,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,italics are represented thus italic4 ,,the ,,origins ,,of ,,art ,illustration3 ,publisher's monogram ,,the ,,origins ,,of ,,art ,a ,,psychological ,,sociological ,,inquiry ,,by ,,yrj ,,hirn ,,lecturer ,,on ,,sthetic ,,and ,,modern ,,literature ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,finland1 ,,helsingfors ,london ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aijj ,all rights reserved ,,preface ,the aim and scope of this book is sufficiently indicated by its title4 ,i have endeavoured throughout to restrict my attention to questions connected with the origins of art4 ,points of history and criticism have been touched upon only in so far as they appeared to contribute towards the elucidation of this purely psychological and sociological problem4 ,in order to save space as well as to spare the reader's attention1 the descriptive parts have been concentrated as much as possible4 ,as a rule1 only one ethnological example1 which has been selected as typical1 is described in the text1 while the corroborating examples are represented by references in the footnotes4 ,and even of these references only such are adduced as have been considered especially significant4 ,only in one matter have ,i aimed at completeness1 viz4 that of reference to authors from whom ,i have borrowed facts or observations4 ,and whenever in earlier literature ,i have found theories which have appeared similar to the views advanced in this book1 these similarities have been pointed out in the footnotes4 ,there is one point1 however1 to which the reader's attention should be called in this ,preface4 ,when treating of the art-impulse ,i have--especially in the tenth chapter--mentioned in the footnotes some modern writers on sthetic1 who1 although starting from different assumptions1 have arrived at a conception of art which in many points may be compared to the one advanced in this book4 ,this comparison1 however1 has not been carried out in the text4 ,considerations of space account for this omission2 but it has a further ground in the circumstances under which the present work has originated4 ,a part of it1 containing the examination of feeling and its expression1 and the chapter on 8,animal ,display10 was published in ,swedish as early as #ahifa--that is1 before the above-mentioned authors had made their theories known4 ,this is not mentioned in order to raise any futile questions of priority1 but only as a justification of the way in which my conclusions have been presented4 ,it has appeared to me that the continuity of the argument could not but have been broken if1 instead of proceeding from my original starting-point1 ,i had based my conclusions upon a critical examination of modern sthetic doctrines4 ,and ,i trust that the differences between the thesis of this book and other emotionalistic explanations will appear with sufficient clearness to the attentive reader even if they have not been expressly pointed out in the text4 ,there are1 no doubt1 many points1 a fuller treatment of which might have been to the advantage of the book4 ,the force of circumstances has compelled me to aim at brevity before anything4 ,but even if it had been possible to give this study a far greater comprehensiveness1 the difficulties of expressing myself in a foreign tongue would have withheld me from any avoidable amplification4 ,i have constantly been conscious of my audacity in appearing before the ,english public without sufficiently mastering the ,english language1 and ,i have been anxious not to make my offence greater by any number of pages than it already is4 ,that it has been possible at all to publish this research in ,english is only a result of the kind assistance which ,i have received from my ,english friends4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,g4 ,g4 ,berry in ,oxford1 and ,mr4 ,leonard ,pomeroy in ,london1 who have revised parts of the manuscript4 ,and ,i am further indebted to my publishers for procuring me the assistance of ,mr4 ,stephen ,gwynn in preparing the book for the press4 ,he has helped me to avoid needlessly technical expressions1 and in other ways has given the work a more readable style4 ,but he has not restricted himself to these emendations4 ,he has assisted me with valuable suggestions as well as with information4 ,the improvement which the work has derived from his collaboration can be sufficiently appreciated only by its author4 ,in purely scientific matters ,i have benefited much from discussions with students of psychology and sociology in my own country as well as in ,england4 ,my thanks are due to all of them1 but especially to my old friends1 ,dr4 ,edward ,westermarck and ,dr4 ,richard ,wallaschek4 ,the 8,list of ,authorities quoted0 and the ,indexes have been compiled by my wife4 ,this is1 however1 only the least important part of the assistance which throughout the book has been rendered to me by the constant collaborator in all my researches4 ,y4 ,h4 ,,helsingfors1 ,august #aijj4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,the ,,problem ,,stated #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,art-,,impulse #ah ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,feeling-,,tone ,,of ,,sensation #cj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,emotions #dc ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,enjoyment ,,of ,,pain #ef ,,chapter ,,vi ,,social ,,expression #gb ,,chapter ,,vii ,,deduction ,,of ,,art-,,forms #hf ,,chapter ,,viii ,,art ,,the ,,reliever #ajb ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,art #aaa ,,chapter ,x ,,objections ,,and ,,answers #acd ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,concrete ,,origins ,,of ,,art #adc ,,chapter ,,xii ,,art ,,and ,,information #adi ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,historical ,,art #afd ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,animal ,,display #ahf ,,chapter ,,xv ,,art ,,and ,,sexual ,,selection #bjc ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,origins ,,of ,,self-,,decoration #bad ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,erotic ,,art #bbh ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,art ,,and ,,work #bdi ,,chapter ,,xix ,,art ,,and ,,war #bfa ,,chapter ,,xx ,,art ,,and ,,magic #bgh ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,conclusions #bih ,,list ,,of ,,authorities ,,quoted #cjg ,,index ,,of ,,authors #cbc ,,index ,,of ,,subjects #cbh ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,problem ,,stated ,when1 one hundred and fifty years ago1 ,baumgarten wrote the treatise to which he gave the name ,aesthetica1 and which he described as a 8theory of liberal arts and beautiful thinking10 it seemed to him needful to apologise for attracting attention to a field of inquiry so low and sensuous as that province of philosophy to which he then affixed a name4 ,many1 he thought1 might regard art and beauty1 which appeal primarily to the senses1 as subjects beneath the dignity of philosophers4#b ,yet the theories and the ideas which were first brought together as an organised body of thought in ,baumgarten's short manual had so deeply influenced the speculations of his age that1 a generation later1 the most important questions of life came to be treated as sthetic problems4 ,the philosophy of art1 far from needing to justify its existence1 dominated all philosophy--ethics1 metaphysics1 and even cosmogony4 ,imagination was treated as the ruling faculty in all creation1 and beauty was referred to as the criterion1 not only in art1 but in morality4 ,yet the importance thus given to sthetic speculation was transitory1 and the period during which philosophers were concerned1 not only to find a general criterion of beauty for the arts1 but also to apply that criterion far beyond the sphere of art1 has been succeeded by an age which neglects speculation on art and beauty for other tasks which are regarded as far more important4 ,such rapid changes within a few generations appear almost incomprehensible4 ,but they can easily be explained if we take into account the intimate connection which always exists between sthetic speculation and prevailing currents of thought4 ,in ,mr4 ,bosanquet's ,history of sthetic it has been pointed out with great clearness to what extent the earlier prosperity of sthetic studies was caused by the general philosophical situation4 ,the theory of sthetic1 as set forth in ,baumgarten's chapter on cognitio sensitiva1 and further developed in ,kant's ,kritik der ,urtheilskraft1 dealt1 as is well known1 with a form of judgment which is neither purely rational nor purely sensual4#c ,in metaphysics1 for philosophers who had to struggle with what seemed to them an irreconcilable opposition between reason and the senses1 this conception of a mediative faculty must have satisfied a most urgent need4 ,similarly we may suppose that the ethical observer felt himself emancipated from the narrow antagonism between body and spirit by looking at our actions in the sthetic way4 ,in proportion1 however1 as general science has been able to do away with the old dualism of higher and lower faculties1 the judgment of taste has necessarily lost importance4 ,in the development of monistic philosophy and monistic morals we may thus see one important factor1 by the influence of which sthetic has been ousted from its central position4 ,the evolution of modern art has been still more injurious to sthetic speculation than the progress of science4 ,in the palmy days of art-philosophy conditions were eminently favourable to universal generalisations4 ,the great periods of art1 classical antiquity and the ,renaissance1 were so remote that only their simplest and most salient features were discerned4 ,nor did the art of the period exhibit the bewildering multiplicity of a fertile age1--least of all in ,germany1 the home and centre of sthetic inquiry4 ,the formative arts were less important than ever before2 music1 which was so soon to eclipse all other arts1 had not yet awakened the interest of philosophers4 ,the crafts were at a low ebb2 landscape-gardening is indeed the only kind of applied art that we hear about at this time4 ,beauty1 art1 the ideal--these and all other general notions must have been suggested with unsurpassable simplicity by this uniform and monotonous artistic output4 ,it is easy to understand the eagerness and the delight with which the earlier writers on sthetic1 once the impulse given1 drew conclusions1 made comparisons1 and laid down laws4 ,but it is equally evident that speculative zeal was bound to fall off as soon as the province of art was enlarged and its products differentiated4 ,even the more intimate knowledge of classical culture which was subsequently gained1 necessitated important corrections in sthetic dogmas4 ,the artistic activities of savage tribes1 which have been practically unknown to sthetic writers until recent years1 display many features that cannot be harmonised with the general laws4 ,and in a yet higher degree contemporary art defies the generalisations of a uniform theory4 ,with greater mastery over materials and technique1 the different arts have been able to produce more and more specialised forms of beauty4 ,the painter's ideal can no longer be confused with that of the poet or the story-teller1 nor the sculptor's with that of the actor4 ,pure music1 pure poetry1 pure painting1 thus develop into isolated1 independent arts1 of which each one establishes its own laws and conditions for itself4 ,the critic who1 in spite of this evolution1 tries to apply a narrow sthetic standard of beauty to all the various arts may indeed--according to his influence--delay the public appreciation of modern works1 and thus indirectly impede artistic development4 ,but no amount of theorising will enable him to arrest the growth of artistic forms whose very existence contradicts the generalisations of the old systems4 ,and he is equally powerless to stop such violations of the supposed frontiers of the different arts as continually occur1 for instance1 in descriptive music1 or in poetry like that of ,gautier1 which aims at producing a pictorial impression by means of words4 ,it is only natural that1 in times so inopportune1 general speculations on art and beauty have been more and more abandoned in favour of detailed studies in the technicalities of art1 historical researches in which works of art are considered chiefly as documents bearing on culture1 and experiments on the physiology and psychology of sthetic perception4 ,for art itself and its development it would perhaps be unimportant if a science which has never exercised any great positive and direct influence on artistic production should completely disappear4 ,but from the theoretical point of view it would be matter for regret if artistic activities ceased to be considered as a whole4 ,and so also would it be if sthetic feelings1 judgments of taste1 and ideals of beauty came to be treated only in appendices to works on psychology4 ,it is true that all these notions have irremediably lost their former metaphysical and philosophical importance4 ,but in compensation1 art and beauty have for modern thinking acquired a social and psychological significance4 ,to determine the part which the production and the enjoyment of works of art play in their relation to the other factors of individual and social life--that is indeed a task which is momentous enough to be treated in a science of its own4 ,modern sthetic1 therefore1 has still its own ends1 which1 if not so ambitious as those of the former speculative science of beauty1 are nevertheless of no small importance4 ,these ends1 however1 can no longer be attained by the procedure of the old sthetic systems4 ,as the problems have changed with changing conditions1 so too the methods must be brought into line with the general scientific development4 ,historical and psychological investigation must replace the dialectic treatment of the subject4 ,art can no longer be deduced from general1 philosophical1 and metaphysical principles2 it must be studied--by the methods of inductive psychology--as a human activity4 ,beauty cannot be considered as a semi-transcendental reality2 it must be interpreted as an object of human longing and a source of human enjoyment4 ,in sthetic proper1 as well as in the philosophy of art1 every research must start1 not from theoretical assumptions1 but from the psychological and sociological data of the sthetic life4 ,such a procedure1 however1 is encumbered with difficulties1 of which the writers on speculative sthetic were scarcely aware4 ,when theories of art and beauty were based on general a priori principles1 there could not possibly be any doubt as to the point of departure in the several researches4 ,but when we have no assumptions to start from1 the very demarcation of the subject may become a matter of uncertainty4 ,in the philosophy of art1 to which department of sthetic ,i wish to restrict my researches in the present work1 this difficulty of formulating the data and qusita--the facts which we have to go upon1 and the facts which we wish to find out--constitutes the first1 and by no means the least important1 problem4 ,if we are to embark upon a scientific treatment of art without any preconceived definitions1 the aim and conditions of such treatment can only be determined by examining the prevailing notions on the subject1 as they are expressed in language and in literature4 ,as an interpretation for general use and of general applicability1 a theory of art can claim attention only if it conforms to the recognised usage of the principal sthetic terms4 ,in the various definitions of art which are contained in the different sthetic systems1 we must therefore try to find some point of unity from which to approach our subject4 ,the difficulties of such a task are evident to any one who has gone through the discouraging experience of reading a history of sthetic4 ,the investigator who seeks an accurate demarcation of the whole area of art1 as distinguished from other departments of life1 meets with partial definitions which can be applied only to certain fixed forms of art4 ,we need mention but a few of the most typical instances4 ,even an ardent admirer of ,taine is compelled to admit that his generalisations are too exclusively derived from the study of poetry and the formative arts4 ,in the same way it is only by laborious adjustments that the theory of ,vischer can be applied to music and lyric poetry2 the aphorisms of ,ruskin do not even pretend to apply to any but the formative arts2 and ,mr4 ,marshall's sthetic ,principles--to adduce one of the most recent attempts in general art-theory--are too obviously those of an expert in architecture4 ,in none of the modern systems has sufficient room been made for certain forms of art which1 from the evolutionist's standpoint1 are of the highest importance3 such as acting1 dancing1 and decoration4 ,all the one-sided definitions are1 moreover1 so inconsistent with each other that it seems impossible to make up for their individual deficiencies by an eclectic combination4 ,it is not to be wondered at1 therefore1 if some writers on art1 confused by the bewildering contradictions of sthetic theories1 have called in question the very existence of any universal art-criterion4#d ,those who adopt this attitude--which seems the more justified now that the arts have become widely differentiated--deny the possibility1 not only of all general art-philosophy1 but also of any sociological and psychological treatment of artistic activities as a whole4 ,but even if all other hypotheses are banished1 sthetic research cannot possibly dispense with the fundamental assumption of the unity of art4 ,and in point of fact there can be found in most systems1 if we do not insist on too minute and positive demarcations1 at least one common quality which is ascribed to all its different forms4 ,notwithstanding the mutual contradictions of art-theories1 the believers in a general sthetic can always appeal to the consent with which the majority of authors have upheld the negative criterion of art4 ,metaphysicians as well as psychologists1 ,hegelians as well as ,darwinians1 all agree in declaring that a work1 or performance1 which can be proved to serve any utilitarian1 non-sthetic object must not be considered as a genuine work of art4 ,true art has its one end in itself1 and rejects every extraneous purpose3 that is the doctrine which1 with more or less explicitness1 has been stated by ,kant1#e ,schiller1#f ,spencer1#g ,hennequin1#h ,grosse1#i ,grant ,allen1#aj and others4 ,and popular opinion agrees in this respect with the conclusions of science4 ,this distinctive quality of independence seems therefore to afford us a convenient starting-point for the treatment of art in general4 ,owing to its negative character1 this criterion does not give us much information as to the real qualities of art4 ,but even the poorest definition is enough to begin with1 if it only holds good with regard to all particular cases4 ,unfortunately1 however1 we need only apply the test of independence in the concrete instance to find that even the applicability of this single accepted criterion may be seriously disputed4 ,there is scarcely any author1 however he may formulate his general definitions of art1 who would assess the relative value of art-works according to their degrees of disinterestedness4 ,no candid man would1 for instance1 nowadays contend that an arabesque composition is per se more sthetically pure than a statue or a poem4#aa ,but we may even go farther4 ,we must question whether every work of art ought to be degraded from its sthetic rank1 if it can be convicted of having served any external utilitarian purpose4 ,this strict conception of the sthetic boundaries has been eloquently attacked by ,guyau in his celebrated treatise1 ,le principe de l'art et de la posie4#ab ,though the ultimate conclusions of this work are perhaps not so clear as might be desired1 yet we do not see how his attitude in estimating concrete manifestations of art can be assailed4 ,it would1 to take an example1 be absurd to contend that the singing of ,taillefer lost in sthetic value by contributing to the victory of ,hastings4 ,and however strictly we may insist upon the requirement that every genuine work of art should have been created purely for its own sake1 we cannot possibly conceal the fact that some of the world's finest love lyrics were originally composed1 not in sthetic freedom1 which is independent of all by-purposes1 but with the express end of gaining the ear and the favour of a beloved woman4 ,the influence which such foreign1 non-sthetic motives have exercised on art will also become more and more apparent with increased knowledge of the conditions of sthetic production4 ,the further the psychological biographer pushes his indiscreet researches into the private life of individual artists1 the more often will he find that some form of interest--personal1 political1 ethical1 religious--enters into the so-called disinterested sthetic activity4 ,such instances must induce undogmatic authors to relax to some extent the strict application of this criterion4 ,and even those philosophers who1 in spite of the historical evidence1 insist upon applying it will be compelled to admit that they have taken for works of genuine art productions which1 from their philosophic standpoint1 have no claim to the title4 ,the danger of such mistakes is all the greater when one has to deal with the lower stages of artistic development4 ,in point of fact recent ethnological researches have conclusively proved that it is not only difficult1 but quite impossible1 to apply the criterion of sthetic independence to the productions of savage and barbarous tribes4 ,it is true that the large province of primitive art has not as yet in its entirety been made the subject of systematic study4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the results which have been arrived at with regard to decoration1 its most typical form1 amply bear out our view4 ,in almost every case where the ornaments of a tribe have been closely examined1 it has appeared that what to us seems a mere embellishment is for the natives in question full of practical1 non-sthetic significance4 ,carvings on weapons and implements1 tattooings1 woven and plaited patterns1 all of which the uncritical observer is apt to take for purely artistic compositions1 are now explained as religious symbols1 owners' marks1 or ideograms4 ,there is still room for discussion as to whether in certain individual interpretations the tendency to look for concealed meanings has not been carried too far4 ,but there can be no doubt that the general principles which to many students seemed so fantastic when first formulated by ,stolpe1 ,read1#ac and others1 have derived additional support from every fresh inquiry into primitive systems of decoration4 ,the isolated researches which have been carried on within the department of primitive literature and drama all point in the same direction4 ,wherever ethnologists have the opportunity of gaining some insight into the inner life of a savage tribe1 they are surprised at the religious or magical significance which lies concealed behind the most apparently trivial of amusements4 ,and it is to be remarked that they have learned to appreciate this esoteric meaning1 not by a closer study of the manifestations themselves1 but through information acquired by intercourse with the natives4 ,there is often not a single feature in a savage dance which would give the uninitiated any reason to suspect the non-sthetic purpose4 ,when ,north ,american ,indians1 ,kaffirs1 or ,negroes perform a dance in which all the movements of the animals they hunt are imitated1 we unavoidably see in their antics an instance of primitive but still purely artistic drama4 ,it is only from the descriptions of ,catlin1 ,lichtenstein1 and ,reade#ad that we learn that these pantomimes have in reality quite as practical a purpose as those imitations and representations of animals by which hunters all over the world try to entice their game within shooting distance4 ,according to the doctrine of sympathetic magic1 it is simply an axiomatic truth that the copy of a thing may at any distance influence the thing itself1 and that thus a buffalo dance1 even when it is performed in the camp1 may compel the buffaloes to come within range of the hunters4 ,but the deceptive appearance of disinterestedness1 which in these cases might have led one to mistake a mere piece of hunting magic for a specimen of pure dramatic art1 is apt to make us cautious about accepting as independently sthetic any performance of primitive man4 ,in the songs and dances by which savages exhort themselves to work and regulate their exertions we find an aspect of utilitarian advantage which is real and not imaginary4 ,evidently also this advantage1 and not any independent sthetic pleasure1 is--intentionally or unintentionally--aimed at in the war-pantomimes1 the boating songs1 dances1 etc4 ,and it is no doubt for this reason that music and dance have attained so surprising a development in the lower stages of culture4 ,in trying1 therefore1 to explain the historical development of art1 we are compelled to take into account that foreign purpose which is repudiated in art-theory4 ,if every work of art were really an end in itself--a ,selbstzweck--standing quite isolated from all the practical utilities of life1 it would be nothing less than a miracle that art should be met with in tribes which have not yet learnt to satisfy1 nor even to feel1 the most elementary necessities of life4 ,in such a case it is not music only which would1 as ,wallace thinks1 have to be explained by supernatural causes3#ae primitive art in all its departments would baffle our attempts at rational interpretation4 ,by studying1 however1 the artistic activities of savage and barbarous man in their connection with his non-sthetic life1 writers on evolutionary sthetic have succeeded in solving this great crux of art-history4 ,the dances1 poems1 and even the formative arts of the lower tribes possess indeed1 as every ethnologist will admit1 unquestionable sthetic value4 ,but this art is seldom free and disinterested2 it has generally a usefulness--real or supposed--and is often even a necessity of life4#af ,a historical conception of art is thus1 it appears1 incompatible with a strict maintenance of the sthetic criterion4 ,but it may still be asked whether we are therefore compelled to join ,guyau in abolishing all distinctions between art and other manifestations of human energy4#ag ,by doing away with the only definition which is common to the majority of sthetic systems1 we should dissociate ourselves from all previous views on art4 ,and it seems hard to believe that all dogmatic writers on sthetic1 one-sided as they may often seem1 have founded their theories on a pure fiction4 ,the independent sthetic activity1 which simply aims at its own satisfaction1 cannot have been invented for the sake of the systems4 ,the mere fact that so many theories have been proposed for its explanation furnishes1 it seems to us1 a sufficient proof that the conception of this activity corresponds to some psychological reality4 ,certainly the 8end in itself0 has not played so important a part in the practice of artists as writers on sthetic would have us believe2 and it is impossible to distinguish its effects in concrete individual instances4 ,but from all we know of the life and work of artists1 there appears to be a tendency--more or less consciously followed1 it is true1 in different cases--to make the work its own end4 ,and in the public we can in the same way notice an inclination--which grows with increasing culture--to regard art as something which exists for its own sake1 and to contemplate its manifestations with independent sthetic attention4 ,whatever we may think about the genesis of particular pictures and poems1 we know that at least they need no utilitarian1 non-sthetic justification in order to be appreciated by us4 ,and with as much assurance as we can ever feel in comparative psychology we may take it for granted that the same way of looking at art has prevailed in other stages of culture as well4 ,however cautious one may be in drawing conclusions from analogies between higher and lower forms1 a closer study of primitive art must needs compel every one to admit that these dances1 poems1 and ornaments1 even if they originally served practical1 religious1 or political aims1 may at least have come by degrees to be enjoyed in the same way as we enjoy our art4 ,by denying such subjective independence in the creation and enjoyment of art1 we should be no less guilty of one-sidedness than those authors who deny that genuine art has ever been influenced by 8foreign purposes40 ,if it is presumptuous to adduce any particular works or manifestations in proof of free and independent production1 it may be no less audacious to contend that even the most primitive form of art has flourished in tribes destitute of all sthetic cravings4 ,there is room for discussion on the degree of influence which 8autotelic0#ah artistic activity has exercised in particular works and manifestations4 ,it may also be made an object of research to determine at which precise stage of development sthetic attention becomes so emancipated as to entitle us to speak of a pure and free art-life4 ,but it does not seem that such inquiries can ever lead to any positive result4 ,the more one studies art1 especially primitive art1 from a comparative and historical point of view1 the more one is compelled to admit the impossibility of deciding where the non-sthetic motives end and the sthetic motives begin4 ,the only result we can reach is the somewhat indefinite one that it is as impossible to explain away the artistic purpose as it is to detect its presence in a pure state in any concrete work of art4 ,for art-philosophy as a distinct science even this non-committal conclusion is of vital importance4 ,it gives us a right to regard all the forms and developments of art as witnesses to an activity which tends to become more and more independent of the immediate utilities of life4 ,this tendency1 on the other hand1 not only affords us a point of unity from which to start upon a research into the general philosophy of art2 it also presents to us one of the greatest problems of the same science4 ,how it is that mankind has come to devote energy and zeal to an activity which may be almost entirely devoid of a utilitarian purpose is indeed the riddle1 sociological as well as psychological1 which would seem in the first place to claim the attention of the philosopher4 ,to the writer of this book1 at any rate1 it appeared that a discussion1 and an attempt at solution1 of this seeming paradox was a task sufficiently important and interesting to form of itself the subject of a special investigation4 ,but although the aspects of autotelic artistic activity give us at once a datum and a problem on which we may confidently base our research1 we must not overlook the peculiar difficulties that will necessarily arise from the exclusively psychological1 non-historical character of this basis4 ,a historic study of art shows us that the artistic activity proper can never be explained by examining concrete works as we meet them in reality4 ,whenever we have to deal with art as autotelic1 the need of theoretical abstraction forces itself upon us with irresistible cogency4 ,it is of no avail to argue from the data of art-history1 because we can never fully know the mental origin of the works4 ,the problem presented to us by the tendency to engage in artistic production and artistic enjoyment for their own sake can only be solved by studying the psychology both of artists and of their public4 ,the 8art-impulse0 and the 8art-sense10 as referring to subjective tendencies in creators and spectators1 are the chief notions with which we have to operate in such an investigation4 ,and when we are obliged to introduce the notion of the 8work of art0 we have to remember that this term1 strictly speaking1 refers to an abstract and ideal datum4 ,only by thus restricting our attention to the psychical facts can we attain any clear conception of that autotelic aspect of art on which so much stress has been laid in all sthetic philosophy4 ,it is needless to say1 however1 that even a purely philosophic interpretation of art would be impossible without a knowledge of its works and manifestations as they appear in real life1 with all their extraneous1 non-sthetic elements4 ,the psychological examination must therefore necessarily be supplemented by an historical one4 ,the methods of the latter research cannot be the same as those used in a strictly sthetic inquiry4 ,and the words will naturally be employed in a different sense4 ,we do not at that stage demand of a poem1 a painting1 or a drama1 that it should fulfil more than the technical requirements of the several arts4 ,the ornamentation of a vase1 e4g4 is in this sense a work of art even if it serves a magical1 i4e4 a supposed practical purpose4 ,indeed it is most advantageous1 if we wish to bring out the influence of sociological factors with the greatest possible clearness1 to concentrate our attention upon the very qualities which we have to disregard in the treatment of purely artistic activity4 ,the productions of primitive tribes1 in which art is so closely connected with life1 supply the most profitable material for such a study4 ,after having examined1 in these simple forms1 all the sociological aspects of art1 it will be possible to place the two art-factors in the most illustrative antithesis and to study their mutual influence4 ,from this it should be possible to suggest--although in this work no detailed attempt will be made to follow out the reasoning--why it is that the concrete work of art1 although its historical origin may be entirely non-sthetic1 has always proved so eminently adapted to serve the needs of the purely aesthetic craving4 ,and by starting from the conception of sthetic activities which has been arrived at on psychological grounds1 it should also be possible to determine the particular qualities in individual works of art which make them more or less able to satisfy this craving4 ,thus a theory of the psychological and sociological origins of art may furnish suggestions for those which have been considered as distinctive of sthetic proper1 such as the critical estimation of works of art1 or the derivation of laws which govern artistic production4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,art-,,impulse ,there are two things which have to be investigated--the reason why works of art are created1 and the reason why works of art are enjoyed4 ,by choosing at the outset to approach art in its active aspect--to examine into the impulse of the artist--we do not desert the central field of sthetic inquiry4 ,on the contrary1 it seems that a study of art-production affords the most convenient starting-point for any comprehensive treatment of art2 all the more because every sthetic pleasure1 even when apparently most passive1 always involves an element of unconscious artistic creation4#ai ,when absorbed in the beauty of nature we do in fact appear to ourselves to be entirely receptive2 but in truth our enjoyment1 if the enjoyment has any sthetic value at all1 is always more or less derived from the activity of our own mind4 ,it does not matter much1 from the psychological point of view1 whether we make an abortive but original effort to select and arrange the impressions which we receive1 as is the case when a new aspect of nature delights us1 or whether we merely reproduce at second hand the impression originally arranged by an artist1 as happens when we admire a statue1 or recognise in a landscape some effect that ,turner has recorded4#bj ,in either case the passive attitude can never be explained without reference to the active one4 ,in the historic interpretation of art it is of no less importance to study its productive side4 ,it is only by considering art as an activity that we can explain the great influence which it has exercised on social as well as on individual life4 ,these are1 however1 views which can only be properly established in the later chapters4 ,here we have merely to dwell on the aspects which present themselves to the psychological observer2 and there is no doubt that from his point of view the impulse to produce works of pure art constitutes the chief sthetic problem4 ,if once the creation has been satisfactorily accounted for1 it is relatively easy to explain the subsequent enjoyment of art4 ,accordingly1 by concentrating our attention on the art-impulse we approach the art-problem at its very core4 ,it has1 however1 been contended by some authors that the independence of external motives is nothing peculiar to art-production4 ,there is1 undoubtedly1 a certain kind of scientific study--for instance1 some departments of higher mathematics--which may be carried on entirely for its own sake without any regard to practical application1 or even to increased knowledge of nature4 ,and it is even more impossible to find any immediate utilitarian purpose for all the intense activity1 mental and physical1 which is devoted to sports and games4 ,every one knows that the 8end in itself0 which any of these affords may in many cases exercise as great an attraction as any of the utilitarian aims in life4 ,chess is said to have a demoniac power over its devotees1 and the attachment of a golfer to his game can only be described in the language of the most intense passion4 ,the same sacrifice of energy and interests to a one-sided and apparently useless purpose1 which in art seems so mysterious1 may thus1 as ,professor ,groos remarks1 be found in activities of far less repute4#ba ,it is evident that if artistic creation were in no wise different from these other examples of autotelic manifestations1 there would be no ground for considering the art-impulse as a separate or distinctive problem4 ,we can scarcely believe1 however1 that even ,professor ,groos himself would seriously maintain the parallel between art-production and the last-mentioned activities4 ,there are indeed cases in which a man of science devotes his whole energy to a task which is so abstract that it seems to give no satisfaction to the craving for positive truth4 ,but it is always an open question whether the attractiveness of such researches is not1 strictly speaking1 more sthetic than scientific4 ,higher mathematics is perhaps1 for those that live in the world of abstract quantities1 only an abstract form of art1 a soundless music or a wordless poetry4 ,in other cases the eagerness with which pure science is pursued as an autotelic end may be explained as a result of acquired habits4 ,like the miser1 the passionate researcher may often gradually lose sight of the ultimate aim of his activity and concentrate all his attention on the means4 ,there can be no question of denying the emotional value and the great attractive force which thus comes to be attached to these secondary purposes4 ,but in comparing such autotelic activities to those of art we have to remember that the passion1 however intense it may be1 is probably not primary but derived2 and it is in any case self-evident that it can be developed only in exceptional cases and in peculiarly predisposed individuals4 ,by the same criterion we can also separate the art-desire from the love of games and sports4 ,however passionate the sporting mania may be in individuals or nations1 it can never be compared as a universal and primary impulse with the craving for sthetic creation4 ,philosophers who bestow their whole attention only on the mature works which can be studied in the history of art1 may indeed contend that even the art-impulse is given to some favoured few4 ,but this view1 which would reduce all art-life to the status of a great and marvellous exception1 cannot possibly be upheld in a psychological sthetic4 ,it is1 no doubt1 the fact that the percentage of executive artists in modern nations is an almost negligible quantity4 ,it is also probable that--contrary to a common notion--the poets1 the painters1 and the dramatists form a distinct class even among the lower tribes4#bb ,but in treating the art-impulse as a psychological phenomenon the inquiry cannot be restricted to the few individuals who publicly practise a certain art4 ,as far as the artistic powers are concerned1 these undoubtedly stand apart from the rest of mankind4 ,but we are not entitled to maintain that they are also distinguished by some peculiar psychical impulse4 ,from the point of view of artistic perfection1 there is all the world between the youthful verses of ,goethe and the doggerel of a common schoolboy4 ,but1 psychologically1 the schoolboy's doggerel may be the result of as strong a craving for poetic expression as any of the world's greatest poems4#bc ,bad or good1 known or unknown1 every manifestation of artistic activity is equally illustrative for our purpose4 ,we have to count with the immense number of dilettanti who produce in privacy and in secret1 as well as with recognised artists4 ,and even those unfortunate persons who have never been able to find for themselves any satisfactory mode of sthetic expression may still be adduced in proof of the universality of the artistic desire4 ,if the notion of art is conceived in its most general sense1 every normal man1 at some time of his life at least1 is an artist--in aspiration1 if not in capacity4 ,if1 moreover1 we take into consideration the eagerness and devotion which is lavished upon artistic activity--not least1 perhaps1 by those who have never appeared as artists--we shall be compelled to admit that the art-impulse is not only commoner1 but also stronger and deeper1 than any of the above-mentioned non-utilitarian impulses4 ,if it can be explained at all1 it is only by deriving it from some great and fundamental tendency of the human mind4 ,this fact has1 naturally enough1 not been realised by those writers on sthetic who only study the ideal work of art as it appears among civilised nations4 ,in short1 the great systems of sthetic philosophy have never expressly stated the problem of finding an origin for the art-impulse2 and any interpretation of that impulse which may be derived constructively from their speculations upon the work of acknowledged artists is irreconcilable with the wider notion of art as a universal human activity4 ,if the aim of every artist really were1 as ,vischer must have thought1 to reinstate by the creation of a semblance the ,idea in the position from which it is in ,reality always thrust by material accidents2 if he desired1 for instance1 to show a human character as it would be but for the accidents of life2#bd or if1 to use the language of ,taine1 the artist's main object were to produce a representation of nature in which the essential characters enjoy an absolute sovereignty2 if he strove to depict a lion in such a way to emphasise specially these leonine traits which distinguish the lion from any other great cat1#be--then it would be hard to understand the attraction which art has exercised on people who are almost devoid of intellectual cravings4 ,we could not possibly find any connection between modern and primitive art4 ,nor could we explain why1 for instance1 poetry and music are so often cultivated by persons who do not otherwise show the slightest eagerness to understand the hidden nature of things1 who do not meddle with ideas or 8dominating faculties40 ,even in the case of philosophically-minded artists such motives are probably somewhat feeble4 ,the intellectualistic definitions may perhaps explain the sthetic qualities of the work of art itself4 ,but they can never account for the constraining force by which every genuine work of art is called into existence4 ,there are some authors1 however1 who have felt the need of a dynamic explanation of the art-impulse1 which should trace the motive force to its origin4 ,it was so with ,aristotle when he interpreted artistic production as a manifestation of the desire to imitate4 ,by this theory art is indeed brought into connection with a general animal impulse1 the sthetic importance of which can scarcely be overestimated4 ,it is only by reference to the psychology of imitative movements that we shall be able to explain the enjoyment of art4 ,but it seems1 nevertheless1 somewhat strained to make imitation the basis and purpose of artistic activity1 seeing that there are various forms of art1 as1 for instance1 architecture and purely lyrical music or poetry1 in which we can scarcely detect any imitative element at all4 ,the theories of ,aristotle1 of ,seneca1 and all their modern followers1 can only be upheld if the word 8imitation0 is used in a much wider sense than that which it generally bears4 ,but even those who1 with ,engel1 would consider the bodily movements as 8imitating the thoughts10#bf or those who in sthetic would speak of 8circulary reaction0#bg as a phenomenon of imitation1 would find it hard to discover in any of these relatively automatic manifestations such a mental compulsion as that which impels to artistic activity4 ,moreover1 as we need scarcely point out1 art in all its forms always strives after something more than a mere likeness4 ,it seems equally superfluous to emphasise the fact that no genuine artist has made it his sole object to please4 ,the fatal confusion between art-theory and the science of beauty has indeed led some writers on sthetic to derive artistic activities from an impulse to 8produce objects or objective conditions which should attract by pleasing40#bh ,such views will especially recommend themselves to those who believe in an animal art called forth by sexual selection4 ,nor can it be denied that the means of attraction employed in the competition for the favour of the opposite sex supply a part of the material which is used in the various arts4#bi ,with the artistic impulse itself1 which1 according to its very definition1 is independent of external motives1 the various means of attraction have no connection whatever4#cj ,from the theoretical point of view it is undoubtedly easier to defend ,professor ,baldwin's way of stating the case1 in which the 8self-exhibiting impulse0 takes the place of the 8instinct to attract by pleasing40#ca ,figuratively speaking1 an element of self-exhibition is involved in every artistic creation which addresses itself to a public4 ,and without a public--in the largest sense of the word--no art would ever have appeared4 ,but it seems somewhat difficult to make this self-exhibiting--in a sense which implies an actual audience--the aim and purpose of1 for instance1 the most intimate and personal examples of lyrical poetry4 ,it may of course be contended1 by those who advocate the importance of the last-mentioned interpretations1 that the variety of art-forms compels us to assume1 not one1 but several art-impulses4 ,at this stage of our research we cannot enter upon a discussion of such views2 but it will at least be admitted that explanations which can be applied in the whole field of art must be preferable to partial definitions4 ,this merit of universality1 at least1 cannot be denied to the theories which derive art from the playing impulse4 ,the notion of a sportive activity involves precisely that freedom from external1 consciously utilitarian motives which1 according to the consensus of almost all writers on sthetic1 is required in every genuine manifestation of art4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that it was by reference to the play-impulse that ,schiller tried to distinguish artistic production from all 8unfree0 forms of activity4#cb ,it is true that the notion of 8play0 as used by ,schiller and ,spencer--who has given the theory a physiological foundation--is chiefly important as a negative demarcation4 ,but even ,schiller brings in a positive factor when he speaks of the force by which 8overflowing life itself urges the animal to action0 78wenn das berflssige ,leben sich selbst zur ,thtigkeit stachelt074#cc ,in ,spencer's theory1 on the other hand1 the 8excessive readiness0 to nervous discharge which accompanies every surplus of vigour1 and which1 in his view1 accounts for play1 represents a motor element1 the impelling force of which must be considered as very strong4#cd ,as is well known1 ,spencer1 ,wallace1 and ,hudson have applied this principle of surplus energy to explain so-called animal art1 rejecting the theory which ascribes sthetic judgment to the female4#ce ,as formulated by the last-mentioned authors1 the play-theory is1 however1 open to objection from a physiological point of view4 ,it has been remarked by ,dr4 ,wallaschek that1 in speaking of animals1 the phrase 8surplus of vigour0 ought to be superseded by 8inapplicability of energy0 or 8unemployed energy40#cf ,and still more explicitly ,professor ,groos has shown that a stored-up supply of energy is by no means a necessary condition for play4#cg ,but these criticisms have by no means deprived the play-instinct of its importance as a dynamic factor4 ,since ,groos by his epoch-making researches has been able to prove that the majority of games--especially the games of youth--are based upon instincts1 we can adduce as an impelling force 8the demon instinct that urges and even compels to activity not only if and so long as the vessel overflows 7to use a figure of speech71 but even when there is but a last drop left in it40#ch ,by considering artistic activity as a kind of play1 one is therefore able to account for its great attractiveness1 even when no 8surplus of vigour0 can be shown to exist4 ,in the beginning of this chapter we did indeed contend that the 8compulsion0 which prompts to artistic activity is too strong to be even compared with the passion for sports and games4 ,but this superiority may of course be explained as a result of some peculiarity of this special kind of play4 ,as a matter of fact art is1 in a far higher degree than any of the sports and games1 able to satisfy the greatest and most fundamental instincts of man4 ,groos has tried to prove that the artistic motives which in all times have been most popular1 offer to the spectator as well as to the producer an opportunity for warlike and erotic stimulation2#ci and ,guyau had already remarked how important a part the moods of war1 or rather of struggle1 play in all enjoyment of art4#dj ,it is easy to understand the eager prosecution of an activity which thus affords free1 if imaginary1 exercise for instincts and tendencies which would otherwise be thwarted by the narrow restrictions of social life4 ,we are all animals in captivity1 and we eagerly seize every kind of vicarious function which can give at least a memory of the life from which we are excluded4 ,at lower stages of social evolution1 where instincts are more in harmony with life1 the play-element in art must evidently be of still greater importance4 ,artistic production and artistic enjoyment provide exercise for those very functions which are most important in real life4 ,art fulfils a great social mission1 and is developed in subservience to the struggle for life4 ,the play-theory1 as formulated by ,professor ,groos1 affords1 therefore1 in many cases an explanation of the high artistic level reached by the lower tribes4 ,in our historical treatment of primitive dances and dramas we shall be continually obliged to have recourse to this theory4 ,and it will thus appear that it is no deficient appreciation of its importance which compels us to look elsewhere for an explanation for the artistic impulse4 ,play and art have indeed many important characteristics in common4 ,neither of them has any immediate practical utility1 and both of them do nevertheless serve some of the fundamental needs of life4 ,all art1 therefore1 can in a certain sense be called play4 ,but art is something more than this4 ,the aim of play is attained when the surplus of vigour is discharged or the instinct has had its momentary exercise4 ,but the function of art is not confined to the act of production2 in every manifestation of art1 properly so called1 something is made and something survives4 ,it is true that in certain manifestations--for instance in the dance or in acting--the effect is destroyed as soon as created2 it survives only in the rhythm devised by the dancer1 or in the spectator's memory of the part played4 ,but this is accidental1 not essential to the nature of the arts as arts4 ,on the other hand1 there is nothing in the nature of the play-impulse to call for a stereotyping of the state of mind and feelings to which it gives rise4 ,still less can the artistic qualities1 such as beauty and rhythm1 which1 however difficult to define scientifically1 always characterise works of art1 be interpreted as a result of the play-impulse4 ,the theories of ,schiller1 ,spencer1 and ,groos may indeed explain the negative criterion of art1 but they cannot1 any more than the imitation theories or the ,darwinian interpretation1 give us any positive information as to the nature of art4 ,in order to understand the art-impulse as a tendency to sthetic production1 we must bring it into connection with some function1 from the nature of which the specifically artistic qualities may be derived4 ,such a function is to be found1 we believe1 in the activities of emotional expression4 ,it is therefore to the psychology of feeling and expression that we shall turn for the solution of the problem of the art-impulse4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,feeling-,,tone ,,of ,,sensation ,before attempting to prove that the impelling force in art-creation is to be explained by the psychology of feeling1 we must first pay some attention to the general theory of emotional states4 ,it would be impossible to assert anything about the sthetic importance of such activities as have their origin in emotional conditions without first having made out the relation between feeling and movement4 ,in this purely psychological investigation it is advantageous to postpone all sthetic considerations4 ,the important thing is to get hold of the mental factors in their simplest possible form4 ,even the lowest feelings1 therefore1 the feeling-tones of mere physical sensation or the vaguest emotional states1 such as comfort or discomfort1 which are overlooked in all works on sthetic proper1 may be of great value in this preliminary discussion4 ,it is preferable to begin with the feeling-tones of definitely physical origin1 because these hedonic elements have been subjected to an experimental investigation which could never be undertaken with regard to the complex emotions and sentiments4 ,as early as #ahhg ,fr published some important researches on the relation between sensation and movement4 ,by submitting persons to various external stimuli1 he showed that every such stimulus calls forth a modification of the activities of the body1 which modification1 according to the intensity and the duration of the stimulus1 takes the character either of enhancement or of arrest4 ,in all cases when the apparatus used in the experiments indicated a shortened reaction-time and an increased development of energy1 the subject of the experiment had experienced a feeling of pleasure4 ,every painful stimulus1 on the other hand1 was connected with a diminution of energy4#da ,these results have been corroborated in the main by the later researches of ,lehmann4 ,he has not1 however1 restricted his attention to the development of energy1 but has also measured the changes in pulsation and respiration which occur under the influence of various stimuli4 ,his conclusions are these3-- 8,simple pleasurable sensations are accompanied by dilatation of the blood-vessels1 and perhaps also by an increase in the amplitude of heart-contraction1 together with an increase in the innervation of the voluntary muscles1 at least of those connected with respiration4 ,in sensations of pain one has to distinguish the first shock of irritation from the subsequent state4 ,at the moment of irritation there ensues a deeper inhalation1 and1 if the irritation is strong1 also an increase in the innervation of voluntary muscles4 ,then there generally follows a relaxation40#db ,the physiological theory of pleasure and pain which can be deduced from these experiments is1 however1 neither new nor original4 ,fr has himself pointed out that his researches only serve to prove the views which have been advanced with more or less explicitness by ,kant1 ,bain1 ,darwin1 and ,dumont4#dc ,all authors who have closely studied the movements of expression have also remarked that pleasurable feelings are accompanied by a tendency towards increased activity 7,gratiolet1 ,darwin1 ,bain1 ,bouillier1 ,mantegazza74#dd ,and the popular views on pleasure and pain1 as we find them expressed in literature1 all agree on this point3 8,la joie est l'air vital de notre me4 ,la tristesse est un asthme compliqu d'atonie40#de ,every one knows that movement and unchecked increased activity generally create pleasure4 ,and1 on the other hand1 functional inhibition is in our experience closely connected with feelings of pain4 ,although these broad facts are universally recognised1 there is nevertheless no unanimity with regard to their interpretation4 ,it may be held1 on the one hand1 that the perception of those objective conditions which call forth pleasure is accompanied by a tendency to movement4 ,that1 conversely1 movement creates pleasure would thus be the result of an association4 ,but it may also be contended that the functional enhancement1 the stimulation itself1 when present to consciousness1 is perceived as pleasure1 and that the feeling-tone created by movement is thus not indirect and secondary1 but1 on the contrary1 is a typical pleasure4 ,we do not by any means deny the influence which associative processes exercise on all our feelings and on the activities connected with them4 ,as has been shown by ,darwin1 animals as well as primitive man have earned their chief enjoyment1 outside their delight of warmth and repose1 by violent actions1 such as hunting1 war1 and pairing fights4#df ,and if it be objected that memories from those distant times cannot now influence our feelings1 it must at least be admitted that within the life of the individual a firm foundation is laid for association between pleasure and activity4#dg ,independently of all general theories1 we must therefore reckon with association as a factor by which the motor element of pleasure is greatly increased4 ,but it seems to us impossible to make the remembrance--conscious or unconscious--of earlier similar states the only ground of the activity which is connected with pleasurable feelings4 ,it is at least far more simple and consistent to explain1 with ,hamilton and ,bain1 the activity itself as the physiological condition of pleasure4 ,if any increase of function--whether brought about by chemical1 mechanical1 or psychical 7that is1 indirectly mechanical7 influences--be considered as a physiological condition of pleasure1 and any arrest of function in the same way be considered as a counterpart of pain1 then all states of pleasure or pain may be included in one common interpretation4 ,only it must be remembered that the increase of function can never be measured by any absolute standard4 ,the same stimulus which in one individual calls forth pleasure may in another individual cause pain1 and the same bodily activity which we enjoy when in a vigorous state of health may occasion suffering when we are weak or ill4 ,such variations are evidently conditioned by the varying functional powers of the organs involved4 ,when these powers are reduced1 a stimulus1 or a movement which usually produces a stimulating effect1 may instead call forth depression and pain4 ,in every explanation of pleasure-pain1 attention must therefore be paid not only to the claims which are made on the several organs by the objective causes 7stimuli or movements71 but also to the capacity of the organs to meet these claims4 ,this capacity1 on the other hand1 is evidently dependent upon the supply of energy afforded by the nutritive processes4 ,in the endeavour to pay due attention to both these factors ,lehmann has been led to this conclusion3 8,pleasure and pain may in all cases be assumed to be the psychical outcome of the relation between the consumption of energy which at a given moment is demanded from the organs1 and the supply of energy which is afforded by nutrition40#dh ,in the course of a lengthy and laborious investigation ,marshall has arrived at a very similar result3 8,pleasure and pain are determined by the relation between the energy given out and the energy received at any given moment by the physical organs which determine the content of that moment40 ,pleasure is experienced1 according to ,marshall's definition1 whenever a surplus of stored energy is discharged in the reaction to the stimulus2 pain is experienced whenever a stimulus claims a greater development of energy in the reaction than the organ is capable of affording4#di ,in this mode of treatment due attention is paid to those theories according to which the conditions of pleasure are to be sought1 not in expenditure of force1 but in the receiving of force or in the recovery of balance4#ej ,but though this point has its own importance1 it cannot by any means be put on a level with the dynamic aspect4 ,pleasure can never arise when the organs are not well-nourished1 strong1 and capable of function2 but it arises only on the condition that they actually do perform a function4 ,as ,marshall has rightly remarked1 there is no reason to believe that surplus of vigour and receipt of nourishment in themselves could ever be objects of consciousness4#ea ,as long as we can speak of mental states1 these must be accompanied by corresponding activities4 ,the chief merit of ,marshall's thesis is precisely this1 that every emotional state1 independently of its tone and of its perceptible manifestations1 can be interpreted in terms of activity4 ,pleasure1 acute or massive1 appears as the result of a stimulus1 which1 owing to a happy proportion between its intensity and the functional capacity of the organ1 has modified the bodily functions in such a way as to produce manifestations of energy4 ,pain1 acute or massive1 appears as the result of a stimulus1 possibly of the same kind1 which1 owing to a disproportion arising from its own greater intensity or the smaller functional capacity in the organ1 has called forth a functional inhibition--that is to say1 that kind of activity which is manifested to us as an arrest of energy4 ,it would be too sanguine to expect the real nature of pleasure and pain to be exhaustively defined in any formula such as the above4 ,from a theoretical point of view grave objections may undoubtedly be raised against ,marshall's theory as well as against every general interpretation of emotional states4 ,it may even be admitted1 and we desire to admit it as soon as possible1 that in several cases it seems extremely difficult to derive the feeling-tone of even the simplest sensations from the proportion between 8energy given out and energy received40#eb ,but since1 as far as we can see1 similar difficulties meet us in the application of every existing emotional theory1 for the present we must consider the constructions of ,mr4 ,marshall1 notwithstanding their speculative and necessarily unsafe character1 as affording us the most consistent explanation of the hedonic phenomena4 ,in an earlier work1 ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi 7,a ,preliminary ,study for a ,philosophy of ,art71 ,i have tried to discuss and refute some of the arguments which can be adduced against this theory4 ,in the present work such a theoretic digression would lead us too far away from the main subject4 ,for a right understanding of the relation between feeling and 8expressional0 movements it is not necessary1 we believe1 to adopt exclusively any one of the emotional theories4 ,we shall be quite content if it is admitted that ,mr4 ,marshall's interpretation affords us a scheme or formula by the aid of which we can account1 if not for the nature1 at least for the external manifestations of our feelings4 ,in applying his definitions to the various kinds of pleasure and pain1 ,mr4 ,marshall has recourse to three important principles1 viz4 the limited amount of energy which our system is capable of developing at any given moment1 the storage of surplus supplies of nourishment1 and the transference of energy from one organ to another4 ,by referring to these principles he has been able to bring under his explanation those feelings which seem to correspond not to 8activities10 but to 8states40#ec ,as is well known1 ,hamilton had already pointed out the important1 though unsuspected1 element of activity which is involved in our enjoyment of dolce far niente4#ed ,but with the physiology at his command he could scarcely have explained why rest after heavy work is always accompanied by eminently pleasurable feelings4 ,if it be assumed1 however1 that in the case of psychical effort1 e4g41 the call upon our limited fund of energy has reduced the vegetative functions to inactivity1 and that this inactivity has caused a storage of nutritive supply1 then it is self-evident that the vegetative functions1 as soon as the one-sided effort has ceased1 must discharge their surplus in movements of a pleasurable character4 ,the pain arising from restricted activity can equally be explained in terms of movement4 ,if we believe that our system has a limited amount of energy which--as long as life is maintained--must necessarily be active in some direction or other1 then we shall also understand that anything which closes the natural and usual outlet of this energy will give rise to activities in related organs1 the nutritive state of which does not present the conditions of pleasurable function4 ,mr4 ,marshall has tried to indicate the details of the transition by which inactivity in one organ causes excessive activity in other organs4 ,his description of the 8gorging of the nutritive channels10 8the calling for aid of the disabled elements10 etc41 is1 however1 too figurative and poetical to be of any importance in a psychological argument4#ee ,taken as a vague and necessarily coarse metaphor1 this physiological image may1 however1 illustrate a process which perhaps can never be exactly analysed1 but which is nevertheless familiar to everybody4 ,no one who has experienced in any higher degree the diffused sensation of gnawing inactivity can doubt the active element in this corroding feeling4 ,one seems to feel how the checked and thwarted impulses devouringly turn themselves inward4 ,poetical literature is full of passionate outcries against the tortures which imposed inaction inflicts on active spirits2 and modern autobiographies give us pathetic examples of the sufferings of those whose intellectual activity has been diverted from outward aims to internal analysis4 ,the candid confessions of ,amiel and ,kierkegaard show the inevitable necessity with which mental energy1 if arrested in its natural course1 finds itself an outlet in destructive activity4 ,this truth had already been expressed in simple and drastic form in ,logau's old epigram3-- ,ein ,mhlstein und ein ,menschenherz wird stets herumgetrieben4 ,wenn beides nicht zu reiben hat1 wird beides selbst zerrieben4 ,the displacement of mental attention corresponding to the transference of energy from one organ to another in the inevitable search for a channel of outlet causes arrested activity to be felt as an unbearable massive pain2 but this process implies at the same time a possibility of relief4 ,if the sufferings of restriction can be considered as brought about by arrested impulses which have turned inwards1 then it is evident that any outward activity may overcome the obstruction4 ,pleasure can perhaps not be achieved before the checked organ resumes its functions2 but even a vicarious activity in some related organ may relieve the pain4 ,hence the diffused1 undirected movements by which we instinctively try to get rid of a feeling of restriction4 ,every high-strung emotional state which has not yet found its appropriate expression affords an instance of this sensation4 ,exalted delight therefore often manifests itself in ecstatic dances and songs1 which1 properly speaking1 rather relieve an incipient pain than express a pleasure4 ,violent movements act as unconscious expedients by which the organism restores itself to its normal balance4 ,a similar instinct ought1 one would expect1 to operate in sensations of acute pain4 ,in point of fact1 an obscure consciousness of the limitation of functional energy1 or1 to put it in psychological terms1 of attentive power1 leads us to seek and find relief from pain in violent movement4 ,some of the frantic dances of savage tribes undoubtedly serve to deaden the sufferings inflicted by ritual tortures4 ,but it is1 of course1 only in exceptional cases that these ansthetic expedients are intentionally resorted to4 ,as a rule they are to be considered as a radiation of nervous tension1 and are so little conscious that we can scarcely even call them instinctive4 ,besides all the motor manifestations which thus follow upon a sensation of severe pain in almost direct physiological sequence1 some pantomimic activity of defence or avoidance will generally be called forth by the notion of an objective source of pain4 ,owing to associations derived from earlier similar states1 this reaction may often appear even when there is no definite object which can be assigned as the cause of the feeling4 ,among primitive people the pantomime of pain undoubtedly has its ground in a mythological conception of the nature of feeling4 ,pain is regarded as a concrete thing which the body may be capable of shaking off or avoiding4 ,crude as it may seem1 this illusion is so closely bound up with our instinctive reactions that even the most enlightened man can never completely emancipate himself from its influence4 ,there is thus nearly always an intellectual factor which co-operates with the physical tendency towards energetic reaction to pain4 ,thus pain1 notwithstanding its inhibitive character1 may act1 especially when it is acute1 as a motor incitement4 ,hence the curious cases of favourable medical effects produced by severe physical suffering1 which may serve not only as a distraction of the attention1 but also as a positive stimulation of sinking vitality4 ,hence also the enhanced intellectual activity which often follows upon pain4#ef ,there was perhaps more malignity than truth in the remark of ,michelet that ,flaubert might imperil his talent by curing his boils2#eg but there are unquestionable instances to prove that wounds and acute diseases have exercised a powerful exciting influence on certain artistic temperaments4 ,all these stimulating effects of pain must naturally be taken into account in every emotional theory4 ,but they can by no means be adduced1 as ,fechner thinks1 as an argument against the definition which we have already given4#eh ,reactions to pain follow1 indeed1 so immediately upon the sensation1 that they cannot be separated in time from its proper expression4 ,but it must always be remembered that the activities1 whether of writhing under the influence of pain or of combating it1 are secondary manifestations by which the feeling-tone is gradually weakened4 ,whether the stimulating effects appear at the very moment of impression or only when the sensation has become fully conscious1 pain is always1 we believe1 at its keenest when the outward development of energy is lowest4 ,if the notion 8expression0 is conceived in its strictest sense1 i4e4 as the physiological counterpart of the emotional state1 then pain has only one expression--inhibition4 ,with regard to states of pleasure it is more difficult to make any distinction between primary and secondary manifestations4 ,every new movement is a new expression of the same feeling which--as long as fatigue does not set up its peculiar pain--is only enhanced by these repeated 8somatic resonances40 ,if pleasure is originated by the increased function of one individual organ1 then this stimulation must1 owing to the solidarity of the functions1 gradually extend over wider areas in the system4 ,the more numerous the organs which take part in the activity1 the more numerous also are our sensations of function1 and the greater the gain of our pleasure in richness and variety4 ,an undefined feeling of vigour1 assurance1 or power can only acquire distinctness and intensity by expressing itself in some mode of physical or mental activity4 ,but while stimulation is thus directly connected with the feeling-tone of pleasurable states1 it must be admitted1 on the other hand1 that--as has been remarked above--associative influences also contribute towards enhancing their active manifestations4 ,by these secondary motor-impulses1 however1 the original feeling is only increased4 ,it can therefore be said that pleasure feeds and nurtures itself by expression4 ,pain1 on the contrary1 increases in strength in the same degree as the inhibition extends over the organism4 ,but it can only be weakened by active manifestations4 ,movements1 as we have shown1 deliver us from the massive1 indistinct pains of restriction as well as mitigate our acute sufferings4 ,the life-preserving tendency which1 under the feeling of pleasure1 leads us to movements which intensify the sensation and make it more distinct for consciousness1 compels us in pain to seek for relief and deliverance in violent motor discharge4 ,in either case the activity is called expressional1 and it seems difficult to avoid this equivocal usage4 ,but it is indispensable to make a strict distinction between the expression which operates in the direction of the initial feeling itself1 and the expression by which this feeling is weakened4 ,this distinction will appear with greater clearness in the following chapter1 where we shall apply the laws of expression to the complex emotional states4 ,then it will also be possible for us to point out some sthetic result of the psychological survey which perhaps may seem for the moment a departure from our proper subject4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,emotions ,the discussion of complex emotional states on which we enter in the present chapter will be subject to the same reservation as was our previous discussion of simple sensation-feeling4 ,it is not proposed to attempt a definitive explanation of the nature of emotion1 nor even to criticise the various emotion-theories which have been advanced in psychological literature4 ,for the purposes of an sthetic investigation we are only concerned with the external aspects1 the outward manifestations1 of mental states4 ,we need not therefore dilate upon the controversies as to the exact relation between simple feeling and emotion4 ,it is enough for us that all authors--those who consider pain and pleasure as elements sui generis as well as those who count them among sensations or emotions--agree in emphasising the prominent hedonic element which enters into all our emotions4 ,starting from this universally recognised fact1 we shall try to explain the impulse to expression1 as it appears in complex emotions1 by the same laws which we deduced from an examination of simple hedonic states4 ,the legitimacy of such a course will scarcely be contested by any one who admits the vital and necessary connection between emotional states and movement-sensations4 ,and in point of fact1 this connection does not seem to be denied by many modern psychologists4 ,there is indeed much controversy as to the best mode of formulating the well-known theory due to ,james and ,lange1 and there is also much to discuss in its general theoretic aspect4 ,but the observation on which this theory was based by ,james1 viz4 that it is impossible for us to imagine any emotion which is not connected with feelings of bodily symptoms1 seems nowadays to be pretty safe against attack4 ,before and after ,james1 the fundamental importance of bodily changes has been acknowledged by almost all authors who have specially studied the emotional states4 ,we need only refer to ,bain1 ,ribot1 ,fr1 ,paulhan1 and ,godfernaux4#ei ,even ,professor ,stout1 who on general grounds takes exception to the views of ,james1 leaves unassailed the thesis from which the latter starts in his chapter on the emotions4#fj ,and it is even somewhat superfluous to adduce all these authorities in support of a fact which must have been noted by every one who pays any attention to his own mental states4 ,we never experience any intense emotion1 such as fear1 anger1 or sorrow1 without at the same time experiencing some distinct sensation of change in our functions of respiration and circulation1 as well as in the activities of our voluntary muscles4 ,in the case of emotions of slight intensity1 where no changes of this character are perceptible1 we are justified in assuming that they do nevertheless occur1 only on a much smaller scale1 and possibly in different organs4 ,the clinical and experimental researches of medical science1 as well as experiments undertaken in psychological laboratories1 tend to prove that all ideas1 even of the most abstract kind1 are accompanied by modifications of organic activity1 similar to1 but weaker than1 those which accompany the simple sensations4 ,it is only natural1 therefore1 to conclude that the feeling-element in emotions and sentiments1 as well as in simple pain and pleasure1 is correlated with the quality--stimulating or inhibitive--and intensity of these modifications4 ,all hedonic states1 whether called forth directly by a simple physiological stimulus1 or indirectly by the mediation of perceptions1 memories1 and ideas1 can thus1 in so far as they are feelings1 be considered as essentially alike4 ,the complete emotion1 such as joy or anger1 with all its elements of thought and conscious or unconscious volition1 is of course something quite different from the simple feeling-tone of mere pleasure or pain4 ,physiological psychology does not1 as its opponents maintain1 assimilate gratifications of the sense of taste to sthetic enjoyment or religious exaltation4 ,we allow rank to a sentiment in virtue of the mental conceptions by which it is justified in the breast of the person who feels it4 ,but the strength of such a sentiment1 as feeling1 we deem to be proportioned to the organic changes by which enthusiasm and devotion1 just as much as sensual pleasure1 are always accompanied4 ,we do not assert that these organic changes are always identical in kind4 ,in the simplest forms of hedonic sensation--sensation proper--they have their main equivalent in changes of the vegetative functions2 in the emotions they are accompanied by movements of our voluntary muscles2 and in the sentiments they may correspond to an activity which takes place chiefly in the organ of thought4 ,and from these differences arise other important differences in duration as well as in intensity of the pleasure-pain4 ,but all these various limitations cannot modify the essential fact1 which is1 that pleasure is always connected with an enhancement1 and pain with a depression1 of the vital functions4 ,for a satisfactory explanation of our emotions it would no doubt be desirable to have all the complicated physiological concomitants reduced to simple terms of functional enhancement and functional arrest4 ,such a reduction can1 however1 be undertaken only in a few favourable cases4 ,we can easily see1 for instance1 that in pride and humiliation a series of perceptions and ideas have brought about conditions of facilitated and checked activity similar to those which1 in sensational pleasure-pain1 are created by simple physiological stimuli4#fa ,we may also agree with ,lehmann when he endeavours to prove that the pain a child experiences when its mother leaves its bedside can be reduced to a sensation of arrested activity4#fb ,and we may in the same way explain our own feelings after losses which1 from our point of view1 are more serious1 as largely due to the fact that an occasion of activity for our senses1 thoughts1 or bodily powers has been suddenly withdrawn4 ,but it would be too laborious to enter upon such an analysis of all our compound emotions1 and it is also superfluous4 ,even when the organic conditions of pleasure and pain cannot be detected among the intricate mass of intellectual and volitional elements which make up what we can observe of an emotion1 we must still1 from analogy1 conclude that some kind of functional enhancement or arrest corresponds to the feeling-tone4 ,seeing1 then1 that what we may call 8pure feeling0 remains the same in all possible combinations1 we must expect to meet with the same phenomena in connection with the manifestations of the higher emotions and sentiments1 as those already described in case of simple pain or pleasure4 ,it is true that in fully formed anger1 joy1 contempt1 and so on1 the tendency to expression for expression's sake--as when a child laughs or dances for mere joy--is seldom found pure and unmixed4 ,but even in such complex states we may in the abstract distinguish the impulse directly and inherently connected with the physiological change--the impulse which tends automatically to bring out the tone of pleasure with more prominence or to relieve the tone of pain--from all the conscious and volitional activities by which the external cause of the feeling is either approached or avoided4 ,we have only to remember that1 as was the case with sensation-feelings1 those intentional movements which are directly or by virtue of association connected with an emotion will always work in the same direction as the purely automatic expression4 ,with