddaughter of     
asan 7the martyred son of ,al71 whose   
theological learning excited  the       
admiration even of her great            

contemporary1 ,imm al-,shfi1 and  whose 
piety and austerities raised her to the 
dignity of a saint3 it is  related of   
her that when she settled in ,egypt1 she
 happened to have as  her neighbours a  
family of dhimms whose daughter was so  
grievously  afflicted that she could not
 move her limbs but had to lie on her   
back  all day4 ,the parents of the poor 
girl had to go one day to the market    
and asked their pious ,muslim neighbour 
to look after their daughter  during    
their absence4 ,nafsah1 filled with love
 and pity1 undertook  this work of      
mercy2 and when the parents of the sick 
girl were gone1  she lifted up her soul 
in prayer to ,god on behalf of the      
helpless  invalid4 ,scarcely was her    
prayer ended than the sick girl regained
 the  use of her limbs and was able to  
go to meet her parents on their  return4
 ,filled with gratitude1 the whole      
family became converts to the  religion 
of their benefactor4 #aced    ,even the 
,muslim prisoner will on occasion       

embrace the opportunity of  preaching   
his faith to his captors or to his      
fellow-prisoners4 ,the  first           
introduction of ,islam into ,eastern    
,europe was the work of a  ,muslim      
jurisconsult who was taken prisoner1    
probably in one of the wars  between the
 ,byzantine empire and its ,muhammadan  
neighbours1 and was  brought to the     
country of the ,pechenegs #acee in the  
beginning of the  eleventh century4 ,he 
set before many of them the teachings of
 ,islam and  they embraced the faith    
with sincerity1 so that it began to be  
spread  among this people4 ,but the     
other ,pechenegs who had not accepted   
the  ,muslim religion1 took umbrage at  
the conduct of their fellow-countrymen  
and finally came to blows with them4    
,the ,muslims1 who numbered about       
twelve thousand1 successfully withstood 
the attack of the unbelievers1  though  
they were more than double their number1
 and the remnant of the  defeated party 
embraced the religion of the victors4   

,before the close  of the eleventh      
century the whole nation had become     
,muhammadan and had  among them men     
learned in ,muslim theology and         
jurisprudence4 #acef ,in  the reign of  
the ,emperor ,jahngr 7#afje-afbh7 there 
was a certain ,sunn  theologian1 named  
,shaykh ,amad ,mujaddid1 who especially 
distinguished  himself by the energy    
with which he controverted the doctrines
 of the  ,shahs3 the latter1 being at   
this time in favour at court1 succeeded 
in having him imprisoned on some        
frivolous charge2 during the two years  
that he was kept in prison he converted 
to ,islam several hundred  idolaters who
 were his companions in the same prison4
 #aceg ,in more  recent times1 an       
,indian mawlav1 who had been sentenced  
to  transportation for life to the      
,andaman ,islands by the ,british       
,government1 because he had taken an    
active part in the ,wahhb  conspiracy of
 #ahfd1 converted many of the convicts  
before his death4 ,in  ,central ,africa1

 an ,arab chief condemned to death by   
the ,belgians1 spent  his last hours in 
trying to convert to ,islam the         
,christian missionary  who had been sent
 to bring him the consolations of       
religion4 #aceh    ,such being the      
missionary zeal of the ,muslims1 that   
they are ready to  speak in season and  
out of season1--as ,doughty1 with fine  
insight1 says1  8,their talk is         
continually 7without hypocrisy7 of      
religion1 which is of  genial devout    
remembrance to them10 #acei--let us now 
consider some of  the causes that have  
contributed to their success4           
,foremost among these is the simplicity 
#acfj of the ,muslim creed1  ,there is  
no god but ,god2 ,muammad is the        
,apostle of ,god4 ,assent to  these two 
simple doctrines is all that is demanded
 of the convert1 and  the whole history 
of ,muslim dogmatics fails to present   
any attempt on  the part of             
ecclesiastical assemblies to force on   
the mass of believers  any symbol       

couched in more elaborate and complex   
terms4 ,this simple  creed demands no   
great trial of faith1 arouses as a rule 
no particular  intellectual difficulties
 and is within the compass of the       
meanest  intelligence4 ,unencumbered    
with theological subtleties1 it may be  
expounded by any1 even the most unversed
 in theological expression4 ,the  first 
half of it enunciates a doctrine that is
 almost universally  accepted by men as 
a necessary postulate1 while the second 
half is  based on a theory of man's     
relationship to ,god that is almost     
equally  wide-spread1 viz4 that at      
intervals in the world's history ,god   
grants  some revelation of ,himself to  
men through the mouthpiece of inspired  
prophets4 ,this1 the rationalistic      
character of the ,muslim creed1 and  the
 advantage it reaps therefrom in its    
missionary efforts1 have  nowhere been  
more admirably brought out than in the  
following sentences  of ,professor      
,montet3--    8,islam is a religion that

 is essentially rationalistic in the    
widest  sense of this term considered   
etymologically and historically4 ,the   
definition of rationalism as a system   
that bases religious beliefs on         
principles furnished by the reason1     
applies to it exactly4 ,it is true  that
 ,muammad1 who was an enthusiast and    
possessed1 too1 the ardour of  faith and
 the fire of conviction1 that precious  
quality he transmitted  to so many of   
his disciples1--brought forward his     
reform as a  revelation3 but this kind  
of revelation is only one form of       
exposition  and his religion has all the
 marks of a collection of doctrines     
founded  on the data of reason4 ,to     
believers1 the ,muhammadan creed is     
summed up  in belief in the unity of    
,god and in the mission of ,his         
,prophet1 and to  ourselves who coldly  
analyse his doctrines1 to belief in ,god
 and a  future life2 these two dogmas1  
the minimum of religious belief1        
statements that to the religious man    

rest on the firm basis of reason1  sum  
up the whole doctrinal teaching of the  
,qurn4 ,the simplicity and  the         
clearness of this teaching are certainly
 among the most obvious  forces at work 
in the religion and the missionary      
activity of ,islam4 ,it  cannot be      
denied that many doctrines and systems  
of theology and also  many              
superstitions1 from the worship of      
saints to the use of rosaries  and      
amulets1 have become grafted on to the  
main trunk of the ,muslim  creed4 ,but  
in spite of the rich development1 in    
every sense of the  term1 of the        
teachings of the ,prophet1 the ,qurn has
 invariably kept  its place as the      
fundamental starting-point1 and the     
dogma of the unity  of ,god has always  
been proclaimed therein with a grandeur1
 a majesty1  an invariable purity and   
with a note of sure conviction1 which it
 is  hard to find surpassed outside the 
pale of ,islam4 ,this fidelity to the   
fundamental dogma of the religion1 the  

elemental simplicity of the  formula in 
which it is enunciated1 the proof that  
it gains from the  fervid conviction of 
the missionaries who propagate it1 are  
so many  causes to explain the success  
of ,muhammadan missionary efforts4 ,a   
creed  so precise1 so stripped of all   
theological complexities and            
consequently so accessible to the       
ordinary understanding1 might be        
expected to possess and does indeed     
possess a marvellous power of  winning  
its way into the consciences of men40   
#acfa    ,bishop ,lefroy considers that 
the 8secret of the extraordinary power  
for  conquest and advance which ,islam  
has in its best ages evinced0 is to be  
found in its recognition of the         
,existence of ,god rather than the      
,unity  of ,god4 8,not so much that ,god
 is one as that ,god ,,is--that ,his    
existence  is the ultimate fact of the  
universe--that ,his will is             
supreme--,his  sovereignty              
absolute--,his power limitless 444 the  

conviction that1  amidst all the chaos  
and confusion and disorders of the world
 which so  fearfully obscure it1 there  
is nevertheless1 an ultimate ,will1     
resistless1 supreme1 and that man is    
called to be a minister of that  ,will1 
to promulgate it1 to compel--if         
necessary by very simple and  elementary
 means indeed--obedience to that        
,will--this it was which welded  the    
,mohammedan hosts into so invincible an 
engine of conquest1 which  inspired them
 with a spirit of military subordination
 and discipline1  as well as with a     
contempt of death1 such as has probably 
never been  surpassed in any            
system--this it is which1 so far as it  
is still in any  true sense operative   
amongst ,mohammadans1 gives at once that
 backbone  of character1 that firmness  
of determination and strength of will1  
and  also that uncomplaining patience   
and submission in the presence of the   
bitterest misfortune1 which characterise
 and adorn the best adherents  of the   

creed40 #acfb    ,when the convert has  
accepted and learned this simple creed1 
he has  then to be instructed in the    
five practical duties of his religion3  
7#a7  recital of the creed1 7#b7        
observance of the five appointed times  
of  prayer1 7#c7 payment of the legal   
alms1 7#d7 fasting during the month of  
,raman1 and 7#e7 the pilgrimage to      
,mecca4    ,the observance of this last 
duty has often been objected to as a    
strange survival of idolatry in the     
midst of the monotheism of the          
,prophet's teaching1 but it must be     
borne in mind that to him it  connected 
itself with ,abraham1 whose religion it 
was his mission to  restore4 #acfc ,but 
above all--and herein is its supreme    
importance in  the missionary history of
 ,islam--it ordains a yearly gathering  
of  believers1 of all nations and       
languages1 brought together from all    
parts of the world1 to pray in that     
sacred place towards which their  faces 
are set in every hour of private worship

 in their distant homes4  ,no fetch of  
religious genius could have conceived a 
better expedient  for impressing on the 
minds of the faithful a sense of their  
common  life and of their brotherhood in
 the bonds of faith4 ,here1 in a supreme
  act of common worship1 the ,negro of  
the west coast of ,africa meets the     
,chinaman from the distant east2 the    
courtly and polished ,ottoman           
recognises his brother ,muslim in the   
wild islander from the farthest  end of 
the ,malayan ,sea4 ,at the same time    
throughout the whole  ,muhammadan world 
the hearts of believers are lifted up in
 sympathy with  their more fortunate    
brethren gathered together in the sacred
 city1 as  in their own homes they      
celebrate the festival of d al-,a or 7as
 it  is called in ,turkey and ,egypt7   
the feast of ,bayrm4 ,their visit to the
  sacred city has been to many ,muslims 
the experience that has stirred  them up
 to 8strive in the path of ,god10 and in
 the preceding pages  constant reference

 has been made to the active part taken 
by the js  in missionary work4          
,besides the institution of the         
pilgrimage1 the payment of the legal    
alms is another duty that continually   
reminds the ,muslim that 8the  faithful 
are brothers0 #acfd--;a religious theory
 that is very  strikingly realised in   
,muhammadan society and seldom fails to 
express  itself in acts of kindness     
towards the new convert4 ,whatever be   
his  race1 colour or antecedents he is  
received into the brotherhood of        
believers and takes his place as an     
equal among equals4    ,it is not1      
however1 true1 as some ,european writers
 have maintained1  that if an unbeliever
 is the slave of a ,muslim his          
conversion to ,islam  procures for him  
his manumission1 for1 according to      
,muhammadan law1 the  conversion of a   
slave does not affect the prior state of
 bondage2  #acfe and the condition of   
the ,muslim slave has varied much       
according  to the character of his      

master4 ,but freedom is in many         
instances the  reward of conversion1 and
 devout minds have even recognised in   
enslavement ,god's guidance to the true 
faith1 as the negroes from the  ,upper  
,nile countries1 whom ,doughty met in   
,arabia4 8,in those ,africans  there is 
no resentment that they have been made  
slaves 444 even though  cruel           
men-stealers rent them from their       
parentage4 ,the patrons who paid  their 
price have adopted them into their      
households1 the males are  circumcised  
and--that which enfranchises their      
souls1 even in the long  passion of     
home-sickness--,god has visited them in 
their mishap2 they can  say #8it was    
,his grace1' since they be thereby      
entered into the saving  religion4      
,this1 therefore1 they think is the     
better country1 where they  are the     
,lord's free men1 a land of more civil  
life1 the soil of the two  ,sanctuaries1
 the land of ,mohammed3--for such they  
do give ,god thanks  that their bodies  

were sometime sold into slavery60 #acff 
,very effective also1 both in winning   
and retaining1 is the ordinance of  the 
daily prayers five times a day4         
,montesquieu #acfg has well said1  8,une
 religion charge de beaucoup de         
pratiques attache plus  elle  qu'une    
autre qui l'est moins2 on tient beaucoup
 aux choses dont on est  continuellement
 occup40 ,the religion of the ,muslim is
 continually  present with him and in   
the daily prayer manifests itself in a  
solemn  and impressive ritual1 which    
cannot leave either the worshipper or   
the  spectator unaffected4 ,sad b4 asan1
 an ,alexandrian ,jew1 who embraced     
,islam in the year #abih1 speaks of the 
sight of the ,friday prayer in a  mosque
 as a determining factor in his own     
conversion4 ,during a severe  illness he
 had had a vision in which a voice bade 
him declare himself a  ,muslim4 8,and   
when ,i entered the mosque0 7he goes on7
 8and saw the  ,muslims standing in rows
 like angels1 ,i heard a voice speaking 

within  me1 #8,this is the community    
whose coming was announced by the       
prophets  7on whom be blessings and     
peace67'2 and when the preacher came    
forth  clad in his black robe1 a deep   
feeling of awe fell upon me 444 and when
  he closed his sermon with the words1  
#8,verily ,god enjoineth justice and    
kindness and the giving of gifts to     
kinsfolk1 and ,he forbiddeth  wickedness
 and wrong and oppression4 ,he warneth  
you2 haply ye will be  mindful4' #acfh  
,and when the prayer began1 ,i was      
mightily uplifted1  for the rows of the 
,muslims appeared to me like rows of    
angels1 to  whose prostrations and      
genuflections ,god ,almighty was        
revealing  ,himself1 and ,i heard a     
voice within me saying1 #8,if ,god spake
 twice unto  the people of ,israel      
throughout the ages1 verily ,he speaketh
 unto this  community in every time of  
prayer1' and ,i was convinced in my mind
 that  ,i had been created to be a      
,muslim40 #acfi    ,if ,renan could say1

 8,je ne suis jamais entr dans une      
mosque sans une  vive motion1 le        
dirai-je8 sans un certain regret de     
n'tre pas  musulman10 #acgj it can be   
readily understood how the sight of the 
,muslim trader at prayer1 his frequent  
prostrations1 his absorbed and  silent  
worship of the ,unseen1 would impress   
the heathen ,african1 endued  with that 
strong sense of the mysterious such as  
generally accompanies  a low stage of   
civilisation4 ,curiosity would naturally
 prompt inquiry1  and the knowledge of  
,islam thus imparted might sometimes win
 over a  convert who might have turned  
aside had it been offered unsought1 as a
  free gift4 ,of the fast during the    
month of ,raman1 it need only be  said  
that it is a piece of standing evidence 
against the theory that  ,islam is a    
religious system that attracts by       
pandering to the  self-indulgence of    
men4 ,as ,carlyle has said1 8,his       
religion is not an  easy one3 with      
rigorous fasts1 lavations1 strict       

complex formulas1  prayers five times a 
day1 and abstinence from wine1 it did   
not succeed  by being an easy religion40
    ,bound up with these and other      
ritual observances1 but not encumbered  
or  obscured by them1 the articles of   
the ,muslim creed are incessantly       
finding outward manifestation in the    
life of the believer1 and thus1         
becoming inextricably interwoven with   
the routine of his daily life1  make the
 individual ,musalman an exponent and   
teacher of his creed far  more than is  
the case with the adherents of most     
other religions4  #acga ,couched in such
 short and simple language1 his creed   
makes but  little demand upon the       
intellect1 and the definiteness1        
positiveness1  and minuteness of the    
ritual leave the believer in no doubt as
 to what  he has to do1 and these duties
 performed1 he has the satisfaction of  
feeling that he has fulfilled all the   
precepts of the ,law4 ,in this  union of
 rationalism and ritualism1 we may find1

 to a great extent1 the  secret of the  
power that ,islam has exercised over the
 minds of men4 8,if  you would win the  
great masses give them the truth in     
rounded form1  neat and clear1 in       
visible and tangible guise40 #acgb      
,many other circumstances might be      
adduced that have contributed towards   
the missionary success of               
,islam--circumstances peculiar to       
particular  times and countries4 ,among 
these may be mentioned the advantage    
that  ,muhammadan missionary work       
derives from the fact of its being so   
largely in the hands of traders1        
especially in ,africa and other         
uncivilised countries where the people  
are naturally suspicious of the         
foreigner4 ,for1 in the case of the     
trader1 his well-known and harmless     
avocation secures to him an immunity    
from any such feelings of  suspicion1   
while his knowledge of men and manners1 
his commercial  savoir-faire1 gain for  
him a ready reception1 and remove that  

feeling  of constraint which might      
naturally arise in the presence of the  
stranger4 ,he labours under no such     
disadvantages as hamper the  professed  
missionary1 who is liable to be         
suspected of some sinister  motive1 not 
only by people whose range of experience
 and mental horizon  are limited and to 
whom the idea of any man enduring the   
perils of a  long journey and laying    
aside every mundane occupation for the  
sole  purpose of gaining proselytes1 is 
inexplicable1 but also by more          
civilised men of the world who are very 
prone to doubt the sincerity of  the    
paid missionary agent4    ,the          
circumstances are very different when   
,islam has not to appear as a  suppliant
 in a foreign country1 but stands forth 
proudly as the  religion of the ruling  
race4 ,in the preceding pages it has    
been shown  that the theory of the      
,muslim faith enjoins toleration and    
freedom of  religious life for all those
 followers of other faiths who pay      

tribute  in return for protection1 and  
though the pages of ,muhammadan history 
are stained with the blood of many cruel
 persecutions1 still1 on the  whole1    
unbelievers have enjoyed under          
,muhammadan rule a measure of           
toleration1 the like of which is not to 
be found in ,europe until quite  modern 
times4 ,forcible conversion was         
forbidden1 in accordance with the       
precepts of the ,qurn3--8,let there be  
no compulsion in religion0 7ii4  #beg74 
8,wilt thou compel men to become        
believers8 ,no soul can believe  but by 
the permission of ,god0 7x4 #ii1 #ajj74 
,the very existence of so  many         
,christian sects and communities in     
countries that have been for  centuries 
under ,muhammadan rule is an abiding    
testimony to the  toleration they have  
enjoyed1 and shows that the persecutions
 they have  from time to time been      
called upon to endure at the hands of   
bigots and  fanatics1 have been excited 
by some special and local circumstances 

rather than inspired by a settled       
principle of intolerance4 #acgc    ,at  
such times of persecution1 the pressure 
of circumstances has driven  many       
unbelievers to become--outwardly at     
least--,muhammadans1 and many  instances
 might be given of individuals who1 on  
particular occasions1  have been        
harassed into submission to the religion
 of the ,qurn4 ,but  such oppression is 
wholly without the sanction of          
,muhammadan law1  either religious or   
civil4 ,the passages in the ,qurn that  
forbid  forced conversion and enjoin    
preaching as the sole legitimate method 
of  spreading the faith have already    
been quoted above 7,introduction1 pp4   
#e-f71 and the same doctrine is upheld  
by the decisions of the  ,muhammadan    
doctors4 ,when ,moses ,maimonides1 who  
under the fanatical rule  of the        
,almohads had feigned conversion to     
,islam1 fled to ,egypt and  there openly
 declared himself to be a ,jew1 a       
,muslim jurisconsult from  ,spain       

denounced him for his apostasy and      
demanded that the extreme  penalty of   
the law should be inflicted on him for  
this offence2 but the  case was quashed 
by al-,q al-,fil1 ,abd al-,ram b4 ,al1  
#acgd one  of the most famous of ,muslim
 judges1 and the prime minister of the  
great ,saladin1 who authoritatively     
declared that a man who had been        
converted to ,islam by force could not  
be rightly considered to be a  ,muslim4 
#acge ,in the same spirit1 when ,ghzn   
7#abie-acjd7 discovered  that the       
,buddhist monks who had become          
,muhammadans at the beginning of  his   
reign 7when their temples had been      
destroyed7 only made a pretence  of     
being converted1 he granted permission  
to all those who so wished to  return to
 ,tibet1 where among their ,buddhist    
fellow-countrymen they  would be free   
once more to follow their own faith4    
#acgf ,tavernier  tells us a similar    
story of some ,jews of ,ispahan who were
 so grievously  persecuted by the       

governor 8that either by force or       
cunning he caused  them to turn         
,mahometans2 but the king 7,shh ,abbs   
,,ii7 7#afdb-affg71  understanding that 
only power and fear had constrained them
 to turn1  suffer'd them to resume their
 own religion and to live in quiet40    
#acgg ,a story of a much earlier        
traveller #acgh in ,persia1 in #adgh1   
shows how even in those turbulent times 
a ,muhammadan governor set  himself to  
severely crush an outburst of fanaticism
 of the same  character4 ,a rich        
,armenian merchant of the city of ,tabrz
 was sitting  in his shop one day when a
 j1 #acgi with a reputation for         
sanctity1  coming up to him importuned  
him to become a ,musalman and abandon   
his  ,christian faith2 when the merchant
 expressed his intention of remaining   
steadfast in his religion and offered   
the fellow alms with the hope of        
getting rid of him1 he replied that what
 he wanted was not his alms but  his    
conversion2 and at length1 enraged at   

the persistent refusal of the  merchant1
 suddenly snatched a sword out of the   
hand of a bystander and  struck the     
merchant a mortal blow on the head and  
then ran away4 ,when  the ,governor of  
the city heard the news1 he was very    
angry and ordered  the murderer to be   
pursued and captured2 the culprit having
 been  brought into his presence1 the   
governor stabbed him to death with his  
own hand and ordered his body to be cast
 forth to be devoured by dogs1  saying3 
8,what6 is this the way in which the    
religion of ,muammad  spreads80 ,at     
nightfall1 the common people took up the
 body and buried  it1 whereupon the     
,governor1 enraged at this contempt of  
his order1 gave  up the place for three 
or four hours to be sacked by his       
soldiers and  afterwards imposed a fine 
as a further penalty2 also he called the
 son  of the merchant to him and        
comforted him and caressed him with good
 and  kindly words4 ,even the mad al-kim
 7#iif-ajbj71 whose persecutions  caused

 many ,jews and ,christians to abandon  
their own faith and become  ,musalmans1 
afterwards allowed these unwilling      
converts to return again  to their own  
religion and rebuild their ruined places
 of worship4  #achj ,neglected as the   
,eastern ,christians have been by their 
,christian  brethren in the ,west1      
unarmed for the most part and utterly   
defenceless1 it would have been easy for
 any of the powerful rulers of  ,islam  
to have utterly rooted out their        
,christian subjects or banished  them   
from their dominions1 as the ,spaniards 
did the ,moors1 or the  ,english the    
,jews for nearly four centuries4 ,it    
would have been  perfectly possible for 
,salm ,i 7in #aead7 or ,ibrhm 7in #afdf7
 to have  put into execution the        
barbarous notion they conceived of      
exterminating  their ,christian         
subjects1 just as the former had        
massacred #dj1jjj  ,shahs with the aim  
of establishing uniformity of religious 
belief  among his ,muhammadan subjects4 

,the muftis who turned the minds of     
their  masters from such a cruel        
purpose1 did so as the exponents of     
,muslim  law and ,muslim tolerance4     
#acha    ,still1 though the principle   
that found so much favour in ,germany in
 the  seventeenth century #achb--;,cuius
 regio eius religio1--was never adopted 
by any ,muhammadan potentate1 it is     
obvious that the fact of ,islam being   
the state religion could not fail to    
have had some influence in  increasing  
the number of its adherents4 ,persons on
 whom their religious  faith sat lightly
 would be readily influenced by         
considerations of  worldly advantage1   
and ambition and self-interest would    
take the place  of more laudable motives
 for conversion4 ,st4 ,augustine made a 
similar  complaint in the fifth century1
 that many entered the ,christian       
,church  merely because they hoped to   
gain some temporal advantage thereby3   
8,quam multi non quaerunt ,iesum1 nisi  
ut illis faciat bene secundum  tempus6  

,alius negotium habet1 quaerit          
intercessionem clericorum2 alius        
premitur a potentiore1 fugit ad         
ecclesiam2 alius pro se vult            
interveniri apud eum apud quem parum    
valet3 ille sic1 ille sic2  impletur    
quotidie talibus ecclesia40 #achc       
,moreover1 to the barbarous and         
uncivilised tribes that saw the glory   
and majesty of the empire of the ,arabs 
in the heyday of its power1  ,islam must
 have appeared as imposing and have     
exercised as powerful a  fascination as 
the ,christian faith when presented to  
the ,barbarians of  ,northern ,europe1  
when 8,they found ,christianity in the  
,empire--,christianity refined and      
complex1 imperious and                  
pompous--,christianity enthroned by the 
side of kings1 and sometimes  paramount 
above them40 #achd    ,added to this    
must often have been the slow1          
persistent influence of  daily contact  
with ,muslim life and thought1 such as  
led even a  ,nestorian writer of the    

twelfth century to add words of blessing
 to the  mention of the name of the     
,prophet and the early caliphs1 #ache   
and to  pray for the mercy of ,god on   
the caliph ,umar b4 ,abd al-,azz4 #achf 
,in modern times ,christian missionaries
 complain that the system of  public    
instruction in ,egypt under the ,british
 occupation1 according to  which        
8,christian boys are often compelled to 
sit and listen to the  ,koran and ,dn   
7religious teaching7 being taught to    
their ,moslem  companions when there is 
no room where they can be separated10   
#achg  tends to give the ,muhammadans a 
preponderating influence over their     
,christian fellow-students4 ,one of the 
most active of the followers of  the    
late ,muft ,muammad ,abduh was          
originally a ,coptic medical student1   
who had been won over to ,islam through 
the influence of the religious          
instruction he had heard given in school
 hours4 #achh    ,but the recital of    
such motives as little accounts for all 

cases of  conversion in the one religion
 as in the other1 and they should not   
make us lose sight of other factors in  
the missionary life of ,islam1  whose   
influence has been of a more distinctly 
religious character4  ,foremost among   
these is the influence of the devout    
lives of the  followers of ,islam4      
,strange as it may appear to a          
generation accustomed  to look upon     
,islam as a cloak for all kinds of vice1
 it is nevertheless  true that in       
earlier times many ,christians who have 
come into contact  with a living ,muslim
 society have been profoundly impressed 
by the  virtues exhibited therein2 if   
these could so strike the traveller and 
the stranger1 they would no doubt have  
some influence of attraction on  the    
unbeliever who came in daily contact    
with them4 ,ricoldus de ,monte  ,crucis1
 a ,dominican missionary who visited the
 ,east at the close of the  thirteenth  
century1 thus breaks out in praise of   
the ,muslims among whom  he had         

laboured3 8,obstupuimus1 quomodo in lege
 tante perfidie poterant  opera tante   
perfectionis inveniri4 ,referemus igitur
 hic breviter opera  perfectionis       
,sarracenorum4444 ,quis enim non        
obstupescat1 si diligenter  consideret1 
quanta in ipsis ,sarracenis sollicitudo 
ad studium1 devocio  in oratione1       
misericordia ad pauperes1 reverencia ad 
nomen ,dei et  prophetas et loca sancta1
 gravitas in moribus1 affabilitas ad    
extraneos1 concordia et amor ad suos80  
#achi ,william ,petit of ,newburgh  in  
similar manner1 towards the end of the  
twelfth century1 praised the  sobriety  
of the ,saracens as the outcome of the  
teaching of their  ,prophet and as      
inspiring them with a sense of moral    
superiority over  the ,christians3      
8,gulosos vero atque ebriosos1 orbi     
terrarum graves  abominatus1 sobrietatem
 docuit1 ciborum delicias sugillavit1   
vini usum1  praeterquam paucis certisque
 diebus solemnibus1 interdixit          
,macometus4  ,inde est1 quod cum        

,sarraceni in fluxu libidinum de sui1 ut
 dictum est1  seductoris indulgentia    
probentur esse spurcissimi2 nostris1    
proh dolor6  in frugalitate superiores  
esse videntur1 nobisque1 proh pudor6    
comessationum et ebrietatum sordes      
improperant4 ,denique malleus           
,christiani nominis ,saladinus ante     
annos aliquot1 cum nostrorum mores      
explorans1 audisset quod pluribus in    
prandio ferculis uterentur1  dixisse    
fertur1 #8tales ,terra ,sancta indignos 
esse4' ,unde constat1 quod  luxus       
nostrorum conspectus ,agarenos1 de      
frugalitate gloriantes1 contra  nos     
incitet animetque tanquam dicentes2     
#8,deus dereliquit crapulatos  istos1   
persequamur et comprehendamus1 quia non 
est qui eripiat4'0  #acij    ,the       
literature of the ,crusades is rich in  
such appreciations of ,muslim  virtues1 
while the ,ottoman ,turks in the early  
days of their rule in  ,europe received 
many a tribute of praise from ,christian
 lips1 as has  already been shown in a  

former chapter4    ,at the present day  
there are two chief factors 7beyond such
 of the  above-mentioned as still hold  
good7 that make for missionary activity 
in the ,muslim world4 ,the first of     
these is the revival of religious  life 
which dates from the ,wahhb reformation 
at the end of the  eighteenth century2  
though this new departure has long lost 
all  political significance outside the 
confines of ,najd1 as a religious       
revival its influence is felt throughout
 ,africa1 ,india and the ,malay         
,archipelago even to the present day1   
and has given birth to numerous         
movements which take rank among the most
 powerful influences in the  ,islamic   
world4 ,in the preceding pages it has   
already been shown how  closely         
connected many of the modern ,muslim    
missions are with this  wide-spread     
revival3 the fervid zeal it has stirred 
up1 the new life it  has infused into   
existing religious institutions1 the    
impetus it has  given to theological    

study and to the organisation of        
devotional  exercises1 have all served  
to awake and keep alive the innate      
proselytising spirit of ,islam4    ,side
 by side with this reform movement1 is  
another of an entirely  different       
character--for1 to mention one point of 
difference only1 while  the former is   
strongly opposed to ,european           
civilisation1 the latter is  rather in  
sympathy with modern thought and offers 
a presentment of  ,islam in accordance  
therewith1--viz4 the ,pan-,islamic      
movement1 which  seeks to bind all the  
nations of the ,muslim world in a common
 bond of  sympathy4 ,though in no way so
 significant as the other1 still this   
trend of thought gives a powerful       
stimulus to missionary labours2 the     
effort to realise in actual life the    
,muslim ideal of the brotherhood of  all
 believers reacts on collateral ideals  
of the faith1 and the sense  of a vast  
unity and of a common life running      
through the nations  inspirits the      

hearts of the faithful and makes them   
bold to speak in  the presence of the   
unbelievers4    ,what further influence 
these two movements will have on the    
missionary  life of ,islam1 the future  
only can show4 ,but their very activity 
at the  present day is a proof that     
,islam is not dead4 ,the spiritual      
energy of  ,islam is not1 as has been so
 often maintained1 commensurate with its
  political power4 #acia ,on the        
contrary1 the loss of political power   
and worldly prosperity has served to    
bring to the front the finer  spiritual 
qualities which are the truest          
incentives to missionary work4  ,islam  
has learned the uses of adversity1 and  
so far from a decline in  worldly       
prosperity being a presage of the decay 
of this faith1 it is  significant that  
those very ,muslim countries that have  
been longest  under ,christian rule show
 themselves most active in the work of  
proselytising4 ,the ,indian and ,malay  
,muhammadans display a zeal and         

enthusiasm for the spread of the faith1 
which one looks for in vain in  ,turkey 
or ,morocco4                  ,,appendix
 ,i4    ,,letter ,,of ,,al-,h,,shim     
,,inviting ,,al-,,kind ,,to ,,embrace   
,,islam4      ,the following is the text
 of al-,hshim's letter inviting al-,kind
 to  embrace ,islam3--8,in the name of  
,god1 the ,merciful1 the ,compassionate4
 ,i  have begun this letter with the    
salutation of peace and blessing after  
the fashion of my lord and the lord of  
the prophets1 ,muammad1 the  ,apostle of
 ,god 7may the peace and mercy of ,god  
be upon him674 ,for those  trustworthy1 
righteous and truthful persons who have 
handed down to us  the traditions of our
 ,prophet 7peace be upon him67 have     
related this  tradition concerning him  
that such was his habit and that        
whenever he  began to converse with men 
he would commence with the salutation of
  peace and blessing and made no        
distinction of dhimms and illiterate1   
between ,muslims and polytheists1 saying

 #8,i am sent to be kind and            
considerate to all men and not to deal  
roughly or harshly with them1'  and     
quoting the words of ,god1 #8,verily    
,god is kind and merciful to            
believers4' ,likewise ,i have observed  
that those of our ,khalfahs that ,i     
have met1 followed the footsteps of     
their ,prophet in courtesy1  nobility1  
graciousness and beneficence1 and made  
no distinctions in  this matter and     
preferred none before another4 ,so ,i   
have followed this  excellent way and   
have begun my letter with the salutation
 of peace and  blessing1 that ,i be     
blamed of none who sees my letter4      
8,i have been guided therein by my      
affection towards you because my lord   
and prophet1 ,muammad 7may the peace and
 mercy of ,god be upon him67  used to   
say that love of kinsmen is true piety  
and religion4 ,so ,i have  written this 
to you in obedience to the ,apostle of  
,god 7may the peace  and mercy of ,god  
be upon him671 feeling bound to show    

gratitude for the  services you have    
done us1 and because of the love and    
affection and  inclination that you show
 towards us1 and because of the favour  
of my  lord and cousin the ,commander of
 the ,faithful 7may ,god assist him67   
towards you and his trust in you and his
 praise of you4 ,so in all  sincerity   
desiring for you what ,i desire for     
myself1 my family and my  parents1 ,i   
will set forth the religion that we     
hold1 and that ,god has  approved of for
 us and for all creatures and for which 
,he has promised  a good reward in the  
end and safety from punishment when unto
 ,him we  shall return4444 ,so ,i have  
sought to gain for you what ,i would    
gain for  myself2 and seeing your high  
moral life1 vast learning1 nobility of  
character1 your virtuous behaviour1     
lofty qualities and your extensive      
influence over your co-religionists1 ,i 
have had compassion on you lest  you    
should continue in your present faith4  
,therefore ,i have determined  to set   

before you what the favour of ,god has  
revealed to us and to  expound unto you 
our faith with good and gentle speech1  
following the  commandment of ,god1     
#8,dispute not with the people of the   
book except in  the best way4' 7xxix4   
#de47 ,so ,i will discuss with you only 
in words  well-chosen1 good and mild2   
perchance you may be aroused and return 
to  the true path and incline unto the  
words of the ,most ,high ,god which ,he 
has sent down to the last of the        
,prophets and lord of the children of   
,adam1 our ,prophet ,muammad 7the peace 
and blessing of ,god be upon  him674 ,i 
have not despaired of success1 but had  
hope of it for you from  ,god who       
showeth the right path to whomsoever ,he
 willeth1 and ,i have  prayed that ,he  
may make me an instrument to this end4  
,god in ,his  perfect book says         
#8,verily the religion before ,god is   
,islam' 7iii4 #ag71  and again1         
confirming ,his first saying1 #8,and    
whoso desireth any other  religion than 

,islam1 it shall by no means therefore  
be accepted from  him1 and in the next  
world he shall be among the lost' 7iii4 
#gi71 and  again ,he confirms it        
decisively1 when ,he says1 #8,o         
believers1 fear ,god  as ,he deserveth  
to be feared2 and die not without having
 become  ,muslims4' 7iii4 #ig47    8,and
 you know--7,may ,god deliver you from  
the ignorance of unbelief and  open your
 heart to the light of faith67--that ,i 
am one over whom many  years have passed
 and ,i have sounded the depths of other
 faiths and  weighed them and studied   
many of their books especially your     
books40  ,here he enumerates the chief  
books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 
and  explains how he has studied the    
various ,christian sects4 8,i have met  
with many monks1 famous for their       
austerities and vast knowledge1 have    
visited many churches and monasteries1  
and have attended their  prayers4444 ,i 
have observed their extraordinary       
diligence1 their  kneeling and          

prostrations and touching the ground    
with their cheeks and  beating it with  
their foreheads and humble bearing      
throughout their  prayers1 especially on
 ,sunday and ,friday nights1 and on     
their festivals  when they keep watch   
all night standing on their feet        
praising and  glorifying ,god and       
confessing ,him1 and when they spend the
 whole day  standing in prayer1         
continually repeating the name of the   
,father1 ,son1  and ,holy ,ghost1 and in
 the days of their retreats which they  
call ,holy  ,week when they stand       
barefooted in sackcloth and ashes1 with 
much  weeping and shedding of tears     
continually1 and wailing with strange   
cries4 ,i have seen also their          
sacrifices1 with what cleanliness they  
keep the bread for it1 and the long     
prayers they recite with great  humility
 when they elevate it over the altar in 
the well-known church  at ,jerusalem    
with those cups full of wine1 and ,i    
have observed also the  meditations of  

the monks in their cells during their   
six fasts1--i4e4  the four greater and  
the two less1 etc4 ,on all such         
occasions ,i have  been present and     
observant of the people4 ,also ,i have  
visited their  ,metropolitans and       
,bishops1 renowned for their learning   
and their  devotion to the ,christian   
faith and extreme austerity in the      
world1 and  have discussed with them    
impartially1 seeking for the truth1     
laying  aside all contentiousness1      
ostentation of learning and             
imperiousness in  altercation and       
bitterness and pride of race4 ,i have   
given them  opportunity to maintain     
their arguments and speak out their     
minds  without interruption or          
browbeating1 as is done by the vulgar   
and  illiterate and foolish persons     
among our co-religionists who have no   
principle to work up to or reasons on   
which to rest1 or religious  feeling or 
good manners to restrain them from      
rudeness2 their speech is  but          

browbeating and proud altercation and   
they have no knowledge or  arguments    
except taking advantage of the rule of  
the government4  ,whenever ,i have held 
discussions with them and asked them to 
speak  freely as their reason1 their    
creed and their conclusion prompted1    
they  have spoken openly and without    
deception of any kind1 and their inward 
feelings have been laid bare to me as   
plainly as their outward  appearance4   
,so ,i have written at such length to   
you 7may ,god show you  the better way67
 after long consideration and profound  
inquiry and  investigation1 so that none
 may suspect that ,i am ignorant of the 
things whereof ,i write and that all    
into whose hands this letter may  come1 
may know that ,i have an accurate       
knowledge of the ,christian  faith4     
8,so1 now 7may ,god shower ,his         
blessings upon you67 with this knowledge
  of your religion and so long-standing 
an affection 7for you71 ,i invite  you  
to accept the religion that ,god has    

chosen for me and ,i for myself1        
assuring you entrance into ,paradise and
 deliverance from ,hell4 ,and it  is    
this1--,you shall worship the one ,god1 
the only ,god1 the ,eternal1 ,he        
begetteth not1 neither is ,he begotten1 
who hath no consort and no son1  and    
there is none like unto ,him4 ,this is  
the attribute wherewith ,god  has       
denominated ,himself1 for none of ,his  
creatures could know ,him  better than  
,he ,himself4 ,i have invited you to the
 worship of this the  ,one ,god1 whose  
attribute is such1 and in this my letter
 ,i have added  nothing to that         
wherewith ,he has denominated ,himself  
7high and exalted  be ,his name above   
what they associate with ,him674 ,this  
is the religion  of your father and our 
father1 ,abraham 7may the blessings of  
,god rest  upon him671 for he was a anf 
and ,muslim4    8,then ,i invite you    
7may ,god have you in ,his keeping67 to 
bear witness  and acknowledge the       
prophetic mission of my lord and the    

lord of the  sons of ,adam1 and the     
chosen one of the ,god of all worlds and
 the seal  of the prophets1 ,muammad 444
 sent by ,god with glad tidings and     
warnings to all mankind4 #8,he it is who
 hath sent ,his ,apostle with the       
guidance and a religion of the truth1   
that ,he may make it victorious  over   
every other religion1 albeit they who   
assign partners to ,god be  averse from 
it4' 7ix4 #cc47 ,so he invited all men  
from the ,east and from  the ,west1 from
 land and sea1 from mountain and from   
plain1 with  compassion and pity and    
good words1 with kindly manners and     
gentleness4  ,then all these people     
accepted his invitation1 bearing witness
 that he  is the apostle of ,god1 the   
,creator of the worlds1 to those who are
  willing to give heed to admonition4   
,all gave willing assent when they      
beheld the truth and faithfulness of his
 words1 and sincerity of his  purpose1  
and the clear argument and plain proof  
that he brought1 namely  the book that  

was sent down to him from ,god1 the like
 of which cannot  be produced by men or 
,jinns4 #8,say3 ,assuredly if mankind   
and the ,jinns  should conspire to      
produce the like of this ,qurn1 they    
could not  produce its like1 though the 
one should help the other4' 7xvii4 #ia47
  ,and this is sufficient proof of his  
mission4 ,so he invited men to the      
worship of the ,one ,god1 the only ,god1
 the ,self-sufficing1 and they  entered 
into his religion and accepted his      
authority without being  forced and     
without unwillingness1 but rather humbly
 acknowledging him  and soliciting the  
light of his guidance1 and in his name  
becoming  victorious over those who     
denied his divine mission and rejected  
his  message and scornfully entreated   
him4 ,so ,god set them up in the cities 
and subjected to them the necks of the  
nations of men1 except those who        
hearkened to them and accepted their    
religion and bore witness to their      
faith1 whereby their blood1 their       

property and their honour were safe  and
 they were exempt from humbly paying    
jizyah40 ,he then enumerates  the       
various ordinances of ,islam1 such as   
the five daily prayers1 the  fast of    
,raman1 ,jihd2 expounds the doctrine of 
the resurrection of  the dead and the   
last judgment1 and recounts the joys of 
,paradise and  the pains of ,hell4 8,so 
,i have admonished you3 if you believe  
in this  faith and accept whatever is   
read to you from the revealed ,word of  
,god1  then you will profit from my     
admonition and my writing to you4 ,but  
if  you refuse and continue in your     
unbelief and error and contend against  
the truth1 ,i shall have my reward1     
having fulfilled the commandment4  ,and 
the truth will judge you40 ,he then     
enumerates various religious  duties and
 privileges of the ,muslim1 and         
concludes4 8,so now in this my  letter  
,i have read to you the words of the    
great and high ,god1 which  are the     
words of the ,truth1 whose promises     

cannot fail and in whose  words there is
 no deceit4 ,then give up your unbelief 
and error1 of  which ,god disapproves   
and which calls for punishment1 and     
speak no more  of ,father1 ,son1 and    
,holy ,ghost1 these words that you      
yourself admit to  be so confusing3 and 
give up the worship of the cross which  
brings loss  and no profit1 for ,i wish 
you to turn away from it1 since your    
learning  and nobility of soul are      
degraded thereby4 ,for the great and    
high ,god  says3 #8,verily1 ,god will   
not forgive the union of other gods with
  ,himself2 but other than this will ,he
 forgive to whom ,he pleaseth4 ,and     
whoso uniteth gods with ,god1 hath      
devised a great wickedness4' 7iv4  #ea47
 ,and again3 #8,surely now are they     
infidels who say1 8,god is the          
,messiah1 ,son of ,mary20 for the       
,messiah said1 8,o children of ,israel6 
worship ,god1 my ,lord and your ,lord40 
,verily1 those who join other gods  with
 ,god1 ,god doth exclude from ,paradise1

 and their abode the ,fire2 and  for the
 wicked no helpers6 ,they surely are    
infidels who say1 8,god is a  third of  
three30 for there is no god but one     
,god2 and if they refrain  not from what
 they say1 a grievous chastisement shall
 assuredly befall  such of them as      
believe not4 ,will they not1 therefore1 
turn unto ,god1  and ask pardon of ,him8
 since ,god is ,forgiving1 ,merciful6   
,the ,messiah1  ,son of ,mary1 is but an
 ,apostle2 other ,apostles have         
flourished before  him2 and his mother  
was a just person2 they both ate food4' 
7v4 #gf-i47  ,then leave this path of   
error and this long and stubborn        
clinging to  your religion and those    
burdensome and wearisome fasts which are
 a  constant trouble to you and are of  
no use or profit and produce nothing    
but weariness of body and torment of    
soul4 ,embrace this faith and take      
this1 the right and easy path1 the true 
faith1 the ample law and the  way that  
,god has chosen for ,his favoured ones  

and to which ,he has  invited the people
 of all religions1 that ,he may show    
,his kindness and  favour to them by    
guiding them into the true path by means
 of ,his  guidance1 and fill up the     
measure of ,his goodness unto men4      
8,so ,i have advised you and paid the   
debt of friendship and sincere  love1   
for ,i have desired to take you to      
myself1 that you and ,i may be  of the  
same opinion and the same faith1 for ,i 
have found my ,lord saying  in his      
perfect ,book3 #8,verily the unbelievers
 among the people of the  ,book and     
among the polytheists1 shall go into the
 fire of ,hell to abide  therein for    
ever4 ,of all creatures they are the    
worst4 ,but they verily  who believe and
 do the things that are right--these of 
all creatures are  the best4 ,their     
recompense with their ,lord shall be    
gardens of ,eden1  'neath which the     
rivers flow1 in which they shall abide  
for evermore4  ,god is well pleased with
 them1 and they with ,him4 ,this1 for   

him who  feareth his ,lord4' 7xcviii4   
#e-h47 #8,ye are the best folk that hath
 been  raised up for mankind4 ,ye enjoin
 what is just1 and ye forbid what is    
evil1 and ye believe in ,god3 and if the
 people of the book had  believed1 it   
had surely been better for them4        
,believers there are among  them1 but   
most of them are disobedient4' 7iii4    
#ajf47 ,so ,i have had  compassion upon 
you lest you might be among the people  
of ,hell who are  the worst of all      
creatures1 and ,i have hoped that by the
 grace of ,god  you may become one of   
the true believers with whom ,god is    
well pleased  and they with ,him1 and   
they are the best of all creatures1 and 
,i have  hoped that you will join       
yourself to that religion which is the  
best of  the religions raised up for    
men4 ,but if you refuse and persist in  
your  obstinacy1 contentiousness and    
ignorance1 your infidelity and error1   
and if you reject my words and refuse   
the sincere advice ,i have offered  you 

