,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,equal signs 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,horseshoeing ,,for ,horseshoers and ,veterinarians ,,by ,a4 ,,lungwitz ,,former ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,saxon ,,veterinary ,,commission1 ,,late ,,instructor ,,in ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,horseshoeing1 ,,and ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,shoeing ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,veterinary ,,college ,,in ,,dresden1 ,,germany ,,and ,,john ,w4 ,,adams ,,professor ,,of ,,surgery ,,and ,,obstetrics1 ,,and ,,lecturer ,,on ,,shoeing ,,in ,,the ,,veterinary ,,school1 ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,with ,,two ,,hundred ,,and ,,twenty-,,nine ,,illustrations ,,philadelphia ,,london ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company ,copyright1 #ahig1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company4 ,copyright1 #aijd1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company4 ,copyright1 #aiac1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,the inauguration of the law requiring horseshoers to be examined emphasizes the need of a brief and easily understood text-book on theoretical and practical horseshoeing4 ,at the request of the ,royal ,veterinary ,commission1 in charge of the ,royal ,veterinary ,school in ,dresden1 and many interested individuals1 ,i have attempted to meet this need by condensing within the narrowest possible limits all that is essential to the horseshoer in the practice of his profession4 ,the subject-matter has been cast into a logically arranged course of instruction2 all that is superfluous and is found only in exhaustive treatises on shoeing has been omitted4 ,in order to make this elementary text-book more easy to understand1 numerous instructive illustrations have been incorporated1 which were taken partly from 8,der ,fuss des ,pferdes10 by ,leisering ,hartmann1 fifth edition1 ,dresden1 #ahhb2 partly from the journal ,der ,hufschmied1 and partly from drawings made specially for this work4 ,with the desire that this little book may find many friends and supply them with valuable information1 it is herewith given to the public4 ,a4 ,,lungwitz4 ,,dresden1 ,september1 #ahhd4 ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,during the past nine years in which it has been my privilege to teach horseshoeing to students of veterinary medicine in the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 and to classes of horseshoers under the auspices of the ,master ,horseshoers' ,national ,protective ,association of ,america1 ,i have been forcibly impressed with the urgent need of a text-book of horseshoeing that is adapted to the needs of beginners4 ,in my opinion1 such a work must present a detailed description of the anatomy and physiology of the legs below the middle of the cannons1 and must emphasize in unmistakable terms the definite relations which exist between certain well-defined forms of the hoof and certain well-defined standing positions of the limb4 ,only on this sure foundation can a thoroughly scientific system of shoeing be based4 ,furthermore1 the teachings must be eminently practical1 logically arranged1 as brief as is consistent with clearness1 easy of comprehension by persons who are unfamiliar with technical language1 profusely illustrated1 and moderate in price4 ,through the kindness of my respected friend and former teacher1 ,professor ,a4 ,lungwitz1 one of the highest authorities in all matters pertaining to shoeing1 and for many years a teacher in and the ,director of what ,i believe to be the best school of shoeing in the world1 ,i am enabled to present to the public this translation of his text-book for students of shoeing4 ,written to meet requirements identical with those existing today in the ,united ,states1 and in scope and arrangement exactly suited to both student and teacher1 ,i am confident that it will meet the favor that it merits4 ,,the ,,translator4 ,,philadelphia1 #aijd4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,eleventh ,,edition4 ,since the publication in #aijd of a translation of the tenth edition of ,der ,lehrmeister im ,hufbeschlag1 ,prof4 ,anton ,lungwitz1 the author1 having reached the age of retirement has withdrawn from the activities of the ,royal ,saxon ,shoeing ,school1 and has expressed a desire that the translator assume entire responsibility for future editions4 ,to note the progress of farriery during the past ten years many chapters have been revised1 necessitating resetting1 and sixty-nine new illustrations have been added and many redrawn4 ,it has seemed desirable to discuss the effect of weight in the shoe in altering the flight of the foot2 to consider rubber pads so widely used in the ,united ,states1 and to direct attention to many innovations of more or less value1 that have appeared during recent years4 ,in preparing this edition ,i have had the cordial co-operation of the publishers1 to whom ,i hereby express deepest gratitude4 ,i wish also to record my appreciation for the many suggestions and other aid given me by ,mr4 ,franz ,enge1 ,chief ,farrier of the shoeing shop of the ,veterinary ,hospital1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,,john ,w4 ,,adams4 ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania1 ,april1 #aiac4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction #ac ,the ,object of ,shoeing #ac ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,gross ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,head--,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,trunk #ag ,,the ,,spinal ,,column--,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,thorax #ag-ai ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,pelvis--,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,limbs #ai-ba ,,joints--,,muscles--,,tendon ,,sheaths #ba-bd ,,the ,,foot4 ,a4 ,the ,bones of the ,foot #bd ,the ,cannon--,the ,long ,pastern--,the ,sesamoid ,bones--,the ,short ,pastern--,the ,pedal ,bone-- ,the ,navicular ,bone #bd-bh ,b4 ,the ,articulations of the ,foot #bh ,i4 ,,the ,,fetlock-,,joint #bh ,the ,suspensory ,ligament #bi ,the ,inferior ,sesamoid ,ligament #cj ,,ii4 ,,the ,,coronary ,,joint #ca ,,iii4 ,,the ,,pedal ,,articulation 7,,coffin ,,joint7 #ca ,c4 ,the ,locomotory ,organs of the ,foot #cb ,the ,anterior ,extensor ,tendon of the ,phalanges-- ,the ,perforatus ,tendon--,the ,perforans ,tendon #cb-ce ,mucous ,burs and ,tendon ,sheaths #ce ,altering the ,relative ,tension of the ,flexor ,tendons and ,suspensory ,ligament of the ,fetlock-,joint #cf ,d4 ,the ,elastic ,parts of the ,foot #ch ,the ,lateral ,cartilages--,the ,plantar ,cushion #ci1 #dj ,e4 ,the ,blood-,vessels and ,nerves #da ,the ,arteries of the ,foot--,the ,veins of the ,foot-- ,the ,nerves of the ,foot #da-dd ,f4 ,the ,protective ,organs of the ,foot #dd 7a7 ,,the ,,hair-,,skin #dd #a4 ,the ,epidermis #de #b4 ,the ,dermis #de #c4 ,the ,subcutaneous ,tissue #de 7b7 ,,the ,,hoof-,,skin1 ,,or ,,pododerm #de1 #df #a4 ,the ,perioplic ,band #dg #b4 ,the ,coronary ,band #dg #c4 ,the ,fleshy ,wall #dh ,the ,fleshy ,leaves 7,podophyllous ,tissue7 #dh1 #di #d4 ,the ,velvety ,tissue of the ,sole #di #e4 ,the ,velvety ,tissue of the ,frog #di 7c7 ,,the ,,horn ,,capsule ,,or ,,hoof #ej-ec ,the ,wall #ej-ec ,the ,bars #ea1 #eb ,the ,layers of the ,wall3 #a4 ,the ,periople4 #b4 ,the ,middle or ,protective ,layer4 #c4 ,the ,leafy ,layer 7,keraphyllous ,layer7 #ec-ee ,the ,sole #ee1 #ef ,the ,frog #eg1 #eh ,the ,minute ,structure of the ,horn #eh ,hard and ,soft ,horn #ei ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,foot ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,entire ,,limb4 ,a4 ,standing ,positions of the ,limbs #fb 7a7 ,,the ,,positions ,,of ,a ,,fore-,,limb ,,viewed ,,from ,,in ,,front ,,and ,,in ,,profile #fb-fg 7b7 ,,the ,,positions ,,of ,a ,,hind ,,limb ,,viewed ,,from ,,behind ,,and ,,in ,,profile #fg-fi ,b4 ,forms of ,feet1 viewed from in ,front1 from ,behind1 and in ,profile #fi-gb ,c4 ,lines of ,flight of ,hoofs in ,motion #gb-ge ,d4 ,influence of ,weight upon ,lines1 of ,flight of ,hoofs #ge1 #gf ,e4 ,forms of ,hoofs #gg ,the ,hoof of the ,regular ,position--,the ,hoof of the ,base-,wide ,position--,the ,hoof of the ,base-,narrow ,position--,forms of ,hind ,hoofs-- ,the ,wide and the ,narrow ,hoof--,the ,characteristics of ,healthy ,hoofs #gg-hb ,f4 ,growth of the ,hoof and ,wear of the ,hoof and ,shoe #hb-hf ,g4 ,physiological ,movements of the ,hoof #hf-hi ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,shoeing ,,healthy ,,hoofs4 ,a4 ,examination of a ,horse ,preliminary to ,shoeing #ij ,b4 ,raising and holding the ,feet of the ,horse to be ,shod #ib ,c4 ,removing the ,old ,shoes #ig ,d4 ,preparing the ,hoof for the ,shoe #ih ,e4 ,preparing the ,hoof for going ,barefoot #ajb ,f4 ,making ,shoes #ajc ,the ,podometer--,making ,front ,shoes--,making ,hind ,shoes--,general ,characteristics of ,shoes--,a ,shoe with ,heel-,calks--,a ,shoe with ,toe- and ,heel-,calks--,special ,characteristics of ,shoes #ajc-aaf ,g4 ,choosing the ,shoe #aaf ,h4 ,shaping and ,fitting ,shoes--,general ,considerations #aag ,shaping and ,fitting ,shoes--,special ,considerations #abj ,fitting ,shoes to ,saddlers and ,hunters #abb ,fitting ,shoes to ,runners #abc ,fitting ,shoes to ,trotters and ,pacers #abd ,fitting ,shoes to ,heavy ,draft-,horses #abe ,i4 ,nailing the ,shoe1 ,horseshoe-,nails #abh ,k4 ,machine ,shoes #acb ,l4 ,rubber ,pads #ace ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,shoeing ,,horses ,,that ,,forge ,,and ,,interfere4 ,a4 ,forging--,cross-firing #ach1 #adj ,b4 ,interfering #adb ,,chapter ,v4 ,,winter ,,shoeing4 #a4 ,,ice-,,nails 7,,frost-,,nails7 #adf #b4 ,,sharp ,,toe- ,,and ,,heel-,,calks #adf #c4 ,,screw-,,calks #adh1 #aee #d4 ,,peg ,,heel-,,calks #aej #e4 ,,peg ,,toe-,,calks #aeb #f4 ,,removable ,,heel-,,calks1 ,,that ,,do ,,not ,,require ,,sharpening #aed ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,hoof ,,nurture4 ,a4 ,care of ,unshod ,hoofs #aeg ,b4 ,care of ,shod ,hoofs #aei ,greasing and ,soaking the ,hoof #aei ,,part ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,general ,,remarks ,,concerning ,,the ,,shoeing ,,of ,,defective ,,hoofs ,,and ,,lame ,,horses4 ,,general ,,remarks #afa-afe ,,classification ,,of ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,hoof #afe ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,inflammations ,,of ,,the ,,pododerm 7,,pododermatitis74 #a4 ,,nailing #aff #b4 ,,street-,,nail #agj #c4 ,,calk-,,wounds ,,of ,,the ,,coronet #agc #d4 ,,corns #agd #e4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,heels #agf #f4 ,,laminitis 7,,founder7 #agg #g4 ,,keraphyllocele 7,,horn ,,tumor7 #aha ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,defects ,,of ,,the ,,hoof4 ,a4 ,changes of ,form #ahb #a4 ,,the ,,flat ,,and ,,the ,,full ,,hoof #ahb #b4 ,,the ,,upright ,,or ,,stumpy ,,hoof #ahd #c4 ,,the ,,contracted ,,hoof #ahe 7a7 ,the ,contraction of ,wide ,hoofs #ahi 7b7 ,contraction of the ,sole #ahi #d4 ,,the ,,wry ,,hoof #aij #e4 ,,the ,,crooked ,,hoof #aib #f4 ,,ossification ,,of ,,the ,,lateral ,,cartilage 7,,side-,,bone7 #aid ,b4 ,disturbances of ,continuity of ,hoof #aie #a4 ,,cracks #aie #b4 ,,clefts #bjc #c4 ,,loose ,,wall #bjd #d4 ,,hollow ,,wall #bje #e4 ,,thrush ,,of ,,the ,,frog #bjf ,,chapter ,x4 ,,shoeing ,,mules1 ,,asses1 ,,and ,,oxen4 #a4 ,,the ,,shoeing ,,of ,,mules ,,and ,,asses #bjg #b4 ,,the ,,shoeing ,,of ,,oxen #bjg ,,introduction4 ,horseshoeing is an industry which requires1 in equal degree1 knowledge and skill4 ,the word 8horseshoeing0 embraces various acts1 especially preparing the iron sole1 the horseshoe2 forming it and fitting it to the hoof1 whose ground-surface has been previously dressed in accordance with the direction of the limb1 and fastening it to the hoof by means of nails4 ,owing to the complicated structure of the hoof1 success in the practice of horseshoeing requires a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's body in general and of the foot in particular4 ,the object of shoeing is1-- #a4 ,to protect the hoof from excessive wear1 and thus render the horse continuously serviceable upon our hard roads4 #b4 ,to prevent slipping and falling during the winter season4 #c4 ,to so far remove the disadvantages of faulty positions of the limbs that horses may render good service1 and1 in some cases1 #d4 ,to cure or improve diseased or defective hoofs or feet4 ,horseshoeing1 though apparently simple1 involves many difficulties1 owing to the fact that the hoof is not an unchanging body1 but varies much with respect to form1 growth1 quality1 and elasticity4 ,furthermore1 there are such great differences in the character of ground-surfaces and in the nature of horses' work that shoeing which is not performed with great ability and care induces disease and makes horses lame4 ,in view of these facts1 a thorough training of the young horseshoer in the principles and practice of his trade is not only greatly to be desired1 but is really essential to success2 unreasoning work does as much harm in this as in any other vocation4 ,a good common-school education is necessary 7more will do no harm74 ,further requisites are a healthy body1 not too tall1 liking for the work1 aptness1 an active1 reasoning mind1 fearlessness1 dexterity1 a good eye for proportion1 and1 finally1 careful selection of a master-instructor4 ,theoretically educated1 practically experienced and approved masters1 in whose shops all kinds of horses are shod1 are to be preferred4 ,during his term of apprenticeship the young apprentice should learn to make drawings of horseshoes1 of tools of the trade1 and of hoofs of various forms1 and should also make one or more model shoes as an indication of his ability4 ,after completing his time he should seek a position in a first-class shop1 either at home or abroad4 ,a visit to foreign lands will widen one's mental horizon and make him a broader1 abler man in every respect4 ,later1 opportunity will be given to some 7in ,germany7 to join the cavalry1 and thus acquire a good education in shoeing under the patronage of the government4 ,finally1 a course of instruction in a school of horseshoeing will convert an already practical and intelligent horseshoer into a thoughtful1 capable1 expert workman4 ,the scope of horseshoeing is by no means so narrow and insignificant as it may appear1 and since a knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse's body in general1 and of the foot in particular1 is necessary1 it is evident that the schools of horseshoeing in which one can get the best instruction are those in which there is not only a regularly graded course of instruction1 with demonstrations upon dissected material and upon living horses1 but also an abundance of daily work at the forge and on the floor in the shoeing of horses4 ,a course of four to six weeks is not sufficient4 ,furthermore1 it should be borne in mind that schools of horseshoeing are not for the purpose of instructing young men in all matters which pertain to the trade1 but only in the making of shoes1 the critical examination and management of hoofs1 and the rational and skilful performance of shoeing4 ,for this reason it is not advisable for young men to attend a school of horseshoeing until they have at least completed their apprenticeship4 ,,horseshoeing4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,gross ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,the supporting structure of the horse's body is the bony framework or skeleton 7,fig4 #a1 page #ah74 ,we distinguish in the skeleton the bones of the head1 trunk1 and limbs4 ,the bones of the head are numerous and1 excepting the lower jaw1 are solidly united with one another4 ,in general1 we distinguish in the head only the upper and lower jaws 7#a and #a74 ,both form various cavities2 for example1 the cranial cavity1 in which the brain lies1 the orbital cavities 7eye-sockets71 the nasal passages1 and the mouth4 ,besides1 the teeth are set in the jaws4 ,the trunk comprises the bones of the spinal column1 thorax1 and pelvis4 ,the spinal or vertebral column 7#b to #f71 which bears the head at its anterior end1 is the chief support1 of the entire skeleton4 ,it consists of from fifty-two to fifty-four single and irregular bones called vertebr1 placed in the upper part of the median vertical plane of the body4 ,each vertebra1 with the exception of those of the tail 7coccygeal or caudal vertebr71 is traversed by a large opening called the vertebral foramen4 ,the vertebr are placed end to end in a row1 and through them runs a continuous large canal called the vertebral or spinal canal1 in which lies the spinal cord4 ,the horse has seven cervical1 eighteen dorsal1 six lumbar1 five sacral1 and sixteen to eighteen caudal vertebr4 ,the sacral vertebr are grown together to form one piece called the sacrum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,the ,,horse4--#a1 bones of the head2 #a1 lower jaw2 #b1 cervical vertebr2 #c1 dorsal vertebr2 #d1 lumbar vertebr2 #e1 sacral vertebr 7sacrum72 #f1 coccygeal vertebr2 #g1 ribs2 #h1 sternum 7breast-bone72 #i1 pelvis2 #i1 ilium2 #i1 ischium2 #aj1 scapula 7shoulder-blade72 #aa1 humerus2 #ab1 radius2 #ac1 ulna2 #ad1 carpus 7knee72 #ae1 large metacarpal bone 7cannon72 #af1 rudimentary metacarpal bones 7splint-bones72 #ag1 os suffraginis 7long pastern72 #ah1 os coron 7short pastern72 #ai1 os pedis 7hoof-bone72 #bj1 sesamoid bones2 #ba1 femur2 #bb1 patella 7knee-pan1 stifle72 #bc1 tibia2 #bd1 fibula2 #be1 tarsus1 or hock2 #bf1 large metatarsal bone 7cannon72 #bg1 rudimentary metatarsals 7splint-bones72 #bh1 os suffraginis 7long pastern72 #bi1 os coron 7short pastern72 #cj1 os pedis 7hoof-bone1 8coffin bone072 #ca1 sesamoid bones4 ,the thorax is formed by the ribs and the breast-bone or sternum4 ,the horse has eighteen ribs on each side 7#g71 and all articulate with the dorsal vertebr4 ,the first eight pairs unite by their lower ends directly to the sternum or breast-bone1 and are therefore called true ribs1 while the last ten pairs are only indirectly attached to the sternum1 and are consequently called false ribs4 ,the sternum 7#h7 lies between the forelegs1 and helps to form the floor of the chest cavity4 ,the space enclosed by the bones of the thorax is called the thoracic1 pulmonary1 or chest cavity1 and contains the heart and lungs4 ,the bones of the pelvis form a complete circle or girdle4 ,the upper part1 called the ilium 7#i71 articulates on its inner side with the sacrum 7#e71 while its outer side is prolonged to form a prominent angle1 which is the support of the hip1 and is called the 8point of the hip40 ,the posterior part of the pelvis is called the ischium 7#i71 and that part lying between the ilium and the ischium and forming part of the floor of the pelvis is called the pubis4 ,the space between the thorax and the pelvis1 bounded above by the lumbar vertebr and shut in below and on the sides by the skin and muscular walls of the belly 7abdomen71 is called the abdominal cavity4 ,this cavity opens directly into the pelvic cavity1 and contains the stomach1 intestines1 liver1 spleen1 pancreas1 kidneys1 and a part of the generative organs4 ,the thoracic and abdominal cavities are separated by a muscular partition1 the diaphragm4 ,the bones of the limbs may be likened to columns1 upon which the body rests2 they articulate with one another at various angles1 are tubular in structure1 and strong4 ,the bones of the fore-limbs do not articulate directly with the bones of the trunk1 but are attached to the body by means of the skin and muscles4 ,from above to below we distinguish the following bones3 #a4 ,the scapula1 or shoulder-blade 7#aj71 a flat1 triangular bone1 prolonged at its upper border by a flat1 very elastic cartilage1 called the scapular cartilage4 ,at its lower end the scapula articulates with-- #b4 ,the upper end of the humerus 7#aa71 forming the shoulder-joint 7scapulo-humeral articulation74 ,the humerus articulates at its lower end with-- #c4 ,the radius 7#ab7 and the ulna 7#ac71 to form the elbow joint4 ,these two bones are the basis of the forearm4 ,the ulna1 smaller and weaker than the radius1 lies behind and projects above it to form the point of the elbow4 ,the lower end of the radius articulates with-- #d4 ,the carpus1 or knee 7#ad71 which comprises seven small1 cubical bones disposed in two horizontal rows1 one above the other4 ,the upper row comprises four bones and the lower row three4 ,the lower row rests upon-- #e4 ,the large metacarpal or cannon bone1 and the two rudimentary metacarpal or splint-bones4 ,the lower end of the radius1 the upper ends of the metacarpal bones1 and the small carpal bones together form the carpal or knee-joint 7wrist of man74 ,of the metacarpals1 the middle one is the largest1 longest1 strongest1 and most important1 and is called the large metacarpal1 cannon1 or shin-bone 7#ae74 ,it articulates at its lower end with the os suffraginis1 or long pastern 7#ag71 and with the two small sesamoid bones 7#bj74 ,on each side of the upper part of its posterior surface lie the two long1 slender splint-bones 7#af74 ,the inner splint-bone is sometimes affected with bony thickenings 7exostoses7 called 8splints40 #f4 ,the bones of the phalanges 7all bones below the cannon7 will be fully described in another place4 ,the bones of the hind limbs articulate directly with the pelvis at the hip-joint4 ,they are stronger than the bones of the anterior limbs4 ,we distinguish the following bones in the hind legs3 #a4 ,the highest bone in the hind limb is the femur 7#ba74 ,it is the strongest bone in the entire body4 ,it lies in an oblique direction downward and forward1 and at its lower end articulates with-- #b4 ,the patella 7#bb71 the tibia 7#bc71 and the fibula 7#bd71 to form the stifle-joint 7knee of man74 ,the patella plays over the anterior surface of the lower end of the femur4 ,the fibula is small1 and lies against the upper and outer side of the tibia4 ,the latter at its lower end articulates with-- #c4 ,the bones of the tarsus1 or hock 7#be71 which are six small1 irregular bones disposed in three rows1 one above another4 ,the os calcis1 or heel-bone1 and the astragalus are in the uppermost row1 and are the most important4 ,the former projects above the true hock-joint from behind1 to form a long lever1 the upper end of which is called the 8point of the hock10 and the latter articulates with the tibia4 ,the tarsal 7hock7 bones articulate below with-- #d4 ,the metatarsal bones 7#bf and #bg71 which are longer1 and the cannon narrower from side to side1 than the corresponding metacarpal bones1 but are otherwise similar4 #e4 ,the phalanges of a hind limb 7#bh to #ca7 are also narrower than those of a fore-limb1 but are nearly alike in other respects4 ,all the horse's bones present small1 but more or less distinct openings 7nutrient foramina7 for the passage of blood-vessels and nerves4 ,many bones possess roughened elevations and depressions1 to which ligaments1 tendons1 or muscles are attached4 ,with the exception of the os pedis1 all bones are enveloped in a sort of 8bone-skin0 called periosteum4 ,the bones unite among themselves to form either movable or immovable unions4 ,a movable union between two or more bones is termed a 8joint10 or articulation4 ,the articulating ends of the bones1 presenting on one side a convex surface 7head or condyle7 and on the other a corresponding concave surface 7glenoid or cotyloid cavity71 are covered with elastic articular cartilage4 ,the bones are bound together by means of ligaments1 which are tough1 fibrous1 cord-like1 or sheet-like structures4 ,ligaments are either 7#a7 capsular or 7#b7 funicular 7cord-like74 ,every articulation in the limbs possesses a capsular ligament1 and all1 except the shoulder-joint1 have several funicular 7cord-like7 ligaments4 ,the capsular ligaments are lined upon their inner face with a delicate membrane 7synovial membrane7 which secretes the synovia1 or 8joint-water10 whose function is to lubricate the joint and prevent friction2 they enclose the joint in a sort of air-tight cuff or sack4 ,the funicular ligaments are very strong and often large1 and are the chief means of union of the bones4 ,the immovable articulations are termed sutures2 they are found principally in the head4 ,the mixed joints are found between the bodies of the vertebr1 each two of which are united by an elastic fibro-cartilage which1 in the form of a pad1 lies between them1 and by its elasticity allows of very slight movement1 though the spinal column as a whole can execute manifold and wide movements1 as shown by the neck and tail4 ,joints which permit motion in all directions are known as free joints2 such are the shoulder- and hip-joints 7ball-and-socket joints74 ,those which admit of motion in but two directions 7flexion and extension71 and often to a very limited extent1 are called hinge-joints1--e4g41 the elbow1 hock1 and fetlock4 ,the joints between the long and short pasterns and between the latter and the pedal bone are imperfect hinge-joints1 because they allow of some other movements besides flexion and extension4 ,the articulation between the first and second cervical vertebr 7atlas and axis7 is called a pivot-joint4 ,the skeleton represents a framework which closely approaches the external form of the body1 and by reason of its hardness and stiffness furnishes a firm foundation for all other parts of the body4 ,by reason of the great variety of position and direction of the bones1 and of the fact that changes of position of each single part of this complicated system of levers may result in the greatest variety of bodily movements1 we can readily understand how the horse is enabled to move from place to place4 ,of course1 the bones have no power of themselves to move1 but this power is possessed by other organs that are attached to the bones4 ,these organs are the muscles1 and1 owing to their ability to contract and shorten themselves1 and afterwards to relax and allow themselves to be stretched out1 they furnish the motive power that is communicated to and moves the bones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,outer ,,muscles ,,of ,,the ,,horse4--#a1 cervical trapezius2 #b1 dorsal trapezius2 #c1 mastoido-humeralis2 #d1 great dorsal muscle2 #e1 long abductor of the arm2 #f1 long extensor of the forearm2 #g1 large extensor of the forearm2 #h1 short extensor of the forearm2 #i1 sterno-trochinus 7deep pectoral72 #aj1 sterno-aponeuroticus2 #aa1 great serratus2 #ab1 common extensor of the metacarpus2 #ac1 common extensor of the toe 7anterior extensor72 #ad1 common extensor of the long pastern 7lateral extensor72 #ae1 oblique extensor of the metacarpus2 #af1 external flexor of the metacarpus2 #ag1 internal flexor of the metacarpus2 #ah1 oblique flexor of the metacarpus2 #ai1 fascia lata2 #bj1 superficial gluteus 7anterior portion72 #ba1 middle gluteus2 #bb1 superficial gluteus 7posterior portion72 #bc and #bd1 femoral biceps2 #be1 semitendinosus2 #bf1 semimembranosus2 #bg1 anterior extensor of the toe2 #bh1 lateral extensor of the toe2 #bi1 perforans muscle 7deep flexor of toe72 #cj1 oblique flexor of the phalanges2 #ca1 perforatus tendon 7superficial flexor of phalanges72 #cb1 ,achilles tendon 7ham-string74 ,the muscles of the body massed together are the red flesh which we observe in every slaughtered animal4 ,they are not1 however1 so shapeless as they appear while in this condition2 on the contrary1 they present well-arranged muscular layers of variable size1 thickness1 length1 and position4 7,see ,fig4 #b47 ,the muscles clothe the skeleton externally1 give the body its peculiar form1 and1 by their special power of contraction1 change the relative positions of the bones and thus make it possible for the animal to move4 ,for this reason1 the muscles are called the active1 and the bones the passive1 organs of motion4 ,by carefully examining a muscle it will be found to consist of actual1 minute1 reddish1 muscular fibres4 ,as a rule1 muscles terminate in more or less strong1 glistening1 fibrous cords called tendons1 or fibrous sheets termed aponeuroses1 by which they are attached to the bones4 ,in the limbs are muscles terminating in very long tendons1 which act as draw-lines upon the distant bones of the foot 7long and short pasterns and pedal bone7 and set them in motion4 ,such long tendons are enclosed in sheaths of thin1 membranous tissue1 known as tendon sheaths4 ,the inner surface of such a sheath is in direct contact with the surface of the tendon1 and secretes a thin slippery fluid 7synovia7 which lubricates the tendon and facilitates its gliding within the sheath4 ,as long as the bones1 articulations1 muscles1 and tendons of the limbs remain healthy1 just so long will the legs maintain their natural direction and position4 ,frequently1 however1 this normal condition of the limbs is gradually altered by disease of the bones1 joints1 and tendons1 and defects in the form and action of the lower parts of the limbs arise that often require attention in shoeing4 ,,the ,,foot4 ,a4 ,the ,bones of the ,foot4 ,since the horse is useful to man only by reason of his movements1 his foot deserves the most careful attention4 ,the horseshoer should be familiar with all its parts4 ,fig4 #c shows the osseous framework of the foot1 consisting of the lower end of the cannon bone 7,a71 the long pastern 7,b71 the two sesamoid bones 7,c71 the short pastern 7,d71 and the pedal bone 7,e74 ,the lower end of the cannon1 or large metacarpal bone 7,a7 exhibits two convex articular surfaces 7condyles7 separated by a median ridge running from before to behind1 and all covered by articular cartilage4 ,on both the external and the internal aspects of the lower end of the cannon are small uneven depressions in which ligaments take their attachment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the condyles of the cannon articulate with the os suffraginis 7long pastern7 and the two sesamoids 7,figs4 #c1 ,c1 and #d1 ,b7 in such a manner that in the forefeet the cannon makes an angle with the long pastern of from one hundred and thirty-five to one hundred and forty degrees1 and in the hind feet of from one hundred and forty to one hundred and forty-five degrees4 ,the long pastern 7first phalanx7 7,fig4 #d1 ,a7 is about one-third the length of the cannon2 its upper and thicker end presents two condyloid cavities 7a7 7glenoid cavities71 separated by a median groove1 which exactly fit the condyles and ridge at the lower end of the cannon4 ,the lower end of the long pastern is smaller than the upper1 and is provided with two condyles1 between which is a shallow groove 7e74 ,the anterior face of the bone is smooth1 rounded from side to side1 and blends into the lateral borders4 ,the posterior face is flatter1 and shows a clearly marked triangle to which ligaments attach4 ,the two sesamoid bones 7,fig4 #d1 ,b7 are small1 and somewhat pyramidal in shape1 and1 lying against the posterior part of the condyles of the cannon bone1 increase the articular surfaces at the upper end of the long pastern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,os suffraginis with both sesamoid bones in position1 as in ,fig4 #c4 ,a1 os suffraginis2 ,b1 sesamoid bones2 a1 upper joint-surface of long pastern2 b1 joint-surface of sesamoid bones2 c1 roughened surface at upper end2 d1 roughened surface at lower end1 both for attachment of ligaments2 e1 lower joint-surface4 ,the short pastern 7second phalanx7 7,figs4 #e and #f7 lies under the first phalanx and above the os pedis2 it is somewhat cubical in shape4 ,its upper articular surface 7,fig4 #e1 a7 presents two glenoid cavities to correspond with the condyles of the first phalanx4 ,the lower articular surface 7,fig4 #e1 d7 resembles the lower end of the first phalanx4 ,the upper posterior border of this bone is prominent and prolonged transversely 7,fig4 #f1 a71 to serve as a supporting ledge for the first phalanx1 as a point of attachment for the perforatus tendon1 and as a gliding surface for the perforans tendon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,short pastern 7os coron7 viewed in front and in profile3 a1 upper joint-surface2 b1 anterior surface2 c1 lateral surface2 d1 lower joint-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,short pastern seen from behind3 a1 smooth surface over which the perforans tendon glides2 b1 lower joint-surface4 ,the lowest bone of the limb is the third phalanx or os pedis 7,fig4 #g74 ,in form it is similar to the hoof4 ,the anterior or wall-surface 7a7 is rough1 like pumice stone4 ,above and in front is the pyramidal eminence to which the tendon of the anterior extensor of the phalanges attaches4 ,behind1 the bone extends backward to form the inner and outer branches 7c1 c7 or wings of the os pedis4 ,the upper1 articular surface 7b7 slopes backward and downward4 ,the lower1 solar or plantar surface 7,fig4 #h1 a7 is slightly concave1 and presents posteriorly a half-moon-shaped excavation1 with a roughened border called the semilunar crest 7c71 to which the perforans tendon attaches2 just above this crest are two small holes 7e7 known as the plantar foramina1 through which the plantar arteries pass into the bone4 ,the surfaces of wall and sole come together in a sharp edge1 which is circular in its course4 ,it is easy to tell whether a pedal bone is from a fore or a hind limb2 the os pedis of a hind leg has a steeper and more pointed toe1 and a more strongly concaved solar surface than the same bone of a fore-leg4 ,not only is the outline of the sharp inferior border of the os pedis of a front foot more rounded at the toe1 but when placed on a flat surface the toe does not touch by reason of being turned slightly upward1 much as a shoe designed to give a 8rolling motion40 ,the os pedis of a hind foot is narrower from side to side 7pointed71 and does not turn up at the toe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,os pedis seen in profile and in front2 a1 anterior face with pyramidal eminence above2 b1 joint-surface2 c1 wings or branches of hoof-bone2 d1 notch which1 by the attachment of the lateral cartilage1 is converted into a foramen and leads to e1 the preplantar fissure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,lower surface of hoof-bone2 a1 anterior portion covered by the velvety tissue of the sole2 b1 wing of the os pedis2 c1 semilunar crest1 to which the perforans tendon attaches2 d1 plantar fissure leading to e1 plantar foramen4 ,the right and left hoof-bones are also1 as a rule1 easily distinguished by variations in the surfaces of wall and sole4 ,the shape of the os pedis corresponds to the form of the horny box or hoof1 and therefore a knowledge of this bone is absolutely necessary4 ,the navicular bone 7os naviculare1 nut-bone1 ,figs4 #i and #aj7 is an accessory or sesamoid bone to the os pedis4 ,it is a small bone1 transversely elongated and situated behind and below the os pedis and between the wings of the latter4 ,it adds to the articular surface of the pedal joint4 ,its under surface is smooth1 and acts as a gliding surface for the perforans tendon1 which is quite wide at this point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,fig4 #i represents the upper surface of the navicular bone2 ,fig4 #aj the lower surface of the same3 a1 anterior border2 b1 slight elevation in middle of under surface4 ,the long axes of the three phalanges 7os suffraginis1 os coron1 and os pedis7 should unite to form a straight line1 when viewed either from in front or from one side2 that is1 the direction of each of these three bones should be the same as the common direction of the three considered as a whole4 ,in young colts both the long and short pasterns are in three parts and the pedal bone in two parts1 all of which unite later in life to form their respective single bones4 ,in mules and asses the os pedis is comparatively small and narrow4 ,in cattle all three phalanges are double1 and split hoofs cover the divided os pedis4 ,b4 ,the ,articulations of the ,foot4 ,there are three articulations in the foot--namely1 the fetlock1 coronary1 and pedal joints4 ,all are hinge-joints1 the fetlock being a perfect hinge-joint1 and the other two imperfect hinge-joints4 ,each has a capsular ligament1 and also several funicular or cord-like ligaments which are placed at the sides of 7lateral ligaments71 or behind 7on the side of flexion7 the joints4 ,i4 ,the fetlock or metacarpo-phalangeal articulation is formed by the condyles at the lower end of the cannon bone and the glenoid cavities formed by the union of the articular surfaces of the sesamoids and the upper end of the first phalanx4 ,the following ligaments are about this joint3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 #a4 ,two lateral ligaments1 an external and an internal 7,fig4 #aa1 a74 #b4 ,two lateral sesamoid ligaments 7f74 #c4 ,an intersesamoid ligament 7,fig4 #ab1 b71 a thick1 fibrous mass1 binding the sesamoid bones almost immovably together1 extending above them and presenting on its posterior face a smooth groove1 in which glide the flexor tendons of the phalanges 7perforans and perforatus74 #d4 ,the suspensory ligament of the fetlock 7,figs4 #aa1 c1 #ab1 c1 and #ac1 c1 pages #bi and #cj74 ,this may also be called the superior sesamoid ligament4 ,it is a long and very powerful brace1 originating on the lower row of carpal bones 7bones of the hock in the hind leg7 and on the upper end of the cannon between the heads of the two splint-bones1 and dividing at the lower third of the cannon into two branches 7c71 which are attached one to each sesamoid bone4 ,below these bones these two branches are prolonged obliquely downward and forward on opposite sides of the long pastern to pass into the borders of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe at about the middle of the long pastern 7,fig4 #ad1 b1 page #cb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,fig4 #aa shows a side view1 and ,figs4 #ab and #ac a posterior view of the phalangeal bones1 with their articular ligaments4 ,the lettering is the same in all three figures3 a1 lateral ligament of fetlock-joint2 b1 intersesamoid ligament2 c1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 d1 median branch of inferior sesamoid ligament2 d1 lateral branches of inferior sesamoid ligament2 e1 deep inferior sesamoid ligament2 f1 lateral sesamoid ligaments2 g1 inferior coronary ligaments2 h1 superior coronary ligaments2 h1 median coronary ligaments2 i1 lateral pedal ligament2 k1 lateral coronary ligament and suspensory ligament of the navicular bone2 l1 interosseous ligament4 #e4 ,the inferior sesamoid ligament 7,figs4 #aa1 d1 #ab1 d1 d1 and #ac1 d1 ,e74 ,this originates at the lowest part of the sesamoid bones and intersesamoid ligament1 and consists of three parts or branches4 ,the median branch 7d7 is the longest and strongest1 and takes its lower attachment in the middle of the fibro-cartilaginous lip found on the upper border of the posterior face of the second phalanx4 ,the two lateral branches 7d7 approach each other as they descend1 and terminate on the sides of the roughened triangle on the posterior face of the first phalanx4 #f4 ,the deep inferior sesamoid ligament 7,fig4 #ac1 e7 is quite short1 and consists of a number of distinct1 thin fibrous bands lying directly against the bone and entirely covered by the median and lateral inferior sesamoid ligaments4 ,these fibrous bands cross one another in passing from the sesamoids to the first phalanx4 ,,ii4 ,the coronary joint is the simplest of the three articulations of the foot4 ,the long pastern furnishes two condyles and the short pastern two glenoid cavities4 ,besides a capsular ligament there are-- #a4 ,two lateral coronary ligaments 7k7 and1 #b4 ,six posterior coronary ligaments1--namely1 two superior coronary ligaments 7h71 two median coronary ligaments 7h71 and two inferior coronary ligaments 7g74 ,,iii4 ,the pedal articulation 78coffin0 joint7 is an imperfect hinge-joint1 and is formed by the condyles at the lower end of the short pastern and the two glenoid cavities in the united upper surfaces of the pedal and navicular bones4 ,besides the capsular ligament 7,figs4 #ab and #ac1 l71 which binds all three bones together1 there are the following accessory ligaments3 #a4 ,two strong lateral ligaments1 an external and an internal 7,fig4 #aa1 i71 whose posterior borders are lost in the lateral cartilages which cover them4 #b4 ,two lateral suspensory ligaments of the navicular bone 7k74 ,they begin on the posterior border and ends of the navicular bone1 and terminate on the lower part of the anterior surface of the os suffraginis1 where they are lost in the lateral ligaments of the coronary articulation4 #c4 ,the lateral ligaments of the lateral cartilages1 navicular bone1 and os pedis4 ,they are short1 and unite the navicular bone with the os pedis and lateral cartilages4 ,of the three phalangeal articulations1 the pedal is the only one that permits of any lateral movement2 hence it is an imperfect hinge-joint4 ,c4 ,the ,locomotory ,organs of the ,foot4 ,though the muscles are the organs which produce motion1 the horseshoer need concern himself only with the tendons of those muscles which extend and flex the phalanges4 ,these tendons are either extensors or flexors4 ,the extensors lie on the anterior face and the flexors on the posterior face of the phalanges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,right forefoot viewed from in front and from the external side3 a1 anterior extensor tendon of the toe2 b1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 b1 branch of the same passing forward and uniting with the extensor tendon of the toe2 c1 extensor tendon of the os suffraginis 7absent in the hind leg71 called the lateral extensor4 ,the anterior extensor of the phalanges 7,fig4 #ad1 a7 extends the long and short pasterns and the hoof-bone2 it is broad1 and made somewhat broader by receiving the branches of the suspensory ligament 7b7 that come from the sesamoid bones4 ,it takes a firm attachment on the pyramidal eminence of the os pedis4 ,in the forefeet the long pastern has a special extensor tendon 7c71 which is known as the lateral extensor4 ,when the muscles to which these tendons are attached act1--that is1 when they draw themselves together1 or contract1 as we term this action1--the foot is carried forward 7extended74 ,there are two flexor tendons of the phalanges1--namely1 the superficial 7perforatus tendon7 and the deep 7perforans tendon74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,right forefoot seen from behind3 a1 lower end of the perforans tendon1 cut through and hanging down1 so that its anterior surface is visible2 a1 lower expanded end 7plantar aponeurosis7 of this tendon1 which attaches itself to the semilunar crest of the os