,,the ,,strange ,,adventures ,,of ,a ,,pebble ,,strange ,,adventures ,,in ,,nature',s ,,wonderlands ,,the ,,strange ,,adventures ,,of ,a ,,pebble ,,by ,,hallam ,,hawksworth ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,adventures ,,of ,a ,,grain ,,of ,,dust ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,boston ,copyright1 #aiba1 by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,a ,,the ,,scribner ,,press ,,preface ,the purpose of this little book is to present the chief features in the strange story of the pebbles2 and so of the larger pebble we call the earth4 ,it is hoped that readers of various ages will be entertained1 without suspecting that they are being taught4 ,several things led the author to believe that such a book might be wanted4 7a7 ,the circumstances under which it was written4 7b7 ,the fact that there seemed to be an opportunity for improvement not only in the popular presentation of scientific topics but in the character and method of review questions and suggestions following such topics in school texts4 7c7 ,experience has shown that pictures may be made to perform a much more vital function in teaching than is usually assigned to them in the text-books4#a ,footnote #a3 ,on this subject ,i cannot do better1 perhaps1 than quote from an article on ,the ,picture ,book in ,education1 contributed to the ,new ,york ,evening ,post3 ,we learn more easily by looking at things than by memorizing words about them4 ,the principle1 of course1 holds whether the image which the eye receives comes from the object itself or only from the picture of the object4 ,therefore we should learn to read pictures as well as books4 ,new ,york has long recognized the added efficiency in the teaching process to be obtained from the use of pictures4 ,the ,division of ,visual ,instruction1 established thirty years ago1 has an international reputation for the extent of its equipment1 the simplicity of its methods1 and the excellence of its results4 7d7 ,in the particular field to which this story relates comparatively little has been written either for reading in the family circle or for use in the school2 although the relation of physiography1 not only to human history and political and commercial geography but to the whole immense realm of natural science1 is so basic and its great principles and processes so striking in their appeal to curiosity and our sense of the grand and the dramatic4#b ,footnote #b3 ,commenting on the need of popular literature dealing with earth science1 ,doctor ,shaler says3 ,in no other fields are large and important truths so distinctly related to human interests so readily traced2 yet the treatises dealing with these truths are few in number and generally recondite4 ,what here appear as chapters were originally little talks for the evening entertainment of the juvenile members of a certain family and the neighboring children1 who were attracted by what came to be known as the pebble parties1 during the season at ,mount ,desert ,island4 ,they are here given in substantially the form in which they first saw the light4 ,while they proved entirely intelligible to boys and girls of eight and ten they seemed equally interesting to the older members of the audience1 including a youth of eighteen in his last year of high school1 whose comments1 in the language of his caste1 deserve to share the credit for whatever of whimsical humor and colloquial style the author may have succeeded in incorporating into the narrative4 ,the familiar tone1 the number and variety of the chapters1 the sub-heads and marginal captions and the character and treatment of the illustrations have a similar origin4 ,they represent the variety of aspects under which it was found necessary to present the facts in order to hold a capricious audience whose attendance and attention were wholly voluntary4 ,the use of unfamiliar words and scientific terms has been avoided as much as possible1 consistent with the educational purpose of the book4 ,it is to be remembered that educators do not consider it good practice to omit all words which children cannot understand at sight2 the theory being that it is by the judicious introduction of words not current on the playground that the intellectual interests and capacities of children are enlarged4 ,with regard to scientific topics 7it is further argued7 a large proportion of the classics of science written for the general reader and which boys and girls of fourteen and upward should be able to read easily and with pleasure--,shaler1 ,darwin1 and ,wallace1 for example--contain quite a few scientific terms2 and these it would be well that young people learn from context or definition in their previous reading in works of a more elementary nature4 ,moreover1 while younger children will read a book the general character of which interests them1 even though they do not understand every word or get all the thoughts in it1 sophisticated youths of the high-school age will have none of it1 if they suspect that they are being talked down to4 ,in the story of the pebble the aim1 accordingly1 has been not only to make a book that young people will not outgrow but one that will be of some interest to adults1 particularly to travellers4 ,not only in the text is special emphasis laid on the interpretation of landscape1 but the character1 treatment1 and arrangement of the illustrations is intended to train the eye to read the story of the earth drama as recorded in the forms of valley1 mountain1 field1 and shore4 ,and--since the earth is not1 after all1 a mere geological specimen--these illustrations include reproductions of paintings1 scenery as interpreted by the poet and the artist4 ,to create an appropriate atmosphere and so add to the vividness of conception1 the twelve chapters each deal with a seasonable subject4 ,relation to the ,text-,book ,the relation of this book to the formal study of physiography or geology in the schools will be apparent4 ,the classified and exhaustive treatment of the text-book1 while so admirably adapted to organize knowledge already acquired1 or reward an appetite already aroused1 is not at all adapted for creating this appetite in the first place2 a thing so essential to true progress in education4 ,for example1 in a text-book1 the many aspects of glaciers and their work1 which are here distributed in a number of sections 7as the discovery of these aspects was distributed in time71 are usually dealt with in a single chapter or series of chapters1 whose nature the reader at once gathers from the title1 ,the ,work of the ,glaciers4 ,the young reader or school pupil is thus deprived of the element of surprise1 of the pleasure of following an unfolding mystery1 which was at once the inspiration and reward of men of science to whom we owe these discoveries4 ,if left to the text-book alone1 the student acquires his facts too rapidly and too easily4 ,the result is a loss of both pleasure and profit4 ,the movements of the glaciers and the nature of the movement1 which gave ,agassiz seven years of keen delight to ascertain1 the pupil acquires through his text-book in something like seven minutes1 and without either the pleasure or the profit of ,agassiz' gradual and inductive acquirement of this knowledge4 ,in other words1 to begin the study of a given science by means of a text-book1 without previously arousing interest in the subject1 is to assume a greater zeal on the part of school pupils and college students than1 it is reasonable to assume1 was possessed by the scientists themselves4 ,it was the attraction of the unknown rather than the rapid acquirement of the known that drew them on to their grand discoveries1 their illuminating generalizations4 ,in recording the pebble's story the endeavor has been to cause the reader to come upon the data on which these generalizations were based1 piece by piece1 here a little and there a little--as did the scientists themselves4 ,interesting as the mere facts of physiographic science finally become to the trained scientist they make little appeal either to the average boy or the average adult1 if he must first come in contact with them as they are presented in the text-book2 classified1 catalogued1 labelled in scientific terms and laid away 7as it seems to him7 in chapter1 section1 and paragraph1 like specimens in a museum4 ,since this book is concerned mainly with landscapes and the story of the forces that helped to shape them it does not undertake to deal with mineralogy4 ,within the fields thus defined it is believed that the larger facts1 the great moving causes of things1 have been covered as thoroughly as they are in the average elementary text-book4 ,in addition1 subjects in great variety are touched upon which do not come within the province of the text-book1 but are such as naturally suggest themselves in the broader and richer discussion of such topics in the conversation of cultivated people4 ,hide and ,seek in the ,library ,since the whole purpose of the school is to prepare for the larger world of life and books outside the school1 special attention is invited to the department of questions and suggestions following each chapter4 ,as indicated in the introduction to the first of the series1 an effort has been made to capitalize the fact that young people enjoy conundrums and curious quests in the field of books quite as well as mere passive reading4 ,the treatment is somewhat discursive1 and in this and other respects is intended to be more like the conversation of cultivated parents with their children than like the review questions of a text-book2 the review element being incidental1 in recalling the topics out of which these questions and suggestions grow4 ,the correlations in the most modern texts lead into equally wide and varied fields4 ,if he has succeeded in the aim thus indicated1 the author believes this department may easily prove one of the most interesting as well as educatively useful features of the work4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,in the ,beginning #a ,,ii4 ,the ,winter that ,lasted ,all ,summer #bj ,,iii4 ,the ,soul of the ,spring and the ,lands of ,eternal ,snow #da ,,iv4 ,the ,april ,rains and the ,work of the ,rivers #ff ,v4 ,the ,fairyland of ,change #ic ,,vi4 ,the ,secrets of the ,hills #aac ,,vii4 ,the ,stones of the ,field #ade ,,viii4 ,the ,desert #afa ,,ix4 ,in the ,lands of the ,lakes #aia ,x4 ,the ,autumn ,winds and the ,rock ,mills of the ,sea #bab ,,xi4 ,the ,handwriting on the ,walls #bcd ,,xii4 ,the ,end of the ,world #bfj ,index #bgi ,,the ,,illustrations ,in furtherance of the idea referred to in the preface1 that a far more effective use may be made of pictures in teaching than is usual1 a very extended use has been made of them in ,the ,strange ,adventures of a ,pebble1 and1 moreover1 these pictures have been made to talk1 as it were1 by means of extended analysis and comment upon their significant features2 this for the double purpose of teaching important facts1 as only pictures can teach1 and of stimulating the invaluable habit of observation and of logical reasoning about things observed4 ,one of the main purposes of the book1 as stated in the preface1 is to stimulate interest in further reading and study on the many subjects to which it relates4 ,the author wishes to make special acknowledgment of the co-operation of the editor of ,st4 ,nicholas and the following publishers in supplying the illustrations on the pages indicated3 ,the ,macmillan ,co43 #aa1 #bi1 #cf1 #da1 #eb1 #hc1 #ajh1 #aba1 #acb1 #ade1 #aeb1 #afh1 #agc1 #aie1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bce1 #bdj1 #bdi1 #bed1 #beg4 ,the ,century ,co43 ,for the following from the ,st4 ,nicholas magazine3 #ch1 #dg1 #gj1 #ahd1 #aii4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co43 #ab1 #bb1 #fj1 #ig1 #ajb1 #acf1 #ada1 #bbd1 #bcf1 #bda1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bdg1 #beb1 #beg4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons3 #ei1 #aje1 #adg4 ,e4 ,p4 ,dutton ,co43 #aeg4 ,henry ,holt ,co43 #cg1 #hd1 #adi1 #aic1 #bjg1 #bej4 ,silver ,burdett ,co43 #bh4 ,world's ,work3 #gi4 ,geological ,survey3 #ac1 #bc1 #aad1 #acj1 #aid1 #bch4 ,wisconsin ,survey3 #cc4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica3 #bef4 ,,the ,,strange ,,adventures ,,of ,a ,,pebble ,,chapter ,i 7,,january7 ,in the beginning the earth was without form and void4 --,genesis #a3a-b4 ,,in ,,the ,,beginning ,i4 ,how the ,worlds and ,myself ,were ,born ,i've been through fire and water1 ,i tell you6 ,from my earliest pebblehood the wildest things you could imagine have been happening to this world of ours1 and ,i have been right in the midst of them4 ,,how ,,mr4 ,,apollo ,,turned ,,on ,,the ,,light ,the first scenes of all in my strange1 eventful history remind me of the old ,greek story about ,apollo and that boy of his--,phaeton4 ,apollo's business1 you remember1 was to take the sun through the skies every day in his golden chariot1 so that people could see to get about4 ,it was a ticklish job1 as the horses were fiery4 ,as a rule1 however1 things went fairly well4 ,to be sure1 there were overdone days occasionally1 just as there are now4 ,then the crops would wither and the birds and brooks stop singing4 ,this1 as the little ,greek boys and girls believed1 was because ,apollo's horses ran too near the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,mr4 ,,apollo ,,turned ,,on ,,the ,,light ,behold the sun-god starting on his daily round6 ,aurora1 ,goddess of the ,dawn1 precedes him scattering flowers1 the lovely colors of the morning sky4 ,the other figures are the early hours4 ,the ,greek poets used to play with these myth stories a good deal1 changing them to suit their poetic fancy4 ,theocritus1 for example1 in a beautiful fragment that has come down to us1 paints this picture of the breaking day3 ,dawn1 up from the sea to the sky1 ,by her fleet-footed steeds was drawn4 ,you see1 according to this poet's conception1 ,miss ,dawn had a chariot of her own4 ,but nothing serious happened until one time ,phaeton persuaded father to let him drive the sun chariot for a day4 ,the horses1 feeling at once a new and weak hand on the reins1 tore out of the regular road and went dashing right and left4 ,they even got so near the ,north ,pole that the ice began to melt4 ,they fairly flew down toward the earth1 set the mountains smoking1 and dried up all the springs and most of the rivers4 ,,then ,,things ,,began ,,to ,,happen ,they dried up a certain great lake1 so that there is to this day the ,libyan ,desert in ,africa1 where this lake used to be4 ,they made the very sea shrink so that there were wide naked plains where once its billows rose4 ,finally ,mother ,earth called on ,jupiter ,pluvius1 as god of thunder1 rain1 and storms1 to stop ,phaeton and the runaways and put out the fire4 ,struck by a bolt of lightning poor ,phaeton fell headlong from the skies1 and a world-wide rain put out the world-wide fire4 ,illustration3 ,from a cameo by ,da ,vinci ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,phaeton 7,museum1 ,florence7 ,now1 would you believe it1 this queer old ,old ,world story may really be true in its way4 ,of course there never was a sun god and no spoiled boy who did just that thing2 although many spoiled boys have tried to set the world on fire and failed because they thought it would be so easy4 ,but the earth really has been on fire in a sense2 that is1 has melted from the heat4 ,and in parts where you would least suspect--the rocks4 ,there's where ,i got into it4 ,and some of these rocks1 not more than ten miles#c from where you live1 are either still molten1 or continue to melt from time to time2 as you can see when lava comes pouring from volcanoes1 such as those of ,hawaii4 ,footnote #c3 ,straight down1 of course4 ,in the days of the ,apollo story most men still thought the earth was the centre of the universe2 that the sun1 moon1 and stars moved around it4 ,but ,pythagoras1 one of the ,greek philosophers1 had formed a general notion of the truth that the earth is only one planet in a great system4 ,then1 along in the ,sixteenth ,century1 came ,copernicus1 and by mathematical calculation--he was a fine hand at figures--began to find out things that showed the wise old ,greek had made a happy guess4 ,then ,galileo1 ,kepler1 ,newton1 and others1 each working on different parts of the problem1 finally settled the question4 ,they found that there are just worlds of worlds1 and that ours is only one of them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,about the time of the ,american ,revolution a great ,french mathematician1 ,laplace1 worked out a story of the origin of the earth which is1 briefly1 this3 ,what we know now as the solar system--the sun with its attendant worlds--was once a single big ball of fiery gas1 a nebula4 ,as this nebula cooled it shrank1 and as it shrank it whirled faster because it had a smaller track in which to turn1 and with an equal amount of force would1 of course1 get around oftener4 ,the faster it whirled the more the outside of it tended to fly off1 as water flies off a whirling grindstone or as a stone flies from a sling4 ,this centrifugal or fly-away force was greatest at the sun's equator1 and it threw off big rings4 ,afterward1 around some centre of greater density in these rings1 the gaseous particles in the rest of the ring gathered1 so forming spheres4 ,then some of the spheres themselves threw off rings in the same way which became what are called satellites4 ,the moon1 which is our satellite1 ,laplace supposed to have originated in this way4 ,the ring which ,saturn still wears he thought would some day become a satellite4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,mount ,wilson ,observatory ,,watching ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,worlds ,at first you won't see anything very striking about this picture1 perhaps2 but doesn't it give you something of a thrill to be told that you are here looking not only at the making of a world1 but of worlds of worlds8 ,a whole solar system6 ,in the course of unthinkable time that big1 round ball in the center will be the sun1 and what appear to be little knots wrapped close around it--they are really far from each other and from the sun--will become rounded worlds like ours4 ,they will be forced into roundness by their own gravity1 pulling toward their centers4 ,they don't look any farther apart than the strands in a little sister's braided hair1 do they8 ,but remember how small this picture is compared with what it represents4 ,what here show as little dark lines1 separating the embryo worlds1 are in reality vast spaces1 like those you see between the stars at night--millions and millions and millions of miles6 ,so1 you see1 the myth story of ,phaeton foreshadowed1 in a way1 the science story of ,laplace4 ,for1 according to the ,laplace theory1 the world was on fire2 and a big rain storm1 lasting for ages1 with plenty of thunder and lightning1 did help put it out4 ,this theory of ,laplace was long accepted as the true one4 ,indeed1 it was only yesterday1 comparatively1 that other explanations were offered as to how we came to have a world to stand on4 ,the broadest of these new theories--the one that undertakes to explain the most--is that of ,professor ,chamberlin1 of the ,university of ,chicago4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,his ,,pebble ,,worlds ,however the worlds of our solar system may have been made1 when they were done there was the sun in the centre and his worlds travelling around him in their ordered orbits4 ,nearest the sun is ,mercury4 ,then ,venus1 ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus2 then1 finally1 ,neptune nearly #c1jjj1jjj1jjj miles away and with an orbit so big that ,christmas comes only once in #fj1jjj years6 ,,you ,,can ,,see ,,these ,,worlds ,,in ,,the ,,making ,owing to the more powerful telescopes of to-day1 and the amount of exploring among the worlds that has been going on since the time of ,laplace1 several things have been discovered that have brought his theory into question4 ,for one thing1 many more nebul have been found in space than were known when ,laplace worked out his great conception1 and among them all not one has been found with a central mass surrounded by a ring4 ,moreover1 our sharp-eyed telescopes show that ,saturn's ring1 which ,laplace thought was a solid mass1 is really made up of a great number of small satellites3 baby worlds4 ,the greater number of these nebul are like the ones you see in the illustration on page #e4 ,they consist of very bright centres with spirals streaming out from opposite sides4 ,just take a look at the picture4 ,doesn't the shape of those spirals suggest that the central mass is whirling8 ,and notice the little white lumps here and there4 ,the thinner1 veil-like portions of the mass1 as well as the lumps1 are supposed to be made of particles of matter1 but the lumps to be more condensed4 ,all the particles1 big and little1 are known to be revolving about the central mass1 much as the earth revolves about the sun4 ,the little white lumps1 or knots1 in the filmy skein are supposed to be worlds in the making4 ,being larger than the other particles1 they draw the smaller to them1 according to the same law of gravitation which makes every unsupported thing on earth fall to the ground1 because the earth is so much bigger than anything there is on it4 ,since these bright little lumps behave so much like the worlds we know as planets1 and yet are relatively so small1 they are called planetessimals1 or little planets4 ,so ,professor ,chamberlin's idea of the origin of worlds is known as the planetessimal theory4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,you ,,can ,,watch ,,the ,,world ,,turn ,,round ,timepieces1 you know1 are really machines for keeping track of the apparent movement of the sun4 ,here is a device1 as simple as a sun-dial and much simpler than a clock1 by which you can record the actual motion of the earth4 ,sprinkle the surface of the water in a bowl with chalk dust4 ,on this1 sift from a piece of paper powdered charcoal or pencil dust1 so as to make a clean-cut band extending across the centre and over the edge of the bowl4 ,in the course of several hours you will find that the black band has swept round from east to west1 because the water has stood still while the bowl has been carried from west to east by the whirling world4 ,according to this theory the earth was once a mere baby world like those white lumps1 and grew by gathering in its smaller neighbors from time to time by the power of gravitation4 ,the larger it grew the more particles of solid matter it could draw to itself4 ,then it drew larger masses1 for with increased mass came an increased pull of gravity4 ,in the same way the earth is still growing1 for it is thought that the shooting stars or meteors we see at night are little planets being gathered in4 ,,ii4 ,how the ,continents ,came ,up ,out of the ,sea ,and before ,i got to be myself at all1 while ,i was still only a part of the big pebble called the ,earth1 your geography and ,i lay at the bottom of the sea4 ,for ages and ages6 ,this is one of the stories you will find in the literature of science1 of how1 along with ,north ,america1 ,south ,america1 ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,australia--have ,i left out any8--,i came to land and brought your geography with me4 ,i remember hearing a pretty young lady say1 once upon a time3 ,there1 said she1 ,i'm through with geography forever6 ,you see1 although she had passed with marks around #ij1 she still had the idea that geography is a book4 ,you and ,i know1 of course1 that the real geography isn't a book at all4 ,it's the world itself4 ,,putting ,,the ,,continents ,,on ,,the ,,globe ,but there was a time when there was no land4 ,it was all water1 and the continents were lifted into their places1 much as you model a continent in making a relief map2 they were sketched out and then filled in4 ,north ,america1 for example4 ,first of all up came that mass in the northeast in what is now ,canada2 the ,laurentian ,highlands1 as they are called in your geography4 ,they rose very1 very slowly1 you understand1 only a few feet in a thousand years2 for ,nature has all the time there is and never hurries4 ,these highlands 7they are really granite mountains worn down71 along with the other rock formations of our continent1 are supposed to be the oldest land on the earth4 ,the continents of ,europe and the rest were born later4 ,so you see ,columbus didn't discover the ,new ,world at all2 he really came from the ,new ,world and discovered the ,old6 ,next after the highlands north of the ,st4 ,lawrence up came the tops of the mountains you see running along the eastern coast1 what we now call the ,appalachians4 ,then the ,rocky ,mountains began to raise their heads and looked eastward toward their brother mountains across a great mediterranean sea1 the bottom of which is now the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,mediterranean means middle of the land4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,your ,,geography ,,rose ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,admitting ,,new ,,states ,,to ,,the ,,map ,wisconsin1 into which ,i moved from the ,laurentian ,highlands in later years1 was on the lower end of a long1 thin tongue of rock reaching out from these highlands to the southwest4 ,while ,wisconsin went on growing1 the ,alleghanies came up and brought some ,middle ,atlantic geography with them4 ,up with all these early settler mountains came1 in the course of time1 the beginnings of neighbor ,states4 ,all these big1 barren rocks 7as they were then71 rising and ever rising1 age after age1 spread more surface to the sun4 ,and the sun1 and the wind1 and the frost1 followed by the lowest forms of plant life--the ,adams of the vegetable world--gradually worked the surface of the rock into soil2 and so1 as we may say1 got ready for the spring plowing4 ,illustration3 ,,lands ,,the ,,sea ,,has ,,swallowed ,parts of the continents as they used to be but which are now beneath the waters are here shown4 ,compare this with the globe map in your geography4 ,it is estimated that there are #aj1jjj1jjj square miles of this land4 ,you'll hear more about this swallowing habit of the sea in ,chapter ,x2 but1 as you will learn1 there's nothing to be frightened about4 ,by this constant rising and building on of the soil the foundations of our ,states grew out toward one another in order1 according to the constitution of things1 to form a more perfect union4 ,the ,united ,states1 at a time which1 we may say1 corresponds to ,the ,expansion ,period in your school history1 grew southward from ,wisconsin and westward from the ,appalachians until they made continuous land2 and there was your ,ohio and ,indiana and the rest of the ,north ,central group4 ,below1 toward the south1 were more big stone islands here and there1 the first sketches or blockings out of the ,southern ,states4 ,florida seems to have been added later1 as a final touch2 an afterthought1 as one of my ,wisconsin neighbors puts it4 ,and it was much enlarged by those remarkable little world builders1 the corals4 ,mexico and ,central ,america1 of course1 are a part of the ,rocky ,mountain system4 ,illustration3 ,from ,gilbert and ,brigham's ,an ,introduction to ,physical ,geography4 ,by permission of ,d4 ,appleton and ,company ,,but ,,won',t ,,we ,,go ,,under ,,again8 ,these little people of the sea-floor furnish one of the most assuring evidences we have that although the continents rose out of the sea1 they will never go under the sea again4 ,these are shell creatures found in the slime dredged from the bottom of the deepest parts of the sea4 ,the shells of creatures that live near shore are found in abundance in our rocks1 but these types are found only in the deepest seas4 ,so1 since the deep down-wrinklings of the earth that make the sea-basins have never risen1 it is probable they never will2 and consequently that the up-wrinkles--the continents--will continue to stay above the waters4 ,it's a wonderful old story1 isn't it8 ,but more wonderful still1 it always seemed to me1 is the story of how they found all this out4 ,who do you suppose first told about it8 ,the last people you would ever think of1 ,i'm sure--the oysters6 ,,what ,,the ,,oysters ,,told ,,xenophanes ,it sounds like a passage from ,alice in ,wonderland1 or ,through the ,looking-,glass1 doesn't it8 ,but it's a fact4 ,away back1 more than #b1jjj years ago1 a wise ,greek called ,xenophanes1 who lived in a place called ,colophon1 and so was called ,xenophanes of ,colophon1 said that he thought the rocks of the mountain sides must once have been under the sea because of the oyster shells that were found embedded in many of them4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,oysters ,,told ,,the ,,great ,,secret ,here is a good example of the thing that led wise old ,xenophanes of ,colophon to make the startling assertion that the mountains were once at the bottom of the sea4 ,these are the shells of oysters embedded in limestone--which1 by the way1 the shells of the oysters themselves helped make--and this piece of stone is from the top of a high mountain4 ,for1 said ,xenophanes of ,colophon1 how else could the oyster shells have got there8 ,who ever heard of oysters climbing a mountain8 ,another evidence that lands come up out of the sea is this3 ,even before the days of ,scott and ,maryatt and ,fenimore ,cooper1 men--and1 of course1 boys--were interested in caves that face upon the sea4 ,they are such jolly places for pirates1 and for boys playing pirate1 and for mermaids drying their hair4 ,it was plain that down where the waves in storms could reach them the sea itself bored out these caves4 ,but how about those caves in the cliffs high above the waves8 ,the sea must have made them1 too1 once upon a time when the land was lower in the water4 ,then the land was raised4 ,still more striking was the fact that not only caves but old sea beaches were found on hill and mountain slopes far from the sea1 sometimes hundreds of miles inland4 ,you can tell the old beaches by their shape and the way in which the pebbles are sorted by size1 just as you find them on beaches to-day4 ,,the ,,baked ,,apple ,,and ,,the ,,bulging ,,world ,the causes of the rise and fall of the sea coasts are many1 and there are things about these movements not yet understood4 ,by what wonderful machinery1 then 7we might naturally ask71 were the continents themselves lifted out of the sea8 ,to this1 which would seem much the harder question of the two1 the answer is simple2 as simple as a baked apple4 ,you know an apple that goes into the oven with a smooth1 neat skin comes out covered with wrinkles4 ,now suppose1 instead of a little1 hot apple1 covered with a thin skin1 you have a big1 hot earth covered with a thick crust of stone1 and the inside of the earth shrinking all the time as the inside of the apple shrank away from its skin4 ,the rock skin would wrinkle1 and the wrinkles1 rising out of the seas that then covered it everywhere1 would make continents4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,jupiter ,,serapis ,in this account of the ups and downs of land and sea ,i must tell you the story of ,jupiter ,serapis4 ,in the days of the ,romans this temple1 for his honor1 stood on the seashore near ,naples4 ,of that temple only three pillars remain1 but they answer a very important question4 ,on these pillars1 over twenty feet above sea-level1 is a belt of holes bored in the stone by a certain shelled sea-creature1 one of the barnacle family2 so evidently these pillars must1 at some time1 have sunk1 as shown in the second picture1 and then risen again1 as shown in the third1 which represents them as they stand to-day4 ,another interesting thing is that the third picture--observe--shows a volcano that isn't in the other two4 ,following a series of earthquake shocks in #aech the earth opened and out popped hot stones and ashes and built themselves into a small volcano right before everybody2 for it was all done in a short time1 and you may be sure the frightened people kept their eyes on it1 and they named it ,monte ,nuovo1 which is ,italian for ,new ,mountain4 ,and ,god said1 ,let the waters under the heaven be gathered together into one place1 and let the dry land appear3 and it was so4 ,according to the planetessimal theory the way in which the seas were made was this3 ,owing to the collision--the bang--of the planetessimals against the earth1 and against each other as they met at the terminal station1 heat was generated4 ,the compression1 the squeezing together1 of the earth from its own weight--the gravity pull of the whole mass toward the centre--generated still more heat1 and the heat and pressure drove the gases out of the rock4 ,these gases included hydrogen and oxygen4 ,these two gases cooling and combining themselves1 in a way they have1 became water1 and there were other gases1 such as nitrogen and carbon gas1 that helped to make the air4 ,,when ,,the ,,seas ,,were ,,all ,,in ,,the ,,sky ,at first the water was in the form of dense clouds of overhanging vapor which1 growing bigger and bigger1 finally fell in rain4 ,the heat1 made by the pressure of the outside of the earth toward the centre as the earth kept growing1 caused volcanic explosions4 ,but there were far more volcanoes in those early days when the earth was settling down1 and being settled up1 as it were1 by these energetic pioneers in the fields of space--the planetessimals--and the surface became pitted with craters4 ,in these great catch basins the rain was stored1 and1 as for ages the rain kept falling faster than the vapor rose from the earth1 many of these bodies of water united1 and so formed the lakes1 the river systems1 the oceans1 and the seas4 ,,the ,,four ,,great ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,,story ,all of which1 while it differs so much from the theory of ,laplace1 does not affect the ,bible outline of the origin of the earth4 ,for these four great things must still have been3 7#a7 an earth without form1 and void2 7#b7 a great deep2 7#c7 upon its face darkness from the continuing masses of black rain-laden clouds which overhung it and shut out the sun2 7#d7 the final dividing up of supply between the vapor of the clouds 7the waters above the earth7 and the waters upon the earth1 so that at last the dark cloud curtain disappeared1 and the sun began to rule the day4 ,let there be light4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but good-by to ,phaeton and the story of an original glowing ball which cooled off on the outside4 ,if the earth grew bit by bit instead of being whirled off in one fiery mass by the sun it was never any hotter than it is now1 if as hot4 ,it grew hot by being pressed together by its own weight1 and by the blows of additional little worlds as they fell upon it4 ,but on one thing everybody agrees1 that the rocks1 as you go toward the earth's centre1 have been and still are in a molten state2 that this rock1 when it cools1 becomes granite1 all full of little crystals like a lump of sugar1 and that the ,granites are one of the ,f4 ,f4 ,e4's4#d ,footnote #d3 ,first ,families on ,earth4 ,i1 as you see1 am a ,granite4 ,so1 besides going through fire and water--yes1 and ice1 as you will learn--and having many strange and wearing adventures both by land and sea--,i'm awfully old4 ,older than you think4 ,i looked it up in the family record called the ,geological ,column--just the other day4 ,that column gives my age as #hj4 ,this means ,i'm #hj1jjj1jjj years old1 going on #ha6 7,the plus sign1 in geology language1 means going on2 or1 and then some1 as a certain slangful high school freshman puts it47 ,but ,i don't think ,i show my age4 ,do you8 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,who wants to sit and be talked to all the time8 ,when boys and girls are playing games1 the greatest pleasure is in taking part1 and it's the same way in the ,wonderland of ,books4 ,books mean most to those who get into the game2 who help chase after the answers to things4 ,this hunting for answers up and down among the books is one of the interesting games we're going to play2 and those of you who don't come in will miss a lot of fun4 ,that's all ,i've got to say6 ,let's begin like this3 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the ,greek myth stories what else was ,mr4 ,apollo supposed to do for the world and its people besides turning on the light8#e ,footnote #e3 ,answers to all these questions at the ends of chapters will be found in books you can easily get hold of--encyclopdias1 dictionaries1 and school-books2 or books usually found in home1 school1 or public libraries4 ,words in parenthesis or italics indicate the headings where the information referred to will be found4 ,why doesn't the force of the earth1 whirling along as it does at #ai miles a second1 cause the wind to blow us all away8 7,earth47 ,what is the difference between a planet and a sun8 ,how does the earth compare in size with its brother planets of the sun family8 ,how often would ,christmas come around if we lived on the moon8 ,what causes different phases of the moon8 ,why may we be said to have eclipses of the moon every month8 ,moon and month sound a good deal alike when you come to think of it4 ,don't you wonder why8 ,moon comes from a word meaning to measure4 ,you'll find the rest of the word-story of the moon in any dictionary that is big enough to tell about the origin of words4 ,by the way--speaking of the timekeepers in the sky--don't forget to look up the lives of the great astronomers mentioned in this chapter4 ,you will find1 among other things1 how ,galileo1 when only eighteen years of age1 helped to give us our clocks and watches by counting his pulse-beats while watching a hanging lamp swing back and forth in the ,cathedral of ,pisa2 how he found out who ,the ,man in the ,moon really is and what the ,milky ,way is made of2 how he invented the wonderful glass for playing hide and seek among the worlds1 and with it found four moons in one night6 ,yes1 and how do you suppose he found that the sun is going round and round like a top1 just as the earth does8 ,it was the simplest thing6 ,you'll see6 ,old ,father ,science may be said to be a ,santa ,claus who keeps a curiosity-shop4 ,his pack is not only full of curious things but he is always springing surprises on us1 as our ,high ,school ,boy puts it4 ,for example1 one of the most curious as well as picturesque evidences that great stretches of land sink under the sea from time to time is furnished by the ,english swallows4 ,like many other wealthy people1 they spend their winters in ,algiers1 and they find their way over the ,mediterranean1 not by any lands they can see between coast and coast--for there are none--but by lands that used to be there1 thousands upon thousands of years ago4 ,but how do the swallows know8 ,they don't4 ,is it instinct8 ,no4 7,whatever instinct is67 ,then why do they do it8 ,look it up and you'll see4#f ,yes1 and you'll see that we have habits that we get in the same way2 our habits of bowing1 for example1 because it's the custom1 although few people know how it originated4 ,footnote #f3 ,colin ,clout's ,calendar1 by ,grant ,allen4 ,,chapter ,,ii 7,,february7 ,up rose the wild old ,winter ,king ,and shook his beard of snow2 ,i hear the first young harebell ring1 ',tis time for me to go6 ,northward o'er the icy rocks1 ,northward o'er the ,sea4 --,leland4 ,,the ,,winter ,,that ,,lasted ,,all ,,summer ,it's been just one thing after another with the world and me ever since we were born4 ,first it was the fire1 then it was the flood1 and then it was the winter that lasted all summer4 ,just what started it nobody knows to this day4 ,some of the theories have been that this particular winter stayed so long because the earth wavered on its axis1 or that it flew the track for a while and got too far away from the sun4 ,from our present knowledge of the machinery of the heavens it is certain that the earth's motions could not vary to this extent4 ,one theory that appeals to many scientists to-day is that when so much of the carbon in the air went into the making of our coal beds the earth became unusually cold1 and so snows of each successive winter kept piling up instead of melting away during the spring and summer4 ,when there is plenty of this gas in the air the earth's heat does not escape so fast4 ,but with the great amount of carbon taken up in the growth of the vast forests that were made into coal1 ,mother ,earth's air blanket grew thinner1 so to speak1 hence the long1 cold spell4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,when ,,the ,,ice ,,sheets ,,covered ,,the ,,land ,but whatever caused it one thing is certain2 it was a winter that beat anything the oldest inhabitant ever saw2 for the cave men are known to have been on earth during this great winter1 which is known as the ,ice ,age or the ,glacial ,period4 ,a great big ice cap reached from the ,north ,pole far down into the ,temperate ,zone in ,north ,america1 ,europe1 and ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,the ,,caveman',s ,,diary ,this is a little note on the ,ice ,age from the caveman's diary--the picture of a mammoth scratched with a flint on a mammoth's tusk4 ,you can see how the artist kept trying for the true form with different lines1 as all real artists do4 ,artists don't just have a kind of sign that stands for the thing--like a little boy's picture of a man that he always makes in just one way4 ,notice the action1 the natural motion of the animal4 ,the artist means to say3 ,this is the way he came at me4 ,i4 ,the ,mild ,spell and the ,menageries ,just before this dreadful winter set in we had a long1 open spell2 about a million years or so4 ,it was just like summer most of the year in the temperate zone1 and much warmer than it is to-day in what is now the land of the little frosty ,eskimo4 ,there weren't any little ,eskimos in those days4 ,in fact1 there wasn't much of anything that was little4 ,everything was on a big scale4 ,think of a mud-turtle twelve feet long6 ,he was all of that4 ,his skull alone was a yard long and he must have weighed a couple of tons4 ,he had for neighbors in the bordering swamps a number of huge creatures that one wouldn't care to meet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,dinosaurs ,,at ,,luncheon ,contrast the little1 almost dainty1 fore limbs with the enormous legs4 ,you can't help thinking of the arms of a human being1 can you8 ,in fact1 this mixed-up creature looks as if nature were even then dreaming of man1 the quadruped who1 as some ,frenchman said1 took to walking on his hind legs that he might conquer the world4 ,,dreadfulness ,,of ,,mr4 ,,dinosaur ,the ,dinosaur1 for instance4 ,his name means terrible reptile4 ,some members of the family were1 indeed1 terrible creatures4 ,just see this one at lunch1 ,mr4 ,ceratosaurus4 ,he has the head of a queer horse--probably a night mare1 says the ,high ,school ,boy--teeth and tail and belly scales like a crocodile1 a comb that suggests a rooster's1 legs like an ostrich1 the talons of an eagle1 and the dainty little arms of a child4 ,what a combination6 ,those small fore limbs were used only for grasping4 ,on his hind legs he stalked about1 seeking whom he might eat for dinner4 ,he was about fifty feet long when he was all there4 ,at this late day scientists usually find only parts of him scattered around4 ,these ,dinosaurs came in sizes and differed considerably as to looks and eating and getting about4 ,some were as small as cats1 some walked on four legs1 some--like the gentleman at lunch--walked on two4 ,some were strict vegetarians1 while others would have nothing but meat4 ,the ,big ,boys of the whole tribe were called the ,sauropoda or reptile-footed ,dinosaurs4 ,one of these1 whose bones were found in ,colorado1 was sixty-five feet long when complete1 and he must have weighed around twenty tons4 ,his family nickname was ,diplodocus or ,double ,beam1 because of his long1 beam-like neck and his long1 beam-like tail4 ,,gentle ,,mr4 ,,diplodocus ,,and ,,his ,,ways ,considering the reputation some of the other ,dinosaurs had as bad citizens1 it is only fair to the ,diplodocus to say that he was really a gentle creature1 and never disturbed anybody--unless somebody disturbed him first4 ,then he would give them a switch with that tail of his1 and it was a switching they were not likely to forget4 ,but his great delight--indeed1 his main occupation in life--was to sit deep in the water1 prop himself up with his great long tail1 like a kangaroo1 with just his head out1 like a turtle in a pond4 ,then he would strain little water bugs and similar things through his teeth4 ,he got his meals in this way1 very much as the whales do now4 ,and elephants6 ,you ought to have seen some of the members of the elephant family that arrived after the reptile age1 the mammoths1 for instance4 ,these huge creatures and many other strange animals were all over the place4 ,it was just like a circus day everywhere all the time4 ,such elephants don't travel with circuses now1 of course1 because they were all killed during that dreadful winter1 but you can see them in museums1 all dressed in their skeletons and neatly held together with wires4 ,illustration3 ,from the mural painting by ,charles ,r4 ,knight in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history ,,when ,,elephants ,,wore ,,underclothes ,this painting on the walls of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,new ,york ,city shows herds of reindeer and mammoths in the ,ice ,age4 ,they didn't mind the cold as elephants do to-day1 because of their woolly underclothes4 ,they fed on the shoots and cones of those firs and pines4 ,the reindeer1 then as now1 ate the lichens we call reindeer moss1 first scraping away the snow with their feet4 ,,how ,,the ,,mammoths ,,passed ,,away ,picture herds of these mammoths huddled together like sheep in dark ravines1 and the blinding snow1 swept down by the winds1 burying them deeper and deeper4 ,that was how they died4 ,you'll notice that they wore their hair long1 while the elephants we see in the circuses or at the zoo have hardly any hair at all4 ,this long hair was part of their winter clothing4 ,under it they wore a close fleece4 ,but this winter was so severe and it lasted so long that even their heavy woollen underwear couldn't save them4 ,sometimes there would be a thaw1 but this was only on the surface and helped turn the snow into ice4 ,and winter piled on winter and on the bodies of the mammoths until they were buried under tons and tons of snow and ice4 ,,how ,,the ,,snow ,,changed ,,itself ,,into ,,ice ,you know snow will get solid1 like ice1 where it is under pressure1 and it will make hard cakes and ice balls under your shoes4 ,well1 this snow of the long winter just packed its own self 7as a small boy might say7 into ice4 ,it did this by piling on and piling on4 ,the weight of the snow above and behind1 in the spaces between the mountains and in the mountain valleys1 pressed with enormous force on the snow below and in front4 ,then what do you think this ice did8 ,it began to move4 ,and of all the things it did from then on6 ,,ii4 ,marvellous ,changes in the ,old ,home ,place ,did you notice those scratches on my face8 ,the ice did that4 ,but1 of course1 that's nothing in itself4 ,and1 besides1 ,i'm not one to complain1 as you know4 ,i only speak of it to show what big things may be back of little ones1 how much you can learn from the study of so common a thing as a little pebble4 ,for the very same ice fields that scratched the faces of little pebbles like me deepened the gorges and canyons among the mountains and shaved the crowns of the old ones--,bald ,mountain1 in the ,adirondacks1 for example4 ,they carried off good farming soil by the thousands of acres from one place and piled it in another2 they shoved the ,mississippi ,river back and forth2 in fact1 turned many streams out of their courses--some of them the other end to1 so that they now flow south where they used to flow north4 ,they took old river systems apart1 and with the pieces made new ones--the big ,missouri for one4 ,they set ,niagara ,falls up in business2 got all the waterfalls ready that are now turning the wheels of ,new ,england factories1 and even put in great water storage systems that remind one of the ,salt ,river irrigation works1 with their big ,roosevelt dam in ,arizona1 or of the reservoirs which ,england built in the ,nile4 ,lakes in river systems act as reservoirs1 you know1 and make them flow more evenly1 thus keeping the power of falls more uniform1 as in the case of ,niagara1 and making a uniform depth of water for vessels1 as in the case of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river4 ,the ,great ,lakes do both of these useful things4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,the ,,little ,,mountain ,,in ,,the ,,big ,,city ,in one of the parks in ,new ,york ,city you can see this illustration of how the glaciers rounded off the mountain-tops4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,beehive ,,mountain ,this huge mass in the ,canadian ,rockies is known as the ,beehive ,mountain4 ,originally a cliff1 it was reshaped by the glaciers4 ,can't you tell from the picture which was the face of the cliff1 and from the information in the text which side the glacier climbed up and on which side it tobogganed down8 ,there were three great centres--union stations1 we might call them--from which the ice trains moved out4 ,these were the points at which the ice gathered to the greatest depth1 the tops of the great snow banks4 ,one1 as you see by our ,ice ,age map1 was away over on the ,pacific ,coast of ,canada4 ,it is called the ,cordilleran ,centre1 from the vast mountain system of which it is a part4 ,over what is now the province of ,keewatin1 ,canada1 was the ,keewatin ,centre1 while the ,labrador ,centre stood guard over the highlands of ,labrador4 ,the ice from the ,keewatin and ,labrador fields1 you notice1 flowed farthest to the south4 ,the ,keewatin ice giant travelled away down the ,mississippi ,valley as far as the mouth of what is now the ,missouri1 while the giant from ,labrador got nearly to the mouth of the ,ohio4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,men ,,of ,,the ,,mountain ,,at ,,their ,,work ,don't you always think of a glacier as a big white thing8 ,so it is when it starts to work1 but after it has ploughed down the mountain valleys and gathered up a lot of soil--such as the heaps you see in the foreground of the picture--it begins to look as black as a coal-heaver6 ,it gets cracked up into all sorts of odd shapes1 too4 ,doesn't that figure near the centre look like some queer kind of old elephant1 with a fierce white eye 7it's a big stone7 and a snarl on his face8 ,the reason ,old ,mr4 ,labrador didn't reach the mouth of the ,ohio--as you can easily guess--was that he didn't go far enough1 but could you answer a conundrum like this3 ,why was ,mr4 ,keewatin bound to reach the mouth of the ,missouri and stay there for awhile no matter how far he went8 ,the answer is easy1 when you know it4 ,because he made the ,missouri himself4 ,what we now know as the ,missouri ,river was made of other rivers that the big ice sheet turned around as it advanced and of the water from the ice as the glacier melted its way back home4 ,it was something like ,mary and the little lamb1 all the time1 so long as ,mr4 ,keewatin travelled south2 for everywhere he went the ,missouri was sure to go1 because he kept pushing it ahead of him4 ,,how ,,the ,,old ,,men ,,pushed ,,the ,,mississippi ,,about ,as the ice sheets pushed into its valleys1 now from the northeast and now from the northwest1 the ,mississippi ,river was pushed back and forth as if it were a--well1 as if it weren't anything6 ,it is known that the ,mississippi was pushed out of bed by this burly guest from the north because its former channels have been traced along the old ice fronts4 ,in one part of its course the ,mississippi actually got misplaced1 and hasn't found its way back to its old bed to this day4 ,this you can see at ,fort ,snelling1 ,minnesota4 ,at that point the ,minnesota ,river flows in the ,mississippi's old valley--which is plainly too big for it--while above ,fort ,snelling the ,mississippi is forced to squeeze its way through a stingy little gorge that used to belong to the ,minnesota1 and ,i'm sure would be plenty big enough for it now4 ,it's like the story of a changeling baby in a fairy tale1 isn't it8 ,only in the fairy tale the changeling always gets back to his old home1 while the misplaced ,mississippi in ,minnesota doesn't4 ,but the glaciers made it up to the ,mississippi1 in a way1 for this rude jostling4 ,they not only left it an enormous extra supply of water as they melted back home--what would a river be without water8--but they actually took some smaller rivers away from the ,st4 ,lawrence and made them do their pouring into the ,mississippi system4 ,although they didn't owe the ,ohio any apology for anything1 so far as ,i know1 they did the same thing for it1 just to be good fellows1 ,i suppose4 ,all the rivers that now empty into the ,ohio above ,cincinnati used to flow into ,lake ,erie1 but the