7without looking for any thanks or      
reward7--then write whatever you  wish  
to say about your religion1 all that you
 hold to be true and  established by    
strong proof1 without any fear or       
apprehension1 without  curtailment of   
your proofs or concealment of your      
beliefs2 for ,i  purpose only to listen 
patiently to your arguments and to yield
 to and  acknowledge all that is        
convincing therein1 submitting willingly
  without refusing or rejecting or fear1
 in order that ,i may compare your      
account and mine4 ,you are free to set  
forth your case2 bring forward no  plea 
that fear prevented you from making your
 arguments complete and  that you had to
 put a bridle on your tongue1 so that   
you could not  freely express your      
arguments4 ,so now you are free to bring
 forward all  your arguments1 that you  
may not accuse me of pride1 injustice or
  partiality3 for that is far from me4  
8,therefore bring forward all the       
arguments you wish and say whatever  you

 please and speak your mind freely4 ,now
 that you are safe and free  to say     
whatever you please1 appoint some       
arbitrator who will  impartially judge  
between us and lean only towards the    
truth and be  free from the empery of   
passion3 and that arbitrator shall be   
,reason1  whereby ,god makes us         
responsible for our own rewards and     
punishments4  ,herein ,i have dealt     
justly with you and have given you full 
security  and am ready to accept        
whatever decision ,reason may give for  
me or  against me4 ,for #8there is no   
compulsion in religion' 7ii4 #beg7 and  
,i  have only invited you to accept our 
faith willingly and of your own  accord 
and have pointed out the hideousness of 
your present belief4  ,peace be with you
 and the mercy and blessings of ,god60  
,there can be very little doubt but that
 this document has come down to  us in  
an imperfect condition and has suffered 
mutilation at the hands  of ,christian  
copyists3 the almost entire absence of  

any refutation of  such distinctively   
,christian doctrines as that of the     
,blessed ,trinity1  and the references  
to such attacks to be found in          
al-,kind's reply1  certainly indicate   
the excision of such passages as might  
have given  offence to ,christian       
readers4 #acib                          
,,appendix ,,ii4    ,,controversial     
,,literature ,,between ,,muslims ,,and  
,,the ,,followers ,,of ,,other ,,faiths4
      ,although ,islam has had no       
organised system of propaganda1 no tract
  societies or similar agencies of      
missionary work1 there has been no  lack
 of reasoned presentments of the faith  
to unbelievers1 particularly  to        
,christians and ,jews4 ,of these it is  
not proposed to give a detailed  account
 here1 but it is of importance to draw  
attention to their  existence if only to
 remove the wide-spread misconception   
that mass  conversion is the prevailing 
characteristic of the spread of ,islam  
and  that individual conviction has     

formed no part of the propagandist      
schemes of the ,muslim missionary4 ,the 
beginnings of ,muhammadan  controversy  
against unbelievers are to be found in  
the ,qurn itself1  but from the ninth   
century of the ,christian era begins a  
long series of  systematic treatises of 
,muhammadan ,apologetics1 which has been
 actively  continued to the present day4
 ,the number of such works directed     
against  the ,christian faith has been  
far more numerous than the ,christian   
refutations of ,islam1 and some of the  
ablest of ,muslim thinkers have         
employed their pens in their            
composition1 e4g4 ,ab ,ysuf b4 ,isq     
al-,kind 7,a4,d4 #hac-hgc71 al-,masd    
7ob4 ,a4,d4 #ieh71 ,ibn azm 7,a4,d4     
#iid-ajfd71 al-,ghazl 7ob4 ,a4,d4       
#aaaa71 etc4 ,it is interesting also to 
note that several renegades have written
 apologies for their change of  faith   
and in defence of the ,muslim creed1    
e4g4 ,ibn ,jazlah in the  eleventh      
century1 ,ysuf al-,lubnn and ,shaykh    

,ziydah b4 ,yay in the  thirteenth1 ,abd
 ,allh b4 ,abd ,allh in the fifteenth1  
,darwesh ,al in  the sixteenth1 ,amad b4
 ,abd ,allh1 an ,englishman born at     
,cambridge1 in  the seventeenth century1
 etc4 ,these latter were all ,christians
 before  their conversion1 but ,jewish  
renegades also1 though fewer in number1 
have been among the apologists of       
,islam4 ,in ,india1 besides many        
,muhammadan books written against the   
,christian religion1 there is an        
enormous number of controversial works  
against ,hinduism3 as to whether  the   
,muhammadans have been equally active in
 other heathen countries1 ,i  have no   
information4    ,the reader will find a 
vast store of information on ,muslim    
controversial literature in the         
following writings3 ,moritz             
,steinschneider3 ,polemische und        
apologetische ,litteratur in arabischer 
,sprache1 zwischen ,muslimen1 ,christen 
und ,juden4 7,leipzig1 #ahgg72 ,ignaz   
,goldziher3 ber ,muhammedanische        

,polemik gegen ,ahl al-kitb             
7,z4,d4,m4,g41  vol4 #cb1 p4 #cda ff4   
#ahgh72 ,martin ,schreiner3 ,zur        
,geschichte der ,polemik  zwischen      
,juden und ,muhammedanern 7,z4,d4,m4,g41
 vol4 #db1 p4 #eia ff4 #ahhh72  ,w4 ,a4 
,shedd3 ,islam and the ,oriental        
,churches1 pp4 #beb-c2 ,carl  ,gterbock3
 ,der ,islam in ,lichte der             
byzantinischen ,polemik4 7,berlin1      
#aiab47                  ,,appendix     
,,iii4    ,,muslim ,,missionary         
,,societies4      ,the formation of     
societies for carrying on a propaganda  
in an organised  and systematic manner  
is a recent development in the          
missionary history  of ,islam--as indeed
 it is comparatively recent in the      
history of  ,christian missions4 ,such  
,muslim missionary societies would      
appear to  have been formed in conscious
 imitation of similar organisations in  
the  ,christian world1 and are not in   
themselves the most characteristic      
expressions of the missionary spirit in 

,islam4 ,in the ,western world  there is
 very little to note4 ,no attempt seems 
to have been made to  form such a       
society before the latter half of the   
nineteenth century1  and the earliest   
efforts were attended with little       
success4 ,when ,h4 ,m4  ,stanley in     
#ahge urged in the ,english ,press the  
sending of a ,christian  mission to     
,king ,mutesa of ,uganda1 the           
wide-spread attention paid to his       
appeal led to the formation of a        
missionary society in ,constantinople   
for the propagation of ,islam in that   
country1 but no ,muhammadan             
missionaries were ever sent to ,uganda1 
and the outbreak of the  ,russo-,turkish
 war in #ahgh diverted the attention of 
the ,turks from any  such enterprise4   
#acic ,a similar failure to establish   
organised  missionary effort was        
manifested when the ,anglo-,egyptian    
,government of  the ,sudan marked out   
zones of influence for various          
,christian  missionary societies in     

districts the natives of which were     
heathen2  some ,muslims of ,cairo       
claimed that a part of the territory    
should be  allotted to the followers of 
,islam2 whereupon the ,government       
replied  that all they had to do was to 
send the missionaries and the same      
facilities would be afforded to them as 
to the ,christian missionaries2  but the
 necessary organisation was lacking and 
the matter was allowed  to drop4 #acid  
,in #aiaj ,shaykh ,rashd1 the editor of 
al-,manr1 founded  a missionary society 
in ,cairo1 the object of which is to    
establish a  college 7entitled ,dr      
al-dawah wal-irshd7 for the training of 
missionaries and apologists for ,islam1 
who are to be sent primarily  into      
heathen and ,christian lands1 but also  
into those ,muhammadan  countries in    
which attempts are being made to induce 
the ,muhammadans to  abandon their      
faith4 #acie    ,but it is in ,india    
that there has been the greatest        
expansion of such  organisations4 ,one  

of the best organised of these is       
probably the  ,anjuman imyat-i-,islm of 
,lahore1 but propagandist work forms    
only a  small part of the wide field of 
its activities and it cannot therefore  
be described as a missionary society    
pure and simple4 ,the original  purpose 
for which the ,anjuman m ,islm of ,ajmer
 was founded was to  answer the         
objections urged against ,islam by the  
members of the rya  ,samj1 but it       
included among its objects the preaching
 of ,islam and the  providing of food   
and clothing to new converts4 #acif ,the
 ,anjuman  ,waz-i-,islm1 as its name    
denotes1 concentrated its efforts on the
  preaching of ,islam1 and1 while       
,mawlav ,baq usayn ,khn 7p4 #bhc7 was   
its ,secretary1 published lists of the  
converts gained--as did also the        
,anjuman-i-,islm and the ,anjuman       
,tablgh-i-,islm 7which aimed at the     
conversion of the ,hindu untouchables7  
established in aydarabad  7,deccan71 but
 it does not appear that either of these

 societies  continues to exist4 #acig   
,among the societies that have been     
established in the twentieth century are
 the ,madrasa ,ilhiyyt at  ,cawnpore1   
for the training of missionaries and the
 publication of  tracts in defence of   
,islam and in refutation of attacks made
 upon it2  and the ,anjuman ,ishat wa   
,talm-i-,islm at ,balah in the ,panjb1  
with similar objects4 ,but the largest  
of these organisations is the  ,anjuman 
,hidyat al-,islm of ,dehl1 to which as  
many as twenty-four  other societies1   
#acih in various parts of ,india1 are   
affiliated2 this  ,anjuman sends out    
missionaries to preach the doctrines of 
,islam and to  hold controversies with  
non-,muslims1 and publishes             
controversial  literature1 especially in
 refutation of the attacks made by the  
members  of the rya ,samj4              
,,titles ,,of ,,works ,,cited ,,by      
,,abbreviated ,,references4      7,the  
,titles1 etc41 of books quoted once     
only1 are given in full in the          

foot-notes47      ,aa 7,p4 ,j4 ,b4      
,robid van der73 ,reizen naar           
,nederlandsch ,nieuw-,guinea1  met      
,geschied- en ,aardrijkskundige         
,toelichtingen4 7,the ,hague1 #ahgi47   
,abd al-,razzq al-,samarqandi3 ,mala    
al-sadayn wa majma al-barayn4  7,india  
,office ,,ms4 ,no4 #bgjd47    ,abh4 f4  
d4 ,k4 d4 ,m4 hrsg4 v4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g43  
,abhandlungen fr die ,kunde  des        
,morgenlandes1 herausgegeben von der    
,deutschen ,morgenlndischen             
,gesellschaft4 7,leipzig47              
,abu'l-,fid3 ,gographie d',aboulfda1    
traduite par ,m4 ,reinaud4 7,paris1     
#ahdh47    ,abu'l-,ghz3 ,histoire des   
,mogols et des ,tartares par            
,aboul-,ghzi  ,behdour ,khan1 traduite  
par le ,baron ,desmaisons4 7,st4        
,petersburg1  #ahga-d47    ,ab li3 ,the 
,churches and ,monasteries of ,egypt1   
edited and translated  by ,b4 ,t4 ,a4   
,evetts4 7,oxford1 #ahie47    ,ab       
,shmah3 ,arabische ,quellenbeitrge zur  
,geschichte der ,kreuzzge  bersetzt und 

herausgegeben von ,e4 ,p4 ,goergens und 
,r4 ,rhricht4 ,erster  ,band3 ,zur      
,geschichte al ad-dn's4 7,berlin1       
#ahgi47    ,ab ,ubayd al-,bakr3         
,fragments de gographes et d'historiens 
,arabes et  ,persans indits1 relatifs   
aux anciens peuples du ,caucase et de la
  ,russie mridionale1 traduits par ,c4  
,defrmery4 7,j4 ,a4 ivme srie4 ,tome    
xiii1 #ahdi47    ,ab ,ysuf3 ,kitb       
al-,kharj4 7,cairo1 ,a4,h4 #acjb47      
,adeney 7,w4 ,f473 ,the ,greek and      
,eastern ,churches4 7,edinburgh1 #aijh47
    ,amad b4 ,yay b4 al-,murta3         
,al-,mutazilah1 being an extract from   
the  ,kitb al-,milal wal-,nial1 edited  
by ,t4 ,w4 ,arnold4 7,leipzig1 #aijb47  
,allgret 7,e473 ,l',islamisme en        
,afrique4 7,revue ,chrtienne1 iiime sr41
  tome xiv4 7,paris1 #aija477    ,alvar3
 7#a7 ,alvari ,cordubensis ,epistolae4  
7,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat4 tom4 cxxi47       
---- 7#b7 ,indiculus ,luminosus4 7id4   
ib47    ,alvarez3 ,viaggio nella        
,ethiopia al ,prete ,ianni fatto par    

,don ,francesco  ,alvarez ,portughese4  
7#aebj-bg47 7,ramusio1 ,tom4 i47        
,amari 7,michele73 ,storia dei          
,musulmani di ,sicilia4 7,florence1     
#ahed-gb47    ,amlineau 7,e473 tude sur 
le ,christianisme en gypte au septime   
sicle4 7,paris1 #ahhg47    ,amr b4      
,mattai3 ,maris1 ,amri et ,slibae ,de   
,patriarchis ,nestorianorum             
,commentaria1 ed4 ,henricus ,gismondi4  
,pars ,altera4 7,romae1 #ahif47         
,anderson 7,john73 ,chinese             
,mohammedans4 7,journal of the          
,anthropological  ,institute of ,great  
,britain and ,ireland1 vol4 i4 ,london1 
#ahgb47    ,andriessen 7,w4 ,f473 ,de   
,islam in ,nederlandsch ,indi4 7,vragen 
van den  ,dag4 ,amsterdam1 #ahhi47      
,arabfaqh3 ,histoire de la conqute de   
l',abyssinie 7,x,v,ie sicle7 par        
,chihab ed-did ,amed ben ,abd el-,qder  
surnomm ,arab-,faqih4 ,texte arabe      
publi par ,ren ,basset4 7,paris1        
#ahig-aiji47    ,argensola 7,b4         
,leonardo de73 ,conquista de las ,islas 

,malucas4 7,madrid1  #afji47            
,arminjon 7,pierre73 trangers et protgs 
dans l'empire ottoman4 7,paris1  #aijc47
    ,artin 7,yacoub ,pasha73 ,england in
 the ,sudan1 translated by ,george      
,robb4  7,london1 #aiaa47    ,asboth    
7,j4 de73 ,an official tour through     
,bosnia and ,herzegovina4  7,london1    
#ahij47    ,assemani 7,j4 ,s473         
,bibliotheca ,orientalis                
,clementino-,vaticana4 7,rome1          
#agai-bh47    ,azd3 ,fut al-,shm by     
,muammad ibn ,abd ,allh al-,azd al-,bar1
 edited  by ,w4 ,n4 ,lees4 7,calcutta1  
#ahed47    ,bah al-,dn3 ,vita et res    
gestae ,saladini1 auctore ,bohadino     
filio  ,sjeddadi4 ,edidit ,a4           
,schultens4 7,lugduni ,batavorum1       
#agcb47    ,baldhur3 ,liber             
,expugnationis ,regionum1 auctore ,immo 
,ahmed ibn ,jahja  ibn ,djbir           
al-,beldsor1 ed4 ,m4 ,j4 de ,goeje4     
7,leiden1 #ahff47    ,barbaro3 ,viaggio 
di ,iosafa ,barbaro nella ,persia4      
7,ramusio1 ,tom4 ii47    ,barbier de    

,meynard 7,a4 ,c473 ,un document turc   
sur la ,circassie4  7,centenaire de     
l'cole des ,langues ,orientales         
,vivantes4 ,recueil de  ,mmoires publi  
par les ,professeurs de l'cole4 ,paris1 
#ahie47    ,barbosa 7,odoardo73 ,libro  
di ,odoardo ,barbosa ,portoghese        
dell',indie  ,orientali1 #aeaf4         
7,ramusio1 ,tom4 i47    ,barhebrus3 7#a7
 ,gregorii ,barhebraei ,chronicon       
,ecclesiasticum1 ed4 ,j4 ,b4  ,abbeloos 
et ,t4 ,j4 ,lamy4 7,louvain1 #ahgb-gg47 
---- 7#b7 ,abu'l-,faraj1 ,tarkh         
,mukhtaar al-,duwal1 ed4 ,a4 lin4       
7,bairut1 #ahij47    ---- 7#c7 ,gregorii
 ,abulpharagii sive ,bar-,hebraei       
,chronicon ,syriacum1 ed4  et vert4 ,p4 
,j4 ,bruns et ,g4 ,g4 ,kirsch4          
7,lipsiae1 #aghi47    ,barros 7,j4 de73 
,da ,asia4 7,lisbon1 #aggg-h47          
,basset 7,ren73 tudes sur l',histoire   
d'thiopie4 7,paris1 #ahhb47    ,bastian 
7,a473 ,die ,vlker des stlichen ,asien4 
7,leipzig1 #ahff47    ,baudier          
7,michel73 ,histoire ,gnrale de la      

,religion des ,turcs4 7,rouen1  #afda47 
,baudissin 7,w4 ,w4 ,graf von73         
,eulogius und ,alvar4 ,ein ,abschnitt   
spanischer ,kirchengeschichte aus der   
,zeit der ,maurenherrschaft4  7,leipzig1
 #ahgb47    ,baumgarten 7,martin73 ,the 
travels of4 7,a ,collection of ,voyages 
and  ,travels4 ,london1 #ageb47         
,becker 7,c4 ,h473 7#a7 ,materialien zur
 ,kenntnis des ,islam in                
,deutsch-,ostafrika4 7,der ,islam1 vol4 
ii4 ,strassburg1 #aiaa47    ---- 7#b7   
,papyri ,schott-,reinhardt ,i41         
herausgegeben und erklrt4               
7,verffentlichungen aus der             
,heidelberger ,papyrus-,sammlung1 iii47 
7,heidelberg1 #aijf47    ---- 7#c7 ,zur 
,geschichte des stlichen ,sdn4 7,der    
,islam1 vol4 i4  ,strassburg1 #aiaj47   
,beke 7,t4 ,c473 ,routes in ,abyssinia4 
7,j4 ,r4 ,ggr4 ,soc41 vol4 xiv41 #ahdd47
    ,belin3 ,fetwa relatif  la condition
 des ,zimmis et particulirement des     
,chrtiens1 en pays musulmans1 depuis    
l'tablissement de l'islamisme1  jusqu'au

 milieu du viiie sicle de l'hgire1      
traduit de l'arabe par ,m4  ,belin4 7,j4
 ,a4 ivme srie1 tome xviii41 #ahea47    
,bell 7,h4 ,i473 ,greek ,papyri in the  
,british ,museum4 ,catalogue1 with      
,texts1 vol4 iv4 ,the ,aphrodito        
,papyri1 edited by ,h4 ,i4 ,bell4 ,with 
an  appendix of ,coptic ,papyri1 edited 
by ,w4 ,e4 ,crum4 7,london1 #aiaj47     
,bellew 7,h4 ,w473 ,the races of        
,afghanistan4 7,calcutta1 #ahhj47       
,benedict of ,peterborough3 ,gesta      
,regis ,henrici ,secundi ,benedicti     
,abbatis4 ,edited by ,william ,stubbs4  
7,london1 #ahfg47    ,berg 7,l4 ,w4 ,c4 
van den73 7#a7 ,de ,mohamedaansche      
geestelijkheid en de  geestelijke       
goederen op ,java en ,madoera4 7,ts4    
ind4 t4- l4- vk4 ,vol4  xxvii41 #ahha47 
---- 7#b7 ,le adhramout et les ,colonies
 ,arabes dans l',archipel ,indien4      
7,batavia1 #ahhf47    ,bijdr4 t4 d4 t4  
l4 en vlk43 ,bijdragen tot de ,taal-1   
,land- en  ,volkenkunde van             
,nederlandsch-,indi1 uitgegeven door het

 ,koninklijk  ,instituut voor de ,taal-1
 ,land- en ,volkenkunde van             
,nederlandsch-,indi4  7's ,gravenhage47 
,bizzi3 ,relatione della visita fatta da
 me1 ,marino ,bizzi1 ,arcivescovo       
d',antivari1 nelle parti della ,turchia1
 ,antivari1 ,albania e ,servia1 alla    
,santit di ,nostro ,signore ,papa ,paolo
 ,quinto4 #afaj4 7,bibliotheca          
,barberina1 ,rome4 ,nr4 lxiii4 #ac47    
,blau3 ,chronik der ,sulne von ,bornu1  
bearbeitet von ,otto ,blau4 7,,zdmg41   
vol4 #f4 #aheb47    ,blochet 7,e473     
,introduction  l',histoire des ,mongols 
de ,fadl ,allah  ,rashid ed-,din4 78,e4 
,j4 ,w4 ,gibb ,memorial0 ,series4 xii47 
7,london1 #aiaj47    ,blount3 ,a voyage 
into the ,levant2 a brief relation of a 
journey lately  performed by ,master    
,henry ,blount1 ,gentleman4 #afcd-cf4   
7,a ,collection of  ,voyages and        
,travels4 ,london1 #agde47    ,blunt    
7,w4 ,s473 ,the ,future of ,islam4      
7,london1 #ahhc47    ,blyden 7,e4 ,w473 
,christianity1 ,islam and the ,negro    

,race4 7,london1 #ahhh47                
,bobrovnikoff 7,s473 ,moslems in        
,russia4 7,the ,moslem ,world1 vol4 i4  
,london1 #aiaa47    ,bokemeyer 7,h473   
,die ,molukken4 7,leipzig1 #ahhh47      
,bonaventura di ,s4 ,antonio3           
,informatione di ,fra ,bonaventura di   
,s4  ,antonio1 ,reformato di ,s4        
,francesco1 ,missrio d',albania4        
7,assisi1 li #cj  ,luglio1 #afeb47      
7,bibliotheca ,chigiana1 ,rome4 ,g4     
iii41 #id47    ,bonet-,maury 7,g473     
,l',islamisme et le ,christianisme en   
,afrique4 7,paris1  #aijf47    ,bouche  
7,pierre73 ,la ,cte des ,esclaves et le 
,dahomey4 7,paris1 #ahhe47              
,bretschneider 7,e473 7#a7 ,medival     
,researches from ,eastern ,asiatic      
,sources4 7,london1 #ahhh47    ---- 7#b7
 ,on the ,knowledge possessed by the    
,ancient ,chinese of the ,arabs  and    
,arabian ,colonies4 7,london1 #ahga47   
,broomhall 7,marshall73 ,islam in       
,china4 7,london1 #aiaj47    ,brosset   
7,m4 ,f473 ,histoire de la ,gorgie4     

7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahdi-eh47           
,brumund 7,j4 ,f4 ,g473 ,bijdragen tot  
de kennis van het ,hindoesme op ,java4  
7,verh4 ,bat4 ,gen4 van ,k4 en ,w4 ,deel
 xxxiii4 #ahfh47    ,budge 7,e4 ,a4     
,wallis73 ,the ,egyptian ,sdn1 its      
history and monuments4  7,london1       
#aijg47    ,burchard3 ,burchardi de     
,monte ,sion ,descriptio ,terrae        
,sanctae4  7,peregrinatores ,medii ,aevi
 ,quatuor4 ,ed4 ,j4 ,c4 ,m4 ,laurent4   
,lipsiae1  #ahfd47    ,burckhardt 7,j4  
,l473 7#a7 ,travels in ,nubia4 7,london1
 #ahai47    ---- 7#b7 ,travels in ,syria
 and the ,holy ,land4 7,london1 #ahbb47 
,burton 7,richard ,f473 7#a7 ,abeokuta  
and the ,camaroon ,mountains4 7,london1 
#ahfc47    ---- 7#b7 ,first ,footprints 
in ,east ,africa4 7,london1 #ahef47     
,busbecq 7,augier ,ghislen de73 ,omnia  
quae extant4 7,amstelodami1 #affj47     
,businello 7,p473 ,historische          
,nachrichten von der ,regierungsart der 
osmanischen ,monarchie4 7,leipzig1      
#aggh47      ,caetani 7,leone1 ,principe

 di ,teano73 ,annali dell',islm4        
7,milano1 #aije-  47    ,cahun 7,lon73  
,introduction  l'histoire de l',asie4   
,turcs et ,mongols4  7,paris1 #ahif47   
,campen 7,c4 ,f4 ,h473 ,nalezingen op   
het opstel over de godsdienstbegrippen  
der ,halemaherasche ,alfoeren4 7,ts4    
ind4 t4- l4- vk4 ,deel xxviii4 #ahhc47  
,canne 7,h4 ,d473 ,bijdrage tot de      
,geschiedenis der ,lampongs4 7,ts4 ind4 
t4-  l4- vk4 ,deel xi4 #ahfb47          
,cantacuzenos3 ,trattato di ,theodoro   
,spandugino ,cantacusino de' costumi    
de' ,turchi4 7,venice1 #aegc47          
,chavannes 7,e473 ,documents sur les    
,tou-,kiue 7,turcs7 ,occidentaux4       
7,sbornik ,trudov ,orchonskoy           
,expedicii4 ,,vi4 ,st4 ,petersburg1     
#aijc47    ,chirgh ,al3 ,maulavi        
,cheragh ,ali3 ,a ,critical ,exposition 
of the ,popular  ,jihd4 7,bombay1       
#ahhe47    ,chwolsohn 7,d473 ,die       
,ssabier und der ,ssabismus4 7,st4      
,petersburg1 #ahef47    ,chytrus        
7,david73 ,oratio de statu ecclesiarum  

hoc tempore in ,graecia1  ,asia1        
,africa1 ,ungaria1 ,bomia1 etc4         
7,wittebergae1 #aehj47    ,clark 7,e4   
,l473 ,the ,races of ,european ,turkey4 
7,new ,york1 #ahgh47    ,comuleo3       
,instruttioni al ,revdo ,don ,alessandro
 ,comuleo ,archiprete di ,s4  ,girolamo 
di ,roma mandato da ,papa ,clemente     
,ottavo al ,gran ,duca di  ,moscovia1 et
 altri ,principi1 et ,potentati delle   
,parti ,settentrionali4  ,con una       
,relatione del ,medesimo ,comuleo fatta 
,s4 ,santit sopra le cose  del ,turco4  
7,bibliotheca ,barberina1 ,rome4 ,nr4   
lviii4 #cc47    ,contenson 7,l4 de73    
,chrtiens et ,musulmans4 7,paris1       
#aija47    ,coolsma 7,s473 ,de          
,zendingeeuw voor ,nederlandsch         
,oost-,indi4 7,utrecht1  #aija47        
,cornaro 7,f473 ,creta ,sacra1 authore  
,flaminio ,cornelio4 7,venice1 #agee47  
,crawfurd 7,john73 7#a7 ,a ,descriptive 
,dictionary of the ,indian ,islands and 
adjacent ,countries4 7,london1 #ahef47  
---- 7#b7 ,history of the ,indian       

,archipelago4 7,edinburgh1 #ahbj47      
,creasy 7,sir ,edward ,s473 ,history of 
the ,ottoman ,turks4 7,london1 #ahgh47  
,crisio3 ,summario della ,relatione     
della ,visita di ,albania1 fatta per    
ordine della ,sac4 ,congne da ,don      
,marco ,crisio ,sacerdote ,albanese4    
#afea4  7,bibliotheca ,chigiana1 ,rome4 
,g4 iii4 #id47    ,crusius 7,martin73   
,turcograecia4 7,basileae1 #aehd47      
,dalrymple 7,a473 ,essay towards an     
account of ,sulu4 7,journal of the      
,indian ,archipelago and ,eastern ,asia4
 ,vol4 iii4 ,singapore1 #ahdi47         
,dalton 7,e4 ,t473 ,descriptive         
,ethnology of ,bengal4 7,calcutta1      
#ahgb47    ,delafosse 7,maurice73 ,les  
confrries musulmanes et le maraboutisme 
dans  les pays du ,sngal et du ,niger4  
7,renseignements ,coloniaux et          
,documents  publis par le ,comit de     
l',afrique ,franaise et le ,comit du    
,maroc4 ,no4  #d4 ,paris1 #aiaa47       
,depont 7,octave7 et ,coppolani         
7,octave73 ,les confrries religieuses   

musulmanes4 7,alger1 #ahig47    ,devria 
7,gabriel73 ,origine de l',islamisme en 
,chine4 7,centenaire de  l'cole des     
,langues ,orientales ,vivantes4 ,recueil
 de ,mmoires publi par  les ,professeurs
 de l'cole4 ,paris1 #ahie47    ,dobschtz
 7,e4 von73 ,die confessionellen        
,verhltnisse in ,edessa unter  der      
,araberherrschaft4 7,zeitschrift fr     
wissenschaftliche ,theologie4  #da;er   
,jahrgang1 #ahih47    ,dllinger 7,j4 ,j4
 ,t473 ,mohammed's ,religion nach ihrer 
inneren  ,entwicklung und ihrem         
,einflusse auf das ,leben der ,vlker4   
7,munich1  #ahch47    ,dorostamus       
7,athanasius73 ,neueste ,beschreibung   
derer ,griechischen  ,christen in der   
,trckey1 aufgesetzt von ,jacob ,elssner4
 7,berlin1 #agcg47    ,doughty 7,charles
 ,m473 ,travels in ,arabia ,deserta4    
7,cambridge1 #ahhh47    ,dousa3 ,georgii
 ,dousae de ,itinere suo                
,constantinopolitano epistola4          
7,lugduni ,batavorum1 #aeii47    ,doutt 
7,e473 ,notes sur l',islam maghribin4   

7,revue de l',histoire des  ,religions1 
,,xl1 ,,xli4 ,paris1 #ahii1 #aijj47     
,dozy 7,r4 ,p4 ,a473 7#a7 ,essai sur    
l'histoire de l',islamisme4 7,leyde1    
#ahgi47    ---- 7#b7 ,histoire des      
,musulmans d',espagne4 7,leyde1 #ahfa47 
---- 7#c7 ,recherches sur l'histoire et 
la littrature de l',espagne pendant  le 
moyen ge1 #cme d4 7,leyde1 #ahha47      
,driesch 7,g4 ,c4 von den73 ,historische
 ,nachricht von der ,rm4 ,kayserl4      
,gross-,botschaft nach ,constantinopel1 
welche 444 der ,graf ,damian ,hugo  von 
,virmondt rhmlichst verrichtet4         
7,nrnberg1 #agbc47    ,dulaurier 7,m4   
,e473 ,addition au mmoire intitul ,liste
 des pays qui  relevaient de l'empire   
javanais de ,madjapahit4 7,j4 ,a4 ivme  
srie1 tome  xiii4 #ahdi47    ,duveyrier 
7,h473 ,la confrrie musulmane de ,sdi   
,mohammed ,ben ,al  ,es-,senos4 7,paris1
 #ahhf47        ,east 7,d4 ,j473        
,western ,africa4 7,london1 #ahdd47     
,elias of ,nisibis3 ,f4 ,baethgen3      
,fragmente syrischer und arabischer     

,historiker4 7,abh4 f4 d4 ,k4 d4 ,m4    
hrsg4 v4 d4 ,,dmg4 ,vol4 iii4 ,no4 #c4  
#ahhd47    ,elliot 7,sir ,h4 ,m473 ,the 
,history of ,india1 as told by its own  
historians4 ,the ,muhammadan ,period4   
,edited by ,prof4 ,john ,dowson4        
7,london1 #ahgb-g47    ,encyclopaedie   
van ,nederlandsch-,indi1 met medewerking
 van verschillende  ambtenaren1         
geleerden en officieren1 samengesteld   
door ,p4 ,a4 van der  ,lith en ,j4 ,f4  
,snelleman4 7,leiden1 #ahii-aije47      
,enhueber 7,j4 ,b473 ,dissertatio de    
haeresi ,elipandi et ,felicis4 7,migne1 
,patr4 ,lat4 tom4 ci47    ,eruslanov    
7,p473     c  4 7,moscow1 #ahie47       
,eulogius3 ,memoriale ,sanctorum4       
7,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat41 tom4 cxv47       
,eutychius3 ,eutychii ,patriarchae      
,alexandrini ,annales1 ed4 ,l4 ,cheikho1
 ,b4  ,carra de ,vaux1 ,h4 ,zayyat4     
7,corpus ,scriptorum ,christianorum     
,orientalium4  ,scriptores ,arabici4    
,ser4 iii4 ,tom4 vi-vii4 ,paris1        
#aijf-i47    ,evans 7,a4 ,j473 ,through 

,bosnia and the ,herzegovina4 7,london1 
#ahgf47      ,farlati 7,daniel73        
,illyricum ,sacrum4 7,venice1           
#agfi-ahai47    ,finlay 7,g473 ,a       
,history of ,greece1 from its ,conquest 
by the ,romans to  the present time4    
7,oxford1 #ahgg47    ,firishtah3        
,history of the ,rise of the ,mahomedan 
,power in ,india1  translated from the  
,persian of ,mahomed ,kasim ,ferishta by
 ,john ,briggs4  7,london1 #ahbi47      
,forget 7,d4 ,a473 ,l',islam et le      
,christianisme dans l',afrique          
,centrale4  7,paris1 #aijj47    ,forrest
 7,t473 ,a ,voyage to ,new ,guinea and  
the ,moluccas4 7,london1 #aggi47        
,fournel 7,henri73 ,les ,berbers4 tude  
sur la conqute de l',afrique par  les   
,arabes4 7,paris1 #ahge47    ,frere     
7,sir ,bartle73 7#a7 ,eastern ,africa as
 a field for ,missionary  ,labour4      
7,london1 #ahgd47    ---- 7#b7 ,indian  
,missions4 #crd4 ed4 7,london1 #ahgd47  
,gaetan3 ,relatione di ,ivan ,gaetan del
 discoprimento dell',isole ,molucche4   

7,ramusio1 ,tom4 i47    ,gairdner 7,w4  
,h4 ,t473 ,the ,reproach of ,islam4     
7,london1 #aiji47    ,garnett 7,l4 ,m4  
,j473 ,the ,women of ,turkey and their  
,folklore4 ,the ,jewish  and ,moslem    
,women4 7,london1 #ahia47    ,gasztowtt 
7,thade73 ,la ,pologne et l',islam4     
7,paris1 #aijg47    ,gazetteer of the   
,bombay ,presidency4 7,bombay1          
#ahgg-aijd47    ,gazetteer of the       
,north-,western ,provinces of ,india4   
7,allahabad1  #ahgd-hd47    ,gazetteer  
of the ,province of ,oudh4 7,lucknow1   
#ahgg47    ,gazetteer of ,rajputana4    
7,calcutta1 #ahgi47    ,georgieviz      
7,bartholomaeus73 ,de ,turcarum ,moribus
 ,epitome4 7#aeih47    ,georgirenes     
7,joseph73 ,a ,description of the       
,present ,state of ,samos1  ,nicaria1   
,patmos and ,mount ,athos4 7,london1    
#afgh47    ,gerlach 7,stephan73         
,tage-,buch der von zween 444 ,rmischen 
,kaysern 444 an  die ,ottommanische     
,pforte 444 abgefertigten 444           
,gesandtschaft4  7,frankfurt1 #afgd47   

,gfrrer 7,a4 ,f473 ,byzantinische       
,geschichten1 hrsg4 von ,j4 ,b4 ,weiss4 
7,graz1 #ahgb-g47    ,ghulm ,sarwar3    
,khaznat al-,afy4 7,lahore1 n4 d47      
,gibbon 7,edward73 ,the ,history of the 
,decline and ,fall of the ,roman        
,empire4 7,london1 #ahha47    ,gmelin   
7,m4 ,f473 ,christensclaverei und       
,renegatenthum unter den ,vlkern  des   
,islam4 7,berlin1 #ahgc47    ,gobineau  
7,a4 de73 7#a7 ,les ,religions et les   
,philosophies dans l',asie  ,centrale4  
7,paris1 #ahfe47    ---- 7#b7 ,trois    
,ans en ,asie4 7,paris1 #ahei47         
,goldziher 7,ignaz73 ,muhammedanische   
,studien4 7,halle1 #ahhi-ij47           
,gottheil 7,r4 ,j4 ,h473 ,dhimmis and   
,moslems in ,egypt4 7,old ,testament and
  ,semitic ,studies in memory of        
,william ,rainey ,harper4 ,vol4 ii4     
,chicago1  #aijh47    ,grenard3 ,j4-,l4 
,dutreuil de ,rhins4 ,mission           
,scientifique dans ,la ,haute  ,asie1   
#ahij-ahie4 ,i,ime ,partie4 ,le         
,turkestan et le ,tibet1 tude           

ethnographique et sociologique1 par ,f4 
,grenard4 ,i,i,ime ,partie4 ,histoire1  
,linguistique1 ,archologie1 ,gographie1 
par ,f4 ,grenard4 7,paris1 #ahih47      
,grenard3 ,la lgende de ,sato ,boghra   
,khn et l'histoire1 par ,m4 ,f4         
,grenard4 7,journal ,asiatique1 ixme    
srie1 tome xv4 ,paris1 #aijj47          
,groeneveldt 7,w4 ,p473 ,notes on the   
,malay ,archipelago and ,malacca1       
compiled from ,chinese sources4 7,verh4 
,bat4 ,gen4 van ,k4 en ,w4 ,deel  xxxix4
 #ahhj47    ,grosier 7,j4 ,b4 ,g4 ,a473 
,de la ,chine1 ou description gnrale de 
cet  empire4 7,paris1 #ahai47           
,guignes 7,c4 ,l4 ,j4 de73 ,histoire    
gnrale des ,huns1 des ,turcs1 des       
,mogols4 7,paris1 #agef-h47             
,hackett 7,j473 ,a ,history of the      
,orthodox ,church of ,cyprus4 7,london1 
#aija47    ,hageman 7,j473 ,bijdrage tot
 de ,geschiedenis van ,borneo4 7,ts4    
ind4 t4-  l4- vk4 ,deel vi4 #ahef47     
,hammer-,purgstall 7,joseph von73 7#a7  
,geschichte des osmanischen ,reiches4   

7,pesth1 #ahbg-ce47    ---- 7#b7 ,des   
osmanischen ,reichs ,staatsverfassung   
und ,staatsverwaltung4  7,wien1 #ahae47 
---- 7#c7 ,geschichte der ,goldenen     
,horde in ,kiptschak4 7,pesth1 #ahdj47  
---- 7#d7 ,geschichte der ,ilchanen4    
7,darmstadt1 #ahdb-c47    ,haneberg     
7,b473 ,das muslimische ,kriegsrecht4   
7,munich1 #ahga47    ,hasselt 7,a4 ,l4  
von73 ,volksbeschrijving van            
,midden-,sumatra4 7,leiden1  #ahhb74    
,hauri 7,j473 ,der ,islam in seinem     
,einfluss auf das ,leben seiner         
,bekenner4  7,leiden1 #ahhc47           
,haywood 7,a4 ,h4 ,w473 ,through        
,timbuctu and across the ,great ,sahara4
  7,london1 #aiab47    ,hefele 7,c4     
,j473 ,beitrge zur ,kirchengeschichte1  
,archologie und  ,liturgik4 7,tbingen1  
#ahfd47    ,helfferich 7,adolf73 ,der   
,westgothische ,arianismus und die      
,spanische  ,ketzer-,geschichte4        
7,berlin1 #ahfj47    ,hertzberg 7,g4    
,f473 ,geschichte der ,byzantiner und   
des ,osmanischen  ,reiches4 7,berlin1   

#ahhb-c47    ,hidyah3 ,the ,hedya1 or   
,guide3 ,a ,commentary on the ,mussulman
 ,laws1  translated by ,charles         
,hamilton4 7,london1 #agia47    ,hill   
al-b3 ,tarkh al-,wuzar ed4 ,h4 ,f4      
,amedroz4 7,beirut1 #aijd47    ,hill    
7,aaron73 ,a ,full and ,just ,account of
 the ,present ,state of the  ,ottoman   
,empire4 7,london1 #agji47    ,hovell   
7,g4 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron von73 ,de       
,kei-eilanden4 7,ts4 ind4 t4- l4- vk4   
,deel xxxiii4 #ahij47    ,hollander 7,j4
 ,j4 de73 ,handleiding bij de           
,beoefening der ,land- en  ,volkenkunde 
van ,nederlandsch ,oost-,indi4 7,breda1 
#ahhd47    ,hoveden3 ,chronica ,magistri
 ,rogeri de ,hovedene1 edited by        
,william  ,stubbs4 7,london1 #ahfh-ga47 
,howorth 7,sir ,h4 ,h473 ,history of the
 ,mongols4 7,london1 #ahgf-hj47         
,hurgronje 7,c4 ,snouck73 7#a7 ,de      
beteekenis van den ,islam voor zijne    
belijders in ,oost-,indi4 7,leiden1     
#ahhc47    ---- 7#b7 ,de                
,sjattarijjah-secte4 7,med4 ,ned4       

,zendelinggen4 ,vol4 xxxii4  #ahhh47    
---- 7#c7 ,mekka4 7,the ,hague1         
#ahhh-i47    ,ibbetson 7,d4 ,c4 ,j473   
,the ,musulmans of the ,panjab4 7,indian
 ,evangelical  ,review4 ,vol4 x4        
,calcutta1 #ahhd47    ,ibn ab ,usaybiah3
 ,uyn al-anb f abaqt al-aibb4 7,cairo1  
,a4,h4  #abii47    ,ibn ab ,zar3 ,roudh 
el-,kartas4 ,histoire des ,souverains du
 ,maghreb1  traduit de l',arabe par ,a4 
,beaumier4 7,paris1 #ahfj47    ,ibn     
al-,athr3 ,ibn el-,athiri ,chronicon    
quod perfectissimum inscribitur1  ed4   
,c4 ,j4 ,tornberg4 7,leiden1 #ahea-gf47 
,ibn ,baah3 ,voyages d',ibn ,batoutah1  
texte arabe1 accompagn d'une  traduction
 par ,c4 ,defrmery et ,b4 ,r4           
,sanguinetti4 7,paris1 #ahec-h47    ,ibn
 awqal3 ,kitb al-maslik wal-mamlik1 ed4 
,m4 ,g4 ,de ,goeje4  7,bibliotheca      
,geographorum ,arabicorum ,,ii4 ,leiden1
 #ahgc47    ,ibn ,isq3 ,das ,leben      
,muhammed's nach ,muhammed ,ibn ,ishk1  
bearbeitet von  ,abd el-,malik ,ibn     
,hischam1 hrsg4 von ,f4 ,wstenfeld4     

7,gttingen1 #ahei47    ,ibn ,khaldn3    
,kitb al-ibar wa dwn al-mubtada wal     
khabar f ayym  al-,arab wal ,barbar4    
7,blq1 #ahfg47    ,ibn ,khallikn3       
,biographical ,dictionary1 translated by
 ,baron ,mac ,guckin  de ,slane4        
7,paris1 #ahdc-ga47    ,ibn ,sad3       
al-abaqt4 ,biographien ,muhammeds1      
seiner ,gefhrten und der  spteren ,trger
 des ,islams bis zum ,jahre #bcj der    
,flucht1 hrsg4 von ,e4  ,sachau1 etc4   
7,leiden1 #aijd- 47    ,ibn ,sad3 ,die  
,schreiben ,muhammads und die           
,gesandtschaften an ihn4  7,skizzen und 
,vorarbeiten von ,j4 ,wellhausen4       
,viertes ,heft4 ,berlin1  #ahhi47       
,idrs3 ,description de l',afrique et de 
l',espagne1 publie par ,r4 ,dozy  et ,m4
 ,j4 de ,goeje4 7,leiden1 #ahff47       
,informatione del ,segretario de        
,propaganda ,fide circa la missione     
d',albania de fratri ,riformati di ,s4  
,francesco4 7,bibliotheca ,chigiana1    
,rome4 ,g4 iii4 #id47    ,innes 7,c4    
,a473 ,malabar and ,anjengo3 by ,c4 ,a4 

,innes1 edited by ,f4 ,b4  ,evans4      
7,madras ,district ,gazetteers47        
7,madras1 #aijh47    ,isenberg 7,c4     
,m473 ,abessinien4 7,bonn1 #ahdd47      
,ishok of ,romgla3 ,chronique de ,michel
 le ,grand1 traduite sur la version     
armnienne du prtre ,ischk par ,victor   
,langlois4 7,venise1 #ahfh47    ,isidori
 ,pacensis ,chronicon4 7,migne1 ,patr4  
,lat41 tom4 xcvi47    ,islam and        
,missions1 being papers read at the     
second ,missionary  ,conference on      
behalf of the ,mohammedan ,world at     
,lucknow1 ,january #bc-bh1  #aiaa1      
edited by ,e4 ,m4 ,wherry1 ,s4 ,m4      
,zwemer1 ,c4 ,g4 ,mylrea4 7,new ,york1  
etc41 #aiaa47    ,iakhr3 ,kitb ,maslik  
wal-,mamlik1 ed4 ,m4 ,j4 de ,goeje4     
7,bibliotheca  ,geographorum            
,arabicorum4 ,i4 ,leiden1 #ahgj47       
,j4 ,a43 ,journal ,asiatique4 7,paris47 
,j4 ,a4 ,s4 ,b43 ,journal of the        
,asiatic ,society of ,bengal4           
7,calcutta47    ,j4 ,r4 ,ggr4 ,soc43    
,journal of the ,royal ,geographical    