pedis2 a1 shallow groove which receives the slight elevation on the under surface of the navicular bone2 a1 piece of the perforans tendon enclosed by the ring formed by the perforatus tendon2 b1 perforatus tendon bent over backward so that its anterior surface is visible2 b1 ring of the perforatus tendon2 b1 terminal branches of the same2 the perforans tendon passes through the space between these two branches2 c1 navicular bone2 d1 suspensory ligament of the same2 e1 smooth surface on the os coron over which the perforans tendon glides2 f1 the smooth groove 7sesamoid groove7 on the posterior surface of the intersesamoid ligament for the gliding of the perforans tendon2 g1 body of the suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 g1 terminal branches of the same1 attaching to the sesamoid bones4 #a4 ,the superficial flexor or perforatus tendon 7,figs4 #ae1 b1 and #af1 a1 b7 lies behind1 immediately under the skin1 and covers the deep flexor or perforans tendon4 ,at the gliding surface between the sesamoid bones 7,fig4 #ae1 f7 it broadens1 and forms a ring or tube 7,fig4 #ae1 b7 through which the perforans tendon 7a7 passes1 while a short distance farther down it bifurcates1 or divides into two branches 7,figs4 #ae1 b1 and #af1 b71 which terminate1 one on either side1 partly on the inferior lateral borders of the first phalanx and partly on the fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx4 ,it acts simultaneously on the long and short pasterns4 #b4 ,the deep flexor or perforans tendon 7,figs4 #ae1 a1 and #af1 c7 is cylindrical and stronger than the perforatus tendon2 above the fetlock-joint it lies between the perforatus and the suspensory ligament of the fetlock4 ,at the sesamoid bones it passes through the ring formed by the perforatus tendon 7,fig4 #ae1 b71 then becomes broad and double-edged1 passes between the two terminal branches of the perforatus1 glides over the fibro-cartilage of the second phalanx and over the inferior surface of the navicular bone1 and finally ends on the semilunar crest of the third phalanx4 ,in common with the perforatus tendon it flexes the foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,right forefoot seen from behind and a little from the external side3 a1 perforatus tendon2 b1 terminal branches of the same2 c1 perforans tendon2 d1 annular ligament which attaches to the sesamoid bones3 d1 the 8x0 ligament1 which attaches by four branches to the os suffraginis2 d1 an upper branch of the same 7the lower branches are not shown in the figure72 e1 reinforcing sheath of the perforans tendon1 covering the under surface of the latter and attached by its branches at e to the lower end of the os suffraginis2 f1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock4 ,if at a point a few inches above the fetlock a limb be cut through from behind1 the knife will pass successively through the following structures3 skin1 perforatus tendon1 perforans tendon1 suspensory ligament1 cannon bone1 lateral extensor tendon1 anterior extensor tendon1 and1 lastly1 the skin on the anterior surface of the limb4 ,the flexor tendons are frequently thickened and shortened by inflammation due to injury1 and as a result the foot is pulled backward and the hoof gradually becomes more nearly upright1--i4e41 stubby1 steep-toed4 ,a knowledge of the normal condition of the tendons is1 therefore1 absolutely necessary to the horseshoer4 ,both flexor tendons are embraced and held in place by ligaments and fascia passing out from the phalanges 7,figs4 #af1 d1 and #bd1 e1 f74 ,the extensor and flexor tendons essentially contribute to the strong union of the phalangeal bones1 and especially to the support and stability of the fetlock-joint4 ,the gliding of the tendons is made easy by the secretion of a lubricating fluid1 called synovia1 from the inner surface of the sheaths which surround them4 ,in thin-skinned well-bred horses with sound limbs one can not only distinctly feel the tendons through the skin1 but can see their outline4 ,when the tendons and bones are free from all inflammatory thickenings1 and the tendon sheaths are not visibly distended1 we say that the leg is 8clean40 ,mucous ,burs and ,tendon ,sheaths4 ,accessory to the tendons1 there are in the foot roundish1 membranous sacs 7mucous burs7 and membranous tubes 7tendon sheaths74 ,both contain a liquid resembling synovia 78joint-water071 which facilitates the gliding of the tendons4 ,these burs and sheaths are often distended to form soft tumors1 known as hygromata 78wind-puffs10 8wind-galls074 7a7 ,mucous ,burs4--,they lie beneath tendons at those places where the tendons pass over bony prominences4 #a4 ,the mucous bursa of the anterior extensor tendon of the toe is about the size of a walnut1 and lies between the tendon and the capsular ligament of the fetlock-joint 7,figs4 #ag1 g1 and #ah1 e74 #b4 ,the mucous bursa of the extensor tendon of the long pastern 7lateral extensor7 is somewhat smaller1 and lies1 likewise1 beneath the tendon1 between it and the capsular ligament of the fetlock-joint 7,fig4 #ag1 h74 #c4 ,the mucous bursa of the navicular region lies between the under surface 7gliding surface7 of the navicular bone and the flexor pedis perforans tendon 7deep flexor74 ,its width equals the length of the navicular bone1 and it extends upward and downward beyond the bone4 ,above1 it is separated from the sheath of the perforans tendon 78great sesamoid sheath07 by a membranous partition2 below1 it passes to the attachment of the perforans tendon to the semilunar crest of the os pedis4 7b7 ,there is but one tendon sheath in the foot--the sheath common to the two flexor tendons 7great sesamoid sheath74 ,it encloses the flexor tendons from the middle third of the cannon down to the middle of the short pastern1 and is intimately united with the flexor pedis perforans tendon 7,fig4 #ag1 f1 f1 f1 f4 ,fig4 #ah1 d1 d1 d1 d74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,right forefoot seen from the external side2 f1 f1 f1 f1 great sesamoid sheath 7tendon sheath72 g1 mucous bursa beneath anterior extensor tendon of the toe2 h1 mucous bursa beneath extensor tendon of long pastern2 i1 synovial distension of the fetlock-joint2 #g1 suspensory ligament2 #i1 cannon bone2 #aj1 outer sesamoid bone2 #ab1 fetlock-joint2 #ac1 lateral cartilage2 #ad1 suspensory ligament of the lateral cartilage4 7,ellenberger in ,leisering's ,atlas and ,veterinary ,anatomy1 ,sisson1 ,saunders47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,right forefoot seen from the inner side2 d1 d1 d1 d1 great sesamoid sheath2 e1 mucous bursa beneath anterior extensor tendon of the toe2 f1 synovial distension of fetlock-joint2 #aj1 inner sesamoid bone2 #aa1 8x0 ligament2 #ad1 fetlock-joint2 #ae1 lateral cartilage2 #af1 suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage 7,ellenberger in ,leisering's ,atlas and ,veterinary ,anatomy1 ,sisson1 ,saunders47 ,altering the ,relative ,tension of the ,flexor ,tendons and ,suspensory ,ligament of the ,fetlock-,joint4 ,the body-weight imposed at the fetlock-joint is supported1 in large part1 by the suspensory ligament2 somewhat less weight is borne by the perforans tendon1 and a still smaller amount by the perforatus4 ,the coronary joint is supported chiefly by the perforatus1 assisted by the perforans4 ,the pedal joint is pressed forward and upward by the perforans tendon passing in a curve beneath the navicular bone4 ,each of these three structures bears its normal proportion of the body-weight when the three phalanges1 as viewed from the side1 form a continuous straight line from the fetlock-joint to the ground4 ,in such a case the obliquity of the long pastern will be the same as that of the toe 7see ,foot-,axis1 p4 #gj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,right forefoot viewed from the external side3 ,a1 os coron2 ,b1 os pedis2 ,c1 external lateral cartilage2 a1 lateral pedal ligament2 b1 ligament uniting the lateral cartilage with the os coron2 c1 aponeurosis joining lateral cartilage and os pedis4 ,raising the toe by means of a tip1 a full shoe with thinned branches or a toe-calk1 or paring away the quarters will tilt the os pedis backward1 break the foot-axis backward in the pedal joint and to a less extent in the coronary joint1 and increase the tension of the perforans tendon considerably and of the perforatus slightly4 ,these tendons tightening behind the fetlock-joint force it forward1 causing the long pastern to stand steeper1 and taking some strain from the suspensory ligament4 ,hence1 the perforans tendon is under greatest tension1 and the suspensory ligament under least tension1 when the foot-axis is broken strongly backward4 ,shortening the toe1 or raising the quarters by heel-calks or thickened branches1 will tilt the os pedis forward1 break the foot-axis forward in the pedal joint1 and will greatly lessen the tension of the perforans tendon4 ,the aggregate tension of perforans and perforatus tendons being diminished1 the fetlock sinks downward and backward1 the long pastern assumes a more nearly horizontal direction1 and the tension of the suspensory ligament is increased4 ,thus1 the perforans tendon is under least tension1 and the suspensory ligament under greatest strain1 when the foot-axis is broken strongly forward4 ,d4 ,the ,elastic ,parts of the ,foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,os pedis and inner face of one lateral cartilage2 a1 toe of os pedis2 a1 pyramidal eminence to which the extensor tendon attaches2 a1 wing of pedal bone2 b1 lateral cartilage2 ,c1 points of attachment of suspensory ligament of lateral cartilage2 d1 point of insertion of ligament to the short pastern2 e1 point of insertion of ligaments from navicular bone4 ,all bodies which under pressure or traction change their form1 but return again to their original shape as soon as the pressure or traction ceases1 are called elastic or springy4 ,nearly all parts of the horse's foot1 except the bones1 possess more or less elasticity4 ,the lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion are elastic to a high degree1 but the coronary band1 the lamin1 the articular cartilage1 and the horny box or hoof are less elastic4 ,this property or characteristic is possessed by the respective parts of the foot in accordance with their function1 location1 and structure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,plantar cushion seen from below3 a1 base or bulb of the plantar cushion2 b1 summit2 c1 median lacuna or cleft in which lies the 8frog-stay0 of the horny frog4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,plantar cushion seen from above3 a1 base 7bulbs7 of same2 b1 summit2 c1 suspensory ligament of plantar cushion2 d1 place at which the elastic ligament connecting the os suffraginis and the lateral cartilage unites with the plantar cushion4 ,the two lateral cartilages 7,figs4 #ai1 ,c and #bj1 b7 are irregular1 quadrangular plates1 attached to the wings of the os pedis1 and extending so far upward and backward that one can feel them yield to pressure on the skin above the coronet1 and can thus test their elasticity4 ,the perforans tendon and the plantar cushion lie between the lateral cartilages1 and on the sides and behind are partially enclosed by them4 ,the internal concave surface of the lateral cartilage 7,fig4 #bj7 is attached to the plantar cushion1 the os pedis1 and the navicular bone1 and1 like the external1 slightly convex surface1 is covered with many blood-vessels 7veins7 ,fig4 #be1 ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,section lengthwise through middle of the plantar cushion3 a1 glome 7bulb7 of heels2 b1 apex or point of fleshy frog2 c1 fibro fatty tissue of plantar cushion2 d1 median cleft which receives the frog-stay of the horny frog4 ,the plantar cushion 7,figs4 #ba1 #bb1 #bc7 is composed almost entirely of yellow elastic and white fibrous tissues1 with adipose 7fat7 cells distributed throughout their substance4 ,it is similar in form to the horny frog1 and lies between it and the perforans tendon 7,fig4 #bd1 a74 ,the bulbs are formed by the posterior thicker portion which lies between the lateral cartilages and is divided into two parts by the cleft or median lacuna 7,figs4 #ba1 a1 and #bc1 d74 ,the summit is attached to the plantar face of the os pedis in front of the semilunar crest1 and the bulbs are attached to the lateral cartilages4 ,it is covered inferiorly by the velvety tissue of the frog 7pododerm74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,right forefoot viewed from below1 behind1 and the external side4 ,this figure shows clearly the position of the plantar cushion4 ,the external lateral cartilage and the tissues covering the plantar cushion and under surface of the os pedis 7velvety tissue of the sole and fleshy frog7 have been removed3 a1 fleshy frog or plantar cushion2 a1 bulbs of plantar cushion2 the remaining visible parts belong to the so-called 8fleshy frog20 a1 groove 7median lacuna7 in the lower surface of the fleshy frog1 in which lies the frog-stay of the horny frog2 b1 suspensory ligament of the plantar cushion passing out of the bulbs2 b1 small elastic cords passing to the lateral cartilage2 c1 elastic ligament coming from the lateral cartilage and uniting with the suspensory ligament of the plantar cushion2 d1 small tendinous cord beginning in the skin behind the fetlock-joint and ending on the os suffraginis in common with b and c2 e1 tendinous reinforcing sheath of the perforans tendon2 f1 reinforcing stay of the perforatus tendon2 g1 perforatus tendon2 h1 perforans tendon2 i1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 k1 plantar surface of the os pedis1 to which the plantar cushion is joined by fibrous bands4 ,e4 ,the ,blood-,vessels and ,nerves4 ,vessels which carry blood from the heart to the tissues are called arteries1 while those which return the blood to the heart from the tissues are called veins4 ,arteries and veins are connected by very small1 thread-like vessels called capillaries1 which originate in the smallest arteries and are so minute that they can not be seen without the aid of a microscope4 ,the capillaries penetrate the soft tissues in every direction1 and finally unite to form small veins4 ,for our purpose we need consider only the arteries and veins4 ,the arteries carrying blood from the heart ramify and subdivide in all parts of the body1 and thus reach the foot4 ,they are thick-walled1 very elastic tubes1 without valves1 and carry bright-red blood1 which flows in spurts1 as can be seen when an artery is cut4 ,if a finger be pressed lightly over an artery lying near the surface1 the blood-wave can be felt as a light stroke 7pulse74 ,the character of the pulse is important1 because in inflammations of the pododerm or horn-producing membrane of the foot we can ascertain by feeling that the pulse is stronger than usual in the large arteries carrying blood to the inflamed foot4 ,on either side of the phalanges below the fetlock-joint there lies an artery called the digital artery 7,fig4 #be1 a74 ,the pulse can be felt in it as it passes over the fetlock at ,a1 ,fig4 #be4 ,it gives off the following collateral 7side7 branches3 #a4 ,the artery of the first phalanx 7perpendicular artery71 with anterior and posterior branches4 #b4 ,the artery of the plantar cushion1 which supplies with blood the plantar cushion1 the velvety tissue of the sole and frog1 the bar portion of the coronary band1 and the sensitive lamin of the bars4 #c4 ,the coronary artery1 which carries blood to the coronary band1 os coron1 ligaments of the coronary and pedal joints1 flexor tendons1 and skin4 ,the terminal branches of the digital arteries are the preplantar and plantar ungual arteries4 ,the preplantar artery passes through the notch in the wing of the os pedis1 then along the preplantar fissure1 splitting up into many branches1 which spread over and penetrate the porous surface of the os pedis4 ,the plantar artery courses along the plantar fissure1 enters the plantar foramen1 and passes into the semilunar sinus of the os pedis1 where it unites with the terminal branch of the opposite digital artery1 forming the semilunar arch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,side view of forefoot1 showing blood-vessels and nerves3 a1 digital artery2 b1 anterior artery of the os suffraginis2 d1 anterior coronary artery1 or circumflex artery of the coronet2 e1 preplantar ungual artery2 f1 inferior communicating arteries passing out from the semilunar artery of the os pedis1 through minute holes just above the lower border of the bone2 they unite to form 7f7 the circumflex artery of the toe2 ,a1 digital vein2 ,b1 superficial venous plexus of coronary band and lateral cartilage2 ,c1 podophyllous venous plexus2 ,g1 circumflex vein of the toe2 #a1 plantar nerve2 #b1 anterior digital branch of same2 #c1 posterior digital branch of same2 #d1 small cutaneous branches of same4 ,after the arterial or pure blood passes through the capillaries it is collected by the veins1 to be returned to the heart2 then it is driven to the lungs for purification1 and is again returned to the heart1 from whence it is pumped through the arteries to all parts of the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,foot viewed from below and behind3 a1 digital arteries2 c1 arteries of the plantar cushion2 f1 small branches of the semilunar artery of the os pedis1 which ramify in the velvety tissue of the sole2 ,a1 digital vein2 ,b1 venous plexus of the heels or bulbs2 ,d1 solar venous plexus2 ,g1 circumflex vein of the toe2 #c1 posterior digital branch of the plantar nerve2 #d1 cutaneous branches of the same4 ,the veins are more numerous than the arteries2 they have thinner walls1 and the larger ones are provided with valves that prevent the impure blood from flowing backward4 ,the veins carry impure or dark-red blood towards the heart1 and if one is opened the dark blood flows in a steady stream2 it does not spurt4 ,the great number of veinlets in the lower parts of the foot form a complex net-work 7plexus7 of vessels which are in such manifold and close union with one another that checking the flow of blood in one part does not seriously interfere with the flowing of the blood towards the larger veins4 ,the following are the most important of these net-works of veins or venous plexuses3 7#a7 the solar venous plexus 7,fig4 #bf1 ,d72 7#b7 the podophyllous venous plexus 7,fig4 #be1 ,c72 7#c7 superficial coronary venous plexus 7,fig4 #be1 ,b72 7#d7 bulbar venous plexus 7,fig4 #bf1 ,b74 ,all these plexuses of small veins contribute to form the digital veins 7,figs4 #be and #bf1 ,a74 ,nerves are roundish white cords which come from the brain and spinal cord2 they generally accompany arteries4 ,they divide and subdivide into smaller and smaller branches till they become invisible to the naked eye and are lost in the tissues4 ,the nerves that are found in the foot come from the spinal cord1 and because the largest nerves of the foot accompany the digital arteries they are called digital nerves 7,fig4 #be1 #a74 ,the branches ramify throughout all parts of the foot except the horny box and the hair4 ,nerves1 according to their use or function1 are classed as motor and sensory4 ,the motor nerves end in muscles which they stimulate to action and control4 ,the sensory nerves terminate in the skin and in the soft tissues just under the horny box or hoof 7pododerm71 and render these parts sensitive2 that is1 they convey certain feelings1 as1 for example1 the pain caused by bruising1 pricking1 or close-nailing1 to the brain and consciousness4 ,f4 ,the ,protective ,organs of the ,foot4 ,the protective organs are the skin and the horny box or hoof4 ,the external skin1 or hide1 covers the entire body2 in the feet it covers the bones1 tendons1 and ligaments1 even passing in under the hoof and directly covering the os pedis4 ,this portion of the skin1 enclosed by the hoof and therefore invisible1 is called the pododerm or foot-skin4 ,in ,germany it is called the hoof-skin 7huflederhaut71 because it is a continuation of the outer visible skin1 and because it secretes the hoof1--that is1 the hoof is produced by it4 ,that part of the skin which is covered with hair is known as the external or hair-skin4 7a7 ,the hair-skin 7,fig4 #bg1 a7 consists of three superposed layers1--7#a7 the external superficial layer1 or epidermis2 7#b7 the middle layer1 derm or leather-skin 7so-called because leather is made from it72 7#c7 the internal layer1 or subcutaneous connective tissue4 #a4 ,the external layer1 or epidermis1 is composed merely of single flattened1 horn-like cells 7scales7 lying side by side and over one another1 and uniting to form one entire structure1--a thin1 horn-like layer1 without blood-vessels or nerves4 ,it extends over the entire surface of the body1 and protects the underlying1 very sensitive middle layer from external influences4 ,the oldest cell-layers lie on the outer surface1 and are being continuously brushed off in patches or scales1 while new ones are constantly being formed on the outer surface of the middle layer4 #b4 ,the middle layer1 leather-skin or dermis1 is composed of solid1 fibrous1 and elastic tissues1 and contains many blood-vessels1 small nerves1 sweat-and oil-glands1 and hair follicles from which the hair grows4 ,the hair upon the posterior surface of the fetlock-joint is usually long and coarse1 forming a tuft known as the 8foot-lock10 which encloses a horny spur1 called the ergot4 ,common-bred horses have1 as a rule1 larger and coarser footlocks than thoroughbreds4 ,the derm or leather-skin1 which produces the hair and epiderm1 is the thickest and most important layer of the skin4 #c4 ,the inner layer1 or subcutaneous tissue1 unites the middle layer with the muscles1 tendons1 ligaments1 bones1 or other structures4 ,it is that loose fibrous mesh or net-work through which the butcher cuts in removing the hide from the carcass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,foot from which the horny capsule or hoof1 has been removed by prolonged soaking3 a1 skin2 on the left the hair has been rubbed away2 b1 perioplic band2 c1 coronary cushion2 d1 podophyllous tissue 7fleshy leaves72 at the lower border of the figure can be seen the minute thread-like processes or villi which grow down from the lower end of each fleshy leaf4 7b7 ,the hoof-skin 7,figs4 #bg and #bh1 b1 c1 d71 or pododerm1 is completely enclosed by the hoof4 ,although it is only an extension of the derm or middle layer of the hair-skin1 it differs from the latter in structure and relations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,foot from which the near half of the horny wall and a greater part of the so-called fleshy wall have been removed1 in order to show the relation of the lateral cartilage to adjacent structures3 a1 vertical section of the skin prolonged downward through the pododerm 7foot-skin7 to show clearly that the latter is but a continuation of the former2 a1 hairless place on the skin2 b1 perioplic band2 b1 line indicating the upper border of the same2 b1 surface of section of the periople1 or perioplic horn-band2 c1 coronary cushion2 c1 7left7 line which marks the upper border of the coronary cushion2 c1 section of wall at the toe2 d1 podophyllous tissue 7sensitive lamin72 e1 horny sole2 f1 white line2 g1 horny frog2 h1 fleshy frog2 i1 lateral cartilage4 ,in order to study the pododerm we should not wrench the hoof off with violence1 but should allow the foot to partially decompose by leaving it for six to eight days at ordinary room temperature2 it can then be removed without injuring the pododerm4 ,after the hoof has been removed the entire pododerm presents a more or less dark-red color 7flesh-color71 which is due to the great number of blood-vessels that it contains4 ,for this reason different parts of the pododerm have received the prefix 8fleshy10 as for example1 fleshy wall1 fleshy sole1 fleshy frog1 etc4 ,the pododerm is what the uninformed horseshoer calls the 8quick40 ,i will here remark that the three layers of the external or hair-skin are represented in the foot2 however1 the epidermis is in an entirely different form1--namely1 the horny box or hoof4 ,the internal layer or subcutaneous tissue of the hair-skin is absent in those parts of the foot where the pododerm covers the os pedis4 ,there remains1 therefore1 only the middle layer1 derm1 or pododerm1 which secretes the hoof1 and which is the prolongation and representative of the middle layer of the hair-skin4 ,the pododerm is distinguished from the derm of the hair-skin chiefly by the absence of hairs1 oil- and sweat-glands1 and the presence on its outer surface of fleshy1 sensitive lamin and small thread-like projections called villi4 ,the pododerm consists of five different parts3 the perioplic band1 the coronary band1 the sensitive lamin 7podophyllous tissue71 the velvety tissue of the sole1 and the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog4 #a4 ,the perioplic band 7,fig4 #bh1 b7 is a narrow ridge1 about one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch wide1 lying between the hair-skin and the coronary band4 ,somewhat broader at the toe than on the sides1 it broadens out near the bulbs of the heels1 over which it passes to end in the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog4 ,it is separated from the coronary band by a narrow depression called the coronary furrow 7,moeller74 ,the surface of the perioplic band glistens faintly1 and is thickly studded with numerous thread-like projections called villi1 which are from one-twenty-fourth to one-twelfth of an inch in length4 ,the perioplic band secretes the soft horn of the perioplic ring and the perioplic or varnish-like outer layer of the wall4 #b4 ,the coronary band 7,fig4 #bg1 c7 lies between the perioplic band and the sensitive lamin or fleshy leaves4 ,it presents a prominent convex band or cushion about three-fourths of an inch wide1 which extends entirely around the foot from one bulb of the heel to the other4 ,in front it directly covers the anterior extensor tendon of the toe1 and at the sides the lateral surfaces of the os coron and the upper part of the lateral cartilages1 while farther back towards the heels the lateral cartilages project considerably above both coronary and perioplic bands4 ,the coronary band is more convex 7rounded7 in front than on the sides of the foot1 and is flattened in the region of the bulbs of the heels4 ,its surface is thickly covered with villi1 which are longer and stronger than those of the perioplic band4 ,at the bulbs of the heels the coronary band turns forward and inward along the fleshy frog nearly to its summit4 ,this portion of the coronary band is from one-third to one-half an inch wide1 and is called the bar portion of the coronary band4 ,it is also covered with villi1 which are directly continuous with those of the fleshy frog4 ,the coronary band secretes the principal part 7middle layer7 of the horny wall of the hoof1 including the bar portion 7bars7 of the wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,plantar surface of a foot deprived of its horny capsule by prolonged maceration3 a1 lamin of the bars2 b1 velvety tissue of the sole2 c1 velvety tissue of the frog2 d1 median cleft of the fleshy frog1 into which the velvety tissue dips2 e1 bulbar portion of the perioplic band1 which passes insensibly into the velvety tissue of the fleshy frog4 #c4 ,the fleshy wall1 or podophyllous tissue 7,figs4 #bg1 #bh1 d1 and #bi1 a71 is all that portion of the pododerm on which there are fleshy leaves4 ,this leafy tissue covers the anterior surface of the os pedis and the lower portion of the external surface of the lateral cartilages4 ,at the bulbs of the heels it turns inward at a sharp angle and extends forward and inward1 between the bar portion of the coronary band and the posterior part of the velvety tissue of the sole1 nearly to the middle of the solar surface of the foot1 to form the lamin of the bars 7,fig4 #bi1 a74 ,the fleshy wall and fleshy bars are not covered with villi1 but with numerous prominent1 parallel1 fleshy leaves placed close together1 each of which runs in a straight line downward and forward from the coronary band to the lower border of the os pedis4 ,between the fleshy leaves are deep furrows in which1 in a foot which has not been deprived of its horny capsule1 lie the horny or insensitive leaves of the wall4 ,the fleshy leaves 7podophyllous lamin7 are related to one another somewhat as the leaves of a book2 their posterior borders are attached to the body or basement membrane of the fleshy wall1 while their anterior borders and sides are free4 ,at their upper ends immediately below the coronary band the leaves are quite narrow1 but they gradually increase in width down to the middle1 and thereafter maintain that breadth to the lower border of the os pedis1 where they terminate in free1 fleshy villi1 which differ in no respect from those of the fleshy sole4 ,the number and length of the fleshy leaves vary2 in a medium-sized foot there are about five hundred1 while in a large foot there may be as many as six hundred4 ,on the anterior surface of the os pedis the leaves are thickest and longest2 on the sides and quarters they gradually decrease in length1 while in the bar region they are the shortest and gradually disappear near the anterior ends of the bars4 ,the width of the leaves decreases as they become shorter4 ,viewed with the naked eye the leaves appear flat and smooth1 but under the microscope one can see on both sides of a fleshy leaf numerous small1 fleshy leaflets parallel to one another and extending lengthwise with the larger leaf4 ,the large ones are called principal leaves1 and the small ones are known as collateral leaves1 or simply as leaflets4 ,the fleshy leaves 7podophyllous tissue7 secrete the horny leaves 7keraphyllous tissue7 and serve to bind the horny wall to the pododerm4 ,the strength of this union is due largely to the dovetailing of the horny leaves and their leaflets with the fleshy leaves and their leaflets4 #d4 ,the fleshy sole or velvety tissue of the sole 7,fig4 #bi1 b7 is that part of the pododerm which covers all the under surface of the foot except the plantar cushion1 the bar lamin1 and the bar portion of the coronary band4 ,it is sometimes slate-colored or studded with black spots1 but is usually dark-red4 ,it is thickly set with villi1 which are especially long and strong#a near its periphery4 ,the fleshy sole covers the solar plexus1 or net-work of veins1 and secretes the horny sole4 #a ,in order to see the length1 thickness1 and abundance of the villi of the pododerm1 place the foot deprived of its hoof in a clear glass jar and cover it with water1 renewing the latter until it is no longer tinged with blood4 #e4 ,the velvety tissue of the frog 7,fig4 #bi1 c7 covers the lower surface of the plantar cushion1 and in the region of the bulbs 7e7 passes insensibly into the perioplic band4 ,in comparison with the fleshy sole1 it has much finer and shorter villi and contains fewer blood-vessels4 ,it secretes the soft1 horny frog4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,side view of hoof recently removed3 a1 the perioplic horn-band2 it is swollen from prolonged maceration in water2 the upper border shows adhering hairs2 the inner surface 7perioplic groove7 presents many minute openings2 a1 the perioplic horn-band broadens in passing over the bulb or glome of the heel1 and is finally lost in the horny frog2 a1 section of wall removed4 ,that part of hoof on the right of b is called the toe2 between b and c is the side wall or 8mamma10 and between c and d the 8quarter20 e1 projecting horny frog2 f1 coronary groove with numerous minute openings2 g1 keraphyllous layer of the wall 7horny leaves74 7c7 ,the horn capsule or hoof 7,fig4 #cj7 is the entire mass made up of the horn-cells secreted from the whole surface of the pododerm1 and next to the shoe is the organ with which the horseshoer has most to do4 ,the horn capsule or hoof is nothing more than a very thick epidermis that protects the horse's foot1 just as a well-fitting shoe protects the human foot4 ,the hoof of a sound foot is so firmly united with the underlying pododerm that only an extraordinary force can separate them4 ,in its normal condition the hoof exactly fits the soft structures within it2 hence it is evident that local or general contraction of the hoof must produce pressure on the blood-vessels and nerve-endings of the pododerm1 disturb the circulation of the blood and the nutrition of the foot1 and cause pain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,plantar surface of right fore-hoof3 a1 a1 bearing-surface of the toe2 a1 b1 bearing-surface of the side walls or mamm2 b1 c1 bearing-surface of the quarters2 d1 buttress1 or angle formed by wall and bar2 e1 bar2 f1 sole2 f1 branches of the sole2 g1 white line2 it passes between the sole and bars and ends at g2 h1 horny frog2 i1 branches of the frog2 k1 heels1 bulbs1 or glomes of the hoof2 l1 median lacuna of horny frog4 ,between the bars and the horny frog lie the lateral lacun of the frog4 ,the hoof is divided into three principal parts1 which are solidly united in the healthy foot1--namely1 the wall1 the sole1 and the frog4 ,that part of the hoof which is almost wholly visible when the foot is on the ground 7,fig4 #cj1 b1 c71 and which protects the foot in front and upon the sides1 is known as the wall4 ,in position1 course1 direction1 and arrangement of its parts it simulates the different parts of the pododerm from which it is developed4 ,it extends from the edge of the hair just above the coronary band to the ground2 backward it gradually decreases in height 7length71 passes around the bulbs of the heels1 and turns forward and inward 7,fig4 #cb1 d1 e1 and #cd1 a1 b7 to form the bars1 which are finally lost in the edge of the sole near the summit of the frog4 ,it thus forms at each heel an angle 7,fig4 #ca1 d1 and #cb1 d7 known as a buttress1 which encloses a branch of the horny sole4 ,externally the wall is smooth1 covered with the varnish-like periople1 and presents indistinct ring-like markings 7,fig4 #cj74 ,its inner surface1 on the contrary1 presents a great number of horn-leaves which are spoken of collectively as the keraphyllous tissue 7,figs4 #cb1 g1 and #ce1 f74 ,the upper or coronary border of the wall is thin and flexible1 and on its inner aspect is the coronary groove1 into which fits the coronary band 7,fig4 #cj1 f74 ,the lower border of the wall1 called the 8bearing-edge0 or plantar border 7,fig4 #ca1 a71 is the one to which the horseshoe is fastened4 ,by dividing a hoof from before to behind along its median line1 outer and inner halves or walls are produced1 and by dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal parts or sections1 a toe1 two side walls or mamm1 and two quarters will be exhibited 7,figs4 #cb and #cc74 ,in order to designate these regions of the hoof still more accurately1 they are spoken of as outer and inner toes1 quarters1 and heels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,wall and bars seen from below3 a1 toe2 b1 side wall1 or mamma2 c1 quarter2 d1 buttress2 e1 bar2 g1 horn-leaves2 h1 space occupied by the frog4 ,the direction 7slant7 and length of the wall vary in one and the same hoof1 as well as between fore and hind hoofs4 ,the portion of the wall of fore-hoofs is the most slanting1--that is1 forms the most acute angle with the surface of the ground1--and is also the longest4 ,towards the quarters the wall gradually becomes very nearly vertical2 in almost all hoofs the posterior part of the quarters slants downward and inward towards the median vertical antero-posterior plane of the foot4 ,at the same time the wall1 in passing back from the toe to the heel1 becomes gradually shorter in such a manner that the heights of the toe1 side walls1 and quarters are related to one another about as #c3 #b3 #a in front hoofs and as #d3 #c3 #b in hind hoofs4 ,the outer wall is1 as a rule1 somewhat more slanting than the inner4 ,viewing a foot in profile1 the toe and heel should be parallel2 that is1 the line from the hair to the ground at the toe should be parallel to the line from the hair to the ground at the buttress4 ,all deviations of the wall from a straight line 7outward or inward bendings7 are to be regarded as faults or defects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,a hoof in profile2 a1 toe 7one half72 b1 side wall2 c1 quarter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,vertical section through the middle of a hoof1 with horny frog removed1 to show the position of the bar3 a1 b1 marks the line at which the wall bends forward and inward towards the median line of the foot to become the bar4 ,bar runs forward and passes imperceptibly into the sole c2 a1 a1 the light shading shows the part of the bar that was in contact with the horny frog4 ,the thickness of the wall is also variable4 ,in front hoofs the wall is thickest at the toe1 and becomes gradually thinner towards the quarters1 while in hind hoofs1 there is very little difference in the thickness of the wall of the toe1 sides1 and quarters4 ,the more slanting half of the hoof is always the thicker2 thus1 for example1 the outer wall of a base-wide foot is always longer and more oblique than the inner wall1 and is also thicker4 ,according to ,mayer1 the thickness of the wall at the toe varies from three- to five-eighths of an inch1 and at the quarters from two to three-eighths of an inch4 ,these measurements are dependent upon the size and breeding of the horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,the outer wall of the hoof has been removed by cutting vertically through the middle of the toe1 down to the upper surface of the sole1 then horizontally backward into the quarter1 and1 finally1 upward through the quarter3 a1 perioplic horn-band2 b1 coronary groove2 it turns inward and forward at c to form the upper border of the bar2 d1 surface of section of the wall at the toe2 d1 at the quarter2 e1 surface of horizontal section of the wall near its lower border2 f1 keraphyllous layer of the wall2 at f it turns forward and inward to cover the bar2 f1 horny leaves standing free and passing insensibly into the white horn of the middle layer or true wall2 g1 horny sole2 h1 white line2 i1 small horn-spur in middle of toe2 k1 part of horny frog which is in intimate union with the upper edge of the bar2 l1 frog-stay of horny frog2 it divides the trough-like depression of the upper surface of the frog into m1 the two upper channels of the frog4 ,the horn wall is composed of three superposed layers4 ,these from without to within are3 7#a7 the periople1 secreted by the perioplic band4 ,it is very thin1 glistening1 and varnish-like in appearance1 and covers the entire outer surface of the wall1 except where it has been removed by the rasp1 and prevents rapid evaporation of moisture from the horn4 7#b7 ,the middle or protective layer 7,fig4 #ce1 d7 is the thickest1 strongest1 and most important of the three layers2 it forms the principal mass of the wall1 and is developed or secreted by the coronary band1 which fits into the coronary groove4 ,there are in the coronary groove a great number of small1 funnel-shaped openings into which project the horn-producing villi or papill of the coronary band4 7#c7 ,the inner layer or keraphyllous layer 7,fig4 #ce1 f7 consists of prominent1 parallel horn-leaves lying side by side over the entire inner surface of the middle layer of the wall1 and continuing beyond the buttresses to the ends of the bars 7,fig4 #ce1 f74 ,this layer of horn-leaves 7keraphyllous layer7 has in a general way about the same shape and arrangement as the layer of fleshy leaves 7podophyllous layer7 which secretes it2 for the horn-leaves fit in with the fleshy leaves in such a way that every fleshy leaf is embraced by two horn-leaves1 and every horn-leaf by two fleshy leaves 7,fig4 #cf74 ,the keraphyllous layer and the horn of the inmost part of the middle or protective layer are always white1 even in pigmented 7colored7 hoofs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,cross-section of keraphyllous and podophyllous lamin 7horny and fleshy leaves73 a1 inmost part of the solid wall2 the horn-tubes approach very close to the horny leaves2 b1 body of the podophyllous membrane2 c1 horny portion of a horn-leaf directly continuous with the middle or principal layer of the wall2 c1 a rudimentary horn-leaf that does not reach the body of the podophyllous membrane2 c1 cross-section of horny leaves from the sides of which branch many secondary leaves 7leaflets7 composed of soft 7young7 horn-cells4 ,these soft cellular horn-leaflets dovetail with the podophyllous or fleshy leaflets2 d1 podophyllous lamin extending from the body of the podophyllous membrane2 d1 podophyllous lamin which have branched in their course to the wall1 and thus given rise to c1 rudimentary horn-leaves2 d1 cross-section of podophyllous leaflets extending from the sides of the podophyllous leaves2 each two such leaflets secrete a keraphyllous leaflet between them2 e1 injected arterial vessels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,vertical section of the horny sole magnified3 a1 funnel-shaped openings which contain the horn-producing villi of the fleshy sole2 they are of various sizes2 b1 horn-tubes2 c1 intertubular horn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,horny frog1 with the posterior portion of the perioplic horn-band and the periople which covers the quarters removed from the hoof as one piece by maceration3 a1 trough-shaped depression of upper surface1 which is divided posteriorly into the two upper channels of the frog by b1 the frog-stay2 c1 part of the frog that is joined to the bar and forms the lateral wall of the depression 7channels7 on upper surface of frog2 d1 lateral surface of horny frog which1 in its upper part1 adheres to the bar1 but below1 at d1 lies free2 e1 point or summit of the frog2 f1 perioplic horn-band2 f1 periople of the quarters4 ,the horn sole 7,fig4 #ca1 f1 and ,fig4 #ce1 g7 is secreted by the velvety tissue of the sole4 ,a sole from which the loose flakes of old horn have been removed is about as thick as the wall4 ,it covers the under surface of the foot1 and presents upon its upper surface a convexity which exactly fits into the concavity on the under surface of the os pedis4 ,this upper surface is thickly covered by a multitude of minute funnel-shaped openings for the reception of the villi of the velvety tissue of the sole 7,fig4 #cg74 ,the lower surface of the sole is more or less concave1 rough1 uneven1 and often covered by loose scales of dead horn4 ,behind1 the sole presents a triangular opening whose borders lie partly in contact with the horny frog and partly with the bars4 ,this opening or re-entering angle divides the sole into