glaciers turned them south and they've gone on obediently flowing that way ever since4 ,a ,,plowman ,,who ,,plowed ,,the ,,farms ,,away ,that these giants of the north1 although they must have looked as cold as ice1 really had good hearts is shown by the way ,old ,mr4 ,labrador treated ,new ,england when he went ,down ,east4 ,new ,england was at that time covered with good1 deep1 rich soil1 the decay of the granite rocks that had been basking in the sun for ages and growing early grass and vegetables for the live stock of those days4 ,then along came ,old ,mr4 ,labrador with his plow1 and set to work4 ,but he plowed so deep that he plowed all the farms away6 ,of the gigantic furrows that he turned a lot of the slices fell over into ,new ,york ,state2 but some1 ,i'm sorry to say1 dropped off into the sea4 ,this left ,new ,england in a bad way1 so far as prizes for farm produce at the country fairs a few thousand years later were concerned4 ,but then what do you suppose ,mr4 ,labrador did1 the good old soul8 ,he took a lot of streams that had been flowing north1 blocked them up with pebbles and dirt1 making them turn right around and flow south1 so that in climbing down from the rocks in these new unworn beds they made waterfalls4 ,and it was from the power made by its waterfalls1 you know1 as your geography tells you1 that ,new ,england grew to be a great manu-factur-ing section4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,the ,scientific ,american4 ,,how ,,the ,,old ,,men ,,of ,,the ,,mountain ,,come ,,to ,,school ,you can have glaciers like this right in the schoolroom1 and icebergs1 too1 by means of which the ,old ,men of the ,mountain went to sea4 ,both the iceberg and its parent1 the glacier1 are made by the crumpling of white paper around books or any other support4 ,cliffs of dark-brown grocery-paper bound the deep gully through which the glacier has crept down to the sea4 ,the sea-waves are made with crumpled paper of appropriate colors4 7,think what lovely green waves you could make with a piece of old window-shade67 ,pieces of white string make good breakers1 and powdered chalk can easily be made to turn to snow4 ,of course ,i'm only joking when ,i speak of these glaciers as if they had minds like the rest of us1 but really it almost seems true1 when you come to think of all the things they did4 ,take these ,new ,england waterfalls1 for instance4 ,the glacier not only made them by turning the rivers around1 but1 as the ice melted away toward the north the land rose again1 being relieved of the enormous weight4 ,and in rising the sloping land not only gave more force to the new southward flowing streams but made it more sure that they should go on flowing south4 ,as if the glaciers said3 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gray ,,temple ,,of ,,the ,,winds ,this gray mass of sandstone on the ,wisconsin prairies is a piece of architecture with which man has had nothing whatever to do4 ,it is all the work of the winds and the rains2 of the sea and of rivers2 of water and rivers of ice2 and the vertical division of the rock into joints by the shrinking of the earth4 ,the detail1 the rounding of the pillars1 and so on1 is largely the work of the winds and their helpers1 the frosts1 the rains1 and the wind-blown sand4 ,the original mass was carved out of a big rock-bed by flowing rivers that had their course around it on either side4 ,then one of these rivers was dammed by ice in the days of the glaciers and a lake was formed in which this rock mass stood as an island4 ,the level prairie you now see around it was made by the sand and gravel deposited in the bottom of this lake4 ,the vertical divisions are cracks in the earth crust called joints4 ,the horizontal divisions are due in part to this cracking process and in part to stratification1 the layer-like arrangement of the rocks when laid in the bottom of the sea1 as explained in ,chapter ,x4 ,the cornice is a layer of harder rock which has yielded less to nature's tools4 ,i've turned you around and ,i want you to stay turned around4 ,and ,i want you to go on running south and dropping over the falls until the people of ,new ,england come down to ,lowell and ,manchester and those places and get ready to put you to work4 ,anyhow1 that's just what happened4 ,you can look at it any way you want to4 ,it was in much the same way that ,mr4 ,labrador and his friend ,keewatin did that great piece of engineering at the ,great ,lakes4 ,where the ,great ,lakes are now there used to be rivers that were a part of the ,st4 ,lawrence system4 ,then along came the ice sheets1 dammed up these rivers1 just as small boys dam up roadside rivulets after a rain1 and so made big lakes1 as the boys make little lakes in these streamlets4 ,but this wasn't all4 ,the glaciers evidently wanted these to be nice big lakes that would stay there for people to ride on in the beautiful summer weather1 and to help haul coal and iron ore and other kinds of freight--,michigan peaches and everything4 ,for look what else they did4 ,with pebbles and big stones and dirt they built the lake walls higher1 and dug deep basins for them out of the solid rock4 ,then they poured in a lot of extra water--beautiful blue water1 tons and tons of it--and went back home4 ,the digging into the rock was done with big chisels--what a carpenter would call round-nosed chisels4 ,these chisels1 of course1 were made of ice4 ,they were what are called the tongues or lobes of glaciers4 ,as a glacier flows along--always on some down grade--there are portions of it--those long lobes or tongues--that move on ahead of the main mass4 ,this is because those parts of the ice sheet strike a steeper bit of land than the rest of it1 so how could they help moving faster8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,thousand-,,year ,,clock ,,at ,,niagara ,you've heard of eight-day clocks and clocks that have to be wound only once a year1 but here is a clock that was wound up several thousand years ago and is still going beautifully6 ,in placing the wondrous waterfall in ,niagara ,river the glaciers also started a kind of water-clock by which to record--for those who would take the trouble to study it out--how long ago it was the glaciers visited us4 ,owing to the constant wearing away of the base of the falls1 by the water grinding the pebbles against it1 great blocks like the one here shown 7known as ,the ,rock of ,ages7 come tumbling down4 ,so the falls are constantly retreating up-stream1 and the distance from where they once stood to where they are now gives a rough idea of the time that has passed since the ,old ,men of the ,mountain set them up in business--about #be1jjj years4 ,the fronts of these lobes are rounded like the waves flowing up a beach1 or syrup travelling over pancakes on a cold winter morning4 ,the reason of this roundness is that the centres of these lobes of ice or water travel fastest because the mass on either side furnishes a kind of ball-bearing for the central part4 ,but this wasn't all4 ,at the very same time1 by the very same act1 ,labrador1 ,keewatin ,co4 set ,niagara ,falls up in business4 ,in those days there was a ,niagara river but no ,niagara ,falls2 at least not the one we know to-day4 ,the ice filled the ,ontario ,valley so that the streams flowing into it had to turn around and flow south4 ,the ,niagara ,river was one of these streams4 ,then1 as the ice melted1 it poured loads of extra water into ,lake ,erie1 so that it was some #cj feet higher than it is at present and began draining out through the new ,niagara ,river1 over the rocks that make the falls4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,of ,,niagara ,this is a bird's-eye view of the ,niagara region4 ,where the river crosses a bed of limestone below ,buffalo1 and again where it crosses another just above the crest of the falls1 some of the rock has been dissolved away1 thus making it rougher1 so that slight rapids have formed4 ,then comes the mighty plunge1 after which the water flows through a gorge for about seven miles4 ,where the gorge bends abruptly at right angles is the great eddy called ,the ,whirlpool4 ,,nature ,,is ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,god ,nature1 as ,sir ,thomas ,browne so finely said1 is the art of ,god4 ,and nowhere is this art more striking in its beauty than in the work done by the glaciers4 ,those wonderful falls and the blue inland seas we call the ,great ,lakes1 and thousands of smaller lakes scattered all over where the glaciers came1 are only a part of this art work4 ,the main ice sheets1 you notice1 didn't reach down among the mountains of ,california1 but these mountains had small glaciers of their own in those days1 just as they have now4 ,only they were much larger then because1 as we have seen1 it was such a snowy time all over the northern world4 ,listen to what these home-made glaciers of ,california did1 and listen to how ,john ,muir tells it3 ,illustration3 ,,and ,,to ,,think ,,we ,,did ,,it ,,all6 ,it is hard1 he says1 without long and loving study1 to realize how great was the work done4 ,before the glaciers came1 the range--he is speaking of the ,sierras--was comparatively simple2 one vast wave of stone in which a thousand mountains1 domes1 canyons1 ridges1 and so forth lay concealed4 ,to carve them out of the stone nature chose for a tool1 not the earthquake or the lightning1 but the tender snow flowers1 noiselessly falling through unnumbered centuries4 ,the snowflakes said1 ',come1 we are feeble2 let us help one another4 ,marching in close1 deep ranks let us roll away the stones from these mountain sepulchres1 and set the landscape free4' ,it is evident that this was all in the ,great ,plan of things4 ,for the rocks had to be of a certain kind and laid in a certain way for the little members of this art society of the sky to work these landscapes out4 ,and the rocks were so made and laid when they were at least a mile below the surface on which the glaciers set to work4 ,it was while these features were taking form in the depths of the range1 the particles of the rocks marching to their appointed places in the dark1 that the particles of icy vapor in the sky1 marching to the same music1 assembled to bring them to the light4 ,then1 after their grand task was done1 these bands of snow flowers1 the mighty glaciers1 were melted and removed1 as if of no more importance than dew destined to last but an hour4#g ,footnote #g3 ,the ,mountains of ,california4 ,john ,muir4 ,illustration ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,how do you suppose warm water--of all things6--could have caused the ,ice ,age8 ,this theory is one that was offered by a very eminent geologist1 ,doctor ,shaler1 of ,harvard4#h ,footnote #h3 ,nature and ,man in ,america4 ,in the same book he also explains how the old men of the mountain may have helped to make ,new ,york ,city1 although they were never there in their lives1 of course4 ,when you take up geology as a special study--,i hope you will--you will find that there were five particularly heavy snowfalls during the long winter4 ,but why not look it up now8 ,if you can't do it just get somebody else in the family to do it for you4 ,where is father's college geology8 ,in the last two of these storms ,mr4 ,labrador rode all over ,new ,england and clear to the sea1 where he amused himself for a long time by setting icebergs drifting out over the ,atlantic4 ,how do they know about the icebergs8 ,that's one of the interesting things the books tell4 ,these books also show how ,niagara ,falls acts as a great time-clock that tells how long ago it was since the glaciers visited us4 ,according to the record on the dial it was somewhere between #bj1jjj and #cj1jjj years ago4 7,of course this isn't what we would call very close timekeeping2 but remember1 in the long story of the earth even a hundred thousand years is a mere tick of the clock47 ,and the way this clock is running down shows we're going to lose ,niagara ,falls in the course of time4 ,all falls finally run down in the same way4 ,this is the rather flippant way my high school friend put it3 ,first1 the water falls over the waterfall2 then the waterfall falls1 piece by piece1 and the water falls no more4 ,it's a sad case4 7,you'll see what he meant1 quickly enough1 when you read up on waterfalls4 ,your geography tells1 doesn't it8 ,well1 then1 of course you know47 ,but here's a question you can answer right out of this chapter4 ,which one of the illustrations shows that the mammoths and the cave men lived on earth at the same time8 ,that the mammoth was seen in the flesh by those remarkable artists of the caves is plain1 but what do you say to seeing a mammoth in the flesh in these days8 ,remember the mammoths have all been dead for thousands of years4 7,elephant1 ,mammoth1 ,siberia47 ,what is there about the climate of ,siberia that made this strange thing possible8 ,how did the mammoth get his name8 ,was it because he was so big--such a mammoth creature8#i ,footnote #i3 ,mammoth1 you will find1 comes from a word meaning earth4 ,it didn't mean big at all at first4 ,one of the most lovable traits of a good dictionary1 ,i think1 is that it tells so many interesting little stories like that about the early life of words2 of their days of adventure1 so to speak1 when there was no telling how they would come out4 ,how did the mammoths compare in size with the elephants of to-day8 ,which was the bigger1 the mastodon or the mammoth8 ,did we ever have mastodons in ,north ,america8 ,and were there mammoths1 too8 ,if you want to see more about what the travelling menageries of the days before the ,ice ,age looked like hunt up these words3 ,archelon1 dinosaur1 ceratosaurus1 diplodocus1 stegosaurus1 triceratops4 ,see what the geography says about the manufacturing towns of ,new ,england and how many of them have water power4 ,in that remarkable little book by ,grant ,allen#aj already referred to in the ,h4 ,s4 at the end of ,chapter ,i1 on page #aci1 you will find what the ,ice ,age had to do with the fact that the rabbits of ,canada and our northern border ,states wear white clothes in winter1 while ,br'er ,rabbit of our ,middle and ,southern ,states keeps his yellow-brown suit on all the year4 ,footnote #aj3 ,colin ,clout's ,calendar4 ,and on page #bjd how a little plant1 whose old home was in the ,arctics1 got stranded on an ,english hilltop among the mossy clefts of weathered granite1 and how the beautiful lady who has a little flower named after her slipper 7we all know that slipper7 is leaving ,england because the climate is too mild6 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,summer ,,pastures ,,on ,,the ,,jungfrau ,here are some of those ,swiss cattle in their summer pastures4 ,doesn't look much like summer1 does it8 ,but there's one thing besides the cattle that tells4 ,see that stretch of snow all by itself8 ,that's a snow-bank which has escaped the summer sun because it is protected by the ravine in which it lies4 ,all around it the ground is bare of snow4 ,,chapter ,,iii 7,,march7 ,with rushing winds and gloomy skies ,the dark and stubborn ,winter dies2 ,far off1 unseen1 ,spring faintly cries1 ,bidding her earliest child arise4 --,bayard ,taylor4 ,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,the ,,spring ,,and ,,the ,,lands ,,of ,,eternal ,,snow ,and that's how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain visited us in the ,ice ,age and what they did and how they did it4 ,but now that they have all been back home so long don't you think it would be nice and polite to return the call--especially when you remember all they did for us1 making beautiful lakes and rivers and waterfalls and mountain scenery8 ,i4 ,springtime in the ,alps ,the best time to do this would be in the spring1 because then the kingdom of the glaciers is most beautiful1 and the spirit of a glorious new world1 just waking up1 is abroad everywhere4 ,the glaciers themselves seem to feel so good about it that they start to sing4 ,and like the birds1 their joyous springtime mood responds to the quick changes of sun and shade4 ,in our own land when the sky grows cloudy1 even for a short time as you may have noticed1 birds stop singing4 ,then when the sky clears they start up again4 ,but1 up here in the ,alps in the spring when the birds are singing among the mountain meadows1 the glaciers1 at whose feet these meadows lie1 do the very same thing4 ,the songs of the birds are various1 and the song of the same bird will differ at different times of day1 but the song of the glacier is always the same--a pleasant dreamy tune between the murmur of little voices and the tinkle of distant bells4 ,the very rocks that the glacier carries on its back seem to catch the spirit of the springtime2 for1 when the weather is bright1 they go strolling4 ,and when they do they remind us a little of that painting by ,franz ,hals1 ,the ,laughing ,cavalier1 for they apparently wear a big broad-brimmed hat cocked jauntily on one side4 ,illustration3 ,,up ,,where ,,the ,,glaciers ,,grow ,here we are1 looking down on the roof of the ,alps--from a flying-machine1 let us say4 ,the sky-line used to be more like the ridge of a house1 straight across4 ,in the course of the ages the glaciers and the weather have cut down the softer rock1 leaving those peaks4 ,at the top are the snow-fields4 ,farther down the glaciers begin to form4 ,still farther down1 where the glaciers have begun to melt1 you can see a stream--its waters have taken white in the picture because of the foam and the ground-up rock in it called rock flour--falling into the woods below1 the timber line of your geography4 ,ruskin has a wonderful word-picture of these mountain streams in his ,modern ,painters4 ,the index of any edition will tell you where4 ,,the ,,man ,,who ,,discovered ,,the ,,ice ,,age ,the ,alps are the most famous of all the homes of the glaciers1 not only because of the great number of the glaciers and the beauty of the scenery1 but because it was in the ,alps that ,agassiz1 living in a little stone hut among the mountains1 studied the glaciers and their ways and proved that it was these strange creatures of snow and ice that had come down during the ,ice ,age and worked such marvellous changes on the face of the earth4 ,in the ,alps1 just as ,muir found them doing among the glaciers of ,alaska1 the flowers bloom at the very edge of the snow line4 ,and they come on much more rapidly than they do in temperate climates4 ,as fast as the snow melts back blossoms just cover the meadows thick with the deepest1 richest colors--blue1 red1 white1 yellow1 purple1 and every shade of these4 ,some of these flowers are as pure white as the snows4 ,the queen of beauty among them all1 many think1 is the ,alpine rose4 ,in that pure1 clear air its color seems actually to glow like the famous peak1 the ,jungfrau1 at sunrise4 ,illustration3 ,,louis ,,agassiz ,the great teacher who discovered the ,ice ,age4 ,one little flower is in such a hurry1 so afraid it will miss the first ,may party1 that it blooms under the ice and melts its own way right up through4 ,then it calls to the bees and the butterflies1 in the way that flowers have3 ,good morning6 ,it's spring1 and here ,i am again and how do you do8 ,come and kiss me6 ,the soldanella grows among the thick pebble beds and the big boulders right on the edges of the glaciers4 ,it is a member of the primrose family4 ,it may be pink1 white1 or blue4 ,the blue flowers are most common4 ,but blue1 pink1 or white1 these baby bells are always born twins2 two sisters side by side on the same stalk1 showing their dear fairy faces just above those layers of ice4 ,they are such delicate little things you wonder how they can ever stand it4 ,but ice1 pshaw1 they don't mind it at all4 ,,blushing ,a ,,way ,,through ,,the ,,ice ,if you are a bashful boy or girl you can understand how the ,misses ,soldanella have been able1 in spite of their icy covering1 to get here to greet us on this lovely ,may morning4 ,you know how warm your face feels when you blush4 ,it seems to be somewhat the same way with all flowers when they blush into bloom4 ,the blossom becomes quite a little warmer than any other part of the plant4 ,it is the heat of the growing buds and1 still more1 the heat of the blossoms that melts a passage for the ,soldanellas through the ice1 for they often blossom before they get above the ice at all4 ,the higher we climb the brighter the flowers1 and they grow in thicker masses1 and each kind spreads out into larger fields than they did where we came from down below--great belts of blue gentians1 whole fields of golden yellow globe flowers4 ,you'd hardly expect this1 would you8 ,and you'll be still more surprised at the reason4 ,did you notice1 as shown in their pictures1 that the ,soldanellas have only the bees for their callers8 ,just look if you can see any bees where we are now4 ,not a bee4 ,but butterflies everywhere4 ,and that's the answer4 ,the flowers of the upper meadows are brighter1 grow thicker and spread wider--all on account of the butterflies2 to get the butterfly trade4 ,,why ,,the ,,bees ,,get ,,out ,,of ,,breath ,bees can't climb to such heights because the air is very thin1 and1 therefore1 harder to fly in4 ,remember their little bodies are heavy and their wings are small4 ,they get out of breath1 like a fat man with short legs working his way up ,pike's ,peak4 ,the butterflies1 on the other hand1 have small bodies and large wings1 and so have the meadows of the higher ,alps all to themselves4 ,that the flowers here look so brilliant is partly due to the thinness and clearness of the air and partly to the disposition of the butterflies4 ,a bee is all business1 because she has so many mouths to feed at home1 and is laying up honey for the days of the long winter4 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,butterfly1 on the other hand1 are gay and carefree society people4 ,we have no family waiting to be fed1 so why worry8 ,this is the butterfly philosophy4 ,only a sip of nectar now and then for their personal wants2 for the rest of the day the merry air dance1 here1 there1 everywhere6 ,they flit long distances without lighting4 ,to attract the bee's attention a blossom need be neither large nor bright1 as the bee goes straight from flower to flower1 wasting no time in aimless flights4 ,but to catch the eye of the butterfly the flowers must be brilliantly colored and grow in large masses4 ,so up in the butterfly zone only brilliant flowers1 and those having the habit of growing in groups produce seed and have descendants4 ,those that dress plainly and are not fond of company die out4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,soldanella ,,sisters ,,got ,,to ,,the ,,may-,,party ,,through ,,the ,,snow ,now didn't it turn out just as ,i said2 that the butterflies themselves help brighten the flowers that grow among these ice fields8 ,i have something else quite as curious to tell you3 ,both the ,alpine butterflies and the flowers were left over from the ,ice ,age4 ,not in the same sense that we pebbles were1 for we are the identical little passengers who rode in on the ice trains1 and the life of a butterfly1 as every one knows1 is very short4 ,so is that of a flower4 ,yet suppose you found that the only other butterflies and flowers like these are found1 not among the flowers and butterflies in the lands lower down in the ,alps but up toward the ,arctic ,zone1 in ,finland and ,lapland2 in the snow regions of mountains in the temperate zone all over the world8 ,it would look very much as if these flowers and butterflies1 or their ancestors1 had been left behind there some time or other1 wouldn't it8 ,this is what the men of science think1 and they reason about it in this way3 ,,how ,,the ,,butterflies ,,missed ,,the ,,train ,as the glaciers spread downward from the ,far ,north in the ,ice ,age they brought all their home things with them--climate1 plants1 insects1 animals4 ,plant and animal life was driven step by step before the advancing ice4 ,then1 as the ice melted1 flowers1 butterflies1 and all followed their natural climate back4 ,but those that lingered too long in the meadows around the mountain tops could not cross the hot summer plains that now lay between them and the retiring ice sheet2 for plants and animals that are used to cold can't stand the heat any more than those from the tropics can stand the cold4 ,so only the flowers and butterflies remained in the temperate zone that found their natural climate among the mountain peaks and stayed there4 ,near the top of ,mount ,washington1 the highest peak in ,new ,hampshire1 is a colony of the descendants of these butterfly pilgrims from the north who never leave their high and wind swept meadows4 ,there are no such butterflies in the hills and plains below1 but go into ,labrador and you will see plenty of them4 ,,left-,,over ,,pieces ,,of ,,the ,,ice ,,age ,of course you understood all along that these aren't the very same butterflies that came with the glaciers1 yet in shady glens in high mountains1 where the snow never melts1 people do sometimes find masses of ice1 which1 there is every reason to believe1 have been there since the ,ice ,age4 ,and sometimes thick veins of ice1 buried hundreds of feet under pebbles1 boulders and soil1 are struck in sinking wells4 ,these are known as ice wells2 huge ice water tanks that never need filling6 ,,ii4 ,a ,little ,visit with the ,glaciers ,but if the ice masses in the shady glens and under the old moraines may be said to be pieces of the ,ice ,age left over1 the glaciers of to-day are1 in a sense1 the ,ice ,age itself4 ,for these glaciers do1 on a smaller scale1 what ,mr4 ,labrador and his partners in northern ,america1 ,europe1 and ,asia did on a large scale so many centuries ago4 ,suppose now1 like ,agassiz1 we trace a glacier to its source4 ,it will be a long journey1 all steep1 some of it almost straight up1 and along chasms of slippery ice with sudden storms that hide the chasms and blind your eyes and take away your breath4 ,the first part of our journey is over a field of ice1 gray with the dirt of weathered rock from the mountain sides4 ,along its borders are those sharp-edged stones neatly packed in rows1 that our geography tells us are called lateral moraines4 ,it has another row of these stones sticking up right in the middle of its back1 like the sharp-pointed vertebr of the ceratosaurus4 ,by noon1 as often happens in the ,alps as elsewhere at this time of year1 a rain comes up and we lunch under the shelter of a tumbled heap of rocks4 ,watching the downpour drift across the desolate wastes we think what jolly times like this ,agassiz and his companions had in their little hall of science under the big stone4 ,after lunch we start again1 and although it's stiff going1 and it takes a lot of this thin air to make one good breath1 we spare a little1 now and then1 for shouting1 to hear the wonderful play of the echoes among the mountains4 ,we go through all kinds of weather--rain1 mist1 snow4 ,then suddenly we burst into blinding light4 ,the sun is so dazzling on the snow1 now no longer covered with dirt and mountain dbris1 that we must all put on our colored glasses4 ,in some places1 among bare rocks that absorb the sun's heat1 it is positively sultry4 ,the fields around us look like an ocean turned to stone4 ,waves are formed in the surface ice of the glacier because surface ice moves faster than the main mass beneath4 ,on the bordering mountain walls the ice rises into still greater waves foaming about the feet of the dark central crests like the surf of enormous breakers4 ,and this great1 still image of the parent sea1 from which the air currents carried the moisture that made it1 has eddies and whirlpools1 and like the troubled sea1 whose waters cast up mire and dirt1 the glacier1 where it swirls along its shores1 works pebbles and dirt to the surface4 ,often this material is carried into the centre of a whirl1 as sea weeds and the rubbish of the seashore are driven into eddies among the rocks4 ,somebody must have been here just ahead of us4 ,isn't that a dark glove over there8 ,we come closer4 ,what at a distance seems to be a glove proves to be a hole in the ice so deep it looks dark4 ,lying flat and carefully peering over the edge we look into something strangely beautiful--an ice palace1 with icicles in fantastic groups hanging from the roof4 ,through this roof the sun comes in delicate floods of pale green light1 the combination of the yellow rays with the blue of the ice4 ,we drop pebbles into the hole4 ,they rattle down and down with long1 dull echoes1 dying away4 ,we can hear the murmur of running water4 ,gusts of cold air come up that bite like the wind on a sharp winter day4 ,these underground palaces of art start as great cracks in the ice1 called crevasses1 from a ,french word meaning a crevice4 ,they can usually be seen plainly as yawning chasms1 but sometimes are so bridged over by the snows that a small1 dark hole is all you see4 ,and we might not see that in time4 ,this would be very bad1 for these snow bridges are often quite thin4 ,one might like to go down in a crevasse and explore about in this beautiful dream world--but not when one wasn't looking6 ,even when one is looking and is as careful as can be it's dangerous4 ,but still you may be sure that the famous men who have studied glaciers have done it1 for every true man of science likes to get at the bottom of things4 ,it was ,agassiz who first went down in this way into the heart of a glacier4 ,it was while he was making his studies in the ,alps1 and he came very near being drowned in one of the streams that always flow at the bottom of a crevasse1 for these crevasses1 breaking up the ice1 increase the rate of melting4 7,you know broken ice will not keep so well as a big block47 ,illustration3 ,,what ,,two ,,boys ,,saw ,,in ,,the ,,fairyland ,,of ,,ice ,when you have read ,john ,muir's story of how he climbed down into a crevasse in ,california in his shirt-sleeves 7see ,h4 ,s47 you will know that he was the other of the two boys ,i refer to1 one of them being ,louis ,agassiz1 whose adventure in this fairy iceland down in the glaciers is told in this chapter4 ,don't look dangerous at a distance1 do they1 those crevasses8 ,remind one of the crimps in a ,christmas pie4 ,but notice the difference when you get up close to one of them in the next picture4 ,,but ,,these ,,scientists ,,will ,,be ,,boys ,agassiz had been lowered by a rope4 ,when his feet suddenly plunged into the icy stream his shout for help was misunderstood by his friends and he was lowered still further4 ,his second cry1 which you may be sure promptly followed the first1 showed that something had gone wrong and he was drawn out4 ,the worst of it was that coming up he had to steer his course among those huge icicles1 any one of which1 being worn away or broken loose by the friction of the rope and striking his head1 would probably have killed him4 ,but they are always doing things like that--these men of science4 ,they keep on being as curious and enthusiastic about the things they are interested in as any boy4 ,illustration3 ,,those ,,little ,,curved ,,lines ,,when ,,you ,,get ,,up ,,close ,this is what those little curved lines are--really2 great yawning chasms in the ice4 ,the sun is shining from the left2 a morning sun1 probably1 as those tourists are out for a walk4 ,this scene must be pretty well down the glacier's course1 far from the upper fields1 for you see these people are just in ordinary dress--not in the dress of mountain-climbers1 with ropes and ,alpine stocks and everything4 ,it is perfectly safe to climb glaciers as we are doing--in a book--but they are really ticklish things to go about on1 as well as down into4 ,to find out all the interesting things you can so easily get through pictures and the printed page took years of skillful study1 ingenuity1 and endless patience and much courage4 ,what a little further on in this chapter you will learn about the movements of glaciers in seven minutes1 it took ,agassiz seven long years to find out and make sure of4 ,to ,agassiz more than to any other one man the world owes the tremendous idea of the ,ice ,age and its story4 ,his home among the glaciers of these ,alps--named playfully by the devoted scholars who worked with him the ,htel des ,neuchatelois--was a rude shelter under a projecting rock4 ,the results of this long study he published in a work in two volumes1 and so made known the great facts he had found and the theory about an ,ice ,age which he based upon them and which is now everywhere accepted4 ,he became professor of geology at ,harvard ,university and as famous a teacher as he was a student of nature4 ,after his great and useful life was ended he was buried in his adopted land with a boulder from the site of the little stone hut on the glacier for his monument4 ,,iii4 ,the ,soul of the ,glacier ,many of the fellow-countrymen of ,agassiz1 the peasants of the ,swiss ,alps1 believe the glacier is a living thing and has a soul4 ,in the spring the peasants take their sheep and cattle into the high meadows called alps1 from which the mountains get their name1 and remain there until fall with the glaciers all around them4 ,there are nearly #b1jjj glaciers in the ,alps1 varying from less than a mile to over ten miles in length1 and from a few hundred feet to a mile in breadth4 ,so the peasants have every opportunity to get acquainted with their big white neighbors4 ,the glacier has a soul1 they say1 and a voice1 many voices4 ,sometimes he groans4 ,this is when he is in pain4 ,listen6 ,,sounds ,,that ,,give ,,one ,,the ,,creeps ,we do hear a sound very like a groan4 ,even experienced mountain climbers can hardly keep down a creepy feeling when they hear it4 ,this sound is made when the ice is cracking into a crevasse and while it is enlarging4 ,these crevasses are formed by various strains in the ice as it moves along4 ,so long as the strain which caused them continues the crevasses keep widening4 ,the groans may be said to be growing pains4 ,in some places you hear a constant roaring sound4 ,the peasants are not superstitious about this sound however4 ,they know it is made by what they call the moulins or mills of the glacier4 ,water1 melting on the surface1 makes streams4 ,these1 running together1 make a larger stream4 ,this stream1 coming to a crack in the ice where a crevasse is just beginning1 pours down1 hollows out a little shaft and joins streams in the interior of the glacier1 like that in which ,agassiz took a bath when he didn't want to4 ,the noise of the water1 striking far below1 comes up through the shaft1 as a voice comes up through a speaking tube4 ,but the crack into which the water falls must be very narrow1 so that the water can melt both walls and thus form a shaft2 otherwise it merely glides down the nearer wall and makes no sound4 ,,noises ,,we ,,pebbles ,,help ,,make ,where two ice rivers emptying into a main stream come together you hear a constant dull rattle and rumble4 ,this is made by the blocks of stone and trains of pebbles that have ridden in on the backs of the two glaciers thus going into partnership1 falling between the glaciers at the point where they come together4 ,the stones that do not fall over are brought together in the centre of the glacier and so make that spiny backbone of his1 the medial moraine4 ,the rows of stones on the two sides of the glacier1 called the lateral moraines1 have fallen piece by piece from the mountain walls as the glacier moved along between them4 ,but the strangest thing about the voices of the glaciers ,i have yet to tell4 ,whenever the sun is shining brightly1 as ,i have said1 and the gentians and the globe flowers open their petals and the birds start the chorus of the day1 the glacier begins singing1 too1 humming to itself a pleasant tune4 ,when the sky grows cloudy1 even for a short time1 the birds stop singing1 the flowers cover their faces1 the bees and butterflies hurry to shelter1 and the glacier's song gradually dies away4 ,any cloud may bring rain1 as far as the flowers and the bees and the butterflies know1 and1 for the same reason1 the winged people hurry to cover because they don't want to get their wings wet4 ,the flowers hide their faces to keep the rain from washing their pollen away1 and the birds stop singing because1 like the rest of us1 they don't feel so cheerful under gloomy skies4 ,but the glacier1 why does he stop singing too8 ,because that murmuring tinkle you heard was made by the water melting on the glacier and running into rivulets a little way under its surface4 ,when the sun stops shining the surface ice stops melting1 the water gradually quits running and the murmur of the song dies away4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,roof ,,of ,,the ,,andes1 ,,where ,,it',s ,,too ,,cold ,,to ,,grow ,,glaciers ,it is because of these queer human habits of the glacier and1 above all1 his sensitive response to the moods of days and seasons1 that many of the mountain people insist he is not only a living creature1 but that he has a soul4 ,we think of all this now as the western sun drops behind the snowy summits1 the glacier's song grows silent1 and we hear1 mingling with the vespers of the birds1 voices echoing from crag to crag the words of the psalm1 ,praise ye the ,lord4 ,these are the voices1 of the herdsmen speaking to each other from alp to alp--the evening call to prayer4 ,,iv4 ,how the ,snow ,men1 the ,glaciers1 and the ,rocks ,go ,walking ,now that we have learned how glaciers1 wild flowers1 and butterflies get up into this high world1 by climbing up here ourselves in the beautiful springtime1 the next thing1 ,i suppose1 is to climb down again4 ,but first just look over the edge here and you can get some notion of how high we are1 not merely in feet and figures1 as we have it in the table of mountain heights in our geography1 but in actual feeling4 ,what are those little blocks1 all ruled off like a chessboard1 away down there8 ,those are the little ,swiss farms with the gray roads between4 ,and those small white things among the farms that look like pieces of grit8 ,those are the ,swiss villages4 ,and the black specks on the slopes of the mountain8 ,those are tourists with their guides1 coming up4 ,people1 no doubt1 whom we should like to know1 but we shall have an interesting new acquaintance travelling down with us4 ,you've met some of his family1 no doubt1 for he's an ice man4 ,there are several of these ice men always travelling down on the glaciers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,man ,,of ,,balistan ,where would you say1 judging from the head-dress of the man in the middle1 this scene is located8 ,somewhere in ,asia1 wouldn't you8 ,for in ,asia the natives1 particularly the ,mahometans1 wear turbans1 as you would learn by simply looking up turban in a dictionary4 ,and wouldn't those summer helmets lead you to suppose that this is a hot climate1 in spite of the great ice-pillar and the snow-field8 ,and don't those helmets suggest ,englishmen8 ,now1 where in ,asia would you find vast mountains1 a hot climate1 ,mahometans1 and ,englishmen together8 ,yes1 to be sure1 in the ,himalayas of ,india4 ,and that's just where an expedition of ,english scientists came across this grotesque creature of stone and ice one summer day1 on a glacier in ,balistan4 ,so ,i just called him ,the ,old ,man of ,balistan4 ,you'll know one of them the moment you see him1 for they are queer-looking fellows with only one leg--or rather one leg at a time--and they wear big stone hats4 ,they never go walking without them4 ,they can't4 ,illustration3 ,,looks ,,like ,a ,,brother1 ,,but ,,he',s ,,no ,,relation ,this old man is a creature1 not of the snows but of the winds4 ,the capstone--apparently conglomerate1 it looks so rough and pebbly--tumbled down from the mountains once upon a time and found a resting place on a bed of softer rock1 a section of which became separated from the mass on either side by those earth cracks called joints4 ,then the winds and other instruments of weathering got their fingers in these cracks1 wore the neighboring sections away1 and left this pillar standing4 ,it is broader at the bottom because the winds1 checked by the obstacles on the ground1 didn't strike with such force as they did higher up4 ,to the group of boys and girls to whom ,i first told these stories of my life and adventures nothing was more interesting than this account of the ice men who walk4 ,on that occasion ,i called them snow men because the boys had just been making a snow man1 and these ice men up here1 like the glaciers on which they always travel1 are made of snow turned to ice4 ,you have heard the expression clothes make the man1 but in the case of these men of the snows it is literally true1 so far as their hats are concerned1 for it is their hats that make them grow4 ,i bite1 said the ,high ,school ,boy1 what's the answer8 ,illustration3 ,,can ,,you ,,solve ,,this ,,picture ,,puzzle8 ,for reply ,i roughly sketched the picture at the top of the page4 ,from this hint my audience thought out the answer for themselves4 ,see if you can do so before you learn1 in the next few paragraphs1 what the answer is4 ,it comes about like this4 ,one day we see a big stone lying on the glacier1 and when we come that way again several days later this same stone is standing on a tall pillar of ice4 ,we notice the stone hat is tilted forward a little1 apparently to shade this queer man's face1 which is always turned directly toward the sun4 ,it sits jauntily on one side--this hat of his--as if he were feeling particularly contented with himself and the world on this sunny day and had started for a stroll4 ,and it really is because the sun is so bright that the hat is tipped4 ,moreover it is because of the sunshine that the man takes a stroll4 ,if1 after more days of sunshine1 we return we see the same stone further down the slope of the glacier and apparently standing on the same leg4 ,but does he or it actually walk on that leg8 7,the audience1 who at first thought ,i was joking1 had begun to believe ,i was in earnest47 ,yes1 that leg and others4 ,before this ,alpine tourist ends his travels down to the valleys below he may have1 all told1 as many legs as a centipede1 but only one at a time4 ,like the legs of the amba and the claws of the crab they are renewed as wanted4 ,a big stone falling from the mountain side upon a glacier protects the ice beneath from the sun's rays1 so1 as the ice melts down around it1 the stone is left standing on a pillar4 ,these glacier tables 7to use the scientific term7 are formed on the south sides of glaciers where there is the most sun4 ,owing to the slant of the rays the rock is heated most on the south end and so tips in that direction more and more4 ,finally it falls off and1 in so doing1 pitches farther down the slope4 ,then a new pillar is formed and the whole process is gone through again4 7,if we should get lost up here any one of these snow men will tell us the way out4 ,the snow man's hat1 for the reason stated1 always tips toward the south47 ,the stones of the winter lands are not only like human beings in the fact that they walk1 but like little human beings in the fact that when they are small they can't4 ,in one of the pictures ,i drew for the boys and girls--that representing the ice pillar from which the stone has slipped--you may be able to make out a little pebble4 ,it got a ride because it was hiding under the big stone4 ,left to itself it wouldn't have a leg to stand on1 as the saying goes1 for small stones are heated through by the sun and so sink down into the ice and form no legs4 ,illustration3 ,from a photograph copyrighted by ,merl ,la ,voy ,,the ,,rush ,,of ,,the ,,avalanche ,it's seldom you can get a snap-shot at an avalanche--it's so sudden6 ,then1 when you do get one you must be an expert or your picture will be a blur4 ,this picture was taken by ,merl ,la ,voy4 ,an interesting thing about it is that the scene is on ,mount ,mc,kinley1 which1 as your geography will tell you1 is the highest mountain in ,north ,america4 ,the avalanche started near the top1 where the greatest fields of loose snow lie4 ,we see it in the act of plunging into a vast crevasse several miles below1 and sending up clouds of snow4 ,they look like steam4 ,,mr4 ,,glacier',s ,,caterpillar ,,tractor ,the glaciers1 says ,reclus1 seem as motionless as the peaks that tower above them4 ,nevertheless1 as we know1 they do move4 ,while the motion is in so many respects like that of a river that glaciers are often called ice rivers1 they have motions and1 so to say1 methods that curiously suggest the inventions of men4 ,take1 for example1 the way they climb down a steep hill2 for all the world like the tanks in the ,great ,war4 ,the tanks1 you remember1 made nothing of shell holes1 rough country1 ravines1 or trenches1 but lumbered and crushed their way along1 resistless as the ,fates4 ,and1 you may also recall1 the tanks moved by laying sections of themselves--the great cleats on the outside belt--which they picked up again1 as they advanced4 ,this was called the caterpillar tractor system of travelling4 ,now watch the glacier when it comes to an incline much steeper than its ordinary slope4 ,it breaks across in sections at right angles to its bed1 and section after section drops down4 ,then the forward sections crowded upon by those in the rear are pushed up close1 freeze together again1 and on goes the glacier as good as new4 ,as a traveller1 however1 it is a little slow4 ,it made faster time in the old days--in the ,ice ,age--when glaciers were so much larger1 but to-day1 at the rate at which ordinary glaciers travel1 it may take a boulder as big as ,plymouth ,rock something like a hundred years to be carried from the upper fields to the heap of stones and soil which your geography calls a terminal moraine1 and where ,mr4 ,glacier says3 ,all out6 ,far as we go4 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,how would you like to go to school to the pretty ,misses ,soldanella8 ,they can teach you a lot about botany4 ,if you learn what an unusual thing they do with their leaves1 for instance1 that will lead you to follow up leaves in general4 ,leaves are wonderful things4 ,indeed1 it isn't often you find the leaf of a book that will tell you half as much as the leaf of a plant1 if you only know how to read it4 ,in ,grant ,allen's ,flash ,lights on ,nature1 you will find that the ,soldanella sisters store food in their leaves all winter just as we put things away in the cellar1 and how this helps them get up so early in the spring2 why the fact that the little sisters are not very tall makes them hurry so2 and why if they didn't hurry they wouldn't get to the party at all6 ,what other members of the primrose family do you know8 ,see what you can find about our earliest flowers--hepatica1 bloodroot1 dog-toothed violet1 jack-in-the-pulpit1 ,dutchman's breeches1 anemones4 ,if you will examine closely many early spring buds and flowers--especially those like the willow and hazel catkins--you will find that they too keep warm and grow in the early spring1 not from the warmth of the sun alone but from the fuel they have laid up in their buds4 ,did you know that to see the very first flowers of all in the spring you must look up--away above your head8 7,maple47 ,any good book on ,alaska will tell a number of striking things about how rapidly spring comes on in the lands where glaciers grow4 ,get ,muir's ,mountains of ,california and hear him tell about how he went down into a crevasse in his shirt-sleeves1 and of the fairy underworld he found there1 and how he hated to come away4 ,reclus#aa tells how the glaciers not only come down to call on the farmers1 sometimes1 but even help them pick cherries6 ,footnote #aa3 ,the ,earth4 ,i suppose the children who go to the excellent ,swiss schools take delight in telling grandmother that ,mr4 ,glacier isn't really a person--as he is in the tales of the winter fireside--but wouldn't both grandmother and the children open their eyes if they knew that in ,greenland there is a glacier so big it feeds itself and makes its own snow and its own storms and everything8 ,hobb's ,the ,face of the ,earth tells all about it4 ,and the ,encyclopdia ,britannica and ,hobbs together will tell you how to make a good glacier4 ,there are a half-dozen things you must remember or your glacier won't turn out right4 7#a7 ,you must take plenty of snow2 7#b7 and keep it in a cool place2 7#c7 but you must warm it a little too1 once in a while2 7#d7 your mountain gorges must not be too steep2 7#e7 you must have your mountains set just so2 7#f7 and distribute your storms with care4 ,by doing all these things you get fine1 durable glaciers1 #ajj to #bjj feet thick1 sometimes #ejj and even #a1jjj feet thick4 ,but you must be careful1 and1 of course1 it takes time4 ,,chapter ,,iv 7,,april7 ,now the noisy winds are still2 ,april's coming up the hill6 ,all the spring is in her train1 ,led by shining ranks of rain4 --,mary ,mapes ,dodge4 ,,the ,,april ,,rains ,,and ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,rivers ,i always liked the little boy's definition of a river system4 ,rivers that empty into other rivers that empty into other rivers that empty into the sea4 ,what is still more interesting1 the sea at the same time is emptying into the rivers2 for the waters of all the lands and the waters of all the seas1 are one1 and what the rivers give to the sea the sea returns in the rain clouds that are blown landward by the winds4 ,the ,earth's waters are thus always in circulation like the blood in our bodies4 ,in making this endless circuit they do an immense amount of useful and beautiful work1 and have many strange and curious ways of doing it4 ,it's a great family affair of the ,waters people4 ,everybody has a hand in it1 from the baby rill that toddles across the country road1 the brook it meets in the meadow1 the creek that runs through the wood1 and the river into which it flows1 to the greater river which carries forward these mingled waters to the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mississippi ,,river ,,system ,i4 ,what ,i ,brought ,back from the ,creek ,i met a rain-drop once that had followed the thing through1 starting where a little creek began1 and got such a load of information ,i could hardly carry it1 about the wonderful part the rivers take and have taken in the making and remaking of the world4 ,we see the ,april rains carve fairy canyons in the soft clay of the roadside or the creek1 but it is hard to realize1 as we stand on some pinnacle of the ,alps and look out over the deep and wide valleys1 the gorges1 the cliffs1 and mountains cut in two1 that all are but the handiwork of the rain-drops banded together as flowing waters4 ,for a long time this was questioned by scientific men1 because the idea so upset the old theory that great changes in this world of ours came about all of a sudden and from causes not at work in these days4 ,now1 however1 nobody doubts that the big things are done by the little people1 working together over long periods of time2 little snowflakes1 little rain-drops1 little cells in plants4 ,as a result1 the ,alps1 so far as the expression of their faces is concerned1 are as little like the ,alps of the past as the face of the old farm of to-day is like the farm of those ancient yesterdays1 when the brontosaurus browsed where old ,dobbin is nipping the meadow grass and the mammoth ate the leaves of trees that stood where ,white ,face is thoughtfully chewing her cud in the shade4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,they ,,study ,,geography ,,in ,,boston ,this is what1 in the ,boston schools1 they call an umbrella party4 ,umbrella party sounds much more attractive than geography lesson1 but as a matter of fact it is a geography lesson and a fine one4 ,as soon as they get off that brick pavement the boys and girls will see those rain-drops cutting out little ,mississippi ,river systems1 filling little ,great ,lakes1 plunging over ,niagaras two inches high6 ,right where you sit reading1 perhaps1 the land used to be buried two miles deep beneath rocks which have been worn away by wind and rain and by rivers which vanished long ago4 ,everything has been so changed that if the old scenery should be put back you would be lost right on the home farm4 ,,where ,,you ,,can ,,jump ,,across ,,the ,,mississippi ,wrinkles in the earth and in the mountainsides make the first troughs for the streamlets and the rivers1 and then the running water itself digs these natural channels deeper4 ,many rivers begin as streamlets flowing out of springs4 ,the great ,mississippi began as a baby1 just like the rest of us4 ,you can jump across it still if you go up to its source4 ,springs not only start rivers in life but go on feeding them4 ,most large river systems get secret gifts in this way1 as they flow along1 from thousands of springs that empty into them or their tributaries4 ,so springs start and feed the rivers4 ,now what do you suppose starts the springs8 ,rain-drops stored away in big stone safes1 much as a small boy stores away pennies in his tin bank6 ,the water of rains and melting snows1 passing down through the soil1 soaks into the little chambers or pores in such rocks as sandstone and limestone1 and keeps going on down until it comes to a bed of hard stone1 