,,the ,,railway ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world ,illustration3 ,frontispiece ,,where ,,the ,,union ,,pacific ,,railway ,,strikes ,,across ,,salt ,,lake ,the 8cut off0 across the water is #bg miles in length1 of which #ae miles are represented by solid earth embankment4 ,,conquests ,,of ,,science ,,the ,,railway ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,new ,,garden ,,of ,,canada10 8,,the ,,making ,,of ,a ,,great ,,canadian ,,railway10 ,c4 ,,illustrated ,,philadelphia ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company ,,london3 ,,william ,,heinemann ,copyright ,london #aiaa by ,william ,heinemann ,,preface ,there is the unfathomable fascination of romance connected with the construction of great railways1 though little is known of the beginning and the growth of the great trunk roads of the world2 of the heavy tax which their construction imposed upon the ingenuity1 skill and resource of their builders4 ,speeding along swiftly in a luxurious ,pullman car over a road-bed as smooth as an asphalt pavement conveys no impression of the perils and dangers faced or of the infinite labour expended in the making of that steel highway4 ,to-day the earth is girdled with some #gjj1jjj miles of railways1 and there are few countries in which the locomotive has not made its appearance4 ,this volume has been written with the express purpose of telling in a popular manner this story of romance4 ,it is obviously impossible to deal with every great railway undertaking in the compass of a single volume2 but those described may safely be considered representative1 and they are the largest and most interesting enterprises between the two poles4 ,in the writing of this volume ,i have been assisted by innumerable friends who have been identified closely with the introduction of ,stephenson's invention into fresh fields of conquest4 ,i am indebted especially to the following gentlemen3 ,messrs4 ,norman ,b4 ,dickson1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e42 ,a4 ,m4 ,cleland1 the ,northern ,pacific ,railway ,company2 the late ,j4 ,c4 ,meredith1 chief engineer1 the ,florida ,east ,coast ,railway2 ,a4 ,l4 ,lawley2 ,r4 ,r4 ,gales1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e42 ,h4 ,e4 ,gwyther1 chief engineer1 the ,leopoldina ,railway ,company1 ,ltd42 ,francis ,b4 ,clarke1 president of the ,spokane1 ,portland and ,seattle ,railway2 ,william ,hood1 chief engineer1 the ,southern ,pacific ,company2 ,f4 ,a4 ,miller1 the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee and ,puget ,sound ,railway2 the ,i4 ,r4 ,austrian ,railway ,ministry2 ,w4 ,weston1 the ,denver1 ,north-western and ,pacific ,railway ,company2 the ,pennsylvania ,steel ,company2 ,w4 ,t4 ,robson1 the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,company2 the ,cleveland ,bridge and ,engineering ,company1 and ,frederic ,coleman of ,darlington2 the ,swiss ,federal ,railways2 ,h4 ,r4 ,charlton1 the ,grand ,trunk ,railway ,company of ,canada2 the chief engineer1 the ,new ,zealand ,government ,railways2 the ,peruvian ,corporation2 the chief engineers of the ,new ,south ,wales1 ,south ,australia and ,west ,australia ,government ,railways2 the ,minister of ,ways of ,communication of the ,russian ,empire2 the ,trans-,andine ,railway ,company2 the chief engineer1 the ,imperial ,japanese ,government ,railways2 ,j4 ,j4 ,gywn1 chief engineer1 and ,s4 ,k4 ,hooper1 the ,denver and ,rio ,grande ,railway2 ,g4 ,j4 ,ray1 chief engineer1 the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna and ,western ,railroad2 ,virgil ,g4 ,bogue1 vice-president and chief engineer1 the ,western ,pacific ,railway ,company2 and ,s4 ,j4 ,ellison of the ,great ,northern ,railway1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot4 ,,hove1 ,september #bi1 #aiaa4 ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i ,,the ,,railway ,,surveyor',s ,,adventurous ,,life #a ,,ii ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,construction #ab ,,iii ,,the ,,boring ,,of ,,the ,,gotthard ,,tunnel #cj ,,iv ,,the ,,railway ,,invasion ,,of ,,canada #df ,v ,,the ,,first ,,trans-,,continental ,,across ,,the ,,united ,,states #ei ,,vi ,,the ,,longest 8,,toy0 ,,railway #gf ,,vii ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,tyrol #hh ,,viii ,,the ,,reclamation ,,of ,,alaska #ajb ,,ix ,,the ,,holy ,,railway ,,to ,,mecca #aag ,x ,,the ,,highest ,,line ,,in ,,the ,,world #abh ,,xi ,,cecil ,,rhodes' ,,dream--,,from ,,the ,,cape ,,to ,,cairo 7,i4 ,,northwards ,,from ,,cape ,,town7 #aci ,,xii ,,cecil ,,rhodes' ,,dream--,,from ,,the ,,cape ,,to ,,cairo 7,,ii4 ,,southwards ,,from ,,cairo7 #aeb ,,xiii ,,gridironing ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountains #afb ,,xiv ,,the ,,iron ,,horse ,,in ,,australasia 7,i47 #age ,,xv ,,the ,,iron ,,horse ,,in ,,australasia 7,,ii47 #ahf ,,xvi ,,across ,,siberia ,,by ,,rail #aih ,,xvii ,,the ,,leopoldina ,,railway #bad ,,xviii ,,the ,,first ,,canadian ,,trans-,,continental ,,railway #bbd ,,xix ,a ,,railway ,,over ,,the ,,sea #bdj ,,xx ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,remarkable ,,railway ,,bridges #bej ,,xxi ,,where ,,the ,,snow-,,plough ,,works ,,in ,,summer #bfj ,,xxii ,,from ,,buenos ,,aires ,,to ,,valparaiso ,,overland #bgj ,,xxiii ,a ,,little-,,known ,,central ,,african ,,railway #bha ,,xxiv ,,the ,,invasion ,,of ,,the ,,far ,,east 7,i4 ,,early ,,days ,,in ,,china7 #bhi ,,xxv ,,the ,,invasion ,,of ,,the ,,far ,,east 7,,ii4 ,,modern ,,developments ,,in ,,china ,,and ,,japan7 #big ,,xxvi ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,cascade ,,mountains #cjh ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,to face page ,where the ,union ,pacific ,railway strikes across ,salt ,lake ,frontispiece ,building the loftiest bridge in the world #f ,driving a cutting #ajj feet deep by the aid of dynamite and steam shovels through slate on the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna and ,western ,railway1 ,u4,s4,a4 #g ,a ,railway ,construction ,camp among the mountains #af ,building a high bank on the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna and ,western ,railway1 ,u4,s4,a41 by modern methods #af ,the huge steam shovel which takes some #c tons of spoil with every bite #ag ,the drag-line shovel which scoops up the earth in the cutting as it is pulled along #ag ,the ,pecos ,viaduct on the 8,sunset0 ,railway1 the highest structure in the ,united ,states1 the track being #cba feet above the water below #bd ,the track layer1 whereby the metals are laid at a speed of #c or #d miles a day1 crossing a heavy timber trestle #be ,the ,gschenen entrance to the ,st4 ,gotthard ,tunnel #cb ,the wonderful ,wassen ,loop on the ,st4 ,gotthard ,railway1 showing three tiers of track #cc ,the compressed air locomotive which hauled workmen and rock blasted from the mountain in the cutting of the ,loetschberg ,tunnel #cf ,what the working face in the heart of the mountain is like #cf ,the lofty ,amsteg ,bridge1 #ahd feet high1 spanning the ,maderan ,valley on the ,st4 ,gotthard ,railway #cg ,no4 #b1 8,the ,toronto10 the first railway engine built in ,canada by ,james ,good in #ahec #dh ,the ,niagara ,cantilever ,railway ,bridge under construction #dh 8,the ,eighth ,wonder of the ,world0 #di ,the bridge as reconstructed #di ,the magnificent single span bridge across the ,niagara ,river below the ,falls #ej ,a view of the iron tube1 #b1bij feet in length and #bc feet in diameter #ea ,the #bjjj h4p4 electric locomotives hauling the 8,international ,limited0 through the tube #ea ,the massive bridge of the ,union ,pacific ,railway over the ,missouri ,river at ,council ,bluffs1 from which point the first railway across the ,united ,states was commenced #fb ,the timber trestle across ,salt ,lake1 by means of which the ,union ,pacific saves #eg miles #fc ,building the ,otavi line through the ,german ,south-west ,african ,bush #hj ,the passage of the first train1 gaily decorated for the occasion1 over the 8toy-like0 ,otavi ,railway #ha ,the workmen cutting and blasting a narrow path on the steep mountain slopes for the ,karawanken ,railway #ib ,the massive steel bridge which carries the railway across the ,drave ,river to approach the tunnel through the ,karawanken range in the background #ic ,the northern entrance to the ,karawanken ,tunnel #ic ,the ,tauern ,railway1 showing winding character of the line #if ,the entrance to the ,tauern ,tunnel #if ,one of the huge loops on the ,tauern #ig ,the first hour's work3 navvies preparing the grade along the main street of ,skaguay #ajf ,by railway to the ,klondike--the ,white ,pass and ,yukon line under construction #ajf ,the dismal tract of swamp and river through which the ,alaskan ,central ,railway makes its way #ajg ,the wonderful horseshoe timber trestle1 #a1bdj feet long1 varying from #dj to #ij feet high1 on the ,central ,alaskan ,railway #aab ,a wash-out caused by the ,placer ,river in flood #aac ,the obliteration of the line by a landslide #aac ,a striking piece of railway building in the ,yarmuk ,gorge #aah ,a bird's-eye view of a chasm in ,palestine1 through which the line follows a winding path on the left #aai ,a masonry bridge on the ,holy ,railway1 showing solidity of construction and mountainous character of the country #aai ,a heavy steel bridge in course of erection between ,haifa and ,deraa1 the branch from the main sacred line to the shores of the ,mediterranean ,sea #abb ,the engineering wonder of the ,hedjaz ,railway--the sudden descent into 8,the ,devil's ,belly0 #abc ,the railway in the domain of the ,genii #abd ,the lonely path of the ,pilgrim's line through the silent1 rocky and sandy wastes of ,arabia #abe ,meiggs' masterpiece--the ,v-switch by means of which the railway is lifted from one level to another1 showing turntable and method of operation #acj ,the ,infiernillo ,bridge #acj ,a horseshoe curve in a tunnel #aca ,the first ,verrugas ,viaduct1 which was destroyed by a cloudburst and rock-slide #acd ,the highest tunnel in the world under construction #ace ,a ,british locomotive in the realm of perpetual ,andean snow1 #ae1hfe feet above sea-level1 on the ,oroya ,railway #acf ,looking through the tunnels on the ,oroya ,railway #acg ,the greatest bridge in the world #add ,setting up the world's railway building record in ,africa #ade ,construction train on the way to the railhead crossing a temporary timber bridge #aed ,the longest bridge in ,africa1 #a1cjj feet in length1 across the ,kafue ,river #aed ,the 8,hanging ,bridge10 one of the railway wonders of the ,denver and ,rio ,grande1 in the ,royal ,gorge of ,colorado #aee ,the railway two miles above the sea #aff ,a 8double-header0 climbing the cliff of ,animas ,canyon on the ,denver and ,rio ,grande ,railway #afg ,crossing the continental 8divide0 on the 8,moffatt0 road #agj ,the ,moffatt ,railway playing 8hide-and-seek0 among the tunnels in ,gore ,canyon #aga ,the gigantic snowplough1 the largest yet built1 which keeps the higher levels of the 8,moffatt0 line through the ,rocky ,mountains free from the heavy falls of snow #agb ,a deep cutting #agc ,boring one of the ten tunnels #agc ,before the explosion #ahj ,the blast #ahj ,the cliff-face dislodged #ahj ,the cliff-face broken up #ahj ,the ,puttapa ,gap ,bridge1 #bjj feet in length #aha ,the ,hookina ,creek ,bridge #aha ,the entrance to the tunnel1 #a1jif feet long1 through the ,darling ,range #ahh ,the dearth of suitable water was the serious problem in the early days of the ,coolgardie gold-fields4 ,as the railway could not haul supplies from the coast1 this novel condensing plant was erected #ahi ,how the ,western ,australian ,eastern ,railway cuts through the ,darling ,range #aid ,the ,leopoldina ,railway is a maze of curves1 twists and bends1 owing to the rugged character of the country traversed #aie ,a steep bank showing the central rack rail #baf ,train on the rack section of the ,petropolis division1 showing the curious type of locomotive adopted #baf ,rebuilding a bridge on the ,leopoldina ,railway #bag ,a flood on the line #bah ,a derailment caused by the train colliding with a cow6 #bah ,an interesting engineering achievement #bai ,bridge over the ,parahybuna ,river1 showing height of river in flood and force of water surging round the piers #bai ,the bridge over the ,parahybuna ,river at ,campos under construction #bbj ,the ,parahybuna ,river ,bridge completed4 ,total length #a1aac feet #bbj ,the rockbound shore of ,lake ,superior severely taxed the engineers in the building of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway #bba ,the 8,gap10 the eastern entrance of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway to the ,rocky ,mountains #bbf ,where the 8,big ,hill0 was cut out on the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway1 between ,hector and ,field #bbg ,how the ,canadian ,pacific line creeps round towering precipices along the ,fraser ,river #bcj ,in threading the ,fraser ,river ,canyon the engineers were compelled to hug the waterway1 though it involved the boring of numerous short tunnels #bca ,the steel arch bridge across ,stoney ,creek in the ,selkirk ,mountains #bcd ,the railway traversing the tumbled ,thompson ,river ,canyon #bce ,the ,cisco cantilever bridge carrying the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway across the ,fraser ,river #bch ,the ,key ,west 8,limited0 passing over ,long ,key ,viaduct at full speed #bci ,building the grade4 ,the dredger cutting its own path and dumping removed spoil in centre to form the embankment for the track #bdd ,the embankment completed1 with the canals dug by the dredgers on either side #bdd ,how the embankment was built on the keys #bde ,how the reinforced concrete arches were built within wooden moulds #bde ,the training-bund or wall to narrow the ,ganges by #cjjj feet for the ,curzon ,bridge1 showing railway approach #beb ,erecting the piers for the ,curzon ,bridge #bec ,the training-bund under construction by native labour4 ,at the extreme right a pier is being built for the bridge #bed ,general view of the pier-building operations for the ,curzon ,bridge across the ,ganges at ,allahabad #bee ,the ,gokteik ,viaduct under construction #bef ,view of the ,gokteik ,viaduct #beg ,train emerging from ,reinunga ,tunnel1 #e1bag feet long1 in distance1 showing snowscoop-plough on locomotive #bfb ,myrdal ,station1 showing entrance to ,gravehals ,tunnel1 #ag1dbj feet in length #bfc ,myrdal ,station in winter1 showing depth of snowfall #bfc ,a view on the ,bergen ,railway in winter1 showing screens to protect line from drifting snow1 and snowsheds #bff ,mules carrying water in barrels #bfg ,load of railway metals on a mule's back #bfg ,railway building in ,nyasaland1 ,central ,africa #bhb ,a typical bridge on the ,nyasaland ,railway #bhc ,the novel lift bridge over the ,shir ,river at ,chiromo #bhc ,the iron horse in ,central ,africa #bhd ,the bascules being lowered by cables and winches from either cliff-face #bhe ,the bascules lowered1 showing the ,french engineers at centre making the connection #bhe ,the ,faux-,namiti ,bridge completed #cjb ,the line skirting the seashore near ,okitsu1 ,tokaido1 on the ,japanese ,government railways #cjc ,the most striking example of ,japanese railway engineering #cjf ,two railways racing to the ,pacific coast through the ,deschutes ,river ,canyon #cjg ,the 8switchback0 by means of which the ,great ,northern ,railway of the ,united ,states negotiated the ,cascade ,mountains before the boring of the ,cascade ,tunnel #caj ,building a steel trestle across a rift #caa ,building the biggest embankment on record by hydraulic sluicing #cad ,the 8,merry-go-round0 devised to expedite raising an embankment #abj feet high #cae ,a lofty embankment in course of construction4 ,in the centre it is #abj feet high4 ,construction camp in foreground #cae ,building the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee and ,puget ,sound ,railway through the ,bitter ,root ,mountains #cah ,carrying the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee and ,puget ,sound ,railway across the ,columbia ,river #cai ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,railway ,,surveyor',s ,,adventurous ,,life 8,one's experience is varied from camping out in tents at fifty degrees below zero1 to spending a large amount of time in the wilderness1 when provisions are very short and one has to depend upon fish for food40 ,this was the description of the task of discovering a path for the iron road through a new country1 as related to me by the late ,john ,e4 ,schwitzer1 one of the most brilliant railway engineers that ,canada has produced1 and one who had climbed the ladder of success from the humble capacity of rodman at a few shillings per week1 to the position of chief engineer of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway1 within the short space of twenty-two years4 ,from his unique experience he was fitted to speak with authority1 and his statement sums up the life of a surveyor in a nutshell4 ,so far as the loneliness and the need to fish for food are concerned ,i can speak from experience4 ,this article of diet is plentiful1 but its monotony palls very quickly1 while at times one longs for the excitement of the city4 ,but once this feeling has been lived down one would not exchange the virgin country1 with its invigorating air and life of exciting adventure1 for a smoke-begrimed stifling centre of activity for any consideration4 ,in ,great ,britain1 owing to its completely settled condition1 the difficulties incidental to this class of work do not exist4 ,the wrestles with heat1 sun-baked desert1 ice-bound forest and extreme cold have never been experienced in connection with the driving forward of the ribbon of steel in these islands4 ,there is an utter lack of that thrilling romantic interest and adventure associated with similar work in an unknown country1 where the surveyor is not merely a surveyor1 but an explorer as well4 ,in any of the four continents beyond ,europe he fulfils an important mission4 ,he is the advance-guard of civilisation4 ,he spies out the country for the greatest settling force that has yet been devised1 and although the work more often than not is extremely perilous1 he revels in the dangers4 ,one must be prepared to face any emergency3 be ready to fulfil any duty4 ,one may be buried for months amidst the strongholds of ice-capped mountains1 isolated upon the sweltering desolate expanses of broiling deserts1 imprisoned in the hearts of yawning ravines1 or immersed amid reeking dismal swamps1 cut off by hundreds of miles from the nearest town or settlement4 ,then ,nature is the surveyor's sole companion1 and in her silent company herculean and heroic tasks often have to be fulfilled1 of which the world at large never gleans an inkling4 ,the surveyor is the personification of happy-go-luckiness4 ,he pursues his path doggedly1 laughs at obstacles1 no matter how forbidding they may be1 and accomplishes glorious deeds unsung4 ,often his sudden death through accident1 disease or misadventure goes unmourned beyond the limits of his own camp4 ,yet an everlasting and omnipotent monument to his memory is raised--the thin thread of steel which annihilates time and space4 ,these men show a devotion to their calling which it is impossible to fathom4 ,they brave perils beyond conception and face death in a hundred different forms4 ,it may be a slip on a treacherous foothold at the brink of a yawning gulch1 the upset of a frail bark in a swiftly rushing rapid1 a land- or rock-slide1 an avalanche1 or a tree snapping under the fury of the storm which hurries them to their doom4 ,in silence they suffer the torments of thirst1 the pangs of hunger1 physical exhaustion1 frostbite1 snow-blindness1 disease1 the hostility of mankind and a thousand other dangers4 ,when they have emerged from the ordeal they laugh at their experiences1 and consider them no more fearsome than those confronting the ordinary city dweller as he walks along a crowded thoroughfare4 ,as one travels over the railway through ,mexico1 interest is aroused by four primitive little wooden crosses beside the track4 ,it is a small ,god's acre in an undulating expanse4 ,the probability is that it would miss the eye unless one were bent on its discovery4 ,yet those four monuments tell a silent story of grim adventure4 ,the ,mexican ,central was being driven through a hostile country1 and the ,indians were being forced back relentlessly by its influence4 ,they were sullen but not subdued4 ,a little squad of four surveyors were busily engaged in pegging out the path for the line4 ,they were deep in the intricacies of their task4 ,suddenly there was a savage blood-curdling whoop4 ,a horde of ,indians1 in the full panoply of war-paint and feathers1 were bearing down upon them on mischief bent4 ,the engineers discarded their instruments hurriedly and grabbed their rifles4 ,they were outnumbered hopelessly1 but undaunted1 they kept blazing away1 picking off their foes with that stubbornness born of despair4 ,there were no thoughts of surrender to the implacable enemy4 ,nor could they hope for aid2 they were too far distant from their base4 ,one by one they fell1 and when at last their comrades came up1 their mutilated corpses were the sole evidences of that forlorn struggle4 ,to-day those four wooden crosses serve to recall that grim episode4 ,such dramatic incidents unfortunately were only too frequent in the early days of railway building upon the ,american continent1 though they were far from being peculiar to the ,new ,world4 ,they have been1 and still are1 repeated occasionally in connection with such enterprises in other parts of the globe4 ,it was only a year or two ago that one of the most ferocious acts of savage barbarity1 such as is difficult to parallel in the annals of railway engineering1 was perpetrated in ,south ,america4 ,only the fringe of that vast territory has been opened up by the iron horse4 ,the greater part is more unknown to-day than the land around the ,north ,pole4 ,a small party of engineers set off up country to map out a projected extension4 ,they plunged boldly into the depths of the primeval forest4 ,but they never returned4 ,what happened when they disappeared within the tangled labyrinth of trees no one knows4 ,the time slipped by1 and their comrades outside1 fretting at their prolonged absence1 grew so alarmed that a relief party was organised4 ,the worst was dreaded1 for the hostility of the natives to the locomotive was known only too well4 ,the relief party advanced warily1 weapons in hand1 ready for the slightest sign of fight4 ,however1 they were safe from molestation1 but had not ventured far into the tangled jungle before they solved the mystery1 and were able to reconstruct a tragic adventure only too realistically4 ,the steps of the surveying engineers had been dogged silently and relentlessly by the remorseless savages4 ,when the former had gained a point sufficiently remote from the belt of civilisation1 they were laid low by poisoned arrows4 ,the relief-party accounted for every engineer1 but one and all were beyond human succour4 ,they were found in a gruesome row1 poised upside down1 with stakes driven lengthwise through their bodies and heads into the ground4 ,they had been pinned down with no more compunction than the school-boy secures his etymological prize to a piece of cardboard4 ,a few years ago ,british ,north ,borneo was the scene of a similar disaster4 ,it had been decided to drive a railway from coast to coast1 and a party set out on the reconnaissance1 as the first step in a new railway undertaking is called4 ,the path lay through the dense forest which had never been penetrated by the white man1 and where the dreaded ,head ,hunters held undisputed sway4 ,the prospect was forbidding in the extreme1 but it did not dismay the engineers who plunged fearlessly into the bush4 ,as the crow flies their journey was only one of some #aej miles1 but the thick vegetation concealed difficulties innumerable4 ,that survey was doomed to failure4 ,the party was overwhelmed by the ,dyaks and massacred1 with the exception of three native porters who succeeded in making good their escape4 ,after experiencing terrible privations1 this trio regained civilisation and communicated the sad tidings of the calamity4 ,for years that stretch of forest defied conquest4 ,finally another attempt was made to traverse the jungle1 and on this occasion no interference to progress was offered4 ,the surveyors gained the opposite coast in about six months1 being called upon to fight only one enemy--disease4 ,it was a desperate plunge1 for the party had to hack and hew its way foot by foot through the matted scrub and trees4 ,these afford instances of the hostility of mankind which fortunately to-day are encountered but seldom4 ,it is the hostility of ,nature which is feared more greatly now4 ,yet the work possesses a fascinating glamour4 ,the existence of difficulty only spurs the determined to further effort4 ,railway surveying in the effort to roll back the map in a new country offers the young man all the adventure in life that can be desired4 ,as one surveyor who had spent more years than he could remember in the wilds between ,china and ,peru remarked to me1 8,if it is not the natural difficulties or the hostility of the natives which lend variety to the work1 the chances are a hundred to one that a revolution will fill the gap1 especially in ,china or the ,south ,americas40 ,at times the work is exasperating4 ,perhaps the surveyor who has been imprisoned for months on end in an inhospitable country has been driven to his wits' end to find a practicable location which is immune from the many disturbances of ,nature4 ,by dint of supreme effort finally he discovers a route which he congratulates himself to be absolutely safe1 only to receive a rude awakening4 ,in the survey of a new line through the ,rockies1 the mountains barring the engineer's path had achieved an unenviable reputation1 owing to the frequency and severity of the avalanches that tore down their steep slopes every spring4 ,the surveyor reconnoitred that mountain chain from end to end1 observed every path that the slides had been known to take1 searched local records and questioned aged inhabitants to make himself acquainted thoroughly with the conditions4 ,at last he concluded that he had elaborated a path for the railway which was beyond the destructive efforts of the periodical visitations and work was commenced4 ,yet in the first spring1 while the construction train was crawling along with a load of excavated spoil from the mountain-side1 the slipping snow departed from its accustomed path1 and in its descent caught the unlucky train1 threw it into the gulch some distance below1 ripped up the metals1 buried the grade beneath thousands of tons of debris1 and obliterated every vestige of the work4 ,the surveyor must be a man not to be daunted very easily in his enterprise1 not to be cast down by heart-breaking failures1 and who has the capacity to gather tangible assistance from apparently insignificant trifles4 ,the search for a rift through a frowning mountain wall often is galling in its hopelessness4 ,when the first ,canadian trans-continental line was being forced towards the ,pacific coast1 the crossing of the ,rocky1 ,selkirk and ,gold ranges puzzled the surveyors acutely4 ,walter ,moberly1 a surveyor to the manner born1 was deputed to complete the conquest of the ,gold or ,columbia ,range4 ,the obvious path to follow was along the bank of the mighty ,columbia ,river1 and this was taken by ,moberly4 ,yet the ,gold ,range had to be threaded somewhere and somehow1 though it appeared to defy penetration4 ,he spent months wandering up and down the river1 enduring hardships indescribable1 seeking for the slightest breach through that terrible wall1 wide enough to carry a pair of metals1 but no gateway could he find4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,the ,,loftiest ,,bridge ,,in ,,the ,,world ,the ,fades ,viaduct spanning the ,sioule ,river in ,france1 #a1ebf feet long4 ,the two masonry towers are each #cjd feet in height4 ,the central span1 #dgb feet in length1 was built out from each tower4 ,the railway line in the centre of the bridge is #ddj feet above the river4 ,weary and sick at heart at the fruitlessness of his endeavours1 he was one day returning despondently to camp4 ,he was compelled well-nigh to admit failure4 ,suddenly he espied an eagle wheeling over his head4 ,he followed its movements somewhat nonchalantly1 until he saw it make directly for the ,columbia mountains4 ,then his heart gave a thump6 ,would the bird rise and clear their lofty summits or would it sweep through a rift8 ,following its flight through the air1 he saw the bird give a majestic dip downwards towards the chain4 ,he turned the head of his jaded horse1 and digging his spurs into its flanks1 sped in the wake of the bird4 ,onward it flew as straight as an arrow towards a projecting crest1 where it made a sharp turn and was lost to sight4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,a ,,cutting #ajj ,,feet ,,deep ,,by ,,the ,,aid ,,of ,,dynamite ,,and ,,steam ,,shovels ,,through ,,slate ,,on ,,the ,,delaware1 ,,lackawanna ,,and ,,western ,,railway1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,moberly galloped madly forward with his eyes glued to that crag4 ,he never turned his head1 fearing his sight might play him false1 and was oblivious to stumbles and lurches as his steed fell over logs and slipped among boulders in its mad career4 ,he swung round the crest1 and there before his eyes the peaks were rolled back on either side1 leaving a broad canyon1 and of such a character that ,nature appeared to have fashioned it expressly for the advance of the steel highway4 ,the ,columbia range was conquered4 ,it was by pure accident that it had been found1 but it was an accident which culminated a prolonged industrious quest4 ,indebted to his success to the monarch of the air ,moberly christened the break in the rocky wall 8,eagle ,pass10 and it is through that gulch to-day that the ,canadian ,pacific makes its way to the western sea4 ,as one sweeps between the massive ice-crowned teeth of the mountains one may see the site of the oldest cabin in the mountains1 where the indefatigable ,moberly passed the winter of #ahga-b completing the preliminary surveys for the line among the fastnesses of the ,columbia ,mountains4 ,the task of planning the location through such broken country is attended with the gravest dangers1 relieved with exciting adventures4 ,at places among the peaks a foothold on terra firma for the manipulation of the survey instruments is impossible4 ,then massive tree-logs are lowered into the gulch a few feet above the raging foam of a wicked mountain torrent1 and along this slender staging the surveyor has to crawl to carry out his task4 ,life often hangs upon the veritable thread4 ,it may be that logs cannot be thrown over the cliff face4 ,then the surveyor has to don a leathern waist-belt fitted with a heavy swivel to which a rope is attached4 ,in this way he is swung over the edge of a cliff to operate his level and transit along the face of a precipice where no foothold exists4 ,sometimes it becomes imperative to have recourse to dynamite to blast out a ledge along which to advance4 ,many a promising young engineer has gone to his last account in work of such a desperate character4 ,in the survey of what is now the ,denver and ,rio ,grande through one of ,colorado's yawning canyons1 a young assistant had to be lowered in this manner4 ,half-a-dozen labourers grasped the end of the rope and steadied the surveyor in his descent over the perilous edge4 ,from the brink to the bottom of the canyon was a matter of #bjj feet or so straight down4 ,in a few seconds the young fellow was dangling betwixt earth and sky1 steadying his descent as best he could down the face of the cliff4 ,suddenly there was a cry of alarm6 ,the rope-man nearest the cliff edge noticed that the rope was bearing upon a piece of rock the edge of which was as keen as that of a razor4 ,the rope had been sawn almost in two4 ,lowering stopped4 ,the two men rushed forward to grasp the rope below the point of pending rupture to ease the strain4 ,but they were too late4 ,there was a slight tremor1 the last strand snapped1 and before the rope-men realised the situation as the end hung limply in their hands1 the cry of the lost engineer as he tumbled through the air was echoed from the depths of the canyon4 ,life in the field is indisputably hard and exacting1 and the task is often aggravated by the scarcity1 or monotony1 of the food4 ,this condition of affairs1 however1 is incomparably better to-day than it was thirty years ago4 ,the surveyors are tended more thoughtfully than they were then1 and the perfection of food-preserving science has enabled a camp now to be provisioned with tasty comestibles which formerly were unknown4 ,pork1 beans and bannock--a substitute for bread made from flour and bacon fat with a little baking-powder--constituted the staple articles of diet1 varied with fish from the streams1 game from the forests and wild fruits4 ,the bread was often musty1 for immersion time after time in a torrent and storage upon damp ground did not improve the flavour of the flour by any means4 ,the pork or bacon often was rancid1 while the cook was invariably an execrable exponent of the culinary art1 and his bannock played sad havoc with the digestive organs of the human body4 ,little wonder that the men1 under such conditions1 sought to secure additions to the menu from the rivers by methods decidedly unsportsmanlike1 but the 8end justified the means02 or delighted in bear steaks and venison4 ,extreme altitudes such as have to be attained in order to cross the ,andes undermine the strongest constitutions and render the surveyor's work increasingly difficult4 ,struggling1 crawling and slipping among crags and loose rocks inflicting cuts and bruises is arduous work indeed1 but when the human frame is racked by the tortures of sorocht1 or mountain sickness1 the surveyor's plight is to be pitied in very truth4 ,in such climes the cold and winds are pitiless1 the movements of the thermometer between midnight and noon are enormous1 the fluctuation in some cases being as much as a hundred degrees in the course of twelve hours4 ,in the middle of the day the heat is well-nigh unbearable1 and the surveyor gladly discards his outer clothing4 ,at night he finds it no simple matter to keep warm1 for the mercury descends to a very low level and frost prevails4 ,the winds too are so cutting and penetrating that it requires elaborate and special clothing after dark to keep warm4 ,now and again a situation develops which relieves the monotony of the daily round of struggle against the forces of ,nature4 ,south ,america is pre-eminently the home of these humorous incidents4 ,the concession for the construction of a railway through one of the tropical republics had been granted1 and no time was lost in pushing forward with the preliminary surveys4 ,but when the men with the transit and level reached a certain city they were surprised to meet with unveiled opposition4 ,the municipal authorities point-blankly refused to permit the surveyors to carry out their work in the precincts of the city4 ,seeing that the latter was to benefit mostly from the steel link1 the attitude was somewhat inexplicable at first sight4 ,a little reflection1 however1 upon the ,south ,american methods of transacting business convinced the surveyor that bribery was the root of the trouble4 ,he reported the interruption to his superiors1 whose representatives hurried to the city to fathom the reason for the unexpected opposition4 ,it was as the surveyor had surmised4 ,the civic authorities would permit the iron horse to enter the city if the concessionaries would make a handsome contribution to the municipal improvement fund--explained the mayor4 8,well1 how much do you want80 remarked the concessionaries1 who inwardly had not overlooked this contingency4 ,the mayor could not say off-hand1 and accordingly several delays occurred until this vital consideration was arranged4 ,as a result of the prolonged parleys the concessionaries undertook to deliver a certain sum of money to the city4 ,the bullion was dispatched forthwith and reached the city the night before payment was due1 so as to prevent the authorities to withdraw from the bargain on the plea that the concessionaries were dilatory4 ,but law and order were not enforced very strongly1 and the surveyor1 with his companions1 entertained certain qualms4 ,accordingly they decided to mount guard over the building in which they were passing the night in case of eventualities1 at the same time securing a goodly supply of arms and ammunition4 ,as the first streaks of dawn lighted the scene the guard thought he descried the forms of men creeping along the ground in the gloom4 ,silently he roused his companions1 and with firearms cocked they waited developments4 ,not a sign of movement was displayed among the inmates1 and the robbers silently forced an entrance through the windows and door4 ,once inside the building they were greeted with a warm fusillade of lead1 and in accordance with the characteristics of their ilk1 they did not stop to reply1 but beat as hurried retreat as they could under the assistance of bullets1 leaving some of their number hors de combat4 ,when day broke the besieged party examined the fruits of their marksmanship1 and to their intense surprise discovered that the dead included the mayor of the city1 and one or two of his companions who had carried out the negotiations for the contribution to the improvement fund1 and who had been so remarkably solicitous concerning the city's welfare6 ,it will be realised that the surveyor who undertakes the plotting of the line through a new country must be a man of illimitable resource and capacity1 and at the same time ready to meet any development4 ,it must be confessed1 however1 that the work1 from its adventurous aspect1 appeals strongly to the young engineer anxious to get away from monotonous routine4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,construction ,though the task of deciding the path for the railway teems with excitement1 adventure and privation1 the battle with ,nature commences in grim earnest when the constructional engineer arrives on the scene4 ,on paper it seems a simple task to follow the location as indicated by an unbroken row of wooden stakes1 but to carry the surveyors' work to completion1 and to comply with requirements as to grades and curves1 often proves a heart-rending undertaking4 ,no matter how formidable any obstruction may appear1 it is the work of the builder to beat it down2 to overcome it by some means or other with the minimum of expense4 ,he must be baulked by nothing4 ,such a task demands a man of illimitable resource and infinite ingenuity1 conversant with every phase of civil engineering4 ,at the same time he must possess the happy faculty of being able to organise great armies of men of all nationalities1 and in such a manner that he can get the utmost out of them4 ,this is a searching difficulty4 ,the camp of to-day upon a large railway undertaking is a heterogeneous mass of humanity2 the confusion of tongues at the ,tower of ,babel could not have been more embarrassing4 ,i have lived among the camps of ,canada and the ,united ,states1 and among a hundred men it has been no uncommon circumstance to find representatives of a dozen different tongues4 ,the control of such men is rendered all the more complex for the reason that in the majority of cases they have little or no knowledge of any language but their own4 ,it is not until they have been in one another's company for several weeks that inter-conversation becomes possible4 ,in addition to this drawback there are always the peculiar troubles incidental to racial and religious prejudices confronting the commander-in-chief1 and at times he is hard pressed to preserve order and authority4 ,this trouble is not experienced to any great degree in connection with railway building operations in ,great ,britain1 but abroad the initial difficulties of this character are exasperating to a superlative degree1 more especially where reliance has to be made upon native labour4 ,the workmen have to be educated into the use of labour- and time-saving implements4 ,this is no easy matter4 ,the native entertains strong opinions concerning his own ability1 and the conversion from the primitive to the up-to-date scientific has to be effected gradually and unconsciously1 a task which demands considerable tact and patience4 ,a great amount of time must be expended necessarily in the early days to drill such raw material1 but perseverance and an equable temper are the only virtues4 ,in ,mexico the railway pioneers found it almost hopeless to impress upon the pons1 as the navvies are called1 that to carry ballast in a basket slung upon the back was not to be compared in speed and efficiency with conveyance by small trucks pushed along a tramroad4 ,it was only by carrying out the work themselves in this more modern manner that the engineers could teach them the superior advantage of this method1 with its sparing of effort and fatigue4 ,in fact1 the only way one can convert the raw native to ideas entirely foreign to his own custom is to show him how he can save himself trouble4 ,then he will adopt the idea with alacrity4 ,now and again1 however1 the white man1 despite his ingenuity in the devising of time-and labour-saving appliances1 has to bow to the inevitable4 ,for instance1 in ,india the ,hindoos toil at such a low daily wage that in many phases of work the wonders of mechanical invention cannot compare with their crude efforts in cheapness4 ,it comes as a heavy blow to the engineer's pride to realise that he must abandon his elaborate plant and that the native holds the balance between failure and success4 ,again1 in the ,south ,americas the laissez-faire attitude of the inhabitants galls him to the quick4 ,in the southern part of the ,new ,world the policy is 8,never do to-day what can be done to-morrow10 and the native acts up to the very letter of the aphorism4 ,religious festivals1 each of which is regarded as a holiday1 occur with the most tantalizing frequency4 ,it is no uncommon circumstance for two or three such orgies--they scarcely can be described as anything else--to occur in a week1 and the labourer is a commendable zealot in the observance of the religious feasts4 ,the engineer may fret and fume at the delay1 but unless he is in a position to recruit outside labour he must tolerate the frequent interruptions in the work with the best grace he can muster4 ,in the mountainous regions of ,south ,america the native knows only too well that he holds an unassailable advantage1 for he is accustomed to the rarefied atmosphere encountered in the extreme altitudes1 whereas it plays sad havoc with the strongest constitutions of ,europeans4 ,strange to say1 one of the most conscientious workmen in railway building1 as in other fields of industrial endeavour1 is the ,chinaman4 ,from a cursory point of view this appears inexplicable1 but it must be borne in mind that a ,celestial's word is his bond4 ,johnny will haggle and argue for hours over a bargain1 but when he finally accepts the terms he will fulfil the contract to the letter1 even should he ascertain before he has completed the task that it involves him in a personal loss4 ,i have seen these men pick up their tools as the clock struck the hour for commencing the daily task1 plod along quietly and continually until the hour of cessation1 and give an indisputably good return for their daily wage4 ,can the same be said of the workmen of any other nationality8 ,i am afraid not4 ,in fact1 the steadiness of the ,chinaman has become so famous and has proved so reliable that it is safe to say that many of the biggest railways of the day never would have been completed but for his aid4 ,it enabled the first trans-continental line to be carried across the ,united ,states to link ,new ,york with ,san ,francisco2 through ,oriental labour the ,canadian ,pacific was consummated1 and many another great undertaking of a like nature could tell a similar story4 ,the same spirit prevails when the scene of activity is removed to ,china itself4 ,the ,celestial may entertain quaint ideas concerning the iron road and its scope of utility4 ,he may slave hard to-day laying the track1 merely to pull it up again on the morrow on the plea that it is disturbing the spirits of his ancestors4 ,but nevertheless he completes his part of the bargain in the first instance4 ,strikes are unknown and disputes never arise unless the employer declines to stand by his side of the contract4 ,china is permeated through and through with secret societies or ,guilds--,trade ,unions1 if you like--to one or other of which every ,celestial belongs4 ,the white engineer when he first arrives in the country finds it very difficult to make headway1 but in reality he is on probation in the eyes of the ,orientals4 ,they are watching closely his methods1 fathoming his code of honour1 his capacity for handling men--in fact1 are investigating him just as closely as if he were under a microscope4 ,once he has established his reputation and has inspired confidence1 he need entertain no further apprehensions concerning trouble4 ,yet the ,celestials have their own peculiar and effective way of settling disputes among themselves4 ,the engineer in need of a few thousand men negotiates for brawn and muscle through a middle-man or labour contractor4 ,the engineer concludes his bargain with this worthy1 and the latter makes his own terms with the men4 ,he recruits the navvies at a certain wage1 which he takes care to leave him a wide margin of profit4 ,occasionally he will be too grasping and will resort to sweating tactics4 ,when the labourers find this out trouble looms ahead4 ,the men report the matter to their ,guilds1 who take the avaricious middle-man in hand and make him disgorge some of his ill-gotten gains4 ,if he refuses1 well1 one day the contractor is missing1 and never is seen again by the engineer4 ,no questions are asked and no explanations for his disappearance are offered4 ,he has settled his account with the ,guilds to his own personal disadvantage4 ,the engineer1 however1 knows nothing about the dissatisfaction until he observes the absence of the contractor1 for the work meantime continues its daily round undisturbed4 ,although labour is a vital consideration1 it is but one cog in the complex machine by means of which the iron road is driven forward through a new country4 ,without tools the efforts of the navvy would count for naught1 and as time has rolled by inventive effort and engineering skill have contrived more and more wonderful devices to enable the epoch-making work to be fulfilled in the shortest space of time4 ,there is the steam shovel1 which will remove two and a half cubic yards of miscellaneous rubble with every swing of its ponderous arm2 the grader1 whereby the soil is ploughed up and displaced by an endless chain of buckets into capacious wagons for removal2 the drag shovel1 a huge scoop attached to the end of a chain which is pulled along the ground from a stationary point by steam power1 becoming charged with material in its progress1 and thus fashioning the cutting2 the monitor1 whereby tons of gravel are washed down the mountain-side under the disintegrating force of a powerful jet of water similar to a fireman's hose2 and a host of other wonderful implements1 all devised for the express purpose of expediting the work in hand4 ,gunpowder and dynamite are invaluable handmaids1 and to-day are used with an astonishing prodigality4 ,indeed1 when the advance is through rock their services are indispensable4 ,crags1 cliffs and even whole hills are blown away bodily by their agency1 and the cost often runs into thousands of pounds1 miniature volcanoes being produced by the upheavals4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,railway ,,construction ,,camp ,,among ,,the ,,mountains ,illustration3 ,,building ,a ,,high ,,bank ,,on ,,the ,,delaware1 ,,lackawanna ,,and ,,western ,,railway1 ,u4,s4,a41 ,,by ,,modern ,,methods ,an overhead cableway was stretched across the depression1 from which a swinging line was suspended1 and on which the trucks were backed to be emptied4 ,those who have travelled over many remarkable railway systems in various parts of the world where striking evidences of the engineer's skill are apparent upon a liberal scale1 have pointed to the absence of any such evidences of activity in these islands--8,the ,home of the ,railway40 ,but this to a certain degree is inevitable4 ,the engineer was not faced with such physical conditions when he essayed to gridiron this country as confronted him in the ,americas or ,asia4 ,there are no towering ranges of eternally snow-wreathed mountains to overcome1 no wildly boiling wide rivers to span1 no yawning canyons to thread or stretches of sterile desert to traverse4 ,yet when ,stephenson and his contemporaries sought to achieve the railway conquest of ,great ,britain they encountered many obstacles which to them1 with their crude appliances1 were every whit as stupendous as those which rear up before the engineer to-day1 although he is equipped with an extensive assortment of heavy artillery to assist him in his contest against the forces of ,nature4 ,moreover1 some of the expedients which ,stephenson evolved to overcome a difficult situation are practised to-day merely because the intervening eighty years have not provided any better solution of a problem of a similar character4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,huge ,,steam ,,shovel ,,which ,,takes ,,some #c ,,tons ,,of ,,spoil ,,with ,,every ,,bite ,illustration3 ,,the ,,drag-,,line ,,shovel ,,which ,,scoops ,,up ,,the ,,earth ,,in ,,the ,,cutting ,,as ,,it ,,is ,,pulled ,,along ,,the ,,railway ,,builders' ,,heavy ,,artillery ,every one has read how ,stephenson was for a time nonplussed by the treacherous bog ,chat ,moss1 across which now speed the expresses of the ,london ,north-,western railway4 ,it is the largest stretch of swamp in the country1 and many wiseacres prophesied that there ,stephenson would meet his ,waterloo when he essayed to carry the ,manchester ,liverpool railway over its unstable surface4 ,yet ,stephenson plodded along unconcerned and achieved success in a novel manner4 ,he laid branches of trees and hedge cuttings upon the surface of the bog1 and upon the softest patches pressed hurdles intertwined with heather into service4 ,upon this network he laid a layer of rock and gravel1 which caused the foundation to sink somewhat into the morass4 ,this formed the permanent way1 and its peculiar character provoked more than one scornful criticism4 ,but its stability confounded the critics4 ,to-day in foreign countries where huge stretches of swamp bar the progress of the iron road the self-same principle is adopted1 and it is known as 8corduroying0 or 8cross-waying40 ,in the northern ,states1 ,canada and ,siberia--the latter country and ,canada especially--the 8muskeg10 or 8tundra10 as this treacherous land is called1 often stretches for miles4 ,one can sound it sedulously to a great depth1 and then will fail to touch the bottom4 ,the soddened decayed vegetable matter merely fills a large depression which cannot be drained4 ,the builders waste no time attempting to build up a solid earthen embankment resting on the submerged solid floor of the bog4 ,they fashion a huge mattress of trees4 ,large trunks are laid horizontally and longitudinally to the track4 ,upon these are laid transversely two or three layers of shorter logs1 the whole being secured together firmly4 ,a topmost layer of branches forming a kind of thatching completes the structure4 ,at times these mattresses assume respectable proportions4 ,i have stood beside some almost as thick as a man is tall1 and they constituted quite formidable pieces of work4 ,when the corduroy is completed a layer of rock is applied1 and upon this is dumped the gravel and other material forming the embankment4 ,under the weight thus superimposed the mattress sinks deeply into the morass and rests firmly4 ,the earthen ridge is continued to the requisite height2 the whole of the embankment for the track rests upon the fabrication of tree-trunks4 ,yet the whole is just as solid as if resting upon granite4 ,one might remark that it appears an indifferent foundation upon which to pile up a mass of earth weighing several hundred tons1 and that in a short time the wood1 under decomposition and collapse1 would precipitate a subsidence4 ,but as a matter of fact1 the corduroy grows stronger with every passing day4 ,the wood immersed in the viscous liquid and preserved from all contact with the atmosphere becomes waterlogged1 until at last it assumes the character of bog-oak and is practically indestructible4 ,stephenson was called upon to cope with another critical situation upon the same railway4 ,the great tunnel at ,kilsby was in course of construction1 but work had not proceeded very far when the contractors struck a large pocket of water and quicksand4 ,they combated this adversary for several months1 and then1 unable to make any appreciable headway1 threw up the contract4 ,efforts were made to induce other firms to accept the task1 but in vain4 ,at last ,stephenson was called upon to rescue the undertaking from failure4 ,the outlook was far from promising1 for the shaft was being sunk through material which the engineer always regards askance--a shale--while the fault in which reposed a large volume of water and sand was of large proportions4 ,stephenson concluded that the best way to cope with the problem was to pump out the water first1 and accordingly he rigged up an elaborate plant capable of handling #a1hjj gallons per minute1 and this was kept going day and night4 ,even then1 however1 it was only by superhuman effort that the water was kept down4 ,one day after ,stephenson had been on the scene about six months1 the water got the upper hand and flooded the tunnel to such a depth that the men and materials had to be floated in on rafts4 ,this undertaking1 however1 served to demonstrate to those anxious to participate in railway-building speculations how estimated expenses for definite work might be sent astray seriously1 and how formidable and ubiquitous was the unexpected factor in such work4 ,the original contractor offered to complete the burrow1 #g1afi feet in length1 under the ,kilsby ,ridge for some #ij1jjj4 ,by the time the last brick of the lining had been laid and the tunnel was ready for use over #cjj1jjj had been expended4 ,the attempt to pierce this tunnel at that time1 however1 was a far more difficult enterprise than it would be to-day4 ,the engineers had not the powerful marvellous appliances such as serve the contractor's purposes now4 ,electric energy was unknown1 the hydraulic shield for driving tunnels had yet to be invented1 the steam shovel had not been thought of--in short1 the contractor was handicapped on every side by the crude character of his tools4 ,some of these appliances which the modern railway-builder uses are little short of wonderful1 both in time- and labour-saving qualities1 and the majority have been born of necessity4 ,for instance1 in the early railway days on the ,american continent too much time would have been occupied in building lofty earthen embankments among the mountains4 ,accordingly the rifts and gullies were spanned by timber trestles4 ,but the woodwork was perishable1 and there was always the risk of fire demolishing the structure and precipitating disaster to a passing train4 ,the obvious remedy was to replace the wood by metal1 but the expense was a deterrent factor4 ,one day a workman on one of the mountain sections suggested that the woodwork should be left intact1 but buried beneath a mass of earth4 ,the suggestion was received with ridicule because1 as the divisional engineer pointed out1 several thousand men and several hundred trucks and dozens of locomotives would be required to handle the material1 while the time the task would occupy was incalculable4 ,the workman listened to the criticisms1 and then interposed with the quiet comment that he did not suggest using any trains and trucks1 and that a few dozen men would be ample to complete the work4 ,the divisional engineer was somewhat astonished1 and at first thought the man had taken leave of his senses4 ,then the workman revealed his intentions4 ,he would not resort to steam shovels or any other device of that character4 ,he had observed minutely and tested the power of a jet of water1 and consequently had conceived an idea to wash down masses of gravel by means of very powerful jets of water4 ,there was no need even to rig up a steam engine and pump to supply the requisite force to the water flying from the nozzle4 ,high up on the mountain-side was a creek4 ,a dam could be thrown across this torrent at little cost1 and the pent-up water could be led down to the working site below through piping1 and the pressure thus secured by gravitation would be more than ample for the purpose4 ,the gravel as washed out of the hillside would be directed into wooden conduits and led to points around the trestles1 where it would be discharged to build up the embankment4 ,it was a simple means of overcoming a perplexing difficulty4 ,the divisional engineer was so impressed with its feasibility that he secured the requisite permission for the workman to put his suggestion into practical form4 ,the creek was dammed by throwing trees from bank to bank1 and from the little pond thus formed the water was led several hundred feet down the mountain-side through pipes to the large nozzles4 ,a small network of timber conduits were fashioned to convey the displaced gravel to the feet of the timber trestle4 ,in a short time work was commenced1 and as the jets of water struck against the solid face of the mountain1 the soft earth and gravel were washed out at tremendous speed4 ,heavy streams of mud poured down the conduits4 ,the hill disappeared like magic under the scouring action of the harnessed water1 to reappear in a symmetrically-shaped ridge around the woodwork1 which grew rapidly in height until the level of the railway was gained4 ,the embankment thus formed was found to be as solid and stable as if built by dumping1 and the whole task was accomplished in a few weeks4 ,while the work was in progress the chief engineer and his lieutenant visited the spot and watched the building of the embankment by hydraulic sluicing with intense interest4 ,its complete success in this initial experiment secured its adoption1 and in a short space of time1 where the conditions permitted1 all the trestles among the mountains were buried beneath a ridge of earth built up by a jet of water4 ,while ,i was being shown some of the most impressive pieces of railway engineering among the ,cascades1 my cicerone1 an ,english engineer and railway-builder1 after describing the features whereby the ,great ,northern railway is taken down to the coast1 remarked1 8,i wonder what ,brunel would have done among these mountains8 ,i guess he would have revelled in the difficulties they offered40 ,there is no doubt that the great engineer would have found the ascent of the steep slopes and the crossing of the great gulches an extensive field for the exercise of his genius4 ,his work among the vales of ,cornwall and along the rugged seashore of ,wicklow1 ,ireland1 indicate this fact only too plainly4 ,in these two districts are to be found the nearest approaches to spectacular work that these islands can afford4 ,true there are no wonderful loops and great terraces winding up and down mountain-sides1 but there is the daring and lofty spanning of yawning valleys1 and the driving of a narrow pathway along steep rocky slopes4 ,for something like half a century ,brunel's spidery timber viaducts of ,cornwall constituted one of the sights of that county4 ,the location1 with its grades and curves1 as carried through ,cornwall1 has been assailed by many critics1 but it must be remembered that when ,brunel penetrated the ,english ,riviera1 railway operation was very different from what it is to-day4 ,engines and train loads were light1 while money was by no means plentiful4 ,the engineer was compelled to achieve his object at the most moderate cost1 but the very fact that he was hampered in this connection served to influence him in the accomplishment of monumental work4 ,his timber viaducts were remarkable for the novel character of their design and their extent4 ,in the course of sixty miles he had to span no less than thirty-four valleys in this manner1 the aggregate length of the wooden structures being about four miles4 ,the engineer adopted timber as a constructional material because it was cheaper than iron1 and ,american oak was used extensively4 ,some were of great height1 the ,st4 ,pinnock viaduct1 for instance1 carrying the train #aec feet above the bottom of the valley1 while others attained great lengths1 the ,landore viaduct measuring #a1gfj feet from end to end4 ,these evidences of ,brunel's work1 however1 are disappearing under the exigencies of to-day4 ,timber is being replaced by steel and granite to meet the increased weights and speeds of trains4 ,the location through the county also is undergoing revision1 the sharp curves introduced by ,brunel being eased or eliminated1 while the grades are being flattened4 ,consequently in a few years the name of ,brunel in ,cornwall will be naught but a memory4 ,fortunately other evidences of his handiwork abound on this system notably in the ,saltash1 ,chepstow and ,maidenhead bridges1 as well as the ,box and ,foxwood tunnels4 ,in ,ireland1 however1 a far more daring expression of his skill is offered4 ,this is the stretch of line along the seashore between ,bray and ,wicklow1 which now forms part of the ,dublin ,south-,eastern railway4 ,this was the first stretch of iron road to be opened in the ,emerald ,isle1 the original one and three-quarter miles being operated in the first instance by the system of atmospheric propulsion1 whereby the train was hauled along the metals by suction4 ,when it was decided to connect ,wicklow with ,bray1 the trying character of the country lying between the two points1 and especially of ,bray ,head1 demanded a masterhand to effect the location and to carry the building operations through to success4 ,it was a matter of sixteen miles1 but they proved perhaps the most trying sixteen miles of railway construction ever attempted in this country4 ,it was stated that ,bray ,head would defy conquest1 for it was approachable only through very rocky country1 and it is quite possible that the gloomy outlook was responsible for tempting ,brunel to achieve something bold and striking4 ,there was no need to have carried the line in this direction1 a fact which is realised to-day1 for by making a detour inland an easier location could have been found1 and the present generation would not have been called upon to pour out heavy sums of money to keep their line intact4 ,brunel's vanity has cost the railway company several thousands of pounds since the line was opened4 ,it is only by superhuman effort that the railway is not devoured by the sea1 over #dj1jjj1 or #bjj1jjj1 having been expended in defence works over this sixteen miles of line during a period of ten years alone4 ,apart from this unsatisfactory feature the line is a constant source of anxiety4 ,a little to the south of ,bray is ,bramstone tunnel and a wild ravine4 ,this gulch attracted the engineer4 ,instead of avoiding it1 he bridged it with a wooden viaduct #cjj feet long by #ge feet high4 ,before it was quite completed it was destroyed in a single night1 the demolished timbers being carried out to sea4 ,a few years later1 while a train was crossing1 the engine left the metals and precipitated a sensational accident4 ,investigation revealed the fact that it was due to the action of the waves1 which1 battering against the piers of the viaduct1 had so vibrated the structure as to throw the rails out of gauge4 ,thereupon it was decided to abandon the viaduct and drive the line directly through the rocky promontory4 ,the traveller still can see traces of the original route in the decaying approaches to the gap formerly conquered by a timber trestle4 ,illustration3 ,brack1 photo ,,the ,,pecos ,,viaduct ,,on ,,the 8,,sunset0 ,,railway1 ,,the ,,highest ,,structure ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,the ,,track ,,being #cba ,,feet ,,above ,,the ,,water ,,below ,still it was a grim fight with ,nature for every foot of the way4 ,a mere ledge suffices to carry the track1 and this gallery is often at a level of seventy feet above the sea beneath4 ,here and there the line is enclosed by a roof recalling the snow-sheds of the ,selkirks or ,cascades1 to protect the rails from stones bouncing down the cliffs4 ,curiously enough1 the method in which ,brunei drove his line along this forbidding wild shore recalls the staggering feats accomplished in the ,american mountains1 and indeed a journey over this railway will provide a thrill in miniature such as results from a toil through the mountain backbone of the ,new ,world4 ,the dislodgment of massive boulders and landslides are so frequent that flagmen have to be retained to keep a vigilant eye on the track and to warn passing trains4 ,at places long walls have been erected high on the hillside to arrest the descent of the movements of loose rock on the one hand1 while on the other the cliff face has been cut into terraces to break the force of the waves1 and together with retaining walls and groynes1 seek to counteract the insidious erosion of the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,track ,,layer1 ,,whereby ,,the ,,metals ,,are ,,laid ,,at ,a ,,speed ,,of #c ,,or #d ,,miles ,a ,,day1 ,,crossing ,a ,,heavy ,,timber ,,trestle ,when ,bray ,head has been passed the physical character of the country changes with startling suddenness from jagged rock to clay4 ,here the engineer was brought to fierce grips with his adversary4 ,the clay is honeycombed on all sides with springs1 and there is a constant war between the engineer and ,nature for supremacy4 ,building the line was exacting indeed1 but the puzzles which had to be unravelled then are equalled by those attending the preservation of the road4 ,the battle was waged relentlessly for some years1 but the sea won2 the engineers were compelled to re-lay their track some distance inland4 ,the shareholders in the railway are paying dearly for ,brunel's colossal error4 ,indeed1 it is a poor return for an outlay of over #djj1jjj1 or #b1jjj1jjj1 which were sunk in this sixteen miles of line4 ,it may be wonderful engineering1 but it is not business4 ,the railway company are anxious to abandon this location and to rebuild the line along the route it should have followed in the first instance4 ,at the present such a result is not financially possible1 but its realisation is merely a question of time4 ,one inspiriting phase of the railway-builder's work is the race against time1 and in the fulfilment of such a task many an astonishing performance has been achieved4 ,when one of the great ,american railways was pushing its way to the ,pacific coast1 it required a tunnel to be driven for two miles through the ,cascades4 ,it was a daring piece of work1 and the railway company1 after considering the scheme1 decided that it could be accomplished cheaper and more quickly under contract than by direct labour4 ,upon the advice of their surveyors they set the time for its completion at twenty-eight months4 ,considering the remote situation of the work the feat was considered absolutely impracticable1 and no recognised contractor could be prevailed upon to incur the risk4 ,the company1 however1 was convinced that some daring spirit existed who could1 and would1 fulfil their requirements1 so they advertised for tenders4 ,when these were perused it was found that one man was willing to meet the time-limit and at a price far below competitors4 ,his bid was accepted4 ,that man was ,bennett1 and he lost no time in setting his carefully-laid plans in motion4 ,he was over three thousand miles from the country in which the tunnel was to be driven1 yet before the ink on the contract was dry he had wired to his assistant on the ,pacific coast to hurry forward all requisite appliances1 while he himself purchased an elaborate plant of the most modern type to be shipped to the railway point nearest the site4 ,from this station he had to transport every ounce of material for a distance of eighty-two miles through the roughest and most broken mountainous country it is possible to conceive4 ,there was no road1 so he had to blaze one through the deadfall and littered rock1 fording creeks and streams and toiling through viscous mud4 ,the wagons sank above the axles1 and had to be hauled through the muskeg by block and tackle4 ,in this way1 by sheer physical effort1 he gained the mountain which was to be pierced4 ,it took him a solid six months to get his forces and artillery to the spot1 leaving him scarcely twenty-two months in which to hew the passage through the solid rock4 ,so pressing was time that he never permitted an hour's cessation day or night4 ,an agent on the coast recruited men by the score and dispatched them up country in large corps4 ,as they arrived they were divided into six-hour shifts on either side of the mountain1 and in this way toil was continued unbrokenly throughout the whole twenty-four hours4 ,when he had settled down to work in grim earnest wages were absorbing money at the rate of nearly #b1jjj1 or #aj1jjj1 per week4 ,preliminary to embarking upon the contract he had prepared careful calculations showing him how much rock it was requisite to remove every day to effect completion in time1 and he made up his mind to hold to this table by hook or by crook4 ,a tunnel face is not a spot where much leeway can be made up1 for only a certain number of men can be crowded upon its limited area4 ,but he met this disadvantage by spurring the drillers to superhuman effort by the offer of an attractive bonus4 ,in this way he was able to maintain the advance he had calculated per day until the heart of the mountain was gained1 when owing to the extreme hardness of the rock the men could not help falling behind the scheduled progress4 ,now and again1 however1 when they encountered a softer stretch of material they were able to make up lost time4 ,the months sped by2 the contracted time for completion loomed nearer and nearer4 ,determined not to be beaten1 ,bennett urged his drillers harder and harder1 offering fancy wages for additional effort4 ,the strain wore him almost to a skeleton2 he scarcely slept1 so haunted was he by the determination to fulfil his side of the bargain4 ,checking and rechecking of the finished work convinced him that the opposing parties could not be far apart in the heart of the ,cascades4 ,one morning the men on one side paused momentarily in their drilling4 ,they could hear the faint muffled chink1 chink of drills4 ,it was the party advancing from the west4 ,with a loud cheer1 answered by a ghostly sepulchral hurrah1 both parties bent to their tasks with redoubled energy4 ,before long a gaping hole was revealed in the heading4 ,the two forces had met--the tunnel was pierced4 ,without hesitation they set to widening the breach out to its appointed dimensions1 and at last1 with a sigh of relief1 threw down their tools4 ,the tunnel was finished practically1 and there were seven days or so to spare4 ,in another instance a railway company required a bridge to be opened within a certain period4 ,its accomplishment on time meant the accretion of a large sum of money to the treasury1 and accordingly a bounty of some #e1jjj1 or #be1jjj1 was offered to the firm building the bridge4 ,the latter in turn offered a portion to the men responsible for the actual work4 ,under the incentive of this offer the riveters and erectors strove might and main4 ,the odds were against them hopelessly1 but general co-operation enabled the work to go forward with great speed4 ,by maintaining this high pressure the huge fabric assumed its definite shape in quick time1 and the last rivet was driven home with a resounding cheer a few minutes before the expiration of the stipulated time4 ,yet railway construction has its farcical side1 especially in ,america4 ,conflicting interests often clash1 and then lively times ensue4 ,in ,canada it has been no unusual sight to see an existing railway rush a large gang of workmen to a point threatened with invasion by a rival4 ,their presence ostensibly is to improve the line in possession1 but in reality the men are drafted there to thwart the competitive enterprise4 ,this is the 8fighting gang10 and it is rightly named1 because the opposing forces often meet and a free fight results4 ,when these tactics are waged by opposing railway magnates the struggle is often bitter and long drawn out4 ,it was so when ,j4 ,j4 ,hill and ,harriman came to close grips in ,oregon4 ,the former great railway-builder decided to carry a line down to the coast along the bank of the ,columbia ,river4 ,harriman construed this act as an invasion of his preserves1 and spared no effort to defeat the 8,grand ,old ,railway-,builder of the ,west10 as ,j4 ,j4 ,hill is called popularly4 ,directly ,hill's proposals became known1 ,harriman1 to secure his legal status1 revived a defunct project known as the 8,wallula ,pacific railway10 which had been incorporated so many years before1 and yet had accomplished so little1 as to be forgotten4 ,hill was coming down the north bank of the ,columbia1 and suddenly ,harriman discovered that his moribund project was to follow the same course4 ,the result was that two rival constructional forces appeared on the scene1 one bent on building a line1 and the other determined to prevent its realisation4 ,a hail of rock rained from one camp to the other1 and the grade was demolished as rapidly as fashioned4 ,one day the ,hill navvies were in possession1 the next1 through being outnumbered1 they were driven out and the ,harriman army held the position1 only to evacuate it when the former reappeared with reinforcements4 ,no blood was spilt1 but it came perilously near it when a navvy on one side threw a piece of rock harder against an opposing workman than the latter appreciated4 ,injuries were numerous1 and one day the aspect became so threatening that a pitched battle appeared certain4 ,at times1 however1 the battle became ,gilbertian4 ,the rivals merely played catchball with pieces of rock1 tossing the missiles at one another with considerable banter and amid a rain of jokes4 ,for eighteen months this state of affairs prevailed1 and then the courts deciding against ,harriman1 he was forced to retire from the scene4 ,directly he did so1 his gangs of navvies walked over to the opposite camp1 because from their point of view ,hill's money was just as good as that of ,harriman4 ,it was immaterial to them for which side they worked1 so long as they were paid for it4 ,the result was that the two gangs which had been engaged in more or less deadly strife1 now worked harmoniously side by side to carry the ,hill line into ,portland4 ,such tactics as these1 however1 come somewhat as an interlude to the grim tussle with ,nature which is the railway-builder's invariable lot4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,boring ,,of ,,the ,,gotthard ,,tunnel ,the little country of ,switzerland1 as is well known1 is a tumbled mass of snow-clad mountain ranges4 ,on the ,italian frontier1 however1 this natural barrier becomes more rugged and defiant1 some of the peaks towering #aj1jjj feet or higher into the clouds4 ,for centuries this frontier chain so successfully walled in the ,helvetians that they could not pass into ,italy without making a wearisome detour4 ,travelling from one country to the other before ,george ,stephenson demonstrated the possibilities of the steam engine running on rails1 therefore1 was a journey not to be lightly undertaken1 for it occupied weeks4 ,an effort to ease this situation was made so far back as the thirteenth century by the blazing of a footpath over the ,st4 ,gotthard1 but it was a mere dangerous and dizzy trail4 ,little wonder1 therefore1 that it was not favoured by other than the more adventurous4 ,it was not until about a century ago that the first vehicle lumbered over this rugged hump4 ,then the demand for closer communication between the two countries prompted the ambitious ,helvetians to embark upon a costly and momentous enterprise--the building of a postroad over the mountain4 ,they cut a roadway #ah feet wide1 with an average grade of #aj per cent4 to a height of #f1icf feet up the flanks of this snow-topped giant1 with its deep rifts1 rushing rivers1 and faced the terrors of the avalanche4 ,it is a striking piece of work1 for at places the road clings1 limpet-like1 to perpendicular walls1 describes sharp twists and turns sudden corners4 ,although the people could ill afford the expense of the undertaking1 they carried it to completion1 confident that untold benefit would accrue from its provision4 ,they were right in their surmise4 ,that mountain road changed completely the direction of the stream of traffic flowing between ,switzerland and ,italy4 ,the novelty of the route1 the magnificent panoramas unfolded from every foot of its length1 appealed to the tourist and traveller and they bravely essayed the 8pass40 ,to-day that mountain road is trodden but seldom4 ,it has fallen into desuetude2 the railway has killed its utility4 ,so soon as the iron horse invaded the little country it was sought to carry it into ,italy via the ,st4 ,gotthard2 not over the mountain crest1 but through its base4 ,every engineer nursed the ambition to overcome that frowning knot with the steel highway4 ,for years brilliant minds lived1 dreamt1 and died obsessed with this one great idea4 ,even in #ahdf1 when the first railway was opened from ,baden to ,zurich1 preparations were made to carry the line onward through the mountain chain4 ,to the ,swiss people1 boring through a mountain for nine miles or so appeared no more difficult than burrowing through a hillock for as many yards4 ,it was only a question of time and expense4 ,an 8,alpine tunnel fever0 set in with terrible malignancy1 and there was fierce rivalry and jealousy created between the various railway companies1 cantons and towns as to who should have the honour of completing this remarkable link4 ,fortunately the ,government itself preserved a cool head1 turned a deaf ear to entreaties1 refused concessions1 and discouraged any possible hope of financial aid4 ,the last-named factor proved the greatest stumbling-block1 but there is no doubt that if the money could have been obtained for such an enterprise an attempt to tunnel the ,alps would have been made in the 'fifties4 ,though the ambition was scotched it was not killed by any means1 for a few years later the same scheme was revived and more keenly discussed than ever4 ,the ,french and ,italian nations resuscitated the project by co-operating in the effort to pierce the ,col de ,frjus1 popularly known as the ,mont ,cenis tunnel4 ,the first stroke of the pick-axe upon this momentous enterprise was made in ,august1 #aheg1 and the two chief engineers1 ,grattoni and ,sommeiller1 pledged themselves to complete the task with the assistance of the ,french and ,italian governments4 ,in the face of the most terrible difficulties that could be conceived1 equipped with tools which appear puny and futile in comparison with those used for such work to-day1 they cut1 blasted1 and excavated their way through #g miles of dense rock4 ,boring from either end1 the rock-hogs broke down the last wall of rock on ,christmas ,day1 #ahgj1 and in ,september of the following year a shorter and more direct route between the two countries was opened to traffic4 ,the progress of this tunnel was watched with the closest interest by the ,helvetians4 ,this piercing of an ,alpine mountain was something new in railway engineering4 ,the wiseacres croaked that it would never be completed2 that ,nature would spring some sudden surprise upon the engineers in the depths of the mountain which would arrest the whole enterprise4 ,but as the two headings slowly but surely approached one another1 and the engineers broke down their obstacles as they arose with commendable pluck and determination1 the sceptics became silenced4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,g,,schenen ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,st4 ,,gotthard ,,tunnel ,work was commenced at this point on ,june #d1 #ahgb4 ,the huge task was completed and the line opened for traffic on ,may #bb1 #ahhb4 ,the pride of the ,swiss was wounded4 ,if the ,french and ,italians could accomplish such a herculean and apparently impossible task1 why was a similar idea beyond their powers8 ,the 8conquest of the ,alps0 broke out with renewed vigour4 ,it became more than a personal issue2 it blossomed into one of economic1 political and commercial importance4 ,consequently1 before the ,cenis ,tunnel was opened for traffic1 the preliminary arrangements for burrowing through the ,st4 ,gotthard had assumed concrete shape4 ,but it had been a wearisome enterprise4 ,the promoters had to battle against intrigue and jealousies innumerable on the part of private individuals1 companies seeking for the same concession1 towns and departmental governments4 ,but the project became one of even more than national importance2 it became an international question4 ,the provision of such a route would bring northern ,europe into closer touch with ,italy and her ports on the ,mediterranean4 ,that fact was realised1 and when the company incorporated to carry out the work announced that the task was far too risky for private resources1 the governments of the countries most intimately interested in the fulfilment of the project promised tangible assistance in the form of substantial subventions4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wonderful ,,wassen ,,loop ,,on ,,the ,,st4 ,,gotthard ,,railway1 ,,showing ,,three ,,tiers ,,of ,,track ,the path of the tunnel through the heart of the mountain was plotted by ,mr4 ,m4 ,o4 ,gelpke1 ,c4,e41 and this in itself was a great achievement4 ,fifteen stations were scattered over the mountain slopes for the manipulation of the survey instruments1 and many of these were situated unavoidably in positions very difficult1 and often impossible1 of access4 ,borings were made to ascertain the rock strata which would have to be pierced by ,professor ,fritsch of ,frankfort1 and from the result of these essential investigations it was computed that the work1 including the necessary railway line on either side of the great tunnel1 could be completed for a sum of #g1dhj1jjj1 or #cg1djj1jjj4 ,the money was raised by guarantees of #a1hjj1jjj 7#i1jjj1jjj7 from ,italy1 #hjj1jjj 7#d1jjj1jjj7 from both ,germany and ,switzerland1 and by the issue of shares and mortgage bonds to the extent of #b1gbj1jjj1 or #ac1fjj1jjj4 ,as a further contribution to the task1 the ,swiss ,government undertook to supervise actual construction4 ,the financial arrangements completed1 the company had to search for a man to bore the tunnel4 ,for this purpose tenders were sought for the whole contract4 ,the terms of the latter were severe1 as were also the technical conditions4 ,the tunnel was to carry a double track1 to have a height of #ai4fh feet to the crown of the arch1 and a maximum width of #bf4bd feet1 with a minimum width of #bd4ic feet4 ,the tunnel was to be quite straight1 with the exception of a slight curve at the southern end1 where1 for a distance of #dgd feet from the entrance1 a curve of #ihd feet radius was to be introduced to gain ,airolo station4 ,the rise from the northern entrance was to be about #a in #agb to the summit level #c1gha feet above the sea1 followed by a drop of #a in #ajjj to the southern end4 ,these gradients falling on either side from the centre were necessary for drainage1 and were estimated to be just sufficient to ensure the water flowing to the portals4 ,seven tenders were submitted for the enterprise1 the lowest being that of ,l4 ,favre1 a well-known engineer of ,geneva1 who had completed many notable railway works in ,europe4 ,he undertook to complete the tunnel for #b1jjj1jjj 7#aj1jjj1jjj7 within eight years4 ,his nearest competitor1 an ,italian company1 wanted twenty-five per cent4 more1 but would not guarantee completion within less than nine years4 ,monsieur ,favre was supported by a body of influential capitalists1 and the contract was awarded to him4 ,having sanctioned the project1 the ,government was determined that it should be completed1 and resolved that the engineer should be held to his self-appointed time limit4 ,the penalty it stipulated was exacting4 ,for every day over the ninth year ,favre was to forfeit #bjj1 or #ajjj1 for six months1 and then double that penalty per day until completion4 ,a year was thus allowed over and above what he demanded to cope with any unforeseen contingencies that might arise during the progress of the task4 ,similarly1 ,m4 ,favre was to receive a premium of #bjj1 or #ajjj1 a day for every day he was in advance of the stipulated period4 ,his ,italian competitor1 while agreeable to the forfeit1 stipulated that it should not be enforced until after the eleventh year1 which terms the authorities refused to entertain4 ,to ensure securing the forfeit money should the engineer be late1 ,favre was compelled to deposit a sum of #cbj1jjj 7#a1fjj1jjj7 with the ,government before a stone was moved4 ,no undertaking of such a magnitude as this tunnel1 although protected adequately by severe restrictions1 ever has been carried out in the face of so many vicissitudes2 no engineer ever has been so harassed as was ,m4 ,favre4 ,from the moment the tender was signed and sealed troubles commenced1 some incidental to the task1 others purposely thrown in his way by jealous outside interests4 ,in the first place1 the ,government undertook1 according to the terms of the contract1 to have the approaches to the tunnel completed so that he could commence operations without delay4 ,this was not done4 ,further opposition was then encountered from another and unexpected quarter1 which assumed such proportions as to jeopardise the whole scheme4 ,italy1 having contributed about a sixth of the cost1 and who therefore had an important voice in the matter1 demanded that half the work should be granted to the ,italian engineers who had been engaged upon the ,mont ,cenis tunnel4 ,this was a bitter question1 and it took ,m4 ,favre two weary months to adjust it4 ,these hindrances at last settled satisfactorily1 work was commenced on the northern side of the ,alps at ,gschenen on ,june #d1 #ahgb1 and at ,airolo1 the southern portal1 on ,july #b of the following year4 ,the preliminary preparations were of a gigantic character4 ,though ,m4 ,favre had sublet the constructional contract for the tunnel itself1 he was primarily responsible and nursed it as the engineer-in-chief4 ,huge plants had to be installed at either end for supplying the various demands for power for a thousand-and-one purposes4 ,at the northern end water turbines were laid down1 driven from the river ,reuss1 a head of water of #bgi feet being available4 ,at the ,airolo end a similar installation was established and operated under a water head of #eda feet from the ,tremola4 ,subsequently1 it was found that this latter supply was inadequate4 ,but ,m4 ,favre was a man of infinite resource4 ,he promptly built a viaduct #ab1jjj feet in length1 tapping the ,tessin ,river1 and thus overcame the water power difficulty4 ,small towns sprang up at either end around the respective portals to house the machinery1 the workmen1 and innumerable other details4 ,as tunnel-boring operations upon such a scale as this were in their infancy1 this engineer-in-chief perforcedly had to break a great deal of new ground2 to carry out considerable pioneer work4 ,hitherto1 the usual tools at the service of the excavators were the pick-axe1 shovel1 chisel1 and sledge-hammer2 but such implements as these in a work of this magnitude were akin to forging a mighty crank shaft with a blacksmith's hammer4 ,new forces had to be created4 ,the ,mont ,cenis had demonstrated this fact1 and in the course of its realisation a new tool appeared4 ,this was the mechanical percussion rock drill1 operated by compressed air at a pressure of #aab pounds and upwards per square inch4 ,to furnish the requisite energy to the tools elaborate air-compressing plants had to be laid down4 ,these were designed by ,professor ,colladon1 and they were capable of compressing #a1eif cubic yards of air to a pressure of eight atmospheres every minute1 the power being stored in huge cylindrical reservoirs1 not unlike mammoth steam boilers1 from which the conduits extending to the working faces on either side were charged4 ,the scene in the tunnel was impressive in the extreme4 ,at the working face a little gallery was bored1 about eight feet wide by the same in height1 at the roof of the tunnel4 ,the drilling machines were mounted on travelling carriages1 with their perforating chisels jutting ugly and business-like from the front4 ,with the pent-up force of eight atmospheres behind them1 they rapped against the solid rock and slowly but surely made