a body 7,fig4 #ca1 f7 and two wings or branches 7,fig4 #ca1 f74 ,the outer border of the sole unites through the medium of the white line with the lower part of the inner surface of the wall1--that is1 with the keraphyllous layer of the wall4 ,this white line 7,figs4 #ca1 g1 and #ce1 h71 of so much importance to the horseshoer1 is formed by the horn-leaves1 and by those short plugs of tubular horn which are secreted by the villi that are always found at the lower ends of the fleshy leaves4 ,the white line may be said to exist wherever the horn-leaves can be discerned upon the plantar surface of the hoof4 ,it not only passes around the circumference of the sole from heel to heel1 but may be followed forward from the buttresses along the bars almost to the summit of the frog4 ,the horn of the white line is soft1 unpigmented 7white71 and possesses so very little resistance 7strength7 that it is often found crumbling or even absent in places4 ,the visible part of the white line is usually of a grayish-black color1 owing to the working in from below of dirt and liquid manure1 and to staining by rust from the nails4 ,the white line is very important1 since it serves as the point from which we judge of the thickness of the wall1 and because the horseshoe nail should penetrate it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,a horny frog cut vertically and lengthwise through its middle3 a1 upper surface2 b1 frog-stay2 c1 median lacuna of frog1 which at c1 is overlaid with superposed layers of horn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,longitudinal section of the wall magnified4 ,the dark stripes parallel and close together are horn-tubes2 the lighter surface between the tubes represents the intertubular horn4 ,notice that the horn-tubes are of various diameters4 ,the space between a and b represents the small tubes of the outer1 darker horn of the principal 7middle7 layer of the wall2 the space between b and c the lighter1 inner horn of the wall2 c1 d1 the horn separating the wall proper from the horny leaves2 d1 e1 the horny leaves 7keraphyllous tissue71 on which can be seen fine1 parallel1 vertical stripes2 in the horn-leaf at f1 f1 are seen fissures passing obliquely upward and outward towards the wall4 ,the ,frog 7,figs4 #ca1 h1 #ce1 k1 l1 #ch and #ci71 secreted by the velvety tissue covering the plantar cushion and presenting almost the same form as the latter1 lies as a wedge between the bars and between the edges of the sole just in front of the bars1 with both of which structures it is intimately united4 ,its horn is quite soft and very elastic4 ,the median lacuna or cleft of the frog 7,fig4 #ca1 l7 divides it into two branches 7,fig4 #ca1 i71 which pass backward and outward into the horny bulbs 7,fig4 #ca1 k74 ,in front of the median lacuna the two branches unite to form the body of the frog 7,fig4 #ca1 h71 which ends in a point1 designated the point1 apex1 or summit of the frog4 ,on the upper surface of the frog1 directly over the median cleft of the lower surface1 there is a small projection called the frog-stay 7,figs4 #ce1 l1 #ch and #ci1 b71 which fits into the median cleft of the plantar cushion4 ,besides1 the upper surface of the frog shows many minute openings1 similar to but smaller than those of the sole and coronary groove1 for the reception of villi4 ,in unshod hoofs the frog1 sole1 bars1 and bearing-edge of the wall are on a level2 that is1 the plantar surface of such hoofs is perfectly flat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,cross-section of the wall1 magnified3 a1 horn-tubes2 b1 intertubular horn4 ,the minute structure of the horn can scarcely be considered in detail in an elementary treatise such as this is4 ,however1 a few of the most important facts are as follows3 ,if we carefully examine a transverse section of the horn of the wall 7,fig4 #da71 sole1 or frog1 we will see with the naked eye1 though much better with a magnifying glass1 many minute points quite close to one another1 and greatly resembling the small openings which we have seen in the coronary groove of the wall and on the upper surface of the horny sole and frog4 ,if1 now1 we examine a longitudinal section of the wall 7,fig4 #dj7 or sole1 we will see a number of fine1 dark stripes which are straight1 parallel1 quite close to one another1 of different widths1 and which are separated by bands of lighter horn also of different widths4 ,a thin section or slice of the wall taken at right angles to the direction of these dark lines 7,fig4 #da7 shows us that the minute points that are visible to the naked eye1 when held up to the light or moderately magnified1 prove to be small openings 7,fig4 #da1 a74 ,since these openings1 shown in ,fig4 #da1 represent the dark lines shown in ,fig4 #dj1 because an opening is found wherever there is a dark line1 we must regard all dark lines seen in longitudinal sections of wall1 sole1 and frog as hollow cylinders or tubes1 though they are not always hollow1 but are often filled with loosely adjusted1 crumbling1 broken down horn-cells4 ,the dark edges of the openings 7a7 consist of thick layers of horn-cells 7tube-walls74 ,the entire structure is called a horn-tube1 and the lighter-colored masses of horn 7,fig4 #da1 b7 between the tubes are known as intertubular horn4 ,with the exception of the horny leaves of the wall and bars1 all the horn of the hoof is composed of horn-tubes and intertubular horn4 ,the horn-tubes of the wall1 sole1 and frog always run downward and forward parallel to the direction of the wall at the toe1--that is1 in a direction parallel with the inclination of the hoof as a whole4 ,although the wall1 sole1 and frog differ from one another considerably with respect to the size and number of the horn-tubes1 the quality of the intertubular horn1 and the thickness and strength of the horn-cells1 these differences are only of subordinate interest or importance to the horseshoer2 but he who desires to learn more of this matter is referred to the work of ,leisering ,hartmann1 8,der ,fuss des ,pferdes in ,rcksicht auf ,bau1 ,verrichtungen und ,hufbeschlag10 eighth edition1 ,dresden1 #ahic4 ,this book also treats of the variations in the quality of hoofs1 which is very important for the practical horseshoer to know4 ,it1 furthermore1 considers the solidity and strength of the horn of the different parts of the hoof4 ,with respect to solidity1 two kinds of horn are distinguished1--namely1 hard and soft horn4 ,the periople1 the white line1 and the frog are soft horn structures2 the middle layer of the wall and the sole are hard or solid horn4 ,the wall1 however1 is somewhat harder and more tenacious than the sole1 for the latter passes off in more or less large flakes 7exfoliates7 or crumbles away on its lower surface1 at least in shod feet1 while no such spontaneous shortening occurs in the wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,vertical section through middle of a forefoot1 the skin and pododerm being in red4 7,in the figure the direction of both long and short pasterns1 ,b and ,d1 is too nearly vertical--too steep74 ,a1 metacarpal bone 7cannon72 ,b1 os suffraginis 7long pastern72 ,c1 inner sesamoid bone 7to render it visible a portion of the intersesamoid ligament was removed72 ,d1 os coron 7short pastern72 ,e1 os pedis 7foot-bone72 ,f1 navicular bone2 a1 extensor tendon2 b1 suspensory ligament of the fetlock2 b1 superficial inferior sesamoid ligament2 c1 perforatus tendon or flexor of the os coron2 c1 ring passing forward from this tendon and encircling the perforans tendon2 d1 perforans tendon2 e1 capsular ligament of fetlock-joint2 f1 capsular ligament of coronary joint2 g1 g1 capsular ligament of pedal joint2 h1 synovial sheath of the perforans tendon2 i1 plantar cushion and fleshy frog2 i1 bulbs or glomes of plantar cushion2 i1 indicates the lowest point reached by the plantar cushion1 which in the figure is hidden below by the frog-stay of the horny frog2 k1 coronary band 7red72 l1 podophyllous tissue 7red72 m1 velvety tissue of the sole 7red72 n1 velvety tissue of fleshy frog 7red72 o1 wall2 p1 sole2 q1 frog2 q1 the inner half of the frog-stay which reposes in the median lacuna of the fleshy frog2 s1 hair-skin 7red74 ,soft horn differs from hard horn in that its horn-cells never become hard and horn-like4 ,it is very elastic1 absorbs water quickly1 and as readily dries out and becomes very hard and brittle and easily fissured and chapped4 ,with respect to quality1 we distinguish good and bad horn2 the former is fine and tenacious 7tough71 the latter coarse and either soft and crumbling or hard and brittle4 ,if not dried out1 all horn is elastic1 though soft horn is more elastic than hard4 ,all horn is a poor conductor of heat4 ,the relative positions of the various parts of the foot are shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,fig4 #dc represents the exterior of a well-formed foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,right forefoot viewed from the side3 ,a1 lower end of the cannon2 ,b1 fetlock-joint2 ,c1 long pastern2 ,d1 coronet2 ,e1 hoof2 ,f1 heel2 ,f inner heel2 ,g1 foot-lock covering the ergot4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,foot ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,entire ,,limb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,normal 7regular7 position of fore-limbs4 ,as there are well-formed and badly formed bodies1 so there are well-formed and badly formed limbs and hoofs4 ,the form of the hoof depends upon the position of the limb4 ,a straight limb of normal direction possesses1 as a rule1 a regular hoof1 while an oblique or crooked limb is accompanied by an irregular or oblique hoof4 ,hence1 it is necessary1 before discussing the various forms of the hoof1 to consider briefly the various positions that may be assumed by the limbs4 ,in this discussion we shall deal with the living horse4 ,a4 ,standing ,positions of the ,limbs4 ,the position of a limb depends upon the varying lengths of its component bones and the angles at which they meet one another4 ,to judge the standing position of a fore-limb one must stand in front of the horse2 to judge a hind limb1 stand behind the horse2 the backward or forward deviations of both front and hind limbs are judged by standing at the side4 ,but a horse does not always move as his standing position would lead one to suspect2 standing and moving are different4 ,therefore1 in order to arrive at a proper judgment1 one must observe the limbs both at rest and in motion4 7a7 ,the position of a limb viewed from in front is normal or straight 7,fig4 #dd7 when it stands vertical or perpendicular4 ,a plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder 7middle of the scapulo-humeral articulation7 should pass down the middle line of the limb1 dividing it into inner and outer halves of equal width1 and meeting the ground at the middle of the toe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,base-wide ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,toe-wide ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,toe-narrow 78pigeon-toed07 ,in the base-wide standing position 7,fig4 #de7 the plumb-line falls to the inner side of the limb2 the limb extends obliquely downward and outward4 ,to this class belong also the knee-narrow 7knock-kneed7 position1 in which the knees are too close together1 while the feet stand wide apart1 and the toe-wide position 7splay-footed1 ,fig4 #df7 in which the toes point obliquely forward and outward4 ,in base-wide positions either the entire limb extends downward and outward or the foot alone is turned outward4 ,the base-narrow position is frequently observed in horses with very wide breasts4 ,the limbs run downward and inward1 a plumb-line dropped from the point of the shoulder falling to the outer side of the leg and foot4 ,a special form of the base-narrow position is the toe-narrow or pigeon-toed position 7,fig4 #dg74 ,in some instances the legs are straight and perpendicular down to the fetlock1 while from there to the ground the phalanges incline obliquely inward4 ,another form is the knee-wide or bandy-legged position1 in which the knees are placed too far apart1 while the cannons and phalanges incline downward and inward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,normal 7regular7 fore-limb in profile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,normal 7regular7 hind-limb in profile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,camped in front4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,calf-kneed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,acute-angled foot 7low-jointed74 ,the position of a fore-limb viewed in profile is regular or normal 7,fig4 #dh7 when a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the acromian spine 7point of union of the upper and middle thirds of the scapula or shoulder-blade7 divides the leg from the elbow to the fetlock into anterior and posterior halves of equal width1 and touches the ground immediately back of the bulbs of the heel4 ,a perpendicular line dropped from the point of union of the middle and lower thirds of the scapula 7shoulder-blade7 will cut the humerus into halves1 and meet the ground between the toe and the heel4#b ,the foot-axis 7line of direction of the three phalanges7 and the wall at the toe form an angle of from forty-five to fifty degrees with the horizontal ground-surface4 #b ,in station of rest1 the normal position of a fore-leg1 as seen from the side1 is somewhat different4 ,the station of rest is the position that is maintained with the least possible muscular effort4 ,with gradual muscular relaxation the head and neck sink to a point somewhat below the line of the back1 the top of the shoulder-blade sinks a little1 and the shoulder and elbow joints move forward till the centre of the elbow joint is directly above the ground-surface of the hoof4 ,therefore1 when a horse at rest stands firmly on all four feet1 the fore-leg viewed from the side1 has a normal 7regular7 direction1 when a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the acromian spine passes through the middle of the elbow joint and meets the ground near the middle of the hoof4 ,from this normal or regular standing position1 there are deviations forward as well as backward4 ,forward ,deviations4--8,standing in front0 or 8camped in front0 7,fig4 #ej7 is that position in which the entire leg from the body to the ground is placed too far forward4 ,sheep-kneed 7,fig4 #ea7 is that position in which the forward deviation is from the knee downward1 the knee being placed too far under the body4 8,weak-jointed10 8low-jointed10 or 8acute-angled0 7,fig4 #eb7 is that position in which the limbs are perpendicular and straight down as far as the fetlock-joint1 but the feet are placed too far in front4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,standing under4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,knee-sprung4 ,backward ,deviations4--,standing under in front 7,fig4 #ec7 is that deviation in which the entire leg from the elbow down is placed back of the perpendicular line and1 therefore1 too far under the body4 ,when this deviation affects only the cannon bone1 the horse stands bent forward at the knees1--a condition known as 8goat-kneed10 8buck-kneed10 8over in the knees10 or1 more commonly1 8knee-sprung0 7,fig4 #ed74 ,when the backward deviation is only from the fetlock down1 the animal is said to stand upright or 8straight in the fetlock40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,normal 7regular7 position viewed from behind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,base-wide 7cow-hocked74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,base-narrow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,base-narrow position of hind limbs 7bandy-legged74 7b7 ,a hind leg viewed from behind is said to be regular or straight 7,fig4 #ee7 when a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the ischium 7see ,fig4 #a1 #i7 divides the entire limb into inner and outer halves of equal width and touches the ground opposite the median lacuna of the frog4 ,seen from the side1 this line just touches the point of the hock and1 passing down at some distance from the flexor tendons1 meets the ground considerably back of the heels4 ,a perpendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should pass through the foot1 meeting the ground half-way between the point of the toe and the heel 7,fig4 #di74 ,there are base-wide1 base-narrow1 toe-wide1 and toe-narrow deviations in the hind limbs as in the fore-limbs4 ,the hind limbs are base-wide when they1 either as a whole or in part1 deviate outward from the normal4 ,the 8cow-hocked8 position 7,fig4 #ef7 is an example of the base-wide2 in this case the points of the hocks are too close and turn towards each other1 while the feet are widely separated and the toes turned outward4 ,base-narrow is that position of the hind legs in which either the entire leg deviates to the inner side of the perpendicular 7,fig4 #eg71 or the leg is about perpendicular down as far as the hock1 but below this joint runs downward and inward 7,fig4 #eh74 ,in this latter case the hocks may be too far apart1 the leg is bent outward at the hock and the animal is termed 8bandy-legged10 8bow-legged40 ,viewing a hind limb from the side1 it may be observed to deviate either forward or backward from the normal4 ,among forward deviations is the so-called 8sabre-leg8 or 8sickle-hock8 7,fig4 #ei71 in which the hock-joint is too much flexed1 the foot placed too far forward under the body1 and the fetlock too slanting4 ,in the position known as 8camped behind0 7,fig4 #fj7 the leg is behind the body and the pastern is too upright1 too nearly vertical4 ,it is possible for each limb of the same horse to assume a different direction4 ,it more often happens that if the fore-limbs are base-wide the hind limbs are base-narrow1 or vice versa4 ,while there are some other deviations that differ somewhat from those already described1 they are of less importance to the horseshoer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,sabre-legged or sickle-hocked4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,camped behind4 ,b4 ,forms of ,feet4 ,viewed from in ,front1 from ,behind1 and in ,profile4 ,in all the various positions of the limbs we find the feet in one of the following three forms1 or very closely approaching one of them4 ,by means of a proper knowledge of these three forms1 the judging of the form1 flight of the foot in travelling1 and preparation of the hoof for the shoe1 as well as the choice of the length of the shoe1 are regulated1 facilitated1 and simplified4 ,whether a horse's feet be observed from in front or from behind1 their form corresponds to1 or at least resembles1 either that of the regular position 7,figs4 #fa and #fb71 the base-wide or toe-wide position 7,figs4 #fc and #fd71 or the base-narrow or toe-narrow position 7,figs4 #fe and #ff74 ,by the direction of the foot-axis--that is1 an imaginary line passing through the long axis of the three phalangeal bones 7,figs4 #fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #fh and #fi7--we determine whether or not the hoof and pastern stand in proper mutual relation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,a pair of front feet of regular position viewed from in front and from behind4 ,in the regular standing position 7,figs4 #fa and #fb7 the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward1 in the base-wide position 7,figs4 #fc and #fd7 it runs obliquely downward and outward1 and in the base-narrow position 7,figs4 #fe and #ff7 it runs obliquely downward and inward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,a pair of feet of the base-wide 7toe-wide7 position seen from in front and from behind4 ,viewing the foot from the side1 we distinguish the regular 7normal7 position 7,fig4 #fh71 and designate all forward deviations as acute-angled 7long toe and low heel1 ,fig4 #fg71 and all deviations backward from the regular position as upright 7short toe and high heel1 ,fig4 #fi71 steep-toed1 or stumpy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,a pair of feet of the base-narrow 7toe-narrow7 position seen from in front and from behind4 ,when the body-weight is uniformly distributed over all four limbs1 the foot-axis should be straight 7,figs4 #fg and #fi71 not 8broken0 7bent72 the long pastern1 wall at the toe1 and foot-axis should have the same slant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,an acute-angled hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,a normal-angled hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,an upright 78stumpy07 hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,the 8bear-foot40 ,a peculiar form of foot is the so-called bear-foot 7,fig4 #gj71 in which the foot-axis1 viewed from the side1 is broken strongly forward at the coronet4 ,the wall at the toe stands much steeper than the long pastern and is more or less convex2 in other words1 a low-jointed1 sloping pastern is attached to an upright hoof4 ,such a foot is sometimes improperly called a 8club-foot40 ,c4 ,lines of ,flight of ,hoofs in ,motion4 ,if we observe horses moving unrestrained over level ground1 we will notice differences in the carriage of the feet4 ,viewed from in front1 or from behind1 in the regular standing position of the limbs the hoofs are carried forward in a straight direction1 that is1 in a line parallel with the median line of the body 7,fig4 #ga74 ,the toes likewise point straight forward2 the hoofs alight properly 7flat7 on the ground4 ,if the horse stands base-wide1 the hoof is carried in a circle2 from its position1 which is behind and well out from the median line1 the hoof passes first forward and inward until it is close to the supporting leg1 and then outward to the ground 7,fig4 #gb71 where the shock is received principally upon the outer toe4 ,the toes point either directly forward1 as in the regular standing position 7,fig4 #gb71 or forward and outward as in the toe-wide position 7,fig4 #gc74 ,in the toe-wide position the hoof in its flight may cross the median line4 ,exactly the reverse is true of the horse that stands base-narrow2 in this case the hoof is moved in a circle whose convexity is outward1--that is1 the hoof from its position behind1 and close to the median line1 is carried forward and outward and then inward to the ground 7,figs4 #gd and #ge74 ,viewed from the side1 the line of flight of a hoof is determined largely by the obliquity 7slant7 of the foot-axis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 #a4 ,with a straight foot-axis of normal slant 7#de-ej1 ,fig4 #gf1 ,a71 the hoof follows the arc of a circle and reaches its highest point when directly above the supporting hoof1 i4e41 when half-way in the stride4 #b4 ,with a straight1 but acute-angled foot-axis 7less than #de1 ,fig4 #gf1 ,b71 the hoof rises rapidly1 reaches its highest point before it has completed the first half of the stride1 i4e41 before it has passed the supporting hoof1 and descending gradually in a long curve alights easily on the ground4 #c4 ,with a straight1 but upright foot-axis 7#ee or more1 ,fig4 #gf1 ,c71 the hoof rises slowly1 reaches its highest point in front of the supporting hoof1 from which point it descends rapidly4 ,the gait is 8choppy10 and in the saddle-horse unpleasant for the rider4 ,the length and the height of the stride are greatest in acute-angled feet2 least in upright feet4 ,furthermore1 length and height of stride are in a measure dependent on breeding1 training1 condition of the legs 7whether stiffened by use or disease71 length of the hoof and the weight of the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,flight of the hoof as seen from the side3 ,a1 flight of a regular hoof2 ,b1 flight of an acute-angled hoof2 ,c1 flight of an upright hoof4 ,many deviations in the line of flight of hoofs and in the manner in which they are set to the ground occur2 for example1 horses heavily burdened or pulling heavy loads1 and1 therefore1 not having free use of their limbs1 project their limbs irregularly and meet the ground first with the toe2 however1 careful observation will detect the presence of one or the other of these lines of flight of the foot4 ,irregular carriage of the feet renders a horse unsuitable for general purposes only when it is very pronounced1 in which case certain troublesome conditions1 such as interfering and disease of joints1 are of frequent occurrence4 ,d4 ,the ,influence of ,weight in the ,shoe or ,otherwise ,attached to the ,hoof1 in ,altering the ,flight of the ,hoof4 ,there is nothing mysterious in the effect of weight upon the flight of the feet4 ,on the contrary1 the lines of flight are determined 7as shown in pages #gb-gd1 ,figs4 #ga-gf71 first1 by the relation of the transverse axes of the hinge-joints of the leg and foot to the line of progression 7median line72 second1 by the length and obliquity of the hoof and pastern2 third1 by the height and length of stride which is natural to each individual4 ,weight induces higher action and a longer stride4 ,inertia increases with the weight4 ,a heavy shoe cannot be snatched from the ground as quickly as a light one1 but when moving forward at a given velocity its greater momentum 7momentum mass 7wt7 velocity3 m wt v7 carries the foot farther forward then does the lighter shoe4 ,thus1 the heavier shoe1 or weight attached to the hoof1 lengthens the stride at both ends4 ,the farther from the centre of rotation of the scapula the weight is placed1 i4e41 the nearer to the toe it is placed1 the greater the muscular effort required to start it and to stop it4 ,height of action1 though largely the result of breeding1 temperament1 and the exhilaration that accompanies perfect health and entire absence of muscular fatigue1 is to a certain extent influenced by the inclination of the pastern and toe to the cannon4 ,the acute-angled foot1 in the folding of the leg during the first half of the stride1 moves through a longer arc of a circle whose centre is the fetlock joint than does the normal or the upright foot2 rises more rapidly and to a higher point4 7,see ,fig4 #gf1 ,b47 ,when the momentum of a foot moving rapidly and abruptly upward is increased by weight the result is extreme and even exaggerated flexion of all joints of the leg1 and by allowing the hoof to grow long the flexion is still further increased4 ,in the show ring1 harness horses with fair natural action may be made to 8climb0 by shoes weighing from thirty to sixty ounces upon hoofs an inch or more longer than normal4 ,the leverage of a heavy shoe on a long hoof is excessive1 fatiguing and most injurious to ligament1 tendon and muscle4 ,the action1 while high1 is labored1 pounding and altogether inelegant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,a #dj oz4 right front shoe 7hoof-surface7 to increase knee-action in a high acting harness horse4 ,for show-purposes only4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,the same seen from the ground-surface in profile3 a1 bevel from inner border of the web to outer border2 b1 ends of the branches of full thickness from outer to inner border4 ,in the training of trotters weight is often used to increase the length of the stride1 or to cause a higher folding of a front foot1 in order to prevent 8scalping8 or 8speedy-cut48 ,as soon as the new gait becomes a fixed habit the weight should be gradually lessened4 ,weight is carried with less fatigue at a trot then at a pace1 or at a gallop4 ,it therefore steadies a trotter that is inclined to pace1 or 8break0 into a run4 ,the increased momentum of the weighted hoof makes for rhythm of movement1 and increases the difficulty of skipping1 dwelling1 or mixing gaits4 ,in the base-wide 7toe-wide7 and base-narrow 7toe-narrow7 standing positions1 the flight of the hoofs1 as seen from in front or behind1 is not straight forward1 i4e41 parallel to the line of progression of the body1 but in arcs of circles4 7,see ,figs4 #gb-ge1 p4 #gc47 ,in these cases1 increasing the weight of the hoofs1 by increasing the momentum1 must of necessity increase the tendency of the hoofs to move off at a tangent to the curves which they describe4 ,in other words1 weight increases the centrifugal force of a body moving in a curve4 ,the outward swing of the hoofs of a base-narrow horse 7paddling71 and the inward swing of a base-wide horse 7interfering71 are made more pronounced by adding weight to any part of the hoof4 ,the centrifugal force is greatest in base-wide feet when the weight is on the medial1 or inner side of the hoof2 in base-narrow feet when it is on the lateral or outer side4 ,a side weight1 or side weight shoe is often of service in a cross firing pacer4 ,this animal usually stands base-narrow 7toe-narrow7 behind1 and in motion his hind hoofs describe a curve at first forward and outward and then inward till contact is made with the diagonal hoof or leg4 ,the added weight 7placed on the outer side7 by increasing the centrifugal force carries the hoof just enough farther from the centre around which the hoof swings to prevent contact4 7,see cross-firing1 p4 #ach47 ,finally1 it must not be forgotten that weight is always weight2 that it cuts speed and devours endurance4 ,e4 ,forms of ,hoofs4 ,a front hoof of the regular standing position 7,fig4 #gi74 ,the inner and outer walls differ but little in direction and thickness4 ,the outer wall is a little thicker and somewhat more slanting than the inner 7see ,figs4 #fa and #fb71 and its outer circumference describes a larger arc of a circle1--that is1 is more curved1 as can be seen both at its plantar border and at the coronet4 ,the length of the quarter in relation to the length or height of the side wall and toe is about as #a3 #b3 #c4 ,the toe forms an angle with the ground of forty-five to fifty degrees 7see ,fig4 #fh74 ,the direction of the wall at the toe1 viewed from the side1 should be parallel with the direction of the long pastern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,right fore-hoof of the regular position3 a1 side wall2 b1 quarter2 c1 beginning of the bar2 d1 buttress2 e1 middle of the bar2 f1 body of the sole2 f1 branches of sole2 g1 white line2 g1 apparent end of the bar2 h1 body of the frog2 i1 branch of the frog2 k1 bulbs 7glomes7 of the heel2 l1 middle cleft of frog2 m1 lateral cleft of frog4 ,a hoof of the base-wide position 7,fig4 #hj7 is always awry1 because the outer wall is naturally somewhat longer and decidedly more slanting then the inner 7see ,figs4 #fc and #fd74 ,the plantar border of the outer wall describes a large arc1 whose sharpest curvature is where the side wall passes into the quarter4 ,the plantar border of the inner wall is straighter 7less curved72 the outer half of the ground-surface 7sole7 of the hoof is1 therefore1 wider than the inner4 ,so long as the hoof is healthy1 both branches of the frog are equally developed4 ,the wryness of the hoof depends upon the direction of the limb2 therefore1 a base-wide hoof should be regarded as a normally wry hoof1 to distinguish it from hoofs which are wry from disease4 ,a hoof of the toe-wide position 7,fig4 #ha7 is distinguished from the preceding by the bending or curvature of the plantar border of the outer toe and inner quarter being often decidedly less pronounced than on the inner toe and outer quarter2 therefore1 two short curves and two long curves lie opposite each other2 in other words1 the inner toe and outer quarter1 lying opposite each other1 are sharply curved1 while the outer toe and inner quarter1 lying opposite each other1 are much less sharply bent or curved4 ,the toes are turned out4 ,the feet are not set down flat upon the ground1 but meet it with the outer toe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,right fore-hoof of the base-wide position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,right fore-hoof of the toe-wide position4 ,a hoof of the base-narrow position is normally wry1 but never so pronounced as a hoof of the base-wide position4 ,the inner wall is but little1 more oblique than the outer1 the difference being most noticeable at the quarters 7,figs4 #fe and #ff74 ,the curve of the plantar border of the wall is similar to that of a regular hoof1 except that the inner side wall and quarter are a little more sharply curved in a base-narrow hoof4 ,occasionally the outer quarter is somewhat drawn in under the foot4 ,this form of hoof is most distinctly marked in animals that stand toe-narrow or are bandy-legged4 ,as to the forms of the hind hoofs1 what has been said concerning the influence of position of the limbs upon the shape of the front feet will apply equally well to them4 ,the hind hoof 7,fig4 #hb7 is not round at the toe1 but somewhat pointed or oval4 ,it greatest width is between the middle and posterior thirds of the sole4 ,it usually has a strongly concave sole and a somewhat steeper toe than the fore-hoof2 viewed from the side1 the angle of the toe with the ground in the regular standing position is from fifty to fifty-five degrees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,right hind hoof of the regular position3 a1 side wall2 b1 beginning of the quarter2 c1 beginning of the bar2 d1 buttress2 e1 middle of bar2 f1 body of the sole2 f1 branch of sole2 g1 white line of the toe2 g1 white line of the bar2 h1 body of the frog2 i1 branch of the frog2 k1 bulbs of heel2 l1 middle cleft of frog2 m1 lateral cleft of frog4 ,finally1 we also distinguish wide and narrow hoofs2 they are not dependent upon the position of the limbs1 but upon the race and breeding of the animal4 ,the wide hoof 7,fig4 #hc7 is almost round upon its plantar surface4 ,its wall runs quite oblique to the ground4 ,the sole is but moderately concave1 and the frog is strong and well developed4 ,the narrow hoof 7,fig4 #hd7 is rather elliptical1 with steep side walls1 strongly concaved sole1 and small1 undeveloped frog4 ,the horn of the narrow hoof is fine and tough2 of the wide hoof1 usually coarse4 ,the wide hoof may readily become flat4 ,narrow hoofs are either the result of breeding or premature shoeing4 ,in enumerating the preceding forms of the hoof we have by no means referred to all the forms in which the hoof may be found2 on the contrary1 hoofs vary in shape and quality to such an extent that among a hundred horses no two hoofs can be found which are exactly alike4 ,in fact1 the same variety exists as in the faces of people1 and we know that we can recall in succession even many more faces without finding two that are exactly alike4 ,this explains the manifold differences in horse's shoes with respect to size1 form and other qualities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,wide fore-hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,narrow fore-hoof4 ,suppose now a hoof is before us2 it is first necessary to know whether or not it is healthy4 ,unfortunately1 a perfectly healthy hoof is not so easy to find as one may think4 ,we recognize a sound hoof by the following marks3 ,seen from in front or from the side1 the course of the wall from the coronet to the ground1 in the direction of the horn-tubes1 is straight1--that is1 bent neither in nor out4 ,a straight edge1 placed upon the wall in the direction of the horn-tubes1 touches at every point4 ,the wall must show neither longitudinal nor transverse cracks or fissures4 ,if there be rings1 their position and course are important4 ,rings which pass around the entire circumference of the wall parallel to the coronet indicate nothing more than disturbances of nutrition of the hoof2 but the hoof cannot pass for sound when the rings have any other position and direction than the one mentioned1 or if the rings upon any part of the wall are more marked than elsewhere1 even though they may be parallel to the coronary band4 ,marked ring-building upon the hoofs of horses which have regular feeding1 grooming1 and work indicates a weak hoof4 ,viewed from the ground-surface and from behind1 the bulbs of the heels should be well rounded1 strongly developed1 and not displaced4 ,the concave sole should show no separation along the white line4 ,the frog should be strong1 well developed1 and have symmetrical branches and a broad1 shallow1 dry median lacuna4 ,the lateral lacun of the frog should be clean and not too narrow4 ,the bars should pass in a straight direction forward and inward towards the point of the frog4 ,any bending outward of the bars towards the branches of the sole indicates the beginning of a narrowing of the space occupied by the frog1--that is1 contraction of the heels4 ,the horn of the branches of the sole in the buttresses and in their proximity should show no red staining4 ,the lateral cartilages should be elastic4 ,no part of the foot should be weakened at the cost of other parts4 ,by firm union of all strong parts the strength and vigor of the hoof is in no sense disturbed4 ,if one desires to ascertain the exact form and state of health of the hoof1 it must never be inspected and judged alone1 but in connection with the entire limb4 ,f4 ,growth of the ,hoof and ,wear of the ,hoof and ,shoe4 ,all parts of the horn of the hoof grow downward and forward1 the material for this growth being furnished by the remarkably large quantity of blood which flows to the pododerm4 ,the growth of the hoof is regulated by the nerves4 ,as a rule1 the hoof grows uniformly1--that is1 one section of the wall grows just as rapidly as another4 ,a visible indication of growth is the increase in height and width of the hoof from colthood to maturity4 ,the rapidity of growth of the wall varies1 amounting in a month to from one-sixth to one-half of an inch4 ,the average monthly growth in both shod and unshod horses of both sexes is1 according to my own experiments1 one-third of an inch4 ,hind hoofs grow faster than front hoofs1 and unshod faster than shod4 ,the hoofs of stallions grow more slowly than those of mares and geldings4 ,abundant exercise1 proper grooming 7flexibility and moistness of the horn71 regular dressing of the wall1 and running barefoot from time to time favor growth2 while little or no exercise1 dryness1 and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth4 ,the time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground is1 therefore1 equally variable1 and is1 moreover1 dependent upon the height 7length of toe7 of the hoof4 ,at the toe the horn grows down in from eleven to thirteen months1 at the mamm or sides in from six to eight months1 and at the quarters in from three to five months4 ,the time required for the renewal of the entire hoof we term the period of hoof renewal4 ,if1 for example1 we know exactly the rapidity of horn growth in a given case1 we can estimate without difficulty the length of the 8period of hoof renewal10 as well for the entire hoof as for each individual section of the wall4 ,the duration of many diseases of the hoof 7cracks1 clefts1 partial bendings of the wall1 contractions1 etc47 can be foretold with relative certainty only by knowing the period of hoof renewal4 ,irregular growth sometimes takes place4 ,the chief cause of this is usually an improper distribution of the body-weight over the hoof1--that is1 an unbalanced foot4 ,wry hoofs of faulty positions of the limbs are often exposed to this evil2 a faulty preparation of the hoof 7dressing7 for the shoe1 as well as neglect of the colt's hoofs1 is in the majority of cases directly responsible for this condition4 ,if in the shortening of the wall a part is from ignorance left too long1 or one-half of the hoof shortened too much in relation to the other half1 the foot will be unbalanced4 ,the horse will then touch the ground first with the section of wall which has been left too high1 and will continue to do so until this long section has been reduced to its proper level 7length7 by the increased wear which will take place at this point4 ,in unshod hoofs this levelling process takes place rapidly2 such1 however1 is not the case in shod hoofs1 for here the shoe prevents rapid wear1 and1 indeed this levelling process is often rendered impossible through the welding of high steel calks to the shoe4 ,if this fault in trimming be repeated at the next and subsequent shoeings1 and if the faulty relation of the ground-surface of the hoof to the direction of the foot-axis remain during several months1 the portion of wall left too high will grow more rapidly1 the walls will lose their natural straight direction and become bent4 ,if1 for example1 the outer wall has been left too long during a considerable period of time1 a crooked hoof results 7,fig4 #he7 in which the rings are placed closer together upon the low 7concave7 side than upon the high 7convex7 side4 ,if for a long time the toe is excessively long1 it will become bent2 or if this fault affects excessively high quarters they will contract either just under the coronary band or will curl forward and inward at their lower borders4 ,these examples are sufficient to show both the importance of the manner in which a horse places his foot to the ground and its influence upon the loading1 growth1 and form of the hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,crooked 7right7 fore-hoof4 ,wear of the ,shoe and of the ,hoof upon the ,shoe4 ,the wear of the shoe is caused much less by the weight of the animal's body than by the rubbing which takes place between the shoe and the earth whenever the foot is placed to the ground and lifted4 ,the wear of the shoe which occurs when the foot is placed on the ground is termed 8grounding wear10 and that which occurs while the foot is being lifted from the ground is termed 8swinging-off wear48 ,when a horse travels normally1 both kinds of wear are nearly alike1 but are very distinct when the paces are abnormal1 especially when there is faulty direction of the limbs4 ,while in the majority of horses whose limbs have been stiffened by age and overwork both kinds of wear are most marked at the toe of the shoe1 we see relatively fewer cases of 8grounding wear0 at the ends of the branches 7as in laminitis72 on the contrary1 we always notice 8swinging-off wear0 at the toe of the shoe4 ,it is worthy of notice that length of stride has much to do with the wear4 ,we observe that with shortening of the stride both kinds of wear occur at the toe of the shoe1 and this is rapidly worn away1 as is the case with horses which are fretful and prance under the rider1 draw heavy loads1 or from any other cause1 as disease or infirmity1 are obliged to shorten their steps4 ,with increase of length of stride the wear of the shoe becomes more uniform4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,a normal-angled foot with straight foot-axis4 ,the shoe shows uniform wear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,an upright foot with foot-axis broken forward by reason of too high