such as slate or granite1 into which it cannot soak4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spring ,,when ,,empty ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spring ,,when ,,full ,,this ,,spring ,,plays ,,it',s ,a ,,town ,,pump ,these two pictures show an intermittent spring about five miles from ,singer ,glenn1 ,virginia1 and there called the ,tide ,spring4 ,you can see where the idea of the tide comes in1 but can you think why the spring seems to have a tide system all its own8 ,you know what a siphon is4 ,well1 think how a kind of siphon might be formed in rock1 dissolved out by water flowing underground4 ,then look at the picture on the next page4 ,now rock-beds1 as you know1 have a slope--some more1 some less--owing to the wrinkling of the earth's crust4 ,so the water1 slowly trickling through the porous rock1 forms a steady stream which runs down along the hard rock1 as rain runs down a roof1 and finally gushes out at some lower level4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,little ,,spring ,,works ,,its ,,pump ,this is how the pump of an intermittent spring is worked4 ,some portions of rock are dissolved by underground waters more readily than others and so cavities are sometimes formed1 as shown4 ,as long as the water in the reservoir is below the arch of the siphon-shaped outlet no water escapes1 but as soon as it rises to the level of the arch the whole of the water is drawn off4 ,then the spring ceases to flow until the reservoir fills up again4 ,you can empty water in the same way by using a bent tube of any kind4 ,can you tell why the water flows up-hill in this way8 ,remember what you know about air-pressure and then look up siphon in your encyclopdia4 ,you can be sure these companies of rain-drops1 hurrying back to the light1 don't fail to notice any cracks in the rocks along the way1 and at such places they come gushing up with sparkle and dance2 and the greater the dip of the rock beds the higher they dance1 of course4 ,but it takes any one rain-drop so long to get back into the sunshine after it starts on its underground journey that you'd think it would forget how to dance at all6 ,it isn't just the same rain-drop1 to be sure1 that goes into the ground and comes out again1 because the rain-drops get all mixed up with each other as they move along1 but just imagine some one rain-drop that fell1 say1 on a hilltop on the day a baby was born in a valley five miles away1 where there was a spring in a shady hollow near the baby's home4 ,by the time that rain-drop got down to the spring the baby would be old enough to vote6 ,yet this is a very good thing for the rivers and the rest of us--this slow travel of the underground water1 whether it comes out in springs or simply seeps through the soil as most of that which supplies the rivers does4 ,otherwise1 if all the water of the rains went directly into the rivers we would have floods after every wet spell and empty river beds between times4 ,here's another river rebus4 ,how do rivers grow longer at the top8 ,all rivers grow at their source because their headwaters eat back into the rocks and the soil1 just as the rain wears away the head of any gully4 ,where the rock is soft they eat back faster4 ,the ,mohawk ,river in ,new ,york ,state probably wouldn't have amounted to anything if it hadn't done this very thing4 ,from ,albany westward past ,utica runs a belt of shale1 a weak stone1 but here so soft that the surface of it crumbles back to clay in every winter's frost4 ,into this the ,mohawk1 which in past ages was only a little stream1 has eaten back its way until now it is over a hundred miles long4 ,but sometimes rivers are so big the very first day they come into the world that you may say they are born half grown4 ,you find them1 among other places1 in the mountains of ,california4 ,nearly all the water from the melting snows on ,mount ,shasta sinks at once into the porous lava fields of the mountain slopes1 and after wandering about in the hidden veins comes out1 filtered and cool1 in the form of large springs which make rivers that set out on their life journeys without ever having been babies at all so far as you can see4 ,the ,shasta ,river is one of these4 ,the ,mc,cloud is another4 ,it gushes forth suddenly from a lava bluff in a roaring spring seventy-five yards across1 two-thirds of the width of the river in its widest part4 ,the ,river ,jordan in the ,holy ,land begins in one of these great springs at the foot of ,mount ,hermon4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,how ,,most ,,of ,,europe',s ,,rivers ,,get ,,their ,,start ,most of the important rivers of ,europe start as streams of ice-water1 flowing out of glaciers4 ,notice the boulders along the side of the stream4 ,they also came out of the body of the glacier1 where1 as we shall see when we take up ,the ,stones of the ,field in ,chapter ,,vii1 the boulders that rode south with the glaciers got most of their roundness4 ,we know already what a hand the glaciers had in the ,ice ,age in shaping the course and conduct of rivers1 and you may be sure they have something to do with the making of rivers to-day4 ,the under side of a glacier gets warmed from three sources3 7#a7 its own pressure2 7#b7 the friction as it moves2 and 7#c7 the heat from the inside of the earth which1 on account of this thick ice blanket1 can't get away into the air as it does elsewhere4 ,this heat melts the ice and1 as we know1 there is water melting also on the surface of glaciers and in the crevasses4 ,beside all this the water of rains falls upon the glacier so that there is plenty of water to make rivers1 and we always find streams of water running from a glacier's front4 ,most of the rivers of ,central ,europe start in this way4 ,,the ,,beauty ,,of ,,the ,,bridal ,,veil ,and1 although they didn't make the rivers themselves1 the ,ice ,age ,glaciers are held responsible for the fact that many little rivers always have to jump to catch the train4 ,that is to say1 they come tumbling over falls to join the larger streams into which they empty4 ,the reason of this is that when1 in the ,ice ,age1 the glaciers filled the river valleys the larger glaciers in a main valley dug below the tributary valleys and so left the mouths of the tributary rivers high up on the main valley's walls4 ,the famous ,bridal ,veil in the ,yosemite is one of these side valley falls4 ,the fall--#ijj feet--is so great that the water widens to a fleecy foam and waves back and forth in the wind like a gauzy veil and1 instead of a roar like ,niagara1 it makes a rustling sound like silk4 ,while some rivers come hurrying down like that--as if they really were afraid the larger river would go off and leave them--others1 like the ,amazon1 roll on as stately as a ,lord ,mayor's procession4 ,but the waters of all are on their way to the sea4 ,the rock layers1 owing to the wrinkling of the earth as it shrinks1 are nowhere level1 so flowing water is always on a down grade1 sloping toward the sea or toward other land that does slope toward the sea4 ,then remember too as the sea bottom keeps sinking the continents keep rising1 which increases the pitch of the land4 ,illustration3 ,,jumping ,,to ,,catch ,,the ,,train ,see the famous ,bridal ,veil ,falls in the ,yosemite ,valley hurrying down to reach the river below4 ,as the stream descends1 it broadens into a beautiful1 filmy veil4 ,all very simple1 but none the less grand and impressive4 ,ruskin1 in one of the noblest of his passages1 says3 ,all water courses1 from the inch-deep streamlet that crosses the village land in trembling clearness to the massy and silent march of the ,amazon and the ,ganges1 owe their play and power to the ordained elevations of the earth2 to paths prepared for them by which at some appointed rate of journey they must evermore descend1 sometimes slow and sometimes swift1 but never pausing1 the gateways of guarding mountains opened for them in cleft and chasm1 and from afar off the great heart of the sea calling them to itself4 ,that's a poetic way of putting it1 but it's a fact nevertheless4 ,,ii4 ,the ,human ,nature in ,rivers ,there's a lot of human nature in rivers4 ,to begin with1 as we might suppose1 they do the most playing and the least work when they are young4 ,brooks will be brooks1 you know6 ,what pretty ways they have in babyhood6 ,kissing the pebbles1 crooning1 bubbling1 chattering1 playing1 they are big ,mississippis or great oceans that1 like ,homer's ocean river1 flow around the world4 ,their bubbles are ships1 sometimes wrecked on dreadful headlands along the shores4 ,,the ,,chant ,,of ,,the ,,waterfalls ,waterfalls are found only in young streams and more often as you near the source4 ,older streams have worn down their beds more nearly to a level and1 as we all know1 more rivers begin among the mountains and highlands than in the lower lands4 ,in the mountain regions there are plenty of rocks and cliffs to jump from1 and the rivers1 you may be sure1 make the most of their opportunities4 ,at such falls as the ,bridal ,veil they jump so far they are turned into white cascades1 and as you climb the cliff beside them and feel the wind wafting spray in your face you hear the music of their songs4 ,the more or less regular dash of the water as it swings back and forth in the wind gives that chanting sound described in waterfall poetry4 ,illustration3 ,,brooks ,,will ,,be ,,brooks1 ,,you ,,know6 ,our baby river of the meadow seems to be playing it has a ,niagara ,falls of its own1 ,rock of ,ages and all6 ,see the huge mass of rock at the foot of the falls2 and the rapids8 ,like children these dancing1 singing rivers love pictures and color4 ,you see that in the rainbow tints of the spray as the sunlight strikes the air bubbles the waterfall blows2 in the green of its waters turned to gray in the foam2 in the reflections of mountain1 sky1 and cloud in the smooth stretches below the falls4 ,and1 like pebbles and other little people1 rivers love to play in the rain4 ,my6 ,what a time6 ,in a storm1 with a gray flood pouring from the sky1 you hear1 mingled with the voice of wind and rain1 the swash and gurgle of the eddies as the river goes along in its dance1 wild with the joy of it all4 ,in a mountain stream during a heavy rain1 with wind1 you can also hear the waves dashing against the rocks along the shore or in the stream1 and the smothered1 bumping1 rumbling made by the boulders on the bottom knocking against each other4 ,,storm ,,chorus ,,of ,,the ,,mountain ,,torrents ,from any high place during a mountain storm you can see twenty1 yes1 often a hundred torrents1 and the noise of the water and the moving stones makes a wonderful storm chorus4 ,reclus compares the sound made by the stones to dull thunder4 ,,where ,,to ,,look ,,for ,,hiding ,,rivers ,rivers1 both young and old1 play hide and seek4 ,possibly the older rivers get to dreaming of their infancy when they were springs1 and want to play they are springs again2 anyhow1 they disappear in the ground in one place and then come out laughing in another as if they really were springs6 ,and how they must chuckle to themselves when they fool people into thinking they are brand new rivers6 ,this happens sometimes1 and so the river gets a different name at the place where it comes out from the name it bears up to the point where it disappears4 ,such hide-and-seek rivers are found in regions where it doesn't often rain4 ,the ,tujunga1 which you cross in going from ,los ,angeles to ,san ,francisco1 is such a river4 ,at one place in its course it comes out of a canyon1 looks around a minute1 and then disappears in the pebbles1 sand and gravel of the plain4 ,down it goes until it reaches a bed of hard rock4 ,along this underground bed it runs until it gets to a place north of ,cahuenga ,peak1 where it comes up in springs and flows into the ,los ,angeles ,river4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lost ,,rivers ,,and ,,the ,,thousand ,,springs ,these are the waters of some hidden tributaries of the ,snake ,river gushing out as springs from its beautiful banks4 ,the group is called ,the ,thousand ,springs1 and is supposed to be the reappearance of two ,lost ,rivers that disappeared back in the sand wastes4 ,mountain lakes are where the lively little torrents stop to sleep4 ,the sea1 says ,ruskin1 seems only to pause2 the mountain lake to sleep and to dream4 ,but after this sleep how they laugh and play--those baby rivers--as they go dancing over the pebbles and down the falls2 for in these lakes they gather themselves together into a larger volume of water1 and so1 of course1 flow on with increased energy4 ,as soon as a stream is fairly over the lake lip it breaks into cascades1 never for a moment halting1 and scarce abating one jot of its glad energy until it reaches the next basin4 ,then swirling and curving drowsily 7dropping off to sleep again67 through meadow and grove it breaks forth anew into gray rapids and falls1 leaping and gliding in glorious exuberance of wild bound and dance down into another and yet another lake basin4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,muir1 ,the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains4 ,just as it is with human beings1 a river seems to grow more thoughtful and thrifty as it grows older2 and1 best of all1 this thought and thrift is for others--for the people of the plant world along its banks and for its old parent1 the sea4 ,with the help of pebbles it puts money in its savings bank and pays it out from time to time4 ,in seasons of flood it carries loads and loads of pebbles along4 ,as the flood goes down these pebbles are dropped and covered with the sediment that settles along its banks4 ,then these pebbles begin to decay and so enrich the soil4 ,later along comes another flood1 takes the pebbles out of the bank1 carries them farther along1 and1 as the waters go down1 puts them back in the bank again4 ,in course of time this kind of fresh food from the decaying pebbles gets carried into the sea1 where it helps to furnish food and shell material for the shell-fish and raw material to be worked up by the sea's rock mills4 ,illustration3 ,,ways ,,of ,a ,,wandering ,,river ,,iii4 ,the ,machinery of the ,rivers ,to do all their great part in the world's work the rivers need only time1 enthusiasm1 patience1 machinery1 and tools4 ,all these the rivers have1 and the machinery they use and the engineering methods they follow are much more modern than we would suppose4 ,take1 for example1 the way in which rivers widen their banks4 ,the current cuts with the greatest force on the outside of bends1 and the motion and effect is practically that of a circular saw4 ,this sawing is done on the largest scale where the current meanders4 ,swinging from side to side it cuts away both banks4 ,and what it cuts away it spreads over the valley by its back-and-forth motion1 much as men spread dirt with scrapers when they are grading a road4 ,that's how crooked rivers make broad valleys4 ,but they have to have the help of us pebbles1 too4 ,we're hard to get along without6 ,notice1 the next time the river or the creek is up1 the rolling1 hopping motion of the pebbles as they are carried along by the rushing water4 ,it is these pebbles grinding on the bottom and sides of the river's bed that help most in this kind of valley deepening and widening4 ,in the same way we pebbles helped dig those grand affairs1 the gorges and the canyons in the mountains4 ,the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado is a part of our work4 ,in the widening of valleys the circular saws of crooked streams are very useful1 but there are other things at work4 ,the rains dissolve the soil and wash the banks away and slope them down2 ,jack ,frost1 with his wedges1 pries out both soil and rock2 the little farmers with many feet--the burrowing animals and insects--and the famous farmer with no feet at all--the angleworm--loosen soil1 and so help the river to carry it away2 and the ice1 when the river breaks up in the spring1 chisels off the banks as it passes4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,rivers ,,build ,,stone ,,bridges ,natural bridges are made by the same agency that forms the intermittent springs--the dissolving power of water--and1 like the springs1 are characteristic of limestone regions because limestone is readily dissolved in water4 ,in the little model of a limestone region a and a are sink-holes--saucer-shaped hollows dissolved and washed into funnels through which the surface water joins underground streams such as you see flowing beneath the two bs1 which are natural bridges in the making4 ,the lower picture shows just how one of the bridge-builders looks while at work1 dissolving and wearing down the rock4 ,the next two pictures will help tell you two other ways in which rivers make their own bridges4 ,if you have ever been in a machine-shop you must have noticed how a planing-mill works away on a job it has been set to do1 without anybody watching it at all2 and when it gets done with its job it stops1 all by itself4 ,such machinery is called automatic1 because1 to a certain extent1 it runs its own affairs4 ,a river1 in planing down and reshaping valley scenery1 has an automatic stop4 ,when it has cut its valley down to sea level it stops1 because1 being then no higher than the sea1 it can no longer flow toward it4 ,illustration3 ,,after ,a ,,few ,,cups ,,of ,,tea ,when winding rivers get a few cups of tea--that is1 are in flood--they rush straight ahead and1 while much of the water may for a time still go on around the bend1 some of it is forced through openings in the rock and in time carves out a bridge4 ,how they do this is shown in the upper diagram on page #hc4 ,but before this automatic stop shuts off their machinery the work that rivers do is immense4 ,the ,mississippi ,river carries enough solid matter to the ,gulf every year to make a mountain a mile square and #bfh feet high4 ,illustration3 ,,you ,,know ,,this ,,bridge1 ,,of ,,course ,the ,natural ,bridge of ,virginia is an example of still another style of river bridge-building4 ,this bridge used to be part of the roof of a cave and remained after the rest of the roof fell in4 ,when ordinary people want to cross a mountain they have to climb over it4 ,but do you know what a river does8 ,it cuts its way right through and makes what is called a water-gap--a great gate of stone that is always open and through which the stream forever flows4 ,all the river used was tools and time4 ,the tools were the sand and pebbles it swept along4 ,so in the course of ages1 running like a band saw1 the ,potomac made the water-gap at ,harper's ,ferry1 the ,delaware ,river the ,delaware ,water-,gap4 ,,how ,,mountains ,,help ,,make ,,the ,,water ,,gates ,but how could a river do this8 ,it couldn't flow up one side of the mountain and down the other1 could it8 ,no1 certainly not4 ,what then8 ,wherever you find a river cutting through a mountain range you may be sure the river was there before the mountains rose1 and that the mountains rose so slowly the river kept right on in its old channel and wore down the rock under that channel as fast as the mountains rose2 while1 on either side1 they could rise as high as they wanted to for all the river cared6 ,,growing ,,mountains ,,and ,,the ,,earthquakes ,but suppose1 before ,i had explained how water-gaps are made ,i had told you ,i could show you a mountain growing4 ,you wouldn't have believed it4 ,regions in which mountains are still rising1 as on our ,pacific ,coast1 are liable to earthquakes4 ,the reason is that as mountains rise the rock layers of which they are made are strained dreadfully4 ,every once in a while they crack and the rocks on either side of this crack grind against each other4 ,this makes the earth shake1 much as the house shakes when a heavy table is pushed across a bare floor4 ,if you want to see a job of river engineering that will make you catch your breath1 look over into some of the river canyons and gorges of the ,west4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,cumberland ,,water-,,gap ,here is the famous ,cumberland ,gap that the river cut through the mountains2 so cutting a great figure in ,united ,states history1 also1 you remember4 ,the picture shows the region as it looked in early days4 ,a mile isn't much straight ahead1 but a mile straight down and you on your stomach1 with your eyes just over the edge--it's an awful long way6 ,imagine yourself looking down a wall of rock like that1 and the bottom of the abyss so far off that it looks blue--that's a canyon6 ,,and ,,yet ,,that ,,little ,,river ,,did ,,it ,,all6 ,and now we are going down into the vastest canyon in the world1 a canyon so vast that it has already swallowed practically all the words in the dictionary suitable to such scenery and still remains undescribed--so all the skilled writers say who have tried their hands at it4 ,this is the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado4 ,do you remember how in ,alice in ,wonderland the cat disappeared and left nothing but its smile8 ,well1 the first time you see the ,grand ,canyon you feel as if it had swallowed you and left nothing but your eyes6 ,and when they tell you that it was all done by that little river that you can just make out threading its way along the bottom1 you can't believe it6 ,the total length of the river's gorge--a canyon is just a long gorge--is some #djj miles4 ,the part of it known as the ,grand ,canyon is a yawning abyss of stone into which the river walls widen for a distance of #db miles4 ,the ,lower ,colorado ,river1 that dug this chasm in the rock1 flows through a vast table-land where rain seldom falls4 ,but the river1 which rises in the ,rocky ,mountains1 has a constant supply of water from the mountain rains and the melting snow4 ,the canyons you see branching from the main gorge in our picture were cut by the ,colorado's tributaries4 ,working together on different sides1 they carved out those rock masses that look like oriental temples and have been named accordingly--the temples of ,brahma1 ,osiris1 ,zoroaster1 and so on4 ,and here in this canyon is a splendid example of how the rivers1 in addition to all their other labors1 write history4 ,they helped to lay down on the borders of the ancient sea the material out of which the rocks were made4 ,it is in the leaves in such books of stone that the geologist reads the great events of world-making history4 ,moreover1 the rivers may be said to cut the leaves of the book when they dig down through them1 as in this immense library of the ,grand ,canyon4 ,illustration3 ,from a photograph copyrighted by ,fred ,harvey ,,and ,,we ,,pebbles ,,helped ,,dig ,,the ,,grand ,,canyon1 ,,too6 ,river water alone couldn't cut those canyons--the ,grand ,canyon and the rest4 ,the ,colorado and its tributaries had to have grinding tools and the tools were the pebbles they dragged over their rock-beds2 and thus1 in the course of ages1 wore them down and down and down4 ,busy1 busy all the time--these rivers4 ,but although they are always at work they not only never forget to look beautiful but they beautify everything they touch4 ,at the outset the lines of a river valley are rather straight and angular1 as if the scenery were just being blocked out by an artist1 but as the valley grows older its slopes become more gentle1 the angles disappear into rounded forms1 and the river itself winds along in graceful lines1 exactly reproducing what the great ,english artist ,hogarth called the line of beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,that ,,mighty ,,river ,,in ,,the ,,meadows ,yon stream1 whose sources run1 ,turned by a pebble's edge1 ,is ,athabasca1 rolling towards the sun1 ,through the cleft mountain ledge4 ,the slender rill had strayed1 ,but for the slanting stone1 ,to evening's ocean1 with the tangled braid ,of foam-flecked ,oregon4 --,holmes4 ,back of all the work of the rivers from year to year and age to age1 there seems always the thought of beauty as well as the thought of use4 ,they are evidently under an eternal law of service1 of beauty1 and of change4 ,the hills are shadows1 and they flow ,from form to form and nothing stands4 ,they melt like mists the solid lands2 ,like clouds they shape themselves and go4 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,isn't ,tennyson's ,brook a beautiful title picture of a baby river and its ways8 ,speaking of human nature in rivers and apparent differences in disposition1 why is it that some of the rivers of ,california run right through the mountain ranges from east to west--have evidently cut their way--while others run along1 meekly enough1 between the ranges8 ,i'm sure from what we have learned about rivers that you can tell how this happened as well as if you had been there when the rivers were made2 but if you can't think--after trying real hard--you will find the answer in the ,hide and ,seek at the end of the next chapter4 ,beside being so prominent in the literature of the ,bible and so famous in history1 the ,river ,jordan is a most curious and interesting stream1 and every child should know about it4 ,here are some of the things you will find3 ,why it is born partly grown1 and doesn't begin as a little stream1 like the ,mississippi2 why it may be said to be in both the tropical and temperate zones#ac2 about its two valleys1 both of which it uses at the same time4#ad ,footnote #ac3 ,britannica4 ,footnote #ad3 ,international4 ,another famous river over in that part of the world--it's the biggest river in ,western ,asia1 in fact--was born twins4 ,see if you can find such a river on the map4 7,the name of it is at the end of the next chapter47 ,in the days of ,alexander the ,great these twin rivers1 which now unite in one after travelling along independently for a while1 were a good day's journey apart clear to the end4 ,in the article on this river in the ,britannica1 and in books of travel you will find how1 by a quaint and ingenious device1 the river is made to pump itself up hill and irrigate the fields2 how history1 clear back to the beginning of civilization1 is written in the ruins of cities along its banks2 how it used to put in part of its time bounding the ,roman empire1 and how nowadays it is forced to help support ,arab river pirates and wild pigs4 ,now let's go over into ,africa with ,doctor ,livingstone and see how a river can grind out a big1 deep stone jar in solid rock4#ae ,rivers grind out these pot-holes much as ,indian women and the ,american pioneers used to grind wheat and corn4 7,the river1 you'll find1 uses pebbles for millstones47 ,footnote #ae3 ,the ,expedition to the ,zambesi1 page #fc4 ,one of these natural water-jars that ,doctor ,livingstone found was as wide as a well and so deep it kept the water cool even under the broiling ,african sun4 ,and what do you think of a waterfall big enough to swallow two ,niagaras8 7,it's the greatest waterfall in the world2 so you must have learned its name in your geography47 ,it's described on page #bfh of ,doctor ,livingstone's book referred to in the foot-note4 ,the natives call it ,the ,fall of the ,thundering ,smoke4 ,they wonder how water can smoke1 and so that you can see the smoke twenty miles away4 ,you'll wonder1 too1 until you learn the reason4 ,,chapter ,v 7,,may7 ,when ,april steps aside for ,may1 ,like diamonds all the rain-drops glisten2 ,fresh violets open every day2 ,to some new bird each hour we listen4 --,lucy ,larcom4 ,,the ,,fairyland ,,of ,,change ,what a wonderful world it is1 this world of green fields and perfume and blossoms of pink and gold6 ,where did it come from8 ,how did it get here out of the white winter8 ,that bleak and barren winter that lay all around us everywhere only a few short weeks ago8 ,just suppose we had never seen apple trees in bloom1 as we are now seeing them everywhere1 and somebody should show us a little brown seed1 and a piece of bark1 and a piece of root1 and a green leaf1 and a blossom1 and an apple1 and tell us they grew out of each other--were all made of the very same stuff4 ,well1 just as sure as anything1 you wouldn't believe it4 ,i wouldn't believe it4 ,we simply couldn't6 ,but we've had this sort of thing all around us ever since we can remember1 and we've got so used to it we don't see anything wonderful about it4 ,it is wonderful just the same4 ,the ,colossus of ,rhodes1 and ,jupiter of ,olympia1 and the lighthouse of ,alexandria1 and all the other ,seven ,wonders of the ,world that people used to go so far to see1 weren't anything to it4 ,and to this day1 how it all comes about is as much of a mystery as ever4 ,yet ,nature does it right before our eyes1 and over and over and over again6 ,even ,i1 old as ,i am1 and as much as ,i know1 ,i don't know how she does it1 but ,i do know how it all started2 how ,nature first began to change one thing into another4 ,it was when she began making marbles1 granites1 and other kinds of rock out of other kinds4 ,that was ages before she changed little brown seeds into big trees with pink blossoms and red apples on them1 or little brown cocoons into big golden butterflies1 or anything like that4 ,i4 ,in the ,fairyland of ,change ,ahem6 ,ahem6 7,pebble coughing47 ,i caught cold some several million years ago and ,i haven't got over it yet4 ,that's why ,i'm a granite pebble instead of a slate pebble1 or a sandstone pebble1 or anything common4 ,it's a part of the story of the fairyland of change1 this cold of mine4 ,ahem6 ,would you mind getting me a lump of sugar8 ,i don't want it for my cold--it never does that any good--but because a lump of sugar goes so well with this part of my story4 ,you notice the sugar lump is made up of little crystals1 little building blocks just as ,i am1 just as all granites are4 ,and the crystals in the sugar and in the stone were made in the same way--by first heating and then cooling the material out of which they are made4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crystal ,,fairies ,,in ,,the ,,sugar-,,bowl ,when the earth's surface first cooled1 the melted rock is supposed to have changed to granite4 ,melted rock1 under the same conditions1 does that to-day4 ,so1 for a while1 granite must have been all the kind of rock there was4 ,there was as yet no sandstone1 no shells or bones to make limestone1 no pebbles to help make conglomerate or pudding stone1 no ground-up rock and soil to make slate4 ,the rocks of the earth have been made over so many times that it is not probable that any of the granites now living 7so to speak7 are the same rocks that were made when the earth first cooled1 but you can see that we have a right to say what ,i was careful to say when ,i introduced myself to you in the first chapter1 that we belong to one of the very oldest families--we ,granites4 ,ahem6 ,there is a variety of rock--a crystallized rock--with bands all through it1 called gneiss 7say nice74 ,gneiss is made from all kinds of rock including1 of course1 conglomerate2 that is to say pudding stone#af warmed over4 ,footnote #af3 ,pudding stone is a rock with pebbles all through it1 like the plums in a ,christmas pudding4 ,its book name is conglomerate4 ,and what they did not eat that night1 the queen next morning fried6 ,,down ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,melting-,,pot ,but how is old rock warmed over and made into new8 ,you might easily guess that as the heart of the earth is melted rock the rock layers lying next to it would be melted1 too1 and so started on their way to becoming crystallized rock4 ,crystallization in rock takes place from the surface down1 in the same way that maple syrup turns to sugar1 as it does if allowed to stand undisturbed4 ,so1 as the central mass of rock is cooling from above toward the centre1 we may suppose granite is still being formed away down there1 miles under our feet4 ,but there are other ways in which rocks make their own heat--rocks far above this central molten heart of the world4 ,one of these ways might remind you of how the mother hen gets her chickens to come out of the eggs1 for rocks hatch out new rocks by sitting on one another6 ,illustration3 ,,three ,,chapters ,,in ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,marble ,if you're ever in ,new ,york ,city up around #aib;d ,street1 you can read the three chapters in the life of a piece of marble right in the rocks themselves1 for there you'll see this mass of rock with that granite dike pushing its way through4 ,the rock on either side of the dike is limestone1 and this limestone1 owing to the heat of the lava which afterward hardened and became a dike1 is full of crystals2 that is1 began to turn to marble because of the heat4 ,see how the lava crumpled the limestone as it pushed its way up into the original crack8 ,the pressure of the upper rocks generates heat in those beneath4 ,then when these deeply buried rocks come up into the upper world as parts of mountain chains1 and the covering of the softer rocks is1 by the rivers and by weathering1 worn away1 we find the granite4 ,the wrinkling of the rocks which makes mountains also creates immense pressure1 and this is another great source of made-over rock4 ,such rock is found almost entirely in mountain regions4 ,some rocks1 as shown in pebbles stretched out like a piece of gum1 are heated by pressure without being crystallized4 ,often one of these stretched pebbles is the only thing in a crystallized rock that shows what kind of rock it was originally1 all the finer material in it has been so changed4 ,the deeper down in the earth the rocks are the more apt they are to be crystallized1 because the rocks piled above them help to hold in the heat1 just as thick blankets keep you warmest on a cold winter night4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,metamorphic ,,rock ,rock of any kind may be changed to crystallized rock4 ,where the conditions are not favorable for crystallization the rock is made more solid1 and material soaked out of the rocks above filters down into it4 ,the lower layers of sandstone may become almost as solid as glass1 and are then called quartzite4 ,clay rocks are hardened into slate4 ,rocks changed in any of these ways are called metamorphic rock1 from two ,greek words meaning to form over4 ,but by metamorphic is usually meant rock that has been crystallized4 ,,nice ,,hatching ,,temperature ,,for ,,rocks ,i compared the hatching of new rocks to the hatching of new chickens1 because it is done by the rocks sitting on one another4 ,but chicken hatching and rock hatching are alike in still another way4 ,the rocks need heat1 but not too much heat4 ,too much heat melts them4 ,it is only when they have cooled down a good deal that they begin to crystallize2 and that1 you see1 wastes time4 ,a nice hatching temperature for rocks is between #ejj and #ajjj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,but we might also compare ,mother ,nature's way of changing rocks to the cooking that goes on in our kitchens4 ,she uses not only heat1 but water and other things1 including salt and soda4 ,both the salt and some of the water in the rocks comes from--you'd hardly guess it--the seas6 ,not the seas of to-day1 but the seas of yesterday1 when these rocks were made4 ,then the pores were filled with water and the water has been kept shut in down there by the rocks above ever since4 ,from this sea water comes the salt4 ,the salt in the water1 when heated1 helps to dissolve the rocks so that the different materials in them can separate and come together again in new ways1 and so form new rocks4 ,you know when you go to the lavatory to change your hands from dark to light what a lot of difference it makes whether the water is hot or cold and whether you use soap4 ,the soap helps dissolve the dirt on your hands just as the salt helps dissolve the rocks4 ,the soda which ,nature also uses is particularly good for dissolving rock that will hardly dissolve without it2 silica1 for instance1 out of which are made the hardest of the sand grains1 the sand in sandstone1 the sharp1 glassy edges of grass blades1 and the blades of wheat1 and the stalks of corn4 ,whenever there is a great deal of silica in rock you find soda mixed right with it4 ,this1 having the rocks already salted and mixed with soda before putting them in the oven1 ,mother ,nature has always found so convenient6 ,,one ,,pebble ,,may ,,play ,,many ,,parts ,i1 in my time1 may have been many kinds of rock4 ,first1 heaved up out of the sea by the earliest wrinkling of the cooling earth as granite2 then weathered away into soil and carried by rivers to the sea1 where ,i was remade the first time1 maybe1 as part of the dough in a pudding stone2 then up again in an earth wrinkle and again back to sea1 this time to be made into some one of the clay stones1 and then back to granite again4 ,anyhow here ,i am1 a little freckled granite pebble talking myself red in the face because ,i've got so much to say1 such wonderful things to tell1 and only a few hundred pages to tell it in6 ,,ii4 ,how ,do ,they ,know8 ,but1 after all1 how do they know that one rock changes into another8 ,no one ever caught a rock doing this1 did they8 ,not quite1 but almost4 ,to explain1 ,i must first tell you about the fossils that are found in stone4 ,haven't you often noticed in marble curious figures that reminded you of sea-shells8 ,they were sea-shells but have been turned to stone1 and things similarly changed while still keeping their original form are called fossils4 ,when the plants and the shell creatures of the sea die they fall to the bottom1 and mud and sand settles over them and closes them in1 much as you shut leaves and flowers between the pages of a book4 ,but while the book presses the leaves of flowers out of shape these bodies of the water-plants and shell creatures are slowly enclosed in a soft mass of mud that doesn't change their shapes at all4 ,then the particles that go to make up the soft bodies of these buried things are slowly dissolved away1 and the minerals in the water and mud above them soak in and take their places4 ,it's like passenger after passenger in a car getting up and other passengers taking the vacant places4 ,finally this mass of limey shells becomes buried deep under the sea1 is turned to limestone1 and when in course of time this part of the seashore rises--as we know shores have a way of doing--or is wrinkled up into a mountain1 this limestone becomes a part of the face of the land4 ,illustration3 ,from a photograph by the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,little ,,jewel-,,box ,a kind of jewel-box8 ,yes1 the kind geologists call a geode4 ,it began as a piece of limestone in which the underground waters had dissolved a cavity4 ,but these waters had already1 in solution1 quartz which they had dissolved from quartz rock1 and this quartz1 deposited little by little in the cavity1 formed into crystals4 ,the quartz also made the surrounding walls more solid1 so that when the mass of limestone containing this pocket was cut away by erosion this jewel-box remained1 and1 being rolled about in streams or by the lap and plunge of waves1 it was rounded4 ,,wouldn',t ,,we ,,say ,,the ,,same ,,thing8 ,now suppose where some great granite rock stood up through layers of other kinds of rock--looking as if it had pushed itself through like the great granite boss on which ,edinburgh ,castle stands--you found that wherever this intruder touched the other rock that rock was crystallized4 ,if we had just found all this out for ourselves1 as the geology people found it1 we would say1 just as they said3 ,illustration3 ,,father1 ,,grandfather1 ,,and ,,the ,,children ,,in ,,the ,,porphyry ,,family ,in this piece of porphyry you see three generations1 all living under one roof1 as it were4 ,notice that six-sided crystal near the centre8 ,compare it with other good-sized crystals that haven't any distinctive shape4 ,the reason for the difference is that the shapeless ones have had some of their substance taken away to form the smaller crystals4 ,the dark mass is lava4 ,in it the big crystals formed4 ,then1 from most of the big crystals the lava reabsorbed material1 and this material later turned into little crystals--the grandchildren of the three generations4 ,i wonder what the granite did to the limestone and the other rocks around it to make them 'sugar1' or1 as we say when speaking of rocks1 'crystallize'8 ,syrup sugars when it is heated and then cooled without stirring4 ,i wonder if this intruding mass that is now granite didn't spout up1 in melted form1 from down in the earth1 and heat the rocks on either side as it burst its way through4 ,then both this hot rock and its neighbors cooled and crystallized4 ,that's it6 ,illustration3 ,,splitting ,,marble ,,rocks ,,in ,,the ,,quarry ,this is a scene in a marble-quarry4 ,the men are splitting up a #abj-ton block4 ,a writer in ,scribner's ,magazine1 in which this illustration originally appeared1 also describes the process4 ,the wedges1 carefully greased1 are inserted in the drill-holes which1 for a horizontal split1 are neither close together nor very deep1 as that is the natural plane of cleavage between the strata4 ,two men with sledges go down the line giving each wedge a blow--not too hard4 ,then two more men follow1 and in go the wedges a little farther4 ,you see it wouldn't do to rush matters1 or you'd fracture the marble4 ,the operation is so delicate1 indeed1 that the foreman himself gives the final blows4 ,then the marble cracks from hole to hole4 ,for the vertical splits the holes1 you notice1 are closer together4 ,they are also deeper4 ,in some places you find these granite masses in great bosses1 or domelike rocks2 elsewhere in long strips1 like an iron bar thrust through other rocks2 in still other places in great slabs between other rocks1 like a warming pan pushed between the bed-sheets on a cold winter night2 but everywhere it touches other rocks these neighbors are crystallized4 ,now1 coming back to our friends the fossils1 we sometimes find limestone bordering one of these intrusive marble rocks with fossils in it1 shading off into limestone containing the same kind of fossils4 ,as you get closer to the granite mass the fossils in the marble gradually fade away until you come to marble in which there are no fossils at all4 ,so there we get the whole story of the life1 not only of marble but of granite1 and what happened to them in ,the ,fairyland of ,change and how it happened3 ,chapter ,i4--,the limestone was made in the sea and the shell creatures helped to make it4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,hot melted rock from the inside of the earth broke its way up through these limestone beds4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,then1 as the melted rock cooled1 it changed to granite1 and the limestone on either side1 being first heated and then cooled1 crystallized and changed to marble4 ,men of science have still other ways of working out this problem as to whether and how and why one kind of rock changes into another4 ,but1 we might say1 aren't they satisfied8 ,we are4 ,it's all plain enough to us now that one kind of rock does change into another4 ,then why do these geologist people go on getting more evidence when they've already got enough8 ,it's like a boy learning two lessons when he only has to recite in one2 and whoever heard of such a thing6 ,,these ,,boys ,,just ,,love ,,to ,,study ,the answer is that this going on is one of the many delights of study1 particularly in ,nature's books1 when once you get the habit4 ,illustration3 ,from a photograph by ,frith ,co41 ,ltd41 ,reigate ,,the ,,marble ,,rocks ,,at ,,jabalpur ,the gorge of the ,marble ,rocks1 near ,jabalpur1 ,india1 is a mile long and of an unearthly beauty of which even this little picture will give you some idea4 ,the walls gleam white and golden in the sun4 ,they are not really marble but limestone1 which1 as you will learn in this chapter1 is the stone that becomes marble in the fairyland of change4 ,it looks as if nature had begun the making of marble columns in those cliffs1 doesn't it8 ,this is because the cliff is cut up by joints4 ,you can also make out in one of the pillars the strata1 or horizontal divisions of the rock1 as it was laid down in the sea4 ,among other things1 the scientists search the pockets of the rocks1 so to speak1 for further evidence as to whether one kind changes into another4 ,chemistry is a great help in doing this1 and1 of course1 the microscope4 ,they find in this way that rocks that are full of crystals1 such as granite and marble1 and that look so different from the rocks that are not crystallized--such as limestone and sandstone--have in them the very same substances--silica1 lime1 potash1 iron1 and so on4 ,and again they put the oysters on the witness stand4 7,you remember how1 long ago1 oysters helped tell that mountains were once a part of the sea bottom47 ,they put a piece of limestone in a certain acid1 and it bubbles and gives off a certain kind of gas4 ,then they do the same thing to an oyster-shell1 and it gives out the same kind of gas4 ,then they try it on a piece of marble and out comes that very gas again6 ,so all three--the limestone1 the oyster-shell1 and the marble--must be pretty close relations4 ,marble is just oyster and other shells warmed up and then allowed to cool4 ,but they don't stop here--these students of the rocks4 ,it isn't enough that all these facts point to one conclusion4 ,they want to actually try it out4 ,so what do they do but change chalk--which is a kind of very soft limestone--into marble in the laboratory8 ,this they do by heating the chalk and then cooling it under immense pressure4 ,,iii4 ,the ,fairies of the ,fairyland of ,change ,if there really are fairies in this deep-down fairyland of change--and surely there must be--,i should say they were the very same fairies we find in a lump of sugar--the crystals4 ,for it is when these crystals take different shapes--the very thing fairies are always doing1 you know--that things change into something else1 so different you can hardly believe it4 ,one could easily believe that charcoal and coal are related1 they look so much alike in the face2 but who would say that a piece of charcoal and a diamond were made of the very same stuff8 ,they are4 ,but diamonds are made of crystals and charcoal is not2 and that must be it4 ,the carbon of the charcoal was never touched by the wand of the ,crystal ,fairy4 ,illustration3 ,,six ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,crystal ,,family ,introducing six interesting members of the crystal family4 ,the crystals of common salt and of gold1 among others1 take the form shown at ,a4 ,alum and diamonds crystallize as shown at ,c2 while ,b and ,f belong to a system of crystals which we find built up into ice and arsenic4 ,d and ,e are building-blocks for green vitriol1 borax1 and sulphate of soda4 ,a strange thing is that big crystals are always made up of little crystals4 ,so what looks like one crystal is really a ,united ,states of crystals1 all like each other and each like all of them put together1 much as our federal government repeats the form of the ,state governments1 and the ,state governments duplicate the government at ,washington on a smaller scale4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sand ,,grains ,,and ,,the ,,crystal ,,fairies ,the crystal fairies often give battered sand grains a new lease of life and these pictures show how they do it4 ,fig4 a is a single sand grain which has grown into crystal form2 b shows parallel growths about a grain2 c is a group of neighboring grains that have crowded each other so in their growth that the crystal facets have been destroyed4 ,sounds odd to speak of sand grains growing1 doesn't it8 ,but they do6 ,but why do the little crystals always come together in just such a way as to make big crystals shaped exactly like themselves8 ,goodness knows6 ,but whatever the how and the why of it may be1 not only do the crystal people stick as closely to the family pattern in dress as the ,scotch ,highlanders do to the plaids of their clans1 but the crystals are clannish in another way4 ,when a clay rock1 for example1 is dissolved by the heat1 moisture1 and chemicals down in the land of change1 the particles of the same kind that are scattered through it hunt each other out1 and ever after cling together1 like ,emmy ,lou and her nintimate friends4 ,you've noticed how spotty granite is1 haven't you8 ,this is because it is made up of different kinds of minerals2 but1 although the crystals in all follow the granite pattern1 the particles of each kind of mineral flock together4 ,the feldspars and the micas never mix4 ,,just ,,try ,,it ,,with ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,paper ,now take a piece of writing paper and roll it into a tube and ,i'll show you something else4 ,stand the roll up between your two hands and press down on the top4 ,it takes a good deal of pressure to bend or break it1 doesn't it8 ,now lay it on its side and squeeze4 ,it breaks right away4 ,but how should the crystals in a piece of granite know that a column of anything will stand so much more weight when the pressure comes on the ends than when it comes on the sides8 ,they seem to know2 for ,i'll tell you what they do1 away down there in the dark of the earth4 ,the crystals stand at right angles to the pressure on the rock in which they are forming4 ,sometimes1 because of the movements of the earth as it shrinks and cracks1 the crystals already formed in granite are crushed over on their sides4 ,then1 in course of time1 they form again1 but this time they stand upright1 with their heads and shoulders against the burden--little ,atlases supporting the world6 ,and they not only manage to get up and stand up straight when re-formed under pressure1 but they stand closer together than they did before2 they close up ranks1 like soldiers with serious business before them4 ,a crystal is made up of molecules1 that is to say1 little parts of itself4 ,you can't see a molecule2 you just have to think it4 ,each different thing in the world--as salt and sugar1 boys and bumble-bees1 little girls and butterflies--is made up of its own kind of molecules or little parts of itself4 ,in order to grasp the idea of certain scientific facts1 the men of science thought of the molecules themselves as being made of little bits of themselves1 which the scientists called atoms4 ,now they find that it is necessary--in order to work out still further their ideas of how things are made and done and changed1 in this wonderful mystery we call the world--to imagine these atoms as made up of what they call electrons4 ,you mustn't think1 however1 that this is all mere fancy4 ,we can1 of course1 think of anything as made up of small particles or parts of itself which we can call molecules1 and that these molecules are made of still smaller parts which we can call atoms4 ,but there is reason to believe that while each different kind of thing is made of its own kind of molecules and their atoms1 all the atoms are made of the same thing--electrons or little bits of electricity4 ,for reasons which need not be gone into here1 it is known that electrons actually exist4 ,these electrons are so much smaller than an atom that there is as much room for them to move around in an atom as there is for the planets to move around the sun4 ,and they do move--travelling round and round4 ,there are1 even in so small a thing as a grain of sand1 untold numbers of these circling worlds2 systems like the sun with its planets and other vast star systems of the sky4 ,and that1 it is thought1 may be one of the secrets of the continual change of things2 clay rock changing to granite1 granite to soil1 soil to fruit1 fruit to children1 and so on--everything on the move and the electrons doing the moving--carrying the changes1 so to speak--these wonderful little myriad messenger boys of the universe6 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,don't imagine1 for all ,i've talked so long about them1 that ,i've told you everything there is to know about the crystal fairies4 ,for example1 did you know that if it wasn't for the crystal people we wouldn't have any ice8 7,ice47 ,you will also find that if it wasn't for ice--ice and the ,greeks--we wouldn't have the word crystal at all4 7,crystal47 ,one of the most striking things in the whole conduct of these clever crystal folks you will find in reading about ice4 ,if it wasn't for a peculiar--a very peculiar--habit the ice crystals have1 all the waters of the world that ever freeze at all1 would freeze solid to the bottom and never would thaw out6 ,i'll tell you this much about it3 ,while everything else in the world--including boys and girls--contracts when it gets cold1 ice expands1 and so becomes lighter than water1 and so floats4 ,and yet the ice crystals know how to contract as well as expand1 and that's why ice sometimes builds stone walls1 as we will see when we come to study ,the ,stones of the ,field in ,july4 ,shaking still water that is cold enough to freeze but hasn't frozen makes the crystal fairies get very busy in their ice factories4 ,and it looks very much as if the fairies themselves warmed up with their work2 for1 after this shaking1 the temperature of the water rises ten degrees at the very same time it is freezing6 ,you will also find that when the weather is cold enough ice itself freezes1 