,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,field ,,and ,,garden ,,by ,,jean-,,henri ,,fabre ,author of 8,the ,story-,book of ,science10 8,our ,humble ,helpers10 8,field1 ,forest and ,farm10 8,the ,secret of ,everyday ,things10 etc4 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,french ,,by ,,florence ,,constable ,,bicknell ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,century ,,co4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,what ,uncle ,paul ,proposes to ,talk ,about #c ,,ii ,teeth #f ,,iii ,the ,different ,shapes of ,teeth #ac ,,iv ,bats #bd ,v ,the ,bat's ,wings #cf ,,vi ,the ,bat's ,senses of ,smell and ,hearing #dc ,,vii ,the ,hedgehog #di ,,viii ,hibernation #eh ,,ix ,the ,mole #fg ,x ,the ,mole's ,nest--,the ,shrew-,mouse #gg ,,xi ,the ,exploit of ,one-,eyed ,john #hd ,,xii ,nocturnal ,birds of ,prey #ij ,,xiii ,rats #ic ,,xiv ,meadow-,mice--,hamsters--,dormice #ajf ,,xv ,horned ,owls #aad ,,xvi ,other ,owls #abb ,,xvii ,the ,eagle #abi ,,xviii ,hawks and ,falcons #acg ,,xix ,kestrels1 ,kites1 and ,buzzards #add ,,xx ,the ,raven #aed ,,xxi ,the ,crow #afj ,,xxii ,woodpeckers #afh ,,xxiii ,more about ,woodpeckers #agg ,,xxiv ,climbers--,the ,hoopoe #ahd ,,xxv ,the ,cuckoo #ahh ,,xxvi ,shrikes #aig ,,xxvii ,the ,titmouse #bjd ,,xxviii ,the ,wren and the ,kinglet #bad ,,xxix ,swallows #bbj ,,xxx ,swifts and ,night-,jars #bca ,,xxxi ,the ,bird's ,beak #bdj ,,xxxii ,insectivorous ,birds #bde ,,xxxiii ,granivorous ,birds #bec ,,xxxiv ,snakes and ,lizards #bfj ,,xxxv ,the ,batrachians #bgc ,,xxxvi ,the ,toad #bhj ,,xxxvii ,instinct #bij ,,xxxviii ,the ,grain-,weevil #bie ,,xxxix ,the ,common ,caterpillar #cjj ,,xl ,caterpillars at ,table #cjd ,,xli ,enemies of the ,grapevine #caj ,,xlii ,clever ,mischief-,makers #cae ,,xliii ,nut-,weevils and ,flower-,weevils #cba ,,xliv ,enemies of ,clover #cbh ,,xlv ,cabbage-,eaters #ccc ,,xlvi ,a ,destructive ,family #cch ,,xlvii ,fliers with ,wings of ,gauze #cdc ,,xlviii ,beneficent ,parasites #cdi ,,xlix ,apple-,eaters #ceh ,l ,leaf-,rollers #cfc ,,li ,the ,hop-,moth #cfh ,,lii ,the ,inchworm #cgd ,,liii ,sap-,suckers #cha ,,liv ,queer ,musical ,instruments #che ,,animal ,,life ,,in ,,field ,,and ,,garden ,,chapter ,i ,,what ,,uncle ,,paul ,,proposes ,,to ,,talk ,,about 8,in these talks that we shall have together10 said ,uncle ,paul1 as he sat with his nephews one evening in ,may under the big elder tree in the garden1 8,i propose to designate as #8friends' those forms of animal life that1 though not domesticated or cared for by us1 nevertheless come to our aid by waging war on insects and various other devouring creatures which would in the end1 unless their excessive multiplication were kept in restraint by others besides ourselves1 eat up all our crops and lay waste our fields2 and it is these ravagers of the farmer's carefully tilled acres that ,i shall speak of as #8foes4' 8,what can man's efforts avail against those voracious hordes1 multiplying as they do every year to an extent beyond calculation8 ,will he have the patience1 the skill1 the keenness of vision necessary for waging successful warfare on the tiniest species1 often the most formidable1 when the ,june-bug1 despite its far greater size1 baffles all his endeavors8 ,will he undertake to examine his fields and inspect every lump of soil1 every spear of wheat1 every separate leaf on his fruit-trees8 ,for so prodigious a task the whole human race would be inadequate1 even if it united all its efforts to this one end4 ,the devouring hordes would reduce us to starvation1 my children1 had we not able helpers to work for us1 helpers endowed with a patience that nothing can tire1 a skill that foils all ruses1 a vigilance that nothing escapes4 ,to lie in ambush for the enemy1 to track it to its remotest retreats1 to hunt it unceasingly1 and finally to exterminate it--that is their sole care1 their never-ending occupation4 ,urged on by the pangs of hunger1 they are relentless in their pursuit1 both for their own sake and on behalf of their progeny4 ,they live on those that live on us2 they are the enemies of our enemies4 8,engaged in this work are the martins that just at present are circling over our heads1 the bats that fly around our house1 the owls that call to one another from the hollow willow trunks in the meadow1 the warblers that sing in the grove1 the frogs that croak in the ditches1 and many more besides1 including the toad1 which is an object of loathing to most people4 ,thanks be to ,god who has given us1 to serve as guardians of our daily bread1 the owl and the toad1 the bat and the viper1 the frog and the lizard6 ,all these creatures1 wrongfully cursed and shamefully abused by us1 and foolishly looked upon with repugnance and hatred1 in reality lend us valiant assistance and should take a high place in our esteem4 ,to repair the injustice they have suffered shall be my first duty as we come to each of them in turn4 ,thanks be to ,god who1 to protect us from that great eater the insect1 has given us the swallow and the warbler1 the robin redbreast and the nightingale6 ,these1 the delight of our eye and ear1 creatures of infinite grace--must ,i again raise my voice in their defense8 ,alas1 yes1 for their homes are ravaged by the barbarous nest-hunter4 8,it is my purpose now to acquaint you1 my children1 with these various helpers of man in his labors as tiller of the soil4 ,i will tell you about their ways of living1 their habits and their aptitudes1 and the services they render us4 ,my object will be attained if ,i succeed in imparting to you a little of the interest they deserve4 ,i will begin with those that have teeth4 ,but first let us take a glance at the shape and structure of teeth in general2 for it is this that determines the kind of food required by the animal40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,teeth 8,is it not true10 resumed ,uncle ,paul1 8that each kind of work demands its own special tool8 ,the plowman must have the plow1 the blacksmith the anvil1 the mason the trowel1 the weaver the shuttle1 the carpenter the plane2 and these different tools1 all excellent for the work to which they are applied1 would be of no use in any other4 ,could the mason rough-cast his wall with a shuttle8 ,could the weaver weave his cloth with a trowel8 ,evidently not4 ,is it not true1 then1 that from the tool one may easily guess the kind of work it does80 8,nothing could be easier1 it seems to me10 replied ,jules4 8,if ,i see planes and saws hanging on the wall1 ,i know that ,i am in a carpenter's shop40 8,and ,i should know10 said ,emile1 8from seeing an anvil1 a hammer1 and a pair of tongs1 that ,i was in a blacksmith's shop4 ,but if ,i saw a mortar-board and a trowel1 ,i should look around for the mason40 8,well10 ,uncle ,paul went on1 8every creature has its special task in creation's great workshop1 where all take part1 all work1 according to the design of ,divine ,wisdom4 ,each species has its mission--,i might say its trade to follow--a trade that requires special tools just as does any work done by man4 ,now1 among the innumerable trades of animals there is one that is common to all without exception1 the most important trade of all1 as without it life itself would be impossible3 it is the business of eating4 8,but all animals do not take the same kind of food4 ,some need prey1 raw flesh1 others fodder2 some eat roots1 others seeds and fruit4 ,in every instance teeth are the tools used in the work of eating2 so they must have the shape appropriate to the kind of food eaten1 whether that be tough or tender1 hard or easy to chew4 ,therefore1 just as from his tool the artisan's work may be inferred1 so from the shape of its teeth one can usually tell the kind of food eaten by any animal4 8,herbivorous animals are those that live on grass1 fodder1 hay2 and carnivorous animals are those that eat flesh4 ,the horse1 the donkey1 the ox1 and the sheep are herbivorous2 the dog1 the cat1 and the wolf1 carnivorous4 ,the food of the herbivorous animal is tough1 hard1 fibrous1 and must be ground for a long time by the teeth in order to be reduced to a paste-like mass suitable for swallowing and1 after that1 for easy digestion4 ,in this case the teeth in both upper and lower jaw must have broad and almost flat surfaces that will come together and grind the food as millstones grind grain4 ,on the other hand1 the flesh eaten by the carnivorous animal is soft1 easy to swallow1 and easy to digest4 ,all that the animal has to do is to tear it apart and cut it into shreds4 ,so the teeth here must have sharp edges that come together and operate like the blades of a pair of scissors4 8,i think ,i have said enough on that subject4 ,now1 which of you will tell me what kind of food goes with each of the teeth ,i show you here80 ,and ,uncle ,paul laid before his hearers the two teeth pictured on these pages1 with others to follow4 8,the first tooth10 said ,emile1 8is flattened and very wide at the top2 it must crush and grind by rubbing against a tooth of the same kind in the opposite jaw4 ,so it is the tooth of an animal that eats fodder40 8,it is indeed10 ,uncle ,paul replied1 8the tooth of an herbivorous animal1 a horse40 8,the second10 continued ,emile1 8is composed of several broad points with edges almost as sharp as knife blades4 ,it must be meant for cutting flesh40 8,those winding folds that you see in the horse's tooth--what are they for80 asked ,jules4 8,there is nothing like them in the wolf's tooth40 8,i was going to tell you about them10 his uncle replied4 8,if the horse's teeth had perfectly smooth surfaces1 without any roughness to act as a grater1 is it not true that in pressing and rubbing1 each against the opposite tooth1 they would simply crush the fodder or hay as you would crush it between two smooth stones without changing it into fine powder8 ,millstones1 if they were polished like marble tables1 would flatten the grain without making flour of it2 they must be rough on the surface in order to seize the wheat during the grinding of the upper stone on the stationary lower one and to make it into powder4 ,when by long use the surface is worn smooth1 the stones are of no service until they are dented again with the hammer4 ,well1 the folds of a horse's teeth may be likened to the roughness of a millstone3 they project a little above the general surface of the tooth1 making a sort of coarse file that tears to pieces blades of grass or hay when rubbed by the opposite tooth40 8,i think ,i see a danger threatening the herbivorous animal10 put in ,jules at this point4 8,those projecting folds must soon be worn down by rubbing against one another1 just the same as the roughness on the millstone4 ,if smooth millstones can't make flour without being roughened again1 no more can the herbivorous animal's worn teeth go on grinding40 8,that is provided for1 admirably provided for1 my boy4 ,everything in the world is arranged so that it can do its work3 a wisdom that nothing escapes watches over the smallest details2 everything1 even to a donkey's jaw1 shows this to be so4 ,listen1 and judge for yourselves4 8,there are two different substances in a tooth3 one very hard1 a little like glass and called enamel2 the other quicker to wear out1 but very difficult to break1 and known as ivory4 ,these two substances are combined in different ways1 according to the animal's diet4 ,in the horse1 the sheep1 the ox1 the donkey1 and many other herbivorous animals the ivory makes up the main part of the tooth1 while the harder substance1 the enamel1 extends in winding sheets throughout the former1 projecting a little above its surface in a fold which varies in form in the different kinds of animals4 ,so1 then1 it is the enamel1 a substance as hard as a pebble1 that composes the folds in the herbivorous animal's teeth4 ,from the rubbing of the lower teeth against the upper the ivory wears away faster than the enamel1 so that the folds of the latter embedded in the mass of the tooth have their cutting edges brought above the general level as fast as required1 and thus the grinding surfaces are kept in constant repair4 ,you see how it is3 in the donkey's food-mill1 for instance1 the millstones re-roughen themselves as fast as necessary for the chewing of a thistle2 the machinery is self-repairing even while at work40 8,what you tell us1 ,uncle1 is wonderful10 commented ,jules4 8,i never should have guessed that such an arrangement was necessary for chewing a thistle40 8,and only the other day10 put in ,louis1 8,i kicked out of my way a jaw-bone that was lying in the road4 ,how gladly should ,i have looked at it closely if ,i had known all these things60 8,ignorance always kicks things aside like that1 my boy1 but science is interested in everything1 knowing that it can always learn something4 ,but let us return to the teeth of the carnivorous animals and examine those of the wolf4 8,here the irregularities of the nutmeg-grater1 the parallel ridges of the file1 and the roughness of the millstone would be of no use1 since the animal's food is to be torn into shreds and not chewed into paste4 ,for the wolf's food cutting blades are needed--sharp scissors which are hard enough not to become blunt4 ,hence the working edges of the wolf's teeth are not flat like millstones1 but shaped rather like pointed chisels4 ,the ivory forms the central body of the tooth1 making it tough and strong1 while the enamel1 harder but more brittle1 is spread as a continuous layer over the tooth and furnishes the requisite cutting edges4 ,in like manner a skilful cutler1 when he wishes to make an edged tool that will cut well and at the same time withstand violent blows1 makes its central mass of iron1 a tough material that bears considerable violence without injury1 but is not hard enough to furnish a keen cutting edge4 ,he then overlays it1 to obtain such an edge1 with fine steel1 which combines excessive hardness with the fragility of glass4 ,the best that man can contrive in the making of edged tools is met with in perfection in the teeth of carnivorous animals40 8,if ,i understand you1 then10 said ,jules1 8ivory1 which is not so hard as enamel1 but less brittle1 forms the interior of the teeth of carnivorous animals1 and enamel1 which is harder and more brittle1 forms the outside layer4 ,ivory makes the teeth strong2 enamel makes them cut40 8,yes1 that is it40 8,now1 ,i don't know which is the more wonderful1 the donkey's or the wolf's set of teeth40 8,both are wonderful1 as both are admirably adapted to the kind of work they have to do40 8,what surprises me most10 ,emile interposed1 8is that a lot of things we should never pay any attention to turn out to be very interesting when ,uncle ,paul explains them to us4 ,i never should have thought that the time would come when ,i should listen with pleasure to the history of a tooth40 8,since that interests you10 said ,uncle ,paul1 8,i will continue the subject a little further and will tell you about human teeth1 about yours1 my boy1 so white and so well arranged1 and so admirably adapted for biting a slice of bread and butter40 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,different ,,shapes ,,of ,,teeth 8,man has thirty-two teeth1 sixteen to each jaw10 ,uncle ,paul continued4 ,emile already had his finger in his mouth1 passing it from one tooth to another1 to count them4 ,his uncle paused until he had finished the count4 8,but ,i have only twenty1 all told10 declared the boy2 8twenty1 and not thirty-two40 8,the other twelve will come some day1 my boy2 at present you have the right number of teeth for a child of your age4 ,they do not all come at one time1 but one after another4 ,we begin with twenty1 and no more4 ,they are called milk teeth1 or first teeth4 ,when we are about seven years old they begin to fall out and are replaced by others stronger and set in more firmly4 ,in addition to this second score of teeth there appear later twelve others1 bringing the total number up to thirty-two4 ,those farthest back1 in the inmost cavity of the mouth1 come late1 when we are eighteen or twenty years old1 or even older1 for which reason they are called wisdom teeth to signify that they appear at an age when the reason is well developed4 ,these thirty-two last teeth constitute the second cutting4 ,i call them last because they are never replaced by any others2 if we lose them1 that is the end of our teeth2 no more will come40 8,i have two now that are loose10 said ,emile4 8,they must come out soon to leave room for the new teeth that are to take their place4 ,the others will get loose1 too1 and the twenty that you have now will be succeeded by twenty others1 to which1 sooner or later1 will be added twelve more which come only once4 ,these last occupy the back part of the jaws1 three on each side1 top and bottom4 ,thus the final number will be thirty-two4 8,these thirty-two teeth are divided into three classes according to their shape and the work they must do4 ,the same names being repeated top and bottom and right and left1 ,i show you merely the eight teeth of half a jaw4 ,in every tooth there are two parts to be distinguished1 the crown and the root4 ,the root is the part that is embedded in the jaw-bone like a nail hammered into wood2 the crown is the part that comes into view1 and it may be likened to the head of a nail4 ,the root holds the tooth in place1 fixes it firmly2 the crown cuts1 tears1 and grinds the food4 8,in the two front teeth in each half-jaw the crown grows thinner toward the top4 ,the edge is straight and sharp1 fitted for cutting food1 dividing it into small mouthfuls4 ,therefore these teeth are called incisors1 from the ,latin incidere1 meaning to cut4 ,their root is a simple pivot4 ,the next tooth is called canine4 ,its root is a little longer than those of the preceding teeth1 and its crown is slightly pointed4 ,the dog1 the cat1 the wolf1 and carnivorous animals in general have this tooth shaped like a powerful fang1 which serves to catch and hold prey1 but above all acts as a weapon in attack and defense4 ,it is the canine teeth that you see crossing one another1 long and pointed1 two on each side1 when you raise the upper lip of a cat or a dog4 ,because of these remarkable fangs of carnivorous animals1 especially the dog1 which in ,latin is canis1 the name canine has been given to the teeth that in man are like them1 if not in form and use1 at least in the position they occupy4 8,the next five teeth are the most useful of all4 ,they are called molars1 from the ,latin mola1 a millstone1 because they play the part of millstones in grinding the food4 ,for this purpose their crowns are blunt and broad and slightly irregular1 not flat like the horse's molars or with sharp cutting edges like the wolf's1 because man's food is not composed exclusively of either vegetables or flesh1 but of both at the same time4 ,for food as varied as man's there is need of molars fit for all sorts of service3 they must grind like those of the herbivorous animals and cut like those of the carnivorous2 in short1 they must be like those of both4 ,and1 indeed1 their wide crowns are suited to vegetable food1 and their rather sharp irregularities are adapted to animal food4 8,the first two are called little molars or1 in more learned language1 bicuspids1 because they have each two cusps or points4 ,they are the least strong of the five and have only one root each4 ,the two little molars1 the canine tooth1 and the two incisors 7of each half-jaw7 are the only teeth that are renewed4 ,multiply them by four and you will have the twenty teeth of the first cutting1 teeth that begin to fall out toward the age of seven and are gradually replaced by others4 ,that is the state of ,emile's teeth at present1 there being but twenty of them4 8,the other three teeth1 in each half-jaw1 come only once4 ,they are the large molars1 of which the very end one is also called the wisdom tooth4 ,as in the act of mastication the large molars have to bear strong pressure1 the root is composed of several pivots or prongs reaching down each into a special cavity or socket4 ,this makes them strong and firm1 so that they can stand pressure both downward and sideways4 8,to sum up1 the grown man has thirty-two teeth in all1 sixteen to each jaw2 namely1 four incisors1 two canines1 and ten molars4 ,these last are divided into four bicuspids or little molars and six large molars2 the milk teeth do not include these last six40 ,here ,jules had a question to ask4 8,ivory and enamel10 said he1 8those two substances of different degrees of hardness that you told us were arranged in such a wonderful way in horses' and wolves' teeth--are they in our teeth1 too80 8,yes1 they are there4 ,ivory forms the entire root1 which must serve as a firm support1 and it also fills the crown1 while enamel merely covers the outside as a hard protecting layer40 8,i am going to get the cat and look at her teeth10 said ,emile4 8,has she twenty1 like me1 or has she thirty-two80 8,neither twenty nor thirty-two1 but thirty when full-grown4 ,dogs and wolves have forty-two2 horses and donkeys forty-four4 ,in fact1 the number varies with different animals as much as the shape4 ,perhaps a few words on this subject will not be out of place4 8,first1 here is the picture of a wolf's mouth4 ,if one did not already know1 one could easily guess the animal's diet by merely looking at its teeth4 ,those deeply indented molars1 those strong1 curved canines--surely they call for wild prey and show great strength4 ,the whole set indicates clearly enough a carnivorous appetite4 ,at i are the incisors1 six in number4 ,they are small and of slight use1 for the animal does not cut its prey into little mouthfuls1 but swallows it gluttonously in great strips4 ,at c are the canines1 veritable daggers which the bandit plunges into the sheep's neck4 ,the little molars are at m4 ,the large molars come next4 ,the first1 marked r1 is the strongest1 and it is with this that the wolf and the dog crack the hardest bones4 ,finally1 the picture shows the salivary glands2 that is1 the organs that prepare the saliva and let it ooze into the mouth through the canal s as the animal eats4 ,without dwelling on this point1 which would take me too far from my subject1 ,i will merely say that saliva serves to soak the food and make a soft mouthful that can be easily swallowed1 and it also plays an important part in the stomach in reducing to a fluid pap the food taken in2 that is to say1 it helps to digest the food4 8,let us pass on to the cat1 another typical flesh-eater4 ,six small incisors are ranged in the front of the jaw like a row of elegant but useless pearls4 ,they are ornamental rather than useful to the animal4 ,a mouse-hunter needs very long and pointed canines for piercing the prey seized by the claws4 ,in this respect the cat is armed in a very formidable manner4 ,what do you think of it1 ,louis80 8,i think10 he replied1 8a rat must be very uncomfortable between those curved canines the picture shows us40 8,one day10 said ,emile1 8when ,i was pulling the cat's mustache1 she gave me a bite that felt like the sharp prick of a needle4 ,it was done so quickly ,i had no time to draw my hand back40 8,the cat brought her canines into play and wounded you with one of them as quickly as a steel point could have done4 8,now look at the molars4 ,there are four above1 the last one very small1 and three below4 ,their cusps or points are still sharper than the wolf's2 so1 too1 the cat's appetite--like that of its kindred1 the tiger1 the panther1 the jaguar1 and others--demands more flesh than that of the wolf and animals like it1 such as the fox1 the jackal1 and especially the dog4 ,have you ever noticed how disdainful the cat is when you throw her only a piece of bread8 ,scarcely has she smelt it when she makes a movement of superb scorn1 tail in the air1 back raised1 and looks at you as if to say3 #8,are you making fun of me8 ,i want something else4' ,or1 if very hungry1 she reluctantly bites the bread1 chews it awkwardly1 and swallows it with distaste4 ,the dog1 on the contrary1 our good ,azor for example1 catches the bread joyfully in his mouth without letting it touch the ground1 and if he finds any fault with the piece it is for being too small4 ,you call the cat a glutton4 ,i take her part and maintain that it is not the vice of gluttony she shows1 but that her teeth must have meat4 ,what could you expect her pointed canines and keen-edged molars to do with a crust of bread8 ,they demand1 above all1 a prey that bleeds1 a quivering bit of flesh4 8,what a difference between the teeth of the hunter and those of the peaceful chewer of grass6 ,let us examine this picture of a horse's head4 ,here the incisors1 six in number1 are powerful2 they seize the forage and cut it1 a mouthful at a time4 ,the canines1 of no use here1 show only as little knobs on the jaw-bone4 ,next beyond comes a long vacant space called the bar2 that is where the bit is held in the horse's mouth4 ,back of the bar you see the real grinding mechanism1 composed of twelve pairs of strong molars with square1 flat crowns furnished with slightly projecting folds whose usefulness ,i have already pointed out to you4 ,if ,i am not much mistaken1 here we have a mill capable of grinding tough straw and fibrous hay4 8,finally1 here is a rabbit's head4 ,each jaw is furnished with two enormous incisors set deep into the bone1 bent backward above1 and ending each in a sharp-edged crown4 ,what are such incisors as those made for80 8,i know10 ,jules quickly replied4 8,the rabbit is always nibbling4 ,for want of better food it will gnaw the bark of a tree and even the wood4 ,it uses its incisors to cut its food very fine1 to gnaw it40 8,to gnaw it--that is the right word2 hence we give the name of rodents or gnawers to the various animals having incisors of that kind4 ,such are the squirrel1 the hare1 the rabbit1 the rat1 and the mouse1 those poor creatures which must gnaw the toughest vegetable substances and fill their bellies with wood1 paper1 rags even1 when there is nothing better for supplying the mill that is kept always going4 ,but it is not merely to satisfy their hunger that these animals are almost incessantly gnawing2 there is another reason for their doing it4 ,their incisors grow all their lives and tend to lengthen indefinitely2 consequently1 the animal must wear them away by continual friction1 as otherwise their crowns would at last so far overlap that they could not be made to meet4 ,then the poor beast would be unable to seize its food and would perish4 ,in order to be able to eat when hungry1 the rat and the rabbit must eat when not hungry1 so as to sharpen their incisors and keep them the right length4 ,it is true that they often turn their attention to very poor fodder4 ,a splinter of wood1 a straw1 a mere nothing suffices to maintain the play of their indefatigable incisors4 ,remember1 children1 the expressive term rodents 7which means gnawers71 applied to a whole class of animals akin to the rabbit and the rat2 remember their curious incisors1 for we shall have occasion to speak of them again hereafter4 ,for the present let us finish our examination of the rabbit's teeth4 8,the canines are lacking2 in their place the jaw shows a bar or1 in other words1 a large open space4 ,at the extreme back of the mouth are the molars1 few in number but strong1 with flat crowns and several folds of enamel4 ,in fact1 they make an excellent grinding machine4 8,in giving you these details concerning the different shapes of teeth in different species of animals1 ,i wished particularly to point out the following truth3 ,each species eats a particular kind of food for which the teeth are especially formed1 so that one might say of any animal1 #8,show me its teeth and ,i will tell you what it eats4' ,in many instances where we cannot examine the teeth we do not know what such and such a creature feeds on1 and in our hasty judgment we mistake a friend for an enemy1 a helper for a destroyer4 ,if the animal is ugly we condemn it on the spot and hate it1 accusing it of any number of misdeeds4 ,we declare war against it1 and never suspect1 in our foolishness1 that it is a war at our own expense4 ,but there is a very simple precaution by which we can avoid these regrettable mistakes3 let us yield to no prejudice1 however wide-spread1 and before condemning an animal as harmful let us find out what sort of teeth it has4 ,they will tell us the animal's way of living1 as you shall soon see for yourselves40 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,bats 8,which of you three can tell me what bats feed upon80 asked ,uncle ,paul the next day4 ,at this question ,emile put on his thinking-cap1 closing his eyes and rubbing his forehead2 but no ideas came4 ,nor were ,jules and ,louis any prompter with an answer4 8,nobody knows8 ,well1 then1 so much the better1 for you will have the satisfaction of finding it out for yourselves1 from the shape of the teeth4 ,the incisors1 small and weak1 which you see on an enlarged scale in this picture of a bat's set of teeth--do they look as if they were made for gnawing vegetable substances1 after the manner of rats and rabbits8 ,could they cut any such tough fodder80 8,certainly not10 replied ,jules2 8they are too weak to be of much use4 ,and then it seems to me those two sharp1 curved fangs must belong to a flesh-eating animal40 8,the long1 pointed canines do indicate as much1 but the molars show it perhaps still more plainly4 ,with their strong and sharp indented crowns fitting so well into the sharp-edged depressions of the opposite jaw--are those molars designed to crush grain1 to grind1 slowly and patiently1 fibrous substances80 8,no10 said ,jules2 8they are the teeth of a flesh-eater1 not the grist-mill of an herbivorous animal40 8,i am sure now10 affirmed ,louis1 8that the bat lives on prey40 8,it is a greedy hunter of flesh and blood10 ,emile declared4 8,the cat's teeth are not more savage-looking40 8,all that is quite correct10 said ,uncle ,paul4 8,the teeth have taught you the chief thing about the animal's habits4 ,yes1 the bat is a hunter1 an eater of live prey1 a little ogre always demanding fresh meat4 ,it only remains to find out the kind of game it likes4 ,evidently the size of the prey must suit the size of the hunter4 ,a bat's head is no bigger than a large hazelnut4 ,it is true the mouth is split from ear to ear and can1 when wide open1 swallow mouthfuls larger than the smallness of the animal would lead one to suppose4 ,nevertheless the bat can attack only small creatures4 ,what can it be that it goes chasing through the air when1 after sunset1 it flies hither and thither unceasingly80 8,gnats1 perhaps1 and night-moths10 ,jules suggested4 8,exactly4 ,those are its prey4 ,the bat lives on insects exclusively4 ,all are food for its maw3 hard-winged beetles1 slender mosquitoes1 plump moths1 flying insects of all sorts2 in fact1 all the little winged foes of our cereals1 vines1 fruit-trees1 woolen stuffs--all those creatures of the air that come in the evening1 attracted by our lighted rooms1 and singe their wings in the flames of our lamps4 ,who would undertake to say how many insects bats destroy when they fly around a house8 ,the game is so small1 and the hunter is so hungry4 8,notice what happens on a calm summer evening4 ,lured abroad by the balmy atmosphere of the twilight hours1 a host of insects leave their lurking-places and come forth1 guests at life's garden party1 to sport together in the air1 hunt for food1 and mate with one another4 ,it is the hour when the sphinx-moths fly abruptly from flower to flower and thrust their long probosces into the depths of the corollas1 where honey is stored2 the hour when the mosquito1 thirsting for human blood1 