regard to anger1 for instance1 we can in theory1 at all events1 distinguish the activity which follows as a purely physiological reaction upon the initial inhibition1 and which therefore is quite undirected by any idea of attacking an enemy1 from the conscious reaction by which we strive with all our powers to overcome and annihilate a real or imaginary foe4 ,but we know that both these kinds of expression produce similar mental effects4 ,whether we concentrate our attention on the element of pure feeling and its accompanying activities1 or on the intermixture of intellectual and volitional elements by which the emotion is distinguished from simple pleasure-pain1 we shall thus find that active manifestations always enhance the positive tone of feeling1 which is in itself the counterpart of a functional enhancement1 and relieve the negative tone1 which is the counterpart of functional arrest4 ,to prove this assertion with regard to all the different emotions would mean an unnecessary repetition of the arguments adduced in the preceding chapter4 ,we need therefore only dwell on a few individual cases in which the effects of expression1 owing to the complex nature of all fully developed emotions1 are subject to misinterpretation4 ,it has1 for instance1 often been contended in psychological literature that pleasurable emotions lose in strength in the same degree as they are expressed4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 who finds the physiological basis of all emotion in nervous tension1 has tried to prove that joy is always strongest when most restrained4 ,but the argument he adduces is by no means unimpeachable4 ,he says that people who show the finest appreciation of humour are often capable of saying and doing the most laughable things with the utmost gravity4#fc ,in this instance joy has1 however1 been confounded with the sense of the comic1 which is of course a purely intellectual gift1 and which does not even presuppose a cheerful disposition4 ,the less the expenditure of nervous force on outward activity1 the greater is the efficiency with which the work of thought can be carried on4#fd ,there is thus a physiological reason why he who laughs least utters the best jokes4 ,but all the fools whose mouths overflow with laughter 7risus abundat in ore stultorum7 may no doubt often be happier than the most talented humourist4 ,no sane man would say that ,swift was happy4 ,it is1 however1 undeniable that even joy gradually decreases if it is allowed an unimpeded outlet4 ,but that is often a result of bodily fatigue1 which makes thought as well as feeling impossible4 ,pleasure may also increase qua feeling1 if its most outward manifestations are controlled4 ,but hereby the activity has only1 as ,spencer himself remarks1 been directed into new channels4#fe ,the motor impulses reflect themselves inwards and accumulate when their outlet is stopped4 ,from bodily movements1 which are its simplest and most natural expression1 joy may thus be diverted into the region of thought4 ,when a savage has attained so high a state of development as to be able to control the impulse to dance and yell for joy1 the first dithyramb has been composed4 ,it is impossible for us to estimate the relative importance of internal and external activity4 ,all we can say is that a joy1 the outward expressions of which are controlled1 probably gains in durability4 ,but on the other hand it is possible that a joy which has been allowed a free discharge1 in the very moment of expression is stronger qua feeling4 ,if the motor impulses find no outlet in any direction1 the emotional state will1 as has already been pointed out1 become more and more affected with elements of pain4 ,when the physiological counterpart of an emotion takes the form of an inhibition1 the feeling-tone will of course gain in intensity in the same degree as wider and wider areas of activity come under the influence of the arrest4 ,this law can also be observed in the course of development of all pain-emotions4 ,sorrow1 despair1 humiliation1 and so on1 are relatively mild as long as the inhibition is restricted to the voluntary muscles4 ,they acquire their full and proper strength as feeling only when the involuntary activities take part in the functional disturbance4 ,and we can often notice in ourselves how1 in the same degree as a painful emotion increases1 the inhibition cuts its way deeper and deeper into the organism4#ff ,humiliation1 which of all emotions is the most hopelessly and irredeemably painful1 is in its higher degrees always accompanied by functional changes which make themselves felt even in our digestive organs4 ,literature1 to which in questions of emotional psychology we must apply for the information which no experiment can supply1 proves that it is hard to swallow4 ,it has a bitter taste1 and is sickening even in purely physical sense4#fg ,the greatest grief1 on the other hand1 that man has been able to imagine manifests itself physiologically as a complete internal as well as external paralysis1 such as is suggested by the ,greek myth of the sorrowing mother turned into stone4 ,the progress of functional inhibition from organ to organ and the accompanying increase of the pain-emotion does of course generally take place without the co-operation of volition4 ,but the increase of an incipient pain-sentiment can also be facilitated by voluntary efforts4 ,as ,professor ,james remarks1 we may effectively strengthen a mood of sadness if we only consistently arrest the activity of all the organs which are under the control of our will4#fh ,and it is well known that much is possible in the way of working up feelings of melancholy4 ,it may seem somewhat strange that the cultivation of such painful states has attained so high a development in man4 ,but the apparent paradox is solved if we direct our attention to the secondary tones of pleasure which can always be derived from artificial moods of suffering4 ,sentimental reflection is able to extract from them a peculiar satisfaction which is highly appreciated by certain temperaments4 ,we need only refer to the literature of romanticism1 which gives us most instructive instances of pride in sensibility4 ,another kind of enjoyment is attained when persons who consider themselves unfairly treated by cruel fortune deliberately feed upon their own sufferings4 ,as ,spencer has shrewdly pointed out1 they will infallibly derive a pleasurable sensation of their own value when contrasting their fate with the happiness which they consider their due4#fi ,melancholy people1 on the other hand1 may perhaps be inclined to make themselves as helpless and unfortunate as possible for the sake of experiencing both sides of that 8love of the helpless0#gj which1 according to ,spencer1 is the most primordial form of altruistic feeling4 ,the expressions and pantomimes of sadness often strike us as a kind of self-caressing in which the sufferer1 by division of his own personality1 enjoys the double pleasure of giving and receiving4 ,according to the most consistent terminology1 this tendency to enhance feeling by voluntary co-operation with functional inhibition ought perhaps to be considered as the characteristic expression of painful emotion4 ,it is1 however1 as has already been pointed out in our treatment of sensation-feeling1 more in conformity with ordinary usage--and also with etymology--to apply the word expression to those active1 outward manifestations by which the inhibition is relieved4 ,there can be no inconvenience in doing so if we only keep constantly in mind the distinction between the expression which enhances and the expression which relieves4 ,as long as these two notions are confounded1 a consistent explanation of emotional states is quite impossible4 ,the contradictions in ,professor ,james' brilliant chapter on the emotions furnish us with a ready proof of this impossibility4 ,if he had based his theory upon a close discrimination of either class of expression1 as they can be distinguished in simple sensational feeling1 he would probably not have contended that sorrow is increased by sobbing1#ga while admitting in another passage that 8dry and shrunken sorrow0 is more painful than any 8crying fit40#gb ,it is1 however1 impossible to deny that sighing1 sobbing1 twisting the hands1 and other active manifestations are often effectively used1 by actors1 for example1 as means for working up despair or sorrows4#gc ,but it seems to us indubitable that these movements when they succeed in creating the real feeling do so by help of association4 ,a pain-emotion which has been called into existence by such dramatic mechanism is therefore seldom quite genuine4 ,real sorrow1 hate1 or anger1 as pain-feelings1 are on their physiological side much more deeply seated than these surface expressions1 which1 properly speaking1 are merely a reproduction of the usual reactions upon the primary feeling4 ,they are therefore not to be easily stirred up by aid of mimetic action4 ,it may perhaps be contended that these remarks apply only to the artificial creation of pain-emotion4 ,when under the sway of veritable sorrow we undoubtedly feel as if the mental state were really intensified during its expression by the direct influence of the muscular activities1 which constitute the sighing1 sobbing1 or crying4 ,as far as the compound emotion is concerned1 this observation is unquestionably correct4 ,sorrow1 with all its intellectual and volitional elements1 may become more distinct for consciousness the more it is actively expressed4 ,but the pain itself1 which constitutes the primary and initial state of this emotion1 has by no means been increased4 ,on the contrary1 a crying fit1 for instance1 as even ,professor ,james admits1 may be accompanied by a kind of excitement which has a peculiar tone of pungent pleasure4#gd ,the same process can be observed in the course of all the so-called pain-emotions4 ,during active expression1 while the general mental state increases in definiteness1 the purely 8algedonic0 element of pain is gradually weakened or changed4 ,anger1 which begins with an inhibition and a vascular contraction1 to which1#ge on the mental side1 corresponds a feeling of intense pain1 is thus in its active stage a decidedly pleasurable emotion4#gf ,fear1 which in its initial stage is paralysing and depressing1 often changes in tone when the first shock has been relieved by motor reaction4#gg ,and to some extent the same may be said even of despair4 ,in every pain-emotion where there is a development of active energy involved in the reaction upon the initial feeling1 the tone of this feeling is apt to undergo some change owing to the influence of this activity4 ,this circumstance explains why expression for expression's sake as a life-preserving principle occupies so important a place in the life of man4 ,but it also accounts for another phenomenon which1 although not directly connected with the expressional impulse1 is sthetically so important that it cannot properly be passed over in this work4 ,we refer to the apparent paradox that anger1 fear1 sorrow1 notwithstanding their distinctly painful initial stage1 are often not only not avoided1 but even deliberately sought4 ,taken in connection with those perhaps even more curious cases1 in which sensation-feelings of pain are intentionally provoked1 this apparent inversion of the normal course constitutes one of the most important problems in emotional psychology4 ,the question of such 8luxuries of grief10 or1 to use a more appropriate ,german phrase1 8,die ,wonne des ,leids10 is1 however1 so complicated that its treatment will require a chapter to itself4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,enjoyment ,,of ,,pain ,we have pointed out that enjoyment can be derived by sentimental reflection on moods of sadness4 ,such refined forms of the 8luxury of grief0 presuppose a certain intellectual development and a tendency to introspection1 which cannot possibly be assumed in primitive man4 ,but as the active forms of the so-called pain-emotions are highly appreciated--we may even say indulged in as enjoyments--by the lower tribes of man1 there must evidently be some more immediate cause of this delight4 ,and we are the more tempted to look for this cause in the emotional process itself1 by the fact that even bodily pains1 which do not admit of any sentimental interpretation1 may be deliberately excited4 ,we remarked in our treatment of the simple emotional elements1 that pleasure and pain can in no case be estimated by any absolute measure4 ,now that we have to find some explanation of the delight in pain1 which applies to purely physical as well as to mental pain1 we begin by admitting that the relative character of feeling probably accounts for many instances in which the pain is merely apparent4 ,the same external stimulus which acts on one individual with hypernormal strength1 and therefore evokes pain1 may in the case of another individual who has duller senses1 produce a weaker impression1 and thus call forth a pleasurable reaction4 ,the taste and smell anomalies of hysterical patients afford us good examples of such abnormal pleasure4 ,and1 on the other hand1 there are plenty of instances1 too familiar to be enumerated1 in which an impression which a sick person would call painful brings pleasure to a healthy one4 ,again1 the power of receiving pleasurable sensations from strong stimuli may often be increased by exercise4 ,mr4 ,marshall has applied his psycho-physiological principles to the interpretation of these 8acquired pleasure-gettings0 and though he perhaps does not exhaustively and convincingly explain the process1 he at least gives a graphic and clear account of its most probable course4 ,he thinks that a hypernormal stimulus indirectly increases the blood-supply to the stimulated organ4 ,this organ will therefore1 if the operation of the stimulus is not too prolonged1 store up some portion of unused nutritive force during the subsequent repose4 ,and thus1 if the same stimulus is shortly afterwards repeated1 the organ will be able to respond with greater facility and intensity1 i4e4 react under the conditions of pleasurable reaction4 ,in this way ,marshall accounts for the classic instances of acquired liking for olives and tobacco4#gh ,it is probable that a similar influence of repeated exercise may also operate in the department of compound emotions4 ,lehmann1 who explains the transformation of originally painful impressions into pleasurable ones in a somewhat different way1 viz4 by his law of 8the indispensability of accustomed things0 refers to this law those instances in which persons who have had many troubles grow so accustomed to them1 that in a moment of ease they feel a kind of loss4#gi ,the validity of this law will be recognised by every one who has any opportunity of observing the vaguely and weakly unpleasant feeling which sometimes appears when we are suddenly liberated from some pursuing anxiety4 ,and the indispensability of accustomed sensations may impel persons to create new mental pains or worries to replace the old ones4 ,yet the mere craving for customary sensations cannot explain those cases of genuine luxury in grief in which pain-sensations and pain-emotions are sought precisely because they are painful4 ,but if we take into account the powerful stimulating effect which is produced by acute pain1 we may easily understand why people submit to momentary unpleasantness for the sake of enjoying the subsequent excitement4 ,this motive leads to the deliberate creation not only of pain-sensations1 but also of emotions in which pain enters as an element4 ,the violent activity which is involved in the reaction against fear1 and still more in that against anger1 affords us a sensation of pleasurable excitement which is well worth the cost of the passing unpleasantness4 ,it is1 moreover1 notorious that some persons have developed a peculiar art of making the initial pain of anger so transient that they can enjoy the active elements in it with almost undivided delight4 ,such an accomplishment is far more difficult in the case of sorrow4 ,the reactions are here seldom allowed so free a course as to be able to change the feeling-tone of the state4 ,moreover1 the remembrance of the objective cause will always tend to reawaken the original feeling with its accompanying inhibition4 ,besides1 a man of culture and refinement is generally deterred by a kind of respect for his own emotional life from artificially stirring up states of sorrow for his own enjoyment4 ,this reluctance1 however1 does not seem to exist in lower stages of development4 ,the crying feasts of the ,maoris and the ,todas--which afford a striking parallel to the ceremonial wailings of ancient ,greece--are no doubt1 whatever their ritual significance may be1 attended with a kind of pleasure4#hj ,by seizing on some real or fictitious cause for grief--the death of a ,linos or an ,adonis--the participants succeed1 we imagine1 in creating a state of sorrow in which the active and stimulating elements outweigh the pain4 ,however barbarous this kind of amusement may seem to us1 it is by no means certain that we have completely outgrown such pleasures4 ,the delight in witnessing the performance of a tragedy undoubtedly involves the enjoyment of a borrowed pain1 which1 by unconscious sympathetic imitation1 we make partially our own4#ha ,and the same phenomenon appears in a yet cruder form in the custom1 so general among the lower classes of most countries1 of visiting funerals and similar ceremonies where sorrow can be contemplated and shared4 ,even civilised man is thus able to enjoy the pleasure which may be connected with emotions of sorrow and despair1 at least in second-hand reproduction4 ,it is scarcely necessary to go through all the various emotional states in order to prove that every one of them1 if it can per se be enjoyed 7in nature or art71 is either primarily or by its reactions connected with an increase of outward activity4 ,but we must point out that the pleasure derived from this motor excitement is often still further enhanced by the agency of an intellectual element which is simpler than sentimental reflection1 and does not presuppose any tendency towards introspection4 ,in pain as in pleasure1 in suffering as in voluptuousness1 we attain a heightened and enriched sensation of life4 ,the more we love life1 the more must we also enjoy this sensation1 even if it be called into existence by pain4 ,lessing1 who cannot possibly be called morbid1 confesses to this taste in an interesting letter written to ,mendelssohn3 8,darinn sind wir doch wohl einig1 l4,f41 dass alle ,leidenschaften entweder heftige ,begierden oder heftige ,verabscheuengen sind8 ,auch darinn3 dass wir uns bei jeder heftigen ,begierde oder ,verabscheuung1 eines grsser ,grads unserer ,realitt bewusst sind und dass dieses ,bewusstsein nicht anders als angenehm sein kann8 ,folglich sind alle ,leidenschaften1 auch die allerunangenehmsten1 als ,leidenschaften angenehm40#hb 78,we are agreed in this1 my dear friend1 that all passions are either vehement cravings or vehement loathings1 and also that in every vehement craving or loathing we acquire an increased consciousness of our reality1 and that this consciousness cannot but be pleasurable4 ,consequently1 all our passions1 even the most painful1 are1 as passions1 pleasurable407 ,and ,helvetius has expressed almost the same idea3 8,nous souhaiterons donc1 par des impressions toujours nouvelles1 tre chaque instant avertis de notre existence1 parceque chacun de ces avertissements est pour nous un plaisir40#hc 78,accordingly1 we shall desire1 by means of constantly renewed impressions1 to be at every moment reminded of our existence1 because each of these reminders is for us a pleasure407 ,for the sake of this 8avertissement0 of existence1 individuals of intense vital temperament1 like ,richard ,jefferies and ,maryia ,bashkirtseff1 have positively loved their very sufferings4#hd ,it is evident that pain as a sign of life and function may be especially welcome when the vital sensation has for any reason become weakened4 ,the self-woundings of the heathen and ,christian saints1 although no doubt fully justified to the sufferers themselves by religious motives1 may thus have had their innermost unconscious motive in an endeavour to overcome that ansthesia which is so usual an accompaniment of hysterical disturbances4#he ,it is hard to believe that the tortures which they inflict upon themselves are really felt as neutral or pleasurable4 ,but we can easily understand that such torture1 although more or less painful1 may afford a kind of satisfaction by compelling the slow and dull senses to function4 ,professor ,lange has in his work on the emotions laid special stress upon this point4 8,it is a condition of our well-being10 he says1 8that our sensorial centres should be in a certain degree of activity called forth by the impressions which reach them through the sensorial nerves from the outside4 ,if from some cause or other--for instance1 from a decrease in the functional powers of these centres--there arises an insensibility1 ansthesia1 then we feel a longing to force them to their usual activity by addressing to them an abnormally strong appeal1 or1 in other words1 by intensifying the external impressions and thereby neutralising the insensibility40#hf ,this principle has1 indeed1 as applied by ,lange to the expressions of anger1 been mercilessly ridiculed by ,wundt4#hg ,but it seems to us that the observation itself can scarcely be contested4 ,whether we explain it as a case of the indispensability of the accustomed or as the result of some peculiar yearning for life--a soul-desire1 as ,mr4 ,jefferies would have called it--a deficient consciousness of function is in most cases distinctly unpleasant4 ,and1 on the other hand1 it seems as if an increased consciousness of function were per se pleasurable4 ,it is of course difficult to prove by exact argument the existence of a feeling which can be observed only as the innermost concealed motive of our life4 ,but on as strong evidence as can ever be adduced on matters of emotional life1 we may believe that in every conscious life there operates a dim instinctive craving for fuller and greater consciousness1 or1 if the expression be preferred1 for the most complete self-realisation4 ,happiness itself has been defined by a philosopher so little inclined to mysticism as ,mr4 ,brinton1 as 8the increasing consciousness of self40#hh ,it is therefore easy to understand why1 when this consciousness has been blunted by some cause or other1 we may even long for suffering and pain as a means of escaping the dulness1 emptiness1 and darkness of insensibility4 ,it may seem to be a disturbance of all normal instincts that pain--an element hostile to vital activity--can thus be preferred to a state the unpleasantness of which is only diffuse4 ,but we have to remember that the absence of sensation and function frightens us by its similarity to what we fear more than pain4 ,the sufferings of insensibility1 this highest possible form of tedium1 which--if we are to judge from the descriptions in literature and poetry--may in themselves be unbearable enough1 must needs be unusually keen in individuals who are given up to philosophic reflection4 ,the feeling of inanity which is caused by a suspense of vital sensations is apt to spread itself over the whole field of sense-experience4#hi ,in default of strong impressions1 with their subsequent reactions1 we may lose the sense not only of our own existence1 but also of that of the external world4#ij ,the relatively neutral evidence of our higher senses does not afford us the same assurance of reality as is given by grosser impressions1 which affect us more directly in the way of pleasure or pain4 ,on purely physiological grounds there may thus be produced a morbid conception of the universe which1 having neither ego nor non-ego to rely on1 lacks the conviction either of subjective or objective existence4 ,from this vertiginous inanity1 which must bring every philosophic temperament into despair1 life delivers us by the same means which ,molire uses to confute the ,pyrrhonists4 ,pain is the most convincing reality we can imagine4 ,it may therefore1 even when it is not deliberately sought for1 afford a welcome support to thought4 8,suffice it thee ,thy pain is a reality40 7,,tennyson1 8,the ,two ,voices074 ,in this connection1 however1 we have not to dwell on the philosophical importance of pain4 ,we are here only concerned with its significance for the immediate sense of life4 ,and in this respect we believe that an artificial creation of pain may play some part not only in anger1 but in the expression of all high-strung emotions4 ,it is well known that the orgiastic state of mind1 whether originally caused by religious exaltation or by erotic delirium1 may often1 when it has reached its highest stage1 express itself in self-laceration4 ,these facts are no doubt difficult to interpret4 ,but it seems justifiable to assume that a tendency towards the creating of pain-sensations may have been derived from the emotional process itself4 ,explained in this way1 orgiastic self-tortures may be adduced as the most remarkable proofs of this desire for an enhanced sense of life which lies at the bottom of all our appetence4 ,however energetically strong emotions may accentuate our existence1 and however deeply we may enjoy the 8realisation of ourselves0 which we find in the violent excitement accompanying them1 high-strung states are naturally bound to be followed by exhaustion and stupor4 ,and thus even the intoxication of life1 this most powerful of sensations1 sooner or later passes its climax and sinks into dull insensibility4 ,the lower the function by the incitement of which the exaltation is produced1 the greater probably is its orgiastic power4 ,but its duration is also so much the shorter4 ,a wild dance1 for instance1 invariably ends in impotent prostration1 during which the power of function and sensation is completely exhausted4 ,as long as the mental desire for increased excitement is unsatisfied1 this state must be distinctly disagreeable4 ,hence all the frenetic manifestations by which man1 when raging in insatiable exaltation1 strives to awake and rouse his failing powers of enjoyment4 ,in the whole domain of comparative psychology there can scarcely be adduced an example which throws so much light on the orgiastic state of mind as the ,bacchanal frenzy4 ,and the descriptions of this 8,dionysischer ,zustand0 which are to be found in classic literature give us the most complete idea of the various expedients by which the devotee tries to maintain and increase his state of exaltation in spite of the growing tendency to relaxation4 ,by noise1 roaring1 and loud cries1 by frenetic dance and wild actions1 the 8,maenads0 strive to preserve and recover the fading sense of life1 which ever baffles their exertions4 ,and as the last1 infallible means of excitement1 resorted to when all other stimulations have proved unable to stir up the dulled senses1 we may explain the tortures which the partly insensible ,bacchante inflicts upon herself4 8,suum ,bacchis non sentit saucia vulnus40#ia ,there are various kinds of orgiastic exaltation connected with self-torture--as that of the tarantella dancers1 of the dervishes1 of the shamans1 and others--in which the creation of pain-sensations may be explained as a desperate device for enhancing the intensity of the emotional state4 ,acute pain often makes it possible to overcome momentarily the exhaustion or the dulness which unfits us for work4 ,and it is evident that pain may produce a similar excitement when we require an increase of energy1 not for the sake of obtaining the greatest possible result from a working activity1 but for the sake of extracting the greatest possible enjoyment out of an emotional state4 ,but if this interpretation be admitted as possible1 there will be ample room for discussion as to its application to individual cases4 ,for it is to be remembered that even pain may fulfil the task of relieving a nervous tension4 ,in cases of bodily suffering counter irritation may thus bring about a wholesome diversion of the attention from an otherwise unbearable pain4#ib ,and it is unquestionable that self-inflicted lacerations during violent emotion often subserve the same purpose4 ,when a savage scarifies himself on receiving bad news1 or at a funeral feast1 his action is an instinctive effort to procure relief from the overpowering feelings4#ic ,that he is not simply performing a sacrificial rite1#id but is merely seeking the relief which experience has taught him may be afforded by pain as well as by the subsequent exhaustion 7especially from loss of blood71 is proved by the fact that the same expedient is employed in order to overcome humiliation or bodily pain4#ie ,it is not stimulation1 but a lulling of the senses1 which is here aimed at4 ,it must also be admitted that even the other orgiastic manifestations may serve as purely cathartic means of relieving emotional pressure4 ,it is1 as has already been remarked1 impossible to decide in individual cases whether an activity of expression--a dance1 for instance--serves to enhance a pleasurable feeling or to relieve a pain4 ,suffering1 sorrow1 and despair may often1 in their outward reactions1 borrow the forms of expression which are usually connected with joy4 ,thus frenetic games and dances are often met with on occasions when we should least of all expect them1 as1 for instance1 in time of famine1 epidemic1 or war4#if ,such paradoxical manifestations1 in which an overstrained despair attempts to obtain some kind of relief1 are externally not to be distinguished from the genuine expression of joy4 ,on the other hand1 an abnormally strong emotion1 which is primarily caused by the objective conditions of pleasure1 may in its excess be perceived as a pain4 ,joy itself can thus be felt as an oppressive burden1 which we try with all our power to get rid of4 ,the motor discharges1 by which we seek relief from such a 8,noth der ,flle und der berflle10 can1 however1 only indirectly offer us any real deliverance4 ,a wild dance1 for instance1 will inevitably accentuate the original feeling as a conscious state1 and thereby increase its intensity4 ,but with this increase the craving for relief will also become stronger4 ,as long as expression is unable to satisfy the ever-growing nervous tension1 there must remain an element of 8never enough0 in the orgiastic exaltation4 ,it is only when repeated solicitation has brought on bodily exhaustion that a real release is attained4 ,there is no doubt that such a relief-bringing exhaustion was the ultimate aim of all those exalted manifestations to which the poor tarantuli and the ,vitus dancers abandoned themselves4 ,but the problem presented by the similarity between the pathological despair which constitutes the initial stage of such epidemic mental disorders1 and the oppressive feeling of joy whose expression has been thwarted1 is so difficult that we can hardly expect to obtain a decisive answer to such questions as whether1 for example1 the mnadic exaltation is to be considered as a melancholic or a cheerful state of mind4 ,and in most cases it would probably be equally impossible to ascertain whether in a given manifestation we have to do with pleasure that seeks enhancement1 or with pain that seeks relief in exhaustion4 ,while every one is thus free to interpret the facts according to his optimistic or pessimistic bias1 it must nevertheless be considered as a confusion of ideas to make the quest of unconsciousness a universal and fundamental impulse in man4 ,it is impossible for us to assign any psychological importance to commonplaces on the enviable state of the insensible and the happiness to be found in unconsciousness4 ,it is only when it delivers us from pain that a state of partial insensibility and cessation of function may be perceived as relatively agreeable4 ,that an absolute absence of feeling could afford us any pleasure is a psychological contradiction in terms4 ,this illusion of unconsciousness can1 however1 be easily explained by the fact that intense emotional states are generally dominated by a single preoccupation4 ,a strong feeling1 by reason of the limitations of our consciousness1 annihilates external sensations and ideas4 ,ecstasy1 that 8over-conscious0 state of highly concentrated activity1 rises above space and time to a state in which we feel liberated from all forms of perception4 ,but the highest pleasure which we may thus experience is not1 as ,wagner in his pessimistic period would have it1 a sinking and drowning of ourselves in unconsciousness2 it is far rather-- 8endlos ewig einbewuszt40 ,to enjoy so rich and complete a sensation of life has1 we believe1 been the object for which1 each in his own manner1 all men of strong vitality have striven4 ,even if there are individuals so unfortunate that for them a cessation of life and function appears as the highest end of desire1 such negative instances need hardly be taken into account in a survey of universal human impulses4 ,the longing for unconsciousness is moreover so passive a condition of mind1 that by itself it could never explain expressional activities of the more violent or elaborate sort4 ,and it is even more insufficient as an explanation of all those secondary expressions which are to occupy us in the sequel4 ,art production would never have reached so high a development if it had served only as a sedative for human feelings4 ,but neither does art1 any more than the direct activities of expression1 involve mere excitement2 it too fulfils1 and with even greater efficacy1 a relieving and cathartic mission4 ,while supplying man with a means of intensifying the feelings connected with all the varied activities of the soul1 art at the same time bestows upon him that inward calm in which all strong emotions find their relief4 ,every interpretation of art which does not pay due attention to both of these aspects must needs be one-sided and incomplete4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,social ,,expression ,in order to find an explanation of the nature and origin of the art-impulse we were compelled to enter upon a digression on the general psychology of feeling4 ,it appeared from this hasty examination that in the motor concomitants of physical as well as of mental feeling we have to do with a form of activity which1 taken by itself1 is independent of all external motives4 ,it was shown that the diffusion of a feeling-tone always corresponds to some active manifestation1 generally outward1 which increases in the same degree as the state of consciousness gains in intensity and distinctness4 ,besides these immediate transformations of energy which1 owing to the law of inertia1 follow the primary enhancement or inhibition of function1 we met with reactions of a more conscious kind1 by which the organism strives to overcome the inhibition of pain1 and to keep up the excitement of pleasure4 ,and it was also found that the universal animal desire to increase every pleasure and to relieve every pain has given rise to a multitude of secondary manifestations1 by which we try to sustain every pleasure1 to make it more distinct for consciousness1 and thus enhance it by expression1 while1 during states of pain1 we strive for relief in diversion or in violent motor discharge4 ,finally it was remarked that by the side of this expressional impulse we must take account of a yearning after increased consciousness1 which leads us to pursue1 even at the risk of some passing pain1 all feelings and emotions by which our sensation of life is reinforced and intensified4 ,all these impulses1 accompanied by higher or lower degrees of conscious endeavour1 are psychical phenomena of fundamental importance4 ,they are not restricted to any particular stage of culture4 ,and their coercive force is equal--nay1 even superior to that of the imitative impulse1 the play-impulse1 and the impulse 8to attract by pleasing40 ,if we could deduce the desire for artistic creation from the activities connected with feeling1 we should here find the explanation of its universality as well as of its force4 ,but among the manifestations described in the foregoing chapters there is none which directly leads us to the artistic activity4 ,as against the ,spieltrieb theories it was objected that play never develops of itself into art1 so it may now be objected1 with as much reason1 that all immediate or secondary emotional manifestations1 however interesting they may be1 give us no information on artistic manifestations4 ,the instinctive tendency to express overmastering feeling1 to enhance pleasure1 and to seek relief from pain1 forms the most deep-seated motive of all human activity4 ,we can therefore derive the distinctive qualities of artistic production from this impulse only when it has been proved that art is better able than any other kind of mental function to serve and satisfy the requirements which arise from this impulse when it occurs in its purest form4 ,that this is the case1 is the fundamental hypothesis upon which this work is based4 ,it was impossible to prove its validity as long as emotional manifestations were treated as phenomena in the psychical life of the individual4 ,for art is in its innermost nature a social activity4 ,in order to elucidate the connection between art-impulse and emotional activities1 we must therefore examine the latter as they appear in the social relations of mankind4 ,we do not believe that any new principles are necessary for this purpose4 ,we need only apply to social phenomena the same laws which were found to be valid for the emotional life of the individual4 ,as1 however1 the legitimacy of such a course may be questioned1 we must first devote some pages to a treatment of what we may call--if the expression is allowed--the interindividual life4 ,this digression brings us into a field of inquiry--that of the psychical conditions of social life--which during recent years has been the object of certain most important scientific researches4 ,the investigations into the psychology of masses1 as well as the experiments on suggestive therapeutics1 have proved to how great an extent mental states may be transmitted from individual to individual by unconscious imitation of the accompanying movements4 ,the doctrine of universal sympathy1 a clear statement of which was given long ago in the ethical theory of ,adam ,smith1#ig has thus acquired a psychological justification in the modern theories of imitative movement4 ,contemporary science has at last learned to appreciate the fundamental importance of imitation for the development of human culture4#ih ,and some authors have even gone so far as to endeavour to deduce all sociological laws from this one principle4 ,at the same time natural history has begun to pay more and more attention to the indispensability of imitation for the full development of instincts1 as well as for training in those activities which are the most necessary in life4#ii ,it is fortunate for the theory of art that the importance of the imitative functions has thus been simultaneously acknowledged in various departments of science4 ,whatever one may think of the somewhat audacious generalisations which have been made in the recent application of this new principle1 it is incontestable that the sthetic activities can be understood and explained only by reference to universal tendency to imitate4 ,it is also significant that writers on sthetic had felt themselves compelled to set up a theory of imitation long before experimental psychologists had begun to turn their attention in this direction4 ,in ,germany the enjoyment of form and form-relations has since ,vischer's time been interpreted as the result of the movements by which not only our eye1 but also our whole body1 follows the outlines of external things4#ajj ,in ,france ,jouffroy stated the condition for the receiving of sthetic impressions to be a 8power of internally imitating the states which are externally manifested in living nature40#aja ,in ,england1 finally1 ,vernon ,lee and ,anstruther ,thompson have founded a theory of beauty and ugliness upon this same psychical impulse to copy in our own unconscious movements the forms of objects4#ajb ,and in the writings of1 for instance1 ,home1#ajc ,hogarth1#ajd ,dugald ,stewart1#aje and ,spencer1#ajf there can be found a multitude of isolated remarks on the influence which is in a direct way exercised on our mental life by the perception of lines and forms4 ,in most of these theories and observations1 however1 the imitative activity has been noticed only in so far as it contributes to the sthetic delight which may be derived from sensual impressions4 ,but its importance is by no means so restricted as this2 on the contrary1 we believe it to be a fundamental condition for the existence of intuition itself4 ,without all these imperceptible tracing movements with which our body accompanies the adaptation of the eye-muscles to the outlines of external objects1 our notions of depth1 height1 and distance1 and so on1 would certainly be far less distinct than they are4#ajg ,on the other hand1 the habit of executing such movements has1 so to say1 brought the external world within the sphere of the internal4 ,the world has been measured with man as a standard1 and objects have been translated into the language of mental experience4 ,the impressions have hereby gained not only in emotional tone1 but also in intellectual comprehensibility4#ajh ,greater still is the importance of imitation for our intuition of moving objects4 ,and a difficult movement itself is fully understood only when it has been imitated1 either internally or in actual outward activity4 ,the idea of a movement1 therefore1 is generally associated with an arrested impulse to perform it4#aji ,closer introspection will show every one to how great a part our knowledge1 even of persons1 is built up of motor elements4 ,by unconsciously and imperceptibly copying in our own body the external behaviour of a man1 we may learn to understand him with benevolent or malevolent sympathy4#aaj ,and it will no doubt be admitted by most readers that the reason why they know their friends and foes better than they know any one else is that they carry the remembrance of them not only in their eyes1 but in their whole body4 ,when in idle moments we find the memory of an absent friend surging up in our mind with no apparent reason1 we may often note1 to our astonishment1 that we have just been unconsciously adopting one of his characteristic attitudes1 or imitating his peculiar gestures or gait4 ,it may1 however1 be objected that the above-mentioned instances refer only to a particular class of individuals4 ,in other minds1 it will be said1 the world-picture is entirely built up of visual and acoustic elements4 ,it is also impossible to deny that the classification of minds in different types1 which modern psychology has introduced1 is as legitimate as it is advantageous for the purposes of research4 ,but we can hardly believe that such divisions have in view anything more than a relative predominance of the several psychical elements4#aaa ,it is easily understood that a man in whose store of memory visual or acoustic images occupy the foremost place may be inclined to deny that motor sensations of unconscious copying enter to any extent into his psychical experience4 ,but an exclusively visual world-image1 if such a thing is possible1 must evidently be not only emotionally poorer1 but also intellectually less distinct and less complete1 than an intuition1 in which such motor elements are included4 ,the importance of motor sensations in the psychology of knowledge is by itself of no sthetic interest4 ,the question has been touched upon in this connection only because of the illustration which it gives to the imitation theory4 ,if1 as we believe is the case1 it is really necessary1 for the purpose of acquiring a complete comprehension of things and events1 to 8experience0 them--that is to say1 to pursue and seize upon them1 not only with the particular organ of sense to which they appeal1 but also by tracing movements of the whole body1 then there is no need to wonder at the universality of the imitative impulse4 ,imitation does not only1 according to this view1 facilitate our training in useful activities1 and aid us in deriving an sthetic delight from our sensations3 it serves also1 and perhaps primarily1 as an expedient for the accommodating of ourselves to the external world1 and for the explaining of things by reference to ourselves4 ,it is therefore natural that imitative movements should occupy so great a place among the activities of children and primitive men4 ,and we can also understand why this fundamental impulse1 which has played so important a part in racial as well as in individual education1 may become so great as to be a disease and dominate the whole of conscious life4#aab ,as children we all imitated before we comprehended1 and we have learned to comprehend by imitating4#aac ,it is only when we have grown familiar by imitation with the most important data of perception that we become capable of appropriating knowledge in a more rational way4 ,although no adult has any need to resort to external imitation in order to comprehend new impressions1 it is still only natural that in a pathological condition he should relapse into the primitive imitative reaction4 ,and it is equally natural that an internal1 i4e4 arrested1 imitation should take place in all our perceptions4 ,after this explanation of the universality of this phenomenon we have no further need to occupy ourselves with the general psychology of imitation4 ,we have here only to take notice of its importance for the communication of feeling4 ,as is well known1 it is only in cases of abnormally increased sensibility--for instance1 in some of the stages of hypnotism and thought transmission--that the motor counterpart of a mental state can be imitated with such faithfulness and completeness that the imitator is thereby enabled to partake of all the intellectual elements of the state existing in another4 ,the hedonic qualities1 on the other hand1 which are physiologically conditioned by much simpler motor counterparts1 may of course be transmitted with far greater perfection3 it is easier to suggest a pleasure than a thought4 ,it is also evident that it is the most general hedonic and volitional elements which have been considered by the ,german authors on sthetic in their theories on internal imitation 78,die innere ,nachahmung074 ,they seem to have thought that the adoption of the attitudes and the performance of the movements which usually accompany a given emotional state will also succeed to some extent in producing a similar emotional state4 ,this assumption is perfectly legitimate1 even if the connection between feeling and movement be interpreted in the associative way4 ,and it needs no justification when the motor changes are considered as the physiological correlate of the feeling itself4 ,everyday experience affords many examples of the way in which feelings are called into existence by the imitation of their expressive movements4 ,a child repeats the smiles and the laughter of its parents1 and can thus partake of their joy long before it is able to understand its cause4#aad ,adult life naturally does not give us many opportunities of observing this pure form of direct and almost automatic transmission4 ,but even in adult life we may often meet with an exchange of feeling which seems almost independent of any intellectual communication4 ,lovers know it1 and intimate friends like the brothers ,goncourt1#aae to say nothing of people who stand in so close a rapport with each other as a hypnotiser and his subject4#aaf ,and even where there is no previous sympathetic relation1 a state of joy or sadness may often1 if it is only distinctly expressed1 pass over1 so to say1 from the individual who has been under the influence of its objective cause1 to another who1 as it were1 borrows the feeling1 but remains unconscious of its cause4 ,we experience this phenomenon almost daily in the influence exerted upon us by social intercourse1 and even by those aspects of nature--for instance1 blue open sky or overhanging mountains--which naturally call up in us the physical manifestation of emotional states4 ,the coercive force with which our surroundings--animate or inanimate--compel us to adopt the feelings which are suggested by their attitudes1 forms1 or movements1 is perhaps as a rule too weak to be noticed by a self-controlled1 unemotional man4 ,but if we want an example of this influence at its strongest1 we need but remember how difficult it is for an individual to resist the contagion of collective feeling4#aag ,on public occasions the common mood1 whether of joy or sorrow1 is often communicated even to those who were originally possessed by the opposite feeling4 ,so powerful is the infection of great excitement that--according to ,m4 ,fr--even a perfectly sober man who takes part in a drinking bout may often be tempted to join in the antics of his drunken comrades in a sort of second-hand intoxication1 8drunkenness by induction40#aah ,in the great mental epidemics of the ,middle ,ages this kind of contagion operated with more fatal results than ever before or afterwards4 ,but even in modern times a popular street riot may often show us something of the same phenomenon4 ,the great tumult in ,london in #ahhf afforded1 it is said1 a good opportunity of observing how people who had originally maintained an indifferent attitude were gradually carried away by the general excitement1 even to the extent of joining in the outrages4#aai ,in this instance the contagious effect of expressional movements was undoubtedly facilitated by their connection with so primary an impulse as that of rapine and destruction4 ,but the case is the same with all the activities which appear as the outward manifestations of our strongest feeling-states4 ,they all consist of instinctive actions with which every one is well familiar from his own experience4 ,it is therefore natural that anger1 hate1 or love may be communicated almost automatically from an individual to masses1 and from masses to individuals4 ,now that the principle of the interindividual diffusion of feeling has been stated and explained1 we may return to our main line of research and examine its bearings on the expressional impulse4 ,we have seen that in the social surroundings of the individual there is enacted a process resembling that which takes place within his own organism4 ,just as functional modifications spread from organ to organ1 just as wider and wider zones of the system are brought into participation in the primary enhancement or inhibition1 so a feeling is diffused from an individual to a circle of sympathisers who repeat its expressional movements4 ,and just as all the widened 8somatic resonances0 contribute to the primary feeling-tone increased strength and increased definiteness1 so must the emotional state of an individual be enhanced by retroactive stimulation from the expressions by which the state has1 so to say1 been continued in others4 ,by the reciprocal action of primary movements and borrowed movements1 which mutually imitate each other1 the social expression operates in the same way as the individual expression4 ,and we are entitled to consider it as a secondary result of the general expressional impulse1 that when mastered by an overpowering feeling we seek enhancement or relief by retroaction from sympathisers1 who reproduce and in their expression represent the mental state by which we are dominated4 ,in point of fact we can observe in the manifestations of all strong feelings which have not found a satisfactory relief in individual expression1 a pursuit of social resonance4 ,a happy man wants to see glad faces around him1 in order that from their expression he may derive further nourishment and increase for his own feeling4 ,hence the benevolent attitude of mind which as a rule accompanies all strong and pure joy4 ,hence also the widespread tendency to express joy by gifts or hospitality4 ,in moods of depression we similarly desire a response to our feeling from our surroundings4 ,in the depth of despair we may long for a universal cataclysm to extend1 as it were1 our own pain4 ,as joy naturally makes men good1 so pain often makes them hard and cruel4 ,that this is not always the case is a result of the increased power of sympathy which we gain by every experienced pain4 ,moreover1 we have need of sympathetic rapport for our motor reactions against pain4 ,all the active manifestations of sorrow1 despair1 or anger which are not wholly painful in themselves are facilitated by the reciprocal influence of collective excitement4 ,thus all strong feelings1 whether pleasurable or painful1 act as socialising factors4#abj ,this socialising action may be observed at all stages of development4 ,even the animals seek their fellows in order to stimulate themselves and each other by the common expression of an overpowering feeling4 ,as has been remarked by ,espinas1 the flocking together of the male birds during the pairing season is perhaps as much due to this craving for mutual stimulation as to the desire to compete for the favour of the hen4#aba ,the howling choirs of the macaws#abb and the drum concerts of the chimpanzees#abc are still better and unmistakable instances of collective emotional expression4 ,in man we find the results of the same craving for social expression in the gatherings for rejoicing or mourning which are to be met with in all tribes1 of all degrees of development4 ,and as a still higher development of the same fundamental impulse1 there appears in man the artistic activity4 ,the more conscious our craving for retroaction from sympathisers1 the more there must also be developed in us a conscious endeavour to cause the feeling to be appropriated by as many as possible and as completely as possible4 ,the expressional impulse is not satisfied by the resonance which an occasional public1 however sympathetic1 is able to afford4 ,its natural aim is to bring more and more sentient beings under the influence of the same emotional state4 ,it seeks to vanquish the refractory and arouse the indifferent4 ,an echo1 a true and powerful echo--that is what it desires with all the energy of an unsatisfied longing4 ,as a result of this craving the expressional activities lead to artistic production4 ,the work of art presents itself as the most effective means by which the individual is enabled to convey to wider and wider circles of sympathisers an emotional state similar to that by which he is himself dominated4 ,we propose in the next chapter to indicate the way in which art in its various forms has served the expressional craving4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,deduction ,,of ,,art-,,forms ,in the science of art many hypotheses have been advanced as to the order in which the different art-forms have made their appearance4 ,we do not intend to bring forward any new arguments on this much-debated question4 ,even if our knowledge of prehistoric man were so complete and trustworthy as to entitle us to draw any conclusions as to the earliest stages in art-development1 such an appeal to history would in the present connection constitute a grave confusion of standpoints4 ,as long as we are occupied with that abstract datum1 the purely artistic activity1 we cannot possibly find any support for our reasoning in existing works of art1 concerning which the question may always be raised whether the motive was or was not a purely autotelic art-impulse4 ,we shall therefore in the following pages entirely ignore the question of historical sequence and restrict our attention to the various degrees of theoretical priority4 ,starting from the interpretation of artistic activity which was postulated1 but not yet proved1 in the preceding chapter1 we shall consider those art-forms as most primordial which stand in the closest connection with the expression of feeling4 ,by comparing those manifestations of art-activity which are from our standpoint elementary1 with the non-sthetic expression of emotional states1 we shall try to isolate the peculiarly artistic qualities in their simplest possible form4 ,if the result of such a treatment prove consistent with general sthetic ideals1 as exhibited in the literature of art1 this fact will naturally go to the credit of our explanation4 ,the purest and most typical expression of simple feeling is that which consists of mere random movements4 ,those activities1 whether of the whole body or of special parts1--the larynx1 for instance1--which follow immediately upon1 or rather accompany1 a state of pleasure or pain1 are in themselves entirely non-sthetic4 ,thus it is impossible to see anything artistic in the spectacle of a man leaping or shouting for joy4 ,yet the lowest kind of lyrical music and lyrical 8gymnastic0 dance may be almost as directly connected with the original state of feeling as these purely expressional activities4 ,the only difference is that in music and dance the movements have been limited and restrained by the adoption of a fixed sequence in time4 ,this fixed sequence in time--the rhythm--must therefore1 from our point of view1 be considered as the simplest of all art-forms4 ,if we were to give a complete account of the psychology of rhythm1 it would be impossible not to resort to a sociological and historical mode of treatment4 ,by ,dr4 ,wallaschek's researches on primitive music it has been conclusively shown how important a part rhythm1 as a means of facilitating co-operation1 has played in the struggle for existence4#abd ,and this utilitarian explanation has recently been carried even farther by ,professor ,bcher1 who points out the invaluable saving of effort which the individual obtains by regulating his movements in a fixed sequence of time4#abe ,we may think that ,professor ,bcher has stretched his point too far in endeavouring to derive almost all music and poetry from the economical exigencies of labour2#abf but there can be no doubt that in whichever way the ultimate origin of musical arts be explained1 their development is largely due to the practical advantages of rhythm4 ,these considerations1 however1 which will be developed in the following chapters1 need not detain us here1 where we have to do with the presumably non-utilitarian and purely sthetic work of art4 ,if the practical advantages of economy and co-operation can be eliminated1--if we can imagine a dance and a song which has not for its aim the facilitation or regulation of some form of work or the stimulation of some effort1 which1 in short1 has its sole aim and purpose in itself1--then the art-element in this dance or song must be explicable without reference to 8foreign0 purposes4 ,the only explanation we have been able to find is one which brings us back to the standpoint of the last chapter4 ,looking upon art as an essentially social activity1 we naturally bestow our main attention upon rhythm as a factor of unification4 ,but as we are not allowed to take into account its importance for practical co-operation1 we can only interpret it as a means of bringing about emotional community4 ,and it is evident that the fixed sequence in time1 when used for the purpose of communicating a state of feeling1 must produce the same effect as when it serves the purpose of diffusing and regulating the impulses to work4 ,this fact can also be observed in all cases of social expression4 ,the most general and simple states of emotional excitement1 such as a festive mood or a warlike intoxication1 may indeed be diffused with sufficient efficacy by simple contagious imitation4 ,but even with regard to such eminently infectious feelings1 if a great mass of men is to be collectively and simultaneously stimulated by a common execution of the appropriate expressive movements1 these movements must be regulated by the adoption of a rhythm4 ,on the other hand1 as soon as the expression is fixed in rhythmical form its contagious power is incalculably increased4 ,by its incessant and regular recurrence1 the rhythm takes a ruthless hold of the attention1 and thereby compels even the most recalcitrant to yield to the power of the transmitted feeling4#abg ,as evidence of the irresistibility with which a rhythmical expression may rouse an audience to an almost unvoluntary imitation1 one may refer to the familiar effects of the southern dances4 ,the tarantella1 as is well known1 often entices the unwilling as well as the willing to join in its wild movements4 ,and the same is said of several other ,spanish and ,italian dances4 ,we need only refer to the apologue of the ,fandango1 so often used as a motive of ballets1 in which the dance1 brought into court for causing disturbance1 compels judge and jury to yield to its temptations and dissolve the sitting for a fierce gambade4#abh ,such stories give an exaggerated yet typical example of the great influence which the sight of dancing exercises on the lively ,latin nations4 ,an impassive ,northerner can indeed always master the impulse to join actively in a wild dance4 ,but even he cannot avoid sharing the excitement by internal imitation4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to decide with any exactitude whether the effects which a dance-performance exercises on the spectators are mainly due to the movements themselves or to the rhythm by which they are regulated4 ,in order1 therefore1 to estimate at its proper value the importance of time1 it is necessary to examine it as it appears when isolated from bodily movement4 ,the lowest types of music1 in which the element of melody is of no importance1 show us rhythm in its simplest and purest form4 ,such instruments as drums1 tom-toms1 and castanets may serve as a most effective means of emotional excitation4 ,the same exaltation or depression1 which in a dance is conveyed by a series of varied expressive movements1 may be transmitted with almost equal effectiveness by a simple sequence of sounds4 ,any group of acoustic impressions following each other in a fixed rhythm may1 independently of their character1 arouse in the listener the same modifications of functions and activities1 and hence also the same emotional state1 as was originally expressed by this particular time-sequence4 ,thus pure feeling1 as it appears when abstraction has been made of all intellectual elements1 can be as it were exteriorised in rhythmical form4 ,and1 which is of still greater importance1 a pure feeling can in this exteriorisation be fixed down for future repetition4 ,even in its simplest manifestations art is thus capable of raising an emotional state beyond the limitations of space and time4 ,it is most natural1 when speaking of the connection between feeling and rhythm1 to refer to dance and the simplest vocal and instrumental music4 ,but it goes without saying that the effects are the same in kind1 although less in degree1 when the time-sequence is impressed upon our mind in some more indirect way4 ,thus1 by appropriating the element of rhythm1 which enters into all poetry1 we may in reciting or reading a verse partake of an emotional state in the same way as we do when joining1 actively or 8internally10 the movements of a dance4 ,similarly1 the formative and decorative arts may1 by compelling our eye to follow a regular arrangement of lines and figures1 transmit to us an emotional excitement by the mediation of rhythm4 ,ornament1 that purely popular art1 may therefore be compared as to its psychological effects with simple popular dances and melodies4#abi ,in these three logically most primordial arts1 viz4 gymnastic dance1 geometric ornament1 and unmelodic1 simply rhythmical music or singing1 the unmotived 8objectless0 feeling is expressed in a medium which directly conveys to us its accompanying modifications of activity4 ,notwithstanding the meagreness of their intellectual content1 these purely lyrical forms1 if we may so call them1 are therefore emotionally suggestive to a high degree4 ,general and indistinct moods1 such as a feeling of ease1 of liberation from restraint1 of assurance and power1 etc41 may by them be transmitted with unsurpassable fidelity4 ,but their expressive power is also confined to such purely hedonic states4 ,whenever1 therefore1 the feeling forms a part of a differentiated and fully formed emotion1 the impulse to social expression must avail itself of some more adequate means of transmission4 ,in point of fact there will nearly always1 even in the most impulsive outburst of pleasure or pain1 enter an element of simple dramatic representation1 by which some of the mental qualities distinctive of the various emotions are communicated4 ,with regard to dancing1 for instance1 we can only speak in the abstract of any simply 8gymnastic0 forms4#acj ,even if the movements originally aim at nothing but enhancement or relief for an indistinct emotional state1 they will unavoidably take the character of such movements as have been connected with some emotion1 and thereby1 in spectators as well as in performers1 awaken some faint revival of this complex state of feeling4 ,this process can be very clearly observed in the case of the pseudo-pantomimes which are so general among lower tribes4 ,when a savage is in a high-strung state of feeling1 he generally resorts to the same movements which have served him to express the greatest and most frequent excitements of his life4 ,among warlike tribes the dances of joy1 as well as their developments1 salutation dances1 and complimentary dances1#aca generally have a distinct military character4#acb ,no doubt it may be contended that the particular character of these pantomimes was originally a result of political considerations4 ,in a military state of society it is perhaps simply a measure of safety to receive strangers with threats4 ,but however important this utilitarian aspect may be1 it seems more probable that a great part of these apparently unmotived pantomimes1 which are executed when we should expect only a simple outburst of joy1 are best interpreted as real instances of borrowed expression1 necessitated by the limitations of our means of expression and furthered by associative processes4 ,in the life of self-contained educated men we do not generally meet with this phenomenon in so distinct a form4 ,but even here the fragmentary pantomimes into which a man often falls when mastered by a quite indistinct feeling--we need only refer to the erotic character of embraces and other gestures of joy--show us that expression always adds an element of definiteness to the psychical state expressed4 ,when treating of the reactions consequent upon bodily pain1 we have already had to take into account the species of imaginative materialisation1 as though pain were a concrete thing1 a shirt of ,nessus1 by which a sufferer is generally induced to explain his automatic movements4 ,here we need only point out that a similar1 so to speak1 mythogenic influence1 a natural tendency to personification1 results not only from reactions to pain1 but also from all expressive activities4 ,an indistinct mood of pleasure thus generally passes over into a joy--that is1 a feeling which is referred to some cause1 imaginary or real--when the functional enhancement has reached our voluntary muscles4 ,an oppression1 which in its origin may be purely physiological1 is transformed1 when the bodily modifications become more differentiated1#acc into fear of something unknown--for instance1 some impending danger4 ,since it is so difficult for the individual himself to perceive a mental state as one of pure sensation with no element of thought1 we need not wonder that his expression always transmits to the spectator something more than the mere excitement or depression of simple feeling4 ,however strictly we try to isolate the pure rhythm of a lyrical performance1 there will always slip into it an element of mimetic expression--we do not know of a better adjective--which suggests a mental state1 distincter and better defined than that of pure feeling4 ,in reality1 therefore1 the dramatic forms of dancing are no less primordial than those purely rhythmical manifestations which the necessities of treatment have compelled us to consider as a separate group4#acd ,it is also evident that the dramatic or mimetic element will increase in importance as the endeavour to represent mental states and transmit them to outsiders becomes more conscious and deliberate4 ,we have dealt at sufficient length with the transmission of emotion by mimetic expression4 ,a striking instance of this process has already been found outside the domain of art in the contagiousness of collective states of mind4 ,when art adopts emotional transmission as an end in itself1 this contagiousness is naturally increased4 ,on the side of the executant we have to suppose a conscious endeavour to make the mimic expression as easily appropriated as possible2 on the side of the spectator an increased readiness to partake of the expressed feeling4 ,a theatrical audience1 indeed1 unlike a riotous mob1 does not generally go so far as to imitate its leader1 the actor1 by actual movement4 ,conscious of the fictitious character of the performance1 the spectators are able to resist the sub-conscious volitional impulses which they receive4 ,but while thus controlling their outward activity1 those who attentively follow the acting may nevertheless appropriate in an almost direct manner the feelings represented4 ,although they remain passive spectators and preserve an appearance of immobility1 they are apt to follow1 in a kind of abridgment1 the attitudes and facial play of the performers4 ,at the most critical stages of a popular melodrama the audience always falls into an unconscious pantomime1 which1 as ,engel remarked1 to the psychological observer is of far greater interest than that enacted on the stage4#ace ,in the higher forms of dramatic art this direct transmission of feeling no doubt loses a great deal of its importance4 ,but we believe that every attentive playgoer has occasional opportunities of observing1 in himself if not in his neighbours1 faint traces of an unconscious and involuntary imitation which follows all the movements of the performers4 ,such imitation will1 of course1 become more and more pronounced the more the dialogue gives place to pantomimic action1 and the more vividly and convincingly this action is represented4 ,as an example of the power with which a good mimic may compel even the most critical spectator to participate in emotional moods1 we cannot quote anything better than the description of ,garrick in ,lichtenberg's ,briefe aus ,england4 8,his facial expression is so powerful as to invite imitation4 ,when he is grave his audience is grave4 ,when he frowns the house frowns1 and it smiles when he smiles4 ,in his hidden pleasure1 and in his intimate manner1 when1 in an aside1 he gives the audience his confidence1 there is something so winning that one's whole soul goes out to this fascinating man40#acf ,it may be thought that the above described processes occur only in those arts which can be called dramatic in the proper sense of the word4 ,if this were the case1 the principle of emotional transmission by direct imitation would of course be of very restricted sthetic importance4 ,we think1 however1 that a histrionic element can be noticed1 with greater or less distinctness1 no doubt1 in all the various forms of artistic production4 ,it certainly enters into literature1 where popular authors1 especially of the sentimental class1 always possessed the secret of suggesting feelings by representing their manifestations in 8contagious0 description4 ,and it plays an important part in all the arts of design1 formative as well as decorative4 ,we may often catch ourselves faintly imitating movements or attitudes represented in sculpture4 ,and this influence of suggestion is felt not only1 as ,professor ,lange thinks1 in the case of melodramatic sculpture--expressive of the most violent passions--it contributes also1 in no slight degree1 to our enjoyment of the forms which represent the gentler moods4#acg ,however calm and impassive the facial expression of a statue may be1 the attitude of the body will always communicate to us a feeling of some kind1 of strength and assurance1 or perhaps of settled melancholy4 ,in the art of painting this mimetic principle tends to be lost among the descriptive elements4 ,the direct transmission of feeling is replaced by an indirect and associative one4 ,still1 there are few works1 if any1 in which the histrionic factor is entirely lacking4 ,it may be detected with especial clearness in sentimental or comic figure-painting1 which often literally infects us with the emotions it represents4 ,when looking at a ,japanese caricature1 for instance1 of the gods of happiness1 we often laugh with the laughter of the picture long before we have realised the cause of it1 or formulated any judgment as to the artistic merits of the representation4 ,it is true that pictorial art has many branches in which the human figure does not appear at all4 ,but this absence does not by any means entail a complete loss of mimetic suggestiveness4 ,as our perceptions1 whether of animate or inanimate objects1 are always accompanied by a complete or abortive imitation1 any kind of form or movement may call forth in us activities distinctive of some emotional mood4 ,just as a rhythmic series of simple acoustic or visual impressions may occasion in us the functional modifications accompanying simple feeling1 and thereby arouse in us the mental state of which this rhythm is an exteriorisation1 so the mimic movements which are the physiological counterparts of distinct emotion may be1 so to speak1 translated into lines and forms1 by which the emotion is reproduced in other minds4 ,thus even an object of handicraft--a vase1 for instance--may1 by the suggestiveness of its shape1 affect our emotional life in an almost immediate way4 ,and geometric ornament has an equal1 if not even greater1 power of conjuring up in us emotional states1 which we read into the angles and volutes4 ,finally1 the concrete objects of nature are full of 8expressive qualities0 which make them available as a means of conveying our feelings4 ,the whole world of visual reality can thus be used in a kind of indirect mimetism1--a dramatic expression1 so to speak1 in which natural and abstract forms replace the human body4 ,the course of our argument has led us to emphasise the lyrical and dramatic elements in artistic activity4 ,but we do not by any means wish to underrate the fact that it is only a very small minority of works the nature of which can be exhaustively described by these two qualities4 ,with increased importance of the intellectual elements accompanying the emotional states1 direct emotional suggestion must unavoidably appear an inadequate means of communication4 ,a joy or a sorrow1 together with a notion of some objective cause of it1 rapture or admiration1 anger1 hate1 or despair1--all these and similar states can be completely conveyed to an outsider only in so far as they have been accounted for to his intellect4 ,as the theoretically latest manifestation of the craving for social expression there will thus appear an impulse to represent or describe objective events or things1 by which a feeling similar to that of the producing artist may be called forth in his audience4 ,and thus in almost all art-forms1 in ornament and music as well as in painting and novels1 there will be found an imitation of nature which serves what in the widest use of the term we may call an epic purpose4 ,the intellectual justification of a feeling by representation of a cause and the orderly form of its direct or secondary expression are1 however1 in themselves insufficient to secure a response2 the attention and goodwill of the audience must first be conciliated4 ,a sympathetic rapport always presupposes a state of compliance in at least one of the parties involved4 ,when seeking by means of a work of art to obtain a response to an overmastering feeling the artist is thus constrained to exercise persuasion upon his real or fictitious public4 ,as ,m4 ,sully-,prudhomme has finely remarked1 it is only by first caressing our senses that art rouses our feelings and awakens our thoughts4#ach ,besides that element of beauty which can be immediately derived from the expressed content1 and that element of gracefulness which follows as result of the psychical freedom attained by expression1 there are in nearly all works of art qualities whose aim is exclusively to please4 ,if we may risk a somewhat audacious parallel1 we may say that the work of art1 in the same way as a living organism1 an animal or a plant1 entices the attention and charms the senses with the beauty of its 8means of attraction10 not for the sake of these attractions themselves1 but for the secret they at the same time conceal and disclose4 ,all these allurements might easily cause a superficial observer to lose sight of the simple fact which lies at the bottom of the artistic work1 viz4 the feeling-state which demands expression and response4 ,we thus see why the impulse to attract by pleasing has been considered as synonymous with the art-impulse4 ,as has already been remarked1 such an interpretation cannot account for the coercive force of the artistic impulse4 ,and equally with the theories based upon the epic or descriptive elements in art1 it is incompatible with the principle of the unity of art4 ,if the logical evolution of the art-forms is conceived in the way we have described1 all the various manifestations of artistic activity can be derived from one common principle4 ,and by the aid of this one principle we are able to explain the force of that impulse which1 with similar coercive force1 urges to creation within the various art-forms4 ,however much the artistic impulse may become differentiated with the progress of culture1 its innermost nature will always remain the same4 ,however complex its manifestations1 their aim is always to secure a faithful response to an overmastering feeling4 ,the more accomplished the work of art1 the more its creator will become independent of the chance audience1 which by its sympathetic expression produces an enhancing retroaction on his feeling4 ,he learns to give his mental states an embodiment which facilitates their reproduction in wider surroundings4 ,thus the expressional impulse directs him to place himself in sympathetic rapport with a fictitious public4 ,he creates1 that is to say1 expresses himself1 for an ideal spectator1--for posterity or for himself4 ,with a proud indifference to his most immediate social environment1 he may thus consider his own production as perfectly exempt of any social motivation4 ,the aphorism of ,mill1 8,all poetry is a soliloquy10 would no doubt be accepted by many of the most eminent poets4 ,but the psychological observer cannot help remarking that in such soliloquies the ego serves as a substitute for an external public4 ,the artist has in a sense a double capacity2 and artistic creation in solitude may be always explained by the fact that the creator exists also as his own spectator4 ,the production of even the most individualistic and most isolated artists can therefore be explained only by sociological considerations4 ,and the same is the case with those artists who work only for posterity4 ,it would be wrong to say that art in any one of its higher manifestations aims at transmitting a feeling4 ,its purpose is far rather an immortalisation4 ,but this very desire to perpetuate a mental state1 this desire which constrains the artist to strive indefatigably for the attainment of a form1 capable of imparting to all men of every country and every age the same enhancement and the same rapture which he has himself experienced--this highest manifestation of the expressional impulse--can be fully explained only by reference to the enhancing and relieving power of social expression4 ,in whatever light the art-impulse may appear to the reflecting consciousness of the producing artist1 this is the only consistent interpretation at which we can arrive by an examination of the artistic activity on psychological grounds4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,art ,,the ,,reliever ,in the endeavour to secure the transmission and perpetuation of a feeling1 the expressional activity gradually loses its purely impulsive character4 ,from an almost reflex outlet for abnormal nervous pressure1 it is more and more transformed into deliberate artistic production1 which is conscious of its aim as well as of the means for attaining it4 ,the elaboration of a work of art1 in which the expression of a feeling-state is to be concentrated1 and concentrated in a way which not only facilitates but even enforces in the spectator the assimilation of this state1 is a complicated operation which cannot of course take place without the effectual co-operation of intellectual and volitional activities4 ,and their co-operation1 on the other hand1 must evidently exercise some influence on the primordial feeling4 ,it is a familiar observation1 duly emphasised in all psychological handbooks1 that strong feelings make clear thought impossible4 ,everyday experience1 as well as scientific experiment1 gives unmistakable evidence of the influence which abnormal excitement or depression exercises1 not only on our ideas and their associations1 but even on the perceptions4 ,the converse has perhaps not been stated so often4 ,still1 it does not admit of doubt that intensified intellectual activity may1 in some cases1 even more effectually than motor reaction1 overcome the tyranny of a hypernormal feeling4 ,it is true that every mental state becomes more