gets harder and harder with the cold2 that ice will melt ice2 that two blocks of ice will grow into one if you give them a chance2 that ice crystals are apt to be born twins2 that these twin crystals are fond of gardening--at least1 they raise ice flowers2 that the ice crystals are so punctual in their coming and going in water that they are used to help place the markings on thermometers just right1 so that we can tell exactly how cold or hot we are4 ,all this just about the crystals of the ice1 but the work of the crystal people in making snowflakes is even more wonderful4 ,in the bound volumes of ,st4 ,nicholas for ,march1 #ahhb1 in your ,public ,library you will find a most interesting account of a man in ,vermont who began studying snowflakes and taking their pictures when he was a boy4 ,he's known all over the world as the great authority on snowflakes4 ,in the ,encyclopedia ,americana you will find a long article by him in which he tells the many interesting things he has learned about the ways of the fairies of the snow ,and how many pictures do you suppose he has in his snowflake gallery now8 ,over a thousand1 and no two alike6 ,just to think6 ,some of these wonderful little people of the fairyland of change sit at the table with us at every meal--the sugar crystals4 ,and they are among the most interesting members of the family4 ,under the word ,sugar you will find that the sugar crystals themselves eat and grow4 ,but what do you suppose they eat8 ,not sugar4 7,you may easily guess1 however1 they have a sweet tooth47 ,yes1 and at their home table1 before they come to your home table1 they have their regular meals1 and they are not allowed a second helping until they have eaten the first6 ,answers to ,conundrums in ,h4 ,s4 ,no4 #d ,the east and west rivers in ,california were there before the mountains rose and so cut their way through2 while the north and south rivers between the ranges owe their origin to the mountains themselves4 ,the big twin river referred to is the ,euphrates4 ,the greatest falls in the world are the ,victoria ,falls on the ,zambesi4 ,,chapter ,,vi 7,,june7 ,the rivers laugh in the valley1 ,hills dreaming of their past1 ,and all things silently opening-- ,opening into the ,vast4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that pebble is older than ,adam1 ,secrets it hath to tell4 ,these rocks--they cry out history1 ,could ,i but listen well4 --,william ,c4 ,gannet3 ,sunday on the ,hill-,top4 ,,the ,,secrets ,,of ,,the ,,hills ,i4 ,in the ,bad ,land ,library ,it has been said#ag that crystals are dreaming of life1 they act so like living things4 ,we may imagine the crystals in the granite rocks which first came into being with the cooling of the fire globe1 dreaming out the long procession of life and change that followed them4 ,footnote #ag3 ,john ,burroughs3 ,the ,breath of ,life4 ,but what nightmares they must have had when they foresaw such creatures as the one on page #bc1 that grotesque1 that unbelievable combination of bird and beast1 the cerotosaurus6 ,the bones of such monsters are one of the most astonishing secrets of the hills4 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,mountains ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,bad ,,lands ,,got ,,their ,,name ,the ,bad ,lands are so called because they are bad for travelling--that is1 if you're in anything of a hurry6 ,the ,bad ,lands of ,south ,dakota1 in which1 as in other parts of our great ,west1 so many bones of the ancients have been found1 got their name because they are so bad for travelling2 that is to say1 if you are in anything of a hurry4 ,but if you are just looking around--during your vacation1 in ,june1 say--they are anything but bad lands4 ,they are full of interesting secrets4 ,this secret of the ancient bones is only one of them4 ,another thing they lead us into is the secret history of the hills themselves2 and as this particular book is mainly about the face of the earth1 the story back of the landscape1 as it appears to the traveller1 we shall give the rest of this chapter to the origin of the ,hill family1 using the word hill in its broadest sense4 ,if you have looked it up in the dictionary you have found that what people call a hill depends a good deal on where they are4 ,the ,bad ,lands are really hills2 but in ,south ,dakota1 where these particular bad lands are1 they also have what they call the ,black ,hills1 which are really mountains1 because they mounted to get where they are4#ah ,they wrinkled up1 just as the continents themselves did1 when they came out of the sea4 ,most of the great mountain systems of the world were made in this way1 but table-lands may be so cut up by streams in course of time that they look like mountains4 ,footnote #ah3 ,mr4 ,pebble did not mean to say1 ,i am sure1 that the word mountain comes from mount1 used in the sense of rising4 ,the original of the word mountain comes from the language of the ,people of the ,seven ,hills1 the ,romans1 and means a great mass of rock or earth that sticks up4--,translator4 ,illustration3 ,painted by ,dewitt ,parshall4 ,in the possession of the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,,the ,,catskills ,,in ,a ,,mist ,the ,catskill ,mountains are of this type1 while real mountains may be so worn down that you would take them for plains4 ,you see1 with the ,hills and the ,mountains1 as with other royal families1 it isn't the importance of the individual that counts1 but the ancestry4 ,another kind of real mountain1 beside the folded-up kind1 is the mountain that is made where a rocky plain is split up into great stone blocks by the movements of the earth crust1 as it settles around the shrinking centre4 ,in the settling and crushing together of the rock cover around the shrinking ball within1 some of the blocks drop down1 and the blocks that are left sticking up make cliffs4 ,mountain ranges so made have long1 gentle slopes on the side opposite the cliffs4 ,then there are volcanic mountains4 ,fujiyama1 the sacred mountain of ,japan1 is one of these4 ,mountains are also formed where the molten rock on the inside of the earth is forced up under layers of rock nearer the surface4 ,this lifts these rock layers into domes4 ,in the course of time the rivers and the weather wear away the overlying rocks1 leaving the hard central core standing out4 ,harder layers of the overlying rock1 wearing down less rapidly than the other layers1 often stand out as circular ridges with valleys in between1 so that the central core looks like some old ring master at a circus4 ,the ,bear ,paw ,mountains and the ,little ,snowies of ,montana are mountains of this type4 ,,where ,,mountains ,,get ,,their ,,peaks ,most mountain peaks1 except those of the volcanoes1 are remnants of hard rock which have been left standing while the rivers and the weather cut away the softer rock around them4 ,illustration3 ,,in ,,the ,,himalayas ,,they ,,might ,,call ,,these ,,hills ,high as these mountains are--we are right on the roof of the ,rockies--if they were in the ,himalayas they might be called hills1 because there the scenery grows so much taller4 ,what does the sharpness of the peaks say as to the age of these mountains8 ,compared with the ,appalachians1 for example8 ,in regions of gently rolling country even small hummocks are sometimes called mountains1 while out ,west1 where scenery grows so tall1 the ,black ,hills seem to the people only stepping-stones to the big ,rockies4 ,so they call them hills4 ,in the region of the ,himalaya ,mountains--mountains that don't think anything1 you remember1 of climbing up #af1jjj to #cj1jjj feet in the air--a peak of #aj1jjj feet is often called a hill4 ,,ii4 ,hills ,that ,were ,moved ,in ,nearly every region has hills1 because every region has or has had running streams and the streams have carved out the hills4 ,but there are kinds of hills that aren't home-made2 they were made elsewhere and moved in4 ,i believe this is the biggest hill secret of all1 speaking of hills proper and not of mountains4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,kame ,,scenery ,,in ,,new ,,york ,,state ,almost all over the northern part of ,north ,america1 as well as much of ,europe and ,asia1 there are mounds1 heaps1 and hills of various shapes and sizes made up of a mixture of pebbles1 sand1 and clay4 ,in the ,united ,states these heaps make a big line of hills1 like a procession of ancient ,indian chiefs1 with bowed heads and stooped shoulders1 plodding back to the land of their fathers4 ,and1 sure enough1 there they go from down ,east clear across country to the far ,west and then up ,north1 where1 as we know1 these hill-moving giants1 the glaciers1 came from4#ai ,for1 beginning with ,perth ,amboy1 ,n4 ,j41 say1 you will find them marching on through ,elmira1 ,n4 ,y41 skirting the suburbs of ,cincinnati1 winding their way through ,indiana and ,iowa up through ,wisconsin to the ,dakotas and ,montana1 and so back into ,canada4 ,footnote #ai3 ,did you suspect the giants of this chapter were our old friends the glaciers of the ,ice ,age1 when ,i first began talking about them8 ,when the geologists first began digging into these hills they not only found them as full of pebbles as a ,christmas pudding is full of plums1 but the pebbles were of all kinds--sandstone1 limestone1 slate1 granite4 ,,jack ,,frost ,,didn',t ,,do ,,it6 ,these different pieces of stone didn't come from the breaking up by frost of the rock beds on which we now find them1 said ,some ,wise ,man1 for then they would all have been of the same kind of rock4 ,and besides1 said ,some ,wise ,man ,no4 #b1 they would not have been shaped into pebbles with the edges rounded off1 as all pebbles are by the waves of lakes or the sea or the water of flowing streams4 ,so these pebbles must have come from somewhere else4 ,yes1 and a long way off1 remarked ,some ,wise ,man ,no4 #c2 for look1 there aren't any rock beds anywhere around here from which some of these pebbles could have been made4 ,true enough1 said ,wise ,man ,no4 #d1 and ,i know what brought these little foreigners4 ,it was a great flood2 for water moves not only pebbles and clay1 but1 in times of flood1 good-sized cobblestones4 ,,what ,,is ,,meant ,,by ,,the ,,drift ,,theory ,so1 for a long time1 it was believed that the material in these hills was drifted in by the waters4 ,this was called the drift theory1 and1 although it is now known that this theory was not the true one1 such heaps of clay and stones are still called drift4 ,but the learned men kept on digging into the question and into the hills1 and finally more things were observed4 ,did you notice this8 said one4 ,the material is not separated into layers and divided up into coarse1 finer1 finest as the sediment of pebbles1 sand1 and mud is separated and divided when it settles along shores4 ,these pebbles1 this sand and clay1 are all mixed up4 ,look at this1 will you8 7,here imagine a ,learned ,somebody picking up a pebble with a scratched face like mine47 ,water never scratched anything like that4 ,here are a lot more of these pebbles1 all with their faces scratched4 ,and just see how all these scratched pebbles have flat faces1 cried another of these famous grown-up boys in these great field excursions4 ,it looks to me as if they had been ground against something hard--another rock1 say2 and for a long time4 ,,how ,,the ,,question ,,was ,,finally ,,settled ,well1 to make a long story short1 they found that the glaciers of the ,ice ,age1 those great bodies of flowing ice1 were the only things that could have brought all this material together from such widely separated regions 7as shown by the different kinds of pebbles71 and left them all mixed up as they were2 and the faces of many pebbles scratched and flattened where they had been ground along4 ,and then1 to put the question entirely beyond dispute1 they find that the glaciers are carrying down pebbles and stuff in just this way to-day1 and piling it up in hills in the valleys at the foot of the mountains4 ,only the hills of to-day are much smaller1 because the glaciers themselves are so small compared with the giants of the past4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,old ,,men ,,moved ,,the ,,hill ,,furniture ,,about ,this picture of a glacier in ,alaska shows you just how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain moved the hills about1 that time4 ,as indicated by the white lines--which1 of course1 were added to the picture for the purpose--the ,alaska glacier melted back1 leaving just such heaps of pebbles1 boulders1 and soil as made certain types of hills4 ,then from #aiaj to #aiac it advanced again1 thus picking up the very hills it had laid down and setting them farther along1 just as the glaciers did in the ,ice ,age4 ,,how ,,the ,,hill ,,furniture ,,was ,,moved ,,about ,during the ,ice ,age1 when glaciers were all the fashion1 they flowed down1 and then1 as we have seen1 melted back a certain distance2 then they flowed down again4 ,sometimes in later visits they flowed further than before1 and in so doing1 you see1 picked up some of the very hills they had previously laid down and set them along somewhere else4 ,sometimes we find different rows of hills1 one right alongside the other4 ,this shows where the glacier melted away toward the mountains1 paused1 then melted again and so on1 each time leaving a group of hills and not coming back there and disturbing them any more4 ,such hills as we have been speaking of may be steep or gentle1 and from a few feet to more than #a1jjj feet high1 although they are seldom as high as #a1jjj feet4 ,and there are other kinds of hills made by the glaciers4 ,one of the most curious of these remind you of the serpent mounds left by the mound builders in ,ohio4 ,these hills are the deposits left by the streams1 the veins inside the glacier's great body4 ,the soil in them is also apt to be in layers like the deposits of other rivers4 ,these hills wind along like serpents1 because they reproduce the bends in the streams inside the glacier4 ,such hills are called eskers4 ,they are seldom more than a few rods wide and #aj feet or so in height4 ,they run for #aj1 #bj1 #dj1 #ej1 and sometimes #ajj miles4 ,around ,boston1 and all along ,cape ,cod and in parts of ,new ,york and ,wisconsin1 you will see other hills called drumlins2 and you will see plenty of them1 too4 ,it is estimated that there are #f1jjj in western ,new ,york and #e1jjj in southern ,wisconsin1 and they are all around ,boston4 ,bunker ,hill is a drumlin4 ,you wouldn't have to tell an ,irish boy what drumlin means1 as they have these hills in ,ireland1 too1 and from ,ireland came the name4 ,the word means little hill4 ,but while ,mr4 ,glacier made the drumlins of the stuff he brought with him1 he enjoyed himself 7at least let us hope so7 tobogganing on hills he found ready made4 ,these hills are real mountains2 usually the granite heart of the mountain1 because only a very strong rock could stand having one of these playful giants riding over him and live to tell the tale4 ,such glacier slides are referred to as domes or round tops or bald mountains4 ,mr4 ,agassiz1 the great scientist who spent so many years studying the motion of glaciers1 could tell from the height of one of these bald and rounded hills how high the glacier was that rode over it4 ,for instance1 the glaciers rode over what is known as ,blue ,mountain in ,pennsylvania1 which is #a1ejj feet high4 ,then1 ,mr4 ,agassiz would have said1 the glaciers that did that must have been at least #b1jjj feet thick2 for a glacier can only flow over a rocky mass when it is half as tall again as the rock4 ,you see it is the mass of it1 the pressure of its own weight1 that boosts the glacier up the slide4 ,it seems almost like lifting oneself by one's boot-straps1 doesn't it8 ,,iii4 ,the ,ants and the ,volcanoes ,beside all the hills we have mentioned there are several others1 well worth looking into2 ant-hills1 for example1 not only because ants are so interesting in themselves but because the ants helped to answer what for a long time was one of the puzzles of science1 ,how are volcanoes made8 ,when your mother's mother went to school--or it may have been back in your mother's mother's mother's time--a little girl1 on being asked in the geography class1 ,what is a volcano8 was expected to say something like this3 ,please1 teacher1 it's a mountain with a hole in it4 ,illustration ,illustration ,from a photograph4 ,copyright by ,w4 ,p4 ,romans ,,sacred ,,fujiyama ,,and ,,its ,,counterpart ,,four ,,thousand ,,miles ,,away ,on the top is the famous ,fujiyama1 the sacred mountain of ,japan1 and on the bottom ,mount ,rainier in the ,state of ,washington4 ,although they are more than four thousand miles apart1 the two volcanoes look as if they had been cast in the same mould1 owing to the uniform system by which volcanoes are built up4 ,,the ,,wise ,,men ,,and ,,the ,,ant ,,craters ,it does look it1 doesn't it8 ,but1 what is still more striking1 it isn't a mountain with a hole in it at all1 if you mean1 as the little girl in the geography class meant1 that it was once an ordinary mountain and then had a hole put through it4 ,for a long time it was thought that volcanoes were simply mountains through which fire and lava from the interior had forced its way4 ,finally1 however1 some scientist thought perhaps of his ,proverbs #f3f4 ,in any event wise as he must have been--how else could he have been a scientist8--he went to the ant1 learned her ways and became wiser4 ,it was by noticing how the ants build their little craters with the sand and clay they carry from their underground homes that men got the idea that volcanoes may be built up in much the same way4 ,so they set to observing ,mr4 ,volcano's habits more closely1 and sure enough1 the ant had told the answer6 ,the stones1 lava1 cinders1 and the stone dust called volcanic ash are shot out by the explosion1 and coming down in showers pile around the opening1 as the ant piles the pellets around the entrance to her nest4 ,as the explosions keep on the crater is piled higher and higher1 and the stones1 cinders1 and things1 rolling down the sides1 spread the pile out at the bottom1 much as the ant drops pellets over the edge of her growing pile1 and so both the cone-like ant-hill and the big volcanic cone are built up4 ,,why ,,the ,,volcano ,,does ,,not ,,smoke ,but here is something about volcanoes that will surprise most people4 ,they throw mud1 they throw stones1 but they don't smoke4 ,what we call smoke is the steam that makes--or at least helps make--the explosion4 ,it often has the color of brown smoke because of the rock which has been blown into dust4 ,neither do volcanoes make ashes4 ,what is called ash is this rock powder1 made when the rocks are blown into pieces by the sudden expansion of the water in them into steam4 ,,why ,,volcanoes ,,seem ,,to ,,flame ,neither do volcanoes flame1 although they are supposed to4 ,only rarely does flame issue from a volcano1 and then only to a moderate extent1 due to the burning of the hydrogen gas4 ,what seem to be huge flames are the lights from the molten lava in the crater shining back on the steam clouds above2 and these apparent flames rise and fall and vary in brightness because of the rise and fall of the lava4 ,but the greatest of volcanic eruptions--that is1 the welling up of melted rock from within the earth--have not built cones4 ,the lava spread out into vast plains in ,india and ,abyssinia and in our northwestern coast ,states4 ,great cracks in the earth cross one another4 ,it is at the crossroads that the volcanoes are apt to form1 while out of the cracks leading up to these crossroads the lava spreads in sheets4 ,mount ,shasta began at one of these traffic centres4 ,it is a big brother of the landscape which it overlooks4 ,illustration3 ,,but ,,volcanoes ,,do ,,not ,,smoke6 ,this is an eruption of ,vesuvius4 ,you would think it was throwing out smoke like a gigantic locomotive1 wouldn't you1 if you hadn't read the text8 ,the darker masses1 which look so much like mingled smoke and steam1 are shadows4 ,it is probably eight to ten miles high--that cloud4 ,lava1 before it cools and for some centuries afterward1 is the last thing you would think of farming on1 perhaps1 but leave it to the little chemists of the water and the air and it will decay into the richest land you ever saw4 ,that is why they raise the finest wheat and the best fruit in the world right in the parts of ,washington and ,oregon that were once covered by the lava flood4 ,not only do volcanoes help to supply us with food by making rich soil of the eruptions of the past1 but all life might disappear from the earth if they didn't go on exploding4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,volcanoes ,,blow ,,bubbles ,the surface of lava is apt to bubble like hot mush2 and for a similar reason1 the expansion of the gases within it4 7,in the case of the mush it is the mixture of gases we call air47 ,when such lava cools you have sponge-like masses such as this4 ,plants must have carbon and they get it from the air1 but the amount of it in proportion to their needs is never large4 ,moreover1 every bit of coal that is formed--and coal is being made to-day just as it was in the coal ages1 although not in such quantities--takes carbon from the air and locks it up4 ,every bit of limestone deposited on the floor of the sea locks up more carbon4 ,but1 fortunately1 immense quantities of carbon are given back to the air through the gases thrown out by volcanoes1 thus offsetting these losses4 ,illustration3 ,from a photograph by the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history ,,rocks ,,and ,,bombs ,,thrown ,,by ,,mount ,,pel,e ,look at these giant rocks thrown out by ,mount ,pele in #aijb4 ,compare them with the man and you will realize how big they are4 ,the rounded rocks in the foreground are volcanic bombs--masses of lava discharged by successive outbursts of volcanic gases and given their shape by being whirled through the air4 ,illustration3 ,,when ,,is ,a ,,volcano ,,dead8 ,this is ,mount ,rainier with its shroud of snow1 reflected in ,mirror ,lake4 ,to all appearances it is as dead as dead can be2 but until after a volcano goes off you never can be entirely sure whether it is dead or not2 and then1 of course1 you know it isn't6 ,,when ,,is ,a ,,volcano ,,really ,,dead8 ,when is a volcano dead8 ,you never can tell4 ,a volcano goes off when it wants to1 quite regardless of the fact that it has had the reputation for a thousand years of being dead4 ,and the worst of it is volcanoes are like guns--only more so4 ,a gun doesn't shoot any harder because it wasn't supposed to be loaded2 but the volcano1 if it breaks out unexpectedly1 is violent in proportion to the length of time it has been apparently dead4 ,this is the reason4 ,the original vent becomes plugged up with the cooled lava4 ,this plug being harder than the rest of the mountain1 the next outbreak is forced to take a new course1 and the longer the forces of explosion are held back the greater the accumulation of energy and the more violent the discharge4 ,but why do volcanoes go off at all8 ,why can't they be quiet and well-behaved like other mountains8 ,nobody knows for sure4 ,on one thing all scientific men seem to be now agreed2 namely1 that while the rocks inside the earth are hot enough to melt they are hard as steel1 owing to the tremendous pressure of the rocks above them1 and one theory about volcanic eruptions is that they are caused by the release of the pressure on this rock in one place and a pressing down in another1 as the earth's crust settles and crumples around the centre4 ,some of this rock--that on which the pressure is released--melts and rises under the folds of rising rock1 and so makes the granite hearts of the greater mountains4 ,some of it wells up through the cracks in the rock and spreads in lava fields1 while some of it gushes up and explodes at the points where cracks cross and so make volcanoes4 ,this is one theory1 but there are others4 ,the latest is so big that we will have to take it into the mind in sections4 ,,the ,,latest ,,theory ,,of ,,eruptions #a4 ,imagine the interior of the earth divided into three zones4 ,the central zone1 of course1 is the hottest4 ,between this central zone and the zone reaching down forty miles or so from the surface is a middle zone4 7,think of a doughnut ball inside a doughnut ring1 with space between the ball and ring4 ,that will give you the idea47 #b4 ,from what is known of the laws of heat it is assumed that the flow of heat from the central to the middle zone is greater than the loss of heat from the central to the outer zone4 ,thus the heat income of the middle zone would constantly exceed its outlay1 and so it would get hotter and hotter4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mysterious ,,shaft ,,of ,,mount ,,pel,e ,in #aijb1 after the first explosion1 ,mount ,pele continued its eruptions for several months1 and in the late stages there slowly rose1 through the crater1 this strange shaft of red-hot lava1 like a great iron beam forged by giant hammers in ,vulcan's famous blacksmith-shop4 ,as it rose it crumbled and finally fell to pieces4 ,it was forced up by the gases beneath and shaped by the crater through which it came2 but can you conceive of anything more weird and awesome8 #c4 ,this middle zone is made up of different kinds of rock that require different degrees of heat to melt them4 ,so some parts of this zone would melt and form pockets of liquid rock1 while other parts were still unmelted4 #d4 ,these masses of liquid rock would also tend to melt their own way upward1 especially when given a lift by gases2 for gases would be given off1 also1 in this heating and melting process1 and tend to work their way toward the surface1 carrying with them the liquid rock4 #e4 ,now the greater the pressure under which a thing is kept the more difficult it becomes for it to flow2 the less the pressure the more easily it flows and the longer it remains in the fluid state4 ,so as it rose fluid rock would require less heat to keep it fluid and would have more heat left over for melting its way up4 ,then1 being joined by other fluid travelers1 the entire mass would finally come to a crack in the earth4 ,finally1 you see1 it would be only a matter of five miles or so of comparatively clear track up to the land of the fresh air and the blue sky where the rest of us live and where the volcanologists 7the men who make a special study of volcanoes7 would be waiting to give it welcome6 ,,the ,,volcanoes ,,and ,,the ,,sea ,if you will locate with red ink the volcanoes on the world map you will notice that volcanoes1 like mountains1 seem fond of the sea4 ,moreover1 while a large proportion of mountain chains are near sea water1 and some even dip their feet into it1 volcanoes bob up right in the seas themselves4 ,not only do the land volcanoes make a great circle of fire #bb1jjj miles long around the rim of the ,pacific1 but within this immense amphitheater are the islands of our story books scattered in pleiads over the ocean4 ,these islands are simply the tops of sea volcanoes4 ,of all the active volcanoes1 the great majority are on islands or along the borders of continents4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,firing-,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,volcanoes ,,the ,,mountains ,,and ,,the ,,sea ,last of all in this story of the secrets of the hills1 let us speak of the big brothers of the family--the mountains4 ,you remember in the story of how the continents came up out of the sea about wise old ,xenophanes of ,colophon1 who figured out that the mountains must at one time have been under the sea and why he thought so1 don't you8 7page #ac74 ,now get your geography and come here a moment2 ,i want to show you something else4 ,turn to the map of ,north ,america4 ,where are the great mountain chains8 ,nearly all along the borders of the sea4 ,now look at the map of ,south ,america1 and where are the mountains8 ,along the borders of the sea4 ,then take ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and you see the same thing4 ,usually the main mountain chains are along the sea border or they stand near the borders of what was once a sea2 as in case of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,a ,,baby ,,mountain ,,that ,,stopped ,,to ,,rest ,a mountain1 as you can readily imagine1 isn't made in a day4 ,here is a little mountain near ,hancock1 ,virginia1 that started up ages ago and then stopped to rest2 one of the ripples in which the great ,appalachian waves died away4 ,this baby mountain has no granite mass in its centre1 as big mountains have1 because the wrinkling didn't reach down far enough into the earth to release the pressure on the molten rock4 ,why should mountains show such a fancy for salt water8 ,it seems strange1 doesn't it8 ,i know why it is because ,i helped make a mountain myself once--up on the ,canada ,coast it was--and ,i learned a good deal of the mountains and their ways4 ,i will tell you about the mountains and the sea a little later2 after ,i have told you some other things4 ,first of all1 this is how the ,granite family helped make mountains4 ,as the great stone sides of the mountain rise the enormous pressure on the melted rock farther down in the earth is released1 and is forced up under the mountain as it rises4 ,then1 cooling1 it crystallizes into granite1 as explained on page #aca4 ,illustration3 ,,mountains ,,made ,,to ,,order ,of course nobody ever watched a mountain crumpling up in the way mountains are believed to crumple up1 the process is so slow4 ,yet1 to try out the theory1 geologists in the universities make layers of different material1 corresponding to the strata of different kinds of stone1 and then subject this composition to pressure at both ends1 as the earth crust is supposed to be pressed in the crumpling process4 ,the result is that these artificial strata take similar forms to those we see in mountain rock4 ,and that's the answer6 ,notice the similarity of the rock wrinkles in the baby mountain in ,virginia and these imitation mountains of the laboratory4 ,,why ,,mountains ,,run ,,north ,,and ,,south ,look at your relief map once more4 ,which way do the mountains run in ,north ,america8 ,in ,south ,america8 ,in ,africa8 ,they all run in a general north and south direction1 don't they8 ,do you see why8 ,the fact that they were made along the coasts of the oceans would make them run north and south1 too1 wouldn't it8 ,the same thing explains why the ,alps do not run north and south4 ,they were made by the sinking of a sea that runs east and west1 and so they started out to run east and west1 too2 then they got a wrench1 the particulars of which we need not go into here1 and were much mixed up1 as we find them to-day4 ,,what ,,happened ,,when ,,the ,,earth ,,slowed ,,up ,but there is another thing that may have helped to make many great mountains run north and south4 ,bedtime and sunrise used to come a good deal oftener than they do now1 for then the earth turned faster on its axis4 ,it turned fastest of all at the equator1 just as it does to-day4 ,so the lands in the equatorial belt were pulled up and the belt enlarged4 ,then1 as the speed of the globe slackened1 the enlarged belt began to wrinkle because there was not the same amount of centrifugal or fly-away-from-the-centre force to make it stand out4 ,so wrinkles came at right angles to the belt1 just as do the waist gathers in a dress4 ,and now about the mystery of the mountains and the sea4 ,when we visit the rock mills of the sea along in ,october#bj we shall notice1 among other things1 that the rock is made along the sea border1 and that the coarsest sediment settles nearest the land4 ,as a result this part of the deposit is built up faster than that farther off shore1 and as it gets heavier and heavier it sinks4 ,the deposits farther away from the shore sink1 also1 but more slowly because these deposits are not piled up so fast4 ,now1 if you come down on one end of a seesaw what happens to the other end8 ,it goes up1 doesn't it8 ,the effect of this sinking of the rocks of the sea upon the rocks of the adjoining land is something like that4 ,the rocks that make the continents extend out under the sea1 and the weight of the newly laid stone on the sea margin end not only tips the rock beds up1 but1 sinking in toward the continental mass1 wrinkles it up1 as the pages of this book will wrinkle if you push them from the front edge4 ,so you get your mountains along the sea border4 ,and they are in parallel ranges1 because the land is crumpled up into several folds1 like a table-cloth pushed from one side4 ,footnote #bj3 ,chapter ,x1 ,the ,autumn ,winds and the ,rock ,mills of the ,sea4 ,but1 you say1 how about the ,rocky ,mountains8 ,and the ,carpathian ,mountains in ,europe1 not to mention several others8 ,they are not on the borders of the sea4 ,,why ,,some ,,mountains ,,are ,,far ,,from ,,the ,,sea ,that's no sign they weren't near a sea border at some time4 ,let me just ask you4 ,suppose you found that most of the great mountain chains are on the borders of seas1 and suppose you had figured out the reasons ,i have just been giving1 then what would you do if you found a few mountains far back from the sea8 ,you would probably try to find how they got moved back1 wouldn't you8 ,that's just what other men of science did4 ,a study of the rocks of the mountains themselves and other things bearing on the question goes to show that since the mountains were made the sea might have retired from regions where it had previously advanced1 as it did in the case of the ,mississippi ,valley1 or the land may have risen between these mountains and the sea4 ,moreover1 the down wash from the mountains themselves sometimes builds wide lands1 which1 as they extend and shut back the sea1 leave the mountains farther and farther away4 ,much of the land extending east from the base of the ,rocky ,mountains was made in this way4 ,the ,mississippi ,valley was for ages1 you know 7page #aj7 the ,mediterranean ,sea of ,north ,america1 lying in the downward fold of our continent between the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,appalachians4 ,illustration3 ,from the painting by ,david ,james ,,the ,,wave ,,why ,,sea ,,waves ,,rise ,,to ,,greet ,,the ,,mountains ,one of the strangest1 most poetic phases of the relation between the great blue mountains and the great blue sea is that waves1 as they approach the shores of continents bordered by mountain ranges1 rise higher and higher2 and the higher the mountains1 the higher rise the waves4 ,these waves are not driven by wind or tide but seem drawn forward by some strange power4 ,this power1 however1 is no stranger than the one that makes us fall and bump our noses when we stub our toes--the power of gravitation1 according to which all masses attract each other4 ,it is the mass in the mountains that exerts a pull on the waves2 and the greater the mountains the greater the pull1 of course4 ,in the ,indian ,ocean1 for example1 around the head of the ,arabian ,sea1 the waves rise far above sea level1 largely because there is beyond them1 on the land1 one of the greatest mountain masses in the world4 ,wouldn't it give you a queer feeling if you were1 say1 a sailor1 and for the first time saw waves act like that8 ,uncanny1 almost1 isn't it8 ,but do the mountains remember their old parent of the white flowing rocks and beard1 ,father ,neptune8 ,they act as if they did2 particularly in the way in which they come to imitate1 in time1 the shape of the waves of the sea4 ,ruskin1#ba speaking to artists about drawing mountains1 says3 ,good and intelligent mountain drawing recognizes a great harmony among the summits and their tendency to throw themselves into waves1 closely resembling those of the sea itself2 sometimes in free tossing toward the sky1 but more frequently in the form of breakers1 concave and steep on one side1 convex and less steep on the other4 ,footnote #ba3 ,modern ,painters1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,when you stand some day on one of the high peaks of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and look out over the great fields of upheaved stone1 you will notice how closely the parallel ridges resemble ranks of waves making toward a shore4 ,like sea waves also1 the vast backs of these waves of stone are long and sloping1 while their fronts are comparatively short and much steeper4 ,another thing that makes you feel as if you were looking out upon a sea whose waves had been changed to stone is the fact that these stone waves are not only green but have white caps2 for in the valleys1 and far up the sides of the mountains1 are the forests with the perennial green of their pines1 and on the peaks the eternal snows4 ,illustration3 ,,and ,,every ,,tossing ,,of ,,their ,,boundless ,,crests ,not only is the mounting and forward drive of waves repeated in mountain forms1 but also the whirlpools among the rocks when sea waves reach the shore4 ,says the famous ,french geographer1 ,reclus#bb3 ,the centre of the ,pyrenees resembles a great whirlpool around which the mountains rise like enormous waves4 ,footnote #bb3 ,the ,earth4 ,finally we might imagine that the mountains1 like the mountain streams1 hear the call of the sea and are stirred by it4 ,for1 again to quote from ,ruskin's wonderful chapter on the nature of the thing we call a mountain3 ,behold as we look farther into it1 it is all touched and troubled4 ,the rock trembles through its every fibre1 like the chords of an olian harp--like the stillest air of spring with the echoes of a child's voice4 ,into the heart of all those great mountains and through every tossing of their boundless crests and deep beneath all their unfathomable defiles1 flows that strange quivering of their substance4 ',i beheld the mountains and lo they trembled2 and all the hills moved lightly4' ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,that ,,strange ,,quivering ,,of ,,their ,,substance ,this picture shows mountain-peaks carved in folded strata in the ,rocky ,mountains in ,montana4 ,how well it illustrates ,ruskin's grand lines4 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,of course you saw that the ,greeks meant the story of ,phaeton to account1 among other things1 for the origin of deserts1 but what is there in it that would lead one to believe the ,greeks knew there were such things as volcanoes8 ,read what the encyclopedia says about volcanoes and ,vulcan and the physical geography of ,greece and the ,greek islands4 ,where is ,mount ,stromboli and why is it called ,the ,lighthouse of the ,mediterranean8 ,on which of our coasts do we have young and growing mountains1 and on which old mountains that are much worn down8 ,did you ever notice1 on your map of ,europe1 how the curve of the ,carpathian ,mountains follows the curve of the shore of the beautiful ,adriatic ,sea so far away8#bc ,what does that remind you of in the story of the relation between the mountains and the sea8 ,footnote #bc3 ,how far away is it8 ,the scale of miles on your map will tell4 ,yes1 you say1 but if mountains are formed on the borders of the sea why are the ,carpathians so far from the ,adriatic2 and the ,alps so far from the ,mediterranean and the ,rocky ,mountains of ,america and the ,altai mountains of ,asia so far away from any sea at all8 ,professor ,heilprin#bd knew you would say that2 at least ,i suppose he did1 for he has explained all this in his little book1 written especially for young people1 ,the ,earth and ,its ,story4 ,after you have read this part of the story write it out in your own words and then copy it into your notebook4 ,you might call your own story1 ,how ,mountains are ,moved ,back from the ,sea4 ,footnote #bd3 ,professor of ,geology in the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 ,philadelphia4 ,what mountains do the waves of the ,indian ,ocean rise to salute8 ,how do they compare in size with other mountains that you know of8 ,how does the carbon in the gases of volcanoes get into the plants8 ,what does it say in ,proverbs #f3f that might remind one of the fact that the ants helped solve the puzzle as to how volcanoes are made8 ,as to the hills that were moved in1 a ,wisconsin writer1 who has1 among other things1 written delightfully of his companionship with the rocks and hills of his ,state#be tells about sinking a well #acb feet deep on his farm1 and going through this imported scenery all the way4 ,footnote #be3 ,charles ,d ,stewart1 ,essays on the ,spot4 ,somewhere down there1 he says1 if ,i had kept on going ,i should have struck the original ,wisconsin4 ,and why not be an author yourself8 ,start a little book of science of your own and learn to make notes on interesting things you have been reading about4 ,for instance1 put in it now some of the different things we have learned about the wonder-workers of the ,ice ,age1 up to and including this chapter4 ,call what you write ,the ,story of the ,old ,men of the ,mountain4 ,at the end of the part you write now you can put ,to be continued1 just as they do in a story paper2 for we are not through with the work of the old men1 as you will see4 ,how did ,rome get its seven hills8 7,you know it was called ,the ,city of the ,seven ,hills47 ,the ,bible quotation in ,ruskin about the trembling of the mountains is from ,jeremiah #d3bd4 ,how grand it sounds1 doesn't it8 ,like the music of a pipe organ4 ,the ,bible has many references to hills and mountains4 ,here are some of the most striking3 ,psalms #aad3d2 ,exodus #bj3ah2 ,deut4 #e3bc2 ,rev4 #h3h2 ,micah #a3d2 ,isaiah #ed3aj4 ,where are the most famous of the ,bad ,lands of our ,western ,states8 ,those of ,south ,dakota are perhaps the strangest4 ,among other strange things is the fact that some of the hills were set on fire by rain--goodness knows how long ago--and these hills are like gigantic stoves for the cattle1 who never fail to collect around them on bleak days4 ,in the article on ,south ,dakota in the ,britannica you'll learn all about how the rain started the fire4 ,then perhaps you will want to look up spontaneous combustion and iron pyrites4 ,aren't those ancient monsters whose bones they find in the hills comical looking creatures--now that we are several million years safely away from them8 ,the comic artists 7of pen and pencil7 are always having fun with them4 ,arthur ,guiterman1 for instance1 in picturing what spring must have been like in those old days3 ,go-dum1 bally hoosh6 is the note of the ,icthyosaurus4 ,notorum-dorando6 the blithe ,hippocampus replies4 ,chin-chin-orizaba-pelote6 rings the jubilant chorus ,of sweet ,pterodactyls that wing the cerulean skies4#bf ,footnote #bf3 ,the ,laughing ,muse4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,a ,,new ,,england ,,hill ,great lumps of pudding the giants threw1 ,they tumbled about like rain4 ,,chapter ,,vii 7,,july7 ,they flung them over to ,roxbury ,hills2 ,they flung them over the plain2 ,and all over ,milton and ,dorchester too ,great lumps from the pudding the giants threw4 ,they tumbled about like rain4 --,the ,ballad of the ,boulders4 ,,the ,,stones ,,of ,,the ,,field ,in our rambles during the summer vacation season we are constantly coming across boulders2 in the mountains1 in the fields and by the sea4 ,in the mountains and near rocky headlands or at the foot of the cliffs we take them for granted2 they have evidently fallen from the rock walls above them4 ,but haven't you often wondered how they got out on the prairies far from any rock masses8 ,this chapter tells about that and other curious things in the lives of the great ,boulder family4 ,i4 ,big ,chief ,boulder ,even the ,indians who1 in those early days1 had never gone to school or studied geography1 used to wonder how these big stones had travelled to the places where they found them4 ,once upon a time the ,indians in the wilds of ,minnesota found an unusually big granite boulder lying among the hills4 ,so what did they do but paint a head with eagle feathers on one end of the stone4 ,then they put stripes around its body4 ,you see they thought of ,mr4 ,boulder as a big chief in feathered head-dress and painted for war4 ,,wonder ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,knowledge ,it may seem foolish to make all this fuss about finding a big stone in a field4 ,but these ignorant red men were much wiser than we are if we don't wonder about it too4 ,wonder is the beginning of knowledge2 and the ,indians thus took the first step toward one of the great discoveries of geology4 ,it was just such wondering on the part of scientific men that led to their finding out not only how these big stones got into strange lands but how certain kinds of hills that we have just been reading about were made4 ,for1 as you must have already guessed1 the moving of these boulders was one of the many jobs ,mr4 ,glacier did for us during the ,ice ,age4 ,but pretend you don't know the answer4 ,it took the wise men a long time to find it and that's where the fun comes in--in the hide and seek4 ,illustration3 ,from a photograph by ,bourne ,shepherd1 ,calcutta ,,the ,,strange ,,old ,,indian ,,of ,,mount ,,abu ,if those ,minnesota ,indians thought a boulder of the usual shape was some big chief from another land1 what would they have thought if they had set eyes on this solemn old creature8 ,he sits by the hour--like ,socrates in the market-place--and has sat for ages gazing down at his image in a lake at the foot of ,mount ,abu in ,india4 ,he was carved into that shape by sands blown from the ,north ,indian desert acting on the softer parts of the rock4 ,most ,indians1 as you know1 are silent people1 but this old chap1 so ,i hear1 never speaks at all6 ,yet some day he may1 all of a sudden1 take a jump6 ,boulders do that sometimes1 as you will see before you have finished this chapter4 ,,on ,,the ,,north ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,world ,some of the boulders seem to have belonged to ,alpine ,clubs1 for you find them away up on mountain sides2 some of them as high as #f1jjj feet--that's over a mile you know--above the level of the sea4 ,and often these boulders are not of the same material as the huge pieces of broken rock that fall from the neighboring mountain walls4 ,moreover the blocks of stone from the mountain are angular2 they are not nicely rounded off as are boulders and pebbles4 ,it's that way all over the north end of the world as far south as the ,ohio in this country and the ,alps in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,wouldn',t ,,it ,,make ,,you ,,nervous1 ,,too8 ,this picture is from a story about a little boy who had to cross a field full of big1 dark boulders like this at night1 and how nervous it made him4 ,but there's one place in which you never will find boulders1 and that's in a country where there are caves of any considerable size4 ,neither will you find such caves where there are boulders4 ,why shouldn't the caves and the boulders live happily together just like other people8 ,the answer is simple4 ,the glaciers of the ,ice ,age1 with their enormous weight1 crushed in the roofs of caves in every region over which they flowed2 and it was these same glaciers that left the boulders4 ,since the glaciers went away the underground rivers that hollow out the caves have not had time to make new ones4 ,it takes ages and ages to make a nice big cave4 ,,ii4 ,the ,train of ,thought ,these widely scattered boulders furnished the students of the subject with the very best evidence that there was once an ,ice ,age4 ,first1 the geologists noticed1 just as the ,indians did1 that the boulders were of a different kind of rock from that of the regions in which they were found4 ,up in ,wisconsin1 running southwest from ,waterloo is a train 7as it is called7 of boulders sixty miles long4 ,the boulders are of a very hard rock called quartzite1 while all the rock deposits in that region are of limestone or sandstone4 ,illustration3 ,,mr4 ,,boulder ,,on ,,his ,,perch ,this is what is called a perched boulder4 ,being a harder kind of rock than that on which it was left by the glaciers1 it has held out against the winds and weather1 while the stone under it has been worn away4 ,in eastern ,wisconsin1 along with these stones1 have been found pieces of copper1 although there are no copper deposits near by4 ,to the northeast of where the fragments of copper were found are the great copper deposits of what is now ,michigan1 and from this region the glaciers brought the copper and scattered it about as they moved south and southwest4 ,so these mysterious stones and other things kept pointing toward the north1 in a kind of dumb show4 ,in mountain rain storms you can see the torrents driving great stones before them1 so one of the first theories about the stranded boulders was that1 at some time in the earth's history1 there had been great floods covering whole continents1 sweeping away rocks from the mountains and carrying them here1 there1 and everywhere4 ,that theory also accounted for the rounded shape of the boulders1 for if you have a volume of water big enough and swift enough you can roll boulders wherever you like4 ,,what ,a ,,queer ,,hobby-,,horse6 ,but why should the boulder trains all lead to the north8 ,and how could water carry boulders right across a deep mountain valley and pile them high up on the mountains on the other side8 ,how could water perch one boulder on another or on a flat ledge of rock or on the summits of the cliffs8 ,boulders so perched are very common1 and often they are so nicely balanced that a man can set them rocking2 and sometimes a small boy can do it4 ,every young man who goes to ,dartmouth ,college knows about the rocking stone some half mile east of the college4 ,in the town of ,barre is a big boulder with a small boulder on its back1 and the small boulder can be set rocking like a child's hobby-horse4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,mountain ,,torrents ,,help ,,shape ,,the ,,boulders ,the only thing that could handle boulders in this way1 so it turned out1 were the glaciers4 ,by following up the boulders to their homes in the mountains they found on the backs of the glaciers of to-day stones just like those in our fields1 and they found them thickly scattered over the ground where the glaciers melted back during the summer months4 ,the glaciers not only pick up boulders from the mountain torrent beds1 as they move along1 but themselves pluck rocks from mountain sides4 ,huge blocks of rock1 dislodged when water freezes in the cracks of the mountain walls1 also fall upon the glacier4 ,it was the boulders held underneath the ice that left their autographs1 deep grooves on the native bed-rock in the regions into which the glaciers of the ,ice ,age came4 ,these great ice rivers filled the mountain valleys1 and reaching far up on the mountain sides carried boulders to those heights4 ,sometimes the glacier left the stones standing on a narrow point on top of other rocks--so making the rocking stones4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,they ,,know ,,the ,,old ,,men ,,did ,,it ,here is one of those heaps of boulders1 pebbles1 and soil that the glaciers of the ,ice ,age brought and left behind them4 ,they know those ancient glaciers did this1 because just such heaps are found under the edges of glaciers to-day4 ,,iii4 ,leaves from the ,family ,records of the ,boulders ,what ,i have said so far of the ,boulders is mainly about their travels into foreign lands and how they were received by intellectual people4 ,but there are many other interesting things to be found in their family records that you will want to know about1 ,i am sure4 ,,how ,,the ,,boulders ,,rode ,,on ,,the ,,water ,one of these is how they came to ride on the water1 when ,i said just a little while back that only ice could carry them across mountain valleys1 and pile them up on the mountain sides4 ,that was all true2 yet1 under certain circumstances1 boulders have ridden on the water4 ,as the glaciers melted away finally in those early days the water1 as you know1 helped make rivers and lakes4 ,then1 from the front of the glaciers icebergs broke off and floated away down the rivers or across the lakes4 ,in these icebergs boulders were often imbedded1 and so were dropped wherever the iceberg carried them before it dissolved4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,boulders ,,rode ,,on ,,the ,,water ,this is a scene in ,august in ,glacier ,national ,park4 ,it illustrates how boulders of the ,ice ,age travelled by water1 when icebergs containing them broke from the glaciers and floated away on rivers and lakes4 ,ice helps handle boulders in still another way2 but before ,i tell you what it is ,i want you to imagine you are an ,indian1 away back in the days before ,indian schools1 and see if you wouldn't be as superstitious as they were4 ,just suppose then that you are a red child of the forest1 and that along a certain lake you saw near the shore a lot of boulders scattered about in a disorderly way4 ,this1 say1 was in the fall4 ,but when you came back the following spring you found them all piled up into a wall along the lake1 and you positively knew no member of your tribe or of any other had done the piling4 ,wouldn't it make you feel a little superstitious8 ,,how ,,mr4 ,,winter ,,builds ,,boulder ,,walls ,it was ,mr4 ,winter that built these walls4 ,with the spring break-up on lake shores big cakes of ice1 blown by stiff gales1 pry up the boulders along shore1 and force them further up the bank4 ,then another gale and another push1 and more stones are crowded up on top of the first course1 and so there is built a rude wall4 ,some of the stones may be crowded together side by side4 ,this makes what is called a boulder pavement4 ,but even this isn't all of nature's engineering in the handling of boulders4 ,here is another example4 ,ice is formed on lakes early in the winter when the air is but little below the freezing point of water4 ,under these circumstances ice expands4 ,then1 with the first severe cold spell it contracts and so cracks4 ,water1 rising from below1 fills these cracks1 and is itself1 in turn1 frozen to ice4 ,then comes a warm wave1 these ice wedges swell1 and so the ice sheet expands1 pushes up along the shore and1 if there are any boulders there moves them about2 or sometimes drives them deep into the bank so that the following spring it looks as if somebody had been shooting at the bank1 using boulders for bullets4 ,the sun shapes boulders somewhat as the blacksmith shapes iron1 but instead of striking with a hammer it strikes with its rays4 ,rock is a poor conductor of heat1 so the heat from the sun only goes into the rock a little way4 ,the result is that the surface expands and so loosens itself from the rock beneath and in course of time falls off4 ,with the cooling of the atmosphere at night just the opposite thing takes place2 the surface cools off first and so1 contracting1 loosens itself from the body of the stone4 ,it seems to be a regular tug of war between the heat of the day and the cool of the night4 ,first of all the corners and sharp edges break away because1 being thinner1 they are heated and cooled more quickly4 ,the boulders owe their rounded shapes most of all1 however1 to the fact that they were ground together in the body of the glaciers as those great ice sheets flowed along4 ,,good ,,talks ,,by ,,learned ,,boulders ,of course1 the boulders1 like other people1 differ in their tastes--as you can tell by their talk4 ,the granite boulders have the most to say about travel because they are so hard that they can take longer journeys than weaker rocks1 and so have more to tell4 ,but there is another branch of the family that is still more bookish as you may say4 ,these are the pudding stone boulders--conglomerates4 ,in that most interesting biography1 ,the ,story of a ,boulder1 ,professor ,geikie describes a stone that was not only made up of a variety of pebbles1 but in which there was a section of sandstone4 ,the sandstone and the conglomerate had been neighbors in some rock ledge just as the pebble section and the smooth sand section are always neighbors where the shores descend into the sea4 ,so when the rock mass1 which was finally rounded into a boulder1 broke away it included portions of both sandstone and conglomerate4 ,illustration3 ,,where ,,the ,,sea ,,helps ,,shape ,,the ,,boulders ,the upper part of this boulder--the sandstone--had in it stems and leaflets of plants of the ,coal ,age1 changed to coal4 ,the pebbles below were fragments of more ancient rocks made at a time when frogs as big as the oxen of to-day lived in the marshes4 ,they must have had a croak like a fog-horn1 said the ,high ,school ,boy4 ,in this story of the boulder1 ,professor ,geikie says3 ,i had here a quaint old black letter volume of the ,middle ,ages giving an account of the events taking place at the time it was written and containing in its earlier pages numerous quotations from the authors of antiquity4 ,illustration3 ,,which ,,do ,,you ,,say8 ,the quotations from the authors of antiquity1 were the pebbles1 of course1 once parts of older rocks4 ,i have spoken of the boulders as authors4 ,you will also be interested in their relations with artists4 ,boulders add much to the picturesque effect of the shores of lakes and seas and mountain ravines1 as they appear to the traveller1 and as artists reproduce them in pictures4 ,they also add to the beauty of streams1 by forming rapids4 ,these boulders that are piled in so thick as to make rapids are brought in by smaller but swifter tributaries that flow into larger but more sluggish streams4 ,rapids are favorite topics for landscape artists4 ,they are characteristic of the work of ,ruysdael1 for example1 with whom you have become well acquainted in your picture studies in school4 ,of the drawing of stones in general ,ruskin says3 ,there are no natural objects out of which an artist1 or any one who appreciates the form of things1 can learn more than out of stones4 ,a stone is a mountain in miniature4 ,the fineness of ,nature's work is so great that into a single block a foot or two in diameter she can compass as many changes of form and structure on a small scale as she needs for her mountains on a large one1 using moss for forests and grains of crystal for crags4#bg ,footnote #bg3 ,modern ,painters4 ,illustration3 ,,why ,,boulders ,,sometimes ,,take ,a ,,jump ,boulders sometimes jump up1 all of a sudden1 as if they had sat on a pin4 ,they do this when an earthquake wave passes straight through the globe2 from ,ecuador1 say1 to ,borneo4 ,such waves1 called waves of transmission1 travel incog as it were1 not causing any disturbance until they reach the surface again4 ,then if there happens to be a big rock on the spot1 up it jumps--the funniest thing you ever saw6 ,harry ,furniss1 the famous ,english cartoonist1 made this picture just for a joke4 ,on page #aeg you will find two pictures of stones by two famous landscape artists1 ,claude and ,turner4 ,of the stones in one picture ,mr4 ,ruskin says1 they are massy and ponderous as stones should be2 while the stones in the other picture are wholly without weight4 ,in which of the pictures would you say the stones are massy and ponderous1 and in which are they wholly without weight8 ,now look at the ,hide and ,seek notes below and see if you and ,mr4 ,ruskin think alike4 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,a boy scout1 as you know1 is expected1 among other things1 to be an ,indian 7a good ,indian1 of course72 to keep his eyes wide open as he goes about in the woods and fields4 ,in that way he is always coming across things to wonder over1 such as the big stone the ,indians found4 ,it's just such boys that great men are made of4 ,all the great scientists began in that way4 ,take the case of ,hugh ,miller1 for example4 ,in the encyclopedias you will meet him as a famous geologist1 along with great artists and inventors and statesmen and other fine company2 but at first he was only a boy1 like the rest of us4 ,and he had very little chance to go to school1 but he went anyhow2 went to school1 like ,lincoln1 to all the good books he could get hold of and also to the stones of the field4 ,after a while he got so he could write books himself1 and they are among the most readable books you ever saw4 ,you just read his story of ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and if you don't open your eyes6 ,the encyclopedia will tell you a great deal about the boy himself and about ,uncle ,sandy and ,uncle ,james1 and how they helped him4 ,but the start of it was this3 ,one day a mason in ,scotland#bh broke off a piece of stone--he was building a wall at the time--and inside of the stone he found--what do you think8 ,a fish6 ,inside of the stone1 mind you6 ,footnote #bh3 ,hugh was a ,scotch boy4 ,of course you won't be surprised to hear that it was a queer1 outlandish sort of fish1 and that it was dead4 ,in fact1 it had been dead so long that it also had turned to stone4 ,in short1 it was a fossil4 ,but no ,pharaoh in his huge pyramid ever became more famous than did that little fish in his tomb of stone4 ,yet1 would you believe it8--neither the mason nor his fellow workmen thought much about it4 ,they frequently came upon these fossils and1 beyond being idly curious at first1 paid little attention to them4 ,this day1 however1 among these workmen was ,hugh ,miller1 who was also a stone-mason by trade4 ,hugh got as excited over this fish as a boy4 7,he was only seventeen at the time1 ,i believe47 ,the story of this queer fish1 he said to himself1 must be as good as ,sinbad the ,sailor1 and the ,yellow ,dwarf1 and ,jack the ,giant ,killer1 that ,i used to like so well when ,i was a little lad2#bi and he determined to find out all he could about it4 ,he found from the geology books that there was much yet to be learned about such fish1 and so he proceeded to study the stones4 ,he opened the stones with his hammer as you open a book4 ,he put in all his leisure time at this work1 with the result that he not only became one of the world's famous geologists1 but he wrote books in which he made it a point to tell these curious stories of ancient life in the sea1 so that people without any previous scientific knowledge could read and enjoy them4 ,footnote #bi3 ,he had read all these stories and a lot more1 so my old ,chambers' ,encyclopedia says4 ,besides ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone he wrote ,footprints of the ,creator1 ,the ,testimony of the ,rocks1 ,my ,schools and ,school ,masters1 ,scenes and ,legends of the ,north of ,scotland1 and a book of poems4 ,not all the conclusions he came to are accepted to-day--for geology1 like all the sciences1 is always growing--but the history of its growth and how men reasoned things out is quite as interesting and profitable as the facts themselves1 and ,hugh ,miller has a particularly attractive way of telling things4 ,so you see those ,indians who painted up old ,big ,chief ,boulder were on the right track2 they were deeply interested in it and its being there as a great and mysterious work of nature4 ,they named it ,waukon1 an ,indian word meaning mystery4 ,oh1 yes1 and about boulders in art1 it's the stone in the upper of the two pictures that ,ruskin considers massy and ponderous and hence true to nature4 ,turner painted it4 ,,chapter ,,viii 7,,august7 ,in the parching ,august wind ,cornfields bow the head4 --,christina ,g4 ,rossetti4 ,over the sea-like1 pathless1 ,limitless waste of the desert4 --,longfellow4 ,,the ,,desert ,august is usually such a hot1 dry month that it ought to be a good time for talking of deserts4 ,we can realize better what a desert is and what an interesting region it must be to those who spend their lives there--the ,arabs and the camels1 for instance4 ,in fact1 there are so many strange and striking things to be seen and learned in deserts that whole books--including many stories--have been written about them1 and ,i'm sorry we can give the subject only one chapter4 ,i4 ,the ,face of the ,desert ,i sometimes think it was no wonder the old ,sphinx got to asking conundrums4 ,always looking toward the desert and its mysteries1 how could he help it8 ,the desert is just full of conundrums4 ,for instance3 ,where is it that rains fall without reaching the earth8 ,illustration3 ,from the painting by ,elihu ,vedder ,,the ,,questioner ,,of ,,the ,,sphinx ,where is it that there are lake beds without lakes1 river beds without rivers1 and rivers without mouths8 ,where do you see stretches of water that aren't there1 and men and animals walking and trees growing--most of them upside down8 ,where are the roses of the land and the waves of great inland seas made of sand and where does the wind always blow the mountains away8 ,of course you would probably give the right answer at once--the desert--because you know ,i am talking about deserts4 ,and the water that isn't there1 and the trees and people and things that are upside down--you probably know that's the mirage2 and that the inland seas with their waves of sand are the dunes2 that the rivers without mouths are those that1 like the ,tajunga in ,california1 lose their waters in the sand4 ,most people who have gone to school know all these things4 ,most people also think of the desert as just a sea of sand and all tawny1 like a lion's skin2 but this is wrong4 ,the ,romans used to call the ,african desert the panther's skin1 because of the tawny stretches spotted with the dark palms of the oases1 but the sands are not all tawny1 and the desert isn't all covered with sand4 ,if we could arrange to get on the back of any one of the great birds of the ,sahara--say an eagle or his big cousin the vulture--and sail with him on his way to dinner1 the scenery would unroll beneath us something like this3 ,on the northern border the ,atlas ,mountains1 with precipices of wild beauty and ranges of bare1 pink rock outlined against the blue of the morning sky2 then dune waves stretching for miles and miles with valleys between them1 so wide that it takes the camels from breakfast time until noon to lumber their way across4 ,the crests of some of these dune waves go spinning off in spray with every freshening breeze4 ,little dunes often dissolve away in the wind as the caravan moves toward them4 ,,gaunt ,,outlines ,,of ,,the ,,hungry ,,hills ,then we come to more mountain ranges running right across the desert's face1 their bare rocks shivered and shelving down into broken fragments at their feet2 then sharp-edged1 jagged hills--not rounded1 plump1 and well-fed hills1 such as we have at home4 ,they are the bones of the hungry landscape showing through4 ,then we come to bare table-lands and the empty beds of rivers and lakes that long ago went dry2 valleys scattered with boulders of all sizes and in every imaginable position2 and so on over into the ,arabian desert1 with its flats of white sand closed in by high cliffs1 and vast stretches of black and red gravel4 ,more of the sand and gravel of the desert is red than yellow2 but some of it is white and some of it is black4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,oasis ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dark ,,hills ,,and ,,the ,,figures ,,in ,,white ,the ,baths of the ,damned1 the superstitious ,arabs call the region of the ,northern ,sahara in which you come upon these strange white figures4 ,the fearsome name was suggested by the fact that the figures slowly rise from some hot region inside the earth4 ,in reality they are mounds of carbonate of lime deposited by the water of hot springs heavily charged with dissolved limestone4 ,similar springs in our ,yellowstone ,park spout up in the form of geysers and form geyser basins--huge stone tubs4 ,here in the desert the water doesn't spout2 it bubbles up slowly and so builds the mounds4 ,in the background you see black masses of volcanic rock1 for this1 like ,yellowstone ,park1 is a volcanic region where the underground rocks haven't cooled off4 ,a ,,chaos ,,of ,,color ,,in ,,the ,,rocks ,the desert wears rocks and stones of as many colors as the jewels of ,oriental kings4 ,it also runs much to solemn black in its heaps of volcanic rock with cold limestones on the heights2 but you can see blue-grays1 browns1 ochres of every shade gleaming in the sun1 the reds of the rusting iron in them staining the precipices and the walls2 and there are purples and pinks and dark greens and violets4 ,these colored rocks are often fantastically mixed together1 like the colors on an ,easter egg4 ,,the ,,skeletons ,,of ,,the ,,dead ,,rivers ,and here we come upon one of those skeletons of dead rivers that ,i spoke about4 ,there they are1 the river valleys and the river beds1 full of sand and gravel1 and with boulders along the banks1 and branch valleys running into them2 a river system all complete but for one thing--water4 ,it's just as if the main valley and the branches had been made all ready but the river never came2 or as if there had been rivers there once but they couldn't stand the climate6 ,of course1 when a cloudburst comes along it helps itself to these ready-made river-beds2 but for the most part they stand as empty as the ruins on the desert's edge in which 444 the lion and the lizard keep ,the courts where ,jamshyd gloried and drank deep4#cj ,footnote #cj3 ,the ,rubaiyat of ,omar ,khayyam4 ,not only do the size of the river-beds show that there used to be more frequent rains in these regions of desolation1 but right at the edge of the northern ,sahara are the remains of immense aqueducts2 great troughs built of stone and carried on bridges from the source of a water supply to a city4 ,when the ,romans owned the earth--including the ,sahara desert--they were famous builders of these aqueducts4 ,illustration3 ,,why ,,dying ,,rivers ,,multiply ,,by ,,two ,director ,hornaday1 of the ,new ,york ,zoo1 took this picture while in the arid regions of the great ,southwest4 ,it shows a little stream dying away in the desert sands4 ,now just notice how a little knowledge of nature's methods as a landscape artist makes the most commonplace scenery interesting4 ,all streams as they go dry have a tendency to spread out arms like that2 sometimes two1 sometimes four or more1 but always in twos or multiples of two4 ,the reason is that as the water evaporates the stream becomes weaker and so is obliged to drop a part of its load4 ,the heaviest part of the load--the most pebbles1 sand1 and soil--is carried in the middle of the stream1 owing to the current being stronger1 relieved as it is from the friction of the banks4 ,so bars of sand1 gravel1 and such stuff are built up that finally divide the water into two branches4 ,then if the water keeps on flowing1 each of these branches divides by two1 and so on4 ,you see the same thing in the mouths of deltas4 ,but what about the roses made of sand8 ,that's a conundrum you didn't answer4 ,oh1 yes1 we must get down closer to the desert to see these4 ,we can't see them in the bird's-eye view we have been taking4 ,the desert sand has a great deal of gypsum in it1 and when the sand gets a wetting from a cloudburst this gypsum crystallizes and forms what are called sand roses4 ,these roses are of various sizes and forms2 some look like camelias and some like a cluster of pearls4 ,they are not common and you have to hunt for them4 ,illustration3 ,,all ,,the ,,comforts ,,of ,,home ,children in the primary grades have here told us1 with their clever little fingers1 about life in ,africa immediately south of the big desert1 the part of ,africa where they have rain and to spare4 ,,ii4 ,how the ,desert ,makes ,its ,sand ,most of the sand of the desert1 as you may imagine1 is home-made2 and it is very curious to notice the different which it is manufactured4 ,the desert sun and the cloudless nights have a great deal to do with it4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,arab ,,farmer ,,gathers ,,his ,,dates ,think of the hottest day in ,august you ever saw1 and then multiply by two4 ,that will give you an idea of how hot a desert gets in the day-time--something like #bjj degrees2 and #bab degrees boils eggs1 you know6 ,but how cold do you suppose it gets at night8 ,fifteen minutes after sunset the temperature drops to freezing4 ,the reason of this is that there are no clouds over the desert to keep the heat of the sand wastes and the burning rocks from passing off rapidly into space4 ,the days are so hot and the nights are so cold that the rocks get a kind of fever and ague1 which makes them pull themselves to pieces4 ,,the ,,goose-,,flesh ,,on ,,the ,,rocks ,it is the same process we have just read about in the story of the stones of our fields1 only it goes on much faster in the desert on account of the more rapid changes of temperature4 ,you know how your skin will pucker up into goose-flesh when you are cold4 ,the desert rocks do something similar4 ,because rock is a poor conductor1 the heat of the day and the cold of the night penetrate only a little way--only through the skin of the rock1 as it were2 so this skin1 stretching in the day-time and puckering up at night1 becomes loosened and shells off bit by bit4 ,then it is blown about and in time ground into sand by the desert winds4 ,some rocks have an additional way of getting picked to pieces4 ,granite is one of these4 ,it has several different kinds of mineral in it1 and some of these minerals contract and expand faster than others2 some more than others4 ,as a consequence1 the particles of the rock keep pulling and hauling at each other4 ,this helps to break it up into little pieces1 which soon become sand4 ,the darker the rock1 other things being equal1 the greater the changes1 because anything dark--a suit of clothes1 for instance--absorbs heat faster than a light object4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,how ,,rain-,,drops ,,help ,,split ,,boulders ,a big boulder in western ,texas split1 just as you see it here1 by rain-drops1 with the help of the sun1 and under the conditions described in the text1 sat for this photograph4 ,a friend of mine who has been all over that country says that on blistering-hot days you can see little pieces pop out of the granite boulders1 like chips from an invisible chisel struck by an invisible hammer4 ,this is why3 ,we ,granites are made up of particles--little bits--of several different minerals1 and some of these minerals expanding much faster than others pop themselves out4 ,the great mountain rocks of the desert1 bare of all protecting soil and verdure1 are always crumbling as a result of all these causes1 and so the winds are constantly blowing them away1 piece by piece4 ,,how ,,little ,,rain-,,drops ,,split ,,big ,,boulders ,as if everything in the desert were in the sand-making business the very rain-drops help make sand4 ,the rain-drops do this in much the same way that the farmer breaks big boulders in his fields1 so that he can more easily haul them away1 piece by piece4 ,he builds a fire against the boulder1 gets it as hot as he can1 then rakes the fire away1 dashes water on the stone1 and--bang6 ,it cracks as if old ,thor had struck it with his hammer4 ,you see why this is1 don't you1 after what we have been saying about why the rock's skin chips off8 ,the water suddenly cools the highly heated rock1 and the parts shrinking pull away from each other with a bang6 bang6 bang6 ,the hot desert rocks1 dashed by the torrents of a cloudburst1 break apart just like that1 and you can hear them4 ,stones twenty-five feet across are often broken into many pieces after a downpour4 ,then the finer pieces of rock that are made in this continual splitting1 and by the chipping that goes on day and night1 the fierce winds grind against each other2 so manufacturing sand4 ,and the fiercer winds also drive coarse sand against crumbling rock surfaces1 thus grinding them away and making more sand4 ,so the winds1 using sand to make sand1 put the sand out at interest1 you may say4 ,and on all its sand1 made in these various ways--by wind and rain and heat and cold1 and the crystal fairies of the land of change--the desert puts its special trade-mark1 just as a manufacturer puts his trade-mark on his goods4 ,if you should take some desert sand and some sand from the shores of the sea and show them to a man who knows about such things1 he would say 7after he had put them under a microscope1 of course73 ,,the ,,desert',s ,,trade-,,mark ,,on ,,its ,,sands ,this sand came from a desert1 or from some place where it was much blown about by the winds2 while this sand is from the shores of the sea1 or of a lake4 ,the sand grains of the seashore1 although they are always being tumbled about by the waves1 as the desert sands are by the winds1 are protected from each other by the water between them4 ,these little water cushions prevent the sand grains from rubbing together2 so they keep a good many of their sharp edges4 ,they are not rounded like the sands of the desert4 ,the winds keep the desert sands grinding against each other1 at the same time turning them over and over1 so wearing them away pretty evenly on all sides4 ,it also grinds them against the desert rocks4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,desert ,,simoom ,,on ,,its ,,travels ,a traveller in the ,sahara took this snap-shot of a simoom from the outside and at a safe distance4 ,you can see that it must be quite a distance from where we are standing1 for the trees in the foreground are still4 ,the vast cloud of sand looks quite dark because of the shadows cast by the sun1 which it hides from view4 ,it is as if there were cut upon the sea sands1 ,father ,neptune3 ,his ,make2 while the genii of the desert1 jealous for the desert's reputation1 had engraved on their own product3 ,genuine ,desert ,sand4 ,look for the ,trade-,mark and ,accept ,no ,substitutes6 ,,iii4 ,the ,plant ,people of the ,desert ,although it doesn't look a bit homey to us there are quite a few people living in the desert1 when you come to count them all--four-legged people1 and six-legged people1 and two-legged people1 and big and little people with wings1 and the people of the plant world4 ,,the ,,water ,,bottle ,,of ,,the ,,desert ,one of the most curious of the plant people is the cactus1 particularly the one known as the desert water bottle4 ,like many two-legged people it has a rough1 unsociable exterior1 but a kind heart4 ,let a traveller come upon one of these bristly cactuses1 after long1 thirsty hours1 and he will realize what this means4 ,inside this cactus he will find what will seem to him the most delightful drink he ever tasted4 ,while it isn't as cool as it might be1 neither is it as warm as you would expect1 and it has a pleasant1 sweet taste4 ,illustration3 ,,drawing ,,water ,,from ,,the ,,barrel ,,cactus ,this cactus1 so far as shape is concerned1 really belongs to the barrel family1 as you can see1 besides performing one of the most useful functions of a barrel in holding good drinking water for thirsty travellers in the desert4 ,my1 how thirsty you get6 ,you drink1 drink1 drink from sunrise to sunset--about two gallons a day4 ,but sometimes the supply you are carrying gives out because you miscalculated or you've lost your way1 or the barrel leaks4 ,then1 oh1 how you welcome the sight of a barrel cactus among the rocky foot-hills6 ,director ,hornaday1 in the delightful book from which ,i have already quoted says3 ,you get a gallon of water surprisingly cool1 and in flavor like the finest raw turnip4 ,the object on the ground is not a circular saw1 but the inverted top of the cactus1 and the whiteness is that of the white meat that contains the water4 ,with a stick the meat is pounded to a pulpy mass1 and the water oozes out1 forming a little pool4 ,then the man with the cleanest hands washes them cleaner with some of the pulp--throwing this pulp away1 of course--then squeezes the water out of the rest of it into the barrel4 ,another interesting thing about this cactus is that it enables you to get candy right in the desert2 for here and there1 through its thick skin1 it oozes out a secretion called cactus candy1 which is very delicious4 ,you are always sorry there is so little of it4 ,the fact that you can get a drink in this way1 just when you want it most1 all comes of foresight on the part of the cactus4 ,after they get down from two to four inches in the ground the roots of this cactus spread out in every direction and for a long way4 ,they collect every bit of moisture in the soil1 and they make the most of every drop of rain that falls within their reach4 ,then they hide all this moisture away and cling to every precious drop4 ,most plants1 you know1 evaporate a great deal of water through their leaves4 ,but the cactus1 living in a world where rains are few and far between1 just can't afford to do any evaporating to speak of2 so it has practically no leaves1 you see1 only little bits of things that you almost have to take a microscope to find4 ,but what it lacks in leaves it makes up in spines1 which defend it against the attacks of most thirsty animals1 although it is believed the desert mice know the secret of getting at this water1 in spite of the spines4 ,one kind of desert plant you have no doubt met face to face1 for it is used to make printing paper4 ,it grows in the deserts of ,libya and other parts of ,north ,africa1 and is called esparto grass4 ,like hemp1 it has stems which are full of strong fibres4 ,these stems are gathered in huge bundles1 which are carried by camels to the sea1 where they are sent by ship to the ,english paper mills4 ,,how ,,the ,,rose ,,of ,,jericho ,,goes ,,to ,,sea ,but there is a member of the desert plant family called the ,rose of ,jericho1 that doesn't wait for anybody to come after it and carry it to sea2 it just picks up and sets sail for itself4 ,it is a bush about six inches high1 a native of the wastes of ,northern ,africa1 ,palestine1 and ,arabia4 ,it bears a little four-petaled flower4 ,when blossom time is over the leaves fall off and its branches1 loaded with seeds1 dry up1 and1 curling inward as they dry1 form a ball4 ,its roots also let go of the soil1 so that the strong desert winds easily pull it up and it goes bowling away toward the sea4 ,when it gets there it tumbles in4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cactus-,,wren ,,and ,,her ,,little ,,front ,,door ,speaking of cactus spines1 do you know how many of those wicked little spines the cactus-wren had to work with and tug and twist about in building that nest8 ,about two thousand6 ,these spines not only make the nest but defend it4 ,you can't be too careful about your front door in ,desertland4 ,such neighbors6 ,then this bold little traveller1 who is very sensitive to moisture although he has had so little of it in his bringing up1 promptly unfolds his arms and scatters his handful of seeds on the water2 which is precisely the thing he took all that journey to do6 ,for the seeds are carried far by the currents of the sea4 ,thus the family to which this plant belongs keeps sending out colonies into new lands4 ,this seems to be one of the chief missions in life of plants as of other peoples4 ,the plant of which we have just been speaking is called the ,rose of ,jericho1 although it looks so little like a rose that quaint old ,john ,gerard1 an ,english doctor who loved and studied plants over three hundred years ago1 says3 ,the coiner of the name spoiled it in the mint2 for of all plants that have been written of not any are more unlike unto the rose4 ,,the ,,wind ,,witches ,,of ,,the ,,steppes ,our own tumbleweeds and the ,canada thistle have the same trick of bowling before the wind4 ,there is a relative of these tumblers living on the ,russian steppes that the ,cossacks call the wind witch4 ,at the end of the season the branches dry up into a ball and then by the hundreds these witches go skimming over the plains1 driven by the loud autumn winds4 ,they are as light as a feather1 and they go so fast that sometimes even the ,cossack horsemen cannot catch them1 as they often try to do in sport4 ,part of the time they move along with a short1 quick1 hopping motion1 and then1 caught by an eddy1 rise a hundred feet in the air4 ,often dozens of them get locked together1 join hands like the real witches of our fairy tales1 and the whole company goes dancing away before the howling blast4 ,eery creatures6 ,,iv4 ,the ,autographs in the ,sand ,there are certain very interesting people of the desert that you don't often find at home1 not because they aren't there1 but because they don't want to be found4 ,snakes1 lizards1 rabbits1 and ground squirrels slip quietly out of your way in the early morning1 and by the time the hot sun is high1 beast and bird seek the shadows of the canyons1 or of big rocks1 shelving banks1 or caves4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,coyote',s ,,nocturne ,in addition to what he tells so cleverly in the picture about the night song of the ,coyote1 ,dan ,beard--your ,dan ,beard of the ,boy ,scouts--says the animal is a ventriloquist2 can throw his voice so that it sounds as if he were a mile off1 then startle you with the noise of a full pack at your heels--and all the time be sitting watching you from behind a stone not fifty yards away6 ,but they all leave word4 ,in the lava beds of the ,arizona desert1 where not even the cactus will grow1 you can make out the tracks of the quail and the linnet1 and of a peculiar desert bird called the road-runner4 ,there1 also1 are the tracks of the coyote and the wildcat1 the gray wolf1 and sometimes the mountain lion4 ,if about daybreak you saw what seemed to be a long1 lean1 hungry dog1 trotting away slantwise with a cautious eye to the rear1 it was probably a gray wolf a little late in getting home4 ,like the coyote1 the wildcat1 the owl1 and many other desert people1 that old gray wolf belongs to the world's great night shift and is usually back in his mountain home by sunrise4 ,even when you see him at all--which is seldom--he is hard to make out2 for1 like the coyote1 he wears a rusty1 sunburned coat1 which blends with the sand and the yellow rocks4 ,the coyote is a smaller member of the wolf family1 to which both the dog and the fox belong4 ,he has much of the same cunning1 and like ,br'er ,fox is fond of chicken4 ,but his home is usually so far from modern conveniences he has few chances to visit poultry yards1 and lives from paw to mouth1 as it were1 catching a jack-rabbit when he can--the desert rabbits seem to sleep with both eyes open--and lizards when he can't get rabbits4 ,at the worst he will make out on prickly pears1 the pods of the mesquite bush1 which are full of seeds4 ,,the ,,winged ,,people ,,of ,,the ,,desert ,although you will not realize it at first there are a good many birds in the desert4 ,some are transients1 just passing through1 and stopping for a rest and a bite or two on the way4 ,others1 such as the linnet and the wrens1 have nests tucked away among the spines of the cactus1 and there's a finch singing from the top of that bush6 ,in flower time in the ,arizona desert 7of which we are now speaking7 there are humming-birds1 but their colors are not so bright as those of our humming-birds4 ,feathers1 like hair1 have the natural color burned out of them in the desert sun4 ,only the insects keep their bright clothes4 ,turn over a stone and away will scamper golden beetles1 silver beetles1 turquoise blue beetles1 beetles in bronze2 a whole boxful of jewels on six legs4 ,illustration3 ,from ,mc,cook's ,nature's ,craftsmen4 ,copyright ,harper and ,brothers ,,the ,,life ,,struggle ,,in ,,the ,,desert ,the late ,harry ,fenn1 who did everything so well1 drew this picture of one of the incidents of the life struggle in the desert4 ,it represents the desert wasp1 known as the tarantula killer1 pursuing its prey4 ,the tarantula of the ,southwest is the giant among our native spiders1 but it cowers before the wasp1 and hurries off as fast as it can2 but usually it can't1 and is soon laid away in ,lady ,wasp's nest as food for her solitary baby when it comes out of the egg which the mother wasp lays in the spider's body4 ,,insects1 ,,lizards1 ,,spiders1 ,,and ,,others ,and there are gray lizards1 yellow lizards1 and lizards called skinks1 with tails as blue as indigo2 and the gila monster1 a lizard in dull orange and black1 with an ugly disposition and poison in his lower jaw4 ,another big lizard of the ,arizona desert is called the chuckwalla4 ,the ,arizona ,indians are very fond of him4 ,they say he tastes like chicken4 ,most of the spider family are represented in ,arizona1 including the trap-door spider1 who hides and waits for his dinner in a hole with a wonderful trap-door that he made himself4 ,this door he slams tight when he gets you inside1 if you're a fly or anything like that4 ,he also shuts this door in the face of his enemy1 the centipede1 a flat worm a foot long1 with loads of legs and feet4 ,his name means hundred footed4 ,he has poison daggers in his feet and his two-branched tail4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,desert ,,beetle ,,and ,,his ,,gymnastics ,this desert beetle is called by the ,indians ,the-,bug-that-,stands-on-,his-,head4 ,at first ,i thought he was taking stomach exercises1 for beetles have wonderful digestions1 as you may learn from ,fabre's book on ,the ,sacred ,beetle4 ,but ,mr4 ,howard1 ,chief of the ,bureau of ,entomology at ,washington--,uncle ,sam's great authority on bugs--tells me this is an attitude many beetles take on the approach of an enemy1 the object being to discharge a kind of poison-gas which is intended to drive him away2 and usually does4 ,,what ,a ,,wonderful ,,flying ,,machine ,,he ,,is6 ,but what's that away up in the sky8 ,a flying machine8 ,yes1 one of the most wonderful flying-machines in the world--a vulture4 ,there he goes1 sweeping in wide circles1 as he hunts along the mountain range1 mile after mile1 closely scanning the base of the cliffs for the bodies of unfortunate creatures that have fallen over4 ,vultures will keep in the air in that way whole days at a time1 following the cliffs and canyons for hundreds of miles4 ,but for all that it is sometimes a week or two between meals with a desert vulture4 ,how does the vulture soar so wonderfully8 ,nobody is quite sure about it4 ,often for hours there is no motion of the wings1 as far as anybody has been able to make out1 and a soaring vulture seems to be able to move as easily against the wind as with it4 ,you'll not be surprised to hear that it takes time to learn to fly like that--a whole year4 ,and even after the first year the young vultures stay for a good while under the instruction of their parents1 going out hunting with them every day and sleeping with them in the nest on the cliffs at night4 ,v4 ,a ,day in the ,sahara ,how would you like to spend a day in the famous ,sahara desert with the camels and the people and the dogs2 and1 ,i was going to say1 the flies8 ,but the flies can't stand it4 ,they stay in the villages on the borders4 ,only a few are ever bold enough to start with a caravan and these soon turn back4 ,when a desert ,arab and his family start on a journey the tents1 the sleeping-rugs1 the scanty provisions1 and the women and children are piled on the camels1 the dogs take their places at the end of the procession and the men at the head1 and the caravan starts4 ,as the chieftain throws the end of the burnoose 7his hooded cloak7 across his shoulder and1 with his carbine in the hollow of his arm1 stalks in advance of all1 you feel that if you were an ,arab boy you would be as proud as he is to have a father like that4 ,what a splendid figure2 what a strong1 grave1 handsome face1 and utterly without fear6 ,all his poor possessions would hardly pay a month's rent in a fine city apartment1 but he has the proud bearing of a king4 ,he looks as if he had just stepped out of a picture in a ,bible story-book4 ,illustration3 ,,all ,,in ,,the ,,day',s ,,work6 ,this looks to me like the beginning of a simoom2 if so1 we'd better wrap our shawls about our faces as the ,arabs are doing4 ,notice how the rising wind picks up and twirls the sand about the camels' legs and sends it stinging into the faces of the men4 ,maybe it will die down as quickly as it came2 maybe it will increase into a choking sand-storm that will last a week4 ,and how keen those dark eyes must be2 and what a memory for the look of things6 ,at the beginning of the day's journey he is guided1 as sailors are at sea1 by the stars4 ,but soon the winds begin to rise1 as the desert farther away is warming under the sun1 and the fine sand drifts and shifts like snow1 filling up our own tracks as fast as they are made2 so1 you may be sure1 it is leaving no guiding tracks made by previous travellers4 ,but this man has known every hill1 every dune1 and every rocky gully along the way since he himself was a little boy1 and went over this same route sitting on the camel with his mother while his father stalked on before4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,caravan ,,on ,,the ,,march ,here is a caravan lumbering along over what appears to be a pretty well-beaten roadway in ,algeria where many improvements to facilitate travel have been made by the ,french4 ,it must be about #h4jj ,a4 ,m4 or #d4jj ,p4 ,m4 ,shouldn't you say so1 from the shadows8 ,presently we come across another little group of travellers going in another direction4 ,they are on their way north to the summer pastures2 for you see they have a little flock of sheep and goats and two donkeys4 ,and there are two men4 ,these people are probably two families travelling together4 ,but they are not so well-to-do as our ,arab4 ,they have no camel to carry the women and children4 ,so dogs1 donkeys1 men1 women1 children1 and the sheep and goats all tramp along together4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,forlorn ,,little ,,rat ,,of ,,the ,,desert ,,sands ,if you've read ,roosevelt's books on ,africa you've met this little creature before4 ,but isn't he the rattiest-looking rat you ever saw8 ,he has only a hair here and there on his yellow skin2 and no eyes to speak of4 ,he can hardly see at all1 spending most of his time1 as he does--like the sightless creatures of caves--in the pitch-dark of his underground burrow4 ,yet1 ,i suppose1 like that desert boy it tells about at the end of this chapter1 he thinks there's no place like home6 ,they are not worried because they are poor2 for listen1 they are singing6 ,it's a melancholy kind of song1 as we think4 ,it reminds us of the queer sound the sand grains make when the desert winds are beginning to blow4 ,but to the ,arab it is music4 ,what a lot of verses it has--all just alike--and sung over and over again4 ,but what's the matter now8 ,all of a sudden they stop singing and begin to shout and fire off their guns4 ,you'll laugh when ,i tell you why4 ,they heard something talking back to them2 repeating all their words4 ,it was only an echo made by the rocks of the mountains that we have just reached4 ,but these superstitious people of the desert don't know what an echo is4 ,they think echoes are the voices of evil spirits mocking them1 and the shouting and the firing of the guns is to frighten these mockers away4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pack-,,rat',s ,,fortress ,this is a diagram of the fortress of another little citizen of mountain rocks and desert places1 known out ,west as the pack rat because he is always packing off other people's things and hiding them in his burrow4 ,the fortress consists of several burrows1 the roads leading to which are carefully protected by the prickly bayonets of the cactus joints which the rat drags there for that purpose4 ,life for everybody in the ,sahara and the ,arabian desert is very much what it is for the animals in the ,arizona wastes--a constant struggle for food4 ,in the ,arizona desert every living creature puts in all its time trying to get something to eat without being eaten4 ,the wildcat is fortunate if he gets a meal once in two or three days2 and while the coyote is trying to slip up on a rabbit1 ten to one there's a panther slipping up on him4 ,a traveller in northern ,africa tells how1 when his caravan halted for dinner at an inn for the ,french soldiers quartered in that region1 he saw a lean and hungry cat eying him from around the corner of a nearby hut4 ,to borrow from ,victor ,hugo's description of the hungry cat at the ,spanish inn1#ca this cat of the desert looked at the traveller as if it would have asked nothing better than to be a tiger4 ,when the guest of the inn had finished the piece of chicken he was eating he tossed the bone toward the cat which pounced on it fiercely4 ,instantly a dog1 which had been watching proceedings1 rushed forward and took the bone from the cat4 ,just then an ,arab1 who happened to be passing1 fell upon the dog and wrenching the bone from his mouth began eagerly gnawing it himself4 ,footnote #ca3 ,hugo's ,letters to ,his ,wife4 ,it's a hard life6 ,and yet if you should bring an ,arab boy to ,london or ,new ,york to live and give him three good meals a day--he's not always sure of one at home--and nice clothes to wear and a real bed to sleep in1 and shady parks to play in1 do you suppose he would be happy8 ,no indeed4 ,the thing has been tried4 ,he says this kind of life is all right for those who like it1 but it isn't the desert4 ,and you have to admit it6 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,not at all dry1 are they--these deserts--when you get down into them8 ,and ,i haven't told you half there is to tell about them4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,john ,c4 ,van ,dyke1 for one1 has written a wonderfully interesting little book just about the ,american desert4 ,it's called simply ,the ,desert4 ,to begin with1 what does your geography say about deserts--about how they are made8 ,how do mountains help make deserts8 ,in and near what zone does your geography locate the great deserts of the world8 ,how does the ,sahara desert compare in size with the ,united ,states8 7,you see1 the ,sahara is practically a whole ,united ,states gone dry67 ,yet1 the soil of much of the ,sahara is very fertile and with water would yield wonderful crops4 ,but where is the water to come from8 ,where do we get the water that has made our deserts bloom8 ,has the ,sahara any such sources of supply8 ,is it true that the ,libyan desert was once covered by the sea1 as it was in that story of ,phaeton1 the boy who set the world afire8 ,and speaking of that story1 was there a ,jupiter and a ,jupiter ,pluvius1 too8#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,that was a good deal like asking if there was a ,george ,washington and a ,president ,washington too1 said the ,high ,school ,boy1 after he had looked it up4 ,wouldn't you say the addition of ,pluvius to the name of their chief god meant the ancients recognized rain-making as a very important and difficult business to manage8 ,but what is it1 really1 that brings our rains8 ,what has the sea to do with it8 ,and the winds8 ,and the mountains8 ,your geography answers all these questions briefly4 ,you will find a full treatment of the whole subject of the weather and of how the weather man1 the man with a hundred eyes1 manages to be so clever1 in ,pictured ,knowledge4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,in the article in the ,nature ,department1 ,what is the ,it that ,rains8 ,from what general direction do the winds come that bring the rains in ,north ,america8 ,in ,south ,america8 ,why the difference8 ,how many inches of rainfall are enough for raising good crops8 ,nevertheless1 they raise fine crops in many parts of the ,united ,states where they have hardly any rain at all4 ,how do they manage it8 ,i mean how do they store up the water and distribute it1 and everything8 7,irrigation47 ,in reading up on deserts in the encyclopedias alone you will find many such interesting things as the following1 and in other books--particularly books of travel--much more3 ,how long the commercial caravans are 7such great freight trains as those that cross the ,sahara between ,morocco and ,timbuctoo72 how many camels one driver takes care of2 how fast the camels travel2 how many days they can go without a drink4 ,if you're going to cross with one of these caravans 7or just pretend to cross7 ,i must tell you one thing3 ,you've got to look out for lions6 ,from what you have learned in your geography about ,african lions1 where would you say you were likely to come across them8#ce ,footnote #ce3 ,have you read ,roosevelt's ,african ,game ,trails8 or his ,life ,histories of ,african ,game ,animals8 ,what do these caravans bring back from ,central ,africa8 7,what is produced in ,central ,africa that the civilized world wants87 ,the ostrich is a most interesting citizen of the desert that ,i didn't have room to talk about4 ,there's enough for a whole chapter in your notebook just about ostriches and their ways4 ,among other things1 ,i wish you'd find out for me if the ostrich really does bury its head in the sand and imagine that it is thereby hiding itself4 7,i'll warrant you it's only book ostriches that do this2 not real ostriches47 ,one of the most curious things about ,mrs4 ,ostrich is how she and her neighbors work together4 ,it's like an old-fashioned quilting bee1 for all the world2 although1 to be sure1 the ostriches don't make quilts--they make nests4#cf ,footnote #cf3 ,romance of ,animal ,arts and ,crafts4 ,speaking of ostrich nests naturally suggests eggs--and very big eggs1 of course1 including the roc's egg in the ,arabian ,nights4 ,they do have real rock's eggs in the desert1 only this kind of a roc's egg is spelled with a k4 ,you just turn to the chapter on deserts in ,hobb's ,face of the ,earth1 and you'll find not only that there are such eggs1 but how the desert sun uses salt in cooking them and what the crystal people have to do with it2 and how1 like a cat in a hen-house1 the desert winds suck these eggs1 leaving only the hollow shell4 ,,chapter ,,ix 7,,september7 ,morning ,the summer dawn's reflected hue ,to purple changed ,loch ,katrine blue4 --,scott3 ,lady of the ,lake4 ,evening ,now folds the lily all her sweetness up ,and slips into the bosom of the lake4 --,tennyson3 ,the ,princess4 ,,in ,,the ,,lands ,,of ,,the ,,lakes ,if we really had spent the month of ,august in a desert what a relief it would be to find ourselves1 as we do now at the very beginning of the golden autumn time1 in the lands of the lakes with their cool1 fresh breezes1 the whisper of leaves and the glint of waters dancing in the sun4 ,the best of it is that the deserts are just as delightful as the lands of pleasant waters1 if you only visit them in imagination as we have been doing2 and they make the lakes all the more attractive by way of contrast4 ,i4 ,how the ,lakes are ,born ,but where are the lands of the lakes8 ,i may say to start with1 it's no use looking for many lakes in the lands of the big caves4 ,caves and lakes don't seem to get on together any more than do caves and boulders4 ,when this story of the lakes was first told to a certain group of young people some of the youngest of whom had not forgotten the giants or the language of their fairy tales1 ,i put it in this way3 ,the rains and the rivers1 with the help of some other things1 have made all the lakes in the world4 ,one of these helpers is a bright-eyed creature with two legs2 another a little creature with four legs and a third a great big thing with no legs at all6 7,i said it like this3 ,g-,r-,e-,a-,t ,b-,i-,g ,t-,h-,i-,n-,g1 and opened my eyes wide for the benefit of the younger members of our pebble parties1 as these little gatherings came to be called47 ,the great big things1 as you have already guessed1 were the glaciers of the ,ice ,age4 ,we have had specimens of their work in the story of how the ,great ,lakes were made4 ,the four-legged lake makers are the beavers4 ,they live on the margins of quiet1 shallow ponds--really little lakes--which they make for themselves by gnawing down trees and building dams4 ,and the bright-eyed creature with two legs--can't you guess who he is8 ,if you never helped make little lakes of your own by damming up a brook or a roadside rivulet1 you have missed a lot of fun4 ,,wide ,,range ,,of ,,size ,,in ,,lake ,,family ,but you must have made them2 what boy hasn't8 ,and those little ponds or puddles were lakes1 while they lasted1 just as much as the great ,lake ,superior is a lake4 ,even lakes that are called lakes and get their names 7and often their pictures7 in summer resort folders1 differ in size1 ranging from little affairs that are not much larger than the pond in the meadow1 to ,lake ,superior1 with its #ca1jjj square miles2 and in depth1 from a few feet to #e1fah feet in the deepest part of ,lake ,baikal4 ,you see if you touched bottom there you would have to keep going for over a mile4 ,and there's all the way back6 said the ,high ,school ,boy4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,lakes ,,of ,,to-,,day ,,and ,,the ,,greater ,,lake ,,of ,,yesterday ,the farmers of ,canada and the ,dakotas now sow their harvests and reap their golden grain on the bottom of the great inland sea of the ,ice ,age1 ,lake ,agassiz4 ,it was larger than all the ,great ,lakes of to-day put together4 ,it is known how big this lake was from its old beaches1 which can easily be made out all around the margin shown on the map4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,blue ,,lake ,,in ,,the ,,volcano',s ,,mouth ,in the mouth of a dead volcano lies one of the most beautiful lakes in all the world1 the chief attraction of ,crater ,lake ,national ,park4 ,this model of its basin tells how nature did the work4 ,the steep sides and the glacial valleys show that the top fell in when the lava that helped build the volcano sank back and so left it without support4 ,if the top had blown off1 as volcano tops sometimes do1 the valleys would have been filled with dbris4 ,later there was another outbreak1 but so small that it only built that little volcano in the big volcano's mouth4 ,notice the tiny crater8 ,this baby volcano rises above the waters of its mimic ocean and makes an island1 just as so many volcanoes of the great ,pacific make the far-flung islands of the ,southern ,seas4 ,even the water ouzel1 that wonderful diver of the mountain lakes and waterfalls1 might hesitate at a dive like that4 ,those remarkable old men of the mountains1 the glaciers of the ,ice ,age1 were the greatest of all lake-makers4 ,although for size the ,great ,lakes were their masterpieces1 they made lakes of all sizes and no end of them4 ,they fairly sowed the landscape with lakes4 ,look at the