,society4 7,london47    ,jacques de     
,vitry3 ,jacobi de ,vitriaco ,libri     
,duo4 ,quorum prior  ,orientalis1 sive  
,hierosolymitan3 ,alter1 ,occidentalis  
,histori nomine  inscribitur4 ,oper ,d4 
,francisci ,moschi editi4 7,duaci1      
#aeig47    ,jadrinzew 7,n473 ,sibiren3  
,geographische1 ethnographische und     
historische  ,studien1 bearbeitet von   
,ed4 ,petri4 7,jena1 #ahhf47    ,jessup 
7,h4 ,h473 ,the ,mohammedan ,missionary 
,question4 7,philadelphia1  #ahgi47     
,john of ,gorz3 ,vita ,ioannis ,abbatis 
,gorziensis1 auctore ,ioanne ,abbate ,s4
  ,arnulfi4 7,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat41 tom4 
cxxxvii47    ,john of ,nikiu3 ,chronique
 de ,jean1 vque de ,nikiou4 ,publi et   
traduit  par ,h4 ,zotenberg4 7,notices  
et extraits des ,manuscrits de la       
,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,tome xxiv4    
,premire ,partie4 ,paris1 #ahhc47       
,joinville3 uvres de ,jean1 ,sire de    
,joinville1 ed4 ,n4 de ,wailly4 7,paris1
  #ahfg47    ,joselian 7,plato73 ,a     
,short ,history of the ,georgian        

,church1 translated by  ,s4 ,c4 ,malan4 
7,london1 #ahff47    ,jzjn3             
,minhj-i-,sirj al-,jzjn1 abaqt-i-,nir1  
ed4 ,w4 ,nassau  ,lees4 7,calcutta1     
#ahfd47        ,kanitz 7,f473 ,die      
fortschreitende ,arnautisirung und      
,muhamedanisirung  ,alt-,serbiens4      
7,oesterreichische ,monatsschrift fr den
 ,orient4 ,vienna1  ,march1 #ahhh47     
,karamsin 7,n4 ,m473 ,histoire de       
l',empire de ,russie4 7,paris1          
#ahai-bf47    ,keane 7,a4 ,h473 ,asia1  
edited by ,sir ,richard ,temple4        
7,london1 #ahhb47    ,kern 7,h473 ,over 
den invloed der ,indische1 ,arabische en
 ,europeesche  beschaving op de volken  
van den ,indischen ,archipel4 7,leiden1 
#ahhc47    ,khoj ,vttnt by ,sachedn     
,nnj4 7,amadbd1 #ahib47    ,kitb        
al-,fihrist1 herausgegeben von ,g4      
,flgel4 7,leipzig1 #ahga-b47            
,klamroth 7,m473 ,der ,islam in         
,deutschostafrika4 7,berlin1 #aiab47    
,klaproth 7,j4 von73 ,aperu des         
entreprises des ,mongols en ,gorgie et  

en  ,armnie dans le xiiie sicle4 7,j4   
,a4 srie ii41 tome xii4 #ahcc47         
,krehl 7,ludolf73 ,das ,leben des       
,muhammed4 7,leipzig1 #ahhd47    ,kremer
 7,a4 von73 7#a7 ,culturgeschichte des  
,orients unter den ,chalifen4  7,vienna1
 #ahge47    ---- 7#b7                   
,culturgeschichtliche ,streifzge auf dem
 ,gebiete des ,islams4  7,leipzig1      
#ahgc47    ---- 7#c7 ,geschichte der    
herrschenden ,ideen des ,islams4        
7,leipzig1 #ahfh47    ---- 7#d7 ,notizen
 gesammelt auf einem ,ausfluge nach     
,palmyra4 7,sitzb4 d4  ,akad4 d4 ,wiss41
 ,philos4-hist4 ,cl4 ,vol4 v4 #ahej47   
,krieger 7,maximilian73 ,new ,guinea4   
7,berlin1 #ahii47    ,kritopoulos       
7,metrophanes73 ,metrophanis ,critopuli 
,confessio4 7,e4 ,j4  ,kimmel3          
,monumenta ,fidei ,ecclesiae            
,orientalis4 ,pars4 ,,ii47 7,jenae1     
#ahej47    ,kumm 7,h4 ,k4 ,w473         
,khont-hon-nofer1 the ,lands of         
,ethiopia4 7,london1  #aiaj47           
,kyriakos 7,a4 ,diomedes73 ,geschichte  

der orientalischen ,kirchen von         
#adec-ahih4 7,leipzig1 #aijb47          
,la ,jonquire 7,a4 de73 ,histoire de    
l',empire ,ottoman4 7,paris1 #ahha47    
,la ,saussaye 7,p4 ,d4 ,chantepie de73  
,lehrbuch der ,religionsgeschichte4     
7,freiburg ,i4 ,b41 #ahhg-i47           
,lammens 7,henri73 tudes sur le rgne du 
,calife ,omaiyade ,moawia ,ier4         
7,universit ,saint-,joseph1 ,beyrouth   
7,syrie74 ,mlanges de la ,facult        
,orientale1 ,i47 7,beyrouth1 #aijf47    
,lane 7,e4 ,w473 ,the ,manners and      
,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians4 #eth
 ed4  7,london1 #ahfj47    ,laurent 7,j4
 ,c4 ,m473 ,peregrinatores ,medii ,aevi 
,quatuor4 7,lipsiae1 #ahfd47    ,lazr   
7,victor73 ,die ,sdrumnen der ,trkei und
 der angrenzenden ,lnder4  7,bukarest1  
#aiaj47    ,le ,chatelier 7,a473 7#a7   
,les ,confrries musulmanes du ,hedjaz4  
7,paris1  #ahhg47    ---- 7#b7 ,l',islam
 au xixe sicle4 7,paris1 #ahhh47    ----
 7#c7 ,l',islam dans l',afrique         
,occidentale4 7,paris1 #ahii47    ,le   

,quien 7,michael73 ,oriens ,christianus4
 7,paris1 #agdj47    ,lea 7,h4 ,c473    
,the ,moriscos of ,spain3 their         
conversion and expulsion4  7,london1    
#aija47    ,leake 7,w4 ,m473 ,researches
 in ,greece4 7,london1 #ahad47    ,leo  
,africanus3 ,della ,descrittione        
dell',africa1 par ,giovani ,lioni       
,africano4 7,ramusio1 ,tom4 i47         
,leslie 7,gaultier de73 ,l',ambassade   
la ,porte ,ottomane1 ordonne par ,sa    
,majest ,impriale1 ,lopold ,i41 excute  
par ,gaultier de ,leslie1 ,comte  du ,s4
 ,empire4 7#affe-ff47 7,rycaut1 tome    
ii47    ,liefrinck 7,f4 ,a473 ,bijdrage 
tot de kennis van het eiland ,bali4     
7,ts4  ind4 t4- l4- vk4 ,deel xxxiii4   
#ahij47    ,littmann 7,enno73           
,bemerkungen ber den ,islam in          
,nordabessinien4 7,der  ,islam1 vol4 i4 
,strassburg1 #aiaj47    ,low 7,col4     
,james73 ,a ,translation of the ,keddah 
,annals4 7,journal of the  ,indian      
,archipelago and ,eastern ,asia4        
,singapore1 #ahdi47    ,luca 7,jean de73

 ,relations des ,tartares4 7,thevenot47 
,ludolf de ,suchem3 ,ludolphi1 ,rectoris
 ,ecclesiae ,parochialis in ,suchem1  de
 ,itinere ,terrae ,sanctae ,liber1      
herausgegeben von ,f4 ,deycks4          
7,stuttgart1 #ahea47    ,lttke          
7,moritz73 7#a7 ,aegyptens neue ,zeit4  
7,leipzig1 #ahgc47    ---- 7#b7 ,der    
,islam und seine ,vlker4 7,gtersloh1    
#ahgh47    ,luitprandi 7,pseudo-7       
,chronicon4 7,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat4 tom4  
cxxxvi47    ,lyall 7,sir ,alfred ,c473  
,asiatic ,studies4 7,london1 #ahhb47    
,,msos3 ,mittheilungen des ,seminars fr 
,orientalische ,sprachen4 ,berlin4      
,macarius 7,patriarch of ,antioch73     
,travels of1 from the ,arabic of the    
,archdeacon ,paul1 translated by ,f4 ,c4
 ,belfour4 7,london1 #ahbi-cd47         
,mackenzie 7,g4 ,muir7 and ,irby 7,a4   
,p473 ,travels in the ,slavonic         
,provinces  of ,turkey-in-,europe4      
7,london1 #ahfg47    ,mackenzie 7,k4 ,r4
 ,h473 ,schamyl and ,circassia4 ,chiefly
 from materials  collected by ,dr4      

,friedrich ,wagner1 edited by4 7,london1
 #ahed47    ,mc,nair 7,f473 ,perak and  
the ,malays4 7,london1 #ahgh47    ,mabb 
al-,manbij3 ,agapius ,episcopus         
,mabbugensis1 ,historia ,universalis1   
ed4 ,p4 ,l4 ,cheikho4 7,corpus          
,scriptorum ,christianorum ,orientalium4
  ,scriptores ,arabici4 ,ser4 iii41 tom4
 v4 ,beryti1 #aiab47    ,makn3 ,historia
 ,saracenica1 arabice olim exarata a    
,georgio ,elmacino et  latine reddita   
oper ,thomae ,erpenii4 7,lugduni        
,batavorum1 #afbe47    ,makkar3 ,the    
,history of the ,mohammedan ,dynasties  
of ,spain1 by ,ahmed ibn  ,mohammed     
,al-,makkar1 translated by ,pascual de  
,gayangos4 7,london1  #ahdj-dc47        
,maqrz3 7#a7 ,a short history of the    
,copts1 translated from the ,arabic  by 
,s4 ,c4 ,malan4 7,london1 #ahgc47       
---- 7#b7 ,histoire des ,sultans        
,mamlouks de l'gypte1 traduite par ,m4  
,quatremre4 7,paris1 #ahcg-de47    ,mr  
b4 ,sulaymn3 ,maris1 ,amri et ,slibae   
,de ,patriarchis ,nestorianorum         

,commentaria1 ed4 ,henricus ,gismondi4  
,pars ,prior4 7,romae1 #ahii47          
,marsden 7,william73 ,history of        
,sumatra4 7,london1 #ahaa47    ,marsigli
 7,l4 ,f473 ,stato ,militare            
dell',imperio ,ottomanno4 7,amsterdam1  
#agcb47    ,mas ,latrie 7,j4 ,m4 ,j4 ,l4
 de73 7#a7 ,histoire de l'le de ,chypre 
sous le  rgne des princes de la maison  
de ,lusignan4 7,paris1 #aheb-fa47       
---- 7#b7 ,relations et commerce de     
l',afrique septentrionale avec les      
nations chrtiennes au moyen ge4 7,paris1
 #ahhf47    ,massaja 7,guglielmo73 ,i   
miei trentacinque anni di missione      
nell',alta  ,etiopia4 7,roma1 #ahhe-ic47
    ,massimiliano ,transilvano3         
,epistola di1 della ammirabile et       
stupenda  nauvigatione fatta per gli    
,spagnuoli lo anno ,,mdxix4 attorno il  
mondo4  7,ramusio1 tom4 i47    ,masd3   
,les ,prairies d',or4 ,texte et         
traduction par ,c4 ,barbier de  ,meynard
 et ,pavet de ,courteille4 7,paris1     
#ahfa-gg47    ,med4 ,ned4               

,zendelinggen43 ,mededeelingen van wege 
het ,nederlandsche                      
,zendelinggenootschap4 7,rotterdam47    
,menavino 7,g4 ,a473 ,vita et ,legge    
,turchesca4 7,venice1 #aegc47    ,menzel
 7,theodor73 ,das ,korps der            
,janitscharen4 7,beitrge zur ,kenntnis  
des ,orients4 ,band i4 ,jahrbuch der    
,mnchner ,orientalischen ,gesellschaft1 
#aijb-c4 ,berlin47    ,merensky 7,a473  
,mohammedanismus und ,christentum in    
,kampfe um die  ,negerlnder ,afrikas4   
7,allgemeine ,missions-,zeitschrift1    
,band xxi4  ,gtersloh1 #ahid47          
,methods of ,mission ,work among        
,moslems1 ,being those ,papers read at  
the  ,first ,missionary ,conference on  
behalf of the ,mohammedan ,world held at
  ,cairo ,april #dth-#ith1 #aijf1 and   
the discussions thereon1 which by order 
of the ,conference were not to be issued
 to the public1 but were to be          
privately printed for the use of        
missionaries and the friends of         
missions4 7,new ,york1 etc41 #aijf47    

,metzger 7,e473 ,die ,baduwis auf ,java4
 7,globus1 ,band xliii4 ,braunschweig1  
#ahhc47    ,meyer 7,p4 ,c473            
,erforschungsgeschichte und             
,staatenbildungen des  ,westsudan4      
7,ergnzungsheft ,no4 #aba zu            
8,petermanns ,mitteilungen407  7,gotha1 
#ahig47    ,michael the ,elder3         
,chronique de ,michael le ,syrien1      
patriarche jacobite  d',antioche        
7#aaff-aaii71 dite 444 par ,j4 ,b4      
,chabot4 7,paris1  #ahii-aija47         
,migne1 ,patr4 ,gr43 ,patrologia        
,graeca4 7,paris1 #aheg-ff47    ----    
,patr4 ,lat43 ,patrologia ,latina4      
7,paris1 #ahdd-ee47    ,milman 7,h4     
,h473 ,history of ,latin ,christianity4 
7,london1 #ahgb47    ,mischlich und     
,lippert3 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der  
,haussastaaten von ,a4  ,mischlich4 ,mit
 ,einleitung von ,julius ,lippert4      
7,,msos ,,vi4 7#aijc71  ,abtheilung     
,,iii47    ,mission d',ollone3          
,recherches sur les ,musulmans ,chinois 
par le  commandant ,d',ollone1 le       

capitaine ,de ,fleurelle1 le capitaine  
,lepage1 le  lieutenant ,de ,boyve4     
tudes de ,a4 ,vissire4 ,notes de ,e4    
,blochet et de  divers savants4 7,paris1
 #aiaa47    ,mohammedan ,world3 ,the    
,mohammedan ,world of to-day1 being     
papers read at  the ,first ,missionary  
,conference on behalf of the ,mohammedan
 ,world held  at ,cairo1 ,april         
#dth-#ith1 #aijf4 7,new ,york1 etc41    
#aijf47    ,montero y ,vidal 7,d4 ,jos73
 ,historia de la ,pirateria             
,malayo-mahometana  en ,mindanao1 ,jol y
 ,borneo4 7,madrid1 #ahhh47    ,moor    
7,j4 ,h473 ,notices of the ,indian      
,archipelago4 7,singapore1 #ahcg47      
,moore 7,francis73 ,travels in the      
,inland ,parts of ,africa4 7,the ,world 
displayed2 or a curious collection of   
voyages and travels4 ,london1  #agfj47  
,morgan 7,j473 ,mahometism explained4   
7,london1 #agbc-e47    ,mori 7,l4 ,j473 
,histoire de l'thiopie4 7,paris1 #aijd47
    ,moslem ,world 7,the71 a quarterly  
review of current events1 literature1   

and thought among ,mohammedans1 and the 
progress of ,christian ,missions  in    
,moslem lands4 7,london1 #aiaa- 47      
,mller 7,august73 ,der ,islam im        
,morgen- und ,abendland4 7,berlin1      
#ahhe-g47    ,mller 7,g4 ,f473 ,sammlung
 ,russischer ,geschichte4 7,st4         
,petersburg1 #agfa47    ,muammad b4     
,uthmn al-ashish3 ,voyage au pays des   
,senoussia1 par le  cheikh ,mohammed ben
 ,otsmane el-,hachaichi1 traduit par ,v4
 ,serres et  ,lasram4 7,paris1 #aijc47  
,muammad aydar3 ,the ,tarikh-i-,rashidi 
of ,mirza ,muhammad ,haidar1  ,dughlt4  
,an ,english version1 444 by ,n4 ,elias 
and ,e4 ,denison ,ross4  7,london1      
#ahie74    ,muir 7,sir ,william73 7#a7  
,the ,caliphate2 its rise1 decline and  
fall4  7,london1 #ahia47    ---- 7#b7   
,life of ,mahomet4 7,london1 #aheh-fa47 
,munzinger 7,werner73 ,abessinien4      
7,petermann's ,mittheilungen4 ,gotha1   
#ahfg47        ,narshakhi3 ,description 
de ,boukhara par ,mohammed ,nerchakhy1  
publi par  ,charles ,schefer4 7,paris1  

#ahib47    ,neander 7,a473 7#a7 ,general
 ,history of the ,christian ,religion   
and ,church4  7,london1 #ahea-h47       
---- 7#b7 ,memorials of ,christian      
,life4 7,london1 #aheb47    ,netscher   
7,e473 ,kronijk van ,sambas en van      
,soekadana4 7,ts4 ind4 t4- l4-  vk4     
,deel i4 #aheb47    ,newbold 7,t4 ,j473 
,political and ,statistical ,account of 
the ,british  ,settlements in the       
,straits of ,malacca4 7,london1 #ahci47 
,nicholson 7,reynold ,a473 ,a ,literary 
,history of the ,arabs4 7,london1       
#aijg47    ,niemann 7,g4 ,k473          
,inleiding tot de kennis van den ,islam4
 7,rotterdam1  #ahfa47      ,ohsson 7,c4
 d'73 ,histoire des ,mongols4 7,the     
,hague1 #ahcd-e47    ,ohsson 7,m4 d'73  
,tableau gnral de l',empire ,othoman4   
7,paris1 #ahbj47    ,olivier 7,l473 ,la 
,bosnie et l',herzgovine1 ouvrage publi 
sous la  direction de ,louis ,olivier4  
7,paris1 n4d47    ,oppel 7,a473 ,die    
religisen ,verhltnisse von ,afrika4     
7,zeitschrift der  ,gesellschaft fr     

,erdkunde zu ,berlin4 ,vol4 xxii4       
#ahhg47    ,orderici ,vitalis ,historia 
,ecclesiastica4 7,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat4   
tom4  clxxxviii47        ,palmer 7,h4   
,r473 ,the ,kano ,chronicle1 translated 
with an introduction4  7,journal of the 
,royal ,anthropological ,institute4     
,vol4 xxxviii4 #aijh47    ,palmieri     
7,aurelio73 ,die ,polemik des ,islam4   
,aus dem ,italienischen  bersetzt von   
,prof4 ,valentin ,holzer4 7,salzburg1   
#aijb47    ,panciera 7,b473 ,i          
,musulmani4 7,florence1 #ahgg47         
,pashley 7,robert73 ,travels in ,crete4 
7,london1 #ahcg47    ,paulitschke       
7,philipp73 ,harar4 ,forschungsreise    
nach den ,soml- und  ,galla-lndern      
,ost-,afrikas4 7,leipzig1 #ahhh47       
,pavy3 uvres de ,mgr4 ,l4- ,a4- ,a4     
,pavy1 vque d',alger4 7,paris1 #aheh47  
,perceval 7,a4 ,p4 ,caussin de73 ,essai 
sur l'histoire des ,arabes avant        
l',islamisme1 pendant l'poque de        
,mahomet1 et jusqu' la rduction de      
toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane4

 7,paris1 #ahdg-h47    ,perrot          
7,georges73 ,l'le de ,crte4 7,paris1    
#ahfg47    ,phrantzes 7,georgios73      
,annales1 ed4 ,b4 ,g4 ,niebuhr4         
7,bonnae1 #ahch47    ,pichler 7,a473    
,geschichte des ,protestantismus in der 
orientalischen  ,kirche im #ag4         
,jahrhundert1 oder ,der ,patriarch      
,cyrillus ,lucaris und  seine ,zeit4    
7,munich1 #ahfb47    ,pigafetta 7,m4    
,antonio73 ,viaggio atorno il mondo     
fatto et descritto per4  7,ramusio1     
,tom4 i47    ,pitzipios 7,j4 ,g473      
,l'glise orientale4 7,rome1 #ahee47     
,plowden 7,w4 ,c473 ,travels in         
,abyssinia and the ,galla ,country4     
7,london1  #ahfh47    ,poensen 7,c473   
,brieven over den ,islam uit de         
,binnenlanden van ,java4  7,leiden1     
#ahhf47    ,polo 7,marco73 ,the ,book of
 ,ser ,marco ,polo1 the ,venetian1      
concerning the  ,kingdoms and ,marvels  
of the ,east1 translated and edited by  
,sir ,henry  ,yule4 ,third ,edition1    
revised by ,henri ,cordier4 7,london1   

#aijc47    ,prutz 7,h473                
,kulturgeschichte der ,kreuzzge4        
7,berlin1 #ahhc47        ,r4 du ,m4 ,m43
 ,revue du ,monde ,musulman1 publi par  
la ,mission  ,scientifique du ,maroc4   
7,paris47    ,rabbath 7,antoine73       
,documents indits pour servir           
l',histoire du  ,christianisme en       
,orient4 ,tome premier4 7,paris1 #aije47
    ,radloff 7,w473 ,aus ,siberien4     
7,leipzig1 #ahhd47    ,raffles 7,thomas 
,stamford73 ,the ,history of ,java4     
7,london1 #ahag47    ,ramusio 7,g4 ,b473
 ,navigationi et ,viaggi4 7,venice1     
#aeei47    ,rashd al-,dn3 ,jmi          
al-,tawrkh4 ,tarikh-i ,moubarek-i       
,ghazani1 histoire  des ,mongols1 dite  
par ,e4 ,blochet4 7,gibb ,memorial      
,series1 vol4 xviii47  7,london1 #aiaa47
    ,raverty3 abakt-i-,nir3 a general   
history of the ,muammadan  ,dynasties of
 ,asia1 by ,minhj-ud-,dn1               
,ab-,umar-i-,usmn4 7,london1  #ahha47   
,reade 7,w4 ,winwood73 ,african ,sketch 
,book4 7,london1 #ahgc47    ,reclus     

7,elise73 ,nouvelle ,gographie          
,universelle4 7,paris1 #ahgf-ia47       
,reinaud1 see ,abu'l-,fid4    ,renaudot 
7,e473 ,historia ,patriarcharum         
,alexandrinorum ,jacobitarum4  7,paris1 
#agac47    ,report of ,centenary        
,conference on the ,protestant ,missions
 of the ,world1  held in ,london1 #ahhh1
 edited by ,rev4 ,j4 ,j4 ,johnston4     
7,london1 #ahhi47    ,rev4 col4 int43   
,revue ,coloniale ,internationale4      
7,amsterdam47    ,richter 7,j473 ,die   
,propaganda des ,islam als              
,wegbestreiterin der modernen  ,mission4
 7,missionswissenschaftliche ,studien4  
,festschrift zum #gj4  ,geburtstag des  
,herrn ,prof4 ,dr4 ,gustav ,warneck47   
7,berlin1 #aijd47    ,riedel 7,j4 ,g4   
,f473 7#a7 ,de ,sluik- en ,kroesharige  
,rassen tusschen ,selebes  en ,papua4   
7,the ,hague1 #ahhf47    ---- 7#b7 ,the 
,island of ,flores or ,pulan ,bunga4    
,the ,tribes between ,sika and          
,manggaraai4 7,rev4 col4 int41 tome ii4 
#ahhf47    ,rinn 7,louis73 ,marabouts et

 ,khouan4 7,algiers1 #ahhd47    ,roscoe 
7,john73 ,the ,baganda4 7,london1       
#aiaa47    ,ross 7,alexander73 ,a       
,needful ,caveat1 or ,admonition1 for   
them who desire  to know what ,use may  
be made of1 or if there be danger in    
,reading the  ,alcoran4 7,the ,alcoran  
of ,mahomet1 translated out of ,arabick 
into  ,french1 by ,sieur de ,ryer1 4444 
and newly ,englished1 for the           
satisfaction of all that desire to look 
into the ,turkish ,vanities47  7,london1
 #afhh47    ,rouffaer 7,g4 ,p473 ,het   
tijdperk van godsdienstovergang         
7#adjj-afjj7 in  den ,maleischen        
,archipel4 7,bijdr4 t4d4t4l4 en vlk41   
dl4 #ej47 7#ahii47    ,rubruck3 ,the    
,journey of ,william of ,rubruck to the 
,eastern ,parts of the  ,world1         
#abec-ee1 as narrated by himself4       
,translated 444 by ,william  ,woodville 
,rockhill4 7,hakluyt ,society4 ,second  
,series4 ,no4 iv47 7,london1  #aijj47   
,rppell 7,eduard73 ,reise in            
,abyssinien4 7,frankfurt am ,main1      

#ahch47    ,rycaut 7,sir ,paul73        
,histoire de l'tat prsent de l'empire   
ottoman1  traduit de l',anglais de      
,monsieur ,ricaut1 par ,m4 ,briot4      
7,amsterdam1  #afgb47        ,sachau    
7,eduard73 ber den zweiten ,chalifen    
,omar4 ,ein ,charakterbild aus  der     
ltesten ,geschichte des ,islams4        
7,sitzungsberichte der ,kniglichen      
,preussischen ,akademie der             
,wissenschaften4 ,berlin1 #aijb47       
,sacy 7,le ,bon ,silvestre de73 ,expos  
de la ,religion des ,druzes4 7,paris1   
#ahch47    alb b4 ,yann3 ,maris1 ,amri  
et ,slibae ,de ,patriarchis             
,nestorianorum  ,commentaria1 ed4       
,henricus ,gismondi4 ,pars ,altera4     
7,romae1 #ahif47    ,salmon 7,c4 ,s473  
,british ,policy in ,west ,africa4      
7,contemporary ,review1  #ahhb47        
,samson3 ,samsonis ,abbatis ,cordubensis
 ,apologeticus ,liber4 7,henrique       
,florez3 ,espaa ,sagrada1 tom4 xi47     
7,madrid1 #agdg-gd47    ,sansovino      
7,francesco73 ,historia ,universale     

dell',origine et ,imperio de'  ,turchi4 
7,venice1 #aegc47    ,sayyid ,al ,akbar3
 ,trois chapitres du ,khitay ,namh4     
,texte persan et  traduction franaise   
par ,charles ,schefer4 7,mlanges        
,orientaux4  ,publications de l'cole des
 ,langues ,orientales ,vivantes4 ,i,ie  
srie4  ,vol4 ix4 ,paris1 #ahhc47        
,schack 7,a4 ,f4 ,graf von73 ,poesie und
 ,kunst der ,araber in ,spanien und     
,sicilien4 7,stuttgart1 #ahgg47         
,schefer 7,c473 ,notice sur les         
relations des peuples musulmans avec les
  ,chinois1 depuis l'extension de       
l',islamisme jusqu' la fin du ,x,ve     
sicle4 7,centenaire de l'cole des       
,langues ,orientales ,vivantes1         
#agie-ahie4 ,recueil de ,mmoires publis 
par les ,professeurs de l'cole4  ,paris1
 #ahie47    ,scheffler 7,johannes73     
,trcken-,schrifft3 von den ,ursachen der
  ,trckischen ,ueberziehung und der     
,zertretung des ,volckes ,gottes4       
7#affd47    ,schiltberger 7,hans73      
,reisebuch1 herausgegeben von ,v4       

,langmantel4  7,tbingen1 #ahhe47        
,semper 7,c473 ,die ,philippinen und    
ihre ,bewohner4 7,wrzburg1 #ahfi47      
,severus3 ,severus ben el ,moqaffa1     
,historia ,patriarcharum                
,alexandrinorum1 ed4 ,c4 ,f4 ,seybold4  
7,corpus ,scriptorum ,christianorum     
,orientalium4 ,scriptores ,arabici4     
,ser4 iii4 ,tom4 ix47 7,beryti1 #aijd-  
47    ,shedd 7,w4 ,a473 ,islam and the  
,oriental ,churches4 7,philadelphia1    
#aijd47    ,silbernagl 7,isidor73       
,verfassung und gegenwrtiger ,bestand   
smtlicher  ,kirchen des ,orients4 #bte  
,auflage4 7,regensburg1 #aijd47         
,simon 7,g473 ,islam und ,christentum im
 ,kampf um die ,eroberung der           
animistischen ,heidenwelt4              
,beobachtungen aus der                  
,mohammedanermission in                 
,niederlndisch-,indien4 7,berlin1       
#aiaj47    ,sitz4 d4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss41  
,philos4-hist4 ,cl43 ,sitzungsberichte  
der  philosophisch-historischen ,classe 
der kaiserlichen ,akademie der          

,wissenschaften4 7,vienna47    ,smith   
7,thomas73 ,remarks upon the ,manners1  
,religion and ,government of  the       
,turks4 7,london1 #afgh47    ,smith 7,w4
 ,j473 ,the ,present ,phases of the     
,mohammedan ,question4 7,the            
,churchman4 ,london1 ,jan41 #ahhh47     
,spons 7,jacob73 ,reisen durch ,italien1
 ,dalmatien1 ,griechenland und die      
,morgenlnder4 7,nrnberg1 #agac47        
,sprenger 7,a473 ,das ,leben und die    
,lehre des ,mohammad4 7,berlin1 #ahfa47 
,steinschneider 7,moritz73 ,polemische  
und apologetische ,litteratur in        
arabischer ,sprache1 zwischen ,muslimen1
 ,christen und ,juden4 7,leipzig1       
#ahgg47    ,stirling-,maxwell 7,sir     
,william73 ,don ,john of ,austria4      
7,london1 #ahhc47        abar3 ,annales 
quos scripsit ,abu ,djafar ,mohammed ibn
 ,djarir ,at-abari1  ed4 ,m4 ,j4 de     
,goeje et alii4 7,leiden1 #ahhe-ic47    
,tarkh al-,sdn3 ,tarikh es-,soudan par  
,abderrahman ben ,abdallah ben  ,imran  
ben ,amir es-,sadi4 ,texte arabe dit par

 ,o4 ,houdas4 7,paris1  #ahih47         
,tavernier 7,j4 ,b473 7#a7 ,the six     
voyages4 7,london1 #afgg47    ---- 7#b7 
,travels in ,india4 7,london1 #afgh47   
---- 7#c7 ,a ,new ,relation of the      
,inner-,part of the ,grand ,seignor's   
,seraglio4 7,london1 #afgg47            
,thevenot 7,m473 ,relations de divers   
voyages curieux4 7,paris1 #afif47       
,thiersant 7,p4 ,dabry de73 ,le         
,mahomtisme en ,chine4 7,paris1 #ahgh47 
,thomas of ,marg3 ,the ,book of         
,governors3 the ,historia ,monastica of 
,thomas1 ,bishop of ,marg ,a4,d4 #hdj1  
edited by ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge4       
7,london1 #ahic47    ,thomson 7,joseph73
 7#a7 ,mohammedanism in ,central        
,africa4 7,contemporary  ,review1 ,dec41
 #ahhf47    ---- 7#b7 ,note on the      
,african ,tribes of the ,british        
,empire4 7,the ,journal  of the         
,anthropological ,institute of ,great   
,britain and ,ireland4 ,vol4  xvi4      
,london1 #ahhg47    ,tijn3 ,voyage du   
,scheikh ,et-,tidjani dans la rgence de 

,tunis1 pendant  les annes #gjf1 #gjg1  
et #gjh de l'hgire 7#acjf-acji72 traduit
 de l'arabe  par ,m4 ,alphonse          
,rousseau4 7,j4 ,a4 ivme srie1 tome xx41
 #aheb47    ,tournefort 7,j4 ,p473 ,a   
,voyage into the ,levant4 7,london1     
#agda47    ,ts4 ind4 t4- l4- vk43       
,tijdschrift voor ,indische ,taal-1     
,land- en  ,volkenkunde4 7,batavia47    
,turchic ,spurciti et ,perfidi          
,suggillatio et ,confutatio4 7,paris1   
#aeaf47        ,ubayd ,allh3 ,tufat     
al-,hind4 7,dihl1 ,a4,h4 #acji47        
,usma b4 ,munqidh3 ,kitb al-,itibr1 ed4 
,h4 ,derenbourg4 iime ,partie3  ,texte  
arabe de l'autobiographie d',ousma4     
7,publications de l'cole des  ,langues  
,orientates ,vivantes4 iime sr41 tome   
xii 7iime ,partie74 7,paris1  #ahhf477  
,vambry 7,arminius73 7#a7 ,geschichte   
,bochara's4 7,stuttgart1 #ahgb47    ----
 7#b7 ,sketches of ,central ,asia4      
7,london1 #ahfh47    ,vasil'ev 7,v4     
,p473     4 7,st4 ,petersburg1  #ahfg47 
,veniero3 ,descrittione dell',imperio   

,turchesco del ,revermo ,monsre ,maffeo 
,veniero1 ,arcivescovo di ,corf4 7,r4   
,d4 ,marci ,bibliotheca1 ,venice4       
,classe  vii41 ,cod4 #hhb47    ,verh4   
,bat4 ,gen4 van ,k4 en ,w43             
,verhandelingen van het ,bataviaasch    
,genootschap van ,kunsten en            
,wetenschappen4 7,batavia47    ,veth    
7,p4 ,j473 7#a7 ,atchin en zijne        
betrekkingen tot ,nederland4 7,leiden1  
#ahgc47    ---- 7#b7 ,borneo's          
,wester-,afdeeling4 7,zaltbommel1       
#ahed47    ---- 7#c7 ,java1             
geographisch1 ethnologisch1 historisch4 
,tweede ,druk  bewerkt door ,j4 ,f4     
,snelleman en ,j4 ,f4 ,niermeyer4       
7,haarlem1 #ahif-aijg47    ,vivien de   
,saint-,martin 7,l473 ,nouveau          
,dictionnaire de ,gographie             
,universelle4 7,paris1 #ahgi-ie47       
,,wzkm3 ,wiener ,zeitschrift fr die     
,kunde des ,morgenlandes4    ,waitz     
7,theodor73 ,anthropologie der          
,naturvlker4 7,leipzig1 #ahfj47         
,wansleben 7,j4 ,m473 ,histoire de      

l'glise d',alexandrie4 7,paris1 #afgg47 
,waf3 ,geschichte2 persisch             
herausgegeben und deutsch bersetzt von  
,hammer-,purgstall4 7,vienna1 #ahef47   
,weil 7,gustav73 ,geschichte der        
,chalifen4 7,mannheim1 #ahdf-ea47       
,wellhausen 7,j473 ,skizzen und         
,vorarbeiten4 7,berlin1 #ahhe-ii47      
,westermann 7,d473 ,islam in the ,west  
and ,central ,sudan4 7,the              
,international ,review of ,missions1    
vol4 i4 ,edinburgh1 #aiab47    ,wetzer  
und ,welte's ,kirchenlexicon4 ,zweite   
,auflage4 7,freiburg im  ,breisgau1     
#ahhe sqq47    ,whishaw 7,b4 and ,e4    
,m473 ,arabic ,spain4 7,london1 #aiab47 
,wilken 7,n4 ,p47 en ,schwarz 7,j4 ,a473
 7#a7 ,gedachten over het stichten      
eener zending in ,bolang-,mongondou4    
7,med4 ,ned4 ,zendelinggen4 ,vol4 xi41  
#ahfg47    ---- 7#b7 ,het ,heidendom en 
de ,islam in ,bolang-,mongondou4 7id4   
id47    ,wise 7,james73 ,the            
,muhammadans of ,eastern ,bengal4 7,j4  
,a4 ,s4 ,b4 ,vol4  lxiii41 ,part iii41  

#ahid47    ,wright 7,william73 ,a short 
,history of ,syriac ,literature4        
7,london1 #ahid47    ,wstenfeld 7,f473  
,die ,geschichtschreiber der ,araber und
 ihre ,werke4  7,gttingen1 #ahhb47      
,yay b4 dam3 ,le livre de l',impt       
,foncier1 publi par ,th4 ,w4 ,juynboll4 
7,leide1 #ahif47    ,yqt3 ,mujam        
al-,buldn4 ,jacut's ,geographisches     
,wrterbuch1  herausgegeben von ,f4      
,wstenfeld4 7,leipzig1 #ahff-gc47       
,yule 7,h473 ,cathay and the ,way       
thither4 7,london1 #ahff47              
,,zdmg3 ,zeitschrift der deutschen      
morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft4          
7,leipzig47    ,zayn al-,dn3 ,tuhfa     
al-mujhidn4 ,historia dos ,portugueses  
no ,malabar  por ,zinadm4 ,manuscripto  
,arabe publicado e traduzido por ,david 
,lopes4  7,lisboa1 #ahih47    ,zenker   
7,j4 ,t473 ,das chinesische ,reich1 nach
 dem trkischen ,khatainame4             
7,z4,d4,m4,g41 vol4 xv4 ,leipzig1       
#ahfa47    ,zmaievich3 ,notizie         
universali dello stato di ,albania e    

dell'operato da  ,monsig4 ,vincenzo     
,zmaievich1 arcivescovo di ,antivari1   
esaminate nelle  ,congregationi         
,generali di ,propaganda ,fide di #c    
,debr4 #agjc-ab ,febr4  #agjd4          
7,bibliotheca ,barberina1 ,rome1 ,nr ,l4
 #abf47    ,zollinger 7,h473 7#a7 ,the  
,island of ,lombok4 ,journal of the     
,indian  ,archipelago1 vol4 v4          
7,singapore1 #ahea47    ---- 7#b7       
,verslag van eene reis naar ,bima en    
,soembawa4 7,verh4 ,bat4 ,gen4  van ,k4 
en ,w4 ,deel xxiii4 #ahej47    ,zwemer  
7,s4 ,m473 ,islam3 ,a ,challenge to     
faith4 7,new ,york1 #aijh47             
,,notes      #a ,e4g4 ,the spread of    
,islam in ,sicily and the missionary    
labours of  the numerous ,muslim saints4
    #b ,de ,trinitate1 i4 #e4 7,migne1  
tom4 xlii1 p4 #hbc47    #c ,accordingly 
the reader will find no account of the  
recent history  of ,armenia or ,crete1  
or indeed of any part of the empire of  
the ,turks  during the present          
century--a period singularly barren of  

missionary  enterprise on their part4   
#d ,phrantzes1 p4 #e4    #e ,the student
 of the literature of ,science or of the
 ,fine ,arts finds  the libraries at    
,south ,kensington open till #aj o'clock
 on three  evenings every week1 but the 
one library in this country that aims at
  any completeness is available only to 
such students as are at leisure  during 
the day-time4    #f ,a note on ,mr4     
,lyall's article3 8,missionary          
,religions40 ,fortnightly  ,review1     
,july1 #ahgd4    #g ,reclus1 vol4 v4 p4 
#dcc2 ,gasztowtt1 p4 #cbj sqq4    #h    
,this misinterpretation of the ,muslim  
wars of conquest has arisen  from the   
assumption that wars waged for the      
extension of ,muslim  domination over   
the lands of the unbelievers implied    
that the aim in  view was their         
conversion4 ,goldziher has well pointed 
out this  distinction in his            
,vorlesungen ber den ,islam3 8,was      
,muhammed zunchst  in seinem arabischen 
,umkreise getan1 das hinterlsst er als  

,testament  fr die ,zukunft seiner      
,gemeinde3 ,bekmpfung der ,unglubigen1  
die  ,ausbreitung nicht so sehr des     
,glaubens als seiner ,machtsphre1 die   
die  ,machtsphre ,allahs ist4 ,es ist   
dabei den ,kmpfern des ,islams zunchst  
nicht so sehr um ,bekehrung als um      
,unterwerfung der ,unglubigen zu tun40  
7p4 #be47    #i ,see ,enhardi ,fuldensis
 ,annales1 ,a4,d4 #ggg4 8,saxones post  
multas cdes  et varia bella afflicti1   
tandem christiani effecti1 ,francorum   
dicioni  subduntur40 ,g4 ,h4 ,pertz3    
,monumenta ,germani ,historica1 vol4 i4 
p4 #cdi4  7,see also pp4 #aef1 #aei47   
#aj 8,tum zelo propagand fidei          
succensus1 barbara regna iusto          
certamine aggressus1 devictas           
subditasque nationes christian legi     
subiugavit40 7,breviarium ,romanum4     
,iun4 #ai47    #aa ,mathurin ,veyssire  
de la ,croze3 ,histoire du              
,christianisme des  ,indes1 pp4         
#ebi-eca4 7,the ,hague1 #agbd47    #ab  
,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1   

vol4 xi4 p4 #hi4    #ac ,konrad ,maurer3
 ,die ,bekehrung des norwegischen       
,stammes zum  ,christenthume1 vol4 i4 p4
 #bhd4 7,mnchen1 #ahee47    #ad ,jean1  
,sire de ,joinville3 ,histoire de ,saint
 ,louis1 ed4 ,n4 de  ,wailly1 p4 #cj 7  
#ec74    #ae ,severus1 p4 #aia 7ll4     
#ba-bb74    #af ,ibn ,isq1 p4 #abj4     
#ag ,id4 p4 #aee4    #ah ,he is famous  
throughout the ,muhammadan world as the 
first  muadhdhin4    #ai ,ibn ,isq1 p4  
#bai-bbj4 abar makes no mention of this 
mission and  ,caetani 7i4 p4 #bgh7      
accordingly suggests that it is a later 
invention4    #bj ,ibn ,isq1 pp4 #bbe-f4
    #ba ,ibn ,isq1 pp4 #bhf-g4    #bb   
,caetani1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ccd-e4    #bc    
,ibn ,isq1 p4 #bia sq4    #bd ,the      
appointment of the fast of ,raman 7,qurn
 ii4 #agi-hd71 is  doubtless another    
sign of the breaking with the ,jews1 the
 fast on the  ,day of ,atonement being  
thus abolished4    #be 8,aber ,gottes   
,botschaft ist nicht auf die ,araber    
beschrnkt4 ,sein  ,wille gilt fr alle   

,creatur1 es heischt unbedingten        
,gehorsam von aller  ,menschheit1 und   
dass ,muhammed als sein ,bote denselben 
,gehorsam zu  heischen berechtigt und   
verpflichtet sei1 scheint von ,anfang an
 ein  integrirender ,bestandtheil seines
 ,gedankensystem gewesen zu sein40      
7,sachau1 pp4 #bic-d47 ,goldziher       
7,vorlesungen ber den ,islam1 p4 #be    
sqq47  and ,nldeke 7,,wzkm1 vol4 xxi4   
pp4 #cjg-h7 express a similar opinion4  
#bf ,on the doubtful authenticity of    
these letters1 see ,caetani1 vol4  i4 p4
 #gbe sqq4    #bg ,it seems strange that
 in the face of these passages1 some    
have  denied that ,islam was originally 
intended by its founder to be a         
universal religion4 ,thus ,sir ,william 
,muir says1 8,that the heritage of      
,islam is the world1 was an             
afterthought4 ,the idea1 spite of much  
prophetic tradition1 had been conceived 
but dimly1 if at all1 by  ,mahomet      
himself4 ,his world was ,arabia1 and for
 it the new dispensation  was ordained4 

,from first to last the summons was to  
,arabs and to none  other4444 ,the seed 
of a universal creed had indeed been    
sown2 but that  it ever germinated was  
due to circumstance rather than design40
 7,the  ,caliphate1 pp4 #dc-d47 ,caetani
 is the latest exponent of this view4   
7,annali dell',islm1 vol4 v4 pp4        
#cbc-d47    #bh ,ibn ,sad1  #aj4 ,this  
story may indeed be apocryphal1 but is  
significant at least of the early       
realisation of the missionary  character
 of ,islam4    #bi ,a4 von ,kremer 7#c71
 pp4 #cji1 #caj4    #cj ,this would seem
 to be acknowledged even by ,muir1 when 
speaking of  the massacre of the ,ban   
,qurayah 7,a4,h4 #f73 8,the ostensible  
grounds  upon which ,mahomet proceeded  
were purely political1 for as yet he did
  not profess to force men to join      
,islam1 or to punish them for not       
embracing it40 7,muir 7#b71 vol4 iii4 p4
 #bhb47    #ca ,ibn ,isq1 p4 #fdh sq4   
#cb ,muir 7#b71 vol4 iv4 pp4 #ajg-h4    
,see also ,caetani1 vol4 i4 p4 #ffc4    

8,assai pi che tutte le prediche del    
,profeta1 assai pi che tutta la  bont   
delle dottrine islamiche1 siffatti      
vantaggi militari  contribuirono al     
aumentare il numero dei seguaci4 ,la    
rapidit della  diffusione dell',islm    
divenne in special modo sensibile per il
 contegno  et per lo spirito di         
tolleranza1 di libert1 e di             
opportunismo1 che  diresse il ,profeta  
nei suoi rapporti con i convertiti40    
#cc ,ibn ,isq1 p4 #idc-d4 7,this story  
rests on somewhat doubtful  authority1  
cf4 ,caetani1 vol4 i4 p4 #faj47    #cd  
,ibn ,sad1  #aah4    #ce ,ibn ,isq1 pp4 
#beb-d4    #cf ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 t4 i4 
p4 #cda4    #cg ,ibn ,sad1  #ef4    #ch 
,ibn ,sad1  #he4    #ci ,id4  #hf4      
#dj ,id4  #ia4    #da ,see ,sprenger1   
vol4 iii4 pp4 #cfj-a4    #db ,caetani1  
vol4 ii4 p4 #dcc4    #dc ,caetani1 vol4 
ii4 p4 #dbi4    #dd ,this has been      
nowhere more fully and excellently      
brought out than  in the scholarly work 
of ,prof4 ,ignaz ,goldziher             