distinct as a phenomenon of consciousness when our thoughts are directed towards it4 ,feelings of low and moderate intensity may even be enhanced in their purely emotional aspect if we let our intellect play on them4 ,but as soon as a greater intensity of feeling is reached1 this relation is reversed4 ,joy which is so great as to be a burden1 8,die ,noth der ,flle10#aci and numbing despair1 must inevitably decrease when there is an increase of distinctness in their intellectual elements4 ,the more we can compel ourselves to contemplate with cool and clear attention the causes and manifestations of such high-strung states1 the more we are also able to master them4 ,it is a familiar experience to everyone that strong fear can be vanquished1 if only we can succeed in diverting all our attention to its objective source1 and 8stare the danger in the face40 ,when the attention is concentrated and intensified to the utmost degree1 it may even1 as in the case of fascination1 entirely prevent1 to our own danger1 the very rise of this self-preserving emotion4 ,in artistic creation we are not concerned with an intentional or unintentional effort to overcome feeling4 ,on the contrary the aim is here to keep the strongest possible hold of it in order to give it the most effective embodiment4 ,so irreconcilable1 however1 is the conflict between emotional excitement and intellectual activity1 that the latter1 even when it expressly serves the purposes of emotional enhancement1 must neutralise the excess of feeling4 ,a state of strong pleasure or pain can never be rendered intelligible to outsiders1 unless its expression is bridled and disciplined by thought4 ,by being thus embodied in a fixed form the feeling gains in conceivability as well as in infectious power4 ,but while the effect on spectators and listeners is in this way increased1 the artistic form influences the feeling subject himself in a quite different way4 ,its very clearness and distinctness necessarily brings something of that calm which all excitement seeks as relief4 ,the immediate reaction which the work of art exercises on its own creator is of course most easily seen and understood in the 8higher0 art-forms with their pronounced intellectual elements4 ,literary instances of the 8poetic cure0 for harassing or oppressing emotion are too numerous to be mentioned4 ,the only point we need dwell on is the question how these instances are to be interpreted4 ,when a poet seeks to give shape and form to his own sufferings by means of fiction1 the relief he obtains is no doubt in part an effect of the diversion of activity into the channels of expression4 ,but to a still greater degree it may be a result of the healthful influence exercised by the contemplation of objective reality in the finished work of art4 ,such an influence is unmistakable in the most illustrious instance of artistic production as a life-preserving expedient3 ,goethe's ,leiden des jungen ,werther4 ,in his memoirs the old poet frankly and unreservedly describes how1 when lacerated by the conflict between hypochondriac1 suicidal thoughts and an ineradicable love of life and cheerfulness1 he resorted to the old homely remedy of writing down his sufferings4 ,he lays especial stress on his desire to give definite form and body to his vague feelings of distress4 ,and as we read that afterwards1 when the work lay finished before him1 8bound in boards1 as a picture in its frame1 so as to prove the more convincingly its individual and concrete existence10 he could feel 8free and joyful1 and entitled to a new life10 we cannot but explain this renewed courage to live as a result of the sensation of security and support which the beholding of external form affords4#adj ,thus1 to begin with1 by its character as a palpable1 objective reality1 the work of art may diminish the subjective disturbance in which it originates4 ,this influence is supplemented by the retroaction of the sthetic qualities1 in the narrowest sense of the term1 such as beauty1 symmetry1 and the like1 by which an artist always seeks1 intentionally or unintentionally1 to arrest the attention of his public4 ,the more therefore the work grows in definiteness in the thought and under the hand of the artist1 the more it will repress and subdue the chaotic tumult of emotional excitement4 ,the ,dionysiac rapture1 as the ancients would have said1 gives place to ,apolline serenity4 ,in language pruned of mythological symbolism1 this only means that art is better able than any of the immediate expressional activities to give complete and effective relief from emotional pressure4 ,and it further implies that however earnestly an artist may strive to communicate to his public the exact feeling he has himself experienced1 the emotional content expressed in his work will always be of another and more harmonious character than the mental state by which his production was originally called into existence4 ,to the extent that artistic form appears in a given work or manifestation there will also be present1 independently of the subject1--cheerful or sad1 passionate or calm1--a sense of mental liberation1 which atones for the excesses of emotional excitement4 ,in a final and exhaustive treatment of sthetic problems this influence of artistic form would need to be traced through all the departments of art-activity4 ,and it would be one of the most interesting parts of such a research to estimate the relative power with which art in its various branches is able to assuage at the same time as it excites4 ,we need not here undertake such a thorough comparative examination of the different arts4 ,what has been said about literary creation may be applied in substance to formative production as well4 ,and it even remains true with regard to those most lyrical and immediately expressive arts which seem to be altogether destitute of objective form and intellectual content4 ,although it has often been said that the lowest kinds of music are purely emotional manifestations1 we may still discern an element of form in the rhythm which regulates even the simplest songs and dances4#ada ,and the creation of this form undoubtedly requires a certain amount of conscious intention and intellectual activity4 ,it is therefore natural that the intensest and most abnormally enhanced feeling should exclude the possibility of rhythmical movement4 ,exalted joy and violent despair are in their external manifestations not only inharmonious and ungraceful1 but also unrhythmic4#adb ,but by subjecting the expression to the yoke of a fixed time order we may succeed in harmonising it4 ,and while the regular recurrence of intervals facilitates our movements--which thereby gain in ease and gracefulness--the vehemence of our feeling will be abated4 ,thus it is possible that although rhythm powerfully reinforces musical or dramatic excitement1 it may at the same time exercise a restraining influence on hypernormal feeling4 ,and its effects in music and dance show us1 in the simplest and most comprehensive of all examples1 the importance of artistic form4 ,the musical katharsis or relief to sensation always involves stimulation1 but it may nevertheless affect us as a sedative4 ,the more the form-element and attention to form gain in prominence1 the more effectual also is the relieving influence of art4 ,where the stimulative element is predominant in a work of art1 there the relief is less complete4 ,this contrast1 which can be observed at all stages of artistic development1 is eminently conspicuous in ancient art1 where high and low forms are often to be found in close juxtaposition4 ,the superiority of ,greek music over ,phrygian music was a favourite topic of the old writers on art1 and the legend of the contest between ,apollo and ,marsyas served as a mythological variation on the same theme4 ,lyre and flute stood as symbols for two different classes of art1 of which one was violent1 orgiastic1 and barbarous1 while the other was calm in its ,olympian serenity4#adc ,but the contrast expressed in these parables by the ancient authors and some of their modern followers is not so sharp in reality4 ,even the lively notes of a flute may1 to use the old metaphor1 by their bound time exercise a kind of restraining influence on the passions4 ,and on the other hand the sedative power of soft music is by no means so great as has often been contended4 ,while acting hygienically as a cure for excess of passion or sorrow it cannot produce any moral result properly so called4 ,as ,m4 ,combarieu has pointed out in his acute criticism of ,cardinal ,perraud's ,eurythmie et ,harmonie1 it is an incontestable fact1 which has only too often been overlooked by ,platonising philosophers1 that even the most immoral feelings may be expressed in perfect melody4#add ,the musical1 and still more the merely rhythmical1 form cannot change the quality of these feelings2 it can only deprive them of their dangerous intensity4 ,the mental state thereby gains in pure and unmingled pleasure2 it becomes ennobled as enjoyment1 but it is by no means moralised1 at least not according to modern views4 ,it is only from the standpoint of a purely hedonic system of ethics that music1 or any other art1 can be said to exercise an immediate moral influence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when trying to summarise our researches on the differences between artistic and non-artistic expression of emotional states in a comprehensive conclusion1 we are again led to that eminently illustrative instance--the ,bacchantic condition of the ancient ,maenads4 ,we have seen that in their description of ,dionysiac mania the classical authors enumerate almost all the various orgiastic manifestations which can be found in all periods in different parts of the world4 ,and if ancient literature affords us an epitome of the various expedients to which the expressional impulse resorts in its endeavour to enhance and relieve an emotional state1 the force of this craving for expression1 on the other hand1 nowhere appears with such convincing clearness as in the ,dionysiac monuments of classical art4 ,the frieze around the ,bacchic candelabra in the ,louvre proves better than any psychological analysis to how great a degree the ,dionysiac state is alloyed with pain and the longing for relief4 ,if these ,maenads be compared with the figures on the great vases in the ,british ,museum and with the various ,agave reliefs1 it will still more conclusively appear that it is real distress which compels the dancers to seek in ever-increasing excitement deliverance from the burden of their feelings4 ,no movement could be more eloquently expressive of the corresponding psychical state than the peculiar toss on the head and the backward curve of the upper trunk which can always be recognised in the most violent of the dancers4 ,an approach to this attitude 78opisthotonos07 sometimes appears1 as ,spencer remarks in his essay on the ,physiology of ,laughter1 in movements of great joy1 which has not been able to find expression by the usual channels of discharge4#ade ,but there is no doubt that1 however pleasurable the quality of the original state may have been1 its tone must have been radically transformed before it could produce these strained postures4 ,a feeling which distorts the body by its efforts to find relief1 which is not satisfied with the wild cries1 the dances1 and all the madness of the ,bacchic intoxication1 must in its abnormal exaggeration be perceived as a pain4 ,the pathological character of this feeling appears further from the fact that the very same movement may be observed in ,pierre ,breughel's paintings of hysteric patients and in ,m4 ,charcot's photographs from ,la ,salptrire4#adf ,and this same backward toss of the head may be seen in sculptures of witches1 the medival ,bacchantes1 where it sometimes gives an impression of proud and insolent defiance1 sometimes one of profound melancholy4#adg ,but in the reliefs representing ,bacchic orgies1 side by side with the dancers whose distorted attitude and violent movements betray the pain underlying the appearance of revel and riot1 there may always be seen the figures of women moving with easy and graceful step4 ,the freedom of their motion shows that they at least have found deliverance from the oppression of overstrung feeling4 ,the nervous tension which in their companions manifests itself in unrhythmic1 inharmonious leapings and withings1 has in their case found relief and given place to a feeling of rest and calm4 ,this expression of peace in their faces1 attitudes1 and draperies affords an instructive comment on the ,greek notion of ,dionysos1 the god of music1 who1 with all his wildness is none the less able to still the tempests of overpowering feelings4 ,this god of music1 as conceived by those who gave him a place among the ,olympians1 was not a symbol of dissolute pleasure4 ,on the contrary1 the myths tell us how those who oppose his ritual themselves fall victims to a mania even more violent than the ,bacchic frenzy itself4 ,his devotees1 on the other hand1 receive from the stirring notes of his flute and cymbals a determinate form and mould for their otherwise vehement and irregular expression-movements4 ,their joy loses its defiant and barbaric character1 their black despair is dissolved into gentle sadness4 ,rightly1 therefore1 was ,dionysos saluted as a deliverer when1 with his merry crew1 he marched from village to village4 ,like him art moves among men1 ennobling their joy and blunting the edge of their sufferings4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,art ,according to an old theory the classical drama originated in the ,dionysiac cultus4#adh ,the artistic development of savage and barbarous tribes supplies many analogies which strongly support this view4 ,the simplest drama and the most primitive poetry have in most nations been connected with orgiastic rites which1 from the psychological point of view1 closely resemble the ,bacchic ceremonies4 ,but we may go still further4 ,it has been contended on good grounds that even the formative arts made their earliest appearance on the occasion of great public festivals4#adi ,it might seem that if this view could only be corroborated by a sufficient body of ethnological evidence1 there would be no need of any further argument in favour of the emotionalistic interpretation of art4 ,granted that the simplest manifestations of all the different arts served primarily as means of heightening a festive mood1 then the psychological origin of the artistic activity ought to be ascertained by an analysis of high-pitch feeling4 ,the same mental causes and conditions which called forth the most primitive manifestations of art1 and determined their character1 may naturally be assumed to have influenced in greater or less degree the higher forms as well4 ,and thus in further support of our view we might simply refer to the study of a typical exaltation with which the preceding chapter was concluded4 ,we have here an apparently easy solution of the problem before us4 ,but by resorting to it we should expose ourselves to the risk of mistakes which is inherent in every historical method4 ,not only is it impossible1 as has already been remarked1 to make any positive assertion as to the purely sthetic and autotelic character of a given manifestation3 it is almost equally difficult to quote a rite or practice the interpretation of which1 from the emotional standpoint1 is clear and undisputed4 ,even the wild antics of the ,maenads1 in spite of the numerous analogies to them presented by the diseased mental states of modern man1 have been explained by some archologists as a stereotyped ritual4 ,the self-wounding and the tearing up of living animals have been interpreted as different forms of a sacrificial cult2 the frantic gestures and songs as dramatic representations of ancient myths4#aej ,it would require too cumbrous an apparatus merely to state and criticise existing theories on this point4 ,and even if we could prove that the ,bacchantic manifestations may be explained without reference to religious or commemorative intentions in the dancers1 as purely emotional activities1 grave objections would still remain to be answered4 ,from the medical point of view it might be maintained that the ,dionysiac state1 as well as all analogous conditions among savage and civilised nations1 is a purely pathological phenomenon4#aea ,by connecting artistic production with these states we should therefore expose ourselves to the accusation of treating art as an abnormality4 ,and it would be of no use to appeal to ,nietzsche's brilliant but unconvincing defence of the position that the ancient ,dionysiac orgies ought really to be considered as splendid disorders of health and overflowing vigour4#aeb ,it is therefore necessary to state explicitly that what we have said about the ,dionysiac state must by no means be taken as referring to actual historic facts known about the bacchanals4 ,the descriptions of ,euripides and other classical authors are valuable as expressions of the predominant notions of art quite independently of the reality which may or may not have corresponded to them4 ,the corybantic mania afforded to the ,greek mind a typical simile by which to illustrate that state of formless excitement which precedes the artistic creation4 ,in the mythical descriptions of the melancholia of the ,thyiads1 and in the sculptural representations of their dances and extravagances1 it was easy to recognise--more by instinct1 perhaps1 than by reflection--the same dissatisfaction and the same longing for fuller and deeper expression which compels the artist to seek in sthetic production compensation for the deficiencies of life4 ,and the feeling of liberation1 which in the artist1 upon the attainment of artistic form1 supersedes overmastering and inharmonious excitement1 seemed explicable by the analogy of the relief which the mythical ,dionysus bestowed upon his devotees4 ,at a time1 therefore1 when dancing occupied a prominent place among the arts1 it must have been quite natural to consider the god of dance and music as an embodiment of the feelings and impulses of artistic creation4 ,for modern times1 however1 this poetic parable has scarcely even an illustrative value4 ,it would be too far-fetched to treat the simple1 lyrical dance and song as a general type of art1 seeing that in real life dancing has long ago been almost entirely superseded by more complicated forms of artistic activity4 ,it is1 however1 only in such direct manifestations as the simplest song1 dance1 and poetry that the artistic activity itself is accessible to our analysis4 ,with regard to those higher forms of art in which the dramatic and epic elements play an important part1 it may indeed be contended that even they originate in an emotional craving for expression4 ,and it can be proved1 as we have tried to show in the preceding chapters1 that such a theory gives us the best explanation of the life-preserving influence of artistic creation4 ,but it is not to be concealed that1 as far as painting1 sculpture1 and the higher forms of poetry are concerned1 this view is exclusively based upon hypothesis4 ,it cannot be considered as established so long as we have no authentic information on the feelings and impulses which direct a sculptor or a painter in his work4 ,the only competent witnesses who can give us this information--namely1 the artists themselves--have generally paid too little attention to theoretic problems to make any observations on their own mental states during the task of creation2 and even when they do so they are deterred by a natural sense of propriety from making any public revelations on a matter which affects their most intimate emotional life4 ,all the more impertinent would it be for an outsider to make a priori assertions on the psychical motives for their work4 ,while entitled to speak with some confidence on the simple1 universal arts1 the theoretical observer cannot1 with regard to the specialised crafts1 rely upon either experience or sympathetic understanding4 ,the only safe point of departure is here the objective work4 ,our interpretation can be considered as conclusively established only if we are able to show that the distinctive qualities of the work of art1 as met with in the highest manifestations of art1 are such as to provide some emotional state with the most adequate and most convincing expression4 ,the work of art has been the subject of theoretical investigation to a far greater extent than the artistic impulse4 ,when examining its distinctive qualities we can therefore constantly avail ourselves of the researches of earlier writers on sthetic4 ,there is no need to search for the problems to be solved nor to justify the scheme of inquiry4 ,we have to show that our interpretation of the artistic activity is consistent with the general principles according to which the value of art-works is estimated4 ,these principles1 on the other hand1 can evidently be discovered only by studying the judgments on art which have been embodied in sthetical literature4 ,owing to the mutual contradictions between the several sthetic systems1 such a study is indeed not an easy one4 ,but if minor differences are disregarded it is not impossible to find a common standard on which almost all writers agree4 ,for while the theories on art1 as different from other departments of life1 have been based upon varying philosophical assumptions1 the ideal of excellence in art has1 at least in the case of all real stheticians1 been developed under the influence of a close familiarity with the best manifestations of living art4 ,notwithstanding the ever-varying currents of taste and the individual predilections which affect even the most impartial judgment1 it is thus possible to point to a common fund of simple and catholic principles of criticism4 ,as far as the lyrical forms of art are concerned we need not dwell at any length on the sthetic requirements which they are generally expected to fulfil4 ,it is easy to understand that1 however one may explain the purpose of artistic activity and the impulse which leads to it1 the accomplished work of art must always possess some element of sensual beauty which may attract and hold the attention4 ,if we were attempting a complete treatment of all sthetic problems we might attempt to prove that such qualities appear to a very great extent as unintentional by-products of artistic expression4 ,the perfect gracefulness1 for example1 which forms the distinguishing merit of all genuine art1 is seldom a result of conscious endeavour4 ,as1 according to its nature1 pleasure is necessarily accompanied by facilitated conditions of life1 an artistic manifestation will generally be graceful in the same degree as it expresses pure and unmingled joy4 ,and even if the feeling which originally called forth a dance1 a song1 or a drama is one of pain1 its expression will unavoidably acquire under the influence of artistic form an element of ease4 ,the freedom1 and1 still more1 the unconsciousness1 that characterise the 8inspired0 creation may thus clothe with a peculiar grace even the representation of such mental states as in real life manifest themselves in the most inharmonious forms4#aec ,in the same way dignity1 the quality complementary to grace1 may be deduced directly from the emotional conditions of artistic activity4 ,this explanation does not apply1 however1 to such special qualities as1 for instance1 symmetry and proportion4 ,neither can it be denied that these qualities may be of incalculable importance in art as means of heightening the effectiveness of the work4 ,but we hold that a problem like that of symmetry belongs to the science of beauty rather than to the theory of art4 ,by a symmetrical arrangement of its parts1 or by a right proportion between them1 an object may indeed become a thing of beauty2 but it acquires an artistic character only in so far as this symmetry and proportion perform or assist the function of expression4 ,even among the most authors who lay most stress on the paramount importance of form there are few who contend that these abstract qualities can by themselves bestow the title of art upon a work or a manifestation4 ,quite different is the case of those sthetic laws which have been deduced from the arts of description4 ,as the majority of writers on sthetic have restricted their attention to works of art in which nature has been imitated or represented1 it is only natural that artistic merit should be thought to depend on the relation of the copy to the original4 ,the most simple explanation is undoubtedly that which is adopted by a large section of the public1 viz41 that an artistic manifestation is perfect in proportion as it gives a faithful rendering of objective nature4 ,for all that has been contended by the opponents of the realistic movements which predominated in the eighties1 we do not think that many producing authors have been guided in their work by such narrow notions4 ,in sthetic literature at least so radical a realism has been upheld only by a few isolated authors4#aed ,ever since ,aristotle's time it has been laid down that a work of art must be something other and better than a mere copy4 ,and sthetic science from its first beginning has in the main agreed upon the general principles by which artistic imitation attains perfection4 ,these principles1 formulated with varying clearness in the earlier systems1 have found their most philosophical elaboration in the works of ,vischer and ,taine4 ,in his ,hegelian terminology the ,german author puts it that the work of art must show us1 in an sthetic semblance1 the full and whole presence of an idea which is underlying the things represented4 ,in the philosophy of ,taine1 which1 by making science its point of departure1 differs so greatly from ,hegelianism and yet resembles it so strikingly in general character1 the same thought has been expressed in the doctrine of dominant qualities4#aee ,if these criteria are divested of the technical garb which makes them so inconvenient to handle1 they appear to rest ultimately on a simple observation which may be repeated in all sthetic experience4 ,we find in all descriptive art-works a subordination of qualities supposed to be of inferior importance to what philosophers of ,taine's school term 8la facult matresse40 ,in most works too there may be found a relation of the represented thing to the rest of nature1 which in a ,hegelian mind may awaken the notion of a general idea behind the individual phenomenon4 ,but1 as we have already observed1 it is a mark of excessive intellectualism to assume that the desire to discover predominant qualities or hidden ideas is the impelling force in art-creation4 ,and we shall now endeavour to show that it is equally one-sided to consider the enjoyment of art as conditioned by increased intellectual knowledge of individual or universal phenomena and ideas4 ,the defects of intellectualistic art-theories are perhaps most manifest in the system of ,taine4 ,taine himself seems to believe that the 8facult mre0 really exists1 and that it can be not only represented by an artistical treatment of nature1 but also discovered by scientific study2 he is consequently unable to make any proper distinction between the departments of science and art4#aef ,and1 on the other hand1 his own critical studies show us how incompatible is the principle of dominant faculties with a purely scientific conception of reality4 ,too often1 in the attempt to deduce every manifestation and every personality from a determinate1 all-explaining and all-conditioning quality1 he loses sight of the rich variety of life1 and gains instead merely a brilliant formula4 ,thus1 however suggestive his criticisms may be1 they are seldom scientifically exact4 ,there is none1 however1 of all his admirers who would wish to have anything changed in his writings on art2 for we know that by this very one-sidedness1 which is the source of his scientific shortcomings1 he has at the same time attained his greatest1 though perhaps unintentional1 triumphs as an artist4 ,in illustration of this we need only refer to one instance3 his celebrated description of the lion4#aeg ,objections may be raised from the zoological point of view to his selecting the lion as a representative of animal strength1 and from the anatomical point of view to his deducing its whole configuration from the structure of its jaws4 ,but it is impossible to deny that precisely by such a one-sided and exaggerated portrait ,taine has succeeded in giving an expression to his admiration for elementary force better than would have been possible by a scientifically faithful description4 ,accordingly ,taine's lion1 in spite of its faults from the point of view of science1 remains a classical illustration of the sthetic importance of dominant qualities4 ,if we try to explain why it is that the subordination of all characters under one 8facult matresse10 although unfavourable to scientific comprehension1 is nevertheless so useful for artistic representation1 we shall be unavoidably led to that distinction between scientific and artistic purposes which has been overlooked in the intellectualistic systems of sthetic4 ,the work of art does not claim to give us1 nor do we expect to receive from it1 increased knowledge as to the real nature or predominant characters of things and events4 ,we only wish to get the clearest and strongest impression of the feelings with which an object has been contemplated by the artist4 ,it is therefore to the psychological conditions for conveying a feeling-state by help of intellectual mediation that we should look for the explanation of those laws of artistic composition which ,vischer and ,taine have interpreted in a manner exclusively intellectualistic1 and therefore unsthetic4 ,the desire to fix a passing emotional state--in order to facilitate either the revival of the same state or its transmission to outsiders--by help of intellectual elements with which the feelings have been associated1 is not restricted to the purely artistic mental processes4 ,in religion and in love this endeavour to evade the transience of feeling is especially evident4 ,and here we may observe a selection of the intellectual elements and a mode of treating them1 which1 although it cannot be called artistic1 is nevertheless somewhat analogous to the selective treatment of nature which takes place in artistic representation4 ,the institutors of religion have all been well aware of the fact that it is not immaterial what kind of ideas and sensations are chosen to embody a feeling4 ,they have understood how impossible it is to impress an emotional state on the mind by the mediation of complex conceptions1 which1 to be fully apperceived1 necessitate a particular activity of the intellectual functions4 ,when seeking a means of conveying and perpetuating their deepest teaching1 they have always1 more instinctively perhaps than by any process of conscious search1 been led to intellectual notions of the simplest possible kind4 ,a single impression of sight1 touch1 or even of taste1 may thus1 by artificial association1 be made the bearer of an emotional content which could not possibly be conveyed with anything like the same fulness by a less concentrated medium4 ,in virtue1 therefore1 of their very simplicity1 the vehicles and symbols of religious ritualism are the most powerful of all means of emotional suggestion4 ,they offer us a simple impression which we can easily embrace with our senses1 and by the aid of which we can infuse into our mind a rich complex of all the moods1 such as reverence1 ecstasy1 and awe1 which enter in the religious state4 ,in its most abnormally exalted developments love may give rise to a fetichistic adoration of objects connected with the beloved which is psychologically analogous to the cults of religion4 ,and the same tendency to select some single representation or object as vehicle of a psychical state1 which is so manifest in the case of these high-strung emotions1 may also be noticed in connection with feelings of lower intensity4 ,in all departments of psychical life we may thus find a corroboration of the assertion1 which was already expressed by ,hemsterhuis in his speculations on our desires1 which always aim at 8un grand nombre d'ides dans le plus petit espace de temps possible40#aeh ,we need only consult our memories--for example1 of landscapes we have seen--to find that the emotional element of the recollection1 our admiration1 is always closely bound up with some single feature of the impression4 ,we may indeed be able to revive the visual image itself by allowing the mind's eye gradually to pass along all its details4 ,but the subjective feelings in which we appropriated the impression and made it our own will not be resuscitated until we arrive at one particular detail--a single tree1 or perhaps a figure--and concentrate our attention upon that4 ,the experience of this law of emotional mechanics teaches us to look with a selective attention on everything of which we wish to preserve a vivid remembrance4 ,the more emotional our intuition of a given whole1 the greater is always our desire to concentrate it upon a single impression which supports and reconstitutes the original vision4 ,the art of arranging great complexes of intellectual and emotional elements around single focal points1 so to speak1 may undoubtedly be greatly developed by exercise4 ,but the procedure itself does not presuppose any conscious intention4 ,it occurs almost as an instinctive expedient for escaping the incompatibility between diffused intellectual attention and strong feeling4 ,on purely psychological grounds1 therefore1 we may adopt the aphorism of ,teufelsdrckh3 8,for the soul1 of its own unity1 always gives unity to whatever it looks on with love40#aei ,as the artistic representation of nature1 according to our view1 expressly serves the purpose of perpetuating an emotional state1 we should expect to meet with such a unity in every work of descriptive art4 ,and this assumption may be amply corroborated by reference to art-history4 ,we need not go for examples to such extreme schools as that of those modern ,french painters who endeavour to make every line in their pictures converge towards a point or a sharp angle4 ,within the domain of universally recognised art we may observe how the artist always tries to create a centre of gravity by accentuating some single feature in the event1 the landscape1 or the figure which serves as his model4 ,the principle is the same as that of which we avail ourselves when endeavouring to preserve an emotional state in our memory for future enjoyment4 ,but the procedure must necessarily be somewhat changed when the task is added of enabling outsiders to partake of the moods we have experienced4 ,it is not then a matter of indifference which particular detail of a complex impression we single out as focal1 and in which way we arrange the bulk of the impression around this focus4 ,indeed1 any random quality1 if it is given prominence and emphasis1 may serve as a means of attracting attention to the work4 ,but if one wishes to impart to spectators the exact emotional mood1 of which a given fragment of nature acts as a representative1 it is not sufficient to attract the attention of the spectators4 ,we must also induce the spectators to look upon the whole of our model from our point of view4 ,instead of the casual connection by which in our own mind emotional memories may be bound up with some single sensation memory1 we must try to introduce a causal connection which persuades the outsider to agree with our choice of the focal quality4 ,the features selected for accentuation are to be made central1 not only in the technical1 but also in the logical sense4 ,figuratively speaking1 it is not enough that the lines in a picture should converge towards a certain part2 this part must also appear to the spectator as the one in which all other parts have their cause and their explanation4 ,thus the artistic imitation of nature will necessarily be connected with a search for a predominant quality1 and an endeavour to represent this quality as a 8facult mre40 ,the things and events which are selected for the embodiment of a given emotional state become displayed in such a way that their whole being appears to be derived from the one quality which is most suited to represent this emotional state4 ,the imitation is transformed into a construction1 or rather reconstruction1 by which objective nature is adjusted so as to harmonise with the subjective point of view4 ,such a process of adjusting nature to the requirements of emotional transmission need not always lead to any definite and concrete work of art4 ,it may also1 as an unrealised tendency1 accompany our intuition4 ,and it is only by virtue of this creative element that the feeling for nature may be placed on a level with artistic production4 ,if we are to explain1 with ,richard ,wagner1 the sthetic attention of the layman as the result of a natural poetic gift 78,natrliche ,dichtungsgabe071 we cannot possibly--as he does--base the artistic value of this attention on the fact that it is 8concentrating0 and 8isolating40#afj ,for so is necessarily every emotional way of looking at things4 ,artistic treatment of nature1 on the other hand1 whether abortive or carried to completion1 always involves an endeavour to make the concentrated and isolated view acceptable to others4 ,as we cannot explain the creation of concrete works of art without reference to a craving for social expression1 so we cannot distinguish the artistic from the non-artistic intuition without assuming a tendency--unconscious and unintentional it may be1 but none the less powerful--to socialise the emotional content1 which is connected with a given intuition4 ,the potential poet or painter1 whose embryo work is bound to remain for ever a fact only of his own experience1 is seldom apt to realise the purpose of his endeavour2 he is not aware that he is composing a poem or a picture for himself as spectator or audience4 ,instinctively1 however1 he pursues in the adjusting of his intuition an end which is essentially similar to that of the actually creating artist4 ,in both these cases of creation the impelling motive is1 we believe1 an emotional one4 ,and in both cases the creative activity aims at making an emotional mood independent of the accidental and individual conditions under which it originally appeared4 ,instead of an intuition1 the emotional content of which is concentrated in a conventional symbol1 comprehensible only to the initiated1 or in arbitrary centres of association1 significant only for those by whom they have been selected1 the artistic imagination tries to construct an intuition which1 if embodied in external form1 would by its own force impress itself1 with all its accompanying emotional elements1 upon any spectator4 ,it tends1 in short1 whether consciously or unconsciously1 to perpetuate and to transmit a complex of feeling4 ,we may now understand why it is that the artistic activity has so often been interpreted in an intellectualistic spirit4 ,the search for an all-conditioning and all-explaining 8facult mre0 by the help of which to convey in the most forcible way a representation of things and events1 may1 of course1 easily be taken for an endeavour to discover the real nature of these things and events4 ,and1 in point of fact1 every artist who has a true and keen eye for nature and life will necessarily light upon qualities which1 while affording the most appropriate centre of gravity for his representation1 are1 also in the intellectualistic sense1 explanatory of the subjects represented4 ,by making every feature of his model converge towards this selected quality1 he may thus produce an imitation which1 even if it deviates from the visible reality1 may appear truer than this reality itself4 ,in proportion as his representation thus convinces us of its conformity with the actual or essential nature of things1 it will1 other things being equal1 elicit a readier response from the spectator4 ,it is only natural1 therefore1 that the very works which have exercised the most powerful influence on mankind should afford apparent support to the views of intellectualistic philosophers4 ,nor can it be wondered at that critics1 in apportioning censure and praise1 have attached so great an importance to the degree of exactness with which a work of art represents things or ideas4 ,such an attitude on the part of art-judges becomes the more explicable when one takes into account the historical conditions under which the several forms of descriptive art have developed4 ,poetic and pictorial representation have both been extensively used for intellectual purposes4 ,and it cannot be expected that the essential aims of artistic activity--as they appear to us when we theoretically distinguish this activity from other forms of life--should be clearly comprehended as long as the concrete works serve a non-sthetic purpose4 ,in proportion1 however1 as more exact and convenient methods replace the poetic and pictorial means of thought-conveyance1 art will become freer to realise its own ends and consequently be judged more and more on its intrinsic merits4 ,as rhythmic form and rhyme gained in distinctly artistic character from the time when the invention of systems of writing relieved them from the mnemonic task of preserving a record of events1 so an sthetic emancipation of the formative arts will necessarily follow as a result of increased efficiency in the mechanical means of recording sights4 ,and in point of fact recent movements in art have already shown us how painting has grown more conscious of its essential aims1 from being compelled to give up competition with instantaneous photography4 ,it is only the most narrow forms1 however1 of naturalistically imitative art that are thus made superfluous by scientific inventions4 ,those artists whose aim is1 not to attain the level of nature by servile imitation1 but to rival it by idealisation1 will always be able to point to their task of representing essential qualities as one which remains for ever a prerogative of artistic production4 ,but there are other signs which make us believe that even this form of intellectualistic purpose will gradually lose importance for creators as well as for spectators4 ,the currents of thought which now prevail are scarcely such as to favour the continuance of professedly or covertly metaphysical doctrines of art4 ,and even if philosophical opinion1 which1 after all1 only has to do with the secondary justification of feelings and impulses1 had remained unchanged ever since ,hegel's time1 the changes which have taken place in the very personality of modern man could not but exercise an important influence on the production and estimation of art4 ,the intellectualistic illusion that every artistic representation has something to teach us about the essential nature of the things represented1 can only arise on condition of there being a certain agreement between the world-view of the artist and that of his public4 ,it presupposes a certain uniformity in the intellectual make of the individual creators and spectators4 ,this condition1 however1 is fulfilled less than ever in modern life4 ,by the influence of the increasing division of labour1 characters become more and more differentiated2 and these different characters naturally develop different ways of looking at things4 ,the deviations from actual nature which are to be met with in the work of an individual artist have therefore a poor chance of convincing each individual spectator that they are in conformity with essential reality1 as he is apt to conceive it from his individual point of view4 ,instead of the 8eternal truths0 so often spoken of in earlier sthetic literature1 we now read about the 8illusions particulires0 of the several artists4 ,this sceptical attitude would of course exclude all vivid sthetic life if the motives of artistic production and enjoyment were such as intellectualistic authors declare them to be4 ,it cannot be observed1 however1 that the changed conceptions of art-activity have exercised any influence on the practice of artists4 ,the same eagerness with which works were created when they were thought to represent the essential nature of things is now displayed by those who are endeavouring to produce works which often do not even pretend to give more than their personal impressions4 ,and the critical public has shown itself ready to adopt a corresponding attitude in estimating the value of artistic manifestations4 ,it no longer lays the chief stress on the intellectualistic requirement that artistic representation should be true to nature4 ,it demands before all that the work of art should give a faithful rendering of the feelings with which the represented fragment of nature has been comprehended by the artist4 ,sincerity1 as involving poetical truthfulness1 thus becomes the chief claim which is set up for a work of modern art4 ,it may be objected that the principles of art-criticism which now prevail are too closely bound up with a transient movement to be adduced as proof in a discussion of art in general4 ,when the contemporary current of subjectivism has been succeeded by new schools of art1 the claim for objective veracity may again acquire greater importance4 ,we have no desire to contend that such an evolution would be wholly regrettable4 ,it is impossible in estimating works of art to put aside all logical and ethical considerations2 and attachment to truth is too ineradicable an ethical instinct not to influence--consciously or unconsciously--our sthetic judgments4 ,but although it is neither possible nor desirable to exclude regard for intellectualistic elements1 it may be theoretically advantageous to emphasise the distinct character of the sthetic judgment4 ,modern criticism1 as it has developed under the influence of modern subjective art1 exhibits1 we believe1 the essentially artistic way of enjoying and estimating art4 ,although this attitude1 owing to different influences1 has been now more1 now less1 strictly maintained in various periods of art history1 it has always been adhered to by all who enjoy art for its own sake4 ,whenever we regard a work of art without any secondary motive1 we are not concerned with the objective realities which it depicts4 ,we are not interested in the historic ,laura whose praises we read in a poem4 ,for all we care she may in reality have been lame1 and red-haired1 and hump-backed4 ,we are quite contented if we receive a faithful impression of the beauty with which she charmed her poet4 ,when it has been proved that the rules governing the artistic adjustment of reality1 which have been stated and vindicated on the basis of intellectualistic theories1 may be equally well deduced from an emotionalistic interpretation1 the argument can easily be extended so as to cover the principles governing the selection of subjects and motives for artistic representation4 ,it is required in the ,hegelian sthetic that every single phenomenon which is represented in a work of art should suggest the presence of a greater and more universal idea4#afa ,in ,goethe's theory of style in art we meet with the same claim--which is closely connected with his general philosophy of nature--that every individual form or movement should have something to tell us about the world-process4#afb ,and when ,taine tries to lay down a scale of gradation for the relative value of works of art1 he assigns the highest place to those works in which the qualities exhibited are1 firstly1 as remarkable and essential as possible1 and in which1 secondly1 these remarkable and essential qualities have been made as predominant as possible4#afc ,it can easily be seen that the reasoning which is here applied to the choice between different things is exactly the same which was used with regard to the different features of the same thing2 and the psychological interpretation is1 therefore1 also the same in both cases4 ,as the craving for the fullest and most adequate expression of an emotional state influences the artist in his representation of a given fragment of nature or life1 so this craving must also influence his selection of the model to be represented4 ,owing to variations in temperament and sthetic predilections the relative significance of these two aspects may be differently estimated in different art-schools4 ,but the main principle cannot be invalidated by the fact that1 for example1 in ,french art and ,french sthetic the definiteness is emphasised at the cost1 perhaps1 of richness1 while in ,english art suggestiveness is often allowed to make up for lack of concentration4#afd ,a catholic theory must necessarily account for all the varying sthetic ideals which have influenced artistic production4 ,although it must be considered as essentially non-sthetic to contend1 as ,mr4 ,ruskin did at one time1 that 8that art is greatest which conveys to the mind of the spectator by any means whatsoever the greatest number of the greatest ideas10#afe it must1 on the other hand1 be admitted that an individual thing is adequate as a means of conveying the fulness of feeling only if through this individual thing there can be suggested a multitude of other things recalled and represented4 ,without assuming the philosophical principles from which ,taine has derived his theory of the ideal in art1 we may therefore understand and accept his scale of gradation of the relative value of works of art4 ,and similarly we may interpret in an emotionalistic way all the rules of artistic composition and of conventionalising treatment of nature which have been proposed by intellectualistic authors on sthetic4 ,the nude figure in painting and sculpture1 as well as the simple mythological themes in poetry and literature1 will thus for ever retain their pre-eminence as subjects of artistic treatment4 ,but this pre-eminence does not depend for its justification upon the fact that they give us an incarnation of the philosophical notion of the ideal man4 ,it is sufficiently accounted for by their power of conveying a fuller and richer emotional content than any individually defined motive4 ,thus it can be explained why even spectators who have almost completely outgrown--or1 if the expression is preferred1 have fallen away from--idealistic ways of thought are nevertheless ready to appreciate the idealistic feeling in the art of ,puvis de ,chavannes4 ,it cannot be denied1 however1 that those motives which in the ,hegelian sthetic are considered as beautiful par excellence have been relatively neglected in modern art4 ,to some extent this circumstance may be explained by the notion which is gaining more and more ground in the public mind--to wit1 that in every single phenomenon we may see a rsum of the whole process of evolution4 ,for it is evident that a spectator who has once adopted this philosophical way of looking at things may find even a well-represented piece of still-life quite as rich and sthetically saturated as a painting of the most universal motive4 ,a more important cause1 however1 is to be found in the fact that modern art1 when endeavouring to convey large and full contents by single vehicle-impressions1 has learned to avail itself of vehicles which cannot1 properly speaking1 be called either typical or representative4 ,in literature especially we may observe that authors dwell with instinctive predilection on the description of scenes and events which open our eyes to large views behind them4 ,it would be impossible to characterise all such favourite motives as beautiful2 it is also often difficult to show that there is any general idea embodied in them4 ,but they have invariably the quality of being emotional centres1 in which a multiplicity of feelings and sensations has been united4 ,by this quality they become apt to serve the purposes which are essential to the artistic craving2 and by the same quality they satisfy the requirement of fullest possible enjoyment which is made by the spectator4 ,what we demand of the perfect work of art is--to resort to an often-used image--that it shall be as a shell1 which we may lift in our hand and bring to our ear1 but in which1 notwithstanding its smallness1 we may hear the roaring and singing of the sea4 ,,chapter ,x ,,objections ,,and ,,answers ,if the preceding discussion has been to any degree convincing1 the reader may perhaps have put to himself a question which has often presented itself to the author--why no complete sthetic system has been based on the psychology of feeling4 ,in recent times some attempts have indeed been made to deduce the sthetic value of art-works from their emotional content4#aff ,but we do not know of any comprehensive theory in which all the distinctive features of art had been consistently explained by reference to an emotionalistic principle4 ,this fact is so much the more remarkable as the importance of feeling has been at least accidentally acknowledged by some of the greatest writers on sthetic1 such as1 for instance1 ,taine and ,ruskin4#afg ,it cannot have been without some reason that these authors have refrained from basing their art-theories on the notion of a craving for expression1--which would have provided a clear line of demarcation between sthetic and non-sthetic activities1--and have instead explained art as an intellectual function1 which appears confused alternately with scientific1 philosophic1 and ethical activity4 ,an attempt to trace the causes of this attitude will contribute to a further elucidation of the emotionalistic theory of art4 ,it may be contended with some appearance of truth that as soon as authors1 who are themselves artists1 have pronounced their opinion on the purposes of their own art1 those who are not artists have no call to continue the discussion4 ,but this would be to overlook the fact that the pure artist1 as well as the purely artistic activity1 must be considered as an abstraction4 ,the bent of ,goethe's genius1 for example1 was perhaps by nature quite as much towards science1 particularly philosophy1 as towards art4 ,thus1 although an artist may himself lay the chief stress on the intellectual or ethical elements in his work1 his opinion should not induce us to give up the purely sthetic criteria which we need for the theoretical definition of art-production as an activity to itself4 ,it is again only natural that intellectualistic elements should occupy the foremost place in the practical art-ideals which artists place before themselves and each other4 ,technical perfection is the only quality which can be consciously and intentionally aimed at4 ,in works1 therefore1 which1 like ,herr ,hirth's ,physiologie der ,kunst1 are written from the point of view of the executive artist1 this quality has received special attention4#afh ,for those who teach it or learn it1 art must unavoidably appear as being chiefly a power and a skill4 ,but for the theoretical observer it is evident that no kind of technical accomplishment1 however wonderful it may be in itself1 can impart to a work that purely sthetic merit1 art-value4 ,the differences in the opinions of artists and theorists may therefore to a great extent have their ground in the different aspects of art1 differently emphasised by either side to suit its own purposes4 ,it may1 however1 be objected that in the case of many artists and stheticians it has been more than a negative cause which has deterred them from the emotionalistic interpretation4 ,goethe's zealous championship of the intellectualistic elements in art was no doubt part of his crusade against prevailing sentimentalism4#afi ,there are many expressions in the sthetic writings of ,schiller which in their exaggeration would appear quite incomprehensible if we did not take into account the polemic position which he maintained towards the romantic currents in art4#agj ,in more recent times the reaction against the sentimental ideals has given rise to theories which are still more intellectualistic than the maxims of ,german classicism4 ,by their dislike of that art which exhibits all the personal and most intimate emotions of the artist1 the ,french ,parnassians have been led to deny completely the part of feeling in all genuine art2 and the mere existence of such a poetic school may be thought to prove the inadequacy of the interpretation of art which has been put forward in the preceding chapters4 ,the noblest expression of the personal pride that compels the artist to conceive his production as a purely intellectual function may be found in ,leconte de ,lisle's sonnet 8,les ,montreurs10 where the poet refuses to be a beggar for the gross pity or laughter of the crowd4 ,dans mon orgueil muet1 dans ma tombe sans gloire1 ,duss-je m'engloutir pour l'ternit noire1 ,je ne te vendrai pas mon ivresse ou mon mal1 ,je ne livrerai pas ma vie tes hues1 ,je ne danserai pas sur ton trteau banal ,avec tes histrions et tes prostitues4#aga ,nothing could indeed be further from our intentions than to enter the lists against the so-called ,parnassian ideas4 ,at a time when intimate confessions seem to be the most sought-for things in literature1 we have reason to value every appeal to the dignity of the artist4 ,but it is only a confusion of ideas which can lead any one to think that this dignity would be in any way infringed by the adoption of an emotionalistic art-theory4 ,we have been especially anxious not to be misunderstood on this point1 and this is the only reason why in the preceding chapters we have taken so much pains to disentangle the psychology of feeling1 especially the relation between simple feeling and emotions4 ,the word feeling1 as it is used colloquially1 generally involves only the fully formed emotions1 especially those which are painful4 ,owing to this narrow and inadequate usage1 every one who speaks of the importance of feeling for art exposes himself to the accusation of sentimentalism4 ,but it is sufficient to point out1 with regard to such misconceptions1 that even pride1 joy1 elation1 and all the other pleasurable states1 may be quite as emotional as any sorrow or melancholy4 ,the poem of ,leconte de ,lisle1 quoted above1 may therefore1 in spite of all that the author himself may have objected against such an interpretation1 be considered as an expression of feeling4 ,and we can in the same way point out that in every one of the most orthodox ,parnassian poems some emotional state has been expressed by the poet and conveyed to the reader4 ,it is only by virtue of this element that the poems of this school have attained to their high poetical quality4 ,within the department of the pictorial arts want of precision in the use of terms has given rise to a confusion which is even greater than that which prevails with regard to poetry4 ,it has been a natural result of intellectualistic views that in every painting the subject1 the situation represented1 has been considered as the most important element4 ,as the endeavour to give an explanatory representation of external things and events has been assumed as essential to the artistic craving1 so the essence of the artistic work1 its real content1 has been looked for in the things and events depicted4 ,especially when paintings are designated by a descriptive title1 spectators will be apt to turn their attention solely to those situations or impressions which can be subsumed under the title4 ,if they cannot find any emotional element in the subject1 they declare the whole painting to be devoid of feeling4 ,and for this misconception they may even find support in the utterances of the artists2 for there are many painters who1 fearing lest they might be confused with the melodramatic sensation-mongers1 have emphatically pronounced their abhorrence of all emotional suggestion4 ,for the unbiassed observer1 however1 it is evident that the painter's joy over a colour or a nuance1 or the melancholy which can be expressed1 without any anthropomorphic element1 by a mere relation between light and shadow1 may be as emotional states as those which are embodied in the humorous or sentimental subjects of genre-painting4 ,every artistic representation1 whether landscape1 figure1 or still-life1 always conveys to us some emotional mood of the painter4 ,if this feeling element has been conveyed in some pictures with greater distinctness than in others1 this fact must not prevent us from acknowledging that it enters into every kind of art4 ,we do not say1 therefore1 with ,professor van ,dyke1 8,art to ,phidias was a matter of form2 to ,titian a matter of colour2 to ,corot a matter of feeling20#agb but we say1 ,art to ,phidias was a matter of feeling expressed by form2 to ,titian a matter of feeling expressed by colour2 and to ,corot a matter of feeling expressed by lights4 ,in the essential unity of all feeling we may thus find the point in which all forms of art1 notwithstanding their different subjects and materials1 have their unity4 ,by laying the chief stress on the emotional mood which in every work is conveyed from creator to spectator1 we save the trouble of dividing the works into different classes4 ,we need not then assume any peculiar principle of admiration for technical skill to explain the enjoyment of ,dutch painting or of ,greek sculpture4 ,nor need we put ourselves to the pains of deciding whether the subject or the execution is to be considered more important4 ,the problem of content and form1 so much debated throughout intellectualistic sthetic1 does not exist for the emotionalistic interpretation1 which sees the essence of art in the feeling embodied1 sometimes in a great and important subject1 sometimes in some insignificant feature of nature or life4 ,and the element of technical perfection becomes acknowledged in its proper light when interpreted as the indispensable condition for effectually achieving such an embodiment4 ,it would be impossible1 however1 to explain as merely a confusion of standpoints the fact that certain schools of art have been considered entirely unemotional4 ,to some extent1 no doubt1 the deficient appreciation of purely pictorial art is the result of the disastrous influence which has1 especially in ,england1 been exercised by prevailing currents of criticism4 ,by systematically diverting the attention of the public from the essential element in painting1 the leaders of taste may1 no doubt1 accomplish great things in deadening the art-sense of nations4 ,but it is scarcely probable that1 even if he knew better than to look for a 8story0 and literary interest in a work of pure painting1 the general spectator would be able to enjoy the tat d'me which is expressed in an intrieur of ,ver ,meer or a landscape of ,whistler4 ,to him a painting the whole subject of which is sunshine1 and the figures of which have no mission but that of absorbing or reflecting the light1 would appear inane and cold4 8,pictorial ideas10 which may represent such a wealth of feeling for the initiated1 are thus to the artistically uneducated devoid of any emotional content4 ,though emphasising as much as possible the unity of art1 we are compelled to admit that the feelings which are conveyed in its higher and lower forms may be essentially different4 ,while meeting in the 8lower0 art of our own and earlier times with an expression of the most general emotions and instincts which1 by the very vehemence of their pathos1 may awaken the aversion of the refined critic1 we partake1 in the higher art-forms1 of feelings that can be derived only from a dispassionate contemplation of nature4 ,this difference between higher and lower manifestations1 though especially marked in painting1 can be observed in all forms of art4 ,we have no wish to deny the necessity of discriminating between these 8sthetic feelings0 of the higher art-forms and the elementary affections1 which form the content of the sentimental1 or1 as the ,german philosophers would say1 pathological art4 ,the moods of sthetic contemplation are1 on the contrary1 of so great significance that we can easily understand why they have been made the basis of so many systems of art-philosophy4 ,from the point of view of the present work1 which does not pretend to lay down a detailed criterion of perfection in art1 but which only aims at explaining the most general social and psychological aspects of art-activity1 it is necessary to adhere to the element which is common to all art1 higher as well as lower1 primitive or barbaric as well as civilised4 ,and we can only1 in passing1 indicate the direction in which we believe an explanation is to be sought for the development of sthetic attention and refined art-sense--those great problems which could be properly treated only in a separate work4 ,it has been pointed out by several authors on sthetic1 and even emphasised to excess1 that a certain independence of the struggle for life is a condition for the appearance of a higher art4 ,it is indeed a current fallacy that art must be the growth of culture and prosperity4 ,but it is nevertheless incontestable1 that the peculiar art-sense1 the artistic intuition par excellence1 can be developed only in nations and individuals who--be it by success in the struggle for life1 by advantageous circumstances1 or simply by a natural lightheartedness of their own--have grown superior to care for life's necessities4 ,this factor1 however1 is only a negative condition4 ,by itself mere independence of wants could never have taught any one to derive an ever deeper and stronger pleasure from a thing which stands in no immediate relation to the primary emotions or the primary desires of the beholder or the artist4 ,the sthetic education of mankind1 its growth in artistic refinement1 could not have been accomplished without the influence of more positive factors4 ,in looking for such factors we unavoidably come to that datum which has been carefully excluded from the present part of our research1 namely1 the concrete work of art4 ,whatever may have been the conditions of their origin1--whether utilitarian or not1--poems1 paintings1 and sculptures must all have occasioned exercise of that interest and attention which is independent of the most immediate utilitarian interests4 ,even if poems1 for instance1 were written with a purpose primarily historical1 they must have afforded both to the poet and to his audience the opportunity to consider them as pure works of art4 ,just as moral feelings have been gradually developed under the influence of actions which may originally have been quite non-ethical1 so the refinement of sthetic sense has been promoted by works of art1 which may themselves have served entirely non-sthetic purposes4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,concrete ,,origins ,,of ,,art ,by explaining the art-impulse as a form of social expression we have accounted for art-creation and art-enjoyment as activities which have their end in themselves4 ,the emotionalistic interpretation supplied us with a principle1 which we were able to apply to all stages1 the lower as well as the higher1 of art-development4 ,without committing ourselves to any definite statements as to the purely sthetic and autotelic character of the individual works of art1 we felt ourselves to be right in assuming that a desire of 8expression for its own sake10 or rather for the sake of its immediately enhancing or relieving effects on feeling1 may have operated as an art-factor on all stages of culture1 and thus have given an autotelic value even to the lowest manifestations of art4 ,the driving force in art-creation became comprehensible by this assumption2 and the most distinctive features of the creation itself could be deduced from this psychological principle4 ,in attempting1 however1 to explain the refinement of artistic attention1 we could no longer proceed with purely psychical factors4 ,we were compelled to appeal to the influence exercised by the concrete work of art4 ,the psychological demonstration proving inadequate1 it was necessary to supplement it by an historical argument4 ,it may be thought1 however1 that in referring to the educative effects of the work of art we need not desert the domain of a strictly sthetic and psychological inquiry4 ,there is nothing improbable in the supposition that the products of an activity of themselves influence this activity1 so as to bring about gradually a thorough change of its character4 ,from the expressional impulse1 which in the lower stages of culture gives rise to crude and simple manifestations1 there might thus be derived1 by the retroactive effects of these manifestations themselves1 an increasingly refined form of expression4 ,but such a sequence of tendency1 however clear and consistent it may appear at the outset1 cannot possibly be thought of as unsupported by outside influences4 ,the more we examine it1 the more we shall find that the series of causes is insufficient to explain the series of effects4 ,this view1 to which we are necessarily led by investigating any period of art-history1 forces itself upon us with particular cogency when we turn our attention to the earliest stages of art-development4 ,before the first work of art had been created1 the art-impulse as well as the art-sense must necessarily have been in a very undeveloped state4 ,the sthetic cravings cannot possibly have gained any consciousness of their purposes ere they had realised themselves in some objective works4 ,of these objective works1 on the other hand1 it is only the simplest forms that can be derived solely from the pure art-impulse4 ,we may consider a lyrical dance1 or even a lyrical song1 as direct outbursts of an emotional pressure1 which1 if unrelieved1 would prove dangerous to the system4 ,but we can scarcely imagine that any human being should be able to invent1 say1 a fully formed drama simply in order to convey in the most efficacious manner the feeling by which he is dominated4 ,and it is yet more difficult to understand how the craving after social expression could have created1 merely for its own satisfaction1 such highly developed art-forms as painting and sculpture4 ,while we are able to derive the mental compulsion which forces the artist to production1 and the sthetic qualities which give their distinctive character to his productions from the psychological notion of the art-impulse1 we are compelled to look elsewhere for the origin and development of the concrete technical medium of which he avails himself in fulfilling his purpose4 ,as in this investigation we are no longer concerned with the abstract and ideal work of art1 it seems that we may now reasonably appeal to those theories which we before found inadequate only because they did not account for the purely sthetic qualities of artistic activity4 ,the play-impulse1 the impulse to attract by pleasing1 the imitative impulse1 etc41 although they give us no information as to the essentially artistic criterion1 may nevertheless have called into existence works and manifestations which fulfil the requirements of the several art-forms4 ,man may have composed dramas1 may have painted pictures1 may have made poems1 in play1 or out of the desire to please1 or out of the inborn taste for mimicry4 ,in particular the play-impulse must1 as we have already admitted in the first part of this work1 be dealt with as a factor of incalculable importance in the history of art4 ,in his conclusive researches on animal and human play ,professor ,groos has succeeded in showing that the chief classes of art-forms are already foreshadowed in the various forms of experimentation--that most general and most important kind of play which can be observed not only among children1 but even among the higher animals4#agc ,in the outcome of this simple and common activity we have1 it may be said1 a sufficient bulk of raw material of which the art-impulse1 when once fully developed1 can avail itself in order to fulfil its own essentially artistic purposes4 ,and it would therefore seem as if there were no further problem to be solved with regard to the evolution of art4 ,adherents of this view may1 moreover1 point to the fact that1 apart from all the motive factors represented by the various non-sthetic impulses1 the development of art has been favoured by influences of a more passive or static character4 ,it has evidently been of vital importance to the evolution of architecture and decoration that things of useful nature have provided these arts with a kind of concrete frame within which to display their manifestations4 ,the effects of this material condition are so much the greater because with his constitutional conservatism man--whether civilised or primitive--always allows himself to be bound by old forms long after he has relinquished the technical procedures which have originally called these forms into existence4 ,by the scientific 8biological0 researches on decorative art it has been conclusively shown how great a portion of the ornamental 8store0 consists of lines and combinations of lines which have quite automatically been borrowed from an earlier technique4 ,decorative motives1 which to the uninitiated observer appear as products of spontaneous artistic activity1 thus reveal themselves to the historical student as unintentional by-products of work4 ,where earlier investigators assumed an sthetic composition1 modern researches refer to the force of mental inertia and the cravings of expectant attention4#agd ,there is no intention here to undervalue the methods which are nowadays employed in the study of decorative art1 and which1 indeed1 the writer himself has endeavoured to apply in some earlier studies on art-theory4 ,in the present research1 however1 it would be inappropriate to trace in detail the evolution by which forms originating in mere utility--as in basket-work--are gradually transformed into patterns or other artistic decorations2 for this process1 however fertile in effects it may be considered1 cannot account for that phenomenon which1 above all1 constitutes the main object of our investigation4 ,although the psychical causes adduced above undeniably have called into existence some of the most familiar ideas in decoration1 they cannot possibly explain the importance which decoration itself has attained in the various human societies4 ,and the same remark evidently applies to all the other psychological sources from which art may be derived4 ,the play-impulse1 for example1 no doubt suggests a concrete source1 but it can in no way explain the important position which art occupies as a leading factor in social life4 ,in order to understand why even in the lowest stages of development art has been acknowledged as a purpose worthy of being seriously pursued1 we must investigate this activity in its connection with the most important biological and sociological purposes of life4 ,we propose in the following chapters to examine the most powerful non-sthetic factors that have favoured the origin and development of the several art-forms4 ,and while we are keeping in view especially such utilitarian requirements as those of intellectual information1 of stimulation for work or war1 of sexual propitiation or of magic efficiency1 we shall be compelled to leave out of consideration all distinctively sthetic factors and conditions4 ,accordingly we shall not be able to maintain in this historical and ethnological inquiry the strictest sthetic distinctions4 ,but we hope that the unavoidable vagueness in our terminology will not obscure those limitations and demarcations which have--perhaps even too laboriously--been laid down in the first part of this work4 ,to preserve consistency between our inquiries into the abstract and the concrete origins of art1 it need only be stated1 once and for all1 that the several works and manifestations1 as they are to be treated hereafter1 are1 strictly speaking1 only the raw material of art1 if art is to be considered in the purest sense as an autotelic activity4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,art ,,and ,,information ,it is well known that1 in the earlier classical times1 philosophy1 history1 and science were inseparably connected with poetry4 ,and it is as familiar a truth that pictographs and ideograms were used for writing before phonetic signs had been invented4 ,but it is not enough to recall that poetry and the arts of design have in this way been serving the requirements of intellectual information2 it can also be shown that among primitive tribes every one of the lower art-forms--the dance1 the pantomime1 and even the ornament--has been of great importance as a means of interchanging thoughts4 ,when attempting in this chapter to take a cursory survey of the various art-forms as used for purely intellectual purposes1 we find it most advantageous to start with the dramatic examples4 ,it is true that the art of the theatre1 in the modern sense of the word1 must be considered as a late1 perhaps even as the very latest1 result of artistic evolution4 ,a literary drama1 which fulfils all the claims of a work of art1 is possible only on a highly advanced level of culture1 and it has consequently by most authors on sthetic been considered as the latest of all art-forms4#age ,when dealing1 however1 with the productions of primitive tribes1 we have to adopt a lower sthetic standard4 ,although we do not meet with any tragedies1 nor even with any real comedies1 at this stage of evolution1 we can at least point to the fact that simple farces1 pantomimes1 and pantomimic dances are to be found among tribes which have so far been unable to create any kind of epics1 and whose lyrical poetry is restricted to a few rhythmical phrases with no intrinsic meaning4 ,and if we use the word in its widest sense1 so as to include every representation by action1 drama can be spoken of as the very earliest of all the imitative arts4 ,it was certainly in use long before the invention of writing1 either by pictures or letters2 perhaps it is even older than language itself4 ,as an outward sign of thought1 action is more immediate than words4 ,dramatic communication does not even presuppose any conscious intention nor any common consent4 ,it may appear on the side of the 8speaker0 as the unchecked result of the 8,einhaltsstreben10 the universal impulse to put into gesture any idea of action which is distinctly conceived--for instance to clench the fist at the thought of striking--and it may be comprehended without any effort by the audience1 which by unconscious imitation partakes of the communicated thoughts4#agf ,such pantomimic forms of intellectual exchange seldom indeed occur in civilised life4 ,the 8,einhaltsstreben0 in a civilised man is generally lost during the transfer from thought to word4 ,pantomimic display1 which involves an unnecessary waste of force and time1 was doomed to disappearance with the growing development of conventional language4 ,moreover1 the rules of propriety tend to confine1 at least in educated society1 the language of the body within as narrow limits as possible4 ,but as soon as1 by pathological influences1 these conditions are annulled1 even civilised man necessarily falls back upon pantomimic language4 ,in the extreme forms of aphasia we may thus observe how strong the mimetic impulse is when unchecked4 ,there is the more reason to consider these pathological instances as in some degree typical of the primeval methods of communication1 as it is only by assuming an earlier system of impulsive1 self-interpreting signs that we can explain the subsequent development of conventional word or gesture-language4#agg ,we cannot1 however1 argue from cases of mental disturbance as to the original language of primitive man4 ,for example1 even if aphasia could be considered as a case of atavism1#agh we could scarcely compare the mimic capabilities of modern man with those of the unknown1 wordless being whose system of expressive signs1 although he were compelled to rely exclusively upon it1 cannot possibly have been brought to any great degree of perfection4 ,illustrations from deaf-mutes and from the isolated specimens of 8homo sapiens ferus0--,mr4 ,kipling's ,mowgli--are for the same reason inadequate4#agi ,as long as ethnology is ignorant of any wordless tribes1 our notions as to the assumed dramatic language rest entirely upon psychological deductions4#ahj ,but the probability of these deductions is1 more or less1 supported by what we know about the lowest tribes now existing4 ,it is true that the information on this point is even more inconsistent than is usual in ethnological evidence4 ,but although due allowance must be made for the errors into which a deficient knowledge of the primitive custom and languages has led the various authors1 there will nevertheless remain a sufficient body of facts proving the important part which pantomimic communication plays in the lower stages of mental evolution4 ,bushmen1 ,australians1 and ,eskimos show us a highly developed dramatic language4#aha ,in some parts of ,australia it has been noticed that the store of gestures is richest among tribes which have enjoyed the least contact with ,europeans4#ahb ,and a further ground for considering this mode of thought-conveyance as old and primitive is afforded by the fact that1 according to ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 its 8use is strictly enforced on certain special occasions1 such as some of the initiation ceremonies40#ahc ,mr4 ,fraser also believes that gesture-language is taught at the ,bora ceremonies4#ahd ,it would1 however1 be presumption to see in every instance of dramatic thought-communication a rudiment of an old and primitive language4 ,there are many causes which favour the adaptation and elaboration of mimic language even after a system of phonetic signs has been established4 ,in a passage which has already been quoted ,mr4 ,roth observes that pantomimic ideograms must be very advantageous 8on the war-path or the chase1 where silence is so