quarters4 ,the shoe shows 8grounding8 wear at ends of branches1 and 8swinging-off8 wear at toe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,a hoof with foot-axis broken backward by reason of surplus horn at the toe4 ,the shoe shows excessive 8grounding8 and 8swinging-off0 wear at the toe4 ,the position and form of the shoe have a marked influence upon its wear2 at the place where the shoe is too far under the hoof either as a result of shifting or of having been nailed on crooked1 or where the outer branch has not the necessary width1 or does not form a sufficiently large curve1 the wear will be increased4 ,also the relative length of side walls1 or of toe and heels1 influences rapidity of wear of the shoe4 ,if through ignorance or carelessness one side wall be left too long1 the branch beneath will meet the ground before other parts of the shoe and will wear faster 7see ,figs4 #hg1 #hh and #hi74 ,the wear of the hoof upon the shoe occurs as a result of the movements of the quarters4 ,visible indications of this are the brightly polished1 often sunken places upon the bearing-surface of the ends of the branches1 showing that scouring occurs between the horn and the iron4 ,shoes which show brightly polished places in their anterior halves have been loose4 ,the wear of the quarters upon the shoe is not always uniform1 but is usually greater on the inner than on the outer quarter1 especially in base-wide feet4 ,the degree of this wear of the hoof may be from nothing to one-fourth of an inch or more from one shoeing to the next4 ,finally1 we should remember that this usually invisible scouring away of the hoof gradually causes the nails at the quarters to become loose1 and that this is more clearly marked in the front than in the hind hoofs4 ,g4 ,physiological ,movements of the ,hoof4 7,mechanism of the ,hoof47 ,these movements comprise all those changes of position within and of the hoof which are brought about by alternately weighting and relieving the foot1 and which are manifest as changes of form of the hoof4 ,the following changes in form of the hoof are most marked at the time that the hoof bears greatest weight1--that is1 simultaneous with the greatest descent of the fetlock-joint4 #a4 ,a lateral expansion over the entire region of the quarters1 occurring simultaneously at the coronary and plantar borders4 ,this expansion is small1 and in general varies between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch4 #b4 ,a narrowing of the anterior half of the hoof measured at the coronary border4 #c4 ,a decrease in height of the hoof1 with a slight sinking of the heels4 #d4 ,a flattening 7sinking7 of the sole1 especially in its branches4 ,these changes of form are much more pronounced in the half of the hoof that bears the greater weight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,transverse vertical section through the middle of a right fore shod hoof of base-wide form1 viewed from behind4 ,the outer wall having been insufficiently lowered has caused increased wear of the underlying branch of the shoe3 a1 wear of inner branch 7beneath the relatively short wall72 b1 greater wear of outer branch beneath the relatively long wall2 c1 the horn between the dotted line and the shoe represents the surplus length of this outer wall4 ,a hoof while supporting the body-weight has a different form1 and the tissues enclosed within it a different position1 than when not bearing weight4 ,since loading and unloading of the foot are continually alternating1 the relations of internal pressure even in the standing animal are continuously changing1 so that1 strictly speaking1 the hoof is never at rest4 ,the changes in form take place in the following order3 the body-weight falls from above upon the os coron1 os pedis1 and navicular bone1 and at the moment that the foot is placed upon the ground is transmitted through the sensitive lamin and horny lamin to the wall4 ,at the instant that the fetlock reaches its lowest point the os pedis bears the greatest weight4 ,under the body-weight the latter yields1 and with the navicular bone sinks downward and backward4 ,at the same time the upper posterior portion of the os coron 7,fig4 #ij1 ,a7 passes backward and downward between the lateral cartilages 7a71 which project above the upper border of the wall1 and presses the perforans tendon down upon the plantar cushion4 ,the plantar cushion being compressed from above1 and being unable to expand downward1 is correspondingly squeezed out towards the sides and crowded against the lateral cartilages1 and they1 yielding1 press against and push before them the wall at the quarters4 ,the resistance of the earth acts upon the plantar surface of the hoof1 and especially upon the frog1 and it1 widening1 crowds the bars apart1 and in this manner contributes to the expansion of the quarters1 especially at their plantar border 7see ,fig4 #ij74 ,the horny sole under the descent and pressure of the os pedis sinks a little--that is1 the arch of the sole becomes somewhat flattened4 ,all these changes are much more marked upon sound unshod hoofs1 because in them the resistance of the earth upon the sole and frog is pronounced and complete4 ,these changes in form are more marked in front feet than in hind4 ,in defective and diseased hoofs it may happen that at the moment of greatest weight-bearing1 instead of an expansion a contraction may occur at the plantar border of the quarters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,vertical1 transverse section of a foot seen from behind3 ,a1 os coron2 ,b1 os navicularis2 ,c1 os pedis2 a1 lateral cartilage2 b1 anterior portion of fleshy frog2 c1 section of perforans tendon2 d1 suspensory ligament of the navicular bone2 l1 wall2 m1 sole2 n1 white line2 o1 frog4 ,three highly elastic organs there are which play the chief part in these movements1--namely1 the lateral cartilages1 the plantar cushion1 and the horny frog4 ,besides these structures1 indeed1 all the remaining parts of the horn capsule1 especially its coronary border1 possess more or less elasticity1 and contribute to the above-mentioned changes of form4 ,in order to maintain the elastic tissues of the foot in their proper activity1 regular and abundant exercise1 with protection against drying out of the hoof1 are absolutely necessary1 because the movements of the different structures within the foot and the changes of form that occur at each step are indispensable in preserving the health of the hoof4 ,long-continued rest in the stable1 drying out of the hoof1 and shoeing decrease or alter the physiological movements of the foot1 and these lead under certain conditions to foot diseases1 with which the majority of horse owners are entirely unacquainted4 ,as an outward1 visible indication of the mobility of the quarters upon the shoe we may point to the conspicuous1 brightly polished1 and often sunken spots1 or grooves1 upon the ends of the branches4 ,they are produced partly by an in-and-out motion of the walls at the quarters1 and partly by a forward and backward gliding of the quarters upon the shoe4 ,the benefits of these physiological movements within the hoof are manifold3 #a4 ,through them shock is dispersed and the body protected from the evil consequences of concussion or shock4 #b4 ,these movements increase the elasticity of the entire limb1 and in this way contribute much to a light and elegant gait4 #c4 ,they maintain a lively circulation of blood in the vessels of the pododerm1 and this insures a rapid growth of horn4 ,since it is a generally accepted fact that shoeing interferes with the physiological movements of the hoof1 alters them1 indeed1 almost suppresses them1 and that all these movements are spontaneous and natural only in sound unshod hoofs1 we are justified in regarding shoeing as a necessary evil4 ,however1 it is indispensable if we wish to render horses serviceable upon hard artificial roads4 ,if1 in shoeing1 consideration be given to the structure and functions of the hoof1 and particularly to the hoof-surface of the shoe1 the ends of the branches being provided with a smooth1 level bearing-surface1 which allows free play to the elastic horn capsule1 in so far as this is not hindered by the nails we need have no fear of subsequent disease of the hoofs1 provided the horse is used with reason and receives proper care4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,shoeing ,,healthy ,,hoofs4 ,a4 ,examination of a ,horse ,preliminary to ,shoeing4 ,an examination should be made while the animal is at rest1 and afterwards while in motion4 ,the object of the examination is to gain accurate knowledge of the direction and movements of the limbs1 of the form and character of the feet and hoofs1 of the manner in which the foot reaches and leaves the ground1 of the form1 length1 position1 and wear of the shoe1 and distribution of the nail-holes1 in order that at the next and subsequent shoeings all ascertained peculiarities of hoof-form may be kept in mind and all discovered faults of shoeing corrected4 ,the examination is best conducted in the following order3 ,the horse should first be led at a walk in a straight line from the observer over as level a surface as possible1 then turned about and brought back1 that the examiner may notice the direction of the limbs and the manner in which the hoofs are moved and set to the ground4 ,while the animal is moving away the observer notices particularly the hind limbs1 and as it comes towards him he examines the fore-limbs4 ,then a few steps at a trot will not only show whether or not the animal is lame1 but will often remove all doubt in those cases in which1 while the animal was walking1 the examiner was unable to make up his mind as to which was the predominating position of the limb4 ,the problem presented is1 therefore1 to determine whether or not the direction of the limbs1 the lines of flight of the hoofs1 and the manner in which they are set down and picked up are regular4 ,if there are deviations from the normal they will fall either into the base-wide and toe-wide group or into the base-narrow and toe-narrow group4 ,when clear upon these points the horse is allowed to stand quietly1 and the observer1 placing himself in front1 examines the foot more closely1 fixes the direction of the foot-axis clearly in his mind1 marks also the form and character of the hoofs and the position of the coronets1 as far as these parts can be inspected from in front4 ,at the same time each hoof should be closely inspected to determine whether the slant of both quarters corresponds to the direction of the long pastern1 and whether the course of the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is straight or bent in or out 7contraction1 fulness74 ,walls curved from above to below always indicate an unnatural height of some section of the wall and a displacement of the base of support of the foot4 ,in order to gain accurate and complete knowledge of the position of the limbs1 the flight of the hoofs1 and the manner of setting the foot to the ground1 the horse must frequently be moved back and forth many times1 especially when the standing position is somewhat irregular and the hoofs are of different shapes4 ,at this point begins the examination of the position of the limbs1 and the form of the feet and hoofs1 in profile4 ,after casting a glance over the entire body1 so as to gain an idea of the animal's weight1 height1 and length1 the attention is turned to the position and direction of the limbs and hoofs4 ,the eye should particularly note whether the form of the hoof corresponds to the position of the limb1 and1 furthermore1 whether the slant of the pastern is the same as that of the wall at the toe1--that is1 whether the foot-axis is straight or broken2 also whether the toes and quarters are parallel1 for the toe is sometimes bulging 7convex7 or hollowed out 7concave7 between the coronet and plantar border1 and the quarters are frequently contracted and drawn or shoved under the foot 7weak quarters74 ,if the wall present rings the observer should note their position with reference to one another and to the coronet1 and also their extent1 and1 furthermore1 should determine whether or not they cross one another 7thrush of the frog74 ,at the same time he should notice the length of the shoes4 ,next1 the feet should be raised and the examiner should notice the width of the hoof1 the arching of the sole1 the character of the frog1 the position of the bulbs of the heel1 as well as the presence of any cracks or clefts in the wall4 ,then the old shoes should be examined as to their age1 form1 the distribution and direction of their nail-holes 78punching071 position1 and wear4 ,with respect to the form of the old shoe1 one should observe whether or not it corresponds to the form of the hoof4 ,the same careful examination should be made of the number and distribution of the nail-holes4 ,as regards the position of the shoe1 one must first ascertain whether it completely covers the bearing-surface of the wall1 and whether the shoe extends beyond the wall at any point and has caused interfering or given rise to irregular wear4 ,finally1 the wear of the shoe should be observed1 and the following points borne in mind3 ,one-sided wear1 uneven setting down of the feet1 and an unnatural course of the wall are often found together1 especially when uneven wearing of the shoe has existed for a long time1--that is1 during several shoeings4 ,as a rule1 in such a case the more worn branch of the shoe is too near the centre of the foot1 and the opposite branch too far from the centre 7too 8full072 in other words1 the base of support 7shoe7 has been shifted too far in the direction of the less worn branch4 ,moreover1 increased wear of a part of a shoe is an indication that the section of the wall above it is too high 7too long7 7,fig4 #hi71 or that the wall upon the opposite side of the foot is too low 7short74 ,the twisting movement of many hind feet should1 from physiological reasons1 not be hindered by shoeing4 ,b4 ,raising and ,holding the ,feet of the ,horse to be ,shod4 ,this can always be done without much trouble if the horse has been accustomed to it from early colthood4 ,certain rules governing the manner of taking hold of the feet1 and of afterwards manipulating them1 are of value4 ,a shoer should never grasp a foot suddenly1 or with both hands4 ,the horse should first be prepared for this act4 ,first see that the horse stands in such a position that he can bear his weight comfortably upon three legs4 ,this is well worth noticing1 and if the horse does not voluntarily assume such an easy position1 move him gently until his feet are well under his body4 ,if the shoer1 for example1 wishes to raise the left fore foot for inspection1 he stands on the left side facing the animal1 speaks quietly to him1 places the palm of the right hand flat upon the animal's shoulder1 and1 at the same time1 with the left hand strokes the limb downward to the cannon and seizes the cannon from in front4 ,with the right hand he now gently presses the horse towards the opposite side1 and the foot becoming loose as the weight is shifted upon the other leg1 he lifts it from the ground4 ,the right hand now grasps the pastern from the inside followed by the left hand upon the inside and the right hand on the outside2 then1 turning partly to the right1 the holder supports the horse's leg upon his left leg1 in which position he should always stand as quietly and firmly as possible4 ,if1 now1 the shoer desires to have both hands free to work upon the hoof1 he grasps the toe with the left hand in such a manner that the toe rests firmly in the palm while the four fingers are closely applied to the wall of the toe1 takes a half step toward the rear1 passes the hoof behind his left knee into his right hand which has been passed backward between his knees to receive it1 and drawing the hoof forward outward and upward supports it firmly on his two knees1--the legs just above the knees being applied tightly against the pastern4 ,the forefoot should not be raised higher than the knee 7carpus71 nor the hind foot higher than the hock1 nor either foot be drawn too far backward4 ,the correct standing position of the shoer or floorman while holding a front foot is shown in ,fig4 #ia4 ,shortness of stature 7#e-e4f7 is desirable in a floorman4 ,in lifting the left hind foot the animal should be gently stroked back as far as the angle of the hip1 against which the left hand is placed for support1 while the right hand strokes the limb down to the middle of the cannon1 which it grasps from behind4 ,while the left hand presses the animal's weight over towards the right side1 the right hand loosens the foot and carries it forward and outward from the body so that the limb is bent at the hock4 ,the holder then turns his body towards the right1 brings his left leg against the anterior surface of the fetlock-joint1 and carries the foot backward1 at which time his left arm passes over the horse's croup and above and to the inner side of the hock4 ,finally1 both hands encompass the long pastern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,proper position for holding a front foot4 ,if the right feet are to be raised1 the process is simply reversed4 ,in raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted by pinching1 squeezing1 or lifting a limb too high4 ,the wise shoer avoids all unnecessary clamor and disturbance2 quiet1 rapid1 painless methods avail much more4 ,in dealing with young horses the feet should not be kept lifted too long2 let them down from time to time4 ,in old and stiff horses the feet should not be lifted too high1 especially in the beginning of the shoeing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,the ,martin horse rack 7modified74 ,vicious horses must often be severely handled4 ,watch the play of the ears and eyes continually1 and immediately punish every exhibition of temper either by jerking the halter or bridle vigorously1 or by loud commands4 ,if this does not avail1 then if soft ground is at hand make the horse back as rapidly as possible for some time over this soft surface2 it is very disagreeable and tiresome to him4 ,to raise a hind foot we may knot a strong1 broad1 soft1 plaited band 7side-line7 into the tail1 loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot1 and hold the end4 ,this often renders valuable service4 ,the holder seizes the band close to the fetlock1 draws the foot forward under the body1 and then holds it as above described4 ,the use of such a band compels the horse to carry a part of his own weight1 and at the same time hinders him from kicking4 ,before attempting to place this rope or band about the fetlock1 the front foot on the same side should be raised4 ,the various sorts of twitches are objectionable1 and their use should not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation is to be done4 ,the application of the tourniquet1 or 8,spanish windlass10 to the hind leg is equally objectionable4 ,those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we do not immediately cast or place in the stocks1 but first have a quiet1 trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reins and attempt by gentle words and soft caresses to win their attention and confidence4 ,ticklish horses must be taken hold of boldly1 for light touches of the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant than energetic1 rough handling4 ,many ticklish horses allow their feet to be raised when they are grasped suddenly without any preparatory movements4 ,c4 ,removing the ,old ,shoes4 ,if a horse's hoofs are healthy1 all the shoes may be taken off at the same time1 but there are certain diseases of the hoof in which this should not be done4 ,the rule to follow in removing every shoe is to draw it cautiously1 not wrench it away with violence4 ,hoofs which are dirty should first be cleansed1 preferably with a stiff brush4 ,next1 the clinches should be carefully lifted by means of a rather dull clinch cutter 7,fig4 #ic71 without injuring the horn of the wall4 ,in order1 now1 that the nails may be removed singly1 the shoe must be slightly lifted4 ,this may be done in one of two ways4 ,the shoer may use a pair of pincers 7,fig4 #id71 with broad bills which will encompass the branch of the shoe and come well together underneath it4 ,the handles of the pincers are then moved in the direction of the branches of the shoe4 ,the second method consists in raising the branches of the shoe by driving the nail-cutter from behind between the shoe and hoof and using it as a lever or pry to loosen the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,clinch cutter and punch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,pincers4 ,violent and excessive twisting of the hoof and straining of ligaments may easily occur1 but the smith should guard against them by supporting the hoof with the left hand or with the leg just above the knee1 while loosening the shoe4 ,d4 ,preparing the ,hoof for the ,shoe4 ,this preparation is usually termed paring1 trimming1 or dressing4 ,it is a most important step in the process of shoeing1 and its object is to shorten the hoof1 which has grown too long under the projection of the shoe1 and prepare it to receive the new shoe4 ,the instruments needed for this work are the rasp and the hoof-knife 7,fig4 #ie72 upon large and hard hoofs a pair of sharp nippers 7,fig4 #if71 or a sharp hewing knife1 with broad handle and perfectly flat1 smooth sides1 may be used1 since these instruments will considerably facilitate and hasten the work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,german hoof set with detachable hook blades4 7,w4 ,m4 ,kunde1 ,dresden73 a1 a1 hoof blades2 b1 pus searcher2 c1 scalpel4 ,after the shoer has carefully examined the hoofs in the manner described upon pages #ij1 #ia1 and #ib1 and has fixed in mind the relation of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight of the body1 he cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old nails4 ,at the same time he should be asking himself if1 where1 and how much horn is to be removed4 ,in all cases all loosely attached fragments of horn are to be removed1 for example1 chips of horn produced by repeated bending and stretching of the lower border of the wall4 ,the sole is then freed from all flakes of dead horn4 ,the shoer then runs the rasp around the outer border of the wall and breaks it off to the depth to which he thinks it should be shortened1 and then cuts the wall down to its union with the sole1 so that at least one-eighth of an inch of the edge of the sole lies in the same level as the bearing-surface of the wall4 ,finally1 the wall1 white line1 and outer margin of the sole1 forming the 8bearing-surface10 must be rasped until they are perfectly horizontal1 except that at the toe of fore-hoofs this bearing-surface may be rasped slightly upward 7rolled toe74 ,in dressing the hoof the branches of the frog should always be left prominent enough to project beyond the bearing-surface of the quarters about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe4 ,if it be weakened by paring1 it is deprived of its activity1 shrinks1 and the hoof becomes narrow to a corresponding degree4 ,the frog should1 therefore1 be trimmed only when it is really too prominent4 ,however1 loose and diseased particles of horn may be trimmed away when it is affected with thrush4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #if4 ,nippers4 ,the bars should be spared and never shortened except when too long4 ,their union with the wall at the quarters must in no case be weakened1 and never cut through 7opening up the heels74 ,they should be left as high as the wall at the quarters1 or only a little less1 while the branches of the sole should lie about one-eighth of an inch lower4 ,the buttress 7angle formed by the union of wall and bar7 requires special attention4 ,in healthy unshod hoofs the bars run backward and outward in a straight line from the anterior third of the frog4 ,in shod hoofs1 however1 it happens that the buttresses gradually lengthen1 curl inward1 and press upon the branches of the frog1 causing the latter to shrink4 ,in such cases the indication is to remove these prolongations of horn from the buttresses so as to restore to the bars their normal direction4 ,the sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be broken away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the wall equals its absolute thickness4 7,fig4 #ig74 ,however1 in healthy hoofs1 that is1 in those whose walls are straight from the coronet to the ground1 the outer surface of the wall should never be rasped4 ,the only exceptions to this rule are those cases in which there is an outward bending of the lower edge of the wall1 most frequent on the inner side wall and quarter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,longitudinal 7vertical7 section of the wall at the toe3 a c is the absolute1 and a b the relative thickness of the wall4 ,with a as the centre1 and the line a c as a radius1 a circle is drawn2 the corner of horn in front of this circle and indicated by dotted lines is to be removed with the rasp4 ,with respect to the inclination of the ground-surface of the hoof to the direction of the foot-axis1 as viewed from in front1 the following facts are established3 ,in the regular standing position of the limbs 7seen from in front7 the plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot-axis1 and the outer and inner walls are of equal heights4 ,in the base-wide position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is more or less inclined to the foot-axis1 usually to a very small degree1 and the outer wall is somewhat higher 7longer7 and more slanting than the inner4 ,in the base-narrow position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is more or less inclined to the direction of the foot-axis1 usually quite considerably1 and the inner wall is somewhat higher than the outer4 ,the foot is observed from the side in order to determine the proper relation of the length of the toe to the height of the quarters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,an untrimmed hoof with an excess of horn 7a7 at the toe which breaks the foot-axis backward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,an untrimmed hoof with an excess of horn 7b7 at the heels1 which breaks the foot-axis forward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,hoof dressed and foot-axis straightened by removing excess of horn below dotted lines in the two preceding illustrations4 ,in this also the foot-axis is our guide4 ,if this axis is as it should be1 the wall at the toe and the long pastern will have the same slant 7,figs4 #fg1 #fh and #fi74 ,if the hoof has become too long under the protection of the shoe1 this will be shown by the foot-axis being no longer a straight line1 but broken backward at the coronet 7,fig4 #ih72 that is1 the hoof in comparison with the fetlock will be too slanting4 ,by shortening the toe more than the quarters this faulty relation will be corrected 7,fig4 #ajj7 and the foot restored to its proper slant4 ,if the quarters are too long 7too high7 in comparison with the length of the toe1 the foot-axis will be broken forward at the coronet 7,fig4 #ii71 and the hoof will be too upright4 ,by shortening the quarters more than the toe the foot-axis may be made straight4 ,the plantar surface of the hoof is therefore correct 7balanced7 when the horse places the foot flat upon the ground in travelling1 and when the lines bounding the hoof1 viewed from in front1 from behind1 and in profile1 correspond to the direction of the three phalanges 7foot-axis74 ,finally1 this fact should be emphasized1 that in changing from flat shoes to those with calks1 or the reverse1 the hoofs must first be dressed in accordance1 so that the foot axes will remain straight1 and the feet be set always flat to the ground when the new shoes are on4 ,each hoof1 when ready for the new shoe1 should be let down and the horse allowed to stand upon it while it is again carefully examined and closely compared with the opposite hoof4 ,only after such close inspection has proved the dressing to be faultless can the hoof be considered as properly prepared and ready for the shoe4 ,the two front hoofs and the two hind hoofs1 when the legs are in the same position1 should not only be of equal size1 but also in proper relation to the size and weight of the body4 ,e4 ,preparing the ,hoof for going ,barefoot4 ,this becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and the kind of service required of the horse render shoeing unnecessary4 ,however1 to go barefoot the hoof must have plenty of horn4 ,after removing the shoes the frog should be pared down nearly to the level of the wall1 and the sharp outer edge of the wall well rounded off with the rasp1 in some cases as far as the white line1 otherwise large pieces of the wall will readily break away4 ,hoofs with very slanting walls must be more strongly rounded off than upright hoofs4 ,going barefoot strengthens the hoofs4 ,from time to time the condition of these shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection1 and any growing fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately corrected4 ,it quite frequently happens that the sharp edge of the wall must be repeatedly rounded1 especially on very oblique walls 7outer half of base-wide hoofs71 and the quarters may require frequent shortening1 because they are not always worn away as fast as the horn at the toe4 ,f4 ,making ,shoes4#c ,besides good1 tough iron for the shoe1 we need an anvil with a round horn and a small hole at one end1 a round-headed turning-hammer1 a round sledge1 a stamping hammer1 a pritchel of good steel1 and1 if a fullered shoe is to be made1 a round fuller4 ,bodily activity and1 above all else1 a good eye for measurement are not only desirable1 but necessary4 ,a shoe should be made thoughtfully1 but yet quickly enough to make the most of the heat4 #c ,on a shoe we distinguish an outer and an inner branch4 ,the anterior portion1 formed by the union of the two branches1 is called the toe4 ,the upper surface1 upon which the hoof rests1 is called the hoof-surface1 and the under surface1 which is in contact with the ground1 the ground-surface4 ,that portion of the hoof-surface which is in direct contact with the lower border of the wall1 the white line1 and a narrow margin of the sole is termed the bearing-surface1 and when necessary 8concaving0 7seating7 extends from this to the inner border of the shoe4 ,on the ground-surface is seen the 8fullering0 or 8crease40 ,the iron of which horseshoes are made is derived from the natural iron ore4 ,iron used for technical purposes is not chemically pure4 ,pure iron is rather too soft1 and is therefore mixed with different substances1 mostly with 8carbon10 the most important ingredient of our fuel4 ,of course1 the iron contains a very small quantity of carbon 7#j4e to #e per cent474 ,when iron contains more than #b4b per cent4 of carbon it is hard1 brittle1 and more easily melted1 and is known as crude iron1 or raw iron1 because it is derived from the raw product1--black ore4 ,the melted crude iron is called cast iron4 ,iron is ductile when it contains less than #b4b per cent4 of carbon1 and is then called forge iron1 or wrought iron4 ,wrought iron is fusible only at a high temperature4 ,only weldable iron containing less than #a4f per cent4 of carbon is suitable for general use4 ,of this iron we distinguish two sorts1--steel and wrought iron4 ,a larger percentage of carbon is found in steel than in wrought iron4 ,steel is hard1 can be tempered1 and may be called tempered wrought iron4 ,in order to temper or harden steel1 bring it to a cherry-red heat1 and then cool it suddenly by dipping it in cold water or wet sand4 ,the tempered steel can again be softened as desired by heating and slowly cooling4 ,by heating to a high temperature in a forge wrought iron will become doughy1 and may then be intimately united 7welded7 with another piece at the same temperature by pressure or hammering4 ,this property is called weld-ability2 it is of great importance in making horseshoes4 ,the heating of iron until it reaches the welding stage is called getting a 8heat40 ,the act of welding wrought iron with steel is called 8steeling40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,fuller4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,hammer-punch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,pritchel4 ,regarding the tools1 the following hints are sufficient3 ,the anvil should have a level1 smooth1 flat steel face4 ,likewise1 the round head and flat face of both turning-hammer and sledge should be smooth4 ,on the fullering-hammer 7,fig4 #aja7 the left side is flat1 the right side convex1 and the cutting edge has slightly rounded corners4 ,the hardy1 fullering-hammer1 and cold chisel should be flawless on the edge4 ,the punch 7,fig4 #ajb71 used to make the nail-holes in the shoe1 has a dull point1 which should correspond in size with the head of the horseshoe-nail and have slightly rounded corners4 ,the pritchel 7,fig4 #ajc7 should not taper to a point1 but should end in a rectangular surface whose length is twice its width1 in order to punch iron through the shoe under the blow of the hammer4 ,making the ,shoe4 ,to make a flat shoe1 take the length of the hoof from the point of the toe to the buttress and the greatest width of the hoof2 these two measurements1 when added together1 give the length of the bar for the shoe4 ,the bar should be of such width and thickness as will require the least amount of working4 ,for a bar-shoe or a shoe with heel-calks the bar must be correspondingly longer4 ,should we wish to preserve the exact outline of the plantar border of the wall1 we may advantageously use such a podometer as is shown in ,fig4 #ajd4 ,this consists of a perforated sheet-iron plate one-sixteenth to one-twelfth of an inch thick4 ,this is laid upon the hoof1 and the outline of the wall marked upon it with chalk4 ,if necessary1 the hoof may be set on a piece of smooth1 stiff wrapping paper or card-board1 and the outline of the wall closely traced with a lead pencil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,podometer4 ,to make a front shoe 7,figs4 #ajg and #ajh71 heat the bar white-hot just beyond its middle1 place the head of the sledge hammer across one end of the face of the anvil1 hold the unheated end of the bar on the head of the sledge1--the heated end resting on the face of the anvil1 and bend the bar into a half-circle with the round head of the turning-hammer4 7,the outer branch of all shoes is made first2 in making pairs the right shoe is made first47 ,the extreme end of the heated bar is drawn out to the desired width and thickness with the sledge4 ,the bent branch is then placed obliquely across the heel of the horn of the anvil1 is turned over toward the right till it rests upon an edge1 and is then bevelled diamond-shaped from the toe to the end of the branch4 ,the edge in contact with the horn is the inner edge of the right branch 7outer branch7 of the right shoe2 the edge beaten down by the hammer is the outer edge of the outer branch4 ,the branch is then flattened on the anvil because in the bending the outer edge has been stretched and thinned1 while the iron of the inner edge has been crowded together 7back-set7 and thickened4 ,in flattening1 the shoe should be left a trifle thinner on the inner edge4 ,the branch is again placed over the horn1 and gone over lightly with the flat head of the turning-hammer and brought to a proper shape4 ,it is now to be concaved with or without the help of the sledge1 or the concaving may be omitted4 ,the concaving should end about three-fourths of an inch from the end of the branch4 ,now turn the branch and fuller it1 or fuller it first and concave afterwards4 ,the fuller should be set in about one-twelfth of an inch from the edge for small shoes1 somewhat more for large shoes1 and led from the end of the branch towards the toe1 twice being necessary to make the fullering of sufficient depth4 ,next1 stamp the holes1 punch them through with the pritchel1 run over the surfaces1 go over the outer edge of the shoe upon the horn1 and1 finally1 hammer the bearing-surface smooth and horizontal4 ,the left branch is made in the same way1 except that it is turned to the left and the fullering carried from the toe to the heel4 ,any ordinary shoe can and should be completed in the rough in two heats4 ,one pair of shoes requires from eight to fifteen minutes4 ,the hind shoe 7,fig4 #aaf7 is made in like manner1 but the branches are not bent in a circle but given that form shown in ,fig4 #ajf4 ,concaving is not necessary2 it is sufficient merely to round the inner edge of the web4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,the curvature of a branch of a front shoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,the curvature of a branch of a hind shoe4 ,since in bending the shoe1 and especially the toe of a hind shoe1 the inner edge is crowded together 7back-set7 and thickened to the same extent that the outer edge is stretched and thinned1 we must remember to do away with these inequalities of thickness and strain by hammering the shoe smooth4 ,peculiarities of the ,shoe4 ,they are dependent upon the structure1 direction1 and position of the leg and hoof1 as well as upon the horse's service and the nature of the ground4 ,since the shoe is an artificial base of support1 and since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in preserving the soundness of the feet and legs1 careful attention must be given to this matter4 ,naturally shoes designed for the various forms of hoofs must present equally great and equally numerous differences of form1 as well as other peculiarities4 ,general ,properties4 #a4 ,form4--,a form corresponding to the shape of the hoof is indispensable in every shoe4 ,front and hind and right and left shoes should be sharply defined and easily distinguishable4 ,front shoes must1 above all else1 be circular round cut the toe4 ,hind shoes1 on the contrary1 should be round pointed at the toe1 yet not too much so1 but as in ,fig4 #aaf4 #b4 ,width4--,all shoes should be wider webbed 7more covered7 at the toe than at the ends of the branches4 ,the medium width should be about twice the thickness of the wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,right front shoe1 ground-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,right front shoe1 hoof-surface3 a1 bearing-surface2 b1 concaving1 or 8seating40 #c4 ,thickness4--,each shoe should1 in general terms1 be so thick that it need not be renewed under four weeks4 ,lungwitz found that the average required thickness is about seven-sixteenths of an inch4 ,of course1 this thickness must be diminished or increased according to the rapidity of wear of the shoe4 ,shoes without calks should be of uniform thickness1 unless there are special reasons for making them otherwise4 #d4 ,length4--,for draft-horses they should be long enough to reach the bulbs of the heel1 otherwise shorter1 though in other respects they may differ 7see 8special properties071 but should in all cases completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof4 #e4 ,surfaces4--,that part of the hoof-surface of the shoe which is in contact with the hoof 7bearing-surface of the shoe1 ,fig4 #aji1 a7 should be horizontal and wide enough to cover the wall1 the white line1 and from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch of the outer edge of the sole4 ,shoes for large hoofs require a broader bearing-surface than those for small hoofs4 ,the concaving1 or 8seating0 7,fig4 #aji1 b71 should be made deeper or shallower1 according to the nature of the sole4 ,shoes for hoofs with strongly arched 7very concave7 soles1 do not require any concaving 7hind hoofs1 narrow fore-hoofs74 ,the object of concaving is to prevent pressure of the shoe upon the horny sole except at its margin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,transverse section of a branch of a front shoe3 a1 bearing-surface2 b1 concaving2 c1 fullering1 or 8crease02 d1 nail-hole4 ,the ground-surface of the shoe should be flat and perfectly horizontal1 except at the toe1 which may be turned upward 7rolled toe1 8rolling motion074 #f4 ,borders4--,the outer border should usually be moderately base-narrow1--that is1 the circumference of the ground-surface of the shoe should be less than the circumference of its hoof-surface2 in other words1 the entire outer border of the shoe should be bevelled under the foot4 ,shoes made base-narrow are not so easily loosened1 and materially assist in preventing interfering4 ,the inner border should be moderately rounded4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 7a7 correct and 7b7 incorrect fullering4 #g4 ,the 8,fullering0 7,fig4 #aji1 c74--,in depth it should be about two-thirds the thickness of the shoe1 of uniform width1 and 8clean40 ,a fullering is not absolutely necessary1 but it makes the shoe lighter in proportion to its size1 facilitates a uniform placing of the nail-holes1 renders the ground-surface somewhat rough1 and1 because it is rather difficult to make1 increases the workman's skill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,swiss military shoe1 hoof-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,swiss military shoe1 ground-surface4 #h4 ,nail-,holes 7,fig4 #aji1 d74--,the importance of the nail-holes1 as regards their character1 number1 distribution1 depth1 and direction1 cannot be over-estimated1 because by the nails which are driven through them the stability of the shoe upon the hoof should be maintained without injuring the sensitive structures1 splitting the horny wall1 or immoderately interfering with the elasticity of the foot4 ,each nail-hole should taper uniformly from the ground to the hoof-surface 7funnel-shaped74 ,for a medium-weight shoe six nail-holes are sufficient1 while for all heavy shoes1 especially those with toe- and heel-calks1 eight are indicated2 however1 it should by no means be said that every nail-hole should contain a nail4 ,hind shoes usually require one more nail-hole than front shoes1 yet seldom more than eight4 ,in front shoes the nail-holes should be placed in the anterior half of the shoe 7,figs4 #ajg and #ajh71 while in hind shoes they are to be placed in the anterior two-thirds of the shoe 7,fig4 #aaf71 and in both cases so distributed that the toe shall be without nail-holes1 except in those shoes in which it may be desirable to omit the nail-holes in an entire branch 7,fig4 #aec74 ,the depth of the nail-holes--that is1 their distance from the outer edge of the shoe--will depend always upon the thickness of the wall1 and should equal the absolute 7real7 thickness of the wall 7,fig4 #ig74 