7,muhammedanische  ,studien1 vol4 i471  
from which ,i have derived the following
  considerations4    #de ,dllinger1 pp4 
#e-f4    #df ,caetani1 ,studi di ,storia
 ,orientale1 ,i1 p4 #cfe sqq4 7,milano1 
#aiaa47    #dg ,this interpretation of  
the ,arab conquests as the last of the  
great  ,semitic migrations has been     
worked out in a masterly manner by      
,caetani1  vol4 ii4 pp4 #hca-fa4    #dh 
,caetani1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dee2 vol4 v4 p4  
#eba4 78,in ,madnah si form un          
considerevole nucleo religioso1 composto
 d'elementi eterogenei1 ma  forse in    
maggioranza madinesi1 i quali presero   
l',islm molto sul serio  e cercarono    
sinceramente di osservare la nuova      
dottrina1 per la  convinzione che1 cos  
agendo facevan bene1 ed in devoto       
omaggio alla  volont del ,profeta407    
#di ,masd1 tome iv4 p4 #bch4    #ej     
,muir's ,caliphate1 pp4 #aba-b4    #ea  
,caetani1 vol4 iii4 p4 #had 7 #cbc74    
#eb ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bfj1 #bii1  
#cea4    #ec ,id4 pp4 #gib-c2 vol4 iii4 

p4 #bec 7 #h74    #ed ,id4 pp4 #aaab-ae4
    #ee ,muir1 ,caliphate1 pp4 #ij-d4   
#ef ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bii4         
,wellhausen1 iv4 p4 #aef 7n4 #e74    #eg
 abar1 ,prima ,series1 p4 #bdhb4    #eh 
,for an exhaustive study of the jizyah1 
with a masterly array and  critical     
examination of all the available        
historical materials1 see  ,caetani1    
vol4 v4 p4 #cai sqq42 for ,egypt during 
the first century of  ,muslim rule1 see 
,bell1 p4 #afg sqq41 and ,becker1       
,beitrge zur ,geschichte  ,aegyptens    
unter dem ,islam1 p4 #ha sqq4    #ei    
,caetani 7vol4 iv4 p4 #bbg7 believes    
that this story is the  invention of a  
later epoch1 to explain the fiscal      
anomaly of a  ,christian tribe being    
treated as if it were ,muslim4    #fj   
,the few meagre notices of this tribe in
 the works of ,arabic  historians have  
been admirably summarised by ,lammens3  
,le ,chantre des  ,omiades4 7,j4 ,a41   
ix4 sr41 tome iv4 pp4 #ig-i1 #dch-ei47  
,see also  ,caetani1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bbg   

sqq4    #fa ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aahj4
    #fb ,barhebrus 7#c71 pp4 #acd-e4    
#fc ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hbh4    #fd  
abar1 i4 p4 #bjda4    #fe ,masd1 tome   
iv4 p4 #bef4    #ff 8,gli ,arabi nei    
primi anni non perseguitarono invece    
alcuno per  ragioni di fede1 non si     
diedero pena alcuna per convertire      
chicchessia1  sicch sotto l',islm1 dopo 
le prime conquiste1 i cristiani ,semiti 
goderno d'una tolleranza religiosa quale
 non si era mai vista da varie          
generazioni40 7,caetani1 vol4 v4 p4 #d47
    #fg ,sir ,henry ,layard3 ,early     
,adventures in ,persia1 ,susiana and    
,babylonia1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajj4 7,london1  
#ahhg72 ,r4 ,hartmann3 ,die ,herrschaft 
von al-,karak4 7,der ,islam1 vol4 ii4 p4
 #acg47    #fh ,burckhardt 7#b71 p4     
#efd4    #fi ,w4 ,g4 ,palgrave3 ,essays 
on ,eastern ,questions1 pp4 #bjf-h4     
7,london1  #ahgb47    #gj ,i4 ,a4       
,dorner3 ,a ,system of ,christian       
,doctrine1 vol4 iii4 pp4  #bae-af4      
7,london1 #ahhe47 ,j4 ,c4 ,robertson3   

,history of the ,christian  ,church1    
vol4 ii4 p4 #bbf4 7,london1 #ahge47     
#ga ,that such fears were not wholly    
groundless may be judged from the       
emperor's intolerant behaviour towards  
many of the ,monophysite party in  his  
progress through ,syria after the defeat
 of the ,persians in #fbg4  7,see       
,michael the ,elder1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dab1  
and ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 p4  #ajdi47 ,for 
the outrages committed by the ,byzantine
 soldiers on their  co-religionists in  
the reign of ,constans ,,ii 7#fdb-ffh71 
see ,michael the  ,elder1 vol4 ii4 p4   
#ddc4    #gb ,michael the ,elder1 vol4  
ii4 pp4 #dab-ac4 ,barhebrus1 about a    
century later1 wrote in a similar       
strain4 7,chronicon ,ecclesiasticum1    
ed4 ,j4 ,b4 ,abbeloos et ,lamy1 p4      
#dgd47    #gc ,azd1 p4 #ig4    #gd      
,baldhur1 p4 #acg4    #ge ,caetani1 vol4
 iii4 p4 #hac2 vol4 v4 p4 #cid4 78,gli  
abitanti  accettarono con non celato    
favore il mutamento di governo1 appena  
ebbero compreso che gli ,arabi avrebbero

 rispettato i loro diritti  individuali1
 ed avrebbero lasciata completa libert  
di coscienza in  materia religiosa4 ,in 
,siria1 citt ed interi distretti si     
affrettarono  a trattare con gli ,arabi 
anche prima della rotta finale dei      
,greci4 ,nel  ,sawd si lasciarono       
passivamente sopraffare accettando il   
nuovo dominio  senza pattuire condizioni
 di sorta2  probabile che anche in      
,siria  questo fosse il caso per molte  
regioni remote dalle grandi vie di      
comunicazioni407    #gf ,gottheil has   
brought together a valuable collection  
of documentary  evidence as to the      
condition of the protected peoples under
 ,muslim rule  in his 8,dhimms and      
,moslems in ,egypt40    #gg ,baldhur1   
pp4 #gd 7ad fin471 #aaf1 #aba 7med474   
#gh ,for a discussion of this document1 
see ,caetani1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ieb  sqq4   
#gi abar1 i4 p4 #bdje4    #hj ,baldhur1 
p4 #abi4    #ha ,ibn ,sad1 ,,iii1 i4 p4 
#bdf4    #hb ,mmoire sur la conqute de  
la ,syrie1 p4 #adc sq4    #hc ,annali   

dell',islm1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ieg4    #hd   
,some authorities on ,muhammadan law    
held that this rule did not  extend to  
villages and hamlets1 in which the      
construction of churches  was not to be 
prevented4 7,hidyah1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bai47 
#he 8,the ,ulam are divided in opinion  
on the question of the  teaching of the 
,qurn3 the sect of ,mlik forbids it3    
that of ,ab  anfah allows it2 and ,shfi 
has two opinions on the subject3 on the 
one hand1 he countenances the study of  
it1 as indicating a leaning  towards    
,islam2 and on the other hand1 he       
forbids it1 because he fears  that the  
unbeliever who studies the ,qurn being  
still impure may read  it solely with   
the object of turning it to ridicule1   
since he is the  enemy of ,god and the  
,prophet who wrote the book2 now as     
these two  statements are contradictory1
 ,shfi has no formally stated opinion on
  this matter40 7,belin1 p4 #ejh47      
#hf ,such as the forms of greeting1     
etc41 that are only to be used by       

,muslims to one another4    #hg ,ab     
,ysuf 7p4 #hb7 says that ,christians    
were to be allowed to go in  procession 
once a year with crosses1 but not with  
banners2 outside the  city1 not inside  
where the mosques were4    #hh ,the nqs1
 lit4 an oblong piece of wood1 struck   
with a rod4    #hi ,gottheil1 pp4       
#chb-d1 where references are given to   
the various  versions of this document4 
#ij ,there is evidence to show that the 
,arab conquerors left unchanged  the    
fiscal system that they found prevailing
 in the lands they  conquered from the  
,byzantines1 and that the explanation of
 jizyah as a  capitation-tax is an      
invention of later jurists1 ignorant of 
the true  condition of affairs in the   
early days of ,islam4 7,caetani1 vol4   
iv4 p4  #faj 7 #bca72 vol4 v4 p4 #ddi47 
,h4 ,lammens3 ,zid ibn ,abhi4 7,rivista 
degli ,studi ,orientali1 vol4 iv4 p4    
#bae47    #ia ,goldziher1 vol4 i4 pp4   
#ej-g1 #dbg-cj4 ,caetani1 vol4 v4 p4    
#caa sqq4    #ib ,caetani1 vol4 v4 pp4  

#dbd 7 #geb71 #dcb4    #ic ,baldhur1 pp4
 #abd-e4    #id ,a4 von ,kremer 7#a71   
vol4 i4 pp4 #fj1 #dcf4    #ie ,a dirham 
is about fivepence4    #if ,bell1 pp4   
xxv1 #agc4    #ig ,ab ,ysuf1 pp4 #fi-ga4
    #ih abar1 ,prima ,series1 p4 #bjee4 
#ii ,id4 p4 #bjej4    #ajj ,ab ,ysuf1 p4
 #ha4    #aja ,baldhur1 p4 #aei4    #ajb
 abar1 ,prima ,series1 p4 #bffe4    #ajc
 ,marsigli1 vol4 i4 p4 #hf 7he calls    
them 8,musellim074    #ajd ,finlay1 vol4
 vi4 pp4 #cj1 #cc4    #aje ,lazr1 p4    
#ef4    #ajf ,de la ,jonquire1 p4 #ad4  
#ajg ,thomas ,smith1 p4 #cbd4    #ajh   
,dorostamus1 p4 #cbf4    #aji ,de la    
,jonquire1 p4 #bfe4    #aaj ,lammens1 p4
 #ac4    #aaa ,ibn ,ab ,usaybiah1 vol4  
i4 p4 #afd4    #aab ,michael the ,elder1
 vol4 ii4 p4 #dge4    #aac ,mr b4       
,sulaymn1 p4 #ga 7l4 #af74 ,ab ,n       
al-,anbr wrote a  refutation  of the    
,qurn and other theological works       
7,wright1 p4 #aia n4 #c74    #aad ,mr b4
 ,sulaymn1 p4 #hd4    #aae ,hill al-b1  
p4 #ie4    #aaf ,ibn al-,athr1 vol4 ix4 

p4 #af4    #aag ,von ,kremer 7#a71 vol4 
i4 pp4 #afg-h4 ,lammens1 p4 #aa4    #aah
 ,renaudot1 pp4 #dcj1 #edj4    #aai ,von
 ,kremer 7#a71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahj-a4     
#abj ,von ,kremer 7#a71 vol4 i4 p4 #ahc4
    #aba ,caetani1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cej   
sq41 #chg sqq4    #abb ,gottheil1 pp4   
#cfj-a4 ,goldziher3 ,zur ,literatur des 
,ichtilf  al-mahib1 ,,zdmg41 vol4 #ch1  
pp4 #fgc-d4    #abc ,on this theoretical
 character of much of ,muslim legal     
literature1  see ,snouck ,hurgronje3    
,mohammedanisches ,recht in ,theorie und
  ,wirklichkeit4    #abd ,gottheil1 p4  
#cfc4    #abe ,gottheil1 pp4 #ceh-i1    
however1 doubts whether there is        
evidence  for attributing this          
intolerance to ,umar ,,ii4    #abf      
,journal ,asiatique1 ,i,vme srie1 tome  
xviii4 7#ahea71 pp4 #dcc1 #dej4  abar1  
,,iii1 p4 #adai4    #abg ,michael the   
,elder1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dgf4 ,renaudot1 p4 
#ahi4    #abh ,eutychius1 ,,ii1 p4 #da  
init4 ,severus 7p4 #aci7 says 8two      
churches40    #abi ,von ,kremer 7#a71   

vol4 ii4 p4 #age4    #acj ,michael the  
,elder1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dij1 #dia4    #aca
 ,ibn ,khallikn1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhe4       
#acb ,elias of ,nisibis1 p4 #abh4       
#acc ,a4 ,j4 ,butler3 ,the ,ancient     
,coptic ,churches of ,egypt1 vol4 i4 p4 
#aha4 7,oxford1 #ahhd47    #acd ,yqt1   
vol4 ii4 p4 #ffb4    #ace ,yqt1 vol4 ii4
 p4 #fgj4    #acf ,mr b4 ,sulaymn1 p4   
#gc4    #acg ,ishok of ,romgla1 p4 #bff4
    #ach ,eutychius1 ,,ii1 p4 #eh4      
#aci ,von ,kremer 7#a71 vol4 ii4 pp4    
#age-f4    #adj ,butler3 ,ancient       
,coptic ,churches of ,egypt1 vol4 i4 p4 
#gf4    #ada ,renaudot1 p4 #cii4    #adb
 ,ishok of ,romgla1 p4 #ccc4    #adc ,ab
 li1 p4 #ib4    #add ,a ,dominican monk 
from ,florence1 by name ,ricoldus de    
,monte ,crucis1  who visited the ,east  
about the close of the thirteenth and   
the  beginning of the fourteenth        
century1 speaks of the toleration the   
,nestorians had enjoyed under           
,muhammadan rule right up to his time3  
8,et  ego inveni per antiquas historias 

et autenticas aput ,saracenos1 quod     
ipsi ,nestorini amici fuerunt ,machometi
 et confederati cum eo1 et quod  ipse   
,machometus mandauit suis posteris1 quod
 ,nestorinos maxime  conseruarent4 ,quod
 usque hodie diligenter obseruant ipsi  
,sarraceni40  7,laurent1 p4 #abh47      
#ade ,j4 ,labourt3 ,de ,timotheo ,i1    
,nestorianorum ,patriarcha1 p4 #cg sqq4 
7,paris1 #aijd47    #adf ,e4 von        
,dobschtz1 p4 #cij-a4    #adg ,michael  
the ,elder1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dci-dj4    #adh
 ,makn1 p4 #ab4 ,j4 ,labourt3 ,le       
,christianisme sous la dynastie         
sassanide1 p4 #aci sq4 7,paris1 #aijd47 
#adi ,renaudot1 p4 #afi4    #aej ,von   
,kremer well remarks3 8,wir verdanken   
dem unermdlichen  ,sammelfleiss der     
arabischen ,chronisten unsere ,kenntniss
 der politischen  und militrischen      
,geschichte jener ,zeiten1 welche so    
genau ist als dies  nur immer auf eine  
,entfernung von zwlf ,jahrhunderten der 
,fall sein  kann2 allein gerade die     
innere ,geschichte jener denkwrdigen    

,epoche1  die ,geschichte des ,kampfes  
einer neuen1 rohen ,religion gegen die  
alten  hochgebildeten1 zum ,theile      
berbildeten ,culte ist kaum in ihren    
allgemeinsten ,umrissen bekannt40 7,von 
,kremer 7#b71 pp4 #a-b47    #aea ,thomas
 of ,marg1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cji sq4    #aeb 
,thomas of ,marg1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #caj1    
#cbd sq4    #aec ,cf4 in addition to the
 passages quoted below1 ,m,clintoch     
,strong's ,cyclopdia1 sub art4          
,mohammedanism1 vol4 vi4 p4 #dbj4 ,james
  ,freeman ,clarke3 ,ten ,great         
,religions1 ,part ii4 p4 #ge4 7,london1 
#ahhc47    #aed ,thus the ,emperor      
,heraclius is represented by the        
,muhammadan  historian as saying1       
8,their religion is a new religion which
 gives them  new zeal40 7abar1 p4       
#bajc47    #aee ,history of ,latin      
,christianity1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #baf-ag4    
#aef ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ajde-f4    
#aeg ,a paper read before the ,church   
,congress at ,wolverhampton1 ,october   
#gth1 #ahhg4    #aeh ,for the oppressive

 fiscal system under the ,byzantine     
empire1 see  ,gfrrer3 ,byzantinische    
,geschichten1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ccg-i1      
#chi-ia1 #dej4    #aei 8,der ,islam war 
ein ,rckstoss gegen den ,missbrauch1    
welchen  ,justinian mit der ,menschheit1
 besonders aber mit der christlichen    
,religion trieb1 deren oberstes         
geistliches und weltliches ,haupt er zu 
sein behauptete4 ,dass der ,araber      
,mahomed1 welcher #ega der christlichen 
,zeitrechnung1 sechs ,jahre nach dem    
,tode ,justinians1 das ,licht der ,welt 
erblickte1 mit seiner ,lehre unerhrtes  
,glck machte1 verdankte er              
grossentheils dem ,abscheu1 welchen die 
im ,umkreise des byzantinischen         
,reiches angesessenen ,vlker1 wie die   
benachbarten ,nationen1 ber die  von dem
 ,basileus begangenen ,greuel           
empfanden40 7,gfrrer3 ,byzantinische    
,geschichten1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dcg47    #afj
 ,id4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bif-cjf1 #ccg4      
#afa ,id4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ddb-d4    #afb  
,id4 vol4 ii4 p4 #dde4    #afc ,masd1   

vol4 ii4 p4 #chg4    #afd ,von ,kremer  
7#b71 p4 #h4    #afe ,id4 p4 #ed and    
7#c71 p4 #cb4 ,nicholson1 p4 #bca4      
#aff ,among the ,mutazilite             
philosophers1 ,muammad b4 al-,huzayl1   
the  teacher of al-,mamn1 is said to    
have converted more than three  thousand
 persons to ,islam4 7,amad b4 ,yay b4   
al-,murta1 p4 #bf1 l4 #g47    #afg ,von 
,kremer 7#b71 pp4 #c1 #g-h4 ,c4 ,h4     
,becker3 ,christliche ,polemik und      
islamische ,dogmenbildung 7,zeitschrift 
fr ,assyriologie1 xxvi4 #aiab74    #afh 
,ibn ,khallikn1 vol4 i4 p4 #de4    #afi 
,wstenfeld1 p4 #ajc4    #agj ,michael   
the ,elder1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dab-ac4       
,caetani1 vol4 v4 p4 #ejh4  78,le       
vittorie sui ,greci e sui ,persiani non 
solamente erano il trionfo  della razza 
araba sulle popolazioni delle provincie 
conquistate1 ma  nella mente orientale  
che vede in tutto la mano di ,dio1      
costituivano un  trionfo del principio  
islamico su quello cristiano e          
mazdeista1 ma  sovrattutto sul          

cristiano407    #aga ,goldziher1 vol4 i4
 chaps4 #c and #d4    #agb ,the last of 
these was prompted by the discovery of  
an attempt on  the part of the          
,christians to burn the city of ,cairo4 
7,de ,guignes1 vol4  iv4 pp4 #bjd-e47   
,gottheil1 p4 #cei1 ,journal ,asiatique1
 ,i,vme srie1 tome  xviii4 7#ahea71 pp4 
#ded1 #dee1 #dfc1 #dhd1 #dia4    #agc   
,assemani1 tom4 iii4 pars4 #b1 p4 c4    
,renaudot1 pp4 #dcb1 #fjc1 #fjg4    #agd
 ,muir3 ,the ,caliphate1 p4 #dge4       
#age ,von ,kremer 7#c71 p4 #bdf4    #agf
 ,muir 7#a71 pp4 #ejh1 #eaf-ag4    #agg 
,mr b4 ,sulaymn1 p4 #gi sq4 alb b4      
,yuann1 p4 #ga4    #agh ,gottheil1 p4   
#cfd sqq4    #agi ,mr b4 ,sulaymn1 p4   
#aad 7ll4 #ad-af74    #ahj ,this        
tradition appears in several forms1 e4g4
 8,whoever wrongs one  with whom a      
compact has been made 7i4e4 a dhimm7 and
 lays on him a  burden beyond his       
strength1 ,i will be his accuser40      
7,baldhur1 p4 #afb1  fin47 7,yay b4 dam1
 p4 #ed 7fin471 adds the words1 8till   

the day of  judgment407 8,whoever does  
violence to a dhimm who has paid his    
jizyah  and evidenced his               
submission--his enemy am ,i40 7,usd     
al-,ghba1 quoted by  ,goldziher1 in the 
,jewish ,encyclopdia1 vol4 vi4 p4 #fee47
 ,the ,christian  historian al-,makn 7p4
 #aa7 gives1 8,whoever torments the     
dhimms1  torments me40    #aha ,journal 
,asiatique1 ,i,vme srie1 tome xix4 p4   
#aji4 7,paris1 #aheb47  ,see also ,r4   
,gottheil3 ,a ,fetwa on the appointment 
of ,dhimms to office4  7,zeitschrift fr 
,assyriologie1 vol4 xxvi4 p4 #bjc sqq47 
#ahb ,belin1 pp4 #dce-dj1 #ddb1 #ddh1   
#def1 #dei-fa1 #dgi-hj4    #ahc ,id4 p4 
#dce1 n4 #b4    #ahd ,id4 p4 #dgh4      
#ahe ,mr b4 ,sulaymn 7p4 #aae1 ll4 #a-b7
 offers this explanation of the         
defections that followed the persecution
 towards the close of the tenth         
century3                       #ahf ,the
 ,caliph of ,egypt1 al-kim 7,a4,d4      
#iif-ajbj71 did in fact order  all the  
,jews and ,christians to leave ,egypt   

and emigrate into the  ,byzantine       
territory1 but yielded to their         
entreaties to revoke his  orders4       
7,maqrz 7#a71 p4 #ia47 ,it would have   
been quite possible1  however1 for him  
to have enforced its execution as it    
would have been  for the ferocious ,salm
 ,i 7#aeab-aebj71 who with the design of
 putting  an end to all religious       
differences in his dominions caused     
#dj1jjj  ,shahs to be massacred1 to have
 completed this politic scheme by the   
extermination of the ,christians also4  
,but in allowing himself to be          
dissuaded from this design1 he most     
certainly acted in accordance with  the 
general policy adopted by ,muhammadan   
rulers towards their ,christian         
subjects4 7,finlay1 vol4 v4 pp4 #bi-cj47
    #ahg ,silbernagl1 p4 #bfh4    #ahh  
,id4 p4 #ced4    #ahi ,id4 pp4 #cjg1    
#cfj4    #aij ,id4 p4 #be-f4    #aia    
,id4 p4 #cce4    #aib ,id4 p4 #chd4     
#aic ,see ,a4 von ,kremer 7#a71 vol4 ii4
 pp4 #dij-b4    #aid ,the sack of       

,constantinople by the ,crusaders in    
#abjd may be taken  as a type of the    
treatment that the ,eastern ,christians 
met with at the  hands of the ,latins4  
,barhebrus complains that the monastery 
of ,harran  was sacked and plundered by 
,count ,goscelin1 ,lord of ,emessa1 in  
#aahd1  just as though he had been a    
,saracen or a ,turk4 7,barhebrus 7#a71  
vol4  ii4 pp4 #ejf-h47    #aie ,h4 ,h4  
,milman1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bah4    #aif ,a4  
von ,kremer 7#a71 vol4 i4 p4 #agb4      
#aig ,assemani1 tom4 iii4 ,pars ,prima1 
pp4 #acj-a4    #aih ,ibn ,sad1 abaqt1   
vol4 v4 p4 #beh4    #aii ,id4 p4 #bhe4  
#bjj ,mabb al-,manbij1 p4 #ceh 7ll4     
#b-c74    #bja ,ibn ,sad1 abaqt1 vol4 v4
 p4 #bfb4    #bjb ,august ,mller1 vol4  
i4 p4 #ddj4    #bjc ,migne3 ,patr4 ,gr41
 tom4 #if1 pp4 #accf-dh4    #bjd ,migne3
 ,patr4 ,gr41 tom4 #ig1 pp4 #aebh-i1    
#aedh-fa4    #bje ,id4 p4 #aeeg4    #bjf
 ,amr b4 ,mattai1 p4 #fe4    #bjg ,id4  
p4 #gb4    #bjh ,rislah ,abd ,allh b4   
,isml al-,hshim il ,abd al-,mas b4  ,isq

 al-,kind1 pp4 #a-cg4 7,london1 #ahhe47 
#bji ,appendix ,i4 ,for an account of   
,muslim controversial literature1  see  
,appendix ,,ii4    #baj ,kind1 pp4      
#aaa-ac4    #baa ,baldhur1 pp4 #dcj4    
#bab ,it is very probable that the      
occasion of this visit of  ,yazdnbakht  
to ,baghdd was the summoning of a great 
assembly of the  leaders of all the     
religious bodies of the period1 by      
al-,mamn1 when  it had come to his ears 
that the enemies of ,islam declared that
 it owed  its success to the sword and  
not to the power of argument3 in this   
meeting1 the ,muslim doctors defended   
their religion against this  imputation1
 and the unbelievers are said to have   
acknowledged that the  ,muslims had     
satisfactorily proved their point4      
7,amad b4 ,yay b4  al-,murta3 ,al-munyah
 wa'l-amal f shar kitb al-milal         
wa'l-nial4  ,british ,museum1 ,or4      
#cicg1 fol4 #ec 7b71 ll4 #i-aa47    #bac
 ,kitb al-,fihrist1 vol4 i4 p4 #cch4    
#bad ,barhebrus 7#a71 vol4 iii4 p4 #aid4

    #bae ,mr b4 ,sulaymn1 p4 #aja 7ll4  
#c-d74    #baf ,barhebrus 7#a71 vol4    
iii4 p4 #bcj4    #bag ,id41 7#a71 vol4  
iii4 p4 #bdh4    #bah ,all the ,jacobite
 ,patriarchs assumed the name of        
,ignatius2 before  his consecration he  
was called ,mark bar ,qq4    #bai       
,barhebrus 7#a71 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bhh-ij4 
,elias of ,nisibis1 pp4  #aec-d4 ,he    
returned to the ,christian faith1       
however1 before his death1  which took  
place about twenty years later4 ,two    
similar cases are  recorded in the      
annals of the ,jacobite ,patriarchs of  
,antioch in the  sixteenth century3 of  
these one1 named ,joshua1 became a      
,muhammadan in  #aeag1 but afterwards   
recanting fled to ,cyprus 7at that time 
in the  hands of the ,venetians71 where 
prostrate at the door of a church in    
penitential humility he suffered all who
 went in or out to tread over  his body2
 the other1 ,nimat ,allh 7flor4 #aefj71 
having abjured  ,christianity for       
,islam1 sought absolution of ,pope      

,gregory ,,xiii in ,rome4  7,barhebrus  
7#a71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #hdg-h47    #bbj ,in 
fact ,elias of ,nisibis1 the            
contemporary chronicler of the          
conversion of the ,jacobite ,patriarch1 
makes no mention of such a  failing1 nor
 does ,mr b4 ,sulaymn 7pp4 #aae-af71 the
 historian of the  rival ,nestorian     
,church1 though he accuses him of       
plundering the sacred  vessels and      
ornaments of the churches4 ,as ,wright  
7,syriac ,literature1 p4  #aib7 says of 
,joseph of ,merv1 8,we need not believe 
all the evil that  ,barhebrus tells us  
of this unhappy man40    #bba ,barhebrus
 7#a71 vol4 ii4 p4 #eah4    #bbb ,id4   
vol4 ii4 p4 #gab sq4    #bbc ,historia  
,orientalis1 ,c4 #ae 7p4 #de74    #bbd  
,de ,guignes1 tome ii4 7,seconde        
,partie71 p4 #ae4    #bbe ,odo de       
,diogilo4 7,de ,ludovici vii4 ,itinere4 
,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat41  tom4 cxcv4 p4    
#abdc47 8,vitantes igitur sibi crudeles 
socios fidei1 inter  infideles sibi     
compatientes ibant securi1 et sicut     

audivimus plusquam  tria millia iuvenum 
sunt illis recedentibus sociati4 ,o     
pietas omni  proditione crudelior6      
,dantes panem fidem tollebant1 quamvis  
certum sit  quia1 contenti servitio1    
neminem negare cogebant40    #bbf       
,guizot3 ,histoire de la civilisation en
 ,europe1 p4 #bcd4 7,paris1  #ahhb47    
#bbg ,usma b4 ,munqidh1 p4 #ii4    #bbh 
,prutz1 pp4 #bff-g4    #bbi ,assises de 
la ,cour des ,bourgeois4 7,recueil des  
historiens des  ,croisades1 ,assises de 
,jrusalem1 tome ii4 p4 #cbe47    #bcj   
,bah al-,dn1 p4 #be4    #bca ,roger     
,hoveden1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjg4    #bcb     
,benedict of ,peterborough1 vol4 ii4 pp4
 #aa-ab4    #bcc ,id41 vol4 ii4 pp4     
#bj-a4 ,roger ,hoveden1 vol4 ii4 pp4    
#caf1 #cbb4    #bcd ,ab ,shmah1 p4 #aej4
    #bce ,itinerarium ,peregrinorum et  
,gesta ,regis ,richardi1 p4 #aca4       
7,chronicles and ,memorials of the reign
 of ,richard ,i4 ,edited by ,william    
,stubbs47 7,london1 #ahfd47    #bcf     
,joinville1 p4 #bch4    #bcg ,id4 p4    

#bfb4    #bch ,mas ,latrie 7#a71 vol4   
ii4 p4 #gb4    #bci ,ludolf de ,suchem1 
p4 #ga4    #bdj ,lionardo ,frescobaldi1 
quoted in the preface of ,defrmery and  
,sanguinetti's edition of ,ibn ,baah1   
vol4 i4 p4 xl4    #bda ,christophori    
,freri ab ,haimendorf ,itinerarium      
gypti1 p4 #db4  7,norimberg1 #afbj47    
#bdb ,le ,voyage en ,ethiopie entrepris 
par le ,pre ,aymard ,gurin4  7,rabbath1 
pp4 #ag-ah47    #bdc 8,notandum autem in
 rei veritate1 licet quidam contrarium  
senciant1 qui ea volunt asserere1 que   
non viderunt1 quod oriens totus  ultra  
mare ,yndiam et ,ethiopiam nomen        
,christi confitetur et predicat1  preter
 solos ,sarracenos et quosdam           
,turcomannos1 qui in ,cappadocia sedem  
habent1 ita quod pro certo assero1 sicut
 per memet ipsum vidi et ab  aliis1     
quibus notum erat1 audivi1 quod semper  
in omni loco et regno  preterquam in    
,egypto et ,arabia1 ubi plurimum        
habitant ,sarraceni et alii  ,machometum
 sequentes1 pro uno ,sarraceno triginta 

vel amplius invenies  ,christianos4     
,verum tamen1 quod ,christiani omnes    
transmarini natione  sunt orientales1   
qui licet sint ,christiani1 quia tamen  
usum armorum non  habent multum1 cum    
impugnantur a ,sarracenis1 ,tartaris1   
vel aliis  quibuscumque1 subiciuntur eis
 et tributis pacem et quietem emunt1 et 
,sarraceni sive alii1 qui eis           
dominantur1 balivos suos et exactores in
  terris illis ponunt4 ,et inde         
contigit1 quod regnum illud dicitur esse
  ,sarracenorum1 cum tamen in rei       
veritate sunt omnes ,christiani preter  
ipsos balivos et exactores et aliquos de
 familia ipsorum1 sicut oculis  meis    
vidi in ,cilicia et ,armenia minori1 que
 est subdita dominio  ,tartarorum40     
7,burchardi de ,monte ,sion1 ,descriptio
 ,terr ,sanct1 p4 #ij47    #bdd ,recueil
 des historiens des ,croisades4         
7,assises de ,jrusalem1 tome  i4 p4     
#cbe47    #bde ,prutz1 pp4 #adf-g1 #aej4
    #bdf ,the prelates of the ,holy     
,land wrote as follows1 in #abdd1       

concerning the invasion of the          
,khwarizmians1 whom ,sultan ,ayyb had   
called in to assist him in driving out  
the ,crusaders3--8,per totam terram     
usque ad partes ,nazareth et ,saphet    
libere nullo resistente discurrunt1     
occupantes eandem1 et inter se quasi    
propriam dividentes1 per villas et      
cazalia ,christianorum legatos et       
bajulos prficiunt1 suscipientes a       
rusticis redditus et tributa1 qu        
,christianis prstare solebant1 qui  jam 
,christianis hostes effecti et rebelles 
dictis ,corosminis  universaliter       
adhserunt40 7,matthei ,parisiensis      
,chronica ,majora1 ed4 ,h4  ,r4 ,luard1 
vol4 iv4 p4 #cdc47 7,london1 #ahgb-hc47 
#bdg ,finlay1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ceh-i4 ,j4 
,h4 ,krause3 ,die ,byzantiner des       
,mittelalters1 p4 #bgf4 7,halle1 #ahfi47
    #bdh ,tavernier 7#a71 p4 #agd4      
#bdi ,joselian1 p4 #abe4 ,all the       
,abkhazes1 ,djikhethes1 ,ossetes1       
,kabardes  and ,kisthethes fell away    
from the ,christian faith about this    

time4    #bej ,id4 p4 #abg4    #bea ,id4
 p4 #adc4    #beb ,david ,chytrus1 p4   
#di4    #bec ,joselian1 p4 #aeg4    #bed
 ,brosset1 ,i,ie partie1 ,ire livraison1
 pp4 #bbg-ce4 ,description  gographique 
de la ,gorgie par le ,tsarvitch         
,wakhoucht1 p4 #gi4 7,st4  ,petersburg1 
#ahdb47    #bee ,the ,six ,voyages1 p4  
#abc4    #bef ,joselian1 p4 #adi4       
#beg ,id4 pp4 #afj-a4    #beh ,tavernier
 7#a71 pp4 #abd1 #abf4 ,he estimates the
 number of  ,muhammadans at about twelve
 thousand4 7,id4 p4 #abc47    #bei      
,brosset1 ,i,ie partie1 ,ire livraison1 
pp4 #he1 #aha4    #bfj ,documens        
originaux sur les relations             
diplomatiques de la ,gorgie  avec la    
,france vers la fin du rgne de ,louis   
,,xiv1 recueillis par ,m4  ,brosset     
jeune4 7,j4 ,a4 #bme srie1 tome ix4     
7#ahcb71 pp4 #aig1 #dea47    #bfa       
,mackenzie1 p4 #g4 ,garnett1 p4 #aid4   
#bfb ,barbier de ,meynard1 p4 #de sqq4  
#bfc ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 ,,vii1 p4 #cbj     
7#aiji74    #bfd ,amlineau1 p4 #c2      

,caetani1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ha sq4 ,justinian
 is said to  have had #bjj1jjj ,copts   
put to death in the city of ,alexandria1
 and the  persecutions of his successors
 drove many to take refuge in the       
desert4  7,wansleben3 ,the ,present     
,state of ,egypt1 p4 #aa47 7,london1    
#afgh47    #bfe ,renaudot1 p4 #afa4     
,severus1 p4 #ajf4    #bff ,john1       
,jacobite bishop of ,nikiu 7second half 
of seventh century71  p4 #ehd4 ,caetani1
 vol4 iv4 pp4 #eae-af4    #bfg ,bell1 p4
 xxxvii4 ,but the exactions and         
hardships that1 according  to ,maqrz1   
the ,copts had to endure about seventy  
years after the  conquest hardly allow  
us to extend this period so far as ,von 
,ranke  does3 8,von ,aegypten weiss man 
durch die bestimmtesten ,zeugnisse1 dass
  sich die ,einwohner in den nchsten    
,jahrhunderten unter der arabischen     
,herrschaft in einem ertrglichen        
,zustand befunden haben40               
7,weltgeschichte1 vol4 v4 p4 #aec1 #dth 
ed47    #bfh ,john of ,nikiu1 p4 #efj4  

#bfi ,id4 p4 #ehe4 8,or beaucoup des    
gyptiens1 qui taient de faux  chrtiens1 
renirent la sainte religion orthodoxe et
 le baptme qui  donne la vie1           
embrassrent la religion des ,musulmans1 
les ennemis de  ,dieu1 et acceptrent la 
dtestable doctrine de ce monstre1       
c'est--dire  de ,mahomet2 ils partagrent
 l'garement de ces idoltres et prirent  
les  armes contre les chrtiens40    #bgj
 ,qurra b4 ,shark 7governor of ,egypt   
from #gji to #gad71 or his  predecessor1
 appears to have insisted on the        
converts continuing to pay  jizyah4     
7,becker1 ,papyri ,schott-,reinhardt1 p4
 #ah47    #bga ,ibn ,sad1 abaqt1 vol4 v4
 p4 #bhc4    #bgb ,caetani1 vol4 iv4 p4 
#fah2 vol4 v4 pp4 #chd-e4    #bgc       
,severus1 pp4 #agb-c4    #bgd ,id4 pp4  
#bje-f4    #bge 8,sans aucun doute il y 
eut dans la multiplicit des martyrs une 
sorte de rsistance nationale contre les 
gouverneurs trangers40  7,amlineau1 p4  
#eh47    #bgf ,amlineau1 pp4 #eg-h4     
#bgg ,ab li1 pp4 #afc-d4    #bgh        

,amlineau1 pp4 #ec-d1 #fi-gj4    #bgi   
,ab li gives an account of some monks   
who embraced the faith  of the ,prophet1
 and these are probably representative  
of a larger  number of whom the         
historian has left no record1 as lacking
 the  peculiar circumstances of loss to 
the monastery or of recantation that    
made such instances of interest to him  
7pp4 #abh1 #adb74    #bhj ,lane1 pp4    
#edf1 #edi4    #bha ,lttke 7#a71 vol4 i4
 pp4 #cj1 #ce4 ,dr4 ,andrew ,watson     
writes3 8,no  year has passed during my 
residence of forty-four years in the    
,nile  valley without my hearing of     
several instances of defection4 ,the    
causes  are1 chiefly1 the hope of       
worldly gain of various kinds1 severe   
and  continued persecution1 exposure to 
the cruelty and rapacity of ,moslem     
neighbours1 and personal indignities as 
well as political disabilities  of      
various kinds40 7,islam in ,egypt3      
,mohammedan ,world1 p4 #bd47    #bhb    
,severus1 pp4 #abb1 #abf1 #adc4 ,one of 

the very first occasions on  which they 
had to complain of excessive taxation   
was when ,menas1 the  ,christian prefect
 of ,lower ,egypt1 extorted from the    
city of ,alexandria  #cb1jeg pieces of  
gold1 instead of #bb1jjj which ,amr had 
fixed as the  amount to be levied4      
7,john of ,nikiu1 p4 #ehe47 ,renaudot   
7p4 #afh7 says  that after the          
restoration of the ,orthodox hierarchy1 
about seventy  years after the          
,muhammadan conquest1 the ,copts        
suffered as much at its  hands as at the
 hands of the ,muhammadans themselves4  
#bhc ,maqrz mentions five other risings 
of the ,copts that had to be  crushed by
 force of arms1 within the first century
 of the ,arab  domination4 7,maqrz 7#b71
 pp4 #gf-hb47    #bhd ,renaudot1 pp4    
#ahi1 #cgd1 #dcj1 #edj4    #bhe ,id4 p4 
#fjc4    #bhf ,id4 pp4 #dcb1 #fjg4      
,nir-i-,khusrau3 ,safar-nmah1 ed4       
,schefer1 pp4  #aee-f4    #bhg          
,renaudot1 pp4 #bab1 #bbe1 #cad1 #cgd1  
#edj4    #bhh ,renaudot1 p4 #chh4       

#bhi ,id4 pp #efg1 #ega1 #egd-e4    #bij
 ,wansleben1 p4 #cj4 ,wansleben mentions
 another instance 7under  different     
circumstances7 of the decay of the      
,coptic ,church1 in the  island of      
,cyprus1 which was formerly under the   
jurisdiction of the  ,coptic ,patriarch3
 here they were so persecuted by the    
,orthodox clergy1  who enjoyed the      
protection of the ,byzantine emperors1  
that the  ,patriarch could not induce   
priests to go there1 and consequently   
all  the ,copts on the island either    
accepted ,islam or the ,council of      
,chalcedon1 and their churches were all 
shut up4 7,id4 p4 #ca47    #bia         
,renaudot1 p4 #cgg4    #bib ,renaudot1  
p4 #ege4    #bic ,relation du voyage du 
,sayd ou de la ,thebayde fait en #affh1 
par  les ,,pp4 ,protais et              
,charles-,franois d',orleans1 ,capuchins
 ,missionaires1  p4 #c4 7,thevenot1 vol4
 ii47    #bid ,caetani1 vol4 iv4 p4     
#ebj4    #bie ,ishok of ,romgla1 pp4    
#bgb-c4    #bif ,idrs1 p4 #cb4    #big  

,maqrz 7#b71 tome i4 #bme partie1 p4    
#aca4    #bih ,maqrz1 pp4 #abh-cj4      
#bii ,burckhardt 7#a71 p4 #did4    #cjj 
,about twelve miles above the modern    
,khartum4    #cja ,artin1 pp4 #fb1 #add4
    #cjb ,becker1 ,geschichte des       
stlichen ,sdn1 p4 #afj4    #cjc ,vol4   
iv4 p4 #cif4    #cjd ,slatin ,pasha     
records a tradition current among the   
,danagla ,arabs  that this town was     
founded by their ancestor1 ,dangal1 who 
called it  after his own name4 7,this   
however is impossible1 inasmuch as      
,dongola  was in existence in ancient   
,egyptian times1 and is mentioned on the
  monuments4 ,see ,vivien de            
,saint-,martin1 vol4 ii4 p4 #he47       
,according to  their tradition1 this    
,dangal1 though a slave1 rose to be     
ruler of  ,nubia1 but paid tribute to   
,bahnesa1 the ,coptic bishop of the     
entire  district lying between the      
present ,sarras and ,debba4 7,fire and  
,sword in  the ,sudan1 p4 #ac47         
7,london1 #ahif47    #cje ,ibn ,salm    

al-,aswn1 quoted by ,maqrz3 ,kitb       
al-,khia1 vol4 i4  p4 #aij4 7,cairo1    
,a4,h4 #abgj47    #cjf ,budge1 vol4 ii4 
p4 #aii4 ,artin1 p4 #add4    #cjg       
,maqrz3 ,kitb al-,khia1 vol4 i4 p4 #aic4
    #cjh ,mori1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dag-ah4    
#cji ,lord ,stanley of ,alderley in his 
translation of ,alvarez' ,narrative     
from the original ,portuguese1 gives the
 answer of the king as follows3  8,he   
said to them that he had his ,abima from
 the country of the ,moors1  that is to 
say from the ,patriarch of ,alexandria2 
444 how then could he  give priests and 
friars since another gave them0 7p4     
#ceb74 7,london1  #ahha47    #caj       
,viaggio nella ,ethiopia al ,prete      
,ianni fatto par ,don ,francesco        
,alvarez ,portughese 7#aebj-aebg74      
7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 pp4 #bjj1 #bej47     
#caa ,wansleben1 p4 #cj4 ,for           
descriptions of the ruins that still    
remain1 see ,budge1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bii    
sqq41 and ,g4 ,s4 ,nileham1 ,churches in
  ,lower ,nubia4 7,philadelphia1 #aiaj47

    #cab ,burckhardt 7#a71 p4 #acc4     
#cac ,alvarez1 p4 #bej4    #cad ,idrs1  
p4 #cb4    #cae ,arabfaqh1 p4 #cbc4     
#caf ,maqrz 7#b71 tome ii4 #bme partie1 
p4 #ahc4    #cag ,basset1 p4 #bdj4      
#cah ,id41 p4 #bdg4    #cai ,alvarez4   
7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 pp4 #bah1 #bdb1      
#bdi47    #cbj ,arabfaqh1 pp4 #hc1 #aia4
    #cba ,arabfaqh1 p4 #bge-f4    #cbb  
,id4 pp4 #cai1 #cbd4    #cbc ,id4 pp4   
#bh1 #abi1 #bge4    #cbd ,plowden1 p4   
#cf4    #cbe ,arabfaqh1 pp4 #cba1 #cce1 
#cdc4    #cbf ,id4 passim4    #cbg ,id4 
pp4 #age1 #aie1 #bdh4    #cbh ,id4 p4   
#agh4    #cbi ,arabfaqh1 pp4 #cd-e1     
#abj-a1 #ahb-c1 #bdd1 #cbg4    #ccj     
,arabfaqh1 pp4 #aha-b1 #ahf4    #cca    
,iobi ,ludolfi ad suam ,historiam       
thiopicam ,commentarius1 p4 #dgd4       
7,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #afia47    #ccb     
,histoire de la ,haute ,ethiopie1 par le
 ,r4 ,p4 ,manoel d',almeda1 p4  #g4     
7,thevenot1 vol4 ii47    #ccc ,massaja1 
vol4 ii4 pp4 #bje-f4 8,ognuno comprende 
che movente di  queste conversioni      

essendo la sete di regnare1 nel fatto   
non si  riducevano che ad una formalit  
esterna1 restando poi i nuovi           
convertiti veri mussulmani nei cuori e  
nei costumi4 ,e perci accadeva  che1    
elevati alla dignit di ,rs1 si          
circondavano di mussulmani1 dando  ad   
essi la maggior parte degli impieghi e  
colmandoli di titoli1  ricchezze e      
favori3 e cos l',abissinia cristiana    
invasa e popolata da  questa pessima    
razza1 pass coll'andar del tempo sotto  
il giogo  dell'islamismo40 7,id4 p4     
#bjf47    #ccd ,rppell1 vol4 i4 pp4     
#cbh1 #cff4    #cce ,plowden1 p4 #ae4   
#ccf ,tbt1 the ark of the covenant4     
#ccg ,littmann1 pp4 #fi-gj4    #cch     
,plowden1 pp4 #h-i4    #cci ,beke1 pp4  
#ea-b4 ,isenberg1 p4 #cf4    #cdj       
,reclus1 vol4 x4 p4 #bdg4 ,massaja1 vol4
 xi4 p4 #abe4    #cda ,massaja1 vol4 xi4
 p4 #abd4    #cdb ,massaja1 vol4 xi4 pp4
 #gg-h4    #cdc ,id4 pp4 #abd1 #abe4    
#cdd ,oppel1 p4 #cjg4 ,reclus1 tome x4  
p4 #bdg4    #cde ,massaja1 vol4 xi4 pp4 