essential an adjunct to success40#ahe ,another reason still more important is the fact that pantomimic action can be understood by people who speak different languages4 ,among civilised nations we may find many instances of the high state of development which gesture-language has attained in border countries where different peoples must necessarily often meet4#ahf ,and it is significant that among primitive tribes gestures and motions are nowhere so full of significance and intellectual expressiveness as on the plains of ,australia1#ahg among the savages in the interior parts of ,brazil1#ahh and on the great prairies of ,north ,america1#ahi--;in a word1 in countries where the breaking up of a nation into small vagrant tribes has been the cause of an extreme dialectical disseverance4 ,under these conditions1 however1 the impulsive1 self-interpreting pantomime is apt to develop gradually into an elaborate system of conventional signs4 ,the gesture-language of the ,north ,american ,indians1 for example1 which consists almost entirely of abbreviated 8moves0 of indication and delineation1 is no doubt eminently adapted to fulfil the practical requirements of comprehensibility and explicitness4 ,but it has not much to do with dramatic art in any sense of the word4 ,of a more immediate importance for art-history are the pantomimics which accompany public speaking4 ,in a state of society where every member is entitled to take part in the common deliberations1 oral language will often prove an inadequate vehicle of thought4 ,only through displaying his speech in action is the chief or the priest capable of making its purport comprehensible to the large audiences at a popular meeting4 ,rhetoric1 therefore1 is still among many primitive tribes what it used to be in classical antiquity--a dramatic as well as a literary art4#aij ,a pantomime will1 of course1 by virtue of its greater vividness1 convey its content of thoughts and feelings with a far greater efficiency than a merely spoken oration4 ,it may1 when especially infectious1 induce the audience to join in it as a dramatic chorus4 ,and even when the imitation which it calls forth remains purely internal1 this imitation1 nevertheless1 enables the spectators to appropriate the text of the acted oration in a way which is deeper and far more complete than could ever be possible with regard to an oral speech4 ,as a natural sign of emotion pantomimic language opens1 as ,home would say in his quaint way1 8a direct avenue to our heart40#aia ,it is no wonder1 therefore1 that dramatic performances on all but the highest stages of culture have been used for political agitation as well as for religious edification4#aib ,we shall in the following pages1 when treating of the religious and political aspects of art1 obtain a fitting opportunity of examining these forms of drama4 ,in the present connection we need only refer to them as means of further emphasising the utilitarian aspect of mimic representation in the intercourse between savages4 ,after having realised how on the lower stages of culture practical advantages as well as social and religious considerations concur in favouring the development of this early language1 we may understand the surprisingly high dramatic ability of primitive peoples4 ,but while psychological as well as sociological reasons thus confirm us in considering dramatic action as the earliest means of conveying intellectual information1 we are nevertheless compelled to admit that even in primitive stages the other art-forms also may have served this purpose4 ,in reality it is impossible to draw any sharp distinction between dumb-drama and primitive poetry4 ,the pantomimic performance will in most cases spontaneously supplement itself with a recital1 spoken or sung4 ,in the simple representations therefore of real occurrences which characterise the lowest forms of narrative art these two means of intellectual expression generally appear together4 ,and in this connection one will also meet with an early manifestation of pictorial art in the form of an extempore design1 which serves to bring out more fully and clearly the content of the recital4 ,the transition from a delineative gesture to a contour-design is indeed so direct and easy that it must have taken place even among tribes on a very low plane of culture4 ,in some instances we can distinctly see how the one art grows out of the other4 ,mr4 ,mallery has described a dialogue between some ,alaskan ,indians1 in which the left hand is used as an imaginary drawing board upon which lines are drawn with the index finger of the right hand4#aic ,herr von ,steinen has observed that the natives in ,central ,brazil1 as soon as the gestures prove insufficient for conveying an idea1 fashion an explanatory design in the sand4#aid ,these designs are only a projection on a different surface of the hand-movements with which in their pantomimic language they describe the outlines of the objects in the air4 ,one is tempted1 therefore1 to find in these transferred gestures the origin of pictorial art4 ,and such an hypothesis seems the more probable as in some tribes--particularly among the ,north ,american ,indians--the picture-signs for denoting things and phenomena have evidently been derived from the corresponding gesture-signs4#aie ,but it is1 as ,professor ,groos cautiously remarks1 difficult to know whether any primitive man could ever have thought of delineating the contours of an object had he not beforehand possessed some idea of drawing4#aif ,without endeavouring to solve this question of origins1 it is sufficient for our purpose to state that a kind of extempore design1 almost as spontaneous and fugitive as the dramatic art1 appears together with the mimic and poetic representations4 ,and we have now only to devote our attention to these various means of information in so far as they may give rise to a manifestation of art1 while serving the purely intellectual purpose of conveying or elucidating a thought-content4 ,it is only natural that the requirements of practical life should call into existence various kinds of mimic1 pictorial1 or literary information which have little whatever to do with art1 even if this notion is conceived in its widest sense4 ,there is no reason for us to delay our argument by enumerating pantomimics1 gestures1 or paintings which aim at communicating notices of trivial importance1 such as directions about the way to be taken by travellers1 warnings with regard to dangerous passages1 etc4#aig ,even as a purely technical product a work is of little interest as long as its subject is so poor and insignificant4 ,we feel justified1 therefore1 in restricting our attention to such manifestations as present in their contents some degree of coherence and continuity4 ,the simplest examples of purely narrative art which fulfil the technical claims of a complete work will of course appear when the text of the narration consists of some real occurrence which is represented with all its episodes and incidents4 ,primitive life affords many inducements to such relation4 ,the men who have returned from war1 or from a hunting or a fishing expedition1 will thus often repeat their experiences in a dramatic dance performed before the women and children at home4 ,although in many cases there is reason to suppose that even these performances may be executed to satisfy some superstitious or religious motive1 they have undoubtedly1 to a certain extent1 been prompted by the desire to revive and communicate the memories of eventful days4 ,other incidents that have made a strong impression upon the minds of the people are in the same way displayed in pantomimic action4 ,it is sufficient here to refer to the elaborate dramas 8,coming from ,town0 performed by ,macusi children1 in which all the episodes of a journey are reproduced with the utmost possible exactness1#aih to the ,corrobberrees in ,queensland1 in which incidents of individual or tribal interests1 such as hunting or war adventures1 but only those of recent occurrence1 are enacted1#aii and to the performance in a ,wanyoro village1 where ,m4 de ,bellefond's behaviour during a recent battle was closely imitated4#bjj ,at the dramatic entertainment held before some members of ,captain ,cook's expedition an elopement scene which had in reality taken place some time previously was performed in the presence of the runaway girl herself4 ,the play is said to have made a very strong impression upon the poor girl1 who could hardly refrain from tears when she saw her own escapade thus reproduced4#bja ,the imitation of the real action was in this case evidently designed as punishment for the guilty spectator2 and as the piece concluded with a scene representing the girl's return to her friends and the unfavourable reception she met with from them1 it tended no doubt to exercise a salutary influence4 ,this nave little interlude1 with its satirical and moralising vein1 naturally reminds us of those old farces which candidly defined themselves as adaptations of some 8scandale du quartier40 ,l elle fut excute ,icy vous est represente4#bjb ,the wordless pantomimes and dramatic dances of the modern savages give us no information of this kind4 ,but there is no doubt that a closer investigation would reveal that a great number of the comical and heroical episodes which1 are described in ethnological literature have had their prototypes in some incidents of recent occurrence4 ,this opinion can only be corroborated by extending our investigation to the other departments of narrative art4 ,whatever other merits one might discover in primitive poetry1 its strength does certainly not lie in invention4 ,when the songs contain any narrative element at all1 it refers to some simple experience of the day4 ,travel1 hunting1 and war afford the themes for the simplest epical poems as well as for the most primitive dramatic recitals4#bjc ,and any event of unusual occurrence will of course be made use of by the poets4 ,travellers who have learned to understand the languages of the natives they sojourn with have often observed that their own persons have been described in impromptu songs4#bjd ,sometimes these songs have a satirical tendency2#bje sometimes they are composed as glorifications of the white man4#bjf ,but there is no need to assume either of these tendencies in every case4 ,the mere fact of his being a strange and new thing qualifies the ,european as a fitting subject for the primitive drama and poetry4 ,and on the same grounds all the marvels of civilisation--the rifles1 steamers and so on--will often be described in poetry4#bjg ,in the savage mind these unknown facts will easily give rise to the most marvellous interpretations4 ,for an instance of such apparently fantastic products of poetic imagination1 which in reality have their origin in an unavoidable misconstruction of an unknown reality1 we need only refer to the description of ,captain ,cook's ships in the ,hawaii song1 which has been taken down by ,m4 de ,varigny4 ,the ships themselves are spoken of as great islands1 their masts are trees1 the sailors are gods1 who drink blood 7i4e4 claret71 and eat fire and smoke through long tubes 7i4e4 pipes71 and carry about things which they keep in holes in their flanks4#bjh ,it is but natural to assume that--if researches on the origins of the subjects were possible--the seeming richness of invention in many similar poems could be accounted for by the deficient observation and the faults of memory in uneducated man4 ,and by such researches the importance of actual experience would be substantiated even with regard to the art of barbaric nations4 ,as to the songs of the lower savages1 to which we have to restrict our attention at present1 it is1 as shown by the above adduced examples1 unnecessary to appeal to this explanation4 ,not less ephemeral than the literary subjects are the motives of primitive pictorial art4 ,in ,herr von den ,steinen's account of the ,xingu tribes we can find some most typical examples of such explanatory designs by which the poetic and dramatic recitals of battles1 travels1 etc41 are supplemented4#bji ,owing to their fugitive character these simple manifestations can never be reduced to a scientific account4 ,but there is reason to believe that in all parts of the world pictures have been drawn in the air or in the sand1 of which there remain no more trace than of the gesture that is over or of the unwritten poem that is forgotten4 ,it is evident1 however1 that in some instances at least there have remained traces of these ephemeral narrations4 ,the picture might have been drawn on some piece of bark or cloth instead of on the sand1 the pantomime might have been repeated even after its subject had lost its actuality1 or the text remembered after it had served its immediate purpose in the narration4 ,the fugitive recital1 whether pictorial1 mimic1 or oral1 which lives only for the moment might in this way have become a permanent work1 conveying the contents of the narrative to future times4 ,one would think that as soon as such a means of preserving a record of past events had been1 intentionally or accidentally1 discovered1 it would have immediately been turned to account4 ,there is1 after all1 but one step between the impromptu dance or poem1 which tells of a recent occurrence1 and the work of art1 which forwards the memory of the same occurrence to consecutive generations4 ,ethnological science shows1 however1 that this distinction is by no means a theoretical one only4 ,there are tribes amongst the lower savages in which the pantomimes and dances refer only to the most recent events4 ,and if amongst these tribes some pictures or some dances have been preserved from older times1 they appear to be quite isolated exceptions1 the presence of which one is tempted to attribute to accident rather than design4 ,it is only when we look to a higher degree of culture that we find a commemorative art1 in the true sense of the word1 appearing4 ,from the point of view of comparative psychology this fact is easily explained4 ,the distance between an impromptu recital of a recent occurrence and historical art and literature1 as we understand them to-day1 however short it may appear1 covers perhaps the most momentous progress that man has made in his advancement towards culture4 ,whether commemorative art is to be considered as retrospective with regard to something that is past1 the memory of which it endeavours to revive1 or as directed towards future generations whom the artist would wish to make participators of the present1 it presupposes a power of conferring attention upon matters the interest in which is not confined to the immediate present4 ,no psychologist would include this faculty among the attributes of those in the lowest stage of mental development4 ,ethnological science1 on the other hand1 shows that it is as yet lacking in some of the existing tribes of the lower savages4 ,in an sthetic research it is of the highest importance to know exactly when and where this attribute appears4 ,in the general history of art no date can be more significant than that which marks the commencement of a larger conception in the mind of the artist of the public for whom he works1 bringing in its train1 as it does1 wider aims concerning his work4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,historical ,,art ,it is exceedingly difficult to decide at what precise stage in the evolution of mankind we can first distinguish signs of a true commemorative art4 ,it seems pretty evident that the lowest of the known tribes--such as the ,veddas1 the ,bubis1 the ,kubus--live exclusively in and for the present1 without any memories or traditions as to their past4 ,when we turn our attention1 however1 to tribes in the somewhat higher condition of culture we find that the statements of travellers are not at one with regard to this4 ,the ,fuegians are said by ,m4 ,hyades to lack any kind of history and tradition4#baj ,but1 on the other hand1 one of their pantomimical dances 7or rather dramas7 has been explained by ,m4 ,martial1 another member of the ,cape ,horn expedition1 as commemorating the revolt of the men against the women1 8who formerly had the authority and possessed the secrets of sorcery40#baa ,the inconsistency between these two assertions can1 however1 be explained by the fact that ,hyades evidently had in view only the oral tradition4 ,the interpretation of ,m4 ,martial again seems to be merely hypothetical4 ,mr4 ,bridges1 who is more competent than any one else to speak about this tribe1 does not allude to any commemorative element in the 8,kina10 although even he thinks that these plays1 in which the parts were formerly acted by women1 are old and traditional in their form4#bab ,a similar inconsistency in the use of terms has no doubt been the cause of the conflicting reports on the traditional poetry of the ,greenlanders4 ,in his account of their 8,wissenschaften0 ,cranz says that they have no heroic songs describing the doings of their ancestors4 ,but the very wording of this negation--8,they know nothing about them except that they were brave hunters1 and slew the old ,norsemen0--shows that it can by no means be adduced to prove complete default of oral tradition4#bac ,and in another passage ,cranz expressly says that the ,eskimos1 at their sunfeasts1 praise the feats of their ancestors4#bad ,it is more difficult to bring into accord the various statements concerning the ,melanesians4 ,mr4 ,codrington sees a distinguishing feature of this ethnological group in the fact that they1 in contrast to the ,polynesians1 are conspicuously devoid of native history and oral tradition4#bae ,but this rule is evidently subject to at least one important exception1 as the ,fijians are known to celebrate subjects from their legendary history in their choral dance-songs4#baf ,one is led to believe1 therefore1 that in some other island1 also of the ,melanesian group1 traditional poetry and traditional dramas may have existed1 but escaped the attention of the ethnologists4 ,negative statements are never to be unreservedly relied upon1 least of all perhaps in accounts of uncivilised men4 ,the case of the ,navajo affords an instructive and warning example1 which falls exactly within the limits of the present investigation4 ,in spite of the statement by ,dr4 ,letherman1 who is acknowledged to have been a 8man of unusual ability10 that the ,navajos had 8no knowledge of their origin or of the history of their tribe10#bag ,dr4 ,washington ,matthews has been able to gather his imposing collection of historical songs and traditional commemorative customs4#bah ,an incident of this kind is apt to make us sceptical with regard to the assertion of ,captain ,cook1 which has1 however1 been unreservedly quoted by ,lubbock and ,spencer1 that the ,maoris1 a race noted for old legends and ancient lore1 in #aggj had no recollection of ,tasman's visit to their island4#bai ,and one is inclined to doubt the trustworthiness of ,schoolcraft's informant when he says that the ,appalachian ,indians had lost all recollection of ,de ,soto's expedition4#bbj ,compared with the statements concerning the ,lenape and the ,mohicans1 who still remember ,hudson1 and the ,iroquois and the ,algonquins1 who preserve traditions of the first white immigrants1#bba this assertion will1 in any case1 lose its force as a judgment upon the whole ,north ,american race1 in which sense it has1 however1 been used by ,lubbock4#bbb ,on a closer investigation the ,chinooks will perhaps be also discharged from the unfavourable verdict passed upon them by ,kane1 who could never hear any traditions as to their former origin4#bbc ,it is safest1 therefore1 merely to state generally and approximately that among the lower savages the commemorative element is lost sight of amid the prevailing impromptu productions4 ,with higher culture the commemorative inclination appears to become intensified4 ,but its growth cannot be considered as closely accompanying the general mental evolution4 ,whatever great treasures of epical poetry and literature may some day be found amongst the ,melanesians1 their relative inferiority in this respect can never be contested4 ,when a group like this1 notwithstanding its unsurpassed ability in formative art1--which1 however1 seems to suggest a commemorative purpose1#bbd--;can be outdone in matters of oral history and tradition1 not only by the ,polynesians but even1 it would seem1 by the ,australians1#bbe there is of course no possibility of applying the general scheme of evolution to fix the definite beginnings of commemorative art4 ,a priori assertions do not count in a question in which the reality defeats the assumptions of probability in such a surprising manner4 ,before the ethnological knowledge becomes more complete no statement as to traditional art can be accepted as definite4 ,the scantiness of reliable information does not1 however1 constitute the greatest difficulty4 ,the facts themselves1 even if their authenticity is granted1 are often liable to the most inconsistent interpretations4 ,for an exact appreciation of the influence which the commemorative impulse has exercised on the history of art it is insufficient to enumerate examples1 however many might be found1 of traditionally preserved works of art4 ,the really important thing is to distinguish works which can be considered as genuine specimens of historical art1 i4e4 as the outcome of a commemorative intention1 from the mere survivals which resemble these in so confusing a manner4 ,in almost every artistic manifestation we can read a story of the past4 ,the tenacity with which the old forms and the old technical procedures are retained lends a documentary value to every ornament1 picture1 or poem4 ,by authors with a predilection for historic interpretations this record element is apt to be considered as intentionally aimed at4 ,the euhemeristic view will in this way be applied to the history of art1 with results that are often as extravagant as the mythological theories themselves4 ,for every detail in a dance or dramatic performance a reason has been looked for in some event of real occurrence4 ,this method has its strong and sensible side--and a very sensible one indeed--in that it does away with the idea of a rich and creative imagination in primitive man4 ,it can also be applied to with great advantage for the explanation of artistic manifestation1 which would otherwise be quite incomprehensible4#bbf ,but its use is not1 any more than that of any other general theory1 to be recommended as a master-key to all the mysteries of ceremonialism and ritual art4 ,the shortcomings of the method are strongly emphasised by the fact that it has failed in cases which have been chosen expressly for its illustration4 ,foremost amongst the advocates of euhemerism in the study of ceremonial stands ,captain ,bourke1 who has taken up and extended to the rites and dramas of the living savages the theory of ,higgins1 that all ceremonies of antiquity were created with a view of preserving to the memory ancient learning and ancient traditions4#bbg ,it would be extremely unfair to accuse this indefatigable hunter after analogies of a limited understanding4 ,in questions of ritualistic detail1 such1 for instance1 as those of the flour-sprinkling customs1 his comparative studies are not only unsurpassed as proofs of learning1 but are also full of valuable and instructive suggestions4#bbh ,the stately array of facts which he has collected from all stages of culture does not1 however1 convince any impartial reader of the correctness of the main assertions in his books4 ,a student of comparative psychology1 for instance1 will always remember the psycho-pathological influences which everywhere and always tend to provoke the same sort of horrid1 scatological orgies1 in which ,captain ,bourke has seen a commemoration of some old1 exceptional conditions of life4#bbi ,as to the snake-dance at ,walpi1 which forms the subject of his earliest great work1 it cannot be denied that some details in the rite and some of the ceremonial paraphernalia are illustrative of a way of life which presumably predominated amongst the prehistoric ,pueblo-,indians4#bcj ,from the dance one might therefore reconstruct an epitomised history of the tribe1 which would supplement the tales that are told by the constructional details of the 8kiva0 architecture and the decorative adornments of the ,pueblo pottery4#bca ,but it seems unjustifiable to adduce1 as ,mr4 ,spencer has done1 this rite as a typical specimen of commemorative ancestor-worship4#bcb ,in attempting to explain the origin and the purpose of the rite1 the later investigators have also on good grounds neglected to appeal to the commemorative intention4 ,as has been conclusively shown by the consummate researches of ,mr4 ,fewkes1 the snake-ceremonials are mainly and chiefly to be considered as dramatic expressions of the water-cult1 which permeates every department in the life of the ,pueblo-,indians4#bcc ,through such an interpretation the drama is brought into close connection with the religious system as well as with the practical necessities of the ,pueblo-,indians4 ,its significance as the most important of all the national ceremonies is easily understood1 when the rite in its entirety is regarded as only an active form of the same prayer for rain1 which is pictorially conveyed in the sand-mosaics and in the painted ornaments of the tribe4#bcd ,its various details1 on the other hand1 will find their most unsought-for explanation when considered as contributing to the great propitiatory purpose4 ,whatever value and interest an euhemeristic interpretation might have for a student of the prehistoric ,pueblo-life1 the psycho-sociological conditions of the rite1 so to speak1 can be fully comprehended only when they are investigated in connection with the ideas of ritual magic and religious propitiation4 ,the same view holds good1 we believe1 with regard to almost all the religious ceremonies of uncivilised man1 although it may be impossible to prove it in every individual case1 as the facts themselves generally are entangled in a most exasperating manner4 ,they must be detached not only from the theoretical constructions of the anthropologists1 but also from the euhemeristic interpretations of the natives themselves4 ,the native dogmatism will often be even more misleading than that of the scientists4 ,it is a well-known phenomenon1 which often repeats itself1 that when a higher stage of culture is reached the original significance of a rite or a custom falls into oblivion4 ,the custom itself1 will1 however1 with the tenacious conservatism that characterises man1 be rigorously maintained long after its origin has been forgotten4 ,amongst the lower savages no other justification of these ceremonies--incomprehensible to the participants themselves--is necessary than the oft-quoted 8our fathers did so before us40 ,but with increased intellectual development there must arise a craving for some reasonable explanation4 ,the semi-civilised man never cares to admit to how great an extent his actions are automatical4 ,hence the rationalisation of rites and customs1--familiar to every student of ,christian theology1--which has its beginnings even in the higher stages of savagery4 ,the rationalisation most readily adopted by tribes without developed philosophical or ethical notions is the historical one4 ,the simple and honest argument 8because our fathers did so0 is replaced by the fictitious motive of keeping up the memory of the doings of the fathers4 ,when once this reasoning obtains full power it will soon cover the whole field of ritual life4 ,every incomprehensible feature in ceremonies or customs will be explained through reference to the past4 ,and when knowledge of events falls short of affording such an explanation1 popular imagination will always be prone to substitute itself for the missing reality4#bce ,in this way a commemorative excuse can easily be found for every apparently illogical action in life4 ,in fact1 the creation of 8etiological0 or justificatory history and mythology is by no means limited to the department of religious ritualism4 ,even more trivial actions1 such as games and pastimes1 will1 amongst tribes with developed historical tendencies1 be connected with imaginary occurrences1 which latter will be found to account for every detail in such games and pastimes4 ,with the ,cherokee ,indians1 for example1 we find a most intricate animal story1 in which the action of the bat1 the eagle1 and other creatures closely correspond to the movements of the different participators in the national ball-play4#bcf ,although much may be said in favour of the ingenious hypothesis of ,professor ,groos1 who suggests that military games1 such as chess and draughts1 may have been developed from dramatic narratives of real battles1 supplemented perhaps with maps drawn in the sand and simple symbols--stones1 pebbles1 etc4--representing the various armies and soldiers2#bcg and although it may reasonably be assumed that the beasts in the animal story of the ,cherokees represents the totems of some old ,indian chiefs1--a story like this must be considered as secondary1 in its details at least1 to the play4 ,more artificial still it sounds when the ,moondahs in ,bengal affirm that their popular ,easter-game of pushing eggs the one against the other in reality serves as a means of commemorating the feats of ,sing ,bonga1 who1 with a single hen's egg1 crushed the iron globes of his rivals4#bch ,unfortunately1 it is but seldom that the commemorative motive shows its fictitious nature with so much evidence as in this game4 ,in most cases there will always be a doubt as to whether the religious drama1 poem1 or design was originally intended as a means of conveying knowledge of some real or legendary event1 or whether the idea of these events was derived from a simple game1 a propitiative poem1 or a magical design4 ,we have quoted some instances in which the historical interpretation is secondary only4 ,but there could easily be adduced other instances in which the opposite is the case4 ,ancient poems1 whose historical and legendary character is quite incontestable1 may often be used as charms in magical ceremonies4#bci ,it seems quite impossible therefore to pronounce any definite judgment as to priority between myth and ceremony without special investigation of every single case4 ,in the department of pictorial art it is scarcely less difficult to separate the genuinely commemorative elements from the close interweaving of different motives1 which call into existence a work of art4 ,foremost in rank amongst all the works of design and sculpture that have influenced artistic evolution stand the likenesses of a deceased person which are placed by the relatives on his grave or in his home4 ,to civilised man it is most natural to look upon these effigies as tokens of loving remembrance by which the survivors endeavour to keep fresh the memory of the departed4 ,it is also easy for us to understand that the pious feelings extended towards such effigies may acquire an almost religious character4 ,there is something to be said therefore on behalf of the view that commemorative monuments have been the predecessors of idols proper4 ,lubbock1 who interprets ,erman's description of the ,ostyak religion#bdj in this way1 quotes in further corroboration ,the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 in which work there is to be found a detailed account of the evolution of idolatry from memorial images4#bda ,the probability1 however1 is that in pictorial as well as in dramatic art the purely commemorative intention belongs to the latter stages of culture4 ,it seems in most cases to be beyond doubt that among the lowest tribes the images serve as paraphernalia in the animistic rites4 ,they are either taken to be embodiments of the ancestors' soul1 or receptacles in which this soul1 if properly invoked1 might take up its abode for the occasion4 ,and similar superstitious notions are entertained1 not only with regard to the monuments proper erected on the graves of powerful ancestors1 but also with regard to such minor works as1 e4g41 the dolls which are often prepared by ,west ,african mothers when they have lost a favourite child4#bdb ,the vague and indistinct character of these images shows us also that no intellectual record of the individual has been aimed at4 ,no more than the poetic effusions of regret with which the pious survivors endeavour to propitiate the names of the deceased1 do these formative works of 8pietas0 give us any information as to the personality of him whom they pretend to represent4 ,this general notion1 however1 must not be allowed to prevent us from admitting that among sundry tribes of mankind the images may be historical4 ,this is asserted with regard to the ,bongos by ,schweinfurth1 and with regard to the ,gold ,coast negroes by ,cruickshank4 ,the wooden effigies on the ,marquesas ,islands are described by ,herr ,schmeltz as 8constructed in memory of celebrated members of the tribe40#bdc ,the ,melanesian sculptures also1 according to ,codrington1 are chiefly commemorative4 ,it must be observed1 however1 that according to his own description a sort of religious respect is paid at least to some of them4#bdd ,more undeniably commemorative examples are to be found in ,new ,zealand4 ,although no attempt to reproduce likenesses is made in these colossal wooden statues1 they nevertheless more nearly approach the idea of monumental commemorative portraiture than any similar works of primitive art4 ,the patterns of tattooing1 that infallible means of identification amongst the ,maoris1 render it possible to preserve the memories of the individual ancestors through pictorial representation4#bde ,not less problematic than ancestral sculptures are the much-debated rock-paintings and engravings that can be found in every part of the world4 ,herr ,andree finds a sort of learned bias in the general tendency to look for some serious1 sacred1 or historical meaning in every petroglyph4 ,he points1 very sensibly as it seems1 to the prevailing impulse of the idle hand to scratch some figures1 however meaningless1 on every inviting and empty surface4 ,especially at much frequented localities--such as meeting-places1 common thoroughfares1 and places of rest for travellers--where the drawings of previous visitors call for imitation1 this temptation must be looked upon as a very strong one4#bdf ,there is no reason for regarding the savage and the prehistoric man as devoid of an impulse1 which1 as we all know1 shows its strength among the very lowest and most primitive layers of civilised society4 ,it is unnecessary1 therefore1 to find anything more remarkable in the petroglyphs than is to be found in the familiar pictures on walls1 trees1 and rocks which have been wantonly decorated by the modern vandal4 ,this common-sense explanation is undoubtedly sufficient to account for the origin of many much-debated works of glyphic art4 ,but however sound within its proper limits it cannot be extended so as to give a general solution of the petroglyph problem4 ,it is not likely1 as ,mr4 ,im ,thurn observes1 that pictures such as the rock-engravings in ,guiana1 to produce which must have cost so much time and trouble1 should have their origin in mere caprice and idleness4#bdg ,but even if the serious aspect of the petroglyphs is granted there still remains the difficulty of determining their special purpose4 ,the historical explanation1 although it would appear the most natural for us to adopt1 is not to be taken unreservedly with regard to tribes on a low degree of development4 ,what to us seems a sort of picture-writing might possibly serve a purpose anything but communicative4 ,the so-called ideograms of the ,nicobarese have1 for example1 according to ,herr ,svoboda1 for their object the distraction of the attention of the malevolent demons from their houses and implements#bdh4 ,when investigating the ritual1 especially the funeral ceremonies1 one meets with various specimens of similar ideography1 the thought-conveying purpose of which is deceptive4 ,by the above examples the ambiguous character of primitive art-works has been proved almost ad nauseam4 ,it appears that every single conclusion based upon isolated ethnological examples only is liable to be upset after a closer study of the facts4 ,in order1 therefore1 to make any positive assertions as to the commemorative element in art we need some safer and more reliable grounds of argument than the inconsistent stories of travellers4 ,we have1 in other words1 to investigate the social and psychological conditions which1 in the respective cases1 speak for or against the assumption of a commemorative impulse as a motive for art-production4 ,owing to our deficient knowledge of primitive life we are not able to rely upon these social and psychological data in every individual case4 ,but we may nevertheless arrive at some broad results which in the main tally with1 and corroborate the evidence afforded by1 the majority of ethnological facts4 ,it is easy to understand why historical art holds no high place among the lower--that is1 the hunting and fishing--tribes4 ,even if1 as is the case in ,australia1 every unusual occurrence is represented in art with a view of keeping up its memory1#bdi these accidental interruptions in a monotonous life cannot possibly contribute to the development of an historical interest--that is to say1 a commemorative attention in the people4 ,when1 on the other hand1 we meet1 in barbaric and semi-barbaric tribes1 with a flourishing traditional art1 we can also1 in most cases1 point to some peculiar features in their life which have called for commemoration4 ,in a general survey of traditional poetry one cannot but be struck by the great prevalence of legends about migrations4#bej ,as travels and incidents of travel were found to provide a favourite subject for the pantomimes and poems described in the preceding chapter1 so these experiences have also exercised an important influence on the songs that have been preserved by oral tradition4 ,and as we meet with numerous instances of improvised drama and poetry called forth by so eminently interesting an occurrence as the visit of some white people1 so we can also trace the same theme in manifestations of historical art from dim and distorted narrations up to richly detailed descriptions like those of the ,hawajian songs or of the ,mangaian 8,drama of ,cook40#bea ,the influence which these motives have exercised on the history of art is only in accordance with the universal laws of psychology4 ,tribal memory1 no less than individual memory1 is dependent for its development on some favourable external influences that stimulate the attention4 ,it must not surprise us1 therefore1 that the varying experiences of war have everywhere acted as a strong incentive on the commemorative impulse4 ,in this case1 however1 we have to count with a factor of still greater importance in the directly utilitarian advantage which military nations derive from historical art4 ,through recounting or representing the exploits of earlier generations1 the descendants acquire that healthy feeling of pride which is the most important factor of success in all brutal forms of the struggle for life4 ,so it has come about that historic art has everywhere reached its highest state of development amongst nations who have had to hold their own vi et armis against neighbouring tribes1 or in the midst of which antagonistic families have fought for supremacy4 ,the more the social institutions have been influenced by the customs of war1 the more important is usually the part which commemoration plays in public life4 ,it is highly prominent in semi-feudal ,polynesia1#beb where domestic warfare was at all times of regular occurrence2 it has developed to some extent in warlike ,fiji1#bec notwithstanding the ,melanesian indifference for the past2 and it has obtained the position of a state function in military despotisms1 such as the barbaric kingdoms of ,central and ,south ,america and ,western ,africa4#bed ,in isolated tribes1 on the other hand1 whose whole struggle has been one against nature1 historical art is generally to be found at a very low ebb4 ,that bygone events have been preserved in history and art chiefly for the sake of their effect in enhancing the national pride can also be concluded from the way in which humiliating incidents are treated4 ,there are1 it is true1 a few isolated and unhappy tribes which keep up some dim traditions of their inglorious past4#bee ,generally1 however1 defeats are totally ignored in the earliest chronicles4 ,if1 however1 an unsuccessful battle should have provoked artistic manifestations1 these aim at masking the humiliation4#bef ,the ancient history of ,greece affords the most curious examples of myths and inventions by means of which the popular imagination contrived to conceal disagreeable truths4 ,the fate of ,phrynichos1 who was fined for having revived the memory of the defeat at ,miletus1 shows that ,greece1 even at a much later period1 preserved the same primitive ideas as to the raison d'tre of historic art4 ,it is needless to point out to how great an extent similar conceptions still prevail amongst all warlike nations1 civilised and barbarous alike4 ,we must not overlook the fact1 however1 that defeats are often represented in unmasked form for the purpose of stirring up a revengeful spirit4 ,but this apparent exception only proves the rule4 ,by appealing to the wounded dignity of the people1 poems and dramas of this kind serve the cravings of collective pride as effectively--although1 no doubt1 indirectly--as manifestations of the opposite order4 ,an increased attention to the past1 with a corresponding richness of traditional art1 can also generally be found in nations where revenge is considered as a sacred duty bequeathed to descendants by their ancestors4 ,when historic art is regarded as a means of handing down to posterity a knowledge of the present1 a connection with the same group of emotions is easily discoverable4 ,the great works of commemoration are all monuments of boasting4 ,by the grandiloquent hieroglyphs on palaces and pyramids and by the extolling hymns that he orders to be sung in his praise1 the exultant hero endeavours to win from future admirers a meed of praise which shall quench his unsatisfied thirst for glorification4 ,even in this case1 therefore1 history1 in its psychological sense--that is1 the concentration of attention upon times other than the present--has been born of pride4 ,by relying on this emotionalistic interpretation we can explain the otherwise extraordinary development of commemorative art amongst tribes on relatively low stages of intellectual development4 ,the same explanation also accounts for the artistic value of the primitive records4 ,the intensely emotional element of exultation1 pride1 and boasting that pervades so many of the commemorative poems and dramas makes this kind of history an art in the proper sense of the word4 ,it is needless to point out expressly that literary and formative arts may be used for conveying thought-contents which cannot1 properly speaking1 be called historical4 ,we have restricted our attention to the unmistakably commemorative forms1 because in these alone can the purpose of information be isolated with any degree of certainty4 ,by tracing the gradual development of narrative art from those simplest manifestations in which the work is immediately connected with the real occurrence that called it into existence1 up to the more complex forms of transmitted art1 in which distant events are represented1 we have endeavoured to keep our argument within the limits of positive research4 ,this safe ground we should be compelled to abandon if we were to engage in the otherwise so fascinating task of unearthing historical elements in mythological tradition4 ,it seems impossible1 moreover1 to treat of such art-forms as the nature-myths1 the tales1 and the animal stories without bringing in those factors which should especially be kept outside the present research--the art-impulse1 the play-impulse1 or the delight in pure invention for invention's sake2 whereas we are justified in treating even the highest purely commemorative art as the development of an activity which was connected with the utilitarian end of information4 ,it must not be overlooked1 however1 that primitive art offers some important and purely didactic manifestations which have no historical purpose4 ,thus1 among savages and barbarians1 dramatic performances1 poetic recitals1 and pictorial representations often serve as means of expounding religious or philosophical doctrines4 ,we need only refer to the most striking instances1 such as the ,australian miracle-plays1 in which the old men enact before the boys a representation of death and resurrection4#beg ,although less elaborate in dramatic detail and stage-management1 the fragmentary dramas in which the ,indian shaman novitiates are supposed to be killed and recalled to life present to us a scarcely less interesting result of the same great thought4#beh ,there are indeed1 especially in this later example1 good reasons for assuming that the simulated death and resurrection are supposed to effect1 in a magical way1 some kind of spiritual regeneration in the novitiates on whose behalf the drama is performed4 ,but while admitting this1 we may nevertheless take it for granted that an endeavour to elucidate the doctrines of the shaman priesthood may be combined with the magical rite in question4 ,and similarly1 with regard to analogous ceremonies in other tribes1 we feel justified in assuming the presence of a didactic purpose4 ,the more the doctrinal system becomes fixed and elaborated1 the greater need will there ensue of affording these doctrines a clear expression in the objective forms of art4 ,what has been said about religious and philosophical subjects in dramatical art refers equally to poems and paintings4 ,we have therefore to regard the requirements of religious instruction as a factor which has favoured the development of art in all its departments4 ,but we have no means of ascertaining at what precise stage in the evolution this factor1 as distinct from other motives1 began to exercise its influence4 ,the settlement of this special point1 however1 is not indispensable to a general comprehension of the principles of art-history4 ,it is more important1 from our point of view1 to determine the influence which the purely intellectual motive of conveying with the greatest possible clearness a thought-content1 be it historical1 religious1 or philosophical1 has exercised on the artistic representations of life and nature4 ,although of itself essentially non-sthetic1 this purpose has nevertheless called into existence some most important sthetic qualities4 ,especially in narrative painting we may often observe how the virtues of exactness1 explicitness1 and comprehensibility give a character of beauty to representations which may have originated in a purely practical intention4 ,as has been clearly pointed out by ,mr4 ,walter ,crane1 the ,egyptian hieroglyphs have reached their 8wonderful pitch of abstract yet exact characterisation0 precisely because they had the character and the purpose of a 8decorative record40 ,the same necessity1 viz4 that 8every object had to be clearly defined so as to be recognised at once and easily deciphered10#bei is undoubtedly to a great degree responsible for the element of beauty which is to be found in the pictography of ,north ,american ,indians4 ,practical utility has in this way subserved the development of an attention to the picturesque side of things4 ,but one has only to look at the more symbolical systems of ideographic writing1 such as the ,assyrian1 the ,mexican1 and the ,chinese1 in order to understand that the intellectual requirement by itself never would have created an artistic representation of nature4#bfj ,this distinction is especially indispensable for a right conception of the intellectual elements in poetry4 ,it is undeniable that some of the most important qualities in literature were developed during the time when it was used chiefly as a means for conveying information4 ,the practical considerations therein have undoubtedly influenced the form of the oral narrative4 ,it is evident1 for example1 that the metrical and rhythmical recital must have proved the more serviceable whenever a thought-content was to be preserved for futurity4 ,but this fact gives no authorisation to those curious theories according to which poetry was invented and developed1 thanks to its merits as a mnemonic device4 ,it is1 as was long since remarked by ,brown1#bfa difficult to understand how rhythm1 numbers1 and verse could have been devised as assistance for the memory1 supposing nothing of that kind to have been existing before4 ,and even if we admit that they could have been invented by accident1 it is plain1 when we fix our mind on the essential qualities of poetry1 that the use of rhythm and metre to aid memory could only have supplied a mechanical condition to facilitate the development of poetic art4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,animal ,,display ,in a treatment of the relation between art and sexual life the facts must necessarily be classified under two different headings1 namely1 the influence of artistic activity upon sexual selection and the importance of erotic motives in works of art4 ,these two points of view have indeed often been confounded with each other4 ,but it will soon appear from the following how indispensable it is to maintain the distinction between them4 ,in modern literature there has scarcely appeared any treatise of the same importance1 not only for the theory of art1 but also for sthetic proper1 as the chapters on sexual selection in ,the ,descent of ,man4 ,as is well known1 ,darwin supposes a necessary connection between beauty and art4 ,he takes it for granted that music1 poetry1 drama1 and the rest chiefly aim at pleasing4 ,when he sees that activities and forms1 which at least technically correspond to the various kinds of art1 are to be met with not only among the lower tribes of man1 but even among some of the higher animals1 he therefore explains these forms and activities as emanating from a conscious or unconscious endeavour to please through beauty4 ,and for this endeavour he finds a reason in the necessity of gaining preference in the favour of the female4 ,by endowing the female with sthetic attention and sthetic judgment#bfb he has been able not only to explain the appearance of art amongst savages and animals1 but also to account for the importance of beauty in life4 ,in the foregoing arguments we have already with sufficient clearness pronounced our dissent from ,darwin's primary supposition4 ,in the chapter upon the art-impulse we have tried to show that this tendency in its essence is something quite different from the tendency to 8attract by pleasing40 ,but with all this theoretical argumentation it has of course not been proved that the endeavour of the males to win the favour of the females by singing1 dancing1 and other similar performances has exercised no influence on the history of art4 ,however little these activities may have to do with real art1 they might1 however1 have afforded a raw material to be used by the art-impulse proper for its own purposes4 ,in this connection it is necessary1 therefore1 to discuss the question1 ,to what extent has sthetic choice1 exercised by either of the sexes in selecting a mate1 favoured the development of artistic activities in the other sex8 ,the sthetic theory of ,darwin has its chief interest in the fact that it can be applied to the activities of animals as well as to those of men4 ,darwin himself has chosen the majority of his examples from bird life1 and his critics have generally restricted the discussion to the zoological application of his thesis4 ,as the data of animal psychology are less complicated than the corresponding facts in the mental life of man1 it is in every respect advantageous to begin with this supposed animal art4 ,when the illustrations are chosen from bird life the argumentation can1 moreover1 be handled with a freedom which would be impossible in discussing the delicate questions of human erotics and sexual life4 ,the theory of an appeal to some primordial sthetic appreciation in the hen birds is one which1 however well it may account for the beautiful plumage of some species and for the melodious singing of some others1 necessarily must arouse objections from the point of view of comparative psychology4 sthetic judgment presupposes a certain development not only of intellectual qualities1 but also of moral self-restraint4 ,in other words1 it might be said that attention to beauty1 whether manifested in forms or colours or sounds1 always is what ,ribot calls an 8attention volontaire40#bfc ,it is hard to believe that the hen really has reached such a state of spiritual freedom that1 when looking at the finery and the antics of her rival suitors1 she could be able to bestow her attention upon the sthetic qualities in the display4 ,one has only to work out into all its details and consequences the idea of a bird who approves or disapproves the performance1 and who1 after balancing the merits of the various competitors1 awards her prize to the one nearest her ideal of beauty1 in order to realise the improbability1 not to say the absurdity1 of this avian connoisseurship4 ,m4 ,espinas1 who describes in detail the dilemma of the anxiously hesitating arbiter1 has added nothing to the theory of sthetic selection4 ,but it may safely be said that his illustration of the thesis acts as a caricature of it4#bfd ,the improbability of an sthetic judgment is yet more palpable when one considers the state of mind in which the hen is likely to be on the occasion4 ,it has indeed been contended with regard to some species--as1 for instance1 the satyr bird--that the hen behaves with a perfect calm and indifference during the display of the cock4#bfe ,but it would be undoubtedly too rash to form any general conclusion on the ground of her outward show in some single instances4 ,amongst the wood-birds1 on the other hand1 the hens are known to be so excited during the 8,balz0 that they can easily be caught with the hands4#bff ,to all these a priori objections there may also be added the remark of ,geddes and ,thomson1 that if the females of insects and birds had really called into existence all the detailed patterns on the dresses of their respective males by the exercise of sthetic selection1 they would possess more discrimination than is shown in their predilection for any sort of gaudy-coloured objects1 such as pebbles1 slips of paper1 and rags4#bfg ,however great the psychological improbability of the supposed sthetic selection1 there is still more reason to take exception to it from an evolutionistic point of view4 ,the female appreciation for gaudy and gorgeous dresses must necessarily1 as ,darwin himself remarks1 in many cases give rise to a plumage1 as a result of which the males become encumbered in their movements and easily discovered by their enemies4#bfh sthetic judgment1 which is in itself so incomprehensible1 would thus have been developed in a continuous conflict with natural selection4 ,this circumstance1 more than anything else1 makes it indispensable to look for some more utilitarian cause of the secondary sexual characters and activities than the hypothetical necessity of satisfying a sense of beauty in the female sex4 ,by the theory that has been advanced by ,wallace1 and further developed by ,westermarck1 the nuptial dresses of the males have indeed been accounted for in a simple way4#bfi ,reference to the need of recognisable marks for every different species can explain the most prominent characteristics in male plumage without any appeal to an sthetic sense4 ,this need1 together with the equally great indispensability of protective colouring1 must necessarily give rise to precisely such brilliant coloured spots on a monotonous or plain surface as are so often found on the bodies of the northern birds4 ,the gaudier coloration of the tropical species1 on the other hand1 appears as a result of their more brilliant surroundings4 ,even here protective colouring often leaves to the colour of recognition only a narrow and limited space1 on which this has to develop itself with so much the greater intensity4 ,in this way one can find a reason not only for the decorations1 which are beautiful according to our standard1 but also for the inharmonious and glaring colour-combinations4 ,an adherent of sexual selection can1 however1 easily object that these theories1 however sound and sensible they may be1 still leave the main point in ,darwin's thesis quite unaffected4 ,when trying to prove the existence of an sthetic judgment in birds1 he did not lay so much stress upon decorative plumage itself as upon the fact of its being displayed in the presence of the hen4 ,if secondary sexual characters had their only purpose in facilitating recognition between individuals of the same species1 then these elaborate performances would be quite superfluous4 ,and this argument can of course be further strengthened by reference to the musical and dancing entertainments given by the males4 ,any theory which leaves these activities unexplained must therefore be regarded as incomplete4 ,in ,mr4 ,wallace's ,darwinism due attention has indeed been paid to pre-nuptial performances4 ,but his explanation1 viz4 that the dancing and singing1 etc41 are only the effect of an inner impulse to movement and activity which accompanies sexual maturity1#bgj can but incompletely unriddle the problem4 ,for the purpose of affording an outflow to a surplus of vigour or of discharging a nervous tension1 activities of a far simpler character would have been sufficient4 ,as1 however1 amongst birds with gorgeous plumage every movement in the display tends towards exhibiting their splendour with the greatest possible clat1 an influence upon the hen cannot be argued away4 ,it is1 as ,darwin remarks1 impossible to believe that the ,argus pheasant1 for instance1 should have developed precisely such a curious and peculiar sort of dance1 through which his beautiful dress is so effectively shown forth1 if this dance had been of no effect upon its spectators4#bga ,this effect cannot1 as has been shown above1 be considered an sthetic one4 ,it is also difficult to believe that the hen1 as it has been suggested1 should appreciate the secondary sexual characters as signs of greater or smaller vital force1 and thus prefer not the most beautiful1 but the most vigorous and ardent mate4#bgb ,whether it is founded on an sthetic judgment or on an estimation of the force displayed1 her conscious choosing seems to be alike improbable4 ,but if it is difficult to believe that the display of the males could call forth an intellectual activity in the hen1 such as that of comparing and valuing the merits of the rival suitors1#bgc one can safely assume that it might influence her emotional and instinctive life4 ,and for the production of such an effect there is no need to suppose any intervening sthetic activity4 ,considering the close parallelism which shows itself in the development of either sex1 it would only be natural if a colour and voice alteration in the cock1 which undeniably is dependent upon sexual ripening1#bgd should directly and almost physiologically imply a reaction in the sexual life of the hen4 ,the more energetically the male forces himself upon the attention of the female by the conspicuous visual and acoustic signs of his sex1 the more powerful must necessarily be the emotional response in her4 ,if secondary sexual characters are interpreted in this way1 as signs1 by which the sex of the male is manifested in an unmistakable manner1 then one can easily understand the influence of a prolonged display4 ,when the cock is exhibiting his plumes or pouring forth his notes1 and thereby impressing upon his female listener the notion of his malehood1 he cannot but produce in her an enhanced inclination for pairing4#bge ,she needs no sthetic appreciation or intellectual judgment in order to comprehend the simple text of all his utterances4 ,with all her instincts and impulses she can at once grasp the only thing she wants to know--the thing that is brought home to her with a greater and greater clearness during the continuation of his performance1 namely1 that the passionate actor in front of her is a mature representative of the other sex4 ,and besides this1 the secondary sexual characters and activities tell another tale of no less importance4 ,if the colours and the tones of the cock1 as ,westermarck has shown1 are of great consequence for facilitating from a distance recognition between members of the same species1#bgf their biological significance is perhaps yet greater when they1 during the display before the hen1 accentuate the community of species4 ,by virtue of her inherited constitution1 the instinctive life of the hen will be deeper stirred the more the male is able to show that he 8wears the feathers of her tribe40 ,it is evident that the effect upon the hen must be greater in proportion as the sex marks and species marks of the male are more clearly defined1 and therefore easier to perceive4 ,not only as means of recognition1 but also as instruments for sexual incitement1 colour-patterns with lucent points must be more advantageous than any other system of decoration4 ,it is easily understood that a design like that on the tails of pheasants and peacocks is eminently capable of attracting the female attention to the displaying cock4 ,but it would be stretching the theory too far if the marvellous 8balls on sockets0 were explained as nothing but conspicuous signals1 the meaning of which the hen is able to decipher by help of her inherited instincts4 ,the influence of the display is amongst these species undoubtedly strengthened by an action which is quite independent of any sexual associations4 ,besides accentuating the sex and kind of the cock1 these luminous spheres will1 moreover1 in virtue of their very smallness and brilliancy1 provoke a stimulation in the mind of the hen before whom they are vibrated4 ,to understand this effect1 it is necessary to investigate the more general question of animal appreciation of brilliancy4 ,the powerful attraction exercised by lucent things can be sufficiently proved by numerous instances from the life of insects and fishes as well as of higher animals4 ,it is needless to dwell upon the various means by which man has availed himself of this disastrous predilection in order to entice animals within reach of his weapons4#bgg ,more important in this connection is the mania for collecting lustrous objects that has been noticed in the case of ravens1 jays1 magpies1 jackdaws1 goldfinches1 chiff-chaffs1 sea-pies1 etc4#bgh ,it has scarcely ever been suggested that the thievish jackdaw is prompted by any sthetic liking for brilliant plate4 ,but as it shows itself amongst the atlas birds and the bower birds1 this exaggeration of the appropriative impulse has been regarded as an indication of artistic inclination4 ,it has been contended that these birds not only appreciate shining and gorgeous objects1 but even understand how to arrange them according to a decorative plan4#bgi ,no one will deny that structures1 such as1 for instance1 the gardens of the atlas birds1 which have been depicted by ,beccari1 are most wonderful specimens of animal industry4#bhj ,but it is undoubtedly misleading to speak of them as artistic4 ,as far as can be judged from the descriptions--which are seldom complete--the arrangement of the objects seems to be quite accidental4 ,darwin has indeed collected some most eulogistic accounts of the decorative taste of the ,australian bower bird4 ,but he has also1 candidly enough1 illustrated them with a picture1 on which an irregular heap of shells and bones is to be seen in front of the bower4 ,and the description he borrows from ,mr4 ,strange is yet more significant4 ,to judge from this account1 which is further corroborated by the statement of ,captain ,stokes1 the chief interest of the birds seems to be not the arranging of their treasures1 but the playing with them4 ,it has been noticed that the cock of the great bower bird amuses himself by flying to and fro in the bower carrying a shell in his bill1 which he picks up on one side and carries to the other4#bha ,on an anthropomorphic interpretation such a behaviour would perhaps indicate a desire of trying some new decorative effect4 ,but it seems more natural to assume that brilliant objects1 even after they have been stored up in the nest1 still exercise their irresistible attraction1 and thereby tempt the birds to repeated trifling with them4 ,if the supposed redecorations of the gardens be accounted for in this manner1 then there is no reason for considering the collecting impulse in the ,australian birds as anything more than a higher development of the same tendency which shows itself in our common magpies and jackdaws4 ,by the ,australian instances1 however1 the general predilection for brilliant objects is brought into connection with the pairing dresses of pheasants1 peacocks1 and humming birds4 ,the small and brilliant objects with which the bower birds play during their pairing season remind us irresistibly of the 8balls on sockets0 and of the ocelli designs of the colibri4#bhb ,it is true that the pheasants carry on their tail what the ,australian birds keep in their bill4 ,but apart from this unimportant difference1 the display seems to be the same in both cases4 ,in ,mr4 ,strange's letter it is said that the cock1 when performing the exalted antics that precede pairing1 8runs to the bower1 picks up a gaudy feather or a spotted leaf1 pours forth some peculiar notes1 and runs through the pavilion40 ,it is not quite clear from this wording whether the objects really are exhibited before the hen4 ,but one may safely assume that she in any case has paid some attention to her consort's performance4 ,she has decidedly not1 any more than the pea-hen1 received any sort of sthetic impression from the display4 ,but the brilliancy has undoubtedly stimulated her1 as it stimulates all the other birds quoted in this connection1 in a purely physiological way4 ,this action1 on the other hand1 is sufficiently explained by recent researches on the physiological effects which the contemplation of concentrated lustre produces on animal organisms4 ,it is also well known that objects with exactly the same qualities as the ocelli on the peacock's tail play an important part in hypnotic experiments4 ,and the primitive shamans as well as the modern cultivators of 8crystal-gazing0 are acquainted with the peculiar effects of prolonged gazing on glass-balls or the shining surface of water4 ,more familiar still is the fascinating influence exercised by that lustrous little globe1 the human eye4 ,in all these various examples the smallness of the object fetters the attention1 and thereby makes the mind a defenceless prey to the images1 feelings1 and impulses which for the moment invade it4 ,the lustre1 on the other hand1 will1 to use the language of ,m4 ,binet1 strengthen the intensity of these mental images4#bhc ,there is no reason why these effects1 which presuppose no sort of intellectual activity1 should not take place in animals as well as in man4 ,in the case of the peacock1 therefore1 the idea 8male0 will imprint itself with greater and more efficacy upon the mind of the hen when she is exposed on every side to the twinkling eyes on the expanded tail of her mate4 ,even in the very cases that have been regarded as the most incontestable proofs of a taste for the beautiful1 the influence on the hen can thus be explained as one which directly1 i4e4 without any sthetic mediation1 has served the interests of pairing4 ,but it may still be asked1 ,whence the need of strengthening and intensifying the emotions in the female1 which must already have been awakened by the mere presence of the male8 ,this objection1 however1 is easily met by a reference to the psychological aspects of pairing4 ,throughout the animal kingdom the males have to conquer a resistance from the side of the females4 ,this instinctive coyness1 the importance of which for the maintenance of the species is incalculable and self-evident1 constitutes by itself a sufficient cause for the supposed sthetic characters and activities of the males4#bhd ,it has made it necessary for them to have a stately carriage1 which makes them bigger and more pompous than ever1 and to display their bodies in flying tricks1 or dances and antics1--in a word1 to emphasise their sex as energetically as possible by colours and tunes and movements4 ,and this necessity has1 by means of a natural selection1 called forth a colouring which is not only easily recognisable from a distance1 but which also forces itself on the senses when seen at close quarters4 ,the sthetic judgment of the hen forms the pivot of the whole ,darwinian theory4 ,when it has been eliminated1 it is therefore quite superfluous to controvert the assertion1 which ,darwin himself would not positively defend1 that the performances of the males have originated in an artistic endeavour4#bhe ,once granted an instinctive coyness in the hen1 which must be overcome by every possible means1 one can easily understand that secondary sexual characters and activities would gradually appear in the males4 ,the expressive movements in which they seek to relieve their nervous tension afford a material out of which natural selection will shape1 as the most effective means of incitation1 the various forms of display1 or dance1 or song4 ,as is well known1 ,wallace1#bhf ,spencer1#bhg and ,hudson#bhh have even contended that emotional pressure1 or1 as they put it1 overflowing vitality1 by itself constitutes a sufficient explanation of the 8,balz40 ,in the above treatment of the question1 which in its main points accords with the conclusive researches of ,professor ,groos1 we have endeavoured to show that the various sorts of display never could have reached their special and differentiated forms if it had not been for the necessity of overcoming female coyness4 ,but1 on the other hand1 this necessity could never have created out of nothing all these complicated activities4 ,it is difficult--perhaps even impossible--to make any general assertions about the relative importance of these two explanations4#bhi ,the only point which it is necessary to bring out in this connection is that a sort of nuptial performance would have appeared amongst the males even independently of its influence upon the hen4 ,the hygienic need of an outburst is one reason1 and a very strong one indeed1 for such motor manifestations4 ,but it seems also as if their purpose ought not to be restricted to this cathartic effect4 ,the 8lek0 of the wood-birds tends no doubt to increase nervous force at the same time as it relieves the tension4 ,m4 ,espinas thinks that the males1 when collecting in great numbers during the pairing season1 are led by an unconscious desire to stimulate their feelings by the view of other equally excited fellow-males4#bij ,such an unconscious desire of enhancing nervous force probably lies also behind the inclination for brilliant objects and the trifling with them in the bowers4#bia ,that a sort of artificial stimulation really is necessary may perhaps be concluded from ,brehm's general remark about the sexual life of birds3 8,the pairing is often repeated1 and still more often ineffectually attempted40#bib ,in a private communication to ,groos1 ,professor ,ziegler1 the eminent zoologist1 also refers to the increased nervous activity which is necessary for pairing1 and the passionate preludes which precede it in so many animals4#bic ,by these two principles1 viz4 the necessity of overcoming the instinctive coyness of the hen and that of stimulating the nervous system of the cock1 it is1 we believe1 possible to account for all the secondary sexual characters and activities which in ,darwin's theory necessitated the hypothesis of an animal sthetic4 ,when the directly physiological importance of the nuptial preludes is acknowledged one can also1 without appealing to the effects of association1 explain the occurrence of a 8lek0 in birds who have already made their choice of mate4#bid ,and1 on the other hand1 we need not give up any one of the general results at which ,darwin arrived in his researches4 ,although conscious selection on the part of the hen must be denied1 the fact that she consents to couple only with the cock who has been able to stir her feelings better than any other1 constitutes a kind of unconscious choice4 ,it may seem unnecessary1 therefore1 to lay so much stress upon the theoretical inappropriateness of ,darwin's language4 ,the sthetical terms in ,the ,descent of ,man could easily be exchanged for more physiological ones without any important alteration in the main thesis of the book4 ,and it must even be conceded that1 owing to the extreme cautiousness which was such a remarkable peculiarity of ,darwin1 this substitution would not be required in more than a few passages4 ,he himself often speaks of ornamental plumage as a means of 8exciting10 or 8charming10 or 8fascinating0 the females2#bie once he even restricts himself to saying that the hens 8prefer1 or are unconsciously excited by1 the more beautiful males40#bif ,from the biological point of view it would therefore be pretentious to claim any importance for this reformulation of the ,darwinian theory4 ,but1 from what must be the dominating point of view in this work1 it is by no means unnecessary to disentangle the confusion between sthetic appreciation and physiological stimulation4 ,the sthetic corollaries1 which are the most important in this connection1 will be greatly modified as soon as the more physiological interpretation is applied to the various manifestations of animal art4 ,when ,darwin chose to endow the hen with an aboriginal sthetic judgment he was at once confronted by a difficulty which was perhaps even greater than that of locating the beginnings of art in the animal kingdom4 ,the facts compelled him to admit that in some species this sthetic judgment seemed to be a very bad one indeed4#big ,when secondary sexual characters are regarded as signs by which the kind and sex of the males are accentuated1 this apparent inconsistency is easily understood4 ,the harsh cry and the inharmonious colouring of the macaw#bih tell their tale as eloquently and convincingly as any of the sthetic characters of the other birds4 ,the roaring of the battle bump1#bii the disagreeable miauling of the peacock1 and the bleating call-note of the greenfinch#cjj no doubt cause as great a pleasure in their respective hens as is ever caused by the song of the nightingale in his mate4 ,that the secondary sexual characters of the birds on the whole are so much more beautiful than those of the mammals is not the result of any originally higher standard of beauty with their respective females4 ,the superiority of the birds is quite sufficiently accounted for by the peculiar conditions of their life1 which necessitate and call forth graceful shape as well as graceful movements4 ,their gorgeous colouring1 on the other hand1 is undoubtedly--as has been shown above--to some extent at least conditioned by the gaudy colouring of the tropical landscape4 ,it must be remarked1 moreover1 that notwithstanding their undeniable splendour1 the dresses of the birds by no means generally fulfil the claims of tasteful composition4 ,when appreciating the plumage and the songs of the birds1 we usually look upon them as pieces of nature4 ,we admire them as we admire the woods and flowers and every other manifestation of nature and life4 ,this attitude must necessarily be given up as soon as a conscious tendency is assumed in 8animal art40 ,when we regard the secondary sexual characters in the manner of ,darwin--as results of an sthetic choice--we cannot help missing all the sthetic qualities of harmony and composition1 which are never expected1 and therefore never missed1 in the objects of nature4 ,if the proper distinction between art and nature is maintained1 it will be possible to combine an unabated admiration for the marvels of beauty in bird life with a denial of 8animal art40 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,art ,,and ,,sexual ,,selection ,the explanation which we have given in the preceding chapter of the pairing dresses of the birds can of course be equally well applied to the secondary sexual characters of man4 ,and it holds good also1 we believe1 with regard to the most primitive voluntary alterations in the appearance of either sex4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that artificial embellishments or deformations1 the work of the individual himself1 never can appeal so strongly to the instincts of the other sex as those alterations which are physiologically connected with sexual development4 ,but when1 as is the case with most primitive tribes1 the so-called means of attraction have remained almost unchanged during innumerable successive generations1 one may safely conclude that the instincts of either sex will gradually grow prompt to react with eminent force upon impressions received from such individuals as exhibit these conventional signs of their sex and tribe4 ,whether the acquired qualities are considered as hereditary1 or whether the consistency in the predilections of all the members of the same tribe be explained--in the ,weissmannian or the neo-,darwinian way--as a result of selection1 there will always be found in either sex a sort of constitutional liking for certain fixed qualities in the appearance of the opposite sex4 ,an appearance and a behaviour which1 in the ancestors of an individual1 male or female1 have stirred the instinctive life of the opposite sex through generations past by1 must needs improve his or her chances in courtship4 ,the more a suitor approaches the ideal which unconsciously1 and one may say physiologically1 is embodied in the inherited impulses of every female1 the more helplessly is she exposed to the fascination of his charms4 ,and when1 at a certain higher state of development1 the males begin to practise a selection between rival females1 they will undoubtedly be influenced in their choice by the same sort of inherited predilections4 ,and there is no reason why these predilections should be restricted to anatomical qualities--why artificial adornments1 perhaps even detached gems1 which have only been traditional during some generations1 should not influence sexual preferences in the same direct way--that is1 without any intervention of an sthetic judgment1 as secondary sexual characters proper influence them4 ,this circumstance justifies us in treating the outward physical appearance and the conventional means of embellishing it in conjunction with each other4 ,an outward sign1 whether natural or artificial1 which has often enough been connected with the impression of the other sex will necessarily tend to awaken sexual feelings4 ,for such an effect it is of course not indispensable that these signs should have originated in an endeavour to charm the sex4 ,as in the foregoing chapter1 we have to keep the question of influence upon the other sex apart from the question of the positive causes--that is1 conscious or unconscious motives1 which have called forth the various secondary sexual characters and activities4 ,for convenience of exposition it is advantageous to begin with the first-mentioned phase of the problem4 ,without as yet pronouncing any definite views as to the aims the pursuit of which has led to the different systems of adornment1 we may safely maintain that any conspicuous garments1 independently of their ornamental qualities1 which have served to distinguish the adult and marriageable individuals from other members of the tribe1 have been of importance as means of attraction4 ,according to the ingenious explanation of ,dr4 ,westermarck1 even clothing was originally invented not to conceal nudity1 but to set it off4#cja ,there is room1 as will be shown later on1 for objecting to any definite statement with regard to a question such as this1 the answer to which is to be sought for in several directions at once4 ,but there can be no doubt about the fact that the simplest dresses1 and especially those which have been interpreted as indicating a sense of modesty1 practically accentuate the things they technically conceal4 ,at a stage of development where nudity is the normal state1 veiling must necessarily suggest the same emotions as unveiling in a civilised society4 ,as ,dr4 ,westermarck has been able to show1 dresses are adopted by a majority of tribes on the attainment of puberty and on the occasions of great feasts2 it is therefore natural that they should act as powerful sexual incitements4#cjb ,and this view receives additional support from the arguments of its opponents4 ,the large collection of facts that ,dr4 ,schurtz has quoted in proof of his assertion that clothing originally aimed at 8the concealment of sexual differences0 may of course be interpreted with equal and1 we believe1 with greater probability in the inverse sense4#cjc ,one has only to look1 for example1 at some of the richly-embroidered cinctures of the ,guiana natives in order to understand that these coverings1 whatever may have been their original purpose1 can never have acted as an effective means of diverting the attention4 ,the differences between the sexes will1 however1 be emphasised not only by the special garments for which ,dr4 ,schurtz proposes the above-mentioned explanation1 but also by every article of dress or ornament4 ,for the intellectualistically prejudiced observer it is