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that all nail-holes should not be placed at the same depth 7for thickness of the wall1 see p4 #ec74 ,the direction in which the nail-holes should pass through the shoe depends upon the obliquity of the wall4 ,the nail-holes around the toe1 as a rule1 should incline somewhat inward1 the holes at the sides less so1 while those at the quarters should be punched straight1--that is1 should pass perpendicularly through the shoe4 ,both front and hind shoes for army horses in time of war and manuvres should be so punched that one or two nails may be placed in the posterior half of the shoe 7,figs4 #aaa and #aab74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,form of clips3 a1 correct2 b1 indifferent2 c1 faulty4 #i4 ,clips 7,fig4 #aac7 are half-circular1 leaf-like ears drawn upward from the outer edge of the shoe4 ,they should be strong and without flaw at the base1 and somewhat higher and thicker upon hind than upon front shoes4 ,their height on flat shoes should equal the thickness of the shoe1 while on shoes with leather soles1 or with toe- and heel-calks they should be somewhat higher4 ,according to their position we distinguish toe- and side-clips4 ,they secure the shoe against shifting2 therefore1 as a rule1 every shoe should have a toe-clip4 ,a side-clip should always be drawn up on that branch of the shoe which first meets the ground in locomotion4 ,a ,shoe with ,heel-,calks4--,all shoes with heel-calks designed for healthy hoofs should be so made and applied that they will disturb the normal setting down of the foot as little as possible1 that the wear of the shoe will take place uniformly1 and slipping be diminished4 ,the toe of the shoe must1 therefore1 be left somewhat thicker than the branches just in front of the heel-calks4 ,moreover1 every front shoe with heel-calks must be relatively long1 and be provided with considerable rolling motion at the toe2 that is1 the shoe should be turned up at the toe1 the bending beginning near the inner edge of the web4 ,the three- or four-cornered1 somewhat conical heel-calks with rounded corners should not be higher than the thickness of the shoe4 ,with reference to the direction of the ends of the branches1 we should see to it that they do not rise excessively1 but that they assume as near as possible a horizontal direction in passing back to the heels 7see ,fig4 #aae74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,shoe without calks1 with perfectly level hoof- and ground-surfaces1 and with roll at the toe 7flat1 rolling motion shoe74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,shoe with heel-calks for a front hoof4 ,a ,shoe with ,toe- and ,heel-,calks4--,such a shoe should be of uniform thickness from end to end1 and should have a toe-calk and two heel-calks that are somewhat stronger and longer than the heel-calks of a shoe which has no toe-calk4 ,if to a shoe of uniform thickness1 on which the heel-calks are somewhat higher than those already described1 a piece of steel 7,fig4 #aaf1 b7 of the height of the heel-calks is welded at the toe1 we have a shoe with toe- and heel-calks4 ,the toe-calk should never he higher than the heel-calks4 ,there are three principal kinds of toe-calks1--namely3 #a4 ,the ,sharp ,toe-,calk4--,a bar of toe-steel of proper width and thickness for the toe-calk is thrust with the shoe into the fire4 ,when the end of the bar is cherry-red in color it is withdrawn1 laid across the straight hardy1 and cut nearly through at a point a calk-length from the end4 ,bar and shoe are then brought to a welding heat1 the calk quickly and securely welded across the toe of the shoe1 the bar wrenched away1 the calk gone over again with the hammer1 when it is immediately beaten out to a sharp edge from the anterior face1 either over the far edge of the anvil1 or in a foot-vise4 ,the posterior face of a sharp toe-calk should be perpendicular to the ground-surface of the shoe4 ,machine-made toe-calks1 sharp1 half-sharp and blunt1 provided with a sharp spud at one or both ends1 are in general use4 ,their use requires two heats1 and the sharp calk is blunted in the welding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,right hind shoe with toe- and heel-calks3 a1 heel-calks2 b1 toe-calk2 c1 greatest width of the base of support 7i4e41 contact with the ground7 of this shoe when without toe- and heel-calks2 d1 the greatest1 and e1 the least width of the base of support of this shoe with calks4 #b4 ,the ,blunt ,toe-,calk4--,it is a rather long rectangular piece of toe-steel1 straight1 or curved to conform to the toe of the shoe4 ,the shoe-surface and the ground-surface of the calk are of equal dimensions4 ,it should be welded on in one heat4 #c4 ,the ,half-,sharp ,toe-,calk 7,coffin-,lid ,toe-,calk74--,it resembles the blunt calk1 except that the surface of the calk that is applied to the shoe is somewhat broader and longer than the surface that comes in contact with the ground4 ,it is welded on in one heat4 ,the first and third kinds are most suitable for winter4 ,since heel-and toe-calks raise the hoof far from the ground and prevent all pressure upon the frog1 they diminish the elasticity of the hoof and injure it4 ,they are injurious also to the joints1 because they furnish a base of support which is essentially smaller than that afforded by a flat shoe 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,however1 they are indispensable for heavy draft purposes on slippery roads and in winter4 ,upon all other roads and in summer they are superfluous1 at least upon front hoofs1 especially as they do not wholly prevent slipping4 ,special ,properties4--,the many different forms of hoofs require a great variety of shoes4 ,following are the special peculiarities of each of the chief classes of shoes4 #a4 ,shoe for a ,regular ,hoof4--,outer edge3 moderately base-narrow 7bevelled under7 all around4 ,distribution and direction of the nail-holes3 regular4 ,length3 longer than the hoof by the thickness of the shoe 7see ,figs4 #aba and #abb74 #b4 ,shoe for an ,acute-,angled ,hoof4--,outer edge3 strongly base-narrow around the toe1 but gradually becoming perpendicular towards the ends of the branches4 ,punching3 regular1 except that the nail-holes at the toe must incline inward somewhat more than usual4 ,length3 rather longer than the preceding shoe 7see ,fig4 #abc74 #c4 ,shoe for an ,upright 7stumpy7 ,hoof4--,outer edge3 perpendicular at the toe2 but if the hoof is very steep1 then base-wide at the toe1--i4e41 bevelled downward and outward4 ,punching3 last nail should be placed just beyond the middle of the shoe4 ,direction of the holes3 perpendicular4 ,length3 short2 at most1 one-eighth of an inch longer than the hoof4 ,in the case of a 8bear-foot0 7see ,fig4 #gj7 the shoe should be long4 #d4 ,shoe for a ,base-,wide ,hoof4--,outer edge2 the outer branch should be moderately base-narrow1--i4e41 bevelled downward and inward1 the inner branch perpendicular4 ,punching3 upon the outer branch the holes should extend well back1 while upon the inner branch they are to be crowded forward towards the toe 7see ,fig4 #aag74 ,length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof as seen in profile 7see #a1 #b1 and #c74 #e4 ,shoe for a ,base-,narrow ,hoof4--,outer edge3 the outer branch either perpendicular or base-wide1 the inner branch strongly base-narrow4 ,punching3 the nail-holes in the outer branch should be crowded towards the toe and1 under certain conditions1 punched deeper than the wall is thick1 on account of the greater width of this branch2 in the inner branch the nail-holes are to be distributed back to the quarter and punched light 7see ,fig4 #aah74 ,length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof4 ,the outer branch should be about one-fourth of an inch longer than the inner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,a right front shoe for a base-wide 7toe-wide7 hoof4 ,the inner branch should be about one-fourth of an inch longer than the outer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,a right front shoe for a base-narrow 7toe-narrow7 hoof4 ,the outer branch is wider and one-fourth of an inch longer than the inner4 #f4 ,shoe for a ,wide ,hoof4--,somewhat wider webbed 7more covered7 than usual4 ,outer edge3 bevelled under the foot all around 7base-narrow74 ,punching3 nail-holes carried back into the posterior half of the shoe 7see ,fig4 #aai74 ,length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof4 #g4 ,shoe for a ,narrow ,hoof4--,outer edge3 moderately bevelled under the foot at the toe 7base-narrow71 elsewhere perpendicular4 ,distribution of the nail-holes3 regular4 ,direction of the nail-holes3 perpendicular and towards the quarters1 inclining somewhat outward4 ,the holes about the toe incline somewhat inward4 ,length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof4 ,concaving unnecessary 7see ,fig4 #abj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,flat shoe for a round hoof 7right front74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,a left front shoe for a narrow hoof4 ,the concaving is unnecessary4 ,the forms of shoes described in paragraphs #b to #g differ from that described in paragraph #a1 but are necessary in order to lessen the injurious consequences of irregular loading 7unbalancing7 of the feet1 and of unfavorable bases of support of the body-weight4 ,g4 ,choosing the ,shoe4 ,the choice of the shoe for a given horse is not at all difficult after we have carefully considered his weight1 the nature of his work1 his standing position1 gait1 the form of his hoofs1 and quality of the horn1 bearing in mind the general and peculiar properties of shoes4 ,as a rule1 we choose a shoe that is longer than the hoof1 because the latter grows and carries the shoe forward with it1 and because the quarters gradually become lowered by rubbing and wearing away upon the branches of the shoe4 ,the length of the shoe is of especial importance4 ,for horses employed for slow1 heavy draft purposes the shoe supplied with heel-and toe-calks should extend backward far enough to support the bulbs of the heels4 ,on the contrary1 horses used at a trot or gallop1 as coach-and saddle-horses1 require shorter shoes 7see ,fig4 #abd74 ,the weight of the shoe should be so adjusted to the demands of the horse's work1 the condition of the legs 7whether used up with work or not71 and the nature of the ground that the shoeing will last at least a month4 ,hard roads and a heavy1 clumsy gait require strong1 durable shoes1 which1 under some conditions1 are to be rendered still more durable by welding in steel4 ,for moderate service upon soft roads we should use light shoes4 ,running horses require unusually thin and narrow shoes of steel 7see ,figs4 #abe-abh74 ,h4 ,shaping and ,fitting ,shoes4 ,general ,considerations4 ,this is one of the most important parts of horseshoeing4 ,its object is to so fashion or shape the shoe which has been chosen for a particular hoof that its circumference will exactly correspond to the lower circumference of the previously prepared hoof1 and its bearing-surface will fit air-tight to the bearing-surface of the hoof4 ,at this time all defects in the surfaces of hoof and shoe and in the nail-holes must be remedied1 the clips drawn up1 and the shoe made to fit perfectly4 ,the bearing-surface of the shoe1 especially at the ends of the branches1 must be kept horizontal#d and smooth1 and its width regulated by the width of the bearing-surface of the hoof 7see page #ii74 ,perfectly uniform heating is absolutely indispensable in shaping the shoe1 because an irregularly heated shoe twists or becomes distorted at the warm places4 ,every shoe should be straight1 and when held before the eye one branch should exactly cover the other4 ,a flat shoe laid upon a level surface should touch at all parts of its ground-surface2 the only exception to this is the shoe with a rolled toe 7rolling motion71 in which the toe is turned upward4 ,a shoe is termed 8trough-shaped0 when only the inner edge of the web rests upon the flat surface4 ,it is faulty1 disturbs the stability of the foot1 and shifts the weight of the body too much upon the quarters4 #d ,the horizontal bearing-surface is in accordance with nature1 because the changes of form of the hoof which take place at the plantar border of the wall1 on burdening and unburdening the foot1 should not be interfered with4 ,a horizontal bearing-surface best fulfils this requirement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,shod fore-hoof viewed in profile to show the 8roll0 at the toe4 ,to front shoes we give a rolled toe 7,fig4 #aba1 rolling motion71 by which we mean a more or less pronounced upward turn of the toe of the shoe4 ,ordinarily1 the toe begins to turn up at the middle of the web1 and should be elevated about one-half the thickness of the iron4 ,the rolled toe corresponds to the natural wear of front hoofs1 facilitates the 8breaking over0 of the feet1 and insures a uniform wear of the shoe 7see ,fig4 #hf74 ,the shoe is made moderately hot and placed on the foot with the toe-clip against the wall exactly in front of the point of the frog4 ,the scorched horn should be repeatedly removed with the rasp until a perfect-fitting bed has been made upon the bearing-surface of the hoof4 ,from the bearing-surface of the shoe to the inner border of the web the iron must be free from the sole around its entire circumference4 ,the horn sole should not be burnt1 because the velvety tissue of the sole lies immediately above it4 ,in the region of the nail-holes the outer borders of shoe and wall should correspond4 ,the nail-holes must under all conditions cover the white line4 ,from the last nail-hale back to the ends of the branches1 for hoofs of the regular standing position of the limbs1 the shoe should gradually widen until it projects at each quarter from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch beyond the edge of the wall4 ,the posterior half of the shoe should1 therefore1 be somewhat wider than the hoof4 ,the effect of this will be to prolong the usefulness of the shoes4 ,with respect to the width of the branches1 an exception arises in the case of hind shoes1 in which the inner branch1 with few exceptions1 should closely follow the border of the wall2 this will prevent interfering and tearing off the shoe by the opposite foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,left fore-hoof of normal position shod4 ,between the ends of the branches and the frog there should be enough room1 with few exceptions1 to pass a foot-pick4 ,in order to judge of the width of a shoe which has been fitted to the hoof1 it is of advantage to seize the hoof in the left hand and1 extending it towards the ground1 to observe from behind and above the outer border of the shoe and the surfaces of the wall4 ,furthermore1 the most important rule is that the shoe should always have the form of the foot1 so long as the form of the hoof remains unaltered4 ,in all hoofs that have already undergone change of form we must strive to give the shoe that form which the hoof had before it underwent change4 ,such treatment will not only do the hoof no injury1 but1 on the contrary1 is of advantage to it1 as it is well known that in time the hoof will acquire the form of the shoe4 ,shaping and ,fitting ,shoes4 ,special ,considerations4 7a7 ,a shoe for a hoof of the regular form fits properly when the outer border of the shoe in the region of the nail-holes closely follows the outer edge of the wall1 but from the last nail-hole to the end of each branch extends beyond the wall from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch1 the shoe is straight1 lies firmly and air-tight upon the bearing-surface of the hoof1 the nail-holes fall exactly upon the white line1 and there is sufficient space between the frog and the branches of the shoe for the passage of a foot-pick4 ,the branches must be of equal length4 ,while in fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we need pay attention only to the form of the hoof1 it is very different when we come to shape and fit shoes to hoofs of irregular forms4 ,in these cases we must consider not only the form of the hoof1 but the position of the limbs and the distribution of weight in the hoof1 because where the most weight falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened1 and where least weight falls 7on the opposite side7 the surface of support must be narrowed4 ,in this manner the improper distribution of weight within the hoof 7an unbalanced foot7 is regulated1--that is1 is evenly distributed over the surface of support4 ,the manner in which this is accomplished in the various forms of hoofs is as follows3 7b7 ,an acute-angled hoof requires the shoe described in paragraph #b1 page #aad4 ,the branches must be long1 because more of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot1 and long branches extend the surface of support backward1 while the surface of support in front is to be diminished by making the toe of the shoe base-narrow1 either by turning it up or by bevelling it in under the foot4 ,a shoe for an acute-angled hoof fits when it is otherwise related to the hoof as is described in paragraph a1 above4 7c7 ,an upright or stumpy hoof presents exactly reverse conditions with respect to the distribution of weight within the hoof1 and is treated in an exactly opposite manner4 ,the surface of support should be increased at the toe and diminished at the quarters4 ,this is accomplished by a shoe possessing the peculiarities described in paragraph #c1 page #aad1 whose nail-holes are directed either straight or slightly outward4 7d7 ,a base-wide hoof requires the surface of support to be widened upon the inner side of the foot and narrowed upon the outer side1 because the inner half of the foot hears the more weight4 ,a shoe having the peculiarities described in paragraph #d1 page #aad1 accomplishes this end4 7e7 ,the base-narrow hoof is just the reverse of the preceding1 and requires a shoe whose peculiarities are described in paragraph #e1 page #aad4 ,while in the normal standing position of the limbs1 viewed from in front1 the ends of the branches of the shoe should be equally distant from the middle of the median lacuna of the frog1 this is not so in the base-wide and base-narrow positions4 ,in the base-wide position the outer and in the base-narrow position the inner branch should be somewhat farther from the median lacuna than the branch of the opposite side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,the three principal forms of hoofs shod with flat shoes4 7f7 ,the wide hoof has too large a surface of support1 and1 therefore1 the shoe designed for it should possess the peculiarities enumerated in paragraph #f1 page #aae4 7g7 ,the narrow hoof has already too narrow a base of support1 and must not be made smaller2 therefore1 the shoe should not have a base-narrow but a perpendicular outer border1 as described in paragraph #g1 page #aae4 ,shoeing ,saddlers and ,hunters4 ,the shoes for saddlers 7,park ,hacks7 should be light1 short1 and fitted snug to prevent forging1 interfering and pulling of the shoes4 ,the hoof-surface should cover the wall1 white line and at least one-fourth of an inch of the margin of the sole4 ,an average width of one inch is desirable4 ,both front and hind shoes should be fullered and concaved on the ground-surface 7convex iron74 ,the ,front ,shoe3--,length1 should not project beyond the buttress more than one-eighth of an inch4 ,width1 an inch at the middle on the branches1 somewhat more at the toe1 and less at the ends of the branches4 ,bevelling1 outer border1 base-narrow all around4 ,the ends of the branches1 and the heel-calks1 in case they are used1 are bevelled strongly downward and forward under the foot4 ,the toe is rolled from the inner edge of the web1 and provided with a strong central clip4 ,six nails are sufficient 7see ,fig4 #abd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,a right front shoe with forging calks2 suitable for a saddle-horse1 or hunter 7convex iron74 ,the ,hind ,shoe3--,length1 the shoe may project from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch behind the buttresses4 ,the toe should be well rounded and somewhat blunt so that the horn of the toe will project beyond the shoe an amount equal to one-half the thickness of the wall4 ,width1 somewhat less than the front shoe4 ,the branches are of equal thickness1 and should carry heel-calks whose height equals the thickness of the shoe4 ,to guard against interfering the inside calk may be omitted and the inner branch thickened1 fitted snug and bevelled strongly base-narrow4 ,clips are to be placed at inner and outer toes4 ,seven nails are sufficient4 ,the shoes for hunters do not differ materially from those suitable for ,park ,hacks4 ,the hunter's shoes are somewhat lighter1 and to guard against injury to the feet by over-reaching and interfering1 and against the shoes being pulled by stiff mire and by treading1 the shoes must represent merely a prolongation of the hoofs1 i4e41 must be no longer and no wider than the hoofs themselves4 ,the front shoe of narrow1 convex iron is rolled at the toe and has a central toe-clip4 ,forging heel-calks are advisable4 ,the hind shoe is set back at the toe1 carries inner and outer toe clips1 an outer heel-calk and an inner interfering branch4 ,seven nails4 ,shoeing ,runners4 ,racing plates are intended solely to prevent excessive wear and breaking away of the wall1 and to insure a secure foothold upon the ground4 ,the shoes are made as light as possible1 but they must not be so narrow and thin that they will bend or break4 ,they are therefore made of steel1 wide enough to cover the bearing-surface of the wall1 white line1 and an eighth of an inch of the sole4 ,the ground-surface is divided into two sharp edge's by a deep1 clean1 fullering continued entirely around the shoe4 heel-calks are of no advantage4 ,front and hind shoes carry six nails4 ,the last nails are well back in the quarters to prevent the spreading or bending of the light shoe4 ,front shoes are provided with central toe-clips2 hind shoes carry inner and outer toe-clips and are set slightly under at the toe 7see ,figs4 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh74 ,an average weight running plate for a medium-sized hoof is three to four ounces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,a fore running plate1 hoof-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,a fore running plate1 ground-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,a hind running plate1 hoof-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,a hind running plate1 ground-surface4 ,shoeing ,trotters and ,pacers4 ,the shoes worn while the trotter or pacer is in training are somewhat heavier than those worn while racing4 ,training shoes will average #dj ounces to the set1 while trotting and pacing plates weigh from #af to #bh ounces to the set4 ,of the six fastest trotters during the last year 7#aiab7 the average weight of the front shoes was #f ounces1 of the hind shoes #d ounces4 ,of the seven swiftest pacers of the same year the front shoes averaged #e ounces1 and the hind shoes #c ounces4 ,in short1 extreme speed at running1 pacing or trotting demands as light a shoe as can be made1 which will at the same time furnish a bearing for wall1 white line and a narrow rim of the sole4 ,in style of shoes there is no marked difference between trotters and pacers--except in the hind shoes of pacers that cross-fire 7see 8cross-firing10 p4 #adj74 ,open shoes predominate4 ,bar-shoes are used1 not to give frog pressure1 but to stiffen and prevent spreading of the shoe1 when after a few days' wear it becomes thin at the toe4 ,the average trotting and pacing plate is so thin that it would be weakened by fullering1 so most of them are stamped 7punched74 ,six nails are sufficient4 ,clips are seldom needed4 ,pacers usually require a low circular grab or 8rim0 at the toe4 ,this is set flush with the outer border1 is about one-eighth of an inch high and is brazed on4 ,trotting plates are usually without toe-calks1 though many are fullered across the toe 7corrugated7 to furnish a grip upon the ground4 ,on both trotting and pacing shoes the heel-calks should be low and sharp and should run straight forward so as not to retard the forward glide of the foot as it is set to earth heel first4 ,the heel-calk serves chiefly to prevent the lateral twist of the foot as the horse takes the sharp turns of the track4 ,freak shoes1 toe-weights1 side-weights1 excessive length of hoof or toe1 and other unscientific appliances and methods of shoeing speed horses are being gradually eliminated1 and today the fastest are dressed and shod in accordance with the principles enunciated in this book4 ,fitting ,shoes to ,heavy ,draft-,horses4 ,what has been previously said concerning shoeing holds good here2 however1 the conditions of shoeing are somewhat different in heavy horses1 and particularly with respect to hoofs which1 without being clearly diseased1 have been injured by shoeing4 ,the entire operation requires more circumspection1 because it is more difficult4 ,in many cases one will find that the width that has been advised for the outer branch of the shoe at the quarter is not sufficient4 ,indeed1 if a horse has wry feet1 and there is unequal distribution of weight within the hoof1 and we attempt in shoeing it to follow to the letter the directions given on preceding pages1 we would be apt to favor the perpetuation of the defect4 ,in such cases the slant of the wall at the quarters is of the greatest practical value to us in estimating the proper width for the shoe at this point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,left hind shoe with a broad1 base-wide outer branch for draft-horses that stand markedly base-narrow 7close behind74 ,when uniform setting down of the hoof and uniform wear of the shoe are desired1 every point in the coronary band in the posterior half of the foot must receive support by the shoe4 ,this applies particularly to the outer halves of hoofs that are extremely base-narrow4 ,if1 for example1 the coronet of the outer quarter projects beyond the plantar border of the quarter1 the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail-hole back must be kept so wide 7full7 that an imaginary perpendicular line dropped from the coronary band will just touch the outer border of the shoe4 ,the inner branch1 on the contrary1 should follow the edge of the wall as closely as possible4 ,furthermore1 the new shoe should be given more curve1--that is1 made wider and fitted more full where the old shoe shows greatest wear4 ,the principal thought should be to set the shoe1 which should always be regarded as the base of support of the hoof1 farther towards the more strongly worn side4 ,such a practice renders superfluous the wide-spread and popular custom of bending outward the outer quarter and heel-calk of hind shoes4 ,from the manner in which a horse travels and the wear of the old shoe1 we estimate the distance that the branches of the shoe should be set from the middle line of the hoof4 ,if in following out this plan the bearing-surface of the outer quarter of the wall is not completely covered1 the quarter will be pinched and squeezed inward2 this should be prevented by a broader branch punched so deeply that the holes will fall upon the white line 7,fig4 #abi74 ,when the shoer has satisfied himself that the shoe fulfils every requirement and fits perfectly1 it is to be cooled1 the holes opened with an oiled pritchel1 and the shoe brightened with a file4 ,in filing1 all sharp edges should be removed4 ,if a shoe is to be filed upon the outer border1 to give it a neater appearance1 the filing should be done lengthways of the shoe1 and not crossways2 of course1 the shoe must not be bent by being improperly clamped in the vise4 ,it indicates much greater skill in making and fitting shoes when they look clean and finished with little or no filing4 ,in the preceding remarks ,i have insisted upon a horizontal bearing-surface for all shoes1 with the single exception of shoes provided with the rolled toe 7rolling motion74 ,as far as ,i can judge from the literature of shoeing1 and from what ,i have seen with my own eyes in many countries1 this is the most wide-spread practice4 ,in ,germany1 on the other hand1 there is another method1 followed in the military shoeing shops1 which consists in placing the bearing-surface of the shoe as nearly as possible at right angles to the slant of the wall4 ,according to this method the bearing-surface of the shoe1 depending upon the direction of the wall 7viewed from in front1 from behind1 and from the side71 should incline more or less1 now backward1 now inward1 now horizontal1 and now outward4 ,shoes for wide hoofs are given a bearing-surface which inclines inward1 while for narrow hoofs the shoes have a horizontal bearing-surface4 ,shoes for wry hoofs have a bearing-surface which inclines downward and inward for the slanting wall1 and for the steeper wall a horizontal bearing-surface1 which towards the end of the branch may incline slightly downward and outward4 ,besides1 the bearing-surface of the ends of the branches1 viewed from the side1 has a backward and downward inclination4 ,this method is practicable only in part4 ,i4 ,nailing the ,shoe4 ,this is that act of horseshoeing by which the shoe is fastened to the hoof by special nails called hoof-nails or horseshoe-nails1 which are driven through the shoe and horny wall4 ,at present there are hand-made and machine-made horseshoe-nails4 ,both kinds should be made of the best wrought iron4 ,the nails must be slender1 wedge-shaped1 and twice as wide as they are thick4 ,thickness and length must be in proper relation to each other4 ,we should never choose a nail which is longer than is absolutely necessary to hold the shoe2 six to eight sizes are sufficient for all purposes4 ,the rough nails 7hand-made71 before being used1 must undergo a special shaping to prepare them to pass through the wall easily and in the desired direction4 ,this preparation is called shaping and bevelling4 ,in doing this we should see to it that the nails are made smooth1 and even1 but are not hammered harder than is absolutely necessary1 because the lighter one can hammer the nails the better they will be4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,hand-made horseshoe-nails1 natural size1 for fullered shoes 7#a1 not bevelled74 ,furthermore1 we must give the nail that form which will insure its passing through the horn straight and not in a curve2 with this object in view1 the nail is to be slightly curved so that the side which is turned towards the frog in driving 7inside7 will be a little concave1 the opposite side convex 7,figs4 #acj1 #c1 and #aca1 ,no4 #aj71 since it is known that a straight nail always passes through the horn in a curve1 and not only does not long remain tight1 but is quite likely to press upon and injure the soft tissues of the foot4 7,see also1 ,nailing47 ,at the point of the nail the bevel is to be so placed that it will form a short one-sided wedge with the slanting side directed from within to without 7,figs4 #acj1 #c1 and #aca1 d74 ,a short bevel is suitable for nails that are to be driven low1 while a long bevel makes it possible to drive them high4 ,the bevel should never form a hook2 it must always be straight1 should be sharp but not thin1 and under no conditions incomplete 7defective74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,machine-made horseshoe-nails 7natural size7 with a low1 wide head for a fullered shoe4 ,the last nail is shown from one border2 the others from the inner face3 a1 head2 b1 neck2 c1 shank2 d1 bevel2 e1 point2 f1 inner face2 g1 outer face4 ,machine-made nails1 smooth1 polished1 bevelled1 and ready for use1 are1 for many reasons1 to be preferred to hand-made nails1 though the latter are rather tougher 7see ,fig4 #aca74 ,before the shoe is nailed on it should be cooled and again carefully examined by a competent shoer1 who should then place it upon the hoof1 where it should be critically observed to see whether it really fulfils every requirement of a properly-fitting shoe4 ,afterwards1 the least fault or defect must be remedied1 and then the work of nailing it begins4 ,by nailing1 the shoe is firmly and durably fastened to the hoof1 in doing which the horn of the wall is spared so far as possible1 the elasticity of the hoof borne always in mind1 and wounding of the pododerm entirely avoided4 ,the nails must in all cases penetrate the white line and pass through the wall in such a straight direction that they will appear neither too high nor too low upon its outer surface4 ,in the first case there is considerable danger of pricking or close-nailing1 and in the latter the nail-holes will tear out easily when the nails are being clinched4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,driving hammer4 ,in driving a nail1 it should be held in the fingers as long as possible in the direction in which it is desired that it shall pass through the horn4 ,a nail should be driven cautiously1 with attention to its sinking and sound1 and yet with enough force so that at each stroke it will penetrate from one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch4 ,the power required at each stroke will depend upon the hardness of the horn and the size of the nail4 ,fearless driving and timorous tapping should not be allowed4 ,nails1 which at a depth of five-eighths of an inch are still going soft1 or which bend and give a dull sound1 or cause pain1 should be immediately withdrawn4 ,according to the size of the horse and his hoofs the nails should be driven from five-eighths to an inch and five-eighths high1 and as even as possible4 ,as soon as a nail is driven its point should be immediately bent down towards the shoe in order to prevent injuries4 ,the heads of all the nails should then be gone over with a hammer and driven down solidly into the nail-holes1 the hoof being meanwhile supported in the left hand4 ,pincers are then held under the bent nails and they are more sharply bent by light blows upon the nail-heads4 ,the points of the nails are now nipped off near the hoof1 the horn which has been thrown out just below the clinches by bending the nails down is removed with rasp or gouge1 and the ends of the nails bent down still more1 but not quite flush with the wall4 ,this operation is called 8clinching40 ,a clinching-block or a pair of ordinary blacksmith's pincers is then placed under the end of the nail1 now called a clinch1 and by light blows 7in doing this the nail must not bend within the wall7 upon the head the clinch is turned closer to the surface of the wall2 finally1 with the front edge of the nail-hammer the clinch is hammered down flush with the wall4 ,on the inner half of the wall the clinches should not be felt on stroking the wall with the fingers4 ,the small amount of horn that projects beyond the shoe around the toe may be carefully rasped away in the direction in which the wall slants1 but never higher than the clinches2 finally1 the sharp lower edge of the wall is to be removed by carrying the corner of the rasp around between the shoe and the horn4 ,a clinch is sufficiently long when it equals the width of the nail at that point4 ,it is of advantage to use a shoeing-bock or foot-stool in clinching the nails on the front hoofs4 ,the hind hoofs may be clinched in the hands4 ,then the horse should be led out and again moved in order to see whether or not the new shoeing has actually accomplished what was desired4 ,finally1 the entire hoof should be given a thin layer of hoof-salve4 ,k4 ,horseshoes ,more or ,less ,deficient in the ,desirable ,qualities ,described on ,pages #ajg-aaf4 ,machine ,shoes4 #a4 ,machine ,shoes of ,wrought ,iron4--,they are half-finished and finished4 ,though machine shoes with few exceptions show no distinction between front and hind1 or left and right1 with correct punching for these different feet1 but usually present one form in different sizes1 yet1 unfortunately1 they are in high favor with horseshoers1 because they may be used for both summer and winter and for bar-shoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,a machine-made 7drop-forged7 front shoe1 ground-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,a machine-made toe-weight front shoe for a harness horse1 showing ground-surface4 ,punching good4 ,for these reasons we cannot approve of machine shoes4 #b4 ,finished ,cast ,shoes4--,they are of four kinds1--ordinary cast shoes1 cast shoes with rope buffer1 cast shoes with fiber buffer1 and cast shoes fenestrated to hold a rubber buffer4 ,ordinary cast shoes of correct form and proper punching designed by ,grossbauer1 of ,vienna1 are sold by ,hannes' ,sons1 of that city4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ,machine-made 7drop-forged7 multi-calk fore shoe4 ,a1 ground-surface2 ,b1 hoof-surface2 ,c1 profile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,machine-made 7drop-forged7 multi-calk hind shoe4 ,a1 ground-surface2 ,b1 hoof-surface2 ,c1 profile4 ,rope ,shoes4--,these shoes have a groove on the ground-surface1 in which rests a tarred rope1 which greatly diminishes slipping on smooth pavement4 ,for this reason alone they are extensively used in the large cities of ,germany4 ,since the open rope shoe1 when half worn out1 will warp1 the bar rope shoe is more satisfactory and more extensively used 7,figs4 #ada-add74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 ,bar rope shoe with bar bent forward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,the same with bar bent backward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,the same with beak-formed bar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,an open rope shoe4 ,before fitting the shoe the rope must be removed4 ,after the nails are driven it is laid in the groove and hammered into place4 ,rope shoes can seldom be fitted properly to hoofs other than those which are healthy and of regular shape4 ,fiber ,shoes4--,these have a groove on the ground-surface into which layers of linen fiber belting have been tightly pressed4 ,the fiber cannot be removed1 and therefore the shoes cannot be heated1 but must be fitted cold4 ,the nail-holes are placed between the fiber and the outer border of the shoe1 and are punched too light4 ,the bearing surface of the shoe is unsupported1 so that when the shoe is half worn out1 it warps4 ,there is no distinction between rights and lefts4 ,rubber shoes have all the defects of fiber shoes1 and one more4 ,the hoof-surface is covered with canvas1 which under normal and acute-angled hoofs wears through under the quarters and leads to loosening of the last nails4 ,l4 ,rubber ,pads4 ,the increasing use of asphalt1 tarvia and other hard1 smooth and slippery materials for surfacing city streets and country highways has not only made travelling in flat and even in calked shoes precarious1 but has aggravated all those injuries produced by concussion4 ,to prevent slipping and the injurious effects of concussion a great many shoes have been devised1 in which are incorporated such materials as hemp rope1 linen fibre1 papier mach1 cork1 wood1 bast1 felt and rubber1 but all fail in greater or lesser degree to meet practical requirements4 ,rubber1 though the most expensive of these materials1 is the most resilient and takes the best grip on smooth pavement4 ,a pad of rubber1 wide enough to cover the branches of the frog alone1 or the branches of the frog and the buttresses of the hoof1 firmly cemented to a leather sole1 constitutes the modern rubber pad 7,figs4 #ade1 #adf1 #adg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,a light driving pad1 gummed and stitched to a leather sole2 seen from the ground-surface and in profile4 ,used with a seven-to ten-ounce short shoe4 a1 stitching2 b1 rubber bar under buttress and frog2 c1 leather sole4 ,the frog- and buttress-pad used with a short shoe is to be preferred to the earlier frog pad which takes a full shoe4 ,the advantages of rubber pads are3 #a4 ,they prevent slipping upon asphalt and other smooth1 dry surfaces4 #b4 ,they diminish concussion1 and are valuable in the prevention and treatment of sore heels1 dry and moist corns1 bruised sole1 and incipient side-bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 ,air-cushion pad1 seen from ground surface and in profile4 ,suitable for light harness horses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 ,a heavy bar-pad suitable for heavy harness and draft-horses on pavement4 ,the short shoe may carry a toe-calk of medium height4 #c4 ,they give frog pressure1 develop the frog and tend to prevent contraction of the quarters and those lesions which may follow contraction1 as corns1 cracks of bars and quarters1 laminitis of the quarters and thrush4 ,a rubber pad should not be used3 #a4 ,in contraction of one or both quarters1 when the frog is too much shrunken to bear upon the pad4 #b4 ,in lameness from well developed side-bones4 #c4 ,in navicular bursitis 78navicular disease074 #d4 ,in thrush1 or canker of frog or sole4 ,rubber pads1 light1 medium and heavy1 are made in all sizes and are suitable for all classes of horses1 from the light roadster to the heavy draft type4 ,the short shoe with which they are used reaches the middle of the quarters4 ,the pad surface 7upper surface7 of the ends of the branches should be bevelled to conform to the pad1 and to hold it firmly against the frog and buttresses4 ,the thickness of the shoe should equal two-thirds the thickness of the pad1 so that when fitted one-third of the thickness of the pad shall project below the ground-surface of the shoe4 ,the shoe should be provided with a strong toe-clip4 ,with the heavy1 thick pad of a draft-horse a low toe-calk may be used1 but heel-calks should never be put on a short shoe4 ,pads are seldom necessary on the hind feet4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,shoeing ,,horses ,,that ,,forge ,,and ,,interfere4 ,a4 ,forging4 ,forging is that defect of the horse's gait by reason of which1 at a trot1 he strikes the ends of the branches or the under surface of the front shoe with the toe of the hind shoe or hoof of the same side4 ,forging in a pacer is termed 8cross-firing0 and consists in striking the inner quarter1 or the under surface of the inner branch of a front shoe with the toe of the diagonal hind shoe or hoof4 ,forging is unpleasant to hear and dangerous to the horse4 ,it is liable to wound the heels of the forefeet1 damages the toes or the coronet of the hind hoofs1 and often pulls off the front shoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,right front shoe with concave ground-surface 78convex iron07 to prevent 8forging40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,right hind shoe