sounds its war-cry in our ears and selects our tenderest spot to stab with its poisoned lancet2 the hour when the ,june-bug leaves the shelter of the leaf1 spreads its buzzing wings1 and goes humming through the air in quest of its fellows4 ,the gnats dance in joyous swarms which the slightest breath of wind disperses like a column of smoke2 butterflies and moths1 in wedding-garments1 their wings powdered with silvery dust and their antenn spread out like plumes1 join in the frolic or seek places in which to deposit their eggs2 the wood-borer comes forth from its hidden retreat under the bark of the elm2 the weevil breaks its cell hollowed out in a grain of wheat2 the plume-moths rise in clouds from the granaries and fly toward the fields of ripe cereals2 other moths explore here the grape-vines1 there the pear-trees1 apple-trees1 cherry-trees1 busily seeking food and shelter for their evil progeny4 8,but in the midst of these festive assemblies suddenly there comes a killjoy4 ,it is the bat1 which flies hither and thither1 up and down1 appearing and disappearing1 darting its head out this side and that1 and each time snapping up an insect on the wing1 crushing and swallowing it immediately4 ,the hunting is good2 gnats1 beetles1 and moths abound2 and every now and then a little cry of joy announces the capture of a plump ,june-bug4 ,as long as the fading twilight permits1 the eager hunter thus pursues its work of extermination4 ,satisfied at last1 the bat flies back to its somber and quiet retreat4 ,the next evening and all through the summer the hunt is resumed1 always with the same ardor1 always at the expense of insects only4 8,to give you an idea of the multitude of harmful insects1 especially of moths1 from which the bat delivers us1 ,i will quote a passage from the celebrated ,french naturalist ,buffon1 the most graphic historian of the animal kingdom4 ,but first ,i must tell you that bats are in the habit of making their homes in old towers1 grottoes1 and abandoned quarries4 ,there1 in great numbers1 they pass the daylight hours1 hanging motionless from the roof1 and thence they sally forth at the approach of darkness4 ,the floor of these retreats becomes covered at last with a deep layer of droppings1 from which we can learn the kind of food eaten by bats and judge of the importance of their hunting4 ,now here is what ,buffon has to say of a grotto frequented by these creatures3 8,having one day descended into the grottoes of ,arci1 ,i was surprised to find there a kind of earth of a singular nature4 ,it formed a bed of blackish matter several feet thick1 almost entirely composed of parts of the wings and feet of flies and moths1 as if these insects had gathered here in immense numbers1 coming together for the express purpose of dying and rotting in company4 ,it was nothing but bats' dung that had been accumulating for years40 8,what a curious kind of soil1 made up entirely of the remains of dead insects60 ,jules exclaimed4 8,i will add that sometimes this soil of flies and moths at the bottom of old quarries and caves is abundant enough for the farmer to take account of it and use it as a rich fertilizer4 ,it is called bats' guano40 8,to make such heaps of it1 then10 remarked ,louis1 8bats must destroy insects by millions and millions40 8,five or six dozen flies or moths are hardly enough for a bat's evening meal2 if a few ,june-bugs should make their appearance1 they would be eagerly snapped up4 ,if the band of hunters is a large one1 judge of the thousands of harmful insects destroyed in a single season4 ,next to the birds we have no more valiant helpers than bats2 and so ,i beg you to be friendly to these creatures which1 while we are asleep and perhaps dreaming of our rich crops of pears and apples1 peaches and grapes and grain1 proceed with their silent warfare against the enemies of our harvests1 and every evening destroy by myriads moths1 mosquitoes1 beetles1 bugs--in short1 the greater part of the insect throng that always threatens us with starvation if we do not keep vigilant watch40 8,i see now that the bat does us a good turn10 ,emile admitted4 8,all the same1 it is frightfully ugly2 and1 besides1 they say if it touches you it will give you the itch40 8,there are any number of other sayings about it that are just as foolish1 my boy4 ,one is that the bat pricks with its pointed teeth the she-goat's udders so as to suck her blood and milk2 another is that it gnaws the sausages and bacon hung under the chimney mantel2 also1 that its sudden entrance into a house means misfortune4 ,i have heard persons cry out because a bat had accidentally grazed them with the tip of its wing2 and ,i have seen others pale with terror because they had found one of the innocent creatures fastened by a claw to their bed curtains4 8,here1 as in many other things1 my dear children1 you must take into account the folly of mankind1 which is more given to error than to truth4 ,if you were old enough to understand me1 ,i should add that wherever ,i find a general agreement that a thing is black ,i think it well to look into the matter and find out whether1 on the contrary1 it may not be white4 ,we are so stuffed with false notions that very often the exact opposite of the common belief is the real truth4 ,do you ask for examples8 ,there are plenty of them4 8,the sun1 we generally say1 according to all appearances revolves from east to west around the stationary earth4 ,no1 says science1 no1 it is the earth1 on the contrary1 that rotates from west to east before the stationary sun4 ,the stars1 we say again1 are small bright points1 little lamps in the arch of the firmament4 ,no1 answers science1 the stars are not tiny sparks2 they are enormous bodies which compare in light and size to the sun itself1 a million and a half times as large as the earth4 ,the bat1 it is commonly asserted1 is a harmful1 hideous1 venomous creature of ill omen that must be crushed without mercy under the heel4 ,no1 affirms science1 a thousand times no2 the bat is an inoffensive creature that1 instead of doing us harm and bringing misfortune1 renders us an immense service by protecting the good things of the earth from their countless destroyers4 8,no1 we should not vent our hatred upon it and pitilessly kill it2 on the contrary1 we should like and respect it as one of our best helpers4 ,the poor creature does not deserve the bad reputation that ignorance has given it4 ,its touch does not communicate either lice or the itch2 its teeth do not pierce the goat's udders or attack our stores of bacon2 its chance entrance into a room is no more to be dreaded than a butterfly's4 ,for my part ,i should like to have it visit my bedroom often at night1 for then ,i should soon be rid of the mosquitoes that torment me4 ,all things considered1 we have nothing1 absolutely nothing to reproach it with1 and we are indebted to it for very valuable services4 ,that is the answer of science to ignorant prejudice4 ,henceforth1 then1 crush the bat under your heel if you dare40 8,i will take good care10 said ,louis1 8never to do such a thing now that ,i know what an army of enemies we are guarded against by the bat40 8,but what a pity10 ,jules remarked1 8that it is such a hideous creature60 8,hideous80 his uncle repeated4 8,that is a slander which ,i hope to make you take back40 8,surely you can't deny that the bat is horribly ugly10 persisted the boy4 8,perhaps ,i can40 8,i should like to know10 said ,emile1 8how you can make out that the frightful shape of the creature is beautiful40 8,to discuss ugliness and beauty with you1 my children10 replied ,uncle ,paul1 8is not an undertaking that ,i should care to enter upon4 ,to follow me in such a discussion you would need a maturity of mind that does not go with your years4 ,even if you were grown up1 it might still be impossible for us to come to an agreement1 inasmuch as it is not with the bodily eyes that ugliness and beauty should be judged1 but with the eyes of reason ripened by reflection and study and free from the trammels of first impressions1 which are generally erroneous4 ,also1 how few possess that intellectual clearness of vision that remains untroubled by prematurely conceived opinions and can thus contemplate things in all the clarity of truth6 ,trusting the testimony of our eyes and yielding to daily habit1 we call beautiful the creatures whose general structure shows a certain conformity with that of the animals most familiar to us and unthinkingly accepted as standards for all future judgments4 ,we call ugly those that differ from these accepted models1 and if very unlike we call them hideous4 ,enlightened reason refuses to be hemmed in by the narrow circle of first impressions2 it rises above petty prejudices and says to itself3 ,nothing is ugly that ,god has made2 everything is beautiful1 everything is perfect in itself1 as everything is the work of the ,creator4 8,an animal's form should not be judged by its greater or less resemblance to the forms that are already familiar to us and serve us as standards of comparison1 but rather by its fitness for the kind of life for which it was created4 ,where the structure is in perfect harmony with the functions to be performed1 there too is beauty4 ,from this higher point of view ugliness no longer exists2 or1 rather1 it exists all too abundantly1 but only in the moral world4 ,intemperance1 laziness1 stupid pride--all forms of vice1 in short--constitute ugliness and hideousness4 ,to tell the truth1 ,i know of none besides4 8,but ,i must return to the bat1 if not in the hope of making you find it beautiful1 at least with the certainty of interesting you in its remarkable structure4 ,i will wager1 too1 that not one of you knows what a bat is40 8,it is a kind of bird10 declared ,emile4 8,it is an old rat that has grown a pair of wings10 ,jules ventured to assert4 8,you are both talking nonsense10 returned their uncle4 8,that is the way with us all3 we speak at random of animals and persons1 giving to one our esteem1 to another our scorn1 without knowing what they are1 what they do1 what they are good for4 ,you don't know the first thing about the bat1 and yet you overwhelm the poor animal with abuse4 8,the bat has nothing in common with birds2 it has neither beak nor feathers2 nor is it a rat that has acquired wings in its old age4 ,it is really a peculiar creature that is born1 lives1 and dies with wings1 without in any way belonging to the bird family4 ,its body has the size1 the fur1 and somewhat the shape of a mouse2 but its wings are bare4 8,the most highly organized animals have as a distinctive mark teats or udders1 which furnish milk1 the first food of their young4 ,these animals do not feed their young family from the beak1 as birds do2 they do not abandon their offspring to all the hazards of good or ill fortune1 careless of their future1 as do the stupid races of reptiles and fish4 ,the females rear their young with maternal care1 feeding them from time to time with milk from their udders4 ,all the various species that suckle their young1 all that are provided with udders1 are classed together by men of learning and called mammals1 from the ,latin mamma1 a breast or teat4 ,i will add that in the great majority of instances these animals have the body covered with fur or hair1 and not with feathers or scales4 ,feathers belong to birds1 scales to reptiles and fishes4 ,as examples of mammals you will immediately think of our domestic animals1 the dog1 the cat1 the cow1 the sheep1 the goat1 the horse1 and others40 8,i have often noticed10 said ,emile1 8how carefully the cat raises her family4 ,while the kittens press her teats with their little pink paws to make the milk flow faster1 the old cat washes them with her tongue and shows her happiness by her soft purring40 8,well1 then10 resumed ,uncle ,paul1 8the bat is a mammal just as much as is the cat1 and like that of the cat its body is protected from the cold by fur1 and the female has teats for nursing her little ones4 ,the number of teats varies widely in the different kinds of animals1 being greater in the species that have many young at a birth1 and less in the others2 which is as it should be1 in order that the nurslings may all be suckled at the same time4 ,the bat has only two1 situated on the breast and not under the stomach4 ,the female bears only a single young one at a time4 ,emile rightly admires the love of the cat for her kittens2 yet the bat is a still tenderer mother4 ,when in the evening she goes out in search of food1 instead of leaving her nursling in some hole in the wall after suckling it1 she carries it with her1 clinging to her breast2 and it is while weighted with this load that she chases the nimble moths on the wing4 ,doubtless the pursuit of prey is thus rendered less fruitful and more difficult2 but no matter1 the loving mother prefers not to abandon her feeble charge1 and allows it to continue peacefully sucking during the evolutions of the hunt4 ,with the deepening darkness the bat regains its retreat1 suspends itself from the roof by a toe-nail1 and holds its nursling by wrapping it in her wings40 8,that is not so bad a way to behave10 admitted ,jules4 8,i begin to find the bat less ugly than ,i thought40 8,that is what ,i just told you10 returned his uncle4 8,ugliness is begotten of ignorance2 it diminishes as knowledge increases4 ,but let us continue our theme40 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,bat',s ,,wings 8,wings1 real wings1 perfectly adapted to flying1 are the bat's most striking feature4 ,how can a mammal1 an animal whose general structure is that of a dog or a cat for example1 possess the flying-apparatus of a bird8 ,how can two organs so entirely different be combined8 ,in the bat's wing1 my children1 we find an admirable example of the infinite resources at the command of the ,creator1 who1 without adding to or subtracting from the fundamental plan1 has adapted the same organs to the most widely different functions4 ,the fore feet of mammals--of the dog1 or the cat we will say--are changed into wings in the bat without the addition or the loss of a single part in this incredible transformation4 ,more than that1 the human arms1 our arms1 children--are there represented1 piece by piece1 bone by bone4 ,you all look at me as if you did not believe it1 unable to understand how there can be anything in common between our arms and a bat's wings40 8,the fact is10 ,jules confessed1 8it takes all my faith in your words to make me admit that there can be the least likeness between a man's arm and a bat's wing40 8,i do not propose to make you admit it because of your faith in me2 ,i propose to prove it to you4 ,follow along your arm so as to grasp the demonstration better4 8,from the shoulder to the elbow the framework of the human arm consists of a bone known as the humerus4 ,from the elbow to the wrist there are two bones of unequal size running side by side the whole length4 ,the larger is the cubitus1 the smaller the radius4 ,then comes the wrist1 composed of several little bones which ,i will not now describe4 ,next is the palm of the hand1 its framework formed of a row of five bones almost alike and each serving to support a finger4 ,finally1 each finger contains a succession of small bones called phalanges1 of which the thumb has two1 and all the others three each4 ,i will add that two bones serve to attach the arm to the body4 ,one is the shoulder-blade1 a broad triangular bone situated on the back behind the shoulder2 the other is the collar bone1 slender and curved1 situated in front and extending from the shoulder to the base of the neck4 ,those are the collar-bones that you can feel with your hand at the right and left above the breast40 ,while thus enumerating the parts of the arm1 ,uncle ,paul guided the hand of each listener and made it feel the several bones as they were named4 ,emile had some difficulty with the learned terms 8humerus0 and 8cubitus10 which he now heard for the first time2 nevertheless1 by paying close attention he found that he could easily remember them4 ,when the boys had all learned the name and the position of each bone in the human arm1 their uncle continued3 8,now examine with me this picture of a bat's skeleton4 ,the bone marked o is the shoulder-blade4 ,as with us1 it forms the back of the shoulder1 and it is triangular1 wide1 and flat40 8,then the part marked cl is the shoulder1 and the bone that goes from there to the base of the neck is the collar-bone80 queried ,emile4 8,precisely40 8,i see how the rest goes10 ,louis hastened to interpose4 8,the bone marked h is the humerus1 and the elbow is at the angle made by this bone with the next40 8,my turn now10 put in ,jules4 8,the two bones running side by side from the elbow to the wrist are marked cu and r4 ,the first is the cubitus1 the other the radius4 ,consequently ca is the wrist4 ,but there ,i get lost40 8,the wrist1 ,i told you10 explained ,uncle ,paul1 8is composed of several small bones4 ,that structure we find at ca1 the bat's wrist40 8,but1 then1 the hand80 queried ,jules4 8,the palm of the hand and the five fingers which it supports are represented by the ribs of the wing and by po1 which is the thumb4 ,this is the shortest of the five fingers1 as with man4 ,it forms no part of the framework of the wing1 but is free and is furnished with a hooked nail which the animal uses to cling by and also in walking4 ,finally1 this thumb has two phalanges1 as in the human thumb1 and at the base is a small bone which in man forms a part of the palm of the hand4 ,so much for the thumb4 8,now let us look at those four long bones that start from the wrist 7ca7 and spread out through the greater part of the wing4 ,together with the similar but shorter bone of the thumb they represent the series of five bones composing the framework of the human palm4 ,next come the fingers with their phalanges 7ph74 ,in short1 except for a few slight differences1 the bat's wing reproduces1 piece by piece1 the structure of the human arm40 8,yes10 ,jules admitted1 8it's all there1 even to the small bones of the wrist and fingers4 ,is it possible that a poor bat can pattern after us so closely8 ,the horrid creature copies our arms to make itself wings40 8,your pride need not suffer from this close resemblance1 which you will find in different degrees in a multitude of other animals1 especially among the mammals1 our next of kin in bodily structure4 ,in the formation of his body man enjoys no monopoly2 the dog1 the cat1 the donkey1 the ox--each and all of them--share with us a common stock of organs1 modified in details and suited to the kind of life of each species4 ,we recognize in the bat's wings the fundamental plan of our arms2 we see it also no less plainly in the fore legs of the cat1 the dog1 and many other animals1 and we can trace a rude resemblance to our hand even in the donkey's homely hoof4 ,i tell you these things1 my children1 not to lessen in your eyes the undeniable superiority of man1 but to inspire in you a fellow feeling for animals that are formed like us1 suffer as we do1 and are far too often the victims of our stupid cruelty4 ,whoever needlessly causes an animal to suffer commits a barbarous act1 an inhuman act1 inasmuch as he inflicts torture on flesh like our own2 he brutally misuses a body having the same mechanism as our own and the same power of suffering4 ,as to our superiority1 it is established preminently by an exceptional characteristic that places us above all comparison even with creatures that in their physical structure most closely resemble us4 ,this characteristic is reason1 the torch that lights us in our search for truth2 it is the human soul1 which alone knows itself and enjoys the sublime privilege of knowing its divine ,author4 8,in bats four of the five bones similar to those of our palm are greatly elongated1 as are also the corresponding fingers1 and they together constitute the four ribs on which is stretched the membrane of the wing1 just as silk is stretched on the ribs of an umbrella4 ,thus it is at the sacrifice of what might have been a hand that the wing is formed4 ,therefore the scientists call all mammals of like structure with the bat #8chiropters1' meaning hand-winged creatures1 from two ,greek words signifying hand and wing4 8,of the five fingers one only1 the thumb1 is left free in the bat1 and it is very small4 ,it is furnished1 as ,i said before1 with a nail or claw4 ,the four others1 destitute of nails1 are lengthened to serve as supports to the membrane of the wing4 ,this membrane is a fold of the skin which starts from the shoulder1 stretches between the four long fingers of the hand1 and then attaches itself to the hind leg1 the toes of which are all furnished with hooked nails or claws and do not depart from the ordinary shape of such members4 ,by virtue of the free thumb already described the wings are able to serve as feet in walking1 when these members are folded close to the animal's sides4 ,the bat grips the ground by thrusting in first the right claw and then the left1 and pushes itself forward with its hind feet in laborious and awkward leaps4 ,thus it gets over the ground at what might be called a fast pace1 but is soon tired out with the exertion2 hence it does not walk except when sure it will not be molested or when it is compelled to do so by its position on a level surface where it cannot launch itself into the air4 ,then as soon as possible it gains an elevated point1 from which it flies off4 ,for in order to unfold the hampering membranes that serve as wings and to throw itself into the air1 the bat needs considerable free space1 which it cannot get except by hurling itself from a height4 ,consequently1 in the caves inhabited by bats they never fail to secure an unimpeded drop4 ,with the hooked talons of a hind foot they cling to the roof1 head downward4 ,that is the way they rest1 the way they sleep4 ,at the slightest alarm the claw lets go1 the wings spread1 and the animal is off40 8,what a queer way to sleep10 ,emile exclaimed1 8hanging from the roof by one foot1 head downward6 ,and do they stay that way long without getting tired80 8,if necessary1 a good half of the year40 ,when he went to bed that night ,emile thought again of the bat's way of sleeping2 but he preferred his own4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,bat',s ,,senses ,,of ,,smell ,,and ,,hearing 8,bats are nocturnal10 ,uncle ,paul continued the next day2 8that is1 they leave their lurking-places only at nightfall1 to hunt in the evening twilight4 ,as a rule1 animals addicted to nocturnal hunting have very large eyes that take in as much light as possible1 and thus these animals can see with very little light4 ,night-birds1 such as owls of all kinds1 will furnish us a remarkable example a little later4 ,by a singular exception1 however1 despite their nocturnal habits bats have very small eyes4 ,how1 then1 are they able to direct themselves in their swift flight1 so abrupt in its changes of direction8 ,how1 above all1 are they aware of the presence of their tiny game--moths and gnats8 8,they are guided especially by their senses of smell and hearing1 which are extraordinarily acute4 ,what do you say to the bat's ears in this picture8 ,what animal of its size can show anything like them8 ,how they flare1 like enormous hearing-trumpets1 to receive the slightest sound6 ,the bat that bears them has the expressive name of long-eared bat40 8,long-eared bat10 repeated ,jules2 8that's the kind of name ,i like2 it describes the animal and shows what there is about it that is out of the ordinary40 8,such prodigious ears are certainly made to hear sounds inaudible to us by reason of their excessive faintness4 ,they enable their possessor to hear at a distance the beating of a moth's wings and the fluttering of a gnat dancing in the air4 8,other bats which have smaller ears have as a substitute a sense of smell unequaled for its acuteness4 ,the high state of perfection of this sense is the result of the abnormal development of the nose1 which covers a good part of the face and gives the animal a very strange appearance4 ,for example1 here is the head of a bat called the horseshoe bat4 ,this broad1 distended formation of curious shape that occupies almost the whole space between the eyes and the mouth is the nose4 ,it ends above in a large triangular1 leaflike expanse2 laterally it spreads out in folded lamin1 all together taking the shape of a horseshoe1 whence the name of the creature4 ,what odor1 however faint1 could escape such a nose8 ,the dog1 so famous for its keenness of scent1 chases the hare without seeing it1 guided solely by the odor left behind by the animal1 heated in the chase2 but how much keener the scent of the horseshoe bat must be when it chases in the same manner a moth that leaves no odor for any nose but its pursuer's6 ,i sometimes wonder whether such a nose1 so abnormally developed1 may not be able to detect certain qualities that are and always will be unknown to us for want of the means to perceive them4 ,the horseshoe bat's grotesque nose makes you laugh1 my little friends2 it makes me think4 ,i think of the thousand secrets that nature hides from our senses and that would be as easy for us to learn as they would be valuable if we possessed the scent of a poor bat4 ,perhaps 7who can tell87 the horseshoe bat foresees with its nose the coming storm several days in advance2 it may scent the future hurricane1 smell the rain-clouds coming from the other end of the earth1 know by detecting their odor what winds are about to blow1 foretell in similar manner what the weather is going to be2 and1 guided by perceptions of which we can form no idea1 it may make its plans for hunting insects that are sometimes abundant and sometimes scarce according to the state of the atmosphere40 8,if the horseshoe bat's nose can do all that10 said ,jules1 8we must agree that it is a first-rate sort of nose40 8,i make no positive assertions10 his uncle rejoined4 8,i merely have my suspicions4 ,the only thing that seems to me beyond doubt is that such an organ as the bat's nose serves its owner as a source of sensations unknown to man40 8,you say so many wonderful things about it1 ,uncle10 ,emile interposed1 8that ,i shall end by thinking the horseshoe bat's nose much more curious than ugly4 ,there's another thing1 too1 ,i've just noticed4 ,why does the creature have such fat cheeks8 ,see what a puffed-up face it has in the picture40 8,with the bat10 ,uncle ,paul explained1 8the chase is a short one1 lasting only one or two hours--in fact1 the short interval between sunset and dark4 ,the remainder of the twenty-four hours is passed in rest1 in the quiet of some cavern or grotto4 ,does the animal1 then1 have but one meal in all this time8 ,and what if there are evenings when hunting is out of the question1 the sky being overcast1 the wind too strong1 or rain falling1 so that the insects keep under cover8 ,the bat would then be subjected to long fasts if it were impossible for it to lay in supplies beforehand4 ,but these supplies must be collected hastily1 on the wing1 with no interruption to the hunt which lasts so short a time4 ,hence it is that pouches are indispensable1 deep pouches in which the hunter can put his game as fast as he catches it4 ,the cheeks exactly fill this office3 they can be enlarged at the creature's will--distended so as to form roomy pockets in which the insects killed with a snap of the teeth can be stowed away4 ,these reserve pockets are called cheek-pouches4 ,gluttonous monkeys have them4 ,that is where the she-ape1 fond of sweets1 puts the lump of sugar given her and lets it slowly melt so as to prolong the enjoyment of it4 ,well1 when the bat is out hunting it first satisfies its hunger1 and then--especially when its nose1 the famous nose that we have just been talking about1 predicts unfavorable weather for the following days--it redoubles its exertions and stows away moth after moth in the depths of its elastic pouches4 ,it returns to its quarters with cheeks all distended4 ,now without fear of famine it can remain idle for several days if necessary4 ,hanging motionless by a hind claw1 it feeds on its store of provisions1 nibbling one at a time1 as hunger prompts1 the insects softened to taste in the reservoir of its cheeks4 8,but it is high time we finished with the bats2 their history would be too long if ,i were to tell you all about them4 ,i will only ask ,jules what he thinks now of the animal he at first called hideous40 8,frankly1 ,uncle10 answered the boy1 8these creatures interest me now more than they disgust me4 ,their singular wings1 formed at the cost of what might have been hands1 their prodigious nose and immense ears which make up for their poor eyesight1 their cheeks swollen so as to make pouches for their supply of food--all these have interested me very much40 8,the cheek-pouches10 said ,emile1 8where the bat puts its game to soak1 and the nose that scents the coming storm1 seemed to me the most curious things about the animal40 8,and ,i10 said ,louis1 8shall never forget how many enemies bats deliver us from40 8,now you understand10 ,uncle ,paul rejoined1 8or at least ,i hope you are beginning to understand1 that bats1 being so useful to us in destroying a multitude of ravaging insects1 and noteworthy for their singular structure1 should not inspire us with an unjustifiable repugnance and still less with a stupid rage to exterminate them4 ,let us leave in peace these poor creatures that so valiantly earn their living by protecting our crops4 ,do not let us harm them under the foolish pretext that they are ugly1 for their supposed ugliness is in reality an admirable adaptation of bodily structure to the creature's mode of life40 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,hedgehog ,in his walled garden ,uncle ,paul allowed a couple of hedgehogs1 which he had brought from the neighboring hills1 to wander at large4 ,one evening the children noticed them poking about in a lettuce patch4 8,why10 asked ,emile1 8has ,uncle ,paul put those animals in the garden and told us to leave them alone if we happened to come across them80 8,no doubt to make war on harmful insects10 answered ,louis4 8,stop1 look there6 ,one of them is turning up the earth with its little black snout4 ,ssh6 ,let's keep still and see what it's after40 ,the children crouched down behind a row of peas so as not to be seen4 ,the hedgehog1 now scratching with its paws1 now rummaging with the tip of its snout1 which resembles that of a pig1 finally unearthed a big1 fat white larva which had probably been clinging to the root of a lettuce plant4 ,the children ran to look at the captured game4 ,the hedgehog1 thus taken by surprise1 hastened to roll itself up into a ball bristling with spines4 ,in the disinterred worm ,jules easily recognized a ,june-bug larva1 one of that ravenous and destructive race that ,uncle ,paul had already told them about4 #a ,in the evening1 when they were all gathered together1 the hedgehog naturally became the subject of conversation4 8,several years ago10 said ,uncle ,paul1 8as ,i was returning home one evening at a late hour1 ,i chanced upon two hedgehogs coming out from a pile of stones4 ,i tied them up in my handkerchief so as to bring them home and let them loose in my garden4 ,ever since then they have never failed to render me certain services that you can appreciate by examining the jaws in this picture40 8,pointed teeth like those10 ,jules remarked1 8were never made for browsing grass4 ,the hedgehog must feed on prey4 ,its teeth are just right for crunching ,june-bug worms such as ,i saw dug up in the garden this morning40 8,notice how sharp the points of the teeth are10 resumed his uncle1 