a perforation4 ,at frequent intervals there was a slight stop1 the chisel point was withdrawn and a jet of water1 drawn from a tender hauled up in the rear1 was directed into the hole1 when the chisel instantly resumed its monotonous round4 ,at intervals1 a chisel1 with its cutting edge blunted from continual hammering at the iron-like mass1 was taken out1 thrown on one side1 and another inserted in its place1 to continue the attack on the rock4 ,progress was laboriously slow1 or comparatively rapid1 according to the nature of the material encountered4 ,when the rock was of a granitic nature1 then advance was only at the rate of an inch or two per hour2 on the other hand1 when soft1 clayey material was tapped1 then the chisels bored their way at the rate of as many feet in the same time4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,compressed ,,air ,,locomotive ,,which ,,hauled ,,workmen ,,and ,,rock ,,blasted ,,from ,,the ,,mountain ,,in ,,the ,,cutting ,,of ,,the ,,loetschberg ,,tunnel ,illustration3 ,,what ,,the ,,working ,,face ,,in ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,the ,,mountain ,,is ,,like ,the gang and drills cutting the path for the line through the ,loetschberg ,tunnel recently completed4 ,,boring ,a ,,great ,,alpine ,,tunnel ,illustration3 ,photo by ,e4 ,goetz1 ,lucerne ,,the ,,lofty ,,amsteg ,,bridge1 #ahd ,,feet ,,high1 ,,spanning ,,the ,,maderan ,,valley ,,on ,,the ,,st4 ,,gotthard ,,railway ,three men attended to each machine1 and by means of levers and wheels the height of a drill could be adjusted to a nicety4 ,movement was difficult1 for the space was cramped4 ,in the murky gloom the outlines of the men could be faintly discerned4 ,the fitful glimmer of the oil-lamp which each carried--electric lighting had still to be invented--fell upon their semi-nude bodies and swarthy faces4 ,the streaming perspiration mingling with the grime and dust1 which strayed over their skin in fantastic streaks1 gave the men a fiendish appearance4 ,the temperature was that of an oven4 ,as the men drew nearer and nearer to the heart of old ,gotthard1 the heat rose until the men laboured in an atmosphere of #ij or more4 ,the only sounds were those of the hammering of the drills as they bored into the rock1 and the hissing of the escaping air after it had completed its allotted task in operating the chisels4 ,at long intervals there came a heavy silence4 ,the holes had been bored to the requisite depth4 ,the machine was drawn far back into the boring4 ,explosives were slipped into the holes and tamped home4 ,from a safe distance the charges were fired4 ,a dull1 smothered roar1 a rending and crumbling1 and another gap was torn in the bowels of this monarch of the ,alps4 ,the excavators hurried forward1 cleared away the tumbled debris1 and brought the lumbering drill carriage up to the fresh working surface4 ,day in and day out1 week after week1 month by month1 this round continued4 ,it was monotonous1 and the work was hard4 ,the stifling atmosphere and the conditions told severely on the physique of the workmen4 ,congestion of the brain1 irregular action of the heart1 anmia1 or one of numerous other obscure maladies1 was the reward for their labour4 ,their faces assumed a deathly pallor2 working in cramped positions gave them an unsightly stoop1 and deprived their legs of movement1 so they tottered rather than walked as they returned from the scene of their toil at the end of the shift4 ,the pay was wretched1 ranging from half-a-crown to five shillings 7from #fj to #abe cents7 per day of eight hours1 out of which they had to board themselves6 ,needless to say1 but few ,englishmen or western ,europeans figured on the pay-roll1 for none would accept such starvation pay for such terrible work4 ,the labourers were ,italians for the most part1 and yet nearly one and all1 by subsisting on miserable food1 consisting for the most part of a kind of meal porridge1 cheap and yet limited in quantity1 saved a part of their earnings and sent it home to their needy families in sunny ,italy4 ,the average number of men employed was about #djjj1 half at either end1 but at times it ran up to as high as #gjjj4 ,the mountain claimed #caj lives1 killed by accident alone1 and #hgg injured1 before it was conquered2 but1 considering the conditions1 it is remarkable that the casualty roll was not heavier4 ,in the wake of the small heading gallery came the other gangs4 ,these rigged up the timber and other supports to the roof and excavated the small opening to the full dimensions of the tunnel4 ,last of all came the masons1 setting the masonry lining1 from #ah to #cj inches thick1 in position1 for the tunnel is lined throughout4 ,in passing through the granite rock there was but little fear of a collapse of the roof1 but in the treacherous clay advance had to be made warily1 and heavy timbering resorted to1 in order to prevent the soft soil caving in and burying all in its sticky embrace4 ,the material for the headings and lining1 as well as the workmen and tools1 were carried to and fro upon a small railway1 the locomotives of which were driven by compressed air--steam was impracticable1 because it would have fouled the workings2 while on the short distance between the inner end of the railway and the working face haulage was done by horses4 ,the privations suffered by the navvies was only equalled by those experienced by the animals1 the mortality of which ran up to as high as twenty-five per cent4 of the number employed4 ,water was a constant menace1 and at times retarded progress seriously4 ,on the south side it was particularly troublesome4 ,time after time the drills or detonating charges would tap one of these subterranean streams1 and the water would pour out in a cascade4 ,these rivulets were of varying volume1 but in one stretch1 where the rock was extremely friable1 it was considered too dangerous to use the mechanical drilling machine1 so the men had to cut their way forward by hand4 ,in so doing they released a vast underground pocket of water1 which rushed out at the rate of over #cjjj gallons per minute4 ,at one spot it was only by superhuman effort that headway was made1 for the men were half submerged in these torrential outbursts1 escape from which was only possible by penetrating farther into the mountain4 ,in #ahgf another terrible calamity overtook ,louis ,favre4 ,it was discovered suddenly that the railway1 far from costing the estimated sum1 would approximate over #aa1ejj1jjj1 or #eg1ejj1jjj4 ,somebody had blundered1 and badly too4 ,a deficit of over #d1jjj1jjj1 or #bj1jjj1jjj1 appeared certain4 ,what was to be done8 ,the development of such a contingency never could have happened at a more inopportune moment4 ,times were hard2 money was scarce2 financial crashes loomed in every quarter of the ,continent2 and1 to make matters worse1 war was raging4 ,never in the history of engineering had such an extraordinary and unaccountable mistake been made in the estimates4 ,the discovery came as a thunderclap4 ,the stock of the company ran down like a thermometer plunged into ice4 ,those who had supported the enterprise in the face of hostile criticism began to doubt the wisdom of their optimism4 ,a gloom settled everywhere4 ,it appeared as if the gigantic achievement would become numbered among the great unpaid2 would be another contribution to those unfinished enterprises characterised as follies4 ,but ,monsieur ,favre kept going4 ,there was the daily penalty staring him in the face if he did not finish within time4 ,any prolonged delay spelled ruin to him and to those who had financed his task4 ,to make matters worse1 the ,swiss departments who had the most to gain from the completion of the railway steadfastly refused to extend the slightest assistance4 ,matters reached a crisis4 ,either the money must be found1 or that already spent must lie buried in the mountain4 ,an ,international ,conference was called to consider the situation1 where1 as prominent cities and railways who hoped to reap something from the completion of the tunnel promised support1 ,germany1 ,switzerland and ,italy agreed to increase their subventions4 ,much of the projected work originally contemplated was postponed indefinitely in order to reduce the first cost4 ,this readjustment of the financial situation enabled work to be resumed energetically4 ,but ,favre was harassed sorely still4 ,payments for work became irregular1 and every possible obstacle that could be placed in his way was forced to the front by intriguing opponents4 ,efforts were made even to create a rupture between him and the ,international ,society1 but ,favre's unflagging perseverance and determination resisted all such machinations1 and he plodded along resolutely4 ,however1 these worries and his feverish anxiety to succeed in his enterprise told upon his health4 ,he never lived to see his great achievement completed4 ,on ,july #ai1 #ahgi1 while inspecting the progress of the work at the headings1 he was seized with an apoplectic fit1 to which he succumbed in a few hours4 ,literally in harness1 this guiding spirit and clever engineer passed beyond the veil when the tunnel1 the crowning effort of his life1 was rapidly approaching completion4 ,his mantle fell upon his right-hand assistant1 ,m4 ,hellwag1 an accomplished ,german engineer1 and he pushed forward the scheme with an energy characteristic of his late chief4 ,but friction again rose4 ,swiss engineers were jealous of this appointment1 and at last in sheer disgust the new engineer-in-chief threw up the work4 ,he was hounded from his post1 despite the fact that on another section of the railway he had overcome ingeniously the negotiation of sharp ascents within short distances1 which otherwise appeared impossible1 by the invention of a spiral tunnel1 wherein the railway burrows into the mountain side1 describes therein a complete circle1 and emerges again immediately above the portal by which it entered4 ,on ,saturday1 the #bgth of ,february1 #ahhj1 while the workmen on the ,gschenen side were tearing the vitals out of the peak1 they were surprised to find large masses of rock falling about their ears without any effort on their part4 ,they stopped4 ,the situation seemed uncanny4 ,they listened intently1 and then heard the familiar sound of a muffled roar1 indicating blasting in the heading4 ,the workmen on the ,airolo side were upon them4 ,terrified lest the next concussion might bury them beneath a mass of rock1 they hurriedly retreated and waited4 ,presently one espied the point of a chisel ploughing through the rock towards him4 ,he grasped its extremity1 but as quickly dropped it1 for it was so hot that it burned his hand4 ,frantically these men rapped upon the last remaining wall of rock to inform their comrades on the other side that they were through4 ,with lightning-like rapidity the news flashed through the ,gschenen workings that the men from the ,airolo side might be seen at any minute1 and that the task of eight weary years was consummated practically4 ,as quickly the news flashed from ,gschenen to the ,airolo portal to cease work1 since it was decided that the last blast tearing away the final thickness of rock should be the occasion of great jubilation4 ,the whole country was excited4 ,officials hurried to the scene1 and the countryside from far and near flocked to the two mouths of the tunnel4 ,there was no sleep for any one in the constructional camps that ,saturday night4 ,the men were in a perfect state of frenzy4 ,in the darkness the preparations for the culminating move were hurried forward4 ,it was arranged that as the men on the ,airolo heading had first pierced the last partition of rock1 they should have the honour of blowing the gap which would afford access from one side of the mountain chain to the other through its base4 ,at seven o'clock on the ,sunday morning a train started from each end laden with invited guests to witness the final operation4 ,amid many huzzas they disappeared into the dark1 yawning mouths of the great bore4 ,when each party reached the heading the machines were already at work4 ,only a foot of rock stood between those who had journeyed up from ,airolo and the others who had travelled from ,gschenen4 ,the distinction of making the breach a thousand feet under the village of ,andermatt nestling in the sunshine on the mountain slopes1 and with the little lake of ,sella #cjjj feet above one's head1 was given to two ,piedmontese workmen1 ,neccaraviglia and ,chisso1 who had toiled in the ,cenis1 and afterwards in the ,gotthard1 since its very commencement4 ,the last charges were rammed home1 and at #aa4de on the ,sunday morning eight rumbling detonations heralded the piercing of ,st4 ,gotthard4 ,ere the smoke had cleared away the men sprang forward4 ,there was the final breach1 about three feet in diameter4 ,engineer ,bossi sprang through the gap1 and emotionally embraced his confrere on the other side1 followed by his workmen1 who shook hands with their comrades4 ,it was a strange scene in the depths of the ,alps1 and the wild vivas of those assembled1 to the memory of ,louis ,favre1 reverberated weirdly down the shaft on either side4 ,the excavations of the works to the full dimensions and the lining up of the last section proceeded with great rapidity1 and on ,may #bb1 #ahhb1 amid great festivity1 the tunnel was declared open4 ,it had taken ten years to complete1 but had ,favre been left to his own devices1 and had he not been exposed to financial harassing and intrigue1 and had not his successor ,hellwag been driven from his post1 it would have been finished in the time the engineer contemplated4 ,at that time ,favre's skill1 pluck and unflagging devotion to his task were not appreciated1 but recognition of his genius was afterwards extended by the erection of a monument to his memory at the ,airolo entrance to the tunnel4 ,it is safe to assert that it was due to his enterprise and grim determination in the face of adversity that the ,st4 ,gotthard tunnel became an accomplished fact1 and resulted in the reduction of the journey between ,northern ,europe and ,italy by thirty-six hours4 ,in addition to the tunnel1 #agb miles of line had to be built to connect the ,swiss with the ,italian railway systems4 ,from the body of this frowning clump #ca1hjj1jjj cubic feet of rock were torn by means of #b1bjj1jjj pounds of dynamite4 ,the remaining sections of the railway named after the tunnel abound in interesting features from the technical point of view1 the most notable1 possibly1 being the remarkable spiral tunnels to which reference has been made1 and the successful application of which in this instance has been reproduced upon other railways where similar conditions prevail4 ,the best examples1 possibly1 are those by which the ,biaschina gorge is negotiated1 since here there are two of these tunnels side by side1 the railway almost describing a figure #h in corkscrewing from one level to the other4 ,exclusive of the ,gotthard1 there are no less than #gf tunnels and galleries1 aggregating #bi miles1 as well as #a1chd other structures1 #cbd being bridges and viaducts over #ci feet in length4 ,in one stretch of #g miles1 in skirting the south-eastern arm of the ,lake of ,lucerne1 the railway passes through #i tunnels1 ranging from a mere #he-;feet burrow to others #f1eab feet in length4 ,among the ,gotthard fastnesses the railway work becomes bolder1 the bridges are lofty1 while the line zigzags in a remarkable manner4 ,it is a case of tunnel1 cut and bridge all the way4 ,up to #ahhj1 when the railway was finished practically1 constructional work provided regular employment for #aj1geg men4 ,so rapidly did the volume of traffic upon the railway swell1 however1 that it became extremely difficult to handle it1 as there was only a single line1 except in the tunnel and at one or two other points4 ,the provision of another track became imperative1 and in #ahhf it was commenced4 ,this was not a simple matter1 as the new work had to be carried out without interrupting traffic in any way--that is1 so far as the main through service was concerned4 ,with the exception of the ,gotthard and four smaller tunnels1 all the other structures had to be excavated out to carry the second pair of metals1 while1 similarly1 all bridges had to be increased in width4 ,in order to finish the work as rapidly as possible1 the task was divided up into a number of small1 separate contracts1 each covering a few miles4 ,vehicles for the conveyance of constructional material were provided and supplies were hauled free of charge by the railway1 while explosives for blasting were sold at cost price4 ,the most difficult works were carried out by the company itself by its own engineers and labour4 ,in this comprehensive widening system over #ajj1jjj cubic yards of rock which had been excavated from the ,st4 ,gotthard and dumped in the vicinity of ,airolo were reclaimed1 to be used in the building of embankments1 revetments and retaining walls4 ,the tunnel widening was carried out almost exclusively at night and on ,sundays1 since the smoke from passing trains would have impeded such work during the day4 ,the quickest methods of widening were adopted1 and in the approach to the ,bristen tunnel an excellent expression of this is afforded4 ,instead of trimming back the mountain-side to provide space for the second pair of rails1 a gallery was built projecting from the mountain and supported on heavy masonry pillars1 giving the appearance of a colonnade4 ,in the handling of unavoidable night trains an elaborate protection system was adopted in connection with the tunnels1 to prevent disaster to the trains themselves or to the working gangs4 ,no trains were permitted to enter a tunnel until assurance had been made doubly sure that there was no constructional train standing on the only line to court collision1 and that the workmen were safe4 ,each working squad was covered amply by electric and other signalling devices4 ,similarly1 all metallic structures that required moving were handled on ,sundays1 when traffic was at its lowest ebb1 between the scheduled movements of passing trains1 so that the latter might not be delayed4 ,it was estimated that this work would occupy nine years1 but in reality it was accomplished in five and a half years1 and the total cost of widening the whole mileage to a double line was only #ejj1jjj1 or #b1ejj1jjj4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,railway ,,invasion ,,of ,,canada ,the news of the victory of ,stephenson's 8,rocket0 in the historic railway locomotive contest at ,rainhill on the ,liverpool ,manchester railway in #ahbi scarcely had filtered round the world1 when the idea of transporting passengers and merchandise by steam power along two parallel rails occupied the earnest attention of enterprising spirits in ,canada4 ,they realised that the new method of locomotion was certain to play an important part in the opening up of ,british ,north ,america4 ,as a result of deliberations1 a small body of prominent business men in ,montreal applied for a charter to construct a railway from ,la ,prairie to ,st4 ,john's in the province of ,quebec1 which was granted in #ahcb under the seal of ,william ,,iv4 ,it was an unpretentious enterprise1 for the projected line was only some fourteen miles in length4 ,it was named the ,champlain ,st4 ,lawrence railway1 the idea being to link ,lake ,champlain1 whence ,new ,york could be reached by water1 with the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the first section of the line was opened in #ahcf1 though it was not operated by steam4 ,the rails were of wood1 and the vehicles were hauled by horses4 ,this system obtained for only one year1 however4 ,the first winter sufficed to demonstrate to those concerned with the enterprise that such primitive methods were far from satisfactory4 ,consequently the 8wooden flanges10 as the rails constituting the track were called1 were torn up to make way for iron rails1 and the steamengine took the place of the animal motor4 ,a year or two later the objective of the promoters was attained4 ,lake ,champlain was brought into communication with the ,st4 ,lawrence at ,montreal by a railway some fifty miles in length1 the inland sheet of water being tapped at ,rouses's ,point at the head of the lake in ,united ,states territory4 ,it is stated that ,jay ,gould1 who afterwards became one of the greatest railway-builders and magnates in the ,united ,states1 gained his first insight of the construction of railways upon this line1 by being associated with the location survey4 ,from this humble beginning was woven the huge railway network of ,canada1 which now gridirons the country in all directions1 and aggregates some #be1jjj miles4 ,other projects were formulated in rapid succession for a comprehensive invasion of the eastern corner of the country4 ,foremost among these was the ,grand ,trunk ,railway ,company1 conceived in #aheb1 to build a trunk road between the ,atlantic seaboard and the ,great ,lakes1 which at that time was practically the western commercial limit of the ,dominion4 ,it was an ,english enterprise1 and1 moreover1 was strongly imperial from the sentimental point of view1 for it was planned to thread ,canadian territory entirely4 ,the famous firm of railway constructional engineers1 ,messrs4 ,peto1 ,betts ,brassey1 fresh from their triumphs on the ,continent1 were willing to carry out the work4 ,they had an extensive accumulation of plant lying idle1 and at the time were seeking for fresh worlds to conquer4 ,canada presented just the opportunity they desired1 and they were ready to provide all the railways that ,canada would require for some years to come4 ,the faith in this firm of constructional engineers was so great that ,british financiers were open to provide any amount of money that might be required4 ,the negotiations were prolonged1 as rival interests opposed the scheme vehemently4 ,the preliminaries passed through many vicissitudes1 but the compact between the ,english financiers and the ,canadian authorities was ratified and sealed1 at last1 for the construction of a main line between ,montreal and ,hamilton1 a distance of about #cgc miles1 which the ,provincial ,government undertook to finance to the extent of #c1jjj1 or #ae1jjj1 per mile4 ,hamilton was selected as the western terminal point because therefrom another line extended to the ,lakes1 while a railway was creeping up from ,portland on the ,atlantic coast to ,montreal4 ,by the construction of this central section1 #ifd miles of through continuous railway would be provided for the benefit of the population4 ,but the undertaking proved to be one of the most difficult that the engineers1 despite their wide and varied experience1 had been called upon to fulfil up to this time4 ,the country traversed was very sparsely populated1 the forests were dense1 and in winter1 under the combined adversities of snow1 ice1 and intense cold1 the situation was terrible4 ,labour was scarce1 wages were high1 and material was found to be expensive4 ,in the end it was found that the average cost per mile approximated #h1jjj1 or #dj1jjj1 so that to link ,montreal with ,toronto entailed an expenditure of #b1ffd1jjj1 or #ac1cbj1jjj4 ,moreover1 it was one of the largest contracts that the engineers ever had carried out1 while the physical conditions harassed them to such an extent that when they balanced up their books they found they had incurred a loss of about #a1jjj1jjj1 or #e1jjj1jjj4 ,the wide gauge of five feet six inches was adopted1 and this factor developed into as keen a bone of dissension in ,canada as it did in ,great ,britain1 and as in the latter country it was finally abolished1 so in ,canada it was abandoned in favour of the standard gauge of four feet eight and a half inches1 though the conversion cost the ,grand ,trunk railway a matter of #a1jjj1jjj 7#e1jjj1jjj74 ,illustration3 ,,no4 #b1 8,,the ,,toronto10 ,,the ,,first ,,railway ,,engine ,,built ,,in ,,canada ,,by ,,james ,,good ,,in #ahec ,illustration3 ,photo by courtesy of ,pennsylvania ,steel ,co4 ,,the ,,niagara ,,cantilever ,,railway ,,bridge ,,under ,,construction ,it was built round the suspension highway bridge so as not to interrupt communication between the two banks4 ,yet in building this line the contractors set up an engineering monument which for years ranked as the 8eighth wonder of the world40 ,montreal was on the north bank of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 while the link connecting the metropolis with the ,atlantic seaboard followed the southern bank of the river4 ,the two sections of line were interrupted by the rolling waterway1 which at this point is nearly two miles wide4 ,the spanning of this gap1 so as to bring ,montreal into direct railway touch with the coast1 had been one of the great obstacles to the incorporation of the railway in the first instance1 but ,messrs4 ,peto1 ,betts ,brassey undertook to forge this link4 ,at that time it was so formidable an undertaking as to be thought absolutely incapable of realisation4 ,indeed1 when a suggestion for bridging the ,st4 ,lawrence at this point was advanced for the first time1 it was laughed to scorn4 ,illustration3 8,,the ,,eighth ,,wonder ,,of ,,the ,,world0 ,the wonderful tubular bridge1 #f1eib feet long1 built by ,ross and ,stephenson across the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river to carry the ,grand ,trunk ,railway into ,montreal4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bridge ,,as ,,reconstructed ,the continuous tube carrying a single track was converted into an open truss girder bridge to take two sets of metals1 tramway line1 road and pavement4 ,however1 its construction constituted a vital part of the contract4 ,accordingly1 the contractors lost no time in attacking the undertaking when they secured a foothold in the ,dominion4 ,the river was surveyed minutely up and down for a considerable distance1 while detailed soundings were made to discover the extent and nature of the foundations requisite for the piers4 ,after infinite labour a suitable site was discovered1 and a great measure of credit for the location is due to ,alexander ,m4 ,ross1 who was one of the engineers to the undertaking1 ,george ,stephenson acting as consulting engineer4 ,ross carried carefully prepared and detailed plans of the structure he had formulated to his coadjutator in ,england1 and ,stephenson admitted1 when first submitted to his notice1 that 8the idea was certainly startling40 ,however1 he complimented ,ross upon his daring1 and as the latter engineer had won his spurs in ,england before he departed to ,canada on behalf of the group of capitalists financing the ,grand ,trunk railway1 his work received greater consideration from the eminent engineer than might have been the case otherwise4 ,the result was that when ,stephenson went to ,canada to consider the subject on the spot he concurred with ,ross in the general scheme1 and the design was elaborated conjointly4 ,when the location was settled definitely1 the project was assailed vigorously by bridge designers in ,america1 but this animosity was inflamed from the fact that they had prepared alternative proposals for bridging the waterway at a different spot4 ,the rival engineers emphasised the danger from ice1 and commented strongly upon the risk1 in fact serious danger1 arising from this cause1 to the full brunt of which ,stephenson's bridge would be submitted4 ,some critics even went so far as to state that the structure never would be completed1 or if so1 would come down under the first packing of the ice4 ,stephenson1 however1 treated his ,american detractors with contempt1 and1 to the mind of the latter worthies1 appeared to fly deliberately in the face of ,fate by concurring with ,ross's recommendations4 ,that was nearly sixty years ago1 but the piers have given no sign of collapsing yet4 ,the resident engineer and superintendent of the constructional work1 ,mr4 ,james ,hodges1 realising the monumental character of the undertaking--for it was a larger bridge-building scheme than ever had been attempted up to this time--spent many hours together wrestling with difficulties as they developed1 for the unexpected confronted them at every turn4 ,the ice was one of their greatest perplexities1 because during the winter the river is frozen so solidly that it will support the weight of a train1 and1 indeed1 a track has been laid across the waterway in winter to maintain communication between the two banks4 ,when the ice broke up1 the floes became jammed and piled against the temporary works around the piers in an inextricable mass to such an extent that it demanded unremitting vigilance to guard against a collapse of the dams under the enormous pressure exerted upon them4 ,the depth of the river and the current were two other factors which had to be taken into serious consideration1 for some of the piers are sunk in twenty-two feet of water1 while the velocity of the current is about seven miles an hour4 ,the working season was very short1 averaging about twenty-six weeks during the year1 and during this period every available man had to be crowded on to the work4 ,when construction was in full swing1 between #bjjj and #cjjj men found employment4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of the ,pennsylvania ,steel ,co4 ,,the ,,magnificent ,,single ,,span ,,bridge ,,across ,,the ,,niagara ,,river ,,below ,,the ,,falls ,length of span1 #eej feet2 height above #bbf feet4 ,the bridge consisted of a huge rectangular tube1 similar to that spanning the ,menai ,straits1 carrying a single track4 ,from end to end it measured #f1eib feet by #af feet wide1 #ah feet in height1 and weighed #i1jdd tons4 ,it was divided into #be spans1 #bd of which were of #bdb feet each1 while one was of #ccj feet4 ,the piers were built massively in masonry1 the stone being obtained from quarries in convenient proximity4 ,the ironwork was prepared in ,england1 each piece being marked carefully for its position in the structure4 ,the bridge had a gradual slope upwards from either bank to the centre1 where the height from the bed of the river to the top of the tube was #ajh feet4 ,for its erection #b1bej1jjj feet of timber were required in connection with the temporary work1 the piers and abutments demanded the use of some #c1jjj1jjj feet of masonry1 and #b1ejj1jjj rivets were used to secure the component parts of the ironwork together4 ,in addition to the bridge proper1 some #b1ejj feet of approaches on either side had to be fashioned1 so that the total length of the work was #i1add feet4 ,the contracted price for the structure was #a1djj1jjj1 or #g1jjj1jjj1 but it was completed for #ajj1jjj 7#ejj1jjj7 less4 ,of this total the masonry and temporary work absorbed1#hjj1jjj1 or #d1jjj1jjj1 and the ironwork #djj1jjj 7#b1jjj1jjj74 ,illustration3 ,a ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,iron ,,tube1 #b1bij ,,feet ,,in ,,length ,,and #bc ,,feet ,,in ,,diameter ,illustration3 ,,the #bjjj ,h4,p4 ,,electric ,,locomotives ,,hauling ,,the 8,,international ,,limited0 ,,through ,,the ,,tube ,the 8link that binds ,two ,great ,nations10 the ,st4 ,clair ,tunnel1 under the ,st4 ,clair ,river4 ,while the work was in progress the railway company found increasing traffic1 as the sections of completed line were opened1 so emphasised the urgency of securing through communication across the river that the contractors were approached1 and a bonus of #fj1jjj 7#cjj1jjj7 was offered to them if they would complete the work a year earlier than was stipulated in the contract4 ,the engineers redoubled their efforts1 and on ,december #ag1 #ahei1 the great bridge was opened1 though the official ceremony took place five months later1 when ,king ,edward ,,vii1 then ,prince of ,wales1 opened the ,victoria ,bridge1 as it was christened1 in the name of ,queen ,victoria1 during his visit to the ,dominion4 ,stephenson died before his great work was completed4 ,for a quarter of a century or more it constituted one of the sights of the ,north ,american continent4 ,as the country became more settled and the volume of traffic flowing to and fro across the river increased1 the railway experienced a very great difficulty in handling it over a single line4 ,at last the inadequacy reached such a point that some improvement was imperative4 ,a second bridge would have been too costly1 and after considerable reflection it was decided to replace the tubular bridge by one of larger dimensions4 ,a minute examination of the existing structure was made1 and it speaks volumes for the work of ,stephenson and ,ross1 as well as of the contractors1 that the bridge appeared as sound and as fit for another century or more as it did on the day it was first opened4 ,the piers had been built so solidly that they did not show the slightest trace of the terrible buffetings and pressure to which they had been subjected by the ice during some fifty winters4 ,consequently it was decided to remove the tubular structure and to erect in its place an open truss bridge1 #ff feet #h inches wide1 carrying a double track1 a roadway for an electric tram-line1 space for vehicular traffic1 and a pavement for pedestrians4 ,the engineers designing the new structure came to the conclusion that the striking stability and condition of the masonry piers would carry the new bridge with but slight alteration4 ,as a result of this conclusion it was decided to erect the new structure around the old bridge1 cutting away the latter span by span1 so that there was no interruption to the train service4 ,this appeared to be a simple expedient1 but when the engineers commenced operations on ,stephenson's handiwork they found that it was built of far tougher material than they had expected4 ,the rivets defied withdrawal1 so excellently had they been driven home1 and one of the engineers showed me one of these securing pieces1 which he had preserved as a memento of ,british handiwork of some seventy years ago4 ,as a matter of fact1 as he related1 it was far easier to build the new structure than it was to destroy the old1 and the cutting away of the old tubular bridge span by span was found to be an exceedingly laborious task4 ,however1 it was achieved1 and there was not the slightest interruption in the traffic1 which testifies to the skill and care with which the engineers laid their plans4 ,nor was it attended by any untoward incident1 though what might have proved a terrible accident was averted very narrowly during reconstruction1 as was related to me by one of the engineers4 ,it was ,sunday morning1 and they were rebuilding the central part of the bridge4 ,special men had been stationed at each approach to the bridge1 and elaborate instructions had been drawn up for controlling the passage of trains by flag-signalling4 ,sunday was selected for the most difficult portions of the work1 as on that day the trains were few and far between4 ,on this ,sunday morning the work had advanced so satisfactorily that the old tubular span had been removed1 and there was a wide gap in the continuity of the ironwork carrying the metals1 showing the murky river swinging along at a merry pace below4 ,everything was ready for completing the new span1 when one of the engineers1 happening to glance shorewards1 observed a train entering the bridge and coming along at a brisk speed4 ,something had gone wrong2 the flagman had misunderstood instructions or had given a wrong signal4 ,the train was speeding to its doom1 for there was the yawning gulf4 ,but the engineer never lost his presence of mind4 ,realising the situation1 he threw down his instruments1 and ran along the track towards the advancing train waving his arms frantically and yelling like one bereft4 ,the engine-driver1 unlike the majority of his ilk on an ,american railway1 concluded that something must be amiss1 and applied his brakes sharply1 pulling up a short distance from the brink of the abyss4 ,it was a narrow escape2 had the engineer hesitated a minute1 disaster swift and sudden would have overwhelmed that train4 ,when the new bridge1 with its #bb1jjj tons of steel1 was completed for traffic it was renamed1 but as the reconstruction coincided with the ,jubilee of ,queen ,victoria's reign1 the revision comprised merely the perpetuation of that auspicious event1 and to-day the structure is known as the ,victoria ,jubilee ,bridge4 ,from first to last the structure has cost #a1hjj1jjj 7#i1jjj1jjj71 of which reconstruction absorbed about #djj1jjj 7#b1jjj1jjj74 ,as the ,grand ,trunk increased in importance1 subsidiary and tributary railways were absorbed4 ,nor was the original idea of a trunk line overlooked4 ,this end was achieved by pushing towards ,chicago1 the busy centre of the ,middle ,states4 ,continuity of rail in this case1 however1 was interrupted by the ,st4 ,clair ,river1 the narrow strait which connects ,lakes ,huron and ,ontario4 ,in the early days communication was maintained by means of ferry-boats1 which handled complete trains1 but as the river is extremely erratic1 with strong currents varying in velocity according to the direction of the wind1 and is congested with shipping1 the ferry service possessed many shortcomings4 ,when the strait was obstructed with floating ice1 the situation became far more serious4 ,accordingly1 in order to remove these disabilities1 a bold solution was elaborated in the form of a tunnel beneath the waterway connecting ,sarnia on the ,canadian with ,port ,huron on the ,united ,states side of the ,st4 ,clair ,river4 ,it certainly was an audacious remedy for a perplexing problem4 ,the river is #df feet deep and is nearly half-a-mile wide1 so that the tunnel had to be planned at a great depth4 ,however1 no better alternative could be offered1 for a bridge was quite out of the question1 so in #ahhf the ,st4 ,clair ,tunnel ,company was formed as a subsidiary undertaking of the railway1 to complete a subaqueous link of communication1 with ,mr4 ,joseph ,hobson as chief engineer4 ,as the topography of the land on either side is tolerably flat1 the question of the approaches had to be settled1 and a heavy grade at either end could not be avoided4 ,technical difficulties were encountered at the very start4 ,a trial shaft was sunk on the ,canadian side to a depth of #ih feet1 while another shaft on the ,american side was carried down to #ib feet4 ,the preliminary shafts were elliptical in shape1 measuring #d feet by #h feet in diameters4 ,when the requisite depths were obtained1 galleries were driven at right angles beneath the river4 ,these efforts proving satisfactory1 it was decided to build the complete tunnel from either bank from shafts1 as in the case of the ,blackwall tunnel4 ,the shafts were each #bc feet in diameter1 and they were so built that there was a circular ring1 the lower face of which carried a knife-edge digging into the ground4 ,the soil was excavated from beneath this knife-edge1 and as the brick-wall lining of the shaft was built upon the upper surface of the knife-ring1 it was considered that the superimposed weight would drive the knife downwards as the earth beneath was removed4 ,but these carefully-laid schemes and anticipations went astray4 ,exasperating failures and mishaps occurred1 and at last the engineer changed his plans2 the shaft method was abandoned4 ,instead1 he decided to drive the tunnel from either end through the approaches4 ,for this purpose the plant and machinery were removed inland from the shafts for a distance of #a1ijj feet on the ,canadian1 and #a1hjj feet on the ,american bank respectively4 ,two huge cuttings were driven downhill until the tunnel level was gained1 when the burrow beneath the river was commenced4 ,the tunnel itself consists of a circular iron tube or pipe of sufficient diameter to carry a single track4 ,it is #ai feet #aj inches in diameter1 is built up of cast-iron rings1 and weighs complete #ef1jjj1jjj pounds1 or about #be1dej tons4 ,boring was effected from either end by means of the hydraulic shield1 and in less than three years the task was finished4 ,the length of tunnel beneath the water is #b1bij feet1 while that under dry land represents another #c1gdh feet1 making a total length of #f1icb feet4 ,to this must be added #e1ehj feet of approaches1 which brings the total extent of the work to nearly #ab1jjj feet1 or #b miles4 ,it cost #edj1jjj1 or #b1gjj1jjj1 and has always ranked as a noteworthy achievement in this particular branch of engineering4 ,owing to the steepness of the approaches on either side special locomotives had to be built to handle the traffic through this artery4 ,they were powerful creations of the railway engine designer1 and when they appeared were the largest steam locomotives in the world4 ,they could haul a train weighing #gfj tons1 though at times the pace was slow4 ,but traffic between the ,united ,states and ,canada increased by leaps and bounds1 owing to the provision of this tunnel1 with the result that in a very few years the railway authorities found that the tube was quite overtaxed4 ,a solemn conclave was held as to the best ways and means of meeting this development4 ,the track could not be doubled2 so the question was how to increase the existing hauling capacity of a single engine4 ,steam could not meet the question1 so was ruled out of court4 ,then an engineer suggested electrification1 and advanced a report to show how the weight of each train might be increased by nearly #be per cent4 with quicker working1 and consequently would facilitate the passage of a greater number of trains in a given time4 ,this engineer1 ,mr4 ,bion ,arnold1 was authorised to proceed with his scheme and to complete his plans for the electrification of the tunnel4 ,he did so1 and as a result a specification was drawn up requiring the haulage of a train weighing #ajjj tons over the #b miles in #ae minutes1 with a maximum speed of #be miles and a minimum speed of #aj miles per hour respectively4 ,when the plans were made known it was realised that the project comprised the most ambitious electrical undertaking that ever had been attempted up to that time in railway operations1 especially as it was insisted that the electrical system should be of a type which constituted its first application to heavy steam railway working4 ,this is what is known as the single-phase alternating current system with overhead conductor4 ,the invitation for tenders was awaited with keen anticipation throughout the world1 as it was conceded to offer a unique opportunity to the electrical engineer4 ,consequently keen competition was evinced to secure the honour of carrying out such a remarkable undertaking4 ,the contract was secured by the ,westinghouse ,electric ,manufacturing ,company1 and was carried to a successful conclusion at a cost of #ajj1jjj 7#ejj1jjj74 ,the locomotives now used on this service are among the most powerful in the world4 ,they weigh #ace tons1 and develop about #bjjj horse-power1 which enables them to haul a #ajjj-ton train up the heavy approach grades at a minimum speed of #aj miles per hour4 ,moreover1 since electricity was adopted1 the tunnel has been kept free from the dense clouds of smoke and steam which originally converted the tube into a veritable inferno1 and1 what is far more important from the railway company's point of view1 the electrical system is able to meet three times the volume of traffic that exists to-day1 so that there is ample provision for the future4 ,as it is1 the #b miles of line beneath the teeming ,st4 ,clair ,river is the heaviest electrically worked section of railway in the world4 ,another link with the ,united ,states1 however1 was incumbent to bring the manufacturing centres around ,buffalo into closer communication with the ,dominion4 ,yet there was only one point where this link could be provided--across the gorge through which the ,niagara ,river1 after tumbling over the lofty cliff1 seethes and boils on its way to ,lake ,ontario4 ,a suspension bridge met the exigencies of highway traffic for some years1 but here again improvement was demanded4 ,accordingly1 a new bridge was planned1 and this constitutes one of the most graceful structures spanning that fearful rift4 ,the old bridge fulfilled its services faithfully for forty years1 and when demolished was found to be possessed of several years of life4 ,the new bridge is a splendid work1 and its close proximity to the ,falls offers a striking comparison between the handiwork of ,nature and that of the engineer4 ,the bridge leaps across the gorge in a single span1 and when one is speeding over the structure in the train1 one is at an elevation of #bbf feet above the raging waters below4 ,the span is of no less than #eej feet1 and the ends are secured to massive anchorages sunk into the face of the cliffs4 ,it is wrought throughout of steel1 and is approached from either side over a single truss span #aae feet long1 giving a total length of #ghj feet4 ,but the bridge serves a dual purpose4 ,the upper level or deck1 #cj feet in width1 carries two tracks for the railway's need1 but below this is another deck1 #eg feet wide1 which has a central carriage-way flanked on either hand by a broad pavement1 so that the bridge provides vehicular and pedestrian accommodation between the opposite banks4 ,in order to provide this improved connection between the two nations1 a sum of about #ajj1jjj 7#ejj1jjj7 had to be expended4 ,the improved facilities it offered so appealed to the public on both shores that they celebrated its opening in #ahig by a three days' carnival4 ,as time sped by1 the ,grand ,trunk railway gradually but surely swallowed its competitors1 until at last it was left in undisputed possession of the ,province of ,ontario1 from the railway point of view4 ,to-day it has over #hjjj miles of intricate steel ribbon stretched between the ,great ,lakes and the ,atlantic coast1 while between ,montreal and ,chicago the fastest trains in the ,dominion hurtle to and fro over a double track #hdj miles in length1 which is the longest continuous stretch of double track under one management in the world1 and upon which some exhilarating speeds are attained4 ,when the ,british capitalists committed themselves to an expenditure of over #i1jjj1jjj1 or #de1jjj1jjj1 for the construction of less than #ejj miles of line through virgin territory1 it is doubtful whether in their rosiest dreams they ever anticipated that it would grow into a huge organisation aggregating a third of the railway mileage of ,british ,north ,america within sixty years4 ,development is still being maintained2 new territories are being conquered4 ,a new long and sinuous arm1 #c1eef miles from end to end1 is being stretched out from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean1 to bring the eastern into direct touch with the western seaboard4 ,the whole has grown from the insignificant little wooden road that was laid between ,la ,prairie and ,st4 ,john's in the ,province of ,quebec eighty years ago4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,first ,,trans-,,continental ,,across ,,the ,,united ,,states 8,there were difficulties from end to end3 from high and steep mountains2 from snows2 from deserts where there was a scarcity of water1 and from gorges and flats where there was an excess2 difficulties from cold and heat2 from a scarcity of timber and from obstructions of rock2 difficulties in keeping a large force on a long line2 from ,indians2 and from want of labour40 ,this was the terse story related to the ,united ,states ,congress by ,collis ,p4 ,huntington1 one of the moving spirits of what1 at that time1 was a tremendous undertaking--the construction of the first railway across ,north ,america whereby the ,atlantic was linked with the ,pacific by a bond of steel4 ,but that concise statement concealed one of the most romantic stories in the history of railway engineering3 of grim battles every hour either against the hostile forces of nature or of mankind4 ,it was in #ahfc that the first sod was turned in the construction of the first line which was destined to bring ,san ,francisco within #abj hours' journey of ,new ,york1 and which changed completely the whole stream of traffic flowing round one-half of the northern hemisphere4 ,but for some years before the spade was driven into the earth to signal the commencement of this enterprise1 the idea had been contemplated and discussed in a more or less academic manner4 ,it was such a vast scheme1 the commercial possibilities of success appeared so slender that the most daring financiers of that day shrank from fathering it4 ,capitalists concluded that they might just as well pour their money down a well as to sink it in such a project as this4 ,the public1 however1 regarded the idea from a totally different standpoint4 ,east wanted to shake hands with the west over the mighty mountains and vast plains4 ,to pass from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco1 or in the reverse direction1 in those days was a perilous journey4 ,one either had to make a protracted and dangerous voyage down one side of the ,american continent1 round ,cape ,horn1 and pass up the opposite coast-line for some #aj1jjj miles2 to brave the peril of traversing the fever-ridden ,central ,american ,isthmus2 or to embark upon an overland journey of some #c1jjj miles through country where long stretches of parched1 waterless desert gave way to lofty1 snow-capped mountains1 with the ,indians in open warfare4 ,when ,california seethed in the famous ,gold ,rush1 and adventurers flocked to this magnetic hub from all parts of the world1 the absence of a connecting link was experienced to an acute degree4 ,the gold-fever-stricken pioneers had to gain their objective as best they could1 and with the best means of locomotion they could afford4 ,in a single year #ajj1jjj gold-seekers trailed across the continent4 ,the traffic produced by the discovery of gold set ,collis ,p4 ,huntington thinking4 ,here was a heavy volume of traffic slipping through the fingers4 ,why should it not be handled by a railway8 ,this was his argument1 and as he was a dreamer of commercial conquest1 though not in an idle manner1 he decided to remedy the deficiency4 ,looking into the future1 he saw that a line not only would meet the immediate demands born of the gold rush1 but that it would develop into a great highway between ,europe and the ,east1 as well as the ,antipodes4 ,he discussed the idea with kindred spirits1 ,leland ,stanford and ,thomas ,c4 ,durant1 and they became enthused with the project4 ,but the question was how to obtain the money requisite for construction8 ,to appeal to the public was useless1 and no assistance could be anticipated from the financial world4 ,so they approached the ,government1 and their endeavours proved so successful that the country decided to subsidise the undertaking4 ,when the ,government's sympathy had been secured in a practical manner1 the next step was to discover an engineer who could superintend the survey and conduct constructional operations4 ,the country did not possess many ,stephensons1 and the work in contemplation was of such an unprecedented character that no ordinary engineer would prove equal to the task4 ,happily1 however1 there was in ,san ,francisco a railway engineering genius whose ability was being wasted for lack of opportunity4 ,this man was ,theodore ,d4 ,judah4 ,he was a born engineer1 and his skill in railway engineering had achieved a peculiar distinction up and down the ,pacific coast4 ,this work was his sole hobby1 and the greater the difficulties to be overcome1 the more enthusiastically and determinedly he threw himself into the task4 ,his efforts in this direction were so strenuous that he was regarded generally as a crank1 and his great dreams of railway conquest provided a continual source of amusement4 ,he was always diving into the mountains1 reconnoitring the passes with a view to their suitability for carrying the steel highway1 and openly admitting that his greatest ambition in life was to be given the chance to lift the metals over the gaunt ,sierras frowning upon the ,pacific coast1 and to drop them on to the plains rolling eastwards from the opposite slopes4 ,on one occasion he resigned his position upon a new railway line that was being built around ,san ,francisco1 and1 unaccompanied1 forced his way through the rocky barrier1 making a mental note of the configuration of the country as he proceeded in case of something turning up1 laboured across ,nevada's dreary wastes of alkali1 skirted ,salt ,lake1 and at last gained the ,missouri4 ,as a result of his frequent peregrinations among the mountains1 his eye became trained expertly in spying out the suitability of the country for the iron road1 and he became known under the sobriquet of 8,the ,railway ,pathfinder40 ,it was a picturesque nickname1 but it was one which described his personality to the full4 ,that his wanderings were not in vain is proved by the fact that nearly every pass through the mountains which he stated to be adapted to carry a railway has been pressed into this service since1 in order to gain the ,pacific coast4 ,indeed the pioneer trans-continental railway owes its birth to ,judah4 ,for years he had advocated the project1 and emphasised its practicability4 ,when ,huntington and his colleagues were ready to commence operations they sent for ,judah1 convinced that he was the very man for whom they were searching1 to plot the path for the line and to take command of the forces in the field4 ,the ,railway ,pathfinder1 realising that the ambition of his life was within reach at last1 hurried eastwards4 ,there was a short consultation which sufficed to prove to the promoters that ,judah was the man to carry the enterprise to success1 and there and then he was placed in supreme control of the construction4 ,the difficulties among the mountains were what the promoters feared the most1 but the pathfinder regarded them so lightly that their apprehensions vanished4 ,he had spent so many months among their silent fastnesses that he knew the range through and through4 ,his plans were daring and feasible1 his reasoning lucid1 and his enthusiasm infectious4 ,in order that the directing hand in the field might not be trammelled or harassed by business or administration details1 a special emissary was deputed to attend to these secondary but vital essentials1 so that ,judah might be able to concentrate his energies and ability entirely to plotting and pushing the line forwards4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,massive ,,bridge ,,of ,,the ,,union ,,pacific ,,railway ,,over ,,the ,,missouri ,,river ,,at ,,council ,,bluffs1 ,,from ,,which ,,point ,,the ,,first ,,railway ,,across ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,was ,,commenced ,according to the arrangement with the ,government1 the railway was to commence from the eastern bank of the ,missouri ,river at ,council ,bluffs4 ,the selection of the eastern bank as the starting-point involved the erection of a huge bridge as the first step in the undertaking4 ,such an idea appears somewhat curious at first sight1 as one would have thought1 naturally1 that the western bank would have been selected as the obvious eastern terminal4 ,but the ,government recognised one point4 ,the railways were spreading their tentacles slowly but surely from the ,atlantic coast towards the ,missouri ,river4 ,when they gained its banks a break in the through rail communication would develop1 as the eastern railways were in their infancy1 and far too poor to undertake the construction of an expensive bridge across this wide waterway to link up with the line stretching to ,san ,francisco4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,timber ,,trestle ,,across ,,salt ,,lake1 ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,union ,,pacific ,,saves #eg ,,miles ,there are #ab miles of woodwork1 for which #b1hbd1gjj lineal feet of timber was required4 ,the track is #ai feet above the water4 ,construction was commenced from both ends of the line4 ,san ,francisco was the ,pacific terminal1 but as the ,golden ,gate was connected already with ,sacramento1 the capital some miles inland1 the latter place was the point to which the constructional forces were dispatched4 ,the arm driven eastwards from the ,pacific was known as the ,union ,pacific railway1 while that forced westwards from ,council ,bluffs was designated as the ,central ,pacific4 ,the two arms were to meet about half-way across the continent4 ,judah hurried to ,california and was soon in the turmoil of his task4 ,the great difficulty on this section was in regard to the supply of the constructional material4 ,everything had to be sent round by water via the most southerly point of the continent1 and as this was a voyage occupying several weeks1 extreme care had to be observed to send forward supplies in a steady1 constant stream1 so that no delays might arise from lack of material4 ,but storms raged1 while the negotiation of ,cape ,horn is a difficult feat at the best of times4 ,the boats were caught in the terrible embrace of wind and wave1 and1 upon emerging from the conflict1 struggled1 battered and torn1 into the nearest port for repairs4 ,despite these heavy drawbacks1 which no human foresight could determine or avoid1 practically no dearth of supplies ever was experienced at the railhead among the mountains4 ,in fact1 ,judah prosecuted his task so vigorously that before many months had passed the first railway conquest of the ,sierras1 considered invulnerable for so long1 was announced far and wide4 ,how was it accomplished8 ,the pathfinder followed the easiest path open to him4 ,distances between points might have been shortened1 but time was money4 ,the builders had urged this emphatically upon ,judah1 so that opportunity to indulge in stupendous engineering feats was denied him4 ,yet the very conditions which were imposed enabled the pathfinder to display some master-strokes of genius unconsciously4 ,so long as a natural path for the metals was available1 he followed it4 ,if his advance were disputed by an obstacle he either removed or ran round it4 ,the hump was levelled and the depression was filled4 ,the rivers were followed so far as practicable along their puzzling meanderings4 ,he lifted the track several thousand feet towards the clouds to gain the railway summit of the range1 and then dropped over the other side4 ,in one place among the snow-clad peaks he had to hew a narrow shelf out of the solid rocky mass to wind round the huge shoulder of a mountain4 ,the wall of rock sheered up on one side to a dizzy height2 on the other way it dropped for over a thousand feet into the river surging below4 ,the ,san ,francisco division teemed with complex and highly troublesome perplexities1 but one and all arose from the resistance of ,nature4 ,yet they were slight in comparison with those which the engineers experienced as they pushed forwards from the ,missouri ,river4 ,here it was the hostility of man which harassed them4 ,the ,indians1 driven from the eastern ,states by the march of civilisation1 resisted its further approach into their domain4 ,fierce opposition was anticipated1 but the results proved far more serious than the most gloomy forebodings4 ,at every turn the savages swept down upon the little band toiling in the solitude of the wilderness1 and these organised onslaughts became fiercer and fiercer as the base of operations was left farther and farther to the rear4 ,for every spike that was driven1 clinching a rail to its wooden cushion beneath1 an arrow sped from an ,indian bow1 to be answered by the sharp crack of a rifle from the railway building forces4 ,history does not record how many navvies fell victims to the noiseless weapon of the savages1 or how many ,indians entered the ,happy ,hunting ,ground by way of a bullet4 ,yet the total of lives would outnumber the spikes driven to secure the metals for the #a1hjj miles between the ,missouri ,river and the ,golden ,horn4 ,a conclave with the ,red ,men was urgent before the engineers stirred from the bank of the ,missouri4 ,council ,bluffs is a famous spot in the history of the ,new ,world1 because here the ,indians were wont for centuries to meet to settle tribal disputes4 ,it was here that ,collis ,p4 ,huntington and his colleagues met the ,red ,men to discuss the terms and treaty for the acquisition of the necessary land to found the city of ,omaha4 ,at that day the nearest point to which the railway had advanced towards the river from the east was ,des ,moines4 ,the first locomotive required for constructional purposes upon the ,central ,pacific1 and which weighed some #fj tons1 had to be hauled across country on the deck of a trolley by teams of horses4 ,when the trans-continental railway was taken in hand1 however1 the eastern railways were pushed forward with great speed to reach ,council ,bluffs1 in order to carry the thousands of tons of supplies of every description requisite for building purposes4 ,the scarcity of one commodity was felt severely4 ,in this country one may travel for miles and not see a single tree4 ,this hit the railway hard4 ,every baulk of timber1 whether it was required for a fire1 a shack1 or a sleeper1 had to be brought over enormous distances4 ,by the time a sleeper was laid it often cost as much as #b4ej1 or ten shillings6 ,the route between east and west is popularly known as the 8,overland ,route40 ,how it received this name is a little story in itself4 ,among those who arrived at ,san ,francisco in the glorious days of '#dg to make money out of the gold-rush was a ,dutchman1 whose topsy-turvy ,english was characteristic of a foreigner possessing only an imperfect acquaintance with our tongue4 ,he opened a saloon1 which became a most popular resort4 ,whenever a stranger entered the rendezvous1 ,boniface's curiosity was aroused4 ,the new arrival was asked inevitably by which of the three routes he had gained the ,golden ,gate4 8,did you come the ,horn around1 the ,isthmus across1 or the land over80 the ,dutchman inquired4 8,the land-over0 signifying the wagon-trail across the ,states1 so appealed to the fancy of the railway-builders that they always referred to the trans-continental as 8the land-over route10 which in course of time became twisted into the more correct designation under which it is known to this day4 ,the level character of the country west of the ,missouri ,river lent itself favourably to rapid construction1 as well as easy alignment4 ,at one place it was found possible to lay the track as straight as an arrow for #da miles4 ,the grade grew quickly1 and the rails advanced in a continuous black-grey line across the prairie with striking rapidity1 when the ,indians refrained from endeavouring to arrest its progress4 ,however1 the raids of the ,red ,men became so devastating eventually that it appeared as if work must be brought to a standstill4 ,at the critical moment another man appeared on the scene1 and his efforts contributed very materially to the completion of the line4 ,this was ,major ,frank ,j4 ,north1 one of the most daring frontiersmen that those troublous times with the ,indians produced in ,america4 ,he was ,fenimore ,cooper's mythical 8,pathfinder0 in the flesh1 and he came to be just as greatly feared by the ,red ,men4 ,when the railway engineers failed to make headway against the ,indians1 he offered his services1 which1 needless to say1 were accepted gladly4 ,from that moment the protection of the grade became his one object in life1 and his capture became the one absorbing ambition of the ,indians4 ,he had roamed the plains for years1 leading a rough-and-ready frontier life1 had become familiarised with the ,indians1 their habits1 customs and ways2 could anticipate their every movement and knew how to counteract their subterfuges4 ,he was versed thoroughly in their ways of warfare1 was a born fighter1 and was possessed of indomitable energy and pluck4 ,in order to protect the railway-builders he raised four companies of friendly ,pawnee ,indians4 ,with these trusty scouts he would creep out stealthily at night from the constructional camp1 make his way with impunity to the tepees of the ,cheyennes or ,sioux1 and ascertain their projected operations4 ,sometimes he would surprise an ,indian camp1 and scatter the inmates who were on the warpath to the four winds4 ,his marauding expeditions became so audacious that the natives were compelled to withdraw a respectable distance from the grade4 ,he became so universally detested among the foe that the mention of ,north's name was sufficient to provoke the most dismal howls of execration and vicious snarls of vengeance4 ,at times he was absent so many days from the railhead camp that the engineers wondered gravely whether or not he had met an untimely end4 ,then when they were on the point of giving up hope of seeing him again1 he would trot unconcernedly into camp1 with his ,pawnee shadows1 as if returning from a hunt1 but his general appearance and self-satisfied air told the navvies that he 8had been at the ,indians again40 ,he provoked the hostile ,red ,men to such an extreme pitch that they turned out in tremendous force sworn to his capture or death4 ,four times a pitched battle was fought1 with tremendous losses2 four times the ,indians drew off1 leaving ,north flushed with victory4 ,at last the enemy became so disheartened that it withdrew1 retreated for miles from the line1 and there was a sullen interval in the conflict4 ,north1 however1 was not to be lulled into a false sense of security4 ,he divined that some ulterior move was projected4 ,so it proved4 ,the ,indians1 instead of concentrating their energies upon the destruction of the forces at the railhead1 decided to attack the long line of communication at various points1 to surprise and destroy the supply trains4 ,a guerilla war broke out1 and this baffled ,north1 for he could not bring them to a pitched battle4 ,the ,indians clung like limpets to the grade1 and woe betide any stragglers who fell into their hands1 for they were cruelly tortured and put to death4 ,time after time1 as the supply train was puffing along slowly1 the plain on either side suddenly would reveal hordes of ferocious savages1 who had crept through the tall grass unobserved to within a few feet of the track4 ,the men on the train secured any shelter possible behind the transported goods1 and blazed away furiously4 ,brisk skirmishes and opportunities to display marksmanship occurred nearly every day to relieve the tedium of swinging hammer1 pick-axe and shovel4 ,major ,north happened to be attacked in this way one day1 though the enemy were unaware of his presence4 ,but they were so dismayed at the spirited reception that they received that they broke and fled1 with ,north in pursuit4 ,he chased them for hours1 and inflicted such losses that the tribe surrendered4 ,a few days later a large number of the vanquished enlisted under the railway-builder's banner1 assisted in the building of the grade1 and became law-abiding citizens4 ,there was one point which was a tempting prize to the ,cheyennes4 ,this was a depot #cgb miles west of ,omaha4 ,its safety was entrusted to ,north's friendly ,indians1 and they proved too watchful to enable a raid to be made with success4 ,the ,cheyennes were determined to secure its capture1 and1 quietly gathering reinforcements1 one day made a supreme attempt to rush it with a thousand men4 ,it was a desperate battle that ensued1 but the defenders1 being entrenched1 secured the advantage1 and after fighting desperately for several hours were left in possession of the hundreds of tons of supplies4 ,these tactics had to be pursued for some #ejj miles1 but the engineers in time became wearied at the daily round of working and fighting4 ,besides1 they were approaching the ,rocky ,mountains1 where the physical difficulties would be so great as to demand their entire concentration in order to lift the metals over an obstacle #hjjj feet above the sea4 ,it was realised1 also1 that the broken slopes would give the ,indians every advantage to prosecute their guerrilla warfare to distinct advantage4 ,the outlook was so depressing that a halt was called4 ,the situation was urged upon the ,government1 and1 as a result1 ,general ,grant decided to interview the ,indians in person1 with a view to placating them4 ,he made a hazardous and exciting journey along the railway to the heart of the enemy's country4 ,there1 with pow-wow and peace-pipe1 an honourable treaty was drawn up2 the ,indians promised to abandon their opposition1 and to permit the railway to go forward4 ,another difficulty the builders had to battle against was the scarcity of labour4 ,the ,californian ,gold ,fields were too magnetising to cause the men to stay long on the grade4 ,they preferred to woo the fickle goddess of fortune in a scramble for the yellow metal1 to a steady1 daily round of toil at a regular wage4 ,as a last resource the sheet-anchor of the railway-builder had to be called in--the ,chinaman4 ,the ,orientals stuck to the work1 and under their efforts the line progressed with greater speed than had been possible before their advent4 ,at one time the rails were laid so speedily that the teams could not bring up supplies fast enough to meet the needs of the graders and track-layers4 ,the permanent way was crude4 ,it was a pioneer line in very truth4 ,the earth was thrown up roughly1 the sleepers were dumped on its crown1 and the rails were hastily spiked to their bed4 ,the line was little better than what one sees hastily improvised for the transportation of spoil on large engineering works4 ,it writhed and twisted among obstructions in a fantastic manner1 for the engineers1 having neither funds nor time at their disposal1 merely ran round or over humps1 whichever method was the quicker4 ,speed and comfort were negligible considerations4 ,the line1 once communication with the coast was established1 could be overhauled and strengthened later at leisure4 ,consequently1 travelling was rough1 the oscillation was severe1 and the danger of derailment always existent4 ,it was these conditions that prompted a phlegmatic ,englishman1 who essayed the journey shortly after the line was opened1 to remark that 8the train travelled more smoothly when it was off the rails60 ,some idea of the speed with which work was prosecuted1 the innumerable drawbacks notwithstanding1 may be gathered from the fact that the whole #a1hjj miles of line were built and opened to traffic within six years from the turning of the first spadeful of earth at ,sacramento4 ,for the greater part of this distance the monthly average was #ej miles--truly a magnificent feat4 ,in order to maintain this high pressure1 #be1jjj men and #ejjj cattle teams were required1 and the total cost of the work was #aae1jjj1jjj1 or1 roughly1 #bc1jjj1jjj4 ,the dawn of the year #ahfi saw the two advancing arms racing towards the ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,the ,central ,pacific1 upon encountering this inland sea1 debouched to the north and plunged into the broken ,promontory ,range4 ,here1 at an altitude of #ejjj feet1 the two arms met1 and1 amid the wild huzzas of over a thousand people1 the last gap was closed1 and golden spikes were driven into a sleeper of polished laurel by ,leland ,stanford and ,thomas ,durant1 the presidents of the respective divisions1 to admit the passage of a train1 waiting close by with steam up1 to pass from the ,central to the ,union ,pacific ,railway4 ,the precise point at which the opposing armies met is indicated by a board standing beside the track1 the inscription on which runs-- ,,last ,,spike1 ,,completing ,,first ,,trans-,,continental ,,railroad ,,driven ,,at ,,this ,,point1 ,,may #aj1 #ahfi4 ,the occasion was one of great rejoicing1 especially among the citizens of ,san ,francisco4 ,the town went mad with excitement4 ,the festivities commenced two days before the golden spike was driven1 and was continued for two days afterwards4 ,literature contributed its quota to the commemoration of the historic event in the form of a poem from ,bret ,harte4 ,in crossing the prairie stretches the railway constructional forces were indebted appreciably for their support to the buffalo1 which roamed the plains in tens of thousands4 ,the slaughter of this animal was tremendous to provide fresh meat for the camps1 and hides for the clothing of the workmen against the blasts and severe cold of winter4 ,their existence was providential1 especially when the ,indians succeeded in capturing and destroying the supply trains bringing up provisions4 ,water often was a serious problem4 ,for stretches of over a hundred miles at a time not a drop could be obtained from the parched land1 and specially-built cars had to be pressed into service to transport this indispensable commodity4 ,some idea of the solitude of the country may be gathered from the fact that during a continuous #fjj miles not a single white man or homestead was seen4 ,before the line was completed a pony express plied between ,sacramento and ,salt ,lake ,city1 and the journey under normal conditions occupied three and a half days4 ,to-day the distance is covered in about one-third of the time4 ,in the course of a few years the traffic on the ,overland ,route assumed such proportions as to be beyond the capacity of the ill-laid track4 ,the grades were too heavy and the curves too sharp1 while rails and bridges were too light4 ,extensive reconstruction was taken in hand4 ,banks were abolished1 curves were straightened1 bridges were rebuilt1 the permanent way was re-ballasted1 short sections were cut out here1 or introduced there1 to reduce the mileage--in short1 the whole line was rebuilt practically at an expenditure of millions to bring the great highway up to the model of present-day practice4 ,one of the most important of these improvement works was that known as the ,lucin ,cut-off4 ,this was a daring piece of engineering forced upon the railway by rival lines1 which1 possessing easier grades and a better-alignment1 could haul heavier loads at a speed beyond the capacity of the pioneer road4 ,this adverse factor was experienced very severely around the north end of ,salt ,lake1 where the line plunges into the rugged and broken ,promontory ,range1 to overcome which such heavy grades had to be introduced as to reduce the speed of trains to a crawl of #ab miles per hour4 ,at first it appeared impracticable to ease this situation1 but the chief engineer was called in and urged to find a means of extricating the company from the predicament4 ,after several months' survey around this sheet of water he prepared plans which he submitted to his directors4 ,they were extremely audacious4 ,he suggested the abandonment of #cgc miles of the old line completely1 as it was beyond improvement4 ,in its place he proposed #cbf miles of new track1 which not only showed a saving of #eg miles in distance1 but gave no ruling grade exceeding #ba4ab feet per mile4 ,at one point he was baulked by the configuration of the country in the ,pequop range1 where a grade of #gd feet to the mile was found unavoidable4 ,moreover1 he showed a saving of over half-a-mile in vertical height1 the climb on the westward run being cut down from #d1eej feet to #a1ece feet1 and on the eastward journey from #d1def feet to #a1ddd feet4 ,the salient feature of the scheme1 however1 challenged particular attention4 ,instead of running around ,salt ,lake he advocated a route across it1 giving a line as direct as the bird flies from shore to shore1 supported on earthen embankments where such could be erected1 and in other places upon a timber viaduct4 ,some idea of what this scheme represented may be gathered from the construction of a bridge from ,dover to ,calais--a project that has been promulgated--for the distance was about the same4 ,the engineer was prompted in his belief as to the practicability of the suggestion from his personal investigations4 ,popular fancy had clothed this stretch of salt water in many legends1 one of which was that its depths were unfathomable4 ,this fallacy was scattered to the winds when soundings were taken1 for the water was found to be comparatively shallow at the point it was contemplated to cross the lake4 ,collis ,p4 ,huntington hesitated from embarking upon the scheme when it was first unfolded1 partly on account of its estimated cost1 but more because of its unusual character4 ,however1 when ,e4 ,h4 ,harriman secured the control of the line1 he entertained no qualms4 ,his engineer said it was feasible1 so it must be done to avoid that laborious haul over the hills to the north4 ,work commenced forthwith1 and was pursued with great vigour4 ,when the bank of the lake was gained1 the engineer pushed the earthen embankment as far into the water as he could1 so as to reduce the extent of the trestling4 ,the distance from shore to shore was #bg miles1 but as he took advantage of a peninsula which juts well into the water from the north bank1 four miles of the line were built on dry land4 ,to commence the embankment from the water's edge an ingenious expedient was adopted4 ,heavy planks loaded with weighty bags of sand were floated out on the proposed location1 and upon this novel permanent way the temporary rails for the ballast cars were laid1 and the spoil dumped into the lake until the embankment appeared above water-level4 ,then the section of floating track was pushed still farther ahead1 and the same cycle of operations repeated until the limit of the earthwork was gained4 ,as the embankment grew in height the light rails were replaced by a heavier type1 over which rumbled cars carrying #dj tons of ballast apiece1 and which was pitched pell-mell into the water on either side4 ,the embankment was then left for a while to permit settling to take place4 ,in time it became as solid as a jetty4 ,the trestle section proved the most trying1 not so much on account of the technical questions involved1 but owing to the difficulty in obtaining timber4 ,the wood had to be brought hundreds of miles from the forests of ,texas and the north-west4 ,extensive stretches of trees were purchased and saw-mills were erected to cut the logs to the desired dimensions on the spot4 ,upon arrival at ,salt ,lake the wood was dumped into the water1 large log booms being formed1 so that the material might become seasoned thoroughly4 ,work was delayed considerably by the lack of supplies of timber1 from storms which swept this inland sea1 and which at times wrought considerable damage4 ,at one or two places1 although careful soundings were taken1 the lake bed proved fickle4 ,when the pile-drivers were set to work1 banging the massive uprights into the solid earth1 progress would be painfully slow for a time1 and then suddenly the pile would descend with uncanny rapidity4 ,the cause was discovered readily4 ,the lake bed is covered with a thick crust of salt and soda deposits1 the accumulation of centuries1 packed so hard as to give the semblance of being solid rock when sounded4 ,yet it was only a shell or crust covering unstable soil below4 ,driving the piles broke up this rind1 and then a solid foundation could not be found4 ,attempts to remedy this state of affairs were made by pitching rock into the water to provide a solid floor to support the timber uprights4 ,this method proved so slow and expensive that the engineer devised another solution of the difficulty4 ,he ran out a light trestle and dumped rubble overboard around its foundations until the woodwork was buried completely1 and a solid earthen embankment was produced to carry the rails4 ,the actual extent of timber trestling aggregates #ab miles1 and this erection spans the lake practically at its narrowest central part4 ,some of the pile-drivers were carried on floating pontoons1 while others were mounted on the track above1 the permanent way being pushed forward as rapidly as the timber work was completed4 ,owing to the depth of the water1 some of the upright members are as much as #aaj feet in length4 ,they are disposed in rows of five at right angles to the track1 and connected by massive longitudinal members1 on which is laid three-inch planking1 superimposed with a layer of ballast4 ,it was while building the timber work that the greatest depth of water was reached--from #cj to #cd feet4 ,the trestle was erected with striking rapidity1 the record being the completion of no less than #e1cag feet of track in six working days4 ,had it been possible to bring the timber up more quickly1 a greater length of line could have been laid in the time4 ,at rail-level the viaduct is #af feet in width1 and the track is so smooth and solid that the 8,overland ,limited0 can hurtle along at full speed without producing the slightest vibration4 ,by the time the viaduct was completed1 #ch1bef piles had been used4 ,this represented no less than #b1hbd1gjj lineal feet of timber which had been torn from the forests4 ,if these logs had been placed end to end they would have formed a continuous line for nearly #ece miles4 ,so straight did the engineer plot and build the ,lucin ,cut-off1 that even if he had complied with ,euclid's definition of a straight line1 it would have been necessary only to have deducted #a1gjh feet from the #ajb4ia miles of track which he laid4 ,in addition1 he abolished #c1iai degrees of curves4 ,to understand what this means it is only necessary to remember that each degree represents a segment of the circle4 ,by dividing the above total by #cfj1 the number of degrees to the circle1 a result of #aa4hh circles is obtained4 ,in other words1 on the old route between ,lucin and ,ogden1 the train not only traversed the distance between the two points1 but described nearly #ab circles as well4 ,for #cf miles the track is dead level and for another #cj miles the rise is so slight that one has to walk half-a-mile to rise his own height4 ,by the time the task was completed a round #a1jjj1jjj1 or #e1jjj1jjj1 had been expended4 ,it appears a huge outlay to reduce working expenses and to increase revenue1 but it affords a striking illustration of the boldness of guiding railway spirits in ,america4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,longest 8,,toy0 ,,railway ,the ,principality is a land of many surprises to the visitor1 for it possesses innumerable attractions4 ,yet it is doubtful whether any feature arouses more interest in ,north ,wales than the strange little railway which runs from ,portmadoc for a distance of #ac miles among the mountains4 ,certain it is that no tourist would think of omitting a journey over what is known colloquially as the ,festiniog 8,toy0 ,railway1 for it is one of the great sights of ,north ,wales4 ,for several years it held a unique position among the great systems of the world as the narrowest gauge line in operation4 ,the metals are laid only #bc inches apart--less than half the distance between the rails forming the roads of the greater proportion of steel highways bounding the globe--and yet it has a traffic which many a more important railway would have just cause to envy4 ,visitors disembarking from the ,london ,north-,western express at ,portmadoc1 and seeing the diminutive engine and trucks drawn up alongside on their own road and completely dwarfed by the towering rolling-stock of the standard-gauge line1 cannot repress a smile1 for the engines1 cars1 trucks and wagons are no larger than are used upon the larger-sized model railways devised to-day for the amusement and education of the young4 ,yet it is a complete pocket edition of the familiar railway1 and its capacity is amazing4 ,the engine provokes interest1 for it is no taller than an average-sized person4 ,its coupled wheels are only #bh inches in diameter1 while the cylinders measure but #h inches in diameter and have a stroke of only #ac inches4 ,the cars and wagons are on the same scale1 and the first impression of the diminutive iron horse awakens doubts as to whether it is safe to trust oneself to its care4 ,but see that self-same engine busy at work hauling a train of #g passenger coaches1 a guard's van1 #aj goods wagons and #ajj or more empty slate trucks1 stretching out for a length of #a1bjj feet and representing a total load of #aaj tons1 out of ,portmadoc1 bound for the quarries1 and disdain gives way to complete admiration4 ,the locomotive 8,little ,wonder10 despite its age1 for it dates back from #ahfi1 completely justifies its appellation1 for it handles the above load on the steepest grades with ease1 and attains a speed of #cj miles an hour where the physical conditions are suited to fast travelling4 ,the work it has to fulfil is not to be despised by any means1 for the country through which the line extends is amongst the most rugged in the country4 ,in the course of the thirteen and a quarter miles it has to overcome a difference of #gjj feet in altitude1 which means a pull against the collar for the whole way from ,portmadoc1 though the gradients are of varying severity4 ,yet even the easiest climb is #a in #ahf1 while the steepest rise is #a in #fh4f2 with a bank of no less than #a in #cf on one of the spur lines4 ,the curves likewise are startling in their sharpness and frequency1 and at times when the engine is loaded to its utmost capacity the train may be seen writhing like a gigantic black snake along three curves at the same time4 ,the permanent way was originally laid in #ahci1 the enterprise having been carried out for the conveyance of slate from the quarries to ,portmadoc4 ,on the downward journey the laden trucks travelled by gravity1 the empties being hauled back by horses4 ,in the late 'fifties1 however1 the chief engineer1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,spooner1 realising the far-reaching advantages arising from the use of power1 suggested that the tramway should be converted into a railway1 and in #ahfc his suggestion was adopted4 ,in the early days travelling was exciting1 for the bridges and tunnels were so low that the engine-driver1 stoker and other officials on the line had to duck their heads when they reached these obstacles1 since to stand upright in one of the vehicles was certain to court a violent end by collision with these structures4 ,these1 however1 have been altered so that one need entertain no more apprehension concerning safety on this line than when travelling upon a standard-gauge road4 ,visitors1 realising the fact that by its means they could be conveyed comfortably to some of the wildest and most beautiful corners of the ,principality1 sought its transportation assistance1 and in #ahfd passengers were first carried as an experiment1 but free of charge4 ,the ,board of ,trade did not decline to sanction its operation in the interests of the public1 but possibly somewhat dubious of the wisdom of their action1 hedged in the privilege with certain restrictions1 the most important of which was limitation of speed4 ,when1 however1 it was proved that there was no danger in travelling over this two-foot line at #cj miles an hour this latter ban was removed4 ,the line possesses several features of technical interest1 and being a single track1 is operated upon the staff system1 with every device to secure absolute safety in operation in the form of signalling and telegraphing facilities4 ,moreover1 travelling is comfortable1 for although the gauge is less than two feet1 the cars1 designed by the engineer1 are built on the bogie principle and have seating accommodation for fifty passengers4 ,a trip over the line certainly constitutes an experience4 ,the complete success which attended the conversion of this railway from equine- to steam-power in #ahfd stimulated the wider adoption of the narrow-gauge system1 though as a rule this term is somewhat elastic1 inasmuch as it signifies that such a railway has a gauge less than the standard width of #d feet #h inches1 and is particularly associated with the #ci inch or #db inch gauge4 ,still several 8two-foot0 lines were laid down1 especially in ,france and ,india1 so that the ,festiniog experiment has proved a very profitable 8toy0 to more countries than one4 ,in fact1 not far distant from the pioneer toy railway is another--the ,north ,wales ,narrow ,gauge railway--which connects ,dinas1 near ,carnarvon1 with ,snowdon ,station4 ,these railway systems1 however1 are of short length1 and when one remembers the broken character of the country which they serve1 their raison d'tre is obvious4 ,but the application of the idea to a trunk line #cfj miles in length appears quite impracticable4 ,yet it has been accomplished1 and its realisation has opened up a corner of ,africa which formerly was almost impassable1 and which1 but for its fulfilment1 would have left the country traversed in the hands of hostile natives4 ,this 8toy0 railway upon a large scale is the ,otavi ,line1 which connects ,tsumeb1 buried #cfh miles in the heart of the wilderness of ,german ,south-,west ,africa1 with the coast at ,swapkomund4 ,to-day it ranks as the longest narrowest gauge line in the world1 the metals1 as in the case of the ,festiniog railway1 being laid only #fjj millimetres1 or approximately two feet apart4 ,in the late 'eighties prospecting parties who had heard of the mineral wealth lying dormant in this inhospitable and inaccessible country1 set out to ascertain whether rumour could be verified to a sufficient extent to ensure the riches of the rocks being exploited commercially4 ,they suffered great privations and hardships in their toil across the waterless veldt1 but when they gained the ,otavi country they found that their journey was more than repaid by enormous discoveries of copper4 ,they collected detailed information concerning the extent of