undoubtedly most natural to consider the various kinds of fixed or detached ornament1 such as paintings and tattooings1 ribbons1 laces1 collars1 and so on1 as means of influencing an sthetic sense in the spectator4 ,but it is evidently more in accordance with the principles of comparative psychology to assume that all these garnitures originally had their main significance not as beautifying things or as things of beauty themselves1 but as marks by which the personality of the decorated man or woman was distinguished4 ,to illustrate this argument it is not necessary to go back to the primitive stages4 ,even among civilised men1 gems and jewels1 when seen on a member of the opposite sex1 have chiefly a symbolic value4 ,in the string of pearls which encircles a woman's neck1 or in the gay feather of a man's hat1 the charm and fascination of a whole human being are concentrated to a single focus4 ,to the lover's attention everything that has some connection with the beloved shines with a borrowed light4 ,we all know that handkerchiefs and shoes can be adored with an almost fetichistic devotion4 ,all the more must a gem which is conspicuously carried on the body be able to imbibe and exhale the charms of its wearer4 ,the lyrical poetry of all ages is there to prove the emotional value which can thus be attached to lifeless things4 ,and the psychology of the emotions in its turn gives a simple explanation of the fact that loving imagination always dwells with predilection upon some single part of the attire of the beloved4 ,a small and conspicuous object which can easily be embraced by the senses affords a vehicle which can carry into the mind the whole complex of feelings and impulses that are attached to the notion of the beloved4 ,well knowing this law of emotional mechanics1 an intelligent woman who is anxious to please does not cover herself with jewels and ornaments4 ,she prefers some single brilliant gem1 which does not so much call for admiration itself1 as draw attention to her charms and heighten the impression which they produce4 ,it may seem very far-fetched to explain the primitive means of attraction by reference to the art of pleasing among modern men4 ,but however much the forms of courtship may have been changed by higher development1 their psychological basis is still the same at all stages of culture4 ,there is no need1 as far as purely erotic purposes are concerned1 to embellish the appearance2 what is wanted is only to enable the appearance itself to produce its most effectual impression4 ,when this point is kept in mind1 it is easily understood that ornaments such as a simple piece of glass in the hair or a band of shells twisted around the neck can be as charming in the eyes of primitive man as any of the gems that are used among civilised nations4 ,and there is no reason to doubt that the savage beaux and belles really have increased their chances by putting wooden slabs in their lips and ears1 or pins of bone through their nose4 ,in the last-mentioned cases the effect has1 moreover1 been strengthened by the appearance of strangeness that is given to the face by deforming adornments4 ,eyes that might pass by with indifference an accustomed impression1 are unavoidably arrested by any extraordinary character4 ,as amongst the birds and mammals1 horns1 accrescences1 and gorgeous plumage1 independently of their possible sthetic qualities1 assist the males in courting the females1 so also amongst men any means of correcting the normal appearance1 be it through flattening the head1 filling1 extracting1 or blackening the teeth1 elongating the ears or compressing the waist1 will1 in virtue only of its singularity1 act as an effectual instrument of charming4#cjd ,for the marriageable individual it has evidently been advantageous to be distinguished by these extravagant transformations1 which1 as is well known1 are usually inflicted at the very time of puberty4 ,and1 on the other hand1 among individuals so distinguished1 those who extort an interest for their person by the most singular qualities ought to have an increased chance of charming the opposite sex4 ,in the discussion of sexual preferences there has been much talk of a supposed constitutional predilection for novelty and variation4 ,but it is undoubtedly more in accordance with the strictly psychological position to doubt whether1 in the primitive stages1 novelty really has been appreciated for its own sake1 or whether it is only by facilitating the attention1 and thereby intensifying the impression1 that it has gained the favour of the opposite sex for one particular male or female4 ,whichever formula may be preferred in the interpretation1 it remains as an indisputable fact that even in some of the higher animals an exceptional appearance gives an advantage in courtship4 ,it is needless to point out to how great an extent in civilised communities man is influenced in sexual preference by a bias for a peculiar appearance which distinguishes the chosen one from any other man or woman4 ,this predilection1 however1 is always neutralised by a repugnance for everything that deviates too much from the common characteristics of the group4 ,the two principles which have regulated the development of secondary sexual characters--to wit1 the necessity of marks for accentuating sex-distinction and that of tribal signs--are thus brought into conflict with each other4 ,this conflict is particularly conspicuous in the lower stages of development4 ,owing to the peculiar conditions of life which prevail here1 the second principle will generally be of especial importance among the savage tribes of mankind4 ,the observation has often been made that too great uniformity of work impedes the development of individual characters in physical appearance4 ,in savage communities1 where the division of labour is almost unknown1 all men must necessarily be more or less like one another4#cje ,especially if the home of the tribe be some closely defined area of uniform climatic conditions1 there will be within the tribe almost no material for selection4 ,where endogamic marriage prevails1 the conception 8lover10 which is transmitted from mother to daughter1 and which1 by 8objective heredity10 becomes imprinted on the mind of every girl that grows up in this narrow milieu1 must therefore be one with a very restricted content4 ,alongside of this increasing predilection for a fixed and narrowly circumscribed type of the opposite sex there will1 as its complementary feeling1 develop a strong antipathy to every feature that diverges from this type4 ,for the evolution of national ideals this negative influence has been of perhaps even greater importance than the positive preferences4 ,it is evident that strictly endogamous marriage customs could never be upheld in tribes which have any intercourse with their neighbours if the social institution were not supported by a real psychological aversion to outsiders4 ,it has therefore been congruous with the advantages of society to promote in the youth the feeling that any man or woman outside the tribe is a being with whom no emotional exchange is to be thought of4 ,to make this feeling possible1 on the other hand1 it is necessary that everything which is connected with the foreigner should be held up to contempt4 ,their dress1 their language1 their manners1 and so on1 have thus been considered as something to be kept at a distance4 ,it is needless to point out that marriage systems are not alone responsible for the development of this feeling4 ,religious differences1 so important in primitive communities1 have undoubtedly often given rise to the common notion that people outside one's own tribe do not1 properly speaking1 belong to the human species4 ,continual war induces a feeling of contempt1 which in the stronger tribe is mingled with pride and in the weaker with bitterness1 and which in both cases extends to the smallest details of physical appearance and behaviour4 ,and apart from all regard to these social causes1 the primitive man1 in civilised as well as in savage nations1 is always apt to look upon everything unusual with a feeling of scornful disdain4 ,no doubt such a disdain can even be coincident with exogamous marriage customs4 ,but it seems evident that it must everywhere have strongly influenced sexual selection during those unknown endogamic periods in which the racial and tribal differences were developed and fixed4#cjf ,and it may even now be observed among living tribes of man to how great a degree antipathy to every detail in the outward appearance of foreigners precludes union between members of different tribes4 ,the national and parochial dresses of modern peasants no doubt exercise a great influence on the love-life of the respective boys and girls4 ,the most telling example that could be quoted in this connection is the case of ,savakot and yrmiset in ,eastern ,finland4 ,when examining a ,savakko youth as to the reason why none of his tribe had ever chosen a wife from among their neighbours1 ,ahlqvist#cjg received the characteristic answer3 8,se kuin on heill yrmisill niin hirve vaatteen manieri niin siihen ei meidn pojat uskalla puuttua0--that is1 ,as these yrm girls have such horrid dresses1 our boys do not dare to approach them4 ,this instance1 although it is one of modern times and refers to relatively civilised individuals1 can no doubt be considered as illustrative with regard to the distinguishing marks and dresses of primitive men4 ,the outward signs of the tribe not only exercise a strong attraction upon all its members2 they are also for outsiders associated with a repugnance which is perhaps equally strong4 ,in the same way as it has been advantageous for the young of both sexes to have an appearance which appeals as powerfully as possible to the instinctive predilections of the opposite sex1 it has been necessary for them not to exhibit qualities which could be confounded with those of the alien4 ,the individual who endeavours to attract attention for his person by a conspicuous and extravagant appearance is1 therefore1 narrowly restricted within the boundaries prescribed by tribal sympathies and antipathies4 ,the safest expedient by which to distinguish himself from others without outraging the national idea is1 therefore1 that of exaggerating the common characteristics of the tribe4 ,these theoretical reasonings can be amply corroborated by ethnological facts4 ,as early as #ahad ,humboldt observed and commented upon the fact that the deformations which appear most arbitrary generally only tend to carry into excess some natural peculiarity of the tribe4#cjh ,and since his time1 numerous instances have been adduced in the ethnological literature1 all pointing in the same direction4 ,in the case of people who blacken their teeth it has been remarked that the dental enamel is naturally darker than usual2 where heads are artificially deformed1 it is found that there exists a general disposition to develop pointed or flat crania2 where the hair-growth is scanty1 baldness is artificially produced2 and so forth4#cji ,by exaggerating and accentuating in their own appearance the common qualities of the tribe1 the individual males or females have thus created a more and more differentiated tribal type4 ,and the inherited predilections and aversions of the opposite sex have1 on the other hand1 by continuously influencing positive and negative choice1 contributed to the fixing of these types as tribal ideals1 not of beauty1 but of sexual attractiveness4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,origins ,,of ,,self-,,decoration ,it is evident1 as might be proved by more numerous and detailed references than it has been possible to adduce above1 that precisely such bodily deformations1 such systems of distinguishing ornament1 and such conspicuous articles of clothing and decoration as are most generally found among both the primitive and the cultivated tribes of mankind have been of especial importance as means of sexual attraction4 ,nothing could be more natural1 therefore1 than to explain the various forms of cosmetics as so many endeavours to work upon the preferences--whether arising from the sthetic sense or from associated ideas of sexual excitement--of the opposite sex4 ,such an explanation1 moreover1 derives support from the assertion of the primitives themselves1 who often positively state that they dress and array themselves for the purpose of winning the love of their women4 ,and it has on its side the merits of simplicity and unity4 ,by bringing together under one head all the different forms of self-decorative art it disentangles the different questions of primitive sthetics in a most plausible manner4 ,however alluring this uniform explanation may be for lovers of clearness and theoretical consistency1 it must nevertheless be abandoned upon an impartial examination of the ethnological facts4 ,it is no doubt conceivable that a more or less conscious desire of acquiring the favour of the opposite sex should have called forth all the various means of attraction4 ,as was shown above1 they could in such a case have scarcely developed a more effectual conformation than they really have done4 ,but from the effect we are not entitled to draw any conclusion as to the intention4 ,when considering all the various motives1 often almost incomprehensible to the civilised mind1 which govern the activities of primitive man1 one loses the confidence that is necessary in order to accept any general explanation1 however probable it may seem4 ,a careful and impartial examination can only lead to the result that scarcely any form of dress or ornament can be quoted which could be considered with certainty as an outcome of the impulse to attract and charm the opposite sex4 ,to begin with the class which stands in the closest connection with sexual life1 we have already shown that all the various coverings by which primitive man conceals his nakedness1 by attracting the attention are likely to produce a sort of sexual stimulation in the primitive spectator4#caj ,in some cases1--for instance that of the dancing girdles1 which are especially put on for the occasion of erotic dances and festivals1--this stimulation is evidently intentional4#caa ,but it seems impossible to assume that a knowledge of this effect can have been the motive for the use of those phallocrypts which are worn by the ,amaxosas in ,south ,africa1 by the natives of ,central ,brazil1 by the ,melanesians in the ,admiralty ,islands and on the north-western and south-western coasts of ,new ,guinea1 by the ,australians of north-western ,central ,queensland1 and by the ,polynesians of the ,marquesas ,islands4#cab ,as far as we know1 it is only in ,australia that these things are especially employed at corroborees and public rejoicings4#cac ,nor is there anything that could attract the eye in all the simple bamboo sheets that can be seen at the ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde in ,berlin4 ,in some cases they have perhaps been worn for the purely practical purpose of protecting a sensitive part against insect bites4#cad ,but it seems more probable1 on an examination of their shape1 that they really are intended as means of concealment in the proper meaning of the word4 ,there is of course no reason why they should not be considered as fulfilling the requirements of modesty4 ,but even if such be their purpose now1 it is difficult to assume that they were originally called into existence by a feeling which1 from the evolutionist point of view1 one rather would consider as a product of clothes than as their cause4#cae ,this difficulty1 however1 is easily avoided by reference to another feeling which in psychical evolution has probably preceded the appearance of modesty4 ,it is perhaps impossible to decide at what stage sexual life began to be surrounded with feelings of shame1--in other words1 in what instances one is entitled to speak of modesty and conscious chastity4 ,but there is no doubt that even among the lowest savages the facts of generation are regarded with a wonder which sometimes approaches awe1 and sometimes rises to religious respect4#caf ,since at a somewhat higher degree of development phallic symbols occupy so dominant a place in religious systems1 it is only natural to suppose that the realities represented by these symbols have been regarded by the primitive with superstitious feelings4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that there are many primitive tribes which1 in the same way as the aborigines of the ,new ,hebrides1 cover themselves in the most scrupulous manner1 8not at all from a sense of decency1 but to avoid ,narak1 i4e4 magic influence10 the sight even of another man's nakedness being considered as most dangerous4#cag ,the large prevalence of phallic motives in amulets and magically protecting paintings1#cah the supposed effective sorcery of indecent gestures1 so widely used even now by the modern ,italians1#cai indicate that the organs of generation have been universally considered as the seat of a powerful and dangerous magic4 ,perhaps this superstitious idea has even been the original source of the notion that exposure involves the gravest offence against the honour of the beholder4#cbj ,sometimes1 on the other hand1 dread of this supposed mysterious power may have prompted the evolution of moral institutions1 and thus indirectly furthered the moral feelings4 ,but it is evident that even before any such transformation took place regard for public safety may have induced the males to conceal the seat of so dangerous an influence4 ,the reproductive organs1 however1 are not only1 in virtue of their connection with the mysterious miracle of life1 objects of superstitious awe3 they themselves1 owing to the same consideration1 need more than anything else to be protected against dangerous influences4 ,fear of the evil eye has thus1 as ,ratzel suggests1 had something to do with the origin of male and female dress4#cba ,and the notion of malignant looks is only one of the superstitions that keep the savage man in a state of constant fear4 ,all the innumerable spirits that populate his atmosphere constitute so many dangers1 against which he has to protect himself by every possible means4 ,this necessity is probably even greater for the female sex than for the men4 ,in ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen's work on ,australia there is one passage which suggests another possible cause for the origin of female dress4 ,when speaking about the souls of ancestors1 which1 for the purpose of reincarnation1 try to find a way to the bodies of young women1 the authors say that 8spirit children are also supposed to be especially fond of travelling in whirlwinds1 and on seeing one of these1 which are very frequent at certain times of the year1 approaching her a woman will at once run away40#cbb ,now1 this notion that the wind is capable of bringing about impregnation is by no means confined to the ,australian aborigines4 ,mr4 ,hartland has been able to adduce testimonies of its occurrence not only in savage tribes1 but also among the ,romans of ,virgil's time4#cbc ,and the ,hottentots have an almost similar superstition1 viz4 that a pouring rain1 when falling on the naked body1 promotes conception4#cbd ,the belief in the fertilising powers of sunshine1 well known from ,european folklore and frequently illustrated in literature1 from the ,dana legends upwards to the mysterious warnings of ,hamlet to ,ophelia1 can of course be quoted as indications of the same universal 8folk-belief40#cbe ,it would only be natural if the women1 who so anxiously try to escape from the dangers of fecundation that surround them on all sides in the atmosphere1 had found out the simple expedient of protecting themselves by clothing4 ,we cannot1 of course1 positively assert that the wearing of clothes was originally due to superstitious reasons4 ,we have only wished to point out that such an hypothesis can be proposed and consistently defended4 ,it accounts not only for the especial character of the simplest dresses1 but also1 which is more important1 for the fact of their being adopted only when sexual maturity is reached4 ,there are other reasons1 moreover1 why this last-mentioned circumstance1 which apparently affords so strong support to the theory of ,darwin and his followers1 cannot be adduced as decisively solving the problem of purely decorative garments4 ,in laying so great a stress upon the time of life when the body is decorated for the first time1#cbf the advocates of the theory of erotic propitiation seem to have overlooked that almost everywhere sexual maturity coincides with civic majority4 ,there is thus something to be said for the view that tattooing1 feather-dresses1 and so on1 are conferred upon young men and women as outward signs of their changed status4 ,and similarly all ulterior decorations can be explained as indications of later acquired rank4 ,in ethnological literature1 especially in ,german works1 a great body of facts has been produced which speak in favour of such an analogy between primitive ornaments and modern signs of rank and merit4#cbg ,by relying on this interpretation too we may often explain1 without any reference to the advantages of courtship1 the fact that in primitive races men are generally more decorated than women4 ,an extreme ,darwinist may perhaps object that the proportion between the ornaments of the sexes has been inverted since the male sex began to practise selection4 ,but it is to be remembered that even now in the classes for which rank distinctions are most important1 viz4 in military and diplomatic circles1 men generally are more gorgeously arrayed than women4#cbh ,and it may further be adduced as an exception which proves the rule that on ,pelew and ,ponape ,islands1 where mothers give children their rank1 women are richly tattooed4#cbi ,it cannot of course be contended that man at the lowest stages of culture could have intentionally created a fixed system of signs for denoting rank and merit4 ,anything of that kind presupposes a social differentiation which has not yet been arrived at by all savage tribes4 ,in thus substituting distinction-marks for the means of attraction one might therefore apparently be exposed to the reproof of preferring the complex to the simple4 ,such a criticism must1 however1 lose its force when applied to the theories which try to trace the development of distinctive marks back to their most simple and primitive sources4 ,von den ,steinen1 in whose work these questions are subjected to a detailed study1 has1 with special reference to the ,xingu tribes in the interior of ,brazil1 succeeded in amply corroborating the theory of ,spencer that the simplest ornaments have been trophies of war and chase4 ,in the feather crowns of the chiefs1 for example1 we may thus see only a later development of proudly arranged spoils of chase1 by which a successful hunter proclaims his achievements4#ccj ,and the incised scars so common among savage tribes can1 in accordance with the same ingenious explanation1 be considered as imitations of the glorious wounds with which eminent warriors have been adorned when returning from battle4#cca ,in the cases where this interpretation holds true the chief aim of the decoration is1 of course1 not to make the man more beautiful and charming1 but only to show off his skill and courage1 and thus to inspire respect and fear4 ,it is needless to point out that in times of war such decorations must be of eminent advantage by inspiring their wearer with pride at the same time that they strike his enemies with terror4 ,but boasting adornments are by no means restricted to military purposes4 ,many apparently ornamental scars and tattooings are probably worn as proud traces of heroic feats performed at initiations or funeral ceremonies4#ccb ,and1 to quote instances of less lofty pride1 there is no end to the cases in which gems are worn chiefly for producing an impression of wealth4#ccc ,it would be absurd to suppose that this show of valour or wealth must always be addressed to women4 ,the impulse to ostentation has thus undeniably1 independent of sexual selection1 aided in the origin of self-decoration4 ,it is not necessary for the present purpose to submit to a close analysis all the other theories of bodily embellishment which oppose an unrestricted application of the ,darwinian interpretation4 ,suffice it to say that facts exist which support almost every one of these views4 ,thus it seems quite unquestionable that tattooings often serve as a means of conveying intellectual information4#ccd ,not only are exploits of valour which provide an occasion for boasting ornament registered by incisions on the body1 but this primitive record may also be used in order to commemorate other events that have made a great impression on the individual in question4 ,the most instructive example of such essentially commemorative self-decoration that is known in ethnological literature is no doubt the tattooing of ,tepane1 the native of the ,eastern ,island whom ,dr4 ,stolpe met in ,tahiti4 ,on his right fore-arm this highly interesting individual wore a pattern which1 although insignificant at first sight1 on closer examination showed itself to be nothing less than a pictorial description of the memorable event when the great stone idols1 now outside the ,british ,museum1 were hauled down from their original place to the ,british ship which was going to take them over sea4 ,among the figures on this little historical picture ,tepane himself was able to point out the first and second officer of the ,topaz1 who1 standing somewhat apart1 watched the work of the sailors4#cce ,it is indeed exceptional to meet with such complete realistic drawings among the 8motives0 of tattoo4 ,but there is no doubt that by symbolical representation sights and events have often been recorded on the body1 this most primitive of all commonplace-books4 ,there is no default of instances showing that decoration1 fixed as well as detached1 has been largely used as a magical protection against illness1 bewitching1 or evil eye4#ccf ,this superstitious intention appears with unmistakable evidence in the decorations of the ,xingu tribes of the interior ,brazil1 where children and pregnant women1 i4e4 persons who particularly need to be guarded against malignant influences1 are richly decorated with collars of beads1 teeth1 bones1 and so on4#ccg ,among these ,indians ,professor von den ,steinen was also able to find some typical examples of the process1 which has been observed in several other tribes1 by which a cosmetic painting of the body is developed from a purely practical greasing with earth or fat1 executed in order to preserve the skin against weather or insect bites4#cch ,perhaps more important still than any of the above-mentioned motives is the one to which ,herr ,lippert has called attention4#cci ,in a nation where1 owing to the undeveloped division of labour1 all people necessarily become more or less like each other1 the individual must1 he thinks1 feel a strong desire to develop a fixed ego1 a personality apart1 which can be distinguished from all his fellows4 ,this craving may perhaps1 as ,lippert thinks1 have something to do with the growth of a philosophical consciousness4 ,but it may also be considered from a purely practical point of view4 ,in the same way as ornaments on weapons and implements often serve as owners' marks1#cdj so the ornaments on the body may serve as means of identifying1 for social and political purposes1 the man who is decorated with them4 ,the ,moko patterns of the ,maoris1 for instance1 have in fact been used as legally recognised marks1 and copies of them applied1 instead of signatures1 to documents4#cda ,whether the utilitarian or the more philosophic explanation be preferred1 it is evident that1 even if there had been no necessity to attract the attention of the opposite sex1 the impulse to create an appearance which is at least to some degree personal would have led to the different systems of embellishment4 ,thus among people who wear clothes any details in dresses and gems would be made distinctive2 where the naked body is lightly coloured1 so as to make tattooing conspicuous1 distinguishing patterns would be incised2 among darker nations1 on the other hand1 simple scars would be cut2 and finally1 in the blackest tribes1 on whose skin not even scars stand out1 modes of hair-dressing would afford a last expedient for differentiation4 ,and it is evident that tribes in their intercourse with each other would be led by the same considerations as individuals4#cdb ,even in a fictitious unisexual mankind there might thus have appeared precisely the same kind of common and fixed signs by which tribes are differentiated from each other1 and of individual signs by which members of the same tribe are distinguished by variations from the common type4 ,these signs must necessarily1 as was shown in the foregoing1 exercise a powerful influence on the opposite sex1 and their development may therefore have been to some extent furthered by sexual selection4 ,but it seems impossible to contend that they have been invented only for the purposes of courtship4#cdc ,we have deemed it superfluous to report in this connection all the instances which show that among sundry tribes of mankind self-decoration is executed especially with a view of pleasing4 ,for copious collections of such facts it is sufficient to refer to the works of ,westermarck and ,joest4 ,other interesting instances have later been communicated by ,finsch1 ,stirling1 ,stoke1 and others4#cdd ,while necessarily sceptical with regard to theories on sexual preference as a universal1 art-creating influence1 we have of course no reason to doubt the accuracy of individual statements4 ,from the point of view of the present research we have only to emphasise the fact that there is no possibility of deciding with any certainty in how great a degree considerations for the favour of the opposite sex have influenced the development of self-decoration4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,erotic ,,art ,when from the discouraging examination of decorative arts as connected with sexual selection we turn our attention to the department of poetry and drama1 we reasonably expect to attain some less ambiguous results4 ,in every work of literary art one should think that the subject ought to afford some indication as to its purpose4 ,the dances1 songs1 and pantomimes of the lower tribes are1 however1 in this respect not very instructive4 ,no doubt there can be quoted a great number of artistic manifestations in which love is represented or described in all its phases4 ,but we are not thereby justified in assuming that these dramas1 pantomimes1 and poems were called into existence by the preferences of the other sex4 ,it would be absurd to adduce the pornographic art of modern times as proof of sexual selection4 ,and it is equally absurd to cite in favour of ,darwin's thesis travellers' tales of indecent dances or ceremonies in which no mention is made of the presence of the opposite sex4 ,on the other hand1 it must be conceded that the influence of sex on the evolution of art cannot1 as ,mr4 ,spencer seems to think1 be completely disproved by an appeal to the mere fact that erotic motives occupy so insignificant a space in the most primitive art4#cde ,even if there were any certainty that the existing dearth of information on erotic dances and poems corresponds with a real lack of erotic art1 it might still be maintained that the favour of the other sex was the aim of all the purely lyrical kinds of music and dance4 ,and the analogy with our own stage of culture might be adduced as a witness that activities and manifestations which in their original purpose are anything but erotic may still be used as effective means of courtship4 ,war dances1 for example1 in which all the qualities of the male body are displayed must of course be eminently capable of charming the opposite sex4 ,although undoubtedly called into existence by the need of military exercise and warlike stimulation1 this kind of dramatic art may therefore have been assisted in its development by the encouraging influence of female spectators4#cdf ,in which cases such an influence has operated1 and how great have been its effects1 can only be determined by a close examination not only of the works of art themselves1 but also1 and chiefly1 of the circumstances connected with the performance of them4 ,as poetry and drama on primitive stages generally have reference to a particular occasion1 these circumstances ought to appear with greater clearness than in the case of pictorial arts4 ,for the purposes of this research there is1 however1 a great deficiency of reliable information4 ,in the descriptions of dances and pantomimes which can be gathered from the literature of travel the most important point is generally omitted--whether the performances in question were executed in the presence of the other sex or not4 ,from the general records of savage life one may indeed draw some conclusions bearing upon this question4 ,but these conclusions1 even when1 taken apart1 they seem to be sufficiently reliable1 are1 when considered collectively1 full of contradiction4 ,with regard to a great number of tribes the strict separation between the sexes which prevails in all phases of social life--in work as well as in amusements--provides a negative argument against the theory of female influence on art4 ,this circumstance has of course been adduced by opponents of the selection theory2 and it was ,mr4 ,gurney's chief objection to ,wagner's assertion that the earliest popular dances were erotic pantomimes4#cdg ,but the adherents of ,darwin's theory are no less able to support their assertion by ethnological facts4 ,this is made obvious1 for instance1 by ,wallaschek's ,primitive ,music1 which work1 as far as we know1 gives the most complete account existent of primitive dances and pantomimes4 ,after having enumerated a great variety of tribes in which the sexes are separated when dancing1 the author says1 8,as a rule1 however1 both sexes dance together40 ,and he then corroborates this statement by a still greater number of instances in which dances1 often of a decidedly erotic character1 are performed either by both sexes together or by one sex before the other4#cdh ,thus facts confront facts in a most bewildering contradiction which is indeed trying to the believer in ethnological argumentation4 ,no sound statistician would base any conclusions on majorities made up of such confused masses of contradictory instances4 ,the question of sex influence on art would therefore be for ever undecided if there were no expedient for classifying the units and balancing them against each other in greater groups4 ,such a classification is of course no less possible than it is necessary4 ,but it presupposes a close examination of every single instance quoted4 ,owing to our insufficient knowledge of some of the most interesting tribes1 a satisfactory arrangement is therefore as yet involved in great difficulty4 ,in this work1 at any rate1 it would not be possible to enter into all these detailed researches4 ,we shall restrict ourselves to a few short indications of the mode in which we think that this much-debated question is to be solved4 ,in all that has been written against ,darwin's ,descent of ,man there is perhaps nothing that is so relevant to the main issue as ,mr4 ,hudson's criticism4 ,he observes that ,darwin has gathered together from all regions of the globe unconnected facts about various species without closely examining the habits and actions of these species4#cdi ,it goes without saying that such an examination would be extremely difficult with regard to animals1 the social life of which is as yet so insufficiently known4 ,for one not a zoologist1 at least1 it would be too audacious to present any classification of the instances1 and therefore we did not even mention this possibility in the treatment of animal art4 ,in this connection1 however1 one may suggest1 without positively asserting1 that perhaps even the animal manifestations of dance and music may be classified in groups which correspond to the prevailing social conditions of the respective species4 ,there is at least a striking similarity between the types of song1 serene with all their passion1 with which the males of the monogamous songsters entertain their mates--those mates which1 if one may believe the brothers ,mller1 have been chosen even before the pairing season4#cej ,and1 on the other hand1 these graceful and harmonious utterances stand in the strongest contrast to the vehement display of promiscuous wood-birds and polygamous fowl4 ,however presumptuous it may be to draw any general conclusions from these coincidences1 it is evidently indispensable1 when treating of sexual selection in man1 to look for some connection between the various forms of courtship and prevailing social institutions4 ,this necessity was fully understood by ,darwin himself4#cea ,but it has been too much overlooked by his successors1 who1 when discussing his thesis1 have defended or attacked it by promiscuous collections of facts in which barbaric ,malays and degenerate ,polynesians are quoted alongside primitives like the ,veddas and ,fuegians4 ,if this confusion is disentangled by a proper arrangement of the instances according to stages of culture1 the seeming inconsistency of the ethnological evidence will be removed4 ,there is a prima facie ground for believing that the employment of art for gaining the favour of the other sex is characteristic of a certain advance in social development4 ,the tribes in which we have most reason to suppose that the practice of self-decoration does not rest on political or religious grounds1 and may thus aim exclusively at pleasing1 are to be found among the ,polynesians1 the ,malays1 and some of the nations of ,india4 ,from ,polynesia also ,berchon derived his chief support for the curious assertion--which seems to be true of scarcely any other ethnological province--that the patterns used in tattooing are quite indifferent1 provided only that they effectually embellish the decorated part of the body2#ceb in short1 that tattooing has a purely decorative purpose4 ,with regard to dancing1 there also is practised in ,tahiti1 by the dramatic society of the ,areoi1 a dance most typical of the kind which aims at an erotic excitement in the spectators4#cec ,as is well known1 the 8oriental0 dancing1 such as is performed in the barbaric ,negro states and in the ,mohammedan communities of ,northern ,africa1 as well as in ,persia1 ,turkey1 ,china1 and ,japan1 is mainly a gross pantomime of physical love executed by a woman to the delight of her male spectators4#ced ,in most of these cases1 however1 the dancers are outcast women1 who are paid with money for their performance4 ,somewhat closer1 it seems1 is the connection between erotic dance and sexual selection in the native population of the ,east ,indian ,islands4#cee ,and finally1 among the aboriginal tribes of ,india1 the ,mundaris1 ,rasas1 ,kolhs1 ,sonthals1 ,bhuiyas1 ,chukmas1 and ,khyoungthas1 courtship is pervaded by art and sthetic activities4#cef ,in some of the villages there still survives the same kind of romantic love-making which is so well known from the old ,indian poems and tales4 ,the ,bhuiya youths pay visits to the camp of the girls1 and are received by them with dances and songs2 and1 says ,mr4 ,dalton1 8after such daylong festivals the morning dawns on more than one pair of pledged lovers40#ceg ,in the ,bayar tribe one of the 8methods of bringing about marriage0 is a dance1 performed by both sexes1 who face each other in rows and exchange impromptu love couplets4 ,similar festivals are also met with among the ,bendkars and ,khonds4#ceh ,the ,hos and ,mundaris1 on the other hand1 afford an example of sexual selection in its grossest form at their yearly festivals1 during which excited dionysiac dances and obscene and blasphemous speeches are connected with wild promiscuous orgies4#cei ,in the improvised ditties that are sung during these dances ,darwin would1 of course1 have found the most convincing proofs of the applicability of his theory to poetry4 ,among love-inspired songs few specimens can be found which are so genuine1 and at the same time so full of delicate feeling1 as the harvest antiphonies sung by the ,khyoungtha boys and girls4#cfj ,how high an opinion of the power in poetry to charm is held by these tribes can be judged from the fact that the ,chukmas never allow any songs but those of a religious character to be sung in their villages4 ,our girls would be demoralised1 they say1 if boys were allowed to sing freely4 ,when living in the jungle1 however1 where the rules of morality are laxer1 the ,chukmas allow their poetry greater license4#cfa ,it is needless to say that some kind of erotic poetry is generally to be found in all the tribes where dancing expresses love4 ,there have been translated some exquisite samples of erotic songs composed by the ,malay tribes of ,java and ,sumatra4 ,in some instances it is quite evident that these songs have been used as means of winning the favour of the women4 ,in other cases1 however1 it seems safest to draw no conclusions as to their purpose4 ,at any rate1 love occupies an important place in the poetry which has been collected in ,malaysia1 not only among the ,malays proper1 but also among the ,tagals1 ,alfuras1 ,battaks1 etc4#cfb ,in some of their dancing songs the ,australian aboriginal poets are said to describe the charms of their sweethearts4#cfc ,but we know of no poems in which they appear to be directly addressed4 ,neither have we found any decisive statement as to the character of the erotic poetry in ,tahiti and ,new ,zealand4#cfd ,purer and more unmistakable examples of singing used as a means of erotic propitiation can be adduced from some of the ,american nations4 ,the ,iroquois1 for whom dancing festivals are of great importance in the intercourse between the sexes1 are well aware of the powers of a serenade when they wish to entice a girl from her hut to a meeting4#cfe ,in old ,mexico and ,peru1 where erotic poetry had reached a high degree of refinement1 songs and music were undoubtedly used in courtship4#cff ,but with these barbaric but not savage peoples we have already left primitive man far behind4 ,it is undeniable that increased knowledge of the various tribes of mankind may necessitate important corrections in the above review of erotic art4 ,there might be collected1 for instance1 specimens of love-inspired poetry from the really primitive tribes1 such as the ,veddas1 the ,fuegians1 etc4 ,perhaps also it may be proved that dancing and singing really serve the purposes of erotic propitiation to a much greater extent than travellers hitherto have been able to discover4 ,but the general conclusions are very unlikely to be changed by any further researches4 ,it is sufficiently obvious that the ,darwinian sthetic has its chief support in the productions of barbaric nations1 whose social conditions have been eminently favourable for the development of erotic art4 ,this view might be in danger if we had no knowledge of any artistic activity in the most primitive tribes4 ,but as a relatively developed religious drama1 and perhaps even some traditional mythical songs have been found among the ,fuegians2#cfg as the ,veddas have at least one dance1 possibly religious1 and various magic poems2#cfh as the ,bushmen are masters of pictorial art and develop a great dramatic power in their pantomimic imitations of animals2#cfi as among the ,australians the surprisingly high development of theatrical management and instruction#cgj stands in the strongest contrast to their poor erotic lyric2--in a word1 as the religious1 superstitious1 and traditional forms of art among the lower savages have such an unmistakable predominance over those of erotic propitiation1 there is no ethnological support for the assertion that the beginnings of art were due to the impulse 8to attract by pleasing40 ,it may1 of course1 be argued that the ,fuegians1 the ,veddas1 the ,bushmen1 and the rest1 far from representing primitive man1 are really to be considered as degenerate types4 ,and it may furthermore be contended that before marriage customs and other social institutions had reached those forms which now prevail among the lower tribes1 the promiscuous intercourse between all males and females during a fixed pairing season must have produced an erotic art4 ,whatever value such reasoning may have1 it at any rate implies the admission that the art-creating influence of sexual selection cannot be proved on historical grounds4 ,the question how primitive society is to be reconstructed cannot as yet be considered to be finally solved4 ,but even if the original marriage customs had been such as ,darwin supposes1 and even if courtship at this unknown stage of evolution had been carried on by means of art1#cga the fact that several existing tribes appear to be quite devoid of poetic and dramatic forms of erotic propitiation restricts the validity of ,darwin's principle in a considerable degree4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the attraction of the ,darwinian theory is of course obvious4 ,after having realised the important part which sexual selection plays in the 8artistic0 activities of animals1 one is naturally tempted to apply the same principle to all similar activities in men4 ,the influence of erotic preferences is a biological datum1 and1 as such1 a principle of a more universal order1 so to speak1 than any one of the social or religious motives4#cgb ,however advantageous it may be to apply this all-embracing explanation to the whole field of art1 a descriptive study of the facts must needs compel us to pay attention to the sociological influences which assist or impede the operation of sexual selection4 ,there is no doubt that there are some secondary sexual characters and activities which are developed under all social conditions4 ,and it is no less certain that both sexes are everywhere influenced by individual predilections4 ,but these predilections cannot1 of course1 be regarded as factors of importance in a society where strictly-fixed marriage customs allow the partners no freedom of choice4 ,they will1 on the other hand1 produce special and differentiated means of attraction where1 either from demoralisation1 as in ,tahiti1 or as the result of institutional polygamy1 as in the ,mohammedan countries1 or owing to free and idyllic conditions of life1 as among the various tribes of ,india1 competition for the favour of a male or a female is unrestricted4 ,it is impossible1 without transgressing the limits of the present work1 to give a complete account of the influences of society on erotic art4 ,an author who should be able to embrace in his treatment all stages of evolution1 the latest and most highly developed as well as the earliest1 would undoubtedly contribute an interesting chapter to art-philosophy if he were to explain in detail and with examples how1 e4g41 lyric poetry has changed with changed marriage customs4 ,taking the art of historic nations1 the contrast between the literature of polygamous ,orientals and that of ,europeans1 whose notions of love are influenced by marriage institutions at least officially monogamous1 would afford an opportunity for most suggestive comparisons4 ,and even within the limits of modern art a comparison perhaps equally instructive may be made between the different classes of society with their varying forms of sexual life4 ,no task could be more interesting than that of finding out to how great an extent the marvellously refined and differentiated expressions of romantic love which characterise some schools of modern poetry are dependent upon the peculiar forms of sexual life prevailing among the upper classes4 ,as social factors of powerful1 though never sufficiently recognised influence1 the veiled polyandry and polygamy which lie at the bottom of modern society have undoubtedly influenced sthetic notions as well as artistic activities4 ,by causing a division of the sexual impulses these conditions have facilitated the development of an ideal and sthetic love-literature which never would have appeared1 and cannot even be understood1 among nations where this division does not exist4 ,on the other hand1 the same causes have1 as it is needless to point out1 produced a literature and an art which1 by their deliberate grossness1 stand in the strongest contrast not only to the romantic utterances of civilised nations1 but even to the more nave products of primitive tribes4 ,we cannot in this connection do more than indicate these general views1 the validity of which may be easily tested by the reader by application to modern art4 ,within the boundaries of ethnological art--that is1 between the stages of evolution represented by ,tierra del ,fuego on one side and ancient ,mexico at the other end--there can1 however1 be found sufficient proofs of the general law which manifests itself more fully in the richer and more highly differentiated products of modern art4 ,love1 although fundamentally one and uniform as a feeling1 is in its utterances ever changing with changing conditions of life4 ,if its ground is biological1 its nuances are always determined by sociological influences4 ,without taking into due account all these nuances it is impossible to assert anything about the influences of sexual selection on art4 ,the considerations adduced in this chapter have led to results which1 by their negative character1 may seem to be very unsatisfactory4 ,it was shown first of all that artistic activities1 in so far as they emphasise the qualities of either sex1 must necessarily exercise an attractive influence on the opposite sex4 ,from a psychological point of view we tried to prove that the various forms of self-decoration1 such as are to be met with among primitive tribes1 must have been eminently effectual as means of such attraction4 ,but we were1 on the other hand1 compelled to admit that the primary origin of dress and ornaments in many cases could be quite as well explained without any reference to the relation between the sexes4 ,thus it became necessary to examine closely the dramatic and poetic art for the purpose of ascertaining in which tribes competition for the favour of the opposite sex can be assumed as a cause of the art4 ,the ethnological evidence1 as quoted in the works on sexual selection1 appeared too incomplete and inconsistent to admit of any general conclusions being drawn1 and it seemed indispensable to sift the information as well as to classify the instances4 ,instead of one all-explaining principle1 which could be applied in all the various cases1 we were confronted by a multitude of causes and conditions1 all of which needed to be investigated separately and weighed against each other4 ,a reader who thinks every discussion fruitless which leads to no dogmatic conclusion might perhaps object that our re-examination of this much-debated question has utterly failed in its purposes4 ,we may1 however1 be allowed to point out that although our investigation has not led to any definite estimate of the importance of sexual preferences for the development of art1 it may perhaps have contributed in some degree to the elucidation of the connection between art1 beauty1 and sex4 ,we have seen that even in the conditions which are the most favourable for its influence1 sexual selection can never by itself create any quality of beauty4 ,what kind of ideal the preferences of either sex are able to call into existence is sufficiently shown by the hideous deformations of the body which are to be found among primitive tribes as well as among the most civilised nations4 ,wherever1 through favourable conditions of life and work1 beauty1 i4e4 grace and harmony1 is developed in the human body and its movements1 there these qualities will often be enhanced by the selection that is exercised by either sex4 ,but this selection can1 of course1 be of influence only where the sexes enjoy freedom of choice4 ,this inquiry thus leads to the general conclusion1 which1 we hope1 will be confirmed by the reasoning of all the following chapters1 that the problems of beauty and art can never be separated from the general problems of social life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have endeavoured to show that sexual selection has only called forth artistic activities in uncivilised man when the conditions have been especially favourable4 ,as a cause of artistic activity1 sexual selection does not operate everywhere4 ,but even where there is no competition between rivals1 sexual emotions may still find an artistic expression4 ,in short1 sexual selection is a cause of erotic art1 but it is not the only cause4 ,with less freedom of choice for the females1 there is1 of course1 less need for the males to develop especial activities for the purpose of erotic propitiation4 ,but even where the female is thus deprived of the signal influence which she1 through her favouring or rejecting selection1 can exercise on the appearance and the activities of the race1 her instinctive coyness may necessitate some means of erotic persuasion4 ,this purpose is already served by the various kinds of caressing movements which are to be found not only among men1 but also among many species of animals4#cgc ,but it is also probable that primitive man1 in the same way as the birds1 may have resorted to song and dance as a mode of winning the female's consent4 ,these activities1 which are preliminary to pairing1 cannot1 of course1 be of the same importance to evolution as those which aim at securing preference in the selection of mates4 ,but they may none the less attain a high degree of development4 ,in degenerate tribes especially1 erotic dancing is no doubt used as an effectual aphrodisiac4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to seek for biological advantages in erotic dances1 pantomimics1 and poems4 ,the strong emotional tension which accompanies pairing must of itself give rise to some mode of seeking relief by sound or movement4 ,these manifestations1 on the other hand1 will by association revive the pleasurable feelings with which they have been connected4 ,as1 moreover1 among primitive men sexual exaltation is one of the strongest--in peaceful tribes even the strongest--feeling which occurs in their life1 any other rapture will borrow the form of its expression from this elementary passion4 ,it is well known that even in civilised nations intense delight tends to express itself in erotic gestures4 ,in some cases1 as1 e4g41 that of abnormal religious exaltation1 one might think that a state of high-strung emotion1 by suspending all intellectual life1 does in fact leave a man at the mercy of overwhelming animal impulses4 ,the exaggerated devotion of all emotional religions sets at liberty the bte humaine1 which can be kept under control only by the continuous competition with the higher faculties4 ,in other instances1 such as those when people who have received some good news feel an inclination to embrace or kiss each other1 it is more natural to assume a process of association4 ,in either case the psychology of civilised man enables us to understand why erotic dances are so generally used by primitive tribes1 even on occasions when they seem least appropriate4 ,it would be superfluous to undertake an ethnological review of erotic motives in art4 ,as we have already remarked in the preceding chapter1 there are tribes which1 according to the reports of travellers1 not only are completely devoid of erotic art in the sense of love-propitiation1 but do not even allow love any place as a subject of art4 ,it seems1 however1 safest to draw no conclusions from this deficiency of data4 ,erotic art1 as everything else connected with sexual life1 has too often been overlooked by ethnological authors4 ,savage1 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,wyatt ,gill1 ,romilly1 and many others1 consider themselves bound by modesty to pass over such pantomimes as are 8too indelicate and obscene to be mentioned40#cgd ,even the brothers ,sarasin1 who otherwise have aimed at the greatest possible completeness in their account of the ,veddas1 candidly say that they have observed no 8,lusttnze10 but also never inquired about them4#cge ,it would not be surprising1 therefore1 if some less discreet traveller should at some future time describe hitherto unknown erotic dances and songs from1 say1 the ,bushmen or the ,andamanese4 ,and there is the more reason to anticipate that a closer intimacy with primitive man may bring to light illustrations of erotic art1 as in many savage tribes sexual matters are hedged in by taboo1 and are especially concealed from white visitors4#cgf ,on the other hand it is very probable that the erotic element in primitive art has often been overrated4 ,it seems doubtful whether the expressions 8improper0 and 8indecent10 as used by the travellers in descriptions of dances and dramas1 are always intended to signify that the representations in question were of an erotic nature4#cgg ,and even when1 for the civilised spectator1 a pantomime appears to be most immoral1 this impression may be due to a misunderstanding of its real meaning4 ,no doubt1 ignorance of the language and the customs of the various tribes has often occasioned false interpretations4 ,mr4 ,reeves1 who warns us against uncritical belief in travellers' tales1 has been able to adduce from his own experience a most telling example of such a mistake4 ,when witnessing a performance of short dramas1 8mekes10 in ,samoa1 he and his party felt extremely shocked by the indecent action of one of the interludes4 ,afterwards1 however1 he learned from the natives that the objectionable pantomime was only intended to represent the movements of a woman gathering fishes in a basket4#cgh ,in a descriptive account of primitive art it would1 of course1 be necessary to reckon with all these inadequacies of ethnological evidence4 ,the general results1 such as are wanted for a philosophical treatment1 would not be affected by corrections in single instances4 ,the probability is that in every tribe1 independently of its social state and of its forms of sexual selection1 erotic feelings have always expressed themselves in some way or other4 ,with varying conditions of life these modes of expression have1 of course1 acquired greater or less importance for art4 ,where war occupies the attention of the tribe to an exclusive degree1 erotic motives can never occupy a prominent place in art4 ,where1 as is alleged to be the case among some ,australian tribes1 notions of decorum forbid any expression of the feelings of affection and love1 love songs and dances will hardly be publicly acknowledged in public art4#cgi ,on the other hand1 an erotic literature will be prominent in such communities as that of ,tahiti4#chj ,and when1 as in ,kamschatka1 poems generally are composed by women1 it is only natural that their subjects should be chiefly 8love1 hate1 grief1 and hope40#cha ,these facts are all so self-evident that there is no need to argue upon them4 ,more interesting than all these sociological agencies is the influence of prevailing religious and superstitious notions4 ,as has been already pointed out1 sexual taboo has in many cases checked the development of erotic poetry and dance as a public art4 ,but perhaps more frequent than the cases of such prevention are those where they have been furthered by phallic systems of religion4 ,this is of course an additional reason for caution in accusing primitive art of immorality when it shocks our feelings of modesty4#chb ,thus the indecency of religious sculptures connected with ancestor-worship has undoubtedly often a serious and symbolical meaning4#chc ,in some tribes indecent pantomimes1 which otherwise are strictly forbidden1 will be performed1 evidently for some superstitious reason1 at funeral ceremonies4#chd ,perhaps1 also1 some superstitious notion about sympathetic magic lies behind the obscene rites and songs which so often accompany wedding ceremonies4 ,this principle appears more unmistakable in the dramatic rites which are performed by many people as means of removing sterility4 ,finally1 owing to a combination of sympathetic magic and animistic conceptions of nature1 erotic pantomime has acquired a prominent place among agricultural rites4 ,all these manifestations of pictorial and literary art1 which in aim and intention cannot1 properly speaking1 be called erotic at all1 will be treated of in the following chapters4 ,in this connection it is only necessary to mention the naturalistic dramas which in ,africa and ,australia are represented at the initiation of boys in manhood4 ,we need not explain that the performances in the male camps1 by which the youths are introduced to all the features of men's life1 naturally assume an obscene character4 ,but it is interesting that the pantomimes1 which1 from our standpoint at least1 are so revolting1 sometimes seem to be meant to serve the interests of morality4 ,mr4 ,mathews1 in his description of the ,bora ceremony among the ,kamilaroi1 says that this pantomimic representation was enacted for the purpose of teaching youths to abstain from homo-sexual vices4#che ,knowing the degree of immorality which has been reached by many savage tribes1 one may readily understand that the old men in the tribe have resorted to these radical means of dissuading the boys from vice4 ,and one feels tempted to apply ,mr4 ,mathews' explanation to similar rites in other tribes than the ,kamilaroi4 ,the initiation ceremonies of the ,amazulus1 for instance1 which would in no case be possible in any but extremely degenerate nations1 might be explained on the same hypothesis4#chf ,it is significant that the ,kamilaroi1 in vindication of their obscene art1 have hit upon the very same apology which was adduced in defence of the ,french literature of the eighteenth century4 ,but in both cases1 among the primitives as well as in civilised communities1 the supposed beneficial effects of erotic art seem to be very questionable4 ,where dances1 dramas1 and songs speak only of sensual pleasure1 they will soon kill intellectual inquisitiveness as well as zeal for work4 ,sir ,henry ,johnston1 who has more right than any one else to speak about the populations of ,africa1 thinks that the sudden arrest in the intellectual development of ,african boys which can generally be noticed at the time of puberty is a result of the overpowering sexual stimulation to which they are at that time exposed4#chg ,as the same cause1 i4e4 an art and a social life which are full of erotic suggestions1 operates in many savage tribes1 it may perhaps account to some extent for the fact1 recently commented upon by ,kidd1 that1 notwithstanding the marvellous teachableness of primitive children1 savages always prove inferior to white men after the attainment of maturity4#chh ,and it gives a reason for the tendency--fruitless1 no doubt1 but none the less sincere--which is to be found among some of the strongest nations1 the ancient ,maori1 for instance1 to repress and quench by all possible means the development of an art that aims deliberately at erotic stimulation4#chi ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,art ,,and ,,work ,in our treatment of erotic art we have been led far away from the connection between art and the maintenance of species4 ,whatever the case may be for animals and those primitive men whose sexual life is restricted within a short and fixed pairing season1 an artificial stimulation of the erotic feelings is no biological requirement for the existing tribes of man4 ,where art has mainly served this purpose1 it has not1 as has been shown1 by any means exercised a beneficial influence on the race4 ,the most typical illustrations in the last chapter were therefore found in the artistic productions of degenerate tribes which no doubt would1 if brought into conflict with less licentious neighbours1 prove inferior in the struggle for existence4 ,and all these instances afford invaluable arguments to those philosophers who consider art as a checking and weakening factor in progress4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that the present chapter will contribute towards the refutation of such one-sided views4 ,we intend to adduce instances from various stages of culture which will bring out the importance of art as a favouring factor in the struggle for life4 ,it is evident that a pantomimic imitation of any activity must1 as exercise and stimulation1 facilitate the subsequent real execution of the same activity4 ,individuals and nations who have grown familiar in play with the most important actions in life's work have thus acquired an unquestionable advantage in the struggle for existence4 ,after the publication of ,professor ,groos's great works on animal and human recreations it is needless to dwell upon this point4 ,this eminent psychologist has1 with regard to the evolutionary value of sportive representations--or1 as he prefers to say1 8pr-presentations0--of life1 been led to consider them as based on inherited instinctive impulses4 ,instead of the play-impulse1 which only serves to provide an outflow for the superfluous energy in the organism1 he has thus introduced the conception of an activity which exercises an important positive influence on life4 ,and1 on the other hand1 his consummate researches have brought out with especial clearness the intimate connection between play and art4 ,a great many of the instances he has collected present all the technical qualifications of a manifestation of dramatic art4 ,as ,groos himself remarks1 only the addition of a disinterested sthetic attention in the players is needed in order to transform the instinctive activities into artistic ones4 ,how this transition has taken place is a question which will undoubtedly be treated in the great system of art-philosophy to which the hitherto published works of ,professor ,groos constitute the introduction4 ,we have therefore only to point out how much support these views derive from the study of primitive art4 ,in the various tribes1 with their differing types of life1 there is afforded a singular opportunity of observing the connection between play1 or art1 and the serious occupations of life4 ,the games of the children1 as well as the dances and pantomimes of the full-grown1 almost everywhere correspond to the prevailing activities in the various communities4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians1 the ,malays1 the ,maoris1 the tribes of ,central ,asia1 and others1 all furnish instances of the familiar law that the amusements of warlike nations mainly consists in exercises which are preliminary to1 or reminiscent of1 the experiences of battle4 ,a war dance or a mimic fight is the traditional type not only of their public entertainments1 but also of their state ceremonial4 ,no example could be more telling than that of the ,dahomey state dances1 which1 however they may begin1 always seem to end with an imitation of the greatest social action in the country--decapitation4#cij ,where the struggle for existence is a contest with nature and not with fellow-men1 a hunting or fishing pantomime usually takes the place of these military performances4 ,it is true that such representations of work often lose their importance in national art when the conditions of life grow easier4 ,mr4 ,taplin thus contrasts the rich and varied entertainments of the ,polynesians1 who without any exertion obtain their subsistence from their bountiful soil1 with the amusements of the poor ,narrinyeri1 who even in their dances and pantomimes have always practised 8those arts which were necessary to get a living40#cia ,but it is significant that even the inhabitants of these 8happy islands0 in their dramatic performances introduce imitations of rowing1 fighting1 and other kinds of common work4 ,and at still higher degrees of development1 where the division of labour has given rise to special trades1 all these various crafts will often1 as was the case in ,dahomey1 in ancient ,peru1 and in medival ,europe1 be a favourite subject for pantomimic representation4#cib ,if such representations have been of no especial value as exercise1 they may nevertheless1 by bringing about an association between work and pleasure1 have made toil and labour less repugnant4 ,the exertions called forth by the struggle for existence have thus at all stages of culture1 except that of modern industrialism1 been to some extent facilitated by art4 ,perhaps even more important in their influences than the imitation of work in play or drama are the artistic activities which accompany the actual performance of work4 ,as these kinds of dance and song have been somewhat overlooked by ,professor ,groos1 there is reason to make them the subject of a closer investigation4 ,when explaining the manifestations of art which can thus1 in the literal meaning of the word1 be called songs and dances of action1 we have to divide our attention between two different points of view4 ,first1 the need of stimulation and regulation of the work of the individual1 and1 second1 the need of co-operation in the work of different individuals4 ,in both these respects art has had an importance among primitive tribes which can scarcely be overrated4 ,it is well known that at a lower degree of mental development the power of instantaneous muscular exertion is far less than among educated men4 ,broca's experiments showed that artisans with somewhat trained intelligence generally reached higher figures on a dynamometer than working men who were only used to bodily exertions4 ,and the ,negroes1 whose forces were tested by ,fr1 were far below the average of ,europeans4#cic ,as in these experiments the natives were introduced to new and unaccustomed movements1 the evidence of the psychometric apparatus must be considered as somewhat extenuated by the circumstances4 ,broadly speaking1 these experiments can1 however1 be taken as indications of a general psychological law4#cid ,the experimental evidence is1 moreover1 corroborated by the common complaints of ,europeans who have had to rely on natives4 ,the slowness with which the primitive man gets into swing with his work has no doubt been referred to times without number by slavekeepers when advocating their methods of treating natives4 ,strange to say1 there are some tribes which themselves candidly admit their own inertness1 and voluntarily submit to whipping in order to get 8their blood a little agitated40#cie ,the slowness and the insensibility of the ,guarani are1 however1 as appears from ,mr4 ,rengger's description1 exceptional and pathological4#cif ,but it seems as if almost all tribes had invented some means of inciting themselves to work4 ,only1 these means are seldom such as ,europeans would feel inclined to avail themselves of when urging on their workers4 ,that they can nevertheless be as effectual as even the slavekeepers whip is shown by ,signor ,salvado4 ,his description of his experiences with ,australian natives as farm-labourers is delightful3 8,how often10 says he1 8have ,i not used their dancing songs in order to encourage and urge them on in their work4 ,i have seen them1 not once1 but a thousand times lying on the ground with minds and bodies wearied by their labour2 yet as soon as they heard me singing the ,machiel-,machiel1 which is one of their commonest and favourite dancing songs1 they would yield to an irresistible impulse1 and rise and join me with their voices4 ,they would even begin to dance joyfully and contentedly1 especially when they saw me singing and dancing among them1 like any other savage4 ,after a few minutes of dancing ,i would seize the opportunity to cry out to them in a merry voice1 ,mingo6 ,mingo6 a word meaning breast1 which is also used in the same way as our word courage4 ,after such an exhortation they would gradually set to work again4 ,and they would begin afresh with such goodwill and eagerness1 that it seemed as if the dance of ,machiel had communicated to them new courage and new vigour40#cig ,from many parts of the world there may be quoted examples of savages who always raise a chant when compelled to overcome their natural laziness4#cih ,in many cases they seem1 as in ,salvado's anecdote1 to avail themselves of words and melodies which perhaps were originally intended only for amusement4#cii ,but it is also well known that working men everywhere stimulate themselves by special songs of exhortation4#djj ,and when employed in prolonged and monotonous work they everywhere seem to know that toil may be relieved by song4#dja ,the majority of these work poems may perhaps be of no great poetical or musical merit1 but that does not affect their great evolutionistic importance4 ,whether ,noir is right or not in his theory that language has developed from the work cries of primitive men1#djb there is no doubt that some of the simplest and perhaps earliest specimens of poetry are to be found among the short ditties sung by labourers during their work4 ,the stimulus which is provided by such songs is easily understood without any explanation4 ,but their invigorating power will be perceived more clearly when we take into account that emotional susceptibility to musical impressions which has been remarked in so many primitive tribes4#djc ,besides these invigorating effects1 every musical accompaniment will also1 by virtue of its rhythmic elements1 regulate the movements of work1 and thereby produce a saving of force deployed4 ,when the words of the work-songs refer to the action itself1 the effect will be strengthened by verbal suggestion4 ,it is true that many of the songs which are sung during the manufacture of weapons and utensils1 during boat-building and such-like1 are magical in their intention4#djd ,but there is no doubt that the ideas of poetical magic are to a great extent derived from a psychological experience of the suggestive power of words4 ,without committing ourselves to any superstition1 we can easily believe that--in ,polynesia as well as in ancient ,finland--canoes were better built when the 8boat-building0 song was properly recited by the builder4 ,only we prefer to think that the magic operated on the workman and not on his material4 ,the psychological influence of the work dances is still easier to understand4 ,preliminary movements1 even when undirected1 always make the subsequent action more effective2 witness a golfer's flourish before driving4 ,as ,lagrange has pointed out1 their effect will be to develop that amount of animal heat which is necessary for every muscular contraction4#dje ,when1 moreover1 they are fixed and differentiated in their form1 the influence will of course be all the greater4 ,by every attempt to execute a special movement1 the idea of such movement is made more and more distinct4 ,and as hereby the ideomotor force of this representation is increased1 the final action must be executed with greater ease and greater efficacy4 ,the validity of this law may be easily proved by experimental psychology4 ,fr has in his dynamometrical tests observed that the second pressure always attains a higher figure than the first one4 8,la premire pression a pour effet de renforcer la reprsentation mentale du mouvement40#djf ,without any theoretical knowledge of these psychological facts1 the common man has always been able to avail himself of the beneficial effects which are to be derived from preliminary imitations of any difficult movement4 ,hence the curious pantomimes of experimentation which we may always observe in the artisan who has to give a finishing touch to his work1 or in the athlete who tries to perform a new and unaccustomed exercise4 ,the psychology of movement-perception1 as we have described it in the foregoing1 makes it evident that a similar prompting influence may be exercised by the actions of others4#djg ,this is an experience which must have occurred1 we should imagine1 to every one who has been coached in golf by a professional4 ,when concentrating his attention upon each successive movement in the instructor's model performance1 the beginner in sports and gymnastics receives with his whole body1 so to speak1 an impression of the exercise he has to go through4 ,the representation thus gains in distinctness as well as in motor force1 and the subsequent movement is executed in an almost automatic way4 ,these familiar facts from the psychology of everyday life will explain why among the savage tribes we so often meet with the institution of the prsul4 ,when any labour is to be performed which requires the co-operation of many hands1 such as the harvest or rowing1 the prsul demonstrates in dance or pantomime the sequence of movements which the others have to go through4#djh ,by the suggestive influence of his performance all the individual workers are stimulated in their exertions4 ,more important1 however1 than this stimulation is the co-ordination of labour which is effected by the element of rhythm in song and dance4 ,we have in a previous chapter spoken at sufficient length of the incalculable sthetic importance of rhythm as a means of producing emotional community between different individuals4 ,in this connection we have still to point out that a fixed time-division must in the same way facilitate common activity4 ,from the historical point of view this practical aspect is undoubtedly the more important4 ,however fundamental and primordial the sthetic function of the perception of rhythm may seem for the theorist1 it is most probable that the development of this faculty has been chiefly furthered by its utilitarian advantages4 ,there is no doubt that even the most primitive man may feel the want of associating his fellow-men in his emotions1 and that for this purpose he may be able to give the expression of them a fixed rhythmical form4 ,but the power of perceiving this time-division as a rhythm1 and of obeying it closely in song and dance1 would1 as ,dr4 ,wallaschek has shown1 certainly not have attained so high a degree of development if this power had not1 by facilitating common activity1 been of such immense advantage for the maintenance of species4#dji ,it goes without saying that any work which necessitates the co-operation of several workers must be executed with greater efficiency the more closely the individuals follow to a common rhythm4 ,there is no doubt1 therefore1 that1 as ,spencer remarks1 the incompetence of the ,arab and ,nubian boatmen on the ,nile is chiefly a result of their inability to act together4 ,as an ,arab dragoman is reported to have said1 a few ,europeans would1 by virtue only of their superior powers of co-operation1 do in a few minutes what now occupies hundreds of men4#daj ,such an incapacity for concerted action is1 however1 quite exceptional among the lower tribes of men4 ,some tribes1 as e4g4 the farmer ,negroes in ,west ,africa and the ,malay and ,polynesian boatmen1 are even famous for the wonderful regularity of their work4#daa ,this regularity1 on the other hand1 has been explained by all travellers as a result of the rhythmical songs by which their work is accompanied4 ,it is significant that the most typical specimens of working songs and dances should be met with in the tribes of ,oceania4 ,the insular life1 which even in other respects has been so favourable to the development of art1 has necessitated a most intimate co-operation between individuals4#dab ,hence the development of canoe dances and boating songs1 by help of which the movements of the rowers are adjusted according to common and fixed rhythms4#dac ,the same necessity has of course produced similar results1 in a greater or less degree1 in every community where the type of life makes collective action needful4 ,it has not given rise to any important manifestations of art among the pastoral tribes1 in which individuals can do well enough without help from each other4 ,in agricultural societies1 on the other hand1 it has called forth those sowing and harvest dances or songs which are so familiar in the folklore of the civilised nations4#dad ,and1 more than any other of life's occupations1 war has required an active coherence between the individual members of the tribe4 ,the influence of military institutions on art is1 however1 in more than one respect so important that its treatment must be reserved for a special chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,art ,,and ,,war ,in the ,principles of ,sociology ,mr4 ,spencer has devoted some of his most forcible paragraphs to a treatment of the social influences of war4 ,by adducing and comparing with each other types of social life among different tribes1 he has been able to show how military customs everywhere tend to reduce the individual liberty and strengthen the central power4#dae ,many other writers on sociology have perceived and commented on the truism that the internal coherence of tribes has been chiefly produced by the need of combination for defensive purposes4#daf ,but perhaps sufficient attention has not been paid to the share which art has had in the development of those peculiarities which are common to all military nations4 ,and yet as a means of facilitating tribal unity of action and feeling1 music and dance must be of exceptional sociological importance in warlike communities4#dag ,we shall therefore meet with highly developed choral dances in those nations in whose life war is a customary occurrence4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians1#dah as well as the ,dahomeyans1#dai are noted for the soldier-like regularity of their dances4 ,but nowhere among the lower tribes of mankind is the time-sense so refined as among the pre-eminently warlike ,maori4 ,notwithstanding the furious movements in their war dances1 the gesticulation of all the participants is always uniform