8both in the upper and in the lower jaw4 ,those two rows of teeth fit into each other when the animal bites1 and they plunge like so many fine daggers into the captured victim's flesh4 ,with this complicated dental mechanism evidently the hedgehog cannot triturate tough food2 it must have a kind of diet that is soft1 juicy1 capable of being reduced to marmalade by a brief chewing4 ,the animal is therefore preminently a flesh-eater4 ,several other species1 particularly the mole and the shrew-mouse of these regions1 have1 like the hedgehog1 teeth tapering to conical points and interplaying in the two jaws4 ,their food1 too1 is about the same as the hedgehog's4 ,all three--hedgehog1 mole1 and shrew-mouse--live on small game--insects1 larv1 slugs1 caterpillars1 worms4 ,they belong to the group of mammals known to naturalists as the order of insectivorous animals1 or1 in other words1 the order of insect-eaters4 ,on and under the ground they carry on the same kind of hunt that bats do in the air4 ,in their way of living bats1 too1 are insectivorous2 but their peculiar bodily structure causes them to be placed apart in the order of chiropters4 ,thus the mammals furnish us two orders of helpers3 the chiropters1 which hunt on the wing1 and the insect-eaters--the insectivorous animals properly so called--which hunt on and under the ground4 ,to the latter belong the hedgehog1 the mole1 and the shrew-mouse4 8,the hedgehog1 the largest of the three1 requires the largest and most plentiful prey4 ,tiny vermin are disdained1 but a ,june-bug larva or a good fat mole-cricket is an excellent find4 ,when they are not buried too deep he digs with his paws and snout to unearth them4 ,you have to-day seen my hedgehogs at work in the lettuce bed4 ,all night they go prowling about the garden1 sniffing and rummaging in every nook and corner1 and crunching no small number of my foes without doing me much harm4 ,in them ,i have two vigilant watchmen who make their rounds every night for the greater security of my growing vegetables4 ,however1 despite the interest ,i take in them1 ,i must1 to be candid1 acknowledge their faults4 8,the hedgehog's natural food consists unquestionably of insects2 but when a good opportunity presents itself the greedy creature is easily tempted by larger and more highly flavored prey4 ,in its wild state the hedgehog does not hesitate to suck the blood of young rabbits caught in their hole during the mother's absence4 ,the eggs of quail and partridge1 too1 it esteems as a most delicious feast1 but its supreme delight is to wring the necks of a brood of little chickens4 ,one night last year ,i heard a great commotion in the hen-house4 ,the roosters were raising cries of alarm1 the hens were cackling in desperate fright4 ,i ran out to see what the trouble was4 ,one of my hedgehogs had crept in under the door1 and ,i found the rogue regaling himself on some little chickens almost under their mother's wing1 she being powerless to help them in the dark4 ,with one kick ,i sent the assassin rolling outside1 and the next day thorough repairs were taken in hand4 ,the holes on a level with the floor were closed up1 and since then ,i have had no further trouble from my insect-hunters4 ,with proper precautions against their thirst for blood1 ,i have two larva-devourers of great value for my garden40 8,but won't they do damage of another kind80 asked ,louis4 8,i have heard that hedgehogs climb trees and shake off the ripe fruit1 and then roll on it so as to spit it with their spines1 after which they carry it off to their holes and eat it at their ease40 8,pay no attention to any such stories1 my boy4 ,it is utterly impossible for a hedgehog to climb a tree4 ,clumsy and stubby as it is1 with legs so short and claws useless for climbing1 how could it manage an athletic feat that calls for agility1 hooked claws1 and supple limbs8 ,no1 my friend1 the hedgehog does not climb trees1 neither does it carry off fruit transfixed with its spines4 ,the only vestige of truth in that old wives' tale is that hedgehogs do not live exclusively on prey2 if they find fruit that they like on the ground1 a very ripe pear or a juicy peach1 for example1 they munch it with as great contentment as they would a beetle or a ,june-bug40 8,it is also said10 ,louis added1 8that if kept in a house the hedgehog will drive away rats40 8,ah1 that ,i am quite willing to believe4 ,by day the animal crouches in a corner and sleeps1 but at night it is on the move1 always hunting for slugs1 fat beetles1 and other insects4 ,consequently it may well be that its noisy hunt for prey as it goes poking its pointed snout into every hole and cranny frightens the rats and mice and drives them away1 especially as the nocturnal prowler exhales a disagreeable odor calculated to betray its presence4 ,having neither the cat's light paw nor that animal's great patience in lying in wait for game1 the hedgehog does not indulge in hunting rats2 but if by good luck one falls into its clutches1 it is accepted with delight1 for the hedgehog's great feast is blood1 freshly killed flesh4 ,when ,i wish to give my two hedgehogs a special treat ,i throw them a bleeding beef liver or a chicken's entrails4 ,anything of that sort is eagerly devoured4 ,tastes so undisguisedly carnivorous tell you what must happen to a mouse caught by one of these animals4 ,i attribute to them the disappearance of some nests of rats that used to trouble me4 8,to satisfy its devouring hunger the hedgehog appears to attack all sorts of prey alike1 even planting its teeth in a viper without any thought of the reptile's venom2 and in still other respects the animal enjoys a remarkable immunity4 ,you have seen the ,spanish fly1 that magnificent1 strong-smelling insect that lives on ash-trees and is distinguished by sheath wings of a superb golden green40 8,yes1 ,i remember it10 said ,jules4 8,it is used for raising blisters after being dried and ground to powder40 8,that is correct4 ,if1 then1 this powder eats into the skin so readily1 what effect ought it to have on the delicate lining of the stomach if introduced into that organ8 ,what animal could swallow it without suffering torture and speedy death8 ,well1 by an exception that ,i cannot undertake to explain the hedgehog can feed on this horrible poison without the slightest apparent injury4 ,a celebrated ,russian naturalist1 ,pallas1 has seen it make a meal on ,spanish flies with no ill results4 ,for a repast of that sort a stomach peculiarly constructed is certainly necessary4 8,once upon a time there was a king1 very well known in history1 named ,mithridates4 ,being aware that he was surrounded by enemies capable of poisoning him some day1 in order to obviate the danger he gradually accustomed himself to the most noxious drugs4 ,by increasing the dose little by little he finally rendered himself immune against poison4 ,the hedgehog is the ,mithridates of the animal kingdom2 but how far it surpasses the suspicious king6 ,without practice it dares swallow the poison of the ,spanish fly and the viper's deadly venom4 8,i like to believe that the hedgehog has not received these exceptional gifts only to leave them unused4 ,it must delight to frequent the haunts of the viper2 in its nocturnal rounds in the underbrush it must occasionally come upon the reptile in its retreat and crush its head with those pointed teeth that are so well adapted to such work4 ,what service may it not render in localities infested with this dangerous breed6 ,and yet man rages at the hedgehog1 curses it most heartily1 and treats it as an unclean beast of no use but to arouse the fury of dogs1 which cannot attack it because of its spines4 ,he subjects it to the torture of an ice-cold bath to make it unroll itself2 and if the animal refuses to do so he prods it with a pointed stick1 goads it1 disembowels it40 8,we will never meddle with hedgehogs1 ,uncle ,paul10 ,jules assured him4 8,we are too much afraid of snakes to drive away this valiant defender40 8,what are the hedgehog's spines80 asked ,emile4 8,hairs1 nothing else1 but very coarse1 and stiff1 and pointed like needles4 ,together with other hairs1 fine1 soft1 and silky1 they cover all the upper part of the body4 ,the under part has only a coat of soft hair2 otherwise the animal would wound itself in rolling up into a ball4 ,when the hedgehog scents danger--and it is a very wary beast--it ducks its head under its stomach1 draws in its paws1 and rolls itself into a ball1 presenting everywhere an armor of spines to the enemy4 ,the fox has long been famous for its many ruses2 the hedgehog has only one1 but it is always effective4 ,who would dare grapple with the creature when it has assumed its attitude of defense8 ,the dog refuses2 after a few luckless essays that make its mouth bleed it declines to go further and contents itself with barking4 ,sheltered under the safe cover of its spines1 the hedgehog turns a deaf ear to these futile threats and remains quiet4 8,but if the dog1 urged on by its master1 returns to the charge1 the hedgehog has recourse to a last expedient of war which rarely fails of effect3 it discharges its strongly offensive urine1 which flows from the inside of the ball and wets the outside4 ,repelled by the unbearable odor of the ill-smelling beast and pricked on the nose by its spines1 even the most eager dog now abandons the attack4 ,the enemy gone1 the hedgehog slowly unrolls itself and trots off to some safe retreat40 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,hibernation 8,our bats10 continued ,uncle ,paul1 8live exclusively on insects1 and these constitute the hedgehog's chief food1 but it also hunts larger game or even eats fruit4 ,in winter there are no longer any plump insects to be had1 most of them having died after laying their eggs1 and the few surviving ones having taken refuge from the cold in hiding-places where they would be very hard to find4 ,the larv1 too1 the hope of future generations1 are lying torpid1 far out of sight under the ground1 in the trunks of old trees1 snugly hidden away4 ,the white worm has bored several feet into the ground to escape the frost1 there are no more ,june-bugs for the long-eared owl1 no more night-flying moths1 and no more beetles for the hedgehog4 ,what1 then1 is to become of these insect-eaters80 8,they will die of hunger10 answered ,jules4 8,they would indeed all die1 were it not for the providential arrangement ,i am now going to try to make you understand4 8,you know the proverb1 #8,he who sleeps dines1'--a very true proverb in its simple statement of an undeniable fact4 ,well1 the hedgehog1 the bat1 and other animals put the principle into practice with a wisdom quite equal to that of man4 ,not being able to dine1 for want of insects1 they go to sleep2 and so deep and heavy is their sleep that to designate it we use a special word1 lethargy4 8,another proverb says1 #8,as you make your bed1 so must you lie4' ,our dumb animals1 never lacking in wisdom in ordering their own affairs1 take good care not to forget this proverb1 but to adopt wise precautions before abandoning themselves to their long winter sleep4 ,the hedgehog chooses for itself a secure retreat amid the great roots of some old tree stump4 ,toward the end of the autumn it carries grass and dry leaves to deposit there1 and arranges them in a hollow ball1 in the middle of which it rolls itself up and goes to sleep4 ,bats assemble in great numbers in the warm depths of some cavern where nothing can disturb their slumbers4 ,heads down and bodies packed close together1 they hug the walls1 covering them with a sort of velvet tapestry2 or1 clinging to one another1 they hang in bunches from the roof4 ,now the winter may do its worst and the winds may rage2 the hedgehog in its warm blanket of leaves and the bats in their sheltered caves sleep a deep sleep until summer returns and with it insects1 food1 animation1 life40 8,but don't they eat anything all winter long80 asked ,emile1 incredulously4 8,nothing whatever10 his uncle assured him4 8,then bats and hedgehogs must have a secret4 ,for my part1 ,i eat more in the winter than at any other time1 and no amount of sleep would satisfy my hunger40 8,yes1 the bat and the hedgehog have a secret in this matter4 ,i am going to tell you this secret1 but it is a little hard to understand1 ,i warn you4 8,there is one need before which hunger and thirst are silent1 however great they may be2 a need that is never satisfied1 and is always making itself felt1 whether we wake or sleep1 by night1 by day1 every hour1 every minute4 ,it is the need of air4 ,air is so essential to the maintenance of life that it has not been left to us to regulate its use as we do in regard to food and drink2 and this is so in order that we may not be exposed to the fatal consequences that would follow the slightest forgetfulness4 ,therefore it is with little or no consciousness on our part and independently of our will that air gains entrance into our body to do its marvelous work there4 ,on air more than on anything else do we live1 our daily bread coming only second in the order of importance4 ,our need of food is felt at only tolerably long intervals2 our need of air is felt unceasingly1 always imperious1 always inexorable4 ,let any one try for a moment to prevent its admission into the body by closing the entrance passages1 the mouth and the nostrils2 almost immediately he is suffocated and feels that he would surely die if this state were prolonged a little4 ,and what is true of man is true of all forms of animal life3 air is necessary to them all1 from the smallest to the greatest4 8,what ,i am going to tell you now will explain this absolute necessity for air for the maintenance of life4 ,man and also every animal of a superior organization--a classification that includes mammals and birds--have a temperature of their own1 a degree of bodily heat peculiar to them1 a heat resulting from no external conditions1 but from the functions of life alone4 ,whether under a burning sun or in the freezing cold of winter1 whether subjected to the torrid heat of the equator or to the glacial climate of the poles1 man's body has a temperature of thirty-eight degrees1 centigrade1 and cannot be lowered without danger of death4 ,the natural heat of birds attains forty-two degrees in all seasons and in all climates4 8,how is it that this heat is always the same1 and whence can it come unless from some sort of combustion8 ,there is1 in fact1 going on within us a perpetual combustion1 respiration furnishing the necessary air1 and food supplying the fuel4 ,to live is to consume oneself1 in the strictest sense of the word2 to breathe is to burn4 ,in a figurative sense man has long used the expression #8the torch of life'2 but this figurative term proves to be the exact utterance of the truth4 ,air consumes the torch2 it consumes the animal no less2 it makes the torch give out heat and light1 and it produces in the animal heat and motion4 ,without air the torch goes out2 without air the animal dies4 ,from this point of view the animal may be compared to a highly perfected machine put in motion by heat4 ,it feeds and breathes to produce heat and motion2 it receives its fuel in the form of food and burns it in the inmost recesses of its body with the help of the air introduced by breathing4 ,that explains why the need of food is greater in winter than in summer1 the body cooling off more rapidly by contact with the outside cold air1 and consequently an increased consumption of fuel being required to maintain the normal temperature4 ,a low temperature creates a desire for food2 a high temperature lessens the demand4 ,to the hungry ,siberians hearty food is necessary2 they ask for bacon and other fats1 with brandy to drink4 ,but for the people of ,sahara a few dates suffice1 with a pinch of flour kneaded in the palm of the hand with a little water4 ,everything that lessens the loss of heat lessens also the need of food4 ,sleep1 rest1 warm clothing1 all serve to some extent as substitutes for food4 ,and so there is much truth in the saying that he who sleeps dines40 8,that may be10 ,jules assented1 8but ,i don't see how hedgehogs and bats can do without food for four or five months at a time4 ,no matter how soundly ,i might sleep1 ,i couldn't go without eating so long as that40 8,wait until ,i finish1 and for the present remember this3 in every animal life depends on an actual and never-ceasing combustion4 ,air1 as necessary to this combustion as to the burning of wood or coal in our stoves and fireplaces1 is taken into the body by breathing4 ,that is what makes breathing so urgent1 so incessant4 ,as to the fuel burned1 that is furnished by the substance of the animal itself1 by the blood made from digested food4 ,not a finger is lifted by us1 not a muscle moved1 that does not use up just so much of the fuel furnished by the blood1 which itself is made by the food we eat4 ,walking1 running1 working1 excitement1 all forms of exercise or emotion--these literally burn up our blood just as a locomotive burns its coal in dragging behind it the immense weight of a train4 ,that is why activity1 hard work1 increases our need for food1 while rest1 idleness1 lessens it4 8,i will now put to you a question4 ,let us suppose that there are on the hearth some burning brands1 but that they are few and small1 and you wish to keep the fire as long as possible4 ,would you let these firebrands burn freely8 ,would you take the bellows and blow air on them to increase the blaze80 8,no10 replied ,jules2 8that would be just the way to burn up the brands in no time4 ,they must be covered with ashes4 ,if the air comes to them very slowly and only a little at a time1 they will burn gradually and the next morning we shall find the coals still alive40 8,that is well said1 my boy4 ,to keep up a fire for a long time with a given amount of fuel1 the draft must be reduced1 the access of air must be largely cut off1 but not intercepted altogether1 because then the fire would be completely extinguished4 ,therefore the live coals are buried under ashes1 and if the fire is in a stove the door of the ash-pit is nearly closed4 ,with plenty of air1 combustion is active but of short duration2 with only a little air it is feeble1 but lasts a long time4 8,as the maintenance of life is the result of a real combustion1 any animal obliged to endure a long fast1 or in other words to dispense with the regular renewal of the fuel needed in that combustion1 must take into its body as little air as possible4 ,it must reduce the draft of its furnace4 ,this draft is respiration1 breathing2 and so1 in order to go without food for months at a time and to make the small amount of fuel held in reserve in the veins last as long as possible1 the animal has but one course to follow3 it must breathe as little as it can without depriving itself entirely of air1 for that would mean the total extinction of the vital spark1 just as the complete cutting off of air from a lighted lamp means the speedy extinction of its flame4 ,there you have the hedgehog's and the bat's secret for enduring their long fast through the winter season4 8,first of all1 every precaution is taken to avoid all loss1 all unnecessary expenditure of heat1 and to economize as much as possible the reserves of fuel in their poor little veins4 ,the hedgehog wraps itself up warm in a thick blanket of leaves in the heart of a stone-heap or in some hollow tree trunk1 while the bats collect in compact groups in the warm shelter of a deep cave4 ,but that is not enough3 they must keep quite still1 as every movement uses up a certain amount of heat4 ,this requirement is scrupulously observed3 their immobility is such that you would say they were dead4 ,and yet all this is still insufficient3 respiration must be reduced to a minimum4 ,in fact1 their breathing is so weak that the closest scrutiny can hardly detect that they breathe at all4 ,this faint remnant of life is not to be compared1 you can well see1 to the blazing torch or the brightly burning fire1 both of which1 enjoying free combustion1 send out waves of heat and light4 ,it is rather the feeble glimmer of a night lamp husbanding its last drop of oil2 it is the coal that glows faintly under the ashes4 ,so profound is the torpor1 so nearly complete the inanition1 that were it not followed by an awakening this state would hardly differ in any respect from death4 8,the name #8hibernation' is given to this temporary suspension of vitality1 or rather this slowing up of life1 to which certain animals are subject during the winter4 ,in the number of hibernating animals1 or animals that indulge in this long winter sleep1 are to be included1 besides the hedgehog and the bat1 the marmot1 the dormouse1 the lizard1 serpents of various kinds1 frogs1 and other reptiles4 ,do you need to be told that in order to assume and maintain this torpid condition in which for whole months food is unnecessary1 a special organization is required8 ,not every creature can hold its breath at will and thus escape the necessity of eating4 ,the dog and the cat might sleep ever so deeply1 yet as their breathing would go on almost as actively as in their waking hours1 hunger would arouse them before long40 8,just as it would me10 said ,emile4 8,no animals that have an assured supply of food for the winter hibernate1 but those that would otherwise perish with hunger in cold weather are saved from destruction by the providential torpor that overtakes them at the approach of the winter season4 ,their food supply being cut off1 they go to sleep4 ,the marmot is wrapped in slumber while the turf on the high mountains is covered with snow2 the dormouse when there is no longer any fruit2 frogs1 toads1 snakes1 lizards1 bats1 and hedgehogs1 as soon as there cease to be any more insects to feed upon40 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,mole ,uncle ,paul had just trapped a mole that for some days had been uprooting young vegetables and unearthing newly planted seeds in a corner of the garden4 ,he called the children's attention to the animal's black coat1 softer than the finest velvet2 showed them its snout and made them note its peculiar fitness for digging2 pointed to its fore paws1 shaped like wide shovels for moving the earth with astonishing rapidity2 and remarked on its eyes1 so small as to be well-nigh useless1 and its jaws armed with savage-looking teeth4 8,it is a great pity10 said he1 8that we are prejudiced against the mole on account of its habit of mining1 for there is not in all the world a more pitiless destroyer of vermin40 8,i had always heard10 ,louis remarked1 8and had believed until now1 that moles lived on a vegetable diet1 chiefly of roots1 and that they tunneled under the ground to get them40 8,to forewarn you of the errors so widely current on the subject of the diet of certain animals1 ,i described to you in some detail the formation of teeth1 which always indicate the kind of food eaten4 ,i showed you that one has only to examine an animal's teeth in order to determine whether it is carnivorous or herbivorous4 ,remember the adage that summed up our talks on the subject3 ,show me its teeth and ,i will tell you what the animal eats4 8,the mole is a good illustration3 it has forty-four sharply pointed teeth1 not including the incisors4 ,do they look like millstones for the leisurely grinding of grain and roots1 or sharp tools for making mincemeat of torn flesh80 8,they are certainly the teeth of an animal that lives on prey10 ,louis admitted2 8the hedgehog and the bat haven't sharper ones40 8,to make you sure of this fact10 ,uncle ,paul went on1 8,i will tell you about some experiments made on the diet of moles4 ,we owe them to a learned ,french naturalist1 ,flourens4 ,if after you are grown up you ever have a chance to read his remarkable works1 you will find them very interesting and valuable4 8,flourens put two live moles into a cask and1 believing them to be herbivorous1 gave them for food a supply of roots1 carrots1 and turnips4 ,as you see1 the illustrious naturalist shared the accepted opinion1 the false notion just repeated by ,louis4 ,but ,flourens was soon undeceived4 ,the next morning the vegetables were found untouched1 while one of the moles had been devoured by its companion and there was nothing left of it but the skin1 turned inside out40 8,one of the moles had eaten the other80 cried ,emile4 8,oh1 what a fierce creature60 8,it had feasted on its own kind1 a thing that hardly any other animal does4 ,in devouring its comrade it had in the course of the night eaten its own weight of food2 and yet the next morning it seemed restless and very hungry4 ,flourens threw it a live sparrow whose wings he had just clipped4 ,the mole smelt it1 walked around it1 received a few hard pecks from its beak1 then1 pouncing on the bird1 tore its stomach open and enlarged the opening with its claws so as to plunge its head into the midst of the entrails4 ,with its pointed snout the horrible creature bored into them with frantic delight4 ,in less than no time it had devoured half the contents of the skin1 which with its feathers was left whole4 ,flourens then lowered into the cask a glass full of water and saw the mole stand up against the glass1 cling to the edge with its fore claws1 and drink eagerly4 ,when it had had enough1 the animal returned to the sparrow1 ate a little more of it1 and finally1 completely full1 lay down to sleep in a corner4 ,the glass and the remains of the bird were then taken out of the cask4 8,hardly six hours later the mole1 hungry again1 began to smell around the bottom of the cask in search of something to eat4 ,a second sparrow was thrown to it4 ,the mole immediately tore open the stomach to get at its entrails4 ,when it had eaten most of the bird and taken another big drink of water1 it appeared satisfied and remained quiet4 ,this was its last meal for the day4 ,just think1 boys1 what a quantity of reeking flesh it took to satisfy one mole's hunger6 ,in the night its companion in captivity1 and the next day two sparrows6 ,the weight of the food eaten in twenty-four hours was nearly twice that of the eater4 8,was the animal satisfied for long8 ,by no means4 ,the next morning the mole was wandering restlessly about in the bottom of its cask1 apparently wild with hunger4 ,food1 quick1 quick6 or it will die of starvation4 ,the remains of the sparrow left over from the evening before1 with a frog which it promptly disemboweled1 quieted it for a while4 ,finally1 a toad was thrown to it4 ,as soon as the mole approached to rip it up the toad inflated its body1 hoping perhaps to frighten the enemy with its repulsive appearance4 ,at any rate1 it succeeded4 ,after sniffing at it1 the mole turned away in disgust4 ,ah6 you don't want the toad1 you greedy creature2 then you shall have turnips1 cabbages1 and carrots4 ,plenty of these were given it4 ,but fie on roots6 ,rather perish than eat turnips6 ,the next morning the mole was found to have starved to death amid the vegetables4 ,it had scorned to touch them with so much as a tooth4 8,had this animal an exceptional appetite1 a taste for unusual things1 that it should have preferred to die of hunger rather than touch vegetable food8 ,not at all2 it merely followed the preferences of all its kind4 ,many other experiments have been performed both by ,flourens and by other observers4 ,all the moles they have tried to feed with vegetable substances--with bread1 lettuce1 cabbages1 roots1 herbage of any description--have starved to death without touching their provisions4 ,on the other hand1 those that were fed with raw flesh1 worms1 larv1 and insects of various kinds1 remained alive4 8,another very simple way to determine positively the kind of food eaten by this animal is to examine the contents of its stomach as it lives in the freedom of its customary haunts4 ,everything eaten by it must find its way to the stomach4 ,let us catch a mole1 cut it open1 and investigate4 ,the stomach is found to contain1 sometimes1 red pieces of common earthworms1 or it may be a pap of beetles1 recognizable from the scaly remains that have not been digested2 or still again1 and rather oftener1 we find a marmalade of larv1 especially the larv of ,june-bugs--undigested bits of mandibles and the hard shell of the skull4 ,in short1 one is likely to come upon a mixed hash of all the small creatures inhabiting the soil1 such as wood-lice1 millipeds1 cutworms1 moths in the chrysalis state1 caterpillars1 and subterranean nymphs2 but no matter how carefully we search we cannot find a bit of vegetable matter4 8,all possible observation points to the same conclusion3 despite what is believed by so many it is certain that the mole's diet is confined to animal substances4 ,and could it1 ,i ask you1 be otherwise8 ,would the stomach's contents belie the savage set of teeth you have just seen in the picture8 ,do not its teeth show that it is a flesh-eater8 8,yes1 the mole eats flesh and nothing else2 everything proves this4 ,besides1 remember its big appetite1 if one may call appetite the raging demands of a stomach that in twelve hours requires a quantity of food equal to the weight of the animal4 ,the mole's existence is a gluttonous frenzy4 ,this frenzy seizes the creature three or four times a day1 and it dies of starvation if it has to go without food for more than a few hours4 ,to satisfy its appetite1 when its food melts away and disappears almost as soon as swallowed1 what can the mole count on8 ,live sparrows1 which it devoured with such zest in the experiments of ,flourens1 are evidently not for a hunter that burrows underground2 at most1 some stray frog1 found in the field1 may fall into its clutches4 ,what1 then1 is left for it to count on8 ,the larv buried underground1 and especially those of the ,june-bug1 tender and fat as bacon4 ,that is very little1 ,i admit1 for such hunger2 but the number to be had will make up for the smallness of the prey4 ,what a slaughter of white worms must take place when the soil abounds in this small game6 ,scarcely is one meal finished when another begins1 and each time1 no doubt1 other small insects are eaten by the dozen4 ,to free a field of these destroyers of our crops there is no helper equal to the mole4 8,a valued destroyer of vermin--that is what we defend when we take the mole's part and give to it1 even if somewhat reluctantly1 the honorable title of helper4 ,that title1 in truth1 it only partly deserves4 ,to catch the crickets1 the larv1 the white worms1 and the insects of all kinds that it feeds on1 the mole is obliged to disturb the roots amid which its prey is to be found4 ,many that interfere with it in its work are cut2 plants have their roots laid bare and are even uprooted altogether2 and1 finally1 the earth dug up by this untiring miner is piled on the surface in little mounds or mole-hills4 ,with such upturning of the soil a field of vegetables may be speedily ruined and a crop of grain badly damaged4 ,one night is enough for a mole to undermine a large tract2 for the famished creature is singularly quick in boring the soil where it hopes to find something to eat4 8,it is well equipped for making its underground galleries1 which often are hundreds of meters long4 ,the body is stubby and almost cylindrical from one end to the other1 so as to slip with the least resistance through the narrow passages bored by the animal4 ,the fur is short1 thick1 and carefully curried so that it shall not catch the dust and may be kept perfectly clean even in the most dusty soil4 ,the tail is very short and the external ears are wanting1 although the hearing is remarkably acute4 ,ears like those of animals that live in the open1 would be in the way underground2 in the mole they are made very