with lateral toe-clips to prevent 8clicking0 and the various injuries due to forging4 ,causes4--#a4 ,faulty conformation2 for example1 horses that stand considerably higher at the croup than at the withers2 horses with long legs and short bodies2 horses that 8stand under0 in front and behind4 #b4 ,using horses on heavy ground1 unskilful driving1 allowing a long-necked1 heavy-headed horse to carry his head too low2 riding without holding a horse to his work by feeling his mouth and pressing the knees against his sides4 #c4 ,fatigue frequently leads to forging1 even in horses that are well built and properly shod4 ,it may also occur in the act of vaulting over an obstacle4 #d4 ,poor shoeing1 especially too long toes upon the front and hind hoofs1 and too long front shoes4 ,the aim of the shoer should be to facilitate the quick and easy 8breaking over0 of the front foot1 so that it may get away before it is overtaken by the hind foot4 ,the toe of the front hoof should be fairly short and rolled2 the quarters spared4 ,the front shoe should be light1 rolled at the toe and no longer and no wider than the hoof4 ,the ends of the branches of a flat shoe1 and also the heel-calks1 in case they are needed to elevate a heel that is too low1 should be bevelled from the hoof-surface of the shoe downward and forward under the foot4 ,such short heel-calks1 bevelled to prevent forging1 are called 8forging calks40 ,if the horse continues to forge between the branches and against the ground-surface of the shoe1 concaving this surface will prove advantageous 7convex iron74 ,the form of the front shoes of horses that forge should represent merely a prolongation of the hoof4 ,the 8breaking over0 of the hind foot should be delayed by sparing the toe and lowering the quarters1 but not sufficiently to break the foot-axis too far backward4 ,the hind shoe is to be squared at the toe and the lower edge of the shoe in the region of the toe well rounded2 instead of a toe-clip1 two side-clips are to be drawn up and the shoe so fitted that at least three-fourths of the thickness of the wall of the toe1 with the edge well rounded1 will extend forward beyond the shoe4 ,should the toe of the hoof be short it may be raised either by a low toe-calk set one-fourth of an inch back from the edge of the shoe1 or by thinning the shoe from the toe to the ends of the branches4 ,the branches of a flat hind shoe should extend somewhat farther back of the buttresses than under normal conditions1 to trail upon the ground just before the hoof alights1 and acting as a brake1 to bring the hoof to earth 7,fig4 #aej74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,hind shoe with swelled toe to slow the breaking over4 ,often efficient when the hoof is too short at the toe3 a1 long branches to trail and bring the foot to earth2 b1 outer toe clip2 c1 toe squared and set under to prevent injury to front hoof1 and to deaden the sound of forging4 8,cross-firing0 is most apt to occur and is most dangerous at extreme speed4 ,then1 when the inner branch of the hind shoe strikes the inner heel1 quarter or shoe of the diagonal front foot1 both feet are in the air1--the fore foot is approaching the middle of its stride1 while the offending hind foot is in the last third of its flight4 ,the standing position that favors cross-firing is the base-wide 7toe-wide7 in front1 and the base-narrow 7toe-narrow7 behind4 ,with this direction of limbs the flight of the fore feet is forward and inward during the first half of their stride1 while the flight of the hind feet is forward and inward during the second half of their stride 7see ,figs4 #gb1 #gc1 #ge74 ,the problem is1 therefore1 so to pare and shoe a base-wide fore foot that it will break over nearer the centre of the toe and thus execute less of an inward swing during the first half of its stride1 and to so pare and shoe a base-narrow hind foot that it will break over nearer the centre of the toe and thus execute less of an inward swing during the second half of its stride4 ,neither a toe-wide nor a toe-narrow foot can be made to break over the exact centre of the toe1 and yet it is possible by dressing the hoof and by shoeing to shift the breaking over point nearer to the centre of the toe1 and by doing so1 to alter slightly the lines of flight of the feet4 ,dressing and shoeing the front foot3 ,the hoof should be relatively low from the middle of the toe around to and including the outer buttress4 ,if the inner half of the wall is deficient in length it must be raised above the outer half by applying a shoe which is thinner in its outer than in its inner branch4 ,the inner toe should be left long4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,left hind hoof of a toe-narrow pacer1 shod to prevent cross-firing3 a1 dotted line indicating outer border of the hoof2 b1 long bent outer branch2 c1 short1 thin inner branch2 d1 inner wall extending beyond the shoe2 f1 line from which inner branch is feather-edged4 ,the shoe is of even thickness from b to f at inner toe2 but from latter point to c diminishes to a feather edge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,front view of hoof and shoe depicted in ,fig4 #aea3 a1 outer branch fitted very full and bevelled base-wide2 b1 inner branch diminishing in thickness from inner toe c1 to its termination at the inner quarter4 ,designed to favor 8breaking over0 near centre of the toe1 and to widen the gait4 ,the shoe should be light1 without heel-calks1 but may carry a low1 curved grab 78grab10 is a low1 straight or curved1 toe-or heel-calk on a racing plate7 running from the second inner toe nail to the centre of the toe4 ,the inner branch is to be fitted flush with the wall from the centre of the toe back to the quarter1 back of which point it gradually extends beyond the wall1 i4e41 is fitted full2 and terminates well back of the buttress4 ,this inner branch should be from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer than the outer branch4 ,the long inner branch1 full at the quarter1 is desirable1 but must be covered by a quarter-boot1 which a cross-firer should always wear4 ,the outer branch should be fitted snug and terminate at the buttress4 ,from the centre of the toe to the end of the branch the ground-surface should be bevelled from the inner edge of the web to a knife-edge at the outer border4 ,dressing and shoeing the hind foot3 ,the hoof should be relatively low from the centre of the toe around to and including the inner buttress4 ,if the outer half of the hoof is deficient in length1 it must be raised above the inner half by applying a shoe with a thin inner branch4 ,the inner branch may terminate in a knife-edge midway between toe and heel 7,figs4 #aea and #aeb74 ,the inner branch is to be fitted snug from the centre of the toe to its end1 and its ground-surface should be bevelled from the inner edge of the web to a knife-edge at the outer border4 ,the outer branch is to be fitted very full from the outside toe to the end4 ,this branch should extend well behind the buttress1 and in well-marked base-narrow hoofs should be turned outward in order to support the overhanging coronet of the quarter4 ,the outer border should be bevelled base-wide1 and the nail-holes punched coarse1 i4e41 far in from the outer border 7,figs4 #aea and #aeb74 ,the outer branch may carry a small heel-calk4 ,b4 ,interfering4 ,a horse 8interferes0 when a hoof in motion strikes the opposite supporting leg4 ,interfering is apt to produce injuries1 either of the coronary band of the inner half of the foot or of the fetlock-joint1 or 7in fore-limbs7 of the cannon1 even as high up as the knee4 ,lameness frequently accompanies such injuries4 ,the causes of interfering lie either in the shoeing 7of the foot that strikes1 as well as of the foot which is struck71 in the position of the limbs1 or in the use of the animal4 ,horses that have the correct standing position do not interfere when they are properly shod2 base-wide horses interfere sometimes2 horses base-narrow down to the fetlock and toe-wide below that point interfere very frequently4 ,traces of unequal length1 weariness1 and shoeing at too long intervals favor interfering4 ,in attempting to lessen or remove interfering1 the horse must be most carefully examined with respect to the position of his limbs1 his gait1 and his shoeing1 in the manner described on pages #ij to #ib4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,a right front shoe with nailless and narrow inner branch for a base-wide hoof4 ,suitable for horses that strike anywhere from inner toe back to the quarter4 ,if the cause is found to be the twisted position of a shoe1 too wide hoofs1 raised clinches1 etc41 nothing need be done further than to correct the shoeing2 but if a faulty position of the limbs is the cause1 we must ascertain the exact part of the hoof that does the striking1 diminish the size of the hoof at that point1 regulate the entire plantar surface of the hoof1 make the shoe straight along the region that strikes1--that is1 without curve1--and so fit it to the foot that one-third of the thickness of the wall will extend beyond the shoe4 ,where interfering is so pronounced as to produce serious injuries1 we use a shoe with no nails in the inner branch 78dropped-crease0 shoe7 7,figs4 #aec1 #aef1 #aeg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,left hind shoe with interfering branch 7ground-surface71 for base-narrow standing position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,the same 7hoof-surface74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,left hind interfering shoe without nail-holes in inner branch 78dropped-crease0 shoe73 a1 side-clip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,right hind shoe for toe-cutters4 ,the dotted lines indicate the distance that the wall projects beyond the shoe3 a1 side-clip4 ,the so-called interfering shoes 7,figs4 #aed and #aee7 are worthy of recommendation only for hoofs of the base-narrow position4 ,the interfering branch1 whose greater thickness raises the inner wall1 which is often too low1 is to be so shaped and directed that the hoof will project somewhat beyond it4 ,this interfering branch must be made and shaped in accordance with each individual case4 ,the holes in the interfering branch should be punched somewhat finer 7nearer the edge7 than usual4 ,interfering shoes in which the nail-holes1 with the exception of the inner toe nail-hole1 are placed in the outer branch1 are called 8dropped-crease interfering shoes0 7,fig4 #aef74 ,such shoes are not recommended for hind hoofs that are decidedly toe-wide 7toe-cutters72 in such cases better results will be obtained by using a shoe1 either with or without heel-calks1 whose inner branch is straight and without nails along the striking region1 and is fitted wide 7full7 at the quarter4 ,the inner branch should be from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer than the outer4 ,the inner heel-calk should be higher than the outer1 and the end of the outer branch should be as base-narrow as it can be made 7fitted close7 7,fig4 #aeg74 ,in order to prevent shifting of an interfering shoe1 a side-clip should be drawn up on the outer branch 7a74 ,there is no manner of shoeing that will prevent interfering which is caused by improper harnessing1 crooked hitching1 or weariness4 ,the simpler and the lighter the shoes the less will horses interfere4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,winter ,,shoeing4 ,all shoes whose ground-surface is provided with contrivances to prevent slipping upon snow and ice are called winter shoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,an ice-nail1 frost-nail4 ,these various contrivances are produced by several processes called 8methods of sharpening40 ,all methods may be gathered into two groups1--namely1 practical sharp-shoeing and impractical4 ,only the first will be considered4 ,the durability of sharpened shoes depends partly upon whether they are made of steel or iron1 and partly upon the nature of the ground in winter4 ,if the ground is continuously covered with a thick layer of snow1 whatever method of sharpening is followed1 the shoes stay sharp2 if1 however1 the winter is open1 changeable1 with more bare ice than snow1 no method of sharpening1 whatever it may be1 will last long2 the shoes will not stay sharp4 ,for these reasons no method of sharpening which fulfils all conditions satisfactorily has yet been discovered4 ,the simplest and at the same time the least durable method of sharpening is3 #a4 ,that by means of ice-nails or frost-nails 7,fig4 #aeh74 ,one or two nails are drawn from each branch of the shoe and replaced with ice-nails4 #b4 ,sharp ,toe- and ,heel-,calks4--,the outer calk is split and a small steel wedge welded in4 ,it is then laid upon the edge of the anvil1 indented and sharpened from within to without in such a manner that the calk shall be thin from the branch to the ground1 and the outer surface shall be in the same vertical plane as the outer edge4 ,if a calk is narrow from its base to its end1 and at the same time without flaw1 it does not need a sharp cutting edge4 ,the inner calk should never be sharpened except the ground be very slippery4 ,the cutting edge of this inner calk stands at right angles to the length of the branch1 and its outer corner should then be rounded to prevent its injuring the opposite foot 7,figs4 #aei1 #afj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,outer and inner heel-calks sharpened4 ,for horses used for heavy draft purposes a toe-calk is welded to the shoe and sharpened4 ,for this purpose we use only steel 7toe-steel71 which is easily welded to the shoe and remains firm4 ,toe-calks and steeled heel-calks are tempered1 in order1 as much as possible1 to lengthen their period of durability4 ,this method of sharpening is the oldest and most wide-spread1 and is employed on the shoes of all horses of which we require more than light service4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,left fore-hoof sharp-shod3 a1 toe-calk bevelled from in front2 b1 outer heel-calk directed lengthwise with the branch2 c1 inner heel-calk1 half sharp and directed transversely to direction of the branch4 ,hoofs are easily damaged or even ruined by frequently repeated sharpening of the shoes1 because every time this is done the shoes must be removed and replaced4 #c4 ,shoeing with ,screw ,heel-,calks4--,any ordinary flat shoe not too thin and narrow at the ends of the branches can be changed to a shoe with screw heel-calks by punching holes in the ends of the branches and cutting a thread in them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,ground-surface of the end of a branch of shoe1 showing 7a7 hole and counter-sinking for a screw-calk 7one-half natural size74 ,the screw heel-calk holes are made either by punching or boring4 ,the punching is done by means of an almost cylindrical hammer-punch1 afterwards finishing the holes by driving through them a round punch which tapers from the middle towards both ends4 ,on the ground-surface of the shoe the hole is moderately counter-sunk 7,fig4 #afb1 a71 so that after the thread has been cut and the calk screwed into place the shoulder of the latter will rest on the counter-sinking4 ,at present nearly all screw-calks are made by machinery1 either of iron or toe-steel4 ,the former is too soft and therefore not sufficiently durable2 the latter1 however1 is quite durable when the calk is properly hardened 7tempered7 by heating to a cherry-red1 sticking the head of the calk as far as the tap into a bed of moist sand1 and allowing it to slowly cool4 ,the chief requirements of a good screw-calk are1 further1 a clean1 deep1 but not too coarse thread1 and but one size of thread and tap for all calks1 so that every calk will fit in every shoe4 ,a calk whose tap measures one half-inch 7#ab4g millimetres7 7,whitworth7 in diameter is sufficient for the heaviest shoes4 ,the tap which is used to cut the thread in the holes for the screw-calks must be about _/ of an inch thicker than the head of the calk4 ,in the ,german army the calks have a tap fifteen thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter4 ,the coachman should be given four calks 7sharp and blunt7 for each shoe1 and a small screw-calk key for placing and removing them4 ,screw toe-calks are also used1 yet they require special security to prevent their becoming loose4 ,experimentation with the screw toe-calks1 though not yet entirely satisfactory1 cannot be said to have ended4 ,the advantages of shoes provided with good screw heel-calks are so manifold that they deserve marked preference over shoes sharpened by the ordinary methods4 ,the common objections urged against screw-calks1--namely1 that they loosen and are lost1 or break off1 are not worthy of serious consideration1 since these evils are merely the result of unskilful workmanship and poor material4 ,shoes with screw heel-calks are the best shoes for winter1 especially for horses that have to work hard and continuously4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,sharp screw-calks with ,whitworth thread 7half-inch1 natural size74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 ,whitworth tap 7half-inch1 half natural size74 ,balling with snow is prevented by using shoes narrow in the web and concave upon the ground-surface 7convex iron71 and thoroughly oiling the sole and frog4 ,sole-pads of felt1 leather1 or straw serve the same purpose4 ,balling with snow is best prevented by a rubber sole-and-frog pad1 or by a 8stopping0 of a patent hoof cement known in ,germany as 8huflederkitt40 #d4 ,shoeing with ,peg-,calks4--,the calks are merely stuck into the calk-holes1 hence their name4 ,round and square peg-calks are used1 but the former are better than the latter4 ,the inventor of round peg-calks is ,judson1 an ,american4 ,the shoes differ in no respect from the ordinary flat shoes4 ,it is necessary that the tap of the calk have a moderately conical form1 and exactly fit into the calk-hole of the shoe4 ,the taper of the calk-tap is correct if for every ten thirty-seconds of an inch in length it increases or diminishes one-thirty-second of an inch in diameter 7equal to one inch in every ten inches of length74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 ,sharp peg-calk 7cog73 a1 the tap2 b1 the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,blunt peg-calk3 a1 the tap2 b1 the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 ,lower part of the reamer4 ,although the calk-holes may be punched in a hot shoe1 yet boring and reaming them is much better1 because by this method a more perfect fit can be secured4 ,for this purpose we require a drill 7a spiral drill is the best7 whose diameter is exactly the same as that of the small end of the calk-tap 7,figs4 #afe1 c1 and #aff1 c74 ,after the shoe has been fitted to the hoof1 the provisional holes are drilled and afterwards reamed out from the ground-surface of the shoe with the reamer shown in ,fig4 #afg4 ,since the tap of the reamer corresponds exactly in size to the tap of the calk1 it is evident that the latter must exactly fit and be tight4 ,the wire edge that is raised around the hole is removed with a file1 and the edge then smoothed by introducing the reamer a second time4 ,the calks are made of rolled round steel1 which has the thickness of the tap-end of the calk4 ,for this purpose we require a calk-mould or matrix1 in which one or more holes have been finished with a reamer4 ,a piece of rod steel is heated at the end for a distance nearly twice the length of the calk1 is swaged1 thrust into the matrix1 then broken off1 and back-set4 ,this will give a blunt peg-calk4 ,if a sharp calk is desired1 the upper part of the head of the calk is sharpened in the ordinary manner1 although this is accomplished most easily by using a pair of tongs with short jaws that are hollowed upon the inside for seizing the tap of the calk4 ,before the shoes are nailed on1 the normal punch should be oiled and driven into the calk-holes1 and the calks passed into the holes to see that they fit perfectly4 ,the calks are driven into place after the shoes are nailed to the hoofs4 ,a light blow is sufficient to fasten a calk1 yet a necessary precaution is first to remove every trace of oil from the calks and calk-holes4 ,the first calk driven into place must be held with the hand while the second is being driven1 otherwise it will either spring from the calk-hole or be loosened so that it will soon afterwards be lost4 ,to remove such a calk we strike its head from different sides with a hammer1 stone1 or other hard object until it becomes loose1 when a rather hard blow upon the shoe causes it to spring out4 ,calks which have worn down are seized by a pair of sharp nippers and loosened by blows upon the shoe4 ,since a calk which is firm soon rusts and is then very difficult to remove1 it is recommended that all calks be removed every night4 ,the advantages of peg-calks over screw-calks are3 #a4 ,they do not break off4 #b4 ,they are easier to make and simpler to use4 #c4 ,they are cheaper4 ,disadvantages4--#a4 ,peg-calks are sometimes lost1 even when properly made and most carefully introduced4 ,this evil happens much less frequently when the calks are put in by the maker 7horseshoer7 than when they are stuck in by the coachman1 attendant1 rider1 or other person4 ,when calks are lost on the way from the shop1 it is usually due to some fault in the calk-holes or in the calks1 although when the feet are balled with snow the calks are easily lost1 because they do not then touch the ground4 #b4 ,the removal of the calks often involves many difficulties1 since they are apt to rust into place if not removed daily1 and when worn down so far that they cannot be grasped with the pincers are almost impossible to remove4 ,by hammering upon the calks and shoe many horses are rendered not only restive1 but sensitive in the feet4 #c4 ,if horses are used without the calks1 a wire edge forms around the hole on the bottom of the shoe1 which interferes with the placing of the calk and lessens its security4 ,the hollow peg-calk 7,fig4 #afh71 made by ,branscheid ,philippi1 of ,remscheid1 has considerable merit4 ,it holds exceedingly well1 and is very durable4 ,it is furnished in three sizes1--,nos4 #ab1 #ac1 and #ad1--of twenty-seven1 thirty-one1 and thirty-four millimetres length1 and twelve1 thirteen1 and fourteen millimetres diameter at the end of the tap4 ,a punch is furnished which1 when driven up to its head in the holes of the heated shoe1 insures a proper width and shape of the hole and an accurately fitting calk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,hollow-spring peg-calk1 ,no4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,peg-puller4 ,the calks may be removed by an extractor 7,fig4 #afi7 having at one end a thread which is screwed into a corresponding thread on the inside of the hollow calk1 when by a few hammer blows on the shoe the calk loosens4 ,to prevent the calk becoming choked with dirt1 a piece of cork is thrust into the hollow4 ,it may be easily removed by means of the corkscrew at the other end of the extractor4 #e4 ,shoeing with ,peg ,toe-,calks4--,these are an invention of considerable worth1 especially for heavy draft in hilly country4 ,they render better service on hind than on front shoes4 ,peg toe-calks with a single tap are simpler and preferable to those with two taps4 ,every known contrivance to prevent the occasional loss of the peg toe-calk is impractical4 ,the shoe for a peg toe-calk should be of good tough material and without a flaw4 ,the toe of the shoe should be about one-twelfth to one-tenth of an inch thicker than the branches4 ,the hole for the peg toe-calk1 whatsoever its shape may be1 must be smooth and uniform1 with clean1 true corners4 ,semi-circular holes should present the convex side towards the toe4 ,before punching1 draw up the toe-clip4 ,a punch-plate with a good-sized hole1 and a tap which will fit into the square hole in the anvil will facilitate the work4 ,the punch-plate when in position should be flush with the front edge of the anvil4 ,place the toe of the shoe1 hoof surface upward1 over the hole of the punch-plate1 and drive a hole with a punch-hammer which is perceptibly thinner than the model punch4 ,now turn the shoe over1 punch back from the ground-surface1 and then file away the wire edge which the punch has raised on the ground-surface4 ,next1 take a hand-punch1 the end of which should just enter the hole1 punch through from the ground-surface1 and correct any bulging by dressing lightly over the horn of the anvil4 ,finally1 use the model punch to give the hole the exact size and smoothness4 ,should the hole in the toe of the shoe enlarge in time1 as sometimes occurs1 then back-set when necessary on removing the shoe4 ,backsetting is easiest with the half-round hole1 because the curved side1 being turned forward1 runs approximately parallel to the outer border of the toe of the shoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 ,cross-section of different forms of peg toe-calk taps4 ,a good serviceable peg toe-calk must possess the following characteristics3 #a4 ,the tap must be of such shape as not to turn2 therefore1 not round4 #b4 ,the tap must be cone-shaped1 and diminish in diameter about one-thirty-second of an inch for each one-fourth of an inch of its length from base to apex4 ,if the tap has less taper it will enlarge the hole in the shoe till the head of the calk comes into contact with the shoe1 when the calk will loosen and drop out4 #c4 ,the tap must be full-formed and smooth4 #d4 ,it must fit air-tight in the toe1 and a single hammer-blow should be sufficient to fix it securely4 #e4 ,the head of the toe-calk must not rest on the shoe2 a space of one-sixteenth of an inch should intervene4 ,while a shoer of average mechanical ability can make a faultless peg toe-calk1 it is not profitable to do so while good machine-made calks are to be had very cheap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,chisel toe-calk4 7,doring47 ,no4 #a from the firm of ,branscheid ,philippi1 of ,remscheid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,shovel toe-calk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,peg toe-calk shoeing after ,fisher-,renker1 of ,dresden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,peg-calk 7shovel-calk7 after ,kunze-,klotzsche-,knigswald1 of ,dresden4 ,the best forms in use are the quadrangular heads1 with oval1 half-round 7,figs4 #aga and #agb71 and with two taps 7,figs4 #agc and #agd74 ,in several ,european countries the peg toe-calks with half-round tap and with two round taps are in use4 ,to make good peg toe-calk shoes and fit the calks properly requires more than ordinary knowledge and skill4 ,poor work does much harm4 ,therefore1 work carefully and get well paid for it4 #f4 ,removable ,heel-,calks that do not ,require ,sharpening4--,the undeniable fact that all chisel-shaped or pyramid-shaped sharp calks become dull in time1 and must then either be sharpened or replaced by new calks1 renders shoeing not only costly1 but injurious to the hoofs and annoying to the owner4 ,this drawback is most pronounced in large cities1 where the snow never lies long upon the streets1 and the horse just sharp-shod is soon obliged to travel upon bare pavements4 ,attempts have been made to lessen this annoyance by the use of calks that do not require sharpening1 and yet which will prevent slipping even after they have been used for a long time upon bare pavements4 ,it cannot be denied that such calks have considerable value1 and1 except when the ground is covered with ice1 many of these calks render excellent service4 ,just as the ordinary sharp calks are satisfactory and very durable outside of the large cities1 so now for the first time a few of these recently invented sharp calks seem to be worthy of recommendation for city use4 ,the following are the best3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,screw-calk with ,h-formed cross-section4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,screw-calk with -formed cross-section4 #a4 ,screw-calks and peg-calks with ,h-shaped cross-section 7,fig4 #age74 #b4 ,screw-calks with -shaped cross-section 7,fig4 #agf74 #c4 ,screw- and peg-calks with ,o-shaped cross-section 7,fig4 #agf74 #d4 ,screw- and peg-calks with ,s-shaped cross-section4 #e4 ,angle-calks 7,fig4 #agg74 #f4 ,screw- and peg-calks with rubber foot-pad4 #g4 ,screw-calks with ,y star-shaped cross-section 7,fig4 #agh74 #h4 ,hollow wedge-calks 7,fig4 #agi74 #i4 ,perforated screw-calks 7,fig4 #ahj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,corner calk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,star calk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,hollow calk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,perforated calk4 ,there is no doubt that the grip that these calks take upon the ground and their durability depend upon the diameter and the arrangement of their surfaces of friction4 ,from all experiments made thus far it is shown that those calks which have narrow and comparatively few surfaces of friction are the least durable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,universal screw-calk key with tap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,felber's hand-vise to secure the hoof from twisting while changing the screw-calks4 ,to introduce and remove the calks we use a calk key or wrench4 ,for the shop1 the ordinary fork key 7,fig4 #aha71 the jaws of which are tempered1 is recommended4 ,it fits all calks4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,hoof ,,nurture4 ,hoof nurture comprises all those measures which are employed to keep hoofs healthy1 elastic1 and serviceable4 ,a4 ,care of ,unshod ,hoofs4 ,the care of the hoofs of colts is of special importance4 ,abundant exercise upon dry ground which is not too stony is most beneficial4 ,such exercise will cause the hoofs to wear gradually1 and it will only be necessary from time to time to observe whether the wear is taking place uniformly1 and if not1 to correct the uneven wear with the rasp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,twisted left front long pastern of colt1 viewed from the upper articular surface4 ,the lower end has been twisted toward the left3 a1 transverse axis of lower articular surface2 b1 transverse axis of the upper articular surface4 ,if colts are reared in the stable1 the horn continuing to grow down does not undergo sufficient wear1 and changes in form of the hoof1 and even permanent distortions of the bones of the foot gradually occur4 ,the wall becomes too long and bends or sometimes separates from the sole and keraphyllous layer4 ,weak quarters bend 7curl7 inward and encroach upon the space occupied by the frog 7contracted feet of colts74 ,the toe becomes too long1 and this gives rise to too steep a position of the pastern and causes an insecure and diffident gait2 therefore the hoofs must be shortened from time to time4 ,the in-curved quarters should be removed with the hoof-knife1 and the outer edge of the plantar border of the wall well rounded with the rasp4 ,in the base-wide and base-narrow standing positions the outer and inner walls respectively become relatively long and induce the colt to assume a still more abnormal position4 ,the young and pliant pasterns may thus become permanently twisted and distorted 7see ,figs4 #ahc and #ahd74 ,in a hoof that is becoming awry1 restoring to the wall its proper level with relation to the position of the limb will not only be invaluable in ultimately producing a good hoof1 but will improve the faulty position of the limb4 ,in exceptional cases1 where the plantar border of some section of the wall gives evidence of too rapid wear1 the application of a tip or of a half-shoe may be of benefit4 ,furthermore1 we should attempt to secure greater cleanliness by frequently and thoroughly washing the hoofs and bedding with plenty of good straw4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,left front long pastern of a colt showing compression shortening of outer half3 a1 transverse axis of upper articulation2 b1 transverse axis of coronary joint1 not parallel to upper axis4 ,too early shoeing of young horses is very injurious2 it hinders the development of the hoofs1 and1 furthermore1 young horses when shod are frequently seriously overworked and prematurely ruined4 ,moderate work in the fields does not injure young horses1 but for such service they do not require shoes4 ,the unshod hoofs of older horses should be periodically rounded with a rasp and the length of the walls regulated when1 by reason of a lack of exercise1 proper wear has not taken place4 ,b4 ,care of ,shod ,hoofs4 ,shod hoofs are exposed to many more injuries than are unshod hoofs1 because shoeing itself1 although absolutely necessary to render horses continuously serviceable upon hard streets1 is injurious to the hoof1 since it to a greater or less extent prevents the physiological movements of the different parts of the foot1 interferes with the circulation of the blood in the foot1 slows the growth of the horn1 and brings about a gradual shrinking of the entire hoof4 ,in addition1 there are the injurious consequences of stabulation4 ,these are prevention of free movement1 uncleanliness due to bad floors and filthy bedding1--as1 for example1 peat moss and soiled straw1--and dryness4 ,continuous standing always contributes to contraction of the hoofs1 and this evil is greatly favored by dryness1 which more particularly affects the front hoofs4 ,the hind hoofs receive sufficient moisture from the animal's manure4 ,poor floors1 particularly those that are uneven1 tire the limbs4 ,accumulation of manure and the careless use of stationary sole-pads induce thrush of the frog4 ,the object of hoof nurture is to lessen or entirely remove all these injurious consequences of shoeing and stabulation4 ,it comprises1 therefore1 not only the proper shortening of the hoofs every five to six weeks1 but careful attention to cleanliness and moisture4 ,both are insured by dry straw and daily picking out and washing the hoofs4 ,such measures will prevent thrush in the hind feet4 ,if front hoofs are washed once a day1 sufficient moisture will penetrate the horn to give it that degree of suppleness 7elasticity7 which is possessed by an unshod hoof1 and which contributes to a proper expansion of the hoof when the body-weight is placed upon it4 ,in order to prevent a hoof from again drying out1 the entire hoof should receive a thorough application of an oil or ointment 7hoof-salve74 ,the object of greasing the horn is to prevent evaporation of the moisture that has penetrated the horn4 ,specially compounded hoof-salves are not necessary4 ,melted horse-grease1 pork-fat1 or any other fat that is not rancid is sufficient4 ,cosmoline is an excellent hoof-salve4 ,abundant but not excessive exercise is more necessary than anything else to the preservation of the health of the hoof4 ,it aids the circulation of blood within the foot1 and1 therefore1 the growth of the horn4 ,horses which perform hard1 regular work have1 as a rule1 better hoofs than those which stand the greater part of the time in the stable4 ,poulticing hoofs with clay1 bran1 linseed-meal1 or white-rock1 or standing them in water is unnecessary if they have had proper care1 but will sometimes be of benefit when the hoofs have been neglected1 and especially so for front hoofs4 ,the latter are more exposed to drying influences1 and the shoes prevent the moistening process by keeping the hoofs partially or completely removed from contact with the earth4 ,oiling alone is not sufficient to soften horn1 but must always be preceded by permeation of the horn with water4 ,oiling without first cleansing the hoof is useless1 because this soon produces a greasy crust underneath which the horn is crisp and brittle4 ,the surest sign of cleanliness of a hoof is the appearance of the natural color of the horn1 the latter appearing translucent even after the hoof-ointment has been applied2 therefore1 blackened hoof-ointments should not be used4 ,when hoofs are exposed to too much moisture 7muddy roads1 melting snow1 etc47 an addition of wax or common yellow rosin to the hoof-ointment is recommended to prevent too great softening of the horn4 ,no hoof-ointment has any direct influence upon the growth of the horn4 ,inasmuch as it is a fact that the very best shoeing injures the hoof1 it is advisable to allow horses to go barefoot whenever it is possible4 ,this applies especially to horses that from any cause are thrown out of service1 presupposing1 of course1 that the nature of the hoofs will allow them to go barefoot4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,general ,,remarks ,,concerning ,,the ,,shoeing ,,of ,,defective ,,hoofs ,,and ,,lame ,,horses4 ,the boundary between health and disease of the hoof is difficult to determine1 especially when we have to deal with minor defects of structure or shape of the hoof4 ,ordinarily1 we first consider a hoof diseased when it causes lameness4 ,however1 we know that diseases of the hoof may exist without lameness4 ,therefore1 a hoof should be regarded as diseased or defective when the nature of the horn1 the form of the hoof1 or the parts enclosed by it1 deviate from what we consider as normal or healthy 7see page #ha71 whether the service of the animal is influenced by it or not4 ,front hoofs become diseased or defective more readily than hind hoofs1 because they bear greater weight1 have more slanting walls1 and are more exposed to drying influences4 ,all normally wry hoofs and acute-angled hoofs become more readily diseased than regular and upright 7stumpy7 hoofs4 ,the indications of the various diseases of the hoof are discussed in the following chapters4 ,we shall in this chapter undertake only a brief general discussion of inflammation of the pododerm4 ,this inflammation1 known as pododermatitis1 always manifests itself by lameness and1 under closer examination of the foot1 by increased warmth1 pain1 and stronger pulsation of the digital and plantar arteries4 ,the pain produces either a timid1 shortened 7sore7 gait1 or well-marked lameness1 especially upon hard ground4 ,increased sensitiveness of the pododerm is detected by compression of the hoof with the pincers 7hoof-testers71 or with greater certainty by lightly tapping the hoof4 ,the increased warmth of a part or of the entire hoof is detected by feeling with the hand4 ,intense pain and greatly increased warmth1 with a moderate1 diffuse swelling of the soft parts between the hoof and fetlock-joint1 indicate suppuration within the hoof4 ,the examination of horses lame in the feet must always be cautious and searching1 and should begin with the moving and judging of the horse as already described on page #ij4 ,the faults detected in the hoof or in the shoeing1 the pain and increased warmth of the hoof1 will not leave us in doubt as to whether the animal is lame in the hoof or not4 ,however1 should there be a doubt1 we must carefully examine all the joints and tendons of the foot and1 if necessary1 of the limb above1 and observe the animal's manner of travelling at a walk and at a trot1 on soft and on hard ground1 in a straight line and in a circle4 ,the removal of the shoe should be performed with greatest caution4 ,under certain conditions the second shoe should not be removed until the first has been replaced4 ,the same caution must be observed in paring the hoof1 which is to be regarded as a part of the examination of the hoof4 ,the paring of a hoof for this purpose often differs somewhat from the preparation of a sound hoof for the shoe1 and while it is necessary because it frequently furnishes the first trustworthy indication of the trouble1 it must be done with circumspection and intelligence4 ,the causes of diseases of the hoof are very numerous1 for many external influences act injuriously upon the hoof4 ,in addition to too great dryness1 want of care 7neglected shoeing71 and premature1 unreasonable1 cruel use of the horse1 should be mentioned particularly injudicious dressing of the hoof and direct and indirect faults in the shoeing4 ,the pododerm1 shut in between the hard os pedis and the stiff1 unyielding horn capsule1 is frequently exposed to bruising and other injuries1 from which arise most of the defects of the hoof itself4 ,all these things lead1 under certain conditions1 to lameness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,bar-shoe for right foot4 ,treatment4--,first of all1 the discovered causes should be removed1 or1 if this is not possible1 as is frequently the case1 they should be ameliorated4 ,very often the lameness may be removed by proper shoeing1 a change in the animal's work1 and better care of the hoof4 ,when there is intense inflammation within the foot1 the shoe should be removed for a few days4 ,when the inflammation is moderate and confined to a small area1 it is usually sufficient to alter the shoeing by regulating unnatural relations of height in the different parts of the wall1 and by removing all superfluous horn from the wall and sole 7to a less degree from the frog71 partly for the purpose of rendering the horn capsule more yielding1 and partly to make the poultices which are used more effective4 ,the shoe is then to be so applied that the diseased region will be relieved of the body-weight1 and will remain free from all pressure from the shoe4 ,this can be done partly by making the underlying branch of the shoe somewhat wider and longer than the other1 and partly by cutting down the bearing-edge of the wall where this is possible without weakening it too much1 otherwise by concaving or beating down the upper surface of the shoe4 ,by reason of the fact that the posterior half of the hoof is the seat of most diseases of the hoof1 it is to be recommended that the nail-holes in shoes used in these diseases be placed as far as possible in the anterior half of the shoe1 and in some special cases distributed evenly around the toe4 ,among shoes suitable for diseased hoofs the bar-shoe 7,fig4 #ahe7 holds the first place1 because it renders superfluous many other shoes specially designed for various diseases of the hoof4 ,it is made like an ordinary flat shoe1 except that it requires a somewhat longer piece of iron2 the ends of the branches are bent inward over a dull corner of the anvil1 bevelled1 laid one over the other1 and welded together to form the bar4 ,the width and thickness of the bar should be the same as of the rest of the shoe1 and its frog-surface should be slightly concave4 ,the bar-shoe is valuable1 because it protects from pressure diseased sections of the wall which have been laid free1 allows part of the body-weight to be borne by the frog1 and restores normal activity to the disturbed physiological