map of the lake regions of ,america and ,europe and then turn back to the map picture of the great ice invasion 7page #ba74 ,don't you see the lake regions and what was once the ice regions cover practically the same territory8 ,illustration3 ,,looking ,,across ,,the ,,lake ,,to ,,wizard ,,island ,there you see is the top of that little volcano--right across the lake4 ,it is known as ,wizard ,island4 ,the lake is #d1jjj feet deep4 ,its walls are #a1ejj feet high2 in some places over #b1jjj feet high4 ,in spite of the fact that they1 as you see1 slope a good deal1 owing to the crumbling down of the weathered rock1 the banks are still so steep it has taken us several hours of careful climbing to get down where this picture was taken1 and we shall be all the rest of the forenoon climbing back again4 ,in addition to making lakes in their ,great ,lakes manner the glaciers had other methods4 ,a glacier coming into a dry mountain valley would supply it with a river by melting1 and at the same time dam up the river with stones and soil brought down from the mountain and so make a lake4 ,then the water would run over the brim of the dam1 and the thing was complete2 a beautiful little lake with one river running into it and another running out4 ,,looks ,,as ,,if ,,it ,,had ,,rained ,,lakes6 ,you just go through ,wisconsin or ,minnesota or ,maine1 and right and left you'll see lakes and lakes and lakes3 and then more lakes6 ,of course most of these lakes are small2 otherwise it wouldn't have been possible to work so many of them into the same landscape4 ,in ,wisconsin you find these small lakes in what are called the ,kettle ,ranges4 ,the low hills and their valleys form what the early settlers called kettles1 and in these kettles are the little blue-eyed lakes4 ,it was the glaciers that not only made the kettles but often filled them with the lakes4 ,in many of the mounds of pebbles and clay that we read about in ,the ,secrets of the ,hills1 the glaciers left big blocks of ice4 ,then1 when this ice melted1 two things happened3 7#a7 ,the covering of the ice sank down1 much as the sawdust sinks in an ice-house when a block of ice is taken out1 thus making the kettle2 7#b7 the big ice cake in the hill of pebbles melted1 so filling the kettle with a lake4 ,but what broke off these big blocks1 these land icebergs that made the basins for the kettle lakes8 ,they were left by the glacier when it began to retreat2 that is to say when the supply of snow back at the gathering ground became insufficient to keep pushing it forward as fast as the front melted away4 ,melting most rapidly in those huge cracks called crevasses1 big blocks were finally separated entirely from the main body and left behind as the rest of the glacier slowly melted back toward the mountains4 ,if the glaciers were thus responsible for most of the lakes of the lowlands you may be sure they had a hand in making the lakes of the mountains1 right where they themselves live4 ,john ,muir1 who spent his life in loving study of the mountains of the ,west and of everything connected with them1 found mountain lakes in every stage of existence up the mountainsides2 empty stone bowls that showed by the work of the waves on the rocks that they had once held lakes2 above these1 in the same chain1 lakes growing shallow2 and1 still higher1 brand new lakes in stone bowls with the edge of the glacier that had carved out the bowl and filled it with blue water1 still bordering it on the upper side4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,kettle ,,lakes ,,of ,,wisconsin ,and this is why1 like fruit on a tree1 the youngest lakes are found at the top4 ,since the glacier melted from the foot of the range upward the lower lakes were the first to be born and the first to pass away2 while the lakes higher up on the mountain were the last to be born and the last to pass away4 ,,ii4 ,the ,moods of the ,lakes ,lakes are like the rivers and the sea2 they have their moods4 ,in sunshine and storm1 in wind and calm1 and from season to season they show many changes4 ,as we already know they are great sleepy heads4 ,to ,ruskin mountain lakes seemed both to sleep and to dream4 ,but their longest sleep1 like that of ,br'er ,bear1 is taken in the winter4 ,of this long sleep ,mr4 ,muir says3#cg ,the highest 7mountain lakes7 are set in bleak1 rough bowls1 scantily fringed with brown and yellow sedges4 ,winter storms blow snow through the canyon in blinding drifts1 and avalanches shoot from the heights4 ,then are these sparkling tarns filled and buried1 leaving not a hint of their existence4 ,in ,june and ,july they begin to blink and thaw out like sleepy eyes1 the daisies bloom in turn and the most profoundly buried of them all is at length warmed and summered as if winter were only a dream4 ,footnote #cg3 ,the ,mountains of ,california4 ,,even ,,the ,,ducks ,,overlook ,,these ,,little ,,lakes ,but possibly these lakes are not asleep after all6 ,they may be only playing possum2 or hide and seek4 ,there are mountain lakes that play hide and seek4 ,that is to say1 they hide and you seek2 and often you don't find6 ,they are so small that1 surrounded as they are by trees1 tall and thickly set1 even the ducks pass them by4 ,the glaciers that made them seem to have hidden them1 as the robins did the babes in the wood4 ,the glaciers did this1 not by heaping leaves over them1 but by piling up stones and soil around them4 ,they are encircled by moraines1 and on the moraines grow the trees that hide the lakelets even from the sharp eyes of the ducks4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,little ,,girl',s ,,picture ,,of ,a ,,famous ,,swiss ,,lake ,this picture of the lake of the ,great ,st4 ,bernard was taken by ,phyllis ,m4 ,pulliam1 who sent it to ,st4 ,nicholas with a long1 enthusiastic letter1 such as only school-girls know how to write4 ,among other things she met a great ,st4 ,bernard dog that had saved more than fifty lives4 ,mountain lakes are usually as clear as crystal1 and1 like perfect mirrors1 reflect the outlines and coloring of the clouds and the neighboring peaks4 ,they are apt to contain mica and feldspar ground out of the granite rock by the glacier that made their basins4 ,then the sunlight falling on these rock particles gives them the color of jade or ,nile green1 or dark green like a peacock's tail4 ,they are constantly changing color with the changing angles of the light from morning until sunset2 and under the passing clouds and the rippling of the winds4 ,the deeper lakes are dark blue in the deepest parts1 turning to green in the shallow waters near shore where the yellow of the sun rays and the sand mixes most with the blue of the waters4#ch ,footnote #ch3 ,van ,dyke3 ,the ,mountain4 ,,the ,,mystery ,,is ,,in ,,the ,,secret ,,passage ,in ,florida there are sister lakes so sympathetic that their waters rise and fall together4 ,one responds to the mood of the other as promptly as your right eye waters in sympathy when you get a grain of dust in the left4 ,the reason for this goes back to the days when the corals helped build ,florida4 ,they did this by leaving their bones on the coral reefs when that part of ,north ,america was in the making4 ,these remains formed limestone4 ,then1 in this limestone1 sink holes were formed on the surface leading to underground passages1 just as they do over the land surface in the cave regions of ,kentucky4 ,these sink holes often fill with water and form little lakes4 ,these lakes1 being connected by the underground passages1 rise and fall together4 ,it looks very strange1 even when you know the secret of it2 and still stranger when you don't4 ,yet ,i shouldn't be surprised if a bright boy or girl seeing two lakes rising or falling together would suspect the underground connection2 for1 of course1 we all know about springs and their underground channels4 ,but what would you say to this3 ,a lake that1 a moment before1 was as smooth as glass suddenly begins to shiver all over as one shivers in a sudden draught4 ,but there is no breeze stirring6 ,a moment later the water rises and falls along the banks2 an inch1 two inches1 a foot1 two feet4 ,then1 in the course of a couple of hours1 the sky1 which before was without a cloud1 begins to grow black and there follows a terrific storm4 ,a ,,kind ,,of ,,natural ,,barometer ,the cause of the rising of the water is the heavier pressure of the air at the farther end of the lake1 the region of the coming storm4 ,the water1 being forced down at one end of the basin1 you see1 rises at the other4 ,then as the storm advances toward you the pressure is released and the water falls again2 but for a while it rocks to and fro as water will do in a basin if you tip it up at one end and then let it down again4 ,,the ,,tides ,,in ,a ,,teacup ,but1 besides these imitation tides made by the unequal pressure of the wind1 lakes have real tides just as the ocean does2 and from the same cause1 the attraction of the moon4 ,in fact1 there are tides in a teacup1 and the tea rises toward the passing moon as does everything liquid on the face of the earth4 ,in the teacup the rise is so small you can't see it as you do when the great mass of the ocean waters is moved in the same way4 ,even in the ,great ,lakes the tide only amounts to three inches or so4 ,and1 in addition to their tides1 there are many other things about lakes that have led the largest of them to be referred to as inland seas4 ,says ,reclus3#ci ,lakes are indeed seas4 ,they have their tempests1 their swells1 their breakers4 ,it is true the waves are neither so high nor move so rapidly as those of the sea because they do not move over such great depths4 ,they are short1 compact and choppy1 but for this very reason they are more formidable4 ,and the water being fresh and therefore lighter than that of the ocean is more readily agitated4 ,the wind has scarcely begun to stir when the surface is covered with foaming billows4 ,footnote #ci3 ,the ,earth4 ,not only are lake storms especially dangerous for the reasons just given by the great ,french geographer but lakes in mountain regions are subject to an additional danger2 for their storms are most apt to come at night1 just as described in the story of the storm on ,galilee in the ,new ,testament4 ,you remember it says the storm came down4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,luke #h3 #bc4 ,now it came to pass on a certain day that ,jesus went into a ship with his disciples2 and he said unto them1 ,let us go over unto the other side of the lake4 ,and they launched forth4 ,but as they sailed he fell asleep3 and there came down a storm of wind on the lake2 and they were filled with water and were in jeopardy4 ,macgregor1 in his ,rob ,roy on the ,jordan1 draws the following vivid picture of his own struggles with one of these tempests3 ,,how ,,the ,,storm ,,came ,,down ,,on ,,galilee ,just as the ,rob ,roy passed below ,wady ,fik a strange1 distant hissing sounded ahead where we could see a violent storm was raging4 ,the waves had not time to rise4 ,the gusts had come down on calm water and they whisked long wreaths of it up into the sky4 ,this torrent of heavy1 cold air was pouring over the mountain crests into the deep caldron of the lake below4 ,just as it says in ,luke #h3bc4 ',there came down a storm upon the lake4' ,illustration3 ,,on ,,the ,,borders ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,of ,,galilee ,you can see this is in a desert1 mountainous country1 and1 from the dress of the man1 that it is in the ,orient4 ,the beach is wide--for so small a lake--because of those frequent and severe storms that drive the waves1 loaded with sand and pebbles1 far back from the shore4 ,this peculiarity of squalls among mountains is known to all who have boated much on lakes1 but on the ,sea of ,galilee the wind has a singular force and suddenness4 ,this is no doubt because the sea is so deep in the world that the sun rarefies the air in it enormously and the wind1 speeding swiftly over a long and level plateau1 suddenly comes upon this huge gap in the way and tumbles down into it4 ,,iii4 ,how ,lakes ,grow ,old and ,pass ,away ,but1 however formed1 lakes1 of all the features of our landscape1 are the soonest to pass away4 ,because of the sediment brought into them by the rivers they keep getting more and more shallow and at last1 in the course of time1 are quite filled up4 ,the waves of the lakes themselves help to bring this about by cutting material from their shores and washing it into the water4 ,so the time will come when all lakes now in existence will have passed away4 ,but the people of those times will not be without their lakes4 ,new lakes will probably be made by the same causes which produced the lakes of to-day2 for ,nature's great processes do not change4 ,,why ,,lilies ,,come ,,to ,,the ,,dying ,,lakes ,meanwhile how beautifully they pass1 these lakes2 particularly the little lakes like that in ,rousseau's painting4 ,first1 on the margin of a dying lake the lilies gather4 ,lilies grow only in quiet waters and these they find in the shallow margins of lakes that are filling up4 ,,last ,,of ,,all ,,come ,,the ,,trees ,next after the lilies come the sedges1 grasslike herbs that grow in marshy places4 ,and after they are well established they get things ready for the next arrivals2 for these plants come in a regular procession4 ,the dense tufts of the sedges make mats on which soil gathers4 ,in this soil shrubs begin to grow4 ,from the decay of all this vegetation more soil is formed in which the seeds of spruce and tamarack spring up4 ,then come willows1 then poplars and maples1 and last of all the oaks and nut-bearing trees1 which march into new lands slowly because they must depend on their heavy seeds to move them forward1 while the little seeds of maple1 willow1 poplar1 and pine are easily carried by the wind4 ,illustration3 ,the ,lake4 ,from the painting by ,rousseau ,,how ,,lakes ,,grow ,,old ,,and ,,pass ,,away ,this picture1 called ,the ,lake1 is from a painting by ,rousseau1 a great ,french landscape artist1 and illustrates the beautiful way in which lakes grow old1 as described in the text4 ,already1 as you see1 ,father ,oak and his family have arrived4 ,but while fresh-water lakes and their surroundings are so beautiful and poetic1 and never more so than when the lakes are passing away1 there are dying lakes1 whose surroundings are the very pictures of desolation4 ,these are the lakes which have become bitter with salt because their waters are evaporated by the sun faster than fresh water comes in4 ,the most famous of these salt lakes is the ,dead ,sea of the ,holy ,land1 into which the ,jordan flows4 ,lying in a rock-bound pit1 in the deepest part of a vast trench1 it is like a caldron into which for eight months of every year is poured the heat from a burning sun in a cloudless sky4 ,although ,palestine1 as you can see by the map1 is in the temperate zone1 the thermometer here often registers #acj degrees1 because cooling breezes never come down into this pit except in those occasional storms due to the sudden rush of cooler and therefore heavier air from the surrounding heights4 ,,this ,,is ,,how ,,the ,,dead ,,sea ,,died ,as shown by the wave-cut terraces on the surrounding rocks this lake was once a part of a great body of water that extended clear from ,mount ,hermon to the ,red ,sea4 ,then1 by a series of heaving movements1 widely separated in time 7as shown by the depth of the beach terraces7 the bottom of this greater sea was uplifted into the two parallel chains of limestone mountains which flank the ,jordan ,valley4 ,at the same time a great block of earth crust between them settled down1 step by step1 and made the long trench running clear to ,africa1 one end of which is the ,jordan ,valley1 in which the ,dead ,sea lies4 ,later1 during the different ,ice ,ages1 as it is supposed1 there was plenty of moisture1 for the rock records show that the ,sea of ,galilee and what is now the ,dead ,sea were once parts of the same body of water4 ,then the climate gradually changed1 the land went dry1 and the ,dead ,sea water became far saltier than that of the ocean--so salty that all life died out of it4 ,to-day the water tastes like a mixture of epsom salts and quinine1 and any unfortunate fish swept into it by the fresh waters of the ,jordan1 in which fish are abundant1 gives a few desperate gasps and dies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dead ,,sea ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,dead ,,sea ,,died ,while it is not true1 as the ancients believed1 that birds drop dead in flying over it1 neither birds nor beasts make their homes in the choking pit2 and on its shores1 always gray with a mixture of mud and salt1 of course no green thing can grow4 ,indeed1 there is little plant life anywhere round about1 but as if in mockery there grow nearby what are known as apples of ,sodom or ,dead ,sea fruit4 ,this fruit looks like an orange1 but it is bitter to the taste and filled only with fibre and dust4 ,the official report of ,lieutenant ,lynch1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 who headed an expedition sent out by the government to explore the ,dead ,sea and the surrounding regions1 is full of word pictures which might well have supplied material for the imagination of ,dante4 ,,like ,a ,,vat ,,of ,,molten ,,metal ,the sea1 yellow from the large amount of phosphorus in the water1 is overhung in the early morning by a dense mist4 ,this mist is made by the water steaming in the intense heat4 ,it looks1 however1 like smoke above a great vat of molten metal fused but motionless4 ,after dark1 when the night winds come down from the heights and go moaning through the gorges1 the scene changes4 ,the surface becomes one wide sheet of phosphorescent foam1 and the waves1 as they break on the shore1 throw a sepulchral light on the white skeletons of dead trees which have been washed from the woody banks of the ,jordan and1 lying half buried in the sand1 are coated with gray salt from the muddy spray4 ,on a portion of the land now covered by the lake1 according to tradition1 were the wicked cities of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 and after their destruction these bitter waters flowed in and forever buried the scene of their wickedness from the sight of men4 ,it seems probable that the region did once support a larger population4 ,we know this to be true of other parts of the ,orient which have since become desolate owing to the ravages of war1 the change of climate1 and the decay of ,oriental civilization4 ,and when we recall how the sinking of the great earth block that carried this land so far below the level of the sea forced lava up through the earth cracks1 we can account for the fire from heaven that poured down upon the cities of the plain4 ,professor ,huntington1 who headed the ,yale ,expedition into ,palestine in #aiji1 speaks of visiting the ruins of ,suweim south of the ,dead ,sea and picking up bits of lava 7the whole region abounds in evidences of volcanic action7 while the sheik who acted as guide told the story of ,sodom as the story of ,suweim4 ,the name ,suweim1 ,professor ,huntington thinks1 may be a corruption of ,sodom4 ,continuing1 he says3#da ,the place is much greener than the other side of the valley1 and in the days of ,lot may have been 'like the garden of ,jehovah'#db2 for in those times1 as our studies of old levels of the ,dead ,sea quite clearly indicate1 the climate of ,palestine was probably decidedly moister than it is now4 ,and not two miles from ,suweim we found a little volcano of very recent date geologically1 and an eruption may have wrought havoc in a town located near ,suweim4 ,footnote #da3 ,palestine and ,its ,transformation4 ,footnote #db3 ,genesis #ac3aj4 ,in one part of the valley he also found a cave among the mountains1 hewn out of the limestone above a spring4 ,now turn to your ,bible1 ,genesis #i3cj3 ,and ,lot went up out of ,zoar and dwelt in the mountain1 in a cave1 he and his two daughters4 ,in short1 the geography of the region--such is the conclusion of ,professor ,huntington's careful study--supplies all the elements of the story of ,sodom and ,gomorrah in exactly the location where the ,biblical account would lead one to expect them4 ,but the native ,arab goes further4 ,not far from the borders of the ,dead ,sea is a mountain of salt called ,jebel ,usdem1 which the early and later rains in the course of ages have dissolved into many fantastic shapes4 ,among these strange figures is a pillar tapering toward the top1 on which is a wide cap of stone1 such as that shown on page #fj and such as are often seen on detached and pillared rocks4 ,but this gaunt remnant of grisly gray1 although it is still obviously a part of the mountain and cannot be less than forty feet high1 your ,arab friend insists was once the wife of ,lot6 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,if you were hunting for mountain lakes where would you expect to find the most1 in high mountains or in low8 ,rivers sometimes make lakes by using the same stuff the small boys do1 just plain mud4 ,look at ,lake ,pontchartrain in the map of ,louisiana and you can see one of the ways in which this is done4 ,remember that all the land around this lake is part of the delta of the ,mississippi4 ,the river deposits have simply enclosed a portion of the shallow sea4 ,or--this is another way in which rivers make lakes by building mud walls--a river emptying at right angles into a narrow gulf may build a dam clear across it4 ,the rich ,imperial ,valley of southern ,california was cut off from the ,gulf of ,california in this way4 ,look at the map and you can see just how this was done4 ,one of the puzzles about mountain lakes is how frogs got into them4 ,the frogs never climbed up there1 you may be sure4 ,muir thinks maybe the ducks did it4 ,how do you suppose8 ,see if you can imagine and then see what ,muir says about it4#dc ,footnote #dc3 ,the ,mountains of ,california4 ,in connection with what was said about lakes playing they are oceans--not these little mountain lakes1 of course1 but great big lakes--you will be interested in what ,lord ,bryce says in his ,travels in ,south ,america about why lakes may even look larger than the ocean4 ,in the ,britannica and other books that you may not yet be old enough to read you will find many more curious things about lakes4 ,i can't tell which one of my readers you are1 you see1 but if you belong to the younger set1 father1 mother1 or some other member of the family can do the looking up and then tell you about it4#dd ,in the ,britannica will be found such interesting things as this3 ,footnote #dd3 ,i don't know of anything that is more fun1 of an evening1 than looking up things in an encyclopdia--except looking them up in two encyclopdias4 ,how certain kinds of mountains and lakes are made at one and the same time--by the same movement4 ,how even the wind may make lakes4 ,why lakes are to the land what lands are to the sea4 ,then if you will turn to page #ge of that fascinating little book we have already dipped into several times#de you will find what the fact that lakes are to the land what islands are to the sea has to do with a peculiar beetle in the ,shetland ,islands 7where the ponies come from7 and the famous tailless cat of the ,isle of ,man4 ,footnote #de3 ,colin ,clout's ,calendar4 ,one of the quaintest little bits of real life in ,lakeland is how the baby gulls of the ,great ,lakes worry their papas and mamas by going swimming before they are old enough2 how their parents give them a spanking and send them back home2 and how kind all the lady gulls are to the little gulls of neighbors that come to their houses to play with their children4#df ,footnote #df3 ,the ,bird1 ,our ,brother1 by ,olive ,thorne ,miller4 ,illustration3 ,,drowned ,,valleys ,,on ,,the ,,maine ,,coast ,wherever you see very irregular shores1 as along the coast of ,maine1 you may infer that the shores have sunk so that the waters of the sea came up into the river valleys1 and the hills and long tongues of high land became islands and peninsulas4 ,,chapter ,x 7,,october7 ,to-night the winds begin to rise ,and roar from yonder dropping day2 ,the last red leaf is whirled away1 ,the rooks are blown about the skies4 --,tennyson4 ,,the ,,autumn ,,winds ,,and ,,the ,,rock ,,mills ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,nothing looks more aimless1 more unorganized1 perhaps1 than the long turmoil of the waves of the sea which begins in late autumn and continues through the winter months4 ,if1 with your nose well over the edge of a cliff1 you look straight down1 you will see something like this3 ,with every forward leap of the surges the waters are divided and entangled among the rocks1 and division after division is beaten back by the upright wall in front and the broken blocks of stone on this side and on that4 ,on-coming waves1 met by those recoiling1 rise into mountainous1 struggling masses of wild fury4 ,the whole affair seems to be as clear a case of wasted energy as a ,mexican revolution4 ,but if you watch the waves carefully and study them a little you will see underlying and controlling this apparent anarchy the wonderful engineering by which the machinery of the sea works out its appointed tasks4 ,it is when the earth has gathered its harvests and laid down to its winter rest that the sea begins gathering harvests of its own1 grinding up the rocks for food for the plants in its gardens1 for new clothes for its shell-fish1 and new soil for earth harvests in millenniums yet to be4 ,i4 ,the ,destroyer ,on the face of it the case looks bad4 ,the sea's chief business seems to be that of eating us up1 or at least the lands on which we live4 ,and this idea of it we find running through all literature and art4 ,a very large number of the pictures of the sea1 probably the majority1 show it in wind and storm4 ,and this is still more true of the famous sea pictures of literature4 ,shakespere1 for example1 makes some three hundred references to the sea1 and nearly always1 where he gives it a character1 it is that of a monster1 always hungry and never satisfied1 a wild1 rude sea1 a sea raging like an angry boar--and so back to ,homer and forward to ,kipling4 ,that the sea is constantly eating away the land cannot be denied1 and to an extent that is delightfully alarming if1 as did the little boy listening to the tale of the giants1 we like to be made nervous4 ,it is said that ,england still rules the waves1 but where she fronts the sea on the east the coast is being cut back at the rate of two to four yards a year1 in spite of all that modern engineering skill can do4 ,in the course of a thousand years the losses on all fronts have amounted to over #ejj square miles4 ,each year carries off #a1ejj acres more from the king's domains1 to add them to the ,empire of the ,sea1 and he calls to us still unfed4 ,on the east coast the blows dealt by the waves in severe storms are such that the land trembles for a mile back from the shore4 ,the earth1 said ,emerson1#dg speaking of the industrial greatness of ,england1 shakes under the thunder of its mills4 ,so for ages it has shaken under the thunder of the mills of the sea4 ,footnote #dg3 ,english ,traits4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,the ,scientific ,american ,,sea-,,cliffs ,,in ,,the ,,schoolroom ,these dizzy cliffs and the wide sea beyond were made in the schoolroom in the same way that the glacier and the iceberg were made in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,the ,scientific ,american ,,behind ,,the ,,scenes ,this apparent war of the sea upon the land is a war of machinery whose workings are curiously like the ancient war machinery of men4 ,without tools the sea is almost as helpless as man himself2 and1 as in man's history1 its use of tools begins with the ,stone ,age4 ,where there is no stone-strewn beach or underwater shelf extending out from a cliff1 the waves do little damage4 ,they give only a muffled and 7to the poetic ear7 a baffled roar4 ,but a sloping shelf along a rocky shore not only makes a kind of scaling ladder on which the waves can climb to great heights1 but these waves are pitched forward with terrific force as they reach it from the open sea4 ,as they come on they seize huge stones which they hurl against the cliffs4 ,even amid the wild voices of tempests one hears the boulders crashing against the walls4 ,in storms of sufficient energy rocks of three tons weight are driven forward like pebbles4 ,the action against the upper part of a cliff may be compared to that of one of those great stone-throwing engines of the ,romans1 while on the lower portion the drive suggests the battering-ram4 ,,what ,,neptune ,,knows ,,about ,,wedges ,,and ,,pneumatic ,,tools ,where the waves strike into narrowing crevices in the rocks they act as wedges1 prying the walls apart4 ,in this form of the sea's destructive work we find also an application of a motive power which has come to play so important a part in modern engineering2 namely1 compressed air4 ,waves strong enough to handle big rocks not only dash them against the cliff1 while the waves themselves drive into the crevices like wedges1 but in so doing they force air into the crevices and compress it4 ,this air1 expanding as the waves fall back1 forces out great blocks of stone which1 in turn1 are also used as weapons of assault4 ,and1 as we look back in the history of the sea1 we find that he long ago--the deep-laid schemer6--planted enemies within our very walls4 ,waves1 even when armed with the heaviest missiles1 can do comparatively little damage to walls in which there are no crevices4 ,but there are few such walls4 ,usually even the hardest rocks have running through them those cracks which the geologists 7with a fine sense of humor7 call joints2 or they have bedding planes1 the divisions between the rock beds4 ,both of these weaknesses in our defensive walls are1 in a large degree1 the handiwork of the sea2 the bedding planes because rocks are so laid in the sea mills1 and the joints because the wrinkling up and consequent cracking of the land rocks is the other end1 as we learned in ,chapter ,i1 of the down-wrinkling of the rocks under the weight of the sea4 ,in the very body of the rocks also is hidden a secret enemy2 the salt left when they were made4 ,and more salt is constantly being forced into the surface pores as the waves strike4 ,this salt helps to dissolve and weaken the rock under the chemical action of the air1 and the rains and the mechanical expansion and contraction of the surface with changes of temperature4 ,,planing ,,mills ,,of ,,the ,,winter ,,sea ,all the ,great ,powers of nature1 on land1 on sea1 and in the air1 seem to be in open conspiracy against our peace4 ,the evidence seems especially plain in late fall and winter1 when the sea1 contrary to the usual practice in war1 carries on its most vigorous campaigns4 ,then come the winds for the great drives2 then come the frosts that change the water wedges into expanding blocks of ice that1 almost with the force of exploding shells1 tear the walls apart4 ,in winter are formed the great ice-fields that help in two ingenious ways to further the destructive action of the storm waves4 ,in bays and smaller recesses in rocky shores1 the ice has embedded in it fragments of stone which the sea has battered down4 ,the constant plunge of the waves breaks up these ice-fields into sections which1 with the embedded stones1 become rude planing mills4 ,where a headland is sloping1 these planers1 driven back and forth by the waves1 chisel the rock away as a planer chisels down a piece of steel upon which it has been set to work4 ,,how ,,stones ,,are ,,carried ,,out ,,to ,,sea ,a no less curious feature of sea engineering is the use of ice-fields as conveyors4 ,during the spring1 summer1 and autumn the masses of stone which the sea brings down from the cliffs on its occasional busy days--that is to say on days when the winds are high--pile up and so form a kind of bulwark against further attacks4 ,but when in winter these stones become embedded as above described1 strong offshore winds carry the ice-fields1 stones and all1 out to sea4 ,then1 on shore1 wind and wave take up their work again unchecked4 ,all along the rocky shores of the ,atlantic1 as far south as ,new ,york ,state1 beyond which no rock walls come down to the shore1 all these interesting things may be seen by the traveller4 ,another phase of this team-work of natural forces in feeding the land to the sea is that steady advance of the waters upon certain shores4 ,as if science herself had joined literature and art in giving the old sea dog a bad name1 these advances are called in the language of geology1 transgressions of the sea4 ,these transgressions are caused in part by the gradual sinking of the land and in part by the rising of the waters4 ,it is not possible always to tell which agency is at work4 ,often both may be4 ,one thing about the rising of the waters themselves might be looked at as particularly alarming4 ,the rivers1 which1 of course1 are parts of one great water system1 whose centre and prime mover is the sea1 are not only constantly wearing the land down toward sea level but raising the sea level by the inpour of vast quantities of ground-up land4 ,even as matters stand1 the amount of water in the sea bowls is so great that if all lands were at the present sea level they would be covered everywhere to a depth of two miles4 ,wind-borne dust from the surface of the land and from volcanic explosions also1 in time1 amounts to a pretty sum2 and1 of course1 helps makes the waters of the sea rise upon the land4 ,,wearing ,,down ,,the ,,land ,,and ,,filling ,,up ,,the ,,sea ,already the sea has advanced a thousand feet or more upon the coasts of ,maine1 to take one instance2 and the whole ragged outline of ,europe is due to the same cause4 ,let this sort of thing go on and it is easy to see that it will only be a question of a few millions of years when ,new ,york1 ,london1 and other centres of busy life will be buried like the wicked cities of the plain4 ,and if1 to help complete this picture of desolation1 we for a moment forget what we learned about the life insurance carried by the continents1 we can imagine how they too will disappear4 ,and the ,last ,man thus3 ,for now ,i stand as one upon a rock ,environed with a wilderness of sea1 ,who marks the waxing tide grow wave by wave ,expecting ever when some envious surge1 ,will1 in his brinish bowels1 swallow him4#dh ,footnote #dh3 ,shakespere3 ,titus ,andronicus4 ,to make the thing seem doubly sure1 let us reflect with ,mr4 ,burroughs that the world is now probably in a time of spring1 following the latest of the ,ice ,ages4 ,if so1 the water now locked up in snow-fields and glaciers among the mountain peaks will1 before this summer of the centuries is over1 all melt back into the sea4 ,this alone will be good for a rise of some thirty feet in sea level4 ,then1 still later1 we shall no doubt have another ,ice ,age1 and the only thing that may save us from being frozen to death is the fact that we have previously been drowned6 ,,ii4 ,the ,builder ,but it's all a bad dream2 a delusion of the mind1 and of the eye4 ,we see these things--the destruction of the land1 the invasions of the sea--but we do not see them as they are because we do not see far enough4 ,looked at broadly1 and reading the story of it to the end1 we learn that the whole relation of the sea to the land and its life and beauty is that of a builder and fatherly provider4 ,far from being the savage creature he has been pictured1 ,father ,neptune seems to have the kindly disposition of old ,king ,cole combined with the wisdom of ,king ,solomon4 ,everywhere is evidence not only of the highest intelligence but of good will toward man and his brother tenants of the waters1 fields1 and woods4 ,,the ,,truth ,,about ,,the ,,sea ,,is ,,this ,to begin with you remember it was the sea that helped put the world on the map4 ,of course1 if we had not already learned in the story of how the continents came up out of the sea1 that there is no cause for alarm1 we might imagine that having been lifted up they might1 by a reversal of the process1 be lifted down again4 ,indeed1 ,i find a writer in a popular periodical dealing in science stating that every part of the sea floor becomes1 in its turn1 the shore line and is subjected to the wear of the waves4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 we know that the continents have finally got their land legs2 that for ages the transgressions of the sea have been mainly confined to the continental margins2 and that unless the earth's shrunken centre should1 from some unimaginable cause1 swell back to its old size1 it is mechanically impossible for the entire bottoms of the vast reservoirs of the sea to be raised4 ,illustration3 ,,harbor ,,engineering ,,of ,,the ,,rivers ,,and ,,the ,,sea ,in the mouths of certain rivers emptying into the sea the tides come rushing up in a roaring wave like this4 ,when the tide goes out the water flows back again4 ,this back-and-forth motion helps to broaden the harbor made by the river's mouth1 as in the case of ,new ,york ,harbor1 which is the mouth of the ,hudson4 ,owing to this tidal action the water of the ,hudson backs up clear to ,albany4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,golden ,,gate ,,for ,,frisco ,the famous ,golden ,gate of ,san ,francisco 7so called because of the golden sunsets shining through71 and its splendid harbor1 made by the sinking of the land4 ,the gate was originally cut by the waters of those two rivers that join and flow into the bay4 ,what rivers are they8 ,,how ,,the ,,sea ,,helps ,,make ,,good ,,farms ,,and ,,big ,,cities ,moreover the rivers1 in the very act of wearing down the land and with it filling up the sea1 help keep the land from being flooded1 as it would be if something were not done4 ,for1 as we learned in the story of why the mountains border the sea the sediment poured in by the rivers helps raise the mountains and the land along the sea border4 ,it is during the downward movement of the continental margins that most sediment is spread from the inpouring rivers because the dip of the land is greater and the swifter current not only cuts down the land faster1 but carries the sediment farther out from shore4 ,here the new rock is made from old worn-out soil1 and1 since these new rocks when brought to the surface will in time decay1 fresh soil is thus prepared for future generations4 ,more immediate benefits of this sinking of shores and advance of waters are the harbors which have made great cities like ,new ,york and ,london1 on or near the seacoast4 ,these harbors are all the results of transgressions1 combined with the digging action of wave and tide4 ,illustration3 ,copyright by ,underwood ,underwood ,,stone ,,terraces ,,for ,,the ,,gannets ,this picture shows what the rising of the land and the architectural engineering of the sea did for the gannets on the coast of ,canada4 ,,taking ,a ,,hint ,,from ,,the ,,sea',s ,,shore ,,engineering ,but the sea builds shores as well as eats them4 ,its chief work in this line is the widening of the continental shelf by building it up with rock made of the sea's own grist from its shores1 and the sediment poured in by the rivers4 ,this work is not delivered1 so to speak1 for millions of years1 when the sinking shores begin to rise again1 but the sea1 in its wave work1 does shore building of another kind that shows above the waters in the generation in which it is done4 ,on wide1 shallow beaches1 storm waves break some distance from the shore1 and1 so losing their force1 drop the sediment which they have stirred up1 after carrying it forward only a little way4 ,as a result of this repeated dumping1 an embankment forms1 broadening seaward in the middle and bending shoreward at the ends4 ,a portion of the sea itself is finally cut out and enclosed by this embankment1 thus forming a lagoon4 ,finally this lagoon is filled with material1 washed from the land and by sediment brought in from the sea at high tide4 ,human engineers1 taking the hint1 now put the sea to work on similar undertakings of their own4 ,an embankment is built enclosing an area of the sea2 then the tides and the land wash do the rest4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,drowned ,,rivers ,,that ,,helped ,,make ,,england ,,great ,her fine harbors have helped to make ,england the great commercial nation that she is4 ,notice here the relation of her largest cities to the bay-like mouths of the drowned rivers and to the drowned valley north of the ,isle of ,wight4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,sea ,,taught ,,shore ,,engineering ,,to ,,men ,this is a salt marsh at mid-tide4 ,how the sea itself adds such regions to the dominion of the land1 and how human engineers1 taking the hint1 have put the sea to work1 you will learn in this chapter4 ,the sea also works with the busy little corals in building reefs and islands4 ,corals can only live and build where the water is kept in constant and vigorous motion by current and wave4 ,from the air imprisoned in the bubbles by the stirring and turmoil of the waves and particularly from the air in the white foam of the crests these little people get their oxygen4 ,at the same time they absorb out of the water the food on which they grow4 ,the sea not only feeds these little wards of its bounty during their busy lives1 but extends their usefulness after death1 either by cementing to the reef the coral1 ground up by the waves1 or in storms scattering it over wide areas1 to be made later into the finest of limestone2 and still later into the best of soils4 ,illustration3 ,,father ,,neptune ,,feeding ,,the ,,coral ,,people ,see that line of breakers just below the horizon8 ,that shows where ,father ,neptune is serving the little coral people with food and fresh air1 as explained in the text4 ,we know also that the sea makes coal as well as stone in its rock mills2 that the pressure of the overlying rock was in large part the source of the heat that changed the vegetation of the swamps1 first into charcoal and then into coal4 ,the subject of what the sea has done and is doing for us is almost as endless as the seas themselves2 and no doubt the reason the sea is never still is because it has so much to do4 ,nothing in earth's animate or inanimate nature exercises an influence to be compared in importance to that of the sea1 not only upon the land1 but upon the whole life which land and sea support2 and even in what seem to be the most aimless of its movements it in reality acts with the precision of a machine4 ,,iii4 ,the ,artist ,and in the making of the rock in its presses under the water1 as well as in the grinding which takes place along the shores1 the sea evidently has an eye to beauty as well as use4 ,as originally formed1 the conglomerates or pudding-stones are always laid nearest the shore because there the retiring waves and the rivers emptying into the sea drop the heaviest part of their load1 including the pebbles4 ,next is dropped the sand which is pressed into sandstone and beyond this the finest particles of all1 the ground-up soil1 which becomes slate rock4 ,still beyond the zone of slate is deposited the lime from the shells of sea creatures who can live only in this clearer water1 away from the muddy waters nearer the shore4 ,these deposits make limestone4 ,the result of this natural sorting process is that all the four kinds of sedimentary rock are always laid down in just this #a1 #b1 #c1 #d order and no other3 7#a7 pudding-stone2 7#b7 sandstone2 7#c7 slate2 7#d7 limestone4 ,then1 as a result of the transgressions of the sea1 what was once a region of conglomerate may be later found far out under the sea and there is thus laid down over the conglomerate beds1 strata of sandstone1 slate1 or limestone1 depending on how far the sea advances4 ,so we find rocks with all sorts of neighbors above and below2 limestone above conglomerate1 conglomerate above slate4 ,these changes take place over vast regions and from the original uniformity in the arrangement of the rocks there necessarily results a similar uniformity in the results of this shuffling1 and no matter what changes may be made afterward by raising them up into shore cliff and mountain and by other earth movements1 and by the endless reshaping by weather and wave1 there still remains that underlying harmony which1 with variety1 gives to rocky shores their picturesque beauty4 ,harmony and variety are necessary in all forms of art--pictures1 literature1 music--and the conditions governing harmony and variety are always found hand-in-hand in the art work of the sea and its helpers4 ,the difference in texture in different kinds of rock1 for example1 and in different parts of the same rock1 cause them to yield in different ways and degrees to the action of wave1 wind and weather2 so there is sure to be great variety in the shapes they take as they are worn away4 ,,harmony1 ,,variety1 ,,and ,,the ,,art ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,family ,,likeness ,,in ,,rock ,,forms ,yet1 with all their differences1 the shapes rocks take--sandstone compared with granite1 for example--are so characteristic that one soon learns to tell a long way off what kind of rock a distant landscape is made of4 ,there is inevitably a certain type resemblance1 since all sandstone is of the same general texture and weathers in the same way4 ,,nature',s ,,building ,,blocks ,,and ,,the ,,sea ,then take the natural division into blocks made by joints in the rocks to which cliffs like the famous ,castle ,head at ,bar ,harbor owes its striking form4 ,these blocks are so nearly true that you feel sure they must have been cut by stone-masons1 and yet they have the variety which art demands2 they have not the monotonous sameness of shape of the bricks in a wall4 ,this is mainly due to the differences in the strains which cracked the original rock mass4 ,so1 from the beginning a sea-wall built by nature is more picturesque than a sea-wall built by man4 ,and it goes on taking more and more picturesque shapes under the hammers of the waves4 ,for the force of the waves1 the angles at which they strike1 the size and shape of the rock fragments with which they strike1 these vary infinitely4 ,,etching1 ,,sculpture1 ,,and ,,landscape ,,gardening ,equally true is this of other natural forces that shape the rocks2 such as the daily and seasonal changes of temperature that chip away the mountain peaks and the faces of the cliffs1 and the character and number of plants that grow on rocks where they can get a foothold and dying and decaying generate acids which help to etch the rocks away4 ,trees growing on rocks search out the cracks with their roots and1 pushing in and prying them apart1 help to change their form4 ,and there is sure to be variety in the arrangement of the wild trees growing on rocks in the mountains and by the sea1 since the seeds1 being carried by the winds or by running water or by birds or four-footed creatures1 fall in an endless variety of groupings4 ,so of the shadows cast by the trees4 ,these shadow masses1 so different in shape1 owing in part to the irregular arrangement of the trees and in part to the differences in shape of the trees themselves1 protect portions of the rock1 to a certain extent1 against changes in temperature1 while the bare rocks are fully exposed to it1 so there results a corresponding variety in the result of the sun's work upon the rock4 ,at the same time they help on the acid etching process1 because in these shadowed spots there is more moisture and therefore more rapid decay4 ,the form of whole continents follows the same law4 ,take1 for example1 ,europe4 ,the geological history of ,europe1 says ,geikie1#di is largely the history of its mountain chains2 and the mountain chains1 for all their picturesque variety1 have also1 and necessarily1 a certain uniformity1 because in the wrinkling of the rocks which made them the vast areas over which they now extend were all subjected to the same force--a big push from one side which crumpled up the earth's outer crust as a table-cloth is crumpled up when pushed forward against a book lying on it4 ,footnote #di3 ,encyclopdia ,britannica3 article on ,geology4 ,,how ,,the ,,very ,,scenery ,,plays ,,many ,,parts ,the ancient history written in the rocks1 in the present relative positions of the strata1 shows that four times a great mountain system has thus been raised across the face of what is now ,europe2 that three times large portions of these mountain ranges have been sunk under the sea and new rocks deposited over them2 and that the mountains of to-day--the ,alps1 the ,carpathians1 and the rest--are the survivors of the fourth time up4 ,here we have another striking example of the fact that on the great stage of life the very scenery has its exits and its entrances6 ,but remember that in all these changes of scenery--in the crumplings and the foldings1 and new rock deposits and the carving by the rivers and the frosts and the winds and the waves of the sea--we have certain similar materials1 similarly arranged1 stretching over vast areas1 and the consequence is a certain uniformity and rhythm in the ups and downs of the landscape and in the changes worked in the walls of stone where time and storm have set their wild signatures upon them4 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,what would you think of seeing the leaves all out and the trees in bloom on ,christmas ,day8 ,that happens right along1 and the people who live in the lands where this occurs don't think anything of it1 because this is in the ,southern ,hemisphere during the vacation season of the sea4 ,one peculiar thing about this spring and summer in the winter time in ,africa is that when the leaves first come out they are not green at all4 ,they are brown1 red1 and pink4 ,later on they turn green--just as any well-behaved leaf is supposed to do4#ej ,it's as if they got mixed in their dates and thought at first it was autumn and then woke up and said3 ,oh1 yes1 to be sure1 this is spring6 ,what are we thinking about8 ,footnote #ej3 ,livingstone's ,expedition to the ,zambesi4 ,anyhow they turn from the autumn browns and reds to the appropriate green of spring1 and the flowers come out and the birds begin to sing in the very season when our winter winds are loudest and the rock mills of the sea are roaring at their work4 ,in which ,hemisphere1 the ,northern or the ,southern1 do the sea mills have most land to work on8 ,in ,shakespere's ,tempest you will find a description of a storm at sea that will take your breath away4 ,almost the whole of ,scene #b1 ,act ,i1 is in that terrible storm4 ,in fact1 the whole play1 as the title of it indicates1 is full of storm4 ,while you are looking for storms in ,shakespere see what you can find in ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 ,twelfth ,night1 ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 and ,the ,merchant of ,venice4 ,speaking of the sea still being in the ,stone ,age what do you know about the kind of tools man used in the ,stone ,age and how he got along8#ea 7,you'll find that the story of the development of man1 as dealt with in connection with the ,stone ,age1 is part of the strangest story of all the strange stories of science4 ,you will get a brief outline of it in this story of mine1 in the last chapter47 ,footnote #ea3 ,interesting books on this subject are3 ,starr's ,first ,steps in ,human ,progress 7,chautauqua ,reading ,course7 and ,clodd's ,childhood of the ,world4 ,osborn's ,the ,men of the ,old ,stone ,age is the latest and most comprehensive work on the subject4 ,how much more do you know about pneumatic tools than ,father ,neptune does8 ,no doubt you've used a pneumatic tool of a sort yourself more than once--a tool for making a noise4 ,guess what4 ,a pop-gun6 ,look up pneumatic tools1 and you will find that the same thing that makes the pop-gun pop helps to build skyscrapers1 locomotives1 and steamships1 and do a lot of other wonderful things4 ,in connection with the water wedges made by the sea you must remember that curious trick ice has when it freezes 7page #aed72 otherwise you can't understand how it could act like a wedge4 ,yes1 and wedges1 simple as they look1 are almost as wonderful as levers2 and you know what ,archimedes said he could do with a lever4 ,the whole subject of machinery and particularly of automatic or so-called self-acting machinery#eb is fascinating4 ,find out about planing mills and how they work1 particularly why they stop planing just when they are told to4 ,footnote #eb3 ,as a matter of fact1 the only machinery that is really automatic is the machinery of nature1 of which what we have called the machinery of the sea is an example4 ,in connection with how the sea sometimes helps make harbors think of as many great harbors as you can1 and then look on your geography map and see how many you have missed4 ,what character in ,titus ,andronicus says that about the man standing on a rock and watching the sea come to eat him up8 ,your geography has a good deal to say about continental shelves2 and with pictures4 ,do you remember8 ,speaking of lands sinking under the sea you'll run into a world of interesting things if you look up the story of the ,lost ,island of ,atlantis2 about the ,egyptian priest who first described it to ,solon1 the ,greek lawgiver1 as an earthly paradise where all the laws and everything else were just right4 ,and if you're of ,high ,school age you'll enjoy reading what ,plato#ec and ,homer#ed say about this ideal land4 ,footnote #ec3 ,timus4 ,footnote #ed3 ,the ,odyssey4 ,isn't it a striking thing how the big sea that can look so fierce takes such tender care of the little coral people8 ,and what extraordinary folks these coral people are6 ,any good article about them will tell you worlds of interesting things4 ,for instance1 you will find the people of whole villages living together with only one backbone4 ,i mean not one backbone apiece but one backbone among them all6 ,and they have the queerest way with their stomachs1 a kind of co-operative digestion1 of co-operative housekeeping4 7,your mother will be particularly interested in this because it shows the community kitchen idea has been thoroughly tried out and it works6 ,if you don't know about community kitchens among human housekeepers ask mother to tell you1 and then you tell her what you found out about these strange little housekeepers of the sea47 ,,chapter ,,xi 7,,november7 ,it is a noble thing for men 444 to make the face of a wall look infinite1 and its edge against the sky like an horizon2 or even if less than this be reached1 it is still delightful to mark the play of passing light on its broad surface1 and to see by how many artifices and gradations of tinting and shadow1 time and storm will set their wild signatures upon it4 --,ruskin3 ,the ,seven ,lamps of ,architecture4 ,,the ,,handwriting ,,on ,,the ,,walls ,one of the most interesting things in this whole wonderful story of the life history of the world is how men were first able to read it at all4 ,for we know they didn't find it written out in plain print as we have it now4 ,neither was it told in any one language so that getting hold of the thread of the story they could unravel it all1 as other learned men did the picture writing of the ,egyptians and the wedge-shaped marks on ,assyrian bricks4 ,we know already how they learned that rivers open their own gateways through the mountains2 how they know rocks are made over in the fairyland of change2 how they know the ancient glaciers scattered the boulders over mountainside1 valley1 and field2 how they know the mountains are children of the sea4 ,all this and more we have been reading in the written language of the rocks1 but there are other things in this rock script that ,i have kept for this last but one of our pleasant talks1 so that they might serve as a kind of summary and remembrance of all that has gone before4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,wall ,,that ,,vulcan ,,built ,i've said it several times before1 but ,i can't help saying it here again1 how much more wonderful the ways of ,nature are than was ever dreamed of even in the wonder tales of the ,greeks6 ,take this great iron wall1 for example--a wall of the iron rock called lava--and who would suppose that it was made by natural forces8 ,it was driven in a molten state into a crack in overlying rock4 ,after it cooled1 the rock above and on either side of it1 being of softer material1 was worn away4 ,this wall is near ,spanish ,peaks1 ,colorado4 ,it is #ajj feet high and some #cj feet wide4 ,colorado boys1 on their vacations in that region1 run along the top of it for miles4 ,i4 ,the ,mysteries in ,marble ,walls ,take a piece of marble for example1 such as you see along the walls of our great modern buildings4 ,there's a story for you6 ,why1 if half the things it tells had just happened1 or even just been discovered by some enterprising reporter1 we should see pages and pages about it all in every newspaper in the land4 ,,how ,,marble ,,retells ,,the ,,world ,,history ,in that piece of marble alone you have a pretty full review of the earth's history2 of many of the most important things we have seen and heard about since we all started out together in ,chapter ,i4 ,it tells of strange life in ancient seas2 of being buried deep in the earth under immense pressure1 and where it could feel the intense heat of the rock at the centre1 and of coming up again completely changed2 transformed from the substance of a dead sea creature's shell to a crystallized stone beautifully colored and of many patterns2 of the chemistry of the world underground and the laboratories in which its lovely coloring were made and blended2 and solid rock threaded through rock with a skill that no worker in mosaic has ever equalled2 drawn out and fixed in mere films of white1 fading into the rich dark of the marble around them like white clouds shredded by the winds4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,strange ,,stories ,,that ,,marble ,,tells ,those broader lines bending and turning1 rising and falling1 tell of the work of the giant forces that lift the mountains into place and of the great earthquakes that accompany mountain building4 ,when those little quavering lines were being made1 away down in the earth where the limestone changed to marble1 mountains were slowly rising into the sky on the earth's surface far above4 ,the quaverings in the marble are pictures1 line drawings of the mountain story4 ,and beside these lines that you can read so plainly there are others so small that you need a magnifying glass to see them2 echoes1 away down in the fairyland of the microscope1 of the doings of the giants of ,mountainland far above4 ,in following the lines of the earth's great walls of rock over a wide extent they are found waving sharply up and down in one section1 rising and falling like ocean swells in another1 in forward sloping folds in another1 and sometimes even with folds doubling over1 as if the great mountains which these folds made were trying to stand on their heads4 ,,why ,,lines ,,in ,,marble ,,repeat ,,mountain ,,forms ,all these rock folds which1 with the help of the sculpturing of the elements1 produce the infinite variety of beauty in mountain scenery are1 speaking generally1 repeated in the lines of the marble4 ,but they are repeated only in miniature1 because the rocks deep in the earth are under such pressure that while the rocks on the surface are free to rise in big and comparatively simple waves those beneath are doubled up into smaller and much more crumpled folds4 ,take several sheets of paper lying free on the table and press them from the ends4 ,they will rise in simple arches as most mountains do4 ,now lay a book on these sheets and press from the ends again4 ,you see they crumple up a great deal more2 the larger wrinkles themselves doubling into smaller ones4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,mother ,,nature ,,makes ,,her ,z',s ,these ,z-shaped rock folds were made by the crumpling up of the crust as the centre1 cooling1 shrank away4 ,they are to be seen near the east end of ,ogden ,canyon1 ,utah4 ,the black lines were added to the photograph in the offices of ,uncle ,sam's big department of geology at ,washington1 to show clearly just where the rock runs4 ,you may often have noticed a banded effect in marble4 ,my1 what power it took to do that6 ,pressure we can't realize4 ,pressure from above so great that it made this marble spread2 moulded it like clay in the hands of the potter2 the same kind of force that flattened out the pebbles referred to in ,chapter ,v4 ,this is called rock flow1 and how plainly the marble shows the flowing movement4 ,i always think what the weather people call stratus clouds1 look as if they were made by long strokes of a painter's brush2 and this marble has the very same flowing lines4 ,such cloud pictures in marble are made where deposits of other kinds of rock have been interlaid with the deposits of limestone which afterward changed to marble1 and it is where these bands are folded or bent that we have set down for us the story of the mountain folds4 ,those gossamer effects and the little white clouds spinning out and fading into the general mass of the marble1 how delicate they are6 ,yet it took a force that made the earth quake to put them there4 ,the more we know of the strange and fearful things that happen in times of earthquake the more we can read between these filmy lines4 ,they tell of the sides of mountains tumbling down and spreading their valleys with a chaos of broken stone2 making cliffs where there were peaks and peaks where there were cliffs2 changing the course of rivers2 shifting whole forests on the mountainside and replacing them with grim walls and bastions of barren stone--all in the twinkling of an eye6 ,,the ,,earthquakes ,,and ,,the ,,delicate ,,films ,it is by the crushing movements that made the earthquake that rocks are broken into confusions of cracks such as you often see in a thick glass window that has been broken4 ,then into these cracks come dissolved minerals from other rocks and harden into stone4 ,in the marble one set of veins often runs right through another as if they had been inlaid4 ,then there may be other veins that cross both of these--no end of criss-crossings4 ,the different sets of veins usually differ also in color and in grain1 and even have different kinds of mineral in them4 ,with a good hand-glass you can see this difference in texture4 ,illustration3 ,,when ,,the ,,earthquake ,,takes ,,its ,,pen ,,in ,,hand ,these are1 so to speak1 the autographs of earthquakes--the records earthquakes themselves make on an instrument called the seismograph1 using a stylus1 as the ancients did1 as you will see by looking up seismograph in the dictionary or encyclopdia4 ,after an earthquake starts it seems to stop for breath or for want of the right word--just like people2 for you notice portions of the lines are almost straight4 ,these were made when the earthquake was comparatively quiet4 ,then1 when it got excited again--as in the second record from the top--the stylus fairly jumped up and down2 and there where the waves are long and close together the shocks were particularly severe and followed each other rapidly4 ,,ii4 ,how ,vulcan ,drove his ,autograph into the ,rocks ,but there is another kind of handwriting on the walls that was made with such a vigorous stroke that it also made the earth shake4 ,of course we might expect ,vulcan to write a rather vigorous hand--,vulcan1 forger of thunderbolts for ,jove4 ,the ancients thought volcanoes belonged to the kingdom of ,vulcan1 so in scientific language everything connected with volcanic action comes under the head of ,vulcanism4 ,these queer letters we are talking about are called dikes4 ,they are made of lava that was driven into cracks in the rocks and afterward cooled into rock that is as hard as iron4 ,lava is often largely made of iron4 ,illustration3 ,,mr4 ,,vulcan',s ,,famous ,,castle ,,on ,,the ,,hudson ,this is a part of ,mr4 ,vulcan's famous castle on the ,hudson known as the ,palisades4 ,here the lava rock has formed into columns which make the mass look all the more like some old castle of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the windows are where the softer spots in the rock have decayed away4 ,this castle--come to think of it--really belongs to medival architecture1 for it was built in the ,middle ,ages of earth's long history4 ,illustration3 ,,this ,,is ,,the ,,hand ,,of ,,vulcan1 ,,too ,were you ever down by the seashore in a storm8 ,if so you remember how the ground under your feet shook when a great wave rushed into some narrow passage or crevice in the rocks1 and was tossed high in the air in spray4 ,then just imagine molten lava1 which is many times heavier than water1 driven into a crack in a rock with the force of a cannon-ball4 ,that's how it happened4 ,that's how those dark strokes in the rock with their heavy shading were made4 ,this was done in the depths of the earth2 not on the surface where you see these rocks now4 ,they used to have piles of other rocks above them1 but these in course of time have been weathered away4 ,this is known1 not only from the marks of the wearing but from the fact that these dikes1 as well as the rock into which they have been driven1 are crystallized1 wholly or in part4 ,such crystallizing1 as we know1 takes place away down in the earth4 ,dikes are very common4 ,in some places you find the rocks fairly laced with them4 ,the picture of the dikes in the granite shores at ,marblehead also shows 7in the horizontal plan7 many faults or slips of the rock since the dike was made1 and each slip probably gave rise to an earthquake4 ,so you see there's the story of a terrible time written on those quiet old residents by the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway ,here is a still more striking example of the formation of columns in lava--the ,giant's ,causeway4 ,here are #dj1jjj columns1 packed like the cells of a honeycomb1 and they slope to the pavement in the foreground that gives the mass its name4 ,that bees should make their little honey-jars in such regular form is wonderful enough1 but think of lava shaping its own self into columns like that6 ,,did ,,mr4 ,,vulcan ,,use ,a ,,steam ,,pile-,,driver8 ,just what power ,mr4 ,vulcan used to drive the dikes is not known for sure1 but ,i'll tell you how it is supposed to have been done4 ,remember that all rocks that are deep down in the earth contain water1 shut up in their pores4 ,then remember how hot it is down there and how this heat would make steam right in the rocks4 ,then let the rock above be cracked by the movements of the earth crust1 and this crack extend down to where these hot rocks are1 the pressure1 being released along that crack1 the melted rock 7lava7 would rush up1 as it does in connection with the eruptions of volcanoes1 and the exploding steam would help drive it4 ,,iii4 ,ancient ,weather ,records ,turned to ,stone ,so much for the literary remains of ,mr4 ,vulcan4 ,now let's see how much we can make out of the handwriting of the waters and the winds on these walls of time4 ,what does the picture at the top of page #bde look like8 ,rain-drops in the dust4 ,and so you see they are2 but the rain fell so long that the pits made in the dust have turned to stone4 ,think of the autograph of a rain-drop older than the ,pharaohs2 older than the pyramids these ,pharaohs built to perpetuate their names4 ,and this is how such rain-drops immortalize themselves2 this is the interpretation of their handwriting on the walls4 ,along the dry shore of an ancient sea when the tide was out1 rain-drops fell on the sand and dust4 ,tides often come in with a rush1 in wild waves driven by the wind1 but when there is no wind and no waves rolling in from far distant storms the tide may overspread such delicate things as the imprint of rain-drops with a thin protecting film of mud4 ,this was what happened to our little rain pits4 ,later tides overlaid them deeper from day to day1 and in course of time both the layer containing the rain-drop prints and the overlying layers of sediment turned to stone4 ,often the heat of a summer sun will bake these rain-drop designs and this you see helps2 it holds the impression until the tide can come in and spread its protecting film4 ,many imprints of rain-drops and of the feet of reptiles are found in the sandstone underlying the coal seams in eastern ,pennsylvania1 and they are always1 ,i am told1 covered with a fine powdery material1 which was once the slime and mud of the tide4 ,such rain marks are often found also in slate4 ,wouldn't you like to have a slate with one of these rain-drop autographs on it8 ,illustration3 ,,rain-,,drop ,,autographs ,,older ,,than ,,the ,,pharaohs ,here1 by the way1 is a very important thing these rain-drops tell4 ,says ,professor ,shaler3 ,they tell us that the ordinary machinery of the atmosphere was operating in those days very much as it is to-day1 and that the climate was much the same4#ee ,footnote #ee3 ,this quotation is from ,doctor ,shaler's ,nature and ,man in ,america1 a book you should read1 as you should all of ,doctor ,shaler's books4 ,no one has observed so many interesting things in the field of geology and few have written about them so simply or reasoned about them so well4 ,so1 he argues1 the great ,ice ,age couldn't have been due to change of climate1 but to the other things that we read about in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,for they even know in what ages different records of rain-drops were made because they are found in rocks laid down in different periods2 and one of the periods in which they are found was that in which the ,north ,pole ice and its neighbors came down and made us those long visits4 ,,story ,,of ,a ,,stroll ,,in ,,the ,,rain ,another story found in museums is written in slate--not by a rain-drop but by a living creature4 ,the slate shows the track of a reptile with feet like a bird4 ,evidently he was strolling along in the rain2 for there you see the marks of the rain-drops right among the marks of his feet1 and in the footprints themselves4 ,being a reptile who spent much of his time in or near the water he no doubt enjoyed these little pats of the rain-drops as he went along4 ,,but ,,this ,,stroll ,,was ,,taken ,,in ,,the ,,sun ,in another of these museum specimens we see written out just as plainly the story of a stroll in the sun4 ,there are the imprints of ,mr4 ,reptile's feet1 and there are the sun-cracks in the mud showing that the sun was shining--or at least that it had been shining for several days or weeks1 for it takes a little time to make sun-cracks in mud4 ,this story1 we might suppose1 was written so that it could be read by the blind2 the cracks1 as well as the footprints1 are brought out in raised lettering4 ,sun-cracked mud1 after a long dry spell1 will bake so that the cracks will not be washed out by the returning tide but instead be filled by other material1 and this material will go on building up to a certain extent2 so making those ridges4 ,illustration3 ,,then ,,there ,,came ,a ,,long ,,dry ,,spell ,this shows how the cracks in dried-up mud are preserved in stone4 ,the process is the same as in the case of the stone imprints of rain-drops1 the imprints being protected by successive deposits of mud by quiet tides1 and afterward turning to stone4 ,,the ,,stone ,,autographs ,,of ,,gentle ,,breezes ,on still other stones you will find written the story of gentle breezes that stirred the water and made ripples on long-buried shores4 ,first the breezes rippled the shallow waters near the shore4 ,then the waters rippled the sand1 and the sediments of the tide preserved these ripple marks as they did the rain-drops and the footprints4 ,but the wind alone1 without the help of water ripples1 can write its name in the sands of time4 ,and when you get to know the handwriting of wind and wave you will not mistake the one for the other4 ,you are likely to find wind ripples on any big heap of sand4 ,have a good look at them and then go down to shallow water on a sandy shore and compare the two kinds4 ,that's the way the great men of science do2 they notice every little thing4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,big ,,round ,,top ,,and ,,little ,,round ,,top ,one story of ,big ,round ,top and ,little ,round ,top your history tells1 but long before the battle of ,gettysburg these two mountains had age-long battles of their own with the winds1 the rains1 and the frosts1 and in these battles lost their peaks and their sharp outlines of jagged rock1 and became rounded down to the forms we see before us4 ,those rocks in the field were probably broken off in these battles1 as the rocks of high mountains are to-day1 and carried down by roaring torrents4 ,,weather ,,records ,,on ,,the ,,mountain ,,walls ,from a scientific standpoint little things may be just as big as big things4 ,for example1 in this matter of old weather records these rain-drops and ripple stones are just as interesting as other weather records written large on mountain walls2 such as those which tell that what is now the ,dead ,sea was once part of a much larger sea that wasn't dead at all4 ,you may never get to read these records on the mountain walls of ,palestine1 for they are a long way off1 but here in our own country we have a similar story told on mountain walls in the region of another dead sea--the ,great ,salt ,lake of ,utah4 ,from ,salt ,lake ,city you can see on the mountain surrounding the desert of the ,great ,basin the marks of old shore lines2 where the waves cut into the rock4 ,these marks show that this ,basin once held two great lakes1 and the one in the eastern portion dried up into what is now ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,illustration3 ,,weather ,,records ,,on ,,the ,,walls ,,of ,,time ,what is now the ,great ,salt ,lake used to be a much greater lake that wasn't salt at all4 ,that vast flight of steps up the mountainside shows how wide it spread4 ,as the big lake dried up1 and grew smaller and smaller and saltier and saltier1 its shores were bounded successively by those wave-cut cliffs4 ,,iv4 ,stories ,written on the ,pebbles ,sometimes when a geologist picks up a pebble and looks at it a moment he can hear the roar of mountain torrents and of lowland streams in flood4 ,if the pebble is round it shows that it has been carried far and rolled about by streams4 ,if it has pits in it this shows that its water journeys were rough1 because such pits are made by knocking against other pebbles and sharp stones in the struggle and confusion of the rushing waters4 ,you see these little dots are a kind of shorthand1 for we pebbles are stenographers too6 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,perched ,,boulder ,,in ,,bronx ,,park ,this is one of the interesting things to be seen when you visit ,bronx ,park in ,new ,york ,city4 ,of course1 you know how that old boulder got there1 and how he drew those straight lines in the rock-bed beneath1 but many visitors to the park do not4 ,,how ,,pebbles ,,tell ,,of ,,their ,,travels ,other great stories in small space are told on glacial pebbles4 ,scientific men can often tell from the look of a pebble whether it was shaped by rivers1 by the sea1 by the sand blasts of desert winds1 or by the glaciers4 ,not only that1 but1 if it is a glaciated pebble1 on what part of the glacier it was carried2 whether in the middle of its back1 or on the sides1 like the passengers in an ,irish jaunting-car2 or whether it rode underneath1 like a tramp stealing a ride on the bumpers4 ,the stones in the middle of the glacier's back naturally keep their sharp edges longer than stones on the side1 ground as the side stones are by the moving ice mass against the mountain walls4 ,and the stones on both top and sides would lose less of their edges than the stones underneath the ice4 ,illustration3 ,from ,norton's ,elements of ,geology4 ,by permission of ,ginn and ,company ,,one ,,pebble ,,in ,,its ,,time ,,plays ,,many ,,parts ,here are pebbles faceted in different ways by glaciers4 ,no4 #a has six facets4 ,no4 #d1 originally a rounded river pebble1 has been rubbed down to one flat face4 ,nos4 #c and #e are battered little travellers faceted on one side only4 ,notice how ,no4 #e got his face scratched just as ,i did4 ,illustration3 ,,pebble ,,faceted ,,by ,,wind-,,blown ,,sand ,you remember how the glaciers ground flat faces or facets on the pebbles1 don't you8 ,here is another example of ,nature's lapidary work1 but here she has used wind and sand instead of ice4 ,v4 ,a ,greater ,csar and ,his ,commentaries ,well1 there he is again1 you see1 ,mr4 ,glacier of the ,ice ,age4 ,he's always turning up1 everywhere you go in earth history4 ,as ,shakespere's ,mr4 ,cassius said of ,mr4 ,julius ,csar1 he bestrode the world4 ,and1 like the ,roman ,csar1 this ,csar wrote the story of his own exploits2 but although a vastly greater conqueror than the famous ,roman1 he was even more modest4 ,csar and his ,commentaries1 our ,high ,school friend will tell you1 nearly always refers to himself in the third person2 but in his commentaries on his travels and exploits the ,old ,man of the ,mountain didn't even use his own name4 ,he left the editors of his manuscript to find out who he was4 ,,how ,,the ,,great ,,lakes ,,were ,,tipped ,,up ,one of the most striking things he did1 of which he wrote the record on the walls1 was to tip up the ,great ,lakes4 ,you remember just how he made them4 ,well1 it seems that as he started back home he tipped them up4 ,suppose you could pick up the vast stone bowls that hold these lakes and tip them toward the north as easily as you can tip a bowl of water1 what would the water do8 ,it would fall lower along the south shores of the lakes and rise along the northern shores1 wouldn't it8 ,then suppose the lakes were kept tipped up in this way for ages1 and summer wind storms and winter tempests dashed waves against their shores1 what would happen8 ,stone walls rising above the shore would have terraces cut into them1 and the line of these terraces would tilt toward the north4 ,there are terraces just like that on rocks bordering the ,great ,lakes1 and the explanation of their tilt is that the lakes themselves were tipped up1 and that the ,old ,man of the ,mountain did the tipping4 ,the rock crust of the round earth bends under great weight like an arch4 ,so when the enormous weight of the glaciers of the ,ice ,age was on a portion of the arch it bent down4 ,then1 as the glaciers retreated1 the weight of them was shifted northward all the time4 ,finally when the glaciers in the region of the lakes had melted quite away the arch slowly rose into place again and lifted the terraces above the water line as we see them to-day4 ,throughout regions the glaciers visited you find rocks polished like mirrors2 in other cases they are scratched1 and in others deeply grooved4 ,illustration3 ,,scene ,,on ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,norway ,,by ,a ,,glacier ,you know the fiords4 ,you've met them in your geography4 ,this is a fiord on the ,norway coast4 ,notice how smooth the walls of the mountains are4 ,they were trimmed down by the ice1 which also plowed off their soil4 ,we are here looking up what was once a river valley1 but the glacier cut it down below sea level1 and this is sea water4 ,notice in the openings of the mountains all the way up the valley where the tributaries of the ancient river flowed in then as now4 ,,how ,,this ,,mr4 ,c,,sar ,,is ,,translated ,no one scratch can be followed far4 ,the composition is1 like ,csar's1 in short sentences1 whole episodes in a word3 ,veni1 vidi1 vici4 ,but a series of scratches all run in one general direction--north and south4 ,to get at the meaning--just as in construing ,csar--you must take the context2 what goes before and after4 ,the sides of the valleys of the ,alps from #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet above the surface of the glaciers of our own time are scratched and furrowed in the same way4 ,here we catch ,mr4 ,glacier almost in the very act of writing4 ,,the ,,handwriting ,,of ,,the ,,two ,c,,sars ,to do this writing1 our ,csar1 like the ,csar of the ,high ,school1 used a stylus4 ,mr4 ,glacier's stylus1 as we know1 was made of stone held fast in his icy grip 7page #aba74 ,and here is another curious resemblance between the manuscripts of ,mr4 ,g4 ,csar and ,mr4 ,j4 ,csar4 ,they both wrote in straight lines4 ,the reason ,julius ,csar and other ,roman gentlemen wrote in letters made of straight lines was that they scratched these letters on tablets covered with wax1 using a sharpened piece of iron or ivory4 ,you can see it would be much easier with such writing tools and material to form letters in straight lines than to write in flowing1 rounded and connected lines as we do so easily with a nice flexible pen on a smooth surface4 ,,how ,,the ,,old ,,men ,,changed ,a ,v ,,to ,a ,u ,here is something else about the story of the ,old ,men of the ,mountain that is a curious reminder of the ,romans and their letters4 ,the ,romans had no letter ,u in their alphabet and so ,v had to do a double duty2 it had to be a ,v and then when asked1 had to take its place in line and pretend to be a ,u4 ,for instance1 a ,roman who wanted to write the word number would do it in this way3 ,,nvmero4 ,after a while1 in the history of the growth of our alphabet1 the ,v that was intended for ,u was rounded at the bottom4 ,now1 curiously enough1 the writing of the ,old ,men of the ,mountain has gone through the same process4 ,river valleys in mountain regions1 as elsewhere1 are originally ,v-shaped1 but where glaciers flowed down these valleys they not only made them wider but rounded out the bottoms so that they became ,u-shaped4 ,look at the valley in the ,wind ,river range in ,wyoming shown in the geologies4 ,you notice the farther your eye goes up into the mountains the more ,v-shaped the valley becomes4 ,back toward antiquity1 you see1 when they had nothing but ,v6 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,handwriting ,,of ,,the ,,glaciers ,,and ,,the ,,romans ,here is an interesting relic of ancient days that will enable you to compare the chirography of the ,old ,men of the ,mountain with that of the ,romans4 ,these are marks left by the masons on ,roman walls4 ,they show just what part each mason laid1 so that if the wall proved defective the authorities would know who was responsible4 ,all quite striking1 isn't it1 this strange kind of writing on the walls of time8 ,as if1 among the ruins that are all there is left of the fallen ,roman ,empire1 we should in some heap of dust and crumbled stone find one of the very tablets on which ,csar wrote his commentaries and there engraved in ,csar's own hand3 ,illustration3 ,,this ,,style ,,is ,,called ,,fluting ,looks like moulding1 doesn't it8 ,this is a piece of rock1 and it was carved in that way by the glaciers with their tools of embedded stone4 ,the deeper grooves were made where the rock was softer or where the glacier's chisels were of a particularly hard quality1 such as flint or granite4 ,csar1 maximis bellis confectis1 in hiberna exercitum deduxit4 ,can you translate that for us8 7,this to the ,high ,school ,boy47 ,as easy as anything1 says he4 ,csar1 on completion of these great wars1 led his army into winter quarters4 ,and that same phrase might serve in ,mr4 ,glacier's ,commentaries too4 ,for the glaciers of the ,ice ,age1 after their great work was done1 also went into winter quarters2 melting back to the present snow-line in our mountains and the regions of eternal ice around the pole4 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,one of the most interesting stories of men's handwriting on the walls and how scholars1 many centuries afterward1 learned to read it1 you will find in encyclopdias1 histories1 and other books under such headings as ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,rosetta ,stone1 and most of all under ,hieroglyphics2 a big word1 but full of meat when once you've cracked the shell4 ,among other things1 you will find that if it hadn't been for the ,egyptians and other clever people of the long ago we would not have had our written language to read at all2 on walls or anywhere else6 ,if you had been an ,egyptian1 say #d1jjj years ago1 how many letters do you suppose you would have had to learn before you could have read well8 ,about a thousand6 ,but it wouldn't have been so hard as you think1 for the ,egyptian letters talked1 so to speak4 ,they told their own story much as did the picture words that told so much to the little ,greeks4 ,these ,egyptian words1 however--for they were words1 or several words in one1 rather than letters--were real pictures1 and very good pictures1 too4 7,see ,chambers under ,hieroglyphics for the little pictures47 ,some of them were very simple4 ,it wasn't hard to learn4 ,but now suppose you were an ,egyptian and you wanted to write a letter telling somebody how pleased you were about something--a nice new book an uncle had sent you1 for instance--the proper picture-word to use would be a lady beating a tambourine4 ,she is pleased--that's why she is beating the tambourine1 just as a small boy claps his hands when he says1 ,oh1 goody1 goody6 ,so this picture-word came to be used to express joy or pleasure over anything4 ,these are just some samples to show you what interesting things even such formidable words as hieroglyphics are when you make friends with them4 ,but now1 to get back to ,nature's handwriting and the nature myths connected with it1 what do you know about this ,vulcan1 who left so much of his manuscript in the rocks8 ,the ancients thought of him as a worker in metals4 ,don't you think they would have1 been quite sure of it if they had known about the dikes and the palisades of the ,hudson1 and ,fingal's cave1 with their remarkable iron-like columns of cooled lava8 ,but he was an artist in metals1 too1 and a mechanical engineer1 it seems4 ,do you remember about those two statues of beautiful women that he made of pure gold1 and how they walked about with him wherever he went8 ,and the brazen-footed bulls of tes1 that filled the air with their bellowings and from their nostrils blew flame and smoke8#ef ,footnote #ef3 ,i wonder if ,vulcan could have been thinking of locomotives--what we sometimes call iron horses--when he made those bulls4 ,do you suppose8 ,the ,greeks probably didn't know about such art metal work as the palisades--certainly they didn't know about the ,hudson ,river or ,fingal's ,cave--but they had ,vulcan 7,hephstus they called him7 doing all sorts of other art-metal things4 ,there was the famous shield he made for ,achilles1 for instance4 ,homer takes several pages just to tell about the different figures on it and what they meant4#eg ,footnote #eg3 ,the ,iliad4 ,why do you suppose a temple was erected on ,mount ,etna8 7,what kind of a mountain is it87 ,wouldn't it be strange if we could make hard coal out of soft8 ,vulcan does that sometimes with these dike strokes of his4#eh ,footnote #eh3 ,the ,international ,encyclopedia4 ,the ,international will also tell you why dike rock is usually so solid and tough1 and what the crystal people have to do with making it so4 ,the ,britannica 7#bh3 #ahh7 tells how1 in the walls of volcanoes ,vulcan wrote out the hint for making re-enforced concrete which is so important a feature of modern architectural engineering4 ,look about on the rock-beds in the stone quarry and see if you can't find some of the writing of that ,older ,csar with his queer stone stylus4 ,probably the men in the quarry will have wondered how these scratches came there and you can tell them4 ,there is one style of ,mr4 ,glacier's hand-work that even the dogs and the horses notice1 and that is the mirror rocks4 ,muir tells about them in his ,mountains of ,california4 ,,chapter ,,xii 7,,december7 ,a fire-mist and a planet1 ,a crystal and a cell1 ,a jelly fish and a saurian ,and caves where the cavemen dwell2 ,then a sense of law and beauty ,and a face turned from the clod-- ,some call it ,evolution1 ,and others call it ,god4 --,william ,herbert ,carruth4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,world ,so the ,ice ,ages and their glaciers and the ,romans and their ,csars melted away4 ,we know them only by the marks they left on the walls of time4 ,but why this constant doing and undoing of things8 ,we have seen it going on from the very beginning2 rock crumbling to dust1 dust changing back to rock2 rocks raised up into mountains1 mountains worn down to plains2 then more mountains1 and on through the same cycle of endless change2 as if always starting the whole thing over again4 ,what is it all about8 ,are we getting anywhere8 ,if so1 where8 ,ever since men looked out upon the world around them and began to think1 they have puzzled not only about the causes but the purpose of this endless drama of creation and decay4 ,some said one thing2 some said another4 ,the ,persian poet who wrote those fine lines about the lion and the lizard in the ruins of the palaces meant to say that's all that everything comes to2 all things1 men included1 return to the elements of which they were made and that's the end of them4 ,so1 said he1 what's the use of bothering one's head about it8 ,there's nothing to be learned4 ,one verse of his famous song reads like this3 ,myself when young did eagerly frequent ,doctor and saint1 and heard great argument ,about it and about2 but evermore ,came out by the same door wherein ,i went4 ,but ,science1 as we shall now see1 has a better answer4 ,i4 ,nothing ,happens ,in the first place you must have noticed as we came along through this little book that nothing happens in this world of ours2 everything is under a government of laws4 ,not only did it turn out that there was method in the apparent madness of the sea but we found method everywhere4 ,it was not chance that made our worlds1 whether they were born full-grown or grew up piece by piece4 ,and we see the same forces at work in small things as in the great4 ,the force that keeps the earth in its orbit is just as careful to catch and plant the tiny seeds of the grasses and the pine-trees drifting forward in the wind1 so keeping the world clothed with life and verdure4 ,,all ,,nature ,,under ,a ,,government ,,of ,,law ,so with the seasons with all that they mean in the life of the world2 spring never fails to follow winter4 ,little things happen that make spring late1 as we say2 but spring itself never fails to come and always in its right place in the procession of the year4 ,all this because the earth stays in its orbit and spins on its axis4 ,watches break their mainsprings1 clocks run down4 ,these things happen2 but we never think of saying that the mainspring or the wheels happened1 or that they happened into their places in the watch4 ,the worlds not only make their appointed round as regularly as the wheels of a watch but they never run down1 and the power that keeps them going and in their places never breaks4 ,if it ever occurred in any other way--if we should hear of a world flying out of its orbit and going banging around among the other worlds1 we could talk of happening4 ,,nature',s ,,accident ,,insurance ,,system ,we might call these laws that make it so certain that nature's business will go on as usual1 rain or shine1 the ,accident ,insurance of the ,universe4 ,we have nothing quite like it in human insurance systems2 for these only make it up to you--the best they can--after some accident has happened4 ,nature's insurance system1 on the other hand1 makes it certain that nothing will happen to change the main course of things4 ,the protective insurance of the universe is woven right through ,nature itself4 ,the continents1 for example1 were bound1 in due course1 to rise in their places1 because it is the nature of cooling masses to shrink and for the outside to cool the faster and to harden and to wrinkle up4 ,it doesn't matter whether the cooling mass is a little baked apple or a big hot earth4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,clock ,,of ,,the ,,ages ,by representing the great geologic periods of time in the form of a clock-face a writer in the ,scientific ,american enables us to form a rough conception of their duration1 their distinguishing features1 and their relations to one another1 according to ideas associated with the theory of ,la ,place1 but which have been considerably modified in the light of later reasoning and investigation4 ,the view now generally accepted1 for example1 is that the ,azoic era was longer than all subsequent time4 ,but1 taking the picture as it stands1 each hour represents #c1jjj1jjj years4 ,for a quarter of the total period up to the very recent appearance of man there was darkness upon the face of the deep4 ,next after the ,azoic was the ,laurentian ,period1 when the dry land appeared4 ,later came the dawn of life1 and this life1 like the inanimate matter which preceded it1 kept rising and continues to rise1 as the ages pass1 to higher1 more beautiful1 and nobler forms4 ,nor was it an accident that the continents in their original form grew larger with the fat of the land that was added to them under the action of the chemistry of the air4 ,you see ,nature must understand chemistry or things wouldn't come out right in the laboratory1 as they always do if you have made no mistakes4 ,ever think of that1 ,mr4 ,high ,school ,boy8 ,,ii4 ,the ,strangest ,thing of ,all ,that ,didn't ,happen ,but the strangest thing of all that didn't happen in this history of the world and its making ,i'm going to tell you about now4 ,,kinship ,,of ,,kittens ,,and ,,apple-,,trees ,you remember what ,i said of the apple-tree in ,chapter ,v 7page #ic71 how nobody who didn't know it to be true would believe that little ,miss ,greenleaf and old ,mr4 ,root and rough ,mr4 ,bark and lovely ,miss ,blossom were not only born under the same roof but were as closely related as a pussy-cat and her nest full of kittens4 ,i didn't mention the kittens then1 but just suppose ,i had done so2 and then had gone on to say that kittens are relations of the apple family and that all birds are related to all kittens1 and that both are kindred of that terrible ,mr4 ,cetiosaurus that we met in the ,bad ,lands of ,dakota4 ,would you have believed it8 ,no8 ,well1 ,i don't wonder4 ,it was quite a while before the wise men of science believed it4 ,now not only is this idea of the origin of all living things--animal and vegetable--universally accepted by men of science1 but every educated person is supposed to know about it4 ,it is always1 and as a matter of course1 put into the school-books dealing with the history of nature2 just as in all histories we are sure to see ,columbus landing in #adib and ,george ,washington being inaugurated ,april #cj1 #aghi4 ,most people1 including the scientists1 used to think that each kind of plant and animal was given its present form in the first place and that this form had never changed4 ,this was known as the special creation theory2 while the idea that the various kinds of plants and animals we now know gradually developed from quite different forms is called the theory of evolution4 ,among the curious facts that finally led educated people everywhere to believe this strangest of all the strange fairy tales of the land of science were these3 ,,as ,,we ,,read ,,the ,,rocks ,,from ,,the ,,bottom ,,up ,the remains and imprints of plant and animal life of long ago which we find in the rocks show successions of related but different forms in the rocks of different ages4 ,at the beginning in the lowest rocks the forms are much alike1 but grow more and more unlike as we climb these stairs of time4 ,at first there are no animals with backbones2 then there come animals with backbones that resemble each other in general build2 and finally such wide varieties of backboned creatures as fish1 birds1 horses1 and men4 ,and so with endless varieties of birds and beasts and creeping things and the trees and the grasses of the field4 ,sometimes the differences between these apparently related forms1 as we find them in the rocks1 are very great2 but everything goes to show that this is because there are missing pages1 so to speak1 in the great stone book4 ,when you remember how long it takes to make one of these layers of stone1 and what they go through in cracking and twisting and wearing down on their way back to dust and the sea1 and how quickly the remains of big animals--to say nothing of plants and insects--are destroyed1 you must agree that the wonder is that we have any records at all4 ,yet so enormous has been the number of plants and animals that have died in the course of the world's history that there have been found hundreds and thousands of these remains and imprints between the layers of stone4 ,in all cases the fashions in form change from age to age2 and the longer the time1 as shown by the thickness of the rock1 the greater the change4 ,,the ,,rabbit ,,that ,,turned ,,into ,a ,,horse ,the horse1 which has been such a faithful carrier for man since man and horse arrived from the lower ranges of life1 also brought with him on the way up one of the most complete of these strange autobiographies that our brother animals have recorded with their bones4 ,the most of this story of the horse was found in the rocks of our ,western ,states1 but the first chapter of it saw the light about forty years ago in ,england4 ,when the bones were found in the rock deposits of that country known as ,london ,clay they looked so unhorselike that a famous paleontologist 7as the students of these ancient anatomies are called7 gave it a name which means rabbit-like beast4 ,but in rock of the same age in ,wyoming they afterward found the bones of an animal that looked a little more like a horse1 but plainly a close relation of the rabbit-like beast4 ,they went on finding different forms1 through thirteen successive stages of rock history1 and with each new period the form kept getting larger and more horselike until they came to a horse with three toes2 and finally to one with the single big toe which we call a hoof4 ,instead of the other two toes there were those two little lumps that you can feel in any horse's foot just above the hoof4 ,these are the ends of two small splintlike bones that are all there is left of the other two toes4 ,so there have been found in the rock records more or less complete serial stories of thousands of plants and animals4 ,in the case of man1 not only do we find that there were once human beings on earth like the caveman with low forehead and huge jaw1 but nothing has ever been found to indicate that there were any higher types of human beings in existence in his day4 ,and both the caveman and the handsomest human beings of to-day--the captain of our football team1 for example--have essentially the same bodily framework as the monkey tribe4 ,this does not mean that man--even so low a creature as the caveman--descended from monkeys1 any more than the fact that he has a backbone means he descended from humming-birds4 ,but the backbones in humming-birds1 monkeys1 and men show that all are descended from older types of backboned creatures4 ,as monkeys and men are much more alike than men and birds they are evidently more closely related4 ,we might suppose1 to be sure1 that men and all other forms of life which they resemble in any way were so made from the beginning2 that is1 if we hadn't learned from the records of the rocks that they weren't so made from the beginning4 ,yet1 even after that1 we might go on supposing that each species was created separately1 but that the form was changed from age to age4 ,but in that case what are you going to say to this3 ,in man's body are several organs that are useless and often harmful4 ,other animals1 also1 contain among useful organs some that are out-of-date1 as we would say if we were speaking of some old machines in a machine-shop4 ,why1 in making a brand-new species1 shouldn't ,nature have all the latest improvements from the start1 just as man does in building a brand-new home8 ,if each species was separately created it is hard to understand why these useless or harmful organs should be kept2 but if one species grew out of another1 by gradual improvement1 just as cities grow out of villages1 this is exactly what we might expect4 ,one of these useless organs in man is called the vermiform appendix4 ,it is always getting its name in the papers by giving trouble to some prominent man4 ,now this appendix1 while a perfect nuisance to human beings1 is just the thing for cows and other grass-eating animals4 ,in them it is very large and of great use in digestion1 while in the case of man and the monkey family it has shrunk into a little affair that puts in all its time either doing nothing or getting out of fix4 ,,iii4 ,upward2 ,always ,upward ,these are some of the reasons why the various varieties of animals are supposed to have descended from common ancestors and to have undergone endless changes of form2 changes as strange as anything that was ever written into a fairy story or acted out in a ,christmas pantomime4 ,there are other things quite as convincing and even more thrilling to read about1 such as the little theatre in the chicken's egg where strange1 changing shadows re-enact the drama of ancient life2 but these ,i am here passing by because my pages are running out and ,i want the rest of them to speak of what seems to me to be the greatest lesson of this whole book2 the greatest and most useful and happiest lesson ,science or any kind of book can teach2 namely1 that not only is the universe governed by ,laws and ,mind1 but that all these laws act together as one ,great ,law and are working out one general result1 the constant advance of all things toward a higher life4 ,,how ,,man ,,has ,,risen ,,as ,,he ,,descended ,as there was a period in human history when there were no human beings on earth higher than the cave-dweller1 so there was a time when the highest forms of animal and vegetable life were minute creatures and plants consisting only of a single cell4 ,it is such low forms of vegetable life that make the scum on the still waters of a pond4 ,step by step1 in both the animal and vegetable world1 rose the higher forms4 ,the descent of man from lower forms of life used to be considered by many people as a thought that degraded humanity1 but it is the most promising fact in all nature4 ,the striking thing is1 not that we are related in some way to the apes and the cavemen but that such a creature as an ape or a caveman should have helped develop such a beautiful thing as a little child4 ,this progress has not been steadily upward4 ,the world of life1 like the surface of the globe itself1 has had its ups and downs4 ,wonderful nations like ,greece and ,rome have risen and flourished and passed away1 but they left the best of themselves1 the part that time cannot destroy4 ,the ,greeks taught us literature and art and the grace of life4 ,the ,romans gave us a science of government and a solid way of doing practical things1 such as the building of good roads and bridges4 ,the great lesson of history is that civilization and human liberty and all the things that make life worth living have not only survived the fall of empires but stand to-day on higher and firmer ground than they ever did before4 ,,the ,,world ,,that ,,mother ,,made ,but do you know who was at the bottom of it all8 ,mother6 ,all the things that men have done in the development of national life1 with its arts and industries1 everything we call civilization1 grew out of the life and industry of the home1 and it was mother who finally made the home4 ,the mother idea came into the world with the first seed that ever started out to make its own way2 for the mother plant had provided it with food enough to keep it going until it could get well-established in business4 ,but the kind of mothers we know1 mothers who stay with their babies and feed them1 came very late in the long story of life4 ,in the early days the world was not only without flowers and birds and the beautiful trees and varied landscapes we know1 but it was motherless1 in the sense that we understand mothers4 ,in the lowest forms of life1 such as the insects1 the mothers and children never saw each other at all2 for among the insects just as it is to-day the mother simply laid the eggs and then1 before the little insects were born1 passed away4 ,even among the fish1 who are much closer relations of ours than the insects--since fish belong to the great brotherhood of the backbone--the sense of motherhood doesn't get beyond looking after the eggs4 ,so with the next higher group to which the frogs belong2 and the next1 the reptiles4 ,only with the birds1 the next group above the reptiles1 do we begin to see what motherhood means4 ,then at the very top of the list come the class of animals whose very name has mamma in it2 the mammalia4 ,among these1 even outside the human race1 we find very striking examples of family love and devotion4 ,the gorillas1 for instance1 although they haven't what one would call an attractive face1 are good to their folks4 ,not only does ,mamma ,gorilla nurse her babies and carry them in her arms much as a human mother does1 and fight and die for them1 but a famous ,african traveller tells of a ,mamma ,gorilla who stayed safe with the babies in their humble home of sticks in the fork of a tree while ,papa ,gorilla sat all night at the foot of it1 with his back against the trunk1 to protect them from a leopard that had been seen prowling around4 ,among most animals below man the babies are soon able to leave mother and shift for themselves1 but in the case of human beings the baby is helpless for a much longer time4 ,so1 even among the lowest savages1 it was necessary for father and mother to keep together and look after their children4 ,thus grew up family life2 and out of the family the tribe2 and out of many tribes living together and closely related1 grew first small and then larger nations4 ,yet1 always at the beginning1 it was the mother1 more than the father1 who looked after the children and taught them1 so bringing before the world the idea of doing things1 not for one's self alone but for others4 ,from this came the mutual giving and helping which made national life possible1 and that is making this a better and better world to live in4 ,,iv4 ,the ,great ,unseen ,so it is very plain not only that the end1 the purpose of all this machinery and