tiny1 for the animal's greater convenience4 ,no luxurious outfit does it ask for1 but only what is strictly necessary for its work of mining4 ,eyes wide open so that the dirt could get into them would be a perpetual torment to the creature2 and1 besides1 what use could it make of them in the total darkness of its abode8 ,the mole is not exactly blind1 as is generally believed2 it has two eyes1 but these are very small and set so deep in the surrounding fur that they can be of little use4 ,it is guided by the sense of smell1 in which it rivals the pig2 and like the pig it has a snout of the right shape for digging up a toothsome morsel4 ,with its snout the pig finds and roots out the savory titbit buried in the ground2 the mole in like manner discovers and digs up the plump white worm4 ,to reach it amid a network of roots and under a considerable thickness of soil1 the animal has its fore paws1 which spread out like large strong hands with exceptionally tough nails4 ,these hands--stout shovels which1 if need be1 can open a passage through tufa1 a soft sort of rock--are the mole's principal tools4 ,as the animal advances1 digging with its snout and clearing away with its hands1 the earth is thrown to the rear by its hind feet1 which are much weaker than the hands but strong enough for the far lighter task4 ,if the mole proposes to return by the same road1 the track must be kept clear2 accordingly1 the earth dug up is thrown outside to form mole-hills at intervals4 8,for the present these details will suffice4 ,now let us take up the much-discussed question of the mole's usefulness4 ,should we1 considering the undoubted services it renders us1 let it live in our fields1 or ought we rather1 on account of its destructive digging1 to look upon it as an enemy and wage war on it8 ,most people seem to feel we should make war on it--war to the death4 ,some persons make it a practice to destroy every mole they find and there is small pity bestowed upon the little creature unearthed by the spade4 ,but ,i should like to remind the mole's pitiless enemies that insects do far worse damage1 and that for ridding a field of insects nothing is equal to this bloodthirsty hunter4 ,notwithstanding all opinion to the contrary1 ,i believe that moles in moderate numbers are needed in a field1 that it is unwise to destroy them all4 ,indeed1 experience has proved this4 ,i know of regions where the moles have been hunted down and destroyed until not one was left4 ,now1 do you know what was the result8 ,the white worms multiplied so that they ate up everything in the fields4 ,to get rid of the worms it was necessary to let the moles come back and to let them stay so long as they did not become too numerous4 8,and there is something else to be said for the mole4 ,mole-hills are formed of well-worked earth which1 when spread about with the rake1 is very good for young grass4 ,further1 the creature's subterranean galleries serve as drains for keeping the soil in a sanitary condition1 letting off the extra water just as regular drains would do4 ,on the whole1 then1 after weighing the arguments on both sides1 ,i am of the opinion that the mole ought not to be banished from our fields unless it multiplies to excess40 8,and how about gardens80 queried ,louis4 8,that is another question4 ,in a few hours a mole can almost ruin a garden4 ,who would want such a digger among his growing vegetables8 ,you carefully sow your seeds1 set out your young plants1 even off the ground1 and make water-channels2 the very next morning--plague take the creature6 it has turned everything topsy-turvy4 ,quick1 a spade1 a trap1 and let us get rid of the pest as soon as possible6 ,suppose1 however1 that cutworms and other destructive vermin abound2 shall we gain anything by killing the mole8 ,certainly not4 ,the insects will speedily do more harm than the mole has just wrought2 greater mischief is in store1 and that is all there is about it4 ,if ,i had a garden infested with destructive insects1 here is what ,i should do4 ,in the spring ,i should let loose in my garden half a dozen moles taken alive in the field1 and ,i should then leave them to pursue their hunting in peace4 ,their work done1 the ground cleaned1 ,i should take the moles away40 8,you can catch them whenever you want to80 asked ,louis4 8,nothing easier4 ,you shall see for yourself40 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,mole',s ,,nest--,,the ,,shrew-,,mouse 8,all that you know of the mole's labors is confined to the little mounds of earth1 the mole-hills1 that it throws up1 and the tunnels1 of greater or less extent1 that it bores just beneath the surface of the soil4 ,these tunnels are hunting-trails1 made by the animal in order to search amid the roots for the larv it lives on4 ,if the ground is full of game1 the mole halts there1 probing to right and left1 wherever it smells a grub4 ,if the spot is a poor one it prolongs the tunnel or bores fresh ones hither and thither1 in every direction1 until it finds a place to suit it4 ,but1 however abundant the larv may be1 one vein is soon exhausted1 whereupon the old diggings are abandoned and fresh ones undertaken from day to day4 8,near its hunting-ground1 thus honeycombed with a succession of tunnels as called for1 the mole has a burrow1 a fixed abode1 to which it retires to rest1 sleep1 and rear its young4 ,this burrow is a work of art1 a strong castle1 in the making of which the cautious animal uses great skill1 with a view to the utmost possible security4 ,you must not think ,i am talking about the mole-hills1 which are merely the dirt thrown out in the digging4 ,the mole is never to be found lurking beneath these crumbling hillocks4 8,its dwelling is something quite different4 ,it is underground at a depth of nearly a meter1 usually beneath a hedge1 or at the foot of a wall1 or amid the big roots of some great tree4 ,this natural shelter makes it strong so that it will not cave in4 ,its main part is a chamber 7c7 shaped somewhat like an inverted bottle1 carefully rough-coated with loam and made smooth on the inside4 ,it is furnished with a warm bed of moss and dry grass4 ,that is the mole's resting-place1 its bedroom1 the family nest4 ,two circular tunnels run around it at a distance3 the lower one 7a7 larger1 the upper one 7b7 of lesser diameter4 ,they serve as sentry-posts for the safeguarding of the main chamber4 ,stationed in the upper tunnel1 which is reached by three passages leading from the large chamber1 the mole listens to what is going on outside4 ,if some danger threatens1 half a dozen exits are provided for speedy descent to the lower tunnel1 whence there are numerous outlets for instant flight4 ,these lead in all directions1 but soon bend back and into the main passage 7p74 ,if danger overtakes the mole in its inmost retreat 7c71 it escapes by the tunnel 7h7 which leads out from below1 winds around1 and rejoins the main passage 7p740 8,i get lost in all those tunnels and passages10 said ,emile4 8,the mole's house is very complicated40 8,for us1 perhaps1 but not for the mole4 ,it knows every twist and turn of these winding tunnels1 and can get away at very short notice4 ,you think you can catch it in its home1 but in a twinkling it is gone and you don't know in what direction4 8,the passages for flight1 both those that go in all directions from the lower circular tunnel and those that run straight from the chamber1 all lead finally into the passage marked p1 the entrance-way to the mole's abode2 and this passage is the main one between the large chamber and the hunting-ground1 the permanent highway over which the mole passes to and fro three or four times a day--in fact every time it goes on an expedition or returns home4 ,this passage1 meant to last as long as the dwelling remains in use1 is much more carefully made than the simple burrows bored from day to day as the mole seeks its food3 it is deeper down1 wider1 smooth and well beaten2 no mole-hill is over it2 its covering of earth is solid4 ,yet something betrays it to the searcher's eye4 ,on account of the mole's incessant comings and goings the roots of any plants growing there are more injured than are those over the ordinary tunnels made by the animal2 consequently1 the grass has an unhealthy1 yellowish look4 ,once this passage is known--and the strip of yellow grass points it out--the mole can be caught at any time4 ,a trap is set inside the tunnel4 ,obliged to pass through either to get out or to come in1 the mole cannot fail to be taken sooner or later40 8,that is plain enough10 said ,louis4 8,i see now how easy it would be to catch moles again whenever you want to after they have been let loose in a garden to rid it of insects40 8,to conclude my account of insectivorous animals10 ,uncle ,paul went on1 8,i will now tell you about the very smallest of mammals1 a tiny creature not more than two inches long4 ,this cunning little animal looks somewhat like a mouse1 but is much smaller4 ,the tail is shorter1 the head more tapering1 and the nose ends in a sharper point4 ,the ears are short and rounded4 ,but the coat is almost the same as that of the mouse4 8,the shrew-mouse has the same tastes as the mole3 it is an ardent hunter of small game1 a devourer of larv and insects1 as you can see by its finely serrate teeth4 ,its slender body1 made for squeezing into the smallest hole1 and its long snout1 shaped for prying into the narrowest crannies and crevices1 enable it to go wherever vermin may be lurking4 ,woe to the wood-louse rolled up like a tiny pellet in some crack in the wall1 and to the slug hiding under a stone6 ,the shrew-mouse will have no difficulty in catching them1 being so small that it could make its home in a nutshell4 ,it will not help them to hide1 for the shrew-mouse does not need to see them in order to find them4 ,it detects them by its subtle sense of smell1 and hears them if they make the slightest movement4 ,the burrows of the beetles1 the warrens of the larv1 the lurking-places of the tiniest worms hold no secrets from the shrew-mouse4 ,it might be appropriately called the insects' ferret4 8,these little creatures are to be found in fields and meadows and gardens1 and in winter they come near our houses and make their nests under straw-stacks and dung-heaps4 ,in very cold weather they even find their way into stables1 where they live on cockroaches and wood-lice2 but at the approach of summer they are off again to the open fields1 where they complete the mole's work of extermination4 ,or they may seek some garden1 where they protect the wall-fruit and the vegetable patches from the devouring insect hordes without ever touching any of the growing crops themselves4 ,the teeth of the shrew-mouse are not made for the chewing of vegetable food2 like the mole1 this tiny creature is carnivorous4 ,moreover1 in their hunting-raids1 which are so greatly to our advantage1 shrew-mice never do us the slightest injury of any sort1 as they never bore tunnels1 but merely use the natural cracks in the soil4 ,they cannot be reproached with severing roots or throwing up mounds of earth1 as moles do2 and yet they are perhaps more an object of general execration than the latter4 ,it is considered a praiseworthy act to crush them every time one gets a chance4 8,how has so tiny1 pleasing1 and useful a creature managed thus to incur the hatred of man8 ,we have here1 my children1 another instance of the foolish way we accept the first notion that enters our heads1 without trying to test it by observation and reason4 ,it is said that the shrew-mouse bites horses' feet and leaves incurable wounds4 ,but how can a shrew-mouse1 whose head is at most no larger than a pea1 bite a horse and pierce its hide which is the thickness of a finger or more8 ,again1 they say the shrew-mouse is venomous even for man4 ,some time ago1 children1 ,i told you about the viper4 #b ,you know what its weapons are1--two long1 sharp teeth or fangs having little channels through which it introduces a drop of venom into the wound it inflicts4 ,well1 ,i assure you the shrew-mouse has no weapon like the viper's2 it has neither fangs nor a poison-sac1 but is wholly harmless to man and horse4 ,insects alone need fear its fine teeth1--not that they are poisoned in any way1 but because they crunch their little victims very neatly4 8,i think ,i see why the shrew-mouse has incurred the charge of being venomous4 ,the pretty little creature exhales an odor2 it smells rather strongly of musk4 ,the cat1 taking it for a mouse1 sometimes chases it1 but1 repelled by its odor1 never eats it4 ,the first to observe this fact said to himself3 #8,as the cat does not dare eat it the shrew-mouse must be venomous4' ,ever since then this false belief has passed for truth in the country1 and no one has taken the trouble to look into the matter more closely2 so that the poor little shrew-mouse1 one of our most useful and harmless helpers1 falls a victim to the stupidity of man1 whose gardens it protects40 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,exploit ,,of ,,one-,,eyed ,,john ,it happened one day that ,one-eyed ,john caught an owl in his corn-crib1 and he had just nailed the live bird to his house door as a bandit of the worst kind1 worthy to be exposed to the jeers of all who passed and to dry up on the spot so as to serve as a scarecrow4 ,john was very proud of his deed2 he laughed at the click-clacking of the bird's beak1 at the desperate rolling of the eyes as the owl hung there crucified4 ,its grimaces and contortions1 the convulsive efforts of the wings to free themselves from the big nails that pierced them1 and the fits of impotent rage expressed by the spasmodic working of the talons put him in the best of humors4 ,the children of the neighborhood1 cruel and heartless as is usual at their age1 and still more cruel when grown persons set the sad example1 had gathered before the door and were joining in the laugh at the owl's sufferings4 ,john told them that his neighbor1 old ,annette1 had died two weeks before because the owl came three times in quick succession and hooted on the roof of the house4 8,those creatures10 said he1 8are bad-luck birds4 ,at night they fly into churches and drink the oil out of the lamps2 they perch on the roofs of sick people's houses and foretell their death2 and they snuggle into a hole in the belfry and laugh when the bell tolls for a funeral40 ,all this of course frightened the children4 8,see10 said the youngest1 pressing close to his brother1 8how the owl threatens us with its big red eyes2 it must be awfully wicked40 8,it's so ugly10 said another1 8let's hurt it4 ,that will teach it to laugh when people die1 and to drink oil out of the holy lamps4 ,john1 put its eyes out with this pointed stick1 it looks at us so wickedly2 and put this piece of glass in its claws so that it will cut its fingers40 ,and thus each one did what he could to harm the helpless creature2 each tried to invent some new torture for it4 ,just then ,louis happened to come along1 and the children called to him to join them in tormenting the owl4 ,more merciful than his comrades1 especially since he had fallen into the way of visiting ,uncle ,paul's house1 ,louis turned his eyes away from this frightful spectacle and begged ,john to end the bird's agony instead of making it suffer still further tortures4 ,but the boy's entreaties were all in vain1 and he went away much distressed4 ,as he was going home he recalled something ,uncle ,paul had said in one of his talks2 he had told the boys that when the ignorant crowd agrees to call a thing black it is always well to see whether after all the thing may not be white4 8,here is ,one-eyed ,john10 said ,louis to himself1 8,one-eyed ,john1 known all about here for his ignorance2 he has never in his life opened a book1 and he glories in the fact2 he can't sign his name2 and he rejects with mulish obstinacy every wise suggestion4 ,at this very moment he is urging on the children against that poor owl he has just nailed to his door1 and to make them think there is some reason why he should be so cruel he tells them it is a graveyard bird1 a bad-luck bird that brings misfortune to people4 ,according to his account the owl is an evil creature1 full of malice1 and deserves no pity4 ,we must punish it for its wickedness1 make it suffer torments as an example to others of its kind1 and put it to death without mercy4 ,but what if just the opposite of all this should be true8 ,what if the owl were really a harmless creature or even a very useful one and worthy of our protection8 ,i must find out40 ,accordingly1 that evening at ,uncle ,paul's this was the first thing he asked about4 ,at ,louis's description of the tortured owl ,uncle ,paul at once recognized its species4 8,the bird that ,john thought he must nail alive to his door10 said he1 8is the belfry-owl1 also called the barn-owl4 ,the unfortunate creature in no way deserved the frightful treatment it received4 ,i pity it for having fallen into hands made cruel by ignorance4 ,stupidity and malice go together1 they say2 and it is very true4 ,he who is ignorant is deliberately cruel4 ,wild and foolish things are said against the barn-owl1 and ,john repeated them4 ,having heard them from some one else1 he now1 in his turn1 passes them on to the street urchins who were so eager to put out the bird's eyes4 ,it is not true that the barn-owl flies into churches and drinks the oil from the lamp that is kept lighted night and day in the sanctuary2 it is not true that it laughs when it hears the passing-bell2 it is not true that its hooting on the roof of a house means that some one in the house will soon die4 ,false are all the sayings about its evil influence and its predictions of misfortune1 and any one who believes these absurd stories simply shows that he has no common sense4 ,we are in ,god's hands1 my children1 and ,god alone knows when our last hour is to come4 ,let us pity those feeble-minded persons who believe the owl knows this tremendous secret2 let us pity them1 but never let us abuse our reasoning powers by believing that an owl1 in expressing after its own fashion1 on some house-roof1 its satisfaction at having caught a mouse1 is solemnly foretelling what is going to happen4 ,uncle ,paul's nephews must henceforth pay not the slightest attention to any such superstitious notions4 ,let us go on4 8,what would you say of ,john if he had taken it into his head to kill his cat by nailing the animal to the door by its fore paws80 8,i should say10 answered ,louis1 8that if rats ever ate him up it would serve him right40 8,what you saw him doing amounts to about the same thing3 he was torturing one of the very best destroyers of mice1 a bird in form1 a cat in habits4 ,the barn-owl went into the corn-crib to guard the poor man's wheat from rats1 and ,john1 a prey to superstitious hatred and never thinking of the service the owl was doing him1 made haste to nail the useful bird to his door4 8,what strange wrong-headedness is it that makes us all1 as a rule1 destroy the animals that help us most8 ,almost all our helpers are persecuted4 ,their good will must be very strong1 else our ill treatment would long ago have driven them forever from our dwellings and fields4 ,bats rid us of a host of enemies1 but none the less we look upon them with dislike4 ,the mole and the shrew-mouse purge the soil of vermin1 and we dislike them1 too4 ,the hedgehog makes war on vipers and white worms1 and we make war on him4 ,the owl and various other night-birds are fine rat-hunters1 but that does not save them from mistreatment4 ,still other animals that ,i will tell you about later do the most useful work for us1 and we persecute them all4 ,they are ugly1 people say1 and for no other reason they are killed4 ,but1 blind slayers1 shall you not at last have your eyes opened to the fact that because of an unreasonable dislike you have sacrificed your own defenders8 ,you complain of rats--and you nail the owl to your door1 where you let its carcass dry up1 a hideous trophy6 ,you complain of the white worms--and you crush the mole every time the spade brings one to light4 ,you rip up the hedgehog and set your dogs on him just for fun4 ,you complain of the ravages of moths in your granaries1 and if a bat falls into your hands you seldom spare it4 ,you complain1 and yet you mistreat all the animals that offer to help you4 ,blind you are and sadly misguided in your wanton cruelty4 8,regarded merely as it affects his own interests1 it is a pitiful piece of work that ,john has done1 but it is far more pitiful in respect to the tortures he has inflicted on the bird4 ,it is not the mark of a man but of a brute to take pleasure in torturing an animal4 ,it is a wicked act and one that good men despise2 ignorance is the cause of the act1 but ignorance is not an excuse4 ,if an animal is harmful to us1 let us get rid of it by killing it1 but let us never think of inflicting needless pain1 of causing suffering simply for suffering's sake4 ,that would be to smother in ourselves one of the noblest of sentiments1 compassion2 it would mean the arousing of savage instincts1 which too often lead to crime4 ,he who finds his pleasure in torturing dumb animals cannot take pity on the suffering of his own kind2 his heart is hardened and prone to evil4 ,how ,i pity those poor children who stood by and laughed at the barn-owl's horrible sufferings1 and who1 led on by the man's example1 helped to put out the wretched bird's eyes6 ,how ,i pity them6 ,let them beware1 let their parents take heed1 for there is a bad streak in them40 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,nocturnal ,,birds ,,of ,,prey 8,the barn-owl1 the horned owl1 the gray owl1 the white owl1 and other similar birds are known under the general name of nocturnal birds of prey4 ,they are called birds of prey because they live by hunting game of various sorts1 especially such rodents as rats and mice4 ,they are among birds what the cat is among mammals1 untiring destroyers of those fur-covered creatures of which the mouse is the most familiar example to you4 ,our language has long since taken note of this resemblance in habits by coining the name chat-huant hooting cat1 which is applied to some of these birds4 ,they are cats that fly1 that hoot1 or1 in other words1 that utter cries like mournful howls of distress4 ,also1 they are nocturnal2 that is1 they remain during the day in some obscure hiding-place1 which they leave only at nightfall to hunt in the twilight and moonlight4 8,their eyes are very large and round and are placed in the front of the head instead of one on each side4 ,a wide ring of fine feathers encircles each eye4 ,the need for these enormous eyes is plainly seen in the birds' nocturnal habits4 ,being obliged to seek their food in a very feeble light1 they must1 in order to see with any distinctness1 have eyes that admit as much light as possible2 that is1 the eyes must be such as can open wide4 8,but this development of the organs of sight1 so useful in the night-time1 is a serious inconvenience in the bright light of day4 ,dazzled1 blinded by the sun's rays1 the bird of darkness stays in some safe hole and dares not come out4 ,if obliged to issue forth1 it does so with extreme caution for fear of hurting itself4 ,it wings its way with hesitation and in short slow flights4 ,other birds1 birds of the day1 seeing its uncertainty and awkwardness1 come and vie with one another in offering insults to the clumsy stranger4 ,the redbreast and the tomtit are among the first to hasten to the scene1 followed by the finch1 the blackbird1 the jay1 the thrush1 and many others4 ,perched on a branch1 the night-bird receives the aggressors with a grotesque balancing of its body1 turning its big head this way and that in a ridiculous manner and rolling its great eyes as if thinking thus to terrify its persecutors4 ,but all in vain4 ,the smallest and weakest are the boldest in tormenting it2 they assault their victim with beak and claw1 pulling out its feathers before the hapless bird can muster courage to defend itself40 8,just think10 said ,emile1 8of a teasing tomtit and a saucy redbreast making sport of an owl blinded by the sun6 ,why do they behave so80 8,from motives of revenge4 ,the owl loses no opportunity to gobble up those little birds in the night1 and shows no more compunction over it than if they were nothing but common mice4 ,therefore what a frolic it is for the little winged people when by good luck the night-bird strays into the light of day6 ,the pecks fall thick as hail on the sufferer's back1 and it is nearly deafened with shrill screams of triumph and insulting cries of hatred4 ,the redbreast pulls out a feather1 the tomtit threatens the enemy's eyes1 the jay overwhelms it with abuse4 ,the whole grove is in an uproar4 ,but beware when night closes in2 then the boldest will lose courage4 ,these same saucy little birds1 that come in the daytime and insult the owl1 flee from it in wild alarm as soon as darkness allows it to move about and use its powerful talons and hooked beak40 8,the redbreast had better get out of the owl's way when the owl can see10 said ,emile2 8it would pay dearly if it tried then to pull out a feather40 8,on account of the great size of their eyes1 nocturnal birds of prey require a soft light like that of dawn and nightfall4 ,consequently1 they leave their lurking-places to hunt for prey either soon after sunset or just before dawn4 ,then it is that their raids are most likely to be successful1 for they find the small animals either fast asleep or on the point of falling asleep4 ,moonlight nights are the best for their purposes2 those are their nights of veritable joy and feasting1 when they can hunt for hours at a time and lay in large supplies of choice provisions4 ,but when there is no moon they have only one scant hour in the early morning and another in the evening for hunting4 ,that means they must fast for hours and that is why they are so greedy when they can get as much food as they want40 8,they are very silly to fast like that10 ,emile declared4 8,in their place ,i should hunt all night1 even without a moon40 8,you say that because you think the owl can see clearly in the blackest darkness4 ,but you are mistaken4 ,to see1 we must not merely direct our gaze toward the object to be seen2 we must receive into our eyes the light reflected from that object4 ,in the act of seeing1 nothing goes out from us2 everything comes to us from the thing seen4 ,we do not really throw our glance toward any given object2 it is the object that throws its light toward us2 or if it does not throw any light1 it is for that reason invisible4 ,what ,i am now saying about human beings applies to all animals4 ,not one1 absolutely not one1 can see in the absence of light40 8,i had always thought10 said ,louis1 8that cats could see in pitch-darkness40 8,others think so too1 but they are much mistaken4 ,the cat can no more distinguish objects1 if light is totally lacking1 than any other creature can4 ,it has an advantage over us1 ,i grant you3 it has large eyes1 the pupils of which it can contract and almost close when it finds itself exposed to a bright light that would otherwise dazzle it1 or open wide to receive more of the feeble light diffused in a dark room4 ,these large eyes enable it to find its way in places which to us1 with our poorer sight1 seem pitch-dark4 ,but in reality the darkness is not complete where a cat can manage to see well enough for its purposes4 ,if light is totally lacking1 the cat may open its eyes as wide as possible1 but it will see nothing1 absolutely nothing4 ,in this particular1 nocturnal birds do not differ from the cat3 their large eyes1 made for seeing in a dim light1 can see nothing whatever when the night is perfectly dark4 8,now let us follow the bird in its hunt4 ,the night is a fine one for hunting2 the air is calm1 the moon shining4 ,the hunt begins with a lugubrious war-cry4 ,at that dreaded signal the tomtit hardly feels safe even in the deepest hollow of its tree1 the redbreast trembles beneath its shelter of thick foliage1 and the finch loses its head with fright4 ,god of the weak1 ,god of the little birds1 protect them now6 ,make the owl1 enraged as it still is from the insults of the day1 miss them in its search6 ,blessed be ,thy holy name if the rapacious bird turns in some other direction6 ,it skirts the groves and skims over the open plain and the plowed fields4 ,it inspects the furrows where the field-mouse crouches1 the stretches of grass-land where the mole burrows1 the tumble-down buildings in which rats and mice scamper to and fro4 ,its flight is silent1 its soft wings cleaving the air without making the slightest sound to awaken its intended victims4 ,this noiselessness of flight is due to the structure of the bird's feathers1 which are soft as silk and of finest texture4 ,nothing gives warning of its sudden coming3 the prey is seized even before it has suspected the nearness of the enemy4 ,the owl1 on the contrary1 with its exceptional acuteness of hearing1 is kept informed of all that is going on in the neighborhood1 its large1 deep ears detecting even the rustle of a field-mouse in the grass4 ,if the mouse begins to nibble a rootlet or a grain of wheat1 the bird hears the sound of its incisors and pounces on it immediately4 8,the prey is seized by two strong claws warmly gloved in down as far as the roots of the nails4 ,each foot has four toes1 three pointing habitually forward1 and one backward2 but1 by a privilege peculiar to nocturnal birds of prey1 one of the front toes is movable and can be turned back so that the set of talons is divided into two pairs of equal power whenever the bird wishes to grip1 as in a vise1 the branch on which it perches1 or the victim struggling in its grasp4 ,one blow of the beak breaks the head of the captured creature4 ,this beak is short and very hooked4 ,the two mandibles move with great ease1 which enables them1 in striking against each other1 to give out a sharp rattling sound or clicking by which the bird expresses anger or fright4 ,they stretch wide at the moment of swallowing1 exposing a big opening leading into a very large gullet4 ,when they are thus opened1 the prey1 which has already been kneaded into a compact mass between the claws1 disappears entirely as if swallowed up by an abyss4 ,all goes down1 including bones and hair4 ,not a trace is left of the field-mouse1 not even its coat of fur4 ,but a single victim is seldom enough1 and so the hunt continues4 ,more mice follow the first one1 and all are first killed by a peck on the head1 all are swallowed whole4 ,if the bird chances upon a fat beetle1 he does not disdain it4 ,it is a small mouthful1 to be sure1 but highly flavored with spices that will aid digestion4 ,at last1 having eaten all it possibly can1 the owl returns to its lodging in the hollow of some rock1 or in a decayed tree trunk1 or in some ruined building4 8,now follows digestion4 ,motionless in the quiet of its peaceful solitude1 the bird gently closes its eyes to dream of the fine exploits it has just achieved and to plan others for the following night4 ,its slumbers are deep and long4 ,in the meantime the stomach does its work4 ,the food swallowed without any preparation or sorting must be divided into two parts1 that which is really nutritious and that which is worthless4 ,with the aid of its gastric juice the stomach carefully separates the bones and skins from the nutritious part of its contents4 ,the flesh thus made semi-fluid disappears1 to be converted into blood1 and a confused mass remains1 composed of skins turned inside out and wearing all their fur1 bones as clean as if they had been scraped with a knife1 and the hard wing-covers of beetles4 ,this bulky mass could not be passed on by the stomach without danger4 ,how then will the bird get rid of it8 ,let us watch and find out4 ,ah1 the owl is waking up6 ,grotesque heavings of the body denote trouble within4 ,the disturbance increases1 something ascends through the outstretched neck1 the beak opens1 and it is all over3 there drops to the ground a ball containing skins1 bones1 scales1 fur1 feathers--in fact1 the entire mass of indigestible matter4 8,all nocturnal birds of prey practise this undignified method of freeing the stomach3 they throw up in a ball the rejected remnants of what they have swallowed whole4 ,if you ever find yourself near an owl's retreat1 examine the ground beneath it3 the balls of little bones and hair will tell you from how many mice and other rodents of all kinds these birds deliver us40 8,i have seen some of those balls near a rock all white with bird-dung10 said ,louis4 8,some owl certainly lived there4 ,it was responsible for the dung and the balls of refuse that you saw40 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,rats 8,let us return for a moment to the rodents1 the habitual prey of the night-birds4 ,you do not know them all1 by any means1 but we ought not to pass them by2 for if some1 like the hare and the rabbit1 are useful to us1 still more are very destructive4 ,you remember those two pairs of incisors1 so long and sharp1 that ,i told you about when ,i described the rabbit's teeth4 ,all rodents have similar incisors4 ,to keep them sharp and prevent them from overlapping too much by growing too long1 which would make it impossible for the animal to feed itself1 the rodent must wear them down by constant friction as fast as they grow4 ,consequently1 these terrible incisors have1 so to speak1 no rest2 they must always be nibbling something1 no matter what4 ,thus the harm they do us is much greater than you would suspect from the size of the animal4 ,how much actual food does a mouse need for one meal8 ,very little1 unquestionably4 ,a mouse is so small that a single nut will fill its stomach4 ,don't think1 however1 that one day's ravages are confined to that one nut4 ,after the nut is eaten1 the animal will proceed1 perhaps1 to gnaw a hole in a bag1 reduce a piece of cloth to tatters1 chew up a book1 or drill a hole in a board1 simply and solely to whet its teeth4 ,and the damage caused by rats and mice in our dwelling-houses is matched by other damage caused by other rodents in the fields4 ,you must make the acquaintance of all these destroyers40 8,for my part10 ,jules confessed1 8,i shouldn't1 if ,i saw it1 know the field-mouse that you told us about in your talk on night-birds40 8,i know rats and mice such as we have in the house10 said ,emile1 8but that's all40 8,and yet10 rejoined his uncle1 8,i very much doubt whether you have any real knowledge of the rat4 ,i will begin with it4 8,the common or black rat is more than twice the size of a mouse4 ,its coat is nearly black above1 and ashy gray underneath4 ,it lives in granaries1 thatched roofs1 and abandoned ruins4 ,if it fails to find a lodging to its taste1 it burrows a hole for itself4 ,it is not a native with us1 but is thought to have come from ,asia in the wake of the armies returning from the ,crusades4 ,to-day the common rat is seldom mentioned in our country2 another foreign rodent has come in1 the ,norway or brown rat1 which1 being larger than the common rat1 has waged war against it and almost wiped out the species4 ,we have not gained by the exchange2 quite the contrary1 the ,norway rat being a much more troublesome creature4 ,the true rat1 the black rat1 is rare now1 especially where the other abounds2 and that is why ,i doubt that any one of you is familiar with it4 ,what you call a rat is more than likely to be one of these ,norwegian invaders4 ,don't forget the color--black--and you will have no difficulty in recognizing the true rat4 8,the mouse is much more familiar to you4 ,it has been known from the earliest times all over the world4 ,need ,i describe this little rodent1 so well known for its liveliness1 its wily nature1 and its extreme timidity1 which makes it scuttle away to its hole at the slightest alarm80 8,we all know the mouse very well10 ,jules assured him4 8,the ,norway or brown rat1 also known as the sewer-rat1 is the largest and most troublesome of all ,european rats4 ,it attains a length of nearly a foot1 without counting the tail1 which is scaly like the mouse's and a little shorter than the body4 ,the largest and strongest ,norway rat can cope with a cat4 ,its presence in ,europe dates only from the middle of the eighteenth century1 and it seems to have been brought from ,india in the hold of ships1 which it commonly infests4 ,it has now spread all over the world4 ,its coat is reddish brown above and ashy gray underneath4 8,norway rats frequent storehouses1 cellars1 sewers1 slaughter-houses1 and dumping grounds4 ,everything is food to these filthy and audacious creatures1 and they even dare to attack a sleeping man4 ,in large towns they multiply so fast as to cause serious alarm4 ,the vicinity of the slaughter-house of ,montfaucon in ,paris is so undermined with their innumerable burrows that the buildings there are in danger of collapsing4 ,to preserve them from this disaster it is necessary to protect their foundation against the attacks of the rodents by means of a deep enclosing belt of broken glass bottles40 8,what attracts them in such numbers to these places80 asked ,jules4 8,the abundance of food1 the dead bodies of slaughtered horses4 ,in one night1 if left in the slaughter-house yards1 dead horses are devoured to the skeleton4 ,during severe frosts if the skin is not removed in time the ,norway rats get inside the body1 stay there1 and eat all the flesh1 so that when a thaw comes and the workmen begin to skin the animal1 they find inside the skin nothing but a host of rats swarming among the bare bones40 8,but don't the people there have any cats to protect them80 asked ,emile4 8,cats6 ,the ,norway rats would eat them alive1 my boy1 in no time4 ,they have something better1 however--dogs1 both terriers and bulldogs1 that run the rats down in the sewers with astonishing cleverness and break their back with one bite4 ,the bulldog--that's the kind of cat you need for such mice4 ,this hunt in the sewer1 moreover1 must be frequently repeated1 for ,norway rats multiply with frightful rapidity1 and if we were not careful the town would sooner or later be endangered2 the horrible creature1 strong in its numbers1 would devour all ,paris4 ,in ,december of the year #ahdi two hundred and fifty thousand rats were destroyed in a few days as the result of a single hunt4 8,in the country the ,norway rat frequents the banks of foul streams2 it enters kitchens through sink-holes2 it gets into hen-houses and rabbit-warrens by undermining the walls4 ,it haunts cellars and stables1 but rarely makes its way into high granaries1 doubtless because of its liking for filthy drainage and any kind of offal1 which can be found only on ground floors and in basements4 ,it pounces upon eggs and young fowls1 and even has the boldness to suck the blood of full-grown poultry and rabbits4 ,when it cannot get animal food1 which is its first choice1 it will eat grain and vegetables of all kinds4 ,no sort of food is rejected by this filthy glutton4 ,to get rid of it you can hardly count on the cat1 for usually pussy is afraid to attack it4 ,nor are night-birds strong enough to battle with it1 except the eagle-owl1 which does not abound in any numbers4 ,the trap and poison are our only remaining means of overcoming this redoubtable foe4 8,the field-mouse is a little larger than the ordinary mouse4 ,its coat1 which closely resembles that of the ,norway rat1 is reddish brown above and white underneath4 ,its eyes are large and prominent1 its ears nearly black1 and its feet white4 ,its tail1 which is very long1 like that of the common mouse1 is thinly covered with hair and is black toward the end4 ,the field-mouse frequents woods1 hedges1 fields1 and gardens4 ,it cuts down the stalks of grain to get at the ears1 of which it nibbles a few kernels and wastefully scatters the rest4 ,in its quest for food it unearths newly planted seeds1 takes a taste of the young shoots that have just come up1 gnaws the bark of shrubs1 and feasts on growing vegetables4 ,its ravages are all the more serious because it lays up provisions against a time of need4 ,in storage chambers more than a foot underground1 beneath some tree trunk or rock1 it collects grain1 hazelnuts1 acorns1 almonds1 and chestnuts1 often going a considerable distance to get them4 ,one such store-room is not enough2 it must have several1 for it has a way of foolishly forgetting where its treasure is buried4 ,in winter the field-mouse ventures to approach our houses and makes its way into our cellars where fruit and vegetables are kept1 or it establishes itself in great numbers in our granaries4 8,the dwarf rat or harvest-mouse is the smallest rodent of ,france4 ,it is a graceful creature1 smaller than the common mouse1 and of a yellowish tawny color1 which is brighter on the rump than elsewhere2 but the belly1 breast1 and throat are a beautiful white1 and the tail and feet a light yellow4 ,the ears1 which stand out but very little beyond the fur of the head1 are rounded and hairy1 and the eyes are prominent4 ,the dwarf rat lives exclusively in grain-fields and feeds on grain4 ,after the harvest it takes refuge in the stacks of grain1 especially in oat-stacks1 but is never bold enough to enter houses4 ,i am telling you about this pretty little rodent not so much because ,i begrudge it the few grains of oats it steals from us as because ,i wish to acquaint you with its nest4 8,other rats rear their young either in a hole in a rock or a wall or in a burrow dug for the purpose4 ,the harvest-mouse1 however1 scorns these stifling quarters2 it must have an arial nest like that built by birds4 ,so it brings together several wheat-stalks as they stand in the field1 interlaces them with bits of straw1 and builds1 half-way up from the ground1 a nest as beautifully made as any bird's4 ,this nest is spherical1 interwoven with leaves on the outside and padded with moss on the inside4 ,it has only one little side opening1 through which the rain cannot enter4 ,suspended at the height of several feet on the flexible support of the grain stalks1 it swings to and fro with the slightest wind40 8,how1 then10 asked ,emile1 8does the little mouse manage to get in and out of its nest80 8,it climbs up one of the stalks1 being so small that this serves it perfectly as a ladder40 8,if ,i ever come across a harvest-mouse ,i sha'n't have the heart to do it any harm4 ,it may go on eating oats in its pretty little nest1 for all ,i care2 ,i sha'n't try to stop it40 8,here10 concluded ,uncle ,paul1 8,i will end my account of the chief representatives of the rat family in these regions4 ,they are five in number3 the black rat1 the mouse1 the ,norway rat1 the field-mouse1 and the harvest-mouse40 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,meadow-,,mice #c--;,,hamsters--,,dormice 8,another kind of rodent now calls for our attention3 it is the family of meadow-mice1 commonly confounded with rats4 ,meadow-mice are easily recognized by their short1 slightly hairy tail4 8,the meadow-mouse is about as large as a common mouse4 ,its coat is of a yellowish hue mixed with gray above and dirty white underneath4 ,the tail is only one-quarter as long as the body4 ,the eyes are large and prominent1 the ears rounded1 hairy1 and standing out but little from the fur4 ,the head is large and less pointed than that of the ordinary mouse4 8,in its rapid and abundant breeding the meadow-mouse is one of the farmer's chief foes4 ,it overruns grain-fields especially1 cutting down the stalks to nibble the ears4 ,after harvest it attacks clover roots1 carrots1 potatoes1 and the products in general of our kitchen-gardens4 ,in winter it digs under the furrows to eat the seeds sown there4 ,if the soil is so frost-bound as not to permit it to reach the buried seed1 it retires to the stacks of grain1 where it does great damage4 ,it never makes its way into our dwellings4 ,meadow-mice appear to emigrate from one country to another in colonies when the country they have ravaged can no longer supply them with food2 at any rate1 from time to time1 once or twice in a decade1 they suddenly appear in countless droves that are a real scourge to the country visited4 ,the best destroyers of these creatures are nocturnal birds of prey1 as is proved by the presence of their skulls1 bones1 and skins in the balls that are thrown up by these birds after digestion4 ,some say diurnal birds of prey1 buzzards in particular1 are equally fond of them4 ,it is not at all uncommon to find in a buzzard's crop as many as ten or more meadow-mice4 8,the underground meadow-mouse is much less common in ,france than the one just described1 from which it differs in its gray-and-blackish coat1 its somewhat smaller tail1 and its tiny eyes4 ,but the greatest difference is in its habits4 ,the first-mentioned lives in the fields1 especially in grain-fields1 while the second frequents meadows and kitchen-gardens4 ,it feeds on various kinds of vegetables1 such as celery1 artichokes1 carrots1 potatoes1 and cardoons4 ,it seldom shows itself out of its underground tunnels1 and on account of its habit of lurking beneath the surface it is called the underground meadow-mouse4 8,the amphibian meadow-mouse is commonly known by the name of water-rat4 ,we can easily tell it from the black rat1 which is of about the same size1 by its red coat1 its short tail 7which is not quite half the length of its body71 and its larger and less pointed head4 ,it burrows under the banks of streams1 ditches1 and marshes1 where it feeds chiefly on roots1 but does not disdain small fish when it can catch them4 ,it is a good swimmer and diver4 ,sometimes it makes its way into kitchen-gardens1 where it does the same sort of harm as the underground meadow-mouse1 and into orchards1 where it gnaws the base of young trees4 8,the lemming is never seen around here4 ,it frequents the coasts of the ,arctic ,ocean in ,norway and ,lapland4 ,i will tell you something about it on account of its curious way of traveling from one country to another1 of which our meadow-mouse offers us a far less striking example4 ,the lemming1 with its very short and hairy tail1 its big head1 and its stocky body1 has the appearance of a small rabbit4 ,its coat is red marbled with black and brown4 8,at the approach of severe cold weather1 and sometimes with no apparent reason1 the lemmings leave their haunts in the high mountain chains of ,norway and set out on a long journey toward the sea4 ,the emigrating horde1 composed of myriads of individuals1 trot in a straight line over all obstacles1 never allowing themselves to be turned from their course4 ,in traveling in a line1 one after another1 says ,linnus1 the great ,swedish naturalist1 they trace straight parallel furrows1 two or three fingers deep and several ells apart4 ,they devour everything eatable that obstructs their passage1 all roots and herbage4 ,nothing turns them from their course4 ,let a man appear in their path1 and they slip between his legs4 ,if they come to a haystack they gnaw a tunnel through it2 reaching a rock1 they skirt it in a semicircle and then resume their original direction4 ,should a lake be encountered on their route1 they swim across it in a straight line1 however wide it may be4 ,if a boat is in their way in the middle of a body of water1 they clamber over it and jump into the water again on the other side4 ,a swiftly flowing river does not stop them3 they plunge into the foaming current even if they all perish40 8,they must be very obstinate10 said ,emile1 8to prefer to drown rather than turn their procession out of a straight line40 8,animals sometimes show these examples of obstinacy1 which we cannot understand1 but which might easily be explained if we knew the motives that make them act thus4 ,perhaps by deviating from a straight line the lemmings might lose their way1 a way provided with no finger-posts1 but indicated simply by instinct4 ,however1 we will leave them to pursue their long pilgrimage1 from which few will return1 so numerous are the dangers and the enemies awaiting them on the way4 ,let them cross their rivers and lakes while we return to the rodents of ,france4 8,the hamster abounds in central ,europe1 notably in ,alsace4 ,it is also called the ,strasbourg marmot or rye pig4 ,it is almost as large as the black rat1 but is more stocky4 ,its tail is short and hairy1 its fur red on the back1 black under the belly1 with yellowish spots on the flanks1 a white spot on the throat1 and another on each shoulder4 8,hamsters live on roots1 fruit1 and especially cereals1 of which they store up a large supply4 ,each animal digs a burrow composed of several rooms1 the largest of which is used as a granary4 ,there they store rye and wheat1 beans and peas1 vetch and linseed4 ,the hamster hoards like a miser1 laying up far more than it will ever need1 simply for the satisfaction of hoarding4 ,in some of its store-rooms as much as two hundredweight of provisions may be found4 ,what can a creature no bigger than your fist do with all these supplies8 ,winter comes1 and the hamster shuts itself up in its underground quarters1 assured of food and lodging1 and grows big and fat4 ,if the cold is very severe it goes to sleep like the marmot40 8,and what about the two hundredweight of grain collected1 a kernel at a time80 queried ,emile4 8,the whole supply simply spoils and is so much waste2 but little does the hamster care2 he begins all over again the next year4 ,the animal's special business is1 first and foremost1 to ravage fields1 as is proved by the pile of grain it stores up1 out of all proportion to its needs4 ,it hoards food to destroy it1 far more than to be sure of something to eat1 being very different in this way from most hibernating animals4 ,in the midst of all its stores of food1 if the winter is very cold1 it is overtaken by the same torpor that saves the hedgehog and the bat from death by starvation4 ,this miser has not even the excuse of want4 ,happy are those regions that it does not rob6 ,let us pass on to other rodents40 8,there are1 then1 still more of these greedy animals80 ,jules inquired4 8,yes2 they are somewhat like insects3 after they are all gone there are still some left4 ,the world seems to be a pasture delivered over to the mandibles of larv and the incisors of rodents4 8,dormice1 of many varieties1 live in the woods and orchards and eat fruit4 ,these rodents have the agility1 elegance of form1 and rich fur of squirrels4 ,they make their home in hollow tree trunks1 holes in walls1 and crannies in rocks4 ,during the winter1 when fruit is lacking1 they remain in a deep sleep4 8,the dormouse proper is found in ,provence and ,roussillon4 ,it is a pretty creature1 reminding one of the squirrel4 ,its tail is long and thickly covered with hair2 its fur ashy brown on the back and whitish under the belly4 ,at night it ravages the fruit-trees1 and no one knows better how to pick out the pear1 the peach1 or the plum at just the right stage of ripeness4 ,you have1 let us suppose1 looked over your fruit with satisfaction and decided to give it one more day of sunshine to bring it to perfection4 ,the next morning you go out to gather the harvest and1 lo and behold1 it is gone2 the dormouse has been there before you4 8,the garden dormouse is smaller1 being about as large as the black rat4 ,its coat is a pleasing mixture of red1 white1 and black1 the back being red1 the belly1 paws1 cheeks1 and shoulders white1 and the parts about the eyes and down the sides of the neck black4 ,this animal is scattered all over ,france4 ,it lurks about dwellings1 in gardens1 and among vines and shrubbery1 living chiefly on fruit1 which it ruins in great quantities1 tasting first one choice specimen and then another1 without finishing any of them4 ,garden dormice spend the winter several in one hole1 where they sleep all curled up amid the supplies of walnuts1 almonds1 and hazelnuts that they have laid up40 8,then if they sleep10 said ,emile1 8they don't need any food40 8,pardon me1 my boy2 they do need food1 and badly1 though not while sleeping1 but when they wake up4 ,this awakening takes place at the beginning of spring1 when the sun is first warming up the earth4 ,at that time of year there is no fruit to be had2 and the garden dormice1 after their fast of several months1 have a tremendous appetite1 as you can easily imagine4 ,what would become of them now1 poor little things1 if it were not for their supply of nuts80 8,those little dormice are very prudent10 ,emile remarked4 8,they know that at the end of their long winter's sleep they won't find any fruit in the orchards1 and so they lay up provisions beforehand4 ,but why don't they put by apples and pears if they are so fond of them80 8,because apples and pears would spoil1 whereas almonds and hazelnuts keep very well40 8,that's so4 ,i hadn't thought of that1 but the little dormouse had40 8,no1 it does not think of it1 either4 ,it does not know that pears spoil and nuts keep1 because it has never tried to keep pears4 ,it does not foresee that when it wakes up1 the fruit-trees will not be bearing fruit1 will hardly have their first leaves2 it does not know how long it would have to wait to find a pear to nibble2 it knows nothing of all these things1 which it is now about to become aware of1 perhaps for the first time1 through experience4 ,some one else thinks for the dormouse and gives it the prudence to store up nuts in a hole in the wall2 some one who understands1 foresees1 and knows everything4 ,and that some one is ,god1 the ,father of the man who plants the pear-tree1 and ,father also of the little dormouse that is so fond of pears40 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,horned ,,owls 8,we have glanced in a cursory way at a number of our rodents that are harmful to crops4 ,i pass over in silence the pretty squirrel1 a lover of walnuts and beechnuts1 and the industrious beaver1 an animal which may still be found1 here and there1 along the ,rhone4 ,the hare and the rabbit1 too1 ,i willingly give over to the hunter's rifle4 ,what protection have we from the devouring hunger of the others--the rats1 the field-mice1 and the meadow-mice8 ,how are we to hold them in check8 ,in our homes we have the cat2 outside we have the army of feathered cats--the nocturnal birds of prey4 ,i will divide these latter into two classes1 to make it easier to distinguish the various species4 ,one has the head adorned with two tufts of feathers--plumicorns is the term sometimes used--while the other class lacks this ornament4 ,horned owls come under the first classification2 hornless owls1 or those that may be called simply owls1 come under the second4 8,the largest of the horned owls is the eagle-owl4 #8,it can easily be recognized1' says ,buffon1 #8by its burly form1 its enormous head1 its large and cavernous ears1 the two egrets surmounting its head to a height of more than two inches and a half1 its short hooked beak1 black in color1 its great clear eyes with their fixed gaze and large black pupils1 encircled by an orange-colored ruff of feathers1 and its face surrounded by hairs--or1 rather1 little rudimentary white feathers bordering a ring of other little feathers that are curled--also by its black hooked claws of great strength1 its very short neck1 its reddish brown plumage spotted with black and yellow on the back1 its feet covered with thick down and reddish feathers to the very roots of the nails1 and1 finally1 its hair-raising cry of whee-hoo1 hoo-hoo1 hoo-hoo1 poo-hoo1 which it sends forth in the silence of the night when all the rest of the world is still4 ,then it is that it awakens its intended victims1 fills them with vague alarm1 pursues and catches them1 and carries them off to the caverns where it has its hiding-place4 ,it lives among the rocks or in old deserted towers in the mountains1 rarely descending into the plains and never willingly perching on trees1 but rather on the roof of some sequestered church or ancient castle4 ,its favorite prey consists of young hares1 little rabbits1 field-mice1 and rats1 of which it digests the fleshy substance and throws up the hair1 bones1 and skin in round balls4 ,the eagle-owl makes its nest in some rocky cave or in a hole in some lofty old wall4 ,its nest is nearly three feet in diameter1 and is made of small dry branches interwoven with flexible roots and padded with leaves inside4 ,only one or two1 or rarely as many as three1 eggs are found in this nest4 ,in color they somewhat resemble the bird's plumage1 and in size they are larger than hens' eggs4'0 8,those two things like horns that the eagle-owl has on its head--are they ears80 asked ,emile4 8,no1 my boy1 they are egrets1 upstanding feathers that give the bird a warlike appearance4 ,its ears are not visible1 being hidden by the plumage4 ,they are very large and deep1 which explains why the eagle-owl's hearing is so wonderfully acute40 8,the eagle-owl10 ,louis here observed1 8eats field-mice and rats1 for which it is to be thanked2 but it also eats young hares and young rabbits4 ,isn't that a pity80 8,for the hunter1 ,i admit2 but for the farmer it is quite another thing4 ,don't forget that the hare and the rabbit belong to the order of rodents2 they have incisors which spare nothing in the fields4 ,if they were left to breed in peace they would prove a serious menace to our crops4 ,history tells of countries so ravaged by rabbits that it became necessary to send an army to help the inhabitants get rid of them4 ,we shall never reach that condition1 ,i am sure2 but it is no cause for regret that the eagle-owl1 jointly with the hunter1 keeps the animals within tolerable bounds4 ,moreover1 the bird is very scarce everywhere4 ,one pair of these birds in a year is the most that you will find in the mountains about here4 ,an extensive hunting-ground is required by such big eaters if they are not to starve one another out4 8,i have a more serious complaint to bring against the eagle-owl3 when it cannot find its favorite game--meadow-mice1 field-mice1 and rats--it contents itself with bats1 snakes1 toads1 lizards1 and frogs1 and thus deprives us of some of our best protectors4 ,be assured1 once for all1 that while we have some irreproachable helpers1 there are also others that from our point of view are guilty of a good many misdeeds4 ,bear in mind the mole1 which throws up the earth and cuts the roots of plants in its war on insects4 ,no animal gives a moment's thought to man--except the dog1 who is our friend even more than he is our servant4 ,no other pays any heed to our interests2 all work for themselves and their young4 ,if their instinct prompts them to destroy only species harmful to us1 so much the better3 they are excellent helpers2 but if they hunt both harmful and helpful species1 we must balance the total good against the total harm that they do4 ,if the good tips the scale1 let us respect the animal3 it is a helper4 ,if it does more harm than good1 let us declare war on the creature3 it is a ravager4 ,the eagle-owl catches in the fields such formidable hoarders of grain as field-mice and hamsters2 in gardens1 dormice and other lovers of fruit2 in the neighborhood of our houses1 ordinary mice and rats1 and even the horrible ,norway rat4 ,there you have the plea for the defendant4 ,on the other hand1 the hunter charges the bird with killing a certain number of young rabbits incautiously taking a taste or two of wild thyme by moonlight1 and with appropriating a few young hares that would otherwise be eaten by human beings4 ,for my part1 ,i accuse it of feeding its young on the serviceable toad1 the useful snake1 and the cricket-eating lizard4 ,there you have the prosecutor's charge4 ,but1 the balance being struck1 the bird's services are found to outweigh its misdeeds1 and ,i declare that the eagle-owl deserves well of the farmer40 8,it is a unanimous verdict10 declared ,jules4 8,the common horned owl1 or lesser eagle-owl10 ,uncle ,paul continued1 8is much like the bird we have been discussing1 only it is far smaller1 being very little larger than a crow1 while the other is the size of a goose4 ,it is the commonest of all the nocturnal birds of prey in these regions4 ,in the night hours throughout the summer it keeps repeating1 in melancholy accents1 its long-drawn and doleful cry of cloo-cloo1 which can be heard a long way off4 ,just as it takes flight it gives a sort of bitter sigh1 made no doubt by the air expelled from its lungs by the effort of the wings at the moment of flying off4 ,in the daytime1 confronted by human beings1 this bird wears a dazed and foolish expression4 ,it snaps its beak1 stamps its feet1 and moves its big head abruptly up and down and from side to side4 ,if attacked by too strong an enemy1 it lies down on its back and threatens its foe with claws and beak4 ,it inhabits ruined buildings1 caves in rocks1 and the hollow trunks of old trees4 ,seldom does it take the trouble to build a nest of its own1 preferring to patch up one that has been deserted by a magpie or a buzzard4 ,there it lays four or five round white eggs4 ,i will remark in passing that the eggs of nocturnal birds of prey are not oval like hens' eggs1 but more nearly round4 ,the hunting habits of the horned owl are like those of the eagle-owl3 it has the same liking for rodents such as field-mice1 rats1 ordinary mice1 and meadow-mice2 it pounces upon young rabbits in the same manner1 after patiently watching for them at the mouth of the burrow4 ,now let us pass on to another species4 8,the short-horned owl1 or large sparrow-owl1 resembles the lesser eagle-owl in plumage and size4 ,the two egrets or plumicorns are very short1 and they seldom stand erect as in the two preceding species4 ,because of the shortness of these #8horns1' the large sparrow-owl is often taken for a hornless owl4 ,this species is seldom seen near dwelling-houses1 preferring rocks1 quarries1 and ruined and solitary castles4 ,it builds no nest1 but is content to lay in a hole in some wall or rock two or three white eggs1 shiny and round1 and about as large as pigeons' eggs4 ,its usual cry is goo1 uttered rather softly2 but if rain is coming the cry is changed to goyoo4 ,its diet is mostly confined to field-mice and meadow-mice4 8,the red owl is of about the blackbird's size4 ,its plumage is ashy gray mottled with red and marked with little flecks of black running lengthwise and fine gray lines running around the body4 ,it is the smallest and prettiest of our nocturnal birds of prey4 ,when its fine egrets stand up well on the forehead they give it a bold and martial air that goes well with its eagerness for the chase40 8,in the picture10 ,emile pointed out1 8its horns are not standing up40 8,no1 the bird is represented in one of its peaceful moments2 there is nothing to arouse it1 nothing to attract its attention4 ,it has withdrawn into itself and is thinking of the fine feast it had when it last went hunting4 ,it is digesting that feast4 ,but let a mouse come and scratch anywhere near1 and the red owl immediately ruffles its forehead--the first sign of attention4 ,it straightens up and spreads out its egrets--a sign of the closest possible attention4 ,it has heard1 it has understood4 ,off darts the bird and the mouse is caught4 8,the smaller rodents are its delight4 ,it seasons them with beetles and ,june-bugs--especially the latter which are an aid to digestion4 ,when larger game is lacking it contents itself with