these deposits1 and when they returned to ,europe it was decided to develop the new 8,copperado0 without further delay4 ,however1 there was one critical point4 ,how could the mineral1 after being mined1 be transported to the coast for shipment4 ,the intervening country was among the most sterile to be found in the continent south of the ,sahara4 ,the mining companies concerned at once suggested a railway as the only solution of the problem4 ,but they realised very readily1 from the reports of their emissaries who had ventured to ,otavi1 that such an undertaking was beset with difficulties innumerable1 while the construction of a line upon the standard gauge would prove ruinously expensive4 ,in order to secure extrication from their plight the companies approached the firm of ,arthur ,koppel of ,berlin4 ,the latter company dispatched a corps of its own surveyors to the country to spy out the desert between the coast and the mines1 in order to find the best location and to report generally upon the engineering features of the scheme4 ,when the surveyors returned to civilisation they unhesitatingly recommended a light narrow-gauge railway1 such as they had built in several parts of the world where similar conditions prevailed4 ,they advocated the #fjj millimetre or two-foot gauge because it not only would meet all traffic requirements for many years to come1 but its initial cost would be so much cheaper1 and it could be built so much more quickly than a wider or standard gauge4 ,the recommendation was debated at great length1 and after discussing the relative estimated capital and operating costs of lines of different gauges1 the overwhelming advantages presented by the 8toy-line0 gauge were found to outweigh any arguments that could be raised against it4 ,the mining companies merely demanded the line as a link between the copper country and the coast for their own purposes4 ,the country lying between the coast and the mines held out no attractions for any economic development1 so that all the requisitions likely to be made by the mining companies could be met adequately by such a railway4 ,consequently the recommendation of the engineers was accepted1 and they were entrusted with the completion of the undertaking4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,the ,,otavi ,,line ,,through ,,the ,,german ,,south-,,west ,,african ,,bush ,hereros1 ,ovambos and ,italians working side by side4 ,when the mining companies expressed their decision they did not anticipate the extraordinary traffic which the railway would be called upon to fulfil a little later4 ,these were duties which not only taxed the capacity of the diminutive railway to a supreme degree1 but were of a character which justified the confidence of the engineers and practically saved the colony to the ,german ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,passage ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,train1 ,,gaily ,,decorated ,,for ,,the ,,occasion1 ,,over ,,the 8,,toy-,,like0 ,,otavi ,,railway ,this reproduction of the ,festiniog toy railway was commenced without loss of time4 ,in #aijc constructional engineers with a boat-load of constructional material were dispatched to ,south ,africa1 and the grade was commenced from ,swakopmund1 at a point #dj feet above the sea-level1 the location extending in a north-easterly direction to ,otavi1 #cjj miles distant in the interior4 ,the first sod was turned in ,october1 and the constructional engineers bent to their task with great zest4 ,but scarcely had they got into their stride when the ,hereros rebellion broke out4 ,this was an unexpected development1 and as the natives had been recruited in large numbers to build the permanent way1 the engineers were faced with a grave situation4 ,at the first signs of the insurrection the greater majority of the natives threw down their tools and stampeded from the line to their towns and villages to take up arms4 ,the ,governor of the colony strove to arrest this wholesale desertion by recourse to drastic measures--he seized as many men working on the grade as he could and placed them safely under lock and key4 ,the result was that the little band of white engineers was left with scarcely a navvy to assist them4 ,however1 they struggled on as best they could1 but progress was painfully slow4 ,at first the insurrection was belittled--regarded as a flash in the pan--and the engineers anticipated confidently the early return of their workmen4 ,but these illusions were dispelled rudely when it became realised at last that the country was up in arms from end to end4 ,there was only one way out of the desperate situation1 and that was to import labour from ,europe4 ,such a step upset the preliminary estimates for the undertaking to a pronounced degree1 for the native labour had been taken into the calculation when framing the cost of the work4 ,to bring white labour from ,europe increased the capital outlay very appreciably4 ,however1 there was no alternative1 and accordingly an ,italian contractor arrived on the scene with a small army of #cjj ,italians1 and work resumed its former busy aspect4 ,however1 peace did not reign for long4 ,the ,italian workmen saw that they held the advantage over the engineers1 that there was no competitive labour1 and accordingly they struck for higher pay4 ,the engineers1 caught on the horns of a dilemma1 had to surrender1 and the ,italians picked up their tools4 ,then another cause of dissatisfaction manifested itself4 ,the workmen concluded that they were being driven too hard1 so they declined to perform a full day's labour4 ,they held the whip-hand and emphasised its potency so frequently1 and the friction between employers and employed became so keen1 that it appeared more than once as if the contract would have to be suspended until the rebellion was quelled4 ,while these disputes and continual bickerings were at their height further complication was provoked4 ,the ,german military authorities1 finding the subjugation of the ,hereros a far heavier task than they had anticipated1 wished to penetrate into the heart of the country so as to strike a supreme blow upon the enemy's stronghold4 ,they had their own line extending from ,swakopmund to ,windhuk1 but owing to its heavy grades and light construction it had broken down completely under the strain of the heavy military traffic4 ,the authorities strove to alleviate this situation by utilising bullock-carts to transport troops and commissariat up-country1 but this alternative failed lamentably4 ,this service was so slow1 and the absence of water by the wayside was felt to a serious degree4 ,in their extremity the ,german ,government appealed to the engineers of the ,otavi line4 ,they besought them to spare no effort to drive the railway forward speedily1 first to ,ouguati1 #aji miles from the coast1 and then to ,omaruru1 #ade miles beyond the former point4 ,as an inducement the builders were offered a heavy premium4 ,the engineers agreed to meet official demands1 and to expedite the constructional work a further army of #gej ,italians and #ejj ,ovambo coolies was sent to reinforce the forces on the grade4 ,to tempt the ,italian workmen to strive their utmost they offered a fixed minimum wage as an incentive4 ,however1 it was not long before trouble arose once more4 ,the new arrivals fraternised with their compatriots already on the scene1 and learned how the engineers had been forced to pay higher and higher wages by recourse to strikes4 ,the ,italians came to the conclusion that concerted action would be highly successful because several weeks would elapse before their places could be taken by other imported labour1 while they regarded the ,ovambo coolies1 who proved industrious workmen1 with supreme contempt4 ,every conceivable obstacle was thrown in the way of the engineers4 ,work was stopped upon the slightest provocation1 and apparent grievances were aired with monotonous frequency4 ,when at last they were placated and the workmen did settle down to their tasks they proceeded in a lackadaisical manner1 and the day's work was only a quarter of what might have been accomplished4 ,under ordinary circumstances each ,italian could have coped with #aj cubic yards of earthwork per day1 but they handled only about #b cubic yards6 ,this rendered them distinctly inferior to the ,ovambos1 who1 though not comparable with the ,europeans from the physical point of view1 plodded along steadily1 and handled on the average from #c to #d cubic yards per day4 ,the ,italians had no complaint concerning their scale of payment1 for they received from #es4 to #ajs4--#a4be to #b4jj--per day1 while the coolies1 who did twice the work1 received but #bs4 #f;d4 or #fj cents a day1 together with food and housing accommodation4 ,one day matters reached a climax4 ,the white workmen struck in a body1 and declined to move a hand unless they received another increase in wages4 ,the engineers1 who had been groaning under the extortionate demands of the blackmailing ,italians for several weeks past1 now took a firm stand4 ,they declined point-blank to entertain the proposal4 ,moreover1 they commenced to take the law into their own hands and to adopt stern measures4 ,several of the leading recalcitrants were straightway dismissed for breach of contract4 ,this situation lasted for eight weeks1 and at times the outlook became extremely threatening1 for the ,italians chafed under the unexpected opposition they had encountered4 ,suddenly the dispute collapsed and the ,italians sullenly returned to their work4 ,coupled with this distressing condition of affairs at the railhead1 the engineers experienced grave difficulties at ,swakopmund4 ,they could not get the constructional and other material unloaded from their ships4 ,this harbour is notoriously a bad one1 and being congested with military traffic1 method and order had given way to complete chaos4 ,weeks elapsed before an incoming ship could discharge its cargo for the railway1 and then the engineers only secured their requirements by building a special mole because the anchorage was silting up with sand4 ,in the spring of #aije matters took a more hopeful turn4 ,the sullen ,italians were spurred on by the granting of premiums1 and under this inducement more rapid progress was effected4 ,the white workmen were forced to their tasks by the appearance of severe competition4 ,many of the ,hereros grew tired of fighting and surrendered to the authorities4 ,when asked if they would be content to work upon the railway they accepted the offer with alacrity1 and the ,italians saw that they were in serious danger of being displaced entirely4 ,the fair treatment that was meted out to the natives who had surrendered became noised far and wide through the country1 with the result that large numbers of ,hereros1 who had grasped the hopelessness of their opposition1 made their way to the railhead and threw down their arms and offered to take up the pick and shovel4 ,it was a curious sight1 for here were large numbers of the natives1 against whom war was being waged1 voluntarily assisting in the advance of the very force that was being driven forward to bring about the complete subjugation of their race4 ,curious to relate1 moreover1 the engineers found that their former implacable foes1 when properly treated1 developed into splendid conscientious workmen1 and far easier to control than the much-vaunted white labour4 ,after leaving the coast the railway makes practically a continuous and steady climb to a maximum height of some #e1bah feet in the course of its #cfj miles4 ,notwithstanding this extreme difference in altitude1 it was found possible to keep the banks easy1 the sharpest gradient being #a in #ej4 ,the country traversed is most inhospitable1 the first #ade miles being through a wild desert1 and wide stretches of scrub-covered country broken with kopjes4 ,extensive bridging was found necessary to carry the track across gullies and rivulets1 there being in all #aaj of these structures4 ,they are built throughout of steel1 the deckplate girder type being the most generally favoured1 and the most important work of this class has a length of #ccc feet1 built up in five spans4 ,the curves were kept as easy as possible1 the standard radius being about #ejj feet4 ,here and there1 however1 owing to the cramped conditions of the route open to the track1 it was found requisite to reduce the radius to some #bgj feet in order to avoid heavy and expensive cutting through rocks and hills4 ,some idea of the extent to which the engineers were delayed by their repeated differences with the ,italian workmen may be gathered from the fact that although #bc months were occupied in carrying the rails from ,swakopmund to ,omaruru1 a matter of #ade miles1 the second section1 from the latter point to ,tsumeb1 the present terminus1 a matter of #bae miles1 required but another year4 ,when the railway was rushed onwards from ,omaruru1 although the country to be crossed was somewhat easier from the physical point of view1 and lent itself to more rapid construction1 acceleration was attributable in the main to the ample supply of labour available and absence of trouble with the workmen engaged4 ,another grave difficulty against which the builders had to struggle was water4 ,in fact1 it might be said that the scarcity of this commodity was more perplexing than those governing the labour1 strikes notwithstanding4 ,it was not merely securing sufficient supplies for the workmen's needs1 but also for constructional purposes1 such as for the locomotive boilers1 mixing of concrete for masonry1 and so forth4 ,on the first section every pint of drinking water had to be brought up from the base on the coast to the railhead1 and as this advanced the difficulties concerned with its transportation increased4 ,in some instances bullock-carts were the only vehicles that could be pressed into service for its conveyance over #cj or #dj miles4 ,throughout the first #he miles from ,swakopmund to ,usakos not a drop could be drawn from the earth4 ,innumerable borings in search of the liquid were made alongside the line as it progressed1 but they were rewarded with no material success4 ,occasionally small quantities were found1 but it was too brackish and quite unfit for drinking purposes4 ,when ,usakos was gained the situation was eased somewhat by a local discovery1 but the water had to be softened before it could be used by the engines1 and accordingly a plant for treating the water in this manner had to be brought up country and erected4 ,this1 however1 was useless for domestic purposes1 and when the line was pushed on from ,omaruru1 special water trains had to be run for the convenience of the workmen4 ,huge tanks were laden on the cars and were carried from the coast to the railhead1 the journey occupying several hours4 ,the trouble and expense involved in connection with this vital requisite influenced the cost and time occupied in building the line very unfavourably1 so much so indeed1 that the preliminary estimates of the cost were exceeded very markedly4 ,this question has not been solved satisfactorily yet1 and it will remain to puzzle the administration of the line until some conveniently-situated subterranean water supply is tapped on the barren veldt4 ,the load of every train has to be increased by a special tank-tender coupled behind the engine containing #b1bjj gallons of water1 which represents so much unremunerative load4 ,the rolling-stock is quite in keeping with this diminutive railway4 ,the tiny engines have driving-wheels #bd inches in diameter1 while the cylinders have a diameter of #ab inches and a stroke of #ag inches4 ,yet they can haul a load of #ajj tons at a speed of #be miles an hour on the level and at #i miles an hour on the steepest banks of #a in #ej4 ,this appears to be a mere crawl in comparison with the speeds with which we are familiar on the standard railways4 ,but when one recalls the manner in which this little 8toy0 line has changed conditions of travel in a lonely corner of the ,african continent1 and the former rate of progress possible by bullock-cart1 even #i miles an hour appears to be an amazing speed4 ,before the iron horse appeared in ,german ,south-,west ,africa1 to travel from ,swakopmund to ,omaruru1 a mere #ade miles1 was a heroic achievement1 entailing a laborious slow tramp through lonely sterile wastes of boulders and scrub4 ,a pace of #g or #aj miles a day was considered fast travelling1 and one who covered the journey in a fortnight was considered to have driven hard4 ,to-day the same distance can be reeled off in about #ab hours4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,tyrol ,probably there is no country in ,europe wherein are compressed so many and such varied marvels of engineering executed in connection with the building of the iron road as in ,austria4 ,as is well known1 the country is a sea of towering rugged mountains1 with steep slopes1 knotted by crags and scarred by deep gullies1 intersected by broad sylvan valleys4 ,such topographical conditions impose a severe tax upon the skill and resources of the engineer4 ,consequently this territory has been the scene of many grim grapples with ,nature--some in which the odds have been overwhelmingly against the engineers1 and in which success has been achieved only by dogged perseverance4 ,conspicuous in this direction are the wonderful tunnels4 ,it was the successful piercing of the ,mont ,cenis and ,st4 ,gotthard tunnels that first spurred the ,austrian engineers to work of this character4 ,their first attempt1 the boring of the ,arlberg1 was such a conspicuous success that they did not hesitate afterwards to have recourse to such methods when all other means appeared impracticable4 ,to-day the country can point to four huge ,alpine tunnels which stand among the foremost achievements of their class in the world4 ,such ways and means for forcing the iron road from one point to another are highly expensive1 but in each instance the ends have justified the means4 ,by their provision1 points only a few miles apart as the crow flies1 and which with surface railways could have been connected only by wearying1 devious routes1 have been brought into close communication4 ,when the ,arlberg chain was taken in hand1 the preliminary surveys showed that it would approximate seven miles in length1 and that about the centre of the tunnel a solid mass of rock1 #a1fjj feet in thickness1 would extend from the roof and track to the storm-swept mountain pass overhead4 ,at this time the two previous projects of this character had proved so costly1 had occupied such a long time1 and had entailed the grappling with technical difficulties such as never had been encountered before1 that the idea of tunnelling the ,arlberg was entertained with mixed feelings4 ,but ,julius ,lott1 the engineer-in-chief1 was not to be dissuaded from his enterprise4 ,he maintained that it could be accomplished far more quickly and cheaply than had been the ,cenis or ,gotthard works4 ,true1 it was not to be quite so long as either of the latter undertakings1 but similar difficulties1 if not others more perplexing1 might lurk buried there in the heart of the crest4 ,the engineer was urged in his decision by the perfection of a new boring implement which had been evolved during the final stages of the ,gotthard tunnel4 ,although the circumstances there did not enable the new invention to demonstrate its possibilities to the full1 yet what had been done sufficed to show that the new tool was destined to revolutionise the methods adopted in such huge boring operations4 ,this was the ,brandt rock-drill1 a wonderful appliance which in one stroke displaced incalculable manual labour4 ,the tool is operated by water pressure1 and the drill ploughs its way into the rock under a rotary movement in much the same manner as an auger forces its way through a piece of wood4 ,the water pressure brought to bear upon the drill is tremendous1 ranging from #a1djj to #a1fhj pounds per square inch1 and even the hardest rock scarcely can resist its attack4 ,but1 as may be supposed1 at times the hard texture of the rock played sad havoc with the cutting edge of the drill4 ,occasionally three or four drills were put out of service with every yard of advance1 and even then progress was painfully slow4 ,when1 however1 soft rock was encountered the tool cleaved its way through very rapidly1 the cutter biting half-an-inch or more into the material with every revolution4 ,then it was found possible to speed up the rotations to as many as seven or eight per minute1 with proportionate increase of life for the cutting edge4 ,precisely what this ,brandt drill signified to the engineers in connection with this tunnel may be gathered from the fact that from the time drilling commenced1 in #ahhj1 only four years elapsed before communication was established between ,bluden on the one and ,innsbruck on the other side of the range4 ,in this short period a passage #bf feet high by #bc feet wide was cut through solid rock for a distance of #f miles at a total cost of #a1ejj1jjj1 or #g1ejj1jjj4 ,in comparison with the two previous enterprises of the same character this was a magnificent achievement4 ,the ,cenis tunnel1 #g miles in length1 occupied some #ac years to complete1 while some #h years were required to drive #i miles through the ,st4 ,gotthard4 ,this was an achievement of which those engaged in the task were justly proud4 ,indeed1 the ,austrians hold a unique position in the rapidity with which they can drive these gigantic undertakings through the most formidable mountain chains4 ,the section of railway upon which this tunnel is situated sorely tried the ingenuity of the engineers up to the ,paznaun valley4 ,the line clings to the mountain-side1 which is broken up by precipitous crags1 and these either had to be pierced or blasted right away to provide a path for the railway4 ,gushing torrents pour madly down these slopes1 and had to be spanned by noble and lofty viaducts or bridges4 ,at some places the boiling waters are deflected from their bed into an artificial channel built of concrete2 at others there are massive retaining walls to prevent the waterways from breaking bounds and sweeping the embankment away4 ,one wide gorge is bridged by a single iron span #cic feet #h inches in length4 ,this is the ,trisanna viaduct1 below which the glacial brook tumbles over the boulders at a depth of some #bfb feet4 ,elaborate precautions also had to be adopted to protect the line from the ravages of avalanches and landslides4 ,years before the ,arlberg line was contemplated1 however1 some distinctly noteworthy achievements in engineering had been placed on record by the establishment of railway communication between ,vienna and ,trieste on the ,adriatic ,sea4 ,certainly the line did not follow the shortest route between these two points1 but it must be borne in mind that it was undertaken in the early 'forties1 when ,great ,britain1 8the home of the railway10 only possessed some #hdj miles of line1 and railway engineering was quite in its infancy4 ,it is little wonder1 therefore1 that the engineers of the project in this wild corner of ,europe followed a circuitous path1 to avoid fearsome obstacles as far as practicable4 ,they resorted to sharp curves and heavy banks1 and the line doubled and redoubled in the most amazing manner4 ,bridges and tunnels were introduced very freely1 some of the viaducts spanning deep clefts on the mountain flanks being very lofty4 ,by the most direct route of this system the journey from the ,austrian capital to ,trieste occupies nine hours4 ,in that journey1 comparatively no longer than that entailed in speeding over the greater distance separating ,london from ,edinburgh1 one passes through four distinct expanses of scenery4 ,vienna nestles in a broad valley flanked on all sides by the towering snow-topped ,alps4 ,the line1 upon leaving the capital1 first traverses the undulating foot-hills1 then wends its way through the mountains to gain the richly wooded1 verdant and beautiful country of ,styria1 and finally passes over a vast stretch of wilderness to descend abruptly to the coast4 ,in forging this link in the railway chain the engineers had to overcome the ,semmering range1 which is amongst the most tumbled in the whole of the ,austrian ,alps4 ,how did they do it8 ,by following the natural facilities open to them3 a ledge here1 a gallery there2 passing from this slope to that by a viaduct or bridge2 zigzagging up the mountain slopes2 tunnelling through rocky eminences2 following winding paths for miles merely to gain points only a mile or two apart in a straight line4 ,no doubt if that line were built to-day it would have its length cut in half1 for railway engineering has advanced by leaps and bounds since #ahdh1 when this pioneer project was taken in hand4 ,in carrying their scheme to fulfilment these early engineers unconsciously achieved one notable distinction3 they built the first mountain railway4 ,what matter if banks did assume a rise of #acb feet or so per mile1 and the line did wander in apparent aimlessness among the peaks8 ,speed then was not the vital consideration it is to-day1 while traffic was comparatively light1 so that the haulage facilities were not taxed severely4 ,this mountain climb on the main line occurs between ,gloggnitz and ,murzzuschlag1 the famous winter sporting centre in the ,tyrol4 ,the mountain crest is #d1egg feet above the sea-level1 but the railway does not rise to that height2 its summit is at #b1idj feet in the middle of a tunnel three-quarters of a mile in length beneath the ,semmering ,pass4 ,but to gain that altitude from either side of the mountain entailed prodigious work4 ,pick1 shovel1 and gunpowder made heavy cuttings through projecting spurs1 raised lofty embankments1 filled gaping fissures1 and cleaved galleries out of the solid rock4 ,the two points on either side of the mountain are only fourteen miles apart in a straight line2 by the railway it is more than twice the distance1 the outstanding features which were necessary to render the undertaking un fait accompli being fifteen tunnels1 and a score of viaducts and bridges4 ,to construct the thirty miles over the ,semmering cost a round #b1jjj1jjj1 or #aj1jjj1jjj1 in money1 and occupied between three and four years to complete4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,workmen ,,cutting ,,and ,,blasting ,a ,,narrow ,,path ,,on ,,the ,,steep ,,mountain ,,slopes ,,for ,,the ,,karawanken ,,railway ,with the march of time1 however1 the traffic over this railway increased1 hand in hand with the expansion of ,trieste1 to such an extent that it proved inadequate4 ,a more direct route between the capital and the port1 as well as accelerated communication with the great centres of ,europe1 was demanded by the commercial community4 ,this agitation became so insistent that at last the government was compelled to move1 and the engineer of the ,imperial ,railways was commissioned to survey the country for the purpose of devising some scheme which would satisfy the public outcry4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,massive ,,steel ,,bridge ,,which ,,carries ,,the ,,railway ,,across ,,the ,,drave ,,river ,,to ,,approach ,,the ,,tunnel ,,through ,,the ,,karawanken ,,range ,,in ,,the ,,background4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,northern ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,karawanken ,,tunnel4 ,five miles in length1 through the ,karawanken mountain chain4 ,this was no easy task4 ,innumerable knots of mountains break up the country between ,vienna and the ,adriatic1 and they are compressed so tightly together that the narrow valleys between offered but slight assistance towards the solution of the problem4 ,then1 again1 those three well-known mountain ranges1 the ,tauern1 ,karawanken1 and ,julian ,alps1 stood right in the way1 disputing any possibly shorter route than that already in existence4 ,the prospect before the surveyors was not very promising4 ,however1 they braved the elements among the inhospitable peaks1 suffered extreme privations and fatigue as they toiled up and down the rugged1 wild mountain slopes with their instruments1 for month after month4 ,at last they succeeded in formulating a project which was submitted to ,parliament4 ,in this it was proposed to make avail of any favourable stretches of existing railways which intersected the valleys in all directions1 and to connect them together1 so that in the end a tolerably direct route might be obtained4 ,at any rate this proposal would reduce the journey between the ,adriatic and ,munich by at least eleven hours4 ,the scheme was divided into four broad sections4 ,it was discussed thoroughly in ,parliament1 but in the end it was decided to carry out in the first instance the most essential parts of the project1 because embarkation upon the undertakings as set forth by the engineers would have entailed the expenditure of a gigantic sum of money4 ,even that which was sanctioned represented a total financial commitment of about #cj1jjj1jjj1 or #aej1jjj1jjj1 for #baa miles of line4 ,the accepted enterprise was memorable because it entailed the piercing of three mountain ranges by tunnels #e1 #e1 and #d miles in length respectively4 ,of the total mileage only #da miles were to be level6 ,the remaining #agj miles represented banks1 with grades running as high as #acb feet to the mile4 ,the project as sanctioned was divided into three sections for constructional purposes4 ,the first section is that known as the ,pyrhn railway1 which connects the main line between ,vienna and ,switzerland via the ,arlberg tunnel at ,linz4 ,from this point a short branch line ran directly southwards through the ,krems valley to ,klaus1 having been built for tourist purposes4 ,it was decided to overhaul this spur to bring it into conformity with the conditions of a main line1 and to build the new line onwards from ,klaus4 ,from ,auspoint1 which is at an altitude of #a1efc feet1 the line makes one continual climb1 climb1 to the ,selzthal terminus1 nearly #dj miles distant4 ,the average rise ranges from #gj to #acb feet per mile to overcome the ,pyrhn ,pass1 beneath which a tunnel nearly #c miles in length was bored4 ,this tunnel1 however1 is only one of many1 for there are numerous short burrows through shoulders and crags4 ,nor are the bridges a whit less majestic4 ,the ,steyr ,river is crossed by a lofty single masonry arch1 and again lower down by an iron suspension structure1 while the ,teichl is spanned by a single-span lattice steel bridge4 ,the loftiness of these structures is an outstanding characteristic4 ,the rivers at the points in question have cut their beds at a great depth below the banks which constitute the railway level4 ,swerving bends are also conspicuous1 for the railway continually swings from one side of the valley to the other4 ,the construction of the ,pyrhn railway1 however1 was simple in comparison with the other links of this chain of communication4 ,at ,klagenfurt1 south-east of ,vienna1 commences the ,karawanken railway1 so named because it pierces the difficult mountain range of that name4 ,the stretch is only #ai miles in length1 but the country proved to be so broken that only #d miles of level track could be introduced1 and those in the vicinity of the stations6 ,throughout the remaining #ae miles the railway is really a gigantic switchback4 ,the line hugs the hill-sides1 and has to make the rough descent of the broken ,hollenburger in order to gain the level of the ,drave ,river1 to pass between the ,stattnitz on the northern and the ,karawanken chains on the southern side of the depression4 ,the mountain-side is steep and broken in the extreme4 ,in all directions gullies extended1 where the soft earth had been washed away by the violence of the snow freshets4 ,these had to be filled in with solid1 heavy embankments1 the debris for which was torn from deep cuttings through projecting humps of rock4 ,some of the gaps were too wide and deep to be overcome in this summary manner1 and had to be bridged4 ,the ,hollenburger viaduct stands out prominently among works of this kind4 ,from end to end it measures #bfb feet in length1 and in the centre the rift is #ib feet below the level of the rails4 ,the mountains sheer up precipitously on the one1 and the beautiful valley of the ,rosenbach falls away on the other1 side of the track4 ,gaining the river-bank1 the line sweeps across the waterway by a majestic lofty iron bridge #fef feet in length4 ,gaining the opposite bank1 it plunges among the well-wooded slopes of the ,karawanken belt of mountains1 effecting a good climb up and down towards the ,rosenbach valley1 which is crossed by means of a long viaduct1 consisting of four arched masonry spans each #bd feet and three steel spans of #agg feet apiece1 at a height of #agj feet4 ,the ascent is heavy1 as the objective is the northern entrance to the ,karawanken tunnel1 which burrows through the range for a distance of five miles4 ,the piercing of this subterranean passage excited considerable attention4 ,the ,austrian engineers who had achieved such a triumph in the rapid boring of the ,arlberg upheld their reputation as accomplished masters in this phase of railway-building1 notwithstanding the fact that the rocky mass was found to be of such unstable character that the tunnel had to be lined from end to end4 ,the task was taken in hand shortly after the ,austrian ,government sanctioned these railways in #aija4 ,boring was carried out simultaneously from each end4 ,the ground around each portal was quickly cleared1 and when the work was in full swing #fjjj men found employment4 ,the first step was to secure power to furnish the energy to operate the variety of mechanical appliances that were necessary to dislodge and transport the rock1 as well as to dispel the ,cimmerian gloom in the heart of the mountain4 ,there was a small waterfall six miles from the proposed southern mouth of the tunnel1 with a drop of #ce feet1 and capable of furnishing some #ijj horse-power4 ,this picturesque ,alpine cascade was harnessed and compelled to drive turbines and dynamos to generate electricity1 which was transmitted by overhead wires for six miles to the boring works at the tunnel entrance4 ,here the current was pressed into a multitude of services1 not the least important of which was the driving of the huge fans1 whereby a great volume of clean1 pure1 cool air was swept in a steady stream through the shaft to strike against the wall of rock upon which the drillers were concentrating their energies1 displacing the atmosphere contaminated by the fumes of the dynamite blasting1 grime and dust4 ,moreover1 the temperature1 which rapidly rose as the heart of the mountain was penetrated1 was tempered pleasantly by the incoming currents1 so that the fatigue of toiling in the blackness and confined space was reduced4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tauern ,,railway1 ,,showing ,,winding ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,line ,illustration3 ,,the ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,tauern ,,tunnel1 ,five and a quarter miles in length1 which occupied five years to bore through the range ,,railway ,,building ,,in ,,the ,,tyrol ,on the northern side of the tunnel similar arrangements were laid down4 ,in this instance1 however1 the electricity1 obtained by harnessing two small waterfalls1 had to operate wonderful electric drills which were used at this end for boring into the rock--on the southern side hydraulic and pneumatic drills were employed4 ,the working face in the tunnel was illuminated brilliantly by electric light1 so that the drillers laboured under conditions vastly dissimilar to those which prevailed when the first ,alpine tunnel was driven4 ,as the top of the tunnel was cut out the roof was shored up with heavy timbering1 and hard on the tracks of the excavators came the stonemasons1 cutting1 trimming1 and setting the masonry lining into position4 ,the work was so planned that the actual progress per day should be thirteen lineal feet1 and although at times the calculations were somewhat upset by something unforeseen being encountered1 yet1 taken on the whole1 the average was well maintained4 ,commenced in ,june #aijb1 the mountain chain was pierced and ready for the double line of rails by ,november #aije1 so that the work had been carried out very smartly indeed4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,huge ,,loops ,,on ,,the ,,tauern ,,railway ,showing heavy character of earth cutting and masonry work4 ,emerging from the tunnel1 the line once more becomes a single track1 and issues into the ,wurzner ,save valley1 the descent continuing until ,assling1 the terminus of the ,karawanken railway1 is reached1 this point being #aea feet below the southern mouth of the tunnel4 ,here a connection is formed with the next link in the chain1 this being the 8,wochenier0 section1 which runs to the shores of the ,adriatic at ,trieste4 ,but before the latter terminal is gained another mountain mass has to be penetrated--the ,julian ,alps4 ,it is a meandering line in very truth1 for the configuration of the country prevented more than short pieces of straight track being sandwiched here and there between sweeping curves1 elaborate winds1 stiff ascents and descents--in fact1 the longest piece of straight line is only of #f1fjj feet in the first #ee miles4 ,in running from ,assling to the seaboard #bh tunnels are threaded1 exclusive of the ,wochenier1 which is #d miles long1 #ae bridges and #cj viaducts are crossed1 while the cuttings and embankments are innumerable4 ,the railway traverses some of the most romantic and wildest scenery in the whole ,alpine chain1 especially as it approaches the southernmost clump of these mountains4 ,on this section the engineers accomplished an unparalleled engineering feat4 ,the narrow ,isonzo gorge had to be crossed1 and it was effected by throwing a single span from one bank to the other1 a matter of #gcc feet4 ,this is the longest single-arch masonry bridge in the world1 and the rail-level is #abj feet above the level of the water4 ,as the coast is approached the windings of the line become more tortuous1 while the bridging1 owing to the numerous rivers1 is terrific4 ,when at last ,opcina tunnel is penetrated1 the ,adriatic is seen spread out in a vast panorama #ajjj feet below4 ,to descend the mountain slopes with an easy grade for a distance of ten miles was a stiff problem4 ,in order to do so the engineers had to carry the track in the form of elaborate saw-like loops4 ,heavy gradients could not be avoided1 and this part of the line is one of the steepest and most trying to the locomotives4 ,though these sections of the railway had proved difficult to carry out1 it was the ,tauern link in the chain that tried the energy and ingenuity of the engineers to the supreme degree1 for on this stretch of railway the mighty ,tauern group of mountains had to be negotiated4 ,surveys showed that to pierce this clump involved the boring of a tunnel for a distance of five miles at least4 ,they proved the hardest five miles in the whole undertaking2 the piercing of the ,karawanken and ,wochenier tunnels sank into insignificance by comparison1 for this knot of the ,alps was found to be formed of much sterner rock4 ,granite gneiss1 one of the hardest substances against which it is possible to bring the edge of a drill1 made progress provokingly slow4 ,at times1 when the hand drills had to be used1 an advance of two feet in the course of twenty-four hours was considered excellent4 ,the ,brandt hydraulic drills1 however1 with the enormous energy behind them1 made the task somewhat lighter1 for they moved through the hardest rock at a rate of about seventeen feet every day1 with occasional spurts of a foot per hour4 ,in this undertaking1 however1 many misfortunes served to delay progress4 ,the task had barely commenced1 when a flood destroyed part of the works at the northern end4 ,the river whose water had been harnessed had been deviated from its accustomed path1 because it flowed over the roof of the tunnel4 ,as the engineers had no desire to invite an inundation by tapping the bed of the river waterway1 they had provided it with a new channel4 ,heavy snows and rains1 however1 so swelled the volume of the diverted river that it broke through its artificial bonds to resume its original course4 ,the result was that1 owing to the crust of earth between the old bed and the roof of the tunnel being so thin1 the water crashed through1 and poured into the tunnel in an immense cascade4 ,the men abandoned everything hurriedly1 and rushed madly for their lives from the incoming avalanche of water4 ,for days the tunnel was absolutely inaccessible4 ,not content with flooding the workings1 the impetuous torrent completed its devastation by sweeping away many of the supports to the line conveying the water to the drills under a pressure of #a1ejj pounds per square inch1 leaving the slender conduit of this great force hanging in graceful festoons in mid-air4 ,some of these gaps were as much as #bfj feet in width1 and had a break in the pipe occurred widespread damage would have been caused4 ,but the engineers set to work1 and reconstructed the temporary dam that had thus been torn roughly away and rebuilt the river's new channel4 ,at the same time they adopted such precautions as would preclude the possibility of the waterway again inundating the tunnel in times of the most severe floods4 ,such incidents1 however1 are inherent to works of this character4 ,the inundation was but one means adopted by ,nature to thwart the advance of the iron road4 ,work had scarcely been resumed1 when another disaster occurred4 ,the drills were whirring merrily against the rock face in the tunnel1 and the drillers were light-heartedly conversing with one another as they fed the boring giant in its rock-penetrating task4 ,suddenly there was a cry of alarm4 ,water was trickling rapidly from a bore-hole2 it rapidly increased in volume4 ,the drillers hurriedly withdrew their tools and backed down the cavern4 ,there was a roar1 and a limpid stream burst from the rock face4 ,the drillers stampeded2 they had tapped a subterranean spring1 and it was now rushing forth with fiendish violence4 ,the engineers hastened to the front4 ,such a contingency had been expected1 for such incidents are inseparable from tunnelling tasks of this magnitude4 ,the rushing stream was turned into one of the conduits at the side to carry it to the tunnel mouth1 where it expended its energy harmlessly by tumbling wildly among the rocks4 ,when pockets of water and springs are tapped in this manner1 the question is to control the water so encountered in such a manner that it does not interfere with the drilling work or flood the workings4 ,as a matter of fact1 when the ,simplon tunnel was in progress these underground springs were harnessed and compelled to perform useful work2 they were thrown against the rock face to keep down the internal temperature4 ,work continued incessantly day and night2 but it was hard and exhausting the farther the men advanced4 ,the drills scarcely could bite into the rock1 as it was so tough4 ,at one time the question became so acute that the engineers brought up the electric drills used in the ,karawanken undertaking in order to see if matters could not be expedited1 but they failed to make as much headway as the hydraulic tools4 ,another handicapping factor was the heat1 which rose very rapidly1 and although it did not attain that degree experienced in the boring of the ,simplon1 yet it caused considerable fatigue among the workmen engaged in such a confined space4 ,the elaborate ventilating system sufficed to keep the air as sweet and cool as possible1 but it did not solve the problem completely4 ,the workmen1 cramped as they were in the confined space--the area available for manipulating the tools only measured a few feet in each direction--often betrayed painful signs of physical distress4 ,but at last there was a wild cheer1 which echoed and re-echoed through the caverns to the tunnel's mouths4 ,those outside realised that something untoward had occurred1 and in a few seconds the news came through the gloomy depths that the drills had pierced the last #gb inches of rock separating the two headings1 and that the ,tauern was conquered4 ,that was on ,july #ba1 #aijg1 some five years after the first boulder was torn from the mountain-side4 ,once this last barrier was broken down the finishing touches were soon applied1 and the double track laid from end to end4 ,though the ,tauern tunnel constitutes the outstanding features on the section stretching from ,schwarzach ,st4 ,veit to ,villach1 there are innumerable other subsidiary works which in themselves are of importance4 ,one of more than passing interest is a clever piece of construction in order to overcome a difference of #b1ige feet in level between the ,tauern tunnel and ,ober ,villach by means of a huge 8,s0 loop four and a half miles in length4 ,the fulfilment of this undertaking constitutes one of the most remarkable railway engineering feats in ,europe4 ,certainly it ranks among the most expensive enterprises that ever have been attempted west of the ,urals4 ,to the travelling and commercial community its value is incalculable1 for ,munich1 which was formerly a tedious journey of twenty-three hours from ,trieste1 is now within twelve hours' run1 while the other great centres of ,europe have been brought proportionately nearer the ,adriatic by this new and more direct route4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,reclamation ,,of ,,alaska ,until a few years ago the popular conception of ,alaska was a vast country sealed against the efforts of civilisation by impenetrable barriers of snow and ice1 presenting such a dismal outlook as to daunt the most intrepid spirits4 ,but to-day quite a different impression prevails4 ,alaska is considered a coming country1 although it rests on either side of the invisible line denoting the ,arctic circle4 ,it is a vast mineral storehouse1 the lofty mountains containing rich deposits of all the valuable minerals of commerce1 while the dales nestling among the peaks have been found to be of wonderful fertility and capable of producing a wealth of agricultural produce4 ,one might regard the possibility of raising wheat and hay in that northern clime as a mere phantasy1 but ,i have seen cereals and hay cut in those valleys which compare very favourably in quality with the similar products grown in the great agricultural belts of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,the fact is that the interior1 far from being locked the whole year round in a temperature hovering around1 or many degrees below1 zero1 has extremes of heat and cold4 ,in the winter the snow envelops the ground to a depth of several feet1 and the mercury descends to #dj or #ej degrees below zero1 but in the summer the thermometer registers temperatures of #hj and #ij degrees4 ,while the winter grips the country for nearly two-thirds of the year1 the summer barely lasts #ajj days4 ,but what a summer it is6 ,the sun shines from a cloudless sky the whole time1 and for some twenty hours throughout the day4 ,consequently it is possible to sow and to harvest the crops within #hj days4 ,along the coast extremely cold weather scarcely ever is experienced4 ,the conditions1 in fact1 are very similar to those prevailing in ,scandinavia4 ,the coast-line of the latter country is bathed by the warm waters of the ,gulf ,stream3 the coast-line of ,alaska is swept by the warm breezes of the ,japanese chinook wind blowing off the ,pacific4 ,yet popular fallacy resulted in the country being regarded as a closed book1 and the possibility of a railway ever securing sufficient traffic to justify its existence was ridiculed to scorn twenty years ago4 ,but the past two decades have witnessed strange developments4 ,the railway engineer has penetrated the country1 and to-day there is a scene of great activity to connect the remarkable discoveries of metals among the mountains with convenient points of shipment along the coast4 ,it was the discovery of gold1 and the subsequent rush to the 8,klondike10 that brought about the unlocking of ,alaska1 and which was responsible for bringing a country of #eia1jjj square miles within the purview of the railway-builder4 ,a rude collection of timber shacks and tents sprung up like mushrooms on a little indent on the seashore1 and to-day is a healthy1 prosperous town and port--,skaguay4 ,from this point the daring spirits infected with the 8yellow fever0 pushed inland over the gaunt1 snow-clad mountains to the 8fields10 enduring privations untold and experiences that make the blood run cold in order to gain the new ,eldorado4 ,the trail was blazed with the bleached bones of animals and pioneers eager to be first on the spot4 ,of roads there were none--there was not even a rough path4 ,those early seekers had to tread one with their own feet4 ,no sooner had the first reports concerning the discoveries of gold at ,dawson trickled through1 to be substantiated by subsequent investigations1 than the possibility of building a railway from the coast to the gold-fields1 in order to lift the men over the most difficult and hazardous part of the journey1 was discussed4 ,indeed1 among one of the earliest bands which trailed across the ,chilkoot ,pass in a thick black line were one or two surveyors spying out the general characteristics of the country4 ,less than two years after the excitement first flared up the plans for a line #aab miles in length1 extending practically through unknown country1 had been prepared4 ,one end of the line rested on the seashore at ,skaguay1 while the other reposed at ,white ,horse1 near ,lake ,lebarge1 where communication was effected with the wonderful inland waterway of the country1 the river ,yukon4 ,it was not a long railway in comparison with other great systems of the world1 but it was a highly ambitious enterprise1 for it was destined to lift man and freight over the most terrible part of the country1 the coast range which had been the grave of scores of fortune-hunters4 ,the prime mover in this undertaking was an accomplished engineer who is quite at home in such inhospitable territory4 ,he was sanguine of its financial success1 but when he approached ,american financiers for support he was laughed to scorn4 ,but this man was not to be cast down so easily4 ,foiled in his efforts to enlist the practical sympathy of his own countrymen1 he came to ,london and sought ,british assistance1 for in the matter of railway pioneering the ,british financier is probably the greatest plunger4 ,he required roughly #a1jjj1jjj1 or #e1jjj1jjj1 and what was more1 he secured it4 ,the firmness and boldness with which the capitalists of ,london supported what was regarded as a hare-brained scheme astonished the ,american financial world4 ,the ultimate success of the enterprise1 however1 was even more surprising to them1 and they more than regretted their refusal to support the undertaking when it was originally laid before them4 ,one eminent authority belaboured his compatriots soundly for their lack of foresight and initiative1 and aptly remarked1 8,as long as the ,british know how to grasp the trade of the world1 when and where it is most profitable1 they have no immediate cause to worry about ,german and ,american competition40 ,armed with the requisite cash resources1 the projector lost no time4 ,he hurried back to ,alaska and commenced his attack upon the towering mountain chain4 ,his arrival in 8shack-town0 with an efficient staff and materials signalised the transition of ,skaguay from a tumbledown1 disreputable collection of shanties into an important1 well-built port4 ,the engineer realised only too well that he had a desperate task confronting him4 ,the maps and reports of the territory he intended to traverse were found to be absolutely unreliable4 ,he discarded the whole lot and advised his own survey expeditions to prepare their own cartographical guides4 ,five surveys were run1 and five alternate routes for the line between the coast and ,white ,horse were completed before selection was made definitely4 ,then the rock and earth commenced to fly4 ,there was a call for #ejjj men4 ,skaguay was the starting-point1 the first spadeful of earth being turned near the water's edge4 ,a narrow gauge--three feet--was adopted as being more economical to build1 while from the traffic point of view it was considered to be more than adequate4 ,as the small gangs of men armed with pick-axes and shovels advanced up the main street of the town in embryo1 defining the grade1 the enthusiasm knew no bounds4 ,it was an occasion for a frantic outburst of revelry4 ,the conquest of the dreaded ,white ,pass had commenced3 the most northerly railway on the ,american continent was under way2 and the time was not far distant when the miners would be able to pass from coast to gold-fields with no more danger or discomfort than attends one who travels from ,london to ,scotland or from ,new ,york to ,chicago4 ,for the first five miles the going was easy1 as the line was plotted through practically level country with only a slight ascent in order to strike the mountains at a convenient point4 ,two months after the first sod was turned down by the waterside this section was completed and opened for traffic1 an event which was not permitted to pass by without another outbreak of jubilation4 ,the feature that most astonished the inhabitants1 however1 was the vigour with which the presiding genius pushed his enterprise forward4 ,the gold rush was at its height1 and hundreds of new arrivals poured into ,skaguay from every arriving boat4 ,one and all were bound for the diggings1 and they proceeded as far as possible over the railway1 to continue a wearisome toil afoot from the railhead4 ,to these men the completion of the line meant more than one can realise from a distance4 ,that plod over the mountain crest through a pass which is so steep that it appeared to lean back was heroic4 ,as the engineer penetrated the mountains his task became more exacting1 perilous1 and the pace of the advance eased up appreciably4 ,there was no dearth of labour1 for new arrivals1 not having the wherewithal to gain the gold region1 or others who1 having ventured there to meet only with misfortune and ill-luck1 were only too glad to seize the opportunity to earn a good day's pay on the building of the ,white ,pass ,yukon railway1 as it is called4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,hour',s ,,work3 ,,navvies ,,preparing ,,the ,,grade ,,along ,,the ,,main ,,street ,,of ,,skaguay ,illustration3 ,photos1 ,draper1 ,skaguay ,,by ,,railway ,,to ,,the ,,klondike--,,the ,,white ,,pass ,,and ,,yukon ,,line ,,under ,,construction ,laying the metals at the head of ,lake ,bennett1 showing construction camp4 ,the engineer decided to keep his grades as easy as possible1 but during the course of #ae miles through the mountains he found very quickly that this was no easy matter4 ,he had to gain the summit of the pass1 an altitude of #b1hhh feet1 in this distance1 and it was found quite hopeless without a climb of #a in #ae4 ,much of the country lying in his path never had been trodden by man4 ,below the snow-line it was covered thickly with virgin forest1 tangled undergrowth and dead-fall piled up to a tremendous height1 through which the men had to axe their way at a snail's pace4 ,above the line where timber ceased to thrive cliffs rose up sheer1 with their faces so polished by the ,arctic gales and weather as to be as slippery as ice and affording no foothold whatever4 ,in order that the workmen might gain a purchase for the wielding of their tools1 huge logs were slung down from convenient heights1 held in position by massive chains attached to iron dogs driven into the rock1 and on this flimsy foothold the men were compelled to prosecute their tasks as best they could4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dismal ,,tract ,,of ,,swamp ,,and ,,river ,,through ,,which ,,the ,,alaskan ,,central ,,railway ,,makes ,,its ,,way ,one of the most complex difficulties was in regard to the bringing up of provisions and stores for the men1 and the requisite material for the railway4 ,the base of supplies was over #ajjj miles away1 every ounce of necessities having to be brought up by water from ,seattle or ,vancouver4 ,the little army was cut off entirely from the outside world1 news of which could be gleaned only when a boat called at ,skaguay4 ,the absence of telegraphic communication was a deficiency which was felt the most sorely4 ,the post1 intermittent and uncertain1 as there was no regular service1 was the sole vehicle of communication4 ,consequently extreme care had to be observed to preserve a continuous stream of the material required4 ,the omission of this or that entailed a delay of anything from ten days upwards4 ,at one point a lofty granite tooth #gj feet wide and #bj feet thick sheered up in front of the engineer to a height of #abj feet4 ,he neither attempted to go round nor through the obstacle4 ,he brought up a squad of expert drillers1 and soon they were engaged in honeycombing the base of the cliff with deep holes4 ,charges of explosives were rammed home1 and when detonated the whole crag1 a crumbling mass of rock1 rattled down into the ravine4 ,the pedestal of this cliff was then smoothed off1 and thereon the sleepers and metals were laid4 ,by dint of prodigious effort1 continued without intermission both day and night the whole week through1 without even a respite for ,sundays1 the engineer succeeded in carrying the railway forward for a distance of #dj miles and over the summit of the pass in a single season4 ,such an achievement in the face of the abnormal difficulties encountered1 in such a short space of time1 was indeed memorable4 ,satisfied with this result1 the engineer called a halt4 ,his men were in dire need of rest1 and as there was no object in exposing them unduly to the rigours of the terrible winter now that the back of the task had been broken1 constructional work was suspended for a few months4 ,but it was not a period of complete inactivity4 ,he had planned his work for the following summer1 and during the winter months he pressed the snow-covered country into service for the erection of his constructional camps1 the disposition of building material1 provisions and stores at convenient points over a long distance ahead4 ,one cannot help admiring the perspicacity of the man identified with this peculiar enterprise4 ,when he sought financial assistance to further his scheme he argued that directly the railway had negotiated the summit1 remunerative traffic would develop4 ,so it proved4 ,confident in these anticipations1 the guiding hand had ordered considerable rolling-stock to be hurried to ,skaguay while his graders were forcing their way to the summit1 and when the pass was overcome a service was inaugurated4 ,yet it is doubtful if the engineer scarcely expected the results that were experienced4 ,the adequacy of his rolling-stock over the first #dj miles was tested to breaking point4 ,the pack-trail over the pass was abandoned as quickly as a candle is extinguished by a gust of wind when the first train was announced4 ,the miners braved the elements1 pitiless cold and dazzling snow1 no longer4 ,from the railway to-day one can still see decaying evidences of a bygone bustle and activity attending the trek of the first prospectors and pioneers to the ,klondike in the falling shacks and huts scattered along the trail1 which before the advent of the iron horse were centres of life and revelry1 but which to-day are wrapped in forlorn desolation4 ,scarcely a person enters or even passes their doors now4 ,so soon as the winter broke1 the engineer brought his forces to the front once more4 ,the line skirts ,lake ,bennett4 ,white ,horse1 on the head waters of the ,yukon1 some #gb miles ahead1 was the objective1 and the engineer was determined to reach that inland terminus that season by hook or by crook4 ,as the line skirts ,lake ,bennett1 and this sheet of water is navigable1 he decided to use it temporarily until ,white ,horse was reached1 the railway consequently being resumed from the head of the lake4 ,this was a justifiable course1 inasmuch as the building of the line along the waterside would have occupied considerable time owing to physical characteristics1 while it was imperative that ,white ,horse should be reached without delay4 ,the coming of spring saw the graders regirding themselves for another wrestle with the rock and gravel4 ,before they had gone very far the edge of a lake was gained4 ,its banks were precipitous and did not lend themselves to a feasible track4 ,an ingenious solution of the problem was essayed4 ,the engineer decided to lower the level of this sheet of water by some #ad feet and to build his grade on a shelf which surveys showed there would be exposed4 ,to this end he cut a small outlet4 ,but as the vent was driven through soft soil and totally inadequate to resist the pent-up force of the escaping water1 the latter widened the breach into such a deep and wide channel that the lake was lowered by no less than #gj feet6 ,this result opened up a new difficulty1 escape from which was only practicable by the erection of two large bridges spanning the rift left by the receding waters4 ,as a result1 the line does not run round the lake as planned originally1 but cuts directly across its bed4 ,when at last the metals were laid into ,white ,horse and the ,yukon ,river was gained1 the engineer retraced his footsteps to push ahead with the last link around ,lake ,bennett1 so that through rail connection between the coast and the ,yukon ,river might be possible that year4 ,this was a heavy piece of work owing to the indentation of the lake-shore and the number of crags that dropped into the water4 ,but by blasting away the faces of the promontories to fashion a narrow gallery upon which to lay the track1 and by dumping the rock shivered by the explosives into the bays to form embankments1 an easy alignment was secured4 ,although the railway overcomes mountains running up to a height of #gjjj feet1 only one tunnel was found to be necessary4 ,curves are numerous and sharp1 so that the line describes a sinuous route among the peaks4 ,although on the ascent of the mountains from a point #e miles out of ,skaguay grades of #a in #be were found unavoidable to gain the summit1 the descent on the opposite side is much easier1 for the difference in level of the ,white ,pass summit and ,white ,horse summit1 #ia miles beyond1 is only #hjh feet4 ,however1 the line between these two levels is built for the most part on forced grades4 ,bearing in mind the character of the country traversed1 where lofty peaks and steep precipices alternate with deep gorges and wide clefts1 it is obvious that such a railway as this could not be completed without recourse to heavy bridging4 ,in all there are #aa1dej lineal feet of such structures4 ,there are seven steel bridges1 one of which1 just before the summit is gained1 is #djj feet in length1 with the centre #bae feet above the bottom of the gorge4 ,taken on the whole1 labour was not so difficult a problem in ,alaska then as it is to-day1 despite the remote situation of the constructional work1 for reasons already explained4 ,the enterprise found employment for about #ce1jjj men1 and it speaks volumes for the care exercised in regard to their comfort and welfare1 that only #ce men met their deaths through accident and disease1 notwithstanding the high pressure with which work was maintained4 ,the men for the most part were far more intelligent than those generally identified with such work4 ,to illustrate the extreme fascination that gold exercises over these prospector-navvies1 one incident is worth relating4 ,the men were driving the grade with great zest1 quite contented with their lot1 because the majority had tasted the bitterness of ill-luck at the ,klondike4 ,one day news trickled into the camp of the discovery of a new goldstrike not far distant in ,british ,columbia4 ,it galvanised the labourers like electricity1 awoke all slumbering ambitions and re-erected all the castles in the air which ,dawson had dispelled so ruthlessly4 ,a solid phalanx of #a1ejj men threw down their tools and clamoured round the pay-office of the engineers for their wages due to them forthwith4 ,not having received any premonitory warning of this development1 the engineer inquired what was the matter1 thinking that possibly a 8strike0 was being nursed4 ,as the wages were paid the men stampeded off to see if ,fortune could be wooed any more easily at ,atlin than she could be won at ,klondike4 ,as the railway was pushed through hurriedly while the ,klondike gold fever was at its height1 some of the work was of a temporary character1 but once the communication was established the whole line was overhauled4 ,timber trestles and bridges were replaced by heavier substantial metallic structures1 and the earthworks were strengthened4 ,to-day the road compares with any to be found on the continent4 ,the service is daily1 except ,sundays1 and the line is patrolled regularly for boulders or avalanches which may have crashed down the mountain-sides1 to come to rest on the track1 and which form fearsome obstructions to a train4 ,in winter it is kept open by means of the rotary snow-ploughs4 ,this is no easy task1 for the blizzards among mountains of the north are ferocious in their severity4 ,drifting snow often fills the cuttings to a depth of #ce feet or so4 ,two locomotives harnessed to one of these snow-clearers generally contrive to force a clean open passage through the fleecy mass1 however4 ,it may be pointed out that this railway possesses the largest type of narrow-gauge engines in the world1 the engine and tender in working order turning the scale at #ajf tons4 ,travel from our point of view appears somewhat expensive1 since it averages #as4 or #be cents per mile4 ,the total cost of constructing and building the railway amounted to #hej1jjj1 or #d1bej1jjj4 ,the most expensive section was that from ,skaguay to the ,white ,pass summit1 this first twenty miles involving an expenditure of #djj1jjj1 or #b1jjj1jjj4 ,in the first season after completion1 however1 its gross receipts were #hjj1jjj1 or #d1jjj1jjj1 #be per cent4 of which was absorbed by working expense4 ,one outcome of the remarkable success attending the pioneer ,alaskan railway was the embarkation upon another undertaking in the same country1 this time under ,united ,states auspices4 ,this1 however1 was a far more ambitious scheme4 ,it involved the building of a standard-gauge road from ,seward1 in ,resurrection ,bay1 some miles north of ,skaguay1 to the town of ,fairbanks1 #dfc miles inland1 the idea being not only to bring the latter point into touch with the coast1 but also to tap rich coal deposits and vast forests of lumber4 ,unfortunately this project has not been attended with that success which marked the ,white ,pass ,yukon line4 ,after #ed miles were completed its finances became so entangled as to require the offices of a receiver to straighten matters out4 ,however1 it must be explained that several unforeseen circumstances contributed to this chequered career over which the engineers had no control4 ,such calamities as floods1 arising from the melting snows swelling the glacial rivers1 landslides and avalanches wrought widespread damage time after time4 ,moreover1 constructional work was not quite so straightforward as on the road more to the south1 for progress was arrested repeatedly by the necessity of carrying out heavier work than the surveys contemplated4 ,seward is situate on a flat1 and the line was driven through a convenient river valley from this point into the mountains4 ,the absence of any roads or even trails rendered investigation of the country fringing the proposed route precarious and trying because large stretches of swamp occupied the valleys1 while the mountains were torn and broken1 rising up steeply on either side4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wonderful ,,horseshoe ,,timber ,,trestle #a1bdj ,,feet ,,long1 ,,varying ,,from #dj ,,to #ij ,,feet ,,high1 ,,on ,,the ,,central ,,alaskan ,,railway ,over #a1jjj1jjj lineal feet of timber was used in its construction4 ,the line was to conform in every particular to a first-class trunk system1 with a maximum grade of only #a in #ej1 with few and easy curves4 ,that was the idea on paper1 but it proved a terrible task to attempt to reduce theory to practice4 ,directly the base of operations at ,seward was left1 the engineers found the country in its primeval condition1 the ground being covered with a tall1 dense1 dank grass between five and six feet in height1 and tangled thick forests4 ,clearing alone was a tedious job1 and the prevalence of bog rendered movement slow and exasperating4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,wash-,,out ,,caused ,,by ,,the ,,placer ,,river ,,in ,,flood ,showing-the extensive damage inflicted upon the embankment4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,obliteration ,,of ,,the ,,line ,,by ,a ,,landslide ,over #a1bjj feet of track was torn up and carried #bjjj feet down the mountain-side4 ,,two ,,visitations ,,of ,,nature ,,which ,,overwhelm ,,the ,,central ,,alaskan ,,railway ,,periodically4 ,as a rule it is mountains which offer a deterring barrier to the engineer1 but in this instance it was the valleys which presented the most searching difficulties4 ,the practical route for the line lay through the ,placer ,river ,valley1 and the negotiation of this depression in order to preserve the grade and alignment was beset with innumerable perplexities4 ,after leaving the coast the railway has to climb gradually until it gains and crosses the summit of the watershed at an altitude of #a1jej feet and #de miles out of ,seward4 ,then comes a sharp drop for #c miles1 followed by a more rapid descent for #bjj feet or so4 ,in times gone by a huge glacier filled this valley4 ,at the head the ravine narrows sharply and leads into a canyon1 where the rocky wall rises up on either hand almost perpendicularly to a height of some #gjj feet4 ,this rift is about three-quarters of a mile in length1 and opens into another valley at the foot of a large glacier which leads to a bay on the coast known as ,turnagain ,arm4 ,so sharp is the descent that in the course of #bb miles some #ijj feet has to be overcome4 ,the drop from the summit at the #dhth mile-post out of ,seward for a distance of #f miles puzzled the engineers sorely4 ,six surveys had to be run through this short canyon1 and even then a grade of less than double the #a in #ej was found impracticable4 ,the configuration of the rift did not permit official requirements to be carried out with economy4 ,even the grade twice that demanded was found unattainable without six tunnels and seven large curves4 ,the survey was a perilous undertaking owing to the extreme steepness of the cliff-sides and the vegetation clinging to the rocky face4 ,the rodmen working with the survey parties had to be slung in mid-air from ropes to enable the requisite calculations to be made4 ,the difficulties of the survey were surpassed by those of construction4 ,the very first tunnel brought this home with startling vividity4 ,it is #gjj feet in length1 and is almost entirely on a curve of about #djj feet radius burrowing through a projecting hump of the main chain4 ,in order to gain the tunnel a broad sweep of the same radius as that of the tunnel curve had to be made1 and the two works together form two-thirds of a circle4 ,but one portal of the tunnel opens out on the brink of a precipice1 the mountain-side falling away abruptly at that point4 ,so in order to carry the line forward a huge artificial work had to be carried out4 ,this is a timber trestle which constitutes one of the most outstanding features of the line4 ,from end to end it measures #a1bdj feet in length1 while it varies in height from #dj to #ij feet1 some of the outside members being no less that #abj feet in length4 ,over #a1jjj1jjj feet of timber was used in its construction4 ,as a matter of fact1 the extent of timber trestling upon this railway cannot fail to impress the visitor4 ,in the valleys the line is laid almost entirely upon a wooden grade1 owing to the absence of stable solid ground upon which to raise embankments1 while the rivers are spanned by steel bridges ranging in span from #hj to #ajj feet in the clear4 ,as the rivers rise and fall considerably according to the season1 the abutments had to be set well back from the low channel1 and1 moreover1 had to be protected heavily by piling to withstand the severe scouring that takes place when the waterways are in flood and they rush along with the speed of a cataract4 ,more than #ej per cent4 of the work through the canyon is tunnelling1 which aggregates #b1hjj feet out of #d1hjj feet4 ,there was no other way of overcoming the abrupt cliff-sides1 and but for the rifts and clefts in their flanks its extent would have been greater4 ,this was the work which occupied so much time and consumed so much money1 for the rock was found to be intensely hard4 ,steam drilling was attempted at first1 but the temperature within the borings rose so high as to become intolerable4 ,therefore this plant had to be discarded in favour of compressed air drills4 ,with their aid a hole #ba feet in height1 by #ad and #af feet in width1 to carry a single track1 was hewn and blasted out4 ,the installation of the power plant to operate the drills was a pretty problem4 ,it could not be set up on the same side of the canyon as the borings were being made1 so had to be rigged up at a convenient point on the opposite wall near the upper end of the gorge1 the power being transmitted through piping4 ,in order to carry the latter across the gulch a temporary suspension bridge #acj feet long was erected1 and as it was also employed for the purpose of conveying materials and men from one cliff to the other1 was made heavier than otherwise4 ,in addition to perforating the shoulders of the mountains1 deep clefts in the mountain faces had to be spanned or masses of obstructing rock had to be blown out of the way4 ,in one instance there was a couloir which required a #ij-;foot span bridge to cross from one side to the other1 while in another case #cjj feet of solid rock1 aggregating over #ej1jjj tons of rock1 had to be torn down to enable the grade to proceed from one tunnel to the other4 ,about thirteen months were required to carry the line through this stretch of #d1hjj feet4 ,the struggles with the rock were equalled by the wrestles with ,nature in the valleys4 ,these are to all intents and purposes beds of rivers whose boundaries are the bases of the mountains on either side4 ,as a result1 the whole of the depression is practically a swamp1 with the river cutting a tortuous path apparently through the centre4 ,the word 8apparently0 is used because what is the main channel of the river to-day will be semi-dry land probably next year1 because in the flood season1 when the rivers are fed by melting snows1 to speed along with fiendish velocity1 they are just as likely as not to cut out an entirely new path through the soft soil4 ,if the railway embankment bars its passage the whole obstruction is swept away4 ,hundreds of feet of completed line have been demolished in this manner4 ,if the rushing river is unable to break through the embankment it swirls around the obstruction1 rapidly undermining the foundations1 with the result that a bad cave-in ensues1 which is in every way as bad as a clean wash-out1 except that perhaps the railway metals and sleepers can be retrieved4 ,even the mountain-sides1 solid though they appear1 are not free from ,nature's playful antics4 ,when the spring sun comes round and melts heavy masses of snow on the higher levels there is trouble looming below4 ,the snow slips on the crest4 ,gathering impetus with every succeeding foot in its descent1 the avalanche picks up boulders1 trees and other debris1 to hurl them with terrific force against the handiwork of man1 wiping it completely out of existence4 ,one slide caught the unfortunate railway in this manner1 tore up #a1bjj feet of permanent way1 and threw it1 a twisted mass of iron and splintered timber1 a third of a mile away4 ,considering the overwhelming odds against which the engineer was pitted1 it is not surprising that work was brought to a standstill4 ,the situation was summed up very graphically by one of the engineers whom ,i met4 8,if ,nature would only leave us alone once we have built the line1 we should not care what kind of fight she put up against us to delay our advance4 ,but all the money which could be devoted to new construction is devoured in rebuilding track which is either washed away or buried40 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,holy ,,railway ,,to ,,mecca ,while the majority of railways are constructed to meet the exigencies of commerce1 and occasionally from considerations of military strategy1 there is one striking instance of a line being built expressly for religious purposes4 ,this is the ,hedjaz railway1 which stretches its sinuous1 glittering arm of steel from ,damascus for nearly #ajjj miles southwards through the inhospitable deserts of ,palestine and ,arabia to ,mecca and ,medina1 the sacred cities of the ,moslem faith4 ,the railway was built entirely by ,mahommedans for ,mahommedans1 every penny required for the scheme being subscribed by the members of this vast sect4 ,every member of the ,faithful cherishes one ambition in life--to make the 8,hadj10 or ,sacred ,journey to the cradle and shrine of the ,prophet4 ,a few years ago this was an undertaking from which all but those blinded by religious fervour shrank4 ,the journey had to be completed afoot1 by camel or caravan1 according to the financial status of the pilgrim2 but whatever method of transit was favoured1 the self-same dangers prevailed1 though obviously they were experienced most severely by those who were compelled to have recourse to ,shanks' ,pony4 ,the route extended through practically uninhabited1 sterile plains1 upon which the sun beat down mercilessly1 and the heat overhead was only equalled by that reflected from the glaring sand1 which blistered the feet and imparted a fiery1 maddening thirst4 ,food and water had to be carried by the pilgrim1 because no sustenance could be obtained by the wayside4 ,even the welcome oases1 with their refreshing1 cooling rills and pools of water beneath the shade of the palms1 are few and far between4 ,to the dangers of hunger1 thirst and physical exhaustion there had to be included those from the attacks of the marauding ,bedouins1 who hung on the sides of the overland route1 ever on the look-out to despoil the traveller4 ,these brigands were most daring and ferocious in their depredations4 ,they robbed the pilgrim of all he possessed1 and if his poverty resulted in a meagre reward for their attack1 they bludgeoned him mercilessly for not being better provided with this world's goods1 and left him bleeding and dying in the sun4 ,every year hundreds of pilgrims paid the penalty for their zeal4 ,they set out from ,damascus on their mission of duty and faith never to return4 ,so powerless was the ,ottoman ,government that these relentless nomads pursued their life of brigandage and preying on the pilgrims unchecked and without fear of punishment4 ,the ,hedjaz railway was conceived in order to remove these perils and privations4 ,when the ,sultan published the details of his idea it was hailed with unalloyed enthusiasm by every ,mahommedan throughout the world1 and one and all contributed towards the furtherance of the scheme4 ,the fulfilment of this enterprise will always rank as a magnificent achievement in the romance of railway engineering2 the methods by which the numerous obstacles were broken down as they arose contribute fascinating incidents to a thrilling story4 ,when it is remembered that approximately #ajjj miles of metals had to be laid through some of the most sterile and difficult country on the globe2 that some #djjj bridges1 viaducts and tunnels had to be built to span rushing rivers1 yawning chasms1 and to penetrate precipitous bluffs2 that sudden drops had to be made from highlands to valleys1 and equally steep ascents from depressions to plateaus1 then a faint idea of the formidable character of the undertaking may be gathered4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,helladjian ,a ,,striking ,,piece ,,of ,,railway ,,building ,,in ,,the ,,yarmuk ,,gorge ,the railway track is hewn out of the cliff1 swings round the head of the gorge and reappears on the opposite side4 ,for months the constructional engineers were buried in the midst of the biting1 scorching and driving sand1 quite isolated from the outside world1 the clang of the tools being the only sound breaking a silence so intense that it could be felt4 ,occasionally the news filtered through that the implacable nomads roaming the sweltering plains had swooped down upon the camps and that a desperate hand-to-hand struggle had been waged4 ,minute details were not vouchsafed1 for such incidents became so frequent as to become monotonous4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,of ,a ,,chasm ,,in ,,palestine1 ,,through ,,which ,,the ,,line ,,follows ,a ,,winding ,,path ,,on ,,the ,,left ,illustration3 ,photos1 ,helladjian ,a ,,masonry ,,bridge ,,on ,,the ,,holy ,,railway1 ,,showing ,,solidity ,,of ,,construction ,,and ,,mountainous ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,country ,yet the authorities scarcely anticipated that these marauders would wage such a relentless war against the advance of the railway as did eventually come to pass4 ,yet it was not surprising4 ,the ,bedouins realised that the completion of the railway would bring their life of pillage and murder to an end1 and accordingly they challenged every foot of its advance4 ,sometimes they won1 massacred the encampment1 and destroyed the line for some distance2 at others they lost and were routed right and left4 ,the story of the ,mahdi's opposition to the ,british penetration of ,egypt was repeated in ,palestine and ,arabia1 only1 if anything1 with more determined fury4 ,the soldiers worked with their arms beside them1 and protected by a line of guards thrown out some distance around the railhead4 ,the military commandant was given a free hand to keep back the savage tribes in such a manner as he considered expedient1 in order to permit the engineers to lay the metals as fast as possible1 and without fear of being molested4 ,when the work was inaugurated the ,turkish ,government appointed a strong man to the command of the protective troops4 ,it was a responsible and dangerous position1 for the authorities recognised from bitter experience the implacable fury of these tribesmen when fully roused4 ,field-,marshal ,kaisim ,pasha was appointed to the military directorship1 and he proved the right man in the right place4 ,his reputation and grim determination to subdue lawlessness were well known to the bandits1 and the ,government hoped that his appointment to the protection of the enterprise would strike terror into the hearts of the ,bedouins4 ,but far from it4 ,it appeared to urge them to greater daring1 and they hung on his flanks relentlessly1 cutting off stragglers ruthlessly1 and keeping him constantly on the alert4 ,the ,field-,marshal was kept in a state of perpetual anxiety1 because he never knew upon which side or where he would be attacked next4 ,brushes were almost of daily occurrence1 and the success of one side or the other fluctuated like a barometer4 ,once the nomads caught ,kaisim ,pasha at a heavy disadvantage4 ,the navvies and engineers were busy at work as usual on the permanent way1 with the military outpost thrown well out on all sides4 ,suddenly there was a savage1 heart-rending yell1 and the desert became alive with the swarthy1 active and powerful1 infuriated bandits4 ,in an irresistible wave they swept down upon the railhead4 ,the outposts stood their ground1 but they were overwhelmed in the rush4 ,the ,field-,marshal hurriedly called one and all to arms4 ,the navvies threw down their hammers1 pick-axes1 shovels1 and other tools1 grabbed their rifles1 and supported the soldiers4 ,but there was no stemming that savage1 rushing horde4 ,the tribesmen fanatically threw themselves upon the position1 and to such advantage that the commander was compelled to retire1 leaving #ajj dead upon the field4 ,construction was arrested completely for a time4 ,the bandits1 inspired with their initial success1 hung about1 and at the slightest attempt at a sally1 concentrated and bore down1 driving the soldiers back4 ,the situation became so critical that ,kaisim ,pasha determined to teach the nomads a severe lesson once and for all4 ,he hurriedly sent home for reinforcements1 together with ten battalions of artillery1 which were despatched post-haste to his assistance4 ,when his forces were strengthened sufficiently he issued forth1 and in turn caught the nomads by surprise4 ,the soldiers1 who had been chafing under the reverse they had suffered and their prolonged inability to revenge their fallen comrades1 seized the opportunity and carried home the attack with spirited energy4 ,for a time the bandits stood their ground1 offering a stubborn resistance4 ,the artillery shelled them out of their entrenchments1 and the modern machine-guns and magazine rifles so swept them down when they ventured into the open1 that at last they broke their ranks and fled in disorder4 ,the ,turks pursued and scattered their enemy to the four winds4 ,the ,bedouin losses were tremendous1 and their ranks were cut up so completely1 and their organisation was so crushed1 that no further concerted action was taken to dispute the advance of the line to ,mecca4 ,occasionally raids were made upon stations and completed sections1 but such attacks were found to be attributable to independent1 irresponsible units4 ,comparative tranquillity prevailed until the last division connecting the sacred cities with the ,red ,sea was taken in hand1 and then one day the tribesmen made another raid1 wiping out the whole of the constructional forces4 ,when the line was commenced1 ,h4 ,meissner ,pasha1 the enterprising ,german engineer selected to carry out the scheme1 was given simply the two terminals of the line--,damascus and ,mecca--roughly #ajjj miles apart1 and instructed to connect them by rail as best he could4 ,it is to ,meissner ,pasha1 therefore1 that the full credit of carrying the line to success must be extended1 for upon his shoulders fell the brunt of the work4 ,he had to plot its path1 had to be at the railhead to evolve a solution for a problem as it arose1 and had to force his way through1 over1 or around obstacles as they confronted him4 ,in this task he displayed considerable ingenuity and resource1 while he appeared to be possessed of tireless energy4 ,the handling of huge corps of men of varying nationalities--,turks1 ,montenegrins1 ,greeks1 ,cretans1 ,bedouins1 and so on--was no simple matter in itself1 but he possessed the happy faculty of infusing all who worked under him with his own enthusiasm and ambition to get the line completed in the shortest possible time4 ,in addition to these duties of an essentially technical character1 he had to attend to every want of his workmen4 ,every drop of water1 every ounce of food1 of stores1 provisions1 fuel and so forth had to be hauled over enormous distances1 and in the depths of the desert the work of maintaining these supplies became stupendous4 ,owing to his splendid organisation1 however1 his most advanced outposts never once ran short of any of the necessaries of life4 ,the monumental features of ,meissner ,pasha's constructional ingenuity1 however1 are illustrated in the remarkable series of tunnels1 bridges1 loops and windings by which the railway is carried through the ,yarmuk valley in ,palestine between the ,jordan and ,deraa1 and the negotiation of the escarpment south of ,ma'an1 where the line1 after climbing the plateau to a height of #c1gjj feet above sea-level1 drops suddenly into a yawning ravine4 ,damascus was selected as the starting-point for the railway1 and the gauge of the line extending northwards from this terminus was adopted4 ,consequently1 when the various intermediate links in the railway chain of northern ,asia ,minor are connected up1 it will be possible to run from ,constantinople to the sacred cities without change of carriage4 ,the route selected by the engineer is practically the shortest possible between the two opposite points1 and runs roughly parallel with the famous centuries-old caravan route4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,helladjian ,a ,,heavy ,,steel ,,bridge ,,in ,,course ,,of ,,erection ,,between ,,haifa ,,and ,,deraa1 ,,the ,,branch ,,from ,,the ,,main ,,sacred ,,line ,,to ,,the ,,shores ,,of ,,the ,,mediterranean ,,sea ,it was felt1 however1 although ,damascus should be the nominal northern terminus1 that it would be more advantageous from all points of view to connect the railway with the ,mediterranean ,sea1 so as to secure an independent outlet1 and one more convenient for the handling of the constructional material than ,beirut4 ,the port selected for this purpose was ,haifa1 on the ,bay of ,acre4 ,this sea branch runs inland broadly at right angles with the main line for a distance of