#gi1 #ha4    #cdf ,mori1 vol4 ii4 p4    
#ddi4    #cdg ,littmann1 pp4 #fh-gj4 ,k4
 ,cederquist3 ,islam and ,christianity  
in  ,abyssinia1 p4 #aed 7,the ,moslem   
,world1 vol4 ii474    #cdh ,gibbon1 vol4
 i4 p4 #afa4    #cdi ,id4 vol4 ii4 p4   
#bab4    #cej ,c4 ,o4 ,castiglioni3     
,recherches sur les ,berbres            
atlantiques1 pp4  #if-g4 7,milan1       
#ahbf47    #cea ,synesii ,catastasis4   
7,migne3 ,patr4 ,gr41 tom4 lxvi4 p4     
#aefi47    #ceb ,neander 7#b71 p4 #cbj4 
#cec ,gibbon1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #cca-c4      
#ced ,id4 vol4 v4 p4 #aae4    #cee      
,tijn1 p4 #bja4 ,gibbon1 vol4 v4 p4     
#abb4    #cef ,gibbon1 vol4 v4 p4 #bad4 
#ceg ,neander 7#a71 vol4 v4 pp4 #bed-e4 
,j4 ,e4 ,t4 ,wiltsch3 ,hand-book of  the
 geography and statistics of the        
,church1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dcc-d4 7,london1  
#ahei47 ,j4 ,bournichon3 ,l',invasion   
musulmane en ,afrique1 pp4 #cb-c4       
7,tours1 #ahij47    #ceh ,leo           
,africanus4 7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 p4 #gj1  
,d47    #cei 8,deusen1 una citt         

antichissima edificata da ,romani dove  
confina  il regno di ,buggia col diserto
 di ,numidia40 7,id4 p4 #ge1 ,f47       
#cfj ,pavy1 vol4 i4 p4 iv4    #cfa      
8,tous ceux qui ne se convertirent pas  
l'islamisme1 ou qui  7conservant leur   
foi7 ne voulurent pas s'obliger  payer  
la capitation1  durent prendre la fuite 
devant les armes musulmanes40 7,tijn1 p4
  #bja47    #cfb ,leo ,africanus4       
7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 p4 #g47    #cfc      
8,afros passim ad ecclesiasticos ordines
 7procedentes7  prtendentes nulla       
ratione suscipiat 7,bonifacius71 quia   
aliqui eorum  ,manichi1 aliqui          
rebaptizati spius sunt probati40 ,epist4
 iv4 7,migne3  ,patr4 ,lat41 tom4       
lxxxix1 p4 #ejb47    #cfd ,leo          
,africanus4 7,ramusio1 pp4 #fe1 #ff1    
#fh1 #fi1 #gf47    #cfe ,qayrwn or      
,cairoan1 founded ,a4,h4 #ej2 ,fez1     
founded ,a4,h4 #ahe2  al-,mahdiyyah1    
founded ,a4,h4 #cjc2 ,maslah1 founded   
,a4,h4 #cae2 ,marocco1  founded ,a4,h4  
#dbd4 7,ab'l-,fid1 tome ii4 pp4 #aih1   

#ahf1 #bjj1 #aia1 #ahg47    #cff ,ibn   
,ab ,zar1 p4 #af4    #cfg ,a doubtful   
case of forced conversion is attributed 
to ,abd  al-,mumin1 who conquered ,tunis
 in #aaei4 ,see ,de ,mas ,latrie 7#b71  
pp4  #gg-h4 8,deux auteurs arabes1      
,ibn-al-,athir1 contemporain1 mais      
vivant   ,damas au milieu de            
l'exaltation religieuse que provoquaient
 les  victoires de ,saladin1 l'autre    
,el-,tidjani1 visitant l',afrique       
orientale  au quatorzime sicle1 ont crit
 que le sultan1 matre de ,tunis1 fora   
les chrtiens et les juifs tablis dans   
cette ville  embrasser  l'islamisme1 et 
que les rfractaires furent              
impitoyablement massacrs4  ,nous doutons
 de la ralit de toutes ces mesures4 ,si 
l'arrt fatal fut  prononc dans          
l'emportement du triomphe et pour       
satisfaire quelques  exigences          
momentanes1 il dut tre lud ou rvoqu1    
tant il tait  contraire au principe de  
la libert religieuse respect jusque-l   
par  tous les princes maugrebins4 ,ce   

qu'il y a de certain1 c'est que les     
chrtiens et les juifs ne tardrent pas   
reparatre  ,tunis et qu'on  voit les    
chrtiens avant la fin du rgne           
d',abd-el-,moumen tablis   ,tunis et y  
jouissant comme par le pass de la       
libert1 de leurs  tablissements1 de leur
 commerce et de leur religion4444       
#8,accompagn  ainsi par ,dieu mme dans  
sa marche1 dit un ancien auteur         
maugrebin1 il  traversa victorieusement 
les terres du ,zab et de l',ifrikiah1   
conqurant  le pays et les villes1       
accordant l'aman  ceux qui le           
demandaient et  tuant les rcalcitrants4'
 ,ces derniers mots confirment notre    
sentiment  sur sa politique  l'gard des 
chrtiens qui acceptrent l'arrt fatal  de
 la destine40    #cfh ,de ,mas ,latrie  
7#b71 pp4 #bg-h4    #cfi ,s4 ,leonis    
,,ix4 ,pap ,epist4 lxxxiii4 7,migne3    
,patr4 ,lat41 tom4  cxliii4 p4 #gbh47   
,this letter deals with a quarrel for   
precedence  between the bishops of      
,gummi and ,carthage1 and it is quite   

possible  that the disordered condition 
of ,africa at the time may have kept the
  ,african bishops ignorant of the      
condition of other sees besides their   
own and those immediately adjacent1 and 
that accordingly the  information       
supplied to the ,pope represented the   
number of the bishops  as being smaller 
than it really was4    #cgj ,a4 ,mller1 
vol4 ii4 pp4 #fbh-i4    #cga ,s4        
,gregorii ,,vii4 ,epistola xix4 7,liber 
tertius74 7,migne3 ,patr4  ,lat41 tom4  
cxlviii4 p4 #ddi47    #cgb ,de ,mas     
,latrie1 p4 #bbf4 ,a number of ,spanish 
,christians1 whose  ancestors had been  
deported to ,morocco in #aabb1 were to  
be found there  as late as #achf1 when  
they were allowed to return to ,seville 
through  the good offices of the then   
sultan of ,morocco4 7,whishaw1 pp4      
#ca-d47    #cgc ,c4 ,trumelet3 ,les     
,saints de l',islam1 p4 xxxiii4 7,paris1
 #ahha47    #cgd ,compare the articles  
published by a ,junta held at ,madrid in
 #aeff1  for the reformation of the     

,moriscoes2 one of which runs as        
follows3  8,that neither themselves1    
their women1 nor any other persons      
should be  permitted to wash or bathe   
themselves either at home or elsewhere2 
and  that all their bathing houses      
should be pulled down and demolished40  
7,j4 ,morgan1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bef47    #cge
 ,c4 ,trumelet3 ,les ,saints de         
l',islam1 pp4 xxvi-xxxvii4    #cgf ,leo 
,africanus says that at the end of the  
fifteenth century all  the mountaineers 
of ,algeria and of ,buggia1 though      
,muhammadans1 painted  black crosses on 
their cheeks and palms of the hand      
7,ramusio1 i4 p4  #fa72 similarly the   
,ban ,mzab to the present day still keep
 up some  religious observances         
corresponding to excommunication and    
confession  7,oppel1 p4 #bii71 and some 
nomad tribes of the ,sahara observe the 
practice of a kind of baptism and use   
the cross as a decoration for  their    
stuffs and weapons4 7,de ,mas ,latrie   
7#b71 p4 #h47    #cgg ,tijn1 p4 #bjc4   

#cgh ,the modern ,touzer1 in ,tunis4    
#cgi ,tarkh al-duwal al-islmiyyah bil   
maghrib1 ,i4 p4 #adf4 7ed4 ,de  ,slane4 
,alger1 #ahdg47    #chj ,leo ,africanus4
 7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 p4 #fg47    #cha    
,pavy1 vol4 i4 p4 vii4    #chb ,de ,mas 
,latrie 7#b71 pp4 #fa-b1 #bff-g4 ,l4 del
 ,marmol-,caravajal3 ,de  l',afrique1   
tome ii4 p4 #ed4 7,paris1 #affg47       
#chc ,de ,mas ,latrie 7#b71 p4 #aib4    
#chd e4g4 ,innocent ,,iii1 ,gregory     
,,vii1 ,gregory ,,ix and ,innocent ,,iv4
    #che ,de ,mas ,latrie 7#b71 p4 #bgc4
    #chf ,baudissin1 p4 #bb4    #chg    
,helfferich1 p4 #fh4    #chh ,makkar1   
vol4 i4 pp4 #bhj-b4    #chi ,baudissin1 
p4 #g4    #cij ,dozy 7#b71 tome ii4 pp4 
#de-f4    #cia ,a4 ,mller1 vol4 ii4 p4  
#dfc4    #cib ,dozy 7#b71 tome ii4 pp4  
#dd-f4    #cic ,so ,st4 ,boniface       
7,a4,d4 #gde1 ,epist4 lxii474 8,sicut   
aliis gentibus  ,hispani et ,provinci et
 ,burgundionum populis contigit1 qu sic 
a ,deo  recedentes fornicat sunt1 donec 
index omnipotens talium criminum        

ultrices pnas per ignorantiam legis ,dei
 et per ,saracenos venire et  svire     
permisit40 7,migne3 ,patr4 ,lat41 tom4  
lxxxix4 p4 #gfa47 ,eulogius3  lib4 i4   
#cj4 8,in cuius 7i4e4 gentis ,saracenic7
 ditione nostro  compellente facinore   
sceptrum ,hispani translatum est40      
7,migne3 ,patr4  ,lat41 tom4 cxv4 p4    
#gfa47 ,similarly ,alvar 7#b71  #ah4    
8,et probare nostro  vitio inlatum      
intentabo flagellum4 ,nostra hc1        
fratres1 nostra desidia  peperit mala1  
nostra impuritas1 nostra levitas1 nostra
 morum obscnitas  444 unde tradidit nos 
,dominus qui institiam diligit1 et cuius
 vultus  quitatem decernit1 ipsi besti  
conrodendos0 7pp4 #eca-b74    #cid ,dozy
 7#c71 tome i4 pp4 #ae-bj4 ,whishaw1 pp4
 #ch1 #dd4    #cie ,samson1 pp4 #cgg-h1 
#cha4    #cif ,dozy 7#b71 tome ii4 p4   
#baj4    #cig ,bishop ,egila1 who was   
sent to ,southern ,spain by ,pope       
,hadrian ,i1  towards the end of the    
eighth century1 on a mission to         
counteract the  growing influence of    

,muslim thought1 denounces the ,spanish 
priests who  lived in concubinage with  
married women4 7,helfferich1 p4 #hc47   
#cih ,alvari ,cordubensis1 ,epist4 xix4 
8,ob meritum tern retributionis  devovi 
me sedulum in lege ,domini consistere40 
7,migne3 ,patr4 ,lat41 tom4  cxxi4 p4   
#eab47    #cii ,helfferich1 pp4 #gi-hj4 
#djj 8,bedenkt man nun1 wie wichtig     
gerade die alttestamentliche ,idee  des 
,prophetenthums in der ,christologie des
 germanischen ,arianismus  nachklang und
 auch nach der ,annahme des katholischen
 ,dogmas in dem  religisen ,bewusstsein 
der ,westgothen haften blieb1 so wird   
man es sehr  erklrlich finden1 dass     
unmittelbar nach dem ,einfall der       
,araber die  verwandten ,vorstellungen  
des ,mohammedanismus unter den          
geknechteten  ,christen auftauchten40   
7,helfferich1 p4 #hb47    #dja ,luc     
,diaconi ,tudensis ,chronicon ,mundi4   
7,andreas ,schottus3  ,hispani          
,illustrat1 tom4 iv4 p4 #ec47           
7,francofurti1 #afjc-h47    #djb ,dozy  

7#b71 tome ii4 p4 #da4 ,whishaw1 p4 #ag4
    #djc ,dozy 7#b71 tome ii4 p4 #ci4   
#djd ,baudissin1 pp4 #aa-ac1 #aif4      
#dje ,eulogius3 ,mem4 ,sanct41 lib4 i4  
#cj1 8inter ipsos sine molestia  fidei  
degimus0 7p4 #gfa74 ,id41 ib41 lib4 i4  
#ah1 8,quos nulla  prsidialis violentia 
fidem suam negare compulit1 nec a cultu 
sanct  pique religionis amovit0 7p4     
#gea74 ,john of ,gorz 7who visited      
,spain  about the middle of the tenth   
century7  #abd1 87,christiani71 qui in  
regno eius libere divinis suisque rebus 
utebantur40    ,a ,spanish bishop thus  
described the condition of the          
,christians to ,john  of ,gorz4         
8,peccatis ad hc devoluti sumus1 ut     
paganorum subiaceamus  ditioni4         
,resistere potestati verbo prohibemur   
apostoli4 ,tantum hoc unum  relictum est
 solatii1 quod in tant calamitatis malo 
legibus nos  propriis uti non prohibent2
 qui quos diligentes ,christianitatis   
viderint observatores1 colunt et        
amplectuntur1 simul ipsorum convictu    

delectantur4 ,pro tempore igitur hoc    
videmur tenere consilii1 ut quia        
religionis nulla infertur iactura1      
cetera eis obsequamur1 iussisque  eorum 
in quantum fidem non impediunt          
obtemperemus0  #abb 7p4 #cjb74    #djf  
,baudissin1 pp4 #af-ag4    #djg         
,eulogius1 ob4 #hei 7,mem4 ,sanct4 lib4 
iii4 c4 #c7 speaks of churches  recently
 erected 7ecclesias nuper structas74    
,the chronicle falsely  ascribed to     
,luitprand records the erection of a    
church at ,cordova in  #hie 7p4 #aaac74 
#djh ,eulogius3 ,mem4 ,sanct41 lib4 iii4
 c4 #aa 7p4 #hab74    #dji ,baudissin1  
p4 #af4    #daj ,id4 p4 #ba1 and ,john  
of ,gorz1  #abh 7p4 #cjf74    #daa      
,whishaw1 pp4 #bgb1 #cja4    #dab ,dozy 
7#b71 tome ii4 p4 #db4    #dac          
,baudissin1 pp4 #if-g4    #dad ,see the 
letter of ,pope ,hadrian ,i to the      
,spanish bishops3 8,porro  diversa      
capitula qu ex illis audivimus partibus1
 id est1 quod multi  dicentes se        
catholicos esse1 communem vitam gerentes

 cum ,iudis et non  baptizatis paganis1 
tam in escis quamque in potu et in      
diversis  erroribus nihil pollui se     
inquiunt3 et illud quod inhibitum est1  
ut  nulli liceat iugum ducere cum       
infidelibus1 ipsi enim filias suas cum  
alio benedicent1 et sic populo gentili  
tradentur40 7,migne3 ,patr4 ,lat41  tome
 xcviii4 p4 #che47    #dae ,isidori     
,pacensis ,chronicon1  #db 7p4 #abff74  
#daf ,alvar3 ,indic4 ,lum41  #ce 7p4    
#ec74 ,john of ,gorz1  #abc 7p4 #cjc74  
#dag ,letter of ,hadrian ,i1 p4 #che4   
,john of ,gorz1  #abc 7p4 #cjc74    #dah
 ,some ,arabic verses of a ,christian   
poet of the eleventh century  are still 
extant1 which exhibit considerable skill
 in handling the  language and metre4   
7,von ,schack1 ,,ii4 #ie47    #dai      
,abbot ,samson gives us specimens of the
 bad ,latin written by some  of the     
ecclesiastics of his time1 e4g4 8,cum   
contempti essemus  simplicitas          
christiana10 but his correction is      
hardly much better1  8contenti essemus  

simplicitati christian0 7pp4 #djd1      
#djf74    #dbj ,alvar3 ,indic4 ,lum41   
#ce 7pp4 #eed-f74    #dba ,von ,schack1 
vol4 ii4 p4 #if4    #dbb ,orderic       
,vitalis1 p4 #ibh4    #dbc ,alvar3 ,ind4
 ,lum41  #bi4 8,compositionem verborum1 
et preces omnium  eius membrorum        
quotidie pro eo eleganti facundia1 et   
venusto confectas  eloquio1 nos hodie   
per eorum volumina et oculis legimus et 
plerumque  miramur40 7,migne3 ,patr4    
,lat41 tome cxxi4 p4 #edf47    #dbd     
,enhueber1  #bf1 p4 #cec4    #dbe       
,helfferich1 p4 #hh4    #dbf 8,postmodum
 transgressus legem ,dei1 fugiens ad    
paganos  consentaneos1 periuratus       
effectus est40 ,frobenii dissertatio de 
hresi  ,elipandi et ,felicis1  xxiv4    
7,migne3 ,patr4 ,lat41 tome ci4 p4      
#cac47    #dbg ,pseudo-,luitprandi      
,chronicon1  #cda 7p4 #aaae74 8,basilius
 ,toletanum  concilium contrahit2 quo   
providetur1 ne ,christiani detrimentum  
acciperent convictu ,saracenorum40      
#dbh ,there is little record of such1   

but they seem referred to in the        
following sentences of ,eulogius 7,liber
 ,apologeticus ,martyrum1  #bj71 on     
,muammad3 8,cuius quidem erroris        
insaniam1 prdicationis deliramenta1 et  
impi novitatis prcepta quisquis         
catholicorum cognoscere cupit1          
evidentius ab eiusdem sect cultoribus   
perscrutando advertet4 ,quoniam  sacrum 
se quidpiam tenere et credere           
autumantes1 non modo privatis1 sed      
apertis vocibus vatis sui dogmata       
prdicant40 7,migne3 ,patr4 ,lat41 tome  
cxv4 p4 #hfb47    #dbi ,dozy 7#b71 tome 
ii4 p4 #ec4    #dcj ,lea1 ,the          
,moriscos1 pp4 #ag1 #ah4    #dca        
,samson1 p4 #cgi4    #dcb ,eulogius3    
,mem4 ,sanct4 ,pref41  #b4 7,migne1 tom4
 cxv4 p4 #gcg47    #dcc ,id4 c4 xiii4   
7p4 #gid47    #dcd ,the number of the   
martyrs is said not to have exceeded    
forty4 7,w4  ,h4 ,prescott3 ,history of 
the ,reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 
vol4 i4 p4  #cdb1 n47 7,london1 #ahdf47 
#dce ,dozy 7#b71 tome ii4 pp4 #afa-b4   

#dcf ,eulogius3 ,mem4 ,sanct4 ,i1 iii4  
c4 vii4 7p4 #hje74 8,pro eo quod  nullus
 sapiens1 nemo urbanus1 nullusque       
procerum ,christianorum huiusce  modi   
rem perpetrasset1 idcirco non debere    
universos perimere  asserebant1 quos non
 prit personalis dux ad prlium40    #dcg
 ,alvar3 ,ind4 ,lum41  #ad4 8,nonne ipsi
 qui videbantur column1 qui  putabantur 
,ecclesi petr1 qui credebantur electi1  
nullo cogente1  nemine provocante1      
iudicem adierunt1 et in prsentia        
,cynicorum1 imo  ,epicureorum1 ,dei     
martyres infamaverunt8 ,nonne pastores  
,christi1  doctores ,ecclesi1 episcopi1 
abbates1 presbyteri1 proceres et        
magnati1  hreticos eos esse publice     
clamaverunt8 et publica professione sine
  desquisitione1 absque interrogatione1 
qu nec imminente mortis  sententia erant
 dicenda1 spontanea voluntate1 et libero
 mentis  arbitrio1 protulerunt80        
7,migne3 tom4 cxxi4 p4 #ebi47    #dch   
,alvar3 ,indic4 ,lum41  #ae4 8,quid     
obtendendum est de illis quos           

ecclesiastice interdiximus1 et a quibus 
ne aliquando ad martyrii  surgerent     
palmam iuramentum extorsimus8 quibus    
errores gentilium  infringere vetuimus1 
et maledictum ne maledictionibus        
impeterent8  ,evangelio et cruce educta 
vi iurare improbiter fecimus1 imo       
feraliter  et belluino terrore coegimus1
 minantes inaudita supplicia1 et        
monstruosa promittentes truncationum    
membrorum varia et horrenda dictu       
audituve flagella80 7,migne3 tom4 cxxi4 
p4 #ecj47    #dci ,baudissin1 p4 #aii4  
#ddj ,morgan1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #big-h1 #cde4
    #dda ,id4 p4 #caj4    #ddb ,lea1    
,the ,moriscos1 p4 #bei4    #ddc        
,morgan1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ccg4    #ddd ,id4 
p4 #bhi4    #dde ,stirling-,maxwell1    
vol4 i4 p4 #aae4    #ddf ,this is no    
place to give a history of these        
territorial  acquisitions1 which may be 
briefly summed up thus4 ,in #acec the   
,ottoman  ,turks first passed over into 
,europe and a few years later           
,adrianople  was made their ,european   

capital4 ,under ,byazd 7#achi-adjb71    
their  dominions stretched from the gan 
to the ,danube1 embracing all           
,bulgaria1 ,macedonia1 ,thessaly and    
,thrace1 with the exception of          
,chalkidike and the district just round 
,constantinople4 ,murd ,,ii             
7#adba-adea7 occupied ,chalkidike and   
pushed his conquests to the  ,adriatic4 
,muammad ,,ii 7#adea-adha7 by the       
overthrow of ,constantinople1  ,albania1
 ,bosnia and ,servia1 became master of  
the whole ,south-,eastern  peninsula1   
with the exception of the parts of the  
coast held by ,venice  and ,montenegro4 
,sulaymn ,,ii 7#aebj-aeff7 added        
,hungary and made the  gan an ,ottoman  
sea4 ,in the seventeenth century ,crete 
was won and  ,podolia ceded by ,poland4 
#ddg ,phrantzes1 pp4 #cje-f4    #ddh    
,finlay1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ebb4 ,pitzipios1 
seconde partie1 p4 #ge4 ,m4  d',ohsson1 
vol4 iii4 p4 #eb-d4 ,arminjon1 vol4 i4  
p4 #af4    #ddi ,a traveller who visited
 ,cyprus in #aejh draws the following   

picture of the tyranny of the ,venetians
 in their foreign possessions3  8,all   
the inhabitants of ,cyprus are slaves to
 the ,venetians1 being  obliged to pay  
to the state a third part of all their  
increase or  income1 whether the product
 of their ground or corn1 wine1 oil1 or 
of  their cattle1 or any other thing4   
,besides1 every man of them is bound  to
 work for the state two days of the week
 wherever they shall please  to appoint 
him3 and if any shall fail1 by reason of
 some other business  of their own1 or  
for indisposition of body1 then they are
 made to pay a  fine for as many days as
 they are absent from their work3 and   
which is  more1 there is yearly some tax
 or other imposed on them1 with which   
the  poor common people are so flead and
 pillaged that they hardly have         
wherewithal to keep soul and body       
together40 7,the ,travels of ,martin    
,baumgarten1 p4 #cgc47 ,see also the    
passages quoted by ,hackett1 ,history   
of the ,orthodox ,church of ,cyprus1 p4 

#ahc4    #dej ,finlay1 vol4 iii4 p4     
#ejb4    #dea ,urquhart1 quoted by      
,clark3 ,races of ,european ,turkey1 p4 
#hb4    #deb ,karamsin1 vol4 v4 p4 #dcg4
    #dec ,martin ,crusius writes in the 
same spirit3 8,et mirum est1 inter      
barbaros1 in tanta tant urbis colluvie1 
nullas cdes audiri1 vim  iniustam non   
ferri1 ius cuivis dici4 ,ideo           
,constantinopolin ,sultanus1  ,refugium 
totius orbis scribit3 quod omnes miseri1
 ibi tutissime latent3  quodque omnibus 
7tam infimis quam summis3 tam           
,christianis quam  infidelibus7 iustitia
 administretur40 7,turcogrcia1 p4 #dhg47
 7,basile1  #aehd47    #ded ,phrantzes1 
p4 #ha4    #dee ,phrantzes1 p4 #ib4     
#def ,finlay1 vol4 v4 pp4 #e1 #abc4     
,adeney1 p4 #caa4 ,gerlach1 writing in  
the year #aegg1 says3 8,wo ,christen    
oder ,juden in den ,orten wohnen1 da es 
,kadi oder ,richter und ,subbassi oder  
,vgte hat1 dass die gemeinen  ,trcken   
nicht ihres ,gefallens mit ihnen        
umbgehen drffen1 sind sie viel  lieber  

unter den ,trcken1 dann unter den       
,christen4 ,wann sie ,jhrlich  ihren    
,tribut geben1 sind sie hernach frey4   
,aber in der ,christenheit ist  das     
gantze ,jahr des ,gebens kein ,ende40   
7,tage-,buch1 p4 #dac47    #deg         
,hertzberg1 pp4 #dfg1 #fdf1 #fej4       
#deh ,finlay1 vol4 v4 pp4 #aef-g4       
#dei ,this interval was1 however1 not a 
fixed one2 at first1 the levy  took     
place every seven or five years1 but    
later at more frequent  intervals       
according to the exigencies of the      
state4 7,menzel1 p4 #eb47  ,metrophanes 
,kritopoulos1 writing in #afbe1 states  
that the collectors  came to the cities 
every seventh year and that each city   
had to  contribute three or four1 or at 
least two boys 7p4 #bje74    #dfj ,qurn1
 viii4 #db4    #dfa ,id4 x4 #ii4 #ajj4  
#dfb 8,on ne forait cependant pas les   
jeunes ,chrtiens  changer de  foi4 ,les 
principes du gouvernement s'y opposaient
 aussi bien que les  prceptes du        
,cour'ann2 et si des officiers1 mus par 

leur fanatisme1  usaient quelquefois de 
contrainte1 leur conduite  cet gard     
pouvait  bien tre tolre2 mais elle      
n'tait jamais autorise par les chefs40  
7,m4 d',ohsson1 tome iii4 pp4 #cig-h47  
#dfc ,hertzberg1 p4 #dgb4    #dfd 8,sed 
hoc tristissimum est1 quod1 ut olim     
,christiani imperatores1  ex singulis   
oppidis1 certum numerum liberorum1 in   
quibus egregia  indoles pr cteris       
elucebat1 delegerunt3 quos ad publica   
officia  militi togat et bellic in ,aula
 educari curarunt3 ita ,turci1 occupato 
,grcorum imperio1 idem ius eripiendi    
patribus familias liberos ingeniis      
eximiis prditos1 usurpant40 7,david     
,chytrus1 pp4 #ab-ad47    #dfe ,creasy1 
p4 #ii4 ,m4 d',ohsson1 tome iii4 p4     
#cig4 ,menzel1 p4 #ec4  ,thomas ,smith1 
speaking of such parents1 says3         
8,others1 to the great  shame and       
dishonour of the ,religion1 ,christians 
only in name1 part with  them freely and
 readily enough1 not only because they  
are rid of the  trouble and charge of   

them1 but in hopes they may1 when they  
are grown  up1 get some considerable    
command in the government40 7,an        
,account of  the ,greek ,church1 p4 #ab4
 ,london1 #afhj47 ,in the reign of ,murd
 ,i1  ,christian troops were employed in
 collecting this tribute of ,christian  
children4 7,finlay1 vol4 v4 p4 #de47    
#dff 8,verum tamen hos 7liberos7 pecunia
 redimere a conquisitoribus  spe        
parentibus licet40 7,david ,chytrus1 p4 
#ac47 ,de la ,guilletire  mentions it in
 #affi as one of the privileges of the  
,athenians4 7,an  ,account of a ,late   
,voyage to ,athens1 p4 #bgb4 ,london1   
#afgf47    #dfg ,confessio1 p4 #bje4    
#dfh ,an ,account of the ,greek ,church1
 p4 #ab4 7,london1 #afhj47    #dfi      
,menzel1 p4 #eb4 ,thomas ,smith3 ,de    
,moribus ac ,institutis ,turcarum1  p4  
#ha4 7,oxonii1 #afgb47    #dgj ,hill1 p4
 #agd4    #dga ,joseph von ,hammer 7#b71
 vol4 ii4 p4 #aea4 ,hans ,schiltberger1 
who  was captured by the ,turks in #acif
 and returned home to ,munich after     

thirty-two years' captivity1 states that
 the tax the ,christians had to  pay did
 not amount to more than two pfennig a  
month4 7,reisebuch1 p4  #ib47    #dgb   
,soli ,sacerdotes1 quasi in honorem     
sacri illius1 quo funguntur1  ,deo ita  
ordinante1 ministerii hoc factum sit1   
una cum fminis1 ab hoc  tributo pendendo
 immunes habentur4 7,de ,grc ,hodierno  
,statu ,epistola1  authore ,thoma       
,smitho1 p4 #ab47 7,trajecti ad ,rhenum1
 #afih47    #dgc ,silbernagl1 p4 #fj4   
#dgd ,martin ,crusius1 p4 #dhg2         
,sansovino1 p4 #fg2 ,georgieviz1 p4     
#ih-i2  ,scheffler1  #ef2 ,hertzberg1 p4
 #fdh2 ,de la ,jonquire1 p4 #bfg4 ,a    
work  published in ,london in #aeie1    
entitled 8,the ,estate of ,christians   
living  under the subjection of the     
,turke10 states the capitation-tax for  
male  children to have been eight       
shillings 7p4 #b74 ,michel ,baudin says 
one  sequin a head for every male4      
7,histoire du ,serrail1 p4 #g4 ,paris1  
#affb47    #dge ,georgirenes1 p4 #i2    

,tournefort1 vol4 i4 p4 #ia2 ,tavernier 
7#c71 p4  #aa4    #dgf ,in a work       
published by ,joseph ,georgirenes1      
,archbishop of ,samos1  in #afgh1 during
 a visit to ,london1 he gives us an     
account of the income  of his own see1  
the details of which are not likely to  
have been  considered extortionate1 as  
they were here set down for the benefit 
of  ,english readers3 in comparing the  
sums here mentioned1 it should be  borne
 in mind that he speaks of the          
capitation-tax as being three  crowns or
 dollars 7pp4 #h-i74 8,at his 7i4e4 the 
,archbishop's7 first  coming1 the ,papas
 or ,parish ,priest of the ,church of   
his ,residence  presents him fifteen or 
twenty dollers1 they of the other       
,churches  according to their           
,abilities4 ,the first year of his      
coming1 every  ,parish ,priest pays him 
four dollers1 and the following year    
two4 ,every  ,layman pays him           
forty-eight aspers0--7,in the commercial
 treaty with  ,england1 concluded in the

 year #afge1 the value of the dollar was
 fixed  at eighty aspers 7,finlay1 v4   
#bh77--8;and the following years        
twenty-four4  ,the ,samians pay one     
,doller for a ,licence2 all ,strangers  
two2 but he  that comes after first     
marriage for a ,licence for a second or 
third1  pays three or four0 7pp4 #cc-d74
    #dgg ,tournefort1 vol4 i4 p4 #ia4   
#dgh ,scheffler1  #ef4 8,was aber auch  
den ,ducaten anbelangt1 so werdet  ihr  
mit demselben in eurem ,sinn ebener     
massen greulich betrogen4 ,denn  es ist 
zwar wahr1 dass der ,trckische ,kyser   
ordentlich nicht mehr nimt  als vom     
,haupt einen ,ducaten3 aber wo bleiben  
die ,zlle und  ausserordentliche        
,anlagen8 nehmen dann seine ,knigliche  
,verweser und  ,hauptleute nichts8 muss 
man zu ,kriegen nichts ausser ordentlich
  geben8444 ,was aber die ausser        
ordentliche ,anlagen betrifft2 die      
steigen  und fallen nach den bsen       
,zeiten1 und mssen von den ,trckischen  
,unterthanen so wohl gegeben werden als 

bey uns40    #dgi ,finlay1 vol4 v4 pp4  
#bd-e4 ,h4 von ,moltke3 ,brief ber      
,zustnde und  ,begebenheiten in der     
,trkei aus den ,jahren #ahce bis #ahci1 
pp4 #bgd1 #ced4  7#eth ed41 ,berlin1    
#ahia47    #dhj ,hammer 7#b71 vol4 i4 p4
 #cdf4    #dha 8,the hard lot of the    
,christian subjects of the ,sultan has  
at all  times arisen from the fact that 
the central authority at ,constantinople
  has but little real authority         
throughout the ,empire of ,turkey4 ,it  
is  the petty tyranny of the village    
officials1 sharpened by personal        
hatred1 which has instigated those acts 
of atrocity to which1 both in  former   
times1 and still more at the present    
day1 the ,christians in  ,turkey are    
subjected4 ,in the days of a nation's   
greatness justice and  even magnanimity 
towards a subject race are possible2    
these1 however1  are rarely found to    
exist in the time of a nation's decay40 
7,rev4 ,w4  ,denton3 ,servia and the    
,servians1 p4 #ae4 ,london1 #ahfb47     

,gerlach1 pp4 #di1  #eb4    #dhb        
,businello1 pp4 #dc-d4    #dhc 8,the    
central government of the ,sultan has   
generally treated its  ,mussulman       
subjects with as much cruelty and       
injustice as the conquered  ,christians4
 ,the sufferings of the ,greeks were    
caused by the insolence  and oppression 
of the ruling class and the corruption  
that reigned in  the ,othoman           
administration1 rather than by the      
direct exercise of the  ,sultan's power4
 ,in his private affairs1 a ,greek had a
 better chance of  obtaining justice    
from his bishop and the elders of his   
district than a  ,turk from the cadi or 
the voivode40 7,finlay1 vol4 vi4 pp4    
#d-e47    8,it would be a mistake to    
suppose that the ,christians are the    
only part  of the population that is    
oppressed and miserable4 ,turkish       
misgovernment is uniform1 and falls with
 a heavy hand upon all alike4  ,in some 
parts of the kingdom the poverty of the 
,mussulmans may be  actually worse than 

the poverty of the ,christians1 and it  
is their  condition which most excites  
the pity of the traveller40 7,william   
,forsyth3 ,the ,slavonic ,provinces     
,south of the ,danube1 pp4 #aeg-h4      
,london1  #ahgf47    8,all this         
oppression and misery 7i4e4 in the north
 of ,asia ,minor7 falls  upon the       
,mohammedan population equally with the 
,christian40 7,james  ,bryce3           
,transcaucasia and ,ararat1 p4 #cha47   
8,l',europe s'imagine que les chrtiens  
seuls sont soumis1 en ,turquie1         
l'arbitraire1 aux souffrances1 aux      
avilissements de toute nature1 qui      
naissent de l'oppression2 il n'en est   
rien6 ,les musulmans1 prcisment  parce  
que nulle puissance trangre ne          
s'intresse  eux1 sont  peut-tre plus    
indignement spolis1 plus courbs sous le 
joug que ceux  qui mconnaissent le      
prophte40 7,de la ,jonquire1 p4 #ejg47  
8,to judge from what we have already    
observed1 the lowest order of           
,christians are not in a worse condition

 in ,asia ,minor than the same  class of
 ,turks2 and if the ,christians of      
,european ,turkey have some  advantages 
arising from the effects of the         
superiority of their numbers  over the  
,turks1 those of ,asia have the         
satisfaction of seeing that the  ,turks 
are as much oppressed by the men in     
power as they are themselves2  and they 
have to deal with a race of ,mussulmans 
generally milder1 more  religious1 and  
better principled than those of         
,europe40 7,w4 ,m4 ,leake3  ,journal of 
a ,tour in ,asia ,minor1 p4 #g4 ,london1
 #ahbd47    ,cf4 also ,laurence         
,oliphant3 ,the ,land of ,gilead1 pp4   
#cbj-c1 #ddf4  7,london1 #ahhj47    #dhd
 ,it was in the sixteenth century that  
the tribute of children fell  into      
desuetude1 and the last recorded example
 of its exaction was in  the year #afgf4
    #dhe ,de la ,jonquire1 p4 #ccc4     
,scheffler1  #de-f4 ,gasztowtt1 p4 #ea4 
#dhf 8,denn ich hre mit grosser         
,verwunderung und ,bestrtzung1 dass     

nicht allein unter den gemeinen ,pvel   
,reden im ,schwange gehn1 es sey  unter 
dem ,trcken auch gut wohnen3 wann man   
einen ,ducaten von ,haupt  gebe1 so wre 
man frey2 ,item er liesse die ,religion 
frey2 man wrde die  ,kirchen wieder     
bekommen2 und was vergleichen3 sondern  
dass auch andre1  die es wol besser     
verstehen sollten1 sich dessen erfreuen1
 und ber ihr  eigen ,unglck frolocken6  
welches nicht allein ,halssbrchige1     
sondern  auch ,gottlose ,vermessenheiten
 seynd1 die aus keinem andrem ,grunde1  
als  aus dem ,geist der ,ketzerey1 der  
zum ,auffruhr und gntzlicher ,ausreitung
  des ,christenthumbs geneigt ist1      
herkommen40 7,scheffler1  #dh47    #dhg 
,hertzberg1 p4 #fej4    #dhh ,de la     
,jonquire1 p4 #cd4 ,a similar contrast  
was made in #afje by  ,richard ,staper1 
an ,english merchant who had been in    
,turkey as early as  #aegh3 8,and       
notwithstanding that the ,turks in      
general be a most wicked  people1       
walking in the works of darkness 444 yet

 notwithstanding do  they permit all    
,christians1 both ,greeks and ,latins1  
to live in their  religion and freely to
 use to their conscience1 allowing them 
churches  for their divine service1 both
 in ,constantinople and very many other 
places1 whereas to the contrary by proof
 of twelve years' residence in  ,spain  
,i can truly affirm1 we are not only    
forced to observe their  popish         
ceremonies1 but in danger of life and   
goods0 7,m4 ,epstein3 ,the  ,early      
,history of the ,levant ,company1 p4    
#eg4 ,london1 #aijh47    #dhi ,macarius1
 vol4 i4 pp4 #ahc1 #afe4 ,cf4 the       
memorial presented by  ,polish refugees 
from ,russia to the ,sublime ,porte1 in 
#ahec4 7,gasztowtt1  p4 #bag47    #dij  
8,alii speciem sibi quandam confixerunt 
stultam libertatis 444  quod quum sub   
,christiano consequuturos se desperent1 
ideo vel ,turcam  mallent3 quasi is     
benignior sit in largienda libertate    
hac1 quam  ,christianus40 7,ioannis     
,ludovici ,vivis ,de ,conditione ,vit   

,christianorum  sub ,turca1 pp4 #bbj1   
#bbe47 7,basile1 #aech47 8,quidam       
obganniunt1 liberam  esse sub ,turca    
fidem40 7,othonis ,brunfelsii ad        
,principes et ,christianos  omnes       
,oratio1 p4 #acc47 7,basile1 #aech47    
,ubertus ,folieta1 a noble of  ,genoa1  
writing about #aegg1 says1 8,spe mecum  
quaesivi 444 qua re fiat1  ut tot de    
nostris hominibus ad illos continenter  
transfugiant1  ,christianaque religione 
eiurata ,mahumetan sect nomina dent40   
7,de  ,causis ,magnitudinis ,turcarum   
,imperii1 col4 #abji47 7,thesaurus      
,antiquitatum et ,historiarum ,itali1   
cur ,joannis ,georgii ,grvii1 tom4  i4  
,lugduni ,batavorum1 #agbe47    #dia    
,turchic ,spurciti ,suggillatio1 fol4   
xvii4 7a74    #dib ,blount1 vol4 i4 p4  
#edh4    #dic ,scheffler1  #ea1 #ec4    
#did ,dousa1 p4 #ch4 ,busbecq1 p4 #aij4 
#die ,thomas ,smith1 p4 #cb4    #dif    
,thomas ,smith1 p4 #db4 ,blount1 vol4 i4
 p4 #edh4 ,georgieviz1 p4 #bj4          
,schiltberger1 pp4 #hc-d4 ,baudier1 pp4 

#adi1 #cac4    #dig ,alexander ,ross1 p4
 ix4 ,baudier1 p4 #cag4 ,cf4 also       
,rycaut1 vol4 i4  p4 #bgf4 8,on croit   
meriter beaucoup que de faire un        
,proselyte1 il n'y a  personne assez    
riche pour avoir un esclave qui n'en    
veille un jeune1  qui soit capable de   
recevoir sans peine toutes sortes       
d'impressions1 et  qu'il puisse appeller
 son converti1 afin de meriter l'honneur
 d'avoir  augment le nombre des fidles40
 ,thomas ,smith relates how the old man 
who showed him the tomb of ,urkhn at    
,brusa 8ingenti cum fervore1 oculis  ad 
,clum elevatis1 ,deum precatus est ut   
nos ad fidem ,musulmannicam suo  tempore
 tandem convertere dignaretur3 ,hoc     
nimirum est summum erga nos  affectus   
testimonium1 qui ex isto falso et       
imperitissimo zelo solet  profluere40   
7,epistol duae1 quarum altera ,de       
,moribus ac ,institutis  ,turcarum agit1
 p4 #bj47 7,oxonii1 #afgb47    #dih ,by 
an anonymous writer who was a captive in
 ,turkey from #adcf to  #adeh4 ,turchic 

,spurciti ,suggillatio1 fol4 xvii4 7a74 
#dii ,turchic ,spurciti ,suggillatio1   
fol4 xi4 7b74 ,lionardo of ,scio1       
,archbishop of ,mitylene1 who was       
present at the taking of                
,constantinople1 speaks of the large    
number of renegades in the  besieging   
army3 8,chi circond la citt1 e chi      
insegn a' turchi  l'ordine1 se non i    
pessimi christiani8 ,io son testimonio1 
che i ,greci1  ch'i ,latini1 che i      
,tedeschi1 che gli ,ungari1 e che ogni  
altra  generation di christiani1        
mescolati co' turchi impararono l'opere 
e la  fede loro1 i quali domenticatisi  
della fede christiana1 espugnavano la   
citt4 ,o empij che rinegasti ,christo4  
,o settatori di antichristo1  dannati   
alle pene infernali1 questo  hora il    
vostro tempo40  7,sansovino1 p4 #beh47  
#ejj ,j4 ,h4 ,krause3 ,die ,byzantiner  
des ,mittelalters1 pp4 #che-f4 7,halle1 
#ahfi47    #eja ,hertzberg1 p4 #faf4    
,finlay1 vol4 v4 p4 #aah4    #ejb       
,turchic ,spurciti ,suggillatio1 fol4   

xix4 7a74    #ejc ,rycaut1 vol4 i4 pp4  
#gaj-aa4 ,bizzi1 fol4 #di 7b74    #ejd  
,pichler1 pp4 #afd1 #agb4    #eje ,id4  
p4 #adc4    #ejf ,pichler1 p4 #adh4 ,it 
is doubtful1 however1 whether ,cyril was
  really the author of this document    
bearing his name4 7,kyriakos1 p4  #ajj47
    #ejg ,id4 pp4 #ahc-i4    #ejh ,id4 p
 #bbf4    #eji ,as regards the          
,christian captives the ,protestants    
certainly had  the reputation among the 
,turks of showing a greater inclination 
towards  conversion than the ,catholics4
 7,gmelin1 p4 #ba47    #eaj ,pichler1   
pp4 #baa1 #bbg4    #eaa ,id4 pp4 #aha1  
#bbh4    #eab ,id4 pp4 #bbb1 #bbf4      
#eac ,pichler1 p4 #agc4    #ead ,id4 pp4
 #abh1 #acb1 #adc4    #eae ,id4 p4 #adc4
    #eaf ,le ,quien1 tom4 i4 col4 #ccd4 
#eag ,pichler1 p4 #agb4    #eah ,hefele1
 vol4 i4 p4 #dgc4    #eai ,cyril ,,ii of
 ,berrha4    #ebj ,le ,quien1 tom4 i4   
col4 #cce4    #eba ,id4 tom4 i4 col4    
#ccf4    #ebb ,id4 tom4 i4 col4 #ccg4   
#ebc ,however1 in an earlier attempt    

made by the ,protestant theologians  of 
,tbingen 7#aegc-gg7 to introduce the    
doctrines of the ,reformed ,church  into
 the ,eastern ,church1 the ,vaivode     
,quarquar of ,samtskheth in ,georgia    
embraced the ,confession of ,augsburg1  
but in #aehj became a ,muslim4          
7,joselian1 p4 #adj47    #ebd           
,scheffler1  #ec-f4 ,finlay1 vol4 v4 pp4
 #aah-ai4    #ebe ,hammer 7#a71 vol4 vi4
 p4 #id4    #ebf ,spon1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eg4
    #ebg ,hammer 7#a71 vol4 vi4 p4 #cfd4
    #ebh ,early ,voyages and ,travels in
 the ,levant1 edited by ,j4 ,theodore   
,bent1 p4 #baj4 7,london1 #ahic47       
,similarly1 ,michel ,baudier concludes  
his  description of the festivities in  
,constantinople on the occasion of the  
circumcision of ,muammad ,,iii in the   
latter part of the sixteenth  century1  
with an account of the conversion of a  
large number of  ,christians4 8,during  
the spectacles of this solemnity1 the   
wretched  ,grecians ran by troupes in   
this place to make themselves           