a frugal meal of insects1 hoping to make up for it soon with a good dinner of meadow-mice4 8,red owls are great travelers4 ,they assemble in companies1 sometimes to migrate for the winter and seek a warmer clime1 sometimes to search out a district where there is plenty of game1 when their present haunts no longer offer enough to suffice them4 ,if field-mice are on the increase in some particular region and are ravaging the fields of grain and hay1 the red owls hear of it1 ,i don't know how4 ,they spread the glad tidings1 all club together1 and start for the lands where feasting awaits them4 ,with such zeal do they apply themselves to the work of extermination that in a few weeks the fields are cleared of the infesting hordes4 8,red owls nest in hollow trees and clefts in rocks4 ,their eggs1 from two to four in a nest1 are of a shiny white40 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,other ,,owls 8,owls not belonging to the horned class lack1 of course1 the egrets or plumicorns characteristic of the latter4 ,the largest of the hornless owls is the howlet or tawny owl1 which is about as large as one of our domestic hens4 ,the predominating color of its plumage is grayish in the male and reddish in the female1 a difference that sometimes causes them to be mistaken for separate species4 ,on this background color is a sprinkling of light brown spots1 running lengthwise of the body and less numerous on the breast and stomach than elsewhere4 ,the wings are marked with several large1 white1 round spots4 ,the head is very large and nearly round1 the face sunken in the surrounding feathers and partly concealed by them4 ,the eyes1 likewise sunken1 are brown and surrounded with small gray feathers4 8,the name howlet is connected in its derivation with the word howl1 and the bird called by that name is indeed remarkable for its cry1 not unlike a wolf's howl4 ,when at the close of a somber winter day the wind whips the snow and moans in the trees1 one may often hear a frightful cry1 prolonged and mournful1 rising from the dark depths of the forest--hoo-hoo1 hoo-hoo1 hoo-hoo4 ,then in the lonely cottage the frightened mother makes the sign of the cross1 while her little ones press close to her1 crying1 and saying1 #8,the wolves are coming4' ,don't be uneasy1 good people2 it is not a wolf1 it is an owl hoo-hooing1 sounding its war-cry from the top of some hollow oak and getting ready for its nightly rounds4 8,in summer-time the howlet lives in the woods4 ,it hunts by preference field-mice and meadow-mice1 which it swallows whole1 afterward throwing up the skin and bones rolled into a ball4 ,the little birds that worry it so unmercifully in the daytime1 whenever they get a chance to come upon it unawares in the sunlight1 are not safe from its beak in the hours of darkness if the night-bird can pounce upon them after first frightening them with its terrible hoo-hoo4 ,keep as still as mice in your hiding-places1 you finches and redbreasts and tomtits1 and don't betray yourselves by giving voice to your alarm4 ,let the owl hoo-hoo as much as it pleases4 ,if you make a sound you are lost4 8,if the fields prove disappointing as a hunting-ground1 the owl makes bold to approach dwelling-houses and finds its way into barns1 there to play the part of cat and thus make good the title of #8hooting cat' which has been given it4 ,for patience and skill in catching rats and mice it rivals ,raminagrobis #d himself4 ,it is a guest to be treated with respect when hunger compels it to visit our granaries4 ,after completing its nightly rounds it returns to the woods early in the morning1 hides in the densest thickets or in the trees having the most abundant foliage1 and there passes the day silent and motionless4 ,in winter its home is always in the hollow of some old tree trunk4 ,it lays its eggs in the abandoned nests of magpies1 crows1 buzzards1 and kestrels2 and these eggs1 of a dingy gray color1 are about as large as a pullet's1 but nearly round4 8,the belfry-owl1 also known as the barn-owl1 is an ungainly bird rather smaller than the howlet4 ,its plumage1 however1 is not wanting in elegance1 being red on the back1 sprinkled with gray and brown and prettily dotted with white points alternating with dark ones1 and white underneath1 with or without brown spots4 ,the eyes are deep-set and each is encircled by a ring of fine white feathers almost like hair4 ,a little collar bordered with red frames the face4 ,the beak is whitish1 and the claws are covered only with a soft white down1 very short1 under which the pink flesh can be seen4 ,this bird has none of the proud bearing of the eagle-owl and the red owl2 it carries itself awkwardly with an embarrassed1 almost shamefaced look4 ,humpbacked and with wings hanging down1 face sad and scowling1 and legs long and ungainly--such is the barn-owl's appearance in repose4 ,as if to complete its ungraceful attitude1 the bird1 whenever anything disturbs it1 teeters from side to side in a ludicrous fashion1 with haggard eyes and wings slightly raised40 8,and what is the teetering for80 asked ,jules4 8,no doubt to frighten its enemy4 ,in time of danger the barn-owl utters a harsh1 grating cry--craa6 craa6 craa6--which often frightens away the enemy4 ,the owl's habitual cry in the silence of the night is a mournful1 heavy breathing not unlike the snoring of a man sleeping with his mouth open4 ,to these cries add the darkness of the night1 the near neighborhood of churches and cemeteries1 and you will understand how the innocent barn-owl has managed to frighten children1 women1 and even men2 you will be able to see why it has the reputation of being a funeral bird1 the bird of death1 summoning to the cemetery one of the persons living in the house it visits4 ,the ,french name1 effraie 7fright71 has reference to these superstitious terrors2 it designates the bird that frightens with its nightly chant those who are foolish enough to believe in ghosts and sorcerers40 8,it may practise its chant on our roof as much as it likes10 ,jules declared boldly2 8it won't scare me a bit40 8,nor would it scare any one else if everybody would listen to reason instead of putting faith in ridiculous stories4 ,fear1 like cruelty1 is the daughter of ignorance4 ,train your reason1 accustom yourselves to see things as they really are1 and foolish fears will be banished4 8,the barn-owl also goes by the name of belfry-owl1 because it likes to make its home in old church towers4 ,sometimes it will enter a church by night to hunt mice4 ,those who first came upon the ill-famed bird near the altar did not fail to accuse it of drinking oil from the lamp or1 rather1 of eating it when it is congealed by the cold4 ,the charge itself proves its own falsity1 as oil cannot congeal in a lamp that is always kept burning4 ,but the slanderers do not trouble themselves about a little thing like that when they wish to blacken the bird's reputation4 ,they will continue for a long time1 if not forever1 to regard the owl as a profaner of holy lamps4 ,in ,provence they will always call this bird the oil-drinker4 8,in reality1 the barn-owl lives on rats and mice1 which it catches in barns and churches2 on field-mice1 meadow-mice1 and dormice1 which it hunts in gardens and fields4 ,here1 beyond a doubt1 we have a service rendered that ought to make people forget its false reputation1 make them like and protect it as it deserves4 ,will the bird that gives us very real help and is guiltless of a single offense ever be declared innocent8 ,i very much doubt it4 ,superstition is so deep-rooted that there will never be lacking a ,one-eyed ,john to nail a live owl to his door4 8,the barn-owl likes to live in inhabited regions4 ,the roofs of churches1 summits of steeples1 high towers--these are its favorite haunts4 ,all day it remains crouching in some dark hole1 from which it does not come out until after sunset4 ,its manner of taking flight deserves mention4 ,first it lets itself fall from the summit of its steeple like a dead weight1 and it does not spread its wings until after a rather long vertical drop4 ,it then pursues a zigzag course1 making no more noise than if the wind bore it along4 ,it is fond of nesting in abandoned ruins1 in the hollow trunks of worm-eaten trees1 occasionally in barns1 high up on some beam4 ,but it builds no nest to hold its eggs1 which are laid on the spot that may have been selected1 with no leaves1 roots1 or hair to serve as bedding4 ,the laying takes place toward the end of ,march and is limited to five or six white eggs remarkable for their oval shape1 an exceptional shape for nocturnal birds of prey4 ,the little ones1 with their large eyes1 beak stretched open for food1 and rumpled down1 are the ugliest creatures imaginable4 ,the mother feeds them with insects and bits of mouse-flesh4 8,the smallest of our hornless owls is the sparrow-owl4 ,like the red owl1 it is about the size of a blackbird4 ,it is dark brown in color1 with large white spots of a round or oval shape4 ,the throat is white1 and the tail is crossed by four narrow whitish stripes4 ,the sparrow-owl has a quick and light bearing1 and it sees by day much better than other night birds2 therefore it sometimes chases small birds1 but rarely with success4 ,when it has the good luck to catch one it plucks it very clean before eating it1 instead of following the gluttonous example of the horned owls and the howlet1 which swallow such prey whole and throw the feathers up later4 ,its hunting expeditions are much more fruitful when directed against field-mice and common mice1 which it dismembers before eating4 ,other owls make but one mouthful of their prey2 the sparrow-owl tears to pieces the animal it has caught1 perhaps so that it may enjoy the flavor more4 ,to express astonishment1 surprise1 fear1 the barn-owl waddles in a most ridiculous manner2 but the sparrow-owl adopts another method3 it bows its legs1 crouches down1 and then abruptly rises1 lengthening its neck and turning its head to right and left4 ,you would say it was moved by springs from within4 ,this performance is repeated over and over again1 each time accompanied by a clacking of the beak4 ,in flight the bird's habitual cry is poo1 poo1 poo2 at rest it says ay-may1 aid-may1 repeated several times in quick succession in a tone almost human4 8,the sparrow-owl lives in deserted buildings1 quarries1 old and dilapidated towers1 but never in hollow trees4 ,it frequents the roofs of churches and of village houses4 ,its nest consists of a hole in a rock or a wall1 where it lays four or five round white eggs somewhat speckled with red40 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,eagle 8,if it were my purpose to give you a systematic and scientific account of birds1 instead of acquainting you with the various species useful to agriculture1 ,i ought to have begun with birds that hunt by day and to have postponed my talks on those that hunt by night2 in other words1 the eagle1 the falcon1 and the hawk should have been described first4 ,but should you ask me why1 ,i should be rather at a loss for a satisfactory answer4 ,for want of a better let us content ourselves with this one3 the first do their work by day1 the second at night4 ,but the eagle and the others of that group live at our expense1 while the horned owl and its kind render us a great service by holding in check what would else be a disastrous multiplication of rodents4 ,consequently1 in point of usefulness1 the night-bird comes first4 8,but this is contrary to all usage1 both scientific and popular1 which puts the eagle first in the list of birds4 ,do we not say of the eagle that it is the king of birds8 ,why has this title been given to the fierce bandit1 the murderer of lambs8 ,i should be puzzled to answer this question did ,i not know man's inclination to glorify brute strength even though he himself may be its victim4 ,you1 my children1 will find that out only too soon1 to your sorrow4 ,plunder on a grand scale appeals1 alas1 to something in our faulty human nature that makes us excuse it2 nay1 more1 that makes us glorify it2 whereas productive toil1 useful to all1 leaves us cold or even disdainful4 ,the falcon is a ravisher of our hen-houses1 a bloodthirsty marauder of our dove-cotes2 and we hold it in high esteem1 calling it a noble bird4 ,shall we1 then1 never learn to judge animals and men by their true worth1 their real usefulness8 ,let us hope that as so many fine minds have worked1 are working1 and always will work to bring about this miracle1 you1 my children1 will some day follow their example4 ,work for this end with all your power1 and blessings be upon you if you succeed in giving some additional strength1 however little it may be1 to this common effort put forth by all men of light and leading4 8,i shall discuss but briefly the birds of prey whose activities are confined to the daylight hours4 ,they are nearly all bandits1 nothing else1 living at our cost by robbery and murder4 ,from the fact that they hunt by day1 never at night1 they are called diurnal or day birds of prey4 ,the brightest light does not dazzle them4 ,it is even said of the eagle and others of this class that they can look straight at the sun1 and this is credited to them as an added title of nobility4 ,but there is no great merit in this performance when once you know how they shade their eyes in accomplishing it4 ,they have three eyelids to each eye3 first1 two like ours1 an upper and a lower1 which close in sleep1 and then a third1 which is semi-transparent and is withdrawn completely into the corner of the eye when the bird has no use for it1 but when needed comes out from under the other two1 which remain open1 and serves as a curtain4 ,if the light is too bright or the bird wishes to look toward the sun1 it has merely to draw over the eye this third eyelid1 this eye-shade1 through the semi-transparency of which the rays of light enter the pupil in a much subdued intensity4 ,there you have the whole secret of the eagle's bold look in facing the sun40 8,i could do as much if ,i shaded my eyes with a curtain10 ,emile declared4 8,all these birds are furnished with a very strong beak having hooked mandibles for dismembering their prey4 ,their claws are composed of four separate talons to each foot1 three of these talons pointing forward and one backward4 ,the talons are long1 recurved1 and grooved on the under side1 the grooves having sharp edges that they may the better cut into flesh4 ,the eagle's bearing is bold1 its looks stern1 and its flight marvelously powerful4 ,eagles like to circle about in the air1 to soar with scarcely a movement of the wings in the upper regions of the atmosphere beyond our view4 ,nevertheless1 even from this immense height they can distinguish what is taking place on the earth's surface below4 ,they explore every farm with their piercing eyes and inspect every poultry-yard4 ,let a suitable prey show itself1 and instantly the bird swoops down with whistling wing1 faster than lead would fall4 ,the unwary fowl is snatched from under the farmer's very eyes4 8,fortunately1 the eagle1 the chief of these bandits1 is a very rare bird4 ,in form it is large1 measuring a meter and more from the tip of the beak to the tip of the tail1 and it is covered with brown plumage4 ,its extended wings measure a span of nearly three meters4 ,its fierce eye1 overshadowed by a very prominent eyebrow1 glows with a somber fire4 ,the eagle's nest is known as its aery1 and is flat instead of bowl-shaped like other birds' nests4 ,it is a sort of solid floor made of interwoven twigs and covered with a bed of rushes and heather4 ,it is commonly placed on the face of some steep and forbidding precipice and between two rocks1 the upper one of which overhangs and forms a kind of roof for the nest4 ,the eggs1 two in number--sometimes1 though rarely1 three--are of a dingy white spotted with red4 ,the young eaglets are so greedy that at the time of their rearing the aery is strewn with bits of bleeding flesh4 ,some neighboring ledge of rock serves the parents as slaughter-house and cutting-up bench4 ,it is there that the hares and rabbits1 partridges and ducks1 lambs and kids1 seized in the plains and carried in rapid flight to the lofty heights where the eagle makes its home1 are torn to pieces in order to be fed to the ever-hungry eaglets40 8,is the eagle really strong enough10 asked ,emile1 8to carry off a lamb like that8 ,i had heard it1 but couldn't believe it40 8,nothing is less open to doubt10 his uncle assured him4 8,it would carry you off if it found you alone in the mountains40 8,i could defend myself with a stick40 8,possibly2 but let me tell you an incident1 one of many to be found in the pages of an author whose word we may believe4 8,two little girls1 one five years old1 the other three1 were playing together when a medium-sized eagle suddenly swooped down upon the elder and despite her companion's cries1 and in the very face of some workmen who came hurrying to the spot1 snatched her up into the air4 ,two months later a shepherd found1 on a rock half a league distant1 the body of the child half devoured and dried up4 8,what do you think now of the eagle1 the king of birds80 8,i think it's a brigand of the worst kind10 affirmed ,jules4 8,would you like to see an eagle in the act of hunting1 witness its fierce joy when it buries its hooked talons in the quivering flesh of its prey8 ,then listen to this fine passage from the pen of that ardent lover of birds1 ,audubon4 ,the scene is laid far from here1 in ,america1 and the eagle belongs to a different species from ours2 but never mind1 the ways of these bandits are the same everywhere4 8#8,to give you some idea of the nature of this bird1 permit me to place you on the ,mississippi1 on which you may float gently along1 while approaching winter brings millions of water-fowl on whistling wings1 from the countries of the north1 to seek a milder climate in which to sojourn for a season4 ,the ,eagle is seen perched in an erect attitude1 on the highest summit of the tallest tree by the margin of the broad stream4 ,his glistening but stern eye looks over the vast expanse4 ,he listens attentively to every sound that comes to his quick ear from afar1 glancing now and then on the earth beneath1 lest even the light tread of the fawn may pass unheard4 ,his mate is perched on the opposite side1 and should all be tranquil and silent1 warns him by a cry to continue patient4 ,at this well known call1 the male partly opens his broad wings1 inclines his body a little downwards1 and answers to her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of a maniac4 ,the next moment1 he resumes his erect attitude1 and again all around is silent4 ,ducks of many species1 the ,teal1 the ,wigeon1 the ,mallard and others1 are seen passing with great rapidity1 and following the course of the current2 but the ,eagle heeds them not3 they are at that time beneath his attention4 ,the next moment1 however1 the wild trumpetlike sound of a yet distant but approaching ,swan is heard4 ,a shriek from the female ,eagle comes across the stream1--for she is as fully on the alert as her mate4 ,the latter suddenly shakes the whole of his body1 and with a few touches of his bill1 aided by the action of his cuticular muscles1 arranges his plumage in an instant4 ,the snow-white bird is now in sight3 her long neck is stretched forward1 her eye is on the watch1 vigilant as that of her enemy2 her large wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of her body1 although they flap incessantly4 ,so irksome do her exertions seem1 that her very legs are spread beneath her tail1 to aid her in her flight4 ,she approaches1 however4 ,the ,eagle has marked her for his prey4 ,as the ,swan is passing the dreaded pair1 the male bird1 in full preparation for the chase1 starts from his perch with an awful scream1 that to the ,swan's ear brings more terror than the report of the large duck-gun4 8#8,now is the moment to witness the display of the ,eagle's powers4 ,he glides through the air like a falling star1 and1 like a flash of lightning1 comes upon the timorous quarry1 which now1 in agony and despair1 seeks1 by various manuvres1 to elude the grasp of his cruel talons4 ,it mounts1 doubles1 and willingly would plunge into the stream1 were it not prevented by the ,eagle1 which1 long possessed of the knowledge that by such a stratagem the ,swan might escape him1 forces it to remain in the air by attempting to strike it with his talons from beneath4 ,the hope of escape is soon given up by the ,swan4 ,it has already become much weakened1 and its strength fails at the sight of the courage and swiftness of its antagonist4 ,its last gasp is about to escape1 when the ferocious ,eagle strikes with his talons the under side of its wings1 and with unresisted power forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore4 8#8,it is then1 reader1 that you may see the cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the feathered race1 whilst1 exulting over his prey1 he for the first time breathes at ease4 ,he presses down his powerful feet1 and drives his sharp claws deeper than ever into the heart of the dying ,swan4 ,he shrieks with delight as he feels the last convulsions of his prey1 which has now sunk under his unceasing efforts to render death as painfully felt as it can possibly be4 ,the female has watched every movement of her mate1 and if she did not assist him in capturing the ,swan1 it was not from want of will1 but merely that she felt full assurance that the power and courage of her lord were quite sufficient for the deed4 ,she now sails to the spot where he eagerly awaits her1 and when she has arrived1 they together turn the breast of the luckless ,swan upwards1 and gorge themselves with gore4'0 #e 8,poor swan60 was ,emile's pitying comment4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,hawks ,,and ,,falcons 8,what are we to do with enemies like the eagle80 asked ,louis when ,uncle ,paul had finished ,audubon's account of that bird's fierce and destructive rapacity4 8,destroy them10 was the reply1 8destroy them by every possible means1 for we can count on no assistance from other than human helpers4 ,eagles are the tyrants of the air1 and no other bird dares attack them4 ,the destruction of their nests is the surest way to put an end to the ravages they from time to time commit among our flocks4 ,but it is an enterprise not without danger to make one's way to the eagle's aery and wring the necks of the young birds4 ,the shepherds of the ,pyrenees go about this work in couples1 one armed with a double-barreled rifle and the other with a long pike4 ,at daybreak1 when the eagle is already away hunting1 the two nest-destroyers climb to the top of the steep declivity where the aery is situated4 ,the first man1 the one armed with the rifle1 posts himself on the rocky summit to fire at the eagle if it returns1 while the second1 his pike fastened to his belt1 clambers down from rock to rock to the aery and removes the eaglets1 which are still too young to offer serious resistance4 ,but at their first cry of distress the mother hastens to the rescue and hurls herself furiously at her enemy1 who receives her with blows of his pike until his comrade brings her down with a well-aimed shot4 ,the male1 until then soaring among the clouds1 now descends like a thunderbolt and is on the hunter's head before the man has time to use his pike4 ,fortunately a second bullet from the rifle-man stationed above breaks the bird's wing40 8,what if he had missed the bird80 asked ,jules4 8,then it would have been all over with his companion4 ,his face torn by the eagle's beak and his eyes pecked out1 he would have fallen to the foot of the precipice1 a mangled corpse4 ,no1 it is hardly a holiday diversion to go bird-nesting among the haunts of the eagle40 8,i'm sure ,i shouldn't care to undertake it10 was ,jules's comment4 8,next to the eagle the goshawk is the largest of our diurnal birds of prey4 ,it is a magnificent creature about the size of a well-grown rooster1 brown above and white underneath1 with numerous little dark stripes running around the body4 ,the eye is adorned with a white eyebrow1 the beak is blue-black1 and the feet are yellow4 8,the goshawk is the scourge of pigeon-cotes1 for which reason it is also called the pigeons' falcon4 ,it selects for itself a lofty perch on some tall tree and there keeps a watchful eye on the flocks of pigeons foraging in the fields4 ,woe betide the luckless one that forgets for a moment to be on its guard4 ,the bird pounces upon it in oblique flight1 almost skimming the surface of the ground1 and in less than no time the pigeon is seized and carried off to some lonely rock1 where the ravisher plucks its feathers and tears it to pieces while still warm4 ,if the farmer is not on the lookout the goshawk attacks the poultry and does great harm4 ,at the mere appearance of the bird's shadow the rooster raises a cry of alarm and the little chickens hastily take refuge under their mother's wing1 while she1 her feathers ruffled and her eyes blazing1 sometimes succeeds in frightening off the enemy by her show of boldness4 ,for lack of pigeons and barnyard fowls the goshawk hunts young hares1 squirrels1 and small birds1 and in time of famine it will even eat moles and mice4 ,wooded mountains are its favorite abode1 and it builds its nest in the tallest oaks and beeches4 ,its eggs1 four or five in number1 are slightly red or bluish and spotted with brown4 8,the common sparrow-hawk is about as large as a magpie4 ,its plumage somewhat resembles the goshawk's1 being ashy blue on the back and white underneath1 with brown stripes running cross-wise4 ,the throat and breast are reddish1 and the tail is barred with six or seven dark bands4 ,the legs and claws are of a beautiful yellow1 and are long and slender4 8,the sparrow-hawk is a hunter of pigeons1 which it tries to catch off guard by flying around the pigeon-cote and by watching from the concealment of some tree-top4 ,the lark1 the thrush1 and the quail often fall into its clutches4 ,its flight is low and oblique like the goshawk's1 the wings of both being too short and too rounded at the tip to permit of lofty flight or sudden charges4 ,the young1 just out of the nest and as yet inexperienced in the cunning of the chase1 are for a while trained by the parent birds for the career they are to follow2 and indeed it is no rare occurrence to see the whole family hunting in company4 ,the sparrow-hawk nests in tall trees and lays four or five white eggs ornamented with brown spots1 which are larger and more numerous toward the big end of the egg4 ,both the goshawk and the sparrow-hawk1 when they are attacked by an enemy stronger than themselves1 do as the horned owl does3 they lie on their backs and brandish their claws4 8,of all our diurnal birds of prey1 falcons are the most courageous and the best equipped for flying4 ,as a distinctive characteristic they have a sharp tooth on each side of the tip of the beak1 which itself is very powerful and curves downward in a notable manner from the very outset4 ,their wings are pointed at the tip and when folded they extend beyond or at least as far as the end of the tail4 ,all falcons soar in their flight when hunting4 ,to this class belong the common falcon1 the hobby1 and the merlin4 8,the common falcon1 which is as large as a hen1 can be recognized by a sort of mustache or black spot it has on each cheek4 ,its back is of a dark ashen hue crossed by narrow stripes of a still deeper shade2 the throat and breast are pure white1 with black markings running lengthwise2 the stomach and thighs are light gray tinged with blue and striped with black2 and the tail shows alternate stripes of dingy white and of black4 ,the beak is blue with a black tip1 and the eyes and legs are a beautiful yellow4 ,but it should be added that the plumage of the common falcon varies a good deal with age1 and not until the bird is three or four years old does it agree with the description ,i have just given4 8,the summits of the wildest and loftiest crags are the falcon's home1 whence it goes forth to hunt pigeons1 quails1 partridges1 chickens1 and ducks4 ,it rises and soars some time in the air1 searching for its victims1 and then swoops down upon them like a missile hurled from the sky4 ,with astonishing boldness it makes its way into the farmer's pigeon-cotes and chases the pigeons themselves under the very eyes of passers-by1 in the middle of crowded streets4 ,it will even snatch partridges from before the hunter's rifle and from under the hunting-dog's nose4 ,its cry is strong and piercing1 and it flies unwearied at the rate of twenty leagues an hour for hundreds of leagues2 but its walk is jerky and awkward because its hooked claws1 furnished with long and recurved nails1 rest insecurely on the ground4 ,the falcon nests on the southern face of rocky precipices1 the nest itself being clumsily built and holding three or four eggs of a reddish hue spotted with brown4 8,the hobby is smaller than the common falcon4 ,it is brown above and whitish beneath1 with thighs and the lower part of the stomach red4 ,its boldness is equaled only by the falcon's1 for it gives chase to larks and quails even when the hunter is in the act of shooting them1 and dashes into the midst of the fowler's net to seize the decoy birds4 ,it perches on tall trees and nests in their branches4 ,its eggs are whitish with a few red spots4 8,the merlin is the smallest of the diurnal birds of prey1 being scarcely larger than a thrush4 ,it is brown on the back1 and whitish with brown spots underneath4 ,its nest1 which is seldom found in our part of the country1 is built in the hollow of a rock and contains five or six whitish eggs marbled at the larger end with brown and dingy green4 8,despite its smallness it is a bold bandit4 ,little birds are terror-stricken at the mere sound of the merlin's wings in their neighborhood4 ,even the partridge is not safe from its attacks4 ,it begins by separating one of the birds from the rest of the covey1 and then1 circling about above it in a spiral1 which grows smaller and smaller1 it descends until it can reach its victim with its claws and knocks it down with a blow on the breast4 8,such are the principal diurnal birds of prey that we have to make war upon without mercy4 ,up and after these savage bloodsuckers1 destroyers of game1 ravagers of poultry-yards and pigeon-cotes6 ,take your gun1 vigilant farmer1 watch for the falcon and the goshawk1 and let fire at those brigands6 ,destroy their nests1 break their eggs1 and wring the necks of their young1 if you wish to save your chickens1 ducks1 and pigeons40 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,kestrels1 ,,kites ,,and ,,buzzards 8,the kestrel belongs to the falcon family1 as may be seen from the small1 sharp tooth on each side of the tip of the beak4 ,it is rather a handsome bird1 about the size of a pigeon1 red in color1 with black spots1 and a white tip to the tail4 ,the beak is blue and the legs are yellow4 ,the kestrel is the most widely scattered bird of prey and the one most often seen near human habitations4 ,its favorite haunts are old castles1 lofty towers1 and belfries4 ,one often sees it flying with untiring wing around these buildings1 uttering the while a piercing cry1 plee1 plee1 plee6 pree1 pree1 pree6 which it sends forth to frighten the sparrows snuggling in holes in the wall1 so that it may seize them when they fly out4 ,it carefully plucks the little captured birds before eating them2 but it has another kind of prey which gives it less trouble1 and that is the mouse1 which it enters open barns in order to catch1 also the fat and savory field-mouse1 which it spies from on high when