about #ajj miles1 the junction being at ,deraa4 ,in building this section1 however1 many abstruse problems had to be unravelled1 especially in the desolate valley of the ,yarmuk4 ,here the line runs along narrow ledges cut in the mountain-side1 plunges through massive shoulders1 compasses precipitous bluffs1 winds from one side of the gorge to the other1 and crosses deep chasms by means of heavy masonry and metal bridges4 ,in this stretch the ,river ,jordan is crossed by a noble stone bridge of five arches--the only railway bridge across this sacred river--some distance below its flow from the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,helladjian ,,the ,,engineering ,,wonder ,,of ,,the ,,hedjaz ,,railway--,,the ,,sudden ,,descent ,,into 8,,the ,,devil',s ,,belly0 ,the substantial character of this railway is a feature that most impresses the visitor4 ,the bridges and viaducts are permanent structures wrought in stone or steel4 ,ample supplies of the former material were found in the mountain-sides4 ,the steel structures are of massive and lofty proportions1 and for the most part are supported upon heavy masonry piers carried deeply down into the beds of the rivers1 so that the possibility of the foundations being undermined by the scouring action of the swiftly-rushing waters is eliminated4 ,in traversing ,palestine1 the railway follows practically a straight line from ,deraa to ,ma'an1 some #bej miles to the south1 and runs roughly parallel with the ,river ,jordan1 which is some miles to the west1 while on the east stretches the vast ,stoney ,plain to the valleys of the ,tigris and ,euphrates4 ,taken on the whole1 these #bej miles were completed very rapidly1 as there were no adverse physical difficulties to be overcome4 ,it was after leaving ,ma'an to penetrate the wild and but little-known ,hedjaz ,peninsula that the engineer's bitterest struggle for mastery over ,nature began4 ,it was as if the mythical ,genii of the ,lamp1 resenting the unlocking of the door to their kingdom1 combined in their efforts to baffle the railway engineer4 ,owing to the rugged character of the country the changes in level are frequent and heavy1 varying from #bjj or #cjj feet below1 to nearly #djjj feet above1 the level of the ,red ,sea4 ,there are few main lines in any part of the world that rise and fall so extensively and continuously4 ,fortunately1 in forcing the band of steel through this wild country1 the engineer was able to proceed where he liked4 ,it is simply a vast1 silent waste of sand1 with the rocks and mountains jutting their heads to the sky as the island eyries of the sea fowl rise from the sea4 ,a deviation of a few hundred feet to the east or west of the air-line to avoid a saucer-like depression1 with its heavy gradients1 was quite immaterial4 ,yet even with these advantages it was not possible always to avoid sharp curves and counter-curves1 heavy embankments1 or the blasting of deep cuttings through large clumps of rocks4 ,the engineer carried his line south of ,ma'an steadily upwards along the longitudinal ridge of a plateau1 until at last he gained an altitude of #c1gjj feet4 ,then the bank dropped sheer into a picturesque wild chasm known as ,batn-el-,ghoul1 or 8the ,devil's ,belly40 ,the line reached the brink of the precipice4 ,from there it had to be carried to the bed of the ravine which inclines to ,tabuk1 the next important point on the railway4 ,but how was that gorge to be entered8 how could the lower level be gained8 ,a detour so as to avoid the escarpment was impossible1 as the ridge stretched for miles on either hand4 ,meissner ,pasha hurried to the railhead4 ,he surveyed every foot of ground in the vicinity1 at one time clinging tenaciously to a crag2 at another being swung over a cliff by a rope2 then perched on a jagged pinnacle eagerly searching for some solution of his difficulty4 ,he traversed the pilgrim road1 which is but a mere trail dropping into the valley in a series of steep steps1 time after time4 ,the railway could not be carried parallel with the caravan road--that was perfectly obvious4 ,the line of the overland route1 which had for so long been a reliable guide1 now deserted him4 ,but the engineer refused to be daunted1 and after prolonged reconnoitring he finally evolved a remarkable project1 which proved a highly successful solution4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,helladjian ,,the ,,railway ,,in ,,the ,,domain ,,of ,,the ,,genii ,the line is to the right4 ,the fantastic shapes of the ,arabian mountains are revealed in a striking manner4 ,a railway camp in the foreground4 ,as he could not carry the line straight down into the valley1 he devised a kind of spiral1 in which the railway effects what may be best described as a 8corkscrew0 down the cliff face4 ,from the brink of the ravine it makes a gentle fall1 the line clinging to the precipices on a gallery cut for the purpose4 ,after descending for some distance1 it suddenly describes a sharp curve and winds back again4 ,then comes another loop and another redouble1 this meandering being continued until the bed of the ravine is gained4 ,it is an ingenious piece of work1 and will rank always as one of the most prominent wonders of the railway1 as well as a monument to the engineer's ingenuity4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,helladjian ,,the ,,lonely ,,path ,,of ,,the ,,pilgrim',s ,,line ,,through ,,the ,,silent1 ,,rocky ,,and ,,sandy ,,wastes ,,of ,,arabia ,its realisation1 however1 involved a tremendous struggle4 ,the mountain-sides are scarred and carved by the elements into most fantastic shapes1 with ugly1 projecting spurs4 ,these had to be blasted away1 narrow ledges or shelves in the cliff-face widened or cut to carry the metallic path1 deep rifts filled in or spanned1 and isolated peaks1 lifting their jagged nose into the sky like gaunt sentinels1 avoided4 ,this ravine is a striking and curious specimen of the handiwork of ,nature4 ,there is not a vestige of vegetation1 and all life is extinct4 ,the masses of rock1 turned into grotesque shapes by the lathe of ,nature1 stand out sharply and boldly defined against the sky-line1 owing to the clearness of the atmosphere4 ,they have a peculiar beauty1 their weird charm being accentuated by the vivid contrasting colourings of the various geological strata standing out in distinct lines4 ,looking down from the brink of the gorge1 in the glare of the noonday sun or the soft light of the sunrise or sunset1 the floor of the valley resembles a huge ,persian carpet1 with its intense multitudinous hues4 ,there is a sudden change from this natural ,oriental splendour of ,nature after the ravine is left1 for the railway passes over a dreary1 sweltering plain until ,tabuk1 the half-way house between ,damascus and ,mecca1 is gained4 ,then comes another steady climb through similar country until the summit level of the whole line is gained--#c1gej feet above sea-level1 which point also records the high-water mark of the difficulties that had to be overcome4 ,the #ehgth mile-post at ,medina ,saleh indicates the most southerly point to which the ,infidel is permitted to travel over this railway4 ,even ,meissner ,pasha and his staff of engineers who were not in the ranks of the ,faithful did not proceed farther towards ,mecca4 ,it was felt that ,mahommedans1 and ,mahommedans alone1 should have the glory of carrying the metals into the ,sacred ,city4 ,it was also feared that the presence of infidels in the vicinity of the scene of the ,prophet's nativity1 despite their mission1 possibly might inflame religious prejudices4 ,consequently1 ,meissner ,pasha handed over the reins to his first lieutenant1 ,muktar ,bey1 the accomplished ,turkish engineer who had assisted him loyally in the operations up to this point4 ,similarly1 all but ,mahommedan workmen were withdrawn from the railhead4 ,the ,ottoman engineer1 fired with his former chief's enthusiasm and energy1 pushed forward at tip-top pressure1 and the blast of the railway-whistle was heard among the mosques and palms of the ,sacred ,city for the first time early in ,august1 #aijh4 ,the railway is up-to-date in every respect4 ,the carriages are of the corridor type1 and the pilgrim who has suffered the rigours of the wearisome overland journey can appreciate the luxury1 ease and comfort of the ,pullman car4 ,the locomotives are also powerful creations of the engine-builder's craft4 ,owing to the difficulties attending the supply of water and fuel along the line1 the engines are equipped with abnormal facilities in this direction1 the largest and most powerful types carrying #djjj gallons of water4 ,the stations are substantial in character1 being built of stone1 so as to offer defiance to ,arabs1 who cannot stifle the desire to raid now and again4 ,at ,damascus extensive works1 covering an area of #ac1jjj square feet1 have been laid down for carrying out repairs to engines and rolling-stock1 the workshops being fitted with the most up-to-date time- and labour-saving machinery4 ,when ,medina was brought into touch with ,damascus1 and the widespread advantages presented by the railway became appreciated1 it was decided to push the line to ,mecca1 #cjj miles distant4 ,muktar ,bey was detailed to control these operations1 and1 establishing a subsidiary base at ,medina1 he proceeded with the extension without delay4 ,unfortunately1 on this final division the native tribes broke into hostility once more1 and resumed their brigand tactics with renewed courage4 ,on one occasion they completely overwhelmed the constructional camp1 massacred all the workmen1 and delayed construction until troops could be brought up to force their withdrawal to a safe distance4 ,considering the magnitude of this scheme1 its completion for about #c1jjj1jjj 7#ae1jjj1jjj71 or approximately #cjjj 7#ae1jjj7 per mile1 is strikingly cheap4 ,this low cost1 however1 is explicable from the fact that the ,turkish military played a very important part in its construction1 as many as #ejjj soldiers being concentrated on the task at one time4 ,the masonry work1 steel bridges and general earthworks were undertaken by labour recruited from all parts1 only one bridge and one heavy cutting being built by the troops1 who for the most part were occupied in applying the finishing touches to the permanent way and platelaying4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,highest ,,line ,,in ,,the ,,world ,while ,europe offers the most graphic illustrations of the engineer's skill and ingenuity in overcoming rugged mountains by tunnelling through their bases1 one must go to ,south ,america to discover the extraordinary methods he has adopted to negotiate similar obstructions by traversing their lofty crests4 ,it seems somewhat strange1 at first sight1 that the 8land of to-morrow0 should have been the scene of such demonstrations of genius1 but when the incalculable mineral wealth buried in the ,andes is recalled1 much of this surprise disappears4 ,the majority of the great mountain chains of the world appear puny in comparison with the mighty serrated backbone of the southern half of the ,american continent1 which runs from the equator southwards to tumble abruptly into the sea at ,cape ,horn4 ,mont ,blanc and other famous hoary ,european monarchs are insignificant beside ,aconcagua and many other snow-clad peaks beetling to the skies in its vicinity4 ,the ,cordilleras present a compressed phalanx of pinnacles running in a fairly straight1 even1 and narrow line4 ,as the equator is approached the needle points taper to bluntly rounded and rolling heads1 but the general conformation is the same4 ,the result is that the slopes are very steep1 and to carry a railway through the mass entails tortuous winding among the cones1 with steep gradients and tunnels through massive obstructions of rock4 ,the cliffs of the ,andes are probably unequalled in mountain topography for steepness and height1 the flanks in places dropping down plumb for several thousand feet4 ,there is another peculiar characteristic which severely taxes the skill of the engineer4 ,the range thrusts itself skywards very closely to the ,pacific seaboard1 so that the climb commences directly the coast is left1 and the maximum heights have to be gained within comparatively short distances4 ,for instance1 in the case of the ,oroya line1 which is the railway wonder of the world1 the traveller landing at ,callao1 in order to reach ,oroya1 #ach miles inland1 has to toil #ae1hfe feet towards the clouds in the course of #ajg miles--one of the highest points at which the piston of a railway engine throbs4 ,this ,south ,american line is not an ordinary mountain railway3 it is an audacious marvel of engineering science4 ,nor does it merely offer facilities for sight-seeing among the impressive ,cordilleras1 but acts as a traffic highway between the coast and the mines on the high inland plateau4 ,as might be supposed1 the difficulties which the engineers had to break down were numerous and stupendous4 ,moreover1 the work was extremely costly4 ,in the case of the ,oroya road it averaged about #fj1jjj1 or #cjj1jjj1 per mile1 and altogether #h1ejj1jjj 7#db1ejj1jjj7 were sunk in the enterprise--more than the total cost of the ,st4 ,gotthard railway1 with its famous tunnel and #agb miles of track4 ,the first attempt to subjugate this range by the iron road was made in the 'sixties by a daring ,philadelphia engineer1 ,henry ,meiggs4 ,his idea was ambitious in the extreme4 ,he proposed to start from ,callao1 lift the metals over the crests of the mountains1 drop down the other side on to the highlands1 and to push across the plateau until he gained a point on the mighty ,amazon which could be reached by steamer from the ,atlantic4 ,by this means the ,pacific seaports of ,south ,america would be brought into closer touch with the markets of the ,old ,world1 avoiding the protracted and hazardous journey round ,cape ,horn4 ,that the idea was never carried to success was one of the sorry tricks of ,fate4 ,internecine strife and wars with neighbouring states sapped the financial strength of ,peru to such an extent that there was not enough money to complete this grand scheme4 ,possibly some day the steel thread will be picked up again at ,oroya and forced to its original objective4 ,for the first #ajg miles this railway makes a continual ascent2 there is not a single foot of downhill in the whole distance4 ,work was commenced in #ahgj1 and was pushed forward so energetically that in the course of twelve months ,meiggs had completed #bj miles of the line1 and had the earthworks well advanced as far as ,chosica1 some #cc miles out of ,callao4 ,in order to ease his task as much as possible1 the engineer decided to follow the ,rimac ,river into the mountains4 ,but as the innermost recesses of the ,cordilleras are gained1 the river narrows considerably1 until it plunges merely through a slender defile1 the walls of the peaks dropping down precipitously into the water4 ,the result was that the engineer found it very difficult to find a natural lane for his metals1 so he had to hew and blast galleries1 to swing first from one bank to the other1 in order to seize the slightest foothold4 ,he had plunged #dg miles into the mountains and had gained an altitude of about one mile1 when he was brought to a dead stop4 ,the mountain along which he had crawled laboriously broke off abruptly4 ,further advance was impossible4 ,to have cut a tunnel would have been a herculean task1 and as the mountain wall dropped straight down below1 and towered to a dizzy height above him1 he found himself in a quandary4 ,a few feet immediately above him1 however1 he espied a ledge running parallel with that on which he had laid his track4 ,he resolved to gain that upper gallery1 but the crucial question was1 ,how8 ,then he hit upon a brilliant idea4 ,it was something new and untried in railway engineering1 but as he had already tested all existing methods to gain the point at which he now stood1 there was no alternative but to devise new ways and means of overcoming perplexing situations as they arose1 despite the apparent novelty of the solutions4 ,he resolved to lift the track from the lower to the upper ledge by a 8,v-switch40 ,illustration3 ,,meiggs' ,,masterpiece--,,the ,v-,,switch1 ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,railway ,,is ,,lifted ,,from ,,one ,,level ,,to ,,another1 ,,showing ,,turntable ,,and ,,method ,,of ,,operation ,illustration3 ,,the ,,infiernillo ,,bridge ,it is approached at either end through a tunnel1 and owing to the precipitous cliffs the men had to be slung out from the sides in rope loops and cradles to set the steel4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,horseshoe ,,curve ,,in ,a ,,tunnel ,the train enters the lower mouth1 describes a semicircular turn in the heart of the mountain1 and emerges from the upper portal4 ,the embankment on the outside of the track at the point he had gained was levelled off1 and a small turntable was erected4 ,from the latter two short lines were laid down at an angle to the track in the form of a widely opened 8,v10 with the turntable at the apex4 ,the main line cuts across the top of the 8,v10 forming a triangle1 and continues a short distance beyond4 ,the manner in which the train is lifted from the one level to the other is as follows4 ,the engine pulls it up the lower line on to the section crossing the top of the ,v1 and in such a way as to be between its two angular limbs4 ,the engine is uncoupled1 and runs down one leg of the ,v on to the turntable1 which is then swung round until the engine faces the other arm of the ,v1 up which it passes until it gains the main line4 ,it is now at the rear of the train which it was pulling a few minutes before4 ,the engine is coupled up1 and the train is pushed backwards until it is over the switch connecting with the upper level4 ,it then proceeds forward in the usual manner4 ,in reality it makes a zigzag course up the mountain-side4 ,this ingenious means of overcoming such a difficulty was tried first at ,san ,bartholom1 and proved so very economical and simple a solution of a grave difficulty that it was freely introduced by the inventor whenever similar conditions were encountered4 ,true1 the process of uncoupling and recoupling the engine occasions a little delay1 but the switch was cheaper and quite as effective as a loop1 even if the latter could have been built1 for it was found possible to lay the turntable between two tiers of metals on a gradient not exceeding #a in #be4 ,altogether there are #bb of these switches on the system4 ,the majority of them are of the simple type as we have described above1 but in some cases there is a double zigzag when the difference in level was extreme1 and did not permit of the connecting bank line being raised at an easy grade4 ,the adoption of the 8,meiggs ,v-switch10 as it is popularly called1 saved the engineer thousands of pounds4 ,in one case the switch is set in a very precarious situation1 for the climbing line winds along a perilous ledge blasted out of the solid flank of the peak1 and the traveller's heart thumps every time the train lurches as he looks down upon the curling river far1 far below on the one1 and the mountain wall combing some #bjjj feet above him on the other1 hand4 ,the ,oroya line has been described as a railway of sensations1 and it is an apt description4 ,during the process of 8,v-ing0 a train the voyager has ample opportunity to contemplate his peculiar situation at leisure4 8,highly ingenious and simple10 was the verdict of the railway world when they realised ,meiggs' handiwork4 8,but what is going to happen if a descending train runs away at one of these switches8 ,will it make a bee-line for the bottom of the canyon through the air1 or pile up against the dead-stop80 ,meiggs1 however1 did not anticipate trains running amok in this manner1 but he guarded against any such contingency1 because brakes sometimes will fail to act on a descending grade4 ,consequently1 at the end of each line in a ,v-switch he provided a substantial bank of earth4 ,this was a fortunate precaution4 ,some years ago a train1 in proceeding from the upper to the lower level1 did run away on the falling bank4 ,it crashed into the solid embankment at the dead-end1 and came to a stop in an ungainly1 heterogeneous mass of twisted ironwork and splintered wood4 ,nobody was hurt1 the debris was removed1 and the runaway engine was recovered1 overhauled1 replaced in service1 and is running to-day1 little the worse for its misadventure4 ,owing to the peaks of the ,cordilleras being separated from one another by yawning ravines1 extensive bridging became imperative4 ,some are short1 insignificant spans2 others are lofty1 spidery structures1 which were completed at the expenditure of many human lives from disease and accident4 ,as a matter of fact1 the railway earned an unsavoury reputation owing to the high mortality that attended its realisation4 ,the ,verrugas bridge was the greatest offender in this respect4 ,it was the greatest undertaking of its type on the line4 ,it is #ege feet in length1 and cleaves the air #bbe feet above the bed of the ravine4 ,there are bigger and loftier bridges in other parts of the world1 but few have been so troublesome to erect4 ,at the time it was undertaken it was the most remarkable structure of its kind1 and by the time it was completed #ab1fjj1 or #fc1jjj1 had been expended4 ,it lies at an altitude of #e1hci feet1 and was carried on three masonry piers1 the centre and main support being built up from the bed of the gorge4 ,this pier measured #ej feet square at the base1 and was of solid masonry1 thus forming a substantial plinth for the slender iron superstructure4 ,all the component parts of this bridge had to be kept within certain limits of dimension and weight1 to enable them to be hauled up from the coast and set in position on the site4 ,large gangs of workmen were crowded upon the work1 because1 until this bridge was set in position1 material could not be transported to the other side of the gorge for the continuation of the grade4 ,but the task was dogged by ill-luck4 ,work was in full swing1 when a mysterious and malignant disease broke out4 ,so furiously did it rage that the men were swept off like flies4 ,there was no means of checking its ravages4 ,it became known far and wide as the 8,verrugas fever40 ,it resisted diagnosis and treatment1 but there was no denying its deadliness4 ,as a result labour gave the district a wide berth4 ,it struck down natives and white men indiscriminately4 ,just how many men succumbed to the attacks of this epidemic probably never will be known4 ,men contracted the malady1 died1 and were buried all within the space of a few hours after reaching the site2 indeed1 it is chronicled that one man fell a victim after crossing the bridge only once4 ,this mysterious and terrible scourge threatened to stop the whole enterprise1 though ,meiggs spared no effort and money to bring about its completion4 ,the most attractive inducements were held out to workmen to come up and risk their lives1 but only the more adventurous1 fascinated by the high wages1 dared to face death in an uncanny form4 ,it was mainly through the efforts of such happy-go-lucky spirits that the gorge was spanned ultimately4 ,meiggs himself appeared to bear a charmed life1 for he haunted the fated gorge day and night4 ,but the awful experience seriously undermined his health1 his constitution was wrecked1 and he was changed into an old man4 ,still he clung tenaciously to his enterprise4 ,the gorge crossed1 he found himself among the wildest fastnesses of the ,andes4 ,the mountains became steeper1 the intervening gulches deeper and more difficult to cross4 ,landslides were of such frequent occurrence that they might well have struck terror into his heart4 ,yet he fought his way forward4 ,blasting became heavier and heavier1 wide sweeping curves more frequent1 the ascent steeper and steeper1 and tunnelling through projecting spurs more frequent4 ,in these upper reaches the trains play a gigantic game of hide-and-seek1 darting in and out among the labyrinth of tunnels4 ,in a distance of #ej miles he had to drive his path through no less than #eg of these obstructions1 while altogether there are #fe tunnels in the #ach miles of the railway's length4 ,the line doubles and redoubles upon itself in the most bewildering manner in order to gain points on the mountain-sides4 ,in the course of #aa miles between ,matucana and ,tamboraque this scaling by means of the zigzag was exceedingly heavy4 ,standing at the latter station and looking down1 one can see tier after tier of the gleaming metals1 until they are lost to sight far below4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,verrugas ,,viaduct1 ,,which ,,was ,,destroyed ,,by ,a ,,cloudburst ,,and ,,rock-,,slide ,men died like flies while building this bridge1 owing to the outbreak of an obscure disease known as 8,verrugas fever40 ,five miles beyond ,tamboraque another remarkable achievement had to be accomplished4 ,the line tunnels a peak1 to emerge upon the brink of a drop into the river below as straight as a brick wall4 ,on the opposite side is another towering pinnacle4 ,to span the gulf a heavy bridge was necessary4 ,it is called ,infiernillo ,bridge1 and never was a name more fittingly bestowed4 ,its erection by false work or scaffolding was out of the question1 as in this region not a tree exists4 ,it had to be built out from the sides1 the men being suspended in cradles and loops dangling from ropes attached to brackets driven into the solid rock above4 ,the builders found swinging the tools from such crazy footholds to be perilous in the extreme1 but there were no other means by which the bridge could be erected4 ,it is a frail link between two dark yawning mouths in opposite towering crests1 and the traveller as he rattles across scarcely can quell a shudder4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,highest ,,tunnel ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,under ,,construction ,the ,galera tunnel1 #c1hee feet in length and #ae1ffe feet above the level of the ,pacific ,ocean1 on the ,oroya railway4 ,so energetically did ,meiggs pursue his self-appointed task that in six years he had carried the line #hh miles into the ,andes1 and had gained an altitude of #ab1bae feet4 ,all the men that he could possibly procure were pressed into service2 at one time the railway gave employment to #hjjj labourers4 ,the amount of blasting necessary to prepare the road-bed for this single line of standard track was enormous1 something like #ejj1jjj pounds of explosives being used every month4 ,the strain inseparable from such an enterprise told its tale at last upon the bold engineer1 whose iron constitution could not withstand the anxieties and worries of the ,verrugas fever1 and the exposure to a rarefied atmosphere1 without receiving an indelible mark4 ,the first signs of a complete breakdown appeared as the railway was approaching ,chicla1 and when this point was gained in #ahgg he succumbed4 ,the removal of the guiding spirit brought the whole undertaking to a stop4 ,meiggs had completed two-thirds of the undertaking1 and had broken the back of the difficulties4 ,for fourteen years not another foot of line was graded4 ,at last the ,peruvian ,corporation of ,london1 which had taken over the railway1 settled a contract for its completion with ,william ,thorndike1 who also hailed from ,philadelphia4 ,the new engineer carried the line a further #c1dej feet above the sea1 following the surveys of ,meiggs1 and then became confronted with his greatest obstacle--the piercing of the summit crest4 ,thorndike had to hew his way through the bosom of a pinnacle for over #c1hee feet at an altitude at which such work never had been attempted before4 ,the trying character of the situation was augmented by the rarity of the atmosphere1 and the fact that he had to force his way through the region of the terrible mountain sickness1 with a low prevailing temperature such as is encountered in the region of eternal snow and ice4 ,such conditions retarded the boring of the ,galera tunnel1 as it is called1 more than the stern resistance of the rock4 ,the workmen invariably fell victims to the sickness1 though the undertaking was not accompanied with the heavy mortality that characterised the building of the ,verrugas bridge far below4 ,mountain drilling1 blasting1 excavating1 and the removal of the heavy spoil proved exacting and fatiguing1 and a man could work only for a few hours at a stretch4 ,by skilful organisation and careful husbanding of his forces1 however1 the engineer succeeded in forcing the metal track through the mountain at record speed4 ,the ,galera tunnel is the crowning point of a magnificent achievement4 ,in the centre you stand on the ,great ,divide of the ,south ,americas1 nearly #af1jjj feet above the ocean4 ,when a bucket of water is upset1 one half of the liquid runs eastward towards the ,atlantic1 while the other flows westward to the ,pacific4 ,oroya is #ca miles distant from the eastern portal of the tunnel on the great inland plateau of the continent1 and only a little less than #c1ejj feet below it4 ,on this section construction was very rapid1 as there were no untoward difficulties to be overcome4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,british ,,locomotive ,,in ,,the ,,realm ,,of ,,perpetual ,,andean ,,snow1 #ae1hfe ,,feet ,,above ,,sea-,,level1 ,,on ,,the ,,oroya ,,railway ,about the same time as the ,oroya railway was commenced another great line was undertaken some miles to the south4 ,in this instance the port of ,mollendo was the ,pacific terminus1 the inland objective being ,puno1 on the shores of ,lake ,titicaca1 that remarkable inland sea nestling among the crests of the ,alps some #ad1ffj feet above the ,pacific4 ,the total length of this line is #ccb miles1 and it divides with the ,antofagasta railway to the south the traffic between ,la ,paz and the seaboard4 ,though it does not compare with the ,oroya or ,central railway of ,peru as an engineering achievement1 yet it possesses certain individual characteristics1 the tumbled mountain country experienced farther north giving way to open expanses of bleak1 dismal desert4 ,illustration3 ,,looking ,,through ,,the ,,tunnels ,,on ,,the ,,oroya ,,railway ,an exhilarating coast at #de miles an hour for #ajg miles can be made from ,galera tunnel to ,callao upon the small hand-car shown in the photograph4 ,this line in its ascent of the ,andes skirts the base of that most majestic of mountains1 the smoking ,el ,misti1 whose snow-topped crater rises like a grim sentinel far above the other visible points of the mountain chain4 ,here the mountains are nobler and wider apart1 so that one can grasp better their magnificent proportions1 while their flanks are not so scarred1 and there is an absence of those fearsome1 yawning ravines4 ,in making the ascent the line describes broad sweeping curves to avoid projecting peaks1 and throughout the whole distance there is a notable relief from the zigzags and switches so frequent on the sister line4 ,on this road1 however1 the moving sand threatened to be an implacable enemy4 ,in the higher altitudes the sand is piled up into quaint little cones ranging from ten to twenty feet in height1 and from the distance their incalculable number and regular lines present the appearance of a vast army of men grimed and covered with the dust1 which illusion becomes emphasised when they are seen moving across the plains in a steady1 rhythmic manner under the influence of the wind4 ,when the railway was built it was anticipated that elaborate precautions would be requisite to keep the track clear of this encumbrance1 but it was found that the trains could plough their way through the mass with little difficulty4 ,in the higher levels the sand gives way to a country of broken rock--a land absolutely void of any sign of life4 ,this monotonous waste continues to the shores of the lake1 where the dank water-grass and limpid water offer a welcome relief to the aridity experienced for so many hours4 ,this railway was constructed with remarkable rapidity for the ,land of ,paradoxes1 as the whole #ccb miles were built in five years1 and thus the isolated waters of ,titicaca were linked with the ,pacific by the iron road4 ,not only was this railway much cheaper to construct than the ,central or ,oroya line1 but its maintenance is not so harassing as the former system4 ,the engineers of the ,oroya road are engaged in a constant war with the elements4 ,the landslide is the most relentless foe that has to be combated4 ,a big slip on a slope1 an avalanche of snow1 huge boulders1 and miscellaneous debris rattle down the mountain-sides with terrific fury1 blotting out the track and sweeping bridges away in their mad career4 ,the ,verrugas bridge was dogged by ill-fortune after its completion1 for in one of these visitations the whole structure was demolished through the main central pier being knocked away4 ,the tangled and twisted metal was left rusting in the ravine1 for the bridge-builders' art had advanced considerably since the old bridge was designed1 and in reconstruction it was found possible to span the gorge on the cantilever principle without the central support4 ,all the other bridges on the railway are being rebuilt gradually on these lines1 and when this task is completed the engineer will have one danger the less to fear--the collapse of the slender link of communication across the gulches4 ,one can enjoy a most exhilarating experience on this railway4 ,this is the descent from ,galera tunnel to ,callao on a small hand-car4 ,it is a glorious coast downhill for no less than #ajg miles4 ,one rushes down inclines1 swings round curves1 threads tunnels1 and whisks across gorges at the exhilarating speed of #de miles an hour4 ,it is a unique sensation--one of the many marvels associated with this remarkable railway1 which is not merely a striking evidence of civilisation1 but a perpetual monument to the #gjjj lives devoted to its construction4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,cecil ,,rhodes' ,,dream--,,from ,,the ,,cape ,,to ,,cairo ,i4--,northwards from ,cape ,town ,few phrases have become so familiar to the ear as from the 8,cape to ,cairo40 ,it is a phrase that has made history1 though perhaps not so rapidly as its creator anticipated4 ,when ,cecil ,rhodes first cast his eyes from north to south1 and conceived the idea of binding the two extreme points of the ,african continent together1 there is no indication that he experienced great difficulty in finding a title for his undertaking4 ,there was ,cairo in the north1 and ,cape ,town in the south4 ,he aspired to join the two by rail4 ,consequently1 from the 8,cape to ,cairo0 was obvious4 ,probably the alliteration caught his fancy1 and conveyed his complete thought so forcibly in three words1 and in a manner that could not fail to impress the public1 that it inadvertently flew through his mind4 ,when the materialisation of this vision commenced1 the general knowledge of the interior of the continent had not been widened very appreciably since the travels of ,livingstone and ,stanley4 ,it was 8,dark0 in the truest sense of the word1 and conquest either by the mysteries of peace or the arts of war was necessary before the steel rail could be driven either northward or southward4 ,however1 it was determined to carry the idea to fulfilment--the question of the penetration of the hostile country could be taken in hand when the railway was within measurable distance of its borders so far as ,rhodes was concerned1 while in the north the ,english ,government had decided to settle terms with the ,mahdi4 ,there was one benefit accruing from the empire-builder's dream--he gave the engineers of ,south ,africa elbow-room in which to display their ability within certain limits4 ,it might be said that he inaugurated a new railway-construction policy so far as ,south ,africa was concerned4 ,the railway-builders had an extensive territory to cover1 and they appeared to cherish the belief that the best means by which this conquest could be achieved was upon the most expensive lines possible4 ,thus1 for instance1 the railway network in ,natal1 the ,transvaal and ,orange ,free ,state cost about #ae1jjj1 or #ge1jjj1 per mile1 and those of ,cape ,colony about #aj1jjj1 or #ej1jjj1 per mile--sums out of all proportion to the railway needs of the time1 and which served to commit the countries to a heavy capital outlay and interest charges4 ,when ,cecil ,rhodes outlined his project he set himself to a limit of about #e1jjj1 or #be1jjj1 per mile4 ,such a line was a pioneer road in the fullest sense of the word1 but it would suffice to meet the demands of the country for many years to come1 and could be improved as circumstances demanded4 ,the time will come1 doubtless1 when a standard-gauge road from the waters of the ,mediterranean to the southern end of the continent will become imperative1 but a few decades will have to pass before the line of #c feet #f inches gauge becomes inadequate4 ,the ,cape to ,cairo is remarkable in many respects3 in fact1 it might be described as a string of record-breaking feats in railway engineering4 ,in the first place it was the first trans-continental road ever to be driven longitudinally through a continent--the coast to coast lines in other parts of the world cut across the continent from east to west4 ,when completed it will be the longest continuous trunk iron road ever built4 ,in its length are comprised both the highest and longest bridges in ,africa1 in its realisation the highest speed in track-laying has been recorded1 and it has been driven steadily forward under conditions such as never have attended the realisation of any comparative project--war1 plague and famine4 ,when the scheme was commenced the railways of the southern colony had penetrated #fdg miles up-country from ,cape ,town to the diamond mines at ,kimberley4 ,consequently1 ,diamondopolis was selected as the starting-point for the northward advance1 through the hinterland now known as ,rhodesia4 ,the first rail out of ,kimberley was laid in #ahhi1 and by ,october1 #ahid1 it had gained ,mafeking1 #bbc miles beyond4 ,while this part of the work was under way the colonisation of ,mashonaland had proceeded1 and had progressed so favourably that the railway's advance became an urgent necessity1 especially as the ,matabele under ,lobengula were giving signs of trouble1 and it was essential that the latter should be subdued4 ,so in #ahif the dull1 grey snake resumed its tortuous crawl to the north4 ,further trouble was experienced at this juncture1 and retarded operations to a material degree4 ,the deadly rinderpest broke out1 and swept off the settlers' cattle like flies4 ,transport was paralysed1 and the engineers were called upon to perform a superhuman task to pour supplies and material forward4 ,as animals were unavailable1 traction engines had to be brought up-country to ply between the point where the locomotive stopped and the construction camps strung out ahead4 ,however1 ,rhodes decided that the rails must reach ,buluwayo before the end of #ahig4 ,seeing that #dib miles divided the railhead from the latter point1 this was no mean order2 but ,messrs4 ,pauling ,co41 the contractors1 promised that his wishes should be fulfilled4 ,large forces of natives were whipped up1 and by superhuman effort the apparently impossible was achieved1 the #dib miles of metals being laid in #ejj working days4 ,as might be supposed from the low cost of the line 7#d1ejj or #bb1ejj1 per mile71 the engineering work was not of an elaborate character4 ,rapidity of construction1 combined with low cost1 were the two governing considerations that had to be borne in mind1 for the sooner railway transportation was provided1 the earlier settlement would take place4 ,the terms governing construction demanded that the line should be of such a character as 8would be capable of effectually conveying traffic at a speed of twelve miles an hour on completion1 and that grades and curves were not to be sharper and heavier than generally prevailed upon a line of this gauge40 ,ballasting was only to be used on such portions of the line as was necessary to ensure the safe running of the trains during the rainy season4 ,in laying the road very little regard was paid to formation1 and wherever the surface of the ground was even it was followed1 the steel sleepers being packed with the minimum of ballast to give a moderately smooth running top4 ,the shallower streams and rivers were not bridged1 but the railway was carried across over a ford4 ,if the water rose above the track a few inches1 a thrilling spectacle was offered when a train crossed4 ,it would creep carefully down the bank and crash full tilt into the water1 sending up a column of spray which entirely obliterated the front of the engine from view4 ,later1 the line was overhauled and brought into conformity with modern requirements1 bridges of steel being introduced to span all obstructions of this character4 ,timber was impossible1 owing to the ravages of white ants1 though creosoted wood was found to offer a substitute for the metal for a short period1 and was adopted sparingly4 ,buluwayo lies at an altitude of #d1djj feet1 and from this point the line falls steadily until it gains the ,gwaai ,river1 #a1bjj feet lower4 ,crossing this waterway1 the line makes a straight cut across the flat1 sandy and wooded country for #ga miles as the crow flies1 to enter the ,wankie coalfield4 ,in this district the surface run could not be continued1 and consequently heavy cuttings and embankments had to be carried out over a distance of #ei miles4 ,beyond the ,wankie coal territory1 and #bhb miles north of ,buluwayo1 the line ran up against the first serious physical difficulty1 but one of such proportions as to make amends on the part of ,nature for the easiness of the grading hitherto4 ,this was the ,victoria ,falls on the ,zambesi ,river1 and the location of the line compelled a crossing of this magnificent waterway just below the cataract1 where the water1 after tumbling over the ledge1 is forced through a deep1 narrow gorge #djj feet in depth4 ,the situation demanded the consummation of some monumental piece of work4 ,the ,niagara gorge had been bridged1 but the task of spanning that chasm was mere child's play in comparison with that confronting the engineers below the ,victoria ,falls4 ,the cliffs are sheer practically1 for the canyon through which the water rushes for some #bj miles is but a fissure in the earth's crust4 ,the surveys1 which were carried out with great difficulty1 showed that the break would have to be bridged in a single span about #ejj feet in length from brink to brink1 with the rails over #dbj feet above low water4 ,for purposes of comparison1 it may be mentioned that1 although the structure of the same type thrown across the ,niagara gorge to carry the ,grand ,trunk railway from ,canadian to ,american soil has a main span #ej feet wider1 while the bridge itself is almost twice as long1 the rails are laid only a little more than half the height above the water--#bbf1 as compared with #dbj feet4 ,one early difficulty was the establishment of communication with the opposite bank1 to avoid a long detour of about ten miles in order to cross the river4 ,first1 in order to bring the camps perched on each cliff closer together1 a telephone wire was thrown across the ravine4 ,this frail connection was completed in an ingenious manner4 ,a thin string was tied to the stick of a rocket which was fired across the gorge4 ,the opposite party secured the stick and end of the stout twine1 and by its means hauled across a thicker length of string1 which in turn was followed by one still stouter1 with which the telephone wire was hauled across4 ,in this way the opposite camps were brought as closely into touch with one another as if they were side by side on the same bank4 ,previously1 attempts had been made to fly a string across by means of a kite1 but the upward rush of eddying air from the vortex of the water caused the kite to become the sport of the wind and to play sorry pranks1 without gaining the opposite bank4 ,the complete success of the rocket caused a similar cycle of operations to be repeated1 only in this case1 instead of hauling a telephone wire across the gorge1 a marked wire was handled1 the idea being to measure accurately the width of the gap1 a spring balance being introduced at one end to compute the extent of the 8sag0 of the wire for the purposes of calculations4 ,the result of these investigations served to countercheck the surveys1 which were found to be strikingly correct1 and the design of the bridge was taken in hand immediately by ,mr4 ,g4 ,a4 ,hobson4 ,actual construction was commenced without delay1 the task being undertaken by the ,cleveland ,engineering ,bridge ,building ,company of ,darlington1 who1 by the successful completion of this task1 once more emphasised the predominance of the ,british bridge-building engineer4 ,the main span is a graceful curve of steel springing from the cliff-face on either side1 the latter being excavated for the purpose of securing the foundations4 ,as construction was possible only on the cantilever principle from either side1 facilities had to be provided for the transportation of material as it was brought up by the railway1 from the south to the opposite cliff1 and for this purpose an overhead cableway was slung across the gorge4 ,this vehicle of transport was employed not only for the building of the bridge1 but also for the conveyance of other necessities for the railway1 as the latter was pushed ahead from the north bank while the bridge was being erected4 ,workmen were also slung across the gorge by this means in a little cage1 and occasionally visitors who were anxious to experience a new sensation made the trip at a cost of #ajs41 or #b4ej per head4 ,illustration3 ,photo by courtesy of ,cleveland ,engineering ,bridge-,building ,co41 ,darlington ,,the ,,greatest ,,bridge ,,in ,,the ,,world ,the steel link springing in a single span of #ejj feet from one cliff to the other over the ,zambesi ,river just below the ,victoria ,falls4 ,the trains pass across the gorge #dbj feet above low water4 ,observe the net which was suspended below to catch falling tools and workmen4 ,one feature of the undertaking was the extreme care taken to protect the workmen from certain death in the river below if they slipped from their precarious perches in mid-air4 ,a heavy1 strong net was slung across the chasm beneath the actual working point to catch 8boys and tools should they inadvertently drop40 ,the two ribs of steel were pushed outwards from either bank1 and finally met in the centre1 where the final bolts1 securing first the two sections of the bottom members together1 were slipped in without any untoward incident4 ,at the point where the maze of steel springs from the cliff-face the bridge measures #aje feet from the bottom to the top member1 while at the crown of the arch the depth is #ae feet4 ,the width at the rail-level is #cj feet1 while the bottom curved steel ribs1 at the point where they are secured to the rock1 are about #ed feet apart4 ,illustration3 ,,setting ,,up ,,the ,,world',s ,,railway ,,building ,,record ,,in ,,africa ,natives laying #e miles of track in #aj hours1 on the ,cape to ,cairo ,railway4 ,notwithstanding the difficulties1 attending the erection of such a massive bridge upon such a site1 construction was carried out so rapidly that the first train was enabled to cross the structure within about eighteen months of work being commenced4 ,the celerity with which this task was completed was striking1 bearing in mind that native labour was employed for the most part1 under the supervision of ,english foremen and engineers4 ,at the time it was built it ranked as the loftiest bridge in the world1 but it has been deposed since from that premier position by the wonderful ,fades viaduct which spans the ,sioule ,river in the ,french province of ,puy de ,dme1 where the train crosses the water at a height of #dcd feet4 ,by the time the ,victoria bridge was able to permit trains to pass from bank to bank1 the end of steel had been hurried towards ,kalomo1 the capital of ,north-,western ,rhodesia1 #a1gcc miles from ,cape ,town4 ,on this section another remarkable record was established4 ,the engineer1 ,sir ,charles ,metcalfe1 ,bart41 was in the field on one of his periodical visits1 and was accompanied by an interested ,french engineer1 who had built railways in ,french ,west ,africa4 ,the latter was greatly interested in the progress of the ,cape to ,cairo line1 but observing the methods of the native workmen1 ventured to ask how many miles of track could be laid per day4 8,well1 what do you think we can lay80 asked ,sir ,charles ,metcalfe4 8,oh1 ,i don't think you can lay more than half-a-mile4 ,that seems to me a fair estimate10 remarked the ,french railway-builder4 ,the ,english engineer had a brief conversation with his lieutenant in charge of the rail-laying operations1 and the latter in a few brief words galvanised the whole of the crew into electric movement4 ,in twenty minutes the track had advanced a quarter of a mile before the astonished ,french engineer's eyes4 ,he scarcely could credit what he had seen1 and left the spot with a high regard for the ,english engineer's organisation and methods of handling the natives to be able to wrest such a spurt at a moment's notice4 ,this incident impressed ,sir ,charles ,metcalfe1 and1 after a chat with the ,english overseers1 foremen and engineers surveying the placing of the #cc-;feet lengths of steel upon the ground1 it was decided to make an experiment just to see what could be accomplished under an emergency with native labour4 ,the black men were marshalled up for a full day's work1 and were urged to let themselves go1 the desire of establishing a record being communicated to the more enterprising spirits4 ,the natives love a contest1 and they girdled into the work with astonishing zest4 ,they did not seem to tire1 and they spurned the heat4 ,the result was that when the ten hours' labour was completed for the day the steel had crept forward no less that #e miles--a world's record4 ,yet everything proceeded so smoothly that it appeared1 from the stranger's point of view1 as if work were being carried out at the normal rate of a mile a day4 ,this result1 with native labour1 was remarkable4 ,the engineers in charge of the wonderful track-layer used in ,america point to the speed with which the metals can be laid with its aid4 ,yet it comes somewhat as a shock to their pride to learn that their best performances of #c to #d miles a day can be exceeded by unskilled black men1 with no tools whatever4 ,from ,kalomo the engineers pushed north-eastwards to ,broken ,hill1 #bhj miles beyond4 ,in this stretch1 however1 another obstacle had to be overcome4 ,this was the ,kafue ,river1 which is the most important tributary to the ,zambesi ,river1 and indeed forms one leg of this great waterway4 ,the great width of the ,kafue ,river1 #a1cjj feet1 called for a lengthy bridge4 ,although the waters are shallow during the dry season1 the average depth being #i feet1 in the wet season1 however1 the river rises to #ag feet or so4 ,it is a comparatively sluggish waterway1 the speed of the current being about #c miles an hour4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,a4 ,hobson was responsible for the design of this bridge also1 and he decided that a light structure1 divided into #ac spans each of #ajj feet1 would meet the case4 ,the actual construction was carried out by ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,lawley as supervising engineer on behalf of the railway-builders4 ,the bridge is of the lattice girder type1 the trains running through the bridge4 ,the whole of the steel-work was prepared in ,england1 shipped to ,cape ,town1 and then transported #bjjj miles up country by railway to a yard improvised on the river bank1 where the ribs of steel were assembled to form the spans4 ,in addition1 a pontoon1 likewise of steel1 was sent up in pieces in a similar manner1 assembled on the bank and launched4 ,this pontoon was utilised to float the spans into position1 and also to convey material across the river to enable the grade to be pushed ahead while the waterway was being spanned4 ,the pontoon was pulled from bank to bank by means of an endless wire cable1 driven by a steam engine4 ,the spans are supported on masonry piers1 each #ah feet wide by #h feet thick4 ,mr4 ,lawley found the river-bed to be composed of rock and gravel1 which gave a first-class foundation1 and favoured the expeditious erection of the piers4 ,consequently he concluded1 if the piers were pushed forward at low water1 that it would be possible to set the steel-work directly the river once more gained flood-level1 and arrangements to this end were carried out4 ,timber coffer-dams were built around the sites for the piers1 and by the aid of pumps the interior was kept clear of water to permit the workmen to achieve their stone-setting task within under the most favourable conditions4 ,while the piers were progressing other gangs of natives were hard at work in the improvised shipyard riveting the steel-work together4 ,each span measured #ajj feet long1 #ad feet in width1 #bj feet in height1 and weighed #ef tons4 ,the pontoon itself measured #ie feet long by #de feet wide4 ,work continued so favourably that by the time the masonry work on the piers was completed the spans had been assembled1 and all was ready for transhipping them from the yard to their respective positions on the piers4 ,novel means for transporting the weighty and bulky masses of steel were adopted4 ,the pontoon was brought endwise against the river bank and made fast4 ,a length of railway track was laid from end to end along the deck of the pontoon1 and was brought against the ends of another short track running down the river bank1 thereby making a continuous length of railway line4 ,as the completed spans were ranged side by side in the yard at right angles to the river1 they had to be hauled sideways for some distance4 ,rails were laid under each end of the spans at right angles to the railway and were well greased so as to become a kind of 8ways0 such as are used to launch a vessel4 ,gangs of natives tugged at the span to haul it broadside until it rested on the railway line1 which also was lubricated4 ,then two locomotives were brought up to the rear end of the span1 and by sheer steam force pushed it down the bank railway on to the pontoon1 where it rested fairly and squarely1 and overhanging equally each end of the pontoon1 which was five feet shorter than the span4 ,the pontoon was then released from its moorings and was hauled out into the stream by means of the endless cable1 until it came centrally between the two piers on which the span was to be placed4 ,from each pier a hawser was passed to stanchions on either end of the pontoon4 ,the endless cable was slackened1 and the pontoon1 with its novel cargo1 was permitted to drift slowly down-stream towards the space between the two piers1 being guided in its course by manipulation of one or the other of the two hawsers4 ,in this manner the craft was steered delicately into position and was made fast4 ,the actual transference of the span from the pontoon to the masonry bed was carried out by hydraulic jacks1 which lifted the whole mass of steel4 ,when the jacks were released1 the ends of the span rested firmly on the two piers4 ,by hauling on to the endless cable the pontoon now was drawn clear of the bridge to return for another load4 ,this novel method proved so completely successful that the #ac spans were transferred from the bank and set in position within the short space of #h days6--half the time the engineer had computed as being requisite for the operation4 ,the whole undertaking was accomplished in record time1 bearing in mind the peculiar conditions prevailing in the heart of ,africa1 and the use of native labour2 for1 from the time the first move towards the erection of the piers was made1 to the setting of the last span1 only five months elapsed4 ,the total cost of this mass of steel1 weighing #gbh tons and stretching in an unbroken line for #a1cjj feet across the river1 was #ej1jjj1 or #bej1jjj4 ,when ,broken ,hill was gained1 #b1jac miles from ,cape ,town1 construction was brought to a stop4 ,the mastermind had passed away some time before1 and the colleague who had assisted ,rhodes when other financial magnates turned a deaf ear to the project1 had also joined the great majority4 ,by the time ,broken ,hill was gained1 #h1jjj1jjj 7or #dj1jjj1jjj7 had been sunk in the enterprise4 ,for months the stack of #bjjj tons of steel for the resumption northwards remained untouched1 through lack of funds1 though ,mr4 ,alfred ,beit had left #a1ejj1jjj 7or #g1ejj1jjj7 towards the continuation of the work4 ,then the mineral wealth around ,katanga in the ,congo ,free ,state1 which was under exploitation1 demanded transportation to the coast4 ,accordingly1 the line was pushed on to the border of the adjacent country4 ,rhodes' objective was ,kituta1 at the southern end of ,lake ,tanganyika1 #dej miles north of ,broken ,hill1 which point marks the limit of ,british sway in ,south ,africa1 a distance of about #b1gjj miles by rail from ,cape ,town4 ,when ,rhodes' vision presented the railway stretching in an unbroken thread from north to south1 the knowledge of the country lying between the ,zambesi and the ,nile was somewhat scanty4 ,as the scheme progressed it became known that ,lake ,tanganyika was hemmed in by precipitous mountains1 where railway-building would soar to an enormous figure per mile4 ,on the other hand1 the lake is a splendid sheet of water1 offering excellent navigation throughout its length of #djj miles4 ,therefore1 there should be no reason why the example of the ,russian ,government1 in regard to the use of ferry steamers on ,lake ,baikal1 should not be emulated to transport trains intact from ,kituta at the southern1 to ,usamburu at the northern1 end of ,lake ,tanganyika4 ,ninety miles north of ,usamburu is ,lake ,kivu1 and the dividing neck of land offers no great difficulties to construction beyond a gradual rise of #bjjj feet4 ,reaching ,lake ,kivu1 which is also surrounded by lofty ridges1 the railway would once more take to the water for some #fj miles4 ,continuing northwards1 there is another stretch of rising country to be crossed1 where the track would be lifted to its greatest height1 or summit level1 between ,cape ,town and ,cairo1 to gain the head of ,lake ,edward1 which is #ge miles in length4 ,owing to the flat character of the country around this sheet of water lending itself to cheap railway construction1 probably it would be found preferable to keep to the land1 especially as the country is healthy1 thickly populated1 and offers great promise of becoming wealthy under commercial development4 ,but the line1 after leaving ,lake ,kivu1 has to pass through ,belgian territory1 and as this location is inevitable unless it were decided to swing somewhat to the east to pass through ,german ,east ,africa1 an easier route has been offered through the ,congo4 ,the railway has been taken from ,broken ,hill to ,elizabethville4 ,the ,belgian authorities are anxious that it should be extended from that point to ,bukana on the ,congo ,river4 ,boats could be used between this point and ,congolo1 where communication by rail would extend to ,kindu1 to be followed by another stretch of river as far as ,ponthierville4 ,the existing railway to ,stanleyville would then be pressed into service1 and from the last-named point the line would debouch to the north-east to gain the ,albert ,nyanza1 and there link up with the railway that has been driven southwards from ,cairo4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,cecil ,,rhodes' ,,dream--,,from ,,the ,,cape ,,to ,,cairo ,,ii4--,southwards from ,cairo4 ,while the southern arm of the great line has been pushed on energetically northwards from ,cape ,town1 the northern limb has descended almost as rapidly down the ,valley of the ,nile to the great interior1 so that the heart of the continent is being eaten into spiritedly from both ends4 ,the two branches have been built under totally different auspices4 ,whereas the southern section was carried out by private enterprise1 the northern division is the work of ,government effort4 ,in the north the railway has made history rapidly1 and its conquest has been of a complex character4 ,it placed a unique weapon in the hands of the ,government1 and it wrested a vast track of ,africa1 aggregating #iej1jjj square miles1 from barbarity and religious fanaticism in the form of ,mahdism4 ,owing to the impoverished condition of the country1 the railway in ,egypt has experienced a very chequered career4 ,it commenced its pacific invasion promisingly enough1 but it was found to be a highly expensive settling influence for a land whose coffers had been depleted almost to the extent of emptiness4 ,the early lines1 when laid1 were neglected1 and consequently fell into a sorry condition4 ,the majority of people who had regard for their lives and limbs preferred other vehicles of transport4 ,everything in connection with the iron road was conducted in a haphazard manner4 ,trains started without any one having the faintest idea as to where they were going or what time they would reach some destination4 ,lord ,cromer relates that when he first went to the ,land of the ,pharaohs all the lines were single track4 ,no staff or block system of any kind was in vogue1 and there were no signals4 ,a train started from a station on the off-chance that another train was not coming in the opposite direction4 ,needless to say1 as he tersely remarks1 8he avoided those lines40 ,in the ,sudan matters were even worse4 ,the ,khedive embarked upon a laudable enterprise when he decided to carry the iron highway southwards from ,wadi ,haifa4 ,khartoum was the objective1 but nearly half a century passed before the iron horse appeared at the latter point1 for when the ,khedive's railway got so far as ,sarras1 #cc miles south1 funds became exhausted and the scheme was abandoned4 ,another attempt was made in #ahhe-f1 on the occasion of the ,nile ,expedition1 to resuscitate the scheme1 and by great effort another #ec miles were tacked on from ,sarras to ,akasha4 ,the life of the second section was short1 for when the ,british forces retired the track was pulled up by the dervishes1 and ,sarras reverted to its position as the southern terminus4 ,when ,lord ,kitchener was deputed to crush the ,mahdi for once and for all1 he found #a1bjj miles of sandy desert between him in the north and the seat of the fanatic's power4 ,the river was available for the movement of troops as in the previous campaign1 but the latter had emphasised the disadvantages of that highway through hostile territory4 ,he foresaw that only one agency would enable him to accomplish the desired end1 and that was the railway4 ,among his officers was a ,canadian engineer1 ,sir ,percy ,girouard1 and he discussed the possibility of building a line across the desert to span that inhospitable gap in order to pour his troops against the ,mahdi forces4 ,the engineer realised the situation and undertook to carry the line southwards from ,wadi ,haifa4 ,the task was commenced in #ahif1 and railway construction was pushed forward with such spirited energy that ,kerma1 at the head of the cataracts1 was gained in a short time4 ,no great engineering difficulties were offered because the desert is tolerably level1 and the sand provided a good foundation for the steel sleepers1 or ties1 with the minimum of ballasting4 ,the greater question was to maintain the steady supply of requisite material southwards from ,alexandria4 ,yet an average speed of two miles per day was maintained1 the rails being laid for the most part by natives1 assisted by both ,british and ,egyptians1 under the military engineers4 ,the objective was ,abu ,hamed1 where the ,nile describes a big elbow1 and at that time this point was in the hands of the enemy4 ,its capture1 however1 by the ,anglo-,egyptian troops resulted in a speeding-up in constructional work on the advancing railway1 and the #hj miles of line into this town were laid in about two months4 ,clinging to the east bank of the river1 it was driven southwards to ,atbara1 where a halt was called1 and where the headquarters were established for the ,omdurman campaign4 ,curiously enough1 although the railway has reached the capital of the ,sudan1 ,atbara has not yet lost its importance from the railway point of view1 being the administration centre for the whole ,sudan ,government railway system4 ,at this place the ,nile is swelled by the waters of the ,atbara ,river1 which flows in from the east4 ,while the campaign was in progress communication between the opposite banks was maintained by means of a wooden bridge4 ,as the river1 however1 is tempestuous when in flood1 during which period it rises to a high level1 a more permanent structure was demanded for the iron horse4 ,the width of the waterway called for the erection of over #ajjj feet of steel bridging4 ,when the advance of the railhead was determined1 it was decided to rush the railway across the river before it once more rose in flood4 ,tenders were invited1 only to be received with dismay1 because it was found that the structure required was of such an elaborate character that no ,english firm would undertake to complete it within two years4 ,illustration3 ,,construction ,,train ,,on ,,the ,,way ,,to ,,the ,,railhead ,,crossing ,a ,,temporary ,,timber ,,bridge ,illustration3 ,photos by courtesy of ,a4 ,l4 ,lawley1 ,esq4 ,,the ,,longest ,,bridge ,,in ,,africa1 #a1cjj ,,feet ,,in ,,length1 ,,across ,,the ,,kafue ,,river ,,the ,,cape ,,to ,,cairo ,,railway ,this upset official calculations severely1 and accordingly fresh tenders for a simpler type of bridge were called4 ,the task was thrown open to the world1 and celerity of construction was the primordial condition4 ,the ,british firms re-tendered1 but to their disgust they were beaten hopelessly both in regard to the cost of the structure and the time in which it could be erected by the ,american engineers4 ,the result was that the contract went to a ,philadelphia firm4 ,five weeks after the receipt of the order the steel-work left ,new ,york1 and within a further few weeks communication across the river was provided by #g spans of steel1 each #adg feet long1 resting on cast-iron cylinders4 ,illustration3 ,see page #afd ,,the 8,,hanging ,,bridge10 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,engineering ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,denver ,,and ,,rio ,,grande1 ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,gorge ,,of ,,colorado ,the most remarkable feature about this contract was the public outcry that ensued4 ,british methods were held up in comparison with ,american hustle1 much to the disparity of the former4 ,british builders were assailed as lethargic1 wedded to obsolete methods1 and consequently had suffered the penalty of such conservatism by being beaten in a most hollow manner4 ,the same critics1 however1 failed to shriek so loudly in acclamation a year later in appreciation of a ,british firm which accomplished a feat which even startled the ,americans4 ,this was in connection with a bridge of five spans1 each #aje feet long1 which was turned out of a ,midland shop to replace the structure which had been destroyed by the ,boers across the ,tugela ,river in ,natal4 ,both ,british and ,american engineers were invited to tender1 and the ,american firms1 despite their wonderful organisation1 hustling methods1 and their remarkable facilities for accomplishing quick work1 were dismayed to find that they had been beaten by their ,british rivals as hollow as the latter had been vanquished some months before4 ,the successful firm rolled #ajj tons of steel1 had it inspected1 tested and passed by the ,natal ,government engineer in eight hours4 ,it had undertaken to deliver the first span within six weeks of the receipt of the order--as a matter of fact1 it was completed within nineteen days4 ,the ,americans themselves admitted that the ,british performance was wonderful1 and that complete revenge had been taken for the ,atbara contract4 ,as the railway pushed its way towards ,khartoum1 the ranks of the labourers were swelled by large numbers of dervishes1 who had grown disheartened at the result of their resistance to the ,british advance on the northern borders of the ,mahdi's stronghold1 had realised the impotency of their efforts1 and consequently had decided to throw in their lot on the railway4 ,the increased labour enabled the work to be prosecuted even more energetically1 though a certain amount of time was lost in drilling this raw material into the mysteries of wielding the white man's tools4 ,when the dervishes first saw the locomotive they marvelled4 ,steam was beyond their comprehension4 ,they believed stoutly that the engine's boiler was packed with animals1 and when the driver blew his whistle many fled in complete terror4 ,to them the agonising shriek of the animal on wheels was more terrifying than the hail of lead from a ,maxim gun4 ,indeed1 it is reported that one chief1 when he saw a locomotive puffing along slowly and laboriously with its load of cars1 went so far as to assail the ,british officers for their callous cruelty in making so small a beast pull such a heavy1 long load6 ,the ,atbara bridge1 after fulfilling all requirements for eleven years1 had to be reconstructed4 ,it was not found strong enough to withstand the heavy loads of to-day1 for on the ,sudan railway weights1 lengths and speeds of trains have increased strikingly during a decade4 ,when overhaul became imperative1 an ,english firm secured the commission to rebuild the ,american structure1 and to-day there is nothing left of the bridge which provoked such acrimonious discussion at the time of its erection4 ,owing to the elaborate nature of the building operations a temporary bridge had to be thrown across the river to carry the railway traffic4 ,when ,khartoum was gained another pause was unavoidable owing to the necessity to cross the ,blue ,nile in order to continue southwards to ,sennar4 ,this arm of the great ,egyptian river is fickle1 for in times of flood it rushes along at some #aa miles an hour4 ,the contract for carrying the railway to the opposite bank was secured by the firm entrusted with the overhauling of the ,atbara bridge1 and it is a noble work of its class4 ,the river being navigable1 facilities had to be provided to permit vessels to pass up and down4 ,this end was met by introducing an electrically operated rolling lift span working like a drawbridge4 ,to enable railway construction to be carried on while the river was being negotiated a temporary timber bridge was thrown across the waterway4 ,while this was in progress the power of the waters rushing through this tributary when in flood was emphasised in no uncertain manner4 ,a considerable quantity of scaffolding intended for the support of the steel bridge during erection was torn up and hurried down-stream4 ,when ,sennar was gained1 a deviation directly eastward was made in order to gain ,el ,obeid1 which is the centre of the gum trade1 one of the most prosperous and expanding industries of the ,upper ,sudan4 ,owing to its more convenient situation on the main river1 ,omdurman always has been the market for this article1 the supplies being conveyed across country by camel caravan4 ,it is generally considered that now ,el ,obeid has been gained by the railway1 that the decadence of ,omdurman is certain1 but though this may be inevitable up to a point1 the town is always bound to command a certain position of importance inasmuch as it is the centre of a considerable pilgrim traffic4 ,on the advance to ,el ,obeid the bridging of the ,white ,nile had to be carried out1 and here again ,british engineering triumphed1 for the contract was awarded to the builders of the ,khartoum bridge4 ,this firm1 with these two ,nile bridges and the ,victoria ,bridge across the ,zambesi1 may be said to have imprinted their name indelibly in ,africa in connection with bridge-engineering4 ,the point of crossing is ,goz ,abu ,guma1 and owing to the erratic character of the ,white ,nile its design occupied considerable deliberation4 ,this river is sluggish both in time of flood and in the dry season4 ,indeed1 it might be described as a huge ditch4 ,when low the water occupies a channel about #a1ejj feet in width1 but in the wet season it sprawls across the country for a matter of three miles or so4 ,it was decided1 however1 that the bridging of the normal channel would suffice1 the line being carried over the part subject to periodical inundation upon well-built embankments4 ,the over-water structure comprises #i steel spans each #adf feet in length1 and one swing-bridge span #bde feet in length to permit navigation up- and down-river1 because the ,sudan ,development ,exploration ,company maintain a steamship service between ,khartoum and ,gondoroko1 the head of navigation on the ,nile1 #a1jha miles from ,gordon's city4 ,the spans are #f feet above the level of ,high ,nile1 and are supported on masonry piers sunk in steel caissons1 or cylinders1 under the agency of compressed air1 to a depth ranging between #cj to #ej feet below low water4 ,although the iron link has stretched beyond ,khartoum to the south1 ,alexandria and ,cairo are not in through railway communication with the capital of ,sudan1 #a1dhj miles away4 ,the ,egyptian railways have their most southerly outpost at ,shellal1 just below ,assuan1 which is about #bd hours' journey from the ,mediterranean seaboard by the ,white de luxe express4 ,the terminal of the ,sudan system is at ,haifa1 just south of the border between the two countries4 ,the river ,nile constitutes the artery of communication between these two railway points1 the steamer occupying about #dj hours4 ,this break in the iron chain possesses distinct drawbacks1 the most serious of which is transhipment between steamer and railway4 ,the expense and inconvenience of this route1 with its breaking bulk1 reacted severely upon the ,upper ,sudan1 and accordingly the latter ,government decided to secure an independent outlet to the coast4 ,there was only one means of accomplishing this end1 and that was to strike eastwards across country to gain the ,red ,sea4 ,this was not a simple enterprise1 especially under conditions which did not lend themselves to the expenditure of a large sum of money4 ,an easy graded line was imperative1 and the surveyors had to search diligently for such a route1 because a range of hills breaks away from the northern edge of the ,abyssinian plateau1 to run parallel with the coast-line of the ,red ,sea to the ,gulf of ,suez4 ,investigations along the coast resulted in ,suakin1 #cje miles distant from ,atbara1 being selected as the sea terminus1 and the surveyors succeeded in securing a location giving no banks heavier than one per cent41 and with no curves of a sharper radius than #a1aee feet4 ,as the constructional engineers were confronted with some heavy work shortly after leaving ,suakin1 in order to overcome the coast range1 building was commenced from both ends of the line simultaneously4 ,this procedure1 however1 did not prove entirely satisfactory1 owing to the cost and delay in bringing material down from ,alexandria to ,atbara1 so when the engineers at the ,suakin end had subjugated their obstacle and the material could be landed easily from vessels and hurried to the railhead1 operations were suspended from ,atbara4 ,the remoteness of ,suakin1 however1 produced individual handicaps1 the greatest of which was in regard to labour4 ,the scattered natives were given employment1 but as they were unfamiliar with the tools and methods they did not prove successful1 and large numbers of ,egyptians who had toiled on the other lines were shipped to the ,red ,sea terminus4 ,they were housed in military tents1 and a stranger happening suddenly upon a railway camp might have been pardoned for labouring under the impression that he had alighted upon an invading army under canvas1 because the tents were pitched in such regular rows as to indicate military occupation4 ,the mountains occasioned some little anxiety owing to the damage that was caused by wash-outs due to the heavy rain1 but these were soon mastered4 ,this abundance of water later on gave place to extreme scarcity1 for when the constructional forces had penetrated the heart of the desert1 this commodity was found only with great difficulty and by infinite labour4 ,despite these drawbacks1 however1 the #cje miles of line were laid and opened for traffic within the short space of #ad months1 which testifies to the high standard of the constructional organisation and the energy with which the undertaking was pushed forward4 ,the significance of this branch from the ,nile to the sea was revealed instantly1 but unfortunately it was realised that the terminal point on the coast left much to be desired4 ,further investigation revealed a better site for a harbour #ej miles north of ,suakin1 and this point1 now known as ,port ,sudan1 is the terminus of the line1 the harbour being equipped with modern facilities for handling traffic between ship and railway4 ,the new port is connected by rail with ,suakin1 however1 which is being retained as an outlet4 ,the railway will creep gradually southwards along the bank of the ,white ,nile in all probability1 but in the meantime the river will constitute the artery of communication4 ,the waterway abounds with sand-bars and other obstructions to navigation which provide very little depth of water in some places1 but the ,sudan ,development ,exploration ,company have met this situation by the utilisation of steamers which draw extremely little water and are able to pass through the shallows in perfect safety4 ,the ,sudan ,government also maintains a steamship connection between ,khartoum and ,gondoroko4 ,this water link is about #ajjj miles in length1 and the round trip occupies about #bc days4 ,a few years ago the possibility of being able to proceed so far up the river under steam was feared to be impracticable1 owing to the dense masses of floating tangled masses of vegetation1 or 8sudd10 which blocked the river4 ,but this has been broken up and a clear fairway is maintained4 ,as a result1 ,uganda now has an outlet to the ,mediterranean which can be developed considerably as the northern extremities of that country are opened up4 ,unfortunately1 beyond ,gondoroko the river cannot be used1 because for about #ajj miles--from ,rejaf to ,dufile--there is a continuous chain of rapids4 ,these two points therefore will be connected by railway probably4 ,when ,dufile is gained the river can be used once more so far as ,lake ,albert ,nyanza1 where the line from ,cape ,town would be met1 although there is a belief that the ,sudan ,government intends to push the railway to a far more southern point4 ,it will be seen that although ,rhodes' great scheme was for a continuous steel road from north to south1 this idea has had to be modified in order to meet unexpected conditions1 which at the time of the railway's inception were not apparent4 ,in reality one will travel from the 8,cape to ,cairo0 over a combined rail and water route longitudinally through the continent4 ,at the present moment one can cover the whole journey by rail and water1 except for a distance of about #fjj miles1 and this gap is being closed rapidly4 ,as the settlement of the country along the line of communication becomes effected1 and the heavy drawbacks incidental to transhipment become more and more emphasised1 there is no doubt but that the water route will be superseded gradually by the railway1 so that in time the original idea will be consummated1 and trains will pass right through from the ,cape to ,cairo over a continuous path of steel some #fjjj miles in length4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,gridironing ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountains ,if one consults a map of the ,north ,american continent1 it will be observed that the rolling plains1 stretching westwards from the shores of the ,great ,lakes1 are fringed on their western edge by a massive1 tumbled and lofty wall--the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,this is the backbone of the ,new ,world1 stretching from ,mexico in the south to far-away ,alaska in the north1 on the slopes of which rise the mighty rivers to flow east and west to swell the waters of the ,atlantic and the ,pacific4 ,their successful conquest by the iron horse on its way from coast to coast contributes some of the most thrilling incidents to railway history4 ,if the map is consulted closely it will be seen that this range assumes its most broken character in the ,state of ,colorado4 ,here ,nature became unduly playful in her process of moulding1 and left her handiwork in a badly-finished condition4 ,beetling peaks crowned with eternal snow are separated by yawning ravines--mere cracks in the earth's crust--where the walls are half-a-mile or more in height1 and through which rivers foam and tear along tumultuously4 ,yet the dishevelled mass of rock is intersected by steel threads which comprise the respective systems of the famous ,denver ,rio ,grande1 and the ,chicago ,north-,western railways1 the latter being known popularly as the 8,moffatt0 road1 after its originator4 ,to grasp some idea of the exceptionally mountainous character of ,colorado1 a comparison with ,switzerland may not be amiss4 ,this ,state is so vast that the playground of ,europe might be stowed within its borders six times over1 and then there would be several hundred square miles to spare4 ,among the ,alps the number of peaks which jut their pinnacles over #ac1jjj feet towards the clouds may be counted on the fingers of the hands2 on the other hand1 in ,colorado there are no less than #abj such monarchs1 #ce of which rise to an altitude of more than #ad1jjj feet4 ,in other words1 there are compressed about ten times as many lofty summits in the #aic1ibe square miles comprising this ,state as are to be found scattered throughout the whole of ,europe4 ,the village having the loftiest situation in ,europe is ,avers ,platz in ,switzerland1 which nestles among the ,swiss ,alps at an altitude of #g1ejj feet above the sea1 while the highest inhabited point is the ,hospice of ,st4 ,bernard1 at #h1bjj feet4 ,contrast either of these with the flourishing town of ,leadville1 whose #ae1jjj inhabitants move1 live and have their being at an elevation of #aj1bjj feet above the ocean4 ,yet this does not mark the uppermost limit of civilisation among these rocky fastnesses1 because there are several prosperous mining camps at #ac1jjj feet or more4 ,the highest artery of traffic in ,europe is the wonderful ,stelvio road which enables the ,tyrol to be crossed at an altitude of #i1jdb feet4 ,this is a zigzagging highway for vehicular and pedestrian traffic4 ,in ,colorado1 the ,denver ,rio ,grande railway crosses the backbone of the continent through three passes1 each over #aj1jjj feet above the sea1 while at ,ibex the station platform is at an altitude of #aa1ebb feet4 ,on the ,moffatt road1 in order to overcome the range1 the metals are lifted still higher at the ,rollins ,pass--to #aa1fjj feet1 or nearly #b miles above the ,atlantic4 ,incalculable mineral wealth lies buried in the hearts of these peaks1 and it was the discovery of this rich storehouse of ,nature that led to the opening up of the country by the iron road4 ,there was a gold rush in #ahei1 followed by a silver strike1 and ,leadville was one of the first towns to spring into existence in the wild scramble for sudden wealth4 ,though this locality nestles in the range some #gj miles distant1 the pioneer miners braved perils and privations untold to gain this hub1 and the town sprang up as if by magic4 ,but the isolation of the situation1 and the lack of transportation facilities soon became manifest to an acute degree4 ,every ounce of material had to be carried to and fro from the outside world by wagon1 mule-pack1 or manual effort1 involving an exhausting1 slow and expensive journey through deep gulches and over broken mountain trails4 ,the cry for a railway was raised1 but it was difficult to find pockets sufficiently deep or capitalists so plucky as to finance such an undertaking4 ,however1 constant agitation maintained for years bore its fruit4 ,a small company was formed1 and the ,pueblo ,arkansas railway was commenced4 ,the promoters shrank somewhat from the project1 fearing that construction would run into such a prohibitive figure as to bring ruination in its wake1 so they resolved to spend the minimum amount of money on the scheme4 ,to this end they decided to follow the easiest route available1 and suggested the course of the ,arkansas ,river from ,pueblo into the mountains1 and then at a convenient point to strike into the range to make the ascent to ,leadville4 ,yet those half-hearted financiers had visionary dreams1 and were spurred on by a certain amount of ambition4 ,they did not intend to come to a dead-end at ,leadville1 but once they had gained the higher level1 to push right across the ,continental ,divide to ,salt ,lake ,city1 and thence to the ,pacific ,coast4 ,some thirty years passed by1 however1 before the latter part of the project was completed4 ,though the course along the ,arkansas ,river was selected as the cheapest and easiest route1 the preliminary surveys sufficed to demonstrate that even that location would offer difficulties out of the ordinary4 ,the #i miles run through the ,royal ,gorge1 one of the natural wonders of ,north ,america1 promised a heavy struggle4 ,this defile at places is #b1gjj feet deep1 and the walls rise up so perpendicularly as to defy the slightest foothold to a chamois1 let alone a railway4 ,the bottom of the gulch was found to be occupied by the turbulent waters of the river1 which in times of flood lapped the base of the mountain wall on either side1 though at normal level a narrow shelf was exposed at the foot of one cliff4 ,the engineer responsible for the building of the line1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,a4 ,robinson1 decided to seize that shelf4 ,it could be made just wide enough to carry the line and no more1 while it could be raised sufficiently to escape the ravages of high water4 ,the river was kept within bounds by a wall of rough1 heavy masonry carried to a point well above the highest watermark1 and on this the track was laid upon a bed of rock ballast hewn from the mountain slopes4 ,however1 when the eastern portal of the ravine was gained a serious obstacle loomed up4 ,the ledge which the engineer had pressed into service up to this point disappeared abruptly into the water1 and did not reappear for some distance beyond4 ,the two sides of the canyon1 towering up to nearly #cjjj feet1 come closer together1 leaving only a narrow vent barely #cj feet wide4 ,as a result the river channel is constricted1 and the water thunders over the boulders through the wedge-shaped defile with the velocity of a cataract4 ,the engineer was brought to a full-stop4 ,how was he to span that gap8 ,the character of the torrent absolutely prevented any possibility of sinking piers in the waterway to carry a bridge across the breach in the ledge4 ,nor could a path be carved out of the mountain-side to carry the line around the obstacle1 because the maximum gradient had been attained already on either approach to the gap4 ,as ,mr4 ,robinson related1 the first solution that occurred to his mind was to tunnel the shoulder1 and thus to avoid the difficulty completely4 ,but the bogey of expense stood in his way4 ,there were scarcely sufficient funds available to build a surface line1 and1 under these circumstances1 tunnelling was quite out of the question4 ,moreover1 it would have required considerable time1 and the public was clamouring wildly for the completion of the line4 ,he haunted the gorge for days1 and spent much midnight oil in the hope of discovering some simple1 quick and cheap means of solving the problem4 ,but the quest seemed hopeless4 ,then suddenly it occurred to him that1 as he could not hope for assistance from the river-bed1 why not force the walls of the ravine to his aid8 ,in short1 why not sling a bridge from the cliff faces on either hand8 ,thereupon he evolved a plan to throw heavy iron girders in the manner of rafters across the gulch1 to anchor their ends to the solid rock1 and then to suspend the bridge carrying the metals from this structure in such a way that one side abutted against the wall4 ,the more he pondered1 the more convinced he became of its practicability1 despite the fact that it was something entirely new to railway engineering4 ,being intimately acquainted with the late ,mr4 ,c4 ,shaler ,smith1 who at that time was one of the foremost consulting bridge-engineers in the country1 he communicated his plans to him4 ,the consulting engineer was interested1 and arranged to accompany the designer to the site to judge the feasibility of the scheme at first hand1 and after acquainting himself with the prevailing conditions4 ,as a result of this investigation1 ,mr4 ,smith concurred in the method of spanning the gap1 and there and then the arrangements for carrying out the