march of things that we have been going through since the beginning of ,chapter ,i1 is to make life better1 more beautiful both in form and character1 but to show that all nature is on the side of those who try to rise4#ei ,it is plain also that this end must have been foreseen and intended from the beginning2 for1 from the very start each change in the world and in life was a preparation for another and a greater change4 ,the change from rock to soil made plant life possible2 the growth of plants made animal life possible1 and so on up through the long succession of changes in this tree of life by which all things are related and which gave us the infinite variety of good things we already have--fruit1 homes1 churches1 schools1 art galleries1 books1 railroads and steamships that make the whole world neighbors2 the telegraph1 the newspapers1 and the magazines that carry thought and knowledge and plans for the common good so fast and far that already it is as if a whole nation with its millions had a heart and brain in common4 ,footnote #ei3 ,drummond3 ,the ,ascent of ,man4 ,man himself1 you see1 has become one of the great forces of nature in the evolution of nature1 in the blossoming out and fruit-bearing of things4 ,but now notice this3 ,back of all that man does and all that the rest of nature does is the great controlling force called ,mind2 and this ,mind is invisible4 ,if ,i should say of some great man that he had a powerful mind you would know just what ,i meant2 but if anybody should ask ,what did his mind look like8 you would think that was an odd question1 wouldn't you8 ,illustration3 ,from the painting by ,burne-,jones ,,the ,,first ,,day ,,of ,,creation ,,the ,,mysterious ,,princess ,,hidden ,,in ,,the ,,bud ,so it is and has been from the beginning4 ,we can see the results of changes of one thing into another but never just how the changing is done4 ,while it is no longer believed that species were given a certain form in the beginning and that they have always kept that form1 it is still true that each species comes into being from some unseen cause--all of a sudden1 as it were4 ,because species thus seem to vary of themselves1 and not for any reason that we can see these changes are called spontaneous variations4 ,always back of the material nature we can see is a nature that is not material2 a part of nature that1 like the mind of man1 we can neither see nor hear nor feel nor know by any of our five senses4 ,some ,unseen ,power forms the baby plant out of the seed2 some power changes the leaves hidden away in the bud into the petals of the flower4 ,when the leaves gather to form the bud1 like little hands playing button1 button1 who's got the button1 where do you suppose the flower is8 ,it isn't4 ,it has not yet begun to be4 ,but soon1 as if some magician had waved his wand and said ,presto6 ,change6 the pink petals begin to form there in the dark of the cup and1 first thing we know1 out steps ,miss ,blossom1 all in her pink and gold like a princess dressed for a ball6 ,but always hidden in a mystery these changes take place4 ,we can peep into the growing bud as often as we like and we will never catch the fairies making the dress1 nor the princess putting it on4 ,we always see the thing after it is done6 ,,wonderful ,,art ,,but ,,where ,,is ,,the ,,artist8 ,another thing3 ,how do the fairies of ,roseland remember every spring just how a rose looked1 when the roses of last year have been dead and gone so long8 ,you see they work without a model1 something great artists seldom do2 and in some kinds of work1 as busts and portraits and landscapes1 never do at all4 ,even the most powerful microscope doesn't show any pattern in the seed for the seed to go by in growing into the finished plant2 or in an egg to tell it what kind of a bird it is expected to be4 ,no1 not the trace of a pattern4 ,what then1 guides the growth of the seed2 of an oak1 say1 so that it finally and always takes the family form8 ,some ,power1 evidently1 as intelligent as the power that moves the hand of the human artist when he paints that oak into his landscape4 ,how many of us have stopped to think that not only in the world of mind but in the material world itself1 all forms of power are as invisible as the fairies that work unseen in the rosebud and the little birds' egg and the big rock8 ,all power--what we call steam power1 wind power1 electric power and the rest--are not only unseen but unseeable1 unfeelable1 untastable4 ,we know steam power only when heat gets into the water and makes steam2 electric power only when it gets into a wire or a dynamo2 or1 passing by unseen ways through the air1 moves the wireless telegraph receiver2 gravity power only when it moves something as the water of a waterfall2 or when it is helping to hold things--the earth and the other worlds--in their appointed paths4 ,,hide ,,and ,,seek ,,in ,,the ,,library ,you can easily see why evolution is the most talked about of all phases of science--of the study of this wonderful world we live in4 ,one reason is it's such an astonishing thing in itself1 this relationship of all forms of life1 trees1 kittens1 birds1 and everything2 another reason is that in reading the books on evolution you're taken into every field of knowledge and into the most curious and striking aspect of things in those fields4 ,could anything be stranger1 for example1 than a little theatre in a chicken's egg1 over which pass strange shadowy forms that seem to retell1 in a kind of moving picture show1 the story of how one form of life developed out of another8 ,drummond's ,ascent of ,man tells about that and covers the whole subject of evolution4 ,it is one of the books which no one who has heard of this wonderful story of life should fail to read4 ,doctor ,drummond's way of telling the story is very attractive4 ,readers from the ,eighth ,grade up to the ,eightieth will delight in it1 and they won't stop until they read it from cover to cover4 ,i'll guarantee that6 ,then take such a book as ,the ,world of ,life1 by ,wallace4 ,alice in ,wonderland is nothing to it4 ,here are some of the things you will find in it3 ,how there got to be different kinds of rabbits and what islands have to do with it4 7,islands are almost as prominent in the story of evolution as they are in the story of adventure4 ,there are ,robinson ,crusoes until you can't rest67 ,how the pig in the struggle of life won out as usual4 ,why the peacock has such a fine tail and how he overdid it4 ,how the elephant saved his life by lengthening his nose4 ,how the birds traded their teeth for feathers4 ,how shelled creatures coiled and uncoiled their shells4 ,why we miss the missing links4 7,as you go into this subject of evolution you will hear a good deal about missing links47 ,how they know butterfly wings are made first and the coloring and patterns laid on afterward4 ,how much of a butterfly's beauty is probably known to the butterflies themselves4 ,how ,nature seems to make things just to be pretty4 ,and these are just a few of the things in one of ,doctor ,wallace's books4#fj ,footnote #fj3 ,in addition to all this curious and absolutely reliable information that ought to be interesting to every one is the fact that ,wallace shows in ,the ,world of ,life how there must have been ,mind and ,purpose back of it all4 ,doctor ,wallace was a great traveller as well as a great student of nature--one of the most famous in the history of science4 ,his works include3 ,travels on the ,amazon and the ,rio ,negro1 ,the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,natural ,selection1 ,darwinism1 ,island ,life and the ,geographic ,distribution of ,animals4 ,there are so many books on this biggest of all nature topics--,evolution--that they make quite a library in themselves4 ,the most famous of these books is ,darwin's ,origin of ,species1 and it is not at all hard to understand4 ,other books bearing directly or indirectly on evolution are ,animals of the ,past1 by ,lucas1 ,creatures of ,other ,days1 by ,hutchinson1 ,fiske's ,destiny of ,man1 and ,evolution and ,religion4 ,a book for older readers--one of the latest and most comprehensive treatments of the subject--is ,osborn's ,origin and ,evolution of ,life4 ,then he was such a fine man personally4 ,why1 what do you think he did8 ,although he thought out the principle of evolution independently of ,darwin1 and wrote an essay on it before ,darwin had ever given his views to the world1 yet after ,darwin's ,origin of ,species#fa came out ,wallace gave ,darwin all the credit1 and in his own autobiography always referred to the theory of evolution as the ,darwinian ,theory4 ,yet ,wallace had a very good reason for taking this generous attitude1 as you will see from his autobiography and other writings1 and you are quite likely to find the reason in articles on ,darwin or ,wallace or ,evolution4 ,footnote #fa3 ,of ,the ,origin of ,species it has been said that no work ever produced so profound a change in the opinions of mankind4 ,the relations of ,darwin and ,wallace furnish one of the finest examples in history of the best thing in the world--human friendship4 ,of course1 like so many other great men1 ,wallace was one of those boys whose minds never grow old4 ,read in his autobiography how on the day he first discovered a new species of butterfly it gave him a violent headache1 and he had to go to bed to get rid of it and quiet his nerves--he was that worked up6 ,darwin was much the same sort of a man4 ,everything in the world was interesting to him4 ,he wrote a whole book about ,fish ,worms1 for example4 ,and although probably the most famous man in the history of natural science he was as humble as could be1 always looking for the truth and ready to accept criticisms no matter how much they might upset his own previous conclusions1 provided these opposing views were supported by evidence4 ,of course you will want to know more about his life1 and you will find more in the ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin1 edited by his son4 ,how do you suppose this boy began being a great man--by collecting beetles6 ,beetles and outdoor sport were his chief delight4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,index ,,some ,,things ,,you ,,can ,,do ,,with ,,this ,,index ,i shouldn't be surprised if you thought that an index was the dullest part of a book4 ,but it all depends6 ,as a matter of fact1 with your help1 ,i am sure ,i can make this index of ours one of the most interesting things in the whole story2 for1 like the ,h4 ,s41 it gives you a chance to come into the game4 ,the mind enjoys books and grows upon them much as the body grows on food1 but1 as in the case of both food and books--and books are food--the good you get depends not only on the food but how you season it and eat it4 ,you can't expect everything of the cook6 ,everybody knows1 of course1 how to use an index to look things up once in a while and it saves time if the index not only tells the page on which a given subject is referred to1 but conveys some idea of what that reference is about1 as this index tries to do4 ,if1 for example1 you are studying the ,alpine regions in school you may already have covered the question of how flowing water carves mountain valleys1 but you may not have had anything about why the ,alps don't run north and south1 as so many of earth's great ranges do2 and so what could be a more interesting thing for you to take into those delightful class discussions8 ,your teacher knows1 although you may not have realized it1 that these class talks and debates by the pupils themselves are the big thing in modern teaching4 ,the best education1 we know nowadays1 isn't the mere cramming down of facts1 as people used to think4 ,it's training in thinking1 and in standing on one's own feet6 ,but memory training is important too2 and an index is the best thing in the world for that4 ,take some subject you're studying in school--mountains1 for example--they're always studying such big things as mountains1 the work of rivers1 and so on2 or if they aren't to-day they will be tomorrow4 ,look at the references as questions to yourself and see how well you can answer them3 ,how do mountains help make water-gates for the rivers8 and ,why do they have earthquakes in regions where mountains haven't got done with their growing8 ,then you can have a lot of fun with these questions at home and with boy friends1 after you have read the book together4 ,for instance3 ,just how did the pebbles help dig the ,grand ,canyon8 ,and that's a poser for many grown people too--people who've travelled and met the ,grand ,canyon face to face6 ,try it on ,father4 ,yes1 and ,teacher too4 ,there are none of her boys that a teacher is so proud of as the boys that have initiative--go-aheaditiveness--and can ask good questions as well as answer them4 ,but1 best of all1 you can find no end of things to write about for your language work in school and for the little books of your own that ,i've already suggested in the ,h4 ,s4 ,take the subject of pebbles1 for example4 ,although this whole book has to do with the life and adventures of pebbles1 ,i haven't put the facts together in just the way you will if you follow out the references under the heading ,pebbles in this index4 ,if you don't happen to remember how pebbles act as bankers for the farmers1 how they helped make the ,great ,lakes1 built the ,grand ,canyon1 and so on1 look these things up and then1 as they thus become digested in your mind1 write about them in your own way--the way you'd talk if you were telling somebody about it4 ,do that and you'll have something6 one of those things that mothers show to the neighbors1 and that teachers show to visitors4 ,of course you'll have to have a name for your story and you'll think of plenty3 ,what ,one of ,my ,pebbles ,told ,me1 ,the ,pebbles in the ,world's ,work1 ,what a ,wonderful ,thing a ,pebble ,is6 ,why ,common ,pebbles are ,worth ,more than ,diamonds2 for of course a diamond is a kind of pebble4 ,,getting ,,acquainted ,,with ,,yourself ,in all this you will not only find you'll have a good time1 but1 let me tell you1 you'll be getting the best part of your education2 you'll be getting acquainted with yourself1 your undeveloped powers of memory--reasoning--expression4 ,you'll find before you get so very old that one of the most important elements of success1 of doing your part in the world's great work of making itself better all the time1 is in having something worth while to say and being able to say it4 ,this was the making of the ,greeks2 and the ,greeks1 you know1 were the most wonderful people that ever were4 ,it all started with old ,know ,thyself ,thales of ,miletus4 ,that's what did it6 ,,index ,africa1 children's hand-work1 illustrating home life of the natives1 including the elephants and the lions1 #afh ,agassiz1 ,louis1 and his stone hut1 #dc2 adventure in the crevasse1 #ea2 on the height of ancient glaciers1 #abc ,air1 origin of1 #af2 how corals get their breath1 #bbe ,alaska1 the flowers and the snow line1 #dd ,albany1 ,atlantic tides at1 #bba ,alleghany ,mountains1 birth of1 #aj ,alps1 mountain pastures1 #da2 how rain drops helped carve the ,alps1 #fg2 why the ,alps don't run north and south1 #acf2 glacial autographs on their walls1 #bee ,amazon ,river1 its stately flow1 #gd ,ants1 how they help teach men how volcanoes are built1 #abc ,apollo1 how he lighted the world1 #b ,appalachian ,mountains1 birth of1 #aj ,arabian desert1 physiognomy and complexion1 #afe ,arabian ,sea1 why its waves salute the ,himalayas1 #adj ,arabs1 life in the desert1 #ahc2 and the ,simoom1 #ahd ,atlas ,mountains1 morning beauty of1 #afc ,atoms1 defined1 relation to molecules1 #aaj ,aurora1 the dawn goddess and her chariot1 #b ,avalanches1 impulsiveness of2 snap-shot at one in motion1 #fc ,bad ,lands1 why so called1 #aad ,bar ,harbor1 ,nature's remarkable masonry in ,castle ,rock1 #bbh ,bald ,mountains1 how they got their crowns shaved off1 #bf1 #bh1 #abc ,beavers1 as lake makers1 #aib ,bedding planes1 defined1 #bag ,bees1 and ,alpine flowers1 #de2 why they hide from the cloud shadows1 #ef2 shape of honey cells and basaltic columns1 #bdc ,beetles1 varieties in desert places1 #ahj2 use of poison gas1 #ahb ,big ,round ,top ,mountain1 how it lost its peak1 #bdh ,birds1 life in the desert1 #agh ,bombs 7volcanic71 what they are and how they are made1 #abi ,boulders1 ,agassiz' monument1 #ed2 travels of ,plymouth ,rock1 #fd2 boulders on a ,new ,england hill1 #ade2 why the ,indians worshipped a boulder1 #adf2 the strange stranger on ,mount ,abu1 #adg2 as mountain climbers1 #adg1 #aeb2 why there are no big caves in boulder regions1 #adh2 how boulders help tell the secret of the ,ice ,age1 #adi2 how torrents help shape1 #aea2 how glaciers carry1 #aea2 how boulders ride on the water1 #aec2 how ,jack ,frost builds boulder walls1 #aed2 how the sun helps shape boulders1 #aee2 ,geikie on the story told by a conglomerate boulder1 #aee2 ,ruskin on boulders in art1 #aeg2 why boulders sometimes jump up from the ground1 #aeh2 how rain drops split boulders1 #aga2 how boulders shiver their skins off1 #agj2 boulders in the rock mills of the sea1 #baf2 how perched boulders are perched1 #adi2 the perched boulder in ,bronx ,park1 in ,new ,york ,city1 and its autograph1 #bej ,bridal ,veil ,falls1 how it got its name and why it hurries to catch the train1 #gd ,butterflies1 how they help in ,alpine flower gardening1 #df2 why they hide from the cloud shadows1 #ef ,cactus1 the desert water bottle1 #agd ,cactus wren1 how she bars her front door against her bad neighbors1 #agg ,csar1 ,julius1 his literary style compared to that of ,mr4 ,glacier1 #bed2 how he and ,mr4 ,glacier went into winter quarters1 #bef ,canada1 her sea terraces for the gannets1 #bbc ,canada thistles1 and the ,siberian wind witches1 #agh ,canyons1 deepened by glaciers1 #bf1 #cg2 how pebbles helped make the ,grand ,canyon1 #hb2 how long a mile is--straight down6 #hg2 how the ,grand ,canyon swallows you up1 #hh2 how rivers wrote the history of the ,grand ,canyon and how they cut the leaves1 #hh ,caravan1 the marching camels and their shadows1 #ahe ,carbonic acid gas1 and air making1 #af2 how it helped make coal with one hand and the ,ice ,age with the other1 #bj2 how it helps the volcanoes feed the world1 #abh ,carpathian ,mountains1 why they do not border the sea1 #ach2 their ups and downs under the sea1 #bcj ,castle ,head1 a remarkable example of ,nature's masonry1 #bbh ,catskill ,mountains1 how they were made1 #aaf ,cavemen1 a caveman's art note on mammoths1 #bb2 why they were the handsomest men of their day1 #bfg2 the joyous lesson they helped teach1 #bfi ,caves1 relation to natural bridges1 #he2 why large ones are never found in boulder regions1 #adh2 their sightless inhabitants1 #ahf ,centipede1 his numerous feet and objectionable character #fb2 how the trap door spider slams the door in his face1 #ahb ,centrifugal force1 and the birth of worlds1 #d2 and the direction of mountain ranges1 #acg ,ceratosaurus1 his dreadfulness and his name1 #bc2 and ,nature's dream of the coming of man1 #bc2 one of our queer cousins1 #bfd ,civilization1 its constant advance1 but with ups and downs1 #bfi2 the civilization that ,mother made1 #bgj ,coal1 did it help bring on the ,ice ,age8 #bj2 bad effect of coal making on plant and animal life--volcanoes to the rescue6 #bbf2 coal seams and the records of ancient life1 #bde ,colorado ,river1 how it dug the ,grand ,canyon1 #hh ,conglomerate rock1 why it is called pudding stone1 #if2 conglomerate boulders as historians1 #aee2 how made in the sea mills1 #bbg ,continents1 how they rose out of the sea1 #h2 how the fact that they are still rising helps the rivers get back to sea1 #ge2 the continents and ,nature's accident insurance1 #bfb ,copernicus1 and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds1 #d ,coral islands and reefs1 how the sea helps the corals build them1 #bbe ,coyotes1 as ventriloquists1 #agi2 their night songs1 #agi2 how they get a living1 #ahj ,crater ,lake1 the blue lake in the volcano's mouth1 #aid1 #aie ,crevasse1 origin of the word1 #ea2 what a crevasse looks like1 #ea1 #ec2 ,agassiz' adventure in1 #ea2 voices of1 #ed2 their water-mills1 #ee2 picture of a crevasse swallowing an avalanche1 #fc ,crystallization and the fairy land of change1 #ic2 how the pebble caught cold and what came of it1 #id2 crystals in sugar and granite1 #id2 the great melting pot and the remaking of the rocks1 #if2 how old rocks hatch new ones by sitting on one another1 #if2 how mountain making helps1 #ig2 how ,mother ,nature uses salt and soda in cooking rocks over and how she keeps these materials handy1 #ii2 an illustration of how men of science study things out for the fun of it1 #ajd2 the crystal fairies and their curious ways1 #ajf2 how crystals help tell about dikes1 #bdc ,dead ,sea1 its deadness and how it died1 #bjg2 and the story of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 #bji2 what ,lot's ,wife looks like to-day1 #baj2 ancient history on the ,dead ,sea's walls1 #bdi ,deltas1 why delta river mouths always multiply by two1 #afg ,descent of ,man1 how man has risen as he descended1 #bfi ,desert1 origin of ,lybian 7myth71 #b2 enigmas of1 #afa2 the desert and the ,sphinx1 #afb2 physiography and coloring1 #afc2 ,baths of the ,damned1 #afe2 river skeletons1 #aff2 indications of former heavier rainfall1 #aff2 ,roman aqueducts1 #aff2 sand roses1 #afh2 how the desert makes its sands1 #afh2 its trade-mark on its sand grains1 #agb2 why deserts are so cold at night1 #agj2 how a simoom looks from the outside1 #agc2 how it begins business1 #ahd2 the plant people of the desert1 #agd-age2 how the ,rose of ,jericho goes to sea1 #agf2 the cactus wren and how she bars her front door against her bad neighbors1 #agg2 the wind witches of the steppes1 #agh2 animal life in the desert1 #agh2 the coyote as a ventriloquist1 his night song1 #agi2 bird life1 #ahj2 why the desert humming-birds have rusty coats1 #ahj2 how the trap-door spider slams the door in the centipede's face1 #ahb2 a beetle that uses poison gas1 #ahb2 wonderful flight of the vulture1 #ahc2 a day with the ,arabs in the ,sahara desert1 #ahc2 the cat1 the dog1 the ,arab1 and the struggle for life1 #ahg1 #ahh ,diamonds1 form of their crystals1 #ajg ,dikes1 what one in ,new ,york ,city tells about marble making1 #ig2 the iron walls near ,spanish ,peak1 #bce1 #bda2 dikes in the rocks at ,marblehead1 #bdb2 how dikes get their driving power1 #bdd ,dinosaurs1 their dreadfulness1 their habits and their family name1 #bc ,diplodocus1 his name1 his gentle nature1 his defensive tail and how it helped him at his meals1 #bd ,domes 7,mt471 #abc ,drift theory1 #abj ,drowned valleys1 #bab ,drumlin1 why an ,irish boy would know what drumlin means1 #abb ,dunes1 #afc ,earth1 story of the spoiled boy who set it afire1 #b2 how much truth science finds in the ,phaeton myth1 #c2 theories as to the earth's origin and how they compare with the ,bible story1 #ag2 watching worlds in the making1 #e1 #f2 the sun and his pebble worlds1 #f2 how you can watch the world turn round1 #g2 how the continents came up out of the sea1 #h1 #ad2 lands the seas have swallowed1 #aa2 reasons for thinking the continents won't go under again1 #ab2 how earth's slowing up helped make mountains1 #acg ,earthquakes1 how growing mountains make them1 #hf2 earthquakes that travel incog41 #aeh2 how earthquakes are recorded in the veins of marble1 #bci2 earthquakes and the earth's faults1 #bdc ,echoes1 ,arab superstitions about1 #ahg ,electrons1 how they act as messenger boys of the universe1 #aaj ,emerson1 on the industries of ,england1 #bad ,england1 her heavy losses of land to the sea1 #bad2 how her drowned rivers helped make her great1 #bbd ,eskers1 defined1 #abb ,esparto grass1 #agf ,europe1 how most of her rivers get their start1 #gc2 her ragged outline and the transgressions of the sea1 #bai2 ,europe's geological biography and her mountain chains1 #bcj ,evolution1 was ,nature dreaming of man's legs and arms when she designed the dinosaurs8 #bc2 some call it ,evolution and others call it ,god1 #bfj2 answer of ,science to the question whither1 #bfa2 why nothing happens1 in the great course of things--,the ,accident ,insurance ,system of the ,universe1 #bfb2 kinship of kittens and apple trees1 #bfd2 universal acceptance of the evolution theory1 #bfd2 the old special creation theory1 #bfe2 and the mysterious special creation theory that ,science has substituted1 #bgd2 facts that support the evolution theory2 the story of changing forms recorded in the rocks1 #bfe2 the rabbit that turned into a horse1 #bff2 as to men being descended from monkeys1 #bfg2 how evolution proves the world is getting better1 #bfh2 how man has risen as he descended1 #bfi2 the world that ,mother made1 #bgj ,family1 the1 and civilization1 #bga ,faults1 geological1 defined1 #bdc ,finland1 its butterflies1 and the left-over butterflies of the ,ice ,ages1 #dh ,fiords1 how they were made by the ,old ,men of the ,mountain1 #bed ,florida1 her sympathetic sister lakes1 #bjj ,folds1 how the story of the crumpling of mountains is told in the veins of marble1 #bcg ,fossils1 how they help tell the story of marble1 #ajj ,frost1 how it helped build the stone ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 how it builds boulder walls1 #aed ,fujiyama1 ,mt41 why it resembles ,mount ,rainier1 #abd ,galileo1 and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds1 #d ,geikie1 on the conglomerate boulder as an historian1 #bcj ,geodes1 ,nature's pebble jewel boxes and how they are made1 #aja ,geography1 when all our geography was at the bottom of the sea1 #h2 how they study geography in ,boston on rainy days1 #fh ,geysers1 and the geyser basins1 #afe ,giant's ,causeway1 its architecture1 #bdc ,gila monster1 #aha ,glacial ,period4 7,see ,ice ,ages47 ,glacial tables1 how stones go walking in glacier land1 #fb ,glacier ,mills1 #ee ,glaciers1 how snow changes itself to ice1 #bf2 glaciers in their working clothes1 #bi2 how to make glaciers and icebergs in the schoolroom1 #cb2 how glaciers helped make the gray stone ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 how the glaciers of the ,ice ,ages made the ,great ,lakes1 #cd2 songs of the glacier and how it sings1 #db1 #ef2 a day's visit with the ,alpine glaciers1 #di2 the crevasses and the adventure of ,agassiz1 #ea2 how long it took ,agassiz to determine the nature of glacial movements1 #eb2 why the peasants think the glacier has a soul1 #ed2 ,mr4 ,glacier's caterpillar tractor1 #fb2 how the glaciers start ,europe's rivers in business1 #gc2 how pebbles tell on what part of a glacier they travelled1 #bea ,golden ,gate1 entrance to ,san ,francisco harbor1 how it was made1 #bbd ,gorges1 #bf1 #hb ,grand ,canyon1 #hh ,granite1 ancient lineage and social standing among earth's rocks1 #ag2 the ,granites and the ,fairyland of ,change1 #id2 how they crystallize their neighbors1 #ajc2 how they help make sand1 #agj ,gravitation1 how it pulls the worlds into roundness1 #e2 and helps them to grow up1 #h2 how it helps sea waves to salute the mountains1 #aci2 equally careful in handling big worlds and little seeds1 #bfa2 like all power it is invisible and intangible1 #bgf ,great ,basin1 records of the two great lakes it used to hold1 #bdi ,great ,lakes1 how they were made in the ,ice ,ages1 #cd2 an ,ice ,age lake that was greatest of all1 #aic2 tides in the ,great ,lakes and tides in a teacup1 #bja2 how the glaciers of the ,ice ,age tipped the ,great ,lakes up1 #bec ,great ,salt ,lake1 ancient weather records on its walls1 #bdi ,greek civilization1 one of the things that do not die1 #bgj ,harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea1 #bba1 #bbb ,hieroglyphics1 picture language of the ,egyptians and how it was read1 #beh ,himalaya ,mountains1 glacial table on1 a lesson in picture-reading1 #ei2 why some of the ,himalayas are called hills1 #aag ,horse1 evolution of1 #bff ,hot ,springs 7cause of71 #afe ,hudson ,river1 action of the tides1 #bba2 the ,palisades1 #bda ,hydrogen1 and the making of earth's air1 #af ,ice ,ages1 theories as to their origin1 #bj2 the three union stations of the ice trains1 #bg2 how the glaciers put the ,missouri ,river together1 #bi2 how they pushed the ,mississippi about1 #cj2 how they turned rivers around and made waterfalls for ,new ,england1 #ca2 how they chiselled out stone bowls for the ,great ,lakes1 #cd2 how they made other lakes1 #aid2 the thousand-year clock at ,niagara ,falls and what it tells about the ,ice ,age1 #ce2 how the glaciers set ,niagara ,falls up in business1 #cf2 ,muir's eloquent tribute to the marvellous busy work of the snowflakes1 #cg2 how the ,ice ,age glaciers went off and left the butterflies and the flowers in the ,alps1 #dg2 how the butterflies missed the train1 #dh2 how ,agassiz discovered the ,ice ,age1 #eb2 how the glaciers moved the hills about1 #aag2 travels of the boulders and how the glaciers rounded them1 #adf1 #aee2 why there are no big caves in glaciated regions1 #adh2 relation of the ,ice ,ages to the ,dead ,sea and the ,sea of ,galilee1 #bjf2 ,burroughs's theory as to future ,ice ,ages1 #bai2 what rain-drop autographs tell of the ,ice ,age1 #bdf2 a perched boulder and its autograph in a ,new ,york ,city park1 #bej2 records of the ,ice ,age glaciers compared with ,csar's ,commentaries-- curious similarities1 #beb ,icebergs1 how to make them in the schoolroom1 #cb2 how the icebergs of the ,ice ,age gave the boulders a ride1 #aec ,ice wells1 huge ice water tanks that the ,ice ,age glaciers left1 #di ,indian ,ocean1 why its waves rise to salute the ,himalayas1 #adj ,islands1 oceanic1 the tops of volcanoes1 #acc2 islands on the ,maine coast and how they were made1 #bab2 how the sea helps the corals build their islands1 #bbe ,joints1 places where rocks don't join1 how made1 #cc2 how they help make perched rocks1 #fj2 joints in the ,marble ,rocks at ,jabalpur1 #aje2 joints and the work of the sea's rock mills1 #baf2 use of joints in ,nature's stone architecture1 #bbh ,jordan ,river1 why it was born partly grown1 #gc3 why the making of the ,jordan ,valley was the death of the ,dead ,sea1 #bjf ,jungfrau1 summer pastures on1 #da2 its beauty1 #dd ,jupiter1 how as rain god he put out the world1 #c2 place of the planet in the ,solar system1 #f ,keewatin1 one of the central stations of the ,ice ,age1 #bh ,kentucky1 the sink holes in the cave regions1 #bjj ,kepler and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds1 #d ,kettle lakes1 how the glaciers of the ,ice ,age made them1 #aif ,labrador1 one of the central stations of the ,ice ,age1 #bh2 how the butterflies of ,labrador tell that their ancestors missed the train1 #di ,lakes1 the ,ice ,age lake and the ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 how the ,ice ,age glaciers made the ,great ,lakes1 #cd2 how they helped ,lake ,erie in making ,niagara ,falls1 #cf2 the sleep of lakes and how it brightens them up1 #hj2 how ,mirror ,lake shows ,mount ,rainier how beautiful he is1 #acj2 how1 with ,jack ,frost's help1 lakes build boulder walls1 #acd2 the empty lake beds of the desert1 #afb2 trade-marks on lake-shore sand1 #agc2 how lakes are born1 #aib2 moods of lakes1 #aih2 why the ducks overlook some lakes1 #aih2 where mountain lakes get their coloring1 #aii2 sympathetic action of sister lakes1 #bjj2 how some lakes act as barometers1 #bja2 tides in lakes1 #bja2 why lake storms are particularly dangerous1 #bjb2 peculiarity of storms on the ,sea of ,galilee1 #bjb2 and of storms on mountain lakes1 #bjc2 how lakes grow old and pass away1 #bjd2 why lilies come to dying lakes1 #bjd2 the procession of the trees to the margins of dying lakes1 #bjd2 why they have a regular marching order1 #bjd2 the ,dead ,sea and how it died1 #bje2 what science says of the legend of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 #bji2 ,lot's ,wife as she looks to-day1 #baj2 records of ancient weather on the walls of ,great ,salt ,lake1 #bdi2 how the ,great ,lakes were tipped up and how they tell about it1 #bec ,lake ,agassiz1 a great lake of yesterday which could swallow all the ,great ,lakes of to-day1 #aic ,lake ,baikal1 its great depth1 #aic ,lake ,erie1 how the glaciers helped it make ,niagara ,falls1 #cf ,lake ,superior 7size71 #aic ,laplace1 his great theory of the origin of worlds1 #d ,lapland1 strange stories its butterflies tell1 #dh ,laurentian ,highlands1 how they rose out of the sea1 #i ,lava1 how it makes dikes and what a ,new ,york ,city dike has to say about the origin of marble1 #ig1 #bda2 how lava plays grandfather in the ,porphyry family1 #ajb2 lava and the flame effects on volcanic clouds1 #abf2 lava plains1 #abf2 how lava helps raise the fine fruit and wheat of ,washington and ,oregon1 #abh2 how it increases the violence of delayed volcanic explosions1 #acj2 the lava and the fire from heaven in the story of ,lot1 #bji2 the iron wall near ,spanish ,peaks1 #bce2 remarkable architecture of the ,giant's ,causeway1 #bdc2 theory as to what makes the lava climb1 #bdd ,libyan desert1 ,greek myth as to its origin1 #b ,limestone1 how it turns to marble1 #ig1 #ajd2 how the shelled creatures of the sea help make it1 #aja2 the ,marble ,rocks at ,jabalpur1 #aje2 the place of limestone in the rock-making system of the sea1 #bbg2 limestone and the story marble tells of mountain making1 #bcg1 #bci ,little ,round ,top 7,mt471 the battles that rounded it1 #bdh ,lizards1 varieties in the ,arizona desert1 #aha ,london1 how it owes its greatness to the transgressions of the sea1 #bbd ,los ,angeles ,river1 how one of its tributaries plays hide-and-seek1 #hj ,lowell1 ,mass41 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain helped build it1 #cd ,mc,cloud ,river1 why it is born half grown1 #gc ,maine1 advance of the sea upon its coasts1 #bai ,mammoth1 art note on1 from the ,cavemen's ,diary1 #bb2 ancient members of the elephant family that wore underclothes1 #bd ,manchester1 ,mass41 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain built its falls1 #cd ,marble1 how a ,new ,york ,city dike helps tell how marble is made1 #ig2 what the fossils have to say1 #ajj2 how it is quarried1 #ajc2 the mysteries in marble walls1 #bce2 when marble flows1 #bch2 the cloud effects in marble1 #bci2 how marble tells of earthquakes and other exciting things1 #bci ,mars 7planet71 #f ,meanders1 engineering work of wandering rivers1 #ha2 meanders and the making of natural bridges1 #hc ,mediterranean ,sea1 its connection with the making of the ,alps1 #acf ,mercury 7planet71 #f ,metamorphism 7defined71 #ih ,miller1 ,hugh1 how he found a fish inside of a stone and so found ,hugh ,miller1 #aei ,mississippi ,river1 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain pushed it about1 #cj2 how you can jump across it1 #fi2 the mountains of soil it carries into the sea1 #hd ,mississippi ,river ,system 7map71 #fg ,mississippi ,valley1 when it was at the bottom of a mediterranean sea1 #aj2 why the sea went away1 #ach ,missouri ,river1 how it was pieced together and pushed about in the ,ice ,age1 #bi ,mohawk ,river1 why it grew taller as it grew older1 #gb ,molecules1 their relations to atoms and electrons1 #aji ,moraines1 how the glaciers take them on their backs1 #ef ,moulins1 the mills of the glaciers and how they are made1 #ee ,mountains1 earliest arrivals in the mountain world1 #i2 origin of bald mountains1 #bf2 ,muir on the marvellous mountain sculpture of the snowflakes1 #cg2 how mountain peaks are kept sharp1 #dc2 rain-drops as mountain sculptors1 #fg2 mountains and the origin of river valleys1 #fi2 and the birth of partly grown rivers1 #gb2 mountain streams and their waterfalls1 #gg2 storm chorus of the mountain torrents1 #gh2 how mountain lakes and baby rivers go to sleep together and the liveliness of the rivers afterward1 #hj2 how mountains help make the water gates1 #hf2 why growing mountains make earthquakes1 #hf2 why almost all granite is found in mountain regions1 #ig2 the different kinds of mountains1 #aae2 why mountains border the sea1 #acd2 why they run north and south1 #acg2 why sea waves rise to greet the mountains1 #aci2 ,ruskin on mountain drawing1 #adj2 resemblance of mountains to sea waves1 #adj2 how mountains helped solve the mystery of the stones of the field1 #aea2 sunrise in the ,atlas ,mountains1 #afc2 why desert mountains look so gaunt and hungry1 #afd2 why the desert winds are constantly blowing them away1 #aga2 mountain shapes and the law of the picturesque in ,nature's art work1 #bbi2 how the mountain chains are the making of ,europe1 #bcj2 their ups and downs1 #bcj2 why the markings in marble tell the story of mountain building1 #bcg2 and of mountain shaking1 #bci2 ancient weather records on mountain walls1 #bdh ,mountain lakes1 the blue lake in the volcano's mouth1 #aie2 why mountain lake storms are particularly dangerous1 #bjb2 and why they are apt to come at night1 #bjb ,mountain meadows1 how rapidly their flowers follow the snow1 #dd ,mount ,fujiyama1 its striking resemblance to a mountain #c1jjj miles away1 #abd ,mount ,hermon1 its spring that gives birth to the ,jordan1 #gc ,mount ,mc,kinley1 remarkable snap-shot of one of its avalanches1 #fc ,mount ,pele1 its discharge of huge rocks and whirling bombs1 #abi2 the mysterious shaft that rose and fell1 #acb ,mount ,ritter1 its resemblance to the sacred mountain of ,japan1 #abd ,mount ,shasta1 how it gives birth to a river that has no babyhood1 #gc2 how the mountain itself was born at the crossroads and why this is apt to happen in the case of volcanic mountains1 #abg ,mount ,vesuvius1 why1 like other active volcanoes1 it seems to smoke but doesn't1 #abf1 #abg ,mount ,washington1 its interesting colony of descendants of butterfly pilgrims of the ,ice ,age who missed the train1 #dh ,muir1 ,john1 on the wonderful team work of the snowflakes1 in the ,ice ,age1 #cg2 on the liveliness of mountain streams after a little nap in mountain lakes1 #hj2 on the winter sleep of the mountain lakes and their glad awakening in the spring1 #aih ,natural bridges1 various ways in which they are made by the very streams they bridge1 #hc1 #he ,nebular ,hypothesis1 one of the theories as to how the world was made1 #d2 how it differs from the latest theory1 #f2 the ,bible story compared with both theories1 #ag ,neptune 7planet71 #f ,new ,england1 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain plowed its farms away1 #ca2 and then made up for it by putting in ,new ,england's waterfalls1 #cb ,newton1 his connection with the theory of the origin of worlds1 #d ,new ,york ,city1 what one of its big rocks tells about marble making1 #ig2 what its harbor owes to the engineering of the sea1 #bba1 #bbb2 the perched boulder in ,bronx ,park and its autograph1 #bej ,niagara ,falls1 its thousand-year clock and what it tells about the ,ice ,age1 #ce2 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain set the falls up in business1 #cf ,nitrogen1 how it helped to make fresh air for the new-born world1 #af ,norway1 interpretation of the handwriting on the walls of its fiords1 #bed ,ogden ,canyon1 curious example of a rock fold1 #bch ,ohio ,river1 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain helped it by turning some rivers around1 #ca ,omar ,khayyam1 answer of ,science to the universal riddle that puzzled him1 #bfa ,origin of ,species4 7,see ,evolution47 ,oxygen1 its use in making the world's air1 #af2 how the sea feeds oxygen to the corals1 #bbe ,pack ,rat1 his remarkable fortress in the desert1 #ahg ,paleontologists1 the wizards of queer anatomies and the strange forms they conjure up from the fragments of old bones1 #bff ,palestine4 7,see ,dead ,sea47 ,palisades1 how they were made in the ,middle ,ages1 #bda ,pebbles1 how they tell of old sea beaches on inland mountain and hill1 #ad2 their enormous age1 #ah2 dramatic stories the pebble scratches tell1 #bf2 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain used pebbles in turning ,new ,england rivers around1 #ca2 how pebbles helped deepen the basins of the ,great ,lakes1 #cd2 how they still help run the thousand-year clock at ,niagara ,falls1 #ce2 how they help the glaciers talk1 #ef2 why the pebbles of ,glacier ,land can't walk as the big stones do1 #fb2 how the river pebbles act as bankers for the farmers and the sea1 #hj2 how the pebbles helped dig the ,grand ,canyon1 #hb2 how they tell about doings in the ,fairyland of ,change1 #ig2 how a pebble may1 in its time1 play many parts1 #ii2 how they help unravel the secrets of the hills1 #aai2 how they help dying rivers multiply by two1 #afg2 how they report the fact that the storms on the ,sea of ,galilee are particularly severe1 #bjc2 their fixed place in the rock-making system of the sea1 #bbg2 how they tell of rough experiences in river travel1 #bej2 and of high winds at sea1 desert sandstorms1 rides on glaciers1 and in what compartments they travel1 #bea ,peninsulas1 how the drowning of rivers helps to make them1 #bab ,pennsylvania1 autographs left by ancient reptiles in the sandstone under the coal seams1 #bde ,perched boulder1 in ,bronx ,park and its autograph on its rock-bed1 #bej ,quartz1 how it helps to make the pebble jewel-boxes--the geodes1 #aja ,quartzite1 7defined71 #ih ,rain1 what fossil rain-drops tell of ancient weather1 #bbd ,rat1 desert1 #ahf ,reclus1 on the motion of glaciers1 #fb2 on the mountain whirlpools of stones1 #ada2 on the severity of lake storms1 #bjb ,reefs1 coral1 how the sea helps the little people build them1 #bbe ,reptiles1 with bird feet1 #bdf ,rivers1 how the ,mississippi ,river and others were pushed about in the ,ice ,age1 #bf2 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain helped the ,ohio by turning some rivers around1 #ca2 how they helped make ,new ,england a great manufacturing section by turning some other rivers around1 #cb2 how they helped build the ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 the little boy's definition of a river system1 #ff2 how the sea and the rivers take turn about in emptying into each other1 #ff2 their wonderful work in the mountains1 #fg2 the ,mississippi ,river system1 #fg2 how they study the work of rivers on rainy days in ,boston1 #fh2 how you can jump across the ,mississippi1 #fi2 what springs do for rivers1 #fi2 how the springs act as regulators of river flow1 #gb2 how rivers grow at the top1 #gb2 why some rivers are born partly grown1 #gb2 how most of ,europe's rivers get their start1 #gc2 why many little rivers have to jump to catch the train1 #gd2 why all rivers flow toward the sea1 #ge2 beautiful way in which ,ruskin tells of the response of rivers to the call of the sea1 #gf2 the human nature in rivers1 #gf2 baby ways of baby rivers1 #gf2 why waterfalls are found only in young streams and more often as you near the source1 #gf2 how rivers play in the rain1 #gh2 storm chorus of the mountain torrents1 #gh2 where to look for hiding rivers1 #gh2 how rivers sleep in mountain lakes and how lively they are when they wake up1 #hj2 why rivers grow more thrifty as they grow older2 how1 with the help of the pebbles1 they act as bankers for the farmers and the sea1 #hj2 the machinery of rivers includes circular saws and dirt-spreaders1 #hb2 how a river dug the ,grand ,canyon1 #hb1 #hh2 the automatic stop in the river machinery1 #hc2 enormous amount of soil carried by the ,mississippi into the sea1 #hd2 how rivers cut mountains in two1 #he2 how rivers help in mining granite1 #ig2 how they help make hills1 #aag2 how they combine with the boulders to help out the artists1 #aeg2 the land in which there are river beds without rivers and rivers without mouths1 #afb2 the skeletons of dead rivers and what they tell of the past history of the desert1 #aff2 why dying rivers multiply by two1 #afg2 harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea1 #bba2 how rivers made the ,golden ,gate of ,san ,francisco and so made ,san ,francisco1 #bbc2 the rivers and the rock mills of the sea1 #bbg2 the river's trade-mark on its pebbles1 #bej ,rocky ,mountains1 how they were born1 #aj2 their relation to the ,mediterranean ,sea that is no more1 #ace2 why they are now so far from the sea1 #ach2 how the mountain waves of stone resemble the waves of the sea1 #adj2 folded strata that illustrate ,ruskin's line about the strange quivering recorded in mountain rocks1 #adb ,romans1 some of the big things we owe to them1 #bgj ,rose of ,jericho1 what it is like and how it puts to sea1 #agf ,round ,tops 7,mt471 how they are formed1 #abc ,ruskin1 on the response of rivers to the call of the sea1 #gf2 on the sleep of lakes1 #hj2 on mountain drawing1 #adj2 on the strange quivering of substance of mountains1 #ada2 on the art lessons to be learned from stones1 #aeh2 on the correct drawing of boulders1 #afj ,sahara ,desert4 7,see ,desert47 ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain took some of its rivers away1 #cj2 how the ,old ,men used it in making the ,great ,lakes1 #cd ,salt1 how ,mother ,nature uses it in warming over rocks1 #ii2 how ,father ,neptune uses it in his rock mills1 #bag ,sand1 how it helped build the stone ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 how ,mother ,nature dissolves it out of sandstone in her rock cookery1 #ii2 how the crystal fairies give sand grains a new lease of life1 #ajh2 how the sand helped shape the old ,indian of ,mt4 ,abu1 #adg2 color of desert sand1 #afe2 how the desert makes its sand1 #afh2 sand roses1 #afh ,sandstone1 its place in the rock-milling system of the sea1 #bbg ,san ,francisco ,bay1 how it was made1 the two rivers that opened its ,golden ,gate1 #bbb ,saturn 7planet71 #e1 #f ,sea1 when the seas were all in the sky1 #af2 how its stratification of rock helped build the ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 the ,alps1 like sea waves turned to stone1 #ej2 how the sea flows into the rivers1 the endless circuit of the waters1 #ff2 why the rivers always get back to sea1 #ge2 how the pebbles help feed the sea fish and furnish material for the sea's rock mills1 #ha2 the ,grand ,canyon and the ancient sea1 #hh2 how the sea helps ,mother ,nature do the work in her rock cookery1 #ii2 why volcanoes and mountains border the sea1 #acc1 #acd2 why sea waves rise to greet the mountains1 #aci2 how sea sand grains differ from those of the desert1 #agc2 the rock mills of the sea1 method in the madness of the on-shore waves1 #bab2 why the sea's chief business at first seems to be that of eating us up1 #bac2 the sea in literature and art1 #bac2 ,england's heavy losses to the sea1 #bad2 how helpless the ,old ,man of the ,sea is without his tools1 #bae2 how he uses the stone-throwing engines and the battering-ram of the ,romans1 #baf2 what he knows about wedges and pneumatic tools1 #baf2 the hidden enemies in the rocks of the sea1 #baf2 planing-mills of the winter seas1 #bag2 how stones are carried out to sea1 #bah2 how the sea has shaped ,europe1 #bai2 the sea as a builder1 why ,father ,neptune is like ,old ,king ,cole1 #bbj2 harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea1 #bba1 #bbb2 how the sea helped teach shore engineering to man1 #bbc2 how it has helped make ,london1 ,new ,york1 and other great cities1 #bbc1 #bbd2 how ,father ,neptune feeds the coral people1 #bbe2 the art work of the sea1 #bbg1 #bbh2 ,nature's building blocks and the sea1 #bbh2 the ups and downs of ,europe's mountains under the sea1 #bcj2 how sea tides help in recording rain-drop marks in stone1 #bdd ,sea caves1 what they told about how the continents came up out of the sea1 #ad ,sea of ,galilee1 why its storms come so suddenly and usually at night1 #bjb1 #bjc2 how the pebbles on its shores tell that these storms are severe1 #bjc2 why it parted company with the ,dead ,sea1 #bjf ,sea-shells1 how some of them tell how marble is made1 #ajj ,seismograph1 the device for getting the autograph of earthquakes1 #bdj ,shakespere1 how he emphasizes the rough side of ,father ,neptune's nature1 #bac2 on the man and the swallowing waves1 #bai2 his reference to the greatness of ,mr4 ,csar1 #beb ,shaler1 ,dr41 on the stone autographs of rain-drops1 how they throw light on the climate of ancient days1 #bdf ,shasta ,river1 why it is born partly grown1 #gc ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains1 ,muir on how the snowflakes helped carve them1 #cg ,silica1 its use by ,mother ,nature in making sandstone1 grass1 wheat1 and corn1 #ii ,slate1 and the ,fairyland of ,change1 #ih2 its place in the rock mills of the sea1 #bbg2 ancient autographs found in slate1 #bde ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 the ,bible story of their destruction and what ,science has to say about it1 #bjh ,soil1 how it was made in the beginning of things1 #aa2 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain carried ,new ,england's best farms away1 #ca2 how river pebbles act as bankers for the farmers1 #hj2 how the sea helps make good farming land1 #bbb2 ,nature's art work and the making of soil1 #bbi ,solar system1 how it was discovered that there are worlds of worlds1 #d2 ,laplace's theory as to the origin of the ,solar system1 #d2 the planetessimal theory1 #f ,soldanella1 the flower of the ,alps that blooms its way up through the ice1 #de ,special ,creation theory1 #bfe ,spiders1 the tarantula and the tarantula killer1 #aha2 the spiders of the ,arizona desert1 #ahb2 how the trap-door spider slams the door in the centipede's face1 #ahb ,spontaneous variation1 the scientific modification of the old ,special ,creation theory1 #bgd ,springs1 not only start rivers in life but go on feeding them1 #fi2 how rain-drops stored in big stone safes keep the springs going1 #fi2 springs that work like a town pump1 #gj2 hot springs and the geysers1 #afe ,stratification1 defined2 how it helped make the ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 how it helps in marble quarrying1 #ajc2 as shown in the ,marble ,rocks at ,jabalpur1 #aje2 how it helps in the making over of rock in the sea's mills1 #bag ,stratus clouds1 their counterparts in marble and what these marble cloud pictures mean1 #bci ,stri1 scratches made in rocks by glaciers1 and how they helped to disclose the great secret that there was an ,ice ,age1 #aba2 the big boulder's autograph in ,bronx ,park1 ,new ,york ,city1 #bej ,tarantula1 and the life struggle in the desert1 #aha ,terraces1 what they tell about the tipping up of the ,great ,lakes once upon a time1 #bec ,tides1 in lakes and in teacups1 #bja2 and the harbor and shore engineering of the sea1 #bba1 #bbe2 how they help preserve the autographs of ancient rain-drops1 ancient reptiles1 and other things1 #bdd ,transgressions of the sea1 defined1 #bah2 how they help to make great cities1 #bbc2 how they help in the art work of the sea1 #bbg ,umbrella ,parties1 an interesting form of geography study in ,boston1 #fh ,uranus 7planet71 #f ,valleys1 how crooked rivers broaden them1 #hb ,venus 7planet71 #f ,vesuvius1 why it seems to smoke but doesn't1 #abf1 #abg ,volcanoes1 what they tell about the inside of the earth1 #c2 why volcanoes were more numerous in early days1 #af2 difference between ordinary mountains and volcanic mountains1 #aad1 #abc2 the volcanic mountains in the ,sahara and the ,baths of the ,damned1 #afe2 the blue lake in the volcano's mouth1 #aid2 volcanoes and the fire from heaven in the ,bible story of ,lot1 #bji2 how volcanic explosions help to cause transgressions of the sea1 #bai2 ,mr4 ,vulcan's famous castle on the ,hudson1 #bda ,vulture1 his wonderful abilities as a flying machine1 #ahb ,wasp1 desert1 how it disposes of the tarantula1 #aha ,waterfalls1 how the ,old ,men of the ,mountain put them in for ,new ,england1 to make up for carrying her farms away1 #ca2 how they set ,niagara ,falls up in business and started the thousand-year time clock1 #ce1 #cf2 why the ,bridal ,veil ,falls in the ,yosemite has to jump to catch the train1 #gd2 why waterfalls are found only in young streams and oftenest near the source1 #gf ,water ,gaps1 how the rivers cut them with the help of pebbles1 #he ,weathering1 examples of1 #cc1 #fj1 #ig1 #adg1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bca1 #bda1 #bdc1 #bdh ,wind1 how it helped carve the ,temple of the ,winds1 #cc2 how it helps make pillars for perched rocks1 #fj2 how it helped carve the strange old ,indian of ,mt4 ,abu1 #adg2 how it helps the desert in trade-marking its sand1 #agc2 the wind witches of the ,steppes1 #agh2 why lake wind storms are particularly dangerous1 #bjb2 the winds and the night storms on the ,sea of ,galilee1 #bjb2 how winds help fill up the sea1 #bai2 stone autographs of ancient breezes1 #bdg2 pebble faceted by wind-blown sand1 #beb2 wind ripples1 #bdh ,wren1 desert1 how she locks her front door against her bad neighbors1 #agg ,wyoming1 the ancient bones found in its soil and the wonderful story they told about horses1 #bff ,xenophanes1 the wise old ,greek who first suggested that the mountains had risen out of the sea1 #ac ,yosemite ,valley1 why the rivers of the little valleys have to jump to catch the train1 #gd 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,minor typos corrected4 ,paragraph break inserted at the top of page #aaf to accommodate placement of image related to the text therein4 ,in the original book1 ,mt4 ,fujiyama and ,mount ,rainier were on page #abd and #abe respectively with the caption spanning the two pages4 ,the words top and bottom were substituted for left and right respectively for their orientation here4 ,also1 the caption has been updated to say ,,four ,,thousand4