holding itself motionless in the air in one position with tail and wings gracefully extended4 ,what will it do with its catch8 ,will it skin the creature for the sake of cleanliness1 as it plucks the sparrow8 ,no1 the common mouse and the field-mouse are dainty morsels of which the kestrel would be loath to lose a single drop of blood4 ,the rodent is swallowed just as it is1 whole if small1 piecemeal if large4 ,after digestion the skin and bones are thrown up through the beak in the form of little balls1 just as in the case of the owl4 8,the kestrel nests in old towers1 abandoned ruins1 hollow rocks4 ,its nest1 made of twigs and roots1 holds four or five rust-colored eggs marbled with brown4 8,we will pass now to the kite1 which is different from all other birds of prey1 with its broad and forked tail1 its very long wings1 its rather slender claws1 and its very small beak1 a beak not at all in keeping with the bird's size1 which exceeds that of the falcon4 ,this beak makes the bird cowardly to excess1 frightened by the slightest danger1 put to flight by a mere crow4 8,if pressed by hunger1 however1 the kite will venture into the neighborhood of pigeon-cotes and poultry-yards in order to seize young pigeons and little chickens4 ,fortunately1 the hen1 if she has time to gather her brood under her wings1 can scare the invader away by simply showing her anger4 ,for want of poultry1 the kite1 which is hated by thrifty country people1 attacks reptiles1 rats1 field-mice1 and meadow-mice2 and if it can get nothing else it will content itself with carrion1 such as dead sheep and spoiled fish4 8,the kite's extended wings measure more than a meter and a half from tip to tip1 and its flight presents a fine spectacle4 ,when the bird sweeps in wide circles through the upper atmosphere1 it is as if it were swimming1 gliding without the least apparent exertion4 ,then all at once it stops in its flight and remains suspended in one position for a quarter of an hour at a stretch1 held there by an invisible movement of the wings4 8,the kite is of a deep red hue on the back and rust-colored on the breast and stomach1 with a whitish head and the large wing-feathers black4 ,its cry resembles a cat's mewing4 ,it builds its nest in tall trees or1 still oftener1 in the hollows of rocks4 ,its eggs1 commonly three in number1 are white shading into dingy yellow and speckled with a few irregular brown spots4 8,the birds known as harriers have a small semicircular collar of fine thick feathers projecting from each side of the face and reaching from beak to ear1 much like the ring around the hornless owl's eyes4 ,in the contour of the breast1 in the long legs and wings1 and in the still longer tail1 they have something of the falcon's appearance and bearing2 while in their large head and in the little collar around the face they are not unlike the nocturnal birds of prey4 ,harriers frequent marshes and the banks of stagnant bodies of water1 where they lie concealed among the rushes in order to seize any small rodents1 reptiles1 or insects that may come within their reach4 ,the farmer has no complaint to bring against them1 as they show proper respect for his little pigeons1 chickens1 and ducklings4 ,indeed1 they are welcome visitors on account of their strong liking for field-mice4 ,unfortunately1 the hunter accuses them of killing game1 especially water-fowl1 hares1 and rabbits4 8,in this connection it is to be noted that the weasel1 a small carnivorous quadruped with a thirst for blood1 is wont to make its way into warrens in quest of young hares and rabbits1 in order to suck their blood1 after which the dead bodies are left behind some bush4 ,these murderous operations do not escape the harrier's vigilance4 ,in its leisurely flights it keeps a sharp eye on the surroundings of all warrens in the woods1 for the purpose of carrying off any dead bodies and feasting on the weasel's leavings4 ,that it may occasionally be at fault and mistake a live rabbit for a dead one1 ,i should not dare deny2 but after all ,i forgive it willingly enough1 and in consideration of its war on field-mice ,i should be inclined to bestow upon it the honorable title of farmer's helper4 8,if we may feel some uncertainty about harriers1 there is no such doubt concerning buzzards4 ,in them we certainly have very valuable helpers1 large eaters of field-mice and meadow-mice1 and great destroyers of moles1 those tireless burrowers whose numbers must be kept within strict limits4 ,buzzards have a short1 wide beak1 curving downward from the base2 wings very long1 but not pointed1 reaching almost to the tip of the tail2 strong legs1 and the space between the eyes and nostrils bristling with hairs4 8,buzzards are fond of repose and phlegmatic by nature2 or it might be more accurate to say that they are endowed with a remarkable capacity for patient and motionless waiting1 a gift very necessary for the successful hunting of the field-mouse1 which must be watched for by the hour at the mouth of its burrow4 ,for half a day at a time1 if need be1 the buzzard lies in wait without making the least movement or giving the slightest sign of impatience4 ,one would take it to be asleep4 ,then1 all of a sudden1 the bird falls to hacking the soil with its beak and tearing the turf with its powerful claws4 ,a disemboweled mole is brought to light1 or perhaps a field-mouse is the prize1 and in either event the victim is no sooner caught than swallowed4 8,now do you know what reputation the buzzard has won by this habit of long and motionless waiting so indispensable in the quest of game with the acuteness of hearing characteristic of the mole and of rodents8 ,the reputation of stupidity4 ,we say of a person of limited intelligence that he is as stupid as a buzzard4 ,here again is an instance of that wrong-headedness which makes us think little of so many of our helpers and glorify those that prey upon us4 ,stupidity is the name we give to the buzzard's peculiarities1 and for no better reason than that the bird spares our poultry-yards and rids us of troublesome rodents2 whereas we speak of the eagle1 which steals our lambs1 and of the falcon1 plunderer of chicken-coops1 as courageous1 noble1 and splendid4 8,the common buzzard is a large brown bird with a whitish throat1 stomach-feathers marked with little lines alternately brown and white1 and tail crossed by nine or ten dark stripes4 ,its beak is whitish at the base and black at the tip1 its eyes and legs yellow4 ,this species nests in tall trees1 the nest being made of interwoven twigs and lined with wool and hair4 ,it lays but three eggs at most1 which are whitish and irregularly sprinkled with dingy yellow spots4 ,it is the common buzzard especially that has won the reputation of stupidity with its leisurely flying and its patience in watching for prey4 ,it usually watches on some mound of earth4 ,observers who have studied its habits say that sixteen is about the number of mice it commonly eats in one day1 which makes nearly six thousand a year40 8,that's the kind of bird we should like to have about our houses if we could only tame it10 remarked ,jules4 8,there is nothing to prevent our trying it10 his uncle rejoined4 8,the buzzard's disposition is good enough4 ,other observers1 who have studied its hunting of field-mice1 estimate that it eats nearly four thousand of these in one year4 ,from this number you can form some idea of the multitude of little rodents a whole flock of buzzards would be able to destroy4 ,but we must not give the bird too much praise4 ,i know that it does not hesitate1 when occasion offers1 to seize and carry off a wounded young hare2 and ,i also know that when the snow is on the ground and the buzzard is pressed by hunger1 it will pounce upon any stray chicken that may have got out of the poultry-yard4 ,but what are these few acts of theft when compared with the thousands of rodents of all kinds that it clears away from our fields8 ,whatever the season of the year1 one cannot open a buzzard's crop without finding common mice1 field-mice1 and meadow-mice there by the dozen4 ,if ,i owned a field that was ravaged by these rodents1 ,i should lose no time in planting a few stumps there to serve as perches and watch-towers for buzzards in their patient hunt for their favorite game4 8,there is another variety of buzzard1 the hawk-buzzard1 that does us good service in its fondness for larv1 caterpillars1 and insects generally1 particularly wasps40 8,what1 those wasps that hurt so when they sting80 asked ,emile4 8,yes1 my boy2 this buzzard feasts on the wasps whose sting is so painful to us2 it swallows them without a thought of their sting1 just as the hedgehog devours the viper and never worries about its venomous fangs4 ,the bird attacks their nests with its beak and pulls out the nymphs from their cells1 carrying them1 fat and tender1 to its little ones4 8,this buzzard is a somewhat smaller bird than the common buzzard4 ,its back is brown1 its throat light yellow with brown stripes1 and its breast and stomach white sprinkled with dark heart-shaped spots4 ,the tail is crossed by three wide dark bands1 the beak is black1 and1 finally1 the head of the old male is bluish-gray4 ,the bird nests in woods1 in tall trees1 and its eggs are rather small1 being yellowish-white in color1 but with so thick a sprinkling of large brown spots as sometimes almost to hide the color underneath4 8,the feather-legged buzzard has legs covered with long feathers1 as in certain species of pigeons bearing the same qualifying name4 ,it frequents river banks1 uncultivated fields1 and woods1 and lives on field-mice1 moles1 reptiles1 and if need be on insects4 8,here let us bring to a close our talk on birds of prey4 ,i have told you about the more important ones1 both diurnal and nocturnal1 about their habits1 their food1 and the services or the harm they do us4 ,it is now for you to add to what these brief talks have taught you1 by observing the things that come under your eyes every day4 ,do not fail to examine with some care the buzzard as you see it perched on a mound and patiently watching for a field-mouse2 also the kestrel as it flies screaming around the belfry and pounces1 sometimes on a mouse1 sometimes on a sparrow2 and the kite1 too1 as it soars on motionless wings in the blue sky4 ,you will get from this sort of study1 first1 a great deal of pleasure1 and1 secondly1 knowledge that will be highly useful if you ever have a farm or a garden40 8,it seems to me10 said ,jules1 8that you have left out the very commonest of the birds of prey1 the crows40 8,crows are not birds of prey10 replied ,uncle ,paul4 8,they have not the hooked beak1 the clutching claws1 or the sharp1 curved nails of birds formed for a life of rapine4 ,i will tell you about them to-morrow2 or1 rather1 ,i will begin with that one of the crow family known as the raven40 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,raven 8,their black plumage and similarity of shape make us mistake all sorts of birds for crows4 ,let us begin with one of these1 the raven4 ,this bird is of good size1 being about as large as our domestic rooster1 and it has a hoarse cry1 uttered slowly1--craa1 craa1 craa4 ,it is the raven that has won such a reputation with children from that famous fable about the raven and the fox40 8,yes1 ,i know10 ,emile hastened to interpose2 8you mean the one that begins1 #8,master ,raven1 perched on a tree1 held a piece of cheese in his beak4' ,where do you suppose he got that cheese80 8,history remains silent on that important question1 but my opinion would be that he stole it from some window-sill where the farmer's wife had put out some newly made cheese to dry in a little wicker basket40 8,the fox says good morning to ,mr4 ,raven1 and praises his plumage10 continued ,emile2 8and he goes on3 #8,how trig and trim you are1 how handsome you look to me6' ,and so on and so forth4 ,how could the raven help having a swelled head after such flattery80 8,that fox was certainly a cunning rogue4 ,to make sure that the bird will listen1 instead of beginning with flattery that might have aroused his intended victim's suspicions 7for the bird was not altogether lacking in common sense71 he began by praising what is really not without merit4 ,on a near view the raven is seen to be not by any means of a dead black2 it shows glints of purple and blue on the back1 and a flickering greenish tinge on the stomach1 the total effect being that of some highly polished metal4 ,at the first flattering words you may be sure the raven cast a complacent glance at its costume and1 seeing it brilliant with blue1 purple1 and green1 found it quite as rich as the fox declared it to be4 ,so now the bird was well prepared--ready for the fulsome flattery that was to follow4 ,the fox would have it believe the offensive odor clinging to it from eating so much carrion to be the aroma of musk1 and its hoarse croaking to be melodious warbling4 ,but just there was the difficulty1 to make it croak and thus open its mouth1 which held the cheese40 8,and if that voice of thine ,can match thy plumage fine1 ,thou art the very phenix of all the woods around10 quoted ,emile4 8,yes1 that's it10 said ,uncle ,paul4 8,do you see how the sly rascal is making headway8 ,he would have the raven believe itself a singer1 mistake its raucous craa1 craa for the note of the nightingale4 ,had he begun with any such extravagant compliment1 he would have defeated his own ends2 but he very cleverly led up to this supreme flattery and1 to pique the raven's foolish vanity still further1 gave a doubtful tone to his admiration4 #8,i know1' was what he seemed to the bird to say1 #8that your voice is widely celebrated2 but what ,i am not so sure of is whether it matches your splendid plumage1 whether you can really sing in a manner worthy of so magnificent a costume4 ,i must hear you1 and if your vocal performance equals your outward appearance1 then you will indeed prove yourself to be the paragon of birds1 the very phenix of these forests4' #8,ah1 you doubt it8' said the raven to itself2 #8well1 then1 listen to this operatic trill3 craa1 craa1 craa4'0 ,emile again took up the fable3 8,and so to prove it could ,its boastfulness make good1 ,it opened wide its beak and thus let fall the cheese1 ,which ,master ,fox did seize----0 8,not so fast60 his uncle interrupted him4 8,master ,fox could not have gone on talking with the cheese in his mouth2 he could not have pointed the moral in that neat little lesson with which the fable ends4 ,i can see him putting his paw on the prize while he licks his chops and looks tauntingly at the shamefaced bird4 #8,my good sir1' he says1 #8let me call your attention to the fact that you are a conceited nincompoop4'0 8,he doesn't call the bird ,mr4 ,raven any more1 now that he's got hold of the cheese10 ,emile observed4 8,no2 to call him that was all very well in the beginning2 it flattered the bird4 ,but now the fox makes fun of his dupe and calls him #8my good sir' in a tone of patronizing condolence4 ,to express pity for those we have cajoled and deceived--is not that the very perfection of roguery8 ,there we have1 most assuredly1 a fox that will make his way in the world4 ,read in ,la ,fontaine1 the incomparable story-teller1 the abominable tricks ,master ,reynard plays later on the goat1 the wolf1 and many others2 or1 better1 wait a while and we will read them together next winter before the open fire4 ,for the present we will leave the raven of the fable and try to learn something about the real raven's manner of living4 8,ravens do not flock together as crows do1 but live alone or in pairs on rocky heights and in the tallest trees4 ,the society or even the near neighborhood of its fellows is unbearable to a raven4 ,with angry peckings it drives away from its chosen district any of its kind that may try to establish themselves there1 even though they may have been born in the same nest4 ,if the intruder is merely a bird of passage1 it is conducted with menacing demonstrations to the frontiers of the domain and is jealously watched until it disappears in the distance4 ,crows1 social creatures1 are treated in the same way4 ,the raven asks to be left alone1 quite alone1 on its bare rock1 and woe to the ill-advised intruder that disturbs its solitude6 ,it builds its nest in the topmost branches of a solitary tree or1 still more to its liking1 in some fissure that offers itself in the perpendicular face of a rocky precipice4 ,the nest is made of sticks and roots on the outside1 and of moss1 hair1 rags1 and fine grasses within40 8,i should like to know10 said ,jules1 8what ravens' eggs are like40 8,birds' eggs are usually remarkable for their beauty1 both in shape and in color2 and for this reason1 if for no other1 they merit our attention4 ,but it is no idle or merely ornamental accomplishment to be able to distinguish one from another1 to know whether any given egg belongs to a useful species that should be respected or to a harmful species that should not be allowed to breed in the vicinity of our fields and gardens4 ,with this end in view ,i have already told you the characteristic marks of the eggs of our principal birds of prey1 some of which eggs should be destroyed without any consideration1 while others should be protected4 ,as this is a matter that interests you1 ,i will continue in the same way and will describe the eggs of those birds that we are still to talk about4 8,know1 then1 that ravens' eggs are much more beautifully colored than might be expected from the somber plumage of the bird4 ,they are bluish green1 with brown spots4 ,this background of bluish green1 sometimes lighter and sometimes darker1 occurs again1 together with the brown spots1 in the eggs of crows1 magpies1 jays1 blackbirds1 thrushes1 and fieldfares1 birds that resemble one another closely in their bodily structure1 despite their marked differences in size1 plumage1 and habits4 ,the eggs of certain blackbirds and fieldfares are of a magnificent sky-blue color4 8,the raven is an omnivorous creature3 fruit1 larv1 insects1 sprouting grain1 flesh1 whether in a fresh condition or otherwise1 all suit it equally well2 but its favorite fare is carrion1 which it knows how to find a long way off1 guided by sight and smell4 ,wherever there is a dead animal1 there the raven makes its appearance and contends for the loathsome quarry with dogs4 ,the habit of gorging itself with this infected food gives it a repulsive odor4 ,for lack of dead prey--the sort most acceptable to its tastes1 its great appetite1 and its cowardice--the raven hunts such live prey as young hares and young rabbits1 and other small and destructive rodents4 ,it pilfers from birds' nests both eggs and new-born birds1 a succulent banquet for its young2 and it even has the boldness to carry off little chickens from poultry-yards4 ,without offering the slightest plea in its favor1 ,i leave the raven to the hatred it has always incurred by reason of its funereal plumage1 its forbidding aspect1 its sinister croaking1 repulsive odor1 filthy greed1 and savage disposition40 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,crow 8,in ,france we have four kinds of crows3 the black crow1 the mantled daw1 the rook or harvest crow1 and the jackdaw or little belfry crow4 8,the black crow has the same plumage and the same general appearance as the raven1 but is one-quarter smaller4 ,during the summer these birds live in pairs in the woods1 which they leave only to get something to eat4 ,in the spring their food consists of birds' eggs1 especially the eggs of partridges1 which they know how to puncture skilfully so as to carry them to their young on the point of the beak4 ,like the raven1 this bird is fond of decayed flesh and little birds still covered with down4 ,crows attack small1 weak1 or wounded game1 and venture into poultry-yards to carry off any unwary ducklings or little chickens that may have strayed away from their mothers4 ,spoiled fish1 worms1 insects1 fruit1 seeds1 according to season and locality1 fill their crop4 ,they especially like nuts1 which they know how to break by letting them fall from a sufficient height4 8,in winter black crows gather in large flocks1 either in an unmixed company or together with rooks and mantled daws4 ,they go wandering about in the fields1 mingling with the flocks and sometimes even alighting on a sheep's back to hunt for vermin under the wool4 ,they follow the plowman to feed on the larv turned up by his plowshare2 and they explore the seeded ground and eat recently sown grain made tender and sweet by germination4 ,toward evening they fly together to the tall trees of some neighboring wood1 where they chatter noisily as the sun sets1 and smooth their feathers1 and finally go to sleep4 ,these trees are meeting-places where every evening the crows gather from different quarters1 sometimes from several miles around4 ,at daybreak they divide into flocks of greater or less size and disperse in all directions to hunt for food in the tilled fields4 8,at the end of winter this company is broken up1 the crows pair off1 and each pair chooses in the neighboring forests a district a quarter of a league in extent1 from which every other couple is excluded1 this arrangement ensuring sufficient subsistence for each establishment in the bird colony4 ,the nest is built in some tree of medium size1 and is made of small twigs and roots interwoven and rudely cemented with loam or horse dung1 a mattress of fine rootlets being laid inside4 ,if some bird of prey happens to come too near this nest1 its owners assail the intruder with fury and crack its skull with a blow of the beak40 8,good for you1 brave crows60 cried ,emile4 8,your enemies will think twice before they come and bother you40 8,i admire the courage of crows in protecting their young10 ,uncle ,paul admitted2 8but ,i cannot forgive them their plundering of poultry-yards1 their thefts of young birds and eggs1 and their upturning of seeded ground4 ,we must then include the black crow among bandits that are to be destroyed4 8,in the same class1 too1 we must place the mantled daw1 so called from the sort of grayish-white cloak that reaches from the shoulders to the tail both in front and on the back4 ,the rest of the plumage is black1 with glints of blue1 like the raven's4 ,this bird comes to us toward the end of autumn1 joins the company of black crows and rooks1 and may be seen searching our fields for larv and sprouting grain4 ,on the seashore1 where its numbers are much greater than in the interior1 it lives on fish and mollusks cast up by the waves or left by fishermen4 ,only under dire necessity will it touch carrion1 the favorite food of the black crow and the raven4 ,in ,march the mantled daw leaves us1 to go and breed in the ,north4 8,the rook1 which is a little smaller than the black crow1 has the latter's plumage1 but with more of a violet and coppery luster4 ,its beak1 too1 is more nearly straight and has a sharper tip4 ,it is readily distinguished from the crow and the raven by the characteristic mark of its occupation1 the skin of its forehead and around the beak being bare of feathers and looking white and powdery1 like a scar4 ,is the bird born like that8 ,not at all4 ,just as a workman handling rough and heavy objects makes his hands callous1 so the rook acquires by its work the rough and scaly skin so noticeable on its forehead4 ,it is a tireless digger and its beak is its pick1 which it thrusts into the ground as deeply as it can4 ,from constant friction with the soil the forehead and the base of the beak lose their feathers and become bald1 or even have the skin itself worn away so as to leave a rough scar4 ,the rook's object in this toilsome operation is to capture white worms and all the destructive larv that are such a scourge to our cultivated fields4 ,i saw some rooks one day hard at work in a waste tract of land1 lifting up and turning over the stones scattered here and there4 ,so eager were they that they sometimes threw the smaller stones as high as a man's head4 ,now guess what they were looking for so busily4 ,they were looking for insects and all sorts of vermin4 ,in this work of turning over stones and digging in the soil rooks cannot fail to injure their tool1 the beak1 and they must rub the feathers off from its base4 8,i should have a high opinion of these birds if they contented themselves with hunting insects2 but unfortunately they have a decided fondness for sprouting seeds1 a dainty dish that they exert all their ingenuity to procure4 ,it is said that they bury acorns and leave them in the ground until they begin to sprout and have lost their bitter taste1 when they dig them up and eat them40 8,what a bright idea60 ,emile exclaimed4 8,the hard1 bitter acorn is buried in the ground to get mellow1 and when the rook thinks it has stayed there just long enough he has so good a memory he can go and find it again and dig it up4 ,by that time it is just right to eat1 soft and sweet and a fine feast for ,mr4 ,rook40 8,so far there is nothing to find fault with10 said ,uncle ,paul4 8,a bushel more or less of acorns is a small matter1 and ,i willingly hand them over to the rooks to dispose of in their curious fashion4 ,but other sprouting seeds suit them equally well1 especially wheat1 which they can so easily procure in winter in the recently sown fields4 ,when ,i see a flock of rooks sedately pacing the furrows and plunging their beaks in here and there where the ground is softened by a thaw1 ,i know well enough those birds might pretend they were hunting for ,june-bug larv1 but he would be a simpleton indeed who accepted this explanation at that time of year1 when the worms are all too deep in the ground for the rook's beak to reach them4 ,it is wheat they are really after1 and as rooks go in very large flocks1 which may even darken the sky in their flight1 you can easily understand that such reapers make short work of their harvest4 ,nor is that all3 in the autumn rooks consume great quantities of walnuts and chestnuts1 and in the spring they dig up potato fields to obtain the newly planted tubers40 8,couldn't they live on dead animals1 as the black crow and the raven do80 asked ,louis4 8,no2 a rook1 however hungry1 will not touch a dead animal4 ,it must have seeds and fruit or larv and insects2 and as it chooses one or the other of these kinds of food1 the rook is our foe or our friend4 ,so there are two opinions about the bird4 ,some persons1 remembering only its thefts1 would wage a relentless war against it1 feeling that each rook destroyed means a bushel of wheat gained4 ,others1 mindful chiefly of its destruction of larv and insects1 maintain that the rook deserves kind treatment at the farmer's hands because it rids his fields of vermin1 following the plowman to pick up white worms in the furrows and plunging its sharp beak into the ground for the grubs of the ,june-bug4 ,for these excellent reasons they declare the rook worthy of our protection40 8,then which of the two opinions are we to accept80 was ,louis's query4 8,to my thinking1 neither of them1 but something half-way between1 as in the case of the mole4 ,if white worms abound1 let us bear with the rook1 as it makes war on these enemies of ours2 but if we have no need of its help1 let us chase the bird from our fields4 ,in our warfare on destructive insects we have two real helpers1 the mole and the rook2 but unfortunately we have to weigh their ravages against their services4 ,accordingly1 let us treat them with forbearance if we have a worse ill to dread1 but rid ourselves of their presence if our fields are in good condition4 8,all the year round the rook lives with its own kind4 ,it goes in flocks to seek food1 and in flocks it chooses its breeding-place4 ,sometimes a single oak has a dozen nests1 with as many in each of the trees around1 over a large tract of ground4 ,there is great commotion in this arial city at the time of nest-building1 for rooks are very clamorous and also much given to stealing from their neighbors4 ,when a young and inexperienced couple suspend building operations for a moment1 to go and get further material for construction1 the neighbors pillage the half-completed nest2 this one carries off a little stick1 that one a blade of grass and some moss1 to use in their own work4 ,on their return the robbed ones are thrown into a terrible passion1 accuse this one and that one1 take counsel with friends1 and attack the robbers furiously if the theft has not been cleverly concealed4 ,experienced couples never leave the nest unguarded1 but one stays and watches while the other goes for building material4 8,the jackdaw or little belfry-crow is all black and about the size of a pigeon4 ,like rooks1 these birds fly in flocks and nest with their own kind4 ,high towers1 old castles1 and the belfries of ,gothic churches are their favorite abode4 ,their nests1 which are made of a few sticks and a little straw1 sometimes are placed each by itself in a hole in the wall1 and sometimes are very near together in huddled groups4 ,the jackdaw when flying keeps uttering a harsh and piercing cry4 ,it feeds on insects1 worms1 larv1 and fruit1 but never on decayed flesh4 ,it renders us some service by clearing trees of caterpillars1 but ,i complain of it for hunting the eggs of little birds4 ,although jackdaws are always to be found about our old buildings1 they nevertheless move from place to place1 usually in large flocks1 sometimes of their own kind exclusively1 at other times in company with rooks and mantled daws40 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,woodpeckers ,in front of ,uncle ,paul's house there is a grove of beeches several centuries old1 its branches interlacing at a great height and forming a continuous canopy supported by hundreds of tree trunks as smooth and white as stone columns4 ,in the autumn that is where ,emile and ,jules go and hunt in the moss for mushrooms of all colors to show to their uncle1 who tells the boys how to distinguish the edible from the poisonous kinds4 ,there1 too1 they hunt for beetles3 the stag-beetle1 whose large fat head bears enormous branching nippers2 great black capricorn-beetles that may be seen at sunset running along the dead branches and clinging to them1 as they go1 with their jointed antenn1 which are longer than the insect's body2 and long-horn beetles1 likewise furnished with antenn of unusual length1 and also remarkable for their wing sheaths richly colored with blue or yellow or red1 with spots and stripes of black velvet4 ,a multitude of birds of many kinds make this grove their abode4 ,there the quarrelsome jay fights with one of its own species for the possession of a beechnut2 there the magpie chatters on a high branch and then flies down and alights in a neighboring field1 jerking up its tail and looking around with an air of defiance2 crows have their evening rendezvous there2 and there the woodpecker hammers away at old bark to make the insects come out so that it may snap them up with its viscous tongue4 ,listen to the bird at its work3 toc1 toc1 toc6 ,if it is interrupted in its task it flies away with a cry of teo1 teo1 teo1 repeated thirty or forty times in quick succession and resembling a noisy burst of laughter4 8,what bird is it that seems to be making fun of us with such loud laughter as it flies off80 ,emile and ,jules asked each other one day when they were watching from their window the woodpeckers and the jays at play in the branches of the old beech-trees4 ,jacques1 their uncle's gardener1 heard them as he was watering the cabbage bed4 ,after finishing a series of little trenches to carry the water to all parts of the bed1 he came up to the window for a talk with the boys4 8,that bird you see