work were commenced4 ,it was realised that the task was somewhat delicate1 and ,mr4 ,robinson accordingly entrusted the preliminary operations to ,mr4 ,j4 ,o4 ,osgood1 who was appointed ,division ,engineer on this section of the railway4 ,mr4 ,osgood carried out the whole of the surveys for his chief personally to facilitate the accurate design and details of the whole structure4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,railway ,,two ,,miles ,,above ,,the ,,sea ,the ,denver and ,rio ,grande at the summit of ,marshall ,pass4 ,the sinuous route of the line may be followed for miles4 ,the surveyor related to me that when he first entered the canyon no one had ever traversed the gorge at that point1 except on the ice1 for the simple reason that it was impassable4 ,nor could one get across by clambering along the rock face where the line was to go1 as it was too steep4 ,the situation was first reconnoitred from all practicable points of vantage4 ,then1 in order to complete the essential preliminary work1 he caused a narrow pathway--nothing more than a ledge1 from #ab to #ah inches in width--to be hewn in the cliff above the site1 from which he made his final surveys4 ,illustration3 ,a 8,,double-,,header10 ,,climbing ,,the ,,cliff ,,of ,,animas ,,canyon ,,on ,,the ,,denver ,,and ,,rio ,,grande ,,railway ,the cutting of this path in itself was a tedious task1 and gave some idea of the labour that would have been involved in tunnelling the rock4 ,this narrow shelf1 however1 proved of inestimable value in handling the heavy overhead members of metal and setting them into position4 ,the dimensions and weight of the latter had to be kept as low as possible to facilitate handling under the peculiarly cramped conditions4 ,actual erection was exciting and hazardous4 ,the men had to be lowered by ropes and had to ply their tools while swinging in mid-air or when clinging to precarious footholds4 ,however1 the cumbrous overhead pieces were successfully set in position1 the ends were bolted to brackets sunk deeply into the cliff faces1 and from these girders the track floor was suspended1 the ends resting on the solid edges of the rocky ledge1 while one side was bedded against the wall4 ,such is the story1 as communicated to me by the engineers1 of the origin and erection of what ranks as an unparalleled novelty in engineering4 ,the 8,hanging ,bridge0 was built in the ,royal ,gorge nearly #cj years ago1 and although the first structure has been replaced by one of larger and heavier dimensions to accommodate weightier trains1 the fundamental principle is precisely the same as conceived by ,mr4 ,robinson4 ,yet the 8,hanging ,bridge0 is but one of many engineering wonders to be found on this railway4 ,go where one will over its #a1hjj miles of track among the ,rockies1 and some striking and daring work confronts one at every turn4 ,here the railway threads its way through a winding abyss1 there it passes over the crown of a towering peak1 or toils laboriously up the side of a sheering cliff4 ,no two miles are alike4 ,in all it traverses five yawning canyons1 each possessing a strange individuality1 and crosses the mountain backbone by which the continent is split in twain by three different passes4 ,level sections are practically unknown4 ,it is one continuous up-hill pull up the one1 with a long coast down-hill with steam shut off1 on the other1 side--a switchback upon a stupendous scale4 ,let us take the route over the ,marshall ,pass4 ,at ,poncha1 on the ,atlantic side1 the line is at an altitude of #g1dhj feet4 ,the summit is six miles away by the iron road1 but in that distance the train has to climb steadily at #baa feet to the mile over an extremely meandering route4 ,the mountains become wilder and more broken as the summit is approached4 ,the engineer took advantage of every natural facility that opened up to him4 ,in turn the rail crawls along ledges cut in the mountain flanks1 over lofty embankments1 spidery trestles1 doubling and redoubling upon itself in the most amazing manner4 ,the occasional presence of snow-sheds draws attention to the fact that the metals are above the snow-line1 and the many terrible dangers to which the track is exposed from avalanches and landslides4 ,two huge engines are required to negotiate the heavy ascent1 and at last1 when the top is attained1 the train is #bgf feet in excess of two miles above the ,atlantic on the eastern1 and the ,pacific on the western side1 respectively4 ,the tortuous path of the iron road is revealed below in a graphic manner4 ,it may be seen in no less than four separate terraces1 rising in steps one above the other1 the lowest being almost invisible1 connected by huge loops1 until it finally winds away and is lost in the dim haze of the horizon4 ,the descent is a replica of the ascent--the same gradient prevailing1 viz4 #baa feet to the mile4 ,no steam power whatever is needed to drive the train4 ,it is travel by mere gravitation alone1 held in check by the powerful air-brakes4 ,yet the railway is crossing the ,divide at another point some miles to the north rises twice to an altitude exceeding #aj1jjj feet4 ,this is on the extension of the original line from ,pueblo to ,leadville1 where1 after leaving the mining town1 there is a tedious climb to ,fremont ,pass1 where the track is laid #aa1ccj feet above the sea4 ,a few miles to one side the line attains its maximum altitude1 with #aa1ebb feet1 at ,ibex station1 on a short branch road4 ,after negotiating the ,pass there is a sharp descent to ,leadville junction1 where another locomotive has to be hitched on to haul the train up a bank1 rising #baa feet to the mile1 to the summit of ,tennessee ,pass1 lying at #aj1bdj feet1 the highest point being gained in a tunnel1 one mile in length1 bored through the mountain peak4 ,on the southern section of the system the line passes through some of the wildest and most impressive country it is possible to conceive1 and time after time the constructional engineer was puzzled sorely as to the best route for the road4 ,it overcomes the ,divide through the ,cumbres ,pass4 ,on the up-hill pull the railway skirts a towering mountain spur1 making a detour of four miles to circumvent the obstacle1 and then bursts suddenly into a strange country4 ,strange monoliths rear up on all sides their fantastically wind- and weather-carved sides1 glistening weirdly in the sunlight4 ,the line swings round these grotesque evidences of ,nature's handiwork in a sharp bend known appropriately as 8,phantom ,curve10 and then disappears into the depths of the ,toltec tunnel1 which is carved through solid granitic rock for some #fjj feet4 ,the peculiarity of this work is that it is carried through the crest1 and not the base of the peak1 for the opposite portal of the tunnel stands on the brink of a precipice which drops plumb a quarter of a mile into the valley4 ,this gulf is spanned by a solid masonry bridge almost as wonderful as the ,hanging ,bridge4 ,it recalls a swallow's nest built under the eaves of a roof1 for it is thrown across the gap to the opposite mountain ledge in the form of a balcony4 ,sudden emergence from the inky blackness of the mountain's heart to this frail-looking link with the frowning wall opposite1 and the depth of the fissure is decidedly startling4 ,if the ,eiffel ,tower were planted in this gorge it would be dwarfed into insignificance1 for its topmost platform would be over #ejj feet below the railway track4 ,to throw the bridge across this rift the men had to be slung out from derricks1 manipulating their trowels from an unsteady platform--the snap of a rope1 a missed footing1 and certain death on the splintering crags below awaited the unlucky4 ,it is upon this same section that one traverses the wonderful ,ophir ,loop1 by means of which the ,divide at ,dallas is negotiated4 ,the towering ,ophir mountain stands directly in the path of the line4 ,a detour was impossible2 the mountain had to be ascended1 but in so doing the engineer imposed a fearful task upon the locomotives4 ,the rise is #d per cent4 ,in other words1 for every #be feet the train advances1 it has to rise #ab inches4 ,the line skirts the base of the mountain1 describes a sharp semicircular curve1 and then runs directly backwards1 the track being parallel with that a few feet below4 ,the ,stelvio road over the ,alps is a wonderful zigzag climb1 but it does not double and re-double more than this ascent up ,ophir mountain4 ,terrace after terrace of track is left below1 extending through cutting1 over embankment and high trestles1 until the top is gained4 ,illustration3 ,,crossing ,,the ,,continental 8,,divide0 ,,on ,,the 8,,moffatt0 ,,road ,the train has climbed from the track at the bottom of the picture to the top of the cliff4 ,though the ascent and descent of the passes are impressive1 they are equalled in their daring by the winding through the rugged canyons bathed in everlasting shadows cast by the mountains4 ,the ,royal ,gorge is only one out of five that are threaded4 ,the others are equally awe-inspiring1 but each has a totally different aspect4 ,there is ,animas canyon4 ,the name of the gorge is musical--8,rio de las animas perdidas10 and trips readily off the tongue1 but the ,spaniards were adept in christening ,nature's wonders4 8,the ,river of ,lost ,souls0 is melancholy1 but how strikingly suitable6 ,the whole bed of the canyon is occupied by the river4 ,there was no convenient shelf by the water's side to carry the track4 ,the walls rise vertically on either side1 and the foam of the water as it tumbles through the gulch is scattered high on either wall4 ,the engineer1 deprived of a natural pathway1 cut one for himself4 ,and it does not cling to the river's side4 ,it is high up on one wall1 and was blasted foot by foot out of the solid rock4 ,at one point it is #ajjj feet above the water1 and the grade is necessarily steep as the river-bed rises very abruptly towards its upper end1 where the line emerges but a few feet above the water4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,c4 ,l4 ,mc,clure1 ,denver ,,the ,,moffatt ,,railway ,,playing 8,,hide-,,and-,,seek0 ,,among ,,the ,,tunnels ,,in ,,gore ,,canyon ,when the pioneer engineers laid this remarkable railway the exigencies of the present were their sole concern4 ,as years rolled by the narrow gauge proved a handicap1 so it was converted to the #d feet #h inches gauge4 ,but as there was still a considerable amount of narrow-gauge traffic1 the line is adapted for both classes of working1 there being three rails laid1 so that it is as easily available for the narrow- as the standard-gauge vehicles4 ,then the necessity arose for doubling the track to give an up-and-down main line through ,eagle ,river canyon4 ,the surveys soon convinced the engineer that it was absolutely impracticable to parallel the original line1 as the earthworks along the tortuous river could not be widened to carry the second pair of metals4 ,consequently1 they had to be laid on the opposite side of the water1 at a cost of #bj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1 per mile for #e miles4 ,the result is that now the river has a canal appearance1 its limits being bounded on either side by solid masonry4 ,a few years ago a well-known banker and prominent citizen of the city of ,denver1 the late ,david ,h4 ,m4 ,moffatt1 the ,silver ,king1 created a sensation by suggesting that the time was opportune to give the important trade centre in which he resided more direct communication with the ,pacific coast4 ,he pointed out that before setting directly westwards1 one had either to travel #ajg miles to the north to join the ,union ,pacific1 or #aaj miles south-east to ,pueblo4 ,why should not this mileage be saved and the journey accelerated by following the bird's course towards ,salt ,lake ,city8 ,notwithstanding the severely broken character of the ,rockies1 he decided to drive his railway almost in an air-line4 ,the surveyors pointed out that approximately #ge per cent4 of the track could be laid along river banks threading the mountains where grades and curves could be kept tolerably easy4 ,the greatest and costliest features of the scheme was the double toil over the ,great ,divide4 ,the mountain ramparts practically lock ,denver in upon its western side1 and the railway makes a direct plunge into the mass4 ,the ,south ,boulder canyon affords the causeway for the railway through the first clump4 ,certainly the gorge is well named1 for its sides are ragged in the extreme1 precipitous1 and strewn with ugly1 projecting masses of rock4 ,being unhampered financially1 the engineers were enjoined to carry their work out upon the most solid lines4 ,timber trestling across clefts on the hill-side was to be avoided2 the line was to be carried well above the river1 and in such a manner that easy alignment was secured4 ,this involved keeping well into the side of the mountains1 only to meet obstacles in the form of massive humps of rock projecting from the slopes4 ,they could not be blasted away--the only solution was tunnelling4 ,consequently1 the train plays a game of hide-and-seek as it darts in and out a chain of tunnels4 ,in the course of #ac miles there are no less than #cj tunnels through these spurs1 ranging from #gc to #a1gbj feet in length1 and aggregating #af1jjj feet in all4 ,it was the constant recurrence of these tunnels that provoked a querulous traveller to ask why the engineers did not 8tunnel the range the same as they do in the ,alps and have done with it80 ,in order to fulfil the demand of the 8,silver ,king10 heavy excavation was inevitable4 ,the rock thus removed was put to useful account to fill crevices and rifts to avoid trestling4 ,it was expensive construction1 but at the same time it ensured an excellent permanent way--permanent in the fullest sense of the word4 ,illustration3 ,photo by courtesy of ,american ,locomotive ,co4 ,,the ,,gigantic ,,snowplough1 ,,the ,,largest ,,yet ,,built1 ,,which ,,keeps ,,the ,,higher ,,levels ,,of ,,the 8,,moffatt0 ,,line ,,through ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountains ,,free ,,from ,,the ,,heavy ,,falls ,,of ,,snow ,when ,boulder ,river canyon was threaded the rise to the ,continental ,divide commenced4 ,the precise point at which this should be effected demanded repeated surveying1 and some time passed before the engineers found the shortest and easiest path through the range4 ,this was by means of a tunnel through the summit4 ,a heavy piece of work was advocated--#b miles in length--but as considerable time would be required for its completion1 it was decided to take the metals right over the crests1 with a temporary line of #bh miles1 in order to proceed with the grade and to open up the country beyond1 leaving the boring of the tunnel till a later date4 ,consequently1 the track was carried through ,rollins ,pass1 #aa1fjj feet above the level of the sea1 through a world of perpetual snow4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,deep ,,cutting ,illustration3 ,see page #ahj ,,boring ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,ten ,,tunnels ,cutting out the 8,great ,zigzag0 on the ,new ,south ,wales ,government ,railway4 ,to lift the line over that summit proved a tremendous task3 it involved the laying out of tremendous curves and wide1 sweeping loops4 ,when built1 it was quite as difficult to keep open during the winter months1 when the ,rockies are swept with terrific blizzards1 which bury the steel highway deeply beneath hills of snow4 ,yet arrangements were completed to meet this emergency4 ,a rotary snow-plough1 the biggest and most powerful of its type that ever had been designed1 was acquired4 ,with this huge machine the snow-gangs were out from morning to night1 but they kept that narrow channel of communication clear1 though it was almost a hopeless task at times4 ,while the railway was being pushed on from the western side of the range1 the boring of the tunnel was taken in hand4 ,it was urgent1 for it reduced the summit1 #b1bjj feet below ,rollins ,pass1 the portals of the tunnel being #i1icj feet above the sea on either side1 rising therefrom at #a in #djj to the tunnel's centre line4 ,although the tunnel takes the bulk of the traffic both summer and winter1 the route over ,rollins ,pass has not been abandoned entirely4 ,the excursion traffic mounts to the #aa1fjj feet1 for from that tremendous altitude the panorama of glistening snow and glacier caps is magnificent4 ,what such a summit means may be grasped better1 perhaps1 by comparison with the maximum altitudes attained on ,british railways4 ,the ,scottish ,highlands railway rises to #a1dhd feet above sea-level between ,dalwhinnie and ,dalnaspiel1 while the ,great ,western climbs to #a1cgc feet at ,princeton1 ,dartmoor4 ,such altitudes are trivial beside the dizzy summits attained on the ,american continent4 ,yet the tunnel under the ,rollins ,pass brought its own benefits4 ,by its provision the town of ,vasquez on the western slopes of the ,divide was brought #be miles nearer ,denver1 the distance being #ha miles by the temporary line over the ,pass1 and only #ef miles via the tunnel4 ,such reductions of distances1 with easing of grades1 count materially in questions of traffic nowadays4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,iron ,,horse ,,in ,,australasia ,i ,probably owing to its somewhat remote geographical situation in relation to the busy centres of the northern hemisphere but a hazy conception prevails of the great activity that has been1 and still is being1 maintained in regard to railway conquests in the far southern continent4 ,although large expanses of its territory still rank as terra incognita1 the iron horse is tearing the veil from the unknown with amazing rapidity2 it is fulfilling the dual role of exploring and colonising force simultaneously4 ,several imposing feats of engineering have been consummated in the task of wresting the interior stretches of the country from oblivion4 ,as is well known1 the island continent is divided into five ,states1 and each has worked out its own salvation by means of an independent railway system1 though the practice has been the same in each instance4 ,the early lines were laid through the fringe of settled territory along the coast1 and some time passed before the rails ventured inland4 ,as the agricultural1 forest and mineralogical wealth of the country became known1 however1 and attracted large flocks of settlers1 the map was rolled back by the railway in the various states4 ,up to the year #ahgj railway expansion developed very leisurely4 ,then there came a sudden awakening4 ,railway development went forward with a tremendous rush1 and this feverish expansion has been maintained steadily ever since4 ,the fact1 however1 that there was no general plan of campaign has in a certain measure produced confusion4 ,each ,state had to consider its individual purse and to calculate carefully how much it could afford in the work of railway colonisation4 ,the result is that there is a sad lack of uniformity among the gauges4 ,indeed1 ,australia is worse in this respect to-day than was the ,united ,states thirty years ago4 ,in the latter country three gauges struggled hard for supremacy1 viz4 the narrow #c feet #f inches gauge1 the standard gauge of #d feet #h inches1 and the wide gauge of #e feet #f inches4 ,in ,australia the gauges vary from #b feet #f inches to #e feet #c inches4 ,for instance1 ,new ,south ,wales is threaded entirely by the standard gauge of the world--#d feet #h inches--for some #djjj miles4 ,its neighbour to the south1 ,victoria1 favours both the gauge of #e feet #c inches and that of #b feet #f inches2 its western neighbour1 ,western ,australia1 has the wide gauge and the intermediate gauge of #c feet #f inches2 ,queensland adopted this gauge also4 ,with such a variegated system each ,state becomes isolated so far as through railway communication is concerned2 change of carriage at the borders is inevitable4 ,this disadvantage is experienced emphatically when it comes to the transportation of merchandise4 ,the locomotive made its debut in ,australia in #ahhe1 in which year the first length of railway from ,sydney to ,paramatta in the oldest colony was opened4 ,from that small beginning extension did not proceed very rapidly1 for while the population of ,new ,south ,wales remained small and scattered1 the outlook from the financial point of view was not promising4 ,consequently the network only extended over #dgc miles #bj years later4 ,since #ahge1 however1 the iron tentacles have grown with tremendous speed1 no less than #b1iie miles of track having been laid in the course of #cb years4 ,in the early days1 while money was scarce1 the cost of construction had to be kept down very severely4 ,the coast of ,new ,south ,wales is hemmed in by a high mountain range1 set from #bj to #gj miles back from the water's edge4 ,this barrier forms the rim of a tableland some #bjj miles in width1 extending from the extreme northern to the southern border of the ,state1 and runs roughly parallel with the shore4 ,consequently it was obvious that whatever direction the railways might take to tap inland territory1 the mountains had to be crossed4 ,the ,state railway system is divided into three divisions1 the main northern1 southern and western lines respectively1 and the range accordingly is crossed at three points4 ,the first subjugation of this rugged1 frowning barrier was brought about by the urgent necessity to connect ,bathurst with the coast at ,sydney4 ,years before gold had been discovered on the highlands a flourishing little community had sprung up and had founded a promising town4 ,but the inhabitants felt their isolation keenly1 and they petitioned the ,government relentlessly for railway communication4 ,at that time the line had gained a point known as ,penrith1 about #bb miles from ,sydney1 lying at the foot of the mountains1 and heavy expensive work confronted the engineers anxious to proceed farther inland4 ,moreover1 owing to the steepness with which the edge of the plateau rim dropped into the valley1 it was realised that the metals would have to be lifted quickly to a great height4 ,as the engineer was handicapped by financial stringency he was compelled to resort to heroic measures4 ,he set to work and succeeded in reducing the costliness of the earthwork by adopting grades of #a in #cc1 introducing what is known as a 8zigzag40 ,the track1 instead of climbing the bank continuously in terraces1 with curves connecting the successive tiers1 makes a diagonal cut up the cliff face to a dead-end4 ,from this point another stretch of line cuts similarly up the flank1 to terminate in another dead-end1 to lead to another diagonal rise1 and so on until the upper desired level is gained4 ,meiggs introduced a similar system when he built the ,oroya railway to overcome the ,andes1 and in the days the 8zigzag0 was carried out it was considered the only means of solving the situation with the minimum of expense4 ,the grades on the 8zigzag0 were as heavy as #a in #cj1 but their introduction served to lift the track to the summit of the tableland #c1ejj feet above sea-level at a distance of #bh miles from the capital4 ,some twenty years ago this 8,small ,zigzag10 as it was called to distinguish it from the similar and more imposing work of the same class on the opposite side of the range1 was cut out4 ,a direct descent was provided by driving a tunnel through the spur which the zigzag followed1 and the curves were eased4 ,the re-alignment cost about #ej1jjj1 or #bej1jjj1 but the interest on this capital expenditure is less than the saving in the expense of working the trains over this section4 ,gaining the top of the spur1 the railway continues a gentle ascent until it notches an altitude of #c1feh feet1 when the descent of the western slope commences4 ,the ,lithgow valley is the objective1 and the precipice tumbles down suddenly for #fjj feet4 ,to carry the line down the mountain-side appeared impossible1 and when the engineer-in-chief1 the late ,mr4 ,john ,whitton1 surveyed the scene1 to say that he was perturbed fails to express his thoughts adequately4 ,he could overcome the descent fairly easily if he were permitted to carry out tunnelling operations1 whereby he would secure both easy grades and curves4 ,but he was overruled4 ,tunnelling was considered too expensive and could not be countenanced2 in fact1 the whole conquest of the mountains provoked a long-drawn-out and bitter controversy4 ,the general attitude towards railways1 and the slight knowledge concerning their construction and operation in those early days1 is afforded from the engineer-in-chief's struggle with the ,governor-,general for permission to follow his own inclinations1 which1 as he pointed out1 might entail heavy initial expenditure1 but would pay in the long run4 ,when the scheme was unfolded and the engineer admitted that the work1 however accomplished1 must prove costly1 the ,governor-,general pointed out that a highroad had been built over the mountains for pedestrian and wagon traffic4 ,consequently he suggested that this channel should be used1 that the lines should be laid in the middle of the road1 and that the trains should be hauled by horses6 ,the engineer had considerable difficulty1 and had to resort to prolonged communications and lengthy explanations1 to impress upon the official mind that the locomotive was the best means of hauling trains4 ,he became so insistent1 and persecuted his demands so relentlessly that the ,governor-,general1 probably sick at heart over the whole thing1 gave way at last to the engineer's importunities1 but stipulated that the constructional cost should not exceed #bj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1 per mile4 ,by imposing this financial drag the official possibly thought that he had discomfited the engineer4 ,but this was by no means the case4 ,certainly it ruled tunnelling out of consideration as a means of overcoming difficulty1 but it only served to stimulate the engineer-in-chief to something more startling4 ,as he could not make his way from the summit to the lower level by the direct route he decided to saw his way down the precipice4 ,the rocky wall rose up for about #dgj feet so steeply as to defy a mountain goat to secure a foothold4 ,the surveyors had to be lowered from the top by means of ropes and chains to carry out their tasks with the transit and level to plot the path for the line4 ,here and there were wide1 deep ,v-shaped rifts breaking the profile of the precipice4 ,massive arches in masonry were thrown across these obstructions1 and a path was cut in the side of the cliff to carry the track4 ,the line struck along the face for about a mile1 descending steadily #a in #db feet4 ,it then came to a dead-end4 ,another mile of track with the same falling grade wound backward to terminate in a second dead-end1 and lower down came another mile of descent in the reverse direction to gain the valley4 ,it required #c miles of line to carry the track downwards #fjj feet4 ,when one stood at the top of the 8,great ,zigzag0 one saw the three tiers of track sawing the slope1 to disappear finally in the depths of the valley4 ,the engine in the descent pulled the train down the top side of the serrated road to the dead-end1 pushed it backwards along the second gallery to the second dead-end1 and finally hauled it to enter the depression4 ,the 8,great ,zigzag0 for years stood as a striking monument to the ingenuity responsible for the work1 for it is even more daring than ,meiggs' famous ,v-switches4 ,as time passed and the railway traffic of the ,state increased1 the heaviness of the grades1 the sharpness of the curves and the time occupied in negotiating the zigzag1 reacted more and more adversely upon the economical operation of the line4 ,moreover1 it constituted a serious menace to safety1 although fortunately it never was the scene of an accident4 ,still1 a proposal for its abolition was advanced so far back as #ahhe1 although it was realised that heavy and costly reconstruction was the only alternative4 ,the proposed deviation was discussed more or less for several years1 but was deferred from motives of expense4 ,but when the traffic had gained the respectable proportions of some #b1ehe1jjj tons in #aijh1 it was recognised that the inevitable could be postponed no longer4 ,it was pointed out that if there were no zigzag the number of goods trains using this part of the line could be cut down by over #cj per cent41 since a single locomotive would be able to handle a heavier load and longer train than was possible at that time1 while so far as passenger traffic was concerned1 no less than #fhf hours could be saved every year1 and operating expenses could be reduced #ej per cent1 upon this division4 ,illustration3 ,,before ,,the ,,explosion ,,the ,,blast ,,the ,,cliff-,,face ,,dislodged ,,the ,,cliff-,,face ,,broken ,,up ,a ,,huge ,,blast #ce1jjj tons of rock were dislodged by #aj1abe lb4 of explosives4 ,accordingly the deviation was commenced4 ,the surveys for the new line had been prepared by ,mr4 ,henry ,deane1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 while engineer-in-chief for railway construction4 ,he proposed a series of tunnels built on a gradient of #a in #ij running through a number of spurs projecting from the main range1 and although these were intercepted by gulches the latter could be filled with the rock excavated from the tunnel borings4 ,the line in many places hugs steep precipices where the land falls away vertically for a distance of #ajjj feet or so into the ,kinambla ,valley4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,puttapa ,,gap ,,bridge1 #bjj ,,feet ,,in ,,length ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hookina ,,creek ,,bridge ,in the summer the watercourse is dry4 ,note the measures adopted to protect the piers from the force of the flood waters4 ,,two ,,views ,,on ,,the ,,south ,,australian ,,government ,,railways ,the task was commenced in ,july #aijh under the guidance of ,mr4 ,james ,fraser1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 the engineer-in-chief for existing lines1 to whom ,i am indebted for this information1 and in a short time #ajjj men were engaged in boring the tunnels and making the deep1 heavy cuts through the sandstone rock4 ,all tunnels were attacked simultaneously1 and the blasting assumed heavy proportions4 ,in one case a shaft was sunk practically to formation-level4 ,when completed it was charged with about #aj1jjj pounds of blasting powder and #abe pounds of gelignite4 ,it was fired electrically1 and the splitting force of the explosives dislodged #ce1jjj tons of rock4 ,in another case #ajjj pounds of blasting powder were tamped home in the face of a cliff1 and #aj1jjj tons of rock were shivered to be used for embanking purposes4 ,in order to rush the work through at tip-top speed1 special arrangements were made to facilitate the handling of the necessary supplies and men1 as well as the operation of the tools4 ,as the new line passed #cej feet below the old line1 connection between the two at this crossing was effected by means of a funicular railway with a grade of #a in #a4hg4 ,the material was brought by rail to the upper end of this temporary line1 and from a special siding was dispatched direct on to the works4 ,a small electric generating station was set up1 and wires for the transmission of current for power and lighting were strung along the route from end to end to compress the air to drive the rock drills1 for the motors actuating the ventilating fans and also the water-pumps4 ,the scheme as originally planned provided for the building of #f miles #heh yards of new double track1 which represented a saving of #bb yards upon the line that was being displaced1 though the curves and grades were easier4 ,it was estimated that the earthworks would involve the handling of #dff1jjj cubic yards apart from the tunnel borings4 ,eleven tunnels were planned1 representing a total length of #b1iia yards1 but during the work it was decided to cut out one tunnel as the rock was found to be shattered4 ,consequently it was converted into an open cutting1 the sides of which are #acb feet high4 ,some idea of the speed with which the task was pushed forward may be gauged from the fact that in #aa months #daj1jjj cubic yards of excavation were completed1 #a miles of permanent way were laid with a single line1 and #a1dcj yards of the tunnelling were completed4 ,the total cost of the work was estimated at #bef1jjj1 or #a1bhj1jjj4 ,its recent completion1 although it relegates an imposing engineering achievement to the limbo of things that were1 has resulted in the creation of another achievement equally as notable4 ,in building the north coast line which connects ,sydney with the ,queensland border1 a feat of a totally different character from the zigzag was completed4 ,this is the massive bridge1 #cjjj feet in length1 which carries the track across the ,hawkesbury ,river1 #cf miles distant from the capital4 ,it is divided into seven spans1 each of which measures #daf feet in length1 supported on substantial masonry piers4 ,the erection of this structure1 which still ranks as the largest work of its type in ,australia1 occasioned considerable difficulty1 both in regard to the piers and the setting of the steel-work into position4 ,indeed1 it is doubtful as to which section of the work provoked the greater anxiety4 ,the difficulty with the piers was the great depth to which the engineers had to descend to secure a foundation1 because in mid-stream the #dj feet of water flows over a bed of mud ranging up to #abj feet in thickness4 ,the only practicable means by which this essential subaqueous work could be carried out was by sinking a huge steel cylinder filled with concrete4 ,the bottom section of this huge tub1 or caisson1 as it is called1 was closed1 and after it was completed on shore it was towed out to the site where the pier was to be erected and sunk by the introduction of the concrete4 ,the under side of the caisson was fitted with a knife edge1 by means of which it could cut its way through the soft soil1 the driving force for this purpose being the weight of the superimposed concrete4 ,the mud over the area representing the superficies of the cylinder bottom was removed from the inside to enable the mass to settle down4 ,the steel shell was built up continually from the water-level in rings1 until a solid foundation was gained4 ,when this was reached and deemed satisfactory the spaces through which the spoil from below had been withdrawn were likewise filled with concrete1 so that the contents of the cylinder really form a huge pillar of concrete homogeneous from end to end4 ,the conditions prevailing also compelled each span to be completed near the bank upon a pontoon1 the steel-work being supported upon a heavy scaffolding4 ,the pontoon was somewhat shorter than the span of steel which projected an equal distance over either end of the former4 ,when all was ready1 and when the tide was approaching its highest point1 the pontoon1 with its ungainly load1 was towed and was warped gently between two adjacent piers1 in such a way that the ends of the span were brought into their relative positions upon the masonry4 ,the pontoon was then made fast1 and the actual settling of the steel-work was left to the movement of the tide4 ,as the river fell1 carrying the pontoon with it1 the span descended until in due course the ends rested on the masonry4 ,the water still falling1 the scaffolding presently dropped below the steel-work1 leaving the latter clear in position4 ,finally1 when the tide had fallen still more1 the pontoon was cast off and drawn away1 leaving the two piers connected by the steel4 ,such methods demand extreme care1 unerring judgment1 and a readiness to meet any emergency on the part of the engineers4 ,the ,american bridge-builders who carried out this undertaking had several exciting incidents4 ,the most thrilling and anxious was when one of the pontoons got out of control with its precious freight and became stranded on the bank1 where it had to remain in a dangerous listing condition until the tide rose again1 to enable it to be floated off and towed to its destination4 ,in comparison with the ,new ,south ,wales railways1 the lines of the other ,states lack outstanding features1 yet their work has been attended with peculiar difficulties4 ,in ,south ,australia1 where settlement has not proceeded so rapidly as in the adjacent ,state1 the policy is to build the lines with the minimum of cost to meet the demands for cheap railways to connect communities scattered over a large area4 ,that this is a remunerative practice is borne out by results4 ,although the wide gauge of #e feet #c inches is adopted on what may be called the trunk lines extending from ,adelaide to the eastern border1 to effect junction with the ,victorian railways1 thereby securing through railway communication between ,adelaide and ,melbourne without change of carriage1 the greater part of the railway system is the narrow gauge of #c feet4 ,the railway thus acts as a pioneering campaigner in the fullest sense of the word1 and in this way it has been possible to push the iron road towards the heart of the rich inland country so far as ,oodnadatta4 ,queensland is practising the same principle1 three lines having been forced slowly towards the eastern boundary of that ,state in three roughly parallel lines from three different points on the coast--though the latter in turn are connected4 ,in due course the inland ends of these lines will be joined up1 and there will be a complete circle from which spurs can be driven to meet development4 ,railway construction in ,south ,australia is noticeable because of the cheapness with which it is carried out in the first place1 with an accompanying economy in maintenance4 ,the whole of the work is effected for the most part by the ,government department1 small contracts for construction only being let on rare occasions4 ,this policy1 combined with the application of every modern appliance which can establish reason for its utilisation1 has been eminently satisfactory from every point of view4 ,at the present time the tendency is to anticipate the settler1 and thus1 by the provision of transportation facilities1 to attract the farmer into the district4 ,the reverse is generally the method adopted--the farmer establishes himself on the land1 and then when there is an agitation for transport the railway is advanced4 ,in this ,state1 however1 the railway creates the situation1 and in this manner a large area of good agricultural land has been opened up for cultivation4 ,this is the policy which ,mr4 ,james ,j4 ,hill followed in the western ,united ,states1 and its soundness in the course of time is demonstrated conclusively from the enormous traffic which flows over his systems4 ,in order that this pioneering may not saddle the ,south ,australian ,government with an unremunerative heavy debt1 the line in the first instance is of the lightest possible description4 ,as the country traversed develops and more traffic accrues to the road1 rendering improvement advisable1 the track is overhauled and relaid with heavier metals1 the lighter rails being shipped to another point to enable the pioneering process to be continued4 ,this is an elastic system eminently adapted to such a country as ,south ,australia1 which is still in its infancy1 and where the demand for railway communication is confined almost entirely to agricultural requirements and to the transportation of farming produce1 especially in the more remote up-country districts4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,iron ,,horse ,,in ,,australasia ,,ii ,whereas the ,southern ,australian and ,queensland railways are called upon to meet the demands of agriculture1 the roads of ,western ,australia1 on the other hand1 have been laid out to satisfy the extensive mining movements along the western shore of the island continent4 ,the engineers1 however1 have not been called upon to face particularly stern grapples with ,nature1 owing to the country traversed being1 for the most part1 of a give-and-take character1 and to there being an entire absence of high mountains and wide1 rushing rivers4 ,there is only one chain of hills of any magnitude that has to be crossed by the lines4 ,this is the ,darling range1 which runs parallel with the coast from near ,geraldton to the southern extremity of the country4 ,in order to gain the gold-fields around ,coolgardie1 as well as the eastern and southern stretches of the ,state1 the difficulties confronting the engineer in connection with this low ridge were not so great as those prevailing in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,for instance1 only one tunnel1 #a1jif feet in length1 has had to be bored4 ,indeed1 the engineer seized the opportunity to build the line cheaply to such an extent that the lowest watermark in this respect1 bearing in mind the configuration of the country1 may be said to have been attained4 ,true1 the grades and curvature are heavy1 the former running up to as high as #a in #ej 7#b per cent471 while the curves are of #bff feet radius4 ,some of the most difficult spurs in this range are traversed by the line which taps the extensive coal-fields in the ,collie district--the bulk of the coal used in the ,state is obtained here--where sharp curves of #agf feet radius1 and banks rising #a in #dj1 have been introduced4 ,the first railway built in ,western ,australia was a short line from the coast to ,northampton4 ,this was completed in #ahgi4 ,in those early days the finances of the country were at a very low ebb1 and the engineer was forced to carry his track through the hilly country with the minimum of earthwork4 ,the result was that curves so sharp as #hh feet radius were adopted4 ,the ,upper ,darling ,range railway also deserves more than passing notice4 ,it leaves ,midland junction at the foot of the hills1 and #aj miles from ,perth4 ,the precipitous character of the spurs so puzzled the engineer that he was driven to imitate the method of extrication from a difficulty of this description practised in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,he had to 8zigzag0 the line up the face of the bluff4 ,another feature of interest is on the spur from the eastern railway1 known as the ,smith's ,mill branch4 ,a deep cut had to be driven through a hill1 which the excavators1 when they set to work1 found to be a solid mass of pipe-clay6 ,though the engineering trials on the railways in this ,state may not compare in calibre with those in other countries1 there is one other difficulty which is far more significant from the railway's point of view4 ,i refer to the question of water supply4 ,on the coast1 where the rainfall varies between #ae and #dj inches per annum1 this does not occasion any apprehension1 but rain becomes scarcer and scarcer as the great interior deserts are approached4 ,this condition prevails along a belt #aej miles or so wide1 extending from ,albany to ,geraldton4 ,when the discovery of gold at ,coolgardie1 some twenty years ago1 sent a wave of excitement round the world1 the miners and others who rushed to the ,el ,dorado suffered terribly from the dearth of this indispensable commodity1 and when the mines were set to work it hampered operations to a very pronounced degree4 ,in the gold country the rainfall does not exceed six inches per annum1 and consequently water had to be husbanded carefully4 ,the mining activity1 however1 brought about a remarkable expansion in the iron road1 which pushed inland for nearly #fjj miles4 ,then the water question became one of vital importance1 because the locomotives required copious and frequent drinks to slake their tremendous thirsts4 ,to bring this article up from the coast was costly4 ,the scanty rainfall was collected so far as possible by impounding1 but the water thus secured was found to be useless for the railway's purposes4 ,it became so heavily charged with deleterious substances1 as it flowed over a salt-impregnated soil1 that it set up heavy incrustation in the boilers4 ,this was a serious drawback1 because it reduced the life of the engine's internal organs very materially1 and militated against the iron horse's efficiency4 ,to remedy this state of affairs1 the earthen dams constructed at various points along the route1 which formed small reservoirs1 were supplemented by condensing plants4 ,the most notable installation of this description was completed at ,coolgardie4 ,this plant was designed primarily to utilise the salt water from the adjacent mines4 ,the ,coolgardie condenser was capable of supplying about #fj1jjj gallons of fresh water per day1 at a cost of #cgs4 #f;d41 or say #i per #ajjj gallons1 and to furnish this requirement entailed an expenditure of #ae1jjj1 or #ge1jjj1 on the apparatus4 ,a large distilling apparatus was set up also at ,geraldton to supply the ,northern railway running into the ,murchison gold-fields1 where the water question was also a serious factor4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,tunnel1 #a1jif ,,feet ,,long1 ,,through ,,the ,,darling ,,range ,this is the only tunnel on the ,west ,australian ,government ,railways4 ,while this palliative met the situation up to a certain point1 it was far from satisfactory4 ,consequently1 a few years ago a huge project was evolved to supply the ,coolgardie gold-fields with unlimited quantities of excellent water4 ,a large dam was thrown across a rift on the western slope of the ,darling range about #bj miles from ,perth1 whereby #d1fjj1jjj1jjj gallons of water are banked up4 ,the water is dispatched from this reservoir to the gold-fields #cej miles away through a pipe #cj inches in diameter1 which is sufficient to ensure the inhabitants in the gold country receiving a steady and continuous supply of #e1jjj1jjj gallons per day4 ,at intervals along the line large intermediate tanks are provided1 together with pumping plants4 ,as the pipe-line runs alongside1 and the pumping stations are situate beside the railway1 the latter can now secure ample supplies of pure water1 so that the ,eastern ,gold-fields railway is concerned no longer with troubles in this direction4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dearth ,,of ,,suitable ,,water ,,was ,,the ,,serious ,,problem ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,days ,,of ,,the ,,coolgardie ,,goldfields4 ,,as ,,the ,,railway ,,could ,,not ,,haul ,,supplies ,,from ,,the ,,coast1 ,,this ,,novel ,,condensing ,,plant ,,was ,,erected ,the above photograph shows one-half of the installation4 ,in this way #fj1jjj gallons of fresh water were supplied per day at a cost of #cgs4 #f;d41 or #i1 per #ajjj gallons4 ,great activity is being displayed now in opening up the country in suitable districts alongside the main line1 where fruit-growing can be practised with distinct success4 ,these agricultural roads are built lightly in the first instance to reduce capital outlay1 the average cost being about #a1bjj1 or #f1jjj1 per mile1 but these lines will be replaced by heavier metals as the land becomes settled4 ,the ,western ,australian railways now extend for about #b1ejj miles through the ,state1 and1 in addition1 private enterprise is represented by the ,midland ,railway ,company1 which runs from a point #aj miles out of ,perth northwards for #bgf miles to ,walkaway1 whence ,geraldton is reached by a ,government line4 ,in addition1 there are numerous short roads belonging to companies working the resources of the country1 especially of timber1 but one and all have adopted the narrow #c feet gauge so as to secure uniformity and intercommunication4 ,bearing in mind the undulating and easy nature of the country1 railway constructional costs have not been heavy4 ,on the trunk lines outside the ,darling range the cost has varied from #c1jjj to #d1jjj--ae1jjj to #bj1jjj--per mile1 according to the distance from the coast4 ,the heaviest expenditure was incurred in traversing the ,darling ,mountains1 where the expenditure ranged between #d1jjj and #g1ejj--bj1jjj and #cg1ejj--per mile4 ,during the past few years the question of building an ,australian trans-continental railway has been brought to the fore1 the idea being to link up the railways on the eastern1 with those on the western1 sides of the continent4 ,such a railway would be of far-reaching strategical importance1 and ,lord ,kitchener1 during his visit to the ,antipodes1 urged its necessity4 ,the proposal comprises the connection of ,kalgoorlie in the ,coolgardie district with ,fort ,augusta in the neighbouring ,state of ,south ,australia1 whence ,adelaide1 ,melbourne1 ,sydney and ,rockhampton on the ,queensland coast could be reached by rail from ,perth4 ,to complete such a scheme would entail the crossing of the edge of the ,victoria desert1 but as the physical character of the country does not offer any great difficulties1 it is estimated that the #a1jgj miles of line could be built for #e1jjj1jjj1 or #be1jjj1jjj4 ,when the ,states were federated1 ,western ,australia1 feeling that it was cut off from its sister ,states1 concluded that if it co-operated to form a homogeneous commonwealth1 the construction of a trans-continental highway would follow as a matter of course4 ,this anticipation caused the western state to throw in its lot with the other territories4 ,western ,australia for a long time previous had cherished the idea of connecting itself physically with the east by means of the iron road1 but it was not financially in the position to undertake the project unaided4 ,still it authorised one of its engineers1 ,mr4 ,john ,muir1 to run through the country it was intended to traverse1 and to report generally upon the feasibility of the scheme4 ,the journey undertaken by this engineer gives an interesting sidelight as to the task of surveying a new road in ,australia1 especially in the lesser-known hinterland4 ,mr4 ,muir organised a small party1 with camels as the vehicles of transport4 ,the beasts numbered twelve in all1 five being utilised for riding purposes and the remainder as pack-animals1 carrying the restricted requirements for the little party4 ,they set out from the most easterly point to which the ,western ,australian railways had penetrated in the requisite direction4 ,leaving the gold-field country1 they entered the great ,victoria ,desert4 ,water was the one difficulty they apprehended1 for they knew from the experiences of various explorers in this arid belt that this commodity could be found only here and there4 ,the camels1 consequently1 were restricted to short rations--one drink every five days1 the party carrying sufficient of the liquid to meet its own needs during the intervals4 ,the animals evidently did not appreciate these strict regulations1 because the party1 whenever they left a water-hole1 had the greatest difficulty in persuading the camels to continue the journey1 and even when they did resume the trail the beasts frequently stopped to turn their heads longingly in the direction of the last water station4 ,this small party covered #ajjj miles1 collecting valuable data1 which1 upon return1 was investigated searchingly and compared with the information that other travellers had gathered when piercing the country at different times4 ,as a result a comprehensive scheme was drawn up1 and the possibilities of such through communication were revealed in no uncertain manner4 ,some years later the ,commonwealth sanctioned the completion of a more exhaustive survey1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,deane1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 formerly engineer-in-chief to the ,new ,south ,wales railways1 being placed in charge of the whole undertaking4 ,the enterprise was divided into two sections1 the ,federal ,government undertaking to complete the task from ,coolgardie to the eastern frontier of ,western ,australia1 while ,south ,australia decided to complete the work so far as it affected its own territory4 ,mr4 ,john ,muir1 who had been through the country previously for the ,western ,australian ,government1 was selected by the chief engineer as first lieutenant on the former division1 and he enrolled four other surveyors4 ,for this task no less than #ia camels were acquired4 ,of this total #cf animals were deputed to haul three team-wagons1 a like number were subdivided into three strings of pack-animals1 three carried stakes for locating the line1 while the others were used for various purposes4 ,an important task was the distribution of stores to the extent of #ah tons along the route for the survey party1 together with ample supplies of water for both man and beast1 the water stations being spaced at intervals of #g miles4 ,to plot the route the chief surveyor set out ahead of the main party4 ,he ran the line by the aid of a compass1 and checked his work by means of stellar observations4 ,the last camel in his train was required to haul a heavy bullock-chain1 the free extremity of which was knotted1 and as this dragged over the ground it left a trail which could be picked up and followed easily by the main party following in the rear4 ,the latter measured the distance by chains and took levels at frequent points1 and these were checked constantly4 ,this survey party moved forward at the rate of #f miles per day1 and it covered the ,western ,australian section of #dee miles in #hi days4 ,the ,south ,australian ,government engineers experienced greater difficulty in completing their part of the work1 for on their section1 extending over #fjh miles1 the scarcity of water was felt acutely4 ,they were caught by the intensely hot summer1 which dried up all available founts of supply speedily1 and consequently the men and the #hj camels could not advance very rapidly1 their daily movement averaging about #c miles4 ,in due course they gained the inter-state boundary and picked up the last stake indicating the route left by the party which had advanced westwards from ,kalgoorlie4 ,a sum of #bj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1 was expended upon this preliminary work4 ,in addition to location1 other valuable details were secured1 the most important of which was in regard to the economic possibilities of the territory traversed4 ,far from much of the country being sterile1 as previous reports had indicated1 it was ascertained that1 under proper scientific farming1 it could be brought to a high standard of fertility and productiveness4 ,there is one long doubtful stretch of #ajg miles through a waterless plain1 but if it were possible to adopt irrigation1 there are great hopes that this country might be found excellent for grazing purposes4 ,the standard gauge was advocated for the trans-continental highway1 and it was pointed out that if this connection were forged1 not only would the line prove of distinct military value1 but that it would possess great commercial attractions as well4 ,for instance1 there is a considerable and increasing trade between the ,coolgardie gold-fields country and the eastern ,states1 which has to be carried out by steamer at present1 involving a long1 tedious journey1 whereas by rail the two centres would be brought within direct and accelerated connection of one another4 ,another feature was emphasised also1 and that was the great saving in time possible by dispatching the ,european mails and passenger traffic overland from east to west1 instead of by sea as at present4 ,the ,commonwealth appears resolved to carry the scheme to fulfilment1 especially in view of ,lord ,kitchener's strong advocacy of the project1 and when this is accomplished passengers landing at ,fremantle will be able to travel by rail so far as ,rockhampton in ,queensland1 a distance of #c1hjj miles4 ,owing to the varying gauges in ,australia1 such a journey would involve no less than five changes of carriages at least1 and this is the one great disadvantage connected with the scheme4 ,in order to observe railway engineering in its most spectacular form in the ,antipodes one must cross the ,tasman ,sea into ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,england of the ,south is provided with a backbone of lofty and extremely broken ridges4 ,indeed1 the advance of the railway-builder through this country has been beset with abnormal obstacles which recall the conquests of the ,rocky and ,cascade mountains in ,north ,america4 ,the most outstanding feature on the whole network of railways operated by the ,government is the amazing number of bridges1 the cost of which must represent a huge sum4 ,in the early days chasms and gorges which the railway was forced to cross were spanned by wooden structures1 but these have since been replaced by substantial and often lofty steel structures4 ,whenever the engineer has essayed to leave the coast on either side of the island1 the mountains have reared up to dispute his advance1 and it has been only by dint of great effort that the metals have been carried over these great barriers4 ,at the present time the country has one gigantic project in hand which is without a parallel south of the ,equator4 ,this is the ,otira tunnel1 which is being driven for #e miles under the gorge of the same name4 ,this great work occurs on the line which is destined to connect ,christchurch on the east1 with ,greymouth on the west1 coast of the ,south ,island4 ,the two points are separated by the ,southern ,alps1 many peaks of which jut #ab1jjj feet into the clouds4 ,this undertaking was commenced by private enterprise1 but when #ce miles of the line had been completed1 the physical difficulties to be overcome were found to be so great that the company shrank from attempting the apparently impossible1 and accordingly the ambitious idea was abandoned4 ,the result was that the ,government took the railway over and determined to penetrate the mountain chain at all hazards4 ,the ,otira tunnel1 though the most notable feature1 is but one of many notable works1 for the bridges and smaller tunnels compel just as much attention4 ,to give some idea of their frequency and character it may be mentioned that1 in a short length of #i miles1 there are #d high steel viaducts1 one of which carries the rails #bcf feet above the floor of the gorge1 and no less than #ag short tunnels1 the longest of which is about #bjjj feet1 while there is scarcely a mile of level line6 ,the grades on this railway in some cases are very severe1 that through the ,otira tunnel itself being #b per cent41 or #a in #ej4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,western ,,australian ,,eastern ,,railway ,,cuts ,,through ,,the ,,darling ,,range ,from the earliest days one dream had occupied the attention of1 all concerned in ,new ,zealand's welfare and progress4 ,this was a trunk railway from ,wellington to ,auckland4 ,the fact that only some #dej miles separated the two cities by a feasible route was hammered home vehemently by enthusiasts1 but it was some time before the requisite courage and determination to effect the connection could be summed up4 ,pessimists pointed out the great mountains and deep1 wide gorges that would have to be conquered1 and the enormous expenditure their subjugation by the steel highway would entail4 ,to-day1 however1 the ,north ,island ,trunk railway connects the two points1 but it proved a prodigious undertaking1 calling for the display of remarkable ingenuity4 ,illustration3 ,see page #bad ,,the ,,leopoldina ,,railway ,,is ,a ,,maze ,,of ,,curves1 ,,twists ,,and ,,bends1 ,,owing ,,to ,,the ,,rugged ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,country ,,traversed ,this photograph shows a sharp loop4 ,the early surveyors pointed out that ,mount ,ruapehu would demand much hard and heavy thinking on the part of the engineers4 ,so it proved4 ,the railway skirts the base of this peak1 but has to make a stiff ascent in a short distance4 ,the engineer did not resort to a zigzag to overcome the difficulty1 but profited from the example of ,hellwag on the ,st4 ,gotthard1 who had to extricate that line from a similar tight corner4 ,recourse was made to a spiral4 ,the result is that the railway emerges from a tunnel burrowed through a crest1 and shortly after sweeps round in a graceful curve to cross the tunnel through the same obstruction2 the railway overcomes the steep ascent by means of a stretch of corkscrew track4 ,near the base of the same mountain there is a deep gorge over which the line was forced to pass4 ,from the point at which the track gained the brink it was about #hjj feet to the opposite cliff edge1 and the precipice delved down to nearly #cjj feet4 ,this is the famous ,makatote ,gorge1 and the engineer decided to spring across the gap4 ,the contract was secured by ,messrs4 ,j4 ,a4 ,anderson of ,christchurch1 and they lost no time in attacking the task4 ,when they appeared on the scene there was no road to the site of the viaduct1 and the railway was still #bj miles distant1 so the prospect was not inviting4 ,the sides of the mountain were covered with dense primeval jungle-like bush1 which had to be hacked back to permit of investigations of the situation1 and six months passed before the wagon road for the purposes of the railway was driven through the district4 ,this constituted the only channel over which the requisite steel material could be transported4 ,the constructional engineers concluded that the best means of meeting the situation was to erect a workshop on the spot where the necessary steel-work could be prepared4 ,electricity was generated to operate the various tools demanded4 ,the rainfall averaged about #if inches per year1 and at times the insignificant stream flowing through the ,v-shaped fissure was nothing but a foaming torrent1 sweeping everything away in its mad rush4 ,the constructional engineers were faced with the erection of one tower springing from the bank of the waterway beneath to a height of #bgj feet1 while other towers of #bdi1 #bjh1 #age and #aaj feet in height respectively were demanded4 ,the spans were of equal length1 viz4 #ajj feet1 flanked on either side by approaches1 and the undertaking called for the use of about #ajjj tons of steel4 ,the foundations comprise concrete pedestals which were sunk into the ground1 and these carry steel towers somewhat after the ,american pattern1 giving lightness1 with rigidity and strength4 ,every piece of steel was riveted to its neighbour by means of pneumatic tools1 which not only expedited the task of securing the sections together1 but eliminated the possibility of accidents arising from the swinging of sledge-hammers1 especially at the greatest heights4 ,the spans of steel connecting each tower with its neighbour were erected from the rail level1 without recourse to false-work4 ,owing to the many and careful precautionary methods adopted1 the erecting work was carried through without the slightest hitch or the loss of a single life4 ,when the task was completed the strength of the constructional engineers' handiwork was tested thoroughly by a train of the heaviest locomotives used upon the ,new ,zealand railway being run across the bridge at varying speeds1 until the maximum attained in practice was reached4 ,the ,makatote ,viaduct stands as one of the finest pieces of its work of this type that ever has been completed in the ,antipodes4 ,another striking engineering achievement was the building of the ,central ,otago railway which runs from ,dunedin to the interior of ,otago4 ,the line not only threads knots of mountains1 but also spans numerous rifts4 ,indeed1 so much bridging became necessary that the railway has become known as 8,the ,bridge ,line40 ,in completing this road nearly every type of structure known to the engineer was adopted4 ,the largest structure is the ,wingatui ,viaduct1 where the rail is carried about #adf feet above the floor of a broken1 winding gorge on a creation of steel comprising three spans1 each measuring #aif feet in length1 and five smaller spans1 each of #ff feet1 supported on pyramidal steel towers4 ,another work of a similar character is the ,flat ,creek ,viaduct1 where the rail runs across the rift about #ajj feet above its deepest part in six spans of #ff feet each4 ,these mountain creeks1 it may be pointed out1 are simply masses of rocky boulders in the dry season1 but when they are called upon to carry away the accumulation of water1 they are nothing but torrents tearing along with fiendish turbulence1 and bearing down considerable quantities of heavy stones1 against the batterings of which the erections of the engineer would be futile were they not carried out upon the most substantial lines4 ,in contrast to the permanent metallic structures is the ,waian timber trestle on the ,south ,island main trunk line1 which measures no less than #fac feet from end to end4 ,verily1 ,new ,zealand may be described as the land of the bridge-builder in excelsis1 owing to such varied opportunities to demonstrate his skill4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,across ,,siberia ,,by ,,rail ,the success with which ,san ,francisco was brought within two or three weeks of ,europe by means of the ,union and ,central ,pacific railways prompted far-seeing individuals to aspire for a similar acceleration of travel around the other half of the northern hemisphere4 ,this could be done by driving the iron road straight across ,europe and ,asia1 and it was pointed out1 in support of the scheme1 that the industrial and commercial centres of western ,europe would be brought within about a fortnight's journey of ,china4 ,the construction of a railway across ,siberia was discussed for over half a century4 ,in #ahea ,count ,mouraviev-,amoursky1 the ,governor-,general of ,eastern ,siberia1 suggested that he should be brought into more immediate touch with the heart of the ,russian ,empire4 ,he suggested that first a highroad should be built across the continent1 upon which the iron rails should be laid later1 thus converting the channel of vehicular and pedestrian traffic into a railway4 ,it was a brilliant idea1 but like many other great schemes suffered from being premature4 ,however1 as ,siberia developed1 the building of independent railway lines in various parts of the country1 to be connected together by short links1 thereby forming a chain of railways stretching from the ,baltic to the ,pacific ,ocean1 was mooted frequently4 ,the ,government viewed the recommendations sympathetically1 but nothing definite was arranged4 ,in #ahfi the administrative authorities scattered throughout ,asiatic ,russia became so energetic in their demands for improved communication with western ,europe that the ,government entertained seriously the bonding of the empire4 ,the question arose1 however1 as to the most advantageous location4 ,what direction should it follow in order to serve the most promising interests from an economic point of view8 ,this was a problem that demanded searching investigation1 but meanwhile the railway commenced to move eastwards1 the existing system of ,russia in ,europe being driven more and more towards the ,ural ,mountains4 ,by #ahhh the railhead was within easy reach of the eastern frontier of ,europe1 having gained ,zlatoost4 ,a halt was called at this juncture4 ,the outposts of steel were three in number1 ,orenburg1 ,tioumen on the ,asiatic side of the ,urals and connected with ,ekaterinburg1 and ,zlatoost4 ,a decision was necessary to determine which of these three railheads should be the jumping-off point for the long toil through ,siberia4 ,three surveys were made1 and as a result of prolonged consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of the respective routes from every point of view1 among the most important of which was the question of cost1 ,zlatoost was selected as the most favourable starting-point4 ,from that point the location was by way of ,tcheliabinsk-,kourgan-,petropavlovsk-,o msk-,tomsk-,krasnoiarsk to ,nijneoudinsk1 as this offered the shortest length of line1 traversed the most densely populated and most fertile country1 and at the same time could be built far cheaper than either of the alternative routes4 ,it was recognised that the line would entail the expenditure of a huge sum of money1 no matter how cheaply it was constructed1 and that there could be no hope of any return upon the investment for many years to come owing to the unsettled character of the country4 ,accordingly it was decided to avoid all pretentious engineering exploits--in fact1 to build the line upon pioneer principles4 ,a five-foot gauge was adopted to harmonise with ,european ,russia1 and in order to cut the cost of construction down to the lowest possible figure the lightest material was employed1 the rails1 for instance1 only weighing #ed pounds per yard4 ,it was realised that the paramount condition was to open up the land and its resources without delay1 and to overhaul the line as traffic increased1 thereby bringing it gradually into conformity with the generally accepted standards of a modern railway4 ,as the project was of such far-reaching significance to the ,russian ,empire it was resolved that it should be carried out as a national undertaking4 ,every ounce of material required was to be fashioned in ,russian workshops--there was only one important departure from this decision1 and that was the construction of the huge ice-breaking ferries on ,lake ,baikal1 which1 being beyond the capacity of the ,russian builders1 were designed and constructed at the ,elswick works of ,sir ,w4 ,g4 ,armstrong1 ,whitworth ,company1 ,limited--and that it should be built by ,russian labour under ,russian engineers with ,russian money4 ,it was an ,imperial enterprise from end to end4 ,to govern the work of construction a national committee was established1 composed of interested ministers1 under the presidency of the ,grand ,duke ,heritier1 the present ,tsar1 who upon his ascent to the throne retained his seat upon this commission4 ,indeed1 the ,emperor has displayed the greatest interest in this undertaking from its inception1 and1 in fact1 inaugurated the work by laying the stone commemorating the turning of the first sod at ,vladivostok on ,may #ah1 #ahia1 during his visit to the ,east4 ,owing to the gigantic character of the work it was divided into several distinct sections comprised as follows-- ,,miles #a4 ,the ,western ,siberian ,railway from ,tcheliabinsk to ,obi #hhead #b4 ,the ,central ,siberian ,railway from ,obi to ,irkutsk1 subdivided into two parts1 the first from ,obi to ,krasnoiarsk1 and the second from ,krasnoiarsk to ,irkutsk #aadcge #c4 ,the ,baikal ,railway from ,irkutsk to ,myssovaia #aib #d4 ,the ,trans-,baikal ,railway from ,myssovaia to ,stretensk #fijd #e4 ,the ,amur ,railway from ,stretensk to ,khabarovsk #achcge #f4 ,the ,ossouri ,railway from ,khabarovsk to ,vladivostok #dgfh ,this was the manner in which the #d1gga miles of line constituting the link between the ,urals and the eastern seaboard of the ,pacific was split up4 ,the difficulties that were likely to be encountered were realised only too well4 ,though great engineering achievements were not to be permitted from lack of funds1 it was recognised that in certain places heavy initial expenditure could not be avoided4 ,the rivers which flow northwards to the ,arctic sea1 and thus cut across the direction of the railway at right angles1 were to be feared the most1 owing to their great widths1 velocity1 and the ice-packs with which they were obstructed during the early spring4 ,here metal only could be employed1 and as the waterways to be crossed were numerous1 it was seen that the expenditure under this heading would have to be enormous4 ,there was another factor which had to be taken into consideration4 ,these waterways during the summer season are the great highroads of communication through the country1 and consequently it was imperative that the rails should be carried at a sufficient height above the waterways as to offer no obstruction to steamboat navigation4 ,as a matter of fact1 it may be conceded that the huge bridges across such rivers as the ,irtych1 ,obi and ,yenisei constitute the outstanding features of the work4 ,they were built massively1 and although their erection in many cases taxed the skill of the engineers to a superlative degree1 owing to the difficult conditions prevailing1 their successful completion is a striking tribute to the men responsible for their consummation4 ,the fact that these waterways were frozen during the winter1 harassed the engineers in one1 while it was a distinct boon in another1 direction4 ,rails could be laid upon the ice1 over which the construction trains could proceed from bank to bank1 hauling the requisite supplies and provisions for the workmen1 whereas in the summer such work had to be effected by ferries and boats demanding transhipment at the banks1 whereby considerable time was lost1 as well as incurring the liability of damage to the material handled4 ,work was commenced on the various sections as soon as it was possible to gather the requisite material and men on the spot4 ,owing to the extreme difficulty attending access to the middle parts of the country1 these sections were not taken in hand until some two or three years after the earth and rock had commenced to fly at the extreme ends4 ,as already mentioned1 construction actually commenced first at ,vladivostok1 but some months later1 on ,july #g1 #ahib1 the engineers commenced to drive the steel highway eastwards from the ,european terminus at ,tcheliabinsk1 to which point the line had been carried forward from ,zlatoost4 ,the country entered after the ,urals were left behind was the fringe of a vast steppe covered with tall bush1 which continues until the ,obi is gained4 ,then the character of the country changes with startling suddenness1 desert giving way to dense forests1 where heavy clearing was necessary to secure the right-of-way4 ,the timber1 however1 was of slight use for building purposes1 and this deficiency1 together with that of stone1 proved a serious drawback4 ,timber had to be hauled from long distances and pressed into service for spanning the smaller waterways1 creeks and streams1 there being over #bfj temporary structures of this type upon this division4 ,difficulty was also experienced in securing material for ballasting the line1 and in some instances it was necessary to haul the material for this purpose #bj miles across country4 ,four large steel bridges had to be erected in order to carry the railway across the ,tobol1 ,ichime1 ,irtych and ,obi rivers1 all of which are navigable4 ,the last two waterways demanded the heaviest pieces of work of this character1 the ,irtych bridge being about #b1acj feet in length1 divided into six spans1 each of about #ced feet4 ,that over the ,obi measures some #b1fej feet from end to end1 built up of seven spans1 three of which are of #eid feet1 and four of #bia feet respectively4 ,the rigours of the climate were felt severely4 ,the summer is short and hot1 while the winter is long and intensely cold1 the temperature ranging between -#e and -#ac degrees1 while at times the mercury was found to descend to -#dj degrees4 ,moreover1 the steppe is swept by terrific winds1 and the conditions told heavily upon the labourers working in such an exposed situation4 ,in summer1 after making allowances for wet and fte days1 only about #abj days were left for operations1 and consequently it was essential to continue work during the winter as far as practicable4 ,the sparsely-populated character of the country militated against the engineers1 and the labour for the most part had to be brought from ,europe1 for the peasants were unaccustomed to navvy work4 ,the scarcity of water was another adverse factor1 that found in the more sterile reaches being brackish and unfit for consumption4 ,to meet this contingency water had to be brought over long distances for the workmen1 while in places artesian wells were sunk which relieved the situation slightly4 ,under these conditions the completion of the #hhe miles of line comprised in this section within four years was an excellent piece of work4 ,the ,central ,siberian railway1 as it ran through two diametrically different stretches of country--plain and mountainous respectively--was subdivided into two divisions4 ,the first section1 stretching from the banks of the ,obi1 where it connected with the ,western ,siberian railway1 was taken in hand in ,may #ahic1 and the work was pushed forward so vigorously that it was completed in advance of the scheduled time4 ,trains from ,st4 ,petersburg could not run over this section1 however1 until two years later1 as the struggles of the engineers upon the mountains1 in the second moiety1 demanded the utilisation of the first section for the handling of their supplies and material4 ,the broken country proved to be exceedingly troublesome4 ,moreover1 a large number of wide waterways had to be crossed1 such as the ,yenisei1 where a magnificent bridge #b1hef feet in length had to be erected4 ,it is a massive structure1 and at present constitutes the largest and heaviest work of its description in ,siberia4 ,the traveller as he rolls over the iron road cannot resist contrasting the solidity and permanent appearance of these noble bridges with the temporary character of the line in other places4 ,the difference is so great as to be incongruous4 ,yet it was in accordance with the original plans4 ,the earthworks and permanent way can be replaced at leisure1 but the bridges1 and the reputation of the rivers they span1 led the authorities to decide that in these instances first cost should be last cost4 ,when the whole railway is brought up to the standard of the bridge-work1 it will be comparable in solidity and travelling comfort with the leading lines of other countries4 ,rapidity in laying the track on the first section was due to the fact that the line traversed an undulating plain where heavy works were not demanded4 ,the climate for the most part was found to be analogous with that prevailing in ,western ,siberia1 the mean temperature in summer hovering about #gj degrees1 to fall to about -#g4f degrees in winter4 ,in order that the workmen during the latter season might not be interrupted in their tasks of fashioning the stone-work for the bridges1 special workshops were provided1 heated with steam and stoves1 and similar shelters were built over the sites of erection on the ice1 where the workmen were enabled to lay the masonry in comfort4 ,at the same time these measures permitted the cement to dry slowly instead of being frozen1 only to fall to pieces with the approach of spring4 ,as the engineers pushed farther and farther away from the ,european frontier1 the country was found to be more and more thinly settled4 ,along the line of the ,central ,siberian railway the average population was one person per square mile1 and the majority of these people were colonists who had emigrated from ,european ,russia to practise agriculture in the ,east1 and they were settled for the most part along the postal road to ,tomsk4 ,under such conditions labour had to be brought from several hundreds of miles to the rear4 ,huge depots had to be established to house provisions and large camps formed for the employees4 ,furthermore1 thousands of horses and hundreds of wagons were required in addition to sleighs4 ,roads had to be cut for the passage of these vehicles1 and at various points stores of provisions and other necessaries had to be stored in deep pits dug in the ground1 and covered with heavy tree-trunks to secure protection against bears and other marauders4 ,the penetration of the dark and matted primeval forests was terrible4 ,the ground was swampy1 and in order to facilitate the advance of vehicles the soft soil had to be rendered firmer by tree-trunks laid down to form a kind of timber road4 ,the men engaged in this essential undertaking suffered extreme privations1 not only bodily1 but mentally as well4 ,the terrible solitude preyed upon their minds1 while the rainfall and entire absence of the rudiments of comfort told upon their constitutions4 ,in order to facilitate the transportation of the provisions and material from ,european ,russia to the main depots along the line1 the great waterways were utilised to the fullest extent4 ,boats of all descriptions took on these stores at convenient points near the ,urals1 such as ,tioumen1 and by traversing the various tributaries of the mighty ,obi were able to gain numerous points along the location1 where they discharged their cargoes4 ,thence the goods were dispatched to the scattered depots and camps by road4 ,when ,irkutsk was gained1 the first serious troubles arising from the mountains confronted the engineers4 ,the survey showed that the line here would have to describe a huge detour to round the southern extremity of ,lake ,baikal1 a sheet of water as large as ,england4 ,the country was broken up to an extreme degree1 and among other works of a heavy nature involved was a tunnel nearly #ab1ejj feet long through the ,zyrkousounsk mountain chain1 which towers to a height of #ab1jjj feet above sea-level4 ,but the tunnel was only one obstacle which would have to be overcome1 for heavy cuttings through rock and big fills to cross depressions were indicated on all sides4 ,some idea of the outlook was afforded from the estimated cost of this #ahb miles of line which was ciphered at #b1gjj1jjj1 or #ac1ejj1jjj4 ,as1 after compassing the lake1 the line swung sharply north-eastwards to gain ,myssovaia1 practically opposite the point on the west bank1 a bold temporary expedient was suggested4 ,this was the installation of a large vessel combining the features of an ice-breaker and ferry1 which should carry the trains intact across the lake1 a distance of about #de miles4 ,by this means construction from the eastern bank could be hastened1 leaving the line around the end of the sheet of water to be built at leisure at a subsequent date4 ,the construction of this vessel was entrusted to ,sir ,w4 ,g4 ,armstrong1 ,whitworth ,co41 ,limited1 who had undertaken the ice-breaker ,ermak which had proved such a unique success in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,it measures #bhj feet in length and has a displacement of #d1bjj tons4 ,it is propelled by twin screws driven by triple expansion engines developing #c1gej horse-power4 ,a third screw is placed in the front1 which not only serves to assist propulsion1 but also to crush the ice1 the vessel1 as it were1 cutting its own channel4 ,rails are laid upon the deck of this steamer so that the train1 when it comes to the water's edge on one bank1 proceeds under its own power on to the steamer1 and upon reaching the opposite bank of the lake runs on to dry land4 ,in addition1 there is accommodation for a large number of passengers4 ,the vessel was built on the ,tyne and then dismantled1 every part being numbered to show its relative position4 ,it was shipped to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and from that point dispatched to ,krasnoiarsk4 ,here on the shores of ,lake ,baikal the parts were reassembled and the vessel was launched4 ,this ship-building operation was no mean feat in itself1 bearing in mind the remote situation of the lake and the complete absence of those thousand-and-one facilities which are to be found in a shipyard on the ,tyne4 ,the vessel proved a complete success1 and the authorities were so gratified at this solution of a difficult problem that they secured a second ice-breaker1 together with a floating dock where these craft could be repaired and overhauled as occasion demanded1 together with sufficient equipment for such work4 ,the total expenditure upon this trans-,baikal marine work alone amounted to #fhd1aij1 or #c1dbj1iej4 ,the line around the shore of the lake1 however1 has been completed1 providing through continuous railway communication across ,siberia4 ,passengers can still enjoy the lake trip if they desire or are in a hurry1 as the steamers are still in service1 not only for this special purpose1 but also to serve various other points along the shores of ,lake ,baikal1 thereby bringing a great territory within easy reach of the railway4 ,the forging of the link around the lake1 however1 proved the most difficult part of the whole undertaking4 ,bridges across yawning deep gulches had to be introduced freely and projecting spurs had to be tunnelled4 ,heavy gradients and sharp curves could not be avoided owing to the configuration of the country1 and at many places the work is extremely daring4 ,despite the difficulties with which the engineer had to grapple1 this trying section was completed two years before the anticipated date1 a result in the main due to the energy and initiative of one man--,prince ,khilkoff4 ,this scion of one of the oldest and most noble families in ,russia was an extraordinary man1 and probably the most famous railway engineer that ,russia has produced4 ,his career was as extraordinary as his character4 ,when a young man he determined to see things for himself4 ,for several months he worked at a bench in ,liverpool in order to become familiar with the trade of a mechanic4 ,then when one of the early trans-continental railways was being driven across the ,united ,states1 he proceeded to that country and joined the navvying gangs at the railhead1 becoming acquainted in turn with the difficulties of penetrating the mountains1 railway-building and a thousand-and-one other details pertaining to such operations in a new country of a diversified character4 ,in this way he gained valuable first-hand knowledge from practical experience4 ,afterwards he turned his attention to the operating side1 serving first as stoker and then as driver4 ,still climbing the ladder1 he became traction manager and was responsible for the running of the line4 ,few men ever have gained such an all-round knowledge of the intricate art of controlling a railway as did ,prince ,michael ,ivanovitch ,khilkoff1 and one of his most treasured possessions was an old certificate of character that was given to him by his superior when he severed his connection with an ,american railway1 in order to facilitate his securing another post4 ,the knowledge he thus acquired stood him in valuable stead when he returned to ,russia1 where the development of various means of communication throughout the empire was in a state of transition4 ,on account of his wide and varied experience he was appointed to the directorship and control of various railways1 and soon brought them to a high state of efficiency4 ,he achieved the topmost rung of the ladder when he was appointed minister of all the roads1 canals1 rivers and railways of the empire4 ,the ,trans-,siberian road thus came under his control1 and he set to work energetically upon the completion of this tremendous enterprise4 ,his influence was demonstrated on every hand4 ,lackadaisical methods made way for strict business routine1 and in a short time the whole organisation was running with the precision of a clock4 ,his subordinates when in a quandary never hesitated from seeking his advice and assistance1 which were granted always with sympathetic interest2 and when the obstacle assumed more than normal proportions he did not attempt its negotiation from an arm-chair thousands of miles away1 but hurried to the spot to study it at first-hand1 and to recommend and assist himself in the breaking down of the difficulty4 ,he had become so saturated with ,american railway methods that he travelled up and down the line continuously2 no detail1 no matter how slight1 missed his eye4 ,at the time the ,circum-,baikal line was in progress he scarcely ever left the railhead1 as it was just one of those complex and exasperating fights with ,nature in which he revelled4 ,at seventy-five he was as active and as keen as ever1 and it was a distinct misfortune for ,russia that he was struck down by a paralytic stroke from which he never recovered4 ,still1 he left a host of recommendations for the improvement of the ,trans-,siberian and other railways1 including the double tracking of the great trans-continental steel way1 which are now being fulfilled4 ,when ,lake ,baikal was crossed1 the engineers experienced a grim struggle for supremacy through every foot of the way4 ,there is an up-hill pull from the shore of the lake over the ,yablonovoi range1 where the railway attains its highest point on the continent1 viz4 #c1dab feet above sea-level1 and then makes a descent to gain the valley of the ,amur4 ,the country traversed is of a varied character1 and was found to be tightly in the grip of frost1 for the winter is terribly severe4 ,the land1 in fact1 may be described as eternally frozen1 for in summer1 although the temperature rises to about #fb degrees1 it does not thaw the ground to a depth of more than #g feet below the surface4 ,in the forested parts where the branches shut out the genial rays of the sun1 ice is found at about #bj inches below the surface in midsummer4 ,under these circumstances advance was trying4 ,the top-soil was as hard as rock1 and could not be displaced except by dynamite1 so that in the deep cuttings in mid-summer it was just as arduous to cut a way through the frozen loam as through the solid rock4 ,the rivers1 although they flow with a fierce velocity1 freeze up quickly1 and the ice assumes a great depth--a train can cross on the congealed surface with perfect safety4 ,in this country1 strange to say1 it was found to be easier to work during the winter1 notwithstanding the extreme cold1 than during the summer1 for a higher rate of advance could be maintained when the country