,mahometans2  ,some abandoned           
,christianitie to avoid the oppression  
of the ,turkes1  others for the hope of 
private profit4444 ,the number of these 
cast-awayes was found to be above foure 
thousand soules40 7,the ,history  of the
 ,serrail1 and of the ,court of the     
,grand ,seigneur ,emperour of the       
,turkes1 pp4 #ic-d4 7,london1 #afce47   
,histoire generale du ,serrail1 et de   
la ,cour du ,grand ,seigneur1 ,empereur 
des ,turcs1 pp4 #hi-ij4 7,paris1        
#afca477    #ebi ,scheffler1  #ee4      
#ecj ,thomas ,smith3 ,an ,account of the
 ,greek ,church1 pp4 #ae-af4 7,london1  
#afhj47    #eca ,a4 de la ,motraye3     
,voyages en ,europe1 ,asie et ,afrique1 
vol4 i4 pp4  #cjf1 #cjh4 7,la ,haye1    
#agbg47    #ecb ,pitzipios1 ,seconde    
,partie1 pp4 #hc-g4 ,pichler1 p4 #bi4   
#ecc ,tournefort1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajg4 ,spon
 uses much the same language1  vol4 i4  
p4 #ef4    #ecd ,gaultier de ,leslie1 p4
 #acg4    #ece ,a4 ,j4 ,evans1 p4 #bfg4 
,similarly ,mackenzie and ,irby say3    

8,in most  parts of ,old ,serbia the    
idea we found associated with a bishop1 
was  that of a person who carried off   
what few paras the ,turks had left0 7p4 
#beh74 ,a similar account of the clergy 
of the ,greek ,church is given by a     
writer in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes  
7tome #ig1 p4 #ccf71 who narrates the   
following story3 8,au dbut de ce sicle1 
,tirnova1 un certain pope du  nom de    
,joachim1 ador de ses ouailles1 dtest de
 son vque1 reut  l'ordre1 un jour1 de   
faire la corve du fumier dans l'curie   
piscopale4 ,il se rebiffa3 aussitt la   
valetaille l'assaillit  coups  de       
fourche4 ,mais notre homme tait         
vigoureux3 il se dbattit1 et1  laissant 
sa tunique en gage1 s'en fut tout chaud 
chez le cadi4 ,le  soleil n'tait pas    
couch qu'il devenait bon ,musulman40    
#ecf ,pitzipios1 ,seconde ,partie1 p4   
#hg4    #ecg ,id4 ,seconde ,partie1 p4  
#hg4 ,pichler1 p4 #bi4    #ech ,lazr1 p4
 #bbc4    #eci ,finlay1 vol4 iv4 pp4    
#aec-d4    #edj ,tournefort1 vol4 i4 p4 

#ajd4 ,cf4 ,pichler1 pp4 #bi1 #ca4      
,spon1 vol4  i4 p4 #dd4    #eda ,turchic
 ,spurciti ,suggillatio1 fol4 xiii4 7b72
 fol4 xv4 7b72  fol4 xvii4 7b72 fol4 xx4
 7a74 ,veniero1 pp4 #cb1 #cf4 ,busbecq1 
p4 #agd4    #edb ,gaultier de ,leslie1  
pp4 #ahj1 #ahb4    #edc ,rycaut1 vol4 i4
 p4 #fhi4 ,see also ,georgieviz1 pp4    
#ec-d1 and  ,menavino1 p4 #gc4    #edd  
,alexander ,ross1 p4 ix42 he calls the  
,qurn a 8gallimaufry of  ,errors 7a     
,brat as deformed as the ,parent1 and as
 full of ,heresies1 as  his scald head  
was of scurf710--8a hodg podge made up  
of these four  ,ingredients4 #a4 ,of    
,contradictions4 #b4 ,of ,blasphemy4 #c4
 ,of ridiculous  ,fables4 #d4 ,of       
,lyes40    #ede ,finlay1 vol4 v4 p4 #bi4
    #edf ,schiltberger1 p4 #if4    #edg 
,turchic ,spurciti ,suggillatio1 fol4   
xii4 7b71 xiii4 7a74    #edh ,id4 fol4  
xxvii4 7a74    #edi 8,dum corpora       
exterius fovendo sub pietatis specie non
 occidit3  interius fidem auferendo     
animas sua diabolica astutia occidere   

intendit4 ,huius rei testimonium        
innumerabilis multitudo fidelium esse   
potest4 ,quorum multi promptissimi      
essent pro fide ,christi et suarum      
animarum salute in fide ,christi mori3  
quos tamen conservando a morte          
corporali3 et ductos in captivitatem per
 successum temporis suo  infectos veneno
 fidem ,christi turpiter negare facit40 
,turchic  ,spurciti ,suggillatio1 fol4  
i42 cf4 fol4 vi4 7a74    #eej ,menavino1
 p4 #if4 ,john ,harris3 ,navigantium    
atque ,itinerantium  ,bibliotheca1 vol4 
ii4 p4 #hai4 7,london1 #agfd47    #eea  
8,dieses muss man den ,trken nachsagen1 
dass sie die ,diener und  ,sclaven1     
durch deren ,fleiss und ,bemhung sie    
sich einen ,nutzen schaffen  knnen1 sehr
 wol und oft besser1 als die ,christian 
die ihrige1 halten  444 und wann ein    
,knecht in einer ,kunst erfahren ist1   
gehet ihm nichts  anders als die        
,freyheit ab1 ausser welche er alles    
andere hat1 was ein  freyer ,mensch sich
 nur wnschen kan40 7,g4 ,c4 von den     

,driesch1 p4 #acb47    #eeb ,sir        
,william ,stirling-,maxwell says of     
these3 8,the poor wretches  who tugged  
at the oar on board a ,turkish ship of  
war lived a life  neither more nor less 
miserable than the galley-slaves under  
the sign  of the ,cross4 ,hard work1    
hard fare1 and hard knocks were the lot 
of  both4 ,ashore1 a ,turkish or        
,algerine prison was1 perhaps1 more     
noisome  in its filth and darkness than 
a prison at ,naples or ,barcelona2 but  
at  sea1 if there were degrees of       
misery1 the ,christian in ,turkish      
chains  probably had the advantage2 for 
in the ,sultan's vessels the oar-gang   
was often the property of the captain1  
and the owner's natural  tenderness for 
his own was sometimes supposed to       
interfere with the  discharge of his    
duty40 7,vol4 i4 pp4 #ajb-c47    #eec   
,gmelin1 p4 #af4    #eed ,id4 p4 #bc4   
#eee ,john ,harris3 ,navigantium atque  
,itinerantium ,bibliotheca1 vol4 ii4  p4
 #haj4    #eef 8,die ersten ,jahre sind 

fr solche unglckliche ,leute am         
beschwehrlichsten1 absonderlich wenn sie
 noch jung1 weil die ,trken  selbige    
entweder mit ,schmeicheln1 oder1 wann   
dieses nichts verfangen  will1 mit der  
,schrfe zu ihren ,glauben zu bringen    
suchen2 wann aber  dieser ,sturm        
berwunden1 wird man finden1 dass die    
,gefangenschaft  nirgend ertrglicher als
 bey den ,trken seye40 7,g4 ,c4 von den 
,driesch1  p4 #acb47 ,moreover          
,georgieviz says that those who         
persevered in the  ,christian faith were
 set free after a certain fixed period4 
8,si in  ,christiana fide               
perseveraverint1 statuitur certum tempus
 serviendi1 quo  elapso liberi fiunt 444
 ,verum illis qui nostram religionem    
abiurarunt1  nec certum tempus est      
serviendi1 ned ullum ius in patriam     
redeundi1  spes libertatis solummodo    
pendet a domini arbitrio0 7p4 #hg74     
,similarly  ,menavino1 p4 #fe4          
,cantacuzenos gives this period as seven
 years3--8,grata   la compagnia che essi

 fanno a gli schiavi loro1 percioche    
,maumetto  gli ha fra l'altre cose      
comandato che egli non si possa tener in
  servit uno schiavo pi che sette anni1 
et perci nessuno o raro   colui che a   
tal comandamento voglia contrafare0 7p4 
#abh74    #eeg 8,fromme ,christen1 die  
nach der ,trkei oder in andere          
muhamedanische ,lnder kamen1 hatten     
,anlass genug zur ,trauer ber die       
,hufigkeit des ,abfalls ihrer           
,glaubensgenossen1 und besonders die    
,schriften der ,ordensgeistlichen sind  
voll von solchen ,klagen4 ,bei den      
,sclaven konnte sich immer noch ein     
,gefhl des ,mitleids dem der            
,missbilligung beimischen1 aber oft     
genug musste man die bittersten         
,erfahrungen auch an freien ,landsleuten
 machen4 ,die christlichen  ,gesandten  
waren keinen ,tag sicher1 ob ihnen nicht
 ,leute von ihrem  ,gefolge davon       
liefen1 und man that gut daran1 den ,tag
 nicht vor dem  ,abend zu loben40       
7,gmelin1 p4 #bb47 ,cf4 ,von den        

,driesch1 p4 #afa4    #eeh ,thomas      
,smith1 pp4 #add-e4    #eei ,turchic    
,spurciti ,suggillatio1 fol4 xxxv4 7a74 
#efj ,m4 d',ohsson1 vol4 iii4 p4 #acc4  
,georgieviz1 p4 #hg 7quoted above74     
,menavino1 p4 #ie4    #efa ,von den     
,driesch1 p4 #bej4    #efb ,id4 p4      
#aca-b4    #efc ,turchic ,spurciti      
,suggillatio1 fol4 xi4    #efd          
,hertzberg1 p4 #fba4    #efe 8,the old  
,people dying1 the young ones generally 
turn ,mahumetans3  so that now 7#afee7  
you can hardly meet with two ,christian 
,armenians in  all those fair ,plains1  
which their fathers were sent to        
manure40  ,tavernier 7#a71 p4 #af4      
#eff ,h4 ,h4 ,jessup3 ,fifty-three      
,years in ,syria1 vol4 ii4 p4 #feh4     
7,new  ,york1 #aiaj47    #efg ,for a    
list of these1 see ,finlay1 vol4 vi4 pp4
 #bh-i4    #efh ,leake1 p4 #bej4    #efi
 ,the name by which the ,albanians      
always call themselves1 lit4            
rock-dwellers4    #egj ,one of          
themselves1 an ,albanian ,christian1    

speaking of the enmity  existing between
 the ,christians and ,muhammadans of    
,bulgaria1 says3  8,aber fr ,albanien   
liegen die ,sachen ganz anders4 ,die    
,muselmnner sind  ,albanesen1 wie die   
,christen2 sie sprechen dieselbe        
,sprache1 sie haben  dieselben ,sitten1 
sie folgen denselben ,gebruchen1 sie    
haben dieselben  ,traditionen2 sie und  
die ,christen haben sich niemals        
gehasst1 zwischen  ihnen herrscht keine 
,jahrhunderte alte ,feindschaft4 ,der   
,unterschied der  ,religion war niemals 
ein zu einer systematischen ,trennung   
treibendes  ,motiv2 ,muselmnner und     
,christen haben stets1 mit wenigen      
,ausnahmen1 auf  gleichem ,fusse gelebt1
 sich der gleichen ,rechte erfreuend1   
dieselben  ,pflichten erfllend40 7,wassa
 ,effendi3 ,albanien und die ,albanesen1
 p4  #ei47 7,berlin1 #ahgi47    #ega    
,finlay1 vol4 v4 p4 #df4    #egb ,clark1
 pp4 #age-g4 ,the ,mirdites1 who are    
very fanatical ,roman  ,catholics 7in   
the diocese of ,alessio71 will not      

suffer a ,muhammadan to  live in their  
mountains1 and no member of their tribe 
has ever abjured  his faith2 were any   
,mirdite to attempt to do so1 he would  
certainly be  put to death1 unless he   
succeeded in making good his escape from
  ,albania4 7,hecquard3 ,histoire de la 
,haute ,albanie1 p4 #bbd47    #egc      
,published in ,farlati's ,illyricum     
,sacrum4    #egd ,alessandro ,comuleo1  
#aeic4 ,bizzi1 #afaj4 ,marco ,crisio1   
#afea4 ,fra  ,bonaventura di ,s4        
,antonio1 #afeb4 ,zmaievich1 #agjc4     
#ege ,bizzi1 fol4 #fj1 b4    #egf       
,bizzi1 fol4 #ce1 a4    #egg ,farlati1  
vol4 vii4 pp4 #ajd1 #ajg4    #egh ,it is
 also complained that the ,archbishop's 
palace was  appropriated by the         
,muhammadans1 but it had been left      
unoccupied for  eight years1 as         
,archbishop ,ambrosius 7flor4           
#aegi-aeih7 had found it  prudent to go 
into exile1 having attacked ,islam 8with
 more fervour than  caution1 inveighing 
against ,muammad and damning his        

,satanic  doctrines40 7,farlati1 vol4   
vii4 p4 #ajg47    #egi ,bizzi1 fol4 #i1 
where he says1 8,e comunicai quella     
mattina quasi  tutta la ,christianit    
latina40 ,from a comparison with        
statistics given  by ,zmaievich 7fol4   
#bbg7 ,i would hazard the conjecture    
that the ,latin  ,christian community at
 this time amounted to rather over a    
thousand  souls4    #ehj ,bizzi1 fol4   
#bg1 b2 #ch1 b4    #eha ,veniero1 fol4  
#cd4 ,this was also the custom in some  
villages of  ,albania as late as the    
beginning of the nineteenth century2 see
 ,w4 ,m4  ,leake3 ,travels in ,northern 
,greece1 vol4 i4 p4 #di4 7,london1      
#ahce73 8,in  some villages1 ,mahometans
 are married to ,greek women1 the sons  
are  educated as ,turks1 and the        
daughters as ,christians2 and pork and  
mutton  are eaten at the same table40   
#ehb ,bizzi1 fol4 #ch1 b4 ,farlati1 tom4
 vii4 p4 #aeh4    #ehc ,bizzi1 fol4 #aj1
 b4 ,veniero1 fol4 #cd4    #ehd ,shortly
 after ,marco ,bizzi's arrival at       

,antivari a ,muhammadan lady  of high   
rank wished to have her child baptised  
by the ,archbishop  himself1 who tells  
us that she complained bitterly to one  
of the  leading ,christians of the city 
that 8io non mi fossi degnato di far a  
lei questo piacere1 il qual             
quotidianamente vien fatto dai miei     
preti a  richiesta di qualsivoglia      
plebeo0 7fol4 #aj1 b74    #ehe ,for     
modern instances of the harmonious      
relations subsisting  between the       
followers of the two faiths living      
together in the same  village1 see      
,hyacinthe ,hecquard3 ,histoire et      
description de la ,haute  ,albanie 7pp4 
#aec1 #afb1 #bjj74 7,paris1 #aheh47     
#ehf ,bizzi1 fol4 #ch1 a4    #ehg       
,garnett1 p4 #bfg4    #ehh ,bizzi1 fol4 
#cf1 b4    #ehi ,id4 fol4 #ch1 b2 #cg1  
a4    #eij ,bizzi1 fol4 #ch1 b2 #fa1 a2 
#cg1 a2 #cc1 b4    #eia ,zmaievich1 fol4
 #e4 ,the ,venetian real in the         
eighteenth century  was equal to a      
,turkish piastre4 7,businello1 p4 #id47 

#eib ,bizzi1 fol4 #ab-ac4 ,zmaievich1   
fol4 #e4    #eic ,bizzi1 fol4 #aj-aa4   
#eid ,id4 fol4 #ca1 b4    #eie ,id4 fol4
 #fj1 b4    #eif ,id4 fol4 #cc1 b4 8,qui
 deriva il puoco numero de ,sacerdoti in
  quelle parti e la puoca loro          
intelligenza in quel mestiero2 il gran  
numero de' ,christiani1 che invecchiano1
 et anco morono senza il  sacramento    
della ,confermatione et apostatano della
 fede quasi per  tutto40    #eig 8,se   
l',albania non ricever qualche maggior  
agiuto in meno di anni  ander a male    
quasi tutta quella ,christianit per il  
puoco numero dei  ,vescovi e dei        
,sacerdoti di qualche intelligenza40    
7,id4 fol4 #fa1 a47    #eih ,id4 fol4   
#cf1 a4 ,id4 fol4 #fd1 b4    #eii       
,finlay1 vol4 v4 pp4 #aec-d4 ,clark1 p4 
#bij4    #fjj 8,e quei miseri hanno     
fermata la conscientia in creder di non 
peccar per simil coniuntioni 7i4e4 the  
giving of ,christian girls in  marriage 
to ,muhammadans7 per esser i turchi     
signori del paese1 e che  per non si    

possa1 n devea far altro che obbedirli  
quando comandano  qualsivoglia cosa40   
7,bizzi1 fol4 #ch1 b47    #fja ,garnett1
 p4 #bfh4    #fjb ,bizzi1 fol4 #ch1 b2  
#fc1 a4    #fjc ,kyriakos1 p4 #ab4      
#fjd ,farlati1 tom4 vii4 pp4 #abd1 #ada4
    #fje ,marco ,crisio1 p4 #bjb4       
#fjf ,zmaievich1 fol4 #bbg4    #fjg     
,bizzi1 fol4 #fj1 b4    #fjh ,zmaievich1
 fol4 #acg4    #fji ,zmaievich1 fol4    
#aeg4    #faj ,zmaievich1 fol4 #aa1     
#aei4    #faa ,zmaievich1 fol4 #ac4     
#fab ,bizzi1 fol4 #ch1 b4 ,farlati1 vol4
 vii4 p4 #aeh4    #fac ,zmaievich1 fol4 
#ac-ad4    #fad ,informatione circa la  
missione d',albania1 fol4 #aif4    #fae 
,crisio1 fol4 #bjd4    #faf ,fra        
,bonaventura1 fol4 #bja4    #fag ,marco 
,crisio1 fol4 #bjb1 #bje4    #fah ,id4  
fol4 #bje4    #fai ,zmaievich1 fol4 #ac4
    #fbj ,farlati1 tom4 vii4 p4 #aji4   
,bizzi1 fol4 #ai1 b4    #fba ,marco     
,crisio1 fol4 #bje4    #fbb ,zmaievich1 
fol4 #aa4    #fbc ,id4 fol4 #cb4    #fbd
 ,crisio1 fol4 #bjd4    #fbe ,zmaievich1

 fol4 #aa4 ,farlati1 vol4 vii4 p4 #aea4 
#fbf ,farlati1 vol4 vii4 pp4 #abf-cb4   
,zmaievich1 fol4 #d-e1 fol4 #bj4    #fbg
 8,plerique1 ut se iniquis tributis et  
vexationibus eximerent1  paullatim a    
,christiana religione deficere          
coeperunt40 7,farlati1 tom4  vii4 p4    
#caa47    #fbh ,zmaievich fol4 #e4      
#fbi ,id4 fol4 #e4    #fcj ,zmaievich1  
fol4 #ae1 #aig4    #fca ,id4 fol4 #aa4  
#fcb ,id4 fol4 #acg4    #fcc ,id4 fol4  
#adi4    #fcd ,id4 fol4 #adc-d4    #fce 
,zmaievich1 fol4 #bb4    #fcf ,farlati1 
tom4 vii4 p4 #ada4    #fcg ,zmaievich1  
fol4 #g1 #ag4    #fch ,id4 fol4 #i4     
#fci ,id4 fol4 #ada4    #fdj ,farlati1  
vol4 vi4 p4 #cag4    #fda ,eliot1 p4    
#dja4    #fdb ,id4 p4 #cib4    #fdc     
,yqt1 vol4 i4 p4 #dfi sq4    #fdd       
,gographie d',aboulfda1 traduite par ,m4
 ,reinaud1 tome ii4 pp  #bid-e4    #fde 
,enrique ,dupuy de ,lme3 ,los ,esclavos 
y ,turqua1 pp4 #ag-ah4  7,madrid1       
#ahgg47    #fdf ,de la ,jonquire1 p4    
#bae4    #fdg ,id4 p4 #bij4    #fdh     

,kanitz1 p4 #cg4    #fdi ,id4 pp4 #cg-h4
    #fej ,a map of this country is given
 by ,mackenzie and ,irby 7p4 #bdc73 it  
contains ,prizren1 the old ,servian     
capital1 ,ipek1 the seat of the         
,servian ,patriarch1 and the            
battle-field of ,kossovo4    #fea       
,kanitz1 p4 #cg4    #feb ,mackenzie and 
,irby1 pp4 #bej-a4    #fec ,farlati1    
vol4 vii4 pp4 #abg-h4    #fed ,mackenzie
 and ,irby1 pp4 #cgd-e4 ,kanitz1 p4 #ci4
    #fee ,id4 pp4 #ci-dj4    #fef       
,kanitz1 p4 #ch4    #feg ,bizzi1 fol4   
#dh1 b4    #feh ,zmaievich1 fol4 #ahb4  
#fei ,kanitz1 p4 #ch4    #ffj           
,montenegro was ruled by bishops from   
#aeaf to #aheb4    #ffa ,e4 ,l4 ,clark1 
pp4 #cfb-c4    #ffb ,honorius ,,iii in  
#abba1 ,gregory ,,ix in #abch1 ,innocent
 ,,iv in #abdf1  ,benedict ,,xii in     
#accg4 ,the ,inquisition was established
 in #abia4    #ffc ,asboth1 pp4 #db-ie4 
,evans1 pp4 xxxvi-xlii4    #ffd ,asboth1
 pp4 #if-g4    #ffe 8,they revile the   
ceremonies of the church and all church 

dignitaries1 and they call orthodox     
priests blind ,pharisees1 and bay at    
them as dogs at horses4 ,as to the      
,lord's ,supper1 they assert that it is 
not kept according to ,god's            
commandment1 and that it is not the body
 of  ,god1 but ordinary bread40         
7,kosmas1 quoted by ,evans1 pp4         
xxx-xxxi47    #fff ,srah iv4 #aef4      
#ffg ,cf4 the admiration of the ,turks  
for ,charles ,,xii of ,sweden4 8,son    
opinitret  s'abstenir du vin1 et sa     
rgularit  assister deux fois  par jour  
aux prires publiques1 leur faisaient    
dire3 ,c'est un vrai  musulman40 7uvres 
de ,voltaire1 tome #bc1 p4 #bjj47       
7,paris1 #aghe47    #ffh ,kosmas1 quoted
 by ,evans1 p4 xxxi4    #ffi ,asboth1 p4
 #cf4 ,wetzer und ,welte1 vol4 ii4 p4   
#ige4    #fgj ,olivier1 pp4 #ag-ah4     
#fga ,olivier1 p4 #aac4    #fgb ,amari1 
vol4 i4 p4 #afc2 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfj4      
#fgc ,cornaro1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bje-h4      
#fgd ,perrot1 p4 #aea4    #fge ,pashley1
 vol4 i4 p4 #cj2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bhd1     

#bia-b4    #fgf ,id4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bih4  
#fgg ,pashley1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhe4    #fgh
 ,id4 vol4 i4 p4 #cai4    #fgi ,perrot1 
p4 #aea4    #fhj ,charles ,edwardes3    
,letters from ,crete1 pp4 #ij-b4        
7,london1 #ahhg47    #fha ,pashley1 vol4
 ii4 pp4 #aea-b4    #fhb ,id4 vol4 i4 p4
 #i4    #fhc ,perrot1 p4 #aei4    #fhd  
,pashley1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aj1 #aie4    #fhe
 ,t4 ,a4 ,b4 ,spratt3 ,travels and      
,researches in ,crete1 vol4 i4 p4 #dg4  
7,london1 #ahfe47    #fhf ,r4 du ,m4 ,m4
 vii4 p4 #ii4    #fhg ,caetani1 vol4 ii4
 pp4 #iaj-aa4 ,a4 de ,gobineau 7#a71 pp4
 #ee-f4    #fhh ,ab ,ysuf3 ,kitb        
al-,kharj1 p4 #gc4    #fhi ,id4 p4 #gd  
and ,baldhur1 pp4 #ga 7fin471 #gi1 #hj4 
#fij ,caetani1 vol4 v4 pp4 #cfa 7 #faa  
n4 #a71 #cid-e1 #deg4    #fia pp4 #fh-i4
    #fib ,caetani1 vol4 ii4 p4 #iaj4    
#fic ,a4 de ,gobineau 7#b71 pp4 #cjf-aj4
    #fid ,dozy 7#a71 p4 #aeg4    #fie   
,haneberg1 p4 #e4    #fif ,dozy 7#a71 p4
 #aia4 ,a4 de ,gobineau 7#a71 p4 #ee4   
#fig ,les croyances ,mazdennes dans la  

religion ,chiite1 par ,ahmed-,bey       
,agaeff4 7,transactions of the ,ninth   
,international ,congress of             
,orientalists1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #eji-aa4    
,london1 #ahic47 ,for other points of   
contact1 see ,goldziher3 ,islamisme et  
,parsisme4 7,revue de l',histoire des   
,religions1 xliii4 p4 #a4 sqq47    #fih 
,dosabhai ,framji ,karaka3 ,history of  
the ,parsis1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ef-i1  #fb-g4 
7,london1 #ahhd47 ,nicolas de ,khanikoff
 says that there were #ab1jjj  families 
of fire-worshippers in ,kirmn at the end
 of the #ahth century4  7,mmoire sur la 
partie mridionale de l',asie centrale1  
p4 #aic4 ,paris1  #ahfa47    #fii       
,chwolsohn1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhg4    #gjj    
,masd1 vol4 iv4 p4 #hf4    #gja ,iakhr1 
pp4 #ajj1 #aah4 ,ibn awqal1 pp4         
#ahi-aij4    #gjb ,kitb al-milal        
wal-nial1 edited by ,cureton1 part i4 p4
 #aih4    #gjc ,masd1 vol4 viii4 p4     
#bgi2 vol4 ix4 pp4 #d-e4    #gjd ,ibn   
,khallikn1 vol4 iii4 p4 #eag4    #gje   
,kitb al-,fihrist1 ed4 ,flgel1 p4 #adi  

7l4 #b74    #gjf ,for a comprehensive   
sketch of their condition under ,muslim 
rule1  see ,d4 ,menant3 ,les            
,zoroastriens de ,perse4 7,r4 du ,m4 ,m4
 iii4 pp4 #aic  sqq41 p4 #dba sqq47     
#gjg ,khoj ,vrittnt1 pp4 #ada-h4 ,for a 
further account of ,ismlian             
missionaries in ,india1 see chap4 ix4   
#gjh ,le ,bon ,silvestre ,de ,sacy3     
,expos de la ,religion des ,druzes1 tome
  i4 pp4 lxvii-lxxvi1 cxlviii-clxii4    
#gji ,baldhur1 p4 #dba4    #gaj         
,narshakh1 p4 #df4    #gaa ,id4 p4 #dg4 
#gab ,baldhur1 p4 #dbf4    #gac abar1   
ii4 pp4 #aejg sqq4    #gad ,baldhur1 p4 
#dca4    #gae ,august ,mller1 vol4 i4 p4
 #ebj4    #gaf ,cahun1 p4 #aej4    #gag 
,ibn al-,athr1 vol4 viii4 p4 #cif 7ll4  
#ai-bj47 ,grenard1 pp4 #g sq41  #db-c4  
#gah ,grenard1 pp4 #i-aj4 8,d'une guerre
 d'ambition la tradition fait  une      
guerre sainte1 elle attribue  ,sato     
,boghra ,khn une conqute qui a  t       
accomplie rellement par son douzime     
successeur2 par une confusion  absurde1 

elle donne le nom de ce dernier  l'oncle
 infidle de ,sato4  ,non contente de    
rduire deux personnages en un seul1 elle
 prte au mme  prince une marche sur     
,tourfn1 c'est--dire contre les         
,ouigour1 qui est  en effet l'uvre d'un 
troisime40 7,id4 p4 #ej47    #gai       
,raverty1 p4 #ije4    #gbj ,this was the
 capital of the ,khns of ,turkistan     
during the tenth  and eleventh          
centuries1 but the exact site is        
uncertain4    #gba ,narshakh1 pp4       
#bcd-e4    #gbb ,raverty1 pp4 #ibe-g4   
#gbc ,grenard1 p4 #gf4    #gbd ,raverty1
 p4 #aag4    #gbe ,bellew1 p4 #if4      
#gbf ,id4 pp4 #ae-af4    #gbg ,baldhur1 
p4 #djb4    #gbh ,august ,mller1 vol4   
ii4 p4 #bi4    #gbi ,qurn1 xix4 #bc4    
#gcj ,ibn al-,athr1 vol4 xii4 pp4       
#bcc-d4    #gca ,william of ,rubruck1   
pp4 #ahb1 #aia4 ,c4 d',ohsson1 tome ii4 
p4 #dhh4    #gcb ,de ,guignes1 tome iii4
 pp4 #bjj1 #bjc4    #gcc ,id4 vol4 iii4 
p4 #aae4    #gcd ,id4 p4 #abe4 ,cahun1  
p4 #cia4    #gce ,klaproth1 p4 #bjd4    

#gcf ,c4 d',ohsson1 tome ii4 pp4 #bbf-g4
 ,cahun1 p4 #djh sq4    #gcg ,of this   
writer ,yule says1 8,he gives an        
unfavourable account of  the literature 
and morals of their clergy1 which       
deserves more weight  than such         
statements regarding those looked upon  
as schismatics  generally do2 for the   
narrative of ,rubruquis gives one the   
impression  of being written by a       
thoroughly honest and intelligent       
person40  7,cathay and the ,way         
,thither1 vol4 i4 p4 xcviii47    #gch   
,william of ,rubruck1 pp4 #aeh-i4       
#gci ,maqrz 7#b71 tome i4 #are partie1  
pp4 #ih1 #ajf4    #gdj ,the ,chosen     
,one--,muammad4    #gda ,jzjn1 pp4      
#ddh-ej4 ,raverty1 pp4 #abhh-ij4    #gdb
 ,so notoriously brutal was the         
treatment they received that even  the  
,chinese showmen in their exhibitions of
 shadow figures exultingly  brought     
forward the figure of an old man with a 
white beard dragged by  the neck at the 
tail of a horse1 as showing how the     

,mongol horsemen  behaved towards the   
,musalmans4 7,howorth1 vol4 i4 p4 #aei47
    #gdc ,raverty1 p4 #aadf4 ,howorth1  
vol4 i4 pp4 #aab1 #bgc4 ,this edict was 
only withdrawn when it was found that it
 prevented ,muhammadan merchants  from  
visiting the court and that trade       
suffered in consequence4    #gdd        
,howorth1 vol4 i4 p4 #afe4    #gde      
,jzjn1 pp4 #djd-e4 ,raverty1 p4 #aafj   
sqq4    #gdf ,de ,guignes1 vol4 iii4 p4 
#bfe4    #gdg ,in the thirteenth        
century1 three-fourths of the ,mongol   
hosts were  ,turks4 7,cahun1 p4 #bgi47  
#gdh ,c4 d',ohsson1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aba4  
#gdi ,rashd al-,dn1 pp4 #fjj-b4    #gej 
,blochet1 pp4 #gd-g4    #gea ,it is of  
interest to note that ,najm al-,dn      
,mukhtr al-,zhid in  #abfj compiled for 
,baraka ,khn a treatise which gave the  
proofs of the  divine mission of the    
,prophet1 a refutation of those who     
denied it1 and  an account of the       
controversies between ,christians and   
,muslims4  7,steinschneider1 pp4 #fc-d47

    #geb ,abu'l-,ghz1 tome ii4 p4 #aha4 
#gec ,jzjn1 p4 #ddg4 ,raverty1 pp4      
#abhc-d4    #ged ,jzjn1 p4 #ddg4        
,raverty1 pp4 #abhe-f4    #gee ,maqrz   
7#b71 tome i4 pp4 #ahj-a1 #ahg4    #gef 
,maqrz 7#b71 tome i4 p4 #bae4    #geg   
,id4 p4 #bbb4    #geh ,waf calls him    
,nikdr before1 and ,amad after1 his     
conversion4    #gei ,hayton4 7,ramusio1 
tome ii4 p4 #fj1 c47    #gfj ,qurn1 vi4 
#abe4    #gfa ,waf1 pp4 #bca-d4    #gfb 
,de ,guignes1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bfc-e4     
#gfc ,c4 d',ohsson1 tome iv4 pp4 #ada-b4
    #gfd ,id4 ib4 p4 #adh4    #gfe ,id4 
ib4 p4 #cfe4    #gff ,id4 ib4 pp4 #adh1 
#ced4 ,cahun1 p4 #dcd4    #gfg ,c4      
d',ohsson1 tome iv4 pp4 #abh1 #acb4     
#gfh ,hammer-,purgstall3 ,geschichte der
 ,ilchanen1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahb4 ,it is    
not improbable that the captive ,muslim 
women took a considerable part  in the  
conversion of the ,mongols to ,islam4   
,women appear to have  occupied an      
honoured position among the ,mongols1   
and many instances  might be given of   

their having taken a prominent part in  
political  affairs1 just as already     
several cases have been mentioned of the
  influence they exercised on their     
husbands in religious matters4  ,william
 of ,rubruck tells us how he found the  
influence of a ,muslim wife  an obstacle
 in the way of his proselytising        
labours3 8,on the day of  ,pentecost a  
certain ,saracen came to us1 and while  
in conversation with  us1 we began      
expounding the faith1 and when he heard 
of the blessings  of ,god to man in the 
incarnation1 the resurrection of the    
dead1 the  last judgment1 and the       
washing away of sins in baptism1 he said
 he  wished to be baptised2 but while we
 were making ready to baptise him1  he  
suddenly jumped on his horse saying he  
had to go home to consult  with his     
wife4 ,and the next day talking with us 
he said he could not  possibly venture  
to receive baptism1 for then he could   
not drink  cosmos0 7mare's milk74       
7,rubruck1 pp4 #ij-a47    #gfi ,ibn     

,baah1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eg4    #ggj ,jzjn1  
pp4 #cha1 #cig4 ,raverty1 pp4 #aaaj1    
#aade-f4    #gga ,rashd al-,dn1 pp4     
#agc-d1 #ahh4    #ggb ,abu'l-,ghz1 tome 
ii4 p4 #aei4    #ggc ,ibn ,baah1 tome   
iii4 p4 #dg4    #ggd ,abu'l-,ghz1 tome  
ii4 pp4 #aff-h4 ,muammad aydar1 pp4     
#ac-ae4    #gge ,when the power of the  
,chaghaty ,khns declined1 a portion of  
the  eastern division of their realm    
became practically independent under    
the name of ,mughalistn1 a pastoral     
country suited to the habits of  nomad  
herdsmen1 in what is now known as       
,chinese ,turkistan4    #ggf ,muammad   
aydar1 pp4 #eg-h4    #ggg ,in the reign 
of ,abd al-,karm1 who was ,khn of       
,kshgar from ,a4,h4  #ihc to #ajjc      
7,a4,d4 #aege-aeid74    #ggh ,martin    
,hartmann3 ,der ,islamische ,orient1    
vol4 i4 p4 #bjc4 7,berlin1  #ahii47     
#ggi ,id4 p4 #bjb4    #ghj ,assemani1   
tome iii4 pars4 ii4 p4 cxvi4    #gha    
,ibn ,baah1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dj4    #ghb   
,rashd al-,dn1 p4 #fjj1 l4 #a4    #ghc  

,cahun1 p4 #daj4    #ghd ,howorth1 vol  
ii4 p4 #ajae4    #ghe ,ab'l-,ghz1 tome  
ii4 p4 #ahd4    #ghf ,de ,guignes1 vol4 
iii4 p4 #cea4    #ghg ,karamsin1 vol4   
iv4 pp4 #cia-d4    #ghh                 
,hammer-,purgstall3 ,geschichte der     
,goldenen ,horde in ,kiptschak1 p4      
#bij4    #ghi ,de ,baschkiris quae      
memoriae prodita sunt ab ,ibn-,foszlano 
et  ,jakuto1 interprete ,c4 ,n4         
,fraehnio4 7,mmoires de l',acadmie      
,impriale  des ,sciences de ,st4        
,ptersbourg1 tome viii4 p4 #fbf4 #ahbb47
    #gij ,ab ,ubayd al-,bakr1 pp4       
#dgj-a4    #gia ,karamsin1 tome i4 pp4  
#bei-ga4    #gib ,bobrovnikoff1 p4 #ac4 
#gic ,reclus1 tome v4 p4 #hca4 ,r4 du   
,m4 ,m41 tome iii4 pp4 #gf1 #gh4    #gid
 ,relation des ,tartares1 par ,jean de  
,luca1 p4 #ag4 7,thevenot1 tome  i47    
#gie ,islam and ,missions1 p4 #beg4     
#gif ,gasztowtt1 pp4 #cba-c4 ,r4 du ,m4 
,m41 xi4 7#aiaj71 pp4 #bhg sqq4    #gig 
,the ,russian ,policy regarding ,central
 ,asia4 ,an historical sketch4  ,by     

,prof4 ,v4 ,grigorief4 7,eugene         
,schuyler3 ,turkistan1 vol4 ii4 pp4     
#dje-f4  #eth ed4 ,london1 #ahgf72      
,franz von ,schwarz3 ,turkestan1 p4 #eh4
 7,freiburg1  #aiaj47    #gih ,islam and
 ,missions1 pp4 #bea-b1 #bee4    #gii   
,d4 ,mackenzie ,wallace3 ,russia1 vol4  
i4 pp4 #bdb-d4 7,london1 #ahgg1  #dth   
ed47 ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 vol4 ix4 7#aiji71  
p4 #bdi4 ,bobrovnikoff1 p4 #e sqq4      
#hjj ,w4 ,hepworth ,dixon3 ,free        
,russia1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhd4 7,london1    
#ahgj47    #hja ,e4g4 8,en #ahhc1 des   
paysans ,tatars du village d',apozof    
taient  poursuivis1 devant le tribunal  
de ,kazan1 pour avoir abandonn          
l'orthodoxie4 ,les accuss dclaraient    
avoir toujours t musulmans2  sept       
d'entre eux n'en furent pas moins       
condamns1 comme apostats1 aux  travaux  
forcs4444 ,beaucoup de ces relaps ont t 
dports en ,sibrie40  ,anatole           
,leroy-,beaulieu3 ,l',empire des ,tsars 
et les ,russes1 tome iii4 p4  #fde4     
7,paris1 #ahhi-ic47    #hjb ,d4         

,mackenzie ,wallace3 ,russia1 vol4 i4 p4
 #bde4    #hjc ,palmieri1 pp4 #he-f4 ,r4
 du ,m4 ,m41 i4 7#aijg71 pp4 #afb sq4   
#hjd ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 ix4 7#aiji71 p4    
#bid4    #hje ,id4 x4 7#aiaj71 p4 #dac4 
,id4 i4 7#aijg71 p4 #bgc4    #hjf ,id4  
ix4 p4 #beb4    #hjg ,id4 p4 #bdi4      
#hjh ,bobrovnikoff1 p4 #ab4    #hji     
,reclus1 tome v4 pp4 #gdf1 #gdh4    #haj
 ,eruslanov1 pp4 #c1 #f4    #haa ,id4   
pp4 #g-h4    #hab ,id4 pp4 #e-f4    #hac
 ,eruslanov1 pp4 #i1 #ac4    #had ,id4  
pp4 #ag1 #bj1 #cf4    #hae ,id4 pp4     
#ch-i4    #haf ,bobrovnikoff1 p4 #bb4   
#hag ,id4 pp4 #ba-b1 #ca4    #hah ,id4  
p4 #ac4 ,islam and ,missions1 p4 #beg4  
#hai ,g4 ,f4 ,mller3 ,sammlung          
,russischer ,geschichte1 vol4 vii4 p4   
#aia4    #hbj ,id4 vol4 vii4 pp4 #ahc-d4
    #hba ,radloff1 vol4 i4 p4 #adg4     
#hbb ,jadrinzew1 p4 #ach4 ,radloff1 vol4
 i4 p4 #bda4    #hbc ,radloff1 vol4 i4  
pp4 #dgb1 #dig4    #hbd ,census of      
,india1 #ahia4 ,general ,report by ,j4  
,a4 ,baines1 p4 #afg4  7,london1 #ahic47

    #hbe ,id4 pp4 #abf1 #bjg4    #hbf   
,elliot1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ddh4    #hbg      
,muammad b4 ,qsim invited the ,hindu    
princes to embrace ,islam1 and  the     
invaders who followed him were probably 
equally observant of the  religious law4
 7,elliot1 vol4 i4 pp4 #age1 #bjg47     
#hbh ,or ,baran1 the old name of        
,bulandshahr4    #hbi ,elliot1 vol4 ii4 
pp4 #db-c4    #hcj ,gazetteer of the    
,n4,w4,p41 vol4 iii4 part ii4 p4 #he4   
#hca 8,the military adventurers1 who    
founded dynasties in ,northern  ,india  
and carved out kingdoms in the ,dekhan1 
cared little for things  spiritual2 most
 of them had indeed no time for         
proselytism1 being  continually engaged 
in conquest or in civil war4 ,they were 
usually  rough ,tartars or ,moghals2    
themselves ill-grounded in the faith of 
,mahomed1 and untouched by the true     
,semitic enthusiasm which inspired  the 
first ,arab standard bearers of ,islam4 
,the empire which they set up  was      
purely military1 and it was kept in that

 state by the half success  of their    
conquests and the comparative failure of
 their spiritual  invasion4 ,they were  
strong enough to prevent anything like  
religious  amalgamation among the       
,hindus1 and to check the gathering of  
tribes  into nations2 but so far were   
they from converting ,india1 that among 
the ,mahommedans themselves their own   
faith never acquired an entire and      
exclusive monopoly of the high offices  
of administration40 7,sir ,alfred  ,c4  
,lyall3 ,asiatic ,studies1 p4 #bhi47    
7,london1 #ahhb47    #hcb ,firishtah1   
vol4 i4 p4 #ahd4    #hcc ,ibn ,baah1    
tome iii4 p4 #aig4    #hcd ,elliot1 vol4
 iii4 p4 #chf4    #hce ,mankind and the 
,church1 p4 #bhf4 7,london1 #aijg47     
#hcf ,sir ,richard ,temple3 ,india in   
#ahhj1 p4 #afd4 7,london1 #ahha47       
,punjab  ,states ,gazetteers1 vol4 xxxvi
 ,a1 ,bahawalpur1 p4 #ahc4    #hcg      
,manual of ,titles for ,oudh1 p4 #gh4   
7,allahabad1 #ahhi47    #hch ,gazetteer 
of the ,province of ,oudh1 vol4 i4 p4   

#dff4    #hci ,gazetteer of the         
,n4,w4,p41 vol4 iii4 part ii4 p4 #df4   
#hdj ,gazetteer of the ,n4,w4,p41 vol4  
xiv4 part ii4 p4 #aai4 ,in the          
,cawnpore district1 the ,musalman branch
 of the ,dikhit family observes         
,muhammadan customs at births1          
marriages1 and deaths1 and1 though they 
cannot1 as a rule1 recite the prayers   
7namz71 they perform the  orthodox      
obeisances 7sijdah74 ,but at the same   
time they worship ,chachak  ,dev to     
avert small-pox1 and keep up their      
friendly intercourse with  their old    
caste brethren1 the ,thakurs1 in        
domestic occurrences1 and are  generally
 called by common ,hindu names4         
7,gazetteer of the ,n4,w4,p41 vol4  vi4 
p4 #fd47    #hda ,ibbetson1 p4 #afc4    
#hdb ,gazetteer of the ,n4,w4,p41 vol4  
vi4 p4 #fd4 ,compare also id4 vol4  xiv4
 part iii4 p4 #dg4 8,muhammadan         
cultivators are not numerous2 they  are 
usually ,nau-,muslims4 ,most of them    
assign the date of their  conversion to 

the reign of ,aurangzeb1 and represent  
it as the result  sometimes of          
persecution and sometimes as made to    
enable them to retain  their rights when
 unable to pay revenue40    #hdc        
,ibbetson1 p4 #afc4    #hdd ,indeed     
,firishtah distinctly says3 8,zealous   
for the faith of  ,mahommed1 he rewarded
 proselytes with a liberal hand1 though 
he did not  choose to persecute those of
 different persuasions in matters of    
religion40 7,the ,history of ,hindostan1
 translated from the ,persian1 by       
,alexander ,dow1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cfa47    
7,london1 #ahab47    #hde ,the ,bombay  
,gazetteer1 vol4 xxii4 p4 #bbb2 vol4    
xxiii4 p4 #bhb4    #hdf ,innes1 pp4     
#gb-c1 #aij4    #hdg ,sir ,w4 ,w4       
,hunter3 ,the ,religions of ,india4     
7,the ,times1 ,february  #beth1 #ahhh47 
#hdh ,gazetteer of the ,n4,w4,p41 vol4  
vi4 p4 #eah4    #hdi ,gazetteer of the  
,n4,w4,p41 vol4 v4 part i4 pp4 #cjb-c4  
#hej ,sir ,alfred ,c4 ,lyall3 ,asiatic  
,studies1 p4 #bcf4    #hea ,a tomb in   

the cemetery of ,pantalyini ,kollam     
bears an inscription  with the date     
,a4,h4 #aff4 7,innes1 p4 #dcf47    #heb 
,zayn al-,dn1 pp4 #cd-e4    #hec ,id4 p4
 #cf 7init474    #hed ,id4 p4 #ba4      
#hee ,the modern ,madyi4    #hef ,zayn  
al-,dn1 pp4 #bc-d4    #heg ,id4 p4 #be4 
#heh ,innes1 p4 #da4    #hei ,id4 p4    
#cih4    #hfj ,ibn ,baah1 tome iv4 pp4  
#hb1 #hh1 etc4    #hfa ,innes1 p4 #aij4 
#hfb ,oboardo ,barbosa1 p4 #caj4        
,similarly it has been conjectured that 
but for the arrival of the  ,portuguese1
 ,ceylon might have become a ,muhammadan
 kingdom4 ,for before  the ,portuguese  
armaments appeared in the ,indian seas1 
the ,arab  merchants were undisputed    
masters of the trade of this island     
7where  indeed they had formed          
commercial establishments centuries     
before the  birth of the ,prophet71 and 
were to be found in every sea-port and  
city1  while the facilities for commerce
 attracted large numbers of fresh       
arrivals from their settlements in      