and regular4#dbj ,according to ,cruise the very slightest motions of their fingers are simultaneous2#dba and1 if we are to believe ,mr4 ,bidwill1 even their eyes all move together4#dbb ,highly accomplished dancers as are certain other ,polynesian tribes#dbc less warlike than the ,maori1 it will be admitted that such a pitch of more than ,prussian precision would never have been attained if it were not for its military advantages4 ,to the same cause one is also tempted to ascribe the regularity of the ,kaffir dances1#dbd which by their choral character stand in so marked a contrast to the amusements of the neighbour tribe1 the peaceful ,hottentots1 among whom every dancer acts 8separately for himself40#dbe ,it is evident that a regular co-operation in fighting is effectually promoted by rhythmical music4 ,and we do in fact find that music1 especially instrumental music1 at the lower stages of development is closely connected with war4#dbf ,it is1 however1 more natural to assume that military music1 and similarly military poetry and dance1 have had their chief importance not as regulating but as stimulating influences4 ,there are many tribes which seem quite unable to observe any kind of military discipline4 ,but even in the undeveloped and unmethodical warfare of the lowest savages1 music1 songs1 and dances have been used as means of infusing courage and strength4 ,the psychology of these military stimuli is of course the same as that of industrial art4 ,but the general principles appear with far greater clearness when applied to this peculiar kind of activity4 ,first of all1 the need of stimulation is never so great as when a man has to risk his life in an open battle4 ,if in work he has to overcome his natural inertia1 laziness1 he has here to overcome the still stronger obstacle of fear4 ,contrary to the romantic notions of popular literature1 primitive man seems to be timorous rather than brave when not encouraged by adventitious excitement4#dbg ,this cowardice can1 however1 to a great extent be explained by defective military organisation4 ,where the mutual support which the well-drilled soldiers of a regular army render each other is lacking1 the need of personal courage is of course so much the greater4 ,civilised warfare tries to avoid the conflict between the instinct of self-preservation and of a soldier's duty by the pressure of strict discipline2 savage warfare1 which cannot count on the same forces of submission and mental control1 is compelled to minimise this conflict by deadening the consciousness of peril4 ,hence the indispensability of some means of producing violent excitement by which the necessary forgetfulness of danger and death may be attained4#dbh ,apart from the influence of fear1 the task of slaughter is one which1 from its very nature1 cannot be performed in cold blood4 ,even where the element of danger is absent1 as when unarmed foes are killed or tortured1 the savage executioners do not generally get to work straight away4 ,as soon as a beginning has been made1 a sort of intoxication will indeed be produced by mental as well as physical agencies1 such as the sight of blood or the pride of conquest4 ,but this intoxication1 so eagerly desired by savages in civilised as well as in primitive communities1 cannot be produced even in the lowest tribes of man without a preliminary working up4 ,the passion of cruelty1 like that of love1 is1 in its higher and more ecstatic forms1 too overwhelming in its mental effects to be attained without an artificial enhancement of psychical capacity4 ,but whereas the erotic feelings tend with growing development to become more and more a private matter1 cruelty is among warlike tribes an emotion of national importance4 ,the incitement to slaughter is therefore apt to become social--that is1 common to several individuals at once4 ,this is one of the reasons why war is of so much greater importance than love as a motive for tribal art4 ,there are some tribes in which the soldiers try to acquire courage and thirst for blood by magical expedients1 such as smearing themselves with some powerful unguent1 or eating the raw meat of a newly slaughtered ox4#dbi ,sometimes a joint tattooing of the whole corps with a common pattern is undertaken1 most probably for the same magical purpose4#dcj ,but however effectually such ceremonies may be supposed to operate1 savages do not generally put so much trust in them as to give up their favourite means of stimulation--music and dancing4 ,in people who sincerely believe in their own magic any rite will of course arouse increased confidence and courage4 ,but this suggestive influence is only indirect in comparison with the immediate psychological effects of inciting dances4 ,popular novels have familiarised us all with the weird war dances which play such an important part in the warfare of the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,in its main features this type of pantomimic incitement is the same everywhere--among the ,african and ,oceanic tribes as well as among the savage nations described in classic literature4#dca ,by imitating the movements of a real fight1 by exulting cries1 deafening noise1 and brandishing of weapons1 the dancers work themselves up to a pitch of frenzy which cannot be compared to anything but a transient madness4 ,especially among the nations of ,america war dances often arouse so much excitement1 even when performed during times of perfect peace1 that they become dangerous to friendly and peaceful onlookers4#dcb ,here also--just as in the ,hungarian 8,enlistment0--dancing is used as a means of enticing men to join the ranks of the war chief who wants recruits for some war-expedition4#dcc ,it is evident that the influence of such pantomimes is not restricted to a generalised stimulation and encouragement4 ,these sham fights1 just as the sportive imitations of work1 must facilitate the execution of those movements which they imitate4 ,and even those who do not join the dance will profit by watching the evolutions which they themselves will afterwards be called on to perform in reality4 ,thus there may originally have been a very utilitarian reason for the curious warfare of the ,headhunters of ,ceram1 who always have the ,jakalele dance performed in front of their fighting line4 ,it is pathetic to read that even in their wars with the ,dutchmen a few fantastically dressed dancers head the advance against the repeating guns of the ,european force4#dcd ,this fact1 which is certainly not without its parallels in other savage tribes1 gives the most convincing proof of the indispensability of pantomimic stimulation to savage warfare4 ,although less intimately connected with fighting itself1 poetry has had for war an importance which can scarcely be estimated at a much lower rate4 ,words1 of course1 can never provoke such a direct and almost physiological stimulation as the imitation of actions4 ,but words1 on the other hand1 have a greater effect on the mind4 ,the suggestive power of the war songs is also attested by the descriptions of travellers among various tribes4 ,in ,australia1 for instance1 four or five mischievously inclined old women can soon stir up forty or fifty men to any deed of blood by means of their chants1 which are accompanied by tears and groans1 until the men are worked into a perfect state of frenzy4#dce 8,the savage blood of the ,ahts always boiled when the war songs were recited1 their fingers worked convulsively on the paddles1 and their eyes gleamed ferociously2 altogether they were two hundred murderous-looking villains40#dcf ,in ,ashanti and in ,new ,zealand--in short1 amongst all the most warlike tribes--the military singers are able to bring themselves and their audience up to a pitch of frenzy which is almost equal to that produced by the dances4#dcg ,in one of the preceding chapters we have already pointed out how invaluable a support historic art has given to national pride4 ,this feeling1 on the other hand1 is never so indispensable as in time of war4 ,wherever a tribe has any traditions of its past history1 such traditions are always revived and recited to the soldiers before and during the battles4#dch ,and if a people has no glorious ancestors to boast of1 it can none the less gain the necessary confidence by glorifying its own valour and reviling its enemies4 ,even tribes like the ,bakairis1 for example1 are thus able to 8sing themselves full of courage0 in boasting and defiant exultation4#dci ,according to competent observers1 such songs are more particularly employed when the natives are afraid4#ddj ,the expression of bravery1 even if originally affected1 must necessarily awaken some real feeling of pride or confidence4 ,contempt1 on the other hand1 however laboriously worked up1 is the most effectual means of preserving equanimity under the stress of depressing feelings1 admiration1 envy1 or fear4 ,songs and pantomimes1 such as1 for instance1 those with which the ,polynesians invariably begin their battles1 must therefore have a great power of emboldening the warriors4#dda ,and while such outward shows of valour enable the performers to reconquer their courage1 the enemy is intimidated by these manifestations of a feeling which is as yet incipient within themselves4 ,in warfare1 where the hostile armies stand within sight and hearing of each other1 this consideration must of course be of extreme importance4 ,it seems1 indeed1 as if natural selection had developed in man an almost instinctive tendency to overcome fear by simulating the expressions proper to valour and menace4 ,just as animals1 when frightened1 make themselves bigger and more formidable to their enemies1 whether from fear or anger we know not1 so man tries to awaken fear in the enemy confronting him at the same time1 and by the same means1 as he vanquishes his own fear4 ,this appears with especial clearness in wars between savage races1 where both sides often seem to be as timid as they try to appear formidable and courageous4 ,their threats and boastings are terrifying enough1 but the real fights are very bloodless and free from danger4 ,among the ,cammas 8the words really seem to do more damage than the blows40#ddb ,the gallant game of bluff is in primitive politics not restricted to diplomatic negotiations2 it plays an important part in the actual fighting4 ,this remains true even with regard to tribes which are capable of real courage1 not only in stealthy assault1 but also in open battle4 ,the ,maorian military pantomimes afford the best example of such a manifestation1 which not only stimulates the warriors to fight and regulates their movements in the battle1 but also1 as a ,european traveller has been compelled to admit1 8strikes terror into the heart of any man40#ddc ,in this case the terrible effect is further strengthened by the hideous grimaces1 rolling of the eyes1 protruding of the tongue1 and so on1 with which the warriors accompany their dance4#ddd ,so important is this distortion of the countenance considered by the ,maoris1 that instruction in the art of grimacing forms a part in their military education4#dde ,the most warlike of savage tribes thus does not despise the nave expedient which constitutes almost the sole means of self-defence among peaceful ,eskimos4#ddf ,and so highly do the ,maoris appreciate the terrifying effects of the protruded tongue1 that they carve the grimace upon their spears1 the 8hanis10 evidently in the belief that such representations will--perhaps by some magic power--demoralise the enemy4#ddg ,this pictorial pantomime brings us to the employment of formative arts in war4 ,to some extent even painting1 especially in its decorative branches1 may be considered as a means of exhortation4 ,the various decorations of the body which are usually adopted for fighting no doubt raise the courage of their wearers4 ,a festival dress1 when assumed for battle--for example1 by the ,khonds--must needs bring with it a light and festive mood4#ddh ,the red colour1 so often used in military dress1 tends1 on the other hand1 to arouse increased vigour by direct physiological as well as by associative action4#ddi ,perhaps also1 as some old authors suggest1 the use of red may have had a negative importance by concealing the wounds and the blood1 which else might depress the men and encourage their enemies4#dej ,like every beautiful thing1 highly ornamented weapons will afford their owners an invigorating feeling of pride1 which1 however1--to judge from the unheroic character of many tribes whose weapons are most gorgeously decorated1--does not seem to be of any great military advantage4#dea ,military ensigns1 such as banners1 standards1 and the like1 will naturally1 as outward symbols of the tribe1 exercise an exciting influence on the warriors4 ,even for barbarous nations1 with their undeveloped feelings of patriotism1 in the modern sense of the word1 a flag may represent la patrie en marche4 ,well knowing the moral value of these apparently unimportant things1 the ,aztecs employed in their army men whose only task was 8to remove from the eyes of the enemy every object that could heighten their courage and inflame their pride40#deb ,the importance of field badges is of course increased when1 as generally is the case1 they are adorned with some religious or magical representation4 ,be it a tutelar saint1 a heathen god1 or simply a totem animal1 which is depicted1 these images will always be relied upon as a strong support to the army4#dec ,the marvellous tales of assistance afforded by idols which have been carried in the front of battle may of course have some real foundation in the encouraging mental effects produced upon the warriors4 ,it thus appears that ornaments1 painting1 and sculpture have been of no small influence in enhancing the fighting powers of warlike nations4 ,among the lower tribes of man these arts are1 however1 on the whole much more appreciated as means of frightening the enemy4 ,as was mentioned in a preceding chapter1 some bodily deformations are1 if we may believe the natives1 undertaken solely for this purpose4#ded ,other warlike tribes endeavour to make themselves dreaded by their enemies by staining their bodies with ghastly colours1 blood-red1 azure1 or black4 ,tattooing may1 of course1 often aim at the same end4 ,and among the detached ornaments there is an especial class--for which the ,german ethnologists have invented the characteristic designation 8,schreckschmuck0--which are only worn in order to make the appearance more frightful4 ,the war helmets of the ,thlinkeets#dee and the curious tooth masks of the ,papuas are the most typical specimens of this pre-eminently warlike decoration4#def ,the highest development of art as a means of terrifying is1 however1 to be found in the decorated shields of the ,dyaks4 ,no form of pictorial threat could be more effectual than the devices which ornament the face of these ghastly weapons4 ,a grinning mouth1 with sharp tusks in either jaw1 is always to be found in the middle of the shield4 ,above it stand a pair of staring1 circular eyes1 usually surrounded by dark and light concentric rings4 ,sometimes also there is a highly simplified outline of the lower parts of the body4 ,the trunk is completely ignored1 and arms and legs are quite swamped in a bewilderment of entangled lines1 which extend over the whole surface of the shield4 ,but in this ornamentation the warlike motive is repeated over and over again4 ,tusks protrude from the scrolls1 and big round eyes stare menacingly out between them4 ,thus even the decorative 8padding0 7,einfllung7 operates as a multiplied expression of defiant menace4 ,as an eloquent commentary on this text the whole shield is furthermore hung with tufts of human hair1--trophies of vanquished enemies1--which partly conceal the brown1 red1 and black design4#deg ,the whole composition1 which in a description may seem merely bizarre and brutal1 is1 however1 executed with a severe symmetry and a wild grace which afford a most peculiar contrast to the weird motive4 ,by these sthetic qualities the ornamentation acquires an art-value which is quite independent of its supposed military advantages4 ,one can indeed easily understand that the savage foes of the ,dyaks may be paralysed with terror when confronted in battle with those glaring eyes and menacing jaws4 ,but even the civilised observer who examines at his ease the shields which stand in the glass cases of ethnological collections must needs be impressed by their power4 ,though they do not frighten us1 they are not1 as might be expected1 mere examples of ridiculous grimace4 ,they still extort our admiration for that weird kind of beauty which1 in primitive art as well as in animal warning colorationn1 is so often found in close connection with the feelings of terror4 ,we have deemed it profitable to dwell at some length on these remarkable products of savage decorative art4 ,the demon shields of the ,dyaks1 in spite of the fact that their motives have evidently been borrowed from ,chinese and ,indian art1#deh are eminently representative of the nation and its social milieu4 ,these wild men of the woods have been able to express in their ornamental composition1 better than would have been possible in any higher form of art1 all the intense feelings of their wild romantic life4 ,the terror and intoxication of slaughter1 as they are experienced in a tribe for which furtive murder is the holiest of all religious actions1 speak their violent language in the glaring patterns4 ,but at the same time the elegant design1 which is so characteristic a peculiarity of the shields1 as well as of every other specimen of ,dyak art1 corresponds to the graceful and elegant personal appearance which1 according to the unanimous verdict of all travellers1 distinguishes these fierce savages4#dei ,and it seems as if this gracefulness1 no less than the weird emotional content of the pictures1 may be derived from the custom of head-hunting4 ,the continuous insecurity which has given its own character even to the ,dyak architecture#dfj has of course not been without its influence on the physical development of the tribe itself4 ,where assault from insidious enemies is always to be expected1 and where the type of fighting is single combat1 lightness and suppleness of movement must be indispensable for the struggle for existence4 ,we can1 therefore1 easily understand how these people have acquired that natural grace which similar utilitarian causes have developed among all mountainous animals1 and among most beasts of prey4#dfa ,nor is it difficult to comprehend that this beauty of the human body1 once called into existence by natural selection1 must have awakened sthetic attention to form and grace1 and thus indirectly influenced even the manifestations of ornamental art4 ,if it be objected that such sociological explanations of decorative patterns are too far-fetched1 we at once refer to the marvellous ,maori ornaments1 in which the temperament of another warlike tribe has found a most characteristic expression4 ,like the fantastic convolutions on the ,dyak shields1 the flaming scrolls of black and red which extend over the ceilings and walls of the ,maori houses unmistakably attest their origin from a nation which war has made violent1 vigorous1 and intensely energetic4#dfb ,generally speaking1 it may be futile to seek for any differentiated expressional qualities in such an impersonal and unemotional art as that of linear ornament4 ,but in face of these powerful designs even the most neutral observer will be struck with the strong emotional exaltation which has here found a vent1 not in words1 or sounds1 or images1 but in pure lines and colours4 ,such mighty strokes1 so full of life and agitation1 could never have been drawn by any peaceful and quiet natives4 ,the velocity and the wild inspiration of these patterns are only possible in a nation which has experienced in continuous fights an ever-repeated state of high-strung emotional excitement4 ,the more official ,maori decorative art1 the ,moko1 as well as the ,maori sculpture1 probably because of their close connection with religion1 are too rigid in their traditional character to admit of any strongly pronounced emotional content4 ,but the influence of warlike exaltation has instead made itself felt in the poetical productions of the race4 ,and1 as has already been pointed out1 but for the military type of life dancing could not have reached so marvellous a degree of development4 ,owing to the more organised character of ,maori warfare1 military customs do not1 as among the ,dyaks1 aim chiefly at producing suppleness and graceful movements in the individual4 ,but one has only to read the enthusiastic descriptions of the painter ,earle in order to realise the influence which military customs have even here exercised on the development of plastic beauty4#dfc ,the ,dyaks and ,maoris are but two of the most typical among savage tribes whose artistic productions have grown up under the auspices of war4 ,for a complete account of art in its connection with war it would be necessary to dwell on the war songs of the ,north ,american ,indians1#dfd to give some account of the art-style which is found in the military despotisms of ,western ,africa1#dfe and to describe in detail the poetry which has been called into existence by the continuous tribal feuds of the ,north ,african nomadic hordes4#dff ,in its broad aspects1 however1 the sthetic importance of war will1 we hope1 appear with sufficient clearness from the cursory review which has been given above4 ,we have seen that war1 as the hardest form of the struggle for life1 has needed1 more than any other kind of work1 the support which sthetic stimulation affords to practical activities4 ,and the art which has developed under its influence has1 to a greater degree than is usual in primitive production1 fulfilled the conditions of emotional community and emotional intensity4 ,moreover1 the requirements of fighting have called forth sthetic qualities of power and gracefulness in the physical type which seem to be reflected even in artistic creation4 ,thus the art-production of military tribes has everywhere1 independently of racial and climatic influences1 acquired some common qualities2 their decorative arts1 as well as their poetry and dramatic dances1 are always characterised by an intense and forcible life1 which is often combined with dignified power and graceful elegance4 ,all these are1 of course1 only restricted merits1 which correspond to some striking deficiencies4 ,it is easily understood that art-life in a military state of society always tends to be circumscribed within the narrow boundaries of tribal sympathy4 ,it may also be pointed out1 at least as a curious and significant coincidence1 that descriptive and figurative art1 in the sense of realistic1 faithful rendering of nature and life1 has never attained any high development among the most military tribes4 ,such a sympathetic interest in the picturesque qualities of the human and animal body as that which characterises the art of the prehistoric ,european cave-dwellers1 the ,bushmen1 and the ,eskimo1 does not seem compatible with the customs of war4 ,in this connection it is not our business to estimate critically the comparative importance of these merits and deficiencies3 we have only to point out the undeniable significance which1 from an historical point of view1 must be accorded to war as a factor in the development of art4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,art ,,and ,,magic ,sympathetic magic has in recent times become a favourite subject of scientific study4 ,we may therefore proceed to trace the influence which this important factor has exercised on the development of art-forms without going through the labour of presenting and describing the evidence of its occurrence at the different stages of evolution4 ,it is sufficient to refer to the copious and detailed researches of ,hartland1 ,frazer1 ,branger-,fraud1 and others4 ,what we need is only a psychological interpretation of all the facts which have been brought together by these authors4 ,the instances of sympathetic magic are naturally divided into two main classes1 which1 broadly speaking1 correspond to the two types of association4 ,but just as in psychology it is often difficult to decide whether a given associative process has its origin in a relation of contiguity or in one of similarity1 so it is often an open question to which group a given superstition is to be assigned4 ,it may even be possible to deduce both groups from one common and fundamental magical principle4 ,however the definitive theoretical explanation may turn out1 we have for the present to uphold a distinction between the two forms4 ,and in order to start from the facts that are simpler and easier to explain1 we shall first devote our attention to sympathetic magic based on a material connection between things4 ,the superstitious notions which can be brought together under this heading are familiar to every one4 ,there is scarcely a single book on ethnology or folklore which does not present some illustrations of the belief that by acting upon a part of a given whole we may influence this whole as well as all its other parts4 ,this universal doctrine of a solidarity between the things that have entered as parts in the same material totality has given rise all over the world to beliefs and practices which1 although varying in details1 are essentially similar in general character4 ,we need only refer to the well-known folk-beliefs as to the necessity of caution in disposing of clippings of hair or nails1 of saliva1 or anything else removed from the human body4 ,such objects1 it is supposed1 would give any enemy into whose hands they might fall the power of injuring through them the person from whom they had proceeded4#dfg ,almost equally universal is the belief that close relatives1 as being ingredients in--or perhaps rather partakers of--the same whole1 the family1 are bound together in a quite material solidarity of suffering4 ,from the sociological point of view this group of superstitions1 owing to the social importance of the last-mentioned totality1 is of especial interest2 and therefore the curious customs concerning the relation between a father and his unborn child1 between husband and wife1 ancestors and descendants1 etc41 which no doubt are all based on the idea of a material connection1 have been treated of with due completeness in sociological literature4#dfh ,equally valuable for the psychological interpretation1 although less pregnant with social import1 are all the petty tricks of sorcery in connection with hunting1 fishing1 agriculture1 and so on1 which are practised even now among most ,european nations4#dfi ,from the array of facts inserted by ,mr4 ,hartland in his monumental commentary on the ,legend of ,perseus1 we can form an opinion of the wide and deep-going influences which the belief in magical connection between things materially connected has exercised in all departments of life4 ,and besides this ethnological apparatus1 ,mr4 ,hartland gives us in this work a most complete and definite account of the world-view which lies behind all these superstitious beliefs and practices4 ,more light1 however1 is thrown on the philosophy of this superstition by the researches of ,m4 ,rochas d',aiglun than by any work on scientific ethnology and folklore4 ,this is not said in order to detract in any way from the merits of ,messrs4 ,hartland and ,frazer4 ,but although nothing could surpass the erudition of these scholars1 they could not1 in point of sympathetic and intelligent representation1 stand on a level with an author who himself believes in the reality of his facts4 ,for those1 therefore1 who wish to understand the motives1 conscious or unconscious1 by which the adepts of sympathetic magic justify their practices1 nothing could be more instructive than a perusal of ,l'extriorisation de la motricit and ,l'extriorisation de la sensibilit4 ,in these works ,m4 ,rochas has not only minutely summarised the seventeenth century theories and observations of ,digby and ,papin3#dgj he has also supplemented these old 8facts0 with his own experiments on objects that have been saturated with sensibility and motor power by contact with living bodies4 ,the power of relics1 love philtres1 and charms is thus explained in a way which1 however fantastic1 is nevertheless undeniably consistent and methodical4#dga ,a savage or an uneducated man would indeed be unable to put his case in the logical form which ,m4 ,rochas gives it4 ,but if he understood scientific terminology1 he would doubtless ratify1 as a true interpretation of his own vague conceptions1 the theory of sensitive and motor effluvia which emanate from all living beings1 and link them to all objects to which they may pass4 ,as a bona fide statement of magic principles in the language of modern psychology and modern physics1 ,m4 ,rochas' works bring the old superstitions home to us with unsurpassable force4 ,we learn here to appreciate the powerful influence which may in all times be exercised by the underlying belief in an invisible magical chain connecting things which appear to be severed4 ,when we see a man of modern civilisation falling back upon these crude notions1 which appeared for a long time to be quite forgotten1 we must needs be convinced that the world-view of magic1 however erroneous1 is1 so to speak1 a constitutional fallacy of the human mind4 ,in every department of human ethos1 therefore1 there is reason to look for the possible effects of these conceptions4 ,for the present1 however1 we have to admit that sympathetic magic in its simplest form seems to be without any influence on the origin of works of art4 ,it is very different with the second kind of magic--namely1 that where the occult influence is based upon a likeness between things4 ,to judge from the literature of ethnology and folklore1 this principle seems to be almost as universal as that of magic by virtue of material connection4 ,its influence can be traced in beliefs and practices1 not only of the lowest savages1 but also of civilised nations4 ,it has received elaborate theoretical justification in the old systems of ,greek philosophy1 in the theories of ,agrippa and ,paracelsus1 and in the tenets of modern homopaths4 ,and there are even some real facts1 such as the beneficial effects of inoculation and the 8katharsis0 action of poetry--the curing of sorrow by tragedy--which are sometimes quoted in support of the thesis that 8like affects like40#dgb ,apart from all regard to such spurious arguments the theory of this form of magic is scarcely less irrational than that underlying the first group of facts4 ,from our point of view1 however1 even the crudest forms of 8homopathic0 magic are of far greater interest than the examples of sorcery by means of material connection4 ,whereas the adepts of the latter need only procure a nail1 a tuft of hair1 or a few articles of clothing belonging to the man they wish to bewitch1 the sorcerer who works by similarities is compelled to create a representation of things and beings in order to acquire an influence over them4 ,thus magical purposes call forth imitations of nature and life which1 although essentially non-sthetic in their intention1 may nevertheless be of importance for the historical evolution of art4 ,to how great an extent works of art derive their material from old magical practices1 the real meaning of which has gradually fallen into oblivion1 may be shown in all the various departments of art4 ,there is not a single form of imitation which has not been more or less influenced by this principle4 ,pantomimic representation1 which for us is of value only in virtue of its intellectual or emotional expressiveness1 was in lower stages of culture used as a magical expedient4 ,even a single gesture may1 according to primitive notions1 bring about effects corresponding to its import1#dgc and a complete drama is sincerely believed to cause the actual occurrence of the action which it represents4 ,students of folklore know that there is practically no limits to the effects which primitive man claims to produce by magical imitation4 ,he draws the rain from heaven by representing in dance and drama the appropriate meteorological phenomena4#dgd ,he regulates the movements of the sun and encourages it in the labour of its wanderings by his dramatic sun-rituals2#dge and he may even influence the change of the seasons by dramas in which he drives winter away and brings summer in4#dgf ,by those phallic rites to which we have already referred in the chapter on erotic art1 he tries in the same way to act upon the great biological phenomena of human life4#dgg ,and again1 when sickness is to be cured1 he tries to subdue the demons of disease--to neutralise their action or to entice them out of the body of the patient--by imitating in pantomime the symptoms of the particular complaint4#dgh ,finally1 when the assistance of a divine power is required1 the god himself may be conjured to take his abode in the body of the performer1 who imitates what is believed to be his appearance1 movements1 and behaviour4#dgi ,thus the belief in the effectual power of imitation has all over the world given rise to common dramatic motives as universal as the belief itself1 and uniform as the chief requirements of mankind4 ,there are1 no doubt1 many instances of dramatic ritual the purpose of which is as yet a matter of discussion4 ,with regard to some of the symbolic dances representing hunting or fishing or the movements of game-animals1 much may be said in favour of ,mr4 ,farrer's view that the object of the pantomime is to make clearer to the deity a prayer regarding the things imitated4#dhj ,similarly it is open to doubt whether the dramatic performances at initiation ceremonies1 such as1 for instance1 the kangaroo dance described by ,collins1 are meant to impart instruction concerning the customs of the animals to the novitiates1 or to confer upon them a magic power over the game4#dha ,in the therapeutic practices of primitive tribes we may find still more puzzling points of controversy4 ,the sucking cure1 for instance1 by which the medicine-man pretends to extract from the patient the cause of his illness in the form of some small object--a pebble1 a tuft of hair1 or the like--may be1 as ,professor ,tylor thinks1 a mere 8knavish trick40#dhb ,but it is also possible1 we believe1 that1 at least originally1 it may have been performed as a bona fide magic1 based upon the notion of the efficacy of vehicles and symbolic action4 ,the method of restoring sick people and sick cattle to health by pulling them through a narrow opening1 for instance1 in a tree1 which has been explained by most authors as a case of magical transference by contact--i4e4 transference of the disease from the patient and of the vital power represented by the tree to him#dhc--ought1 according to the brilliant hypothesis of ,professor ,nyrop1 to be considered as a magically symbolic representation of regeneration4#dhd ,while leaving undecided all these subtle questions1 each of which would require a chapter of its own in order to be definitively treated1 we have only to maintain the great probability which stands on the side of the dramatic interpretation4 ,however fantastic the belief in a magical connection between similar things may appear at the outset1 a continued ethnological study must needs convince every one of its incalculable importance in the life of primitive man4 ,and such a conviction can only become confirmed by an examination of the influence which this superstition has exercised on the formative arts4 ,the belief in picture magic is evinced by its negative as well as by its positive results4 ,all over the world we meet with the fear of being depicted4 ,in so far as this superstition has given rise to a prohibition of painting and sculpture1 it has thus seriously arrested the development of art4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the same notion has commonly called forth pictorial representation1 the aim of which is to gain a power over the things and beings represented4 ,most frequent1 perhaps1 of all these specimens of magical art are the volts1 i4e4 those dolls and drawings used for bewitching1 which are spoken of as early as in the ancient ,chaldean incantations1 which are used by the majority of savage tribes1 and which may incidentally be found even now among the ,european nations4#dhe ,but owing to their necessarily clandestine character these charms have never exercised any important influence on the pictorial art4 ,more important1 from the historical point of view1 than these black and cryptic arts is the white magic by which social benefits are pursued4 ,just as the principal forms of magical drama correspond to the chief requirements of mankind1 so the most important magical sculptures and paintings are found in connection with agricultural rites1#dhf the observances of hunting and fishing1#dhg medical practices1#dhh and ceremonies for removing sterility4#dhi ,and in the same way as dramatic representation1 but with far greater efficacy1 pictorial representation has been able to satisfy the highest material as well as spiritual requirement by bringing the deity in concrete relation with man through the sympathetic force of the image4 ,the art of conjuring a spirit to take its abode in what is believed to be a counterfeit of its corresponding body has thus given rise to the fashioning of idols and the subsequent adoring of them4 ,although essentially the same as in the simple medical cures and the practices of sorcery1 pictorial magic has in these cases of idol-making exercised a more far-reaching and thorough influence on mankind than in any of its other manifestations4 ,we need not dwell at any length on the superstitions connected with poetic or literary descriptions of things4 ,the universal objection to the mentioning of proper names is evidently based upon a belief in the efficacy of words4 ,and1 on the other hand1 this same belief lies behind the equally universal use of incantations4 ,songs that are sung in order to facilitate the labour of workers and to increase the result of it1 poems that aim at conjuring the favour of a hard-hearted or indifferent woman1 charms for invoking or expelling spirits1 and medical spells1--all these forms of poetic magic are too familiar to be more than mentioned4 ,from the point of view of the civilised observer the above-quoted examples of dramatic1 pictorial1 and poetic magic may seem to have an obvious and ready explanation4 ,a work of art always gives to the spectator1 and no doubt also to the creator1 an illusion of reality4 ,as1 moreover1 primitive man is notoriously unable to distinguish between subjective and objective reality1 it seems natural to assume that it is the mental illusion created by his work which makes the magician believe that he has acquired a power over the things represented by it4 ,and this assumption is all the more tempting because even to civilised1 enlightened man there is something magical in the momentary satisfaction which art affords to all our unfulfilled longings by its semblance of reality4 ,strong desire always creates for itself an imaginary gratification which easily leads the uncritical mind to a belief in the power of will over the external world4 ,the whole of art-creation may thus be looked upon as an embodiment of the greatest wishes of mankind1 which have sought the most convincing appearance of their fulfilment in the form and shape of objective works4 ,what is in us a conscious and intentional self-deception1 may be in the unsophisticated man a real illusion4 ,the main psychological aspects of the activity could not be changed by these different subjective attitudes on the part of the producer4 ,the essential point is that in both cases the greatest possible resemblance to the original would be sought for in order to increase in the one case the magical efficacy of the work1 in the other the pleasure to be derived from the illusion4 ,the belief in a magical connection between similar things would thus exercise an incalculable influence on the growth of realism in art4 ,but1 unfortunately1 this easy explanation is not corroborated by an impartial examination of the lower stages of art-development4 ,the statement of ,m4 ,guaita as to the volt1 ,plus la ressemblance est complte plus le malfice a chance de russir1#dij does not appear to be borne out by the evidence4 ,the only instance we know of in which greater or less resemblance to the model is thought of as bearing on the magical efficacy of a painting is that of the ,east ,indian artists4 ,we are told that it was in order to evade the ,mohammedan prohibition of painting that they resorted to that style of treating nature1 bordering on caricature1 which is so characteristic of1 say1 ,javanese art4#dia ,similarly it is by an appeal to their virtue of non-resemblance that artists among the ,laos defend their pictures as being harmless and innocent4#dib ,but such references to barbaric or semi-barbaric art do not tell us much about the conditions prevailing at the beginning of art-development4 ,the primitive man who avails himself of dolls and drawings in order to bewitch is generally quite indifferent to the life-like character of his magical instruments4 ,the typical volt gives only a crude outline of the human body1 and1 which is most remarkable1 it does not display any likeness to the man who is to be bewitched4 ,as a rule the same vagueness can also be noticed in the paintings and sculptures which serve the aims of medical cure and religious cultus4 ,with due allowance for the deficient technical ability and the nave suggestibility of primitive man1 it seems hard to believe that illusion could have been either intended or effected by the rude works of pictorial magic4 ,thus it becomes doubtful whether the belief in the magical power of painting and sculpture can have been based upon a confusion between subjective and objective reality4 ,this doubt can only be increased when we see how little confidence primitive men themselves put in the mere likeness as such4 ,when ,m4 ,rochas produced his modern imitations of the volt1 he was always anxious to have his wax dolls sufficiently saturated by contact with the person over whom they were intended to give him power4#dic ,and in this he closely followed the methods of the native sorcerers1 who generally tried to increase the efficiency of their magical instruments by attaching to them such objects as nail-cuttings1 locks of hair1 or pieces of cloth belonging to the man to be bewitched4#did ,in the making of idols we can often observe the same principle4 ,the statue itself is not sacred by virtue of its form2 it acquires divine power only by being put in material connection with the deity4 ,the most obvious example is that of the ,west ,african ,negroes1 who1 when they wish to transplant the wood deity from his original home to their towns and villages1 build up a wooden doll of branches taken from the tree in which he lives4#die ,the god is certainly supposed to feel a special temptation to take up his abode in the idol made in his own likeness2 but it is evident that the material link established by the choice of the wood is thought of as being of no less1 perhaps even of greater1 importance than the resemblance4 ,the same close and inseparable combination of magic by connection and magic by similarity meets us in the ancestor statues of ,new ,guinea1 which contain the skull of the dead in hollows inside their head4#dif ,and although the procedure is more indirect1 the underlying thought is nevertheless the same in the curious practices found1 e4g41 on the island of ,nias4 ,the spirit of the deceased is here conducted to his statue by means of some small animal which has been found in the neighbourhood of his grave4#dig ,in none of these examples--which might be supplemented by analogous instances from various tribes--do we see any hint of that manner of regarding statues and paintings which prevails among civilised men4 ,while with us the mental impression on the spectator constitutes1 so to speak1 the object and the essential purport of the work of art1 the magicians and the idolaters seem to look chiefly for material power and influence in their simulacra4 ,the way in which pictorial art is used for curative purposes affords us--if further proofs are wanted--a still more telling example of the difference between the magical and the aesthetic points of view4 ,nothing could be more crude and primitive than the notions held by the ,navajo with regard to the salutary influences of their famous sand-paintings4 ,the cure is effected1 they believe1 not by the patient's looking at the represented figures1 but by his rolling himself on them1 or having the pigments of the mosaic applied to the corresponding parts of his own body4 ,the more of the sacred sand he can thus attach to his body1 the more complete is his recovery4#dih ,among other tribes at the same stage of development as the ,navajos the prevailing views are almost equally materialistic4#dii ,and even among the barbaric and semi-civilised peoples1 although we do not meet with quite as gross superstitions1 the fundamental idea of pictorial magic appears often to be the same4 ,the power of a painting or a sculpture is thought of as something which is quite independent of its mental effects upon the spectator4 ,that interpretation of sympathetic magic1 therefore1 which to us seemed most natural1 cannot possibly be applied to its lower forms4 ,as the concepts by which primitive man justifies to himself his beliefs and practices are naturally vague and hazy1 it may seem futile to attempt to reconstruct his reasoning4 ,nothing final or definite can be asserted on so obscure a topic4 ,but we may legitimately discuss the most consistent and most probable way in which to account for the various forms of sympathetic magic4 ,and with regard to this question of probabilities we may rely to some extent upon the illustrative and suggestive analogies to primitive thought which can be found in scientific philosophies4 ,for it is evident that a philosophical doctrine1 if it fits in with the facts of primitive superstition1 may be explanatory of those vague and latent notions which1 without logical justification or systematical arrangement1 lie in the mind of the magician and the idolater4 ,such a doctrine is presented to us in the familiar emanation-theories1 according to which every image of a thing constitutes a concrete part of that thing itself4 ,according to the clear and systematic statement of this doctrine given by the old ,epicurean philosophers1 shadows1 reflections in a mirror1 visions1 and even mental representations of distant objects1 are all caused by thin membranes1 which continually detach themselves from the surface of all bodies and move onward in all directions through space4#ejj ,if there are such things as necessary misconceptions1 this is certainly one4 ,such general facts of sensuous experience as reflection1 shadow1 and mirage will naturally appear as the result of a purely material decortication--as in a transfer picture4#eja ,how near at hand this theory may lie even to the modern mind appears from the curious fact that such a man as ,balzac fell back upon it when attempting to explain the newly-invented daguerreotype1 that most marvellous of all image-phenomena4#ejb ,to the primitive mind it is only natural to apply this reasoning even to artificial images4 ,whether the likeness of a thing is fashioned by nature in water or air1 or whether it be made by man1 it is in both cases thought of as depriving the thing itself of some part of its substance4 ,such a notion1 which cannot surprise us when met with among the lower savages1 seems to have been at the bottom of even the ,mohammedan prohibition of the formative arts4#ejc ,it is evident that1 wherever images are explained in this crude manner1 magic by similarity in reality becomes merely a case of magic by contiguity4 ,the materialistic thought which lies behind the belief in a solidarity between similar things appears nowhere so clearly as within the department of pictorial magic4 ,but we believe that its influence can also be traced in all the other superstitions regarding sympathetic causation4 ,in spite of that feeling of superiority so common in nations which have no leaning towards formative arts1 poetical and musical magic in its lower forms is founded on quite as crude a conception as any idolatry or pictorial sorcery4 ,it would indeed be unnatural if the theory of corporeal emanations had not been applied to acoustic as well as to optical phenomena4 ,to the unscientific mind sounds and reverberations are something quite synonymous with sights and reflections4 ,the sounds connected with the impression of a being1 thing1 or phenomenon will therefore be conceived as being a part of the being1 thing1 or phenomenon itself4 ,to these easily-explained notions there are to be added the peculiar superstitions entertained with regard to a class of sounds which are only associated with things1 viz4 their names4 ,to the primitive man a name literally constitutes a part of the object it denotes4 ,the magician may therefore get the mastery over the spirits he invokes and the men he bewitches by merely mentioning their names4#ejd ,in many cases a most potent spell consists of unintelligible words1 which to the conjurer himself has no meaning at all4 ,in other cases1 although the words really have a sense1 we can easily observe that they are not used for the purpose of creating an illusion of reality4 ,the typical incantation may indeed in a manner be called descriptive4 ,the singer is anxious not to pass by any detail1 the omitting of which may be injurious to the potency of his magic4 ,but the result is only a sort of inventory1 which seldom suggests a full and vivid mental picture4 ,many of the ,shaman prayers and songs show us by their whole character that in their case at least poetical illusion has had nothing to do with the belief in the power of words over things4#eje ,thus1 according to the magical-world view1 a system of material connections links together in close solidarity things and their images1 sounds1 or names4 ,but this network of connections may even1 we believe1 extend further1 so as to bring into its chain of causation qualities and actions1 in short1 abstract notions1 which cannot be considered as material objects possessing material parts4 ,just as an image which presents the figure and shape of a given thing is conceived as a part of that thing itself1 so all things which have distinctive qualities in common may be thought of as being parts of a common whole4 ,as a fantastic but still natural product of the primitive mind1 there may thus appear the idea of an invisible connection1 which binds together all things similar and draws them to each other4 ,vaguely and dimly even savages may have been able to anticipate in some measure those imposing thoughts which received an organised and consistent statement in the doctrine of universal ideas4 ,but to primitive man these 8ideas0 must appear as concrete objects and beings1 exercising their influence on phenomena in a quite material manner4 ,to those who are familiar with that peculiar combination of spiritual conceptions of the world and material conceptions of the spirit which makes up the primitive cosmology1 this explanation will not appear far-fetched or strained4 ,but it is to be admitted that in many cases it may be difficult1 or even impossible1 to lay one's finger on the elements of magic by contiguity which lie at the root of a given instance of imitative witchcraft4 ,no doubt the mental effects produced by the imitation on its creator and spectators will in many cases contribute to the belief in its power4 ,in the more artistic forms of poetic magic the suggestive power of the words replaces the brute force of their sound4 ,and in dramatic magic an illusion1 whether intended or unintended1 must necessarily affect the performers as well as their audience4 ,therefore1 however the psychological basis of magic may be explained1 it cannot be denied that in some of its developments magic has become closely connected with art4 ,the self-deceit by which we enjoy in art the confusion between real and unreal is indeed1 by its intentional character1 distinct from the illusion to which primitive man is led1 more perhaps by his deficient powers of observation than by any strength of imaginative faculty4 ,but still there exists a kinship1 and that belief in an overlapping of the tangible and intangible life which is fostered by magic in the lower art affords1 as it were1 a premonition of the effects produced by imagination in the higher4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,conclusions ,there are several aspects of the history of art which have had to be ignored in the preceding chapters4 ,a student of ethnology1 for instance1 will blame us because in our hasty review of primitive art no mention has been made of the important influence which political institutions and religious systems have exercised on the development of art4 ,nor can there be any question of denying that these factors ought to be properly treated of in every research which aims at a descriptive completeness4 ,from the historical point of view indeed nothing could be more interesting than to pursue throughout the general history of art that line of investigation which ,mr4 ,posnett has applied to the study of literature4 ,not only in the lower stages of culture1 but also among civilised nations1 one might show how in all its forms and branches art has been influenced for good and bad by the progress of political development4 ,tribal drama1 tribal sculpture1 and tribal poetry might thus be instructively contrasted with the art of commonwealths and monarchic states4 ,still wider results might be attained by tracing those differences in types of art which arise from differences in the religious systems4 ,but such researches1 however important they might be1 would not have much bearing upon the subject of the present work4 ,notwithstanding the differentiation of art-forms that has arisen from the varying political and religious conditions1 we do not meet in these different forms with any principle of art that has not been treated of already in the preceding chapters4 ,to explain1 for instance1 the art which serves as a means of political propitiation1 we need only refer to our investigation of the sthetic forms of sexual selection4 ,it is true that songs1 dances1 and pantomimes will necessarily change in character when addressed to a chief or king instead of to a woman4 ,but the purpose--to gain the favour of the spectator--is still the same in both cases4 ,and from this identity of purpose there arises a general similarity between all manifestations of propitiatory art1 which1 from our point of view1 is more important than the individual differences of these manifestations4 ,as in tribes where social conditions have favoured the development of sexual selection erotic art acquires the distinction of attractiveness and sensuous beauty1 so these qualities will also be prominent in the songs and dances by which people endeavour to conciliate the favour and benevolence of a mighty ruler4 ,and as on the lower stages of culture men attribute to their gods their own likings and aversions1 the same qualities will naturally be found to characterise those classes of art by which worshippers pay their homage to a divine spectator4 ,and1 finally1 as a conspicuous outcome of the motive 8to attract by pleasing0 we meet with a similar group of dances1 songs1 and pantomimes addressed to the spirits of the deceased--those spectators whose favour or disfavour is of paramount importance to primitive man4 ,side by side with this element of propitiation we find in the artistic manifestations connected with funeral ceremonies examples of almost all those aspects of art to which attention has been called in the preceding chapters4 ,the purpose of information is represented by pictorial1 poetic1 or dramatic representations in which the doings of the deceased are displayed before the survivors4#ejf ,the dances and songs may in many cases be reasonably explained as aiming at a stimulation of the spirit1 which certainly needs an increase of force in order to surmount all the hardships and the weary wanderings of its transitional life4#ejg ,in other cases funeral art is evidently intended to produce upon invisible enemies the same kind of terrifying effects which have already been spoken of in connection with military paintings and pantomimes4#ejh ,and1 lastly1 it is probably in the endeavour to exert a sympathetic influence upon the combats which the deceased must undergo before he can attain his peace and rest that the survivors hold magical sham-fights and tugs of war over his grave4#eji ,thus in this one branch of art we can see how each of the sociological art-principles is of much wider applicability than has been possible to trace within the limits of this work4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the crucial instance of funeral art shows us how even in such artistic manifestations as at the outset appear to be quite irreducible we may by a closer investigation reveal the influence of those general factors which have been selected for treatment in the preceding chapters4 ,and therefore1 without entering upon a detailed examination of all the varying forms of art1 we feel entitled to hold that the utilitarian motives of information1 propitiation1 stimulation1 and magical efficiency afford a sufficiently complete list--from a theoretical point of view--of the most important non-sthetic factors that have favoured the development of art4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the attentive reader will probably have remarked that those very aspects of art with which we have been engaged in the latter part of this work broadly correspond to some of the most important interpretations of the art-impulse offered by sthetic theories4 ,to give information--that is1 to widen our knowledge of nature and life2 to propitiate--that is1 to flatter our senses by the display of beauty2 to stimulate--that is1 to heighten our vital energy1 and thus make life easier to live and life's work easier to perform2 to work magic--that is1 to produce an illusion of reality capable of leading to a confusion between the subjective and objective world2--these are all purposes which have been represented as essential to art4 ,from our summary investigation of primitive art it has1 we hope1 appeared how fully we admit the close connection of these purposes with the historical development of art4 ,and it might be shown1 if our investigation were pursued into the later stages of development1 that art on its highest plane still bears the same relation to concrete utilities as it does on the lowest4 ,art never ceases to inform1 never ceases to please1 never ceases to stimulate1 never loses something of a magical efficacy4 ,but while acknowledging the importance of all these purposes1 we have1 on the other hand1 to maintain the view which was set out in the psychological chapters of the opening--that it is only by assuming an independent art-impulse that we can explain the essential character of art4 ,to make plain the distinction between these two points of view it is advisable to summarise in brief the arguments of either part of our investigation4 ,in the first chapters the writer attempted to show that the art-impulse in its broadest sense must be taken as an outcome of the natural tendency of every feeling-state to manifest itself externally1 the effect of such a manifestation being to heighten the pleasure and to relieve the pain4 ,we found in this fact the primary source of art as an individual impulse4 ,but art is essentially social2 and this also we explained on psychological grounds4 ,the secondary effect of the exteriorisation of a feeling-state is to awaken similar feelings in other human beings who perceive the manifestation2 and their sympathetic feeling acts upon the author of the original manifestation1 heightening in him the feeling-state which gave rise to it4 ,now1 all works of art have a common element notwithstanding their diversity4 ,they express1 each in their own medium1 a mood or moods of the artist2 they arise1 that is1 out of the impulse to expression1 which is as primitive as feeling itself4 ,every man seeks automatically to heighten his feelings of pleasure and to relieve his feelings of pain4 ,the artist is the man who finds that he can gain such enhancement or relief1 not only by the direct action of giving expression to his feeling1 but also by arousing a kindred feeling in others4 ,hence originates in him that desire to transmit his moods to an external audience which must be regarded as the simplest and most primordial inducement to artistic production4 ,and also as a further means of realising the same purpose there arises the endeavour to give the artistic product--that is to say1 the externalised expression of his mood--a form which may facilitate the revival of the original state in an ever wider circle of sympathisers4 ,thus from the reflex outlet for a strong emotional pressure we are led to a deliberate creation1 in which the intellectual and volitional elements preponderate increasingly over the automatic1 emotional impulse4 ,but from this gain in consciousness there does not result any change in the essential character of the artistic activity4 ,however great the difference between the highest forms of art1 such as1 for instance1 a drama or a sculpture1 and the primitive dance-pantomime1 the underlying impulse is still the same in both cases4 ,perpetuation--that is1 expression which is addressed to a fictitious audience--can only be explained by reference to the enhancing and relieving effects which man has experienced as results of emotional transmission4 ,and all the intentional activities1 the artistic composition1 the artistic technique1 and so on1 by which perpetuation is secured can thus be regarded as subservient to the emotionalistic purpose4 ,moreover1 these same activities1 however unemotional they may be in themselves1 will enable the artist to extort an increased emotional value from his 8motives02 for instance1 the greater a man's skill in suggesting the peculiar thrill of colour1 the greater will be his pleasure in colour itself4 ,technical excellency1 which to the outsider is a cold and neutral thing1 may thus to the artist and to the intelligent critic be full of expressional significance4 ,from whichever point of view we may look at art1 we shall have to interpret its central and essential characteristics in terms of feeling4 ,in this way we can account for it as a self-sufficing1 or as we have said1 autotelic activity4 ,and in this way only can we explain the strength of that compelling force which urges an artist to an exertion from which he derives no external utility4 ,but it cannot be contended that primitive human nature furnishes not only the impulse to expression but also the medium4 ,the artist in man had the feeling2 he had to discover a way to exteriorise it4 ,nearest perhaps to primitive art lie the immediate manifestations by regulated gesture and regulated sounds of the voice1 which are also in their highest development the most potent means for transmitting an emotion4 ,yet the different utilities of life offered also other means--as it were1 words of a language--in which the feeling could express itself and transmit itself from mind to mind4 ,the man who used drawing as a means of communicating thoughts could express in a drawing the terror which a beast inspired or the delight he had derived from watching its movements4 ,and just as the purpose of imparting information--whether by word or image--afforded a natural medium through which the art-impulse could work to its own ends1 so also the purpose of propitiation afforded in dance or decoration something which might be diverted from its original object and be used with the single intention of expressing1 for instance1 the dancer's mood4 ,similarly each of the other purposes that have been discussed or alluded to afforded1 as it were1 a concrete material for art--a shape in which the primitive impulse to gesture could embody and develop itself4 ,and beyond the fact that art has been obliged to avail itself of media which have originally been called into existence by utilitarian1 non-sthetic needs1 there lies another fact4 ,to these external 8origins0 we can also trace some of the most important qualities which we appreciate in a work of art4 ,in this way it is open to us to explain how several of the virtues of art1 as we know it1 may be derived from the primitive needs which it subserved2 how1 for instance1 the lucidity of art may find its explanation in art's use for conveying information2 how the sensuous and attractive qualities of all art may be traced to the need for propitiating favour2 how the power that resides in art to brace and stimulate the mind may be transmitted from the days when the artist was appointed to nerve his fellows for work or war4 ,and1 lastly1 it might be argued that a most characteristic quality of art1 the imagination1 which is in a sense faith in the reality of the unreal 7whether native to the human mind or not71 may have been immensely heightened by the use of art for purposes of magic1 which fuses the visible and the invisible4 ,there is thus suggested a further point4 ,we were able to derive those qualities of artistic composition1 which in all sthetic systems have been insisted on as the most primordial1 from the distinctive qualities of the self-sufficing art-impulse1 by showing how the unity1 the concentration1 and the subordination of parts to a whole correspond to the unity of a feeling-state which it is the object of the art-impulse to convey and to perpetuate in its entirety4 ,on the other hand1 we are forced to acknowledge that by the side of these primordial qualities there exist certain secondary qualities which have been of great importance in facilitating and securing the transmission and perpetuation of the original feeling-state2 and we have shown how these qualities arise out of the vassalage by which art in its historical development has been bound to the necessities and utilities of practical life4 ,for those who crave a theoretical basis for the estimation of art there is offered a field of research in the comparison and relative valuation of these two orders of qualities4 ,by studying the alternate influences which the primary and the derived factors have exercised on the character of works of art1 it may even be possible to lay down a kind of scale by which to rank general qualities as well as individual manifestations4 ,but all this train of thought1 though cognate to our inquiry1 is not a part of it4 ,this book has aimed simply to give an answer to the question1 ,how did art originate8 ,to those minds which see no value in an sthetic inquiry that neither purposes to offer guidance for the artist in producing works of art1 nor for the student in appreciating them1 the whole discussion may probably appear futile4 ,the author on his part has thought that such investigation into an important and typical human energy must be of interest at least1 if not of value4 ,but upon the practical question it is his personal opinion that the loss would be greater than the gain if theories and judgments based upon philosophical considerations were allowed to influence either the production or the enjoyment of art4 ,,authorities ,,quoted ,abbott1 ,charles ,c41 ,primitive ,industry3 or1 ,illustrations of the ,handiwork of the ,native ,races of the ,northern ,atlantic ,seaboard of ,america4 ,salem1 ,mass4 #ahha4 ,abercromby1 ,john1 ,the ,pre-and ,proto-historic ,finns1 both ,eastern and ,western1 with the ,magic ,songs of the ,west ,finns4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,abhandlungen der ,kniglich4 schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften4 ,leipzig4 ,abhandlungen und ,berichte des ,knigl4 zoologischen und anthropologisch-ethnographischen ,museums zu ,dresden4 ,berlin4 ,academy1 ,the4 ,london4 ,acosta1 ,joseph de1 ,the ,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies4 ,trans4 ed4 by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,acta ,societatis ,scientiarum ,fennic4 ,helsingfors4 ,actes de l'acadmie nationale des sciences1 belles-lettres et arts de ,bordeaux4 ,paris4 ,ahlqvist1 ,aug41 ,muistelmia matkoilta ,venjll vuosina #ahed-aheh4 ,helsingfors1 #ahei4 ,ahlqvist1 ,aug41 ,unter ,wogulen und ,ostjaken4 ,in ,acta ,societatis ,scientiarum ,fennic4 ,tomus ,,xiv4 #ahhe4 ,allen1 ,grant1 ,the ,colour-,sense3 ,its ,origin and ,development4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,allen1 ,grant1 ,physiological sthetics4 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,american ,anthropologist1 ,the4 ,published under the auspices of the ,anthropological ,society of ,washington4 ,washington4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,the4 ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,amiel1 ,henri-,frdric1 ,fragments d'un journal intime4 ,septime d4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,genve1 #ahig4 ,andree1 ,richard1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen und ,vergleiche4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgh4 ,neue ,folge4 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,angas1 ,george ,french1 ,polynesia2 a ,popular ,description of the ,physical ,features1 ,inhabitants1 ,natural ,history1 and ,productions of the ,islands of the ,pacific4 ,london #ahff4 ,angas1 ,george ,french1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,annalen des ,k4-,k4 naturhistorischen ,hofmuseums4 ,wien4 ,annali del museo civico di storia naturale di ,genova4 ,genova4 ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology to the ,secretary of the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,washington4 ,annual ,report of the ,board of ,regents of the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,washington4 ,annual ,report of the ,united ,states ,geological and ,geographical ,survey4 ,washington4 ,archer1 ,william1 ,masks or ,faces8 ,a ,study in the ,psychology of ,acting4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,archiv fr ,anthropologie4 ,braunschweig4 ,aubry1 ,paul d'1 ,la contagion du meurtre4 ,deuxime dition entirement refondue4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,bailey1 ,john1 ,an ,account of the ,wild ,tribes of the ,veddahs of ,ceylon4 ,in ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,new ,series1 #ahfc4 ,bain1 ,alexander1 ,the ,emotions and the ,will4 #crd ed4 ,london1 #ahge4 ,bain1 ,alexander1 ,the ,senses and the ,intellect4 #dth ed4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,baker1 ,theodor1 ber die ,musik der nordamerikanischen ,wilden4 ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 ,baldwin1 ,james ,mark1 ,mental ,development in the ,child and the ,race4 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,baldwin1 ,james ,mark1 ,social and ,ethical ,interpretations in ,mental ,development4 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,balfour1 ,henry1 ,the ,evolution of ,decorative ,art4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,bancroft1 ,hubert ,howe1 ,the ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states of ,north ,america4 ,i4-,v4 ,new ,york1 #ahge-ahgf4 ,barrington1 ,daines1 ,experiments and ,observations on the ,singing of ,birds4 ,in ,philosophical ,transactions4 #aggc4 ,bartels1 ,marx1 ,die ,medicin der ,naturvlker4 ,leipzig1 #ahic4 ,bashkirtseff1 ,marie1 ,journal4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,batchelor1 ,john1 ,the ,ainu of ,japan4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,batten1 ,geo4 ,g4 ,see ,glimpses4 ,baumgarten1 ,alexander ,g41 ,aesthetica4 ,trajecti cis ,viadrum4 #agej4 ,beccari1 ,o41 ,le capanne ed i giardini dell' ,amblyornis inornata4 ,in ,annali del museo civico di storia naturale di ,genova4 ,,ix4 7#ahgf-ahgg47 ,beecham1 ,john1 ,ashantee and the ,gold ,coast4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,berchon ,le ,tatouage4 ,in ,actes de l'acadmie de ,bordeaux4 #ahhe4 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,l4 ,j4 ,b41 ,superstitions et survivances tudies au point de vue de leur origine et de leurs transformations4 ,i4-,v4 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,bernays1 ,jacob1 ,zwei ,abhandlungen ber die aristotelische ,theorie des ,drama4 ,berlin1 #ahhj4 ,bernier1 ,flix1 ,thorie de l'art du comdien1 ou ,manuel thtral4 ,par ,aristippe4 ,paris1 #ahbe4 ,bidwill1 ,john ,carne1 ,rambles in ,new ,zealand4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,binet1 ,alfred1 ,le ftichisme dans l'amour4 ,la vie psychique des micro-organismes4 ,l'intensit des images mentales1 etc4 ,deuxime dition4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,binger1 ,g41 ,du ,niger au ,golfe de ,guine1 par le pays de ,kong et le ,mossi4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,blumentritt1 ,ferdinand1 ,versuch einer ,ethnographie der ,philippinen4 ,ergnzungsheft ,nr4 #fg zu ,petermann's ,mittheilungen4 7#ahhb47 ,bock1 ,carl1 ,temples and ,elephants3 the ,narrative of a ,journey of ,exploration through ,upper ,siam and ,lao4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,bhme1 ,franz ,m41 ,geschichte des ,tanzes in ,deutschland4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 ,boletim da sociedade de geographia de ,lisboa4 ,lisboa4 ,bonghi1 ,ruggero1 ,die rmischen ,feste4 ,deutsch von ,alfred ,ruhemann4 ,wien1 #ahia4 ,bonwick1 ,james1 ,daily ,life and ,origin of the ,tasmanians4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,bosanquet1 ,bernard1 ,a ,history of sthetic4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,bouillier1 ,francisque1 ,du plaisir et de la douleur4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,bourget1 ,paul1 tudes et portraits4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,bourgoing1 ,j4 ,fr41 ,modern ,state of ,spain4 ,trans4 from the last ,paris ed4 of #ahjg4 ,i4-,,iv4 ,london1 #ahjh4 ,bourke1 ,john ,g41 ,the ,medicine-men of the ,apache4 ,in ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethn4 ,,ix4 ,bourke1 ,j4 ,g41 ,scatologic ,rites of all ,nations4 ,washington1 #ahia4 ,bourke1 ,j4 ,g41 ,the ,snake-,dance of the ,moquis of ,arizona4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,brehm1 ,a4 ,e41 ,thierleben4 #c41 gnzlich neubearbeitete ,aufl4 von ,pechuel-,loesche4 ,i4-,x4 ,leipzig und ,wien1 #ahib4 ,brenner1 ,joachim von1 ,besuch bei den ,kannibalen ,sumatras4 ,wrzburg1 #ahid4 ,brire1 ,essai sur le symbolisme antique d',orient4 ,paris1 #ahdg4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g41 ,essays of an ,americanist4 ,philadelphia1 #ahij4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g41 ,the ,lenape and their ,legends4 ,philadelphia1 #ahhe4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g41 ,nagualism3 ,a ,study of ,native ,american ,folk-lore and ,history4 ,philadelphia1 #ahid4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g41 ,the ,pursuit of ,happiness4 ,philadelphia1 #ahid4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g41 ,races and ,peoples4 ,lectures on the ,science of ,ethnography4 ,new ,york1 #ahij4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g41 ,religions of ,primitive ,peoples4 ,new ,york and ,london1 #ahig4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g41 ,report upon the ,collections exhibited at the ,columbian ,historical ,exposition 7,madrid74 ,washington1 #ahie4 ,brown1 ,gerald ,baldwin1 ,the ,fine ,arts4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,brown1 ,john1 ,the ,history of the ,rise and ,progress of ,poetry1 through its several ,species4 ,newcastle1 #agfd4 ,bcher1 ,karl1 ,arbeit und ,rhytmus4 ,zweite1 stark vermehrte ,auflage4 ,leipzig1 #ahii4 ,bchner1 ,ludwig1 ,liebe und ,liebesleben in der ,thierwelt4 ,zweite1 sehr vermehrte ,auflage4 ,leipzig1 #ahhe4 ,buckland1 ,a4 ,w41 ,anthropological ,studies4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,buffon1 ,g4 ,l4 ,l41 ,histoire naturelle des oiseaux4 ,i4-,x4 ,paris1 #aggj-ga4 ,burchell1 ,william ,john1 ,travels in the ,interior of ,southern ,africa4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahbb-ahbd4 ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,see ,annual ,report4 ,burke1 ,edmund1 ,a ,philosophical ,inquiry into the ,origin of our ,ideas of the ,sublime and ,beautiful4 ,new ed4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,burton1 ,richard ,f41 ,the ,city of the ,saints and across the ,rocky ,mountains to ,california4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,burton1 ,richard ,f41 ,the ,lake ,regions of ,central ,africa4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,burton1 ,richard ,f41 ,a ,mission to ,gelele1 ,king of ,dahome4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahfd4 ,burton1 ,richard ,f41 ,two ,trips to ,gorilla ,land and the ,cataracts of the ,congo4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,burton1 ,richard ,f41 ,zanzibar2 ,city1 ,island1 and ,coast4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,cahusac1 ,la danse ancienne et moderne4 ,la ,haye1 #aged4 ,calmeil1 ,l4 ,f41 ,de la folie4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #ahde4 ,calvert1 ,albert ,f41 ,the ,aborigines of ,western ,australia4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,cameron1 ,a4 ,l4 ,p41 ,notes on some ,tribes of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 ,,xiv4 ,campbell1 ,john1 ,a ,personal ,narrative of ,thirteen ,years' ,service amongst the ,wild ,tribes of ,khondistan4 ,london1 #ahfd4 ,carlyle1 ,thomas1 ,sartor ,resartus4 ,illustrated by ,edmund ,j4 ,sullivan4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,carpenter1 ,edward1 ,angels' ,wings3 ,a ,series of ,essays on ,art and its ,relation to ,life4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,carver1 ,jonathan1 ,three ,years' ,travel through the ,interior ,parts of ,north ,america4 ,philadelphia1 #agif4 ,casalis1 ,e41 ,the ,basutos3 or1 ,twenty-three ,years in ,south ,africa4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,castrn1 ,m4 ,a41 ,nordiska resor och forskningar4 ,i4-,,vi4 ,helsingfors1 #aheb-ahgj4 ,catlin1 ,george1 ,illustrations of the ,manners1 ,customs1 and ,condition of the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,chamisso1 ,adelbert von1 ,bemerkungen und ,ansichten von dem ,naturforscher der ,expedition4 ,in ,kotzebue1 ,otto von1 ,entdeckungs-,reise4 ,part ,,iii4 ,champfleury4 ,see ,fleury1 ,jules4 ,charcot1 ,j4 ,m41 et ,richer1 ,paul1 ,les dmoniaques dans l'art4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,chardin1 ,voyages en ,perse et autres lieux de l'orient4 ,nouvelle dition augmente par ,l4 ,langls4 ,i4-,x4 ,paris1 #ahaa4 ,clavigero1 ,francesco ,saverio1 ,the ,history of ,mexico4 ,transl4 from the original ,italian by ,charles ,cullen4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #aghg4 ,clercq1 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de1 met ,medewerking van ,j4 ,d4 ,e4 ,schmeltz4 ,ethnographische ,beschrijving van de ,west-en ,noordkust van ,nederlandsch ,nieuw-,guinea4 ,leiden1 #ahic4 ,codrington1 ,r4 ,h41 ,the ,melanesians1 ,studies in their ,anthropology and ,folk-,lore4 ,oxford1 #ahia4 ,collins1 ,david1 ,an ,account of the ,english ,colony in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,i-,,ii4 ,london1 #agih-ahjb4 ,congrs international d'anthropologie et d'archologie prhistoriques4 ,,ixme session ,lisbonne1 #ahhj4 ,lisbonne1 #ahhd4 ,contemporary ,review1 ,the4 ,london4 ,cook1 ,james1 ,an ,account of a ,voyage round the ,world in the ,years #agfh-agga4 ,london1 #aggc4 ,cook1 ,james1 ,a ,voyage towards the ,south ,pole1 and round the ,world4 ,performed in the ,years #aggb-agge4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #aggg4 ,cook1 ,james1 ,a ,voyage to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,in the ,years #aggf-aghj4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #aghe4 ,cornish1 ,c4 ,j41 ,life at the ,zoo4 ,notes and ,traditions of the ,regent's ,park ,gardens4 #bnd ,ed4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,crane1 ,walter1 ,the ,bases of ,design4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,cranz1 ,david1 ,david ,cranz ,historie von ,grnland enthaltend die ,beschreibung des ,landes und der ,einwohner1 etc4 ,zweyte ,auflage4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,barby and ,leipzig1 #aggj4 ,crawley1 ,a4 ,e41 ,sexual ,taboo4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xxiv4 ,creuzer1 ,georg ,friedrich1 ,symbolik und ,mythologie der alten ,vlker4 ,i4-,,vi4 ,leipzig1 #ahai-ahbc4 ,cruickshank1 ,brodie1 ,eighteen ,years on the ,gold ,coast of ,africa4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahec4 ,cruise1 ,richard ,a41 ,journal of a ,ten ,months' ,residence in ,new ,zealand4 ,london1 #ahbc4 ,curr1 ,edward ,m41 ,the ,australian ,race3 its ,origin1 ,languages1 ,customs1 etc4 ,i4-,,iv4 ,melbourne1 #ahhf-hg4 ,czerwinski1 ,albert1 ,geschichte der ,tanzkunst4 ,leipzig1 #ahfb4 ,dale1 ,godfrey1 ,an ,account of the ,principal ,customs and ,habits of the ,natives inhabiting the ,bondei ,country4 ,in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 ,,xxv4 ,dall1 ,william ,h41 ,alaska and its ,resources4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,dalton1 ,edward ,tuite1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal4 ,calcutta1 #ahgb4 ,dania1 ,tideskrift for folkeml og folkeminder4 ,kjbenhavn4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 ,the ,descent of ,man4 #bnd ,edition4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 ,the ,expression of the ,emotions in ,man and ,animals4 #bnd ed41 