was frost-bound4 ,there is an almost total absence of snow1 but1 on the other hand1 during the summer the rainfall is tremendous4 ,the wet season lasts continuously for nearly two months--from the middle of ,june to the middle of ,august4 ,the downpour is so terrific that floods are precipitated on every hand1 and the resultant situation1 as may be surmised1 is of the most miserable character4 ,in #ahig the effect of this deluge was experienced to an abnormal degree1 for several villages were overwhelmed1 and widespread misery was inflicted among the peasants4 ,the railway did not escape1 for large stretches of line were washed away and large quantities of material were lost4 ,the scarcity of labour was felt very severely4 ,sufficient men could not be recruited locally1 and to import navvies from ,europe was hopeless4 ,to meet this contingency the ,administration authorities sanctioned the employment of exiles1 while criminals were requisitioned to build the grade under a military guard4 ,though recourse to prison labour has been often advocated for railway construction1 this is one of the rare instances where it has been brought into actual application through absolute force of circumstances4 ,assistance was rendered by ,chinese labourers1 and though at first they proved indifferent in the manipulation of tools1 their assistance ultimately proved invaluable1 as the majority developed into expert workmen4 ,as in other parts of the country1 the inhabitants were favoured so far as possible in regard to the acquisition of horses1 which were necessary for teaming and haulage work generally1 in a district where steam traction engines were quite out of the question4 ,the camps were provided also1 so far as practicable1 with local produce4 ,in this territory1 however1 a serious situation was precipitated4 ,the harvest failed1 and the peasants were faced with starvation4 ,then the dreaded disease known locally as 8,siberia0 ravaged the country4 ,it is a plague analogous to the rinderpest of ,south ,africa1 and has wrought tremendous havoc throughout the eastern corner of the ,russian ,empire1 its effects being experienced along the shores of the ,pacific4 ,in #ahih1 this calamity assumed such proportions that work had to be brought to a standstill for lack of transportation facilities4 ,the ,government attempted to alleviate the situation by organising a special veterinary service to study the plague on the spot1 with a view to elaborating some palliative measures4 ,in order to meet the local deficiency the engineers were compelled to dispatch emissaries into ,mongolia to purchase the hardy beasts of burden peculiar to that country4 ,large herds were acquired in this manner and were driven several hundred miles to the grade4 ,by means of this section the railway was carried so far east as ,stretensk1 from which point the line was to be continued to ,khabarovsk4 ,a modification in the arrangements1 however1 took place4 ,under the original scheme the line was to traverse ,russian territory entirely1 although ,manchuria thrust its border so far to the north as to demand a wide detour in order to gain ,vladivostok4 ,at last1 however1 it became possible to carry the railway into ,manchuria1 and as a link was being built across this country1 affording a short-cut to the seaboard1 the ,amur railway was abandoned1 a short length being built to the ,chinese frontier to connect with the ,eastern ,chinese railways instead4 ,the result is that the extreme eastern end of the line comes to a dead-end at ,khabarovsk1 and in itself is far from being remunerative4 ,at the time the engineers appeared on the scene the territory had not been explored1 signs of settlement were very few and far between1 there were no roads1 and the population was composed mostly of exiles and prisoners deported from ,europe4 ,construction had to be carried out almost exclusively by convicts1 assisted by the military1 ,chinese and ,corean labour4 ,the climate being extremely humid in summer1 the work during that period proved terribly exacting1 and the difficulties were enhanced by the ravages of the cattle plague4 ,all material1 being manufactured in ,european ,russia1 had to be brought to the extreme eastern end by water1 either via the ,suez ,canal or the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and consequently delays were frequent and often serious for both grade and men4 ,the primeval forest was terrible to penetrate owing to the huge trees1 which1 although they provided ample material for constructional purposes1 demanded considerable effort and time for their removal from the right-of-way4 ,as the conquest of ,manchuria commenced while this work was in progress1 and a shorter cut to ,vladivostok was being provided1 a spur was driven westwards from ,nikolsk to the ,chinese frontier to meet the ,manchurian railway4 ,owing to the rearrangement of the railway chess-board in the ,east in consequence of the ,russo-,japanese war1 it is quite possible that the ,trans-,siberian railway will be completed as originally planned--that is1 through ,russian territory entirely1 by the completion of the ,amur railway from ,stretensk to ,khabarovsk4 ,the total cost of the through main line as now in operation was approximately #cc1jjj1jjj1 or #afe1jjj1jjj4 ,when the various other works incidental to the scheme1 such as the connections with the ,chinese frontier1 are included1 the total approaches the enormous figure of #dj1jjj1jjj1 or #bjj1jjj1jjj4 ,this merely represents the building of the track itself between ,kotlass in ,european ,russia--now considered a part of the scheme--and ,vladivostok1 without a single railway car1 wagon or engine4 ,as originally designed1 the capacity of the line was fixed at three trains each way per day1 but the lightness of the construction did not permit this being maintained when the railway was subjected to great pressure1 such as attended the transport of troops to the ,east4 ,the overhaul of the line was commenced immediately1 and the question of doubling the track taken into serious consideration4 ,this latter work is now in progress1 and it is estimated that this task alone will represent a prodigious expenditure4 ,the effect of the railway upon the movement of traffic around the northern hemisphere became manifested immediately4 ,there were two ways in which ,china and the ,east generally could be gained from ,europe4 ,one route was by steamer all the way via the ,suez ,canal1 the second was by way of the ,atlantic1 across ,america by rail1 and by steamship across the ,pacific4 ,but the ,trans-,siberian route was far and away the shortest and quickest1 and as the campaign of overhaul is proceeding1 acceleration is taking place4 ,now it is possible to reach ,shanghai from ,london within #af days1 and one can encircle the northern half of the world in less than #dj days4 ,the extreme precautions observed to preserve communication on the line are noteworthy4 ,the whole railway is divided into sections1 each measuring #a1agd yards in length4 ,each station is provided with a cottage housing the station-master1 his family and the employees4 ,some #djjj of these officials are scattered along the route between the ,ural ,mountains and the city of ,tomsk4 ,the men have a common uniform1 which is rather of a military appearance1 and it is no uncommon experience to hear passengers unfamiliar with this feature remark that the line is guarded from end to end by soldiers4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is just the same as if the various employees of our railways1 such as porters1 signalmen1 guards1 ticket-collectors1 and so forth1 were attired in khaki4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,leopoldina ,,railway ,south ,america has constituted a happy hunting-ground for the railway engineer determined to carry out his conquest with steam and steel in the face of all opposition on the part of ,nature4 ,the famous ,oroya line is described in another part of this volume1 but on the eastern side of the continent is another railway which is equally as remarkable1 and which constitutes one of the most interesting engineering achievements in this particular field of endeavour south of the ,equator4 ,indeed1 in many respects it ranks as one of the most interesting lines in the world4 ,this is the ,leopoldina railway1 which1 with its hub resting on the ,atlantic seaboard1 has its tentacles spreading through the provinces of ,rio1 ,minaes and ,espirito ,santo to the extent of some #a1ejj or more miles4 ,in reality it is a combination of many units4 ,in the 'sixties of the nineteenth century1 ,brazil resolved to criss-cross its territory with steel1 and short lengths of line were laid on all sides4 ,but the finances of the country became so strained from internal troubles and the decline in the price of coffee that money could not be spared to build or to operate railways successfully4 ,an ,english company was organised1 therefore1 to take over a number of these individual roads1 and they were combined into a homogeneous whole to form the ,leopoldina system4 ,when the ,englishmen entered into possession they found a sorry state of things4 ,the finances were in a hopelessly involved tangle1 and months elapsed before they were straightened out4 ,the tracks likewise were in a pitiable condition of decay4 ,they had been built cheaply1 and had suffered severely from the innumerable enemies to railways in a tropical country4 ,lack of funds had militated against repairs being carried out upon a comprehensive or thorough scale1 with the result that the whole system presented a patched and dilapidated appearance4 ,however1 no time was lost in placing the undertaking upon a firm footing4 ,within two months of the acquisition of the railways a large staff of men for both the administration and engineering sides of the enterprise were dispatched to ,south ,america1 with ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,barrow as general manager and ,mr4 ,norman ,b4 ,dickson1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 as engineer-in-chief4 ,the engineer was commanded to overhaul the whole network1 to reconstruct it if necessary1 so that the lines might be capable of meeting the exigencies of the traffic awaiting creation from the development of the country4 ,at that time ,rio de ,janeiro was an insalubrious city--in fact1 it was almost a graveyard for ,englishmen4 ,mr4 ,dickson found this out in a very short space of time4 ,the company lost three accountants and a number of ,british assistants under the malignant scourge that prevailed--yellow fever4 ,since those days ,rio de ,janeiro has made great strides and has undergone extensive improvement4 ,the city has been rebuilt1 and has been provided with a complete sanitation system1 to bring it into line with the other great ports of the world4 ,but in those days it was absolutely untenantable from the white man's point of view1 and the railway authorities were compelled to provide accommodation for their imported staff in a healthy spot outside the city1 where the men underwent what might be described as a process of acclimatisation lasting over eighteen months4 ,the first few years were strenuous to the engineer-in-chief4 ,he was confronted with a formidable task on all sides4 ,the line is of metre1 or #ci4c inches1 gauge throughout1 and had been built in a somewhat flimsy and haphazard manner4 ,the majority of the bridges and culverts had been erected of timber1 the greater part of which either had reached1 or were approaching closely1 the span of life4 ,these had to be replaced by permanent structures in masonry or steel4 ,the track1 too1 had to be overhauled from end to end1 reballasted1 provided with new sleepers and rails1 and at frequent points where it was in an exposed position1 and liable to suffer from the peculiar visitations which wreak such widespread destruction in that country1 had to be strengthened and protected by heavy retaining walls and revetments of masonry4 ,yet the ,brazilian engineers had attempted a daring engineering work in the first instance4 ,the configuration of ,brazil is somewhat peculiar4 ,a few miles from the coast1 and running roughly parallel with the water-line1 is a rugged range of mountains dividing the low-lying stretch of shore from the fertile highlands in the interior4 ,the mountain ridge is not regular1 but is badly broken up1 forming1 as it were1 a succession of walls placed one behind the other4 ,in order to gain the interior1 and owing to the abrupt nature of the ascent1 the line has to climb sharply1 at the same time winding in and out among the clumps of mountains in a bewildering manner4 ,in fact1 the differences in level are so sudden that the track could be lifted only by means of resort to the rack rail1 and other devices such as are adopted in ,switzerland to ascend the steep mountain slopes4 ,for instance1 after leaving the coast1 the first ridge is met within #cj miles1 and in the course of #e miles the line has to rise some #cjjj feet4 ,this involved the use of grades varying from #ae to #ah per cent4--from #a in #f to #a in #e-e_/i--;and when first laid down the line was worked upon the ,riggenbach system4 ,it is worth while to recall that it was on the low-level part of this section to ,petropolis that the iron horse made its first appearance in ,south ,america4 ,the short length of line1 representing about #ac or #ad miles1 between ,maua and ,raiz da ,serra was the first stretch of railway to be laid and used on the continent south of the ,equator4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,steep ,,bank ,,showing ,,the ,,central ,,rack ,,rail ,illustration3 ,,train ,,on ,,the ,,rack ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,petropolis ,,division1 ,,showing ,,the ,,curious ,,type ,,of ,,locomotive ,,adopted ,,how ,,the ,,leopoldina ,,railway ,,overcomes ,,heavy ,,grades ,on another part of the system--the line running inland from ,nictheroy1 on the eastern side of the bay of ,rio de ,janeiro--the ,brazilian engineers were compelled to overcome one of the most searching problems in railway engineering in the world4 ,after traversing forty miles of the level country1 the mountain ridge barred their way4 ,they realised that it could be surmounted only by some exceptional system1 and the local authorities seized a unique opportunity4 ,the ,mont ,cenis tunnel1 connecting ,italy and ,france1 had been bored successfully1 and this new steel highway through the heart of the range displaced the construction railway operating on the ,fell system which had been laid over the crest of the ,cenis range4 ,the ,brazilian engineers thereupon approached the ,swiss authorities for the purchase of this abandoned stretch of mountain line1 and their offer was accepted4 ,thereupon the ,mont ,cenis 8,fell0 railway was torn up1 transported to ,south ,america1 and pressed into service to help the ,brazilian engineers over the obstacle that confronted them4 ,illustration3 ,,rebuilding ,a ,,bridge ,,on ,,the ,,leopoldina ,,railway ,the masonry structure had to be built beside the original iron structure so as not to disturb traffic4 ,the solution proved completely successful1 and the engines fulfilled their task upon the eight per cent4 grades with perfect satisfaction for several years4 ,then the ,baldwin ,company1 of ,philadelphia1 undertook to eliminate the special locomotives required on the 8,fell0 system1 and to convert the railway to adhesion working4 ,recalling the fact that for every twelve and a half feet of advance one makes a vertical rise of twelve inches1 such a conversion appears remarkably daring1 but the experiment justified the transformation1 for the adhesion locomotives1 notwithstanding the extreme severity of the gradient and the sharpness of the curves1 which have a minimum radius of seventy-five feet1 have accomplished the work formerly completed by the 8,fell0 locomotives with equal success4 ,the result is that this represents the steepest length of line upon a trunk railway to be worked by adhesion traction in the world4 ,the locomotives weigh forty tons1 and they are capable of hauling a train weighing forty-five tons on the drawbar up this bank4 ,in comparison with such climbs the 8,big ,hill0 which worried the ,canadian ,pacific railway engineers for so many years1 appears insignificant4 ,the disadvantage of the grade on the latter system was the frequency with which trains ran away down the declivity to enter one or other of the switches or catch-points1 which deflected the train or locomotive from the main track and piled it against a bank of earth4 ,such accidents on the 8,big ,hill0 were nothing to what have occurred on the ,leopoldina line4 ,the great difficulty is not in regard to ascending the grade with a load1 although there is a possibility of the engine failing to take the hill1 and to let its driving wheels spin round idly on the metals without forging a foot ahead4 ,the traffic destined for the interior is comparatively light4 ,the heaviest loads are brought from the highlands to the coast1 and consequently the question is to hold the train in check as it descends4 ,ordinary braking is useless1 as1 although the wheels may be locked1 the whole train is liable to toboggan down the metal slide almost as furiously as if the wheels were running freely4 ,the situation has been met by firstly reversing the engines and letting a small amount of steam into the cylinders sufficient to act as a break1 and by retaining the centre rail of the ,fell system and to grip it by means of a strong scissors brake4 ,inasmuch as the engineers are extremely careful when descending the hill1 runaways are few and far between4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,flood ,,on ,,the ,,line ,the track is submerged by the torrential rainfall4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,derailment ,,caused ,,by ,,the ,,train ,,colliding ,,with ,a ,,cow6 ,,curious ,,troubles ,,experienced ,,on ,,the ,,leopoldina ,,railway ,now and again1 however1 a train gets out of control1 especially when the rails are wet and slippery4 ,to meet this condition of affairs the driver1 of course1 makes liberal use of sand1 but here again the fates are against him1 for owing to the sharp curves it is no easy matter to induce the sand falling from the engine's sand-boxes to drop on the face of1 and not between or outside1 the rails4 ,when a train does get out of hand on the descent the driver has to trust to luck to gain the bottom of the bank in safety1 or to regain control of his charge4 ,sometimes he succeeds and sometimes he fails4 ,in the latter case derailment generally ensues1 with more or less disastrous results4 ,mr4 ,dickson had a narrow escape from this danger himself one day4 ,he was carrying out his periodical inspection of the line from his special carriage coupled to a locomotive4 ,in coming down the bank something went wrong1 and the train got away4 ,the engineer-in-chief admits that he had an uncomfortably anxious few minutes4 ,he felt the train gather speed1 and suffered violent oscillation as the train swung round the bends4 ,just as he was wondering what would be the end1 there was a jump and a crash4 ,the engine had left the track1 rolled over1 and his car was astride the overturned locomotive4 ,he crawled out of the wreck1 badly shaken and bruised1 but otherwise little the worse for his adventure1 though the unfortunate driver was killed4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,interesting ,,engineering ,,achievement ,this #afj-;feet bridge span had to be erected and pulled into position over rollers4 ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,parahybuna ,,river1 ,,showing ,,height ,,of ,,river ,,in ,,flood ,,and ,,force ,,of ,,water ,,surging ,,round ,,the ,,piers ,,the ,,leopoldina ,,railway ,,in ,,brazil ,in order to negotiate the third mountain range another solution of the difficulty was adopted4 ,the precipice was so steep that the engineers could not introduce the loops requisite to carry the line continuously from one level to the other4 ,so they had recourse to the switch-back1 wherein the line runs down-hill for a short distance to a dead-end4 ,this brings the engine of the descending train to the rear1 and by giving the latter a slight push it is sent down another similar switch-back to another dead-end1 where the engine is brought once more to the front of the train4 ,in this manner1 alternately pulling and pushing1 the train gains the bottom or top of the level of the line1 according to the direction in which it is travelling4 ,in reality it is a zigzag1 similar in character to that which was used for so many years upon the ,new ,south ,wales railways1 as described elsewhere4 ,although on the eastern side of the continent the engineer is spared the ravages of snow and avalanches1 he suffers from other disturbing elements which perhaps are more to be dreaded4 ,these are floods1 wash-outs and landslides4 ,the rainfall in this territory averages between #ij and #ajj inches during the year1 and when the rainstorms break the downfall is tremendous4 ,the rivers are converted into roaring cataracts1 huge cavities are torn in the flanks of the mountains1 and enormous quantities of debris are released4 ,should the line be in the way of such a visitation it suffers severely4 ,it is no uncommon circumstance for a huge gap to be cut in the railway1 showing where the tearing water or descending mass of earth has crashed through the track1 sweeping everything before it4 ,nothing can withstand the force of these onslaughts1 and although heavy retaining walls of masonry may serve to check their fury1 they are not completely successful4 ,the result is that when the rains are expending their violence1 the engineer-in-chief is prepared for some heavy repairing work1 for possibly #ajj1jjj tons or more of earthen embankment may be demolished4 ,then the engineer hurriedly completes a new survey1 and replaces the track around the scene of the accident1 because reconstruction1 as a rule1 is more economical and quicker than attempting to repair the injury inflicted4 ,this1 at times1 and in a cramped valley1 is no easy task1 for the curvature has to be borne in mind4 ,consequently the destruction often precipitates a pretty engineering problem1 extrication from which depends upon the engineer's resources and ingenious ability entirely4 ,there is no doubt that the control of a ,south ,american railway1 where such conditions as these prevail1 imposes a supreme task upon a man's capacity4 ,wash-outs and landslips will find the engineer out more quickly than any other emergency1 because he is called upon to keep the track going at all hazards1 and when a breach does occur1 his own enterprise and initiative alone determine the length of the period of interruption to traffic4 ,on such a line as the ,leopoldina railway this is a serious factor1 because there is a constant heavy volume of produce1 especially coffee1 maize1 tobacco and sugar1 pouring towards the coast4 ,during a recent year floods1 wash-outs and landslides cost the railway no less than1 #bd1ejj1 or #abb1ejj4 ,this was a year of abnormal disaster in this direction1 but the item generally approximates between #ab1jjj and #ad1jjj1 or #fj1jjj and #gj1jjj1 in the course of the twelve months4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,parahybuna ,,river ,,at ,,campos ,,under ,,construction ,illustration3 ,,the ,,parahybuna ,,river ,,bridge ,,completed4 ,,total ,,length #a1aac ,,feet ,the crossing of this waterway by the ,leopoldina ,railway created a riot in ,campos4 ,the replacement of the decrepit bridges occasioned ,mr4 ,dickson no little perplexity1 but this work became all the more urgent1 as the original structures could not withstand the heavier locomotives and trains that were introduced by the ,british company4 ,one of the most difficult undertakings of this character was the erection of a massive masonry arch bridge in three spans upon the rack system of the ,petropolis branch4 ,each span is of #ej feet1 and the work was complicated by being on a curve of #hj metres1 or about #bff feet radius4 ,it had to replace a trestle bridge1 and reconstruction had to progress without interfering with traffic4 ,another notable piece of work which he completed successfully was the erection of a single steel girder bridge of #afj feet span across the ,parahybuna ,river4 ,owing to the velocity of the current and the great depth of water1 false-work was quite out of the question1 so the steel-work had to be erected on shore1 rolled out1 and launched into position1 being held in check by cables1 which proved a trying ordeal owing to the current4 ,when brought into position between the abutments1 the steel-work was lifted by means of jacks1 the temporary nose was dismantled1 and the span lowered until it rested in the desired position upon its supports4 ,illustration3 ,see page #bbd ,,the ,,rockbound ,,shore ,,of ,,lake ,,superior ,,severely ,,taxed ,,the ,,engineers ,,in ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,canadian ,,pacific ,,railway ,at places1 construction averaged as much as #gj1jjj1 or #cej1jjj1 per mile4 ,occasionally the advance of the railway has been resented by the inhabitants4 ,for instance1 when it was decided to carry the railway across the ,parahybuna ,river at ,campos1 the populace of the latter town considered it an unwarranted intrusion4 ,they were urged that the railway bridge would cause their trade on the waterway to shrink to infinitesimal proportions4 ,thereupon the inhabitants raided the railway1 and zealously set to work to destroy everything destined for the bridge4 ,the situation looked ugly1 but the authorities took stern measures and quelled the riot1 though not before damage to the extent of #dj1jjj1 or #bjj1jjj1 had been wrought4 ,this bridge is one of the most important upon the whole system4 ,from end to end it measures #a1aac feet1 divided into six through truss spans supported upon five pairs of piers in the waterway4 ,this outbreak of hostility1 however1 was quite exceptional4 ,in the interior the natives have welcomed the railway rather than attempted to arrest its progress4 ,this feeling has taken an unusual turn at places where the communities have presented the land for the right-of-way1 and in other cases have built stations at their own expense4 ,since the railway has been under ,british control the expansion of the country has proceeded rapidly1 and the exploitation of the soil has proved highly profitable4 ,the railway maintains an active progressive policy1 throwing out spur lines wherever the local conditions promise an equitable return1 to encourage development4 ,these branches are not built upon pioneer principles1 but are equal in every respect to the trunk roads4 ,the amount of earthwork incurred in the construction is enormous4 ,ninety per cent4 of the mileage of the line is carried out upon the sides of the hills1 necessitating cuttings sufficiently deep and wide to carry the track4 ,the location for the most part is along the banks of the rivers1 inasmuch as these offer the easiest channels to penetrate the mountain ridges4 ,as these waterways describe extremely meandering courses1 the railway is a maze of twists and turns4 ,in fact1 the line might be described1 after it leaves the flats along the coast1 as a continuous succession of curves and reverse curves1 more often than not1 without an intervening stretch of tangent1 or straight1 length of track4 ,as a result fantastic 8,s0 windings1 horse-shoe bends1 and figure-eight loops abound1 though the minimum curve is of #bff feet radius4 ,despite its remarkable serpentine character1 however1 the ,brazilian engineers displayed marked ability in the original location1 bearing in mind the state of railway engineering at the date these lines were undertaken4 ,when ,mr4 ,dickson appeared on the scene to straighten out the railway1 the natives constituted his sole labour1 and he found that the ,brazilian engineers were adapted eminently to the work of surveying and locating1 being possessed of a specially good eye for a railway line through difficult country4 ,the labour1 too1 in general1 was found to be of a high standard4 ,the ,chinaman is generally regarded as the best navvy1 but according to this engineer who has had experience in railway construction in all parts of the world1 his preference is overwhelmingly in favour of the ,brazilian ,portugee4 ,he takes a pride in his work1 is conscientious1 and performs his task thoroughly4 ,these traits stood the engineer-in-chief in good stead in his work of overhaul1 for it enabled him to produce a line which1 from the point of excellence and solidity1 would be difficult to rival in more advanced countries4 ,in the upkeep of the line the same characteristics are observable4 ,the men are tidy1 keep the track in excellent condition1 and leave little cause for complaint in regard to the maintenance of the railway buildings1 taking pride in their individual sections4 ,they have proved first-class engine-drivers1 displaying every care1 for on a railway of this character1 bristling with sharp curves and steep banks1 accidents are liable to be caused from the slightest miscalculation4 ,when disasters have occurred1 it has been found that the causes have been quite beyond the men's control4 ,under ,british management the railway has been rescued completely from its former moribund condition1 greater stretches of fertile country have been brought under cultivation1 and a general air of prosperity has been imparted to the territory which it serves4 ,from the financial point of view the investment has proved a complete success1 with the result that the ,leopoldina railway to-day offers a most powerful example of the beneficial influences of ,english management among the railways of ,south ,america4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,first ,,canadian ,,trans-,,continental ,,railway ,as the railway expansion of ,canada developed by leaps and bounds1 ambitious spirits contemplated larger and larger conquests1 culminating in a desire to build a link of steel right across the country from coast to coast4 ,this feeling was natural4 ,on the ,atlantic seaboard1 settlement advanced at a rapid rate in the ,lower ,provinces and forced its way steadily inland4 ,on the ,pacific side1 civilisation firmly planted in ,british ,columbia spread towards the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,these two colonising forces1 working in the same country1 were as wide apart as if at the ,poles1 for the intervening plains stretching from the ,great ,lakes to the ,rockies were considered useless4 ,british ,columbia felt this isolation keenly4 ,all traffic had to be carried round the southern extremity of the ,american continent4 ,to travel from ,london to ,vancouver in the 'fifties was an heroic undertaking1 involving a journey more than half-way round the globe4 ,some of the trade1 however1 was maintained overland4 ,for instance1 the provisions for the ,hudson's ,bay post at ,vancouver were dispatched from ,montreal over a trail some #cjjj miles in length4 ,but it was a tremendous task1 occupying several weeks4 ,the pack train left ,montreal in ,may1 and the water route was followed so far as practicable to ,fort ,garry1 where ,winnipeg now stands4 ,here the rivers were abandoned in favour of horses1 mules and wagons which trekked slowly across the prairies--the voyageurs living on the buffalo which roamed the plains in their thousands--threaded the terrible mountain rifts1 and dropped down to the coast1 reaching ,vancouver about the end of ,september4 ,the trail was ill-defined and the journey bristled with exciting incidents and adventures4 ,the disadvantages of this means of communication between the opposite sides of the continent were realised only too fully1 so when the railway had become established in ,eastern ,canada and had demonstrated its tremendous possibilities1 an iron link across the ,dominion was advocated strenuously4 ,but the vastness of the undertaking was deemed to be beyond the possibilities of the country2 the cost was contemplated to be so huge that capitalists would not venture to commit themselves to the fulfilment of such a project4 ,one of the advocates of the enterprise suggested that it should be built by convict-labour in order to reduce the expense of construction1 and curiously enough he suggested that the line should be carried through the ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 through which the ,canadian ,pacific makes its way to the ,pacific to-day4 ,it was in #ahea that the idea of a trans-continental railway first crystallised into a tangible project2 but as it eclipsed in conception anything attempted in railway building up to that time1 there was considerable timidity in launching out upon a line some #cjjj miles in length4 ,so matters drifted until the first trans-continental railway was thrown across the ,united ,states1 and ,san ,francisco was brought within a few days' travel of ,new ,york4 ,the agitation then broke out anew for a trans-,canadian line1 and ,sir ,hugh ,allan approached the ,government with a definite scheme4 ,however1 he failed to enlist the practical assistance of financiers1 and so the theme ranked as a perennial topic of discussion until the ratification of a project supported by the ,government in #ahha4 ,it is doubtful in the history of ,british ,north ,america whether any project of avowed benefit to the community has experienced such vicissitudes as the first trans-,canadian railway4 ,it wrecked ministries1 brought about the political extinction of more than one promising member of ,parliament1 provoked heated agitation1 and involved the abortive expenditure of large sums of money4 ,the ,government1 however1 decided to help private initiative sufficiently daring to attempt the undertaking in a liberal manner4 ,in the first place a subsidy of #e1jjj1jjj1 or #be1jjj1jjj1 was granted to aid construction2 the ,government undertook to build #gac miles with its own resources1 and made a free gift of #be1jjj1jjj acres of land fringing its route4 ,at that time the land was worthless1 so its bestowal was not of immediate value1 but to-day it represents an asset of incalculable value1 and gives the company a sheet anchor of tremendous strength4 ,in the end the ,government went very much farther4 ,it made a free gift of the line it had constructed1 which was worth at the very least1#g1jjj1jjj1 or #ce1jjj1jjj4 ,while construction was in progress there was urgent need for further money4 ,financiers refused to provide funds1 and as a result the ,government stepped in and advanced a loan of #f1jjj1jjj--cj1jjj1jjj--which action was so bitterly criticised at the time that the ,ministry was urged to wipe off the debt once and for all by making it a gift1 for all the prospect there was of it ever being repaid4 ,but the loan was redeemed1 partly by an issue of stock1 and partly by the ,government buying back some #g1jjj1jjj of the #be1jjj1jjj acres which it had given to the company in the first place at #f shillings per acre1 representing to all intents and purposes a further gift of some1#b1jjj1jjj1 or #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,probably no railway undertaking has ever been treated with such prodigal liberality in the history of the iron horse2 but at the time it was warranted fully1 bearing in mind the magnitude of the scheme and the tremendous difficulties which confronted the company at every turn4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,gap10 ,,the ,,eastern ,,entrance ,,of ,,the ,,canadian ,,pacific ,,railway ,,to ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountains ,when construction commenced in grim earnest the builders found that the critics had not erred on the side of under-estimation in regard to the character of the difficulties to be overcome4 ,the thin band of steel was driven through country of which practically nothing was known2 where every succeeding mile revealed something unexpected4 ,for instance1 in following the shore of ,lake ,superior it was one desperate grapple with ,nature for every yard4 ,mountains dropped sheer into the lake1 and their humps were divided by stretches of wicked muskeg1 the ,indian name for swamp1 where in many cases the bottom defied being discovered1 and where thousands of tons of rock were swallowed up without showing any gratifying result4 ,illustration3 ,,where ,,the 8,,big ,,hill0 ,,was ,,cut ,,out ,,on ,,the ,,canadian ,,pacific ,,railway1 ,,between ,,hector ,,and ,,field ,to secure easier gradients1 over #h miles of new line were built4 ,the new track is shown at left4 ,to-day it is possible1 from wider knowledge1 to criticise the company upon their selection of this route1 but at the time it was taken in hand there was no alternative4 ,for a solid #ajj miles along the shores of ,lake ,superior the work assumed a spectacular aspect4 ,the high rocky cliffs either had to be tunnelled1 blasted right out of the way1 or deep long cuts had to be driven through the solid obstruction4 ,in those days the camps did not enjoy the comforts that are possible now4 ,the food was of the coarsest description--in fact1 often it was nauseous4 ,yet it was the best that could be secured under the circumstances4 ,i met one of the men who had helped to drive the grade along the shore of ,lake ,superior1 and he described the interest and curiosity that was provoked by the arrival of the first tin of condensed milk4 ,to them1 milk was a luxury indeed1 and they as much anticipated its association with their tea or coffee as they would have entertained the possibility of receiving a glass of champagne4 ,the tin of milk was produced1 and when the first recipient had read the story of the label it was handed round to every man in turn4 ,they scarcely could conceive the possibility of being able to preserve such a perishable product in a tin1 and they refrained from investigating the contents4 ,at last1 one of the more daring spirits took out his ponderous pocket- or jack-knife and plunged it into the lid4 ,tipping the vessel slightly1 he watched the contents exude in a thin viscous stream on to his finger4 ,hesitatingly he tasted it1 and the intense satisfaction with which he smacked his lips showed that it was a tasty article at all events1 although it might be rank poison for aught they knew4 ,all in turn submitted the commodity to this preliminary test1 and there was a unanimous exclamation as to its palatable qualities4 ,very little of that tin of condensed milk was employed for its avowed purpose3 the majority of the men preferred to enjoy it in its raw condition1 as it was something entirely new to their frontier table4 ,as a result the greater part of the coffee and tea was drunk that morning in its black state1 relieved with sugar only1 as the contents of the tin disappeared in a far from orthodox manner4 ,the resistance which the rock offered was heart-rending4 ,the men1 by superhuman effort1 could make their way forward only a few feet per day4 ,under these circumstances the task swallowed money as remorselessly as the muskeg absorbed dumped rock4 ,results proved that the construction of the line along this shore for about #ajj miles was as expensive as threading the mountains1 and in one instance the price mounted to as high as #adj1jjj1 or #gjj1jjj1 per mile1 rendering it easily one of the most costly stretches of road ever constructed4 ,but though the fight offered by the rock was stern1 that presented by the muskeg was every whit as bad1 though it was of a different character4 ,the great danger against which the company had to contend was the creeping of the rails4 ,the spongy nature of the soil over which the track was laid caused a movement of the metals under the weight of a passing train4 ,it was just as if the rails had been laid on a mass of resilient india-rubber4 ,the lines would move to one side or the other and often widen out sufficiently to permit a train to drop between them4 ,it was observed that as a train passed the elastic soil rose and fell in a series of little waves1 often attaining a height of six inches1 while the engineers could see the rails moving under the passing of the train4 ,it was quite out of the question to spike the rails firmly to the sleepers1 since the movement was so great that the metals would have forced themselves from their foundation4 ,as it was1 the gangers had to overhaul the stretch of track crossing the muskeg once every week4 ,the engineer strove valiantly to overcome the eccentric movement of the rails1 and only succeeded by dint of great effort in rendering it perfectly safe4 ,but in this work he had to use sleepers measuring #ab feet in length1 instead of those of standard dimensions of #h feet4 ,then trouble arose with the contractors in regard to the cost of excavation4 ,naturally the expenditure under this heading varied according to the character of the material encountered1 for obviously gravel1 clay1 and loam were far easier and cheaper to remove than rock1 and this latter varied in its workability according to its geological formation4 ,in one case this dispute became a bitter bone of contention between the company and the contractors4 ,upon the completion of the work the former came to the conclusion that it had been charged an excessive sum for the work1 and upon consideration of the returns of the earth removed were convinced that an erroneous return had been made4 ,amicable adjustment of the difference proving fruitless1 recourse had to be made to the courts1 and the authorities ordered the cutting to be re-measured so as to determine the quantity of soil removed4 ,in one instance the contractors were forced to return a sum of about #fj1jjj1 or #cjj1jjj1 and many other firms of constructional engineers had to make repayments4 ,it was not a question of fraud1 but purely misinterpretation of the character of the soil handled2 yet it served to promote inharmonious working between the company and its contractors4 ,on the prairie1 constructional effort was not taxed to a supreme degree except in regard to water4 ,this was found to be scarce in many parts1 and is even so to-day4 ,the country threaded is a continuation of the arid stretches of ,north ,dakota and ,montana1 and where the land can only be brought to a state of remunerative productivity by recourse to irrigation4 ,science1 however1 has discounted the deficiency of nature1 and to-day this dry belt is as generously supplied with water as those more favoured with ample natural resources farther north1 though of course the settler is compelled to pay his quota to the expense of irrigation in the form of a higher price for the land4 ,it was when the mountains were met1 however1 that the real troubles of the company commenced4 ,the battle against the rocky bluffs round ,lake ,superior was as mere child's play to what was encountered when the mountain barrier was entered4 ,the ,government had surveyed a route through the mountains1 and its choice had fallen upon the ,yellowhead ,pass1 the lowest summit in the range1 which is only #c1gbc feet above the level of the ocean4 ,it was the obvious portal through the mountains to the coast1 but the company decided to thread the chain farther to the south4 ,this decision aroused considerable criticism1 and the ,government only relented by stipulating that if the ,rockies were penetrated at any other point it should be at least #ajj miles north of the ,international ,boundary4 ,when the project was consummated it was stipulated that grades should not exceed #a in #eb4h feet1 and the ,yellowhead fulfilled this requirement strictly to the letter4 ,however1 the ,government's requirements being fulfilled1 the line was forced through the range by way of the ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 a high road used by the couriers du bois for some years previously4 ,but it proved a trying piece of work4 ,the river is a boiling stream and difficult of approach4 ,the mountains rear up on all sides1 and in order to force their way forward the engineers had to resort to herculean efforts1 spanning tumultuous streams and carving narrow winding ledges on the sides of the mountains4 ,moreover1 it is a heavy up-hill pull for mile after mile1 until at last the summit is gained at an altitude of #e1cbi feet4 ,to gain this point the line winds in a bewildering manner1 but the vistas of mountain scenery that are unfolded are difficult to parallel out of ,switzerland4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,canadian ,,pacific ,,line ,,creeps ,,round ,,towering ,,precipices ,,along ,,the ,,fraser ,,river ,when this part of the work was taken in hand the original arrangements comprised tunnelling beneath a glacier and through the hump of ,mount ,stephen1 but as there was loud clamouring for the completion of the line1 this undertaking1 which would have involved a great length of time1 and which would have proved exceedingly costly1 was abandoned for the time being in favour of a 8temporary line40 ,that deviation1 however1 fulfilled its temporary requirements for a prolonged period--a matter of some thirty years to be precise--and only recently has been improved4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,threading ,,the ,,fraser ,,river ,,canyon ,,the ,,engineers ,,were ,,compelled ,,to ,,hug ,,the ,,waterway1 ,,though ,,it ,,involved ,,the ,,boring ,,of ,,numerous ,,short ,,tunnels ,in making the deviation serious delays were experienced4 ,a rocky obstacle stood in the way and tunnelling was commenced1 but this work had to be abandoned owing to the collapse of the burrow1 and a sharp curve and heavy bank introduced4 ,the result was that it was found impossible to comply with the ,government's requirements concerning the maximum gradient1 because in order to descend from ,hector to ,field1 a distance of about #aj miles1 a difference of #a1adc feet had to be overcome4 ,this introduced a grade adverse to eastbound traffic of #bcg feet to the mile1 and it proved a heavy stumbling-block against the economical operation of the line for many years1 and one which increased in severity with every succeeding year4 ,yet the conquest of the ,rockies was a marvellous piece of engineering1 especially on three miles of this bank1 which was so steep as to earn the name of the 8,big ,hill10 for it rose #ab inches in every #bb feet1 and was one of the stiffest pieces of road to be worked by adhesion that ever had been laid down on a railway4 ,it was so steep as to be dangerous1 a fact testified by the number of safety switches1 or 8catch points10 that were introduced4 ,the man in charge of one of these points1 observing an engine coming down-hill1 did not know whether it had run away or not until the engine-driver whistled a signal which conveyed the information that he desired the switch to be set to the main line1 for normally it was left open and a runaway at that point would have been turned into the bank1 to end its mad career in a wreck4 ,now and again engines did run away1 and the 8,big ,hill0 has witnessed many exciting escapes among the engine-drivers and train gangs4 ,to grasp the significance of this engine 8pull10 one required to see the 8,limited0 steaming from the ,pacific to the ,atlantic4 ,it got to the bottom of the hill1 and there three other engines were attached to the train to push it up the ever-dropping metals for over three miles1 while the clouds of smoke and live cinders belched into the air1 and the terrible roar of the engines straining at the load testified to the tremendous effort that was required to get a speed of five miles an hour on the train4 ,it was this feature that led a humorist to remark that the ,canadian ,pacific railway never had any occasion to ballast the track on the 8,big ,hill40 ,the engines performed this operation spontaneously and automatically in their labour1 and to far better effect than would have been possible by ordinary means4 ,considerable excitement was experienced in its construction4 ,according to some of the men whom ,i met1 and who had been connected with the grading through the ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 the ballast trains failed time after time to secure a grip on the metals1 and with their driving-wheels spinning round madly in the forward direction they skidded backwards down-hill4 ,now and again there would be a nasty smash1 in which engine and the ballast cars were mixed up in an inextricable heap4 ,it is reported even that on one occasion1 while the snow-plough was out clearing the drift on the 8,hill10 the driver of the locomotive lost the plough1 and did not discover the fact until he had gained the top1 although he was pushing the snow-clearing apparatus6 ,it was so difficult to keep the wheel gripping the rails that he did not notice the difference in the resistance when the snow-plough went over one side4 ,from the ,government's strict point of view the ,canadian ,pacific was not completed until about two years ago1 although trains have been running between the ,atlantic and ,pacific for some thirty years4 ,the authorities pointed out that the grade was an essential part of the contract1 and yet1 in order to pass through the ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 the company had exceeded that grade to a very considerable extent4 ,consequently eight miles of line was non-existent so far as the ,government was concerned1 and it declined to contribute any subsidy to that short length of the railway4 ,two years ago compliance was made with the ,government's agreement4 ,the route through the ,kicking ,horse ,pass was re-aligned4 ,this piece of work was carried out by the late ,j4 ,e4 ,schwitzer1 and from its daring nature it will always stand as a monument to his engineering ability4 ,he cut out the 8,big ,hill0 entirely4 ,where previously a bank rising #a in #bb existed for #d4a miles1 he provided a stretch of line double the length and of one-half the gradient1 so that the engines only have to overcome a climb of #a in #de4 ,in order to ease the grade the line swings from one side of the narrow valley to the other4 ,travelling westwards it disappears into the flank of ,cathedral ,mountain1 describing a curve in the tunnel to emerge into the valley about #dj feet below the point where it enters the mountain side4 ,it then strikes across the valley to enter the slopes of ,wapata ,mountain1 where another tunnel on a curve like a corkscrew lowers the level of the line for another #dj feet4 ,once more it crosses the valley1 the meanderings being so bewildering as to form a perfect maze4 ,it recalls the wonderful spiral tunnel-work on the ,st4 ,gotthard railway where a similar difficulty had to be overcome1 and1 indeed1 the conquest of the ,kicking ,horse ,pass in this manner was based evidently upon the great work in ,switzerland4 ,still1 it marks the first application of this ingenious solution of a trying problem to the ,american continent4 ,to bring the ,kicking ,horse ,pass section of the line within the recognition of the ,government1 however1 entailed the expenditure of some1#cjj1jjj1 or #a1ejj1jjj1 and found employment for about #ajjj men for twenty months4 ,train-load after train-load of dynamite was brought up in order to enable the path to be hewn through the mountain flanks1 and by the time the task was completed over #a1ejj1jjj pounds of explosives had been used--something like1#ej1jjj1 or #bej1jjj1 had vanished literally in smoke to tear down the rock4 ,but the outlay will be recouped well4 ,where four engines were required formerly two now suffice to handle a #gjj-ton train1 and they can rattle through the ,pass at a steady #be miles an hour1 whereas previously a bare six miles could be notched4 ,emerging from the ,rockies the engineers were confronted by another towering obstacle--the ,selkirks4 ,this range was to be dreaded more than the barrier just left behind1 for there was a trail through the ,rockies to guide the engineers1 whereas the ,selkirks had never been threaded4 ,the ,indians and ,hudson's ,bay voyageurs1 after emerging from the ,rockies1 turned sharply south to follow the ,columbia ,river4 ,the first task1 therefore1 was to discover a rift through the ,selkirks through which the metals might be carried4 ,it was shorter to go through the mountains than to go round them if any pass could be found to exist4 ,major ,albert ,b4 ,rogers1 an ,american engineer1 accordingly saddled his horse and with a supply of provisions set off to search for a 8,pass40 ,he wandered up and down the range without success for week after week1 and then1 just as he was despairing of success1 his eye alighted on a narrow breach between two serried lines of snow-clad peaks4 ,he spurred forward1 traversing territory on which the feet of neither white nor red man had been planted1 climbing and toiling arduously among the crags1 until at last he gained an altitude of #d1cea feet1 from which the opposite sides of the range sloped down once more to the ,columbia ,river ,valley4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,steel ,,arch ,,bridge ,,across ,,stoney ,,creek ,,in ,,the ,,selkirk ,,mountains ,this graceful structure replaced a wooden bridge supported on timber towers #bjj feet in height4 ,rogers' ,pass1 as this defile through the ,selkirks was named in honour of the discoverer1 was followed4 ,it did not offer any great difficulties from the grading point of view4 ,the greatest enemy was snow and avalanche4 ,the snowfall among these mountains is the heaviest along the line1 while the avalanches are of terrible frequency4 ,consequently the absorbing question was how to keep the line intact after once it had been laid4 ,it was impossible to avoid the defined paths of the snow movements entirely1 and in these cases huge sheds had to be erected to carry the avalanche harmlessly over the track to expend its violence in the gulch below4 ,the extent of snow-shedding through the ,selkirks is amazing1 and it has proved terribly costly4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,railway ,,traversing ,,the ,,tumbled ,,thompson ,,river ,,canyon ,when the engineers attacked this country1 as the laying of the track was the paramount requirement it was pushed forward with all speed during the short summer1 and parties of men equipped with meteorological instruments1 and vehicles for movement during winter1 and supplies of stores1 were left at different points to study the snow question1 so as to collect data for the situation of the snow-sheds4 ,there was no difficulty in determining this latter point1 for the avalanches appeared to rain down upon the track from all sides4 ,the question was not so much where to introduce the sheds1 but where they could be omitted4 ,it appeared as if the line would have to be carried almost continuously through a wooden tunnel to ensure its safety4 ,that the snow-fiend is no mean enemy was brought home forcibly some three years ago4 ,while a snow1 train was climbing up the western slope1 clearing away the accumulated mass of snow and debris deposited by a slide upon the track1 another avalanche swept down upon the little band working so desperately to cut a path for the mail4 ,over #ajj men were on the train when the terror of the mountains struck them and swept the whole into the gulch below1 the locomotives and plough weighing over #ej tons being bowled over and over like an india-rubber ball as they were hurtled down the steep slopes4 ,over fifty lives were lost in that catastrophe1 and it was but one of many which have happened since the ,selkirks were first gridironed by the railway4 ,but snow-shedding1 while securing the safety of the line1 has its drawbacks4 ,if a structure is made too lengthy it becomes filled with suffocating smoke which obscures all signals1 and deadens all sounds4 ,in summer another danger exists4 ,the district threaded is one ravaged heavily by forest fires1 and the danger from this enemy was only too vividly apparent4 ,at this juncture ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,van ,horne came to the rescue of the engineers1 as he had done on many previous occasions1 to extricate them from their difficulty4 ,he suggested that the maximum length of a single shed should be #cjjj feet1 and where the conditions demanded a long continuous length of this protection1 that it should be broken up into units with wide1 clear intervals of open line between4 ,to prevent these 8breaks0 becoming filled with debris he resorted to an ingenious expedient4 ,up on the mountain side he built what is known as a 8split fence40 ,this is a triangular erection1 with the apex pointing towards the mountain top1 of heavy massive construction and filled and banked with masonry4 ,the descending slide strikes this obstruction1 becomes split in twain1 one half is deflected so as to roll over the roof of the snow-shed on one side1 and the other half caused to glance off in a similar manner on the other side4 ,if one of these constructions did not secure the desired end1 then another was planted above it higher up the mountain side4 ,the success of this system has been remarkable1 and it has enabled the company to reduce the lengths of the sheds very appreciably4 ,shortly after the line was opened the protective handiwork of the engineers was subjected to trying tests4 ,the winter of #ahhf-g was one of excessive severity even for the ,selkirks4 ,in less than a week #h feet of snow fell1 and the blizzard raged continuously for three weeks4 ,slides were of daily occurrence1 the silence of the mountains being broken by the continuous roar of the avalanche4 ,the snowfall on the summits exceeded #ce feet1 and the white mantle was piled upon the roofs of the sheds to a depth of #ej feet4 ,the slides were of terrific fury1 some rattling down the slopes with such force and speed as to rebound #cjj feet or so up the opposite mountain side4 ,thousands of tons of rock1 some pieces as large as a small villa1 were caught up in their frantic rushes1 while tall1 thick trees were snapped off like matches and tossed about like straws4 ,yet with one exception the sheds withstood the terrible bombardments to which they were subjected4 ,the solitary case had the roof torn off completely to be thrown well above the track on the mountain side4 ,mud-slides were another visitation which had to be respected1 for time after time a cutting had to be cleared of a viscous mass which had slipped into the excavation4 ,these movements are produced by a kind of sand1 which1 when it becomes saturated with water1 slips and slides in all directions in an amazing manner1 carrying everything with it4 ,in winter1 when under the grip of frost1 the soil looks perfectly safe and stable1 but when the weather breaks innumerable springs come to life1 and in a short time the whole mass commences to move like a lava stream4 ,in addition to resorting to extreme protective measures against the avalanche where these could not be avoided1 some magnificent pieces of bridge-work were carried out at other points to avoid them4 ,in the first instance several were erected in wood to save time1 to be replaced by permanent metal structures at a later date4 ,in many cases1 however1 iron1 and in others masonry1 had to be adopted in the first instance4 ,there was one gully which perplexed the engineers sorely4 ,it was just a cleft in the perpendicular mountain cliff4 ,the engineers called it the 8,jaws of ,death10 and the name was appropriate4 ,they had to cross this couloir1 and a temporary timber bridge was built by dint of tremendous effort4 ,the engineers congratulated themselves upon their success1 but their gratification was short-lived4 ,a constructional train ventured to cross and the structure collapsed under its weight4 ,here was a dilemma4 ,work was brought to a standstill and there was grave deliberation4 ,mr4 ,van ,horne heard of the accident1 and hurried to the front4 ,he surveyed the gully1 and there and then decided to throw an arched masonry bridge across the breach4 ,it was built1 and what was more to the point1 it stood2 the constructional gangs could get forward4 ,at ,stoney ,creek there was another trouble of a like nature4 ,the ,v-shaped ravine was deep and wide1 and it was recognised that something different from what had been done in bridge-building up to this point was imperative4 ,two wooden towers were built on either side to a height of #bjj feet1 and these supported a single span of #agb feet over the gulch1 which was carried out in wood also4 ,from end to end the bridge measured #dij feet1 and for years it ranked as the highest wooden bridge on the continent4 ,the timber structure1 however1 has long since made way for a noble arched steel bridge springing from the rocky sides of the gulch1 and it constitutes one of the most graceful bridges on the whole of the system4 ,the descent from the ,selkirk summit involved the execution of some startling pieces of engineering to gain the banks of the ,illecillewaet ,river4 ,the line makes its way down the mountain side in a series of steps or terraces connected at the ends by sharp loops1 doubling and redoubling on itself to overcome a difference of #fjj feet in altitude in the most extraordinary manner4 ,the train is first running eastwards1 disappears round the corner and then is making its way in the opposite direction a few feet below1 to round another curve and once more steams eastwards1 this alternate running backwards and forwards continuing until the valley of the ,illecillewaet ,river is gained1 by which time the train has travelled over #f miles of metals to make an actual advance of only #b miles4 ,issuing from the ,selkirks1 another barrier1 the ,gold ,range1 had to be traversed1 but this was a comparatively easy matter1 as the ,eagle ,pass is a natural causeway among the peaks for the iron road1 although its discovery taxed ,walter ,moberly to an extreme degree1 as is narrated in another chapter4 ,in this pass the engineers1 driving the line from the east1 met the forces advancing from the west4 ,they shook hands at a point known as ,craigellachie1 where the connection between the two arms was made--where the 8golden spike0 was driven home--and the ,pacific seaboard was brought into touch with the ,atlantic through ,canadian territory4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cisco ,,cantilever ,,bridge ,,carrying ,,the ,,canadian ,,pacific ,,railway ,,across ,,the ,,fraser ,,river ,the bridge leads to a tunnel driven through the precipitous wall of the canyon4 ,illustration3 ,hill1 photo ,see page #bdj ,,the ,,key ,,west 8,,limited0 ,,passing ,,over ,,long ,,key ,,viaduct ,,at ,,full ,,speed ,the ,pacific end of the line was taken in hand by the ,government1 and it must be conceded that they had most difficult work to accomplish1 for they had to force their way through the ,fraser and ,thompson ,river canyons1 producing the heaviest #cjj continuous miles of engineering on the whole line4 ,they had to fight for every inch of the way through these ravines1 as the bottom is entirely occupied by the water4 ,the line is laid on a gallery carved in the cliff-face #bjj feet above the waters boiling beneath1 in a succession of cuts and tunnels1 with some fine examples of bridging1 of which the cantilever structure across the ,fraser ,river of #cjj feet span was the second of its character to be built on the ,american continent4 ,this link cost about #b1jjj1jjj1 or #aj1jjj1jjj1 to build1 representing about #af1jjj1 or #hj1jjj1 per mile purely for the formation of the grade ready to receive the metals4 ,considering the magnitude of this undertaking and the fact that the railway extended through extremely diversified country from level plain to tumbled lofty mountains1 construction at the rate of some five hundred miles per annum was a magnificent achievement4 ,for the greater part of the distance it traversed country where the white man was not in occupation1 and where several years were certain to pass before it yielded any economic value capable of producing traffic to the railway4 ,the enterprise was jeopardised seriously by the financial panic in the ,united ,states1 and the ,northern ,pacific railway crisis1 which misfortunes did not augur well for the success of another trans-continental railway4 ,when it was finished1 the inquiry as to why it had been built through an absolute wilderness from end to end was raised on all sides4 ,the present day supplies the answer to that criticism to a complete degree4 ,from the day of its completion the ,dominion went forward with a rush1 and it cannot be denied that the province of ,british ,columbia played an important part in the development of the country when it insisted1 as a return for its entrance into the federation of the provinces1 that a railway should be built across the continent to link the east with the west within ten years4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,a ,,railway ,,over ,,the ,,sea ,the ,florida express was speeding southwards over the railway which skirts the coast of ,florida for mile after mile4 ,among the passengers was ,mr4 ,henry ,flagler1 one of ,america's captains of industry and finance4 ,he was gazing out idly to sea4 ,on the horizon were streams of vessels steaming northwards and southwards in two long flung-out lines4 ,they were units in the great coastal service of steamships which ply incessantly up and down this long stretch of coast between ,new ,york1 the ,west ,indies and the ports dotted along the shore line of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,at that time the island of ,cuba was undergoing a wonderful change4 ,its vast resources were being exploited by men of initiative and energy from the two sides of the ,atlantic1 and the steamship traffic between the island and the mainland was advancing by leaps and bounds4 ,the financier was cogitating deeply4 ,his thoughts had strayed to the subject of this development1 and the fresh impetus it would receive when the ,isthmus of ,panama was at last pierced and vessels could float through the neck of the continent from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,he was the controlling force of the railway over which he was then travelling1 and he was weighing the question as to whether new sources of revenue could not be tapped for this system4 ,the southernmost point reached by the ,florida ,east ,coast railway was ,miami1 and though it was a rising town1 he saw that its future was limited1 because it formed1 as it were1 a dead-end to the line4 ,as a result of his ruminations he decided to make a bold bid for the ,cuban trade--to deflect traffic from the decks and holds of the passing steamers4 ,a hundred miles or so south of ,miami was one of the most strategical commercial ports of the country--the outpost of the ,united ,states--where more than #ej per cent4 of the vessels trading up and down the coast make a call4 ,moreover1 it was the point nearest to the island of ,cuba1 ,havana being scarcely #fj miles away4 ,yet ,key ,west was completely isolated2 there was not a single stretch of steel binding it to the intricate railway network of the country4 ,the magnate decided to forge this missing link in the railway chain2 to bring ,key ,west into direct touch with ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 ,san ,francisco1 or any other town on the continent4 ,from his point of view he could see no obstacle to the realisation of such a scheme beyond the capital cost of the undertaking4 ,when he returned to ,new ,york he summoned his surveyor1 to whom he unfolded his idea1 and to seek his opinion concerning the technical aspect of the proposition4 ,mr4 ,flagler's proposal was to carry the line southwards from ,miami to the extremity of the country lying at the outermost end of a chain of coral reefs1 and from that point to transport trains intact on the deck of large ferry-boats to ,havana1 where they could be pushed on to the tracks of the ,cuban system4 ,transhipment of passengers and the breaking bulk of freight between the great centres of the ,united ,states and the island would be obviated1 while the time that would be saved on the passage was considerable1 and1 indeed1 sufficiently attractive to tempt one to embark upon the enterprise4 ,the engineer admitted that the scheme was alluring1 but pointed out that for some #cj miles south of ,miami the line would have to be pushed through one of the worst stretches of country in the ,united ,states1 8,the ,everglades01 emerging from which heavy bridging would be required to link the chain of islands together4 ,however1 the engineer was dispatched southwards with a corps of surveyors to investigate the practicability of the scheme on the spot4 ,they lived for months in the inhospitable bog beyond ,miami1 and steamed to and fro among the islets with their transit and level1 plotting out the most economical and easiest route1 sounding the water depths around the coral reefs to determine the extent and cost of bridging1 and the best means of crossing these breaches in the reef4 ,then the surveyor returned to ,new ,york and sought the railway magnate4 ,the engineer had a complete roll of drawings and a mass of calculations and figures4 ,he related the fruits of his labours1 pointed out the route that he suggested should be followed1 and hinted that1 although the railway could be built1 the cost would be tremendous--would involve the expenditure of millions4 ,the financier1 however1 was not perturbed in the least by the cost4 ,the project received his sanction1 and a few days later the engineer departed to commence operations4 ,little time was lost upon the essential preparations1 and soon the grade was forcing its way out of ,miami towards the most southerly point of the ,united ,states4 ,news concerning the enterprise1 which up to this point had been nursed in secrecy1 now leaked out4 ,the activity around ,miami pointed to something unusual being under contemplation4 ,when the object of the extension became known the financial magnate became the butt of widespread ridicule4 ,his ambitious project was christened 8,flagler's ,folly01 under which name the railway has since been known colloquially4 8,well1 there is one thing for which travellers will bless me when they travel by rail over the ,keys10 the moving spirit humorously replied to his detractors3 8they will never be troubled with dust40 ,from ,miami southwards so far as the eye can reach stretches a dismal tract of swamp where miasma reigns supreme4 ,the ,everglades lie below the level of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and the latter is only prevented from grasping the enormous waterlogged expanse within its ravenous maw by a slender wall of rock which runs right along the coast4 ,but though this barrier resists the incursion of the ocean1 at the same time it prevents the imprisoned water on the other side from effecting an escape4 ,the result is that stagnant water1 varying from a few inches to several feet in depth1 according to the season1 spreads over the whole of the depression4 ,it is a huge bog and nothing more1 with dank1 dense vegetation growing riotously in all directions1 forming an ideal home for the alligator1 which here is found in large numbers4 ,some #cj miles of this uninviting marsh confronted the engineers1 and until scientific effort discovers some means of reclaiming the country fringing the railway from eternal water1 it must remain unproductive4 ,the engineers found this bog difficult to penetrate4 ,drainage was impossible1 and the raising of an embankment1 with the ordinary type of implements at command1 was out of the question1 because it was impossible to secure a solid foundation for their manipulation4 ,for a few miles south of ,miami a rocky ridge thrust its hump above the level of the marsh1 and as its situation was convenient it was followed to the uttermost limit4 ,when the builders were compelled to plunge boldly into the marsh they were beset with difficulties innumerable4 ,mr4 ,flagler had realised from the outset1 after meditating upon the plans and reports of the surveyors1 that the only practicable means of seeing his scheme carried to fruition was by means of direct labour under his own engineers1 instead of by contract4 ,consequently1 he secured the services of the most capable engineers available1 while labour was recruited from all sides4 ,fortunately1 no difficulty was experienced in this direction1 because the offer of good wages1 with everything found1 was considered by the workmen to be an equitable compensation for the risk of malaria4 ,the engineer-in-chief1 the late ,j4 ,o4 ,meredith1 who died in harness amid the scene of his labours1 resorted to highly ingenious methods to overcome the fever-ridden swamp4 ,not only did the conditions demand that a heavy1 solid earthen embankment should be built1 with its level well above the highest watermark1 but that the ridge of earth should be prevented from spreading at the base under the superimposed weight of a heavy train1 and from the insidious attacks of soaking water4 ,owing to the absence of rock and gravel in the immediate vicinity1 it appeared as if the engineer would have to haul trainloads of material for this purpose from long distances1 and at great expense1 to be dumped into the unstable mass4 ,but he decided otherwise4 ,he conceived a far more rapid1 simple and inexpensive means of building the embankment4 ,two large1 square1 shallow-draught dredgers were built1 with large grabs rising and falling from the upper end of a projecting diagonal wooden girder or jib4 ,these were towed to a point known as ,land's ,end4 ,here1 on either side of the strip of land forming the right-of-way for the iron horse1 and whereon the embankment was to be raised1 an excavation was made4 ,each cut was #cj inches deep and just wide enough to float the vessel comfortably4 ,the grabs were then brought into play1 and with each swing they withdrew a huge mouthful of the waterlogged soil1 swung it round1 and ejected it upon the grade4 ,the grabs were heavy and powerful2 their teeth crunched through roots and decayed vegetable matter relentlessly4 ,it will be seen that1 as a result1 each dredger dug a canal for itself as it advanced on either side of the grade1 forming two parallel paths1 with a belt of dry land between4 ,now and again their advance was disputed4 ,just below the water lurked a large rock which defied removal by the terrible teeth1 and yet projected too near the surface to enable the dredger to float over4 ,then the engineer gave another demonstration of his ingenuity4 ,instead of wasting time in blasting away the rock1 he threw a temporary dam across the ditch behind the dredger1 forming a kind of lock4 ,water was pumped from the fellow ditch to raise the level of the water a sufficient degree to enable the dredger to float over the obstruction4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,the ,,grade4 ,,the ,,dredger ,,cutting ,,its ,,own ,,path ,,and ,,dumping ,,removed ,,spoil ,,in ,,centre ,,to ,,form ,,the ,,embankment ,,for ,,the ,,track ,illustration3 ,photos1 ,hill ,,the ,,embankment ,,completed1 ,,with ,,the ,,canals ,,dug ,,by ,,the ,,dredgers ,,on ,,either ,,side ,the only difficulty experienced in this manner of handling the marsh was that the marl torn out by the grabs and deposited upon the right-of-way was so saturated after its immersion for centuries that it dried very slowly1 and delays were frequent and heavy in consequence4 ,one layer of the dump had to be left exposed for a considerable time before the next could be added4 ,but the method of building the embankment proved so eminently successful and efficient1 that a new move was made to meet the necessity for allowing the excavated soil time to dry4 ,four additional dredgers were built1 two for each canal1 and these were set to work at intervals one behind the other4 ,the foremost dredger laid the foundations of the embankment1 the second raised it a further height some days later1 and after another interval of time1 the third dredger contributed its quota to the constructional work4 ,in this way the task was expedited very materially4 ,in some places the bog was found to be covered with mangrove trees1 the roots of which spread like a thick net through the soil4 ,the consequence was that the grabs tore up a large proportion of roots associated with the soil1 and the former had to be used for embanking purposes1 as it could not be separated from the inorganic matter4 ,but this fibrous substance dried very quickly1 and was so highly combustible that it had to be covered with a thick layer of broken stone to protect it from fire1 and also to ensure solidity by packing tightly4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,embankment ,,was ,,built ,,on ,,the ,,keys ,the dredged material was pumped through the pipe line to fall between wooden fences to form the grade4 ,illustration3 ,photos1 ,hill ,,how ,,the ,,reinforced ,,concrete ,,arches ,,were ,,built ,,within ,,wooden ,,moulds ,,building ,,the 8,,over-,,sea0 ,,railway ,the completed track has a somewhat novel appearance4 ,there is the ridge of earth1 flanked on either side by a broad ditch1 cut by the dredgers and running as equidistantly from one another as if drawn with a parallel ruler4 ,these side canals1 however1 serve to drain the permanent way to a certain extent4 ,when the railway-builders made their way through this inhospitable region they did not meet a vestige of civilisation for over #cj miles4 ,then they came across pathetic evidences of attempts at reclamation here and there in the form of tumbling homes and isolated parties of half-starved negroes1 vainly endeavouring to extract some sort of subsistence from the bog4 ,but it is when the railway emerges from the ,everglades that the most wonderful part of the undertaking is seen4 ,a chain of some #cj verdant islands1 composed of coral limestone1 stretches out in a graceful curve for about #aji miles1 to disappear finally into the depths of the ,gulf of ,mexico at ,key ,west4 ,these reefs are separated by channels of open sea1 of varying widths4 ,these interruptions to the continuity of dry land are spanned by massive arched viaducts wrought in masonry4 ,where the line traverses the islands themselves the permanent way either is carried on embankments or through deep cuts4 ,the expensive bridging has been reduced to the minimum1 however1 for in some cases where the water is shallow the islands are linked together by a massive solid earthen embankment4 ,this section of the railway may be said to be amphibious in the full sense of the word4 ,in fact1 at one point the passenger in the train is carried beyond the sight of land4 ,the engineer had to build his structure sufficiently strong and solid as to combat the forces of wind and wave1 and at a level beyond the reach of the spray4 ,when it is remembered that the railway runs through a territory where tropical storms of terrific fury prevail1 and where cyclones are continually wreaking widespread damage1 some idea of the character of the work requisite to withstand the buffetings of these abnormal visitations may be gathered4 ,these climatic disadvantages were brought forcibly before the moving spirit in the enterprise at the time of its conception1 and accordingly he demanded that the bridge-work should be built as strongly as engineering science could make it4 ,no expense was to be spared1 for the financier was determined that no apprehensions as to safety should be permitted to lurk in the mind of the timid traveller4 ,the engineer took him at his word4 ,the depth of water in which the viaducts are built ranges from #aj to #ae feet and more1 while the rails are laid #ca feet above low water4 ,at some places the channel is wide enough to float a large steamship4 ,the viaducts have been carried out in ferro-concrete1 wherein the masonry is strengthened by means of iron rods1 freely intersecting1 which serve to bind the whole mass into a solid1 homogeneous whole1 so that the viaduct from end to end becomes practically a single1 monolithic structure4 ,to enable the subaqueous portions of the piers to be built1 coffer-dams were erected around the sites1 the space within being emptied and kept clear of water by means of powerful pumps4 ,by this means the workmen were enabled to carry out their task of securing the fabric to the solid rock on the dry coral sea-bed4 ,where the water ran up to a depth of #cj feet1 and the situation was exposed to the full fury of gales and of the ,atlantic1 caissons were sunk for the purpose of constructing the piers to above water-level1 the men working in compressed air4 ,the material for constructional purposes was prepared on large1 well-equipped floating plants anchored near by4 ,the timber moulds to form the shape of the arches were fashioned and bolted together on dry land1 and towed out to sea by tugs to the point of erection and there set in position4 ,some of these series of arches on the amphibious section of the railway are only a few hundred feet in length2 others measure as many thousands of feet from end to end4 ,for instance1 between ,long and ,grassy ,keys--the islands are known as 8keys0--the over-sea viaduct is #b miles from end to end4 ,the viaduct work was confined to the deepest parts of each channel1 being approached from either end over a substantial earthen embankment4 ,some idea of how this expedient saved the costly task of bridge-building may be obtained from the fact that whereas the distance by the line between ,grassy and ,long ,keys is #bi1edd feet--#e4f miles--the approach embankments aggregate #ai1ajj feet of this total1 the long1 symmetrical line of arches totalling #aj1ddd feet4 ,in the case of the gap between two other keys the water is closed by an embankment #ba1hjj feet in length4 ,in another instance the earthen structure stretches for #aa1iej feet to connect ,upper and ,lower ,matecumbe1 but inasmuch as this channel is used by vessels1 the navigable channel is spanned by a drawbridge #abj feet in length to permit vessels to pass between the ,atlantic and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,in the first #gh miles of track running out to sea from the mainland no less than #ad miles represent bridge-work1 the remaining #fd miles being carried out on embankments across the islands and shallow straits1 or by timber trestling4 ,on the islands1 grading was not accompanied by any great difficulties4 ,the ,keys are for the most part somewhat low-lying1 and a certain amount of excavation and filling was required4 ,the latter work was expedited by building a crude trestle down the centre of the right-of-way1 on which was laid a large pipe communicating with dredgers1 and through this conduit was pumped sand1 mud and gravel in a continuous stream to form the grade to the required height1 the slopes on either side afterwards being flanked with a thick layer of large stones4 ,direct labour was employed on this section of the undertaking also1 and for the most part the ordinary wheelbarrow1 pick and shovel supplemented the efforts of the dredger and pipe line4 ,as the ,keys are of coralline limestone1 an excellent material for ballasting the line was readily available4 ,when a point known as ,bahia ,honda was gained1 the engineer-in-chief resorted to more expeditious practice4 ,ten huge mechanical excavators1 each capable of doing every day the work of from #ej to #ajj men1 were brought into action4 ,they devoured the spoil to throw up the embankment at such a speed that one could see the grade's daily growth4 ,it was a tedious operation to get these excavators to the scene of action1 because they had to dig their own way through the soil to the right-of-way1 a task which occupied from one to four months1 according to the situation of their respective stations4 ,one of the gravest difficulties in connection with the whole undertaking was that experienced in provisioning the #cjjj or #djjj men scattered at various points1 feverishly toiling to fulfil the realisation of the financier's dream1 together with the requisite material4 ,every drop of water1 either for human requirements or machinery1 had to be transported in huge tanks from a distance of #ajj miles4 ,the engineer-in-chief pluckily attempted to cut down this haulage distance one-half by establishing a water station at a creek #ej miles nearer the front4 ,but he reckoned without ,nature3 ,they had just got the plant going when a wind sprang up and prevented the boats1 specially acquired to transport the water from the station to the nearest point on the railway1 from approaching within a mile or so of the shore4 ,hurried arrangements had to be made to draw temporary supplies from ,miami once more4 ,a week or two later the wind veered round and blew just as furiously in the opposite direction1 with the same result4 ,this experience sufficed to prove that no reliance could be placed upon the new water station1 so it was abandoned4 ,similarly1 all the broken rock for the concrete had to be brought from the quarries at ,miami1 and with the cement was stacked in huge heaps at ,knight's ,key1 which constituted the supply depot4 ,the scattered situations of some of the constructional gangs taxed the efforts of the commissariat to a straining-point4 ,in many cases the supply boats1 in order to get to their destination1 only perhaps a mile distant as the bird flies1 had to follow a circuitous route of eight or ten miles to get there4 ,when it was seen that ,mr4 ,flagler was serious in his intentions1 and that the first stretch of viaduct was completed successfully1 it was maintained that 8,flagler's ,folly10 though a wonder of engineering1 never could hope to pay its way4 ,time alone can prove or disprove this contention1 but it is worth while to observe that1 as each section of the line has been completed1 strenuous efforts to develop the country penetrated thereby have been made4 ,the ,florida ,east ,coast railway serves an essentially pleasure country--the ,riviera of ,america4 ,yet1 as the line plunged southwards1 hotels sprang up at various sylvan spots1 and they rapidly assumed positions of importance4 ,the only barren stretch is the ,everglades4 ,the commercial conquest of this useless expanse must come later inevitably1 and indeed energetic measures to this end are in active progress4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,remarkable ,,railway ,,bridges ,in order to describe fully the complete conquest which the iron horse has accomplished in ,british ,india1 volumes would be required4 ,in that country the steel highway has been driven forward in the face of prodigious difficulties of every description2 the story is an exciting romance4 ,but the features which impress the traveller most strongly are the bridges4 ,some compel more than passing interest because of their great length1 such as the ,sone bridge1 on the ,east ,indian railway1 which consists of #ic spans1 giving the structure a total length of #aj1ieb feet1 making it one of the longest bridges in the world2 or the ,godavari over the river of the same name on the ,madras ,north-,east line1 #i1jff feet in length2 others because of their height1 as1 for instance1 the ,gokteik ,viaduct in ,burma1 #cbe feet high2 or the ,dhorabhave ,viaduct1 #agh feet above the stream2 while here and there attention is challenged because of the massive proportions of the structure or its unusual design1 as1 for instance1 the ,jubilee ,bridge across the river ,hooghly at ,naihati1 or the ,lansdowne ,bridge across the ,indus at ,sukkur1 the main span of which is #gij feet clear4 ,it may be safe to assert that no country has offered the bridge-builder such striking opportunities to display his ability or enterprise as the ,indian ,empire4 ,the ,americans point to the great width of their waterways1 and the huge structures which leap across the ,mississippi1 ,missouri or ,columbia rivers1 but1 compared beside the erections which carry the railway across the ,indian waterways1 they appear puny4 ,the ,indian rivers are famous for their great width1 and the extent to which they break up the country through which they make their tortuous ways to the sea4 ,the result is that when the engineer is called upon to cross from bank to bank1 especially in connection with the more important waterways1 he is faced with some teasing and complex problems1 to solve which demands often considerable ingenuity and the expenditure of much racking cogitation4 ,these rivers are bad friends to the engineer at the best of times1 but when lashed into fury and swelled to flood they almost defy mastery4 ,the flood is the bugbear of the bridge-builder4 ,one never knows what the enraged water is going to do next4 ,sir ,bradford ,leslie1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 who probably has been associated with more great engineering achievements of this character in ,india than any other living engineer1 can recall thrilling moments innumerable4 ,for instance1 when he was carrying the ,jubilee ,bridge across the river ,hooghly1 the water carried away one of the caissons which he was about to launch for one of the piers4 ,he thought it had been lashed safely into position by means of chains1 preparatory to sinking1 but the ,hooghly 8bore0 quickly undeceived him4 ,the ,hooghly bore is an ugly customer1 for at times it attains a height of #g feet1 and travels up-stream for #gj miles in four hours4 ,this rapidly-moving bank of liquid struck the unlucky caisson1 although the latter was of respectable dimensions and weight1 snapped the mooring chains as if they were pack-thread1 and carried the cylinder away as if it were a small butter-tub4 ,the engineer had a lively chase up-stream after his work1 