,malabar4 ,here as elsewhere the        
,muslim traders intermarried with the   
natives of the country and spread  their
 religion along the coast4 ,but no very 
active proselytising  movement would    
seem to have been carried on1 or else   
the ,singhalese  showed themselves      
unwilling to embrace ,islam1 as the     
,muhammadans of  ,ceylon at the present 
day appear mostly to be of ,arab        
descent4 7,sir  ,james ,emerson         
,tennent3 ,ceylon1 vol4 i4 pp4 #fca-c47 
7#eth ed41 ,london1  #ahfj47    #hfc    
,qurn1 xvi4 #abf4    #hfd ,abd          
al-,razzq3 ,mala al-sadayn1 fol4 #agc4  
#hfe ,they are found chiefly in the     
,tamil-speaking districts of ,madura1   
,tinnevelly1 ,coimbatore1 ,north ,arcot 
and the ,nilgiris4    #hff ,the         
,imperial ,gazetteer of ,india 7vol4    
xxiv4 p4 #dg7 spells his  name ,ndir    
,shh2 ,qdir usayn ,khn calls him ,nathad
 ,vali4    #hfg ,madras ,district       
,gazetteers4 ,trichinopoly1 vol4 i4 p4  
#cch4  7,madras1 #aijg47 ,qdir usayn    

,khn3 ,south ,indian ,musalmans1 p4 #cf4
  7,madras1 #aiaj47    #hfh ,qdir usayn 
,khn1 pp4 #cf-h4    #hfi ,qdir usayn    
,khn1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ci-db4 ,madras      
,district  ,gazetteers4 ,anantapur1 vol4
 i4 pp4 #aic-d4 7,madras1 #aije47       
#hgj ,zayn al-,dn1 pp4 #cc 7l4 #d71 #cf 
7l4 #a74    #hga ,innes1 p4 #aij4       
,census of ,india1 #aiaa4 ,vol4 xii4    
,part4 ,i4 p4 #ed4    #hgb ,report on   
the ,census of the ,madras ,presidency1 
#ahga1 by ,w4 ,r4  ,cornish1 pp4 #ga1   
#gb1 #aji4 7,madras1 #ahgd47    #hgc    
,report of the ,second ,decennial       
,missionary ,conference held at         
,calcutta #ahhb-c 7pp4 #bbh1 #bcc1      
#bdh74 7,calcutta1 #ahhc47    #hgd ,ibn 
,baah1 tome iv4 p4 #abh4 ,ibn ,baah     
resided in the ,maldive  ,islands during
 the years #acdc-d and married 8the     
daughter of a ,vizier  who was grandson 
of the ,suln ,dd1 who was a grandson of 
the ,suln  ,amad ,shanrzah0 7tome iv4 p4
 #aed72 from this statement the date    
,a4,d4  #abjj has been conjectured4     

#hge ,h4 ,c4 ,p4 ,bell3 ,the ,maldive   
,islands1 pp4 #bc-e1 #eg-h1 #ga4        
7,colombo1  #ahhc47    #hgf ,memoir on  
the ,inhabitants of the ,maldive        
,islands4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,young  and ,w4   
,christopher4 7,transactions of the     
,bombay ,geographical ,society  from    
#ahcf to #ahch1 p4 #gd4 ,bombay1 #ahdd47
    #hgg ,innes1 pp4 #dhe1 #dib4    #hgh
 ,masd1 tome ii4 pp4 #he-f4    #hgi ,the
 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 x4 p #acb2    
vol4 xvi4 p4 #ge4    #hhj ,id4 vol4     
xxiii4 p4 #bhb4    #hha ,sometimes      
called ,sayyid ,makhdm ,gsdarz4    #hhb 
,the ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 xviii4 p4 
#eja2 vol4 xxi4 pp4 #bah1 #bbc4    #hhc 
,id4 vol4 xiii4 part i4 p4 #bca4    #hhd
 ,id4 vol4 xxii4 p4 #bdb4    #hhe ,id4  
vol4 xvi4 pp4 #ge-f4    #hhf ,id4 vol4  
xxi4 p4 #bjc4    #hhg ,at the time of   
the ,arab conquest the dominions of the 
,hindu ruler  of ,sind extended as far  
north as this city1 which is now no     
longer  included in this province4      
#hhh ,baldhur1 p4 #dda 7fin47    #hhi   

,elliot1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ahe-f4    #hij    
,probably the ,sindn in ,abrsa1 the     
southern district of ,cutch4    #hia    
,baldhur1 p4 #ddf4    #hib ,iakhr1 pp4  
#agc-d4    #hic ,baldhur1 p4 #ddf4      
#hid ,iakhr1 loc4 cit4 ,ibn awqal1 p4   
#bcj sq4 ,idrs 7,gographie  d'drisi1    
traduite par ,p4 ,a4 ,jaubert1 vol4 i4  
p4 #age sqq474    #hie ,masd1 vol4 i4 p4
 #bjg4    #hif ,elliot1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgc4
    #hig ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 i4 p4 
#ic4    #hih ,khoj ,vttnt1 p4 #bjh4 ,sir
 ,bartle ,frere3 ,the ,khojas3 the      
,disciples of the ,old ,man of the      
,mountain4 ,macmillan's ,magazine1 vol4 
xxxiv4 pp4 #dca1 #dcc-d4 7,london1      
#ahgf47    #hii ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4
 ix4 part ii4 p4 #bf4    #ijj ,k4 ,b4   
,fazalullah ,lutfullah conjectures that 
,nr ,satgar came to  ,india rather      
later1 in the reign of ,bhma ,,ii       
7,a4,d4 #aagi-abdb47 7,bombay           
,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii4 p4 #ch47  
#ija ,khoj ,vttnt1 p4 #aed-h4    #ijb   
,nr ,allh al-,shshtar3 ,majlis          

al-,muminn1 fol4 #fe4 7,india  ,office  
,,ms4 ,no4 #adjj47    #ijc ,a town ten  
miles south-west of ,ahmadabad4    #ijd 
,bombay ,gazetteer1 vol4 ix4 part ii4   
pp4 #ff1 #gf4    #ije ,bombay           
,gazetteer1 vol4 v4 p4 #hi4    #ijf ,id4
 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgh2 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cf-g4 
#ijg ,so ,firishtah1 but see ,h4        
,blochmann3 ,contributions to the       
,geography and ,history of ,bengal4 7,j4
 ,a4 ,s4 ,b41 vol4 xlii4 ,no4 #a1 pp4   
#bfd-f4 #ahgc47    #ijh ,j4 ,h4         
,ravenshaw3 ,gaur3 its ruins and        
inscriptions1 p4 #ii4  7,london1 #ahgh47
 ,firishtah1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ccg4    #iji  
,wise1 p4 #bi4    #iaj ,census of       
,india1 #aija1 vol4 vi4 part i4 p4 #agj4
    #iaa ,id4 p4 #cj4    #iab ,charles  
,stewart3 ,the ,history of ,bengal1 p4  
#agf4 7,london1 #ahac47  ,h4 ,blochmann3
 ,contributions to the ,geography and   
,history of ,bengal4 7,j4  ,a4 ,s4 ,b41 
vol4 xlii4 ,no4 #a1 p4 #bbj4 #ahgc47    
#iac ,the ,indian ,evangelical ,review1 
p4 #bgh4 7,january #ahhc47    #iad ,sir 

,w4 ,w4 ,hunter3 ,the ,religions of     
,india4 7,the ,times1 ,february  #be1   
#ahhh47 ,see also ,wise1 p4 #cb4    #iae
 ,wise1 p4 #cg4    #iaf ,blochmann1 op4 
cit4 p4 #bfj4    #iag ,wise1 pp4 #dh-ee4
    #iah ,ghulm ,sarwar3 ,khaznat       
al-,afy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcj4    #iai      
,otherwise known as ,shaykh ,bah al-,dn 
,zakariyy4    #ibj ,ibbetson1 p4 #afc4  
#iba ,aghar ,al3 ,jawhir-i-,fard 7,a4,h4
 #ajcc71 p4 #cie4 7,lahore1  #ahhd47    
#ibb ,elliot1 vol4 ii4 p4 #edh4    #ibc 
,punjab ,states ,gazetteers1 vol4 xxxvi 
,a4 ,bahawalpur ,state4  7,lahore1      
#aijh71 p4 #afj sqq4 ,the names of some 
of the tribes who ascribe  their        
conversion to ,makhdm-i-,jahniyn are    
given on p4 #afb4    #ibd ,id4 p4 #aga4 
#ibe ,ibn ,baah1 tome iv4 p4 #bag4      
,yule1 p4 #eae4    #ibf ,the ,indian    
,evangelical ,review1 vol4 xvi1 pp4     
#eb-c4 7,calcutta1  #ahhi-ij47 ,the     
,contemporary ,review1 ,february #ahhi1 
p4 #agj4 ,the  ,spectator1 ,october #ae1
 #ahhg1 p4 #achb4    #ibg ,garcin de    

,tassy3 ,la ,langue et la ,littrature   
,hindoustanies de  #ahej  #ahfi1 p4     
#cdc4 7,paris1 #ahgd47    #ibh ,mawlav  
asan ,al furnished me with these figures
 some years  before his death in #ahif4 
,in an obituary notice published in     
8,the  ,moslem ,chronicle0 7,april #d1  
#ahif71 the following quaint account is 
given of his life3 8,in private and     
school life1 he was marked as a very    
intelligent lad and made considerable   
progress in his scholastic career       
within a short time4 ,he passed         
,entrance at a very early age and       
received scholarship with which he went 
up to the ,first ,art1 but  shortly     
after his innate anxiety to seek truth  
prompted him to go  abroad the world1   
and abandoning his studies he mixed with
 persons of  different persuasions1     
,fakirs1 ,pandits1 and ,christians1     
entered  churches1 and roamed over      
wilderness and forests and cities with  
nothing to help him on except his       
sincere hopes and absolute reliance  on 

the mercy of the ,great ,lord2 for one  
year he wandered in various  regions of 
religion until in #ahgd he accepted the 
post of a head master  in a ,patna      
school4444 ,as he was born to become a  
missionary of the  ,moslem faith1 he    
felt an imperceptible craving to quit   
his post1 from  which he used to get    
,rs4 #ajj per mensem4 ,he tendered his  
resignation1  much to the reluctance of 
his friends1 and maintained himself for 
some  time by publishing a monthly      
journal1 #8,noorul ,islam4' ,he gave    
several  lectures on ,islam at ,patna1  
and then went to ,calcutta1 where he    
delivered his lecture in ,english1 which
 produced such effect on the  audience  
that several ,european clergymen        
vouchsafed the truth of ,islam1  and a  
notable gentleman1 ,babu ,bepin ,chandra
 ,pal1 was about to become  ,musalman4  
,he was invited by the people at ,dacca1
 where his preachings  and lectures left
 his name imbedded in the hearts of the 
citizens4 ,his  various books and       

pamphlets and successive lectures in    
,urdu and in  ,english in the different 
cities and towns in ,india gave him a   
historic  name in the world4 ,some one  
hundred men became ,musalmans on hearing
 his  lectures and reading his books40  
,his missionary zeal manifested itself  
up to the last hour of his life1 when he
 was overheard to say1 8,abjure  your   
religion and become a ,musalman40 ,on   
being questioned1 he said he  was       
talking to a ,christian4    #ibi ,bombay
 ,gazetteer1 vol4 xii4 p4 #abf4    #icj 
,id4 vol4 xvi4 p4 #ha4    #ica ,tufat   
al-,hind1 p4 #c4 7,dehli1 ,a4,h4 #acji47
    #icb ,the ,indian ,evangelical      
,review1 #ahhd1 p4 #abh4 ,garcin de     
,tassy3 ,la  ,langue et la ,littrature  
,hindoustanies de #ahej  #ahfi1 p4 #dhe4
 7,paris1  #ahgd47 ,garcin de ,tassy3   
,la ,langue et la ,littrature           
,hindoustanies en  #ahga1 p4 #ab4       
7,paris1 #ahgb47    #icc ,ibbetson1 p4  
#ahd4    #icd ,the ,rajputana           
,gazetteer1 vol4 i4 p4 #ij2 vol4 ii4 p4 

#dg4  7,calcutta1 #ahgi47    #ice ,on   
these as they affect the ,muhammadans1  
see the ,census of ,india1  #aija4 ,vol4
 vi4 p4 #agb4    #icf ,e4 ,t4 ,dalton1  
p4 #cbd4    #icg ,for an account of such
 ,hinduising of the aboriginal tribes   
see  ,sir ,alfred ,lyall3 ,asiatic      
,studies1 pp4 #ajb-d4    #ich ,e4 ,t4   
,dalton1 p4 #hi4    #ici ,the           
,missionary ,review of the ,world1      
,n4,s4 vol4 xiii1 pp4 #gb-c4  7,new     
,york1 #aijj47    #idj ,sir ,alfred     
,lyall 7,asiatic ,studies1 p4 #bi7      
speaks of the  perceptible proclivity   
towards the faith of ,islam occasionally
  exhibited by some of the ,hindu       
chiefs4    #ida ,gazetteer of the       
,province of ,oudh1 vol4 i4 p4 xix4     
#idb ,to give one instance only3 in     
,ghtampur1 in the district of           
,cawnpore1 one branch of a large family 
is ,muslim in obedience to the  vow of  
their ancestor1 ,ghtam ,deo ,bais1 who  
while praying for a son at  the shrine  
of a ,muhammadan saint1 ,madr ,shh1     

promised that if his  prayer were       
granted1 half his descendants should be 
brought up as  ,muslims4 7,gazetteer of 
the ,n4,w4,p41 vol4 vi4 pp4 #fd1 #bch47 
,the worship of ,muhammadan saints is so
 common among certain low-caste  ,hindus
 that in the ,census of #ahia1 in the   
,north-,western ,provinces and  ,oudh   
alone1 #b1ccc1fdc ,hindus 7or #egh per  
cent4 of the total ,hindu  population of
 these provinces7 returned themselves as
 worshippers of  ,muhammadan saints4    
7,census of ,india1 #ahia1 vol4 xvi4    
part i4 pp4 #bag1  #bdd47 7,allahabad1  
#ahid47    #idc ,instances of such      
causes of conversion are given in the   
,census of  ,india1 #aija4 ,vol4 vi4    
,bengal1 part4 i1 ,appendix ,,ii4       
#idd ,report on the ,census of the      
,n4,w4,p4 and ,oudh1 #ahha1 by ,edward  
,white1 p4 #fb4 7,allahabad1 #ahhb47    
#ide ,id4 p4 #fc4    #idf ,gazetteer of 
the ,province of ,oudh1 vol4 i4 p4 xix4 
#idg ,gazetteer of the ,province of     
,oudh1 vol4 i4 pp4 xxiii-xxiv4    #idh  

,khoj ,vttnt1 p4 #ada4    #idi ,or      
,shams al-,dn1 according to another     
account1 see ,muammad  ,haydar1 p4 #dcc 
7n4 #b74    #iej ,firishtah1 vol4 iv4   
pp4 #dfd1 #dfi4    #iea ,f4 ,drew3 ,the 
,jummoo and ,kashmir ,territories1 pp4  
#eh1 #aee4  7,london1 #ahge47    #ieb   
,drew1 op4 cit4 p4 #cei4    #iec ,on    
this word see ,yule's ,marco ,polo1 vol4
 i4 p4 #bij4    #ied ,amad ,shh3 ,four  
years in ,tibet1 pp4 #de1 #gd4          
7,benares1 #aijf47    #iee ,broomhall1  
p4 #bjf4 ,tu ,wen-siu1 the leader of the
 ,panthay  rebellion from #ahef to      
#ahgc1 who for sixteen years was        
practically  ,sultan of half the        
province of ,yunnan1 issued a           
proclamation in ,lhasa  itself1 at the  
outset of his revolt1 in order to gain  
,muhammadan  recruits4 7,id4 p4 #acb47  
#ief ,mission d',ollone1 pp4 #bjg1 #bbf1
 #bcc4    #ieg ,broomhall1 p4 #bjf4     
#ieh ,a4 ,bastian3 ,die ,geschichte der 
,indochinesen1 p4 #aei4 7,leipzig1      
#ahff47    #iei ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 tome i4 

p4 #bge4 7#aijg47    #ifj ,kanz         
al-,umml1 vol4 v4 p4 #bjb4    #ifa      
,bretschneider 7#b71 p4 #f4    #ifb ,on 
the origin of this name1 see ,devria1 p4
 #caa2 ,mission  d',ollone1 p4 #dbj sqq4
    #ifc ,de ,thiersant1 vol4 i4 pp4    
#ai-bj4    #ifd ,d',ollone gives the    
following warning as to the uncertainty 
of our  knowledge of ,islam in          
,china3--8,or rien n'est moins connu que
 l',islam  chinois4 ,on ne sait         
exactement ni comment il s'est propag   
dans  l',empire1 ni combien d'adeptes il
 a runis1 ni si sa doctrine est pure1   
ni quelle est son organisation1 ni s'il 
possde des relations avec le  reste du  
monde musulman40 7,mission d',ollone1 p4
 #a47 ,the references to  ,china in     
,arabic and ,persian writers have been  
collected by ,schefer1  8,notice sur les
 relations des peuples musulmans avec   
les ,chinois40    #ife ,chavannes1 p4   
#agb4    #iff ,de ,thiersant1 vol4 i4   
pp4 #gj-a4    #ifg ,this legend has been
 exhaustively discussed by ,broomhall3  

,islam  in ,china1 cap4 iv1 vii4    #ifh
 ,thus the people of ,khotan claim that 
,islam was first brought to  their land 
by ,jafar1 a cousin of the ,prophet     
7,grenard3 ,mission  ,dutreuil de       
,rhins1 t4 iii4 p4 #b71 and the ,chams  
of ,cambodia ascribe  their conversion  
to one of the fathers-in-law of         
,muammad4 7,r4 du ,m4  ,m41 vol4 ii4 p4 
#ach47    #ifi ,de ,thiersant1 vol4 i4  
p4 #aec4    #igj ,reinaud3 ,relation des
 ,voyages faits par les ,arabes et les  
,persans  dans l',inde et  la ,chine1 i4
 pp4 #ac1 #fd4 7,paris1 #ahde47    #iga 
,id4 p4 #eh4    #igb ,that there was    
some migration westward also of ,chinese
 into the  conquered countries of       
,islam1 where they would come within the
 sphere  of its religious influence1 we 
learn from the diary of a ,chinese monk 
who travelled through ,central ,asia to 
,persia in the years #abba-d2  speaking 
of ,samarqand1 he says1 8,chinese       
workmen are living  everywhere40        
7,bretschneider 7#a71 vol4 i4 p4 #gh47  

#igc ,howorth1 vol4 i4 p4 #afa4    #igd 
,for ,chinese biographies of ,sayyid    
,ajall1 see ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 viii4  p4   
#cdd sqq4 and xi4 p4 #c sqq42 ,mission  
d',ollone1 p4 #be sqq4    #ige          
,broomhall1 p4 #abg4    #igf ,mission   
d',ollone1 pp4 #dce-f4    #igg ,howorth1
 vol4 i4 p4 #beg4    #igh ,marco ,polo1 
vol4 i4 pp4 #bai1 #bgd2 vol4 ii4 p4 #ff4
    #igi ,rashd al-,dn 7,yule's ,cathay1
 p4 #i74    #ihj ,vol4 iv4 pp4 #bgj1    
#bhc4    #iha ,id4 p4 #beh4    #ihb ,abd
 al-,razzq al-,samarqand3 ,mala         
al-sadayn1 foll4 #fj-a4  7,blochet1 pp4 
#bdi-eb47    #ihc ,zenker1 pp4 #gih-i4  
,mlanges ,orientaux1 p4 #fe4            
7,publications de  l'cole des ,langues  
,orientales ,vivantes1 ,sr4 ii4 t4 #i47 
7,paris1 #ahhc47    #ihd ,schefer1 pp4  
#bi-cj4 ,zenker1 p4 #gif4    #ihe ,de   
,thiersant1 tome i4 pp4 #aed-f4    #ihf 
,broomhall1 p4 #ib sqq4 ,devria3        
,musulmans et ,manichens chinois4  7,j4 
,a4 #ime ,sr41 tome x4 p4 #ddg sqq47    
#ihg ,de ,thiersant1 tome i4 pp4 #afc-d4

    #ihh ,the ,muhammadans are said to  
be more prolific than the ordinary      
,chinese1 and the ,chinese census1 which
 counts according to families1          
estimates six for a ,muhammadan family  
and five for the ordinary  ,chinese4    
7,broomhall1 pp4 #aig1 #bjc47    #ihi   
,broomhall1 in chap4 xii4 of his ,islam 
in ,china1 gives the total  as between  
five and ten millions4 ,d',ollone puts  
it as low as four  millions 7p4 #dcj74  
#iij ,vide infra1 pp4 #cji-caj4    #iia 
,clark ,abel3 ,narrative of a journey in
 the interior of ,china1 p4  #cfa4      
7,london1 #ahah47    #iib ,de           
,thiersant1 tome ii4 pp4 #cfa-c4    #iic
 ,one missionary1 writing from ,peking  
in #agba1 says1 8,la secte des          
,mahomtans s'tend de plus en plus40     
7,lettres difiantes et curieuses1  tome 
xix4 p4 #adj47    #iid ,j4 ,b4 du       
,halde3 ,description gographique1       
historique1  chronologique1 politique et
 physique de l',empire de la ,chine1    
tome iii4  p4 #fd4 7,paris1 #agce47     

#iie ,anderson1 p4 #aea4 ,grosier1 tome 
iv4 p4 #ejg4    #iif ,thamart al-,funn1 
#agth ,shawwl1 p4 #c4 7,bayrt1 ,a4,h4   
#acaa47    #iig ,mission d',ollone1 p4  
#bgi4 ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 tome ix4 pp4 #egg1
 #egh4    #iih ,broomhall1 p4 #bbf4     
,grosier1 tome iv4 p4 #ejh4    #iii     
,vasil'ev1 p4 #ae4    #ajjj ,broomhall1 
p4 #bcg4    #ajja ,id4 pp4 #ahf1 #bbh4  
#ajjb ,arminius ,vambry3 ,travels in    
,central ,asia1 p4 #djd4 7,london1      
#ahfd47    #ajjc ,vasil'ev1 p4 #af4     
#ajjd ,de ,thiersant1 tome ii4 pp4 #cfg1
 #cgb4    #ajje ,de ,thiersant1 tome i4 
p4 #bdg4 ,thamart al-,funn1 #bhth       
,shabn1  p4 #c4    #ajjf ,broomhall1 p4 
#bbd4    #ajjg ,du ,halde1 loc4 cit4    
,broomhall1 p4 #bhb4    #ajjh ,mission  
d',ollone1 pp4 #baj1 #dca4    #ajji     
,broomhall1 pp4 #bgd1 #bhb4    #ajaj ,p4
 #cjg4    #ajaa ,broomhall1 pp4 #bca-b4 
#ajab ,w4 ,j4 ,smith1 p4 #age4 ,mission 
d',ollone1 p4 #djg sqq4    #ajac        
,thamart al-,funn1 loc4 cit4    #ajad   
,broomhall1 p4 #bdj4    #ajae ,the      

,missionary ,review of the ,world1 vol4 
xxv4 p4 #ghf 7#aiab74    #ajaf ,mission 
d',ollone1 p4 #dca4    #ajag ,r4 du ,m4 
,m41 iii4 p4 #abd 7#aijg74    #ajah     
,broomhall1 pp4 #bdb1 #bhf1 #bib sqq4   
#ajai ,vasil'ev1 pp4 #c1 #e1 #ad1 #ag4  
#ajbj ,for a longer list of ,muhammadan 
insurrections1 see ,mission  d',ollone1 
p4 #dcf4    #ajba ,sayyid ,al ,akbar3   
,khity ,nmah1 p4 #hc4 8,if the emperor  
of ,china  embraces ,islam1 his subjects
 must inevitably become ,muslims too1   
because they all worship him to such an 
extent that they accept  whatever he    
says1 and when that light coming from   
the ,west grows in  strength1 the       
unbelievers of the ,east will come      
flocking into ,islam  without showing   
any contention1 because they are free   
from all  fanaticism in matters of      
religion40    #ajbb ,thamart al-,funn1  
#bfth ,shawwl1 p4 #c4 7,a4,h4 #acaa47   
#ajbc ,an excellent map of the extent of
 ,islam in ,africa is to be found  in   
8,the ,international ,review of         

,missions10 vol4 i4 p4 #feb4    #ajbd   
,fournel1 vol4 i4 p4 #bga4    #ajbe i4e4
 the diviner or priestess2 her real name
 is unknown4    #ajbf ,fournel1 vol4 i4 
p4 #bbd4    #ajbg ,makkar1 vol4 i4 p4   
#bec4    #ajbh ,makkar1 vol4 i4 p4 lxv4 
#ajbi ,fournel1 vol4 i4 p4 #bgj4        
#ajcj ,for these and the heretical      
movements that reveal survivals of  the 
earlier ,berber faith1 see ,goldziher1  
,materialien zur ,kenntniss der         
,almohadenbewegung in ,nordafrika 7,z ,d
 ,m ,g1 vol4 xli1 p4 #cg sqq474    #ajca
 ,on this word1 see ,doutt1 ,notes sur  
l',islam maghribin4 7,revue de          
l'histoire des religions1 tom4 xli4 p4  
#bd-f47    #ajcb ,ibn ab ,zar1 pp4      
#afh-gc4 ,a4 ,mller1 vol4 ii4 pp4       
#faa-ac4    #ajcc ,ibn ab ,zar1 p4 #bej4
 ,goldziher1 op4 laud41 p4 #ga4    #ajcd
 ,leo ,africanus4 7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 p4 
#aa47    #ajce 4    #ajcf ,doutt1 xl4 p4
 #ced2 xli4 pp4 #bf-g4    #ajcg ,depont 
et ,coppolani1 p4 #abg sq4    #ajch ,it 
is not the place here to deal with the  

rise and political  history of the      
various kingdoms of the ,western ,sudan2
 this has been  done most fully for the 
,english reader by ,lady ,lugard in her 
work  entitled1 8,a ,tropical           
,dependency4 ,an ,outline of the        
,ancient ,history of  the ,western      
,sudan1 with an ,account of the ,modern 
,settlement of ,northern  ,nigeria40    
7,london1 #aije47 ,see also ,h4 ,f4     
,helmolt3 ,the ,world's ,history1  vol4 
iii4 chap4 ix4 7,london1 #aijc47        
#ajci ,blau1 p4 #cbb4    #ajdj ,leo     
,africanus4 7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 pp4 #g1  
#gg47    #ajda ,meyer1 p4 #ia4    #ajdb 
,tarkh al-,sdn1 p4 #c4    #ajdc ,jinn or
 ,dienn4    #ajdd ,so ,meyer following  
,barth2 the ,tarkh al-,sdn 7p4 #ab7     
places  the date about three centuries  
earlier4    #ajde ,flix ,dubois gives a 
plan and reconstruction of this mosque1 
which was destroyed by order of ,shaykhu
 ,amadu about #ahcj1 in  8,tombouctou la
 ,mystrieuse10 chap4 ix4    #ajdf ,tarkh
 al-,sdn1 pp4 #ab-ac4    #ajdg ,tarkh   

al-,sdn1 p4 #ba4    #ajdh ,ibn ,baah1   
tome iv4 pp4 #dba-b4    #ajdi ,ramusio1 
tom4 i4 p4 #gh4    #ajej ,winwood ,reade
 describes them as 8a tall1 handsome1   
light-coloured race1 ,moslems in        
religion1 possessing horses and large   
herds of cattle1 but also cultivating   
cotton1 ground-nuts1 and various  kinds 
of corn4 ,i was much pleased with their 
kind and hospitable  manners1 the grave 
and decorous aspect of their women1 the 
cleanliness  and silence of their       
villages40 7,w4 ,winwood ,reade3        
,african ,sketchbook1  vol4 i4 p4 #cjc47
    #ajea ,waitz1 ,i,ier ,theil1 pp4    
#ah-ai4    #ajeb ,palmer 7p4 #ei7 places
 its introduction into ,kano between    
,a4,d4  #acdi and #ache1 another ,hausa 
chronicle makes the reign of the first  
,muhammadan king of ,zozo begin about   
#adef4 7,journal of the ,african        
,society1 vol4 ix4 p4 #afa47    #ajec   
,for the various enumerations of these1 
see ,meyer1 p4 #bg4    #ajed ,as in     
other parts of the ,muslim world1       

tradition places the  first introduction
 of ,islam in the lifetime of the       
founder and gives  the name of al-,fazz1
 a reputed companion of the ,prophet1 as
 the  apostle of the ,hausa people4 7,j4
 ,lippert3 ,sudanica4 ,,msos1 iii4 part 
#c1  p4 #bjd4 ,berlin1 #aijj47    #ajee 
,mischlich and ,lippert1 pp4 #ach-i4    
#ajef ,meyer1 loc4 cit4 ,artin ,pasha   
7p4 #fb7 puts the beginning of this     
infiltration of ,muslim ,arabs as early 
as the eighth century4    #ajeg ,becker1
 ,geschichte des stlichen ,sdn1 p4      
#afb-c4 ,blau1 p4 #cbb4  ,oppel1 p4     
#bhi4 ,at the close of the fourteenth   
century ,umar b4 ,idrs  moved his       
capital to the west of ,lake ,chad in   
the territory of ,bornu1  by which name 
the kingdom of ,kanem became henceforth 
known4    #ajeh ,maurice ,delafosse1 p4 
#hg4    #ajei ,becker3 ,geschichte des  
stlichen ,sdn1 pp4 #afa-b4    #ajfj ,r4 
,c4 ,slatin ,pasha3 ,fire and ,sword in 
the ,sudan1 pp4 #ch1 #dj-b4  7,london1  
#ahif47    #ajfa ,westermann1 p4 #fbh4  

#ajfb ,oppel1 p4 #bib4 ,meyer1 pp4      
#cf-g4 ,westermann1 pp4 #fbi-cj4        
#ajfc ,fulbe 7sing4 ,pul7 is the name by
 which these people call  themselves2   
upwards of a hundred variants are       
applied to them by their  neighbours1   
the commonest of which are ,fulah and   
,fulani4 7,meyer1 p4  #bh47    #ajfd    
,francis ,moore1 pp4 #ge-g4    #ajfe ,r4
 ,e4 ,dennett3 ,nigerian ,studies1 pp4  
#ab1 #ge4 7,london1 #aiaj47    #ajff    
,islam and ,missions1 pp4 #ga-c4 ,the   
,moslem ,world1 pp4 #bif-g1 #cea4       
#ajfg ,church ,missionary ,review       
7#aijh71 p4 #fdj4    #ajfh ,a town on   
the ,niger1 just south of the northern  
boundary of  ,southern ,nigeria4        
#ajfi ,church ,missionary ,society      
,intelligencer 7#aijb71 p4 #cec4        
#ajgj ,rinn1 pp4 #djc-d4    #ajga ,le   
,chatelier 7#a71 pp4 #bca-c4    #ajgb   
,le ,chatelier 7#b71 pp4 #hi-ia4        
#ajgc ,rinn1 p4 #age4    #ajgd          
,bonet-,maury1 p4 #bci4    #ajge ,id4 p4
 #bcj4    #ajgf ,le ,chatelier 7#b71 pp4

 #ajj-i4    #ajgg ,rinn1 p4 #agd4       
#ajgh ,oppel1 pp4 #bib-c4 ,blyden1 p4   
#aj4 ,le ,chatelier 7#c71 p4 #afg sqq4  
#ajgi ,delle ,navigationi di ,messer    
,alvise da ,ca da ,mosto4 7,a4,d4       
#aded47  ,ramusio1 tome i4 p4 #aja4     
#ajhj ,blyden1 pp4 #ceg-fj4    #ajha    
,this has been set forth in detail by   
,le ,chatelier 7#c71 p4 #bbe  sqq4      
#ajhb ,le ,chatelier 7#c71 p4 #bcg4     
8,samory n'intervint pas directement    
dans la question religieuse40 ,l4 ,g4   
,binger arrived at the same  conclusion1
 as the result of personal acquaintance 
with ,samory4 7,le  ,pril de l',islam1  
p4 #bj47 7,paris1 #aijf47    #ajhc ,le  
,chatelier 7#c71 pp4 #bch-dj4    #ajhd  
,le ,chatelier 7#b71 p4 #aab4 ,r4 du ,m4
 ,m41 vol4 xii4 p4 #bb4    #ajhe 8,the  
,fulanis are all fervent ,mohammedans4  
,wherever there are  ,fulanis there will
 be found a mosque40 7,haywood1 p4      
#bjj47    #ajhf ,le ,chatelier 7#c71 pp4
 #bca1 #bgc1 #cjc4 ,westermann1 pp4     
#fcb-c4    #ajhg ,muammad b4 ,uthmn al  

ashish1 p4 #hd sqq4    #ajhh ,in #ahie  
,sd al-,mahd1 the son and successor of  
,sd ,muammad  al-,sans1 migrated to     
,kufra1 as being more central than      
,jaghabb  7,muammad b4 ,uthmn al-ashish1
 pp4 #aaa-ae71 but later went further   
south to the region of ,borku and       
,tibesti1 where he died in #aijb4 ,the  
head of the order in #aijh was ,sd      
,amad1 a relative of the founder4  7,j4 
,c4 ,e4 ,falls3 ,drei ,jahre in der     
,libyschen ,wste1 p4 #bgd47 7,freiburg1 
#aiaa47    #ajhi ,riedel 7#a71 pp4 #g1  
#ei1 #afb4    #ajij ,g4 ,nachtigal3     
,sahara und ,sudan1 vol4 ii4 p4 #age4   
7,berlin1  #ahgi-ha47    #ajia          
,duveyrier1 p4 #de4    #ajib            
,paulitschke1 p4 #bad4    #ajic ,h4     
,duveyrier3 ,la ,confrrie musulmane de  
,sdi ,mohammed ,ben ,al  ,es-,senous1   
passim4 7,paris1 #ahhf47 ,louis ,rinn3  
,marabouts et ,khouans1  pp4 #dha-eac4  
,n4 ,slousch3 ,les ,senoussiya en       
,tripolitaine4 7,r4 du ,m4 ,m41  vol4 i4
 p4 #afi sqq474 ,for a bibliography of  

the ,sansiyyah movement1  see ,der      
,islam1 iii4 pp4 #ada-b1 #cab4    #ajid 
,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 vol4 i4 p4 #aha2 vol4   
viii4 pp4 #fd-e4    #ajie ,joseph       
,thomson 7#b71 p4 #ahe4    #ajif ,oppel1
 p4 #cjc4    #ajig ,in the ,muri        
,province of ,northern ,nigeria4        
#ajih ,journal of the ,african ,society1
 vol4 vii4 pp4 #cgi-ha4    #ajii        
,haywood1 p4 #cc4    #aajj ,claude      
,george3 ,the ,rise of ,british ,west   
,africa1 pp4 #abj-a4  7,london1 #aijb47 
#aaja ,islam and ,missions1 pp4 #gc-d4  
#aajb ,lippert3 ber die ,bedeutung der  
,haussanation fr unsere ,togo-  und     
,kamerunkolonie1 p4 #bjj4 ,,msos1 ,band 
x4 7#aijg71 ,abteilung ,,iii4    #aajc  
,waitz3 ,i,ier ,theil1 p4 #bej4    #aajd
 ,c4 ,s4 ,salmon1 p4 #hia4    #aaje     
,pierre ,bouche1 p4 #bef4    #aajf      
,blyden1 p4 #ceg4    #aajg ,c4 ,s4      
,salmon1 p4 #hhg4    #aajh ,blyden1 p4  
#bjb4 ,westermann1 pp4 #fcc-d4    #aaji 
,situated on an island about #b ,s4 of  
,zanzibar4    #aaaj 8,hum ,mouro chamado

 ,zaide1 que foi neto de ,hocem filho de
 ,ale o  sobrinho de ,mahamed40 7,de    
,barros1 ,dec4 i4 ,liv4 viii4 cap4 iv4  
p4 #baa47    #aaaa ,ibn ,khaldn1 vol4   
iii4 pp4 #ih-ajj4    #aaab ,possibly a  
mistake for al-as4 ,see ,ibn ,baah1 tome
 ii4 pp4  #bdg-h4    #aaac ,or 7to give 
it its ,arabic name7 ,maqdish4    #aaad 
,j4 de ,barros3 ,dec4 i4 ,liv4 viii4    
cap4 iv4 pp4 #baa-ab4    #aaae ,de      
,barros1 id4 pp4 #bbd-e4 ,see also      
,justus ,strandes3 ,die                 
,portugiesenzeit von ,deutsch- und      
,englisch-,ostafrika1 p4 #ha sqq4       
7,berlin1 #ahii47    #aaaf ,kitb ajib   
al-,hind ou ,livre des ,merveilles de   
l',inde1 publi  par ,p4 ,a4 van der     
,lith1 pp4 #ea-fj4 7,leiden1 #ahhc47    
#aaag ,mohammedanism in ,central        
,africa1 by ,joseph ,thomson1 p4 #hgg4  
#aaah ,roscoe1 p4 #bbi sq4    #aaai     
,zwemer1 p4 #bcf4 ,gairdner 7p4 #bf7    
gives the number of ,muhammadans  as    
#bjj1jjj out of a population of four    
millions1 but he does not state  from   

what source he derives these figures4   
,roscoe 7p4 #f7 gives the  total        
population of ,uganda as about one      
million only4    #aabj ,richter1 pp4    
#adf-g1 #aed4 ,merensky1 p4 #aef4       
,klamroth1 p4 #d4    #aaba ,r4 du ,m4   
,m41 vol4 ix4 7#aiji71 p4 #cbb4    #aabb
 ,oscar ,baumann3 ,usambara und seine   
,nachbargebiete1 pp4 #ada1 #aec4        
7,berlin1 #ahia47    #aabc ,becker1     
,islam in ,deutsch-,ostafrika1 p4 #aj4  
#aabd ,id4 p4 #ac sqq4 ,klamroth1 pp4   
#ad-bh4    #aabe ,id4 p4 #ec4    #aabf  
,klamroth1 pp4 #ba1 #be1 #ed4    #aabg  
,id4 pp4 #bc-d4    #aabh ,id4 p4 #bf4   
#aabi ,id4 p4 #fg4    #aacj ,becker3    
,islam in ,deutsch-,ostafrika1 p4 #ad4  
,the ,moslem ,world1  vol4 ii4 p4 #c    
sqq4    #aaca ,a contemporary ,ethiopic 
account of these tribes1--,geschichte   
der  ,galla4 ,bericht eines             
abessinischen ,mnches ber die ,invasion 
der ,galla  in sechzehnten ,jahrhundert4
 ,text und bersetzung hrsg4 von ,a4 ,w4 
,schleichler 7,berlin1 #ahic71--seems   

certainly to represent them as  heathen1
 though no detailed account is given of 
their religion4 ,reclus  7tome x4 p4    
#ccj71 however1 supposes them to have   
been ,muhammadan at the  time of their  
invasion4    #aacb ,henry ,salt3 ,a     
,voyage to ,abyssinia1 p4 #bii4         
7,london1 #ahad47    #aacc ,james       
,bruce3 ,travels to discover the source 
of the ,nile1 #bnd ed4  vol4 iii4 p4    
#bdc4 7,edinburgh1 #ahje47    #aacd     
,munzinger1 p4 #djh4    #aace ,i4 ,l4   
,krapf3 ,reisen in ,ost-,africa1        
ausgefhrt in den ,jahren  #ahcg-ee1 vol4
 i4 p4 #ajf4 7,kornthal1 #aheh47        
#aacf ,arabia ,deserta1 vol4 ii4 p4     
#afh4    #aacg ,id41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aji4  
#aach ,mori1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bdh4    #aaci 
,reclus1 tome4 x4 p4 #cji4 ,basset1 pp4 
#bgj-a4    #aadj ,when the ,roman       
,catholics opened a mission among the   
,gallas in  #ahdf1 ,abba ,baghib said to
 them3 8,had you come thirty years ago1 
not  only ,i1 but all my countrymen     
might have embraced your religion2 but  

now it is impossible40 7,massaja1 vol4  
iv4 p4 #ajc47    #aada ,da ,zeila alle  
frontiere del ,caffa1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afj4 
7,rome1  #ahhf-g47 ,massaja1 vol4 iv4 p4
 #ajc2 vol4 vi4 p4 #aj4    #aadb        
,massaja1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ajb4    #aadc    
,speaking of the failure of ,christian  
missions1 ,cecchi says3 8di  ci si deve 
ricercare la causa nello espandersi che 
fece quaggi in  questi ultimi anni      
l'islamismo1 portato da centinaja di    
preti e  mercanti musulmani1 cui non    
facevano difetto i mezzi1 l'astuzia e la
  piena conoscenza della lingua40 7,op4 
cit4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdb47    #aadd ,id41  
p4 #cdc4    #aade ,reclus1 tome xiii4 p4
 #hcd4    #aadf ,the ,lega are found in 
long4 #i to #i #cj and lat4 ,e4 #cd #ce 
to  #ce4    #aadg ,reclus1 tome x4 p4   
#cej4    #aadh ,paulitschke1 pp4 #ccj-a4
    #aadi ,ibn awqal1 p4 #da4    #aaej  
,abu'l-,fid1 tome ii4 #are partie1 pp4  
#bca-b4    #aaea ,documents sur         
l'histoire1 la gographie et le commerce 
de  l',afrique ,orientale1 recueillis   

par ,m4 ,guillain4 ,deuxime partie1 tome
  i4 p4 #cii4 7,paris1 #ahef47    #aaeb 
,r4 ,f4 ,burton3 ,first ,footprints in  
,east ,africa1 pp4 #gf1 #djd4  7,london1
 #ahef47    #aaec ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 vi4 p4
 #bhh4 7#aijh47    #aaed ,the ,cape of  
,good ,hope was in the possession of the
 ,dutch from  #afeb to #agie2 restored  
to them after the ,peace of ,amiens in  
#ahjb1 it  was re-occupied by the       
,british as soon as war broke out again4
    #aaee ,among these was ,shaykh      
,ysuf1 a religious teacher of great     
influence in ,java and the last champion
 of the independence of ,bantam2  in    
#afid he was removed by the ,dutch to   
,cape ,colony as a prisoner of  state1  
together with his family and numerous   
attendants2 his tomb is  still regarded 
as a holy place4 7,g4 ,m4 ,theal3       
,history and ,ethnography  of ,africa   
south of the ,zambesi1 vol4 ii4 p4      
#bfc47 7,london1 #aiji47    #aaef ,m4   
,j4 de ,goeje3 ,mohammedaansche         
,propaganda1 pp4 #b1 #f4  7,overgedrukt 

uit de ,nederlandsche ,spectator1 ,no4  
#ea1 #ahha47    #aaeg ,attention was    
drawn to them in #ahad by a ,mr4        
,campbell4 ,see  ,william ,adams3 ,the  
,modern ,voyager and ,traveller1 vol4 i4
 p4 #ic4  7,london1 #ahcd47    #aaeh    
,sir ,t4 ,e4 ,colebrooke3 ,the ,life of 
,h4 ,t4 ,colebrooke1 p4 #cce4  7,london1
 #ahgc47    #aaei ,f4 ,coillard3 ,au    
,cap de ,bonne ,esprance4 7,journal des 
missions  vangliques1 avril #ahii1 p4   
#bfe47    #aafj ,kumm1 p4 #bcc4    #aafa
 ,c4 ,snouck ,hurgronje 7#c71 vol4 ii4  
pp4 #bif-g4    #aafb ,jacques ,bonzon3  
,les ,missionaires de l',islam en       
,afrique4 7,revue  ,chrtienne1 tome     
xiii4 p4 #bie47 7,paris1 #ahic47        
#aafc ,g4 ,ferrand1 ,les ,musulmans     
,madagascar1 pp4 #ai1 #ej sqq41 #ach4   
7,paris1 #ahia47 ,id4 ,les ,migrations  
musulmanes et juives  ,madagascar4      
7,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1  
vol4 lii4 p4 #cha sqq47    #aafd        
,richard ,f4 ,burton 7#a71 vol4 i4 p4   
#bef4    #aafe ,travels in the ,interior

 of ,africa1 chap4 xxv4 ad fin4    #aaff
 ,d4 ,j4 ,east1 pp4 #aah-bj4 ,w4        
,winwood ,reade1 vol4 i4 p4 #cab4       
,blyden1 pp4 #ac1 #bjb4    #aafg ,bishop
 ,crowther on ,islam in ,western        
,africa4 7,church ,missionary           
,intelligencer1 p4 #bed1 ,april #ahhh47 
#aafh ,d4 ,j4 ,east1 pp4 #aab-ac4       
,blyden1 p4 #bjb4    #aafi ,it is said  
that over a thousand missionaries of    
,islam leave  ,tripoli every year to    
work in the ,sudan4 7,paulitschke1 p4   
#cca47    #aagj ,for a detailed         
examination of these points of contact1 
see  ,forget1 p4 #bh sqq4 ,merensky1 p4 
#aee4    #aaga ,sir ,bartle ,frere 7#a71
 pp4 #ah-ai4    #aagb ,e4 ,w4 ,blyden1  
pp4 #ah-bd4 ,e4 ,allgret1 p4 #bjj4      
,westermann1 pp4  #fdd-e4    ,in a very 
interesting1 but now forgotten1 debate  
before the  ,anthropological ,society of
 ,london1 on the ,efforts of            
,missionaries among  ,savages1 a case   
was mentioned of a ,christian missionary
 in ,africa who  married a negress3 the 

feeling against him in consequence was  
so strong  that he had to leave the     
colony4 ,the ,muslim missionary labours 
under no  such disadvantage4 7,journal  
of the ,anthropological ,society of     
,london1  vol4 iii4 #ahfe47    ,the     
contrast between the way in which       
,christianity and ,islam present        
themselves to the ,african is well      
brought out by one who is himself a     
,negro1 in the following                
passage3--8,tandis que les missions     
renvoient   une poque indfinie          
l'tablissement du pastorat indigne1 les 
prtres  musulmans pntrent dans          
l'intrieur de l',afrique1 trouvent un   
accs  facile chez les paens et les      
convertissent  l'islam4 ,de sorte       
qu'aujourd'hui les ngres regardent      
l'islam comme la religion des  noirs1 et
 le christianisme comme la religion des 
blancs4 ,le  christianisme1 pensent-ils1
 appelle le ngre au salut1 mais lui     
assigne  une place tellement basse que1 
dcourag1 il se dit3 #8,je n'ai ni part  

ni portion dans cette affaire4' ,l'islam
 appelle le ngre au salut et  lui dit3  
#8,il ne dpend que de toi pour arriver  
aussi haut que  possible4' ,alors1 le   
ngre enthousiasm se livre corps et me au
  service de cette religion40 ,l'islam  
et le christianisme en ,afrique  d'aprs 
un ,africain4 7,journal des ,missions   
vangliques4 #fc;e anne1 p4  #bjg47      
7,paris1 #ahhh47    #aagc ,e4 ,d4       
,morel3 ,nigeria1 its people and its    
problems1 pp4 #baf-ag4  7,london1       
#aiaa47    #aagd ,ibn ,khallikn1 vol4 i4
 p4 #ah4    #aage 8,extracts from the   
,koran form the earliest reading lessons
 of  children1 and the commentaries and 
other works founded upon it furnish  the
 principal subjects of the advanced     
studies4 ,schools of different  grades  
have existed for centuries in various   
interior negro countries1  and under the
 provision of law1 in which even the    
poor are educated at  the public        
expense1 and in which the deserving are 
carried on many  years through long     

courses of regular instruction4 ,nor is 
the system  always confined to the      
,arabic language1 or to the works of    
,arabic  writers4 ,a number of native   
languages have been reduced to writing1 
books have been translated from the     
,arabic and original works have been    
written in them4 ,schools also have been
 kept in which native languages  are    
taught40 ,condition and ,character of   
,negroes in ,africa4 ,by ,theodore      
,dwight4 7,methodist ,quarterly ,review1
 ,january #ahfi47    ,dr4 ,blyden 7pp4  
#bjf-g7 mentions the following books as 
read by ,muslims  in ,western ,africa3  
,maqmt of arr1 portions of ,aristotle   
and ,plato  translated into ,arabic1 an 
,arabic version of ,hippocrates1 and the
  ,arabic ,new ,testament and ,psalms   
issued by the ,american ,bible ,society4
  ,for the literature of the ,muslims in
 ,east ,africa1 see ,becker3 ,islam in  
,deutsch ,ostafrika1 p4 #ah sqq4        
#aagf ,mohammedanism in ,africa1 by ,r4 
,bosworth ,smith4 7,the ,nineteenth     