movements of the foot4 ,by using it we can either gain a more extensive bearing-surface for the hoof1 or can make it easier for the surface that bears the weight to do the work4 ,if on account of weakness of the bearing-surface of the hoof1 or from any other cause1 we wish to distribute the body-weight over the entire plantar surface of the foot with the exception of the painful region1 we add a leather sole to the bar-shoe4 ,in this case it is necessary to place holes in the ends of the branches of the shoe1 so that we may rivet the leather firmly to the shoe with small nails4 ,the shoe should be made somewhat wider than the hoof1 and the clips somewhat higher than usual4 ,after fitting the shoe the grooves for the clips are cut in the leather1 the latter is riveted to the shoe1 and all leather projecting beyond the outer edge of the shoe is trimmed away4 ,the lacun of the frog and other concavities of the sole are then thickly smeared with wood-tar and afterwards filled up with oakum to such a degree that the packing will bear some of the body-weight when the shoe and leather sole are in position4 ,this packing is of great importance1 because it prevents the filtering in from behind of sand and slime1 preserves the toughness and pliability of the horn1 breaks shock1 and produces a gradual expansion of the posterior half of the hoof4 ,before nailing the shoe to the foot the leather sole should be soaked in water4 ,classification of ,diseases of the ,hoof4 ,,inflammations ,,of ,,the ,,pododerm4 #a1 ,nailing 7pricking and close-nailing72 #b1 street-nail2 #c1 calk-wounds2 #d1 corns 7bruised sole72 #e1 bruised heels2 #f1 laminitis 7founder72 #g1 keraphyllocele 7tumor of horny leaves74 ,,defects ,,of ,,the ,,horn ,,capsule ,,and ,,lateral ,,cartilages4 7a7 ,changes of form3 #a1 flat hoof and full hoof 7dropped sole72 #b1 upright hoof 7stumpy or stubby hoof72 #c1 contracted hoof2 #d1 wry hoof2 #e1 crooked hoof2 #f1 ossification of the lateral cartilage 7side-bone74 7b7 ,disturbances of continuity of the horn capsule3 #a1 cracks2 #b1 clefts2 #c1 loose wall2 #d1 hollow wall2 #e1 thrush4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,inflammations ,,of ,,the ,,pododerm 7,,pododermatitis74 #a4 ,nailing4 ,wounds of the velvety tissue of the sole or of the podophyllous tissue of the wall1 caused by nails which have been driven into the hoof for the purpose of fastening the shoe1 are usually termed 8nailing40 ,we distinguish direct and indirect nailing2 the former is noticed immediately1 the latter later4 ,in direct nailing the nail passes directly into the pododerm 7velvety tissue of the sole1 podophyllous tissue72 the wound produced may vary from a simple puncture of the pododerm to chipping of the border of the os pedis1 and is always accompanied by bleeding1 even though it may not always be noticed4 ,in indirect nailing the nail does not pass entirely through the horn capsule1 but very close to the sensitive tissues1 and crowds the soft horn inward against them4 ,this inward bulging presses upon the pododerm and causes inflammation and lameness1 which may not manifest themselves for several days4 ,symptoms4--,the first symptom of direct nailing is instant pain indicated by flinching or a jerking of the limb1 showing that the nail has taken a wrong course1 and then a more or less profuse hemorrhage4 ,usually the blood flows from the nail-hole1 or the nail when withdrawn may merely show a bloodstain at its point2 however1 internal bleeding may occur without any external manifestations4 ,the symptoms of indirect nailing are entirely different4 ,in this case pain does not arise immediately1 but later1 sometimes as soon as the horse attempts to bear his weight upon the shod foot4 ,in the latter case1 on holding up the opposite foot the animal sways backward and throws his weight upon the holder1 or becomes restless4 ,as a rule1 the consequences of indirect nailing are first manifested after two or three days1 infrequently from the eighth to the fourteenth day1 as inflammation within the hoof and lameness1 at which time a careful examination will usually reveal increased warmth of the hoof1 pain upon pressure with the hoof-testers and on tapping the hoof lightly1 some swelling of the entire foot1 increased pulsation of the digital arteries1 and unwillingness of the animal to place all or perhaps any of its weight upon the foot4 ,suspicion of nailing should be entertained if the shoeing be recent1 the hoof appear too small in relation to the body-weight1 the walls have been thinned by rasping or have been broken away1 or if the nails have been driven too high or very irregularly4 ,causes4--,the most common causes are mistakes in shoeing4 ,in the majority of cases the cause is a disregard of the rule that the nails should penetrate the white line 7see pages #aah1 #aai and #acj1 heavy type74 #a1 using badly-punched shoes2 #b1 excessive paring and shortening of the hoof2 #c1 weakening of the lower border of the wall by excessive rasping away of the outside 7,fig4 #ahg1 c72 #d1 mistakes in fitting the shoe1 especially applying shoes that are too narrow1 letting the toe-clips too deep into the horn1 by which the nail-holes near the toe1 instead of falling upon the white line1 are carried back upon the edge of the sole1 or using shoes in which the nail-holes are too wide or improperly directed2 #e1 using nails that are split1 incomplete1 badly formed and bevelled1 and too large2 #f1 starting nails too deep or with the bevel on the outside1 or drawing them too tight4 ,as occasional causes may be mentioned3 #g1 old nail-stubs in the horn2 #h1 walls that are very thin or broken away2 #i1 a soft1 crumbling wall1 which alters the sound and feeling of the nail as it is driven1 and makes it difficult to judge of its course2 #aj1 restlessness of the animal while being shod4 ,examination4--,press with the hoof-testers upon the sole and clinches2 tap lightly upon the clinches4 ,if these acts cause pain1 there can be little doubt that the nail is responsible for the damage4 ,remove the shoe by drawing each nail separately and carefully4 ,examine the nails with reference to their direction and size1 as well as to staining with blood1 blood-serum1 or pus4 ,immediately after removing the shoe1 look for the point of entrance of each nail into the hoof1 and if a nail-hole be found upon the edge of the sole 7,fig4 #ahg1 b7 instead of in the white line1 it is highly probable that the nail which passed in at that place pressed upon the sensitive tissues of the foot4 ,every nail-hole should then be searched by passing a clean new nail into it and pressing its point towards the soft tissues at various depths2 any indication of pain caused by this act is pretty sure proof of nailing4 ,it stands to reason that the character of the nail-holes in the shoe should be closely examined4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,cross-section of a shod hoof1 the hoof-skin or pododerm being in red3 a1 indirect nailing where backsetting has been overdone and has bent the nail2 b1 nail properly placed and of correct shape4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,front hoof deficient in horn3 a1 right position of the nail-holes in the white line2 b1 faulty position inside of the white line2 c1 wall weakened by excessive rasping4 ,treatment4--,when the foot has sustained an ordinary simple prick with a nail1 the latter should be left out and the hole well filled with wax4 ,as a rule1 no serious results follow4 ,in severe direct nailing the entire shoeing should be most carefully examined1 and only after everything is found to be right1 and the shoe fits in such a manner that the nails can only penetrate the wall from the white line1 can it be regarded as correct4 ,the offending nail-hole is then to be closed with wax4 ,according to the intensity of the wound we may expect a more or less pronounced inflammation of the pododerm1 and this is to be combated by resting the animal and cooling the foot4 ,if the wound is clean and recent1 enlarging the opening in the horn by cutting and boring can have no reasonable object2 the wound by such an act will not be made smaller1 but larger4 ,frequently1 however1 the wound is not observed or suspected until the pain has become very intense 7indirect nailing1 nail-pressure72 in such cases the offending nail when withdrawn is apt to be covered with pus or a dark1 thin1 ill-smelling liquid4 ,in such a case the liquid1 whatever its nature may be1 must be given free escape4 ,in order to accomplish this it is entirely sufficient to cut away a section of the wall from the nail-hole outward1 not greater than the width of the little finger1 and then to assist in the discharge of the pus by placing the foot in a warm bath2 it is entirely wrong1 in fact1 reprehensible1 to remove all horn of the wall and sole which has been loosened from the soft parts by the suppurative process4 ,after the escape of the inflammatory fluids1 the wall and sole will form the best-fitting and most suitable protective dressing for the diseased region until it has secreted new horn4 ,if1 after removal of the nail and pus1 the pain does not diminish1 warm disinfecting baths of one to two parts of creolin1 or the same amount of lysol1 to one hundred parts of water at a temperature of about #ij ,f4 will be of especial benefit2 they will not only soften the horn1 but by their moisture and warmth will directly diminish the pain and have a healing influence upon the suppurating surfaces4 ,the warm baths must actually be warm and be kept warm4 ,antiseptic solutions at room temperature are much less efficient4 ,if the pain has not been very pronounced1 or if it has been greatly alleviated by two or three warm baths1 then1 as a rule1 it is sufficient to put a few drops of creolin upon the inflamed surface1 and to close the opening with oakum 7carbolized oakum or carbolized cotton is better74 ,the horse which has been nailed will be again perfectly serviceable after a few days if shod with a shoe which does not press upon the inflamed region4 ,the shoe does not press when it rests only upon the bearing-edge of the wall1 when the white line and the edge of the sole are entirely free of the shoe1 and no nails are driven in the immediate vicinity of the wound4 ,even though1 as we have seen1 nailing in the great majority of cases is not particularly serious to the horse and owner1 yet we should never forget that tetanus 7lockjaw71 a disease which is nearly always fatal to horses1 may follow4 ,nailing1 however insignificant it may seem1 may under conditions lead to the death of the horse4 #b4 ,street-,nail4 ,the condition caused by accidental injury of the sensitive structures covered by the horny sole1 such as the velvety tissue of the sole and frog1 plantar cushion1 perforans tendon1 navicular bone1 os pedis1 or the pedal articulation1 by sharp objects1 especially nails1 is called 8penetrating street-nail10 or simply 8street-nail40 ,the resistance of the ground to the weight of the body drives these penetrating objects through the sole or frog into the foot4 ,hind hoofs are more often affected than fore-hoofs4 ,a favorite point of entrance is the lateral lacuna of the frog4 ,street-nail is favored by excessive thinning of the sole and frog4 ,symptoms4--,the symptoms are1 as a rule1 sudden pain followed by lameness4 ,the first assistance is usually sought in the shoeing shop4 ,if the cause of lameness be found to be a penetrating nail1 piece of glass1 or other pointed foreign body1 it must be carefully drawn out1 in doing which we should remove the entire object1 not allowing pieces to break off and remain in the wound4 ,since it is always important to know in what direction and how deep the foreign body has penetrated1 in order to be able to estimate the gravity of the wound1 it is advisable in all cases to preserve the penetrating body1 that it may be shown to the veterinarian1 in case his services are required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,shod hind foot1 with splint dressing4 ,in slight injuries to the velvety tissue of the sole or frog1 accompanied with moderate pain1 it is of no benefit to enlarge the opening1 though the horn of the sole or frog should be thinned for the space of an inch or more around the wound1 followed by cooling applications4 ,deep1 penetrating wounds accompanied with intense pain require the attention of a veterinarian4 ,often some form of dressing is necessary1 and this is usually held in place by a special shoe4 ,for slight injuries1 such splint-dressings as are shown in ,figs4 #ahh and #ahi are sufficient4 ,whether such a dressing be applied to the front or hind feet1 the shoe should be well concaved upon the hoof-surface4 ,the dressing is held in place by thin splints of tough wood1 which are firmly wedged between the shoe and hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 ,a practical 8splint shoe0 for hospital use4 ,in those rare cases in which it is necessary to maintain continuous pressure upon the seat of the wound1 and to protect the entire plantar surface of the hoof1 a covered shoe 7,figs4 #aij and #aia7 is recommended4 ,this shoe is provided with a sheet-iron cover1 having at the toe a spur which fits into a corresponding hole in the toe of the shoe1 and fastened at the heels by means of screw heel-calks4 #c4 ,calk-,wounds of the ,coronet4 ,all tread-wounds of the coronet1 caused by the calks of the opposite shoe1 by the shoes of other horses1 or by forging1 are known as calk wounds1 or simply as 8calking40 ,the injury itself is either a bruise or a bruised wound1 followed by inflammation of the coronary cushion and an interruption in the formation of horn at that point4 ,it occurs most often in winter from sharp calks1 especially on the hind feet4 ,the common seat of the injury is the coronet of the toe and inner side of the foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,shoe with cover-plate for street-nail treatment2 suitable where pressure-dressing is desired3 a1 hole in the bottom of the toe-calk for reception of spur1 b1 of cover-plate2 c1 holes for reception of screw-calks1 d1 which fasten the cover-plate to the shoe4 ,the inflammation terminates either in resolution--that is1 passes gradually away1 leaving the tissues apparently normal--or in suppuration4 ,the perioplic horn-band1 which is usually loosened from the perioplic band by the injury1 does not again unite4 ,for this reason1 and because of the interruption in the formation of horn at the seat of injury1 there results a transverse depression or cleft in the wall4 ,the shoeing has to deal only with the lameness that may be present as a result of the calking4 ,the section of the wall containing the lesion should be shortened1 so that it will not press upon the shoe4 ,serious calk-wounds1 as a rule1 require treatment by a veterinarian4 #d4 ,corns 7,bruised ,sole74 ,the expression 8corns0 is applied to nearly all bruises of the pododerm of the posterior half of the foot1 with the exception of the frog1 which are apparent to the eye as yellowish1 reddish1 or bluish-red discolorations of the horn of the sole and white line4 ,the surface of the pododerm 7fleshy leaves and villi7 is chiefly involved1 and almost without exception there is rupture of small blood-vessels and an outpouring of blood between the pododerm and the horn4 ,the blood penetrates the horn-tubes and causes the above-mentioned staining4 ,by subsequent growth of horn these stained patches are carried downward1 and are finally uncovered and brought to sight in paring the hoof4 ,the seat of corns is either on the fleshy leaves of the quarters1 or on the velvety tissue of the sole in the angle between the wall and the bar1 or on the fleshy leaves of the bars4 ,thus we distinguish corns of the wall1 sole1 and bars4 ,corns affect chiefly the front hoofs1 and more often the inner half than the outer4 ,unshod feet are seldom affected4 ,according to the intensity of the lesions we distinguish3 #a4 ,dry ,corns4--,the red-stained horn is dry1 and there is seldom lameness4 #b4 ,suppurating ,corns4--,they are the result of intense bruising followed by inflammation4 ,the pus is either thin and dark grayish in color1 denoting a superficial inflammation of the pododerm1 or yellowish and thick1 denoting a deep inflammation of the pododerm4 ,in the latter case a veterinarian should be called4 ,lameness is usually pronounced4 #c4 ,chronic ,corns4--,in this case there is vivid discoloration of horn in all possible hues4 ,the horn is either soft1 moist1 and lardy1 or crumbling1 cracked1 and at times bloody4 ,the inner surface of the horn capsule has lost its normal character1 and is covered with horny swellings or nodules 7,fig4 #aib1 a74 ,sometimes the wing of the os pedis on that side has become morbidly enlarged and loosened4 ,a short1 cautious gait alternates with well-marked lameness2 the latter appears whenever the shoe presses too firmly on the corn1 or when the hoof becomes too dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,inner aspect of a quarter of a hoof1 showing changes in the horn-leaves due to chronic corns3 a1 horny tumor resulting from the disease4 ,the causes1 aside from the form and quality of the hoofs and the position of the limbs1 lie in injudicious dressing of the hoof and in faulty shoes4 ,too much trimming of wide and flat hoofs1 excessive weakening of the quarters1 sole1 bars1 and frog of all other hoofs1 while the toe is usually left too long1 are the usual causes4 ,shortening one quarter too much in relation to the other1 so that the foot is unbalanced and the lower side overloaded1 is a frequent cause4 ,hollowing the sole and bars excessively and unnecessary thinning of the branches of the sole in the search for corns are also causes4 ,among faulty shoes we may mention those not level on the hoof-surface1 trough-shaped1 too short in the branches1 shoes which do not completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof1 or whose bearing-surface at the ends of the branches is directed downward and inward so that the quarters are squeezed together when the weight is put on the foot4 ,insufficient concaving of the shoe is often an exciting cause of corns in flat feet and in those with dropped soles4 ,a well-formed shoe which does not rest firmly upon the hoof1 or which has been shifted as a result of careless nailing1 may as readily cause bruising of the quarters as neglected shoeing4 ,the latter causes1 as a rule1 corns of the sole4 ,it is very rarely that corns are caused by stones fastened between the frog and branches of the shoe or in unshod hoofs by pebbles becoming wedged in the white line4 ,dryness is particularly injurious to the hoofs1 and is in the highest degree favorable to the production of corns4 ,it renders the hoof stiff and inelastic1 and first manifests itself by a short1 cautious 7sore7 gait when the horse is first put to work4 ,treatment4--,first1 removal of the causes1 by restoring the proper form to the hoof through shortening a toe which is too long 7especially apt to be the case in acute-angled hoofs71 cutting down quarters which are too high1 and carefully removing all dead horn from the branches of the sole1 especially in acute-angled hoofs4 ,deeply digging out a small area of blood-stained horn is injurious4 ,it is much better to thin the horn of the entire branch of the sole uniformly1 in doing which we should avoid wounding the velvety tissue of the sole or drawing blood4 ,the proper shoe is the bar-shoe1 except when both cartilages are ossified4 ,the pressure should not be taken from the quarters unless they are sore4 ,when there is a suppurating corn1 the shoe should be left off several days4 ,a chronic corn should be protected continuously from pressure by the shoe4 ,this is accomplished by using a bar-shoe with leather sole4 ,a three-quarter shoe is not sufficient to properly protect a hoof affected with a chronic corn1 if the animal must perform exacting labor on hard roads4 ,the care of the hoof consists in keeping it cool1 moderately moist1 and pliant4 #e4 ,inflammation of the ,heels4 ,inflammation of the bulbs of the plantar cushion 7heels7 is usually caused by such external influences as bruising4 ,it occurs in both shod and unshod feet4 ,the symptoms are3 increased warmth1 pain and swelling1 sometimes infiltration of the tissues with blood1 accompanied by a short1 cautious gait1 or1 if only one foot is affected1 by well-marked lameness4 ,the most frequent causes are3 going barefoot upon hard 7frozen71 uneven ground2 shoeing hoofs having low heels with flat shoes that are too short2 sometimes too much frog pressure by the bar of a bar-shoe2 forging and grabbing4 ,the treatment first indicated is a cooling application in the form of an ice-poultice1 or a soaking in cold water4 ,later1 astringent 7drying7 applications are of benefit1 especially if the perioplic horn-ring has partially loosened from the bulbs of the heels2 for example1 a weak solution in water of sulphate of copper 7#a to #bj71 followed by the application of a shoe with heel-calks1 which is quite long in the branches and which must not press upon the wall of the quarters4 #f4 ,laminitis 7,founder74 ,by this name we designate a peculiar inflammation of the pododerm at the toe4 ,it arises suddenly in well-nourished and apparently healthy horses1 following excessive work or long-continued rest in the stable1 and frequently leads to a decided change of form of the hoof4 ,the disease is always accompanied with intense pain4 ,it most often affects both front feet1 more rarely all four feet1 or only one foot4 ,in the first case the two front feet are planted far in advance of the body1 and the hind feet well forward under the belly4 ,when all four feet are affected1 travelling is exceedingly difficult1 often impossible2 in this case there is nearly always a high fever over the entire body4 ,the seat of the disease is in the fleshy leaves about the toe1 more rarely upon the side walls and quarters4 ,depending upon the intensity of the inflammation1 the fleshy leaves are more or less loosened from the horny leaves1 as a result of which there is a change of position of the os pedis1 with a simultaneous sinking of the coronet at the toe4 ,this produces a change of form of the hoof4 ,the quarters become higher4 ,rings form upon the wall1 and their course is quite characteristic of the disease4 ,at the toe these rings are quite close to one another1 but as they pass back towards the quarters they gradually separate from one another and recede from the coronary band 7,figs4 #aic1 #aid1 and #aie74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4 ,vertical longitudinal section of a foot altered by chronic laminitis3 a1 hollow wall at toe thrust forward2 b1 leafy layer much thickened and crumbling 78seedy-toe072 c1 dotted line showing limit to which the toe may be rasped away in shoeing2 d1 dropped sole2 e1 atrophy of lower sharp edge of os pedis2 g1 dotted line indicating the height of the perioplic band2 h1 foot axis4 ,the wall at the toe is sunken just under the coronet2 its lower part1 on the contrary1 is thrust forward4 ,later1 the white line becomes pathologically widened4 ,the horn of the white line is dry1 crumbling1 and easily broken down1 so that a break in continuity 7crack7 is apt to occur between the wall and sole1 and lead to the formation of a hollow wall 78seedy-toe074 ,where the inflammation is moderate and is not repeated1 healing usually takes place and the horn grows down regularly and in normal direction from the coronet4 ,however1 a rather brittle condition of the horn remains permanently4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the inflammation was very severe or repeated several times1 the horny sole becomes flat just in front of the point of the frog as a result of the sinking of the os pedis1 or it may even drop below the level of the wall 7full hoof1 dropped sole74 ,indeed1 it even happens at times that the toe of the os pedis perforates the horny sole just in front of the point of the frog4 ,the wall at the toe1 which was previously but little altered in form1 is now thrust prominently forward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,foundered foot 7chronic laminitis71 before dressing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,foundered foot1 dressed and shod4 ,the dotted lines indicate its form before being dressed1--i4e41 as shown in ,fig4 #aid4 ,the inflammation of the pododerm may under certain conditions and by skilful veterinary treatment be removed1 so that the characteristic changes of form and quality of the hoof will not occur4 ,but if this is not accomplished1 as is often the case1 the disease will be obstinate1 and permanent morbid changes of the horn capsule take place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,a hoof altered by chronic laminitis2 shod with an open flat shoe3 a1 wall at the toe does not bear on the shoe2 b1 clip at the end of the branch to oppose the tendency of the shoe to slip forward when half worn out4 ,a horse in such a condition can be used1 but the gait will be short and stiff4 ,the hoofs are shuffled forward and set heels first to the ground1 a manner of travelling that rapidly wears away the branches of the shoe4 ,in dressing a foundered hoof the outer circumference of the sole is the guide4 ,the thick projecting wall at the toe may be removed with the rasp without injuring the foot4 ,the sole should be spared1 but the quarters should be lowered to improve the setting of the foot to the ground4 ,the choice of the shoe will depend upon the shape and nature of the sole4 ,if this is still concave1 an ordinary shoe may be used4 ,if1 however1 the sole is flat or dropped1 it must be protected by an open shoe with a broad web1 or with a bar-shoe 7,fig4 #aig71 which is of especial value when the bearing-edge of the wall is weak or broken away4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,a well-covered 7wide-webbed7 bar-shoe1 with two lateral toe-clips and an end-clip1 for a foundered foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4 ,an open shoe for a foundered foot with a dropped sole4 ,as long as there is pain on pressure about the toe there should be no toe-clip1 but two side-clips4 ,the wall between these clips should be lowered a tenth to an eighth of an inch to prevent pressure of the shoe upon the sensitive tissues of the toe 7,fig4 #aie74 ,the nails should be as small as possible and placed well back towards the quarters4 ,no nail should be driven in the wall at the toe when there is separation of sole and wall at the toe 7hollow wall1 seedy-toe74 ,the shoes of horses affected with founder often work forward as a result of the animals travelling upon their heels4 ,to prevent this evil1 clips may be raised at the ends of the branches of an open shoe1 or one clip in the middle of the bar1 in case a bar-shoe is used 7,fig4 #aig74 #g4 ,keraphyllocele 7,horn ,tumor74 ,a keraphyllocele is a more or less sharply bounded horn tumor projecting from the inner surface of the wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,a section of wall at the toe showing a ,keraphyllocele 7horn-leaf tumor73 a1 coronary border2 b1 plantar border2 c1 body of tumor2 d1 base of tumor presenting funnel-shaped opening discharging pus4 ,its occurrence is rare4 ,its favorite seat is at the toe4 ,it rarely causes lameness4 ,it can only be diagnosed with certainty when it extends downward to the lower border of the wall4 ,in this case there may be seen a half-moon-shaped thickening of the white line which rounds inward upon the edge of the sole1 and is of a waxen color4 ,frequently the horn at this place crumbles away1 leaving a more or less dark-colored cavity from which there sometimes escapes a small quantity of dark-grayish pus4 ,causes4--,chronic inflammation of the podophyllous tissue1 resulting from compression or bruising4 ,keraphyllocele frequently follows a complete toe-crack of long duration1 or a deep calk-wound at the coronet4 ,prognosis4--,unfavorable1 whether there is lameness or not4 ,if there is no lameness it is very apt to arise later1 and if lameness is already present it can only be removed by an operation1 which should be performed by a veterinarian4 ,a return of the lameness following hard work at a trot upon hard roads is always to be feared4 ,shoeing4--,an ordinary shoe well concaved underneath the inflamed region1 which should be relieved of all pressure4#e #e ,should lameness persist1 it will be necessary to remove a strip of the wall from the plantar border to the coronet in order to remove the horn tumor4 ,the fleshy leaves which have secreted the tumor must be extirpated and the surface of the os pedis well scraped1 or the growth will return4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,defects ,,of ,,the ,,hoof4 ,a4 ,changes of ,form4 #a4 ,,the ,,flat ,,and ,,the ,,full ,,hoof 7,,dropped ,,sole74 7a7 ,flat ,hoof4--,a flat hoof is one whose toe and side walls are inclined very obliquely to the ground-surface1 and whose sole is on a level with the bearing-surface of the wall4 ,it exists most often in horses bred in low-lying1 marshy countries4 ,frequently the frog is well developed1 and projects considerably beyond the level of the wall4 ,the branches of the sole sink perceptibly under the weight of the body1 much more than in better-formed hoofs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,cross-section of a shod flat foot3 a1 sufficiently high bearing-edge of wall1 and a horizontal bearing-surface on the shoe2 b1 insufficient height of bearing-edge of wall1 and therefore a corresponding downward and inward inclination of the bearing-surface of the shoe4 ,preparing the ,hoof for the ,shoe4--,the rule is to spare the plantar surface of the foot4 ,after removing from the sole what little loose horn there may be1 level the usually deficient bearing-surface of the wall with the rasp4 ,the outer border of the wall1 especially at the toe1 should be rounded off rather more strongly than usual1 because the toe requires and will bear considerable shortening4 ,outward bendings of the lower border of the wall should be removed as far as it is practicable to do so4 ,the shoe1 which should be rather wider in the web and thicker than usual1 should have its bearing-surface shaped to correspond to the bearing-surface of the wall2 that is1 if the bearing-surface of the wall is below the margin of the sole 7the sole of the foot being uppermost71 then the bearing-surface of the shoe should incline downward and inward 7,fig4 #bjj1 b74 ,the bearing-surface of the branches1 however1 must always remain horizontal4 ,the shoe always requires deep concaving1 especially along the inner branch of the sole4 ,if the quarters are weak1 the walls defective1 or there are corns1 cracks1 loose walls1 or other diseases of the hoof1 a bar-shoe should be selected4 7b7 ,full ,hoof 7,dropped ,sole74--,a full hoof is one whose sole instead of being concave is convex1--that is1 bulges beyond the bearing-surface of the wall4 ,it either arises gradually from a flat hoof or is the result of laminitis 7founder74 ,in full hoofs the lower surface of the os pedis is of the same shape as the horny sole4 ,the preparation of a full hoof for the shoe consists merely in removing all loose horn4 ,in case the dropping of the sole is very pronounced1 the bearing-surface of the wall should be built up artificially with ,defay's hoof cement4 ,the shoe should be light1 but broad in the web1 and furnished with a more or less deep concaving1 which extends from the inner edge of the web to the outer edge of the shoe1 and corresponds in shape to the bulging of the sole4 ,by reason of the deficiency of the wall1 the bar-shoe deserves the preference over an open shoe4 ,it is frequently necessary to apply toe- and heel-calks to remove the hoof from contact with the ground4 ,the nails should he thinner and longer than usual1 and a more secure position of the shoe may be secured without injury to the hoof by drawing up two side-clips4 ,flat and full hoofs are incurable4 ,shoeing is of benefit only in rendering such horses serviceable4 ,soles that are soft and sensitive should he smeared with crude turpentine or pine-tar1 though unusual sensitiveness calls for a leather sole4 ,horses with full hoofs should not be driven faster than a walk over hard roads4 ,during long-continued spells of wet weather softening of these hoofs should be prevented by smearing the soles with a hoof-ointment containing resin4 #b4 ,,the ,,upright ,,or ,,stumpy ,,hoof4 ,the upright or stumpy hoof is that form in which the quarters1 with relation to the toe1 are too long 7too high74 ,the wall at the toe stands very steep1 in some cases perpendicular1 and is strongly worn away by standing and travelling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,upright or stumpy hoof1 shod with a 8tip40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,beaked shoe for stilt-foot4 ,causes4--#a4 ,the upright hoof is peculiar to the 8standing under0 position 7,fig4 #ec1 page #ff7 and to the so-called bear-foot 7,fig4 #gj1 page #gb74 #b4 ,it arises also as a result of all those alterations in the direction of the limbs which tend to remove the quarters from contact with the ground 7contraction of the flexor tendons1 spavin1--,fig4 #bjb74 #c4 ,it may arise gradually from neglect of the hoofs of horses running barefoot4 #d4 ,it may arise from excessive shortening of the toe in relation to the quarters4 ,shoeing4--,the forms of hoofs mentioned in class #a should be left as they are4 ,the hoofs that fall under class #b should be dressed and shod until a more natural setting down of the foot is secured4 ,this is brought about by sparing the quarters1 and applying a shoe with thickened branches or with heel-calks4 ,where the service of the animal is exacting and upon hard streets1 the toes1 especially of the hind shoes1 may be made more durable by welding in steel plates4 ,besides1 the shoe should be moderately base-wide around the toe1--that is1 should be bevelled downward and outward1 should have a strong toe-clip1 and should be quite concave at the toe and rolled4 7,figs4 #bjc and #bjd74 ,should the hoof tip forward whenever the weight is thrown upon the limb1 a shoe with a spur projecting from the centre of the toe1 and turning back and pressing upon the wall just underneath the coronary band1 will be of service 7,fig4 #bjb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,shoe for stumpy hoofs1 viewed from ground-surface1 hoof-surface1 and in profile4 ,only those upright hoofs which are the result of the causes mentioned in #c and #d are to be dressed as ordinary hoofs1 and if the service required is not too exacting they should be shod with tips 7,fig4 #bja71 or with shoes with thinned branches4 #c4 ,,the ,,contracted ,,hoof4 ,a hoof which has deviated from its normal form in such a manner that its posterior half1 either in part or as a whole1 is too narrow1 is a contracted hoof4 ,the walls of the quarters assume an abnormally oblique direction downward and inward towards the median line of the hoof4 ,when contraction affects only one quarter1 it is called unilateral contraction1 or abnormal wryness 7,fig4 #baa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,a fore-hoof with bilateral contraction of the quarters3 a1 spur of horn prolonged from the buttress1 which compresses the frog2 b1 narrow median lacuna of the frog4 ,the buttresses are usually very much prolonged and press upon the frog and cause it to shrink4 ,the bars no longer run in the natural straight direction from the point of the frog backward and outward1 but describe a circle passing outward1 backward1 and inward4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,a1 ,defay's shoe for expanding the quarters of a hoof2 a1 clip apposed to the buttress2 b1 slot sawed at the toe to weaken the shoe2 ,b1 screw for expanding the ,defay's shoe4 ,contraction affects front feet1 especially those of the acute-angled form1 more often than hind feet4 ,in order to determine whether or not a hoof is too narrow1 we should always examine the frog and its lateral lacun4 ,if the frog is small and narrow1 and the lateral lacun very narrow and deep1 there can be no doubt but that the hoof is too narrow 7contracted74 ,the causes1 aside from too little exercise1 are chiefly errors in shoeing1 such as weakening the posterior half of the hoof1 leaving too long a toe1 either neglecting to remove the spurs of horn which grow from the buttresses and press upon the frog1 or removing them incompletely1 and using shoes whose branches are either too wide apart or are inclined downward and inward1 so that under the weight of the body the heels are squeezed together and contraction is favored4 ,prevention and ,treatment4--,first1 it should be borne in mind that whatever exercises moderate pressure upon the sole1 frog1 and bars tends to expand the hoof4 ,the action and value of the various shoes1 frog-1 and sole-pads1 are measured by this rule4 ,for this reason a shoe with heel-calks is never advisable if an open flat shoe without other means of relief can be used4 ,furthermore1 since contraction is the parent of nearly all diseases of the hoof 7corns1 quarter-cracks1 bar-cracks1 thrush of the frog71 we should use the greatest care to prevent it by dressing the hoof as described on pages #ih to #ajc1 using flat shoes with a horizontal bearing-surface for the quarters1 giving abundant exercise1 preventing drying out of the horn1 and allowing the animal to go barefoot whenever possible4 ,where the contraction is but slight the foregoing rules will be found sufficient4 ,in very pronounced contraction1 where the hoof is not acute-angled1 an expansive shoe with clips raised at the ends of the branches to press against the buttresses may prove very advantageous2 but under no conditions should violence be used in expanding the heels with the expanding-screw4 ,this is an act of extreme delicacy1 and should be performed only by experienced veterinarians4 ,in very pronounced contraction of one or both quarters of hoofs of every degree of obliquity we may obtain a continuous expansive action by the use of one of the numerous ,v-shaped springs1 of which the ,chadwick spring is the best 7,fig4 #bjg and #bjh74 ,after levelling the wall and thinning the branches of the sole1 the points of the spring are set against the buttresses1 the apex of the spring moved to and fro till the points have bored well into the horn1 when the apex is laid against the sole at the toe1 the sole filled with tar and oakum and covered by a leather sole1 and a bar-shoe applied4 ,if the contraction be less pronounced1 or if the frog be much shrunken we may place a ,chadwick spring beneath a rubber bar-pad with a short shoe4 ,the spring may be stiffened from shoeing to shoeing1 first by introducing the ferrule at the apex of the spring and later by shifting the ferrule toward the shoulder 7,figs4 #bjg1 b1 and #bjh1 b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,the ,chadwick spring for expanding contracted quarters3 a1 apex of spring2 b1 ferrule to stiffen the spring2 c1 point which is buried in a buttress of the hoof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,a fore-hoof showing a ,chadwick spring in proper position3 a1 ,chadwick spring2 b1 ferrule to stiffen spring as desired2 c1 uncompressed spring before it has been engaged against the buttresses2 d1 buttresses in which points of spring are buried4 ,for contracted hoofs of the acute-angled form we use the bar-shoe1 and if there are other diseases of the hoof present1 or if we wish a more rapid and continuous expansive action1 we use also a leather sole with foot-packing with or without a buttress spring4 ,a foul frog should be properly cleansed1 and then disinfected with pine-tar thinned with alcohol or crude wood-vinegar 7pyroligneous acid74 ,further curative measures are3 turning the horse out without shoes 7expensive and seldom practicable72 applying tips2 using shoes the bearing-surface of whose branches inclines downward and outward 7unilateral contraction requires but one branch to be so constructed72 hoof-pads of rubber 7,figs4 #ade1 #adf1 and #adg71 straw1 rope1 cork1 hoof cement1 etc4 ,special forms of contraction are distinguished1 and are as follows3 7a7 ,the ,contraction of ,wide ,hoofs4--,this contraction is manifest as a concavity or groove in the wall just below the coronet1 usually at the quarters1 though sometimes extending entirely around the foot parallel to the coronary band 7,fig4 #bji74 ,pain is produced in the contracted area by lightly tapping the horn1 but not by moderate pressure with the hoof-testers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,wide fore-hoof with 8coronary contraction03 7a7 broad shallow groove in each quarter1 and disappearing toward the toe4 ,green horses with wide hoofs1 just from the pasture1 are particularly liable to this form of contraction4 ,as a rule1 the lameness does not disappear completely until the wall has assumed its natural1 straight direction by growing down properly from the coronary band4 ,in dressing the hoof and applying the bar-shoe1 care must be taken that the lower border of the wall underneath the painful area is lowered so much that it will not receive direct pressure from the shoe4 7b7 ,contraction of the ,sole4--,this is accompanied by an unnatural direction of the wall4 ,instead of the wall being straight from the coronet to the shoe1 it describes a curve whose convexity is outward 7keg-shaped1 claw-shaped when seen from the side7 7,fig4 #baj74 ,the hoof seems constricted 7tied in7 at the coronet and at its plantar border1 the sole is abnormally concave 7arched71 and the plantar surface of the hoof is considerably shortened from toe to heel4 ,it happens in both shod and unshod horses1 with otherwise strong hoofs1 but is quite rare4 ,it is occasionally associated with navicular bursitis 78navicular disease074 ,causes4--,principally dryness1 too little exercise1 and shoes without horizontal bearing-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,a fore-hoof with a contracted sole1 properly shod3 a1 toe convex in profile2 b1 shoe fitted full all around1 and 8bearing-surface0 inclining outward2 c1 outer border bevelled base-wide4 ,the treatment is correspondingly simple3 ,the shoes should be flat1 fitted full all around to coax the wall out at every point1 and the outer border bevelled base-wide1 so as to furnish a base of support that is wider and longer than the hoof4 ,in moderate contraction of the sole1 the bearing-surface of the shoe should be perfectly horizontal1 but if the contraction be very pronounced1 the entire bearing-surface should incline downward and outward 7even at the toe74 ,no toe-or side-clip should be used4 ,the shoe should be reset every two weeks2 the sole kept so thin by paring that it will spring