and finally secured it stranded in an awkward position about half-a-mile above its site4 ,immediately arrangements were hurried forward to salvage the caisson4 ,after a day and a half's continuous hard toil it was recovered and anchored alongside the bank until the next propitious moment arrived for it to be towed out into the stream and sunk into position4 ,in the early days the engineers in their bridge-building operations suffered the maximum width of a river to dictate what the length of such a structure should be4 ,seeing that the normal channels of many of these waterways are narrow in comparison with what they attain under flood1 this rendered bridge-work exceedingly expensive and intricate4 ,it is no uncommon circumstance for a waterway1 when swollen by the rains of the wet season1 to spread out for a width of three miles or more4 ,it becomes practically insatiable1 the soft earth forming the banks falling a ready victim to the powerful eroding action of the scurrying water4 ,the result is worse than that brought about by the scouring of the ,river ,mississippi1 which devours huge masses of land continually on either bank4 ,when the ,indian river falls1 unsightly stretches of undulating sandbanks are revealed1 riven by little back channels and small lagoons1 which present a general aspect of desolation4 ,under such circumstances1 bridging from bank to bank is a somewhat vague undertaking1 for the simple reason that it is difficult to decide what are the limits of the waterway1 because erosion continues until the water reaches material which defies this action4 ,the engineer has met this situation now in an ingenious manner4 ,he determines the channel of the river and keeps it within bounds by means of an artificial wall or training-bund1 which is carried parallel with the navigable channel1 the flow of water through the space between the inner side of the wall and the shore being obstructed by a solid embankment which carries the track4 ,this system was employed first by ,mr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,bell to carry the ,north-,western ,state railway across the ,chenab ,river at ,sher ,shah1 and proved so eminently successful that it has come into general favour4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,training-,,bund ,,or ,,wall ,,to ,,narrow ,,the ,,ganges ,,by #cjjj ,,feet ,,for ,,the ,,curzon ,,bridge1 ,,showing ,,railway ,,approach ,one of the latest and most interesting1 as well as largest undertakings of this class1 is that in connection with the ,curzon railway bridge over the ,ganges at ,allahabad1 for the ,allahabad-,fyzerbad railway4 ,at this point the river flows between high banks of hard clay about #c miles apart1 and so resistant is this earth to scouring action that erosion has been brought to cessation practically4 ,the width of the waterway1 however1 is about #a miles1 and when it was decided to span the river1 a great length of steel appeared inevitable4 ,illustration3 ,,erecting ,,the ,,piers ,,for ,,the ,,curzon ,,bridge ,the training-bund is to be seen in the background4 ,the engineer-in-chief for the work1 ,mr4 ,robert ,r4 ,gales1 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 however1 decided to cut down the length of the bridge-work to #cjjj feet4 ,the project was examined at great length1 owing to the fact that the difference in the level of the river during the dry and flood seasons is not less than #ca feet1 as the ,ganges receives the waters of the ,jumna about #g miles above the site selected for the crossing4 ,careful investigations1 however1 pointed to the fact that the accumulated waters could be directed safely through a channel some #cjjj feet wide1 and accordingly the erection of the training-bund was taken in hand on the left bank4 ,it measures some #djjj feet in length from end to end1 and the top is #e feet above the flood-level of the river4 ,the up-stream arm measures #c1cjj feet in length1 and the extremity ends in a sharp curve to mitigate the effects of scouring4 ,viewed from the bank1 the work resembles a huge letter 8,l10 with the bottom arm pointing up-stream1 and the tail overhanging for about #gjj feet1 while the upright member forms the embankment connecting the training-wall to the shore1 and leads the railway track to the bridge4 ,the training-wall is built up of sandy soil1 with stone pitched on the face exposed to the action of the river4 ,at the top it is about #bj feet in width1 and carries a wide-gauge railway track from end to end1 so that should the floods tear a gap in the embankment1 the injury can be repaired immediately by dumping spoil into the breach from railway wagons4 ,erection had to be hurried forward1 as the season available for operations was so short4 ,in view of the fact that the erection of the wall entailed the handling of some #ej1jjj1jjj cubic yards of earth1 some idea of the magnitude of the task may be gathered4 ,it was split up into a number of contracts1 and when the operations were in full swing no less than #gjjj coolies found employment4 ,while this work was in progress the bridge itself was pushed forward4 ,the length of metal is #cjjj feet1 divided into #ae spans1 each of #bjj feet1 carried upon masonry piers4 ,the bridge was called upon to meet requirements not only for railway traffic but for pedestrians and vehicles as well4 ,a single line of #e feet #f inches gauge suffices for the former1 which is carried upon the bottom deck1 while the upper deck meets the second requisition1 being #bc feet wide and about #fj feet above the level of the waterway when in flood4 ,the undertaking was pushed forward with such energy that it was completed in three seasons4 ,the saving in outlay resulting from constricting the river channel1 and thereby reducing the length of steel-work1 represented no less than #ajj1jjj1 or #ejj1jjj4 ,this offers a convincing illustration as to the ingenious manner in which the bridge engineer in ,india has succeeded in reducing the costs of spanning the noble waterways of the country4 ,in a far-away corner of the same country1 ,upper ,burma1 may be seen another interesting example of the bridge-builder's craft1 carried out under particularly exacting conditions in a forbidding country4 ,this is the ,gokteik ,viaduct1 which carries the metre-gauge single track of the ,burma ,railway ,company across the gorge of the same name4 ,this structure was completed by the ,pennsylvania ,steel ,company1 of ,steelton1 ,pennsylvania1 and the award of the contract was criticised severely in ,great ,britain4 ,but the ,government wanted the valley spanned in the shortest possible space of time and at a moderate price4 ,when the tenders invited from all parts of the world were opened1 it was found that the ,british firms had been outclassed by their ,american rivals in both these essential factors4 ,the location of the railway across this gorge was beset with peculiar difficulties4 ,the question of the approach was trying to decide to the best advantage1 and in fact so many surveys were made that one of the ,american engineers remarked 8that he could not see the side of the cliff for survey pegs40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,training-,,bund ,,under ,,construction ,,by ,,native ,,labour4 ,,at ,,the ,,extreme ,,right ,a ,,pier ,,is ,,being ,,built ,,for ,,the ,,bridge ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,pier-,,building ,,operations ,,for ,,the ,,curzon ,,bridge ,,across ,,the ,,ganges ,,at ,,allahabad ,the bridge is #cjjj feet long4 ,temporary line at right4 ,the gorge itself is also somewhat strange2 in fact1 it is a curious wonder of ,nature4 ,the ,chungzoune ,river flows through the rift1 but out of sight1 its course being through a natural tunnel1 into which it disappears suddenly at a depth of #ejj feet4 ,when the line was first surveyed it was in accordance with a low viaduct1 the approach thereto being over a suggested section of rack railway working on the ,abt system1 with grades of #a in #ab4 ,this was subsequently abandoned1 and the surveyor was called upon to find a fresh location so as to eliminate the rack railway1 and to give grades not exceeding #a in #be1 so as to permit the line to be worked by adhesion4 ,this decision raised the height of the towers by #gj feet and increased its length to #a1cej feet4 ,even this did not meet with approval1 for after prolonged deliberation a third location was demanded1 to give an easier line yet4 ,in this last survey the gradients were flattened to #a in #dj1 with an attendant increase in the height of the structure as well as of its length4 ,it was found impossible to improve upon the viaduct itself1 so further surveys were carried out to improve the approaches1 reducing their length and introducing curves at either end of the viaduct4 ,at last finality was reached1 and the contract was secured by the ,american bridge-builders on ,april #bh1 #ahii4 ,they lost no time in hurrying forward the preparation of the steel4 ,three months later a special train of #de cars1 laden with #igg tons1 left ,steelton on the #bja-miles run to ,new ,york1 where a specially chartered steamer was in waiting to receive this steel cargo4 ,the vessel left the ,american port on a journey of over #aj1jjj miles to ,rangoon1 where the freight was transferred to the small trucks of the railway and sent on the up-country journey of #dfj miles to the ,gokteik gorge4 ,no less than three steamers were required to transport the #d1cjh tons of steel1 together with some #bjj tons of requisite tackle for erection1 and #ce ,american bridge-erectors4 ,when the ,americans arrived on the scene they were treated to their first experience of ,indian weather4 ,the rain fell in torrents2 the roads were converted into rushing streams1 and the low-lying stretches of land into lakes4 ,this was something new to the ,americans1 and they chafed at being compelled to sit down to wait until the weather moderated4 ,to make matters worse1 the line was knocked about severely by the rain1 no less than thirteen wash-outs occurring between the coast and the gorge4 ,in one place a locomotive got caught4 ,it could not advance and could not retreat1 owing to breaches in the railway on either side1 so quietly settled down to rest in the waterlogged embankment1 and finally slipped into a field of rice1 to the intense disgust of the owner4 ,the result was that the port became congested with the steel and tackle awaiting dispatch up-country4 ,the railway company repaired the wash-outs with all possible speed1 and directly the line was opened the material poured towards ,gokteik in a ceaseless stream4 ,in fact1 the ,american engineers were somewhat perplexed by the speed with which the material was sent up1 and they had a spirited task in sorting out the pieces of steel as they arrived4 ,the work proceeded so feverishly that the empty trains could not be backed out of the shunting-yard with sufficient alacrity to admit incoming loads4 ,the bridge-builders extended assistance in a novel manner4 ,shunting was abandoned4 ,the large steam derricks picked up the empty cars bodily off the one track1 whipped them round1 and deposited them upon a siding1 from which the engines pulled them out as best they could4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of ,pennsylvania ,steel ,co4 ,,the ,,gokteik ,,viaduct ,,under ,,construction ,the railway track is #hbe feet above the level of the ,chungzoune ,river1 which flows through a tunnel beneath the bridge4 ,the railway company provided the builders with a special railway down the side of the cliff1 as the approach was not completed4 ,this was a huge switch-back1 where the trains ran from side to side1 first forwards and then backwards4 ,the descent of the precipice in this manner treated the bridge-builders to an exciting ride1 which somewhat unnerved them at first1 as it was far and away too thrilling to be pleasant4 ,a cableway was also stretched across the gulch1 and this was used for transporting material from point to point4 ,in fact1 two locomotives were dismantled and sent across this rope in pieces to be re-erected on the opposite side4 ,illustration3 ,photo by permission of ,pennsylvania ,steel ,co4 ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,gokteik ,,viaduct ,there are eighteen steel towers--the highest brings the rails #cbe feet above the floor of the gorge--supporting #b1bfj feet of bridging4 ,when the bridge-builders arrived they found that ,mr4 ,g4 ,deuchars1 the engineer-in-chief to the railway1 had completed the whole of the preparations4 ,the concrete pedestals for the steel towers stretched across the floor of the ridge in two unbroken lines over the top of the natural bridge through which the ,chungzoune ,river makes its subterranean way4 ,all that the bridge-builders had to do was to set the steel4 ,the viaduct was built upon the overhanging principle1 in accordance with the ,american practice1 by means of a traveller4 ,this was a cumbersome piece of apparatus weighing #ajj tons1 with a long arm which reached out over the gorge from tower to tower4 ,to the native this appliance was a source of infinite wonder4 ,when it was pushed out to its fullest extent1 and the long arm appeared certain to lose its balance and to topple into the ravine1 they looked on with awe2 and when the ,americans flew in the face of ,providence1 as they thought1 by venturing to the outermost point to carry out their work1 they shuddered4 ,in fact1 they never became accustomed to that traveller4 ,why it did not capsize exceeded their comprehension4 ,the ,american workmen were assisted in their operations by #cej natives brought from other parts of the country1 and who were accustomed somewhat to bridge-building4 ,once work was brought into swing1 it went forward with a rush1 the steel towers springing up from their pedestals to a height of #bjj feet or so within two or three days4 ,the men toiled #i hours every day1 and there was not a halt except when the monsoon blew and it was well-nigh impossible to secure a foothold in exposed positions1 or when the torrential rainfall prevailed4 ,the white men found the heat particularly trying and exhausting4 ,those perched #bjj or #cjj feet in the air1 and fully exposed to the sun and a temperature of #abj degrees1 secured a little welcome shade under an awning that was stretched over the apparatus4 ,they wore the lightest of clothing1 while white pith helmets served to offer some protection from sunstroke4 ,the total length of the work is #b1bfj feet1 and it is built up to #aj spans1 each measuring #abj feet1 and #g spans of #fj feet apiece4 ,the girders forming the deck are supported on steel towers spaced #dj feet apart4 ,the height of the rails at the highest pier is #cbe feet above the floor of the gorge1 and #hbe feet above the ,chungzoune stream4 ,no less than #bcb1hfh separate pieces of steel had to be handled on the site1 and the natives had to drive #bjj1jjj rivets to secure the fabric together4 ,owing to the remote point at which work was being carried out--#aj1jjj miles by sea from home--an elaborate cable code was drawn up1 each integral part of the viaduct1 as well as details of the erecting plant1 having a distinctive word4 ,in addition1 there were special words for the purpose of reporting the progress of the erection to headquarters4 ,every week the chief engineer cabled home a full progress report at a cost of #es41 or #a4be1 per word4 ,the men were provided with a well-equipped medicine chest1 and a complete photographic outfit constituted an important part of the organisation1 photographs being dispatched to ,steelton regularly to supplement the cabled and written report on the progress of the undertaking4 ,only one man was lost in the enterprise1 and this was attributable to fever produced from indulgence in alcoholic liquor4 ,no other fatality was recorded either among the natives or ,americans1 and no serious accident marred the work1 which1 bearing in mind its magnitude and character1 was highly satisfactory4 ,the actual erection occupied nine months1 work being continued uninterruptedly through the wet season1 when1 fortunately1 the greater part of the annual #aej to #bjj inches of rain fell during the night4 ,although the viaduct is #bd feet wide across the top1 which is sufficient to carry a double track1 only one road is laid at present4 ,the bridge also enables pedestrians to cross from one side of the chasm to the other1 refuge platforms being provided at frequent intervals to enable those afoot to escape being run down by passing trains4 ,upon completion1 the structure was subjected to severe tests spread over a period of two months1 and these proving satisfactory1 the structure was accepted by the railway authorities4 ,the mammoth steel traveller weighing #ajj tons1 and which had played such an important part in the rapid erection of the viaduct1 was demolished and sold for scrap4 ,by the provision of this viaduct at the selected height the track is led to a natural ledge on the opposite cliff-face4 ,while the viaduct was under construction the railhead was pushed forward1 the material for the grade being transported across the valley by the overhead cable4 ,by the time trains were able to cross the structure1 the end of steel had reached a point some #ce miles beyond4 ,although the viaduct is not so lofty as other structures of its class in other parts of the world1 yet it occupies a position of distinct importance4 ,moreover1 it constitutes one of the finest expressions of this class of ,american work that has ever been fulfilled4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,where ,,the ,,snow-,,plough ,,works ,,in ,,summer ,the ,scandinavian peninsula has been the battle-ground of many titanic struggles on behalf of the railway4 ,in this country the iron horse has forced its way to the most northerly point in the world where the shriek of a locomotive whistle may be heard4 ,this is ,ofoten1 a port on the ,atlantic seaboard of ,norway1 beyond the #fhth parallel1 and well into the ,arctic circle1 where the famous iron mines of ,gellivare in ,sweden find a western point for shipping the ore4 ,it was in ,sweden that steel was pressed into service for the first time in connection with the erection of bridges by the late ,major ,c4 ,adelskld1 ,r4,e41 and ,member of the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,this was so far back as #ahff1 and the daring engineer designed1 superintended the preparation of the metal1 and also the erection of the bridge4 ,the claim of being the first steel bridge has been advanced on behalf of other structures in different parts of the world1 but the records are against all such statements1 for they were anticipated by a decade at least in a convincing1 practical manner4 ,major ,adelskld's bridge is highly interesting1 not only from the historical point of view1 but because of its unusual design1 and the methods adopted in its erection4 ,through the courtesy of ,madam ,gustafva ,adelskld1 ,i am enabled to give the following particulars of its evolution and construction4 ,the bridge was designed to carry the ,uddevalla-,wenersborg-,herljunga railway across the ,huvudnas ,falls1 just above the ,trllhtten ,falls4 ,at this point the ,gta ,river forces its way through a gorge #acg feet wide1 just above a fall over a lofty ledge of rock4 ,the depth and velocity of the water prevented any intermediate pier being erected in the waterway1 so in order to span the gap it was necessary to lift the girders bodily to set them into position4 ,to enable this end to be achieved it was imperative that the main girders should be as light as possible4 ,an iron girder1 which was the metal in exclusive vogue at that time for this work1 #aec feet in length by #ab inches wide1 of the requisite strength1 would have weighed over #gjj tons1 and to have handled such a weight would have demanded expensive and elaborate erecting tackle4 ,major ,adelskld consequently rejected iron as the structural material in favour of light steel girders4 ,once these were set he anticipated no further hindrance to completing the structure as a 8suspension bridge40 ,up to this time steel girders never had been employed in such work1 and the engineer1 when he revealed his intentions1 was urged by experts and fellow-craftsmen not to use 8such a brittle and untrustworthy material0 for so long a span4 ,major ,adelskld1 however1 was convinced of the soundness of his proposal1 and consequently continued his efforts in the face of spirited opposition4 ,the bridge was built at ,bergsund1 and the dimensions were calculated for a strain of #h tons per square inch1 though the metal was tested to twice that stress before being set in position4 ,the total weight was only #ej tons4 ,from the engineering point of view the design is considered somewhat novel1 for it bears no resemblance to the general conception of a suspension bridge4 ,it is an inverted structure of this class4 ,the upper members act merely as struts to keep apart the ends of the chains below1 which really carry the load through the medium of the triangular members4 ,the method by which the structure was erected was quite as interesting as the design of the bridge itself4 ,the girders were brought to the western bank of the river4 ,to swing them into position a derrick was rigged up on either bank so as to overhang the water4 ,the outer ends of these masts1 which measured #fj feet in length1 were fitted with heavy pulleys1 over which ropes were passed and carried from capstans installed for hauling purposes4 ,the pulley ropes on the eastern bank were pulled across the waterway and secured to one end of the girder1 while the western bank pulley ropes were secured to the other end of the steel member1 which measured #aec feet in length4 ,in this way the girder was lifted1 swung over the water1 and lowered into position4 ,the event was regarded as so unusual that crowds of people from ,gothenburg and ,trllhtten assembled on the banks to witness the setting of the steel on ,february #h1 #ahff4 ,owing to the roar of the waters1 the engineer could not make his voice heard1 so orders were communicated across the river in ,morse code by hand-signalling4 ,the first girder was lifted and set in position in thirty minutes1 while the second was handled in half that time4 ,once the girders were set it was an easy matter to complete the remainder of the structure4 ,it may be interesting to relate that the total cost of setting the main girders1 together with the hire of the tackle borrowed from a ,gothenburg shipbuilding-yard1 and including the wages of the men assisting in the task1 was only #be1 or #abe4 ,at that time ,major ,adelskld's feat was regarded as an audacious stroke of engineering1 but to-day steel is the exclusive material employed in the erection of bridges4 ,railway-building in these twin countries has been attended always with grave difficulties1 owing to the rugged nature of the country and the extreme hardness of the rock4 ,when the sea is left1 and the interior plateau is gained1 the full brunt of the ,arctic weather is experienced1 and it is of a character to deter the most intrepid engineer4 ,one of the most momentous enterprises that has been carried to fulfilment in this northern country is the trans-,norwegian railway1 whereby ,christiania is brought into direct communication with the ,atlantic seaboard at ,bergen4 ,owing to the prodigious difficulties involved1 however1 it occupied some thirty years to carry the scheme through1 although the line is only #cjf miles in length4 ,illustration3 ,,train ,,emerging ,,from ,,reinunga ,,tunnel1 #e1bag ,,feet ,,long1 ,,in ,,distance1 ,,showing ,,snowscoop-,,plough ,,on ,,locomotive ,,where ,,the ,,snowplough ,,works ,,in ,,summer ,illustration3 ,,myrdal ,,station1 ,,showing ,,entrance ,,to ,,gravehals ,,tunnel1 #ag1dbj ,,feet ,,in ,,length ,illustration3 ,,myrdal ,,station ,,in ,,winter1 ,,showing ,,depth ,,of ,,snowfall ,,the ,,bergen ,,railway ,in #ahgj1 commercial interests petitioned for the establishment of a shorter route between the east coast and the ,norwegian capital4 ,surveyors1 therefore1 were deputed to investigate the interior and to ascertain the practicability of building such a railway4 ,after infinite labour the engineers reported favourably upon the project1 but pointed out that the work would be unprecedentedly arduous1 and would be highly expensive4 ,for five years the scheme lay dormant1 but in #ahge the ,government decided to commence the enterprise1 with a section of line #fg miles long1 connecting the seaboard at ,bergen with ,vossevangen4 ,in deference to views prevailing at the time1 however1 the narrow- or metre-gauge was adopted1 and in #ahhc it was opened for traffic4 ,although no further headway was made with the continuation of the main scheme1 it was not abandoned by any means4 ,a mountain barrier1 the ,dovrejelf range1 barred the way to the interior4 ,its penetration was recognised as one demanding great skill1 for the peaks are precipitous1 with sides dropping into valleys so narrow as to be mere defiles on the sea side of the chain4 ,apart from these physical handicaps1 however1 the rain- and snow-falls upon the highest levels were found to be tremendous1 and it was essential that elaborate examination should be made concerning these adverse influences before the location was decided definitely4 ,a cautious policy was practised4 ,no attempt to proceed beyond ,vossevangen was made until the mountain wall had been searched through and through4 ,no less than twelve alternative routes were prepared and submitted to the ,government4 ,these demonstrated the conclusive fact that no route could offer avoidance of the snow and rain4 ,the question was to follow a location1 if possible1 where these drawbacks were emphasised to the least degree4 ,for this purpose several meteorological stations were established among the mountains and on the plateau to gather exhaustive data by daily observations4 ,the outcome was the production of some decidedly startling facts1 even to those who were convinced of the extremely inclement conditions prevailing inland4 ,the observers had been instructed to record particularly the maximum fall of snow during twenty-four hours1 the depth of the snow among the mountains during the winter1 and the effect of the winds which swept the plateau mercilessly during the latter season4 ,it was found that snow fell every month during the year at ,fjeldberg1 even ,june1 ,july and ,august not being free from such visitations1 while at another point the snowfall in winter aggregated no less than #aa feet4 ,at no point along the projected location of the line was a depth of less than #h feet recorded1 while the general average was from #aj feet to #ad feet4 ,the winds were found to drive the dry1 fleecy flakes before them like dust1 to pile up huge drifts in sheltered places1 running up to #afa feet deep4 ,some of these drifts remained throughout the summer1 and were found to be of respectable proportions4 ,the sum of these reports presaged the fact that1 when the line was completed1 the question of maintaining it free from snow-blocks would demand superhuman effort4 ,at last the ,government decided to proceed with the undertaking4 ,the advantages and disadvantages of the various locations had been weighed diligently1 and promoted the decision to adopt the ,gravehals route4 ,the authorities regarded this location with misgiving in the first instance1 because it involved the piercing of a tunnel #ag1dbj feet in length1 at an elevation of #b1hah feet4 ,funds were voted to build the next section from ,vossevangen to ,taugevand1 a distance of #dg miles4 ,in this distance the line was to be lifted a matter of #djjj feet to the highest point to be attained between the ,atlantic seaboard and ,christiania4 ,the route selected comprised the boring of no less than #ab tunnels1 making in the aggregate not less than #aa miles1 of which the ,gravehals tunnel represented over #c miles4 ,while this difficult section was being prosecuted1 the ,government resolved to come to a definite conclusion as to the route the railway should follow after attaining the summit at ,taugevand1 so as to enable operations to be continued without delay when the latter point was reached4 ,the exposed position of the ,gravehals tunnel rendered the work exhausting to the men4 ,as the timber line is about #bjjj feet below1 the mountain-sides are quite bare1 and there is no protection against the elements whatever4 ,the work is the longest of its kind in ,northern ,europe1 and has proved probably one of the most exacting to construct4 ,it extends through granite which was found to be exceedingly tough1 so that boring was unavoidably slow1 especially at times when everything appeared to be pitted against the contractors4 ,the firm who accepted the contract undertook to complete the work for #aeh1djj1 or #gib1jjj1 which was considered to be a very low price4 ,it was attacked from both ends1 and mechanical boring was adopted4 ,convenient water power was harnessed to drive the ,brandt rock drills1 which worked under a pressure of some #a1bjj pounds per square inch4 ,boring proceeded somewhat slowly1 more so1 in fact1 than the contractors had anticipated2 but this was due to the extreme hardness of the rock encountered1 while the work was handicapped by delays which the contractors could not have controlled4 ,in the first place labour proved scarce and expensive4 ,the men working on the coast1 although experienced in drilling and blasting rock1 could not be persuaded to proceed up-country to practise their skill4 ,the situation was too remote1 and the elements were too bitter1 and seeing that extensive railway construction was proceeding at the same time in other and more congenial parts of the country1 there was no cogent reason why the men should hie to an inhospitable locality for work4 ,the tunnel-borers1 however1 were spared the tribulations which have assailed their colleagues in other parts of ,europe4 ,faults in the rock strata were very few and far between1 while subterranean streams and pockets of viscous mud did not overwhelm them4 ,the temperature within the boring1 moreover1 never rose to an intolerable point1 the maximum recorded being #eb ,fahrenheit4 ,this was in striking contrast to the conditions on the ,gotthard1 ,cenis1 ,simplon1 and other central ,european tunnels1 where the mercury rose at times to the vicinity of #ij degrees4 ,yet the workers in the ,gravehals tunnel experienced their own peculiar dangers and exasperating misadventures4 ,the climatic conditions were the most trying1 and many men abandoned their tasks after a short experience in this bleak situation1 for work at a lower level4 ,this monotony was varied one day by an avalanche1 which crashed down the mountain-side1 smashed into the power-house and carried away some of the machinery4 ,work had to be suspended for some six weeks while the damage thus caused was repaired4 ,at another time work could not be carried forward because no water was available1 and about two months of enforced idleness had to be endured until the turbines could be set going once more4 ,on the same section is another heavy piece of work of this character1 the ,reinunga tunnel1 extending for #e1bag feet through a massive mountain shoulder4 ,here the country is extremely wild1 and the location of the line taxed the plotters supremely4 ,the track crawls along a narrow ledge for some distance1 poised nearly #ejj feet above the highroad4 ,the situation is precarious1 for landslides and avalanches are of frequent occurrence1 while detached boulders rattle down the slopes at times and threaten the railway with extinction4 ,fortunately1 as the metals are laid on a gallery of solid rock hewn in the mountain-side1 the extent of the damage inflicted by these visitations is limited to the permanent way1 though the presence of these untoward obstacles1 and the result of their impact with the metals1 may interrupt communication for a short time4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,view ,,on ,,the ,,bergen ,,railway ,,in ,,winter1 ,,showing ,,screens ,,to ,,protect ,,line ,,from ,,drifting ,,snow1 ,,and ,,snowsheds ,seeing that a difference in level of over #d1ajj feet has to be overcome in the #dg miles between ,vossevangen and ,taugevand1 it is a teasing up-hill pull all the way4 ,the grades are very abrupt at places1 and impose a severe tax upon the locomotives4 ,the passenger1 however1 has one compensation for slowness in travel4 ,some of the grandest scenery to be seen on the ,european continent is unfolded to the train as it glides in and out among the mountain rifts1 and consequently1 from the tourist point of view1 the route possesses illimitable attractions1 inasmuch as it offers facilities to gain some of the most beautiful parts of the country1 which hitherto have been unapproachable1 except in the face of an arduous and tedious journey by primitive means of conveyance4 ,illustration3 ,,mules ,,carrying ,,water ,,in ,,barrels ,illustration3 ,see page #bgi ,,load ,,of ,,railway ,,metals ,,on ,a ,,mule',s ,,back ,,railway ,,building ,,in ,,the ,,andes ,after crossing the summit level the railway commences an easy descent1 for the inland plateau is gently undulating1 and the valleys being wider1 the surveyors were assisted appreciably in their task of discovering an easy location4 ,the downward run continues until ,bromma1 #bje miles west of ,bergen1 is gained at an altitude of some #dej feet4 ,then comes another rise to overcome a low range1 which is accomplished through a tunnel #g1fdd feet in length4 ,this tunnel proved a more exacting and troublesome undertaking than either the ,gravehals or ,reinunga works4 ,the boring was attempted at first on the time system1 but the advance was so slow and unsatisfactory that this principle was abandoned4 ,the whole tunnel was then handed over to a contractor1 but he found the rock so hard that a piece-work system was instituted4 ,in this arrangement the workmen were stimulated to supreme effort by the offer of tempting premiums4 ,issuing from this tunnel1 there is another descent for some miles1 when another ridge intervenes1 necessitating a sharp climb of #gjj feet1 followed by a smart downward run to ,roa1 where a junction is effected with the ,norwegian eastern railway system4 ,contemporaneously with the building of this line between ,vossevangen and ,roa1 the original section between ,bergen and ,vossevangen had to be overhauled4 ,the metre gauge was in vogue upon this division1 whereas the rest of the line was being built on the standard gauge to secure uniformity with the other lines4 ,accordingly1 the narrow-gauge was replaced by standard-gauge track4 ,the ,bergen-,christiania line ranks as one of the most striking pieces of railway engineering in ,europe1 and testifies to the remarkable skill and dogged perseverance of the ,scandinavians in breaking down tremendous obstacles as they arose1 with complete success4 ,it is no light undertaking to attempt such an enterprise as this in such a latitude across a terribly exposed1 storm-swept plateau1 among the most sparsely populated regions of ,europe1 and where the winter lasts for eight or nine months4 ,the rainfall is tropical in its severity1 while the storms are of terrific fury1 as the workmen found to their cost4 ,some idea of the magnitude of the work consummated by the engineers may be gathered from a few general details4 ,the line passes through no less than #ahd tunnels1 which represent an aggregate length of nearly #bd miles4 ,to carry the line across depressions which could not be filled1 #ad bridges1 ranging from a single-span stone structure of #fj feet to a metal bridge #eff feet from end to end1 had to be built4 ,between the two terminal points #ee stations and stopping-places have been provided4 ,in order to fashion the permanent way the engineers had to excavate about #ce1jjj1jjj cubic feet of earth1 and nearly #cj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of rock on the highest parts of the mountain section1 this latter task being assisted by the expenditure of over #a1hjj1jjj pounds of dynamite4 ,the anticipated task of maintaining communication1 especially on the higher and more exposed sections of the railway1 has been appreciated to the full4 ,to deal with the snow three powerful rotary ploughs have been acquired1 and one is kept in constant readiness4 ,it is no unusual circumstance for this equipment to be called out in the middle of summer to cope with a block in one of the deep cuttings4 ,the drift is a danger against which especial attention has to be devoted1 for the wind catches up the fine1 dry flakes and whirls them in clouds across the country4 ,to prevent this being deposited upon the line1 and thus obstructing traffic1 timber screens have been erected beside the line1 this defence continuing in an almost unbroken line for #fj miles between ,mjolfjeld and ,gjeilo4 ,the provision of the line1 however1 is of far-reaching importance to the commercial interests of ,norway4 ,formerly1 #ed hours were required to travel between ,christiania and ,bergen1 but now1 by cutting almost straight across the peninsula1 the journey can be covered in #ad hours4 ,to forge the link of #bae miles between ,vossevangen and ,roa1 to complete this undertaking1 occupied ten years1 and the #c1ccc1jjj1 or #af1ffe1jjj1 expended upon the enterprise is considered an excellent investment for the country4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,from ,,buenos ,,aires ,,to ,,valparaiso ,,overland ,though ,meiggs was denied the glory of having built the first ,south ,american trans-continental railway1 yet the idea has been carried to fruition1 but at a point much farther south than he contemplated4 ,again1 whereas the audacious ,philadelphian engineer proposed only to establish his ,atlantic terminus on the upper reaches of the ,amazon1 the completed line runs down to the water's edge on either coast1 the two opposite ports connected in this manner being ,buenos ,aires on the ,atlantic1 and ,valparaiso on the ,pacific1 coasts4 ,the ,trans-andine railway itself1 which completes this connection1 however1 only extends from ,mendoza at the foot of the mountain chain on the ,argentine side1 to ,los ,andes on the ,chilian slopes of the range4 ,these two points are #aef miles apart1 but the metals had to be lifted #aa1ejj feet into the air to bring them together4 ,when it was decided to connect ,mendoza and ,los ,andes together in this manner1 the first-named town was in direct touch with the ,atlantic ,ocean1 the ,buenos ,aires ,pacific railway having thrown its meshes inland to the foot of the mountains4 ,this was not a difficult matter1 owing to the flatness of the country1 pampas plains for the most part prevailing4 ,the result is that in the climb from ,buenos ,aires to ,mendoza only #b1dgj feet has to be overcome in #fej miles4 ,consequently1 the gradients are so slight as to be practically imperceptible4 ,indeed1 so simple was construction that it was found possible to lay the metals in an absolutely straight line for no less than #baj miles--the longest stretch of 8straight0 line in the world4 ,it was in #ahhf that the first preliminaries in the actual construction of this final link in the coast-to-coast railway was made4 ,the surveys showed the feasibility of the scheme1 though it was pointed out that to climb over the ,andes would entail work of a peculiar character1 and that the cost would be tremendous4 ,the critical point was the negotiation of the summit itself1 for the mountain pass is at an altitude of #ab1gif feet4 ,though commenced in #ahhf1 the scheme experienced many changes of fortune which hindered construction time after time4 ,financial and labour troubles were the two most retarding factors4 ,by #ahia only #eg miles were open to traffic2 four years later only witnessed the passing of the #ijth milestone4 ,such slow progress was deplorable in comparison with the building of the ,oroya and ,mollendo railways4 ,then came a delay of four years1 but in #ahii work was resumed and was pushed forward to completion4 ,on the ,chilian side1 owing to similar troubles1 construction was possible only in spurts1 and even when the financial details were adjusted satisfactorily1 the scarcity of labour remained a thorny problem4 ,the surveys showed that the most practical route westwards from ,mendoza was by following the course of the river of that name right into the mountain range4 ,in this manner extensive blasting and heavy cutting could be avoided1 except where the mountain-sides dropped abruptly into the river1 and then these would have to be tunnelled4 ,the constructional engineers followed this location1 but only to run full-tilt into another difficulty which had not been foreseen4 ,the ,mendoza is a ,south ,american replica of ,china's ill-fated ,hoang-ho4 ,in the low season its placid waters roll leisurely to the ocean1 but when it is swollen by the melting snows it tears along with fiendish velocity4 ,as its banks are composed only of the soft alluvium brought down from the mountains1 the foaming waters do not find this a very difficult obstacle1 and accordingly carry it away in tremendous quantities4 ,as a result1 the river is for ever changing its channel4 ,to the railway engineers such eccentricities proved serious factors4 ,they realised speedily that here was a situation peculiarly exasperating1 for long lengths of track were swept away bodily time after time4 ,it never could be anticipated where the turbulent water would break its bounds next4 ,a stretch of permanent way1 left safe and sound in the morning1 sometimes was wiped out of existence before nightfall4 ,all that could be seen of the work possibly was the rails dipping into the water on one bank and reappearing on the other1 the intervening section describing a graceful festoon in the depths of the muddy torrent4 ,at times the waters were more freakish4 ,they would burst upon the track with such violence as to wrench the metals apart2 then only the jagged1 twisted ends jutting mournfully into the air on either side of the new river channel were the sole remnants of the track4 ,the engineers tried innumerable expedients to preserve the line from these erratic attacks1 but without any material success for some time4 ,at last they decided to provide the river with an artificial embankment1 and to lay the track well back from the waterway4 ,trainloads of huge masses of stone were brought to the vulnerable points and pitched at the foot of the embankment1 which was raised to a height well above flood-level4 ,thousands of tons of stone were dumped in this manner1 and it was found that it afforded complete protection1 because the water could not dislodge the masonry pitching to eat its way into the soft earth beneath4 ,the artificial dyke solved the problem of how to keep the rushing1 boisterous ,mendoza within bounds4 ,avalanches and snowslides were another constant menace4 ,their accustomed paths had to be noted carefully and then studiously given a wide berth4 ,these convulsions are of impressive severity in the ,andes1 and the impetus the slides gain1 owing to the steepness and length of the declivities down which they tumble1 imparts terrific force to them4 ,when a slender railway stands in their path it is caught up like straw and scattered in all directions4 ,possibly the landslides are more to be dreaded than the movements of the snow4 ,in the ,andes the denuding forces of ,nature are exceptionally heavy4 ,many a mountain slope which1 from a cursory inspection1 looks substantial and solid1 upon closer investigation proves to be merely a thick layer1 perhaps many feet in thickness1 of soft detritus4 ,the slightest vibration is sufficient to set the mass in motion1 and it slides slowly and irresistibly downwards4 ,at some places it was found impossible to avoid such unstable ground1 so the engineers ingeniously cut a passage through the soft rubble1 taking care to reach the solid mountain flank beneath upon which to build the track1 while the detritus was held back by means of massive concrete masonry walls4 ,under such circumstances it is imperative that the track should be of the most solid character1 if it is designed to fulfil the conditions of a trunk highway4 ,the road bed is well built1 laid with metals to a metre-gauge1 and ballasted heavily4 ,all earthworks are carried out on liberal lines1 and the bridges are built throughout of steel4 ,when the main range is gained the line becomes more devious1 the banks are sharper and more numerous1 the short tunnels and the bridges across the rivers more frequent1 for the location caused the line to swing from bank to bank as being more economical construction than to blast and carve a way for the line through the solid rock of the cliffs4 ,at places the rises became so abrupt as to defy operation by adhesion4 ,then short lengths of rack where cog-wheels on the locomotive mesh with a toothed rail laid between the ordinary rails1 and working similar to a rack and pinion1 had to be inserted to enable the train to climb upwards4 ,a striking evidence of the distance saved by the railway is afforded between ,mendoza and ,upsallata station4 ,as the crow flies the distance is #dj miles due east2 by rail it is #ag miles farther2 but by the old mountain road which converges upon the line at ,upsallata it is no less than #ajj miles6 ,the latter makes a wide1 sweeping detour after leaving ,mendoza in order to avoid the foot-hills1 and to ensure an easy gradient for animal traffic4 ,the wildest part of the range is encountered when the ,mendoza ,river is left and the railway enters the ,amarillo1 or ,yellow ,gorge4 ,incidentally1 the line through this rift was one of the most costly and difficult sections to build4 ,las ,cuevas1 at an altitude of #aj1chh feet1 was the objective1 and so great is the difference in level within a few miles that some daring development work had to be carried out4 ,the first sign of this steep climb is a ,meiggs ,v-switch4 ,the rack was adopted more extensively1 this being introduced between short stretches of easier grade or sections of level1 so that the railway really ascends in the form of a series of gigantic steps4 ,the rack is of the three-toothed type similar to that so familiar on the ,swiss mountain railways4 ,in winding through the gorge some of the most impressive vistas of ,andine majesty are unfolded4 ,there is the snow-capped crest of ,aconcagua1 beetling #bc1ejj feet to the sky1 ,tupungato #ba1dea feet1 ,tolosa #ai1jjj feet1 and many another white-hooded mountain giant4 ,the ,trans-andine ranks as one of the greatest scenic railways in the world1 for it unlocked the door to what previously was regarded as one of the most inaccessible sight-seeing centres on this globe4 ,already its station at ,inca has developed into a popular mountaineering rendezvous1 whence the ambitious essay to scale the caps of the ,cordilleras4 ,some idea of the stupendous character of the railway's ascent in this region may be gathered from the fact that in the last #h miles to ,las ,cuevas it rises no less than #a1dad feet1 and at this latter station the track lies nearly #b miles above the ,atlantic4 ,las ,cuevas is at the foot of the summit ridge which is pierced by the tunnel carrying the railway into ,chile4 ,this part of the work proved the most trying1 for it involved wrestling with innumerable difficulties of great magnitude and peculiar character1 such as are experienced very seldom in tunnelling operations4 ,though the range is not pierced at such an altitude as by the famous ,galera tunnel in the country next door1 yet it is three times as long4 ,the engineers had to drill1 blast and excavate their way through the rock of the ridge for #aj1jjj feet--nearly two miles--and at times the obstacles that loomed up suddenly proved extremely perplexing4 ,the completion of this work delayed the opening of the railway considerably1 for calculations and anticipations were upset rudely when excavation commenced4 ,some time passed before the precise design of the tunnel could be settled4 ,at first it was decided to describe a spiral in the peak so as to accommodate the level of the ,argentine division with that of the ,chile section of the line4 ,the tunnel was to be driven from either end by the engineers of the respective railways1 which were two distinct undertakings4 ,the two armies were to meet at mid-tunnel immediately beneath the famous statue of ,christo ,redentor1 commemorating the treaty of peace between ,argentina and ,chile1 which stands upon the boundary line of the two countries in the pass above4 ,on the ,argentine side the camps for the tunnel works were established at ,las ,cuevas1 about #a miles below the portal4 ,when boring was commenced the engineers' advance was threatened4 ,the depth of the loose1 friable earth eroded from the peaks above1 which had accumulated during the flight of centuries1 proved much greater than was supposed4 ,this entailed most elaborate timbering to prevent the roof caving in and burying the excavators4 ,as all lumber had to be brought up from ,mendoza1 for this desolate region is far above the timber line1 heavy delays arose pending the arrival of the wood4 ,then they had to move forward warily foot by foot1 as the detritus proved treacherous to handle4 ,the engineers ploughed their way through this material for #cjj feet1 and felt relieved when at last they struck solid rock1 which they rightly thought was the main body of the mountain4 ,elaborate arrangements were made to drive ahead more rapidly1 but when the mass had been penetrated for nearly #bjj feet the engineers received another rude shock4 ,the rock was false4 ,what they had fondly thought to be the mountain itself was merely a huge crag which had become detached and had slipped down bodily4 ,here was a critical dilemma4 ,the work was far too risky for aught but expert tunnel-builders--engineers who had made a speciality of such undertakings1 and who were possessed of competent ability and facilities to cope successfully with any contingency likely to develop4 ,as a result of careful deliberations it was decided to hand the whole tunnel--lock1 stock and barrel1 from end to end--to one firm4 ,selection fell upon the ,british engineers1 ,messrs4 ,c4 ,h4 ,walker ,company1 who rescued the famous ,severn tunnel from flood1 and successfully completed it in the face of unheard-of difficulties4 ,these engineers at once attacked the problem boldly4 ,it was found that the false rock on the ,argentine side extended for no less than #a1fgj feet1 so that it must have been a most violent shiver of ,nature1 indeed1 which let loose that mountain spur4 ,the situation1 however1 was grasped so completely that within two years the range was pierced4 ,yet it was not so much the engineering difficulties that this firm feared when they essayed the task1 but the altitude at which it had to be accomplished4 ,again1 there were difficulties incidental to transport1 and the situations of the workings so far from any base4 ,these were very great4 ,it must be remembered that during the winter months--that is1 from ,april to ,october--the tunnel workings and camps were cut off practically from the outside world4 ,to plan one's arrangements during the short summer so that when isolated there was no lack of material1 food for the workmen1 housing accommodation1 as well as provision made for a thousand-and-one other details which were bound to arise1 demanded considerable foresight1 for work had to be maintained as steadily during the winter snows as under the summer sun4 ,it is not every workman who will volunteer1 or is physically capable1 to brave the dangers attending the wielding of pick1 shovel1 wheelbarrow and explosives in the rarefied atmosphere and the adverse climatic conditions prevailing in winter among the highest altitudes of the ,andes4 ,the cold is intense1 the snowfall is tremendous1 and the winds rage with terrific fury4 ,the frozen snow and ice are driven like sand in all directions1 and with such force that they cut like a knife1 and penetrate every crevice4 ,labour1 indeed1 proved a wearisome difficulty4 ,chilians figured most prominently among the workmen1 and they proved to be very good labourers4 ,there were a few ,italians among them1 with ,englishmen occupying the controlling positions4 ,at each end of the tunnel elaborate hospitals were erected replete with competent medical attention1 for in addition to accidents there were the innumerable maladies provoked by the reduced atmospheric pressure which1 unless skilfully tended in the incipient stages1 are apt to develop very serious symptoms4 ,pneumonia was the chief cause of illness1 attributable to insufficient clothing and care on the part of the ,chilians4 ,but after all is said and done1 work at such an altitude is terribly exhausting under the most favourable conditions4 ,on the ,chilian side the constructional work was more imposing in character4 ,it is only #df miles from the ,pacific portal of the tunnel to ,los ,andes1 where junction is effected with the ,state railway systems4 ,in this short distance there is a difference of some #hjjj feet in levels1 and the drop in the first #g miles from the tunnel mouth is no less than #c1aej feet4 ,the engineers were hard pushed to devise ways and means to lay the track so that it could be operated by the usual railway methods4 ,heavy grades1 ranging from #f to #h per cent41 could not be avoided to communicate each successive gallery carrying the metals along the mountain sides4 ,the rack had to be resorted to freely1 and the result is that the line describes a remarkable zigzag course1 strikingly recalling the wonderful ,stelvio road in the ,tyrol4 ,at one point there is a very impressive piece of engineering4 ,the line winds along the hill-side high up on the bank of the rushing ,aconcagua ,river1 disappears into a tunnel through a spur1 and then emerges at the other side on the brink of a narrow chasm--the ,soldier's ,leap4 ,this is a mere wedge-shaped fissure in the rock1 but a few feet in width1 and through which the river tumbles over #bjj feet below4 ,a narrow bridge carries the line across the rift to a narrow ledge blasted out of the opposite cliff-face where the mountains overhang the water4 ,the resources of the engineers will be taxed to a supreme degree in order to keep the line clear from snow during the winter4 ,in fact1 it was asserted freely that for about six months in the year the upper levels of the line would be well-nigh impassable4 ,the engineers on the spot1 however1 have risen to the occasion4 ,they have studied the massive hills of snow which1 lashed into furious whirl-storms by the hurricane winds1 sweep rapidly and irresistibly forward1 often burying the railway to a depth of #cj feet or more4 ,a powerful rotary plough was placed in service to tackle this obstacle1 and although found highly successful in the places where the line was open1 it could not be utilised in the deep cuttings4 ,special situations demand special methods4 ,so the engineers set to work to devise their own means of combating ,boreas in his wildest fury4 ,they evolved a push-plough of a special wedge-shape pattern which can attack a #af-;foot drift and cut a channel clean through it with ease4 ,the trouble is not so much the snow1 but the large masses of rock which are rolled down the mountain sides1 and lurk in the white mass4 ,when a rotary strikes one of these formidable boulders when running at full speed1 the auger-like rotating mechanism is smashed to pieces1 and the whole apparatus is thrown out of action4 ,with the special push-plough1 however1 no such disaster is to be feared4 ,the nose of the apparatus glides over the concealed obstruction without suffering any damage whatever1 and the boulder can be removed by manual labour1 as a skilled gang of snow-clearers are attached to every snow-plough train4 ,a new line is approaching completion among the ,andes which compels attention1 even in ,south ,america1 the land of railway wonders4 ,this is the new main line which is to connect ,la ,paz1 the capital of ,bolivia1 with the coast4 ,hitherto1 in order to gain the metropolis of the interior land-locked ,state1 one has had to embark upon a circuitous journey either via the ,antofagasta railway and its connections1 or by means of the ,peruvian ,southern railway from ,mollendo1 by way of ,lake ,titicaca and ,puno4 ,the new line starts from the coast at ,arica and follows as straight a line to ,la ,paz as the configuration of the country permits4 ,the outstanding feature of this enterprise is the extreme altitude at which it lies for the greater part of its length1 this ranging between #ab1jjj and #ad1jjj feet above the ,pacific4 ,another fact is that the summit is not overcome by a tunnel1 but the line passes right over the crests4 ,the line measures #bib miles in length1 and the sudden rise from the coast into the mountain country is effected by means of the toothed rail or rack system1 the aggregate length of which is no less than #dj miles4 ,some idea of the conditions that confronted the railway-builders was afforded in the course of the surveys4 ,in many places the engineers had to blast a trail out of the hard1 solid rock with dynamite in order to advance4 ,there are about #gj tunnels1 though none are very long1 for the most part piercing shoulders and spurs of the main range which could not be compassed or removed4 ,at places very heavy bridging is essential1 the spanning of one gorge in particular having presented a pretty problem4 ,this ravine is #aej feet in width1 and is crossed in a single span #aej feet above the raging river4 ,here1 again1 the extreme rarefaction of the atmosphere is a serious disadvantage against which the engineers have had to contend1 while the fluctuations in temperature are extremely great4 ,a difference of #aac degrees in the course of a day is by no means uncommon4 ,at noon the thermometer will stand at #ajj1 by nightfall it has dropped to #j4ac degrees4 ,such a rise and fall are tremendous1 for at ,greenwich1 it may be pointed out1 the same daily fluctuation averages about #ag degrees4 ,again1 in the highest altitudes through which the line threads its way1 water boils at #ahj degrees1 as compared with #bab degrees on the coast4 ,in order to enable the workmen to prepare their food in such exposed1 lofty situations1 special vessels have had to be devised to prevent the water boiling over1 for this result ensues long before the food is cooked properly1 and the loss of water1 even of only a pint1 in such parched regions is a serious matter4 ,in some places the country is as arid as the ,sahara1 and the water has had to be transported over great distances in barrels slung on the backs of mules4 ,large packs of these animals have been pressed into service for this work only4 ,similarly1 the building material has had to be carried from the coast to the constructional camps strung out along the proposed route1 by means of this ship of the ,andes4 ,the work was carried out from both ends simultaneously1 one tentacle being thrown out from the junction with the ,bolivian ,state railways westwards1 and the other eastwards from the coast4 ,the cost of providing the capital of ,bolivia with this direct outlet to the ,pacific approximates #c1jjj1jjj1 or #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,bearing in mind the high cost of the other ,andean railways1 this last conquest of the ,south ,american mountain backbone may be considered low4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,a ,,little-,,known ,,central ,,african ,,railway ,buried in the heart of ,central ,africa1 with one border skirting the most southern of the chain of ,great ,african ,lakes which nestle in the huge depressions of the continent1 is a small1 little-known ,british colony4 ,this corner of the empire is ,nyasaland1 a tongue of promising territory which thrusts itself southward into ,portuguese ,east ,africa4 ,though the wealth of this little territory1 measuring #eej miles in length1 and varying from #hj to #ij miles in width1 is incalculable1 exploitation of the resources has been handicapped by the complete absence of transportation facilities4 ,the early pioneers and civilising influences visiting the country were impressed with the outlook1 and sought to attract settlers4 ,the more hardened and adventurous accepted the invitation1 and1 finding the country in every way as described1 devoted their energies to the cultivation of coffee1 which held out most promising inducements4 ,the physical configuration of the country1 providing a diversity of hill and dale and ample watering facilities1 served to bring about a certain movement towards settlement4 ,roads were driven in all directions1 and1 indeed1 the internal communication to-day leaves little to be desired4 ,but the country suffered severely from being cut off from the world at large4 ,there is only one channel by which the country can be entered1 and that is from ,chinde on the coast1 via the ,zambesi ,river until the mouth of the ,shir ,river is gained1 this latter waterway being followed so far as ,port ,herald4 ,the distance is about #baj miles1 and the stern-wheel1 shallow-draught steamboats occupy from #d to #f days on the journey according to the state of the rivers4 ,for about three months in the year the ,shir ,river can be navigated for a further #dj miles to ,chinde1 and occasionally ,chikwawa1 #caj miles from the coast1 can be reached by water4 ,in the early days a hope was entertained that it would be possible to travel by water from the coast to ,lake ,nyasa1 but this is impossible1 as the ,murchison ,falls1 which connect the ,upper and ,lower ,shir rivers1 are an insurmountable obstacle4 ,had this navigation been possible1 the country would have been provided with an excellent artery of communication1 and would have brought ,blantyre1 the capital1 into direct touch with the coast4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the normal head of navigation on the ,shir ,river is ,villa ,bocage1 in ,portuguese territory1 just above the point where the waterway joins the ,zambesi4 ,in order to remedy this grave disability1 which was hindering the expansion of the country to an acute degree1 the ,british ,central ,africa ,company decided to provide a main line of railway between ,blantyre and ,port ,herald4 ,the opportunities were unique1 as transport was difficult and costly1 while it was pointed out1 also1 that by means of the iron road the slave-trade around ,lake ,nyasa could be broken up effectively4 ,sir ,bradford ,leslie1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,m4,,inst4,c4,e41 the eminent engineer whose bridge-building and other works are scattered throughout the ,indian ,empire1 was approached to extend his valuable assistance and skill in the prosecution of the undertaking4 ,the scheme was not ambitious so far as railways are concerned1 but there were many peculiar difficulties which had to be overcome4 ,the line promoted was only #aad miles in length1 but in that distance a difference of #c1gjj feet in levels had to be overcome4 ,the broken character of the country proved that some heavy work would be necessary1 for the deep1 wide rifts in the mountain sides1 though dry in summer1 are raging torrents when the wet season breaks4 ,illustration3 ,,railway ,,building ,,in ,,nyasaland1 ,,central ,,africa ,natives erecting an embankment4 ,the natives1 both men and women1 transported the material in baskets carried on their heads4 ,sir ,bradford ,leslie1 being interested in the extinction of the slave-trade1 gladly co-operated in the scheme1 and although he did not visit the country to inspect the outlook on the spot1 he prepared estimates from data of the physical conditions extended1 upon the basis of his ,indian work4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,bridge ,,on ,,the ,,nyasaland ,,railway ,everything for construction had to be exported from ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,novel ,,lift ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,shir ,,river ,,at ,,chiromo ,the span is lifted by winches worked by natives4 ,,the ,,railway ,,invasion ,,of ,,central ,,africa ,it was intended1 in the first instance1 that ,chiromo should be the base for constructional operations1 the primary idea being to connect ,blantyre with the river at this point4 ,this represented the building of about #hd miles of line1 and promised to remove the isolation and inaccessibility of the capital4 ,at this time a cart road was the sole means of communication1 and when this could not be used everything had to be carried on the heads of native porters1 while passengers had to travel to and fro by 8machilla10 a kind of hammock slung from a pole4 ,but access to ,chiromo was found to be so unreliable1 owing to the shallow depth of water in the river and the numerous sandbanks upon which the vessels became stranded1 that it had to be abandoned as a base4 ,a further #cj miles of line had to be added to the project1 to enable it to be carried northwards from ,port ,herald4 ,the contractors found themselves hampered at every turn1 and it is probable that no railway was ever constructed under such peculiar and exasperating difficulties4 ,railways1 as a rule1 have been carried from a base on the coast1 where supplies could be landed without very great difficulty1 but in this instance this was quite impossible4 ,then1 again1 the work was being carried out at an extreme distance from home1 and an elaborate organisation was requisite to keep the forces in the field supplied with every little necessity4 ,when the line was commenced the country was in a very primeval condition4 ,skilled labour was quite non-existent1 and unskilled labour was very scarce4 ,this problem was accentuated by the fact that ,nyasaland was being drained of its resources in this respect by agents from the ,transvaal1 who had received permission to recruit negro labour in this country4 ,the railway authorities endeavoured to meet this situation by importing coolies from ,india for the purpose of construction1 but this action was sternly forbidden by the ,government authorities4 ,the effort to provide the country with the very communication it needed so sorely to bring about its settlement1 furthermore1 was hampered in another direction4 ,the ,government authorities in ,london insisted that the railway should be built according to the standard of the ,rhodesian railways1 notwithstanding the fact that ,rhodesia was in a very much more advanced position economically1 whereas ,nyasaland had not reached the moulding stage4 ,this was a somewhat inexplicable attitude to assume1 and was of a nature that might have jeopardised private enterprise in this field of endeavour4 ,however1 the engineers and builders accepted the terms and the work proceeded4 ,under this arrangement the #c feet #f inches gauge was adopted as on the ,rhodesian railways1 so that in the dim future1 when the two systems are connected1 through running will be possible4 ,the rails weigh #da pounds per yard1 and as timber is devoured by white ants and boring beetles1 it could not be used in any form4 ,consequently1 steel sleepers1 or ties1 had to be adopted4 ,everything required in connection with the undertaking had to be shipped from ,england2 the country did not assist the builders one little bit4 ,not an ounce of coal could be obtained locally1 there was no lime1 and bricks could not be made to assist in the erection of the piers4 ,the country is even deficient in a good quality of stone suited to building purposes1 so masonry work was equally out of the question4 ,the only alternative was the utilisation of concrete4 ,the ,portland cement for this purpose1 by the time it gained ,port ,herald1 cost between five and six times the price for which it could be bought in ,england--in other words1 the expense of carriage was from four to five times the value of the article4 ,this applied to other material beyond cement4 ,in fact1 the transportation to such a remote district was a heavy item4 ,the articles were dispatched to ,beira1 where they were transhipped into coasting steamers1 and five hours later were landed at ,chinde1 where they were loaded upon the shallow-draught river boats and conveyed to ,port ,herald4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,iron ,,horse ,,in ,,central ,,africa ,arrival of the passenger train at ,port ,herald on the ,nyasaland ,railway4 ,beira on the coast is reached from this point by steamer via the ,shir and ,zambesi rivers4 ,the line follows a northerly course after leaving the southern terminus1 and roughly clings to the bank of the river so far as ,chiromo4 ,here it swings across the waterway over a bridge about #dbj feet in length1 to gain the valley of the ,ruo ,river4 ,this bridge is the outstanding feature of the railway1 on account of its interesting lifting span1 which is of novel and unusual design4 ,when the railway was plotted the ,government stipulated that there should be no interference with navigation on the river1 although the waterway1 as a highway of traffic1 has fallen practically into desuetude since the railway was constructed4 ,however1 official requirements had to be met1 and these demanded an opening #ajj feet wide1 and giving a clearance of #cj feet in height at high water4 ,the ordinary type of draw or swing bridge1 to satisfy this requisition1 was quite out of the question1 because the need to open the bridge is very rarely experienced1 and when the demand does arise1 the time occupied in the operation is of minor importance4 ,heavy expenditure under this heading1 therefore1 was not justifiable4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bascules ,,being ,,lowered ,,by ,,cables ,,and ,,winches ,,from ,,either ,,cliff-,,face ,illustration3 ,see page #cjb ,,the ,,bascules ,,lowered1 ,,showing ,,the ,,french ,,engineers ,,at ,,centre ,,making ,,the ,,connection ,,erecting ,,the ,,bascules ,,for ,,the ,,faux-,,namiti ,,bridge ,,on ,,the ,,yunnan ,,railway ,moreover1 as native labour was to superintend the work of opening and closing the bridge1 the simplest arrangement possible was essential1 and1 furthermore1 had to be capable of hand manipulation4 ,the designing engineers1 ,sir ,douglas ,fox ,partners1 and ,sir ,charles ,metcalfe1 ,bart41 evolved an ingenious solution4 ,on the top of two adjacent piers carrying the span in its normal position1 a tower was erected on either side of the opening1 with two simple1 single1 vertical racks on either tower4 ,at the top of each tower a platform extending the width of the bridge was provided1 together with a large sprocket wheel at either end4 ,a chain passed over each sprocket wheel1 one end being attached to a corner of the bridge1 and the other to a heavy counterweight4 ,to open the bridge1 all that the natives have to do is to wind a winch which rotates the sprocket wheel1 and as the counterweight descends the whole span rises vertically and horizontally1 being guided in its movement by the rack on each tower4 ,the counterweight is the full width of the bridge1 and when the span has been lifted to its fullest extent the counterbalance weight lies across the track1 to form a high barrier to any one attempting to cross the bridge when the span is open4 ,it will be seen that the bridge acts on the principle of a sash window1 where the sash weight counterbalances the weight of the moving portion1 and in lifting only the friction of the moving parts has to be overcome4 ,to guard against disaster from tampering or misuse1 the bridge1 when either raised or lowered1 is locked4 ,to lower the bridge it is only necessary to reverse the winding direction of the winch4 ,the span of steel moved in this manner weighs #ee tons1 and the whole operation of opening and closing occupies about half-an-hour1 eight men under a native superintendent sufficing for the movement of the winches4 ,it is an unusual type of lifting bridge1 but it is doubtful whether a simpler and cheaper means of meeting the situation could have been devised1 while the maintenance expenses--a vital consideration in such a remote country--are reduced to insignificance4 ,about #ab miles out of ,chiromo the railway commences a heavy climb1 as it has to gain a summit level of #djjj feet to reach the plateau4 ,the ascent is through very tumbled country4 ,the ruling grade is #a in #dd1 and the minimum curve is of #cfc feet radius4 ,as the valley winds amazingly1 the line is a continuation of curves winding round crags and bluffs4 ,here and there the mountain sides are torn by wide clefts that have had to be spanned by bridges1 which are supported on steel towers1 carried on pedestals or plinths built of concrete4 ,one of the largest bridges of this class is that across the ,m',swadzi ,river1 which is #bij feet long4 ,the ,ruo valley is left after the #fdth mile is passed1 and the line makes a difficult and tortuous ascent along the ,tuchili ,river for nearly #aj miles1 when it swings over to the ,luchenza ,river1 which is followed until the summit level is gained1 #aji miles out of ,port ,herald4 ,in the next #e miles a descent of #ejj feet has to be made to gain ,blantyre4 ,this is the present terminus of the railway1 though an extension has been projected northwards to ,fort ,johnston at the head of ,lake ,nyasa1 and another limb southwards from ,port ,herald for #fj miles to the ,portuguese town1 ,villa ,bocage1 the head of navigation on the ,shir ,river4 ,in the course of the #aad miles there is at present only one intermediate station with an existing township1 at ,chiromo4 ,three other stations have been provided1 however1 in the anticipation that settlements will spring up and blossom into towns as the country opens up4 ,construction was sadly delayed by the difficulties in regard to labour4 ,the native proved an indifferent workman1 the maxim being to accomplish as little work in a day as possible4 ,then1 when the rainy season--lasting about three months--set in1 the whole of the working force migrated from the grade in a body to cultivate patches of land1 and were not seen again until the weather changed4 ,the climate played sad havoc with the ,europeans who ventured to the scene of operations to superintend native effort1 and the mortality from tropical diseases among the whites was very heavy4 ,in order to protect what ,european labour is required in the repair shops and the administration offices1 the headquarters have been established at ,limbi1 five miles from ,blantyre1 where the full benefit of the elevation is gained1 this point being at an altitude of #djjj feet above the sea1 and one of the most healthy parts of the country4 ,an amusing story is related by ,sir ,bradford ,leslie in connection with the construction of the railway4 ,prior to the commencement of this undertaking labour in the country was rewarded in cloth--there was no money currency1 and in fact the natives knew nothing about coinage or its value4 ,however1 when the line was commenced1 the ,government insisted that the natives should not be remunerated in kind1 but in cash4 ,wages were paid once a month1 and the natives immediately were urged by ,hindoo traders to transfer the money for cloth4 ,the latter played upon the native's ignorance of money to distinct personal advantage1 but the natives had to pay dearly for their goods4 ,moreover1 they came to the conclusion that the textiles they received in exchange for their cash were inferior in quality to that given to them in direct settlement of work done4 ,consequently1 they assailed the engineer and complained that his money was bad1 in support of which contention they displayed the small quantity of indifferent material they received in exchange for their wages4 ,they certainly did not evince a very marked appreciation for the railway company's system of paying for labour in sterling4 ,although the undertaking cost more than had been estimated1 the results justified fully the expenditure1 for the railway1 in point of construction1 compares very favourably with other lines of a similar character on the continent4 ,the engineer in charge of the work1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,pears1 overcame his unique difficulties in a highly satisfactory manner1 and its completion in about seven years is a striking tribute to his organisation and methods1 while the unceasing expansion of the country supports the initiative of those who fathered the enterprise4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,invasion ,,of ,,the ,,far ,,east ,i4--,early ,days in ,china ,there has been much discussion during recent years concerning the remarkable awakening of ,china in every ramification of progress and industry1 but without a doubt the most wonderful manifestation of this movement has been in regard to railways4 ,in #ahgj1 when the ,united ,kingdom was criss-crossed with no less than #ae1ecg miles of the iron road1 and the ,united ,states was threaded with #eb1ibb miles of railway1 the huge tract of ,asiatic territory known as the ,chinese ,empire1 of sufficient area to absorb easily both the ,united ,states and the ,british ,isles1 and outnumbering the combined population of the two latter nations by more than #f to #a1 did not possess #ajj yards of the steel highway4 ,this remarkable state of affairs was not due to lack of enterprise or initiative on the part of far-seeing financiers and engineers4 ,it was attributable directly to one influence--,fung ,shui1 an unfathomable and insurmountable difficulty--which thwarted every attempt to bring the great nation on the eastern borders of the ,pacific ,ocean into line with other countries4 ,the ,flowery ,land is ridden with mystery1 superstition1 and a religious fanaticism4 ,these offered an insurmountable barrier to development in any form4 ,the balance between the 8,white ,tiger0 and the 8,azure ,dragon10 two inscrutable forces1 had to be maintained at all costs1 and unless every member of the ,celestial community strove to maintain this equipoise1 the fates in store for him were beyond comprehension4 ,an effort to break through the influence of ,fung ,shui was made in #ahge by a group of ,englishmen4 ,the firm of ,messrs4 ,jardine1 ,matheson ,company1 who have large interests in ,china1 desired to connect ,shanghai to ,woosung with #ab miles of railway1 and they secured the services of the late ,mr4 ,g4 ,j4 ,morrison1 an accomplished engineer1 to carry the project to fulfilment4 ,great difficulty was experienced in securing the requisite permission to proceed1 because the ,chinese entertained a deep-rooted objection to the invasion of their country by the foreigner4 ,however1 the application proved successful and the line was built4 ,the opening of this short road was received with acclamation by the lower classes in close proximity to the line4 ,they experienced a peculiar delight in travelling in the carriages drawn by the steam horse1 and all was proceeding merrily4 ,the opposition of the ,chinese to the new-fangled idea had been overcome1 argued the promoters of the enterprise1 and they looked forward to further railway expansion4 ,but they did not reckon with the offended opposition and ignorant vested interests1 as represented by influential land-owners and high personages4 ,the wrath of the gods was anticipated in no uncertain manner1 but as this did not appear to have vent spontaneously1 the opponents resorted to ingenious methods to achieve their desires4 ,they induced a soldier to throw himself before an approaching train1 under the promise of a payment of #ajj to his family4 ,the latter1 possibly entertaining the belief that the presence of his body stretched across the metals might arrest the progress of the train1 or at least throw it off the track1 without inflicting injury upon himself1 submitted to the ordeal1 with the inevitable result4 ,he was killed4 ,instantly the intriguers published this circumstance as an instance of the intense displeasure of the gods1 and the countryside rose up with one voice1 calling for the destruction of the innovation4 ,the agitation startled the ,government4 ,an inquiry was held upon the suicide1 and the unanimous verdict was that the line was unsafe4 ,it was condemned forthwith4 ,the ,government even went farther under public pressure4 ,it purchased the railway1 lock1 stock and barrel1 at cost price1 and turned it over to the enraged populace to do with it according to their inclinations4 ,the frenzied fanatics tore the track up piecemeal1 threw the rolling stock out of the country1 and1 to propitiate the gods1 erected a temple to the ,queen of ,heaven upon the site selected as the terminus in ,shanghai4 ,the promoters of the ill-starred enterprise retrieved as much of the discarded remains of the line as possible1 and transported them to the island of ,formosa for another undertaking4 ,such was the inglorious end that befell the first attempt to introduce ,stephenson's invention into the land of the ,celestial4 ,curiously enough1 among those most prominent in the opposition to this movement was ,li-,hung-,chang1 subsequently ,china's foremost and most enlightened statesman4 ,he had spared no effort to prevent the construction of the first railway1 and when it was completed he left no stone unturned to bring about its demolition4 ,shortly afterwards1 however1 he became converted to the new method of locomotion4 ,among those few enterprising and enlightened ,chinese gentlemen who realised the widespread advantages accruing from the adoption of railways in other parts of the world1 and who foresaw its possibilities in his native land1 was ,general ,tong-,king-,sing4 ,he had followed the ,shanghai-,woosung experiment with deep interest4 ,undeterred by the fate which had overwhelmed the effort of ,messrs4 ,jardine1 ,matheson ,company1 he decided to build another line1 but he took care first to win the most powerful opponent to such a movement to his side4 ,the ,general was identified with a steamship company which required cheap coal4 ,li-,hung-,chang1 then ,viceroy of ,chichli1 was interested in some collieries at ,tongshan1 some #cj miles inland from the nearest port at ,pehtang4 ,the ,general approached the ,viceroy1 and the two1 with the aid of some other influential friends1 decided to exploit the deposits4 ,but the question arose as to how the coal could be carried cheaply to the coast4 ,general ,tong-,king-,sing maintained that there was no means of transportation which could compete with the railway1 and he skilfully won the ,viceroy round to his side4 ,in this manner the ,viceroy was converted from an implacable enemy to a strenuous advocate of railways4 ,they approached the ,government for the requisite permission1 and the latter1 impressed possibly by the great men associated with the enterprise1 sanctioned the project4 ,the preliminary arrangements were hurried forward1 an ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,kinder1 who might be described as the ,father of the ,railway in ,china1 being enlisted as engineer-in-chief4 ,before actual constructional work was commenced1 however1 the ,government--no doubt owing to pressure--repented of its action and withdrew its approbation4 ,as a result the company were forced to build a canal1 which was completed for some miles1 but the head of this waterway was some #g miles from the coal-pits4 ,from the end of the canal to the port1 the ,government authorised the construction of a tramroad1 but it stipulated that mules should be employed exclusively for the haulage of the trucks4 ,the company was forced to make the most of this indifferent bargain1 and so the coal was transported from the collieries to the port under very adverse circumstances4 ,these slow methods1 however1 did not appeal to the engineer1 and secretly he decided to effect an improvement4 ,he fashioned a locomotive from the best materials he could command1 a portable engine which was used at the mines being mounted on a truck in such a way as to secure self-propulsion4 ,this was used for haulage between the collieries and the head of the canal4 ,as no ill results attended its use1 the ,government finally approved of its utilisation4 ,shortly afterwards the line as a railway was extended to ,tientsin1 and opened for traffic in ,october1 #ahhh4 ,subsequently the railhead was pushed onwards to ,shan-,hai-,kuan4 ,from the small #g-mile road upon which the enterprising engineer surreptitiously placed a fearsome-looking locomotive the railway has spread its tentacles throughout the ,chinese ,empire1 the original road has been extended1 and has effected connection with other systems1 giving communication in the north with ,mukden1 ,harbin and the ,trans-,siberian railway4 ,the original road is intensely ,british1 both in its character and operation4 ,it was built on the ,english model1 and differed greatly from the usual class of pioneer railway4 ,the gradients are easy and the curves are of wide radius4 ,at one point the location of the line ran through two private cemeteries1 but as the graves of the ancestors could not be disturbed under any considerations whatever1 the line had to make a wide swerve to avoid this obstruction4 ,all the materials for the railway were obtained from ,great ,britain1 and the solidity of the construction is an outstanding feature4 ,every bridge is carried out either in steel1 concrete1 brick or stone1 whichever was found to be the most economical4 ,this feature somewhat surprised ,american engineers1 who are accustomed to less durable work in the initial stages1 especially as it did not appear justifiable in such a fickle country as ,china4 ,the latter were also astonished at the low price at which the requisite materials were landed in the country1 and the fact that mechanical appliances could not compete with coolie labour in point of cheapness4 ,as a matter of fact1 the country traversed at that time was exceedingly poor1 the inhabitants experiencing a terrible struggle to eke out a pitiable existence4 ,indeed1 around ,tongshan1 at the time the railway made its appearance1 it was estimated that over #ej1jjj natives died of starvation in two months4 ,when the iron horse invaded this territory a change for the better set in1 inasmuch as it offered a ready and inexpensive means of conveying the produce from the land to market4 ,one piece of engineering skill has always ranked as a distinct wonder in the neighbourhood4 ,this is the bridge over the ,lan-ho1 #b1agj feet in length1 in which there are #e spans each of #bjj feet4 ,it was designed by the late ,sir ,benjamin ,baker1 and aroused interest because of its unusual design1 which was condemned severely by ,american engineers4 ,this famous bridge-builder1 however1 was by no means content to abide by hide-bound rules and regulations1 and though in this structure he departed from the orthodox very decidedly1 he forced his detractors to admit that the bridge was absolutely safe1 and was able to meet any traffic that it was likely to be called upon to bear4 ,another feature compels attention4 ,just before reaching ,shan-,hai-,kuan1 the line strikes across a valley about a mile in width4 ,here there is a bridge having an opening of some #ajjj feet1 through which a narrow stream makes its way4 ,originally the track was carried about #aj feet above the floor of the valley1 but the very next wet season caused the small stream to swell into a wide1 foaming torrent1 rising to #af feet above high watermark1 and it swept over the embankment like a mill-race4 ,when the waters subsided1 the engineers1 instead of overhauling their earthworks1 lowered the track to the bottom of the valley1 so that no obstruction should be offered to future floods1 while the road-bed was protected by a paving extending for #ej feet on either side1 with bushes planted on the superimposed earth4 ,this expedient was found to meet the situation completely and to protect the track from destruction by the flood-waters1 which fall quickly after attaining their highest level4 ,in the early days the trains constituted a source of infinite amusement4 ,they were what are known as 8mixed0 trains2 i4 e4 they carried both passengers and freight4 ,the passenger coaches were of varying classes1 the ,chinese travelling in long1 open trucks1 with tarpaulins to protect them from inclement weather4 ,the natives appeared to enjoy this experience highly1 especially when the train attained its maximum speed of about #be miles an hour1 which they admitted was quicker travelling than by an animal-drawn cart4 ,the whole #ajj miles were covered in about #e hours1 including stops1 some of which1 at intermediate points1 were of long duration4 ,at these points1 however1 the time was whiled away by watching the antics of the ,chinese travellers1 who were sorely perturbed lest the steam horse might start before its scheduled time4 ,this initial trunk line played an important educational part in the railway expansion of ,china1 and the cost of travelling was cut down to the lowest figure4 ,the first-class fare for the whole distance was #es4 #e;d41 or #a4cj for #ajj miles1 which1 in comparison with the scale prevailing in other parts of the world for similar accommodation1 was absurdly cheap4 ,the ,chinese at first regarded the railway with childish delight1 those who could afford the expense travelling to and fro for the mere pleasure of travelling4 ,consequently1 it is not surprising that the railway soon established itself in popular favour4 ,indeed1 resentment from the earliest days had proceeded only from the upper classes2 the peasants hailed it with unfeigned pleasure4 ,accordingly1 as railway expansion set in1 any opposition that was encountered