edited by ,francis ,darwin4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 ,on the ,origin of ,species4 #fth ,edition4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,davy1 ,john1 ,an ,account of the ,interior of ,ceylon4 ,london1 #ahba4 ,day1 ,francis1 ,observations on the ,andamanese4 ,in ,proceedings of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal4 #ahgj4 ,delbuf1 ,j41 lments de psychophysique gnrale et spciale4 ,paris1 #ahhc4 ,deschamps1 mile1 ,au pays des ,veddas4 ,ceylon4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,dieffenbach1 ,ernest1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,dobrizhoffer1 ,martin1 ,an ,account of the ,abipones1 an ,equestrian ,people4 ,from the ,latin4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,dben1 ,gustaf von1 ,om ,lappland och ,lapparne1 fretrdesvis de svenske4 ,stockholm1 #ahgc4 ,dumont1 ,leon1 ,thorie scientifique de la sensibilit4 ,le plaisir et la peine4 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,dyer1 ,louis1 ,studies of the ,gods in ,greece at certain ,sanctuaries recently excavated4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,earle1 ,augustus1 ,a ,narrative of a ,nine ,months' ,residence in ,new ,zealand in #ahbg4 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,ehrenreich1 ,paul1 ,ueber die ,botocudos der brasilianischen ,provinzen ,espiritu santo und ,minas ,geraes4 ,in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie4 ,,xix4 #ahhg4 ,elliot1 ,henry ,m41 ,memoirs on the ,history1 ,folk-lore1 and ,distribution of the ,races of the ,north-,western ,provinces of ,india4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,ellis1 ,a4 ,b41 ,the ,ee-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave-,coast of ,west ,africa4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,ellis1 ,a4 ,b41 ,the ,tshi-speaking ,peoples of the ,gold ,coast of ,west ,africa4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,ellis1 ,a4 ,b41 ,the ,yoruba-speaking ,peoples of the ,slave-,coast of ,west ,africa4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,ellis1 ,a4 ,b41 ,west ,african ,sketches4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,ellis1 ,havelock1 ,man and ,woman4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,ellis1 ,havelock1 ,the ,new ,spirit4 #crd ed4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,ellis1 ,william1 ,polynesian ,researches1 during a ,residence of nearly eight ,years in the ,society and ,sandwich ,islands4 #bnd ed4 ,i4-,,iv4 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,elworthy1 ,frederick ,thomas4 ,the ,evil ,eye4 ,an ,account of this ancient and widespread ,superstition4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,emmanuel1 ,maurice1 ,la danse grecque antique d'aprs les monuments figurs4 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,engel1 ,j4 ,j41 ,ideen zu einer ,mimic4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,berlin1 #aghe4 ,erman1 ,adolph1 ,travels in ,siberia4 ,trans1 from the ,german1 by ,william ,desborough ,cooley4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,espinas1 ,alfred1 ,des socits animales4 #bnd ed4 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,eyre1 ,edward ,john1 ,journals of ,expeditions of ,discovery into ,central ,australia1 etc41 in the ,years #ahdj-a4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahde4 ,faguet1 mile1 ,drame ancien1 drame moderne4 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,farrer1 ,james ,anson1 ,military ,manners and ,customs4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,farrer1 ,james ,anson1 ,primitive ,manners and ,customs4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,fechner1 ,gustav ,theodor1 ,vorschule der ,aesthetik4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,leipzig1 #ahgf4 ,fr1 ,ch41 ,the ,pathology of ,emotions4 ,physiological and ,clinical ,studies4 ,rendered into ,english by ,robert ,park4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,fr1 ,ch41 ,sensation et mouvement3 tudes exprimentales de psycho-mcanique4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,fewkes1 ,j4 ,walter1 assisted by ,a4 ,m4 ,stephen and ,j4 ,g4 ,owens4 ,the ,snake ,ceremonials at ,walpi4 ,being ,vol4 ,,iv4 of 8,a ,journal of ,american ,ethnology and ,archaeology40 ,figuier1 ,louis1 ,histoire du merveilleux dans les temps modernes4 ,i4-,,iv4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 ,finsch1 ,otto1 ,ethnologische ,erfahrungen und ,belegstcke aus der ,sdsee4 ,in ,annalen des ,k4-,k4 naturhistorischen ,hofmuseums4 ,wien4 ,finsch1 ,otto1 ,samoafahrten4 ,reisen in ,kaiser-,wilhelms-,land und ,english-,neu-,guinea in den ,jahren #ahhd und #ahhe4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,finsch1 ,otto1 ,ueber die ,bewohner von ,ponap4 ,in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie4 ,,xii4 #ahhj4 ,fison1 ,lorimer1 ,the ,nanga1 or ,sacred ,stone ,enclosure1 of ,wainimala1 ,fiji4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xiv4 ,fleury1 ,jules1 ,histoire de la caricature sous la rpublique1 l'empire et la restauration par ,champfleury4 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,forbes1 ,frederick ,e41 ,dahomey and the ,dahomans4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahea4 ,forbes1 ,henry ,o41 ,a ,naturalist's ,wanderings in the ,eastern ,archipelago from #ahgh to #ahhe4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,fornander1 ,abraham1 ,an ,account of the ,polynesian ,race1 its ,origin and ,migrations4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #ahgh-ahhe4 ,fouille1 ,alfred1 ,la psychologie des ides-forces4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,fraser1 ,john1 ,the ,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,sydney1 #ahib4 ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 ,totemism4 ,edinburgh1 #ahhg4 ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 ,the ,golden ,bough4 ,a ,study in ,comparative ,religion4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,freycinet1 ,louis de1 ,voyage autour du monde pendant les annes #ahag-ahbj4 ,i4-,,ix4 ,paris1 #ahbd-ahdd4 ,fritsch1 ,gustav1 ,die ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrikas4 ,breslau1 #ahgb4 ,fhrer durch das ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde4 ,herausgegeben von der ,general-,verwaltung4 ,sechste ,auflage4 ,berlin1 #ahie4 ,fytche1 ,albert1 ,burma ,past and ,present4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,gaidoz1 ,henri1 ,un vieux rite mdical4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,gasou1 ,samuel1 ,the ,manners and ,customs of the ,dieyerie ,tribe4 ,in ,woods' ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia4 ,geddes1 ,patrick1 and ,thomson1 ,j4 ,arthur1 ,the ,evolution of ,sex4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,gill1 ,william ,wyatt1 ,from ,darkness to ,light in ,polynesia1 with ,illustrative ,clan ,songs4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,gill1 ,william ,wyatt1 ,the ,south ,pacific and ,new ,guinea4 ,sydney1 #ahib4 ,glimpses of the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,ethnographical1 ,geographical1 ,historical4 ,translated from the ,dutch by ,geo4 ,g4 ,batten4 ,singapore1 #ahid4 ,globus1 ,illustrierte ,zeitschrift fr ,lnder und ,vlkerkunde4 ,braunschweig4 ,godden1 ,gertrude ,m41 ,ng and other ,frontier ,tribes of ,n4,e4 ,india4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xxvi4 ,godfernaux1 ,andr1 ,le sentiment et la pense et leurs principaux aspects physiologiques4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,goethe1 ,goethe's ,dichtung und ,wahrheit4 ,nach den vorzuglichsten ,quellen revidirte ,ausgabe4 ,mit ,einleitung und ,anmerkungen von ,g4 von ,loeper4 ,berlin #ahgf4 ,goncourt1 ,edmond et ,jules de1 ,journal4 ,i4-,,ix4 ,paris1 #ahhg-ahif4 ,gooneratne1 ,dandris de ,silva1 ,on ,demonology and ,witchcraft in ,ceylon4 ,in ,journal of the ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #ahfe-ahff4 ,gratiolet1 ,pierre1 ,de la physionomie et des mouvements d'expression4 ,paris #ahfe4 ,grey1 ,george1 ,journals of two ,expeditions of ,discovery in ,north-,west and ,western ,australia1 during the years #ahcg-ahci4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,grimm1 ,jacob1 ,teutonic ,mythology4 ,translated from the fourth edition with ,notes and ,appendix by ,james ,steven ,stallybrass4 ,i4-,,iv4 ,london1 #ahhj-ahhh4 ,groos1 ,karl1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen4 ,jena1 #ahii4 ,groos1 ,karl1 ,the ,play of ,animals4 ,a ,study of ,animal ,life and ,instinct4 ,translated with the author's co-operation by ,elizabeth ,l4 ,baldwin4 ,with a ,preface and an ,appendix by ,j4 ,mark ,baldwin4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,grosse1 ,ernst1 ,die ,anfnge der ,kunst4 ,freiburg1 i4 ,b4 #ahid4 ,grove1 ,mrs4 ,lilly1 ,dancing1 by ,mrs4 ,lilly ,grove and other ,writers4 ,with ,musical ,examples4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,guaita1 ,stanislas de1 ,essais de sciences maudites4 ,i4-,,ii41 #a4 ,paris1 #ahij1 #ahia4 ,gurney1 ,edmund1 ,power of ,sound4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,guyau ,jean ,marie1 ,l'art au point de vue sociologique4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,guyau ,jean ,marie1 ,les problmes de l'esthtique contemporaine4 ,paris1 #ahhd4 ,haddon1 ,alfred ,c41 ,evolution in ,art3 as illustrated by the ,life-,histories of ,designs4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,haddon1 ,alfred ,c41 ,the ,ethnography of the ,western ,tribe of ,torres ,straits4 ,in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 ,,xix4 ,haddon1 ,alfred ,c41 ,the ,study of ,man4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,hall1 ,charles ,francis1 ,arctic ,researches and ,life among the ,esquimaux3 being the ,narrative of an ,expedition in ,search of ,sir ,john ,franklin in the years #ahfj-ahfb4 ,new ,york1 #ahfe4 ,hamilton1 ,augustus1 ,the ,art-workmanship of the ,maori ,race4 ,dunedin1 #ahif4 ,in progress4 ,hamilton1 ,william1 ,lectures on ,metaphysics and ,logic4 #gth ,ed4 ,i4-,,iv4 ,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahhb-hd4 ,hanslick1 ,eduard1 ,vom ,musikalisch-,schnen4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,revision der ,aesthetik der ,tonkunst4 ,siebente vermehrte und verbesserte ,auflage4 ,leipzig1 #ahhe4 ,hansson1 ,ola1 ,kserier i mystik4 ,stockholm1 #ahig4 ,harless1 ,e41 ,lehrbuch der plastischen ,anatomie4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,stuttgart1 #ahef-eh4 ,harnack1 ,otto1 ,die klassische ,aesthetik der ,deutschen4 ,wrdigung der kunsttheoretischen ,arbeiten ,schiller's1 ,goethe's und ihrer ,freunde4 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,hartland1 ,edwin ,sidney1 ,the ,legend of ,perseus4 ,a ,study of ,tradition in ,story1 ,custom1 and ,belief4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #ahid-if4 ,hecker1 ,j4 ,f4 ,c41 ,die grossen ,volkskrankheiten des ,mittelalters4 ,gesammelt und in erweiterte ,bearbeitung herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,august ,hirsch4 ,berlin1 #ahfe4 ,heckewelder1 ,john1 ,history1 ,manners1 and ,customs of the ,indian ,nations who once inhabited ,pennsylvania and the ,neighbouring ,states4 ,new and ,revised ,edition4 ,with an ,introduction and ,notes by ,william ,c4 ,reichel4 ,philadelphia1 #ahgf4 7,memoirs of the ,historical ,society of ,pennsylvania4 ,vol4 ,,xii47 ,hein1 ,alois ,raimund1 ,die bildenden ,knste bei den ,dayaks auf ,borneo4 ,wien1 #ahij4 ,hellwald1 ,fr4 von1 ,die menschliche ,familie nach ihrer ,entstehung und natrlichen ,entwickelung4 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,helvetius1 ,de l'esprit4 ,hemsterhuis1 ,f41 uvres philosophiques4 ,nouvelle dition4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #ahji4 ,hennequin1 mile1 ,la critique scientifique4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,heriot1 ,george1 ,travels through the ,canadas4 ,london1 #ahjg4 ,hernsheim1 ,franz1 ,sdsee-,erinnerungen 7#ahge-hj74 ,mit einem einleitenden ,vorwort von ,dr4 ,otto ,finsch4 ,berlin1 #ahhc4 ,hickson1 ,sydney ,j41 ,a ,naturalist in ,north ,celebes4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,hill1 ,david ,j41 ,the ,festal ,development of ,art4 ,in ,the ,popular ,science ,monthly4 ,vol4 ,,xlii4 ,hill1 ,richard and ,george ,thornton1 ,notes on the ,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,sydney1 #ahib4 ,hirn1 ,yrj1 ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi p psykologisk grundval4 ,helsingfors1 #ahif4 ,hirn1 ,yrj1 ,skildringar ur ,pueblofolkens konstlif4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,helsingfors1 #ahih4 ,to be continued4 7,reprinted from ,meddelanden af ,geografiska ,freningeni ,finland4 ,v47 ,hirth1 ,georg1 ,aufgaben der ,kunstphysiologie4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,mnchen und ,leipzig1 #ahia4 ,hoffman1 ,miscellaneous ,ethnographic ,observations on ,indians inhabiting ,nevada1 ,california1 and ,arizona4 ,in ,u4,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,survey4 ,tenth ,annual ,report1 #ahgf4 ,hoffmeister1 ,w41 ,travels in ,ceylon and ,continental ,india4 ,transl4 from the ,german4 ,edinburgh1 #ahdh4 ,hogarth1 ,william1 ,the ,analysis of ,beauty4 ,london1 #agec4 ,holmes1 ,edmond1 ,what is ,poetry8 ,london1 #aijj4 ,holub1 ,emil1 ,sieben ,jahre in ,sd-,afrika4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,wien1 #ahha4 ,holz1 ,arno1 ,die ,kunst3 ihr ,wesen und ihre ,gesetze4 ,berlin1 #ahia4 ,home1 ,h41 ,lord ,kames1 ,elements of ,criticism4 #fth ed4 ,with the ,author's last ,corrections and ,additions4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,edinburgh1 #aghe4 ,horn ,expedition1 ,the4 ,see ,report4 ,howitt1 ,a4 ,w41 ,on some ,australian ,ceremonies of ,initiation4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xiii4 ,hudson1 ,w4 ,h41 ,the ,naturalist in ,la ,plata4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,humboldt1 ,alexander de1 and ,bonpland1 ,aim1 ,personal ,narrative of ,travels to the ,equinoctial ,regions of the ,new ,continent1 during the years #agii-ahjd4 ,transl4 from the ,french by ,helen ,maria ,williams4 ,i4-,,vii4 ,london1 #ahad-bi4 ,hyades1 ,p41 et ,deniker1 ,j41 ,anthropologie1 ,ethnographie4 ,in ,mission scientifique du ,cap ,horn1 #ahhb-ahhi4 ,tome ,,vii4 #ahia4 ,im ,thurn1 ,everard ,f41 ,primitive ,games4 ,georgetown1 #ahij4 ,reprinted from 8,timehri40 ,im ,thurn1 ,everard ,f41 ,among the ,indians of ,guiana1 being ,sketches chiefly ,anthropologic from the ,interior of ,british ,guiana4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie4 ,leiden4 ,international ,congress of ,experimental ,psychology4 ,second session4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,jacobowski1 ,ludwig1 ,die ,anfnge der ,poesie4 ,dresden und ,leipzig1 #ahia4 ,jagor1 ,f41 ,reisen in den ,philippinen4 ,berlin1 #ahgc4 ,james1 ,william1 ,the ,principles of ,psychology4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,james1 ,william1 ,the ,physical ,basis of ,emotion4 ,in ,the ,psychological ,review1 #ahid4 ,jefferies1 ,richard1 ,the ,story of my ,heart4 #dth ,ed4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,joest1 ,wilhelm1 ,ttowiren1 ,narbenzeichnen und ,krperbemalen4 ,nebst ,originalmittheilungen von ,o4 ,finsch und ,j4 ,kubary4 ,berlin1 #ahhg4 ,joest1 ,wilhelm1 ,welt-,fahrten4 ,beitrge zur ,lnder-und ,vlkerkunde4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,berlin1 #ahij4 ,johnston1 ,henry1 ,british ,central ,africa4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,johnstone1 ,j4 ,c41 ,maoria4 ,a ,sketch of the ,manners and ,customs of the ,aboriginal ,inhabitants of ,new ,zealand4 ,london1 #ahgd4 ,jouffroy ,thomas ,simon1 ,cours d'esthtique4 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,journal des ,museum ,godeffroy4 ,hamburg4 ,journal1 ,a1 of ,american ,ethnology and ,archology4 ,edited by ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes4 ,boston and ,new ,york4 ,journal1 ,the1 of the ,anthropological ,institute of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,london4 ,journal of the ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,colombo4 ,kane1 ,paul1 ,wanderings of an ,artist among the ,indians of ,north ,america4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,kant1 ,immanuel1 ,kritik der ,urtheilskraft4 ,herausgegeben von ,benno ,erdmann4 ,leipzig1 #ahhj4 ,keating1 ,william ,h41 ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,source of ,st4 ,peter's ,river1 etc4 ,performed in the ,year #ahbc under the ,command of ,stephen ,h4 ,long4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,philadelphia1 #ahbd4 ,kidd1 ,benjamin1 ,social ,evolution4 ,nineteenth ,thousand4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,kierkegaard1 ,sren1 ,enten-,eller4 ,et livsfragment1 udgivet af ,victor ,eremita4 ,i4-,,ii4 #d;de ,udgave4 ,kjbenhavn1 #ahgh4 ,kingsley1 ,mary ,h41 ,travels in ,west ,africa4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,kingsley1 ,mary ,h41 ,west ,african ,studies4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,kleinpaul1 ,rudolf1 ,sprache ohne ,worte4 ,idee einer allgemeinen ,wissenschaft der ,sprache4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,kleinschmidt1 ,theodor1 ,theodor ,kleinschmidts ,reisen auf den ,viti-,inseln1 nach seinen brieflichen ,mittheilungen bearbeitet4 ,in ,journal des ,museum ,godeffroy4 ,heft ,,xiv4 #ahgi4 ,koeler1 ,hermann1 ,einige ,notizen ber die ,eingebornen an der ,ostkste des ,st4 ,vincent ,golfs in ,sd-,australien1 #ahcg und #ahch4 ,in ,monatsberichte ber die ,verhandlungen der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 #ahda-ahdb4 ,kolbe1 ,peter1 ,reise an das ,capo du ,bonne ,esperance4 ,nrnberg1 #agai4 ,kollmann1 ,paul1 ,the ,victoria ,nyanza4 ,the ,land1 the ,races and their ,customs1 with ,specimens of some of the ,dialects4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,knigliches ethnographisches ,museum zu ,dresden4 ,publikationen4 ,dresden4 ,kotzebue1 ,otto von1 ,entdeckungs-,reisen in die ,sd-,see1 etc4 ,unternommen in den ,jahren #ahae-ahah4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,weimar1 #ahba4 ,kreemer1 ,j41 ,rain ,preventers4 ,in ,glimpses of the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,kubary1 ,j41 ,weitere ,nachrichten von der ,insel ,ponap4 ,nach brieflichen1 vom ,jan4 #ahgd datirten ,mittheilungen ,j4 ,kubarys4 ,in ,journal des ,museum ,godeffroy4 ,heft ,,viii4 #ahge4 ,kussmaul1 ,a41 ,disturbances of ,speech4 ,in ,ziemssen1 ,cyclopdia of the ,practice of ,medicine4 ,vol4 ,,xiv4 ,lafitau1 ,murs des sauvages amriquains compares aux murs des premiers temps4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #agbd4 ,lagrange1 ,fernand1 ,physiologie des exercices du corps4 #d;ime d4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,laing1 ,alexander ,gordon1 ,travels in the ,timannee1 ,kooranko1 and ,soolima ,countries in ,western ,africa4 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,lancet1 ,the1 ,a ,journal of ,british and ,foreign ,medicine1 etc4 ,london4 ,landa1 ,diego de1 ,relation des choses de ,yucatan4 ,texte espagnol et traduction franaise par l',abb ,brasseur de ,bourbourg4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 7,coll4 des documents pour servir l'tude de l'histoire et de la philologie de l',amrique ancienne4 ,vol4 ,,iii47 ,lander1 ,richard1 ,records of ,captain ,clapperton's last ,expedition to ,africa4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,lander1 ,richard and ,john1 ,journal of an ,expedition to explore the ,course and ,termination of the ,niger4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,lang1 ,andrew1 ,the ,making of ,religion4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,lang1 ,andrew1 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,lang1 ,gideon ,s41 ,the ,aborigines of ,australia4 ,melbourne1 #ahfe4 ,lange1 ,carl1 ,bidrag til nydelsernes fysiologi som grundlag for en rationel stetik4 ,kjbenhavn1 #ahii4 ,lange1 ,carl1 ber ,gemthsbewegungen4 ,autorisirte bersetzung von ,dr4 ,h4 ,kurella4 ,leipzig1 #ahhg4 ,lange1 ,julius1 ,om kunstvrdi4 ,to foredrag4 ,kjbenhavn1 #ahgf4 ,le ,bon1 ,gustave1 ,psychologie des foules4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,leconte de ,lisle ,j4 ,m41 ,pomes barbares4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,lee1 ,vernon4 ,see ,vernon ,lee4 ,lehmann1 ,alfred1 ,die ,hauptgesetze des menschlichen ,gefhlslebens4 ,unter ,mitwirkung des ,verfassers bersetzt von ,f4 ,bendixen4 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,lenormant1 ,franois1 ,die ,magie und ,wahrsagekunst der ,chalder4 ,autorisirte1 von ,verfasser bedeutend verbesserte und vermehrte deutsche ,ausgabe4 ,jena1 #ahgh4 ,lenz1 ,oskar1 ,skizzen aus ,westafrika4 ,selbsterlebnisse4 ,berlin1 #ahgh4 ,lessing1 ,gotthold ,ephraim1 ,gelehrter ,briefwechsel zwischen ,d4 ,johann ,jacob ,reiske1 ,moses ,mendelssohn und ,gotthold ,ephraim ,lessing4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,berlin1 #aghi4 ,letherman1 ,jona1 ,sketch of the ,navajo ,tribe of ,indians1 ,territory of ,new ,mexico4 ,in ,annual ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,x4 ,for #ahee4 ,printed #ahef4 ,letourneau1 ,charles1 ,la guerre dans les diverses races humaines4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,levertin1 ,oscar1 ,studier fver fars och farsrer i ,frankrike mellan renaissancen och ,molire4 ,upsala1 #ahhh4 ,lewin1 ,t4 ,h41 ,wild ,races of ,south-,eastern ,india4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,lichtenberg1 ,georg ,christoph1 ,vermischte ,schriften nach dem ,tode gesammelt und herausgegeben4 ,i4-,,ix4 ,gttingen4 #ahjj-ahjf4 ,lichtenstein1 ,henry1 ,travels in ,southern ,africa in the ,years #ahjc-ahjf4 ,translated from the original ,german by ,annie ,plumptre4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahab-ahae4 ,lindsay1 ,w4 ,lauder1 ,mind in the ,lower ,animals in ,health and ,disease4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,lippert1 ,julius1 ,kulturgeschichte der ,menschheit in ihrem organischen ,aufbau4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhf-ahhg4 ,lipps1 ,theodor1 ,raumaesthetik und geometrisch-optische ,tuschungen4 ,leipzig1 #ahig4 7,schriften der ,ges4 fr psychologische ,forschung4 ,,ii4 #i-aj47 ,lisiansky1 ,urey1 ,a ,voyage round the ,world1 in the ,years #ahjc-ahjf4 ,london1 #ahad4 ,livingstone1 ,david1 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,lloyd1 ,george ,thomas1 ,thirty-three ,years in ,tasmania and ,victoria4 ,london1 #ahfb4 ,lloyd1 ,l41 ,the ,game ,birds and ,wild ,fowl of ,sweden and ,norway4 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,lobeck1 ,chr4 ,augustus1 ,aglaophamus sive de theologiae mysticae graecorum causis4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,regimontii ,prussorum1 #ahbi4 ,lombroso1 ,cesare1 ,the ,man of ,genius4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,lubbock1 ,john1 ,the ,origin of ,civilisation and the ,primitive ,condition of ,man4 #eth ed4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,lubbock1 ,john1 ,pre-,historic ,times1 as illustrated by ,ancient ,remains1 and the ,manners and ,customs of ,modern ,savages4 #eth ed4 ,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahij4 ,lucretius1 ,t4 ,lucreti ,cari ,de rerum natura libri sex4 ,edited by ,h4 ,a4 ,j4 ,munro4 ,fourth edition4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,cambridge1 #ahhf4 ,lumholtz1 ,carl1 ,among ,cannibals1 an ,account of four ,years' ,travel in ,australia1 etc4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,ltke1 ,voyage autour du monde4 ,traduit du russe4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,paris1 #ahce-ahcf4 ,macpherson1 ,samuel ,charters1 ,memorials of ,service in ,india4 ,edited by his ,brother1 ,william ,macpherson4 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,magitot1 ,louis ,flix mile1 ,essai sur les mutilations ethniques4 ,in ,congrs ,international d'anthropologie et d'archologie prhistoriques4 ,comptes rendus4 ,session ,,ix4 #ahhj4 ,lisbonne1 #ahhd4 ,mallery1 ,garrick1 ,picture-writing of the ,american ,indians4 ,in ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,x4 ,mallery1 ,garrick1 ,sign ,language among ,north ,american ,indians compared with that among other ,peoples and ,deaf-mutes4 ,in ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,i4 ,man1 ,e4 ,h41 ,on the ,aboriginal ,inhabitants of the ,andaman ,islands4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,vol4 ,,xii4 ,maning1 ,fr4 ,e41 ,old ,new ,zealand4 ,by a ,pakeha ,maori4 ,auckland1 #ahfc4 ,mann1 ,robert ,james1 ,the ,kaffir ,race of ,natal4 ,in ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london4 ,new ,series4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,mantegazza1 ,p41 ,die ,physiologie des ,hasses1 aus dem ,italienischen von ,r4 ,teuscher4 ,jena #ahhi4 ,mantegazza1 ,p41 ,physiognomy and ,expression4 ,london #ahij4 ,march1 ,h4 ,colley1 ,evolution and ,psychology in ,art4 ,in ,mind4 ,new series4 ,v4 #ahif4 ,march1 ,h4 ,colley1 ,polynesian ,ornament a ,mythography2 or1 a ,symbolism of ,origin and ,descent4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xxii4 ,markham1 ,clements ,r41 ,ollanta4 ,an ancient ,yuca ,drama4 ,transl4 from the original ,quichua4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,marques1 ,a41 ,notes pour servir une monographie des les de ,samoa4 ,in ,boletim da ,sociedade de ,geographia4 ,,viii4 ,serie ,no4 #a4 #ahhh4 ,marryat1 ,frank ,s41 ,borneo and the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,marsden1 ,william1 ,the ,history of ,sumatra4 #crd ed4 with ,corrections1 ,additions1 and ,plates4 ,london1 #ahaa4 ,marshall1 ,henry ,rutgers1 sthetic ,principles4 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,marshall1 ,henry ,rutgers1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,marshall1 ,william ,e41 ,a ,phrenologist amongst the ,todas4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,martial1 ,l4 ,f41 ,histoire du voyage4 ,in ,mission scientifique du ,cap ,horn4 #ahhb-ahhc4 ,tome ,i4 #ahhh4 ,martin1 ,k41 ,reisen in den ,molukken1 in ,ambon1 den ,uliassern1 ,seran 7,ceram7 und ,buru4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,leiden1 #ahid4 ,mason1 ,otis ,t41 ,the ,origins of ,invention3 ,a ,study of ,industry among ,primitive ,peoples4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,mathew1 ,john1 ,mary ,river and ,bunya-,bunya ,country4 ,in ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race4 ,,iii4 ,mathews1 ,r4 ,h41 ,the ,bora1 or ,initiation ,ceremonies of the ,kamilaroi ,tribe4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xxiv4-,,xxv4 ,matthews1 ,washington1 ,the ,mountain ,chant4 ,a ,navajo ,ceremony4 ,in ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,v4 ,matthews1 ,washington1 ,navaho ,legends collected and translated4 ,boston and ,new ,york1 #ahig4 7,memoirs of ,the ,american ,folk-,lore ,society4 ,vol4 ,v47 ,matthews1 ,washington1 ,the ,prayer of a ,navajo ,shaman4 ,in the ,american ,anthropologist ,vol4 ,i4 #ahhh4 ,maupassant1 ,guy de1 ,des ,vers4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,metz1 ,f41 ,the ,tribes inhabiting the ,neilgherry ,hills2 their ,social ,customs and ,religious ,rites4 #bnd enlarged ed4 ,mangalore1 #ahfd4 ,meyer1 ,adolf ,bernhard1 ,bilderschriften des ostindischen ,archipels und der ,sdsee4 ,in ,knigliches ethnographisches ,museum zu ,dresden4 ,publikationen4 ,dresden1 #ahha4 ,michelet1 ,j41 ,histoire de ,france4 ,i4-,,xvii4 ,paris1 #ahcc-fg4 ,michelet1 ,j41 ,la sorcire4 #b;ime d4 ,bruxelles et ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 ,mind1 ,a quarterly ,review of ,psychology and ,philosophy4 ,london4 ,mission scientifique du ,cap ,horn4 #ahhb-ahhc4 ,i4-,,vii4 ,paris1 #ahhh-ahia4 ,mitchell1 ,arthur1 ,the ,past in the ,present3 ,what is ,civilisation8 ,edinburgh1 #ahhj4 ,mollien1 ,g41 ,travels in the ,interior of ,africa to the ,sources of the ,senegal and ,gambia1 performed in the ,year #ahah4 ,london1 #ahbj4 ,monatsberichte ber die ,verhandlungen der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin4 ,berlin4 ,mooney1 ,james1 ,the ,cherokee ,ball ,play4 ,in ,the ,amer4 ,anthropologist4 ,,iii4 ,morgan1 ,lewis ,h41 ,league of the ,ho-de'-no-sau-nee1 or ,iroquois4 ,rochester1 #ahea4 ,moseley1 ,h4 ,n41 ,on the ,inhabitants of the ,admiralty ,islands4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,vi4 ,mouat1 ,frederic ,j41 ,adventures and ,researches among the ,andaman ,islanders4 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,mller1 ,friedrich1 ,allgemeine ,ethnographie4 ,zweite umgearb4 und verm4 ,auflage4 ,wien1 #ahgi4 ,muller1 ,hendrik ,p4 ,n41 ,industrie des ,cafres du sud-est de l',afrique4 ,description des objets reprsnts par ,joh4 ,f4 ,snelleman4 ,leyde1 s4a4 ,mulsant1 ,e41 et ,verraux1 ,edouard1 ,histoire naturelle des oiseaux-mouches4 ,i4-,v4 ,lyon1 #ahgd-gh4 ,mundy1 ,godfrey ,charles1 ,our ,antipodes3 or1 ,residence and ,rambles in the ,australasian ,colonies4 #dth ed4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,musters1 ,george ,chaworth1 ,at ,home with the ,patagonians4 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,nachtigal1 ,gustav1 ,sahr und ,sdn4 ,ergebnisse sechsjhriger ,reisen in ,afrika4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,berlin1 #ahgi-ahhi4 ,nagele1 ,anton1 ,der ,schlangen-,cultus4 ,in ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie und ,sprachwissenschaft4 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 ,nevill1 ,hugh1 ,the ,vddas of ,ceylon4 ,in ,the ,taprobanian4 ,,ii4 ,nietzsche1 ,friedrich1 ,die ,geburt der ,tragdie4 ,dritte ,auflage4 ,leipzig1 #ahid4 ,nilsson1 ,s41 ,skandinavisk ,fauna4 ,foglarna4 #c4 uppl4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,lund1 #aheh4 ,noir1 ,ludwig1 ,der ,ursprung der ,sprache4 ,mainz1 #ahgg4 ,nyrop1 ,kristiac1 ,kludetrt4 ,in ,dania4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,oldfield1 ,augustus1 ,on the ,aborigines of ,australia4 ,in ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london4 ,new ,series4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #ahfe4 ,oviedo1 ,fernandez de1 ,histoire des ,indes4 ,traduite de ,castillan4 ,paris1 #aeee4 ,parker1 ,edward ,stone1 ,the ,aborigines of ,australia4 ,melbourne1 #ahed4 ,paulhan1 ,fr41 ,les phnomnes affectifs et les lois de leur apparition4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,pron1 ,f41 ,voyage de dcouvertes aux terres ,australes1 pendant les annes #ahjj-ahjd4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paris1 #ahjg-ahaf4 ,peschel1 ,oscar1 ,vlkerkunde4 ,zweite unvernderte ,auflage4 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 ,petermann1 ,a41 ,mittheilungen aus ,justus ,perthes' geographischer ,anstalt4 ,gotha4 ,petherick1 ,john1 ,egypt1 the ,soudan and ,central ,africa4 ,edinburgh and ,london4 #ahfa4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society4 ,london4 ,philosophische ,studien1 herausgegeben von ,wilhelm ,wundt4 ,leipzig4 ,poe1 ,e4 ,a41 ,works4 ,i4-,x4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,polack1 ,j4 ,s41 ,manners and ,customs of the ,new ,zealanders4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,the4 ,new ,york4 ,posnett1 ,hutcheson ,macaulay1 ,comparative ,literature4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,poulton1 ,edward ,bagnall1 ,the ,colours of ,animals1 their ,meaning and ,use4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,powers1 ,stephan1 ,tribes of ,california4 ,u4,s4 ,geograph4 and ,geolog4 ,survey of the ,rocky ,mountain ,region4 ,contributions to ,north ,american ,ethnology4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,washington1 #ahgg4 ,preller1 ,l41 ,griechische ,mythologie4 #d4 ,aufl4 von ,carl ,robert4 ,berlin4 ,in progress4 ,preyer1 ,w41 ,die ,seele des ,kindes4 ,dritte vermehrte ,auflage4 ,leipzig1 #ahij4 ,pritchard1 ,w4 ,t41 ,polynesian ,reminiscences2 or1 ,life in the ,south ,pacific ,islands4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,proceedings of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal4 ,calcutta4 ,psychological ,review1 ,the4 ,new ,york and ,london4 ,quarterly ,review1 ,the4 ,london4 ,quilter1 ,harry1 ,sententiae ,artis4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,raffles1 ,thomas ,stamford1 ,the ,history of ,java4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,second ed4 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,ralston1 ,w4 ,r4 ,s41 ,the ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 as illustrative of ,slavonic ,mythology and ,russian ,social ,life4 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,rapp1 ,a41 ,die ,mnade im griechischen ,cultus1 in der ,kunst und ,poesie4 ,in ,rheinisches ,museum4 ,,xxvii4 ,ratzel1 ,friedrich1 ,vlkerkunde4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,leipzig4 #ahhe-ahhh4 ,read1 ,charles ,h41 ,on the ,origin and ,sacred ,character of ,certain ,ornaments of the ,s4,e4 ,pacific4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xxi4 ,reade1 ,w4 ,winwood1 ,savage ,africa4 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,reade1 ,w4 ,winwood1 ,the ,african ,sketch-book4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,rclus1 lie1 ,l'me comme souffle1 ombre et reflet4 dition de la 8,socit nouvelle40 7,bruxelles71 #ahif4 ,rclus1 lie1 ,les primitifs4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,reeves1 ,edward1 ,brown ,men and ,women3 or1 ,the ,south ,sea ,islands in #ahie and #ahif4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,rengger1 ,j4 ,r41 ,naturgeschichte der ,saeugethiere von ,paraguay4 ,basel1 #ahcj4 ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,see ,annual ,report4 ,report on the ,work of the ,horn ,scientific ,expedition to ,central ,australia4 ,part ,,iv4 ,anthropology4 ,edited by ,baldwin ,spencer4 ,london and ,melbourne1 #ahif4 ,revue ,critique4 ,paris4 ,revue des deux mondes4 ,paris4 ,revue philosophique4 ,paris4 ,rheinisches ,museum fr ,philologie1 ,geschichte und griechische ,philosophie4 ,bonn4 ,ribot1 ,th41 ,psychologie de l'attention4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,ribot1 ,th41 ,the ,psychology of the ,emotions4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,richardson1 ,john1 ,arctic ,searching ,expedition4 ,a ,journal of a ,boat-,voyage through ,rupert's ,land and the ,arctic ,sea4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahea4 ,rienzi1 ,g4 ,l4 ,domeny de1 ,ocanie3 revue gographique et ethnographique4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,paris1 #ahcf-ahcg4 7,l'univers pittoresque47 ,ritchie1 ,david1 ,darwinism and ,politics4 ,second edition1 with two additional essays on ,human ,evolution4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,robley1 ,major-,general1 ,moko2 or ,maori ,tattooing4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,rochas d',aiglun1 ,albert de1 ,l'extriorisation de la sensibilit4 #c;ime d4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,rohde1 ,erwin1 ,psyche4 ,seelencult und ,unsterblichkeitsglaube der ,griechen4 ,freiburg i4 ,b4 und ,leipzig1 #ahid4 ,romanes1 ,george ,j41 ,animal ,intelligence4 #crd ed4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,romanes1 ,george ,j41 ,darwin and after ,darwin4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #ahib-ahig4 ,romanes1 ,george ,j41 ,mental ,evolution in ,man4 ,origin of ,human ,faculty4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,romilly1 ,hugh ,hastings1 ,from my ,verandah in ,new ,guinea4 ,with an ,introduction by ,andrew ,lang4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,romilly1 ,hugh ,hastings1 ,the ,western ,pacific and ,new ,guinea4 ,second edition4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,roth1 ,h4 ,ling1 ,the ,aborigines of ,tasmania4 ,preface by ,edward ,b4 ,tylor4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,roth1 ,walter ,e41 ,ethnological ,studies among the ,north-,west ,central ,queensland ,aborigines4 ,brisbane and ,london1 #ahig4 ,ruskin1 ,john1 ,modern ,painters4 ,i4-,,vi4 ,orpington1 #ahhh4 ,ruskin1 ,john1 ,the ,laws of ,fsole4 ,orpington1 #ahgi4 ,ruskin1 ,john1 ,lectures on ,art4 #eth ed4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,ruskin1 ,john1 ,the ,queen of the ,air3 being a ,study of the ,greek ,myths of ,cloud and ,storm4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,st4 ,john1 ,spenser1 ,life in the ,forests of the ,far ,east2 or1 ,travels in ,northern ,borneo4 ,i4-,,ii4 #bnd ed41 revised4 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,salvado1 ,r41 ,voyage en ,australie4 ,traduit de l'ltalien par ,charles ,auberive4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,sarasin1 ,paul und ,fritz1 ,ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher ,forschungen auf ,ceylon4 ,dritter ,band4 ,die ,weddas von ,ceylon4 ,wiesbaden1 #ahib-ahic4 ,savage1 ,john1 ,some ,account of ,new ,zealand1 particularly the ,bay of ,islands1 etc4 ,london1 #ahjg4 ,sayce1 ,a4 ,h41 ,introduction to the ,science of ,language4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,scherer1 ,wilhelm1 ,poetik4 ,berlin1 #ahhh4 ,schiller1 ber die sthetische ,erziehung des ,menschen4 ,schlegel1 ,a4 ,w4 von1 ,smmtliche ,werke4 ,i4-,,xii4 ,leipzig1 #ahdf-dg4 ,schmeltz1 ,j4 ,d4 ,e4 und ,krause1 ,r41 ,die ethnographisch-anthropologische ,abtheilung des ,museum ,godeffroy in ,hamburg4 ,hamburg1 #ahha4 ,schmeltz1 ,j4 ,d4 ,e4 ,see ,clercq1 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 de4 ,schmidkunz1 ,hans1 ,psychologie der ,suggestion4 ,mit rztlich-psychologischen ,ergnzungen von ,franz ,carl ,gerster4 ,stuttgart1 #ahib4 ,schmidt1 ,emil1 ,ceylon4 ,berlin1 s4a4 ,schneider1 ,georg ,heinrich1 ,der thierische ,wille4 ,leipzig1 #ahhj4 ,schneider1 ,wilhelm1 ,die ,naturvlker3 ,missverstndnisse1 ,missdeutungen und ,misshandlungen4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,paderborn und ,mnster1 #ahhe-ahhf4 ,schomburgk1 ,richard1 ,reisen in ,british ,guiana in den ,jahren #ahdj-ahdd4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,leipzig1 #ahdg-ahdh4 ,schoolcraft1 ,henry ,r41 ,information respecting the ,history1 ,condition1 and ,prospects of the ,indian ,tribes of the ,united ,states4 ,i4-,,vi4 ,philadelphia1 #ahea-ahfj4 ,schrmann1 ,c4 ,w41 ,the ,port ,lincoln ,tribe4 ,in ,woods1 ,j4 ,d41 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia4 ,schurtz1 ,h41 ,amulette und ,zaubermittel4 ,in ,archiv fr ,anthropologie4 ,,xxii4 #ahic4 ,schurtz1 ,h41 ,das ,augenornament und verwandte ,probleme4 ,in ,abhandlungen d4 k4 s4 ,gesellsch4 d4 ,wissenschaften4 ,,xxxvi4 #ahie4 ,schurtz1 ,h41 ,grundzge einer ,philosophie der ,tracht 7mit besonderer ,bercksichtigung der ,negertrachten74 ,stuttgart1 #ahia4 ,schweinfurth1 ,georg1 ,artes ,africanae4 ,illustrations and ,descriptions of ,productions of the ,industrial ,arts of ,central ,african ,tribes4 ,leipzig and ,london1 #ahge4 ,schweinfurth1 ,georg1 ,im ,herzen von ,africa4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,leipzig1 #ahgd4 ,scott1 ,colin ,a41 ,sex and ,art4 ,in ,the ,american ,journal of ,psychology4 ,,vii4 #ahif4 ,seckendorff1 ,g4 von1 ,vorlesungen ber ,deklamation und ,mimik4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,braunschweig1 #ahaf4 ,selenka1 ,emil und ,lenore1 ,sonnige ,welten4 ,ostasiatische ,reise-,skizzen4 ,wiesbaden1 #ahif4 ,shelley1 ,percy ,bysshe1 ,a ,defence of ,poetry4 ,edited with ,introduction and ,notes by ,albert ,s4 ,cook4 ,boston1 #ahia4 ,shooter1 ,joseph1 ,the ,kafirs of ,natal and the ,zulu ,country4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,shortland1 ,edward1 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand4 ,london1 #ahea4 ,shortland1 ,edward1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders4 ,london1 #ahed4 ,sirr1 ,henry ,charles1 ,ceylon and the ,cingalese4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahej4 ,sittl1 ,karl1 ,geschichte der griechischen ,literatur bis auf ,alexander den ,grossen4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,mnchen1 #ahhd-hg4 ,skeat1 ,walter ,william1 ,malay ,magic1 being an ,introduction to the ,folk-lore and ,popular ,religion of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,with a ,preface by ,charles ,otto ,blagden4 ,london1 #aijj4 ,smith1 ,adam1 ,the ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments4 ,new ed4 ,london1 #ahec4 ,smith1 ,edmond ,reuel1 ,the ,araucanians2 or1 ,notes of a ,tour among the ,indian ,tribes of ,southern ,chili4 ,new ,york1 #ahee4 ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,see ,annual ,report4 ,smyth1 ,r4 ,brough1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria3 with ,notes relating to the ,habits of the ,natives of other ,parts of ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,soldi1 mile1 ,la langue sacre4 ,la cosmoglyphie4 ,le mystre de la cration4 ,paris1 #ahig4 ,somerville1 ,boyle ,t41 ,notes on some ,islands of the ,new ,hebrides4 ,in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 ,,xxiii4 ,souriau1 ,paul1 ,l'esthtique du mouvement4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,sparrman1 ,anders1 ,resa till ,goda ,hopps-,udden1 ,sdra ,polarkretsen och omkring jordklotet4 ,i41 #a-b4 ,,ii4 ,stockholm1 #aghc-ahah4 ,spencer1 ,baldwin1 and ,gillen1 ,j4 ,f41 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,spencer1 ,baldwin4 ,see ,report of the ,work of the ,horn ,expedition4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 ,descriptive ,sociology2 or1 ,groups of ,sociological ,facts1 classified and arranged4 ,compiled and abstracted by ,david ,duncan1 ,richard ,scheppig1 and ,james ,collier4 ,division ,i41 ,nos4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,london1 #ahgd1 #ahge1 #ahgf1 #ahgh2 ,division ,,ii41 ,nos4 #b1 #g4 ,london1 #ahgd1 #ahhj2 ,division ,,iii41 ,nos4 #a1 #h4 ,london1 #ahgc1 #ahha4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 ,essays3 ,scientific1 ,political1 and ,speculative4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,library ed4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 ,the ,principles of ,psychology4 ,i4-,,ii4 #crd ed4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 ,the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,third edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahhe4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,london and ,edinburgh4 #ahgi-hb4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,london and ,edinburgh1 #ahif4 ,sproat1 ,gilbert ,malcolm1 ,scenes and ,studies of ,savage ,life4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,stanley1 ,hiram ,m41 ,studies in the ,evolutionary ,psychology of ,feeling4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,starcke1 ,c4 ,n41 ,the ,primitive ,family in its ,origin and ,development4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,stein1 ,k4 ,heinrich von1 ,goethe und ,schiller4 ,beitrge zur sthetik der deutschen ,klassiker4 ,leipzig1 s4a4 ,steinen1 ,karl von den1 ,durch ,central-,brasilien4 ,expedition zur ,erforschung des ,sching im ,jahre #ahhd4 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 ,steinen1 ,karl von den1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,central-,brasiliens3 ,reiseschilderungen und ,ergebnisse der zweiten ,sching-,expedition1 #ahhg-ahhh4 ,berlin1 #ahid4 ,stern1 ,paul1 ,einfhlung und ,association in der neueren sthetik4 ,ein ,beitrag zur psychologischen ,analyse der sthetischen ,anschauung4 ,hamburg und ,leipzig1 #ahih4 ,stevens1 ,hrolf ,vaughan1 ,materialien zur ,kenntniss der wilden ,stmme auf der ,halbinsel ,malka4 ,in ,verffentlichungen aus dem kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde4 ,band ,,ii4 ,hefte #c-d4 #ahib4 ,stevenson1 ,matilda ,coxe1 ,the ,sia4 ,in ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 ,,xi4 ,stevenson1 ,mrs4 ,tilly ,e41 ,the ,religious ,life of the ,zui ,child4 ,in ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology4 ,v4 ,stewart1 ,dugald1 ,elements of the ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #agib-ahbg4 ,stewart1 ,dugald1 ,philosophical ,essays4 ,edinburgh1 #ahaj4 ,stirling1 ,e4 ,c41 ,anthropology4 ,in ,report of the ,work of the ,horn ,scientific ,expedition4 ,part ,,iv4 ,edited by ,baldwin ,spencer4 ,stokes1 ,j4 ,lort1 ,discoveries in ,australia2 in the ,years #ahcg-dc4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahdf4 ,stoll1 ,otto1 ,suggestion und ,hypnotismus in der ,vlkerpsychologie4 ,leipzig1 #ahid4 ,stolpe1 ,hjalmar1 ,ueber die ,ttowirung der ,oster-,insulaner4 ,in ,abhandlungen und ,berichte des k4 zool4 und anthropol4-ethnogr4 ,museums zu ,dresden1 #ahii4 ,festschrift fr ,a4 ,b4 ,meyer4 ,stolpe1 ,hjalmar1 ,utvecklingsfreteelser i naturfolkens ornamentik4 ,in ,ymer4 #ahij-ia4 ,stout1 ,g4 ,f41 ,analytic ,psychology4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,stout1 ,g4 ,f41 ,a ,manual of ,psychology4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,stricker1 ,s41 ,studien ber die ,bewegungsvorstellungen4 ,wien1 #ahhb4 ,sully1 ,james1 ,the ,human ,mind4 ,a ,text-,book of ,psychology4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,sully-,prudhomme ,ren ,franois ,armand1 ,l'expression dans les beaux-arts4 ,application de la psychologie l'tude de l'artiste et des beaux-arts4 7uvres de ,sully-,prudhomme4 ,,iii47 ,paris1 #ahhc4 ,svoboda1 ,adalbert1 ,kritische ,geschichte der ,ideale4 ,i4 ,leipzig1 #ahhf4 ,svoboda1 ,w41 ,die ,bewohner des ,nicobaren ,archipels4 ,in ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie4 ,v4 ,swettenham1 ,frank ,athelstane1 ,malay ,sketches4 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,symons1 ,arthur1 ,the ,symbolist ,movement in ,literature4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,taine1 ,h41 ,de l'idal dans l'art4 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,taine1 ,h41 ,philosophie de l'art4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,taplin1 ,g41 ,the ,folk-lore1 ,manners1 ,customs1 and ,languages of the ,south ,australian ,aborigines4 ,first ,series4 ,adelaide1 #ahgi4 ,taplin1 ,g41 ,the ,narrinyeri4 ,in ,woods1 ,j4 ,d41 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia4 ,taprobanian1 ,the1 ,a ,dravidian ,journal of ,oriental ,studies in and around ,ceylon4 ,edited by ,hugh ,nevill4 ,bombay4 ,tarde1 ,g41 tudes pnales et sociales4 ,lyon et ,paris1 #ahib4 ,tarde1 ,g41 ,foules et sectes au point de vue criminel4 ,in ,revue des deux mondes4 ,tome ,,cxx4 #ahic4 ,tarde1 ,g41 ,la logique sociale4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,taylor1 ,richard1 ,te ,ika a ,maui2 or1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,tennent1 ,james ,emerson1 ,ceylon4 #eth ed41 thoroughly revised4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,tetens1 ,alf41 und ,johann ,kubary1 ,die ,karolineninsel ,yap oder ,guap4 ,in ,journal des ,museum ,godeffroy4 ,,ii4 ,thomson1 ,arthur ,s41 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand3 ,past and ,present--,savage and ,civilized4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,tilskueren4 ,kjbenhavn4 ,tolstoy1 ,leo1 ,what is ,art8 ,translated by ,a4 ,maude4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,transactions of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london4 ,london4 ,turner1 ,george1 ,nineteen ,years in ,polynesia3 ,missionary ,life1 ,travels1 and ,researches in the ,islands of the ,pacific4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,turner1 ,george1 ,samoa a ,hundred ,years ago and long before4 ,with a ,preface by ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,tylor1 ,edward ,b41 ,primitive ,culture4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,tylor1 ,edward ,b41 ,researches into the early ,history of ,mankind and the ,development of ,civilization4 #crd ed41 revised4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,survey4 ,see ,annual ,report1 and ,powers1 ,stephan4 ,vancouver1 ,george1 ,a ,voyage of ,discovery to the ,north ,pacific ,ocean1 and round the ,world1 etc41 performed in the ,years #agij-ie4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,london1 #agih4 ,van ,dyke1 ,john ,c41 ,principles of ,art4 ,new ,york1 #ahhg4 ,van ,ende1 ,u41 ,histoire naturelle de la croyance4 ,premire partie4 ,l'animal4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,varigny1 ,c4 de1 ,quatorze ans aux les ,sandwich4 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,verhandlungen der ,berliner ,gesellschaft fr ,anthropologie1 ,ethnologie und ,urgeschichte4 ,berlin4 ,vernon ,lee and ,anstruther ,thompson1 ,beauty and ,ugliness4 ,in ,the ,contemporary ,review4 ,vol4 ,,lxxii4 #ahig4 ,verffentlichungen aus dem kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde4 ,berlin4 ,vischer1 ,friederich ,theodor1 ,aesthetik oder ,wissenschaft des ,schnen4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,reutlingen und ,leipzig1 #ahdf-aheg4 ,vodskov1 ,h4 ,s41 ,sjledyrkelse og ,naturdyrkelse4 ,bidrag til ,bestemmelsen af den mytologiske ,metode4 ,frste ,bind3 ,rig-,veda og ,edda4 ,kjbenhavn1 #ahij4 ,wagner1 ,richard1 ,gesammelte ,schriften und ,dichtungen4 ,i4-,x4 ,leipzig1 #ahga-hc4 ,waitz1 ,theodor1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker4 ,i4-,,vi4 7,theil ,,vi4 von ,g4 ,gerland47 ,leipzig1 #ahei-gb4 ,walhouse1 ,m4 ,j41 ,some ,account of a ,leaf-wearing ,tribe on the ,western ,coast of ,india4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,iv4 ,walkley1 ,a4 ,b41 ,frames of ,mind4 ,london1 #ahii4 ,wallace1 ,alfred ,russel1 ,darwinism3 an ,exposition of the ,theory of ,natural ,selection1 with some of its ,applications4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,wallace1 ,alfred ,russel1 ,tropical ,nature1 and other ,essays4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,wallaschek1 ,richard1 ,natural ,selection and ,music4 ,in ,international ,congress of ,experimental ,psychology4 ,second ,session4 #ahib4 ,wallaschek1 ,richard1 ,on the ,difference of ,time and ,rhythm in ,music4 ,in ,mind4 ,,iv4 ,wallaschek1 ,richard1 ,primitive ,music4 ,an ,inquiry into the ,origin and ,development of ,music1 ,songs1 ,instruments1 ,dances1 and ,pantomimes of ,savage ,races4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,ward1 ,herbert1 ,ethnographical ,notes relating to the ,congo ,tribes4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xxiv4 ,welcker1 ,f4 ,g41 ,kleine ,schriften zur griechischen ,litteraturgeschichte4 ,i4 ,bonn1 #ahdd4 ,westermarck1 ,edward1 ,the ,history of ,human ,marriage4 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,weston1 ,walter1 ,customs and ,superstitions in the ,highlands of ,central ,japan4 ,in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,,xxvi4 ,wilken1 ,g4 ,a41 ,handleiding voor de ,vergelijkende ,volkenkunde van ,nederlandsch-,indi4 ,leiden1 #ahic4 ,williams1 ,thomas1 ,fiji and the ,fijians2 ,extended1 with ,notices of ,recent ,events2 by ,james ,calvert4 ,edited by ,george ,stringer ,rowe4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,wilson1 ,c4 ,t41 and ,felkin1 ,r4 ,w41 ,uganda and the ,egyptian ,soudan4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,winterbottom1 ,thomas1 ,an ,account of the ,native ,africans in the ,neighbourhood of ,sierra ,leone4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahjc4 ,wissmann1 ,hermann von1 ,im innern ,afrikas4 #c4 ,aufl4 ,leipzig1 #ahia4 ,wissmann1 ,hermann von1 ,unter deutscher ,flagge quer durch ,afrika von ,west nach ,ost4 ,von #ahhj bis #ahhc aus gefhrt4 ,berlin1 #ahhi4 ,woldt1 ,a41 ,die ,kultusgegenstnde der ,golden und ,giljaken4 ,in ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie4 ,i4 ,wood1 ,j4 ,g41 ,the ,natural ,history of ,man2 being an ,account of the ,manners and ,customs of the uncivilised ,races of ,men4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,london1 #ahfh-ahgj4 ,woods1 ,j4 ,d41 ,the ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia4 ,adelaide1 #ahgi4 ,wundt1 ,wilhelm1 ,ethik4 ,eine ,untersuchung der ,thatsachen und ,gesetze des sittlichen ,lebens4 ,zweite umgearb4 ,aufl4 ,stuttgart1 #ahib4 ,wundt1 ,wilhelm1 ,zur ,lehre von den ,gemthsbewegungen4 ,in ,philosophische ,studien4 ,,vi4 ,wuttke1 ,heinrich1 ,geschichte der ,schrift und des ,schriftthums von den rohen ,anfangen des ,schreibens in der ,tatuirung bis zur ,legung elektromagnetischer ,drhte4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 ,wzn1 ,c4 ,m4 ,pleyte1 ,zur ,kenntnis der religisen ,anschauungen der ,bataks4 ,in ,globus4 ,vol4 ,,lx4 ,ymer4 ,tidskrift utgifven af ,svenska sllskapet fr antropologi och geografi4 ,stockholm4 ,zacker1 ,konrad1 ,kampf des ,sommers und ,winters4 ,in ,globus4 ,,xxxi4 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie4 ,berlin4 ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie und ,sprachwissenschaft4 ,leipzig4 ,ziemssen1 ,h4 von1 ,cyclopdia of the ,practice of ,medicine4 ,transl4 ,i4-,,xviii4 ,london1 #ahge-ahha4 ,zoysa1 ,louis de1 ,note on the ,origin of the ,veddas1 with a few ,specimens of their ,songs and ,charms4 ,in ,journal of the ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #ahha4 ,vol4 ,,vii4 ,part ,,ii4 ,,index ,,of ,,authors ,abbott1 #bhg ,abercromby1 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,smyth1 #ff1 #bbd1 #bei1 #bfb ,soldi1 #bhd ,somerville1 #bag ,souriau1 #hi1 #bef ,sparrman1 #bcc1 #bfc ,spencer and ,gillen1 #aeb1 #afg1 #agc1 #bai1 #bbf1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #bhj ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #h1 #ba1 #bf1 #cg1 #dh1 #di1 #ea1 #fg1 #gf1 #gi1 #ib1 #aji1 #afe1 #aff1 #agj1 #agi1 #aih1 #bbb1 #bbf1 #bbi1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bec1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bgi1 #bhg ,sproat1 #bfg ,stanley1 #gg ,starcke1 #bbf ,stein1 #acj1 #acf ,steinen1 #aec1 #aef1 #afa1 #afh1 #agf1 #baf1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bfh ,stern1 #ge ,stevens1 #bbd ,stevenson1 ,m4 ,c41 #bhc1 #bhd ,stevenson1 ,t4 ,e41 #bhd ,stewart1 #ec1 #gd1 #gf1 #gg1 #hj1 #aec ,stirling1 #aeb1 #bbf1 #bbg ,stokes1 #bbg ,stoll1 #fa1 #gi1 #bhe1 #bib ,stolpe1 #aj1 #bbc ,stout1 #cf1 #cg1 #dd ,strange1 #aif ,stricker1 #gg ,sturt1 #gi ,sully1 #ed1 #eg ,sully-,prudhomme1 #ie1 #ii ,svoboda1 ,a41 #bag1 #cjj ,svoboda1 ,w41 #agg ,swettenham1 #gi ,symons1 #abb ,taine1 #f1 #bc1 #aah1 #aai1 #acj1 #aca1 #acd ,taplin1 #aei1 #afj1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bcc1 #bea ,tarde1 #gd1 #id1 #adi1 #bhg ,taylor1 #ei1 #ff1 #fg1 #bhg ,tennent1 #bcg ,tennyson1 #fd ,tetens1 #bbj1 #bfb ,thompson1 #gf1 #ia1 #ig ,thomson1 #bed1 #bfb1 #bfh ,tolstoy1 #acd ,turner1 #bcc1 #bed ,tylor1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee1 #agb1 #bai1 #bhe ,vancouver1 #bcc ,van ,dyke1 #aci ,van ,ende1 #hd1 #aih ,varigny1 #afa ,vernon ,lee1 #gf1 #ia1 #ig ,vischer1 ,fr4 ,th41 #f1 #bc1 #aah ,vischer1 ,robert1 #ge ,vodskov1 #bei ,wagner1 #gj1 #abd ,waitz1 #bag ,walhouse1 #bia ,walkley1 #ei ,wallace1 #ab1 #bf1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #aib1 #aih ,wallaschek1 #ab1 #hg1 #ajf1 #bcj1 #bfa1 #bfc ,ward1 #ahc1 #bbf ,weddel1 #gi ,welcker1 #ei ,westermarck1 #aij1 #aic1 #bje1 #bji1 #bab1 #bae1 #baf1 #bbj1 #bbg ,weston1 #bhc ,wilken1 #baf1 #bbb ,williams1 #afe1 #bfb1 #bhc ,wilson and ,felkin1 #aeh ,winterbottom1 #bed1 #bhe ,wissman1 #bed ,woldt1 #bhg ,wood1 #aeb1 #bfe1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bga ,woods1 #aei1 #afj1 #bbd1 #bcc1 #bea1 #bfb1 #bgi1 #bhc ,wundt1 #fb1 #bba ,wuttke1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bga ,wzn1 #bia ,zacher1 #bhd ,ziegler1 #bjj ,zoysa1 de1 #bcg ,,index ,,of ,,subjects ,acquired pleasure-gettings1 #eg ,acting1 psychology of1 #eb1 #ec ,activity and feeling1 #cb-ce2 activity involved in dolce far niente1 #cg sthetic1 its position as a science1 #a1 #b1 #d1 #e2 its development #a-c2 its methods1 #e1 #f feelings1 #ada judgment1 presupposing some degree of intellectual and moral development1 #ahh of the hen1 #ahg2 its development in apparent conflict with natural selection1 #ahi ,agricultural rites1 #bhg ,ansthesia and self-woundings1 #fa-fe ,ancestor worship1 #age ,anger1 #dg1 #dh1 #ed1 #fb ,animal display1 #ahf-bjb ,animating idols1 means of1 #bia ,aphasia1 #aea ,apolline serenity versus ,dionysiac rapture1 #aje ,architecture1 the1 of the ,dyaks1 #bgd2 of the ,maoris1 #bge ,art1 as explained by supernatural causes1 #ab2 as excitement and sedative1 #gj1 #ga2 as connected with sexual selection1 #bjc-bac2 its higher and lower forms1 #adj the1 of animals1 #bjb the reliever1 #ajb-aaj ,art-impulse1 the1 #ae1 #ah-bi1 #hd1 #he1 #ajj1 #aja1 #cjc2 a racial possession of mankind1 #ba1 #bb2 intellectualistic definitions1 #bc ,art-sense1 the conditions of its development1 #ada1 #adb ,artistic intuition1 #abe ,association between pleasure and activity1 #cc ,attract by pleasing1 impulse to1 #bd1 #be1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #bad1 #bae1 #bcc sq4 8,attractive0 qualities of the work of art1 #ii ,autotelic activities outside the department of art1 #ai1 #bj2 character of art1 #g-ae1 #hh1 #cjd 8,balls on sockets10 #aic ,bird-shaped amulets1 #bhg ,boasting adornments1 #bbb ,boating-songs and dances1 #bei1 #bfj ,brilliancy1 the physiological effects created by1 #aid-aig ,choral dances1 #bfa ,chorus1 the1 in the ancient drama1 #id ,classification of instances of erotic art1 #bca-bch ,clothing1 the origin of1 #bjd-bjf1 #bae-bbj ,cognitio sensitiva1 #b ,collective feeling1 #ha1 #hb psychology1 #gd-he ,consciousness of self1 #fb-fd ,contempt1 expression of1 its importance in primitive tactics1 #bfh1 #bfi ,couvade1 #bhj ,coyness of the female1 #aig1 #aih ,creation1 artistic1 involved in artistic enjoyment1 #ah1 #ai ,criterion of art1 the1 #g sq4 ,crying feasts and ceremonial wailings1 #ei ,cure1 medical1 of restoring people by pulling them through a narrow opening1 #bhe1 #bhf ,dance1 #hg1 #hi1 #ib1 #bcj ,dances1 choral1 #bfb2 common to both sexes or separate1 #bcj1 #bca2 connected with sexual selection1 #bcc-bce2 with war1 #bff1 #bfg2 with work1 #bea1 #bec1 #bed ,dance-pantomimes1 obscene1 #bcc1 #bde ,dancing girdles1 #bae ,deaf-mutes1 their language1 #aea1 #aee ,death and resurrection represented in primitive drama1 #ahb-ahd ,decoration1 bodily1 subserving a commemorative purpose1 #bbc2 used as a means of frightening1 #bgb2 as a means of individual and tribal identification1 #bbe-bbg2 as magical protection1 #bah1 #bbd2 denotes civic majority1 #bbj2 executed in order to protect the skin1 #bbd2 denoting rank or wealth1 #bbb ,decorative art1 the1 of military tribes1 #bgg ,demon-shields of the ,dyaks1 #bgb-bgd ,dignity1 #aaf ,dionysiac state1 the1 #fd1 #fe1 #aje1 #aji1 #aab1 #aac ,dionysos1 god of art and music1 #aaj ,disinterestedness1 the1 of artistic activity4 ,see ,autotelic ,character of ,art ,drama1 the earliest of imitative arts1 #adi1 #aej ,dramatic element1 the1 of art1 #ie-ih 8,einhaltsstreben10 #aej ,emanations1 magic theory of1 #bha1 #bic ,emotional element1 the1 in art1 #acg-aci1 #cjc ,emotions1 the psychology of1 #db-ee2 connection between emotions and movement-sensations1 #dd-dg ,enjoyment of pain1 #ee1 #ef-ga ,enlistment1 dances of1 #bff ,ephemeral character of primitive art1 #afa ,epic element1 the1 in art1 #ih1 #ii ,epidemics1 mental1 #fi1 #ha ,erotic art1 #bch-bdh2 dearth of information on1 #bbi1 #bdd2 spurious instances of1 #bde gestures and pantomimes used as expressions of joy1 #bdc1 #bdd pantomimes and dances performed with a moral intention1 #bdg1 #bdh poems1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bdf propitiation1 #bcd-bcf ,etiological myths1 #aga1 #agb ,euhemerism1 #afh1 #afi ,europeans as subjects of primitive art1 #afj1 #aff1 #afg1 #agh ,experimentation1 plays of1 #ade ,expression of feeling1 #da1 #db1 #dg-ed2 primary and secondary forms of expression1 #db1 #dg1 #eb1 #fh1 #fi1 #aii2 expression as a mythogenic factor1 #ic1 #id 8,expressive qualities10 the1 of nature1 #ih ,extempore design1 #aef1 #afa 8,facult matresse10 #aah-abj1 #abf ,fandango1 apologue concerning the1 #hi ,fascination1 #ajc ,fear1 #eb1 #ed1 #ajc ,feeling-tone of sensation1 #cj-db2 experiments on sensation1 feeling and movement1 #ca2 dynamic conditions of feeling1 #cb-ce2 static conditions of feeling1 #ce2 association between pleasure and movement1 #cc2 pains of restriction1 #ch2 pain as motor incitement1 #dj1 #ff1 #bec2 relative character of pleasure and pain1 #ef1 #eg2 acquired pleasure-gettings1 #eg2 the philosophical importance of pain1 #fc1 #fd ,festal development of art1 #aaa 8,foreign0 purposes1 the1 in art1 #aj-ab1 #ae-ag1 #abg1 #adg1 #adh1 #cja1 #cjd-cjf ,form and content1 #aci ,french and ,english art1 difference between1 #aca ,funeral ceremonies and art1 #cjj dances of obscene character1 #bag ,garrick1 the contagious power of his acting1 #if ,gesture-language1 #aea-aed ,gracefulness1 #aaf1 #bge1 #bgf ,grief1 #ej ,grimacing1 its importance for primitive tactics1 #bgj 8,gymnastic0 dances1 #ib 8,happiness0 of the unconscious1 #fi1 #gj ,higher and lower forms of art1 distinction between1 #adj ,historical art1 #afd-ahb1 #bbc and psychological methods1 distinction between1 #af1 #aab1 #adh1 #cja poems used in magical ceremonies1 #agc ,history born of pride1 #aha ,histrionic factor in literature1 #if2 in formative arts1 #if1 #ig 8,homo sapiens ferus10 #aea ,humiliation1 #df1 #ej ,hunting and fishing rites1 #bhe1 #bhg ,idea1 the1 its place in ,german-sthetic systems1 #bc1 #aah ,ideal of beauty1 the1 and sexual selection1 #bjb1 #bac1 #bda1 #bdb ,idealistic schools of art1 #acb ,idols1 #agd1 #bhh1 #bia 8,illusions particulires0 versus essential qualities1 #abh1 #abi ,imitation1 impulse to1 #bd2 connected with the instincts1 #ge sympathetic1 #ei1 #gd-he1 #if ,see ,internal ,imitation1 ,pathologic ,imitation ,impregnation by wind1 rain1 or sunshine1 #bai ,indispensability of accustomed sensations1 #eh ,in effigie sentences1 #bhg ,information and art1 #adi-afc1 #ahd1 #ahe ,instantaneous muscular exertion1 power of1 #beb1 #bec ,insular life1 its influence on art1 #bei ,intellectual elements of the artistic activity2 their influence on the mental state of the artist1 #ajb-ajg ,invention in primitive art1 #afj1 #afa ,jakalele dance in ,ceram1 #bff1 #bfg ,joy1 #dh2 distinguished from the sense of comic1 #dh1 #di2 pantomimic expression of1 #ib-id1 #bdd 8,kina0 7,fuegian drama71 #afe ,limited amount of energy1 #cf1 #cg ,lustre4 ,see ,brilliancy ,luxury of sentimental sorrow1 #ea4 ,see also ,enjoyment of ,pain ,lyre and flute1 allegory of1 #ajg ,maenads1 #fe1 #ajh-aaj1 #aab ,magic and art1 #bgh-big two classes of1 #bgh1 #bgi2 by connection1 #bgi-bhb1 #bia-bid2 by likeness1 #bhb-bij2 expedients for acquiring courage in war1 #bfe2 power of the obscene1 #bag2 pantomimes1 #aa2 songs1 #bhh1 #bie ,masses1 psychology of4 ,see ,collective ,psychology ,means of attraction1 #bjc-bac ,medical rites1 #bhd1 #bhg ,military dances1 #bfe1 #bff2 used as salutation1 #ib1 #ic2 performed before female spectators1 #bbi dresses and uniforms1 #bgj2 ensigns1 #bga2 signals1 #bfc ,modesty and clothing1 #baf-bah ,moko tattooing used as a means of identification1 #age1 #bbe ,moods of sadness deliberately enhanced1 #ea ,moral influence of art1 #ajh ,movement-perception1 the dynamogenic influence of1 #beg ,music1 #hg ,narrative art1 its simplest forms1 #aeg-afa ,novelty1 predilection for1 #bjh 8,opisthotonos10 #aji ,ornament1 concealed meaning of1 #aj and mimetic transmission of feeling1 #ih and rhythm1 #ia ,ornaments1 the1 of the ,dyaks1 #bgb-bgd2 of the ,maoris1 #bge1 #bgf ,pain1 pantomimic expression of1 #ci1 #dj1 #ic1 #id4 ,see also ,feeling-tone ,pantomimics1 erotic1 #bcc-bce1 #bde-bdh2 magic1 #aa1 #bhc1 #bhd2 military1 #bfe1 #bff2 narrative1 #aeb-aee2 representing work1 #bej-beb1 #beg ,parnassians1 #acf1 #acg ,pathologic imitation1 #gi ,petroglyphs1 #age1 #agf ,phallic amulets1 #bag2 rites1 #bhd1 #bhg ,phallocrypts1 #bae1 #baf ,pictographs1 #adi1 #aee-aeg1 #afa ,pictorial art1 the1 of the ,bushmen1 #bcg2 prayers1 #bhe ,play1 as connected with art1 #bi2 with exercise1 #bej1 #bea2 with the instincts1 #bg ,play-impulse1 #bf-bh1 #ade1 #adf1 #bej ,please1 impulse to1 #bd1 #be ,pleasure4 ,see ,feeling-tone ,political propitiation and art1 #bii ,portraiture1 commemorative1 #agd1 #age ,practical motives for clothing and self-decoration1 #baf1 #bbd ,prsul1 #beg ,preliminary movements1 their dynamogenic influence1 #bef ,pride1 #df1 #acg1 #aha1 #bbb1 #bfh ,proportion1 #aag ,rain-making and rain-preventing1 #bhc1 #bhd ,realism and magic1 #bhi-bij ,realistic movement in literature1 #aag1 #aah ,recognition marks1 #aij ,religious doctrines influencing erotic art1 #bdf ,repugnance for qualities deviating from the tribal type1 #bji1 #baj ,retroaction from sympathisers1 craving for1 #hd ,rhetoric1 primitive1 #aed ,rhythm1 #hg-ia1 #beh-bfj ,salutation dances1 #ib ,sand paintings1 the1 of the ,navajos1 #bib ,scarification1 #fa1 #ff1 #fg ,scars of the ,australians explained by ,koeler as means of identification1 #bbe ,science as an end in itself1 #ai1 #bj ,secondary sexual characters1 #aij-aib2 activities1 #aia ,selbstzweck4 ,see ,autotelic ,character of ,art ,self-exhibiting impulse1 #be ,self-woundings1 #fa1 #ff1 #fg ,sentimentalism1 #acf1 #acg ,sex-distinction1 marks for accentuating1 #aib1 #bji ,sexual ideal1 #bjd1 #bac1 #bdb ,social conditions influencing erotic art1 #bch-bdb2 expression1 #gb-he1 esp4 #hc-he ,solidarity of suffering between members of the same family1 #bgi ,songs1 ephemeral1 #aei1 #afj2 erotic1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bdf2 exhorting to work1 #bed1 #bee1 #bei2 magic1 #bee1 #bef1 #bhh1 #bie2 military1 #bfg-bfi ,sport as end in itself1 #bj1 #ba ,storage of nutritive supply1 #cf1 #cg ,sucking cure1 #bhe ,sun-rituals1 #bhd ,superstitious motives for clothing1 #bag-bai1 #bbd ,surplus of vigour1 #bf1 #aih ,symmetry1 #aag ,sympathetic imitation1 #ei1 #gd-he1 #aed1 #aee2 magic4 ,see ,magic ,tangi1 #ei ,technical medium1 the1 of art1 #ade2 perfection in art1 #ace1 #aci1 #cjc ,technique1 its influence on decorative art1 #adf1 #adg ,theatrical management and rgie among the ,australians1 #bcg ,theurgic rites1 #bhd1 #bhh ,time-sense1 its high development among primitive tribes1 #bfb ,trade-dances1 #beb ,traditions1 primitive1 preserving the memory of ,european visitors1 #aff1 #afg1 #agh ,tragedy1 enjoyment of1 #ei ,transference of energy1 #cf1 #cg ,travels described in primitive art1 #aeh-afj1 #agh ,trophies1 #bba ,universal ideas1 their importance in sthetic systems1 #acj2 their place in primitive philosophy1 #bif ,vehicles of emotional transmission1 #abj-abd ,vital sensation and pain1 #fj-fe ,volts1 #bhf ,war1 its social influence1 #bfa2 its influence on art1 #bfa-bgg2 on plastic beauty1 #bgf2 on decorative art1 #bge-bgg2 a prominent subject in history and narrative art1 #agh-ahj2 the need of stimulation for1 #bfc ,werther1 #ajd1 #aje ,witches1 ,bacchantes1 and hysteric patients1 #aji ,wordless tribes1 stories about1 #aeb ,work1 stimulation to1 #beb-beg2 regulation of1 #hh1 #beg-bfj2 and art1 #ab1 #hh1 #bdi-bfj ,,the ,,end ,printed by ,r4 ,r4 ,,clark1 ,,limited1 ,edinburgh4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi1 ,helsingfors1 #ahif4 ,a summary in ,german of this book can be read in ,zeitschrift fr ,psychologie und ,physiologie der ,sinnesorgane1 ,bd4 xvi4 pp4 #bcc-bce4 #b ,baumgarten1 ,aesthetica1 pp4 #a1 #c1 #f sq4 #c ,bosanquet1 ,history of sthetic1 pp4 #agc1 #ahg4 #d ,cf4 e4g4 ,hanslick1 ,vom musikalisch ,schnen1 p4 #c4 #e ,kant1 ,kritik der ,urtheilskraft1 p4 #adg1 to be compared with ,kant's chapters on beauty4 #f ,schiller1 ber die sthetische ,erziehung des ,menschen1 passim4 #g ,spencer1 ,principles of ,psychology1 ii4 pp4 #fbh1 #fcb4 ,cf4 also the extracts from a letter written by ,mr4 ,spencer to ,m4 ,guyau1 quoted in ,les problmes de l'esthtique contemporaine1 p4 #ah4 #h ,hennequin1 ,la critique scientifique1 pp4 #bf-bh4 #i ,grosse1 ,die ,anfnge der ,kunst1 pp4 #df1 #dg4 #aj ,grant ,allen1 ,physiological sthetics1 pp4 #cb1 #cc4 #aa ,cf4 ,kant1 l4c4 p4 #ff4 #ab ,guyau1 ,les problmes de l'esthtique contemporaine1 livre i4 #ac ,cf4 ,stolpe1 ,utvecklingsfreteelser i naturfolkens ornamentik1 i4-ii4 in ,ymer1 #ahij-ahia4 ,an ,english translation by ,mrs4 ,h4 ,c4 ,march is published in ,transactions of the ,rochdale ,literary and ,scientific ,society1 #ahia4 ,read1 8,on the ,origin1 etc41 of ,certain ,ornaments of the ,s4 ,e4 ,pacific10 in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxi4 ,cf4 also ,march1 8,polynesian ,ornament1 a ,mythography10 in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxii4 #ad ,catlin1 ,illustrations1 etc41 i4 pp4 #abg1 #abh1 ,mandan buffalo dance4 ,a similar dance among the ,iroquois has been described by ,morgan 7,iroquois1 p4 #bhg71 who does not1 however1 speak of any magical purpose4 ,although somewhat differently explained by ,catlin1 the ,sioux bear dance 7l4c4 i4 p4 #bde7 is no doubt as magical in its intention as the buffalo dance4 ,the same interpretation holds good also1 we believe1 with regard to the gorilla dance of the ,negroes 7,reade1 ,savage ,africa1 pp4 #aie1 #aif7 and the hunting pantomimics of the ,koossa ,kaffirs 7,lichtenstein1 ,travels1 i4 p4 #bfi74 #ae ,wallace1 ,darwinism1 pp4 #dfg1 #dfh4 #af ,for a direct opposition to ,mr4 ,wallace's views on this point see ,wallaschek1 ,primitive ,music1 pp4 #bgh1 #bgi4 ,cf4 also ,ritchie1 ,darwinism and ,politics1 pp4 #aaj-aad4 #ag ,cf4 ,guyau1 ,les problmes de l'esthtique contemporaine1 pp4 #ae1 #bd4 #ah ,for this characteristic term ,i am indebted to ,professor ,j4 ,m4 ,baldwin4 #ai ,cf4 chap4 ix4 in the sequel4 #bj ,some brilliant and suggestive remarks on this point may be found in ,guyau1 ,les problmes de l'esthtique contemporaine1 p4 #ab2 and in ,havelock ,ellis1 ,the ,new ,spirit1 pp4 #bcd-bcf4 #ba ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 pp4 #ejh1 #eji4 #bb ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #bja-bca4 #bc ,this view1 viz4 that the sthetic cravings are a 8racial0 possession of mankind1 has been clearly and consistently maintained by ,marshall1 cf4 sthetic ,principles1 p4 #gj2 ,pain1 ,pleasure and sthetics1 pp4 #ajj1 #aja4 #bd ,vischer1 sthetik1 vol4 i4 p4 #ec2 vol4 iii4 pp4 #c-aj4 #be ,taine1 ,philosophie de l'art1 pp4 #eg-gj4 #bf ,engel1 ,ideen zu einer ,mimik1 i4 p4 #ig4 #bg ,cf4 as to the significance of this process1 and its connection with the imitative process1 ,baldwin1 ,mental ,development1 p4 #bfd4 #bh ,marshall1 sthetic ,principles1 p4 #fb2 cf4 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 p4 #ajd4 #bi ,cf4 chapters xiv4-xvi4 in the sequel4 #cj ,cf4 ,marshall1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 p4 #ajd4 78,nor can we with ,kant and ,schiller hold that the #8art-impulse' is especially connected with the #8play-impulse' through lack of end1 if ,i am right that an end for art-work is discernible in attraction through the pleasing of others407 #ca ,baldwin1 ,social and ,ethical ,interpretations1 p4 #aea2 cf4 pp4 #aej1 #aeb4 #cb ,schiller1 ber die sthetische ,erziehung des ,menschen1 esp4 ,brief #ae4 #cc ,ibid4 ,brief #bg1 quoted in ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 p4 #b4 #cd ,spencer1 ,principles of ,psychology1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #fbi1 #fcj4 #ce ,spencer1 8,the ,origin of ,music10 in ,mind1 xv4 #deb1 #dec2 reprinted in the last edition of ,essays1 ii4 pp4 #dcj1 #dca2 ,wallace1 ,darwinism1 pp4 #bha1 #bhd1 #bhg1 #bib2 ,hudson1 ,the ,naturalist in ,la ,plata1 pp4 #bhj-bhf4 #cf ,wallaschek1 8,natural ,selection and ,music0 in ,international ,congress of ,experimental ,psychology1 second session1 #ahib1 p4 #gd2 ,primitive ,music1 pp4 #bga1 #bgb4 ,these utterances of ,wallaschek ought to be quoted as expressing his views1 and not the earlier passage in ,mind1 #ahia1 p4 #cgf1 from which ,groos concludes that ,wallaschek agrees with ,spencer4 ,cf4 ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 p4 #f4 ,as early as #ahia1 ,wallaschek pointed out the importance of music and dances as preparations and not only representations of the most important actions in life4 ,cf4 l4c4 p4 #gd4 #cg ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 pp4 #ah-bd4 #ch ,groos1 l4c4 p4 #ba4 #ci ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 pp4 #baf-cef4 #dj ,guyau1 ,les problmes de l'esthtique contemporaine1 p4 #i3 8,on pourrait donc1 en continuant la pense de ,m4 ,spencer1 aller jusqu' dire que l'art1 cette espce de jeu raffin a son origine ou du moins sa premire manifestation dans l'instinct de la lutte1 soit contre la nature1 soit contre les hommes40 ,cf4 also ,guyau1 ,l'art au point de vue sociologique1 p4 #ad1 where ,guyau in a brilliant passage shows how an element of passionate struggle and conquest enters even in the most abstract reasoning4 ,to be compared with the chapters of ,groos on ,kampfspiele4 #da ,fr1 ,sensation et mouvement1 pp4 #cd1 #fd2 cf4 ,the ,pathology of ,emotions1 p4 #bjf4 #db ,lehmann1 ,hauptgesetze des menschlichen ,gefhlslebens1 pp4 #hi1 #ie4 #dc ,fr1 ,sensation et mouvement1 p4 #fd4 #dd ,gratiolet1 ,de la physionomie1 pp4 #dg1 #ec2 ,darwin1 ,the ,expression of the ,emotions1 pp4 #hj1 #bjg2 ,bain1 ,the ,emotions and the ,will1 pp4 #aa1 #ab2 ,bouillier1 ,du plaisir et de la douleur1 pp4 #ej1 #ea2 ,mantegazza1 ,physiognomy and ,expression1 pp4 #aad1 #aae4 #de ,amiel1 ,journal1 i4 p4 #bjh4 #df ,darwin1 ,the ,expression of the ,emotions1 p4 #ha4 #dg ,lehmann1 ,hauptgesetze1 pp4 #bih-cja4 #dh ,lehmann1 ,hauptgesetze1 p4 #bad4 #di ,marshall1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 pp4 #bbb1 #bbc4 #ej ,dumont1 ,thorie scientifique de la sensibilit1 pp4 #fg1 #fh2 ,delbuf1 lments de psychophysique1 pp4 #ahb1 #aia4 #ea ,marshall1 l4c4 p4 #agd4 #eb ,cf4 ,stout1 ,manual of ,psychology1 pp4 #bcf-bci4 #ec ,cf4 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,psychology1 i4 p4 #bgc4 #ed ,hamilton1 ,lectures1 ii4 p4 #dgh2 cf4 also ,bouillier1 ,du plaisir et de la douleur1 pp4 #eb-fb4 #ee ,marshall1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 p4 #bac2 cf4 ,dr4 ,stout's keen criticism of this explanation1 ,analytic ,psychology1 ii4 pp4 #bid1 #bie4 #ef ,fr1 ,the ,pathology of ,emotions1 pp4 #bge1 #bgf2 ,lombroso1 ,the ,man of ,genius1 pp4 #aea1 #aeb2 ,ribot1 ,the ,psychology of the ,emotions1 p4 #df 78,observations on the beneficial effects created on melancholic patients by physical pain074 #eg ,goncourt1 ,journal des1 ii4 p4 #bej4 #eh ,cf4 ,fechner1 ,vorschule der ,aesthetik1 ii4 p4 #bfe2 cf4 also ,marshall1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 p4 #ahg4 #ei ,bain1 ,the ,emotions and the ,will1 pp4 #e1 #f2 cf4 also ,the ,senses and the ,intellect1 p4 #bij2 ,ribot1 ,the ,psychology of the ,emotions1 pp4 #ig1 #aab2 ,fr1 ,the ,pathology of ,emotions1 p4 #dd2 ,paulhan1 ,les phnomnes affectifs1 p4 #cg2 ,godfernaux1 ,le sentiment et la pense1 p4 #ff4 #fj ,stout1 ,manual of ,psychology1 p4 #bif4 #fa ,a treatment in detail of this point has been given in my ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi1 pp4 #eg-ei4 #fb ,lehmann1 ,hauptgesetze1 pp4 #cjh1 #cji4 #fc ,spencer1 ,essays1 ii4 p4 #deg4 #fd ,cf4 ,james1 ,principles of ,psychology1 ii4 p4 #dff2 ,darwin1 ,the ,expression of the ,emotions1 p4 #gf4 #fe ,spencer1 l4c4 ii4 pp4 #def1 #deg4 #ff ,for the convenience of treatment we here restrict our attention to those emotional processes the initial stages of which are accompanied by changes of activity in the voluntary muscles4 #fg ,these linguistic facts might have afforded ,professor ,mantegazza a further argument in favour of his physiognomical thesis that the expression of injured self-esteem is similar to that of gustatory pain4 ,cf4 ,mantegazza1 ,physiognomy and ,expression1 p4 #acj4 #fh ,james1 ,principles of ,psychology1 ii4 p4 #dfc3 8,sit all day in a moping posture1 sigh1 and reply to everything in a dismal voice1 and your melancholy lingers40 #fi ,spencer1 ,principles of ,psychology1 ii4 pp4 #eij1 #eia4 ,cf4 also with regard to the enjoyment which can by reflection be derived from sorrow1 fear1 and other pain-emotions1 ,paulhan1 ,les phnomnes affectifs1 pp4 #aai1 #abj2 ,hamilton1 ,lectures1 ii4 pp4 #dha-dhd2 ,bouillier1 ,du plaisir et de la douleur1 pp4 #fb-gb4 #gj ,spencer1 l4c4 ii4 pp4 #fbc-fbf4 #ga ,james1 ,principles of ,psychology1 ii4 pp4 #dfb1 #dfc4 #gb ,james1 l4c4 pp4 #ddd1 #dde4 ,it is to be remarked1 however1 that in the more elaborate statement of his theory1 which ,professor ,james has given in ,the ,psychological ,review1 #ahid1 he pays due attention to the influence by which 8expression0 may change the tone of an emotion4 ,cf4 especially p4 #eai about fear3 8when the running has actually commenced1 it gives rise to exhilaration by its effects on breathing and pulse1 etc41 in this case1 and not to fear40 #gc ,the interesting contributions to the psychology of acting1 which have been brought together by ,mr4 ,william ,archer in his ,masks or ,faces1 do not give us much reliable information as to the part which the 8expressional movements0 play in a deliberate stirring up of an emotion4 ,even if we were to accept all the testimonies of actors and actresses as a testable evidence1 we could scarcely decide whether the emotional state of an actor who plays his part in perfect sincerity is chiefly a result of his losing himself in the fictitious situation1 or whether this state follows as a retroaction exercised by the artificial performance of weeping1 laughing1 sobbing1 etc4 ,cf4 ,archer1 ,masks or ,faces1 pp4 #acc-acf4 ,some interesting remarks on this point can also be found in ,dugald ,stewart's ,elements of the ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind1 iii4 pp4 #afh1 #ahe4 #gd ,james1 ,principles of ,psychology1 ii4 p4 #ddd4 #ge ,cf4 ,lehmann1 ,hauptgesetze1 pp4 #ajg-aaa1 where the pain-element of anger is emphasised in opposition to ,professor ,lange's description of this emotion4 #gf ,a detailed account of the various stages of anger has been given by me in ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi1 pp4 #gc-gg4 ,cf4 also ,lange1 ,nydelsernes fysiologi1 pp4 #af-ai1 and ,lange1 ,ueber ,gemuethsbewegungen1 pp4 #bh-ce4 #gg ,cf4 ,marshall1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 p4 #bdf2 ,sully1 ,the ,human ,mind1 ii4 p4 #ia2 ,hamilton1 ,lectures1 ii4 p4 #dhc4 ,it cannot be denied1 however1 that terror often becomes intensified as a painful feeling in proportion as the heart-beatings1 the quiverings1 and all the other active manifestations increase4 #gh ,marshall1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 p4 #bbf2 cf4 ,sully1 ,the ,human ,mind1 ii4 p4 #cd4 #gi ,lehmann1 ,hauptgesetze1 pp4 #aie1 #aif4 #hj ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #age1 on the ,tangi feasts in ,new ,zealand2 ,welcker1 ,kleine ,schriften1 i4 pp4 #bf-ca2 ,sittl1 ,gesch4 d4 griech4 ,literatur1 i4 p4 #bd4 ,for a sympathetic interpretation of such feasts of sorrow see ,rclus1 ,les primitifs1 pp4 #bci1 #bdj4 ,cf4 also the remarks of ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 i4 pp4 #fhh-fij1 and ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 p4 #ch4 ,the above adduced instances show us that even the art of primitive man does not bear out the views recently brought into prominence by ,herckenrath and ,faguet 7,faguet1 ,drame ancien1 drame moderne1 pp4 #b1 #g1 #ab71 and so ably stated by ,mr4 ,walkley 7,frames of ,mind1 pp4 #a-g71 according to which the enjoyment of tragedy as well as that of comedy can be reduced to a malevolently pleasurable consciousness of our own security in contrast to the sufferings of others4 ,comparative psychology tends far more to support those authors who contend that in tragedy we enjoy that pleasure which inherently exists in sorrow itself4 ,cf4 ,shelley1 ,a ,defence of ,poetry1 p4 #ce4 #ha ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 i4 p4 #fhh4 8,de hoc universo genere dicere licet id quod res habet1 hominis naturae quodam instinctu ut laetandi ita lugendi causas sibi fingere2 unde est1 quod aliena funera sequuntur1 quod ignotis sepulchris adsident1 quod praeteritorum malorum memoriam refricant40 #hb ,lessing1 ,gelehrter ,briefwechsel1 pp4 #ade1 #adf1 quoted in ,bernays' ,zwei ,abhandlungen1 p4 #add4 ,cf4 also ,scherer1 ,poetik1 p4 #aab4 ,scherer1 who thinks that the phrase 8,bewusstsein unserer ,realitt0 is too abstract in its wording1 proposes in its place 8,freude an uns selbst0 7delight in ourselves74 #hc ,helvetius1 ,de l'esprit1 discours iii4 ch4 v4 #hd ,jefferies1 ,the ,story of ,my ,heart1 especially p4 #abh2 ,bashkirtseff1 ,journal1 ii4 pp4 #abf1 #eca1 #ecb2 cf4 also i4 pp4 #ff1 #fg2 ii4 pp4 #aae1 #bij4 #he ,the purely pathological motives of the self-woundings of ,christian fanatics appear with unmistakable clearness from the instances that have been collected in medical literature1 cf4 especially ,calmeil1 ,de la folie1 ii4 pp4 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cge-chj1 #chd1 #djd1 #dje2 ,figuier1 ,hist4 du merveilleux1 i4 pp4 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgf1 #cgi2 ,stoll1 ,suggestion und ,hypnotismus1 pp4 #cfb-cfe4 ,we need not dwell in this connection upon the sexually exciting effects which may be created by flagellation4 ,this point has been sufficiently elucidated by the above-mentioned authors4 #hf ,lange1 ,gemthsbewegungen1 pp4 #cc1 #cd4 #hg ,wundt1 ,philosophische ,studien1 vi4 pp4 #cea1 #ceb 7,zur ,lehre von ,gemthsbewegungen74 #hh ,brinton1 ,the ,pursuit of ,happiness1 p4 #ah4 #hi ,kierkegaard1 ,enten ,eller1 i4 pp4 #bc1 #bd4 #ij ,ribot1 ,the ,psychology of the ,emotions1 p4 #cgf4 #ia ,on the self-woundings of the ,maenads cf4 ,preller1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 i4 #b4 p4 #fef2 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 i4 p4 #fgb4 #ib ,cf4 ,marshall1 ,pain1 ,pleasure1 and sthetics1 p4 #bei4 #ic ,for a copious collection of instances see ,joest1 ,ttowiren1 pp4 #cd1 #ce2 ,schneider1 ,die ,naturvlker1 i4 pp4 #aaa-aac2 cf4 also ,smyth1 ,victoria1 i4 p4 #aab 7,the ,narrinyeri72 ,cranz1 ,historie von ,grnland1 ii4 p4 #cca2 ,dall1 ,alaska1 p4 #dag 7,the ,kygani72 ,schoolcraft1 ,information1 iv4 p4 #ff 7,dacotas72 v4 p4 #afh 7,kenistenos72 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 p4 #daj 7,tahiti72 ,cook4 7#ast7 ,voyage1 p4 #ajd 7,tahiti72 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #ajb 7,maoris74 #id ,it cannot be denied1 however1 that in many cases the self-wounding is executed as a traditional1 superstitious1 or sacrificial rite4 ,the ,maori funeral ceremonies1 in which the apparently impulsive and exalted cutting is 8done with considerable method and regularity1 so as to make the scars ornamental rather than otherwise10 can thus scarcely be adduced as a genuine instance of emotional expression4 ,cf4 ,robley1 ,moko1 p4 #df4 ,still less are we entitled to speak in this connection of those ,polynesian funeral ceremonies in which the survivors lacerate themselves and allow the blood to drop on the face of the corpse or under its bier4 ,cf4 the instances of such superstitious self-woundings collected in ,hartland1 ,the ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 pp4 #bda1 #cba-cbe4 #ie ,on woundings in medical cures1 cf4 esp4 ,bartels1 ,medicin der ,naturvlker1 pp4 #bfg-bga2 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 ii4 pp4 #fi1 #gj 7,the ,dieyerie ,tribe1 by ,gason72 ,ling ,roth1 ,tasmania1 pp4 #ge1 #gf2 ,man1 ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xii4 p4 #he 7,andamanese72 ,mouat1 ,andaman ,islands1 p4 #cjg2 ,bourke1 ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn41 #ahhg-hh1 p4 #dga 7,medicine-men of the ,apache4 ,scarification resorted to in order to relieve exhaustion72 ,keating1 ,narrative of an ,expedition1 i4 p4 #bbf1 quotes the interesting conceptions entertained by the ,sauks and ,foxes as to the result of lacerations4 ,the wounds are inflicted at funerals1 8not for the purpose of mortification1 or to create a pain1 which shall1 by dividing their attention1 efface the recollection of their loss1 but entirely from a belief that their grief is internal1 and that the only way of dispelling it is to give it a vent through which to escape40 ,there seems to be no doubt that similar notions have led to the curing of bodily pain by bleeding4 ,as to laceration as a means of overcoming humiliation see ,curr1 l4c4 ii4 p4 #gj 7,dieyerie74 ,even joy1 when abnormally strong1 seems often to express itself in this way4 ,ellis1 ,pol4 ,res4 i4 p4 #daj 7,tahiti72 ,pritchard1 ,pol4 ,rem4 p4 #ach 7,samoa72 ,pron1 ,voyage1 i4 p4 #bbg 7,tasmanians1 who scratch themselves in the face and tear the hair in their enthusiasm1 when hearing the ,marseillaise performed72 ,bernier1 ,l'art du comdien1 p4 #caj4 ,as connected with the emotion of joy we may also explain the occurrences of self-woundings at meetings between friends4 ,cf4 esp4 ,lumholtz1 ,among ,cannibals1 pp4 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,it is not to be overlooked that in many tribes friends express their delight at meetings by a ceremonial weeping and wailing4 ,cf4 ,man1 ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xii4 p4 #adg2 ,day1 ,proc4 ,as4 ,soc4 ,bengal1 #ahgj1 p4 #aeg1 both on the ,andamanese2 ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu1 p4 #aje2 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #ajc2 ,angas1 ,savage ,life1 ii4 pp4 #cb1 #gc1 #aji1 all on ,new ,zealand2 ,freycinet1 ,voyage1 ii4 p4 #ehi 7,the ,sandwich ,islands72 ,lander1 ,journal1 i4 pp4 #adh1 #adi 7,yoruba ,country72 and the instances quoted in ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 ii4 pp4 #bj1 #gj1 #ga4 ,as this apparently paradoxical expression can be explained in many cases as a conventional ceremony1 which is not accompanied by any genuine feeling1 so the self-wounding may often be a purely ritual observance4 ,but although some of the above adduced instances can thus be considered as spurious1 we nevertheless feel right in assuming that an impulsive creation of pain is generally to be derived from the psychical conditions accompanying high-strung emotion4 ,this is also the conclusion at which ,mr4 ,brinton and ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang have arrived4 ,cf4 ,brinton1 ,religion of ,primitive ,peoples1 p4 #bac2 ,lang1 ,the ,making of ,religion1 p4 #caj4 #if ,we need only refer to such periods as the fifteenth century and the time of the great revolution4 ,as to the abnormally exaggerated craving for amusement during these unhappy times1 cf4 especially the remarks of ,michelet1 ,histoire de ,france1 iv4 pp4 #djf1 #djg2 ,champfleury1 ,hist4 de la caricature sous la rpublique1 pp4 #bge1 #bgi2 ,hecker1 ,volkskrankheiten1 pp4 #aeb1 #aec2 ,goncourt1 ,journal des1 ii4 pp4 #ahj1 #aha2 and the ,introduction to ,boccaccio's ,decamerone4 #ig ,smith1 ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments1 pp4 #d1 #e4 ,cf4 the important elaboration of this theory in ,dugald ,stewart1 ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind1 iii4 pp4 #aga1 #agd4 #ih ,cf4 especially the works of ,tarde1 ,schmidkunz1 ,baldwin4 #ii ,cf4 ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 pp4 #gb1 #gf sq4 #ahb4 #ajj ,there can be no question1 in this connection1 of entering upon the debate between the adherents of ,robert ,vischer1 ,groos1 and others1 and the associationists1 ,lipps and ,stern1 who wish to put other notions1 such as recognition or 8,verschmelzung0 instead of the imitation4 ,whatever reason ,dr4 ,stern may have to criticise the formulation of the ,german sthetic theories of visual intuition1 we do not see that he has been able to refute them in their fundamental points4 ,cf4 ,stern1 ,einfhlung und ,association1 passim4 #aja ,jouffroy1 ,cours d'esthtique1 pp4 #bi1 #bef1 #bei1 #bfa4 #ajb ,vernon ,lee and ,anstruther ,thompson1 8,beauty and ,ugliness10 in the ,contemporary ,review1 vol4 xxii4 #ahig2 cf4 especially pp4 #ceg1 #edd1 #edh1 #eej1 #eed4 #ajc ,home1 ,elements of ,criticism1 i4 pp4 #agh-aha4 #ajd ,cf4 ,hogarth1 ,analysis of ,beauty1 pp4 #bf-bh4 #aje ,dugald ,stewart1 ,philosophical ,essays1 pp4 #djb-djd1 #djh 78,on the ,sublime074 #ajf ,spencer1 ,essays1 ii4 p4 #chf 78,gracefulness074 #ajg ,cf4 ,vernon ,lee and ,anstruther ,thompson1 l4c4 pp4 #eej1 #fhf1 #fhg2 cf4 also ,fouille1 ,psychologie des ides-forces1 ii4 pp4 #ei-fd4 #ajh ,prof4 ,lipps1 who does not believe in an 8internal imitation10 says that the anthropomorphic interpretation of outward reality 8rckt uns die ,dinge nher1 macht sie uns vertrauter und damit zugleich vermeintlich verstndlicher0 78brings the things nearer to us1 makes them more familiar1 and thereby produces an illusion that they are more comprehensible074 ,according to the view which we have adopted above1 the gain in comprehensibility is real1 and not only illusory4 ,cf4 ,lipps1 ,raumaesthetik1 p4 #f4 #aji ,cf4 with regard to the above argument the chapter on movement-perception in ,stricker's ,die ,bewegungsvorstellungen1 especially pp4 #bj1 #ba4 ,cf4 also the remarks in ,dugald ,stewart1 ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind1 iii4 pp4 #aj1 #aa1 #aeg4 #aaj ,cf4 the often-quoted story of ,campanella's device to divine the thoughts of people by imitating their behaviour1 as told1 for example1 in ,burke's ,the ,sublime and the ,beautiful1 pp4 #ih1 #ii4 ,mr4 ,stanley quotes one of ,poe's tales1 in which the same trick is used by a detective 7,evolutionary ,psychology of ,feeling1 p4 #cfd74 #aaa ,cf4 ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 p4 #dcj4 #aab ,an almost simian tendency to imitation has been noticed among several primitive races1 such as the ,australians 7,spencer1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ,div4 i4 ,no4 #c1 p4 #e1 quoting ,sturt7 and the ,fuegians 7,spencer1 ibid4 quoting ,weddel74 ,as is well known1 imitation is in tribes of a hysterical disposition1 such as the ,malays and the ,lapps1 apt to become an endemic disease4 ,cf4 with regard to the ,malays1 ,swettenham1 ,malay ,sketches1 pp4 #gj-hb2 ,stoll1 ,suggestion und ,hypnotismus1 p4 #gd2 with regard to the ,lapps1 ,dben1 ,lappland1 p4 #aib2 ,schmidkunz1 ,psychologie der ,suggestion1 p4 #aii4 ,instances of contagious mental diseases and pathological imitation among civilised nations are too familiar to be enumerated4 #aac ,cf4 ,baldwin1 ,mental ,development1 p4 #djc4 #aad ,preyer1 ,die ,seele des ,kindes1 p4 #bbh2 cf4 ,harless1 ,lehrb4 d4 plast4 ,anatomie1 p4 #abe1 and ,dugald ,stewart1 ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind1 iii4 pp4 #f1 #g1 #aic1 #aid4 #aae ,goncourt1 ,journal des1 i4 p4 #bha3--;,hier j'tais un bout de la grande table du chteau4 ,edmond l'autre bout causait avec ,thrse4 ,je n'entendais rien1 mais quand il souriait1 je souriais involontairement et dans la mme pose de tte4444 ,jamais me pareille n'a t mise en deux corps4 #aaf ,cf4 especially ,binet1 ,le ftichisme dans l'amour1 p4 #bdh4 #aag ,for a treatment of the interindividual transmission of feeling1 in which the chief points of modern theories on mob-mind are anticipated1 see ,dugald ,stewart1 ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind1 iii4 pp4 #bjh-baa4 #aah ,fr1 ,the ,pathology of ,emotions1 p4 #bab4 #aai ,lancet1 #ahhf1 i4 pp4 #cab1 #cac1 quoted in ,aubry1 ,la contagion du meurtre1 pp4 #bbj-bbc2 ,le ,bon1 ,psychologie des foules1 p4 #df4 #abj ,we need scarcely remark1 in this connection1 that every unhappy experience awakens the craving for assistance and consolation1 and therefore indirectly gives rise to an effort to create sympathy4 ,this point must1 however1 be passed over when treating of impulsive1 purely emotional manifestations4 ,as to the pleasures and consolations of mutual sympathy1 compare1 moreover1 ,smith1 ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments1 pp4 #aj-ac1 especially p4 #ab4 #aba ,espinas1 ,des socitis animales1 p4 #cbh4 #abb ,brehm1 ,thierleben1 i4 pp4 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjh4 #abc ,van ,ende1 ,hist4 nat4 de la croyance1 ,i4 ,l'animal1 p4 #bah2 ,brehm1 l4c4 p4 #hg4 #abd ,wallaschek1 ,primitive ,music1 pp4 #bcj1 #bca2 ,grosse1 ,die ,anfnge der ,kunst1 p4 #bai4 ,cf4 also ,schlegel1 ,a4 ,w41 ,smmtl4 ,werke1 vii4 pp4 #adi1 #aej 7,briefe ber ,poesie1 ,silbenmasz und ,sprache71 where a similar theory is advanced4 #abe ,bcher1 ,arbeit und ,rhythmus1 passim4 #abf ,bcher1 l4c4 passim4 ,compare1 however1 p4 #cjf as to the difference between labour in the modern sense and the working activity of primitive man4 #abg ,cf4 ,souriau1 ,l'esthtique du mouvement1 p4 #gj4 #abh ,bourgoing1 ,modern ,state of ,spain1 ii4 pp4 #bii1 #cjj4 #abi ,vernon ,lee and ,anstrather ,thompson1 8,beauty and ,ugliness10 in the ,contemporary ,review1 vol4 lxxii4 #ahig1 p4 #eei3 8,to this quality of mere complexity of surface1 pattern adds by its regularity the power of compelling the eye and breath to move at an even and unbroken pace4 ,even the simplest1 therefore1 of the patterns ever used have a power akin to that of march music1 for they compel our organism to a regular rhythmical mode of being40 #acj ,the expression 8gymnastic10 as distinguished from pantomimic dance1 is borrowed from ,grosse1 ,die ,anfnge der ,kunst4 #aca ,that the dances of salutation and homage in most cases really are to be derived from the expression of joy has been shown by ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 iii4 p4 #bja1 and might be corroborated by instances referring to all the details of complimentary ceremonialism4 #acb ,carver1 ,travels1 pp4 #ahj-ahb 7,lake ,pepin72 ,martin1 ,molukken1 p4 #eg 7,lectimor72 ,polack1 ,the ,new ,zealanders1 i4 p4 #hh 7,maoris74 ,cf4 also ,rienzi1 ,ocanie1 iii4 p4 #agj1 on the frequent quarrels between ,europeans and ,maoris that have arisen from a misunderstanding of these kinds of salutation4 ,johnstone1 ,maoria1 p4 #di3 8,the war dance was practised both as a martial exercise and as an amusement1 and was considered equally adapted to give honourable reception to friendly visitors or to intimidate an enemy on the field of battle40 #acc ,cf4 the instances collected by ,fr1 ,pathology of ,emotions1 pp4 #cfj-cij2 and ,godfernaux1 ,le sentiment et la pense1 pp4 #fe sq4 ,a powerful description of the mythogenic justifications by which anxiety creates to itself a reason is given in ,maupassant's poem 8,terreur0 in ,des ,vers1 pp4 #ai1 #bj4 #acd ,cf4 on the infectious influence of dramatic performances1 ,cahusac1 ,la danse1 i4 pp4 #aff1 #afg2 ii4 pp4 #fa1 #fb2 ,jacobowski1 ,anfnge der ,poesie1 pp4 #abg-abi2 ,tarde1 8,foules et sectes10 in ,revue des deux ,mondes1 vol4 cxx4 7#ahic71 especially p4 #cfh4 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out to how great an extent the emotional conveyance by means of dramatic action must have been strengthened by the chorus1 which1 by its laughter or wailing1 affords a kind of model expression to the spectator4 ,possibly1 indeed1 the ,greek chorus developed from a ceremonial in which chorus and audience were not distinct but identical--a ritual of wailings or rejoicings provoked by the recital of a traditional story4 ,this view1 curiously in advance of his times1 is suggested by ,brown1 an eighteenth century philosopher 7,history of the ,rise of ,poetry1 pp4 #abf-abh73 8,how came it to pass that in the more barbarous periods the number of the chorus should be so much greater8 ,manifestly because that rude age bordered on the savage times1 when the whole audience had sympathised with the narrative actor1 and became as one general choir40 #ace ,engel1 ,ideen zu einer ,mimic1 i4 pp4 #hf-hh2 cf4 also ,seckendorff1 ,vorlesungen ber ,declamation und ,mimik1 ii4 p4 #e2 ,sully-,prudhomme1 ,l'expression dans les-beaux arts1 pp4 #if1 #ig4 #acf ,lichtenberg1 ,briefe aus ,england1 ,vermischte ,schriften1 iii4 p4 #bfb4 #acg ,lange1 ,nydelsernes fysiologi1 pp4 #afh1 #afi4 ,as to the importance of imitative reaction for our enjoyment of sculpture1 cf4 ,vernon ,lee and ,anstruther ,thompson1 ,the ,contemporary ,review1 vol4 lxxii41 pp4 #fgg-fgi4 #ach ,sully-,prudhomme1 ,l'expression dans les beaux-arts1 pp4 #d1 #e4 #aci ,nietzsche1 ,die ,geburt der ,tragdie1 p4 #h4 #adj ,goethe1 ,dichtung und ,wahrheit1 iii4 p4 #acb4 ,this instance has been adduced by ,professor ,julius ,lange in support of his emotionalistic art-theory2 ,om ,kunstvrdi1 pp4 #gb-hd4 #ada ,wallaschek1 ,mind1 ,n4,s4 iv4 p4 #cd1 8,on the ,difference of ,time and ,rhythm in ,music20 ,bcher1 ,arbeit und ,rhythmus1 p4 #cjf4 #adb ,cf4 ,emmanuel1 ,la danse grecque antique1 p4 #abg4 #adc ,cf4 ,creuzer1 ,symbolik und ,mythologie1 iii4 p4 #aee2 ,ruskin avails himself of the same allegory in ,the ,queen of the ,air1 pp4 #ff-gj4 #add ,revue ,critique1 #ahif1 ii4 pp4 #chf1 #chg2 cf4 also ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 pp4 #aaj1 #dgf4 #ade ,spencer1 ,essays1 ii4 #dfj4 #adf ,cf4 ,charcot and ,richer1 ,les dmoniaques dans l'art1 p4 #cg2 ,emmanuel1 ,la danse grecque antique1 pp4 #ajb1 #aif-aih1 #cjb1 #cjc4 #adg ,michelet1 ,la ,sorcire1 p4 #hj4 #adh ,cf4 for example1 ,dyer1 ,gods in ,greece1 pp4 #aad-aag4 #adi ,cf4 ,brown1 ,the ,fine ,arts1 pp4 #bb-ce1 #da-gj2 and ,hill in ,pop4 ,sc4 ,monthly1 vol4 xlii4 pp4 #gcd-gdi4 #aej ,rapp1 ,rheinisches ,museum1 xxvii4 p4 #b 78,die ,mnade im griechischen ,cultus074 #aea ,rohde1 ,psyche1 pp4 #cca1 #cdc4 #aeb ,nietzsche1 ,die ,geburt der ,tragdie1 pp4 #f1 #g4 #aec ,a detailed treatment of gracefulness in art and life has been given by the author in ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi1 pp4 #acb-adg4 #aed ,cf4 ,holz1 ,die ,kunst1 p4 #aag4 ,it is only fair to add that in their own novels the authors of this school have involuntarily failed to support their theoretical principles4 #aee ,cf4 chap4 i4 #aef ,cf4 ,taine1 ,philosophie de l'art1 pp4 #gb1 #gc4 #aeg ,ibid4 pp4 #eb1 #ec4 #aeh ,hemsterhuis1 uvres1 i4 pp4 #ad-ah1 #bd1 #ff 7,lettre sur la sculpture1 ,lettre sur les dsirs74 ,a similar thought was applied by ,poe to the fundamental principles in poetic composition and has exercised a great influence on recent literary movements4 ,cf4 ,poe1 ,works1 vi4 pp4 #c-f 7,the poetic principle74 ,for a further elaboration of this notion cf4 ,bourget1 tudes et portraits1 i4 pp4 #bbe1 #bbf2 ,hansson1 ,kserier i mystik1 pp4 #adj1 #ada2 ,symons1 ,the ,symbolist ,movement1 p4 #acg 7,stphane ,mallarm74 #aei ,carlyle1 ,sartor ,resartus1 p4 #ahj4 #afj ,wagner1 ,ges4 ,schriften1 iv4 p4 #ci 7,oper und ,drama74 #afa ,cf4 chap4 ii4 in the preceding4 #afb ,cf4 the quotations adduced by ,harnack1 ,die klassische sthetik1 pp4 #abd1 #adc1 #afa1 #afd1 #afe4 ,cf4 also von ,stein1 ,goethe und ,schiller1 sthetik der deutschen ,klassiker1 pp4 #be1 #bg4 #afc ,taine1 ,de l'idal dans l'art1 pp4 #ai1 #ej1 #acj1 #age4 #afd ,for an interesting comparison between ,french and ,english ideals of art1 compare the aphorisms of ,mr4 ,quilter in ,sententi ,artis1 pp4 #g1 #aba1 with the views of ,taine1 as expressed1 for example1 in ,l'idal dans l'art1 p4 #adh4 #afe ,cf4 ,ruskin1 ,modern ,painters1 #a1 i4 ii4 #h2 iii4 iv4 #c1 #ba1 #bd1 #bh4 #aff ,tolstoy1 ,what is ,art8 ,julius ,lange1 ,om ,kunstvrdi4 ,cf4 also the remarks in ,carpenter1 ,angels' ,wings1 the poetic theory of ,holmes1 as set forth in ,what is ,poetry8 and the definition of ,march1 8,evolution and ,psychology in ,art10 ,mind1 ,n4,s4 v4 p4 #ddb4 #afg ,taine1 ,philosophie de l'art1 p4 #ej4 ,for a just appreciation of the part of feeling in art see also ,de l'idal dans l'art1 p4 #aeb2 ,ruskin1 ,the ,laws of ,fsole1 chap4 i4 pp4 #a-g2 ,modern ,painters1 iii4 iv4 i4 #ac1 #ad2 ,lectures on ,art1 pp4 #hj1 #ha4 #afh ,hirth1 ,aufgaben der ,kunstphysiologie1 pp4 #ad-af4 #afi ,cf4 von ,stein1 ,goethe und ,schiller1 sthetik der deutschen ,klassiker1 p4 #cb4 #agj ,cf4 the quotations from ,schiller's letters to ,goethe1 adduced by ,harnack in ,die klassische sthetik der ,deutschen1 pp4 #hi-ib4 #aga ,leconte de ,lisle1 ,pomes barbares1 p4 #bba4 #agb ,van ,dyke1 ,principles of ,art1 p4 #bha4 #agc ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 pp4 #cbg1 #cbh4 #agd ,cf4 especially ,march1 8,evolution and ,psychology in ,art10 in ,mind1 ,n4,s4 v4 7#ahif72 ,balfour1 ,the ,evolution of ,decorative ,art2 ,haddon1 ,evolution in ,art1 and the papers of ,holmes in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 iii4 iv4 vi41 and in ,the ,american ,anthropologist1 iii4 #age ,for a recent defence of this theory see ,tarde1 ,la logique sociale1 pp4 #dde1 #ddf4 #agf ,cf4 chap4 vi4 in the preceding4 #agg ,cf4 ,mallery in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 i4 pp4 #bhc1 #bhd1 #cdg2 ,sayce1 ,introd4 to the ,science of ,language1 i4 pp4 #ib-id1 #aje-ajg2 ii4 pp4 #cjf-cjh4 ,it is to be remarked that in maintaining the priority of pantomimic language ,mr4 ,mallery always emphasises the 8instinctive0 character of this means of communication4 ,cp4 ,rep4 ,bur4 i4 pp4 #cdj1 #cdg4 ,professor ,sayce seems to conceive gesture-language as consisting only of dramatically imitating 8moves0 or sounds1 7l4c4 i4 p4 #ajg74 ,professor ,tylor1 on the other hand1 who takes up a critical position with regard to the theory of gesture-language as an intermediate stage of evolution1 speaks of gesture-language as made up by delineations and indications 7,early ,hist4 of ,mankind1 pp4 #ae1 #af74 ,in a theoretical discussion it is evidently necessary to maintain a strict distinction between these different kinds of pantomimic thought-conveyance1 which are no doubt accompanied by different degrees of intention4 ,cp4 ,romanes1 ,mental ,evol4 in ,man1 pp4 #hf1 #ajc4 #agh ,cf4 ,kussmaul in ,ziemssen's ,cyclopdia1 p4 #ad1 esp4 p4 #ehg 7,disturbances of ,speech47 #agi ,cf4 ,romanes1 l4c4 pp4 #aac1 #adh1 #adi1 on the influence exercised by the constructions of spoken language on the gesture-language of deaf-mutes4 #ahj ,cf4 ,tylor1 l4c4 pp4 #gd-gi1 on the improbability of the stories about tribes who cannot make themselves understood by each other without the help of gestures4 ,dr4 ,tylor's criticism of ,captain ,burton's statement that the ,aropahos 8can hardly converse with one another in the dark0 has been amply confirmed by the subsequent researches of ,mallery4 ,cf4 ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 i4 pp4 #cad1 #cae4 ,naturally1 therefore1 one feels inclined to adopt a sceptical attitude with regard to ,miss ,kingsley's assertion that the language of the ,bubis 8depends so much on gesture that they cannot talk in it to each other in the dark0 7,travels in ,west ,africa1 p4 #dci74 ,cf41 however1 with regard to the element of gesture in ,west ,african languages1 ,kingsley1 ,west ,african ,studies1 p4 #bcg4 #aha ,wood1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1 i4 p4 #bff 7,bushmen72 ,cranz1 ,historie von ,grnland1 i4 p4 #bgi4 ,as to the ,australians the statements are somewhat contradictory4 ,mr4 ,curr 7,the ,australian ,race1 i4 p4 #ic7 says that 8some tribes express a few things by signs made with their hands2 but1 on the whole1 the ,australian is very little given to gesticulation40 ,this statement1 however1 has been expressly encountered by ,mr4 ,stirling1 who describes a very extensive system of signs4 ,rep4 ,horn ,exped4 iv4 ,anthropology1 pp4 #aaa-abe4 ,cf4 also ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #ejj4 #ahb ,stirling1 l4c4 p4 #aab4 #ahc ,roth1 ,w4 ,e41 ,n4,w4,c4 ,queensland ,aborigines1 pp4 #ga sq4 #ahd ,fraser1 ,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales1 p4 #be4 #ahe ,roth1 ,w4 ,e41 ,n4,w4,c4 ,queensland1 p4 #ga4 ,cf4 a remark in the same direction by ,mallery1 ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 i4 p4 #cab4 #ahf ,see ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 p4 #ahg2 ,mallery1 l4c4 pp4 #bie1 #cjg2 ,sayce1 ,introd4 ,science of ,lang4 i4 p4 #ic4 ,compare also the classic instance of ,sicily1 meeting-ground of so many peoples4 #ahg ,fraser1 ,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales1 p4 #be2 ,roth1 l4c4 p4 #ga4 #ahh ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,central-,brasiliens1 p4 #gb2 ,mallery1 l4c4 p4 #cjg4 #ahi ,mallery1 l4c4 pp4 #caa1 #cab4 ,that the gesture-language of the ,north ,american ,indians is to be explained as a result of peculiar geographical conditions was remarked already by ,dugald ,stewart1 ,elements of the ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind1 iii4 pp4 #ai-bb4 #aij ,cf4 the interesting descriptions of ,maori political meetings in ,earle1 ,new ,zealand1 p4 #ia2 ,shortland1 ,traditions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #aga4 #aia ,home1 ,elements of ,criticism1 i4 p4 #dce4 #aib ,for an appreciation of pantomimic action as means of conveying religious feelings see ,mr4 ,tylor's description of the service in the deaf-dumb institution of ,berlin1 ,early ,history of ,mankind1 p4 #cc4 #aic ,mallery in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethnol4 i4 p4 #cgj4 #aid ,von den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,central-,brasiliens1 p4 #bdd4 #aie ,mallery in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethnol4 i4 p4 #cgj4 ,cf4 also ,mallery1 l4c4 x4 7#ahhh-hi71 7,picture-writing of the ,n4,a4 ,indians74 ,that the pictographic elements to a large extent have been influenced by the manual signs was remarked already in #ahcf by ,rafinesque4 ,cf4 ,brinton1 ,the ,lenape1 p4 #aeb1 where the merits and the priority of this peculiar author are vindicated4 #aif ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 p4 #djf4 #aig ,for examples of pictorial art subservient to such purely practical purposes see ,mallery1 l4c4 x4 pp4 #cbi-cge4 #aih ,im ,thurn1 ,primitive ,games1 pp4 #bgc1 #bge4 #aii ,roth1 ,n4,w4,c4 ,queensland ,aborigines1 pp4 #aag1 #aah4 ,oldfield 78,the ,aborigines of ,australia10 in ,trans4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 ,n4,s4 iii4 p4 #beg7 describes a ,watchandie pantomime1 imitating the proceedings of the white man in hunting whales1 and composed by an old native who had some time before visited the coast4 #bjj ,wilson and ,felkin1 ,uganda1 ii4 p4 #de4 ,for imitations of the white man in dramatic dances see also ,lander1 ,clapperton's ,last ,expedition1 i4 pp4 #abj1 #aba2 ,cook1 ,voyage ,towards the ,south ,pole 7#b ,voy471 i4 p4 #cfh4 #bja ,cook1 ,voyage ,towards the ,south ,pole 7#b ,voy471 i4 p4 #cef 7,huaheine74 #bjb ,levertin1 ,fars och farsrer1 p4 #gh1 especially the quotation from ,chappuy's 8,l'avare cornu0 7#aehj74 #bjc ,for songs describing the incidents in a travel see ,batchelor1 ,the ,ainu1 pp4 #abc1 #abd2 ,chamisso1 in ,kotzebue's ,reisen1 iii4 p4 #fg 7,radack72 ,woods1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 #ch1 #ci 7,taplin1 8,the ,narrinyeri072 ,grey1 ,journals1 ii4 p4 #bec2 ,polack1 ,new ,zealanders1 ii4 pp4 #afg1 #afh4 ,on current events as subjects of primitive poetry cf4 ,bonwick1 ,tasmanians1 p4 #bi2 ,kingsley1 ,travels1 p4 #ff1 7,bubis72 ,curr1 ,australian ,race1 iii4 p4 #afi 7,mathew1 ,mary ,river ,natives72 ,metz1 ,neilgherry ,hills1 p4 #cj 7,todas72 ,ahlqvist1 ,acta ,soc4 ,scient4 ,fenn4 xiv4 78,wogulen und ,ostjaken072 ,day1 ,proceedings of the ,as4 ,soc4 #ahgj1 p4 #aeg 7,observ4 on the ,andamanese72 ,ehrenreich in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xix4 p4 #cb 7,botokudos72 ,erman1 ,travels in ,siberia1 ii4 pp4 #db1 #dc 7,ostyak songs and pantomimes74 #bjd ,cf4 ,bonwick1 ,daily ,life and ,origin of the ,tasmanians1 p4 #bi2 ,lenz1 ,skizzen aus ,west ,afrika1 pp4 #aaj1 #aaa 7,abongos72 ,schneider1 ,die ,naturvlker1 ii4 p4 #bce1 #bcf 7,interior ,africa74 #bje ,cf4 ,eyre1 ,expeditions into ,central ,australia1 ii4 p4 #bdj2 ,cruickshank1 ,eighteen ,years on the ,gold ,coast1 ii4 p4 #bff4 #bjf ,st4 ,john1 ,far ,east1 i4 p4 #aad 7,kayans of ,baram72 ,petherick1 ,egypt1 p4 #acj 7,hassanyeh ,arabs72 ,mollien1 ,travels1 p4 #gd 7,joloffs74 #bjg ,woods1 l4c4 pp4 #ch1 #ci 7,taplin1 8,the ,narrinyeri074 ,cf4 the solos in the ,atiu canoe-song1 describing the guns of ,captain ,cook4 ,gill1 ,from ,darkness to ,light1 p4 #bfc4 ,on the song of the ,marshall ,islanders describing the ships of the ,russian expedition1 the dresses of the sailors1 etc41 see ,rienzi1 ,ocanie1 ii4 p4 #aif4 #bjh ,varigny1 ,quatorze ans aux ,iles ,sandwich1 pp4 #ah-bc1 particularly p4 #ai4 ,a short reference to the same song can be found in ,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 ii4 p4 #aga4 #bji ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern1 pp4 #bdd sq41 #bdh1 #bdi4 #baj ,hyades1 in ,mission scientifique du ,cap ,horn1 vii4 p4 #bec4 #baa ,martial1 ibid4 i4 p4 #bad4 #bab ,mr4 ,bridges' unpublished work1 quoted by ,hyades1 l4c4 vii4 p4 #cgg4 #bac ,cranz1 ,historie von ,grnland1 i4 p4 #bib4 #bad ,cranz1 l4c4 p4 #bbi4 #bae ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #dg1 #dh2 cf4 ,romilly1 ,my ,verandah in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #hg4 #baf ,kleinschmidt1 in ,journal des ,museum ,godeffroy1 xiv4 #ahgi1 p4 #bfh4 78,reisen auf den ,viti ,inseln4 ,insel ,vatu ,lele074 ,williams1 ,fiji1 pp4 #ii1 #adb2 ,spencer1 ,descriptive ,sociology1 ,division ,i4 ,nr4 iii4 p4 #fj4 #bag ,letherman1 in ,smithsonian ,report1 #ahee1 pp4 #bie1 #bif 7,the ,navajo tribe74 #bah ,cf4 ,matthews1 ,navaho ,legends1 pp4 #bb-bf1 where the assertions of ,dr4 ,letherman are quoted and opposed4 #bai ,cook4 7#ast7 ,voyage1 p4 #chh2 ,lubbock1 ,prehistoric ,times1 p4 #dbf2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 iii4 p4 #gh4 #bbj ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 ii4 p4 xii4 #bba ,schoolcraft1 l4c4 i4 p4 #ah4 #bbb ,lubbock1 l4c4 p4 #dbf4 #bbc ,kane1 ,wanderings1 p4 #agi4 #bbd ,see infra1 p4 #age4 #bbe ,with regard to the traditional art of the ,australian natives compare ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 #bbj sq4 #dgc1 #dhe2 ,lloyd1 ,tasmania and ,victoria1 p4 #dff4 #bbf ,cf4 e4g4 ,steinen1 ,durch ,central ,brasilien1 pp4 #bff1 #bfg1 on a ,yuruna dance4 #bbg ,cf4 ,bourke1 ,scatologic ,rites1 p4 #be4 #bbh ,bourke1 8,the ,medicine-men of the ,apache10 in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethnol4 ix4 #ahhg-hh4 #bbi ,cf4 ,bourke1 ,scatologic ,rites1 pp4 #f1 #g1 #fd1 and the author's ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi1 pp4 #aad1 #aai4 #bcj ,bourke1 ,the ,snake-,dance of the ,moquis1 pp4 #agh1 #agi4 #bca ,cf4 the author's ,skildringar ur ,pueblo folkens konstlif 7,the ,art-life of the ,pueblo-,indians71 passim4 #bcb ,cf4 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 p4 #gig4 #bcc ,cf4 especially ,fewkes1 8,the ,snake ,ceremonials at ,walpi10 in ,journ4 ,american ,ethnology and ,archology1 vol4 iv41 especially pp4 #aai1 #abd4 #bcd ,a detailed account of these prayers has been given in ,pueblo folkens konstlif1 passim4 #bce ,cf4 ,tylor1 ,prim4 ,culture1 i4 pp4 #cib sq4 #bcf ,mooney1 in ,the ,american ,anthropologist1 iii4 pp4 #ajh1 #aji 78,the ,cherokee ,ball-,play074 #bcg ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 pp4 #bdf1 #bdg4 #bch ,rclus1 ,les ,primitifs1 p4 #cef4 ,for some unmistakable examples of myths secondary to the corresponding rites see ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia1 p4 #ddc4 #bci ,cf4 ,abercromby1 ,pre-and ,proto-historic ,finns1 i4 pp4 #ceh1 #cei1 ii4 p4 #da4 #bdj ,erman1 ,travels1 ii4 pp4 #ej1 #ea4 #bda ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilisation1 pp4 #cef sq4 #bdb ,cf4 ,kingsley1 ,travels1 p4 #dgc4 ,on the difficulty of deciding whether a given piece of sculpture is to be interpreted as an idol or as a merely memorial portrait1 see ,brinton1 ,report upon the ,collections1 etc41 p4 #cc4 #bdc ,schweinfurth1 ,artes ,african1 pl4 viii4 f4 #e2 ,cruickshank1 ,eighteen ,years on the ,gold ,coast1 ii4 pp4 #bgj1 #bga2 ,schmeltz1 ,ethnol4 ,abtheil4 des ,mus4 ,godeffroy1 p4 #bda4 #bdd ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 pp4 #agc1 #agd4 ,the same views have been expressed by ,finsch1 ,ethnologische ,erfahrungen1 pp4 #bee-beg2 ,samoafahrten1 pp4 #dg-di1 #ge1 #age4 #bde ,polack1 ,new ,zealand1 i4 pp4 #aae1 #aaf1 #bcf1 #bcg2 ,robley1 ,moko1 pp4 #hh sq4 ,cf4 about 8,moko0-tattooing as a means of recognising individuals1 living or dead1 ,robley1 l4c4 pp4 #aca1 #adf1 #adg1 #aei4 #bdf ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen1 i4 pp4 #beh-bfa4 ,the remarks of ,herr ,andree have been emphatically supported by von den ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,central ,brasiliens1 p4 #bdd2 cf4 also ,hoffman1 ,ethnographic ,observations1 in ,u4,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,survey1 #ahgf1 especially p4 #dge4 #bdg ,im ,thurn1 ,indians of ,guiana1 pp4 #djc-daj4 ,on similar grounds the application of ,herr ,andree's theory to the ,north ,american ,petroglyphs has been opposed by ,mallery1 in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethnol4 x4 pp4 #bh1 #bi 78,picture-writing of the ,american ,indians074 #bdh ,svoboda1 in ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 v4 pp4 #afb1 #afc4 ,cf4 also ,meyer1 ,bilderschriften des ,ostindischen ,archipels1 p4 #a4 #bdi ,cf4 ,grey1 ,journals1 ii4 p4 #caj4 #bej ,as typical illustrations of this class of legends we may instance the ,polynesian poems quoted by ,fornander1 ,the ,polynesian ,race1 ii4 #ab-ai1 #bhd-bhf4 #bea ,cf4 pp4 #afj1 #afa1 in the preceding1 and ,gill1 ,from ,darkness to ,light1 pp4 #bdh-bfd4 #beb ,see ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 p4 #bhf2 iv4 pp4 #gi1 #aja1 #aje2 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 p4 #abe2 ,polack1 ,new ,zealanders1 ii4 p4 #afg2 and1 above all1 the collection of traditional war-poetry from the ,hervey ,group1 published by ,gill in ,from ,darkness to ,light4 #bec ,cf4 above1 p4 #afe4 #bed ,oviedo1 ,histoire des ,indes1 pp4 #fi1 #gj2 ,markham1 in the ,introduction to his translation of ,ollanta1 pp4 #a1 #b2 ,spencer1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ii4 pp4 #ac1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga2 ,forbes1 ,dahomey1 ii4 p4 #ac4 ,on historical songs among the military tribes of ,africa cf4 also ,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs1 p4 #bfh2 ,burton1 ,lake ,regions1 i4 p4 #bfc 7,wagogos74 ,as regards the influence of war on early ,arab poetry see ,posnett1 ,comparative ,literature1 p4 #acc4 #bee ,cf4 e4g4 the humble traditions of the ,kubus1 as quoted by ,forbes1 ,wanderings1 p4 #bdc4 #bef ,laing1 ,travels1 p4 #ahf 7,village ,kamia72 ,dobrizhoffer1 ,the ,abipones1 ii4 pp4 #dcj1 #dca4 #beg ,parker1 ,aborigines of ,australia1 pp4 #be1 #bf2 ,howitt in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xiii4 pp4 #dec1 #ded 7,australian ceremonies of initiation71 and ,cameron in the same journal1 xiv4 p4 #ceh 7,tribes of ,n4,s4 ,wales72 the last two instances quoted in ,frazer1 ,totemism1 p4 #dg4 ,see also ,fison1 8,the ,nanga10 in ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xiv41 esp4 p4 #bb1 on an initiation ceremony in ,fiji1 representing the ancestors lying dead and coming to life again1 which curiously resembles ,collins's description and pictures of an ,australian initiation 7,collins1 ,n4,s4 ,wales1 i4 p4 #ege74 ,for a somewhat analogous drama in ,east ,africa see ,dale1 ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxv4 p4 #ahi 7,bondi country74 ,for interpretation of all these rites see ,frazer1 ,totemism1 p4 #dg2 and ,the ,golden ,bough1 ii4 pp4 #cdc-cei4 #beh ,carver1 ,travels1 pp4 #age-ahj2 ,schoolcraft1 ,information1 v4 pp4 #dbh sq4 ,both quoted by ,frazer4 ,to be compared with the initiation into the ,secret ,society of ,nkimba--,ward in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxiv4 pp4 #bhh1 #bhi 7,congo tribes74 #bei ,crane1 ,bases of ,design1 p4 #ahi4 #bfj ,cf4 ,haddon1 ,evolution in ,art1 pp4 #bbj1 #bba4 #bfa ,brown1 ,hist4 of the ,origin and ,rise of ,poetry1 pp4 #di1 #ej4 #bfb ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #ajc1 #abd1 #abe2 cf4 also ii4 pp4 #dcf1 #dcg1 and ,the ,origin of ,species1 i4 p4 #aji4 #bfc ,ribot1 ,psychologie de l'attention1 pp4 #dd1 #de4 #bfd ,espinas1 ,des socits animales1 p4 #bhd4 #bfe ,brehm1 ,thierleben1 v4 pp4 #fja1 #fjb2 cf4 also ,wallace1 ,tropical ,nature1 p4 #aii4 #bff ,nilsson1 ,foglarna1 ii4 p4 #ef2 ,lloyd1 ,game ,birds and ,wild ,fowl1 p4 #ha4 #bfg ,geddes and ,thomson1 ,the ,evolution of ,sex1 p4 #bh4 #bfh ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #ajg-aji1 #beb4 #bfi ,cf4 ,wallace1 ,tropical ,nature1 pp4 #aif-aih1 ,darwinism1 p4 #bhd2 ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 pp4 #bdd1 #bej4 #bgj ,wallace1 ,tropical ,nature1 pp4 #aic1 #bji1 #baj1 #bac2 ,darwinism1 pp4 #bhd1 #bhg1 #bib1 #bid4 #bga ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 p4 #ajc4 #bgb ,cf4 ,wallace1 ,darwinism1 p4 #bic2 ,tropical ,nature1 p4 #aii4 #bgc ,cf4 ,schneider1 ,der ,thierische ,wille1 p4 #cfg4 #bgd ,cf4 about the relation between sexual ripening and the development of the vocal organs1 ,buffon1 ,hist4 nat4 des oiseaux1 i4 pp4 #ba1 #bb4 #bge ,for some suggestive remarks in this direction see ,espinas1 ,des socits animales1 p4 #cac2 and the anonymous paper on 8,the ,descent of ,man0 in ,the ,quarterly ,review1 #ahga1 vol4 cxiii4 p4 #fb4 #bgf ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 pp4 #bde1 #bdi4 #bgg ,lindsay1 ,mind in the ,lower ,animals1 i4 p4 #beb1 #bec2 ii4 pp4 #abf1 #bai1 #bbj2 ,grant ,allen1 ,the ,colour ,sense1 pp4 #aai1 #aeg1 #afg2 ,romanes1 ,animal ,intelligence1 p4 #bdg4 #bgh ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #abc-abe2 ,nilsson1 ,foglarna1 i4 pp4 #bjb1 #bjf2 ,lindsay1 ,mind in the ,lower ,animals1 ii4 p4 #aeb2 ,cornish1 ,life at the ,zoo1 pp4 #aja-ajc1 #aje1 #ajf4 #bgi ,romanes1 ,darwin1 i4 p4 #cha2 ,bchner1 ,liebe und ,liebes-,leben1 p4 #eb4 #bhj ,beccari1 8,le capanne dell' ,amblyornis inornata10 in ,annali del museo civico di storia naturale di ,genova1 ix4 pp4 #chb-cia4 #bha ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 p4 #gg4 #bhb ,cf4 especially the dresses of ,homophania insectivora1 ,petasophora cyanotis1 and ,steganura underwoodi1 as depicted in ,mulsant1 ,hist4 nat4 des oiseaux-mouches1 ,pl4 #fb1 #ia;a1 #aaj4 #bhc ,binet1 ,le ftichisme dans l'amour1 etc41 pp4 #beg sq4 7,l'intensit des images mentales74 #bhd ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 pp4 #bdc1 #bhc2 cf4 also ,hellwald1 ,die menschliche ,familie1 pp4 #ad-af2 ,van ,ende1 ,hist4 nat4 de la croyance1 ,i4 ,l'animal1 p4 #bch4 #bhe ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #ajf1 #ajg4 #bhf ,wallace1 ,darwinism1 pp4 #bhd1 #bhg1 #bib1 #bid4 #bhg ,spencer1 ,essays1 ii4 pp4 #dbg1 #dcj1 #dca4 ,some of the arguments of ,spencer had been adduced by ,barrington in his polemic against ,buffon4 ,cf4 ,philosophical ,transactions1 #aggc1 pp4 #bfb1 #bfc 7,experiments on the singing of birds74 #bhh ,hudson1 ,the ,naturalist in ,la ,plata1 pp4 #bhj sq4 #bhi ,a more detailed account of this question has been given in the author's ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi1 pp4 #bi1 #cj4 #bij ,espinas1 ,des socits animales1 p4 #cbh4 #bia ,for experiments proving the invigorating effects of colour-impression upon the animal organism1 particularly upon insects1 see ,fr1 ,pathology of ,emotions1 p4 #bc4 #bib ,brehm1 ,thierleben1 iv4 p4 #bj2 cf4 also ,schneider1 ,der thierische ,wille1 p4 #agb2 ,espinas1 l4c4 p4 #bhf2 ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 pp4 #bdb-bdd4 #bic ,groos1 l4c4 p4 #bdb4 #bid ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 pp4 #bdd1 #bde2 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 pp4 #cbi-cdj4 #bie ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #ah1 #id1 #aaj1 #acg4 #bif ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #bea4 ,when advocating the ,darwinian theory of sexual selection1 ,professor ,poulton seems to use the notion 8sthetic appreciation0 in this wide sense4 ,cf4 ,colours of ,animals1 p4 #bhf4 #big ,cf4 ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #fg1 #gd4 #bih ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #fg4 #bii ,nilsson1 ,foglarna1 ii4 p4 #ahe4 #cjj ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #h2 i4 p4 #eji4 #cja ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 pp4 #bjj1 #bja1 #bab4 #cjb ,ibid4 pp4 #aif1 #aih4 #cjc ,schurtz1 ,grundzge einer ,philosophie der ,tracht1 pp4 #ba1 #eg1 #gg1 #hj4 #cjd ,as regards these various means of 8embellishment0 see the collection of instances in ,magitot1 8,les mutilations ethniques10 in ,congrs d'anthropologie1 #ahhj4 #cje ,cf4 ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 pp4 #bfe1 #bff2 ,lippert1 ,kulturgeschichte1 i4 pp4 #cfh1 #cfi4 #cjf ,cf4 ,brinton1 ,races and ,peoples1 p4 #dc4 #cjg ,ahlqvist1 ,muistelmia1 p4 #aa4 #cjh ,humboldt1 ,travels1 iii4 p4 #bcf2 cf4 ,joest1 ,ttowiren1 pp4 #ad1 #ae2 ,brinton1 ,races and ,peoples1 p4 #db4 #cji ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 p4 #bfc2 ,lippert1 ,kulturgeschichte1 i4 pp4 #djb-dje4 #caj ,cf4 ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 pp4 #aie1 #bjj1 #bja4 #caa ,westermarck1 l4c4 pp4 #aif-aih2 cf4 also ,finsch1 ,ethnologische ,erfahrungen1 p4 #dd 7,new ,zealand74 #cab ,fritsch1 ,die ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrikas1 pp4 #eh1 #ei2 ,steinen1 ,under den ,naturvlkern1 pp4 #aia1 #aib2 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage1 p4 #hf2 ,moseley in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 vi4 p4 #cih2 ,finsch1 l4c4 pp4 #fd1 #he1 #bbe2 ,roth1 ,w4 ,e41 ,n4,w4,c4 ,queensland ,aborigines1 p4 #aac2 ,wilken1 ,nederlandsch-,indi1 pp4 #cg1 #ch2 ,fhrer durch das ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 p4 #hg4 #cac ,roth1 l4c4 p4 #aad4 #cad ,wilken1 l4c4 p4 #ch2 cf4 also ,steinen1 l4c4 pp4 #aie1 #aif4 #cae ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 p4 #bji4 #caf ,for some curious superstitions of this kind see ,schneider1 ,die ,naturvlker1 i4 p4 #bfi4 #cag ,somerville1 in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxiii4 p4 #cfh 7,notes on the ,new ,hebrides74 #cah ,elworthy1 ,the ,evil ,eye1 pp4 #af1 #adh-aed2 ,schurtz1 in ,archiv fr ,anthropologie1 xxii4 p4 #fj 7,amulette und ,zaubermittel72 ,svoboda1 ,geschichte der ,ideale1 i4 pp4 #bid-bif1 on obscene amulets in classical art4 ,it may be remarked that ithyphallic talismans are especially numerous in and about ,new ,guinea4 ,cf4 ,schmeltz in ,de ,clercq1 ,nederlandsch ,nieuw-,guinea1 p4 #bdd4 #cai ,kleinpaul1 ,sprache ohne ,worte1 p4 #bge4 ,cf4 also the obscene and indecent character of the devil dances on ,ceylon--,sirr1 ,ceylon1 ii4 p4 #eb4 ,to the same superstitious motives we may perhaps also ascribe the occurrence of improper dances and pantomimes at funerals1 i4e4 at an occasion when there is especial reason to fear the influence of malignant spirits4 ,for instances of such funeral ceremonies see ,laing1 ,travels1 p4 #cfh 7,soolimas72 ,metz1 ,neilgherry ,hills1 pp4 #gg1 #gh 7,badagas72 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 vi4 p4 #djg 7,polynesia74 ,the interpretation of these peculiar rites must1 however1 necessarily be only hypothetical4 ,for other explanations of them see ,rclus1 ,les ,primitifs1 p4 #bdb1 and ,svoboda1 l4c4 i4 p4 #eeg4 #cbj ,on exposure as an offence cf4 the instructive instances quoted in ,ellis1 ,man and ,woman1 p4 #fa4 #cba ,ratzel1 ,vlkerkunde1 i4 p4 #fd4 ,on superstitious motives for covering the organs of generation cf4 also ,crawley in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxiv41 especially pp4 #dda1 #ddb 7,sexual ,taboo74 ,the ,bible text 7,genesis ix4 #ba-be71 which has been interpreted by ,schurtz 7,philosophie der ,tracht1 p4 #ef7 as a case of modesty1 is undoubtedly to be explained by reference to phallic superstitions4 #cbb ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #abe4 ,on somewhat similar notions entertained by the ,north ,american ,indians1 cf4 the instances quoted in ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 p4 #bd4 #cbc ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 pp4 #agi1 #ahj2 cf4 also ,marsden1 ,sumatra1 p4 #big 7,lampongs74 #cbd ,hartland1 l4c4 i4 p4 #agj4 #cbe ,ibid4 i4 p4 #agj2 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ii4 p4 #bcg4 #cbf ,cf4 ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 pp4 #agc sq42 ,joest1 ,ttowiren1 p4 #ef4 #cbg ,cf4 ,tetens and ,kubary in ,journal des ,museum ,godeffroy1 ii4 p4 #af 7,yap72 ,kubary1 l4c4 viii4 p4 #acc 7,pelew ,islands3 ,gems and bracelets as badges and class distinctions72 ,angas1 ,polynesia1 pp4 #bic1 #big 7,tahiti3 different ranks among the ,areoi distinguished by different tattooings72 ,schmeltz1 ,ethnol4 ,abtheilung des ,museum ,godeffroy1 pp4 #ahb sq41 #bei-bfa1 #dgh sq4 7,fiji2 ,marquesas ,islands2 ,samoa3 tattooings as connected with distinctions of rank74 ,these facts are1 as ,schmeltz remarks1 in direct opposition to the statements of ,finsch in ,verhandlungen d4 ,berlin ,anthropol4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahgi1 p4 #dad4--,ltke does not himself think that the richness of tattoo patterns on the ,caroline ,islands stands in any relation to the rank of the tattooed individual2 but he admits that some members of his expedition had got such an impression1 ,voyage1 i4 pp4 #cei1 #cfj4 ,the belief of the ,fijians1 to which so curious an analogy has been found among the ,eskimos 7,lubbock1 ,prehist4 ,times1 p4 #efe2 ,hall1 ,arctic ,researches1 p4 #egj71 that only tattooed people are entitled to happiness after death may perhaps be connected with notions of an ,elysium reserved for individuals of a certain rank4 ,cf4 also ,ymer1 iv4 p4 #cag1 on the views of the ,pelew islanders as to nose ornaments as a condition for entering the realm of spirits1 and ,finsch1 ,ethnol4 ,erfahrungen1 p4 #caf1 quoting1 with reservation1 ,kirby on a ,gilbert's ,island paradise1 open only to the spirits of tattooed people4 ,with regard to the ,african tribes we are unable to adduce any unambiguous instances of scars as denoting rank and status4 ,see1 however1 ,ellis1 ,ee-speaking ,peoples1 p4 #adf4 #cbh ,wundt1 ,ethik4 p4 #aeb4 #cbi ,kubary1 ,journal des ,museum ,godeffroy1 viii4 p4 #acc 7,pelew and ,ponape ,islanders74 #ccj ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 ii4 pp4 #ge1 #agd sq41 #ahd sq42 ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern1 p4 #agi4 #cca ,with regard to the later developments of such triumphal signs compare e4g4 ,wuttke1 ,geschichte d4 ,schrift1 i4 pp4 #ajh sq42 ,wilken1 ,nederlandsch-,indi1 pp4 #cf1 #cg2 ,joest1 ,welt-,fahrten1 ii4 p4 #cja 7,formosa72 ,burchell1 ,travels1 ii4 p4 #ece 7,bachapins74 #ccb ,schneider1 ,die ,naturvlker1 i4 pp4 #aji1 #aaj2 ,robley1 ,moko1 p4 #df2 ,godden in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxvi4 p4 #ahe 7,nagas72 ,man1 ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xii4 p4 #ce1 thinks that the ,andamanese tattooing is executed 8primarily as ornamental1 and secondarily as proving the courage of the individual and his 7or her7 power of enduring pain40 #ccc ,schneider1 l4c4 i4 p4 #ajg4 #ccd ,on tattooing as a pictography compare ,wuttke1 ,geschichte der ,schrift1 i4 pp4 #ig-ii1 #ajb4 #cce ,stolpe1 ,ttowirung der ,oster-,insulaner1 p4 #h4 #ccf ,cf4 ,sarasin1 ,forschungen auf ,ceylon1 iii4 p4 #eaa 7,magical cords worn by the ,veddas3 the custom considered to be of ,singhalese origin72 ,man1 ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xii4 p4 #hf 7,bone necklaces worn by the ,andamanese as a cure for sickness72 ,ibid4 p4 #agj 7,superstitious notions of the ,andamanese with regard to tattooing72 ,stevens1 8,wilde ,stmme ,malkas10 in ,verff4 d4 ,mus4 ,vlkerkunde1 ii4 p4 #ade 7,amulet collars72 ,marshall1 ,todas1 p4 #di 7,rings and bracelets as charms72 ,elliot1 ,memoirs on the ,races of the ,n4 ,w4 ,provinces of ,india1 i4 p4 #bdj 7,black 8mouches0 worn on the face for averting evil eye72 ,bock1 ,temples and ,elephants1 p4 #agj 7,superstitious tattooings among ,burmese and ,ngious72 ,smyth1 ,victoria1 i4 p4 #aab2 and ,taplin1 8,the ,narrinyeri10 in ,woods1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #ba 7,hair of deceased worn around the head in order to make 8the eyes large and the sight keen072 ,roth1 ,tasmania1 p4 #gf 7,bones of deceased worn as amulets72 ,kingsley1 ,travels1 p4 #ddh 7,charm-gems in ,w4 ,africa72 ,ellis1 ,w4 ,african ,sketches1 p4 #i 7,bodily painting as medical cure among ,fantis71 pp4 #aia1 #aib 7,tattooing supposed to strengthen a child74 ,for further interesting instances see ,wuttke1 ,geschichte der ,schrift1 i4 p4 #gg2 cf4 also the facts about laceration as medical cure collected on p4 #fg in the preceding4 #ccg ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern1 p4 #ahd4 #cch ,ibid4 l4c4 pp4 #agc1 #ahf2 cf4 the assertions of ,burton1 ,lake ,regions1 ii4 p4 #fc 7,wajiji ,tribe3 ,tattooing explained as a protection against the humid atmosphere72 ,roth1 ,tasmania1 pp4 #aci-ada4 #cci ,lippert1 ,kulturgeschichte1 i4 pp4 #ah1 #cfe1 #cff4 #cdj ,cf4 ,haddon1 ,evolution in ,art1 p4 #bjc2 ,grosse1 ,anfnge der ,kunst1 pp4 #acj-acc4 #cda ,robley1 ,moko1 pp4 #aj-af4 ,cf41 however1 ,shortland 7,new ,zealand1 pp4 #af1 #ag71 who explains ,moko as being only a 8fashionable mode of adornment10 and ,dieffenbach 7,new ,zealand1 ii4 p4 #cd71 who thinks that the use of ,moko for signatures is a modern invention4 ,tattooings which serve as individual marks of recognition are mentioned by ,heriot1 ,travels through the ,canadas1 p4 #bic2 ,fraser1 ,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales1 p4 #de2 ,herr ,koeler 7,monatsberichte der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde1 iii4 p4 #ea7 thinks that the scars of the ,australians--8these genealogical indices0--may to some extent make up for the want of proper names4 #cdb ,with regard to marks of tribal distinction compare the facts collected by ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 ii4 pp4 #gb-ge2 ,frazer1 ,totemism1 pp4 #bf-cj4 ,even those who do not believe in ,mr4 ,frazer's assertion that the paintings1 coiffures1 tattooings1 etc41 aim at an imitation of the totem animal1 will be compelled to admit that they often serve as means of distinguishing members of the same totem group4 ,buckland1 ,anthropological ,studies1 pp4 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bca 7,on tattooing72 ,starcke1 ,the ,primitive ,family1 pp4 #db1 #fb2 ,wuttke1 ,geschichte der ,schrift1 i4 pp4 #hj sq4 ,further instances1 unmentioned by these authors1 are to be found in ,godden1 ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxvi4 pp4 #ahd1 #ahe 7,nagas and other ,frontier ,tribes of ,north-,east ,india72 ,fytche1 ,burma1 i4 pp4 #cea1 #ceb 7,khyengs said to tattoo their women in order to prevent their being carried off by neighbouring tribes72 ,im ,thurn1 ,indians of ,guiana1 pp4 #aif1 #cje2 ,dobrizhoffer1 ,the ,abipones1 ii4 p4 #ai2 ,steinen1 ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,central ,brasiliens1 pp4 #agi1 #ahj1 #aij2 ,kingsley1 ,travels in ,west ,africa1 pp4 #ecj1 #eca2 ,ellis1 ,west ,african ,sketches1 p4 #aia2 ,ee-speaking ,peoples1 p4 #adf2 ,lander1 ,journal1 iii4 p4 #fa 7,kacundas72 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa1 pp4 #dbb-dbd2 ,ward in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxiv4 p4 #bid 7,congo ,tribes72 ,wissman1 ,im ,inneren ,afrikas1 p4 #bdf 7,bacubas74 ,in his account of the ,niger tribes ,m4 ,binger has succeeded in minutely classifying the tattoo patterns according to tribes and families 7,binger1 ,du ,niger1 etc41 ii4 pp4 #djh-daa74 ,it is evidently impossible to decide to how great a degree the uniformity in the decorative systems of the several tribes has its origin in an intentional endeavour to develop a distinct tribal appearance4 ,it may in many cases be merely a result of limited powers of invention4 ,as to the scarification of the ,australian natives the evidence seems to be contradictory4 ,if we are to believe ,mr4 ,taplin's informer1 incisions on the body would have been used by the ,noocoonas in order to distinguish tribes 8before whites came0 7,taplin1 ,folklore of ,s4 ,australia1 p4 #fe74 ,these assertions have1 however1 been called in question by the informers of ,curr 7,australian ,race1 ii4 pp4 #dfh1 #dge71 by ,spencer and ,gillen 7,native ,tribes1 pp4 #db-dd71 and by ,stirling 7,rep4 ,horn ,exp4 ,,iv4 ,anthropology1 p4 #bd72 cf4 also ,roth1 ,n4 ,w4 ,c4 ,queensland1 pp4 #aaj1 #aae4 #cdc ,for some further instances illustrating the use of 8decoration0 for purely practical purposes see ,mallery1 in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethnol4 x4 p4 #dah2 ,westermarck1 ,human ,marriage1 p4 #agf4 #cdd ,finsch1 ,ethnologische ,erfahrungen1 pp4 #bhc1 #bhd 7,mikronesia72 in ,verhandlungen d4 ,berlin ,anthropol4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahgi1 p4 #dad 7,markesas ,islands72 and in ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xii4 p4 #cjh 7,ponape72 ,stirling in ,rep4 ,horn ,exp4 iv4 p4 #ca 7,central ,australia72 ,stokes1 ,discoveries1 i4 pp4 #eh1 #ei 7,south-,western ,australia72 ,bock1 ,temples and ,elephants1 pp4 #agj-agb 7,laos74 #cde ,spencer1 ,essays1 ii4 pp4 #dcc-dce 7,the ,origin of ,music74 #cdf ,on the stimulating influence which women may exercise on warriors1 and on the sensitiveness of warriors to female appreciation or criticism1 see for example ,spencer1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ,div4 ,i4 ,nr4 iii4 p4 #fj 7,tasmanians72 ,nr4 v4 p4 #c 7,bedouins72 ,mantegazza1 ,physiologie des ,hasses1 pp4 #adc-ade4 #cdg ,gurney1 ,power of ,sound1 p4 #aei1 quoted by ,wallaschek1 ,primitive ,music1 p4 #baa4 #cdh ,wallaschek1 l4c4 pp4 #baj-bac4 #cdi ,hudson1 ,the ,naturalist in ,la ,plata1 p4 #bgi4 #cej ,groos1 ,the ,play of ,animals1 pp4 #bdd1 #bde4 #cea ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #chg-dji4 #ceb ,berchon1 8,le tatouage10 in ,actes de l',acadmie de ,bordeaux1 #ahhe1 pp4 #hjf1 #hjg4 ,cf4 also ,joest1 ,ttowiren1 pp4 #bi1 #ec-ee1 #fj-fe4 ,although ,berchon himself remarks 7p4 #haa7 that in ,polynesia the reverence for tattooing is dying out1 he has not happened to think that this circumstance may have been the cause of the laxity in tattoo composition4 #cec ,cf4 ,cook1 7#ast7 ,voyage1 pp4 #bjf-bjh2 cf4 p4 #bfe 7,tahiti74 ,for other ,polynesian erotic dances see ,marques in ,boletim da ,sociedade de ,geographia de ,lisboa1 viii4 p4 #fj 7,samoa72 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #abe2 ,gill1 ,south4 ,pacific1 p4 #bj 7,hervey ,islands72 ,rienzi1 ,ocanie1 iii4 p4 #afj 7,maori ,slave ,girls74 ,on ,polynesian dance parties1 arranged in order to bring into notice the daughters of the chiefs and nobles1 cf4 ,gill1 ,from ,darkness to ,light1 pp4 #bi1 #bec 7,mangaia72 ,ellis1 ,pol4 ,res4 i4 pp4 #bae-bag 7,tahiti72 ,vancouver1 ,voyage1 i4 p4 #aai4 7,tahiti74 ,examples of similar dances and pantomimes1 often in plain connection with sexual orgies1 can be found among ,australians and ,melanesians4 ,cf4 especially ,eyre1 ,expeditions into ,central ,australia1 ii4 p4 #bce2 ,mathew in ,curr1 ,australian ,race1 iii4 pp4 #afh1 #afi 7,mary ,river ,natives74 ,koeler in his list of ,australian words describes 8,korrobbora0 as an obscene dance-pantomime performed by men before the women2 ,monatsber4 d4 ,ges4 fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 iii4 p4 #ec2 ,mathews in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxv4 pp4 #bbf-bbh 7,kamilaroi72 ,woods1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #ch 7,taplin1 8,the ,narrinyeri071 p4 #bdc 7,schrmann1 8,port ,lincoln ,tribe10 men and women dancing some rounds together72 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #cha4 ,few of these facts1 however1 entitle us to assume a simple purpose of pleasing the opposite sex4 #ced ,burton1 ,zanzibar1 i4 pp4 #dcj1 #dca2 ,ellis1 ,west ,african ,sketches1 p4 #bbf 7,country ,dance in ,mankessin72 ,laing1 ,travels1 pp4 #ajd1 #aje 7,timannees72 ,nachtigal1 ,sahr und ,sdn1 i4 pp4 #aja1 #ajb 7,murzuk1 ,fezzn72 ,sparrman1 ,resa1 i4 p4 #dba 7,hottentots74 ,for general descriptions of this kind of dancing see ,fr4 ,mller1 ,allgemeine ,ethnographie1 p4 #agb4 #cee ,marsden1 ,sumatra1 p4 #bih 7,lampong ,country72 ,brenner1 ,besuch bei den ,kannibalen1 p4 #cca 7,sumatra72 ,joest1 ,weltfahrten1 ii4 pp4 #aei1 #afj 7,seram72 ,blumentritt1 ,filippinen1 p4 #ag 7,tagals71 p4 #da 7,catalangaus74 #cef ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 pp4 #aif-aih 7,hos and ,mundaris72 ,lewin1 ,wild ,races1 pp4 #abc-abe 7,khyoungtha ,love ,songs71 p4 #ahh 7,chukma ,songs72 ,mller1 l4c4 p4 #dga 7,kolh ,dances74 #ceg ,dalton1 l4c4 pp4 #adb-add 7,bhuiyas74 #ceh ,ibid4 pp4 #ace1 #adi1 #cjj4 #cei ,ibid4 p4 #aif4 #cfj ,lewin1 ,wild ,races1 pp4 #abc-abe4 #cfa ,ibid4 p4 #ahh4 #cfb ,selenka1 ,sonnige ,welten1 pp4 #cdi-ceb2 ,brenner1 ,besuch bei den ,kannibalen1 pp4 #cbh sq4 7,bataks72 ,forbes1 ,wanderings1 p4 #adi2 ,marsden1 ,sumatra1 pp4 #aig1 #aih1 #bfg2 ,rienzi1 ,ocanie1 i4 pp4 #acd1 #ace1 all on poetry from ,sumatra2 ,blumentritt1 ,filippinen1 p4 #ag2 ,jagor1 ,filippinen1 p4 #bcf 7,bisayas72 ,martin1 ,mollukken1 pp4 #bib1 #bic2 ,hickson1 ,celebes1 pp4 #bgb-bgd1 #cja-cjd4 #cfc ,curr1 ,australian ,race1 iii4 pp4 #afh1 #afi4 #cfd ,cf4 on the erotic poetry in ,tahiti1 ,cook1 7#crd7 ,voyage1 ii4 p4 #adi2 on ,maori erotic poetry1 ,dieffenbach1 ,new ,zealand1 ii4 p4 #eg4 #cfe ,morgan1 ,iroquois1 pp4 #bfj1 #bhd-bhg2 ,baker1 ,musik der ,nordamerikanischen ,wilden1 p4 #ef4 #cff ,cf4 ,brinton1 ,essays1 pp4 #bic-big2 ,markham1 ,ollanta1 pp4 #a1 #b4 #cfg ,hyades1 ,mission ,scientifique1 vii4 p4 #cgg2 cf4 p4 #bci4 #cfh ,bailey1 ,trans4 ,ethnol4 ,soc4 ,n4 ,s4 ii4 p4 #cja2 ,davy1 ,ceylon1 p4 #aah2 ,deschamps1 ,au pays des ,veddas1 pp4 #chf-chi2 ,emerson ,tennent1 ,ceylon1 ii4 p4 #dej2 ,hoffmeister1 ,travels1 p4 #afd2 ,sarasin1 ,ergebnisse1 iii4 pp4 #eab-eah1 #edf2 ,schmidt1 ,ceylon1 pp4 #gc1 #gd2 ,de ,zoysa1 ,journ4 ,ceylon ,br4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 #ahha1 p4 #aad1--;all on ,vedda dancing4 ,sarasin1 l4c4 pp4 #eaj1 #eai-ebc2 ,bailey1 l4c4 p4 #bhi2 ,deschamps1 l4c4 pp4 #chf sq42 ,nevill in ,the ,taprobanian1 ii4 pp4 #aba-abg2 ,de ,zoysa1 l4c4 pp4 #ih-aae1--;all on ,vedda poetry4 #cfi ,see ,fritsch1 ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrikas1 pp4 #dbe1 #dbf2 ,holub1 ,sd-,afrika1 ii4 pp4 #dfe1 #dfi1 #dgj2 and the interesting communication in ,the ,academy1 #ahgh1 p4 #dfc4 #cgj ,roth1 ,w4 ,e41 ,n4 ,w4 ,c4 ,queensland ,aborigines1 pp4 #aai1 #abj1 #aca2 ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes1 passim 7,on the elaborate decorations and paraphernalia used in the dramatic rites of initiation72 ,hill and ,thornton1 ,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales1 pp4 #g1 #h2 ,lang1 ,australia1 pp4 #bh1 #bi4 #cga ,cf4 ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #djj1 #dja1 #dah4 #cgb ,scott1 8,sex and ,art10 in ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 vii41 especially p4 #ahc4 #cgc ,cf4 ,bchner1 ,liebe und ,liebes-,leben1 p4 #ec4 #cgd ,savage1 ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #hd1 #he2 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,res4 i4 p4 #bag 7,tahiti72 ,gill1 ,the ,south4 ,pacific1 p4 #bj2 ,romilly1 ,my ,verandah in ,new ,guinea1 p4 #hh4 #cge ,sarasin1 ,ergebnisse1 iii4 p4 #eah4 #cgf ,cf4 e4g4 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa1 p4 #djh2 ,crawley1 8,sexual ,taboo10 passim1 in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxiv4 #cgg ,cf4 e4g4 ,ltke1 ,voyage1 ii4 pp4 #bgf1 #bgg1 on ,tschuktschi dance2 ,cook1 7#crd7 ,voyage1 i4 p4 #bea1 on the dance of the ,hapaee women1 some of the motions in which would1 by a ,european1 be thought rather indecent1 though perhaps they meant only to display the astonishing variety of their movements4 #cgh ,reeves1 ,brown ,men and ,women1 p4 #afj4 #cgi ,curr1 ,austr4 ,race1 iii4 p4 #afi 7,mathew1 ,mary ,river71 on songs describing the charms of a sweetheart4 8,such songs are only known to a few individuals1 and are sung in private40 #chj ,cook4 7#crd7 ,voyage1 ii4 p4 #adi4 #cha ,spencer1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ,division ,i4 ,nr4 v4 p4 #cj4 #chb ,cf4 ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa1 p4 #djh4 #chc ,schurtz1 ,das ,augenornament1 pp4 #di1 #ed4 #chd ,cf4 p4 #bag in the preceding4 #che ,mathews in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxiv4 p4 #dbd4 #chf ,fritsch1 ,die ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrikas1 p4 #adj4 #chg ,johnston1 ,british ,central ,africa1 p4 #djh4 #chh ,kidd1 ,social ,evolution1 p4 #bgi2 cf4 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 pp4 #hh1 #hi4 #chi ,johnstone1 ,maoria1 p4 #dc4 #cij ,cf4 ,burton1 ,mission to ,gelele1 i4 pp4 #df1 #ea1 #baj1 #bfg1 #chb2 ii4 p4 #aj2 ,forbes1 ,dahomey1 i4 p4 #bd4 #cia ,woods1 ,native ,tribes1 p4 #cg 7,taplin1 8,the ,narrinyeri074 #cib ,burton1 ,mission to ,gelele1 i4 pp4 #adi1 #aej2 ,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 ii4 p4 #ddd4 ,for ,european trade dances see1 e4g41 ,bhme1 ,tanz in ,deutschland1 i4 pp4 #fc sq41 #bji4 #cic ,fr1 ,sensation et mouvement1 p4 #d4 #cid ,cf4 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 p4 #dh4 #cie ,rengger1 ,saeugethiere von ,paraguay1 p4 #ab4 #cif ,cf4 the facts adduced by ,rengger1 l4c4 p4 #aa4 #cig ,salvado1 ,voyage en ,australie1 pp4 #ahb1 #ahc4 #cih ,as regards the general psychology of musical and poetical exhortation to work cf4 ,chardin1 ,voyages1 i4 p4 #afj1 quoted in ,bcher's ,arbeit und ,rhythmus1 pp4 #dh1 #cfg4 ,for typical instances see ,reade1 ,the ,african ,sketch ,book1 ii4 p4 #cac 7,krumen72 ,wissman1 ,unter deutschen ,flagge1 p4 #dc 7,west ,african ,carriers72 ,burton1 ,lake ,regions1 ii4 p4 #bia 7,east ,africa72 ,grove1 ,dancing1 p4 #af 7,egypt72 ,turner1 ,nineteen ,years in ,polynesia1 pp4 #cag1 #cde2 ,lewin1 ,wild ,races1 p4 #bga 7,lhoosai72 ,thomson1 ,new ,zealand1 i4 p4 #afg2 ,dieffenbach1 ,new ,zealand1 ii4 p4 #eg4 #cii ,cf4 ,the satirical and erotic boat songs of the ,gold ,coast ,negroes--,winterbottom1 ,africans of ,sierra ,leone1 i4 p4 #aab1 and the historical and erotic ploughing songs of the ancient ,peruvians--,markham1 ,ollanta1 pp4 #a1 #b4 #djj ,a collection of such working songs from among various civilised nations has been brought together by ,professor ,bcher in his ,arbeit und ,rhythmus4 #dja ,cf4 e4g4 the interesting chapter on mill songs in ,bcher's above-mentioned work4 ,as an addendum to this collection we may adduce the corn-grinding song of the ,mapuch women--,smith1 ,the ,araucanians1 p4 #cjf4 #djb ,noir1 ,der ,ursprung der ,sprache1 pp4 #cca sq4 #djc ,cf4 e4g4 ,lenz1 ,skizzen aus ,westafrica1 pp4 #aih1 #aii1 on the exciting effects exercised by tam-tam music on the ,okandes4 #djd ,see the boat-building songs of the ,hervey ,islanders 7,gill1 ,south ,pacific1 p4 #bb71 which form so striking an analogy to the magical 8,runos0 of the old ,finns4 ,cf4 also ,mason1 ,origins of ,invention1 p4 #aej 7,maoris74 #dje ,lagrange1 ,physiologie des exercises du corps1 pp4 #cb-ce2 ,souriau1 ,l'esthtique du movement1 pp4 #eh1 #ei4 #djf ,fr1 ,sensation et mouvement1 p4 #ab4 #djg ,cf4 the dynamogenic experiments of ,fr1 ,sensation et mouvement1 pp4 #ac1 #ad1 and the remarks of ,schmidkunz1 ,psychologie der ,suggestion1 p4 #bbb4 #djh ,bcher1 ,arbeit und ,rhythmus1 p4 #bfa2 ,polack1 ,new ,zealanders1 i4 p4 #bbb2 ii4 pp4 #ca-cb 7on the chiefs who1 standing up in the canoes1 direct the rowing with help of their spear-truncheons72 ,kollman1 ,the ,victoria ,nyanza1 p4 #afd 7,ussukuma74 #dji ,cf4 pp4 #hg-ia in the preceding4 #daj ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 ii4 pp4 #bga1 #bgb4 #daa ,laing1 ,travels1 pp4 #beb1 #bec2 ,brenner1 ,kannibalen ,sumatras1 p4 #beh2 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #adj1 #add1 #ade1 #aej4 #dab ,vodskov1 ,sjledyrkelse og ,naturdyrkelse1 pp4 lxxix4-lxxxi42 ,ratzel1 ,vlkerkunde1 ,i4 ,einleitung1 p4 #hi4 #dac ,on songs and dances connected with boating see ,muller1 ,industrie des ,cafres1 p4 #dg2 ,burton1 ,gorilla ,land1 i4 pp4 #aff1 #afg2 ,spencer1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ,div4 i4 ,nr4 #c1 p4 #fb 7,javanese72 ,angas1 ,savage ,life1 i4 p4 #ajb 7,australia1 canoe dance of the ,rufus72 ,smyth1 ,victoria1 i4 pp4 #agd1 #age 7,australian canoe dance72 ,rienzi1 ,ocanie1 iii4 p4 #aei 7,new ,zealand71 and the facts collected by ,bcher1 ,arbeit und ,rhythmus1 pp4 #ahj-aia4 #dad ,bcher1 l4c4 pp4 #bjj-bjb4 #dae ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 pp4 #eec-eee1 #efg-egd4 #daf ,mitchell1 ,the ,past in the ,present1 p4 #aib2 ,groos1 ,die ,spiele der ,menschen1 pp4 #dce1 #dcg4 #dag ,cf4 ,wallaschek in ,international ,congress of ,psychology1 #bnd ,session1 p4 #ge4 #dah ,cf4 e4g4 ,lafitau1 ,murs des sauvages1 i4 p4 #ebb 78,les ,iroquois1 et les autres sauvages leurs voisins072 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california1 p4 #bi 7,karok74 #dai ,cf4 ,forbes1 ,dahomey1 ii4 p4 #fa4 ,mr4 ,forbes's admiration for the discipline and order displayed in the mass movements will be well understood by all who witnessed the ,dahomeyan dances performed at the ,crystal ,palace in the summer season #ahic4 #dbj ,thomson1 ,new ,zealand1 i4 pp4 #abf1 #abg2 ,earle1 ,new ,zealand1 p4 #gj2 ,mundy1 ,our ,antipodes1 pp4 #abi1 #ahc2 ,shortland1 ,trad4 and ,superst4 of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #aej-aeb4 #dba ,cruise1 ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #cj1 #ca4 #dbb ,bidwill1 ,rambles in ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #ha1 #hb4 #dbc ,on ensemble and exact time in dancing cf4 ,cook1 7#ast7 ,voyage1 pp4 #bjf-bjh 7,tahiti72 7#crd7 ,voyage1 i4 p4 #ahh 7,wateoo71 pp4 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bee 7,hapaee72 ,ellis1 ,pol4 ,res4 i4 p4 #bae2 ,marques in ,boletim1 etc41 viii4 p4 #ei 7,samoa72 ,reeves1 ,brown ,men and ,women1 p4 #aeh 7,samoa72 ,williams1 ,fiji1 p4 #adb2 ,kleinschmidt in ,journ4 d4 ,mus4 ,godeffroy1 xiv4 p4 #bfh 7,fiji72 ,ltke1 ,voyage1 i4 p4 #chc 7,ualan4 ,caroline ,islands72 ,tetens and ,kubary in ,journ4 d4 ,mus4 ,godeffroy1 ii4 p4 #bc 7,yap1 ,caroline ,islands72 ,hernsheim1 ,sudsee-,erinnerungen1 p4 #cd 7,yap74 ,the same virtues have also been admired in ,australian dancing4 ,see e4g4 ,fraser1 ,aborigines of ,n4,s4 ,wales1 p4 #ff2 ,smyth1 ,victoria1 i4 p4 #afh2 ii4 p4 #bid2 ,woods1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 xxxii41 xxxiii41 #bgb4 ,cf4 also ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 pp4 #bed1 #bee 7,orons72 ,lewin1 ,wild ,races1 p4 #bbg 7,kumis72 p4 #cac 7,shendoos74 #dbd ,fritsch1 ,eingeborenen ,sd-,afrikas1 p4 #ia 7,ama ,xosa72 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #adg 7,kaffir and ,basuto dance74 #dbe ,fritsch1 l4c4 p4 #cbh4 ,the authority of ,herr ,fritsch gives sufficient credit to this assertion1 although it is in direct opposition to the statement of ,kolbe1 ,reise1 pp4 #ecj1 #eca4 ,herr ,fritsch's account of ,hottentot dancing is1 moreover1 in substantial agreement with ,sparrman's description1 ,resa1 i4 pp4 #cge1 #cgf4 #dbf ,cf4 with regard to the employment of horns1 drums1 pipes1 etc41 as military signals1 ,wallaschek1 ,primitive ,music1 pp4 #hh1 #ii1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #aaa-aac4 #dbg ,see1 for instance1 the descriptions of ,khond warfare in ,spencer1 ,descriptive ,sociology1 ,division ,i4 ,nr4 #e1 p4 #ag 7quoting ,campbell1 ,khondistan1 p4 #db71 and the reflections of ,mr4 ,bidwill on ,maori courage as dependent upon musical and saltatory stimulation1 ,rambles in ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #hb1 #hc4 ,as these instances refer to tribes which have been noted for the personal bravery which they develop when excited1 the need of artificial excitement must be far stronger among timid tribes4 #dbh ,cf4 the acute reflections of ,cook1 7#ast7 ,voyage1 p4 #cdd4 #dbi ,beecham1 ,ashanti1 p4 #baa2 ,schoolcraft1 ,information1 i4 pp4 #gi1 #hj 7,dacotas72 ,wood1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1 i4 p4 #aaf 7,kaffir war medicine74 #dcj ,kubary on ,micronesian war tattooings in ,joest1 ,ttowiren1 p4 #hj4 #dca ,mann in ,trans4 ,ethn4 ,soc4 ,n4 ,s4 v4 p4 #bie 7,kaffirs72 ,livingstone1 ,miss4 ,travels1 pp4 #aih1 #aii 7,makololo dance demonstration as a preparation to an intended fight72 ,schoolcraft1 ,information1 iv4 p4 #fb 7,dacotas dance when they come in the neighbourhood of the enemy's country72 ,schomburgk1 ,guiana1 ii4 7,macusis72 ,cook1 7#ast7 ,voyage1 pp4 #dfg1 #dfh1 and ,angas1 ,savage ,life1 i4 pp4 #cbh1 #cbi 7,maoris72 ,cahusac1 ,la danse1 i4 p4 #ajh1 on the ancient ,ethiopians1 quoting ,lukianos4 ,ethnological literature affords numberless descriptions of dances performed as an exercise to battle4 ,as in the present connection we have only to deal with means of stimulation1 which immediately precede the real action1 all these instances are not to the point4 #dcb ,carver1 ,travels1 pp4 #agd1 #age2 ,schoolcraft1 ,information1 iii4 p4 #ahg1 quoting ,colden 7of #agdg7 on the ,iroquois2 ,acosta1 ,history of the ,indies1 ii4 p4 #ddd 7,peru72 cf4 also ,lang1 ,australia1 p4 #bi2 ,blumentritt1 ,filippinen1 p4 #af 7,tagal excitement during the performance of war-pantomimes74 #dcc ,heckewelder1 ,hist4 of the ,indian ,nations1 p4 #bji2 ,schoolcraft1 ,information ii4 p4 #ei 7,n4,a4 ,indians in general72 v4 pp4 #ebf1 #fhd 7,chippewas and ,comanches72 ,morgan1 ,iroquois1 pp4 #bfh1 #cci2 ,burton1 ,city of the ,saints1 p4 #agg 7,prairie ,indians72 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 pp4 #ccd1 #cce2 ,czervinski1 ,geschichte des ,tanzes1 pp4 #bea1 #beb 7,hungary74 #dcd ,joest1 ,weltfahrten1 ii4 pp4 #afj1 #afa4 ,on a similar institution among the ,negroes see ,mantegazza1 ,physiologie des ,hasses1 p4 #cah4 #dce ,grey1 ,journals1 ii4 p4 #cjc2 cf4 also ,calvert1 ,western ,australia1 p4 #cb2 ,salvado1 ,voyage1 p4 #ahb4 #dcf ,sproat1 ,scenes and ,studies1 p4 #aij4 #dcg ,cf4 especially the quotations from ,dupuis in ,spencer1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ,division ,i4 ,nr4 #d1 p4 #dg 7,ashantis72 ,ellis1 ,pol4 ,res4 i4 p4 #bhg 7,tahiti72 ,cook1 7#ast7 ,voyage1 p4 #cdd 7,new ,zealand74 #dch ,dobrizhoffer1 ,the ,abipones1 ii4 pp4 #cff1 #cfg1 #dbb-dbd1 #dbg2 ,thomson1 ,new ,zealand1 i4 pp4 #abf1 #afi4 #dci ,dobrizhoffer1 l4c4 pages adduced above2 ,steinen1 ,durch ,central-,brazilien1 p4 #age1 cf4 also p4 #afe4 #ddj ,cf4 ,dobrizhoffer1 l4c4 ii4 pp4 #cgf1 #che sq4 #dda ,cf4 ,ellis1 ,pol4 ,res4 i4 p4 #bhf 7,tahiti72 ,spencer1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ,division ,i4 ,nr4 #c1 p4 #ae 7,fiji72 ,thomson1 ,new ,zealand1 i4 p4 #abh2 ,pritchard1 ,pol4 ,rem4 p4 #ef2 ,wood1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #eh1 #ei1 #bhj1 #cef 7,australia1 ,fiji1 ,samoa74 ,how great a part of the boastful expressions of contempt for the enemy plays in the warfare of the ,american tribes can be seen from ,heriot1 ,travels1 p4 #ddi 7,iroquois74 ,cf4 also ,eyre1 ,expeditions into ,central ,australia1 ii4 p4 #bbd2 ,schweinfurth1 ,im ,herzen von ,afrika1 ii4 p4 #be 7,niam ,niam72 ,shooter1 ,the ,kafirs1 pp4 #aig-aii2 ,wood1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1 i4 p4 #eha 7,cammas74 #ddb ,wood1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1 i4 p4 #eha4 ,a typical and instructive example of undangerous warfare on the ,marshall ,islands is described by ,finsch in ,ethnologische ,erfahrungen1 p4 #cib4 #ddc ,bidwill1 ,rambles in ,new ,zealand1 p4 #ha2 cf4 ,cook1 7#crd7 ,voyage1 pp4 #afa1 #afb4 #ddd 7,maning71 ,old ,new ,zealand1 p4 #di2 ,polack1 ,new ,zealanders1 i4 p4 #hh2 ii4 pp1 #aff1 #afg4 #dde ,polack1 l4c4 i4 p4 #bh4 #ddf ,richardson1 ,arctic ,expedition1 i4 p4 #cef2 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races1 i4 p4 #fh4 #ddg ,angas1 ,savage ,life1 ii4 pp4 #adi1 #aej2 ,wood1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1 ii4 pp4 #afa1 #afb4 #ddh ,macpherson1 ,memorials of ,service in ,india1 p4 #gi4 #ddi ,cf4 ,grosse1 ,anfnge der ,kunst1 pp4 #eh-fj4 #dej ,wuttke1 ,geschichte der ,schrift1 p4 #gd1 quoting ,silius ,italicus1 ,aelianus1 and ,valerius ,maximus4 ,further quotations adduced in ,farrer1 ,military ,manners and ,customs1 pp4 #bbb-bbd4 ,cf4 also ,letourneau1 ,la guerre1 p4 #aec4 #dea ,cf4 the remarks of ,wood in ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man1 ii4 p4 #eii4 #deb ,clavigero1 ,the ,history of ,mexico1 i4 p4 #cga4 #dec ,as to magical paintings on banners1 standards1 and shields1 see ,hein1 ,die bildenden ,knste bei den ,dayaks auf ,borneo1 pp4 #ga1 #gb4 ,cf4 also the old ,slavonic traditions related by ,nagele in ,zeitschrift fr ,vlkerpsychologie1 xvii4 p4 #bgh 7,der ,schlangen-,cultus74 #ded ,joest1 ,ttowiren1 p4 #bj2 ,polack1 ,new ,zealanders1 i4 p4 #bh 7,tahiti deformations of the skull74 #dee ,bancroft1 ,native ,races1 i4 pp4 #aja1 #aje 7,thlinkeets74 #def ,romilly1 ,my ,verandah1 p4 #db2 ,finsch1 ,samoafahrten1 p4 #ia1 ,atlas1 ,tafel xxii42 ,ethnologische ,erfahrungen1 p4 #ii 7,motu1 ,new ,guinea71 p4 #bdc 7,kaiser ,wilhelms ,land1 ,new ,guinea71 p4 #fcj 7,bismarck-,archipel74 ,some fine specimens to be seen in the ,british ,museum4 #deg ,in later times1 however1 the ,dyaks have begun to avail themselves for this purpose of the hair of their deceased4 ,cf4 ,hein1 ,die ,bildenden ,knste bei den ,dayaks1 p4 #gd4 #deh ,hein1 ,die ,bildenden ,knste bei den ,dayaks auf ,borneo1 p4 #he4 #dei ,marryat1 ,borneo1 pp4 #ad1 #ae1 #gd-gf2 ,selenka1 ,sonnige ,welten1 pp4 #hj1 #ha4 #dfj ,hein1 l4c4 p4 #ai4 #dfa ,for detailed arguments on this point see the author's ,frstudier till en konstfilosofi1 chap1 iv41 8,on ,gracefulness40 #dfb ,cf4 the illustrations in ,hamilton's ,the ,art ,workmanship of the ,maori ,race4 #dfc ,earle1 ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #afj1 #afa2 cf4 also ,johnstone1 ,maoria1 p4 #ej4 #dfd ,cf4 especially the specimens translated in ,schoolcraft1 ,information1 ii4 pp4 #ei sq4 #dfe ,see the specimens of leather1 bone1 and textile works preserved in ethnological collections1 especially in ,muse de ,trocadro1 ,paris4 #dff ,cf4 ,posnett1 ,comparative ,literature1 p4 #acc4 #dfg ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 i4 p4 #ajb2 ,lang1 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 i4 pp4 #id-ajj2 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 i4 pp4 #i-ab1 #aic-bjf4 ,for further instructive instances see ,ellis1 ,ee ,peoples1 pp4 #ih1 #ii2 ,tshi ,peoples1 pp4 #ajh1 #aji2 ,curr1 ,australian ,race1 i4 pp4 #de-dh2 ,woods1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 #bc-bf 7,facts referring to ,polynesia and ,australia72 ,kotzebue1 ,entdeckungsreise1 ii4 p4 #bj 7,hawaji72 ,dieffenbach1 ,new ,zealand1 ii4 p4 #ei2 ,musters1 ,patagonia1 p4 #ab 7,tehuelches74 #dfh ,see literature on the ,couvade1 and on the precautions to be observed by men who expect to become fathers4 ,we cannot here dwell on the interesting theories1 according to which totemistic doctrines and regulations ought to be interpreted as based upon the conception of a quite material substratum1 connecting for eternity with each other all individuals and generations of the same family4 ,however fantastic they may have appeared1 the probability of these views has undeniably been increased by the publication of those hitherto unknown details of ,australian ceremonialism that have been brought to light by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen4 ,but in questions like these it seems almost impossible to discriminate between symbolical ideas and actions on the one hand1 and magical practices based on a real belief on the other4 #dfi ,cf4 ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen1 ,neue ,folge1 p4 #df2 ,hartland1 ,the ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 p4 #bfg4 #dgj ,cf4 ,rochas1 ,l'extriorisation de la sensibilit1 pp4 #aag-aci4 #dga ,ibid4 p4 #gb4 #dgb ,for the most illustrious and at the same time most lucid statement of this analogy see the remarks of ,milton in the preface to ,samson ,agonistes4 #dgc ,cf4 the curious instances and interpretations in ,brire1 ,essai sur le symbolisme1 pp4 #ch-da4 #dgd ,for dramatic elements in the ceremonies of rain-making1 see ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 i4 pp4 #ac-ah1 #bj2 ,brenger-,fraud1 ,superstitions et survivances1 i4 chap4 viii42 iii4 pp4 #agg-bjg2 ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 pp4 #eic-eie 7vol4 ii472 ,lang1 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 i4 pp4 #ig1 #ih2 ii4 p4 #gh4 ,further instances in ,roth1 ,n4 ,w4 ,c4 ,queensland1 pp4 #afg1 #afh2 ,woods1 ,native ,tribes1 pp4 #bgf-bgh 7,gason1 8,dieyerie ,tribe072 ,williams1 ,fiji1 p4 #aid2 ,dalton1 ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #bfa 7,oraons72 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 p4 #ajh2 ,weston in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xxvi4 p4 #cj 7,highlands of ,central ,japan72 ,stevenson in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 #ahhi-ij1 pp4 #hj1 #id1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aaf 7,the ,sia72 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 pp4 #bbg1 #bbh2 ,bonghi1 ,rmische ,feste1 p4 #aha4 ,equally interesting is the curious kind of negative magic that is practised by the ,javanese 8rain preventers40 ,see ,glimpses of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 pp4 #fh-gj 7,j4 ,kreemer1 8,rain ,preventers074 #dge ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 i4 pp4 #bb1 #bc2 ,grove1 ,dancing1 p4 #he2 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 pp4 #ahf-ahh1 #bdc sq4 #dgf ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 pp4 #gfd-ggb 7vol4 ii472 ,ralston1 l4c4 pp4 #baj1 #bdd-bdf2 ,zacher1 8,kampf des ,sommers und ,winters10 in ,globus1 xxxi4 pp4 #bff-bfi1 #bhd-bhf4 #dgg ,brenger-,fraud1 l4c4 v4 pp4 #agg-bff2 ,hartland1 ,the ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 pp4 #agc1 #agd2 ,soldi1 ,la langue sacre1 p4 #cag 7,france72 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california1 p4 #afi 7,the ,senel74 #dgh ,selenka1 ,sonnige ,welten1 pp4 #dbi-dca 7,sinhalese72 ,fraser1 ,aborigines of ,new ,south ,wales1 p4 #fe4 #dgi ,that the priests who in dance and drama impersonate a god are considered--and perhaps also consider themselves--as embodiments of this god is a view the probability of which is borne out by many details of religious ritualism4 ,if definite proofs are wanted we need only refer to the express statements of the ,zui ,indians as related by ,mrs4 ,stevenson1 ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 #ahhi-ij1 p4 #aaf 7,stevenson1 8,the ,sia072 #ahhc-hd1 p4 #edi 7,stevenson1 8,religious ,life of the ,zui ,child074 #dhj ,fairer1 ,primitive ,manners and ,customs1 pp4 #fe1 #ff4 ,this view may of course also be applied to the interpretation of 8pictorial prayers10 such as e4g4 the wonderful sand-mosaics of the ,pueblo ,indians4 #dha ,collins1 ,the ,english ,colony of ,n4,s4 ,wales1 i4 p4 #cfg4 #dhb ,as regards this almost universal practice see the collection of instances in ,tylor1 ,early ,history1 pp4 #bgg-bgi2 and ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 p4 #adf2 ,peschel1 ,vlkerkunde1 p4 #bgd2 ,stoll1 ,suggestion und ,hypnotismus1 pp4 #aff1 #afg4 ,further instructive instances in ,brinton1 ,nagualism1 p4 #aa 7,modern ,mexico72 ,castru1 ,nordiska ,resor4 i4 p4 #acg 7,russian ,lapps72 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #bhj2 ,lumholtz1 ,among ,cannibals1 p4 #bha 7,australia74 ,winterbottom1 ,native ,africans of ,sierra ,leone1 i4 pp4 #beb1 #bec1 adduces some ethnological examples1 and refers for comparison to ,paracelsus4 #dhc ,brenger-,fraud1 ,superst4 et surviv4 i4 pp4 #ebc-edj2 cf4 also ,gaidoz1 ,un vieux rite medical1 pp4 #gc-hd4 #dhd ,nyrop1 8,kludetraedet0 in ,dania1 i41 particularly pp4 #ba-bc2 cf4 also ,dania1 i4 p4 #caj2 iii4 pp4 #aci-ada4 #dhe ,lenormant1 ,magie und ,wahrsagekunst der ,chalder1 p4 #gc2 ,rochas1 ,l'extriorisation de la sensibilit1 pp4 #gd-aac 7rich collection of instances referring to savage tribes1 to medival ,europe1 and to modern folklore72 further instances in ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 pp4 #efi-egd2 ,romilly1 ,western ,pacific1 p4 #ce 7,new ,britain72 ,selenka1 ,sonnige ,welten1 p4 #bae 7,japan74 ,that this crude superstition has been at the bottom of many ceremonies which1 from our point of view1 appear purely symbolical is shown by the curious death-sentences on absent criminals--to be executed in effigy1 8jusqu' mort s'en suive0--which ,m4 ,tarde has unearthed from among the old law-proceeds of ,prigord4 ,tarde1 tudes pnales et sociales1 p4 #bda4 #dhf ,cf4 as to dolls representing the corn spirits1 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 i4 pp4 #ccb-cdf4 #dhg ,haddon in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 xix4 p4 #dbg 7,tribe of ,torres ,strait2 ,models of ,dugong used as charms to attract the fishes72 ,woldt in ,arch1 fr ,ethnographie1 i4 p4 #ajf 7,kultusgegenstnde der ,golden und ,giljaken2 sculptures of fishes used for the same purpose by the ,golds72 ,spencer1 quoting ,motolinia1 ,descr4 ,soc4 ,div4 ii4 ,nr4 #b1 p4 #ci 7similar customs among the old ,azteks74 #dhh ,cf4 especially the ,sinhalese masks representing the symptoms of various diseases as exhibited in the ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde in ,berlin4 #dhi ,on images of children worn by barren women in order to remove sterility see ,binger1 ,du ,niger1 ii4 p4 #bcj 7,agnis1 ,wolofs72 ,casalis1 ,the ,basutos1 p4 #bea2 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui1 p4 #bac2 ,powers1 ,tribes of ,california1 p4 #cah 7,nishinam74 ,in this connection we may also refer to the bird-shaped amulets of the ,north ,american ,indians1 which by some authors have been explained as emblematic of maternity4 ,cf4 ,abbott1 ,primitive ,industry1 p4 #cgj4 ,whether they also have been thought of as possessing a magical efficacy is1 however1 impossible to decide4 #dij ,guaita1 ,sciences maudites1 ii41 i4 p4 #ahe4 #dia ,raffles1 ,history of ,java1 i4 pp4 #cge1 #cgf4 ,for a similar reasoning cf4 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 pp4 #bc1 #bd4 #dib ,bock1 ,temples and ,elephants1 p4 #bde4 #dic ,rochas1 ,l'extriorisation de la sensibilit1 p1 #aja4 #did ,cf4 e4g4 ,gooneratne in ,journ4 ,ceylon ,branch ,r4 ,asiatic ,soc4 #ahfe1 #ahff1 p4 #ga 7,demonology in ,ceylon72 ,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 pp4 #de1 #ega4 ,the same combination of the two classes of magic1 as applied to a medical cure1 is instanced by ,walhouse in ,journ4 ,anthr4 ,inst4 iv4 p4 #cgb 7,account of a leaf-wearing tribe74 #die ,cf4 ,ellis1 ,yoruba ,peoples1 pp4 #ii1 #bgh2 ,tshi ,peoples1 pp4 #ih1 #aja1 #agf1 #aie4 #dif ,schurtz in ,abhandlungen d4 ,schs4 ,ges4 d4 ,wissensch4 ,ph4 ,cl4 xv4 p4 #eb1 quoting ,de ,clercq en ,schmeltz1 ,nieuw ,guinea1 p4 #ahe4 ,for an interesting analogy see ,de ,landa1 ,relation des causes de ,yucatan1 p4 #aii4 #dig ,schurtz1 l4c4 p4 #dg4 ,cf4 with regard to other means of animating idols by contact1 ,brenner1 ,kannibalen ,sumatras1 pp4 #bbe1 #bbf2 ,pleyte ,wzn in ,globus1 lx4 p4 #bhi 7,religise ,anschaungen der ,bataks74 #dih ,matthews1 ,the ,mountain ,chant1 in ,rep4 ,bur4 ,ethn4 #ahhc1 #ahhd1 especially pp4 #dbf1 #dbg4 #dii ,cf4 the ,kalmuck tales quoted in ,stoll1 ,suggestion und ,hypnotismus1 p4 #ca4 #ejj ,cf4 ,lucretius1 ,de rerum natura1 iv4 vv4 #a-ajce4 #eja ,cf4 the facts collected by ,rclus in his pamphlet1 ,l'me comme souffle1 ombre et reflet1 and by ,frazer in ,the ,golden ,bough1 i4 pp4 #adc-adi4 #ejb ,rochas1 ,l'extriorisation de la sensibilit1 p4 #ajc4 #ejc ,andree1 ,ethnographische ,parallelen1 ,neue ,folge1 p4 #ai4 #ejd ,cf4 ,ellis1 ,ee-speaking ,peoples1 p4 #ih4 #eje ,cf4 as the perhaps most typical example1 ,matthews1 8,the ,prayer of a ,navajo ,shaman10 in ,the ,american ,anthropologist1 i4 7#ahhh74 #ejf ,cf4 e4g4 ,svoboda1 ,gesch4 d4 ,ideale1 i4 pp4 #die1 #dif4 #ejg ,cf4 the theories of ,rclus and ,svoboda referred to in p4 #bag1 note #d1 of the preceding4 #ejh ,cf4 e4g4 the typical instances of ,naga funeral ceremonies described by ,dalton in ,ethnology of ,bengal1 p4 #dj4 #eji ,this interpretation seems to be indicated e4g4 in the case of the rope-pulling at ,chukma funerals 7,lewin1 ,wild ,races1 p4 #ahe74 ,as to the use of tugs of war for purposes of agricultural magic cf4 ,haddon1 ,the ,study of ,man1 pp4 #bgj-bgf4