under thumb pressure1 and kept moist by washing1 tubbing or 8stopping10 and the animal given moderate exercise daily4 ,in all forms of contraction of the hoof abundant exercise and the maintenance of the natural pliancy of the horn by daily moistening 7washing7 with water are absolutely necessary for successful treatment4 #d4 ,,the ,,wry ,,hoof4 ,if one side wall and quarter is steep1 and the other very slanting or oblique1 we term such a hoof a 8wry hoof40 ,such a hoof divided in the middle line presents two very dissimilar halves4 ,there are three classes of wry hoofs3 #a1 normal wry hoofs 7see ,figs4 #fc-ff72 #b1 pathological wry hoofs1 or hoofs contracted in one quarter 7see contracted hoofs72 #c1 wry hoofs which are the result of improper shortening of the wall and of neglect in horses running barefoot4 ,only the second and third classes of wry hoofs require especial attention4 ,first1 the more oblique wall must be cut down1 and the steep wall spared1--a procedure which differs essentially from that employed in treating the first class1 but is1 nevertheless1 entirely warranted1 because these second and third kinds of wry hoofs do not correspond to the direction of the limb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,a wry right front foot of the base-wide class1 viewed from behind4 ,the bar-shoe is fitted full along the contracted inner quarter1 and snug on the outside4 ,the inner branch of the frog rests upon the bar of the shoe2 the outer branch is free4 ,the inner quarter from the last nail back to the frog is free of the shoe4 ,in order to take weight from the steep wall1 we use with advantage a bar-shoe1 which should be longer and wider than the hoof on its contracted side4 ,in other words1 enlarge the base of support by making the branch of the shoe broader4 ,if an entire side wall and quarter is contracted the branch of the shoe beneath must be broad1 the border bevelled base-wide1 and the branch punched so deeply that the nail-holes will fall upon the white line4 ,in old work-horses any sort of shoe may be used1 though a flat shoe serves the purpose best4 ,if a hoof is wry from faulty paring1 and we cannot at once completely restore the proper relative slant of the two walls by paring alone1 we may use a shoe with a thicker branch for the half of the hoof which is too low 7too steep74 ,in colts such wry hoofs can often be cured only by shoeing4 ,the shoe employed for this purpose is so made that the branch underneath the steep 7contracted7 wall is quite thick1 but gradually thins away around the toe to the end of the other branch4 ,in strongly marked cases the thin branch may end at the middle of the side wall 7a three-quarter shoe74 ,this method of shoeing shifts the body-weight upon the slanting wall and restores the foot to its proper shape in from two to four shoeings4 ,causes4--,unequal distribution of the weight in the inner and outer halves of the foot1 in conjunction with excessive cutting down or wear of the steeper wall4 ,all faults in shoeing which tend to produce contraction of the heels aid in the formation of a wry foot1 especially when these faults directly affect the steep wall4 ,neglect of the colt's hoofs during the first years of life frequently lays the basis for wry foot in later years4 ,all wry feet are more susceptible to disease than others4 ,the amount or degree of wryness varies considerably4 ,in a moderately developed case the steep wall 7usually the inner7 will be drawn in at the plantar border of the quarter1 presenting a convex surface between this border and the coronet1 and the adjacent branch of the frog will be more or less shrunken4 ,in extreme cases the slanting wall 7usually the outer7 will also be involved and bent in the opposite direction1--i4e41 will be concave 7dished7 between coronet and lower border 7crooked hoof74 ,prognosis4--,when the degree of wryness corresponds to the slant of the foot-axis and the old shoe shows nearly uniform wear1 the defect is not directly injurious4 ,in very pronounced 8wryness10 however1 with thin1 bent walls1 a number of associated lesions1 such as corns and cracks1 may be present and render the animal unfit for service upon paved or macadam roads4 #e4 ,,the ,,crooked ,,hoof4 ,a crooked hoof 7,fig4 #bab7 is one whose walls 7viewed from in front or behind7 do not pass in a straight1 natural direction from the coronet to the ground1 but are bent in such a manner that the bearing-surface of the wall in relation to the foot-axis lies either too far out or in4 ,it may occur on any foot1 but is seldom strongly marked4 ,causes4--,the causes are either long-continued leaving of one-half of the wall too high1 or the use of shoes shaped for normal feet upon hoofs of the base-wide position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,a crooked right fore-hoof of the base-wide position3 a1 convex wall1 too high2 b1 concave wall1 too low2 c d shows how much of the outer wall must be removed with the hoof-knife2 f1 superfluous horn to be removed gradually with the rasp2 c e and g h indicate the position of the shoe with relation to the hoof4 ,the principal part of the treatment is the proper dressing of the hoof4 ,the wall which is bent out at the middle and drawn in at the plantar border is1 as a rule1 too high and too near the centre of the foot 7too narrow72 the opposite wall1 on the contrary1 is too low and too far from the centre of the foot 7too wide74 ,this explains the manner in which the hoof should be cut down and rasped4 ,the shoe must be laid out as far as possible towards the side which is too high and narrow4 ,a straight edge placed against the high wall touches it only at its middle4 ,the distance of this line from the lower edge of the wall shows us how far the surface of support--namely1 the shoe--should be set out beyond the horn4 ,if the straight edge be placed against the opposite wall1 it will touch only at the coronet and at the plantar border1 showing that the wall is concave4 ,the distance of the middle of this wall from the straight edge shows us how much too wide this half of the wall is at its plantar border1 and how much of the outer surface of the wall at its plantar border should be removed with the rasp4 ,the restoration of a crooked hoof to its normal form requires several shoeings4 #f4 ,,ossification ,,of ,,the ,,lateral ,,cartilage 7,,side-,,bone74 ,the ossification of a lateral cartilage 7,fig4 #bac7 consists in a change of the cartilage into bone4 ,heavy horses are more frequently affected than lighter ones4 ,it most often involves the outer cartilages of the forefeet1 seldom both cartilages4 ,side-bones always interfere with the physiological movements of the foot1 and may1 indeed1 entirely suppress them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,a left fore os pedis viewed in profile1 showing ossification of the external lateral cartilage3 a1 dotted line shows normal line of union of cartilage with wing of os pedis2 b1 ossified portion 78side bone074 ,the unossified cartilage has been removed by maceration4 ,the disease can only be diagnosed with certainty after the upper part of the cartilage has ossified4 ,the coronet is then rather prominent 7bulging71 and feels hard4 ,the gait is short1 and cautious1 and well-marked lameness often follows severe work4 ,as causes1 may be mentioned predisposition in heavy lymphatic horses1 and violent concussion or shock due to fast work upon hard roads4 ,the disease is incurable4 ,a special method of shoeing is only necessary when the outer cartilage is ossified and the quarter upon that side is contracted4 ,after removing the old shoe1 whose outer branch is1 as a rule1 more worn away than the inner1 the outer wall will always be found too high1 due to the fact that there has been little or no expansion and contraction in this quarter and1 therefore1 little or no wear of the horn against the shoe4 ,the hoof is therefore wry1--on the outside too high1 and on the inside too low4 ,this shows us how the foot should be dressed so as to obtain a proper base of support and a uniform wear of the shoe4 ,the most suitable shoe is a flat shoe1 whose outer branch must be wider than the inner4 ,it is so applied that the inner branch follows the edge of the wall closely1 while the outer branch must be full and at the quarter must extend beyond the wall far enough to touch a perpendicular line dropped from the coronet 7,fig4 #bae74 ,the shoe must1 therefore1 be punched deep 7coarse7 on the outer branch and fine on the inner4 ,a side-clip must be placed on the outer branch1 because in time the outer half of the hoof will again be too high4 ,bar-shoes and rubber pads are injurious when both cartilages are ossified1 but may be used when there is partial ossification of but one cartilage1 especially if corns are present4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,right fore-hoof whose form has changed as a result of ossification of the external lateral cartilage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,shoe with broad outer branch1 for the hoof shown in the preceding cut4 ,b4 ,disturbances of ,continuity of the ,hoof4 #a4 ,,cracks4 ,interruptions of continuity of the wall extending in the direction of the horn-tubes are known as cracks or seams4 ,they have1 according to their location1 degree1 and extent1 not only various names1 but also a varying significance4 ,occurrence4--,on the inner side of front hoofs1 especially of horses that stand base-wide2 on hind hoofs1 usually at the toe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,hoof exhibiting a coronary crack1 a plantar or low crack1 and a complete deep crack1 the latter with a nail ready to be clinched4 ,classification4--,according to location we distinguish toe-cracks1 side-cracks1 quarter-cracks1 and bar-cracks4 ,those cracks which affect only the upper border of the hoof are called coronary cracks2 those which are limited to the lower border of the hoof are sometimes designated low cracks 7plantar cracks72 while those which are continuous from one border to the other are called complete cracks4 ,if the crack passes through the entire thickness of the wall to the sensitive tissues underneath1 it is called a deep or penetrating crack1 in contradistinction to the superficial crack 7,fig4 #baf74 ,causes4--,there are many4 ,besides wounds of the coronet1 everything that impairs the elasticity of the horn1 weakens the hoof1 and causes an overloading of one-half of the hoof4 ,furthermore1 great dryness and excessive work on hard streets4 ,prognosis4--,this will depend upon the age1 kind1 and location of the crack4 ,a low crack is without significance unless it is the remnant of an old coronary crack which has grown down4 ,coronary cracks1 on the contrary1 are more serious because of the lameness which often accompanies them1 and especially on account of the long duration of the healing process4 ,the borders of the crack never grow together1 and healing can only take place through healthy1 unbroken horn growing down from the coronary band4 7a7 ,treatment of ,coronary and ,bar-,cracks4--,if practicable1 allow the affected horse to go barefoot2 otherwise1 the use of the bar-shoe for all cracks is advised1 because it will continuously protect the diseased section of wall from pressure by the shoe4 ,if there are present still other diseases of the hoof 7corns1 contraction1 flat or full hoof71 the addition of a leather sole with packing will be most beneficial1 not only in favoring the healing of the crack1 but also in improving the form of the hoof and in favoring the cure of the other lesions4 ,in all coronary cracks it is of advantage to assist healing by fastening or immobilizing the borders of the crack by one of the following methods3 #a4 ,by rivets 7nails71 which pass across the crack through holes previously drilled in the horn 7,fig4 #bag74 #b4 ,by clamps or hooks1 which by means of special pincers are forced into pockets previously burnt into the horn on opposite sides of the crack 7,fig4 #bai1 ,b74 #c4 ,by a thin iron plate placed across the crack and secured by small screws1 such as are used in wood 7,figs4 #bbj1 #bba74 #d4 ,by means of a bandage to last one shoeing4 ,toe-crack occurs most often in draught horses and most frequently in the hind feet4 ,in shod hoofs it starts at the coronary border1 and unless proper treatment is instituted soon reaches the plantar border4 ,long toes and low quarters and excessive dryness of the horn are predisposing causes4 ,the exciting cause is usually forward pressure of the upper end of the short pastern against the thin upper edge of the wall of the toe4 ,in the last part of the phase of contact of hoof with ground the pasterns are upright1 or may even incline downward and backward 7foot-axis broken strongly backward71 the short pastern presses the coronary band firmly against the upper thin edge of the toe1 when if brittle through dryness it is unable to stretch and tears asunder4 ,thus1 under the effort of starting a heavy load1 when a horse with all four legs flexed has risen upon the points of his toes1 a short quick slip followed by a catch1 will frequently start a crack at the coronet4 ,the hoof should be so dressed and shod that the foot-axis shall be straight when seen from the side4 ,in hind feet it is admissible to break the foot-axis slightly forward4 ,therefore1 shorten the toe and spare the quarters4 ,if the latter are deficient in length1 raise them by swelling the branches or by low heel-calks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4 ,toe-crack immobilized by lateral toe-clips3 a1 bearing-surface left free from pressure2 b1 heads of the rivets 7nails7 driven through holes previously drilled4 ,the shoe may be open1 or a bar-shoe1 or a short shoe with a rubber frog- and buttress-pad4 ,whatever expands the quarters closes a toe-crack4 ,the ,defay's shoe 7,fig4 #bjf71 or the ,chadwick spring beneath a rubber pad1 or beneath a bar-shoe with leather sole1 if the frog be much shrunken1 will be of service4 ,the shoe should fit air-tight1 except for an inch or so on both sides of the crack4 ,two lateral toe-clips 7,fig4 #bag7 are drawn up1 and the wall between these clips is cut down from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,spiral drill for boring the hole into which a round wire nail is driven to fasten a toe-crack3 7a7 three sided point of drill 7similar to the point of a stilet of a ccal trocar74 ,after the shoe has been nailed on tight the toe-crack should be immobilized4 ,the best method is by buried nails4 ,slots are burned or cut on opposite sides at a distance of an inch from the crack4 ,with a spiral drill 7see ,fig4 #bah7 bore a hole from a slot at right angles to the crack4 ,make a similar hole on the opposite side4 ,make the holes continuous by introducing a straight hot wire4 ,the rivet may be an ordinary round wire nail which has been softened by bringing it to a yellow heat and allowing it to cool slowly4 ,it is driven through and the ends firmly clinched4 ,such a nail is easily placed1 need not press upon fleshy leaves1 can not be stripped off or lost1 and holds fast4 ,the horse should stand on the foot while the rivet is being clinched4 ,two are sufficient for a complete crack 7,fig4 #bag74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,a1 ,vachette burning iron for making the two slots to receive the ends of the hook2 b1 shoulder2 ,b1 ,vachette hook2 ,c1 pincers for forcing the hook into the wall4 ,a more rapid1 though less efficient method of immobilizing a toe-or a quarter-crack is by the use of the ,vachette hook4 ,a special apparatus is required 7see ,fig4 #bai74 ,the burning iron 7,fig4 #bai1 ,a7 is brought to a yellow heat1 its end applied to the wall so that the two ears are on opposite sides and equidistant from the crack1 when it is pressed firmly till the shoulder 7,fig4 #bai1 b7 touches the surface of the wall4 ,a ,vachette hook1 the distance between the points of which equals the distance between the ears of the firing iron1 is seized by the special pincers 7,c71 pressed into the slots burned to receive it1 and is then driven into the horn by compressing the pincers4 ,at the toe these hooks are frequently stripped off by the heels of the opposite shoe 7in hind feet74 ,free application of hoof ointment1 and maceration of the horn by melting snow or mud tends to loosen them so that they often drop out4 ,an efficient method of fastening either a toe-or a quarter-crack is by using a metal plate one-sixteenth 7_/7 of an inch thick1 provided with four to eight holes for the reception of screws four- to five-sixteenths of an inch long4 ,the plate is heated1 bent to conform to the curvature of the wall and pressed against the horn till it burns a bed for itself1 when it is screwed fast4 ,it will not loosen 7see ,fig4 #bbj1 b74 ,in every complete crack of the wall the growing down of coherent horn is favored by thinning the horn for an inch on both sides of the crack directly over the coronary band 7see ,fig4 #bba1 a71 so that any gliding movement between the sides of the crack below can not be transmitted through the thinned area to the crack in the velvety tissue of the coronary band4 ,cutting a 8,v0 at the coronet acts similarly1 but is less efficient4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,hoof with coronary quarter-crack1 shod with a bar-shoe4 ,the part of the quarter relieved of pressure a1 is indicated by the dotted lines2 b1 iron plate secured by small wood screws _/-_/ of an inch in length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 ,hoof with complete quarter-crack1 shod with a bar-shoe3 a1 area thinned almost to the pododerm2 b1 _/ inch metal plate secured by screw _/ of an inch long2 c1 quarter relieved of pressure from bottom of crack to a perpendicular dropped from top of crack4 ,quarter-crack is usually associated with contraction of the heels4 ,it occurs on the inner quarter of base-wide 7toe-wide7 hoofs1 and rarely in the outer quarter of base-narrow hoofs4 ,for quarter-cracks we use a bar-shoe and determine the extent of the wall to be laid free in the following manner3 ,we imagine the crack to be prolonged in the direction of the horn-tubes to the plantar border1 and drop a perpendicular line from the upper end of the crack to the plantar border4 ,that part of the plantar border lying between these two points is then to be lowered sufficiently to prevent pressure from the shoe until the next shoeing 7,figs4 #bbj1 a1 and #bba1 c74 ,this method should be followed even when the perpendicular line falls behind the buttress4 ,the crack may be immobilized by the metal plate1 or by narrow ticking bandage or adhesive tape wound a half dozen times around the hoof1 in conjunction with a bar-shoe1 ,chadwick spring1 leather sole and tar and oakum sole-packing4 ,in dressing the hoof1 the side containing the crack should be spared1 the opposite side lowered1 the object being to shift the weight and consequent expansion into the sound quarter4 ,when the affected quarter is deficient in length the branch of the shoe beneath should be made thicker1 even to the extent of causing it to ground in advance of the opposite branch4 ,next to shoeing1 rubber hoof-pads render good service1 because through them a part of the body-weight is distributed over the sole and frog4 ,they assist in widening the hoof1 and lessen shock when the foot is set to the ground4 ,these are all matters which favor the growing down of unbroken horn4 ,when the crack gaps widely1 and the frog is small and deep in the foot a shoe with bar-clips 7,defay's shoe71 or a ,chadwick spring1 with bar-shoe and leather sole may be used4 ,it is not impossible1 indeed1 to obtain a cure by using an ordinary open flat shoe1 though much will depend upon the other lesions that may be present1 the nature of the hoof1 and the service required of the animal4 ,if the edges of the crack are irregular and overlapping1 they should be carefully thinned away4 ,thinning the horn on both sides of the crack over the coronary band1 preventing drying out of the horn1 and frequent applications of carbolized oil to the coronet favor growth of undivided horn and guard against a renewal of the crack4 ,if in the beginning of the disease there is inflammation and lameness1 cooling poultices should be used for several days4 ,when there is no lameness1 the horse may be used for slow draft purposes4 ,coach-and saddle-horses should be kept from fast work until sound horn has grown down at least one-half of an inch from the coronet4 ,bar-cracks are usually the result of changes of position of the quarters1 and are just as frequently brought about by contraction as by leaving the quarters too high4 ,we see them almost entirely upon the fore-hoofs4 ,they seldom occur alone1 but are usually accompanied by corns4 ,when the crack extends to the pododerm there is a superficial inflammation of the pododerm and lameness4 ,when treatment is not promptly begun the inflammation extends to the deeper layers of the pododerm1 or1 indeed1 even to the plantar cushion1 and gives rise to swelling of the bulb of the heel upon that side and to a well-marked lameness1 which requires treatment by a competent veterinarian4 ,ordinarily a bar-crack is only found by a close examination of the hoof after the shoe has been removed4 ,in paring the hoof the crack usually appears as a dark streak1 sometimes as a bloody fissure2 not infrequently grayish hoof-pus is discovered in the depths of the crack4 ,the treatment must be directed towards favoring the growth of a continuous 7unbroken7 bar4 ,this is accomplished by completely removing the edges of the crack1 paring the horn of the vicinity very thin1 and preventing the least pressure upon the wall of this quarter by the shoe1 by lowering this quarter with the rasp and applying a bar-shoe with leather sole4 ,following the removal of the edges of the crack there often appears1 especially in stumpy hoofs1 a deep groove2 if the bottom of this groove is moist1 we should pack it with oakum wet with a five per cent4 solution of creolin or carbolic acid1 and cover the oakum with wax 7grafting-wax74 ,the cracks will return if the exciting causes cannot be completely removed4 7b7 ,treatment of ,low ,cracks 7,plantar ,cracks74--,these cracks1 occurring principally upon the hoofs of unshod horses1 are the result of excessive stretching and bending of the lower border of the wall4 ,insufficient rounding of the wall with the rasp is largely responsible for them4 ,an exciting cause in shod horses is the use of too large nails in shoes that are punched too fine4 ,every coronary crack becomes in time a low or plantar crack1 and this has an important bearing upon the prognosis1 because a renewal of the coronary crack will be followed by a low crack4 ,in order to remove these cracks it is sufficient merely to shoe the horse4 ,upon shod horses they may be prevented by using properly punched shoes and thin nails4 ,the lower border of the wall near the crack should be relieved of pressure by cutting out a half-moon-shaped piece of horn4 ,to prevent the crack from extending farther upward we may burn a transverse slot at the upper end of the crack1 in as far as the leafy layer of the wall1 or cut such a slot with a small hoof-knife4 #b4 ,,clefts4 ,an interruption of continuity of the wall1 at right angles to the direction of the horn-tubes1 is called a cleft4 ,clefts may occur at any part of the wall2 yet they occur most often upon the inner toe and inner side1 as a result of injury from sharp1 improperly placed heel-calks 7see page #agc74 ,however1 suppurating corns1 or other suppurative processes situated at the coronet or which find their point of escape at the coronet1 may from time to time lead to separations of continuity and the formation of horn-clefts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,hoof with clefts of the toe and side wall4 ,horn-clefts1 though the result of lesions which are often very injurious and interfere with the use of the horse1 are of themselves not an evil which can be abolished or healed by shoeing1 although1 in many cases1 proper shoeing would have prevented them4 ,a horn-cleft is not a matter for consideration by the shoer until it has grown down so far that it comes within the region of the nails4 ,in order not to disfigure the hoof unnecessarily1 the horn below the cleft should be kept in place as long as possible by shortening the wall at that point1 to remove shoe-pressure1 and by driving no nails into it4 ,if1 however1 the horn is loose and about to come away1 it should be removed and the defect filled with ,defay's patent horn-cement4 #c4 ,,loose ,,wall4 ,separation of the wall from the sole in the white line is called loose wall 7,fig4 #bbc1 a74 ,occurrence4--,frequent on the fore-hoofs of shod and unshod horses1 and oftener upon the inner than upon the outer side4 ,more rare on hind hoofs4 ,common-bred horses with wide and flat feet are predisposed to this trouble4 ,we distinguish superficial and deep loose wall2 only the latter requires the shoer's attention1 because it leads to lameness4 ,causes4--,walls which are very oblique 7slanting72 outward bendings of the plantar border of the wall2 burning the horn with hot shoes2 dryness2 neglected shoeing2 excessive softening of the horn with poultices1 particularly of cow-dung2 carelessness in preparing the bearing-surfaces of hoof and shoe in shoeing2 uneven fitting of the shoe4 ,treatment4--,it aims to remove the lameness and to favor growth of coherent horn4 ,in the first place the removal of the exciting causes1 followed by proper shortening of the wall4 ,we should apply a shoe whose bearing-surface inclines slightly downward and inward1 is perfectly smooth1 and wide enough to cover the wall1 white line1 and outer border of the sole2 the iron should be only moderately warm4 ,where there is lameness we use a leather sole with packing1 or a bar-shoe4 ,the loose wall should be freed from shoe-pressure only when it does not extend far along the white line4 ,when the separation is extensive the loose wall should not be lowered4 ,the crack should be filled with wood-tar1 crude turpentine1 or soft grafting-wax4 ,if a loose wall occur upon the foot of a horse while running barefoot1 all separated horn should be removed2 if1 on account of the nature of the ground1 this seems to be impracticable1 the hoof must be shod4 ,care of the ,hoof4--,shoe at least every four to five weeks4 ,preserve the pliancy and toughness of the horn by judicious moistening4 #d4 ,,hollow ,,wall4 ,a hollow wall is one in which a separation has occurred between the middle layer of the wall and the keraphyllous layer4 ,this crack or separation always extends in the direction of the layers of the wall 7,fig4 #bbc1 b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,an imaginary transverse vertical section of a hoof showing 7a7 loose wall and 7b7 hollow wall4 ,occurrence4--,quite rare4 ,we should suspect a hollow wall when a part of the wall rounds out prominently beyond the rest1 and gives forth a hollow 7resonant7 sound when struck4 ,the white line presents a crack1 yet we should hesitate to form a conclusion as to the extent of the separation from the extent of the crack along the white line1 since the latter may be considerably smaller4 ,the separation extends higher up the wall than in the case of loose wall1 frequently to the coronet4 ,the cavity is usually filled with crumbling1 disintegrated horn4 ,hollow wall is not often accompanied by pain4 ,lameness may arise1 however1 if the hollow section of wall assists in bearing the body-weight1 and if the animal does fast work upon paved streets4 ,causes4--,mechanical influences resulting in chronic inflammation of fleshy leaves4 ,treatment4--,a cure is possible1 but requires considerable time4 ,in shoeing1 which should always aim to relieve pressure from the hollow section of wall1 we cleanse the cavity and fill it with oakum and tar1 crude turpentine1 or wax4 ,where the separation is very extensive we use a bar-shoe4 ,the time required for complete cure of hollow and loose walls will depend upon the height of the separation 7see growth of the hoof1 page #hb74 #e4 ,,thrush ,,of ,,the ,,frog4 ,when the horny frog is ragged and fissured1 and an ill-smelling1 dark-colored liquid collects in the lacun of the frog1 it is affected with thrush4 ,when thrush exists uninterruptedly for several months the perioplic band is irritated and forms rings of periople which assume an irregular course and cross the rings of the middle layer of the wall 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,hoof with irregular superficial rings resulting from thrush of the frog4 ,the causes3 uncleanliness1 too little exercise in fresh air1 excessive paring of the frog1 and the use of shoes with calks by which the frog is permanently removed from the ground4 ,the consequences are1 besides contraction of the hoof1 soreness in travelling1 a shortening of the step1 and1 occasionally1 well-marked lameness4 ,treatment4--,removal of all greasy horn from the frog1 and of the prominent overgrown angles of the buttresses 7see page #ajj71 thorough washing of the frog once or twice daily with a #e per cent4 creolin or carbolic solution1 abundant exercise1 and shoes without calks4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,shoeing ,,mules1 ,,asses1 ,,and ,,oxen4 #a4 ,the shoeing of mules and asses is1 as in the case of horses1 a necessity if these animals are to be used for draft or saddle purposes on hard streets4 ,the structure and characteristics of the hoofs of these animals are quite similar to those of the horse1 differing chiefly in the form and thickness of the wall4 ,the mule hoof is long and narrow and round at the toe1 the sole is well arched1 and the side walls are rather steep 7,fig4 #bbe74 ,in the ass the narrowness of hoof is still more pronounced1 the wall is relatively thick1 the frog is particularly well developed in its branches1 and therefore the hoof is relatively wide in the region of the quarters4 ,the horn of both mule and ass is tough4 ,the shoes differ from those of the horse in no other respect than that they should be lighter and narrower4 ,four nail-holes are sufficient for an ass' shoe1 and five to six for a mule's4 ,on account of the hardness and toughness of the walls1 we use nails that are short but strong in the shank2 nails with weak shanks are apt to bend in driving4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,a mule's hoof4 7,plantar surface74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 ,a shod ox-claw4 #b4 ,the shoeing of oxen is essentially different from that of horses1 because the foot of the ox is cloven 7split71 the long pastern1 short pastern1 and hoof-bone are double1 so that1 instead of one hoof or claw1 there are two upon each foot1 distinguished as outer and inner4 ,each claw consists of wall1 sole1 and bulbs2 the frog is absent4 ,the wall is considerably thinner than that of the horse's hoof1 the sole is thin1 and the bulbs are low4 ,for these reasons the shoe designed for a claw must be thin1 but wide4 ,the holes must be punched fine and the nails be quite short and strong4 ,on each shoe a long tongue should be made on the inner edge near the toe1 and so directed that it can be turned upward and outward to embrace the toe of the claw4 ,a small clip raised on the outer toe of each shoe will increase its stability4 ,in some parts of ,saxony the shoes are so made that the tongue of each shoe begins in the rear third of its inner edge and runs forward1 upward1 and outward1 closely embracing the wall of the toe4 ,the smaller clip is drawn up on the outer edge of the shoe close to the toe4 ,these shoes are more difficult to make1 but when applied sit more firmly and remain fast longer than all others4 ,machine-made ox shoes 7,fig4 #bbg7 have no clip at the inner toe1 and are frequently pulled and lost4 ,for this reason they are inferior to hand-made shoes4 ,an undivided shoe 7the so-called 8closed claw-shoe07 is unsuitable for oxen1 because it deprives both claws of their natural1 free movements4 ,however1 such a shoe is of advantage for heavy draft over hard and very rough roads1 because it lessens the liability of the fetlock and coronary joints and the cleft of the claws to strains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 ,pair of machine-made ox shoes1 viewed from the ground-surface and in profile2 a1 toe-calk2 b1 heel-calks4 ,great difficulty is often encountered in holding the feet during the operation of shoeing4 ,it is necessary to fasten the head securely against a tree1 post1 or wall4 ,a front foot may be raised and held by passing a slip-noose in the end of a rope or side-line around the fetlock and carrying the line over the withers to the opposite side1 where it is held by an assistant4 ,a hind limb may be controlled by passing a round pole in front of the hock of the leg to be raised1 and1 with a man at each end of the pole1 carrying the limb backward and upward1 in which position it is held2 or the limb may be bent and controlled by tightening a twitch or tourniquet upon the leg just above the hock 7,fig4 #bbh74 ,oxen that continue to resist may sometimes be quieted by light blows of a short stick upon the base of the horns4 ,in parts of the country where many oxen are shod stocks are in common use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,hind foot raised by means of a round pole4 ,very satisfactory stocks have been designed by ,gutenaecker1 of ,munich 7,fig4 #bbi74 ,the four corner-posts 7a1 a1 b1 b7 are eight inches square and eight feet long1 of which three feet four inches are solidly implanted in the ground4 ,they are united by side- and cross-bars 7c1 c1 d74 ,in front of the corner-posts 7a1 a7 and in the middle line stands a head-post 7e7 of the same dimensions as the corner-posts1 provided with a slot four inches wide and twenty inches long beginning three feet from the ground4 ,in this slot is a pulley-wheel 7i71 and below it a windlass 7k7 for winding up the rope which is tied around the base of the animal's horns4 ,the corner-posts are provided with a slot 7n7 three inches wide and three inches deep1 within which are placed two movable side-bars 7o1 p71 which can be set at desired heights and fastened by iron pins4 ,between the front and rear corner-posts of the right-hand side is an eight-sided roller with a ratchet and click at one end1 and having on one of the sides six iron hooks1 to which a girth is attached4 ,on the opposite side of the stocks1 at the same height1 is a stationary bar 7f7 with six hooks 7g1 g7 on the outer side4 ,the belly girth is six feet long1 six inches wide1 and terminates at both ends in several strong cords two feet four inches long with iron rings at their ends4 ,between the front corner-posts are a neck-yoke 7h7 and a breast-bar which slide in the slots 7m7 and may be fixed at desired heights by iron pins4 ,on the rear face of each rear corner-post is an iron bracket 7s7 one foot and a half long1 with a ring 7t7 six inches in diameter1 through which passes a round pole padded in the middle and kept in place by two iron pins4 ,above each bracket is a hook 7u7 to which the end of the breeching attaches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 ,gutencker's stocks for oxen3 a1 front corner-posts2 b1 rear corner-posts2 c1 d1 connecting bars2 e1 head-post2 f1 bar for holding belly girth2 g1 hooks for girth2 h1 neck-yoke2 i1 pulley-wheel2 k1 windlass with ratchet and click2 m1 slot for neck-yoke and breast-bar2 n1 slot for movable side-bars2 o1 p1 side-bars2 r1 hook for fetlock strap2 s1 iron bracket2 t1 iron ring for rear cross pole2 u1 hooks for breeching4 ,before an animal is brought into the stocks the neck-yoke is raised1 the breast-bar lowered1 and the girth left hanging from the hooks on the stationary bar4 ,the ox is then led into the stocks and the rope which is tied around the base of the horns is carried over the pulley 7i71 fastened to the hook on the roller 7k71 and wound up till the head is tight against the head-post4 ,the yoke and breast-bar are then placed in position and fastened1 the breeching hung on the hooks 7u71 and the belly girth attached to the hooks on the roller1 so that1 if need be1 it can be shortened till it bears the animal's entire weight4 ,to control a front foot a slip-noose is placed about the fetlock and the limb is raised and lashed to the side-bar1 the rope passing finally to the hook 7r74 ,to control a hind foot a slip-noose is placed about the fetlock1 the foot carried upward and backward over the rear cross-bar1 and1 with the front surface of the fetlock-joint resting against the padding of the bar1 the limb is firmly secured by wrapping the line several times about the limb and bar4 ,when no stocks are at hand1 we may use an ordinary farm wagon or a truck wagon4 ,tie the ox with his head forward between the front and hind wheels4 ,fasten the large end of a binding pole to the spokes of the front wheel and let it rest on the hub4 ,swing the pole close to the ox and induce him to step over it with one hind leg1 then raise the rear end of the pole1 and with it the leg and so much of the animal's hind quarters that the inner hind leg standing close to the wagon rests but lightly upon the ground4 ,the binding pole may then be slung with a rope from the rack of the wagon or other stationary object and the outer limb held in the usual manner4 ,by following this method a shoer with one assistant can easily and safely control the most refractory oxen4 ,,index ,apprentice1 #ad ,arteries1 #da ,articulations1 #ba ,balanced hoof1 #aja ,balling with snow1 #adi ,bar-shoe1 uses of1 #afd ,bare foot1 preparing the hoof1 #ajb ,bars1 #ea dressing1 #ii ,base-narrow position1 #fc1 #fh ,base-wide position1 #fc1 #fh ,beaked shoe1 #ahd ,bear-foot1 #gb ,bearing-surface of shoes1 #aag1 #abg ,blood-vessels1 #da ,bow-legged position1 #fd ,buttress1 #ajj ,calf-kneed1 #ff ,calk-wound1 #agc ,camped behind1 #fh in front1 #ff ,cannon bone1 #bj1 #ba ,carpus1 #bj ,cartilages1 lateral1 #ci ,cast iron1 #ajc shoes1 #acb ,chadwick spring1 #ahg ,clefts1 #bjc ,clinch cutter1 #ig ,clinching1 #aca ,clips1 #aaa ,close-nailing1 burning1 #aff ,contracted hoof1 #ahe sole1 #aij ,corn1 chronic1 #age dry1 #agd suppurating1 #agd ,corns1 #agd treatment1 #agf ,coronary band1 #dg joint1 #ca ligaments1 #ca ,cover-plate shoe1 #agc ,cow-hocked1 #fh ,cracks1 #aie coronary and bar1 #aif1 #bjb plantar1 #bjb ,crest1 semilunar1 #bg ,crooked hoof1 #aib ,cross-firing1 #adj ,defay's shoe1 #ahg ,diseases of hoof1 #afe ,dressing the hoof1 #ih ,driving the shoe1 #acj ,drop-forged shoes1 #acb ,dropped sole1 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahc ,elastic parts of foot1 #ch ,examination before shoeing1 #ij ,feet1 forms of1 #fi ,femur1 #bj ,fetlock1 ligaments of1 #bi joint1 #bh ,fiber shoes1 #acd ,fibula1 #bj ,flat hoof1 #ahb ,fleshy frog1 #di sole1 #di wall1 #dh ,flight of hoofs1 #gb1 #ge ,foot1 articulations of1 #bh bones of1 #bd ,foot-axis1 #gj relation to sole1 #ajj straight and broken1 #aja ,forging1 #ach ,founder1 #agg dressing hoof1 #agi shoeing1 #ahj ,frog1 #eg dressing1 #ii ,front shoe1 making1 #aje ,frost-nails1 #adf ,full hoof1 #ahc ,fullering1 #aji hammer1 #ajd ,gathered nail1 #agj ,hair-skin1 #dd ,head1 bones of1 #ag ,heavy draught horses1 shoeing1 #abe ,heel-calks1 #aab always sharp1 #aed ,heels1 inflammation of1 #agf ,hind shoe1 making1 #ajg ,hock1 #ba ,hollow wall1 #bje ,hoof1 #ej benefits of movements within1 #hi crooked1 #hd growth of1 #hb healthy1 #ha irregular growth1 #hc knife1 #ih ointments1 #aei1 #afj physiological movements of1 #hf wear against shoe1 #hf wear of1 #hb ,hoof-skin1 #de ,hoofs1 care of unshod1 #aeg ,hoofs1 forms of1 #gg1 #hj of colts1 care of1 #aeg ,horn1 minute structure of1 #eh qualities of1 #ei tumor1 #aha ,horseshoeing1 object of1 #ac schools1 #ae ,horseshoer1 requisites of1 #ad ,humerus1 #ai ,hunters1 shoeing1 #abc ,interfering1 #adb ,iron for horseshoes1 #ajc ,joints1 free1 hinge1 and pivot1 #bb ,keraphyllocele1 #aha ,knee-sprung1 #fg ,laminitis1 #agg ,leather sole1 #afd ,ligaments1 #ba ,limbs1 standing positions1 #fb ,loose wall1 #bjd ,low-jointed1 #ff ,mucous burs1 #ce ,mule shoes1 #bjg ,muscles1 #bb ,nail-holes1 #aaj ,nailing1 #aff causes of1 #afg examination and treatment1 #afg1 #afh ,nails1 #abh ,navicular bone1 #bh ,nerves1 #dd ,nippers1 #ii ,normal position1 #fb1 #fd1 #fg1 #fi ,os pedis1 #bf ,ox shoes1 #bjh ,oxen1 securing feet1 #bji ,pacers1 shoeing1 #abd ,pads1 rubber1 #ace ,pastern1 long1 #be short1 #bf ,patella1 #bj ,pedal joint1 #ca ligaments1 #ca ,peg-calks1 #aej ,peg toe-calks1 #aeb ,pelvis1 #ai ,periople1 #ec ,perioplic band1 #dg ,periosteum1 #ba ,pigeon-toed position1 #fd ,pincers1 #ig ,plantar cushion1 #dj ,pododerm1 #de ,pododermatitis1 symptoms of1 #afa treatment of1 #afc ,podophyllous tissue1 #dh ,podometer1 #aje ,pricking1 direct nailing1 #aff ,pritchel1 #aje ,protective organs of foot1 #dd ,punch1 #aje ,quarter-crack1 #bjj ,quarters1 contraction of1 #ahf ,radius1 #bj ,raising feet in shoeing1 #ib ,removing shoes1 #ig ,rolled toe1 #aah ,rope shoes1 #acc ,rubber shoes1 #acd ,runners1 #abc ,saddle-horses1 shoeing1 #abb ,scapula1 #ai ,screw heel-calks1 #adh ,seedy-toe1 #agh ,sesamoid bones1 #be ligaments1 #bi-ca ,sharp toe- and heel-calks1 #adf ,shod hoofs1 care of1 #aei ,shoe1 choosing the1 #aaf for acute-angled hoof1 #aad1 #abj for base-narrow hoof1 #aad1 #aba for base-wide hoof1 #aad1 #aba for narrow hoof1 #aae1 #aba for regular hoof1 #aad1 #abj for stumpy hoof1 #aad1 #abj for wide hoof1 #aae1 #aba parts of1 #ajc wear of1 #hd weight of1 #aaf ,shoeing defective hoofs1 #afa ,shoes1 fitting1 #aah general properties1 #ajg machine1 #acb making1 #ajc1 #aje nailing1 #abh removing old1 #ig shaping and fitting1 #aag1 #abj special properties1 #aad ,sickle-hock1 #fh ,side-bone1 #aid ,sole1 #ee contraction of1 #ahi ,spinal column1 #ag ,splint-bones1 #bj shoe1 #agb ,standing under1 #ff ,station of rest1 #fe ,steel1 #ajc ,stocks1 for horses1 #ie for oxen1 #bji ,stifle-joint1 #bj ,stilt-foot1 #ahd ,street-nail1 #agj ,stride1 height of1 #ge length of1 #ge ,stumpy hoof1 #ahd ,suspensory ligament1 #bi altering tension of1 #cf-ch ,synovia1 #ba ,tendon1 anterior extensor1 #cb deep flexor1 #cc lateral extensor1 #cb sheaths1 #ce superficial flexor1 #cc ,tendons1 #bd ,tension of tendon1 altering1 #cf ,thorax1 #ah ,thrush1 #bjf ,tibia1 #bj ,toe- and heel-calks1 #aab ,toe-calk1 blunt1 #aac half-sharp1 #aac sharp1 #aab ,toe-crack1 #aig ,tools for making shoes1 #ajd ,tread1 #agc ,trotters1 shoeing1 #abd ,trunk1 #ag ,tubbing and stopping1 #aei ,ulna1 #bj ,vachette hook1 #aii ,veins1 #dc ,velvety frog1 #di sole1 #di ,wall1 #ea dressing1 #ii height of1 #eb leafy layer1 #ec protective layer1 #ec slant of1 #eb thickness of1 #ec ,weight1 influence of1 #ge ,weights1 side and toe1 #gg ,white line1 #ef ,wide hoofs1 contraction of1 #ahi ,wry hoof1 #aic