was fostered by ignorant1 affected1 wealthy interests4 ,after ,li-,hung-,chang became a staunch friend of the new means of travel1 he established his own ways of dealing with opposition1 which were peculiarly ,chinese4 ,on one railway which he supported1 traffic was interrupted frequently by displaced rails and sleepers4 ,when he1 in his official capacity1 sought to ascertain the reason for such disturbance1 he was informed that it was due to the spirits1 who resented its intrusion4 ,he made no reply to this ingenuous reply1 but hinted that if he caught the spirits interfering with the line1 it would go hard with them4 ,needless to say1 no further trouble was experienced on that line in regard to breaks in the track4 ,within the past few years several momentous railway undertakings have been carried to successful conclusion1 and to-day there is feverish activity in covering the empire with the iron thread on every hand4 ,foremost among these enterprises are the ,shanghai-,nanking1 the ,pekin-,kalgan1 and the ,canton-,kowloon lines4 ,railways1 indeed1 are being driven through the country by various interests and nations1 including ,british1 ,united ,states1 ,belgian1 ,french1 ,portuguese and ,german4 ,in fact1 there is spirited competition among the various powers to bring about the complete conquest of the ,celestial ,kingdom by the iron road4 ,although the initial venture in regard to introducing the railway into ,china had been so disastrous1 ,messrs4 ,jardine1 ,matheson ,company were by no means deterred4 ,they waited a favourable opportunity before repeating their experiment4 ,it came twenty-three years after their first ill-starred adventure1 for in #ahih they received permission to connect ,pekin with ,nanking by rail1 a distance of some #bjj miles1 together with other enterprises of a similar character4 ,this railway was undertaken by a group of financiers known as the ,british ,chinese ,corporation1 and they carried the first part of the scheme through to success4 ,the arrangement was drawn up that this line should coincide in every particular with a typical first-class ,european railway1 and this has been secured to the strict letter of the agreement4 ,indeed1 it stands as the finest-built line in ,china4 ,it proved an expensive undertaking1 due in a great measure to the solidity of the constructional work1 but the policy has been well repaid4 ,the railway serves a wealthy district1 where the possibilities of expansion are extensive1 for the territory is rich in all resources4 ,curiously enough1 this line includes the stretch of #ab miles between ,shanghai and ,woosung which it was attempted to connect by the iron road in #ahge1 and which the natives tore up and destroyed in an unceremonious manner4 ,the promoters of that enterprise may be said to have achieved a sweet revenge1 especially as 8,fung ,shui0 does not appear to have been perturbed by the second attempt to set the ,tiger and ,dragon at variance4 ,this line is what is known as a 8fast road02 that is1 owing to its comparatively easy alignment1 there being several stretches of straight road1 while the track is well ballasted1 it is favourable to high speeds4 ,indeed1 on the opening day1 the special train which travelled over the line with privileged guests covered the #aic miles in #e hours1 notwithstanding that on the last #be miles the speed had to be dropped to a maximum of #be miles per hour1 as the road had not been ballasted thoroughly4 ,on some portions of the line the train notched a speed of #eg miles an hour1 and apparently was appreciated greatly by the ,chinese guests4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,invasion ,,of ,,the ,,far ,,east ,,ii4--,modern ,developments in ,china and ,japan ,the ,chinese1 once they were awakened to the possibilities of the railway1 were not content to permit their country to be covered with foreign-built lines4 ,they decided to become active participators in the movement--in other words1 they acquired all the knowledge they could1 and then undertook constructional engineering4 ,their aptitude for this work finds an excellent expression in the ,pekin-,kalgan railway1 #abe miles in length4 ,this road was built throughout by ,chinese effort1 the engineer-in-chief being ,his ,excellency ,chang-,tien-,yow1 who is to-day the foremost ,chinese engineer in this field in ,china4 ,he was educated in the ,united ,states1 where he acquired valuable knowledge concerning this branch of engineering1 and completed his training under ,mr4 ,kinder1 the builder of the oldest railway in the ,celestial ,kingdom4 ,the road is excellently built1 and the engineer displayed his ingenuity in coping with the problem of carrying the line through the ,nankow ,pass4 ,this pass guards the entrance of the main road through the ,great ,wall1 and to overcome the obstruction a gradient of #a in #cj had to be introduced for a distance of #ac miles4 ,at the foot of the pass three ,mallet locomotives of ,british construction are maintained1 and they crawl to the summit of the pass1 at an altitude of about #a1ejj feet1 in two hours--a speed of about #f miles an hour4 ,the alignment of the railway up this pass is noteworthy4 ,the road clings for the most part to the side of the mountains1 crossing deep rifts and wide clefts1 as well as cutting through spurs and humps and compassing massive crags4 ,four tunnels were found to be unavoidable1 one1 #c1ehj feet in length1 burrowing #bjj feet beneath the ,great ,wall4 ,when the summit is gained1 the railway enters a flat plateau1 the only difficulty here1 as on the flats around ,pekin1 being the preservation of the road from the attacks of floods4 ,that this is no slight factor is proved from the fact that in the vicinity of ,pekin a wash-out which overwhelmed the line cost no less than1 #cb1jjj1 or #afj1jjj1 to repair4 ,the completion of the work1 however1 offers convincing testimony that the ,chinese1 under competent supervision1 are perfectly capable of building railways without the aid of foreigners1 and that no fault can be found with their work so far as solidity and durability are concerned4 ,for centuries the ,chinese have been famed for their prowess in matters pertaining to civil engineering4 ,at times this skill pursues a quaint course1 but probably the most extraordinary illustration was in connection with the ,shanghai-,nangchow-,ningpo railway4 ,by an imperial edict a ,chinese official was appointed as engineer-in-chief4 ,at one point it was necessary to throw a bridge across a river4 ,how it was to be accomplished passed the comprehension of the engineer4 ,but he evolved a solution which1 to say the least1 would be difficult to equal in originality4 ,he built the bridge on dry land1 on one bank of the river4 ,when this was completed satisfactorily1 he diverted the waterway1 so that the river ran beneath the bridge through a new1 specially-built channel1 and the old one was filled up6 ,in another instance1 where a similar situation presented itself1 a pier in the centre of the waterway became necessary4 ,the river ran swiftly and the water was deep4 ,the engineer knew nothing about coffer-dams1 caissons1 or other methods which the foreign engineer would have adopted4 ,as the men could not work on dry land to build the bridge1 he proceeded to provide them with this requisition4 ,hundreds of tons of spoil were dumped into the river at the point where the pier was to be erected until an island was formed1 and on this the necessary constructional work was carried out4 ,possibly the greatest and one of the most important lines1 however1 is the ,pekin-,hankow railway1 which is #gfj miles in length1 and which eventually will be an important link in the great road that is under construction1 whereby through communication will be provided from ,kowloon via ,canton1 ,hankow1 ,pekin1 ,mukden and ,harbin to the ,trans-,siberian railway4 ,this line was carried out with ,belgian and ,french money for the most part1 and #e1jjj1jjj1 or #be1jjj1jjj1 was sunk in the enterprise4 ,the undertaking was commenced in #aijj1 but the ,boxer ,rebellion interfered seriously with its progress4 ,the insurrectionists expended their full fury upon the railway1 and inflicted damage to the value of nearly #a1jjj1jjj1 or #e1jjj1jjj1 which1 however1 was paid over by the ,government as compensation4 ,it has been built cheaply1 and does not compare1 in point of solidity1 with the ,english-built lines4 ,at the same time1 however1 there are some outstanding engineering achievements4 ,the most important is the bridge across the ,yellow ,river1 which consists of #ajb spans1 giving a total length of nearly #b miles4 ,it proved a particularly trying structure to erect1 owing to the treacherous character of the river-bed1 while the scouring action of the water1 which is particularly severe1 demanded elaborate protective works around the bottom of the piers4 ,after various schemes were tried and had proved futile1 large mattresses of brushwood interwoven with rushes were fashioned1 and laid around the feet of the piers1 hundreds of tons of heavy pieces of stone being dumped on these to keep them in position4 ,this has been found more or less successful to prevent the soft silt from being washed away1 and to protect the supports to the bridge from being undermined4 ,the structure1 however1 is scarcely strong enough for heavy traffic1 and consequently trains upon arrival at the ends of the bridge have the large locomotives uncoupled1 and are drawn across the river by special light engines retained for the purpose4 ,one of the most important lines from the commercial point of view1 however1 is the ,canton-,kowloon railway stretching from ,kowloon1 in ,british territory1 to the busy centre of ,canton1 and thence continued northward to ,hankow to provide connection with the other great systems of the country1 and also with ,europe by means of the ,trans-,siberian railway4 ,this project has passed through many vicissitudes4 ,the ,british ,chinese ,corporation received official sanction to build a road between ,canton and ,kowloon as far back as #ahih1 but the project became shelved4 ,an ,american syndicate1 which had secured the concession to connect ,canton with ,hankow1 asserted that they had secured rights to carry the line from the former point to the coast4 ,such action would have dealt a serious blow to ,british commercial supremacy1 and the money was subscribed to buy out the ,american concession1 which in the meantime had been sold to a ,belgian syndicate1 and regained4 ,the section between ,kowloon and ,canton1 #ajj miles in length1 was divided4 ,the ,hong-,kong ,government was held responsible for the #bc miles through ,british territory1 while the balance of the line through ,chinese territory was carried out by the ,chinese ,government4 ,the ,english section proved tremendously difficult4 ,the country traversed was exceedingly rough and mountainous4 ,the difficulties encountered proved so abnormal that the cost of the undertaking has exceeded the original estimates by nearly #aej per cent4 ,some idea of the arduous character of the work may be gathered from the fact that nearly #b out of the #bc miles in ,british territory are represented by tunnels4 ,the most arduous enterprise of this class was the ,beacon ,hill tunnel1 #gjjj feet in length1 driven through the heart of the mountain ridge that rises up #c miles from the coast4 ,the tunnel is perfectly straight1 and ranks as the largest work of its type in the ,chinese ,empire4 ,it is driven through a depth of disintegrated granite on either approach1 where heavy timbering became necessary until the solid rock was gained4 ,water was encountered and gave considerable trouble4 ,at first labour was a serious problem1 as the natives could not be induced to toil underground1 and coolies had to be imported from ,india4 ,after the work was well started1 ,chinese labourers1 who had been working on the ,south ,african gold-fields and had returned home1 were available1 and proved highly useful workmen1 especially when the wrestle commenced with the hard1 solid rock4 ,the tunnelling task1 however1 was equalled by the work in the cuts and on the fills4 ,some of the cuttings are of enormous depth1 and the engineers have had to guard against the danger of heavy landslides1 which1 with wash-outs1 are two of the greatest menaces to the railway in ,china4 ,heavy earthworks were required1 because the line follows roughly the coast-line1 which is serrated1 and to preserve alignment it was necessary to strike straight across these indentations where the water in many places proved to be very deep4 ,the treacherous character of the sea-bed1 which for the most part is a silt1 demanded the provision of massive foundations upon which to raise the grade1 and months were expended while a huge fleet of junks dumped hundreds of tons of rock into the water4 ,occasionally the work as completed was washed out by heavy rains1 while now and again the typhoon left evidences of its wrath4 ,a noticeable feature in the grading was the amount of work performed by women1 who had recourse to their native basket slung on a pole for the conveyance of excavated earth to the fills4 ,the railway1 however1 has been built upon the most solid lines1 and although its cost has proved so high1 the money appears to have been expended to advantage4 ,the traffic1 although not so extensive as it will be1 is increasing promisingly1 and there is no doubt that when ,hankow is reached a heavy volume of business will flow over this highway4 ,the ,chinese are proceeding with their section1 and it is anticipated that not many years will elapse before the two points are connected4 ,the ,french engineers are erecting monuments to their railway engineering skill in the ,flowery ,land1 the province of ,yun-nan being the centre of their activity4 ,the ,yun-nan railway experienced a very chequered career through its early stages1 for in endeavouring to connect the ,french possession of ,lao-,chay with ,yun-nan-,sen1 the capital of the province1 they had to break down enormous obstacles4 ,the country is exceedingly mountainous1 the height of the ridges being paralleled by the depth and precipitous nature of the gorges4 ,still the heavy and extensive bridging necessary proved no deterrent to the ,french bridge-builders1 who are masters in this art1 as the many remarkable structures in ,france testify conclusively4 ,the one factor to be feared seriously was the climate4 ,this corner of ,china is one of the most unsalubrious in the whole empire4 ,even the natives cannot withstand it1 and their ranks are decimated heavily by tropical diseases4 ,the labour question was one of everlasting perplexity1 and the promoters of the enterprise found that skilled workmen1 even of north ,china1 evinced no desire to contribute to a distinguishing feat amid such miasmatic surroundings4 ,the absence of transport facilities hit the undertaking sorely1 and the engineers were compelled to make the best avail they could of the existing vehicles of conveyance--mules and the heads of natives4 ,the most difficult section of the line was in the valley of the ,namiti4 ,here it was a stern fight for supremacy with physical obstacles for mile after mile4 ,the weight and dimensions of every article had to be restricted within severe limits to facilitate handling and carriage by the primitive systems extant1 and when the question comprised the component parts of steel bridges1 the problem demanded searching deliberation4 ,it was found1 however1 that the mules could handle weights up to about #fjj pounds1 and that the natives could struggle along with loads varying between #bjj and #cjj pounds1 but neither man nor beast could cope with anything exceeding #g feet in length4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,faux-,,namiti ,,bridge ,,completed ,the structure1 #bbj feet long1 spans a wedge-shaped fissure and is #cej feet above the water4 ,the bridge is approached on either side through a tunnel4 ,,railway ,,building ,,in ,,china ,such handicaps would appear to militate against the achievement of any startling engineering performances4 ,yet1 as a matter of fact1 the ,french engineers displayed a striking instance of their remarkable ingenuity and capacity to meet awkward situations4 ,the ,namiti gorge disputed the progress of the line4 ,it is a deep1 wide1 ,v-shaped fissure1 one side dropping down perpendicularly for several hundred feet4 ,the line pierced its way through one bluff1 and had to jump across the rift to enter the opposite wall of rock4 ,it was a matter of #bjj feet across1 and the rail-level had to be carried #cjj feet above the river below4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,line ,,skirting ,,the ,,seashore ,,near ,,okitsu1 ,,tokaido1 ,,on ,,the ,,japanese ,,government ,,railways ,the situation demanded a novel solution4 ,erection by false-work was out of the question1 as also was a cantilever bridge2 and1 again1 the question of transporting the material to the site had to be borne in mind4 ,monsieur ,georges ,bodin1 the presiding engineer of the ,parisian ,socit de ,construction des ,batignolles1 however1 rose to the occasion1 and evolved an unusual type of bridge1 and at the same time elaborated a novel method of carrying out its erection4 ,the bridge consists of two essential parts forming leaves1 or bascules4 ,when set in position they have the appearance of a widely-opened1 inverted ,v4 ,to carry out the task of erection1 first a shelf was excavated in each cliff-face at the requisite height to carry the anchorages below the tunnel-mouths overlooking the gap4 ,the top members of each bascule were riveted up1 laid vertically flat against1 and fixed firmly to1 the cliff-faces4 ,from this foundation each bascule was completed4 ,while the mantling of the steel-work was progressing1 other gangs were busy at work cutting out large niches in the cliff-face1 some height above the tunnel portals1 and on these platforms powerful winches were erected4 ,each of these carried heavy chains measuring #ijj feet in length4 ,the transport of this essential piece of tackle was interesting4 ,large gangs of coolies were disposed in ,indian file #g feet apart1 and the chains were trailed over their shoulders like a gigantic serpent4 ,in this way they wound around crags1 climbed steep bluffs and threaded narrow defiles for some #ac miles4 ,these chains were passed around the winches and the outer ends were attached to the upper points of the bascules4 ,when each bascule was completed it was pinned firmly to its anchorage1 the lashings securing each leaf of steel to the rock face were knocked away1 and the two arms were held merely by the chains4 ,gangs of coolies were stationed at each winch under the supervision of a ,french engineer1 and at the word of command the chains were slowly paid out1 causing the bascules to heel over towards one another4 ,care had to be exercised that the lowering proceeded evenly from either side until the two arms met at a point4 ,workmen then swarmed up the arm on either side and rapidly drove in the pins and rivets which secured the two leaves firmly in position4 ,the whole task of lowering and securing took only four hours1 which was a noteworthy achievement4 ,two short steel towers were now erected on the haunches1 or central part of each bascule1 to support the steel deck of the bridge1 the members of which were brought up to the mouth of the tunnel and launched by being pulled out over rollers4 ,with the spanning of the ,namiti gorge1 the most difficult part of the railway line was completed4 ,when the enterprise was undertaken it was computed that the railway could be completed for #c1hdj1jjj1 or #ai1bjj1jjj1 but by the time this gorge was spanned a revision in the estimates showed that the cost would approach #f1fbj1jjj1 or #cc1ajj1jjj4 ,in ,japan1 the strides in railway development within a comparatively few years have been quite as notable as in ,china4 ,in the former country1 however1 the conversion from primitive means of communication to steam locomotion commenced at an earlier date1 and was attended with greater success4 ,as in ,china1 the railway invasion of ,japan was fathered by an ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,n4 ,lay1 who visited ,tokio as a guest of the then ,british ,minister1 the late ,sir ,harry ,parkes1 in #ahfi4 ,he approached the ,government and stated that he was prepared to furnish the funds necessary to commence the railway conquest of the country4 ,he made his offer at a peculiarly appropriate moment4 ,the military regency which had ruled the country for so many centuries had drawn to a close1 and the new ,government welcomed the proposal4 ,foremost among the supporters of the project were the present ,count ,okuma and the late ,prince ,ito4 ,mr4 ,lay undertook to raise a loan of2 #a1jjj1jjj1 or #e1jjj1jjj1 and this was accepted1 while ,mr4 ,lay was entrusted with the carrying out of the scheme4 ,the promoter of the enterprise secured the services of ,mr4 ,e4 ,morell as engineer-in-chief1 and in #ahgj the work commenced4 ,but friction arose between the ,english capitalist and the ,government1 who did not approve of the financier's methods4 ,the agreement was nullified1 and the ,oriental ,bank was established to carry out the undertaking1 ,mr4 ,morell being retained in his engineering capacity4 ,he set to work in grim earnest4 ,the question of gauge had to be settled first4 ,this vital detail was threshed out in all its bearings1 a gauge of #c feet was selected1 and the building of the first line between ,tokio and ,yokohama--a distance of #ah miles--commenced4 ,once the fashioning of the grade began1 other schemes were put forward4 ,among them was a line from ,kobe to ,osaka1 a distance of #bj miles1 which was put in hand1 while an extension of the latter line to ,otsu was surveyed4 ,the first railway in the country was opened on ,october #ad1 #ahgb1 amid elaborate festivities1 in the presence of the ,emperor4 ,within six years of ,mr4 ,morell's arrival1 no less than #gj miles of line had been laid and opened4 ,this was a highly satisfactory and energetic start for a young country1 and the success of the experiment spurred the ,government to more ambitious schemes4 ,these1 however1 were doomed to temporary derangement owing to internal troubles1 and the rebellion in ,south ,japan in #ahgg1 which drained the imperial exchequer to such a degree that no funds were available for railway-building operations4 ,among these early enterprises was a trans-insular railway to connect the ,pacific coast of the island with the shores of the ,sea of ,japan1 with ferry-steamers on ,lake ,biwa to connect the inland break in the railways due to that sheet of water4 ,by this time the ,japanese engineers considered themselves competent to build railways1 for they had proved apt pupils under ,mr4 ,morell's training4 ,native talent found its first opportunity on the ,kioto-,otsu undertaking4 ,this was a peculiarly difficult enterprise1 but the ,japanese engineers rose to the occasion1 though ,english engineers were retained to advise them and to design the bridges4 ,on this line tunnelling had to be carried out1 and this was the first occasion on which the ,japanese engineers were faced with this work in their own country4 ,still they succeeded in complying with the original plans to perfect satisfaction1 and had the pleasure of learning1 when the road was opened in #ahhj1 that the cost of construction was less than the estimates4 ,the completion of this undertaking marked the decadence of the foreign engineer in railway-building in ,japan4 ,native engineers were found to be capable of fulfilling the difficult position of assistants1 and consequently only a few ,british engineers were retained in the capacity of advisers or consultants4 ,private enterprise also entered the field1 and numerous schemes were sanctioned4 ,the first of these was the ,nippon ,railway ,company1 organised through the instrumentality of the late ,prince ,iwakura1 a strong advocate of railway expansion1 mainly for the purpose of assisting the peers to secure a profitable investment4 ,it took several years of ardent campaigning to enlist the sympathy of the latter in such a project1 but at last they fell victims to the ,prince's persuasion1 and the ,nippon ,railway ,company was born4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,most ,,striking ,,example ,,of ,,japanese ,,railway ,,engineering ,the conquest of the ,usui ,pass1 showing heavy tunnelling and the rack rail in the centre of the track4 ,this company projected the building of no less than #eaj miles of railway4 ,the two greatest contributions to this scheme were the ,tokio-,takasaki railway1 on which the ,government guaranteed a profit of #h per cent4 for ten years1 and the ,tokio-,sendai section1 guaranteed similarly for fifteen years4 ,numerous other private companies followed1 many of which received liberal ,government subsidies4 ,but while private initiative was displaying considerable energy1 the ,government railway enterprise slackened1 and threatened to collapse1 until ,prince ,yamagata proposed that trunk lines should be laid along all the main routes of the country1 when the movement received a fresh impetus4 ,thus in #ahhc there was renewed national activity in construction1 and although many of these undertakings were beset with difficulties of a physical character1 they were pushed through to completion4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,kiser ,photo ,co41 for ,spokane1 ,portland ,seattle ,railway ,see page #caj ,,two ,,railways ,,racing ,,to ,,the ,,pacific ,,coast ,,through ,,the ,,deschutes ,,river ,,canyon ,the ,hill line describes a horseshoe curve on one side of the river1 following the waterway4 ,the ,harriman line1 on the opposite side of the river1 tunnels through the projecting tongue of rock4 ,one of the most notable of these early achievements was the ,takasaki-,naoyetsu line1 which was commenced originally to facilitate the transportation of constructional material for another road4 ,the engineers were baulked by the ,usui ,pass1 and this gap was left open1 the two sections on either side of the range being opened for traffic in #ahhg4 ,the intervening division was undertaken subsequently1 being deferred from time to time in the hope that an easier location than had been plotted would be found4 ,though the engineers searched the mountains diligently1 they failed to secure any improvement free from heavy work1 and at last the mountain division was taken in hand4 ,the grades were so steep1 however1 that the rack had to be introduced1 the ,abt system being selected4 ,the engineers found this section particularly trying1 as they had to drive no less than #bf tunnels through mountain spurs in a distance of #g miles1 while the deep clefts in the mountain's flanks called for massive masonry bridges4 ,this work1 however1 was completed in #ahic1 and it served to provide through communication between ,tokio and ,naoyetsu4 ,it is doubtful whether the iron road ever has made such a phenomenal growth in other parts of the world within a short time as has characterised its development in the ,east4 ,in ,china there was not a mile of line in #ahgg4 ,to-day over #aj1jjj miles of railways have been built1 are under construction1 or are projected4 ,in ,japan the network has grown from #ah miles in #ahgb1 to #e1ada miles at the end of the #aiaj fiscal year1 of which total #d1fcd miles belong to the ,state1 and #eig to private companies1 while the former at that date had #b1gij miles in hand1 and private enterprise about #afj miles4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,cascade ,,mountains ,although the first trans-continental railway across the ,north ,american continent tapped ,san ,francisco1 this was not the route that was advocated in the first instance4 ,public fancy was inclined rather to the suggestion that the ,pacific should be gained more to the north1 at the estuary of the ,columbia ,river4 ,this feeling was fostered1 no doubt1 because that country loomed more prominently in the popular eye1 as a result of the famous expedition of ,lewis and ,clark during the years #ahjd-f1 wherein they trailed across the unknown corner of the continent and gained the ,pacific via the ,columbia ,river4 ,the operations of the ,hudson ,bay ,trading ,company and its numerous rivals also had served to familiarise the public with this great territory4 ,it is strange to observe how1 directly ,stephenson had demonstrated the possibilities of the steam locomotive1 imaginative minds drew pictures of stupendous railway-building achievements across great continents1 broken up by unscaled mountains and unfathomed broad rivers1 as if the building of a track for the iron horse was the same as a child building toy houses with wooden bricks4 ,as a result the ,north ,american continent became criss-crossed in all directions by railways--on paper--and it was a good thing for the country at the time that these schemes never got any farther than that stage4 ,since ,huntington succeeded in his first great effort1 the country has been spanned by a round dozen lines4 ,four systems1 however1 stand out pre-eminently4 ,these are the ,northern ,pacific and the ,great ,northern1 two lines which1 in the first instance1 were built after the pioneer manner1 and the ,western ,pacific1 and the ,milwaukee1 ,st4 ,paul1 and ,puget ,sound roads respectively1 which were constructed upon experience gained in connection with the earlier lines1 and therefore in accordance with modern ideas4 ,the ,northern ,pacific undertaking suffered strange vicissitudes4 ,it was suggested1 discussed and anticipated for years before it was ever taken in hand4 ,it was a born engineer and practical railway-builder who drove the scheme finally to a definite conclusion4 ,this was ,edwin ,f4 ,johnson1 and his words carried weight because of his great engineering reputation and the soundness of his views4 ,he waged the agitation so relentlessly that the ,government at last embarked upon a unique enterprise4 ,a series of expeditions were inaugurated1 known as the ,pacific ,railway ,surveys1 and the men for this task were drawn from every department of the public service4 ,their task was to report upon the practicability of threading the great mountain barriers to reach the western sea4 ,the results of their efforts were set out in some thirteen large volumes1 and they constitute possibly the most exhaustive work ever carried out in regard to the plotting of railways through a country4 ,but1 like the majority of such ,government outbursts1 they represent so much wasted money3 they were so valuable that they became forgotten4 ,the surveyors and railway-builders of to-day prefer to work out their own destinies4 ,then came the ,civil ,war1 and that ruled any railway-building enterprise under the gis of the ,government completely out of court4 ,but ,johnson was not to be dissuaded from his enterprise4 ,he laid his scheme before many prominent railway men in the country1 and they decided to carry out the work4 ,johnson was deputed to act as chief engineer1 and was urged to locate the line4 ,in #ahgj the task of laying some #b1ejj miles of track was commenced4 ,the mouth of the ,columbia ,river was selected as the outlet on the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,work was commenced simultaneously from both ends1 the eastern terminal being near ,lake ,superior4 ,by #ahgc the line had reached the ,missouri ,river on the east1 and here a pause had to be called to erect a massive steel bridge1 #a1djj feet long1 #ej feet above the river1 which absorbed #bjj1jjj1 or #a1jjj1jjj4 ,when the first stretch of prairie line was completed1 it was used only in the summer months4 ,there was not enough traffic to pay for the coal burned in the locomotives during the winter1 in the estimation of the administration1 while they feared the expense and losses that would be inflicted by the terrible blizzards and snowstorms which rage in this country4 ,consequently1 after the crops had been garnered and conveyed to market1 all the engines1 trucks and cars were withdrawn from service upon a great length of line1 which was abandoned practically until spring came round4 ,this state of affairs continued until the ,indians rose up against ,american law and order1 wiped out several men1 and precipitated a general reign of terror4 ,the ,government1 in order to pour troops into the disaffected territory1 requested the working of the railway during the winter of #ahgf-g1 which proved to be one of the most severe in history4 ,yet the line suffered less from snow than the systems in the eastern ,states1 and1 moreover1 possibilities of traffic were discovered which hitherto had been considered non-existent4 ,needless to say1 the railway never has been closed during the winter since4 ,before the railway had proceeded half-way across the continent1 the need for overhauling and relaying the first part of the track was felt4 ,a higher standard of construction was therefore laid down for all the new work4 ,moreover1 in order that the line should be completed within the shortest time possible1 it was split into large sections1 and the grade was driven east and west from several points simultaneously4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,switchback0 ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,great ,,northern ,,railway ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,negotiated ,,the ,,cascade ,,mountains ,,before ,,the ,,boring ,,of ,,the ,,cascade ,,tunnel ,the mountains proved a severe stumbling-block and precipitated great delay4 ,the country was so broken that lofty timber trestles had to be erected to be filled in with earth at a later date4 ,then two large tunnels had to be bored to carry the track through the ,rockies1 one1 the ,bozeman tunnel1 being #c1faj feet long1 and the other1 the ,mullan tunnel1 #c1heg feet from end to end4 ,yet construction proceeded so successfully that the links were joined up on ,september #c1 #ahhc1 the last spike being driven in ,hellgate ,canyon1 ,montana4 ,the spike used for this auspicious event was the very first that had been driven in connection with the line when it was commenced years before4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,a ,,steel ,,trestle ,,across ,a ,,rift ,the traveller is setting a girder #ge feet long1 and weighing #bj tons1 into position4 ,the railway has passed through many financial tribulations4 ,on two occasions the intermediary of a receiver has been found necessary4 ,it was hit by a panic in its very earliest days1 and it failed ten years after completion1 the second breakdown precipitating one of the worst financial scares in the history of the ,states4 ,from the ashes1 however1 a new company was reconstructed1 a bolder and more enterprising body of men gripped the reins1 the system was pulled to pieces from end to end and rebuilt4 ,to-day it is not only one of the finest railways in ,america1 but one of the most popular and successful as well4 ,running parallel with the ,northern ,pacific across the continent1 but some miles nearer the international boundary1 is another great artery of steel which has become a great transportation force in the ,united ,states4 ,this is the ,great ,northern1 likewise built through the energy of one man1 ,mr4 ,james ,j4 ,hill1 the empire-builder of the ,great ,american west4 ,mr4 ,hill is a born railway magnate1 and when he shook the dust of his native land--,canada--from his feet1 it was merely because the ,dominion at that time offered him no scope for his energies and initiative4 ,his life is one romance2 a prolonged conquest with the unknown country1 with the railway as his weapon1 and with which he has overcome tremendous obstacles4 ,the ,great ,northern was driven slowly across the country from the ,great ,lakes4 ,advance was risky1 as the country traversed failed to promise an ounce of produce2 but whenever the organiser saw that development in the country ahead was likely to take place1 he drove the line forward4 ,his motto was that 8the railway must be a pioneer1 leaving the settler to be brought in afterwards40 ,he lost no opportunity to gain revenue4 ,for instance1 when the mineral wealth of ,montana attracted widespread attention1 he made a journey to ,butte4 ,he found that it was costing the mines #c #hs4--#ag--per ton to ship their copper to ,omaha4 ,he pondered on the subject1 and suddenly announced his intention to carry his railway into ,butte4 ,he did so1 and the first stroke he consummated was to transport the metal to the same eastern point at #a #acs41 or #h1 per ton--about #ej per cent4 below the previous rate4 ,the desolate character of the plains of ,montana1 and the towering heights of the ,rocky ,mountains which stood right in the way of the line1 were far from being attractive from the financial point of view4 ,yet he was convinced that traffic could be created1 and was fortunate in infusing his colleagues with his enthusiasm4 ,but if the railway's future was precarious1 that of the settler was much more so4 ,for some miles the line ran through territory inhabited by the ,indian1 and which the ,red ,man stubbornly persisted in maintaining was his property4 ,the result was that the white man could only live on sufferance4 ,if he stopped too long while passing through the country he was told to move on4 ,mr4 ,hill relates an amusing instance of ,red determination to seize the main chance at the settler's expense4 8,when the settlers drove their cattle across ,indian country in order to gain the railway1 the ,indians exacted a toll of #ej cents1 or #bs4 for the privilege of driving the cattle across three miles of their territory6 ,they even wanted an additional amount per head--,i don't remember what it was--for the water they drank while crossing the ,missouri ,river60 ,among the ,rockies the engineer met with a spirited resistance1 and the result is that the railway describes a tortuous course as it climbs up the one1 and drops down the other1 side4 ,at places one may stand on the edge of a cliff where the track has been cut1 and watch it following the spur for miles1 steadily falling meanwhile to the head of the valley1 where it describes a sweeping curve to wind back along the face of the cliff on the opposite side of the depression4 ,straight across it is1 perhaps1 not more than a mile or so1 but the long detour of several miles was necessary to avoid a heavier climb4 ,the fight for the grade is emphasised in watching an approaching train coming up the hill4 ,it rounds the bluff on the opposite side of the valley1 two ponderous #agj-ton locomotives pulling and straining amid clouds of smoke and steam4 ,their joint labour produces a speed of about #ae miles an hour1 and the roar created by the steam in harness is heard distinctly across the ravine4 ,one follows the train on its winding course1 for it is fully in sight the whole time as it swings round the curve at the end of the valley1 and presently rushes by one with a terrible roar4 ,some twelve minutes have passed since the train first came into sight4 ,among the ,cascades the spectacle is more impressive4 ,travelling westwards1 the train pauses at the mountain's summit1 and an electric locomotive is attached to haul the cars through the ,cascade tunnel1 a bore as straight as an arrow through the mass of rock for three miles4 ,in ten minutes the train regains daylight1 and the electric locomotive makes way for a ponderous #agj-ton vibrating mass of steel and steam for the downward descent4 ,when the railway was first opened1 the crest of the range was overcome by a big switch-back1 but it did not meet with official satisfaction1 so it was abandoned in favour of the tunnel driven through the crest4 ,directly the engine-driver releases the air-brake the train commences to move4 ,the descent is at the rate of #aaf feet to the mile1 and1 as may be conceived1 no steaming is required to give the train momentum down the banks--it travels by gravity alone1 held in check by the powerful air-brake4 ,the train plunges into a line of snowsheds1 and when it emerges1 two tracks at different levels may be seen1 and in the far distance1 on the opposite side of the valley1 is the black band of steel writhing among the crags to pass from sight round a distant shoulder4 ,the train swings down the uppermost gallery1 crosses a lofty trestle set over a rift on a curve1 dives into a tunnel wherein a horse-shoe loop is completed1 so that when it issues from the other portal the train speeds along the second track in the opposite direction4 ,then it makes another twist to swing to the opposite mountain slope4 ,looking back from the lowest level1 the line can be seen cutting three ugly gashes among the trees clothing the mountain flanks4 ,the construction of this series of loops was exciting1 and dangerous to the navvies1 as one of their number related to me4 ,excavation was carried out on the two levels simultaneously1 but those on the lower terrace had to maintain a vigilant eye and a keen ear4 ,huge ballast cars were hauled on to the upper gallery loaded with debris1 and they shot this over the side to build up the grade4 ,the result was that the men below were subjected to a heavy1 intermittent bombardment1 for massive pieces of rock were among the spoil4 ,these1 given a start down-hill1 bounced from point to point with terrific force1 until they crashed into the depths of the canyon4 ,the men had to dodge these missiles as best they could4 ,sometimes they were lucky2 at others they were not1 and many a man received a nasty wound1 a jarring blow1 or a broken limb from a piece of rock in flight4 ,accidents from this cause were numerous1 and fatalities were not infrequent4 ,when the ,western ,pacific was projected it was decided to profit from the mistakes made on the early lines in the first instance4 ,grades in particular were to be kept down1 especially among the mountains1 where a maximum rise of #a in #ajj was only to be allowed4 ,this line completes the original idea in connection with the ,denver ,rio ,grande line by giving the latter an outlet from ,salt ,lake ,city to the ,pacific at ,san ,francisco4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,the ,,biggest ,,embankment ,,on ,,record ,,by ,,hydraulic ,,sluicing ,the railway is #gbe miles in length1 and it was split into three sections for constructional purposes4 ,the first extended from ,salt ,lake ,city to ,oroville at the ,pacific foot of the ,sierras main range1 the second from the latter point to ,oakland on the coast1 while the third was a trying short section right down to the water's edge1 at ,san ,francisco from ,oakland4 ,building was carried out on the three divisions simultaneously4 ,remarkable enterprise was displayed by the liberal resort to any new time- and labour-saving methods and implements4 ,in the ,san ,diablo ,range the path of the track was interrupted by a depression #abc feet deep and #a1abj feet wide4 ,that hollow had to be filled to preserve the grade4 ,to expedite the task1 an ingenious tool was devised4 ,this was an electric scraper1 and the idea was to pull this down the side of the mountain1 thereby removing several tons of earth at a time1 and to shoot it into the gulch4 ,but the scraper did not come up to expectations4 ,breakdowns were so frequent that at last it was dismantled in disgust and thrown on one side to rust4 ,then another ingenious idea was tested4 ,this was called a 8merry-go-round10 something very similar to a roundabout4 ,it comprised a revolving table overhanging the edge of the dump or embankment4 ,a track was laid on the circumference of this turntable forming a loop4 ,the laden trucks were run round this curve and their contents were shot overboard at the point desired1 the empties continuing round the loop to the track to return to be refilled4 ,the advantage of this arrangement was that the spoil could be discharged just where it was wanted much more quickly and easily than by the ordinary method1 where the cars are pushed to the edge of the temporary track1 emptied and then pulled back4 ,as the bank grew outwards across the valley1 the merry-go-round was pushed forwards1 so that it always stood on the brink of the earthwork4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,merry-,,go-,,round0 ,,devised ,,to ,,expedite ,,raising ,,an ,,embankment #abj ,,feet ,,high ,illustration3 ,a ,,lofty ,,embankment ,,in ,,course ,,of ,,construction4 ,,in ,,the ,,centre ,,it ,,is #abj ,,feet ,,high4 ,,construction ,,camp ,,in ,,foreground ,a ,,novel ,,example ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,builders' ,,ingenuity ,among the mountains some magnificent work was accomplished4 ,as the directing engineer remarked to the writer1 it was a stiff problem to descend the western flanks of the ,sierras with a #a per cent4 grade4 ,the line crosses the mountains #bjjj feet lower than the ,central ,pacific1 and one advantage is that there are no snowsheds anywhere4 ,when one sees how rigorously the maximum grade has been guarded one marvels4 ,the mountains are negotiated through ,feather ,river ,canyon1 which is a duplicate of the ,kicking ,horse ,pass that carries the ,canadian ,pacific main line down to the coast4 ,the canyon is entered at ,oroville1 and for almost #ajj miles the line rises steadily at #eb feet per mile1 following the river until it at last gains an altitude of #d1hag feet4 ,but hugging the river causes the line to meander very tortuously1 for the waterway zigzags like the teeth of a saw4 ,moreover1 ,feather ,river is a fearsome waterway4 ,in its calmest moods it rushes along swiftly1 but when swollen by the melting snows and countless mountain brooks it thunders and boils like a whirlpool4 ,to escape the fury of the waters the track had to be laid well up the mountain-side1 and where a fork of the river is crossed1 a massive metal bridge had to be built for the reason advanced by the engineer that 8,nothing but steel could be used with safety when the river is in full flood40 ,curiously enough1 although ,feather ,river ,canyon had never before been selected as a passage-way through the mountains for the iron road1 it was favoured by the ,indian as being the easiest passage through the ,sierras4 ,theodore ,judah had noticed its advantages for the first trans-continental4 ,but the ,red ,man's trail was along the opposite bank to that preferred by the railway4 ,at first sight it would appear as though the surveyors might have profited advantageously from the sagacity of the aborigines1 but they declined to do so for a striking reason4 ,the locaters had to pay due respect to the snowfall and the paths of avalanches4 ,in such a gorge the former may be only a few inches on one1 and as many feet on the other side1 and the dangers from slides are proportionate4 ,such conditions prevail in this canyon4 ,the bank selected by the engineers is exposed to the sun throughout the day1 and the snowfall is very slight1 whereas on the other and shaded bank it is very severe4 ,in ascending the canyon1 very heavy development work had to be carried out4 ,at one point a huge loop had to be described on the mountain-side1 and the summit negotiated by a long tunnel beneath the ,beckwourth ,pass4 ,the latter acts as a funnel or shaft for the warm 8,chinook0 winds1 which1 entering the pass1 melt the snow almost as soon as it falls4 ,consequently1 on this section snow is an insignificant enemy1 and does not strike such terror into the hearts of the railway authorities as1 say1 on the ,canadian ,pacific1 or the ,overland route4 ,the records at ,beckwourth give the maximum depth of snow as #bd inches1 so that ,boreas will be kept within bounds very easily by an ordinary snow-plough4 ,by placing the track well below the snow-line1 and with the assistance of the kindly ,japanese warm wind1 the heavy expense of snowsheds has been avoided4 ,this is no mean saving either1 for in many cases the cost of building these protective sheds has been more per mile than the railway itself sheltered within4 ,on one line the average cost of this protection is #ae1jjj per mile1 and it is necessary for #dj miles6 ,on the eastern sides of the mountains the railway runs into the ill-famed ,humboldt ,river territory1 which has proved a thorn in the sides of many railway-builders4 ,this fine waterway at times bursts its bonds1 floods the country1 and finally follows a new course4 ,in order to avoid any troubles from this cause1 the line was kept well clear of the district1 though it involved many artificial works such as bridges1 embankments and tunnels1 while the river is crossed #bd times in #ahe miles4 ,between the foothills of the ,sierras and ,salt ,lake ,city two other mountain ranges had to be overcome--the ,pequop and ,torano chains respectively4 ,a tunnel solves the first1 and a striking piece of development work compasses the second4 ,this is a horse-shoe curve #e miles in length1 which rises gently eastwards at the prescribed maximum grade4 ,had the engineers cut straight across as the crow flies1 miles would have been saved1 but the banks would have been three times as heavy4 ,the eastern point of this horse-shoe brings the railway to the fringe of the ,salt ,lake desert1 a rolling waste of salt and borax in which lies the inland sea of the same name1 and whose waters in the distant past lapped the foothills of the ,torano range4 ,the rail strikes across the desert in a bee-line for #dc miles1 the permanent way being as level as a billiard-table1 with the rails resting on a solid mass of salt1 #h feet or more in thickness4 ,this marked the first attempt to cross this dismal expanse by railway4 ,many a traveller essaying the perilous journey as a shorter cut to the country beyond has been overwhelmed by thirst or the intolerable heat1 to lie down to his last rest1 his bones afterwards being found bleaching in the glare of ,old ,sol1 beating down from a cloudless sky4 ,one notable feature of this road is the tunnels4 ,there are #db in all1 aggregating over #de1jjj feet in length1 while there are #dj steel bridges totalling a length of #i1bfa feet4 ,in one division among the ,sierras1 extending for a distance of #ge miles up the ,feather ,river ,canyon1 grading ran into #bj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1 per mile4 ,altogether some #dj1jjj1jjj cubic yards of earth were handled to form the grade4 ,the contractors had to spend #bj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1 alone to cut a wagon-road in order to transport supplies to their camps along the grade4 ,contemporaneously with the construction of the ,western ,pacific railway1 a third line--the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee ,puget ,sound--was being pressed across the continent for the purpose of bringing ,chicago and the ,atlantic seaboard into direct touch with the ,pacific ports of ,seattle and ,tacoma on ,puget ,sound4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,the ,,chicago1 ,,milwaukee ,,and ,,puget ,,sound ,,railway ,,through ,,the ,,bitter ,,root ,,mountains ,this great artery sprang from very humble beginnings4 ,in #ahfe there was a short stretch of line in the ,state of ,minnesota which1 under energetic and wise expansion1 threw its tentacles in all directions1 until by #aijh it had grown into a huge system known as the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee ,st4 ,paul railway1 possessing #g1dea miles of track4 ,how it came to launch out upon this long reach to the ,pacific is an interesting story1 typical of railway development in the ,north ,american continent4 ,the eastern division of the parent system served an absolutely treeless country1 though the land was among the finest imaginable for agriculture4 ,the railway required plentiful supplies of timber1 not only for its own needs1 but also for those of the settlers scattered along its roads4 ,every foot of wood had to be cut in the far north-west lumber territory1 and had to be hauled for hundreds of miles over a rival railway before it entered the territory served by the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee ,st4 ,paul railway4 ,considering the enormous consumption of this commodity1 the money paid over every year to the rival railway in freight charges represented a respectable figure4 ,illustration3 ,,carrying ,,the ,,chicago1 ,,milwaukee ,,and ,,puget ,,sound ,,railway ,,across ,,the ,,columbia ,,river ,showing the huge steel bridge necessary to carry the track over the waterway4 ,thereupon it was decided to tap the forests and to secure an outlet on the ,pacific ,coast at the same time4 ,although it was estimated that the #a1djj miles of track necessary for the purpose would cost about #bj1jjj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1jjj1 it was calculated that the saving in freight charges for hauling timber would defray the greater part of the interest on this capital4 ,work was commenced in #aijf3 on ,april #a1 #aiji1 the last rail was laid1 and the golden spike was driven home into its sleeper1 with no more ceremony than if a mere siding had been completed1 instead of a new trans-continental line1 conforming with all up-to-date requirements as to grade1 curvature and general standard of work4 ,the completion of such a project within three years was truly an epoch-making achievement1 and1 as might be supposed1 a long string of record-breaking feats accompanied its realisation4 ,in #cf months #ag1jjj1jjj1 or #he1jjj1jjj1 were expended in the boring of tunnels1 the erection of #bj miles of bridges1 cuts and fills to fashion a new steel highway1 and to pave it with #bjj1jjj tons of rails4 ,some days the mechanical track-layer1 with its load of sleepers and rails1 advanced so rapidly that #e miles of track were laid between sunrise and sunset4 ,curiously enough1 this new line was commenced from the banks of the same river as signalled the commencement of the first railway to the ,pacific--the ,missouri ,river--but at ,mowbridge1 a point some miles to the north4 ,at the very commencement heavy expense was incurred in the building of a huge bridge across the waterway1 which alone absorbed #djj1jjj1 or #b1jjj1jjj4 ,it crosses ,north ,dakota and ,montana1 where it was no uncommon circumstance to encounter isolated homesteads1 the owners of which had to travel #aej miles to post a letter--a duty which1 under the circumstances1 was performed about once in #f or #ab months4 ,in ,montana the line drops into the valley of the ,yellowstone ,river to cling to its banks4 ,while the river winds in and out in an amazing manner1 the railway follows practically a straight line through the valley1 and for #aag miles it is one of the fastest stretches of track in the whole continent1 there being an imperceptible rise4 ,on paper it seems but a simple task to build such a piece of straight1 level track1 but in this instance it proved very expensive1 for the river is crossed about once in every mile1 there being #aae bridges in the #aag miles4 ,after leaving the ,yellowstone ,river the work became more difficult1 for three ranges of mountains had to be overcome4 ,the battle with ,nature1 which had been fought by the ,southern1 ,western1 ,northern ,pacific and ,great ,northern railways respectively1 had to be waged again4 ,at times the preservation of an easy grade proved a very knotty problem4 ,the end was achieved only by prodigious earthworks1 frequent tunnelling1 as well as lofty trestling across the ravines4 ,the curves were kept very easy1 galleries being cut in the projecting humps to enable the line to follow the contour of the mountain sides1 while the summits were conquered by driving tunnels through their crests at as low an altitude as practicable4 ,the most noteworthy tunnel is the ,st4 ,paul ,pass1 and here a striking record was set up1 the mountain being pierced at a greater speed than has been achieved in any previous undertakings of this character4 ,it was bored from both ends simultaneously1 and although it was solid1 hard rock for practically the whole of its length1 an average advance of some #edj feet per month was maintained1 the highest rate of progress being reached with a monthly progress of #gcb feet4 ,among the ,cascades the tremendous ravines separating one peak from another taxed the ingenuity of the engineers sorely4 ,it was practically what in railway parlance is described as 8cut-and-fill0 all the way2 that is1 the digging of deep cuttings here1 and the raising of lofty embankments there4 ,the cuts through the shoulders of some of these monarchs became quite respectable defiles in themselves by the time the steam shovels had retired from the scene4 ,and the cuts were equalled in their magnitude by the 8fills40 ,one1 8,topographers' ,gulch10 is exceptionably notable4 ,the track creeps through a deep cutting on either side to the edge of the mountain1 the sides of which drop away in a steep slope to a depth of #bhb feet4 ,at track level the gulch was #hjj feet across4 ,a viaduct was at first suggested to span the gap1 but it was found that the approaches were unsuitable to such a solution of the problem4 ,the engineer resolved to make a daring effort4 ,he would not bridge the gulf2 he would not go round it2 but he would fill it up6 ,there was plenty of material on the spot for the purpose4 ,the question was the quickest way of accomplishing this end4 ,when it is remembered that a twenty-storey building could have been dropped into that ravine1 and that its roof then would have been only level with the proposed permanent way1 it will be seen that it was a big fill indeed4 ,how was it done8 ,why1 by means of water jets--hydraulic sluicing--being directed against the mountain-side1 dislodging the earth and speeding it down conduits into the depression4 ,little did the western railway foreman anticipate1 when he first suggested washing down a hill to fill a rift by means of a hose as already described1 that his much-ridiculed proposition ever would be called upon to fill up a chasm like this4 ,a powerful pumping-plant was set up1 hundreds of feet of hose were laid down1 and fitted with huge1 powerful nozzles4 ,gigantic and powerful streams of water were thrown against the mountain face1 and the debris thus dislodged was diverted into flumes1 or wooden troughs1 which emptied themselves into the valley4 ,before a yard of debris was tossed into that abyss1 #ab1jjj1 or #fj1jjj1 had been spent4 ,when the full blast of water was brought to bear on the face of the hill the gravel rushed down into the depression like lava pouring from a volcano in eruption4 ,the water jets literally moved a hill into the ravine4 ,in the course of a few weeks a neck of solid earth stretched across the abyss1 affording a path for the railway4 ,the crossing of the ,columbia ,river was another heavy undertaking1 exceeding in character the bridge across the ,missouri4 ,at this point the river is wide1 with the navigable channel in the centre1 but there is a heavy rise and fall of the water according to the season1 the feet of the mountains on either side being lapped when the river is in flood4 ,the peculiar conditions necessitated a high structure1 with massive stone piers supporting the steel-work4 ,sixteen wide spans were required4 ,the task was carried out by the railway companies' own bridge-engineering staff1 in which class of work they are specialists and peculiarly fitted to such huge enterprises4 ,such is the story of the ,railway ,rush across the ,united ,states to the ,pacific4 ,yet the public clamours for further lines4 ,the facilities extended already to travel from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific seaboards in less than four days have served only to cause the public to emulate 8,oliver ,twist0 and to ask for more4 ,,index ,,abt system of grading1 #bee1 #cjg ,abu ,hamed1 #aed ,aconcagua ,peak1 #abh1 #bgd ---- ,river1 #bgg ,acre1 ,bay of1 #abb ,adelaide1 #ahd1 #aij ,adelskld1 ,mme4 ,gustafva1 #bfj --- ,major ,c41 #bfj-fb ,adhesion traction1 #bag ,africa1 railways of1 #gi1 #aci-fa ---- ,cape to ,cairo railway1 #aci-fa ---- ,central1 railways of1 #bha-h ---- ,french ,west1 #ade ---- ,german ,east1 #aej ---- ---- ,south-,west1 #gi ---- ,portuguese ,east1 #bha1 #bhb ----- ,south1 the war1 #aee ---- ---- gold-fields1 #cja ,air-brakes1 #cac ,airolo1 #cc1 #ce1 #da1 #db1 #dd ,akasha1 #aec ,alaska1 #afb ---- reclamation of1 #ajb-af ,albany1 #ahg ,albert ,nyanza1 ,lake1 #aea1 #afa ,alexandria1 #aed1 #aeh1 #aei ,allahabad1 #beb ---- -,fyzerbad railway1 #beb ,allan1 ,sir ,hugh1 #bbe ,alps1 the1 #afb-c1 #agj ---- the ,southern1 #aid ,amarillo ,gorge1 #bgd ,amazon ,river1 #abi1 #bgj ,america1 ,south-- ,first trans-continental railway1 #bgj ,laissez-faire attitude1 #ad ,survey work1 #i-aa ,world's highest line1 #abh-ch ,american ,civil ,war1 the1 #cji ,american railway interests1 #aee1 #ahc1 #bic1 #cjj ,amur railway1 the1 #bja1 #baa1 #bab ---- ,valley1 #bji ,andermatt1 village of1 #db ,anderson1 ,messrs4 ,j4 ,a41 #aie ,andes1 the1 #i1 #abh-i1 #acd1 #ace1 #acg1 #agg1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #bgh ---- ,trans-andine railway1 #bgj1 #bgd ,animas ,canyon1 #agj ,antofagasta railway1 #acf1 #bgi ,arab raiders1 #aai1 #abf-g ,arabia1 deserts of1 #aag ,argentina-,chile peace1 #bge ,arica1 #bgi ,arkansas ,river1 #afd ,arlberg ,tunnel1 the1 #hh-i1 #id1 #ie ,armstrong1 ,sir ,w4 ,g41 #bjj1 #bjf ,arnold1 ,bion1 #ef ,asia ,minor1 #abb ,assling1 #ig ,assuan1 #aeh ,atbara1 #aed1 #aei ---- ,bridge1 #aed1 #aef1 #aeg ---- ,river1 #aed ,atlin1 #aaa ,auckland1 #aid ,auspoint1 #id ,australasia1 railways of1 #age-ig ,australia1 ,south-- ,railways1 #ahd-e ,survey work1 #aia-c ,australia1 ,west-- ,railways1 #agf1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahi ,survey work1 #aij-ib ,trans-continental scheme1 #aij-aia ,water-supply1 #ahg-i1 #aij-ia ,austria1 railway enterprise1 #hh1 #ij1 #ie ,avers ,platz1 #afc 8,azure ,dragon10 the1 #bhi1 #bif ,baden-,zurich railway1 #ca ,bahia ,honda1 #bdh ,baikal1 ,lake1 #aej1 #bjj1 #bjf1 #bjg ---- railway1 #bja ,baker1 ,sir ,benjamin1 #bic-d ,baldwin ,company of ,philadelphia1 #bag ,baltic ,sea1 ice-breakers1 #bjf ,barrow1 ,f4 ,w41 #bae ,bathurst1 #agg ,batignolles1 #cjc-d ,batn-el-,ghoul1 the1 #abd ,beacon ,hill ,tunnel1 #cjj-cja ,beckwourth ,pass1 #cag ,bedouin1 the1 #aah-ba1 #abf-g ,beira1 #bhd ,beirut1 #abb ,beit1 ,alfred1 #adi ,belgian railway interests1 #aej-ea1 #bie1 #bii1 #cjj ,bell1 ,j4 ,b41 #beb ,bennett1 ,lake1 #ajh-i ,bennett1 ,mr41 #bf-g ,bergen1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bfg1 #bfi ,bergen-,christiania line1 #bfc-i ,bergsund1 #bfa ,biaschina ,gorge1 #dc 8,big ,hill10 #bag1 #bah1 #bca-b ,biwa ,lake1 #cje ,blackwall ,tunnel1 #ee ,blanc1 ,mont1 #abh ,blantyre1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhg ,bluden1 #ij ,blue ,nile1 the1 #aef-g ,bodin1 ,georges1 #cjc ,bogie principle1 #gh ,bolivia1 railways of1 #bgi-hj ,borneo1 ,british ,north1 #d ,bossi1 engineer1 #db ,boulder ,river ,canyon1 #agb ,box ,tunnel1 #bc ,boxer ,rebellion1 the1 #bii ,bozeman ,tunnel1 #caj-aa ,bramstone ,tunnel1 #bd ,brandt hydraulic drills1 #hi-ij1 #ih1 #bfe ,bray ,head1 #bc-e ,brazil-- ,brazilian-,portuguese labourers1 #bbc ,configuration1 #baf ,leopoldina system1 #bad-bc 8,bridge ,line10 ,new ,zealand1 #aif-g ,bridges-- ,girder1 #bba ,rack system1 #bba ,steel1 #bfj ,bristen ,tunnel1 #dd ,british and ,chinese ,corporation1 #bif1 #cjj ,british ,central ,africa ,co41 #bhb ---- ,columbia1 #aaj1 #bbd1 #bci ---- ,north ,borneo1 #d ,broken ,hill1 #adg1 #adi1 #aej ,bromma1 #bfg ,brunel1 work in ,ireland1 #bb-e ,buenos ,aires and ,pacific railway1 #bgj ,buffalo1 #ee1 #gj-ga ,bukana1 #aea ,buluwayo1 #ada1 #adb ,burma1 ,gokteik ,viaduct1 #bej ---- ,railway ,co41 #bed ---- ,upper1 bridges1 #bed ,butte1 #cab ,cairo1 #aci1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeh ,caissons1 #ahb-c ,california1 the gold rush to1 #fj1 #fi ,callao1 #abi1 #acj1 #ach ,camels1 transport by1 #aij-b ,campos1 #bba ,canada-- ,eastern1 the railway in1 #bbe ,fighting gangs1 #bh ,first trans-continental1 #bbd-ci ,muskeg country1 #ah1 #bbf-i ,canadian ,pacific railway1 #caf-ag 8,big ,hill10 #bag1 #bah1 #bca-b ,chinese labour on1 #ae ,eagle ,pass1 #bch ,gold ,range1 #bch ,government aid1 #bbe-f ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 #bcb-d ,muskeg country1 difficulties1 #bbf-i ,selkirk ,range1 #bcd-h ,cantilever principle1 #add1 #bci ,canton1 #bii1 #cjj ---- -,kowloon railway1 #bie1 #bii-cja ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #bab ,cape to ,cairo railway-- ,northwards from ,cape ,town1 #aci-ea ,southwards from ,cairo1 #aeb-fa ,cape ,town1 #aci1 #ada1 #ade1 #adg1 #aej1 #afa ,carnarvon1 #gi ,cascade ,range-- ,grading1 #ba1 #cba ,snowsheds1 #bd ,tunnelling1 #be1 #bg1 #aic1 #cac-ad1 #cba 8,catch points10 #bca ,cathedral ,mountain1 #bcc ,cenis ,tunnel1 #ca-b1 #ce1 #cf1 #hh-ij1 #bag ,central ,otago railway1 #aif-g ,central ,pacific railway1 #fc1 #fe1 #gj1 #aih1 #cae ,central railway of ,peru1 #acf ,central ,siberian railway1 #bjj1 #bjc ,champlain and ,st4 ,lawrenc railway1 #df ---- ,lake1 #df ,chang-,tien-,yow1 #big ,chat ,moss1 #ag ,chenab ,river1 #beb ,chepstow bridge1 #bc ,cheyennes1 the1 #fg-h ,chicago1 #ed1 #eh1 #bda1 #cah ---- ,north-,western railway1 #afb ---- ,milwaukee ,puget ,sound line1 #cjh1 #cah-bb ---- ,milwaukee ,st4 ,paul railway1 #cah1 #cai ,chichli1 #bia ,chicla1 #ace ,chikwawa1 #bhb ,chile1 #bgd-e ,chilian labour1 #bgg ,chilkoot ,pass1 #ajd ,china-- ,early days in1 #bhi-if ,eastern ,chinese railways1 #baa ,frontier1 #aih1 #baa-ac ,mileage of railways1 #bhi1 #cjg ,modern developments1 #big-cjg ,trade guilds1 #ae1 #af ,chinde1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhd ,chinese labourers1 #ad-af1 #fi1 #baj1 #bab ,chinook1 the1 #ajc1 #cag ,chiromo1 #bhc1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bhg ,chisso1 workman1 #db ,chosica1 #acj ,christchurch1 #aid ,christiania1 #bfb-d1 #bfi ,christo ,redentor1 statue of1 #bge ,chungzoune ,river1 #bee1 #beg1 #beh ,circum-,baikal line1 #bjd-i ,cleveland ,engineering ,bridge-building ,co41 #add1 #aeg ,col de ,frjus4 ,see ,cenis ,tunnel ,colladon1 ,prof41 #cf ,collie district1 #ahf-g ,colorado1 mountains of1 #afb-c ,columbia ,river1 #f1 #bh1 #bcd1 #bej1 #cjh1 #cji1 #cbb ,congo ,free ,state1 #adi ---- ,river1 #aej1 #aea ,congolo1 #aea ,constantinople1 #abb ,coolgardie-- ,condensing plant1 #ahh-i ,gold rush1 #ahf1 #ahg ,railway enterprise1 #aij-ia ,cooper1 ,fenimore1 ,the ,pathfinder1 #ff ,cordilleras1 the1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #acb1 #bgd 8,corduroying10 #ah ,corean labour1 #bab ,corkscrew grading1 #abd-e1 #bcc ,cornwall1 #bb ,council ,bluffs1 #fb1 #fc1 #fe ,cragellachie1 #bch ,cromer1 ,lord1 #aeb ,cuba1 trade1 #bdj-da ,cumbres ,pass1 #afi ,curzon railway bridge 7,allahabad71 #beb-d ,dakota1 ,north1 #bbi1 #cbj ,dallas1 #agj ,dalnaspiel1 #agc ,dalwhinnie1 #agc ,damascus1 #aag1 #aah1 #aba1 #abb ---- ,repairing works at1 #abf ,darling ,mountains1 #ahi ---- ,range1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #ahi ---- ---- ,upper1 #ahg ,darlington1 #add ,dartmoor1 #agc ,dawson1 #ajc1 #aaa ,deane1 ,henry1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 #ahj-ha1 #aia ,denver1 #aga1 #agb1 #agd ---- ,rio ,grande railway1 #h1 #afb1 #afc1 #cad ,deraa1 #abb1 #abc ---- ,river1 #abb ,dervishes1 #aec1 #aef ,des ,moines1 #fe ,deuchars1 ,g41 #beg ,dhorabhave ,river1 #bej ---- ,viaduct1 #bej ,diamondopolis1 #ada ,dickson1 ,norman ,b41 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 #bae1 #bah-bc ,dinas1 #gi ,dovrejelf ,range1 #bfc-d ,drave ,river1 #id ,dublin ,south-,eastern railway1 #bc ,dufile1 #afj-fa ,dunedin1 #aif ,durant1 ,thomas ,c41 #fj1 #fb1 #fe1 #gj ,dyaks1 #e ,eagle ,pass1 #g1 #bch ---- ,river ,canyon1 #aga ,east ,indian railway1 #bej ,eastern ,chinese railways1 #baa ,edward1 ,king1 ,victoria ,bridge opened by1 #ea ,egypt-- ,british penetration1 #aai ,railways in1 #aeb-c ,eiffel ,tower1 #afi ,ekaterinburg1 #aii ,el ,misti1 #acg ,el ,obeid1 #aeg ,electric drills1 #if1 #ajj ,electrical system1 single-phase alternating current1 #ef ,elizabethville1 #aej ,elswick1 #bjj ,ermak1 ice-breaker1 #bjf ,espirito ,santo1 #bad ,euphrates ,valley1 #abc 8,everglades1 ,the10 #bda-f1 #bdi ,fades ,viaduct1 #ade ,fairbanks1 #aab ,favre1 ,l41 #cd1 #ci1 #dj1 #db ,feather ,river1 #caf ---- ,river ,canyon1 #caf1 #cah ,fell system1 the1 #bag ,festiniog ,toy railway1 #gf-gi1 #ha ,field1 #bca 8,fighting gang10 #bh ,fires1 forest1 #bce-f ,fjeldberg1 #bfd ,flagler1 ,henry1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdi 8,flagler's ,folly10 #bdb1 #bdi ,flat ,creek ,viaduct1 #aig ,floods1 #bai-bj1 #bea ,florida ,east ,coast railway1 #bdj-di ,formosa1 #bia ,fort ,augusta1 #aij ---- ,johnston1 #bhg ,fox1 ,sir ,douglas1 and ,partners1 #bhe ,foxwood ,tunnel1 #bc ,france1 railway interests1 #bie1 #bii1 #cja-ad ,fraser1 ,james1 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 #aha-b ---- ,river ,canyon1 #bci ,fremantle1 #aic ,fremont ,pass1 #afh-i ,fritsch1 ,prof41 #cc ,fung ,shui1 influence of1 #bhi1 #bif ,galera ,tunnel1 #ace-f1 #ach1 #bgd ,gales1 ,robert ,r41 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 #bec ,galilee1 ,sea of1 #abc ,ganges1 bridges1 #beb1 #bec ,garry1 ,fort1 #bbd ,gauges-- ,metre1 #bae ,narrow-gauge system1 #gh1 #aje1 #aaa ,standard1 #bfg ,uniform1 need for1 #agf ,wide1 #dh ,gellivare iron mines1 #bfj ,gelpke1 ,m4 ,o41 ,c4,e41 #cc ,geraldton1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi ,german railway interests1 #cc1 #bie ,girouard1 ,sir ,percy1 #aec ,gjeilo1 #bfh ,gloggnitz1 #ib ,godavari ,bridge1 #bej ---- ,river1 #bej ,gokteik ,viaduct1 #bej1 #bed-i ,gold ,range1 the1 #f1 #bch ,gold rush to-- ,california1 #fj ,colorado1 #afc ,klondyke1 #ajc1 #aaj ,san ,francisco1 #fe ,golden ,gate1 the1 #fc1 #fe ---- ,horn1 #fd ,gondoroko1 #aeh1 #afj ,gschenen1 #ce1 #da ,gta ,bridge1 #bfj-fb ---- ,river1 #bfj-fa ,gothenburg1 #bfb ,gould1 ,jay1 #dg ,goz ,abu ,guma1 #aeg ,grading1 ,corkscrew1 #dc1 #abd-e1 #aie1 #bcc ---- ,switchback1 #bai ---- ,zigzag1 #agg-ha1 #ahg1 #bai ,grand ,trunk railway1 #dh1 #ed1 #eh1 #adc ,grand ,trunk ,railway ,co41 #dg ,grant1 ,general1 #fh-i ,grattoni1 engineer1 #cb ,gravehals ,tunnel1 #bfd-f ,great ,britain1 railway interests1 #ia1 #ajd1 #add1 #adg1 #aed-e1 #aeg1 #bad-bc1 #bed1 #bgf1 #bie1 #cjj ---- ,lakes1 the1 #dg1 #eh1 #afb1 #caa ---- ,northern railway1 #ba1 #cjh1 #caa-ad ---- ,salt ,lake1 #gj ---- ,wall of ,china1 #big1 #bih ---- ,western railway1 #agc ---- 8,zigzag10 the1 #agi-hj ,greymouth1 #aid ,guilds1 ,chinese1 #ae1 #af ,gulf ,stream1 #ajc ,gwaai ,river1 #adb 8,hadj10 the1 #aag ,haifa1 #abb ,halfa1 #aeh ,hamilton1 #dg1 #dh ,hand-signalling1 #bjb ,hanging ,bridge1 the1 #afd-g1 #aji ,hankow1 #bii-cja ,harbin1 #bic1 #bii ,harriman1 ,e4 ,h41 #bh-i1 #gb ,harte1 ,bret1 #gj ,havana1 #bda ,hawkesbury ,bridge1 #ahb ---- ,river1 #ahb ,head hunters1 #d ,hector1 #bca ,hedjaz ,peninsula1 #abc ---- railway1 #aag-bg ,hellgate ,canyon1 #caa ,hellwag1 ,m41 #dj-db1 #aie ,hereros rebellion1 the1 #ha-b1 #hd1 #he ,heritier1 ,grand ,duke1 #bjj ,high ,nile level1 #aeh ,hill1 ,james ,j41 #bh1 #bi1 #ahe1 #caa ,hindoos-- ,as traders1 #bhg ,daily wage1 #ac1 #ad ,hoang-ho ,river1 #bga ,hobson1 ,g4 ,a41 #add1 #adg ---- ,joseph1 #ed ,hodges1 ,james1 #ej ,hollenburger ,river1 #id ---- ,viaduct1 #ie ,holy railway to ,mecca1 #aag-bg ,hooghley ,river1 #bej-ea ,horn1 ,cape1 #fj1 #fc1 #fe1 #abh1 #abi ,horne1 ,w4 ,c4 ,van1 #bcf1 #bcg ,hudson ,bay1 #bbd1 #bcd ---- ---- ,trading ,co41 #cjh ,humboldt ,river territory1 #cag ,huntington1 ,collis ,p41 #ei1 #fj1 #fb1 #fe1 #gb1 #cjh ,huron1 ,lake1 #ed ,huvudnas ,falls1 #bfj ,hydraulic drills 7,brandt71 #hh-ij1 #ih1 #bfe ---- shield1 the1 #ed1 #hi ---- sluicing1 #bj-ba1 #cba-b ,ibex1 #afc ,icebreakers1 #bjj1 #bjf-g ,ichine ,river1 #bjb ,illecillewaet ,river1 #bch ,implements1 #af ,inca1 #bgd ,india-- ,british1 railway bridges1 #bej-ei ,rivers of1 #bej-ea ,indians-- ,missouri1 #fd-i1 #cab ,pawnee1 friendly1 #ff1 #fh ,rising1 #ahgf-gg1 #caj ,sioux1 #fg ,trails1 #bcd1 #caf ,indus1 #bej ,infiernillo ,bridge1 #acd ,innsbruck1 #ij ,international ,conference1 the1 #dj ,ireland1 ,brunel's work1 #bc-e ,irkutsk1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bje ,irtych ,river1 #bja-c ,isonzo ,gorge1 #ig ,italy1 railway interests1 #cc1 #ce1 #hb-he1 #bag ,ito1 ,prince1 #cje ,iwakura1 ,prince1 #cjf ,japan-- ,modern developments1 #big-cjg ,sea of1 ,insular railway1 #cje ,south1 rebellion in1 #cje ,jardine1 ,matheson ,co41 ,messrs41 #bij1 #bia1 #bie-f 8,jaws of ,death10 the1 #bcg ,johnson1 ,edwin ,f41 #cji ,jordan1 ,river1 #abb1 #abc ,jubilee ,bridge across the ,hooghly1 #bej1 #bea ,judah1 ,theodore ,d41 #fa-d1 #caf ,julian ,alps1 the1 #ic1 #ig ,jumna ,river1 #bec ,kafue ,bridge1 #adg ---- ,river1 #adg ,kaisim ,pasha1 #aai-ba ,kalgoorlie1 #aij1 #aib ,kalomo1 #ade-f ,karawanken railway1 #id-h ---- ,range1 #ic1 #ie ---- ,tunnel1 #ie1 #aih ,katanga1 #adi ,kerma1 #aec ,key1 ,grassy1 #bdg ---- ,long1 #bdg ---- ,west1 #bda1 #bdf ,keys1 the1 #bdb1 #bdg1 #bdh-i ,khabarovsk1 #bja1 #baa1 #bab ,khartoum1 #aec1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj ---- ,bridge1 #aeg ,khilkoff1 ,prince ,m4 ,i41 #bjg-h ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 #bbe1 #bcj1 #bcb-d1 #caf ,kilsby ,ridge1 #ai ---- ,tunnel1 #ai ,kimberley1 #ada ,kinambla ,valley1 #aha ,kinder1 ,c4 ,w41 #bib1 #big ,kindu1 #aea ,kioto-,otsu line1 #cjf ,kitchener1 ,lord-- ,australian railways1 on1 #aij1 #aic ,expedition against the ,mahdi1 #aec-d ,kituta1 #adi-ej ,kivu1 ,lake1 #aej ,klagenfurt1 #id ,klaus1 #id 8,klondike10 #ajc1 #ajh1 #aaj-aa ,knight's ,key1 #bdi ,kobe1 #cje ,kobe-,osaka line1 #cje ,koppel1 ,arthur1 #hj ,kotlass1 #bab ,kowloon1 #bii1 #cjj ,krasnoiarsk1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjg ,krems ,valley1 #id ,la ,paz1 #acf1 #bgi-hj ,la ,prairie1 #df1 #eh ,labour-- ,brazilian ,portugee1 the1 #bbc ,cape to ,cairo1 native record day's work1 #ade-f ,chilian1 #bgg ,chinese1 #ab-af1 #bbc1 #cja ,female1 #cja ,indian coolie1 #bic ,italian1 #hb-e ,siberian exile1 #baj1 #bab ,landore ,viaduct1 #bb ,land's ,end1 #bdd ,landslides1 #ach1 #bai-bj ,lan-ho ,bridge1 #bic-d ---- ,river1 #bic ,lansdowne ,bridge1 #bej ,lao-,chay1 #cjb ,las ,cuevas1 #bgd1 #bge ,lawley1 ,a4 ,l41 #adg ,lay1 ,h4 ,n41 #cjd ,leadville1 #afc-d1 #afh-i ,lebarge1 ,lake1 #ajd ,leopoldina railway1 the1 #bad-bc ,leslie1 ,sir ,bradford1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,m4,i4,c4,e41 #bea1 #bhb-c1 #bhg ,lewis ,clark1 ,messrs41 #cjh ,li-,hung-,chang1 #bia-b1 #bie ,limbi1 #bhg 8,limited10 the1 on 8,big ,hill10 #bca-b ,linz1 #id ,lithgow ,valley1 #agh 8,little ,wonder10 the1 #gg ,liverpool1 #bjh ---- ,manchester railway1 #df ,livingstone1 #aci ,lobengula1 #ada ,london ,north-,western railway1 #ag1 #gf ---- to ,vancouver in the 'fifties1 #bbd ,los ,andes1 #bgj1 #bgg ,lott1 ,julius1 #hi ,lucerne1 ,lake of1 #dc ,luchenza ,river1 #bhf ,lucin ,cut-off1 the1 #ga-e ,ma'an1 #abb-d 8,machilla10 #bhc ,madras ,north-,east line1 #bej ,mafeking1 #ada ,mahdi1 the1 #aai1 #aeb ---- ,kitchener's expedition1 #aec-d ---- ,terms made with1 #aci ,mahommedanism1 the ,holy railway1 #aag-bg ,maidenhead ,bridge1 #bc ,makatote ,gorge1 #aie ---- ,viaduct1 #aie-f ,mallet locomotives1 #big ,manchester ,liverpool railway1 #ag ,manchuria1 #baa1 #bab ,marshall ,pass1 #afh ,mashonaland1 #ada ,matabele1 the1 #ada ,matecumbe1 ,upper and ,lower1 #bdg ,matucana1 #acd ,maua1 #baf ,mecca1 #aba ---- the ,holy railway to1 #aag-bg ,mechanical percussion rock-drill1 #cf ,medina1 #aag1 #abf ---- -,saleh1 #abe ,meiggs1 ,henry1 #abi1 #acj-cb1 #acc-ace1 #bgj 8,meiggs' ,v-switch10 #acj-cb1 #ace-bgj ---- ,the 8zigzag0 system1 #agg ,meissner ,pasha1 ,h41 #aba1 #abd-f ,melbourne1 #ahd1 #aij ,menai ,straits ,bridge1 #ej ,mendoza1 #bgj1 #bgc1 #bge ---- ,river1 #bga-b1 #bgd ,meredith1 ,j4 ,o41 #bdc-d ,metcalfe1 ,sir ,charles1 ,bart41 #ade-adf1 #bhe ,metre-gauge1 #bfc1 #bfg ,mexican ,central1 the1 #c ,mexico1 #afb ---- ,native labour1 #ac ---- ,gulf of1 #bdj1 #bdf-h ,miami1 #bdj-da1 #bdi ---- to ,havana1 ,key ,west1 #bda-i ,miasma1 #bdb-d ,midland railway 7,w4,a471 #ahg1 #ahi ,minaes1 #bad ,minnesota1 #cah ,mississippi ,river-- ,bridges1 #bej ,scouring of the1 #beb ,missouri ,river1 #fa1 #fb1 #fd1 #ff1 #bej1 #cji1 #cab1 #cai1 #cbb 8,mixed trains10 #bid ,mjolfjeld1 #bfh ,moberly1 ,walter1 #f1 #bch ,moffatt1 ,david ,h4 ,m41 #aga1 #agb 8,moffatt0 road1 the1 #afb1 #afc ,mollendo1 #acf1 #bga1 #bgi ,mongolia1 beasts of burden from1 #baa ,mont ,cenis 8,fell0 railway1 #bag ,montana1 #bbi1 #cbj ---- ,hellgate ,canyon1 #caa ---- ,mineral wealth1 #cab ,montreal1 railway enterprise in1 #df-h ---- to ,vancouver1 #bbd ,morell1 ,e41 #cje1 #cjf ,morrison1 ,g4 ,j41 #bij ,mountain railways1 the first1 #ia-b ---- sickness1 #i1 #acf ,mouraviev-,amoursky1 ,count1 #aih ,mowbridge1 #cbj ,m',swadzi ,river1 #bhf ,mud-slides1 #bcg ,muir1 ,john1 #aij-ia ,mukden1 #bic1 #bii ,muktar ,bey1 #abf ,mules1 ,andine1 #bhj ,mullan ,tunnel1 #caa ,munich1 #ic1 #aja ,murchison ,falls1 #bhb ---- gold-fields1 #ahh ,murzzuschlag1 #ib ,myssovaia1 #bja1 #bjf ,naihati1 #bej ,namiti ,gorge1 #cjb-d ---- ,valley1 #cjb ,nanking1 #bif ,nankow ,pass1 #big-h ,naoyetsu1 #cjg ,natal railways1 #adj1 #aee ,neccaraviglia1 workman1 #db ,nevada1 #fa ,new ,south ,wales railways1 #agf-hd1 #ahf1 #bai ---- ,york1 #df1 #ei1 #fj1 #aee1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bee ---- ,york to ,san ,francisco1 #ae ---- ,zealand railways1 #aic-g ,niagara ,falls1 #eg ---- ,river suspension bridge1 #eg-eh1 #adc ,nicholas ,,ii41 #bjj ,nictheroy1 #baf ,nijneoudinsk1 #aii ,nikolsk1 #bab ,nile ,river1 #aed ---- ,blue1 #aef-g ---- ,expedition1 #ahhe-f1 #aec ---- ,high level1 #aeh ,nile ,rapids1 #afj-fa ---- steamers1 #aeh ---- ,white ,nile1 #aeg-h1 #afj ---- ,valley1 #aej1 #aeb ,nippon ,railway ,co41 #cjf ,north ,island 7,n4,z47 ,trunk railway1 #aid ,north1 ,major ,frank ,j41 #ff-h ,north ,wales ,narrow ,gauge railway1 #gf-hg ,northampton 7,w4,a471 #ahg ,northern ,pacific railway1 #cjh-aa ---- crisis1 #bci ,northern railway 7,w4,a471 #ahh ,north-,western ,state railway1 #beb ,norway1 #bfj ---- ,trans-,norwegian railway1 #bfb ,norwegian ,eastern railway system1 #bfg ,nyasa1 ,lake1 #bhb1 #bhg ,nyasaland-- ,negroes1 #bhc ,railways1 #bha-h ,oakland1 #cae ,ober ,villach1 #aja ,obi1 #bjj ---- ,river1 #bja-c1 #bje ,ofoten1 #bfj ,ogden1 #ge ,okuma1 ,count1 #cje ,omaha1 #fe1 #fh1 #cab ,omaruru1 #hb1 #he1 #hg ,omdurman1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeg ,omsk1 #aii ,ontario1 ,lake1 #ed1 #eg ,oodnadatta1 #ahd ,opcina ,tunnel1 #ig ,ophir ,loop1 #agj-ga ---- ,mountain1 #agj ,orange ,free ,state1 #adj ,oregon railways1 #bh-i ,orenburg1 #aii ,oriental ,bank1 #cje ,oroville1 #cad1 #caf ,oroya1 #acf ---- line1 #abi-ch1 #agg1 #bga ,osaka1 #cje ,osgood1 ,j4 ,o41 #aff-g ,ossouri railway1 #bja ,otago1 #aif ---- ,central railway1 #aif-g ,otavi line1 the1 #gi ---- the new 8,copperado10 #gi ,otira ,gorge1 #aid1 #aie ---- ,tunnel1 #aid-e ,otsu1 #cje ,ottoman ,government1 the1 and the ,bedouin1 #aah1 #aai ,ouguati1 #hb ,ovambo coolies1 #hc-d 8,overland ,limited10 the1 #ge 8,overland ,route10 #fe-f1 #ga1 #cag ,pacific ,central railway1 #fc1 #fe1 #gj1 #aih1 #cae ---- railway surveys1 #cji ---- ,western railway1 #cjh1 #cad-ah ,pons1 #ac ,palestine1 #aag1 #aai1 #abc ,panama1 ,isthmus of1 #fe1 #bdj ,parahybuna ,river1 #bba ,paramatta1 #agf ,parisian ,socit de ,construction des ,batignolles1 #cjc-d ,parkes1 ,sir ,harry1 #cjd-e ,pauling ,co41 ,messrs41 #ada ,pawnee ,indians1 #ff1 #fh ,payment in kind1 #bhg-h ,paznaun ,valley1 #ij ,pears1 ,a4 ,g41 #bhh ,pehtang1 #bia ,pekin1 #bif1 #bih-i ---- -,hankow railway1 #bii ---- -,kalgan railway1 #bie1 #big ---- -,nanking railway1 #bif ,pennsylvania ,steel ,co41 #bed1 #bee-i ,penrith1 #agg ,pequop ,range1 #gb1 #cag ,perth 7,w4,a471 #ahg-i ,peru1 #abi ,peruvian ,central railway1 #acf ---- ,corporation of ,london1 #ace ---- ,southern railway1 #bgi ,peto1 ,betts ,brassey1 ,messrs41 #dg1 #di1 #eb ,petropavlovsk1 #aii ,petropolis1 #baf1 #bba 8,phantom ,curve10 #afi ,placer ,river ,valley1 #aac ,poncha1 #afh ,ponthierville1 #aea ,port ,herald1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhf1 #bhg ---- ,sudan1 #afj ,portland1 ,atlantic ,coast1 #bi1 #dh ,portmadoc1 #gf ,portugal1 railway interests1 #bie ,princeton1 ,dartmoor1 #agc ,promontory ,range1 #gj1 #ga ,pueblo1 #afd1 #aga ---- and ,arkansas railway1 #afd-g ---- to ,leadville1 #afh ,puget ,sound1 #cji1 #cah ,pullman car1 the1 on the ,hedjaz railway1 #abf ,puno1 #acf1 #bgi ,puy de ,dme1 #ade ,pyrhn ,pass1 #id ---- railway1 #id ,queensland railways1 #agf1 #ahb1 #ahd ,rack system1 the1 #baf1 #bba1 #bee1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #bgi1 #cjg ,rainhill1 #df ,raiz da ,serra1 #baf ,rangoon1 #bee ,red ,sea1 the1 #abc1 #aeh1 #aei ,reinunga ,tunnel1 #bff-g ,rejaf1 #afj-fa ,resurrection ,bay1 #aab ,reuss ,river1 #ce ,rhodes1 ,cecil-- ,cape to ,cairo railway1 #aci-fa ,death of1 #adi ,rhodesia1 #ada1 #bhd ---- ,north-,west1 #ade ,riggenbach system1 the1 #baf ,rimac ,river1 #acj ,rinderpest1 #ada1 #baa ,rio de ,janeiro1 #bad1 #bae ---- ,bay of1 #baf-ag 8,rio de las animas perdidas10 #agj 8,riviera of ,america10 #bdi ,roa1 #bfg1 #bfi ,robinson1 ,a4 ,a41 the ,hanging ,bridge1 #afe-g 8,rocket10 ,stephenson's1 #df ,rockhampton1 #aij1 #aic ,rocky ,mountains1 the1 #fh1 #acf1 #afb1 #afd1 #afg-i1 #agj1 #agb1 #agc1 #aic1 #bcj1 #bca1 #cab-ac ---- avalanches1 #e1 #f ---- ,bozeman ,tunnel1 #caj-aa ---- ,mullan ,tunnel1 #caa ,rogers1 ,major ,a4 ,b41 #bcd ,rogers' ,pass1 #bcd ,rollins ,pass1 #afc1 #agc-d ,rosenbach ,valley1 #ie ,ross1 ,alexander ,m41 #di1 #ej1 #eb ,rouses's ,point1 #dg ,royal ,gorge1 #afd-g1 #agj ,ruapehu1 ,mount1 #aie ,ruo ,bridge1 #bhe-f ---- ,river1 #bhe ,russia1 ,asiatic1 #aih ---- ,european1 railways1 #aii1 #bje ,russo-,japanese ,war1 #bab ,sacramento1 #fc1 #gj1 #ga ,sahara1 the1 #gi ,st4 ,bernard ,hospice1 #afc ,st4 ,clair ,river1 #ed ---- ,tunnel1 #ed-f ---- ---- ,electrification1 #ef-g ,st4 ,gotthard ,tunnel1 #hh-ij1 #abi1 #aie1 #bcc2 footpath1 #cj-ca2 financial arrangements1 #ca-d2 hindrances1 #cd-f2 drilling1 #cf-g2 labour1 #cg-h2 water1 #ch-i2 deficit1 #ci2 death of ,m4 ,favre1 #dj2 borings completed1 #da-c2 the second track1 #dc-e ,st4 ,john's1 ,quebec1 #df1 #eh ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,victoria ,jubilee ,bridge1 #df-ed ,st4 ,paul ,pass1 #cbj-ba ---- railway1 #cjh ,st4 ,petersburg1 #bjc1 #bjg ,st4 ,pinnock ,viaduct1 #bb ,salt ,lake1 #fa1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc ---- ---- ,city1 #ga1 #afd1 #aga1 #cad1 #cag ---- ---- ,desert1 #cah ,saltash ,bridge1 #bc ,san ,bartholom1 #aca ,san ,diabolo ,range1 #cae ,san ,francisco1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #gj1 #aih1 #bbe1 #bda1 #cad1 #cae ,sarnia1 #ed ,sarras1 #aec ,scandinavia-- ,climate1 #ajc ,snow-ploughs1 #bfj ,schwarzach ,st4 ,veit1 #aja ,schwitzer1 ,j4 ,e41 #a1 #bcc ,scottish ,highlands railway1 #agc ,seattle1 #ajg1 #cah ,selkirk ,range1 the1 #f1 #bcd-h ---- 8,jaws of ,death10 the1 #bcg ---- ,rogers' ,pass1 #bcd ---- ,snow-sheds1 #bd1 #bce-g ---- ,split fences1 #bcf ---- ,stoney ,creek ,bridge1 #bcg-h ,sella1 ,lake of1 #db ,selzthal1 #id ,semmering ,pass1 #ib ---- ,range1 #ia ,sennar1 #aef-g ,severn ,tunnel1 #bgf ,seward1 #aab1 #aac ,shanghai1 #bac1 #bij1 #bia1 #bif ,shanghai-,nangchow-,ningpo railway1 #bih ,shanghai-,nanking railway1 #bie ,shanghai-,woosung railway1 #bij-bie ,shan-,hai-,kuan1 #bib1 #bid ,shellal1 #aeh ,sher ,shah1 #beb ,shir ,river1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhg ,siberia-- ,central railway1 #bjj1 #bjc ,climate of ,western1 #bjd ,exiles as labourers1 #baj-ab ,trans-,siberian railway1 #aih-bac ,tundras1 the1 #ah ,western railway1 #bjj1 #bjc 8,siberia10 disease1 #baa ,siberian ,central railway1 #bjj1 #bjc ,sierras ,main ,range1 grading and tunnelling1 #cad-ah ,simplon ,tunnel1 #ajj ,sioule ,river1 #ade ,sioux1 the1 #fg ,skaguay1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aaa-ab ---- railway from1 #ajc-e ,slave-trade1 ,central ,africa1 #bhb-c ,smith1 ,c4 ,shaler1 #aff ,smith's ,mill1 #ahg ,snow-plough1 the1 #aaa1 #agc1 #bcb1 #bfh-i1 #bgh ,snow-sheds1 #bce-g ,snow-slides1 #bcf ,snowdon ,station1 #gi ,soldier's ,leap1 #bgh ,sommeiller1 #cb ,sone ,bridge1 #bej ,sorocht1 sickness1 #i ,south ,boulder ,canyon1 #agb ---- ,island1 ,n4,z41 #aid1 #aig 8,spiral0 grading and tunnelling1 #dc1 #aie1 #bcc 8,split fences10 #bcf ,spooner1 ,c4 ,e41 #gg ,stanford1 ,leland1 #fj1 #fb1 #fe1 #gj ,stanley1 #aci ,stanleyville1 #aea ,stattnitz1 #id ,steel1 first used for bridges1 #bfj ,steelton1 #bed1 #bee1 #beh ,stelvio road1 #afc1 #agj1 #bgg ,stephen1 ,mount1 #bcj ,stephenson1 ,george1 #ag1 #ai1 #cj1 #df1 #di-eb1 #cjh ,steyr ,river1 #id ,stoney ,creek ,bridge1 #bcg-h ---- ---- ,plain1 the1 #abc 8,straight ,line10 the longest in the world1 #bgj ,stretensk1 #bja1 #baa1 #bab ,styria1 #ia ,suakin1 #aei1 #afj ,sudan-- ,railways1 #aec1 #aed1 #aef1 #aeh ,upper1 #aeg1 #aeh ,work of the ,government1 #afj1 #afa ,sudan ,development and ,exploration ,co41 #aeh1 #afj 8,sudd10 #afj ,suez ,canal1 #bab1 #bac ---- ,gulf1 #aei ,sukkur1 #bej ,superior1 ,lake1 #bbf-g1 #bcj1 #cji ,swakopmund1 #gi1 #ha1 #hb1 #hd1 #he1 #hg ,sweden1 bridges1 #bfj ,switchback grading1 #bai ,switzerland-- ,alps1 the1 #afb ,financing the ,st4 ,gotthard1 #cc ,railways1 #baf ,tunnelling in1 #cj ,sydney1 #agg1 #aij ---- railway to ,paramatta1 #agf ---- railway to ,queensland1 #ahb ,tabuk1 #abd1 #abe ,tacoma1 #cah ,takasaki-,naoyetsu railway1 #cjg ,tamboraque1 #acd ,tanganyika1 #adi-ej ,tasmanian ,sea1 #aic ,tauern ,range1 #ic1 #ih ---- ,tunnel1 #ih-aja ,taugevand1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bff ,tcheliabinsk1 #bjj1 #bjb ,tcheliabinsk-,kourgan1 #aii ,teichl ,river1 #id ,telephone across ,victoria ,falls1 first use1 #adc-d ,tennessee ,pass1 #afi ,tessin ,river1 #ce ,texas forests1 #gc ,thompson ,river ,canyon1 #bci ,thorndike1 ,william1 #ace-f ,tientsin1 #bib ,tigris ,valley1 #abc ,tioumen1 #aii1 #bje ,titicaca1 ,lake1 #acf1 #acg1 #bgi ,tobol1 the1 #bjb ,tokio1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cjg ---- -,kakasaki railway1 #cjf ---- -,sendai railway1 #cjf ---- -,yokohama railway1 #cje ,tolosa1 #bgd ,toltec ,bridge1 #afi ---- ,tunnel1 #afi ,tomsk1 #aii1 #bje1 #bac ,tong-,king-,sing1 ,general1 #bia-b ,tongshan1 #bia1 #bic 8,topographers' ,gulch10 #cba ,torano ,range1 #cag1 #cah ,toronto1 #dh 8,toy0 railway1 ,festiniog1 #gf-i ,track-layer1 the1 #adf ,training-bund1 #beb1 #bec ,trans-andine railway1 the1 #bgj1 #bgd ,trans-,baikal railway1 #bja ,trans-,continental railway-- ,first ,canadian1 #bbd-ci ,proposed ,australian1 #ahi-ic ,united ,states1 first1 #ei-ge ,trans-,norwegian railway1 #bfb ,trans-,siberian railway1 #aih-bac1 #bic1 #bii1 #cjj ,transvaal-- ,cost of railways1 #adj ,negro labour1 #bhc ,tremola ,river1 #ce ,trieste1 #ia1 #ib1 #aja ,trisanna ,viaduct1 #ij ,trllhtten1 #bfb ---- ,falls1 #bfj ,tsumeb1 #gi1 #he ,tuchili ,river1 #bhf ,tugela ,bridge1 #aee ,tupungato1 #bgd ,turnagain ,arm1 #aac ,two-foot gauge1 #gh ,uddevalla-,wenersborg-,herljunga railway1 #bfj ,uganda1 #afj ,union ,pacific railway1 #fc1 #gj1 #aga1 #aih ,united ,kingdom1 mileage in #ahgj1 #bhi ,united ,states-- ,first trans-continental1 #ei-ge ,mileage in #ahgj1 #bhi ,railway interests1 #aab1 #bci1 #bie ,railways1 #agf1 #ahe1 #bjh ,upsallata ,station1 #bgc ,ural ,mountains1 #aii1 #bja1 #bje1 #bac ,usakos1 #hf ,usamburu1 #aej ,usui ,pass1 #cjg ,valparaiso1 #bgj ,vancouver1 #ajg1 #bbd ,vasquez1 #agd ,verrugas ,bridge1 #acb-d1 #acf1 #ach 8,verrugas fever10 #acc-e ,verrugas ,river1 #acb ,viaducts1 overhanging principle1 #beg ,victoria1 #agf1 #ahd ---- ,bridge 7,zambesi71 #adb-d1 #aeg ---- ,desert1 #aij ---- ,falls1 #adb-d ---- ,jubilee ,bridge 7,st4 ,lawrence71 #ea-d ,vienna1 #ia1 #ic-d ,villa ,bocage1 #bhb1 #bhg ,villach1 #aja ,vladivostok1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjb1 #baa1 #bab ,vossevangen1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bfi 8,v-switches10 #acj-cb1 #ahj1 #bgd ,wadi ,haifa1 #aec ,waian timber trestle1 the1 #aig ,wales1 ,north1 ,toy railway1 #gf-hg ,walkaway1 #ahi ,walker1 ,messrs4 ,c4 ,h4 ,co41 #bgf ,wallula ,pacific railway1 #bh ,wankie coalfield1 #adb ,wapata ,mountain1 #bcc ,wash-outs1 #bai-bj ,wellington1 #aid ,west ,indies1 #bdj ,westinghouse ,electric ,co41 #ef-g ,white ants1 #adb1 #bhd ,white de luxe express1 #aeh ,white ,horse1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj ---- ,horse summit1 #aaj ,white ,nile ,bridge1 #aeg-h ---- ,pass1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aaa ---- ,pass and ,yukon line1 #aje-ab ---- ,pass summit1 #aaj1 #aaa 8,white ,tiger10 the1 #bhi1 #bif ,whitton1 ,john1 #agh-hj ,whitworth ,co41 ,messrs41 #bjj1 #bjf ,wicklow1 #bb-bc ,windhuk1 #hb ,wingatui ,viaduct1 #aif-g ,winnipeg1 #bbd ,wochenier ,tunnel1 #ig-h 8,wooden flanges10 #df ,woosung1 #bij1 #bif ,wurzner ,save ,valley1 #ig ,yablonovoi ,range1 #bji ,yamagata1 ,prince1 #cjf ,yarmuk ,river1 #abb ,yellow fever1 #bae ,yellow ,gorge4 ,see ,amarillo ,gorge ---- ,river ,bridge1 #bii ,yellowhead ,pass1 #bcj ,yellowstone ,river1 #cbj ,yenisei ,bridge1 #bjd ---- ,river1 #bja1 #bjd ,yokohama1 #cje ,yukon ,river1 #ajd1 #ajh ,yun-nan1 #cja-b ---- railway1 #cja-d ,yun-nan-,sen1 #cjb ,zambesi ,river1 #adb1 #adg1 #aej1 #bha1 #bhb ,zigzag grading1 #agg-ha1 #ahg1 #bai ---- the ,great1 #agh-hj ,zlatoost1 #aii1 #bjb ,zyrkousounsk ,mountain ,chain1 #bjf ,,the ,,end ,rickard ,clay ,sons1 ,limited1 ,london and ,bungay ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,inconsistent appearance of page ranges was not changed4 ,page #fd3 8,golden ,horn0 was printed that way1 but it refers to the ,golden ,gate ,strait in ,california2 the ,golden ,horn is in ,turkey4 ,page #fe3 8'#dg0 was printed that way1 but gold was discovered at ,sutter's ,mill in ,january1 #ahdh4