,century1 ,december #ahhg1 pp4          
#gih-hjj47    #aagg ,le ,chatelier1     
7#c71 p4 #cdh4    #aagh ,forget1 p4 #ie4
 ,merensky1 p4 #aef4 78,den ,vertretern 
des ,islam aber  stand ihr ,vorteil1 der
 ,gewinn1 den die ,unterdrckung der     
,eingeborenen  bringt1 hher als die     
,ausbreitung ihres ,glaubens4 ,htte man 
die ,vlker  ,afrikas durch die ,macht   
geistiger ,waffen unter gtigem          
,entgegenkommen  zu ,mohammedanern      
gemacht1 so wren sie ,glaubensgenossen1 
gleichberechtigte ,brder1 die man nicht 
mehr berauben1 zu ,sklaven  machen1 oder
 als ,sklaven nur ,arbeit ausnutzen     
knnte407    #aagi ,westermann1 p4 #fdc4 
,l4 de ,contenson1 p4 #bdd4 ,kumm1 p4   
#abb4    #aahj ,thus ,merensky1         
discussing the failure of ,islam to     
dominate the  whole of ,africa after    
centuries of occupation says3--8,wir    
sehen die  ,ursache fr diese merkwrdige 
,erscheinung in den ,beziehungen1 in    
denen  bei den ,mohammedanern die ussere
 ,gewalt zum ,islam und zur ,ausbreitung

  des ,islam steht4 ,beides steht und   
fllt miteinander1 dringt miteinander    
vor und geht miteinander auch wieder    
zurck40 7p4 #aef47    #aaha ,niemann1 p4
 #ccg4    #aahb ,reinaud3 ,gographie    
d',aboulfda1 tome i4 p4 cccxxxix4       
#aahc ,groeneveldt1 pp4 #ad1 #ae4       
#aahd ,ibn ,baah1 tome iv4 pp4 #ff1 #hj4
    #aahe ,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 p4 #bca4  
,ibn ,baah1 tome iv4 p4 #hi4    #aahf   
,ibn ,baah1 tome iv4 pp4 #bcj1 #bcd4    
#aahg ,snouck ,hurgronje 7#a71 pp4 #h-i4
    #aahh ,padre ,gainza1 quoted by ,c4 
,semper1 p4 #fg4    #aahi ,crawfurd     
7#b71 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfe4    #aaij ,snouck
 ,hurgronje3 ,l',arabie et les ,indes   
,nerlandaises4 7,revue de  l',histoire  
des ,religions1 vol4 lvii4 p4 #fi sqq47 
#aaia ,de ,hollander1 vol4 i4 p4 #eha4  
,veth 7#a71 p4 #fj4    #aaib ,this vague
 reference would fit either ,arabia1    
,persia or ,india2  but if such a person
 as ,jhan ,shh ever existed1 he probably
 came from  the ,coromandel or ,malabar 
coast4 7,chronique du ,royaume          

d',atcheh1  traduite du ,malay par ,ed4 
,dulaurier1 p4 #g47    #aaic ,marco     
,polo1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhd4    #aaid ,veth 
7#a71 p4 #fa4    #aaie ,yule's ,marco   
,polo1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bid1 #cjc4    #aaif
 ,ibn ,baah1 tome iv4 pp4 #bcj-f4       
#aaig ,groeneveldt1 p4 #id4    #aaih ,at
 the height of its power1 it stretched  
from #b ,n4 to #b ,s4 on  the west      
coast1 and from #a ,n4 to #b ,s4 on the 
east coast1 but in the  sixteenth       
century it had lost its control over the
 east coast4 7,de  ,hollander1 vol4 i4  
p4 #c47    #aaii ,marsden1 p4 #cdc4     
#abjj ,j4 ,h4 ,moor4 7,appendix1 p4 #a47
    #abja ,marsden1 p4 #cee4    #abjb   
,godsdienstige verschijnselen en        
toestanden in ,oost-,indi4 7,uit  de    
,koloniale ,verslagen van #ahhf en      
#ahhg47 ,med4 ,ned4 ,zendelinggen4 vol4 
xxxii4 pp4 #age-f4 7#ahhh47 ,in #aiji1  
out of a total of #ejj1jjj ,bataks1     
#cjj1jjj were still pagan1 but #abe1jjj 
were ,muslim and #hj1jjj ,christian4    
7,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 vol4 viii4 p4 #ahc47   

#abjc ,j4 ,warneck3 ,die ,religion der  
,batak1 p4 #abb4 7,leipzig1 #aiji47     
#abjd ,g4 ,r4 ,simon3 ,die ,propaganda  
des ,halbmondes4 ,ein ,beitrag zur      
,skizzierung des ,islam unter den       
,batakken1 pp4 #dbe1 #dbi-dcj4          
7,allgemeine  ,missions-,zeitschrift1   
vol4 xxvii4 #aijj47    #abje ,r4 du ,m4 
,m41 vol4 viii4 7#aiji71 p4 #ahc4       
#abjf ,a4 ,l4 van ,hassalt1 pp4 #ee1    
#fh4    #abjg ,med4 ,ned4 ,zendelinggen4
 id4 p4 #agc4 7,koloniaal ,verslag van  
#aiaa1  p4 #bf2 #aiab1 p4 #ag47    #abjh
 ,uit het ,koloniaal ,verslag van #ahhi4
 7,med4 ,ned4 ,zendelinggen4  vol4      
xxxiv4 p4 #afh47 7#ahij47    #abji      
,koloniaal ,verslag van #aiaj1 p4 #cj4  
#abaj ,de ,hollander1 vol4 i4 p4 #gjc4  
#abaa ,koloniaal ,verslag van #aijd1 p4 
#hj2 #aije1 p4 #df2 #aiji1 p4 #dg2      
#aiaj1 p4 #cc2 #aiaa1 p4 #bi2 #aiab1 p4 
#ba4    #abab ,canne1 p4 #eaj4    #abac 
,marsden1 p4 #cja4    #abad ,niemann1   
pp4 #cef-i4    #abae ,j4 ,h4 ,moor1 p4  
#bee4    #abaf 8,depois que estes de    

induzidos por os ,mouros ,parseos1 e    
,guzarates 7que alli vieram residir por 
causa do commercio71 de ,gentios  os    
convertram  secta de ,mahamed4 ,da qual 
converso por alli  concorrerem varias   
naes1 comeou laurar esta inferna peste  
pela  virzinhana de ,malaca40 7,de      
,barros1 ,dec4 ii4 ,liv4 vi4 cap4 i4 p4 
#ae47    #abag ,aristide ,marre3 ,malka4
 ,histoire des rois malays de ,malka4   
,traduit et extrait du ,livre des       
,annales malayses1 intitul en arabe     
,sellet al ,seltyn1 p4 #h4 7,paris1     
#ahgd47    #abah ,crawfurd 7#a71 pp4    
#bda-b4    #abai ,de ,barros1 ,dec4 iv4 
,liv4 ii4 cap4 #a4    #abbj ,barbosa1   
writing in #aeaf1 speaks of the numerous
 ,muhammadan  merchants that frequented 
the port of ,queda4 7,ramusio1 tom4 i4  
p4 #cag47    #abba ,the form  does not  
actually occur in the ,qurn2 reference  
is probably made to some such passage as
 xxvi4 #ij3     8,and paradise shall be 
brought near the pious40    #abbb ,a    
translation of the ,keddah ,annals1 by  

,lieut4-,col4 ,james ,low1  vol4 iii4   
pp4 #dgd-g4    #abbc ,a translation of  
the ,keddah ,annals1 by ,lieut4-,col4   
,james ,low1  vol4 iii4 p4 #dhj4        
#abbd ,newbold1 vol4 i4 p4 #beb4        
#abbe ,mc,nair1 pp4 #bbf-i4    #abbf ,j4
 ,h4 ,moor1 p4 #bdb4    #abbg ,newbold1 
vol4 ii4 pp4 #ajf1 #cif4    #abbh ,r4 du
 ,m4 ,m41 tome ii 7#aijg71 pp4 #acg-h4  
#abbi ,snouck ,hurgronje 7#a71 p4 #i4   
#abcj ,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 p4 #bae4      
,raffles 7ed4 of #ahcj71 vol4 ii4 pp4   
#ajc1 #ajd1 #ahc4    #abca ,the         
situation of ,chermen is not certain4   
,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 p4  #bcj1           
conjectures that it may have been in    
,india1 but ,rouffaer 7p4 #aaen7  gives 
good reasons for placing it in ,sumatra4
    #abcb ,a description of the present 
condition of these tombs1 on one of     
which traces of an inscription in       
,arabic characters are still visible1   
is given by ,j4 ,f4 ,g4 ,brumund1 p4    
#ahe4    #abcc ,groeneveldt1 pp4 vii4   
#di-ej4    #abcd ,kern1 p4 #ba4    #abce

 ,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 pp4 #bcc-db4       
,raffles1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aac-cc4    #abcf
 ,rouffaer1 however1 places this        
,champa1 not in ,cambodia1 but on  the  
north coast of ,atjeh and identifies it 
with the modern ,djeumpa4               
7,encyclopaedie van ,n4-,i41 vol4 iv4 p4
 #bjf47    #abcg ,remains of minarets   
and ,muhammadan tombs are still to be   
found  in ,champa4 7,bastian1 vol4 i4   
pp4 #dih-i47    #abch ,this genealogical
 table will make clear these            
relationships1 as  well as others       
referred to later in the text3--        
,king of ,champa4                       
-------------------                     
a daughter         a daughter  an       
named             ,arab missionary  ,a  
concubine     ,angka ,wijya     ,drwati 
king of ,majapahit                      
,arya ,damar                            
,raden ,ramat4                          
,raden usayn                            
----------------------------------------
---                                     

---                                     
a daughter                              
,raden ,paku      ,raden ,patah  a      
daughter    #abci ,the memory of this   
woman is held in great honour by the    
,javanese1 and many come to pray by her 
grave4 ,see ,brumund1 p4 #ahf4    #abdj 
,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 pp4 #bce-f4    #abda
 ,this mosque is still standing and is  
looked upon by the ,javanese  as one of 
the most sacred objects in their island4
    #abdb ,there seems little doubt that
 this date is too early4 ,a study of    
the ,portuguese authorities points to   
the conclusion that ,majapahit did  not 
fall until forty years later4           
7,rouffaer1 p4 #add47    #abdc ,the     
people of the ,bali to the present day  
have resisted the most  zealous efforts 
of the ,muhammadans to induce them to   
accept the faith  of ,islam1 though from
 time to time conversions have been made
 and a  small native ,muhammadan        
community has been formed1 numbering    
about #cjjj  souls out of a population  

of over #hfb1jjj4 ,the favourable       
situation of  the island for purposes of
 trade has always attracted a number of 
foreigners to its shores1 who have in   
many cases taken up a permanent         
residence in the island4 ,while some of 
these settlers have always held         
themselves aloof from the natives of the
 country1 others have formed            
matrimonial alliances with them and have
 consequently become merged  into the   
mass of the population4 ,it is owing to 
the efforts of the  latter that ,islam  
has made this very slow but sure        
progress1 and the  ,muhammadans of ,bali
 are said to form an energetic and      
flourishing  community1 full of zeal for
 the promotion of their faith1 which at 
least impresses their pagan neighbours1 
though not successful in  persuading    
them to deny their favourite food of    
swine's flesh for the  sake of the      
worship of ,allh4 7,liefrinck1 pp4      
#bda-c47    #abdd ,encyclopaedie van    
,n4-,i41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebc4    #abde     

,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 pp4 #bde1 #bhd4     
#abdf ,raffles1 vol4 ii4 p4 #caf4       
#abdg ,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 pp4 #bhe-f4   
#abdh ,veth 7#c71 vol4 i4 pp4 #cje1     
#cah-i4    #abdi ,a traveller in ,java  
in #aeif mentions two or three heathen  
kingdoms with a large heathen           
population4 7,niemann1 p4 #cdb47        
#abej ,raffles1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #acb-c4    
#abea ,metzger1 p4 #bgi4    #abeb ,l4   
,w4 ,c4 van den ,berg 7#a71 pp4 #ce-f4  
,c4 ,poensen1 pp4 #c-h4    #abec ,de    
,barros1 ,dec4 iii4 ,liv4 v4 ,cap4 v4   
pp4 #egi-hj4 ,argensola1 p4  #aa ,b4    
#abed ,at this period1 the ,moluccas    
were for the most part under the  rule  
of four princes1 viz4 those of ,ternate1
 ,tidor1 ,gilolo and ,batjan4  ,the     
first was by far the most powerful3 his 
territory extended over  ,ternate and   
the neighbouring small islands1 a       
portion of ,halemahera1 a  considerable 
part of the ,celebes1 ,amboina and the  
,banda islands4 ,the  ,sultan of ,tidor 
ruled over ,tidor and some small        

neighbouring islands1 a  portion of     
,halemahera1 the islands lying between  
it and ,new ,guinea1  together with the 
west coast of the latter and a part of  
,ceram4 ,the  territory of the ,sultan  
of ,gilolo seems to have been confined  
to the  central part of ,halemahera and 
to a part of the north coast of ,ceram2 
while the ,sultan of ,batjan ruled      
chiefly over the ,batjan and ,obi       
groups4 7,de ,hollander1 vol4 i4 p4 #e47
    #abee ,massimiliano ,transilvano4   
7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 p4 #cea ,d47    #abef
 ,p4 ,j4 ,b4 ,c4 ,robid van der ,aa1 p4 
#ah4    #abeg ,pigafetta1 tome i4 pp4   
#cfe1 #cfh4    #abeh 8,segundo a conta  
que elles dam1 ao tempo que os nossos   
descubriram aquellas ,ilhas1 haveria    
pouco mais de oitenta annos1 que  nellas
 tinha entrada esta peste40 7,j4 de     
,barros3 ,da ,asia1 ,dec4 iii4  ,liv4 v4
 ,cap4 v4 p4 #ehj47    #abei ,de        
,barros1 id4 ib4    #abfj ,simon1 p4    
#ac4    #abfa ,bokemeyer1 p4 #ci4       
#abfb ,simon1 p4 #ac4    #abfc          

,argensola1 pp4 #c-d4    #abfd ,id4 p4  
#ae ,b4    #abfe ,id4 pp4 #ig1 #ih4     
#abff ,id4 pp4 #aee and #aeh1 where he  
calls ,ternate 8este receptaculo de     
setas1 donde tienen escuela todas las   
apostasias2 y particularmente los       
torpes sequazes de ,mahoma4 ,y desde el 
anno de mil y quinientos y  ochenta y   
cinco1 en que los ,holandeses tentaron  
aquellos mares1 hasta  este tiempo no   
han cessado de traer sectarios1 y       
capitanes pyratas4  ,estos llevan las   
riquezas de ,assia1 y en su lugar dexan 
aquella falsa  dotrina1 con que hazen   
infrutuosa la conversion de tantas      
almas40    #abfg ,their descendants are 
still to be found in the province of    
,cavit in the island of ,luzon4         
7,crawfurd 7#a71 p4 #he47    #abfh ,w4  
,f4 ,andriessen1 p4 #bbb4    #abfi ,t4  
,forrest1 p4 #fh4    #abgj ,pigafetta4  
7,ramusio1 vol4 i4 p4 #cff47    #abga   
,campen1 p4 #cdf4 ,koloniaal ,verslag   
van #aiaj1 p4 #ef2 #aiaa1 p4 #eb4       
#abgb ,dulaurier1 p4 #ebh4    #abgc     

,damak1 on the north coast of ,java1    
opposite the south of ,borneo4    #abgd 
,hageman1 pp4 #bcf-i4    #abge          
,pigafetta4 7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 pp4      
#cfc-d47    #abgf ,this kingdom had been
 founded by a colony from the ,hindu    
kingdom  of ,majapahit 7,de ,hollander1 
vol4 ii4 p4 #fg71 and would naturally   
have  come under ,muslim influence after
 the conversion of the ,javanese4       
#abgg ,dozy 7#a71 p4 #chf4    #abgh     
,veth 7#b71 vol4 i4 p4 #aic4    #abgi   
,olivier de ,noort4 7,histoire gnrale   
des voyages1 vol4 xiv4 p4  #bbe47 7,the 
,hague1 #agef47    #abhj i4e4 ,pure in  
,religion2 he died about #afgg2 his     
father does not  seem to have taken a   
,muhammadan name1 at least he is only   
known by his  heathen name of           
,panembahan ,giri-,kusuma4 7,netscher1  
pp4 #ad-ae47    #abha ,thomas ,forrest1 
p4 #cga4    #abhb ,essay towards an     
account of ,sulu1 p4 #eeg4    #abhc ,b4 
,panciera1 p4 #afa4    #abhd ,j4        
,hageman1 p4 #bbd4    #abhe ,veth 7#b71 

vol4 i4 p4 #agi4    #abhf ,de           
,hollander1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fa4    #abhg   
,coolsma1 p4 #eef4 ,koloniaal ,verslag  
van #aiaa1 pp4 #ch1 #da2 #aiab1  p4 #cj4
    #abhh ,med4 ,ned4 ,zendelinggen4    
vol4 xxxii4 p4 #agg2 vol4 xxxiv4 p4     
#agj4    #abhi i4e4 ,atjeh4    #abij ,a 
,compleat ,history of the ,rise and     
,progress of the ,portugeze  ,empire in 
the ,east ,indies4 ,collected chiefly   
from their own ,writers4  ,john ,harris3
 ,navigantium atque ,itinerantium       
,bibliotheca1 vol4 i4 p4  #fhb4         
7,london1 #agfd47    #abia ,crawfurd    
7#a71 p4 #ia4 ,the ,encyclopaedie van   
,n4-,i4 7vol4 i4 p4  #baf7 gives #afjf  
as the date4    #abib ,fernandez        
,navarette1 a ,spanish priest1 who went 
to the  ,philippine ,islands in #afdf4  
7,collection of ,voyages and ,travels1  
p4 #bcf4  ,london1 #ageb47              
,tavernier1 who visited ,macassar in    
#afdh4 7,travels in ,india1 p4 #aic47   
7,london1 #afgh47    ,itinerarium       
,orientale ,r4 ,p4 ,f4 ,philippi        

,s,sma4 ,trinitate ,carmelitae          
,discalceati ab ipso conscriptum1 p4    
#bfg4 7,lugduni1 #afdi47    #abic       
,crawfurd 7#b71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #che-i4    
#abid 8,no extraordinary exertion seems 
for a long time to have been  made on   
behalf of the new religion4 ,an         
abhorrence of innovation and a  most    
pertinacious and religious adherence to 
ancient custom1  distinguish the people 
of ,celebes beyond all the other tribes 
of the  ,eastern isles2 and these would1
 at first1 prove the most serious       
obstacles to the dissemination of       
,mahometanism4 ,it was this1 probably1  
which deferred the adoption of the new  
religion for so long a period1  and till
 it had recommended itself by wearing   
the garb of antiquity40  7,crawfurd     
7#b71 vol4 ii4 p4 #chg47    #abie       
,crawfurd 7#a71 p4 #ge4 ,de ,hollander1 
vol4 ii4 p4 #bab4    #abif ,id4 vol4 ii4
 p4 #fff4 ,riedel 7#b71 p4 #fg4    #abig
 ,to the east of ,minahassa1 between    
long4 #abd #de and #abc #bj1  with a    

population that has been variously      
estimated at #ce1jjj and  #ej1jjj4 7,de 
,hollander1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bdg47    #abih 
,wilken 7#a71 pp4 #db-d4    #abii       
,wilken 7#b71 pp4 #bgf-i4 ,koloniaal    
,verslag van #aiaj1 p4 #eb2 #aiaa1  p4  
#dg4    #acjj ,zollinger 7#b71 pp4 #abf1
 #afi4    #acja ,med4 ,ned4             
,zendelinggen4 xxxii4 p4 #agg2 xxxiv4 p4
 #agj4    #acjb ,zollinger 7#a71 p4     
#ebg4    #acjc ,de ,hollander 7in #ahhb7
 gave the numbers as #bj1jjj ,balinese  
and  #chj1jjj ,sasaks4 7,vol4 i4 p4     
#dhi47    #acjd ,encyclopaedie van      
,n4-,i4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dcb-d1 #ebd4      
,w4 ,cool3 ,with the ,dutch in the      
,east4 ,an outline of the military      
operations in ,lombok1 #ahid4 7,london1 
#ahig47    #acje ,captain ,thomas       
,forrest1 writing in #agge1 says that   
,arabs came to  the island of ,mindanao 
#cjj years before and that the tomb of  
the first  ,arab1 a ,sharf from ,mecca1 
was still shown--8a rude heap of coral  
rock  stones0 7pp4 #bja1 #cac74    #acjf

 ,n4 ,n4 ,saleeby3 ,studies in ,moro    
,history1 ,law and ,religion1 pp4       
#bd-e1 #ec-e4 7,manila1 #aije47    #acjg
 ,relatione di ,ivan ,gaetan del        
discoprimento dell',isole ,molucche4    
7,ramusio1 tom4 i4 p4 #cge ,e47    #acjh
 8,se muestran tan obstinados  la gracia
 de ,dios y tan aferrados   sus         
creencias1 que es casi moralmente       
imposible su conversion al              
cristianismo40 7,cartas de los ,,pp4 de 
la ,compaia de ,jess de la ,missin  de  
,filipinas1 #ahgi1 quoted by ,montero y 
,vidal1 tom4 i4 p4 #ba47    #acji       
,crawfurd 7#b71 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bgd-bhj4  
#acaj 8,ils sont peu soigneux de        
satisfaire au devoir du ,christianisme  
qu'ils ont receu1 et il les y faut      
contraindre par la crainte du           
chastiment1 et gouverner comme des      
enfans  l'escole40 ,relation des  ,isles
 ,philippines1 ,faite par un ,religieux1
 p4 #g4 7,thevenot1 vol4 i47    #acaa   
8,a ,mindanao1 les ,tagal de l',est1    
fuyant le joug abhorr de leurs  matres  

catholiques1 se groupent chaque jour    
davantage autour des chefs  des         
dynasties nationales4 ,plus de #cfj1jjj 
sectateurs du coran y  reconnaissent un 
sultan indpendant4 ,aux jsuites chasss  
de l'le1 aux  reprsentants du culte     
officiel1 se substituent comme matres   
religieux  et ducateurs de la           
population1 les missionnaires musulmans 
de la ,chine  et de l',inde1 qui rnovent
 ainsi la propagande1 commence par les  
invasions arabes40 7,a4 le ,chatelier   
7#b71 p4 #de47    #acab ,montero y      
,vidal1 vol4 i4 p4 #hf4    #acac        
,situated three miles west of ,jolo1 the
 present capital4    #acad ,n4 ,m4      
,saleeby3 ,the ,history of ,sulu1 pp4   
#aej1 #aeh-i4 7,manila1  #aijh47        
#acae ,n4 ,m4 ,saleeby3 ,the ,history of
 ,sulu1 pp4 #aej1 #afb-c4    #acaf ,j4  
,h4 ,moor4 7,appendix1 p4 #cg47    #acag
 ,dalrymple1 p4 #edi4    #acah ,r4 du   
,m4 ,m41 vii4 pp4 #aae-af4 7#aiji47     
#acai ,the ,missionary ,review of the   
,world1 ,n4,s41 vol4 xiv4 p4 #hgg4 7,new

  ,york1 #aija47    #acbj ,the first    
prince of ,batjan who became a          
,muhammadan was a certain  ,zayn        
al-bidn1 who was reigning in #aeba when 
the ,portuguese first  came to the      
,moluccas4    #acba ,robid van der ,aa1 
pp4 #cej1 #ceb-c4    #acbb ,id4 p4 #adg 
7,misool71 8,de strandbewoners zijn     
allen  ,mahomedanen4444 ,de bergbewoners
 zijn heidenen40 ,id4 p4 #ec            
7,salawatti71  8,een klein deel der     
bevolking van het eiland belijdt de leer
 van  ,mahomed4 ,het grootste deel      
bestaat echter uit ,papoesche heidenen1 
eenige tot het ,mahomedaansche geloof   
zijn overgegaan1 althans den  schijn    
daarvan aannemen40 ,id4 p4 #bij         
7,waigyu74    ,some of the ,papuans of  
the island of ,gebi1 between ,waigyu and
  ,halemahera1 have been converted by   
the ,muhammadan settlers from the       
,moluccas4 7,crawfurd 7#a71 p4 #adc47   
#acbc ,robid van der ,aa1 p4 #ceb4      
#acbd ,captain ,forrest1 however1 in    
#agge1 tells us that 8,many of the      

,papuas turn ,musselmen40 7,voyage to   
,new ,guinea1 p4 #fh47    #acbe ,robid  
van der ,aa1 p4 #ga4 8,de ,papoe is te  
woest van aard1 om  behoefte aan        
godsdienst te gevoelen4 ,evenmin als de 
,christelijke leer  tot nog toe ingang  
bij hem heeft kunnen vinden1 zou de     
,mahomedaansche  godsdienst slagen1     
wanneer daartoe bij deze volksstammen   
poging gedaan  werd4 ,voorzoover mij is 
gebleken op vijf reizen naar dit land1  
hebben  noch ,tidoreezen1 noch          
,cerammers of anderen ooit ernstige     
pogingen  gedaan1 om de leer van        
,mahomed hier in te voeren4444 ,slechts 
zeer  weinige hoofden1 zooals de ,radja 
,ampat van ,waigeoe1 ,salawatti1 ,misool
  en ,waigama1 mogen als belijders van  
die leer aangemerkt worden2 zij en      
eenige hunner bloedverwanten vervullen  
sommige geloofsvormen1 doordien  zij    
meermalen te ,tidor geweest zijn en daar
 niet gaarne als gewone  ,papoes        
beschouwd worden4 ,onder de eigenlijke  
bevolking is nooit  gepoogd1 den ,islam 

intevoeren1 misschien wel uit eerbied   
voor dien  godsdienst1 die te verheven  
is voor de ,papoes40    #acbf ,robid van
 der ,aa1 p4 #cai4    #acbg ,koloniaal  
,verslag van #aijf1 p4 #gj2 #aiaa1 p4   
#eb4    #acbh ,the ,journal of the      
,indian ,archipelago1 vol4 vii4 pp4 #fd1
 #ga4  7,singapore1 #ahec47    #acbi ,g4
 ,w4 ,w4 ,c4 ,baron von ,hovell1 p4     
#abj4 ,krieger1 p4 #dcf4    #accj       
,encyclopaedie van ,n4-,i41 vol4 ii4 p4 
#baj4    #acca ,crawfurd 7#b71 pp4 #bge1
 #cjg4    #accb ,buckle's ,miscellaneous
 and ,posthumous ,works1 edited by      
,helen  ,taylor1 vol4 i4 p4 #eid4       
7,london1 #ahgb47    #accc ,neimann1 pp4
 #djf-g4    #accd ,c4 ,snouck           
,hurgronje3 ,de hadji-politiek der      
,indische ,regeering1  p4 #ab4          
7,overdruk uit ,onze ,eeuw1 #aiji47     
#acce ,id43 ,notes sur le mouvement du  
plerinage de la ,mecque aux ,indes      
,nerlandaises4 7,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 vol4 xv4
 pp4 #dji1 #dab47    #accf ,report of   
,centenary ,conference on ,protestant   

,missions1 vol4 i4  p4 #ba4 ,niemann1 p4
 #djg4    #accg ,med4 ,ned4             
,zendelinggen4 vols4 xxxii41 xxxiv4     
passim4    #acch ,snouck ,hurgronje     
7#c71 vol4 ii4 pp4 xv4 #cci-cic4        
,encyclopaedie  van ,n4-,i41 vol4 ii4   
pp4 #egf-i4    #acci e4g4 the           
,qdiriyyah1 ,naqshbandiyyah and         
,sammniyyah4 7,c4 ,snouck  ,hurgronje   
7#b71 p4 #ahf47 ,id4 7#c7 vol4 ii4 p4   
#cgb1 etc4    #acdj ,j4 ,g4 ,f4 ,riedel 
7#a71 pp4 #g1 #ei1 #afb4    #acda       
,snouck ,hurgronje 7#c71 vol4 ii4 p4    
#cbc4    #acdb ,hauri1 p4 #cac4         
,encyclopaedie van ,n4-,i41 vol4 ii4 p4 
#ebd4    #acdc ,organisations based on  
the model of ,christian missionary      
societies do not begin to make their    
appearance until the twentieth  century2
 some account of these is given in      
,appendix ,,iii4    #acdd 8 tout        
musulman1 quelque mondain qu'il soit1 le
 proslytisme  semble tre en quelque     
sorte inn40 7,snouck ,hurgronje1 ,revue 
de  l',histoire des ,religions1 vol4    

lvii4 p4 #ff47 8,der ,muslim ist von    
,natur  ,missionr 444 ,er treibt        
,mission auf eigne ,faust und ,kosten40 
7,munzinger1 p4 #daa47 ,snouck          
,hurgronje 7#a71 p4 #h2 ,lttke 7#b71 p4 
#cj2  ,julius ,richter1 p4 #aeb2        
,merensky1 p4 #aed4    #acde ,qurn1 xvi4
 #abf4    #acdf ,see the interesting    
letter addressed by ,mawl ,isml1 ,sharf 
of ,morocco1 in #afih to ,king ,james   
,,ii1 inviting him to embrace ,islam4   
7,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1  
vol4 xlvii4 p4 #agd sqq47    #acdg      
,anjuman imyat-i-,islm k mhwr rislah1   
pp4 #e-ac4 7,lahore1  ,october #ahhi47  
#acdh ,duveyrier1 p4 #ag4    #acdi      
,klamroth1 p4 #ab4    #acej ,massaja1   
vol4 xi4 pp4 #abd-e4    #acea ,artin1 p4
 #aai4    #aceb ,r4 du ,m4 ,m41 ix4     
7#aiji71 p4 #beb4    #acec ,ghulm       
,sarwar3 ,khaznat al-,afy1 vol4 ii4 p4  
#djg-h4    #aced ,goldziher1 vol4 ii4   
pp4 #cjc-d4    #acee ,the ,pechenegs at 
that time occupied the country between  
the  lower ,danube and the ,don1 to     

which they had migrated from the banks  
of  the ,ural at the end of the ninth   
century4 7,karamsin1 vol4 i4 pp4        
#ahj-a47    #acef ,ab ,ubayd al-,bakr   
7died #ajid71 pp4 #dfg-h4    #aceg      
,ghulm ,sarwar3 ,khaznat al-,afy1 vol4  
i4 p4 #fac4    #aceh ,d4 ,crawford3     
,thinking ,black1 p4 #bjb4 7,london1    
#aiac47    #acei ,doughty1 vol4 ii4 p4  
#ci4    #acfj ,this was emphasised by   
,marracci in the seventeenth century4   
8,si  ethnicus mysteria humani          
intellectus captum excedentia1 vel      
naturali  conditioni et imbecillitati   
difficillima1 si non impossibilia1 cum  
,alcoranica doctrina comparaverit1      
statim ab his refugiet1 et ad illa      
obviis ulnis accurret40 7,alcorani      
textus 444 translatus1 p4 #i4 ,patavii1 
#afih47    #acfa ,edouard ,montet3 ,la  
propagande chrtienne et ses adversaires 
musulmans1 pp4 #ag-ah4 7,paris1 #ahij47 
#acfb ,mankind and the ,church1 p4      
#bhc-d4 7,london1 #aijg47    #acfc      
,qurn1 ii4 #aah-bf4    #acfd ,qurn1     

xlix4 #aj4    #acfe ,w4 ,h4 ,macnaghten3
 ,principles and ,precedents of         
,moohummudan ,law1  p4 #cab4 7,madras1  
#ahhb47    #acff ,arabia ,deserta1 vol4 
i4 pp4 #eed-e4    #acfg ,de l',esprit   
des ,lois1 livre xxv4 chap4 #b4    #acfh
 ,qur41 chap4 xvi4 v4 #ib4    #acfi     
,goldziher1 ,sad b4 asan d',alexandrie4 
7,revue des tudes  ,juives1 tome xxx4   
pp4 #ag-ah47 7,paris1 #ahie47    #acgj  
,ernest ,renan3 ,l',islamisme et la     
,science1 p4 #ai4 7,paris1 #ahhc47      
,this has been emphasised by many       
observers1 but it will be enough here   
to quote the words of an eminent        
,christian bishop4 8,no one who comes in
  contact for the first time with       
,mohammedans can fail to be struck by   
this aspect of their faith4444 ,wherever
 one may be1 in open street1 in  railway
 station1 in the field1 it is the most  
ordinary thing to see a  man1 without   
the slightest touch of ,pharisaism or   
parade1 quietly and  humbly leaving     
whatever pursuit he may be at the moment

 engaged in1 in  order to say his       
prayers at the appointed hour4 ,on a    
larger scale1 no  one who has ever seen 
the courtyard of the ,great ,mosque at  
,delhi on the  last ,friday in the      
fast-month 7,ramazan7 filled to         
overflowing with1  perhaps1 #ae1jjj     
worshippers1 all wholly absorbed in     
prayer1 and  manifesting the profoundest
 reverence and humility in every        
gesture1  can fail to be deeply         
impressed by the sight1 or to get a     
glimpse of  the power which underlies   
such a system2 while the very regularity
 of  the daily call to prayer1 as it    
rings out at earliest dawn1 before      
light commences1 or amid all the noise  
and bustle of the business  hours1 or   
again as the evening closes in1 is      
fraught with the same  message40 7,dr4  
,g4 ,a4 ,lefroy3 ,mankind and the       
,church1 pp4 #bhg-h4  7,london1 #aijg477
    #acga 8,one may notice and admire   
the kind of chivalrous pride which  the 
average ,mohammedan takes in his faith40

 7,bishop ,lefroy3 ,mankind and  the    
,church1 p4 #bhi47    #acgb ,a4 ,kuenen3
 ,national ,religions and ,universal    
,religions1 p4 #ce4  7,london1 #ahhb47  
#acgc e4g4 ,the persecution1 under      
al-,mutawakkil1 by the orthodox         
reaction against all forms of deviation 
from the popular creed3 in  ,persia and 
other parts of ,asia about the end of   
the thirteenth century  in revenge for  
the domineering and insulting behaviour 
of the  ,christians in the hour of their
 advancement and power under the early  
,mongols4 7,maqrz 7#b71 ,tome i4        
,premire ,partie1 pp4 #ih1 #ajf47       
,assemani  7tom4 iii4 pars4 ii4 p4c471  
speaking of the causes that have excited
  the persecution of the ,christians    
under ,muhammadan rule1 says3--8,non    
raro persecutionis procellam excitarunt 
mutuae ,christianorum ipsorum           
simultates1 sacerdotum licentia1        
praesulum fastus1 tyrannica magnatum    
potestas1 et medicorum praesertim       
scribarumque de supremo in gentem  suam 

imperio altercationes40 ,during the     
crusades the ,christians of the  ,east  
frequently fell under the suspicion of  
favouring the invasions of  their       
co-religionists from the ,west1 and in  
modern ,turkey the movement  for ,greek 
,independence and the religious         
sympathies it excited in  ,christian    
,europe contributed to make the lot of  
the subject ,christian  races harder    
than it would have been1 had they not   
been suspected of  disloyalty and       
disaffection towards their ,muhammadan  
ruler4 ,de ,gobineau  has expressed     
himself very strongly on this question  
of the toleration  of ,islam3 8,si l'on 
spare la doctrine religieuse de la      
ncessit  politique qui souvent a parl et
 agi en son nom1 il n'est pas de        
religion plus tolrante1 on pourrait     
presque dire plus indiffrente sur  la   
foi des hommes que l',islam4 ,cette     
disposition organique est si forte      
qu'en dehors des cas o la raison d'tat  
mise en jeu a port les  gouvernements   

musulmans  se faire arme de tout pour   
tendre  l'unit  de foi1 la tolrance la  
plus complte a t la rgle fournie par le 
dogme4444 ,qu'on ne s'arrte pas aux     
violences1 aux cruauts commises  dans   
une occasion ou dans une autre4 ,si on y
 regarde de prs1 on ne  tardera pas  y  
dcouvrir des causes toutes politiques ou
 toutes de  passion humaine et de       
temprament chez le souverain ou dans les
  populations4 ,le fait religieux n'y   
est invoqu que comme prtexte et1  en    
ralit1 il reste en dehors40 7,a4 de     
,gobineau 7#a71 pp4 #bd-e47    #acgd    
,for a biography of him1 see ,ibn       
,khallikn1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aaa-ae4        
#acge ,barhebrus 7#b71 pp4 #dag-ah4     
#acgf ,c4 d',ohsson1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bha4  
#acgg ,tavernier 7#a71 p4 #afj4    #acgh
 ,viaggio di ,iosafa ,barbero nella     
,persia4 7,ramusio1 vol4 ii4 p4  #aaa47 
#acgi ,if indeed by ,azi is meant j4    
#achj ,makn1 p4 #bfj4 ,similarly1 about 
a century before1 al-,muqtadir  7,a4,d4 
#ijh-icb7 gave orders for the rebuilding

 of some churches at  ,ramlah in        
,palestine which had been destroyed by  
,muhammadans during a  riot1 the cause  
of which is not recorded4 7,eutychius1  
ii4 p4 #hb47 ,ab  li makes mention of   
the rebuilding of a great many churches 
and  monasteries in ,egypt which had    
either been destroyed in time of war    
7e4g4 during the invasion of the ,ghuzz 
and the ,kurds in #aafd7 7pp4 #ia1  #if1
 #aab1 #abj71 been wrecked by fanatics  
7pp4 #he-f1 #ahb1 and ,maqrz  quoted in 
the ,appendix pp4 #cbg-h71 or fallen    
into decay 7pp4 #e1 #hg1  #ajc-d74      
#acha ,a4 de la ,jonquire1 pp4 #bjc1    
#bac1 #cab4    #achb ,e4 ,charvriat3    
,histoire de la ,guerre de ,trente ,ans1
 tome ii4 pp4  #fae1 #fbe4 7,paris1     
#ahgh47    #achc ,in ,ioannis           
,evangelium ,tractatus1 xxv4  #aj4      
#achd ,c4 ,merivale3 ,the ,conversion of
 the ,northern ,nations1 p4 #ajb4       
7,london1 #ahff47    #ache ,mr b4       
,sulaymn1 p4 #fb 7ll4 #d1 #f1 #ac74 ,the
 learned ,maronite1  ,ysuf ,simn        

al-,simn1 in the eighteenth century1    
thus expressed his  horror at such a    
concession to ,muslim sentiment3        
8,mahometi eiusque  sectariorum laudes  
persequitur1 et quod sine horrore dici  
nequit1  illius pseudo-prophetae nomen  
es adiuncto praeconio memorat1 quo      
,mahometani solent1 nimirum  40         
7,assemani1 tom4 iii1 pars4 i4  p4      
#ehe47    #achf ,mr b4 ,sulaymn1 p4 #fe 
7l4 #af74    #achg ,methods of ,mission 
,work among ,moslems1 p4 #fb4    #achh  
,id4 pp4 #fa-d4    #achi ,laurent1 p4   
#aca4    #acij ,historia ,rerum         
,anglicarum ,willelmi ,parvi de         
,newburgh1 ed4 ,hans  ,claude ,hamilton1
 vol4 ii4 p4 #aeh4 7,london1 #ahef47    
#acia ,frederick ,denison ,maurice was  
giving expression to one of the  most   
commonly received opinions regarding    
this faith when he said1 8,it  has been 
proved that ,mahometanism can only      
thrive while it is aiming at  conquest40
 7,the ,religions of the ,world1 p4     
#bh47 7,cambridge1 #aheb47    #acib     

,similarly1 the ,spanish editor of the  
controversial letters that  passed      
between ,alvar and 8the transgressor0 7a
 ,christian convert to  ,judaism71 adds 
the following note after ,epist4 xv43   
8,quatuordecim in  hac pagina ita       
abrasae sunt liniae1 ut nec verbum unum 
legi possit4  ,folium subsequens        
exsecuit possessor codicis1 ne          
transgressoris  deliramenta legerentur40
 7,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat41 tom4 cxxi4 p4   
#dhc47    #acic ,richter1 pp4 #afd-e4   
#acid ,artin1 p4 #ce4    #acie ,the     
,moslem ,world1 vol4 i4 p4 #dda4    ,r4 
du ,m4 ,m41 vol4 xv4 p4 #cgd2 vol4      
xviii4 pp4 #baf1 #bbd4    #acif         
,rajputana ,herald1 ,april #ag1 #ahhi4  
#acig ,mohammedan ,world of ,to-day1 p4 
#ahc4    #acih ,a list of these is given
 on p4 #ai of the ,annual ,report for   
the  year #acbh ,h4