there10 said he1 8with green plumage and a red head1 is a woodpecker4 ,it has several different cries4 ,if it is going to rain it says plieu1 plieu1 in a long-drawn and plaintive tone4 ,when at work1 in order to keep up its spirits it every now and then gives a harsh cry1 tiackackan1 tiackackan1 so that the whole forest echoes with it4 ,in the nesting season it gives a quick teo1 teo1 teo1 just like what you heard a moment ago40 8,then it has its nest now in the beech grove80 asked ,jules4 8,it is at work on it1 for all the morning ,i've heard it hammering away with all its might4 ,you see1 it makes its nest in a hole that it hollows out by pecking the trunk of a tree with its beak4 ,it's a fine beak it has1 too1 so hard and pointed that the bird is always afraid of going too deep into the wood4 ,so after two or three good hard pecks it skips round to the other side of the trunk to see if it hasn't bored clear through40 8,bah6 you're only in fun10 returned ,jules4 8,not at all10 protested ,jacques2 8it's what ,i've heard said1 and ,i've often seen the woodpecker hurry round to look at the other side of the trunk40 8,but the bird must have some other reason than just to see whether or not the tree is bored through4 ,i'm going to ask ,uncle40 8,ask him1 too1 if he knows the ironweed that the woodpecker rubs its beak on to make it harder than steel40 8,your ironweed sounds to me like a fairy tale40 8,well1 ,i'm only telling you what ,i've heard4 ,i don't know anything about it1 myself2 but they say it's a very rare weed and that the woodpecker goes to look for it in the mountains so that it may harden and whet its beak on it4 ,and anything you touch to that weed becomes as hard as the best steel4 ,what a find that would be for my scythe and my hedging-bill1 my sickle and grafting-knife6 ,i know many a man that would give a bag of gold for the woodpecker's secret40 ,the young cabbage plants had by this time received enough water1 and it was now the lettuce's turn4 ,jacques went back to his work and left the boys to puzzle over the question whether or not there was any truth in this story of the woodpecker's fear lest it might bore through the tree trunk with each peck of its beak4 ,they brought the matter up that evening in their talk with their uncle4 8,there is both truth and falsehood in what my good ,jacques told you10 he said4 8,the true is what he saw with his own eyes1 the false what he repeats from hearsay among the country folk4 ,he told you correctly about the woodpecker's different cries1 which he knows so well from having heard them over and over again2 and he was right about the bird's way of running around to the other side of the trunk that it has just struck several times with its beak4 ,all the rest is false1 or1 rather1 an amusing legend with a basis of fact which we will now examine4 8,woodpeckers live solely on insects and larv1 especially those species of insects and larv that are found in wood4 ,the large grubs of capricorn-beetles1 stag-beetles1 long-horn beetles1 and others are their favorite dish4 ,to get at them they have to clear away the dead bark and bore into the worm-eaten wood beneath4 ,the instrument used in this rough work is the bird's beak1 which is straight and wedge-shaped1 square at the base1 fluted lengthwise1 and shaped at the point like a carpenter's chisel4 ,it is so hard and durable that1 in order to account for a tool of such perfection1 some simple-minded wood-cutter made up the story that has been repeated ever since1 the childish story of the ironweed4 ,need ,i tell you that there is nothing in the world that by its mere touch can give to objects the hardness of iron or steel80 8,i had my doubts10 ,jules declared1 8when ,jacques was telling us about it2 ,i couldn't believe in his wonderful weed40 8,the woodpecker has no need to rub its beak against anything to give it the hardness necessary for the work to be done2 it is born with a good strong beak1 to begin with1 and keeps it to the end1 and that beak never has to be retempered4 ,it is the continuation of a very thick skull which can withstand rather violent shocks1 and it is operated by a short1 strong neck which can keep up its hammering without fatigue even should the bird wish to bore into the very heart of a tree trunk4 ,after it has drilled its hole the woodpecker darts into it an exceedingly long tongue1 worm-shaped and viscous--that is1 coated with a sort of mucilage made by the saliva--and armed with a hard barbed point with which it transfixes the larv that have been uncovered4 8,to climb the trunk of the tree to be operated upon and1 for hours at a time if need be1 to stay there where larv seem to be lurking1 the woodpecker has short1 muscular legs which end in stout claws1 each foot having four talons or toes1 two pointing forward and two backward1 armed with curved nails of great strength4 ,the bird's way of standing on the vertical surface of a tree trunk is made possible not only by the division of its talons as ,i have described them1 with their strong nails clinging to rough bark1 but also by a third support furnished by the tail4 ,the large tail feathers are stiff1 slightly bent downward1 worn at the tip1 and supplied with rough barbs4 ,when the woodpecker starts in on what promises to be a long job1 it plants itself firmly on the tripod of its tail and two feet and holds itself steady even in positions that would seem to be highly uncomfortable4 ,without fatigue and without pause it can strip an entire tree trunk of its dried-up bark4 8,the objects of its persevering search are the insects hidden under this bark4 ,it can tell by the sound made when it strikes the tree with its beak whether or not the wood is decayed and full of insects1 a hollow sound being of good omen to the bird4 ,if the wood does not give out this hollow sound1 the woodpecker knows that further drilling at that point would be but so much labor wasted4 ,in the first case it strips off the bark1 makes the wood beneath fly this way and that in a shower of little chips1 clears off the worm-hole dust1 and finally reaches the plump grub in its snug retreat4 ,in the second case it strikes two or three well-directed blows to start the dry bark and frighten any insects that may be lurking underneath4 ,immediately this insect population runs in alarm1 some to the right1 others to the left1 toward the opposite side of the tree trunk2 but the woodpecker1 knowing well enough what is going on1 reaches the other side in time to nab the fugitives40 8,now10 said ,jules1 8,i understand what ,jacques was saying4 ,the woodpecker doesn't run around the tree to see whether or not it has bored through to the other side1 but to gobble up the insects that are trying to get away4 ,i thought the woodpecker must be very silly to think it could drill right through the trunk of a tree with one peck of its beak2 but now that ,i know the real reason of what it does1 ,i see that it's a wonderfully clever bird40 8,i assure you once more that animals have more intelligence than they are given credit for4 ,let us beware of seeing an evil meaning in habits and aptitudes that we do not understand4 ,is it not said of the buzzard that it is a stupid bird1 just because it shows such patience in watching and waiting1 perfectly motionless1 for the field-mouse it suspects to be lurking under the ground8 ,and here we have the woodpecker accused of being so foolish as to think it can pierce a tree trunk with one blow of its beak1 merely because it runs around to capture the insects fleeing to the other side6 ,bear this in mind3 there is in animals no foolishness except what we ascribe to them from our own point of view4 ,whenever we are able to discover the real motive1 we always find their actions perfectly logical4 ,and that is only what might have been expected1 for an animal has no choice in its acts1 but is made to perform them according to its mode of life as determined from the beginning by ,divine ,wisdom4 ,man alone is free3 by a sublime privilege he is left to choose between good and evil1 between sound reason and blind passion4 ,he seeks and chooses1 at his own risk and peril1 the true or the false1 the just or the unjust1 the beautiful or the ugly4 ,but animals1 having no spiritual battles to fight as we have1 are now what they have always been and always will be2 they do to-day what they did yesterday and will do to-morrow2 for centuries and centuries they go on doing the same thing without improvement or deterioration1 and with an unfailing sense given them by ,god4 8,woodpeckers spend their lives running around tree trunks from top to bottom in order to start the old bark that shelters insects1 and exploring all fissures with their long1 pointed tongue1 which is pushed down into every hole where worms may possibly be hiding4 ,these birds are placed in our forests as keepers4 ,they inspect sickly trees in particular1 trees honeycombed by vermin1 and they examine carefully the diseased parts4 ,occasionally they may chance to attack a healthy part1 especially in making their nests1 and they may thus injure the tree by drilling into the live wood4 ,but this damage is more than atoned for in the long run1 and so ,i do not hesitate to bestow upon our woodpeckers the title of forest-preservers1 a title earned by their assiduous warfare on insects injurious to wood4 ,seldom do they leave their timber-yard--the trunk and the main branches of the tree--and descend to the ground1 except when they chance to find an ant-hill1 the inmates of which they devour with delight4 ,they place their nests at a considerable height from the ground1 deep down in a round hole bored with the beak in the heart of some tree trunk4 ,the bedding consists of moss and wool1 and the eggs1 four to six in number1 are in every instance white1 smooth1 and as lustrous as ivory40 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,more ,,about ,,woodpeckers 8,the commonest of our woodpeckers is the green woodpecker1 which is about as large as a turtle-dove4 ,its plumage has a richness rarely seen in that of any of our other birds4 ,the top of the head and the nape of the neck are of a magnificent crimson2 two mustaches of the same hue adorn the bird's face2 the back is green1 the breast and stomach yellowish white1 the rump yellow1 and the large wing-feathers black with regular marks of white on the edge4 ,the female has less brilliant coloring than the male and its mustaches are black instead of red4 8,it is the green woodpecker that you heard in the grove this morning1 giving its cry of teo1 teo1 teo4 ,i will not go over what ,jacques has already told you about its different cries4 ,the green woodpecker is passionately fond of ants1 and when it discovers an ant-hill it posts itself near by and stretches its long viscous tongue across the path the ants follow4 ,you know these little creatures' way of marching in long files1 one or more1 following the exact path taken by the leaders4 ,the woodpecker's viscous tongue is extended across this line of march4 ,the ants from behind come up1 hesitate a moment before the barricade1 and then venture upon the tongue1 in order to follow their friends marching on ahead as if nothing had happened4 ,immediately we have one ant caught1 then four1 then ten1 all struggling in the sticky mucilage covering the tongue4 ,the woodpecker does not move1 but remains quiet until its tongue is quite covered4 ,nor has it long to wait4 ,soon the living trap1 laden with game1 is withdrawn into the beak4 ,ah1 that was a luscious mouthful6 ,without leaving the spot the ant-eater repeats this performance again and again1 laying its tongue on the ground and then drawing it in black with ants1 until its hunger is satisfied40 8,animals know more than one would think1 as you said a while ago10 ,emile remarked4 8,that trick of the woodpecker's shows it plainly enough4 ,instead of picking the ants up one by one1 which would be very slow work with such small game1 the woodpecker takes them dozens at a time4 ,it lays its tongue across their path on the ground1 draws it in again when it is all plastered over with ants1 and the thing is done4 ,and the mouthful is well worth the trouble4 ,who would have thought of making a trap of one's tongue1 a trap that catches game with glue80 8,but its passion for ants10 resumed ,uncle ,paul1 8does not make the woodpecker neglect its duty as keeper of forests4 ,it goes climbing up tree trunks1 tapping the sickly parts1 and pecking away with blows that at a distance sound like hammer strokes4 ,if a passer-by interrupts it at its work it does not immediately fly away1 but runs around the trunk like a squirrel1 and from the other side sticks out its head a little to see who or what is coming4 ,if the intruder advances1 the woodpecker goes on around the tree1 always keeping on the opposite side until it becomes frightened1 when it flies off1 making the woods ring with its sonorous tiackackan1 tiackackan4 ,it flies with swift darts and bounds1 swooping down1 then rising1 describing a series of undulating arches in the air4 8,for its nest it bores out a deep hole in soft-wood trees such as firs and poplars4 ,male and female work with lusty blows of the beak1 taking turns at the hardest part of the task1 the piercing of the live wood of the trunk1 until the worm-eaten center is reached4 ,chips1 wood-dust1 and decayed fragments are dug out with the feet1 and at last the hole is deep enough and slanting enough to exclude the light of day4 ,the young ones leave the nest before they can fly1 and they may be seen exercising near it1 learning to climb1 to run around the trunk of their tree1 and to cling to it upside down4 ,you will be amused to watch them if you ever have the good fortune to be present at the frolics of a young family of woodpeckers4 8,the great spotted woodpecker is about as large as a thrush4 ,it has a wide red stripe across the nape of the neck1 the upper part of the body is prettily spotted with pure white and deep black1 and the under part is white as far as the abdomen1 which is red1 as is also the rump4 ,the female has no red on the nape of the neck4 ,the food of this bird is the same as the green woodpecker's4 ,it strikes the tree with quicker1 smarter blows1 and if disturbed in its work it remains motionless in the shelter of a large branch with its green eyes fixed on the object of its distrust4 ,its cry is a kind of hoarse1 grinding trer-rer-rer-rer4 8,the variegated woodpecker much resembles the great spotted woodpecker in plumage1 but is a little smaller4 ,it is adorned with a red cap which covers the whole of the upper part and the back of the head1 while the great spotted woodpecker has only a stripe of this color on the nape of the neck4 ,both these birds are found in the large wooded districts of ,france1 and they live on the same diet1--insects1 wood-boring larv1 and ants4 ,also1 because of their velvet costume of black and white and their scarlet cap1 they are both to be ranked among the prettiest birds we have4 8,let us add to them the little spotted woodpecker4 ,it is smaller than a sparrow1 and its dress is that of the great spotted woodpecker4 ,this bird is found almost exclusively in the fir forests of the ,east and of the ,pyrenees4 8,the wryneck is closely akin to the woodpeckers in the structure of its feet1 whose four toes or talons are divided into two pairs1 one pointing forward and the other backward1 and in its very long and viscous tongue which it pushes into ant-hills or stretches out on the ground to receive the insects as they pass4 ,it is a small bird1 being no larger than a lark4 ,its plumage is watered with black1 brown1 gray1 and russet1 somewhat like the woodcock's1 but with tints better defined and more beautiful in their combined effect4 ,the wryneck is a great eater of caterpillars1 and it is also passionately fond of ants1 which it catches as does the woodpecker1 with its sticky tongue laid on the ground across their path4 ,its name comes from the habit it has of twisting its neck and looking backward with a sort of slow and undulating movement like a snake's40 8,why does it imitate a snake like that80 ,emile inquired4 8,it is its way of expressing surprise and alarm2 and perhaps it also hopes to frighten its foe with the motions4 ,at any rate1 it is sometimes successful4 ,if a birdnest-hunter climbs up to its hole to steal its little ones1 the wryneck emits1 from the depths of its retreat1 a sharp hissing and begins to make snake-like movements with its neck4 ,the young birds1 still featherless1 imitate their mother to the best of their ability1 and succeed so well that the hunter thinks he has thrust his hand into a nest of writhing and twisting flat-headed vipers4 ,thoroughly frightened1 the boy clambers down1 not without leaving some shreds of his breeches on the way40 8,serves the rascal right1 too10 declared ,emile4 8,the wryneck reaches us in ,april and leaves toward the end of summer4 ,it haunts the outskirts of woods and visits gardens and orchards for caterpillars4 ,it nests in a hole in a tree trunk and gladly avails itself of the woodpecker's abandoned quarters after furbishing them up a little to suit itself4 ,the eggs1 which are white and polished like the woodpecker's1 rest on a simple little bed of wood-dust that the bird dislodges from the walls of its hole with a few blows of its beak4 8,despite the structure of its feet1 the wryneck does not climb tree trunks and rarely even perches on them1 preferring to stay on the ground and hunt caterpillars or stretch out its tongue in the ants' path1 which has given it1 in the ,south1 the name of stretch-tongue4 8,the nuthatch1 on the contrary1 though differing from the woodpecker in the formation of its claws1 is a first-rate climber and spends its life running about on the trunks of trees1 inspecting every crack and cranny for insects and pecking at the old bark4 ,three of its talons point forward1 the fourth alone being turned in the opposite direction2 but for firmness of support the last is worth two of the others1 so thick and powerful is it1 and the nail at the end so strong and hooked4 ,the beak resembles the woodpecker's1 being straight1 fluted lengthwise1 and sharply pointed4 ,it is an excellent tool for digging into wood and getting out the worms4 ,the tongue cannot be projected like the woodpecker's to catch insects with its glue1 nor does the tail serve as a support4 8,the nuthatch examines old trees with painstaking care1 going up and down the trunk repeatedly1 or around it in a spiral1 and sometimes visiting a branch above or below or on one side4 ,every crack is explored with the point of the beak1 to the accompaniment of the bird's resonant cry1 tuee1 tuee1 tuee1 repeated again and again in a penetrating tone4 ,very few insects can escape so careful a search4 ,if grubs are lacking1 the nuthatch makes a frugal meal of a hazelnut4 ,first it fixes the nut firmly in the fork made by two branches1 and then it hammers away at it1 encouraging itself the while by uttering its cry1 until the hard shell is pierced and the kernel exposed40 8,it must take the bird a long time to crack a hazelnut with its beak10 was the opinion of ,jules4 8,no1 it is done very quickly1 the beak is so hard and pointed4 ,very quickly1 too1 a caged nuthatch will break through the woodwork of its prison and make an opening large enough to escape through4 ,not even the woodpecker has a better carpenter's chisel4 8,the nuthatch is about as large as a sparrow4 ,all the upper part of its plumage is of a bluish ash color1 the throat and cheeks are white1 and the breast and stomach red4 ,a black stripe1 starting from the corner of the beak1 passes over the eye and down the side of the neck4 ,this bird nests in a hole in a tree trunk and it knows how1 if need be1 to make the opening of the nest smaller with a little moistened clay4 ,its eggs1 from five to seven in number1 are laid on moss or wood-dust and are of a dingy white dotted with red4 ,it gets its name of nuthatch 7which means nuthacker7 from its way of hacking the nuts it is so fond of40 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,climbers--,,the ,,hoopoe 8,i have been telling you about woodpeckers and the nuthatch1 insect-eaters with chisel-shaped beaks for cutting into trees and getting out the worms hidden in the wood4 ,then ,i spoke of the wryneck1 which does not use its beak for hacking old tree trunks1 but can1 like the woodpecker1 stick out its tongue on the ants' path and catch the insects with the glue of its saliva4 ,now we come to some more insect-eaters1 but their work is less laborious than that of the woodpecker4 ,they do not hack and hew tree trunks1 but merely seek their prey in the cracks and crannies that serve as its refuge4 ,for this kind of hunting they have a long and slender beak that curves slightly downward4 8,as their name implies1 climbers show great agility in climbing4 ,their beak is very narrow1 the better to penetrate the cracks in the bark of trees1 and it is bent like an arch and has a fine point4 ,their feet have three talons pointing forward and one1 much stronger1 pointing backward4 ,we have in ,france two climbers1 one of which is furnished with a tail composed of a few long1 stiff feathers that serve as a support to the bird in climbing1 as the woodpecker's tail serves that bird1 while the other is not thus equipped4 8,the so-called common climber is a tiny bird with whitish plumage spotted with brown above and tinged with red on the rump and tail4 ,its life is a most laborious one4 ,it frequents woods1 orchards1 and the trees of our public promenades1 where you may see it always busily engaged in examining every square inch of the surface of tree trunks in order to thrust its slender beak into the cracks of the bark and catch any lurking gnats1 bugs1 caterpillars1 or cocoons4 ,it runs down the trunk as fast as it runs up1 which woodpeckers cannot do1 their progress always being upward1 either in a straight line or spirally4 ,it ascends in little leaps and bounds1 and helps itself along by propping its tail against the tree4 ,arrived at the top of the trunk1 it descends quickly and begins the same operations on the next tree4 ,at every step it cheers itself up with its sharp1 flute-like cry4 ,at nightfall it retires into some hole in a tree trunk4 ,there1 too1 it makes its nest1 which is formed of fine grasses and bits of moss held together by threads from spiders' webs4 ,its eggs1 from five to seven in number1 are pure white with red spots4 8,the wall-climber1 or scaler1 makes its way up the perpendicular faces of rocks1 ramparts1 and old walls1 prying out all the various insects and their eggs that may be lurking in the fissures4 ,with its large claws it clings to these vertical surfaces and does not use its tail as a support4 ,this bird1 which is of about the size of a lark1 has unusually beautiful plumage of a light ash color1 with touches of bright red1 black1 and pure white on the wings4 ,the throat is black1 and so is the tail1 the latter being edged with white at the tip4 ,the richness of its coloring and the habit it has of remaining stationary in its flight before the rock or other surface it is exploring1 just as butterflies hold themselves motionless on their wings while they suck the honey of flowers with their trumpet1 have given it the expressive name of butterfly of the rocks4 ,it inhabits the ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 and the ,jura ,mountains4 ,in winter it visits old buildings in our towns4 8,the hoopoe is especially remarkable for its double row of long red feathers edged with black and white1 which1 at the bird's pleasure1 are made to lie down toward the back or stand upright on the head and spread out as a handsome crest4 ,the rest of the plumage is wine-colored1 except the tail and wings1 which are black4 ,the wings are also ornamented with white stripes running across them4 8,in size this bird is about as large as a turtle-dove4 ,it lives alone and prefers to remain on the ground usually1 rarely perching unless on the lower branches of trees4 ,its favorite haunts are moist fields1 which it walks over at a sedate pace1 every now and then erecting its beautiful crest either from satisfaction at having found a savory mouthful or because of being startled by something1 for it is a very timid bird4 ,with its long beak it digs in the ground for grubs1 beetles1 and crickets2 or it gathers ants on its viscous tongue4 ,when it has had enough it withdraws to some low branch and there digests its food at leisure4 ,at the mating season it says1 poo1 poo1 whence without doubt comes its familiar nickname of poo-poo4 8,elegant though it is in appearance1 the hoopoe is not at all particular about the condition of its nest1 which it makes in the interior of a worm-eaten tree trunk4 ,it lines the hole with a mortar composed of clay and cows' dung1 whereon it places a little bed of dry leaves and moss4 ,this nest1 so deep and so hard to keep clean1 ought to be cleared out daily1 but the parent bird does nothing about it1 leaving the filth to accumulate until it forms a rampart all around the nest4 ,this barricade may serve as an excellent defense against the birdnest-hunter1 who would naturally hesitate to thrust his hand into the foul mess2 and so ,i will not censure the bird too severely for its poor housekeeping4 8,the hoopoe is with us only in summer4 ,toward the first of ,september it crosses the ,mediterranean to pass the winter under the warmer skies of ,africa40 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,cuckoo ,in an old pear-tree with dense foliage1 at the foot of the garden1 a black-headed warbler had built its nest4 ,day by day ,jules had watched the bird as it brought blades of dry grass1 one by one1 and wove them into the shape of a cup1 after which it furnished the interior with a hair mattress4 ,then came the eggs1 to the number of five1 light chestnut in color1 marbled with darker streaks4 ,parting the branches very gently in the mother's absence1 and standing on tiptoe1 ,jules had peeped into the nest1 but of course without touching anything2 he had merely cast a rapid glance at the pretty cluster of five eggs lying together at the bottom4 ,the laying was over1 his uncle told him2 now would begin the incubation1 and in a few days five little creatures1 blind and featherless1 would at the slightest rustling of the foliage stretch their yellow beaks wide open in mute appeal for food4 ,already ,jules was looking forward to the good time he would have in watching1 from a distance1 the bringing up of the brood1 and was planning how1 when the little birds should have grown a trifle larger1 he would put some small caterpillars and worms on the end of a stick and drop them into the nest for the young ones to eat4 ,then before long the new-fledged warblers would leave the nest and the garden would have five more caterpillar-destroyers repaying with their services and joyful songs the kind-hearted attentions of their boy friend4 ,that was what ,jules was eagerly looking forward to yesterday1 but to-day he returns from his visit to the nest with a troubled look on his face4 ,a strange thing has happened3 with the warbler's five eggs there is a sixth one1 a little larger and of a different color4 ,whence comes this strange egg8 ,who put it in the nest1 and why8 ,uncle ,paul1 on being consulted1 went to the nest and came back with the egg4 8,your warbler's nest1 my dear child10 he said1 8has had a fortunate escape2 but for your visit this morning the young birds would have been lost almost as soon as they were hatched4 ,this egg that ,i have brought back is a cuckoo's egg40 8,but ,i don't see how it came to be in the warbler's nest or what danger it threatened to the young birds that are coming40 8,you will see when ,i tell you the cuckoo's habits4 ,it is a curious story4 ,the cuckoo is the bird that in early spring1 when the meadows are sprinkled with violets and the trees are just putting forth their leaves1 keeps repeating its cry of cuckoo1 cuckoo1 in a clear and plaintive tone40 8,i have often heard it10 said ,jules1 8singing on the edges of woods1 but have never been able to get a good look at it40 8,i have seen it flying away10 ,emile put in1 8and it seemed to me pretty large40 8,the cuckoo is at least as large as a turtle-dove10 their uncle continued4 8,its plumage is ashy gray on the back and white underneath1 with numerous brown crosswise stripes resembling those seen on many birds of prey4 ,the wings are long1 as is also the tail1 which is spotted and tipped with white4 ,despite its likeness to the goshawk and sparrow-hawk1 the cuckoo is not to be classed as a bird of prey4 ,its talons lack the necessary strength1 and its beak1 which is rather long1 is flattened and only slightly curved4 ,those are neither the hooked claws nor the savage beak of a bird living the life of a murderer4 ,the cuckoo's food consists entirely of insects and caterpillars4 ,you remember the processionaries of the oak tree1 those frightful black caterpillars that spin large silken nests against the trunk of a tree and bristle with barbed hairs that cause such terrible itching if you touch them80 8,yes10 answered ,jules2 8and you told us that the cuckoo eats those caterpillars40 8,it feasts on them1 as it does on all hairy caterpillars2 but the hairs are rolled up into a ball in the stomach and thrown up through the beak4 ,as a greedy devourer of insects and caterpillars the cuckoo deserves protection2 the only regret is that a multitude of little birds most useful to us should be destroyed by it4 ,let us consider the facts of the case4 8,the female cuckoo never builds a nest1 nor does she know how to hatch out her own young2 but let us plead the best excuse we can for her4 ,her breast seems to be so formed as not to impart enough warmth to eggs to make them hatch2 and1 more than that1 she lays so often throughout the summer as to leave her no time for making a home of her own4 ,in short1 this bird never knows the joy of taking care of her young4 ,it is not because she will not hatch her own eggs1 but because she cannot4 ,she has to leave this work to other birds40 8,then the cuckoo's egg ,i found in the garden nest was left there for the warbler to take care of80 ,jules inquired4 8,precisely4 ,now see by what wonderful planning the strange egg comes to be adopted by another mother4 ,bear in mind that the cuckoo lives exclusively on insects4 ,the young cuckoo must have caterpillars4 ,where will food of this sort be found if not in the nests of birds that feed on insects1 as for instance warblers1 redbreasts1 tomtits1 nightingales1 stonechats1 wagtails1 and others8 ,it is to just these nests that the cuckoo goes4 ,sometimes it may chance to lay its eggs in the nests of birds that live on seeds1 such as linnets1 bullfinches1 greenfinches1 or yellow-hammers2 but even then the choice is wise2 for if the foster-parents are eaters of seeds they bring up their young on worms1 which are easier to digest1 and so the little cuckoo finds in these nests food suited to its needs4 ,but the cuckoo's eggs are never laid in the nests of quails1 partridges1 or other species whose young are granivorous from the beginning4 ,in a brood whose habitual diet was not theirs the changelings would surely die of hunger40 8,but how10 asked ,jules1 8does the cuckoo know what nests to choose and what ones not to choose1 when it lays its eggs80 8,if it knew why it laid its eggs where it does1 ,i should have to admit that the cuckoo's sagacity surpassed man's2 but it does not know at all the reason for its choice4 ,a wise ,providence has arranged everything for the bird4 ,the egg--which1 judged by the cuckoo's size1 should be as large as a pigeon's or a turtle-dove's--is hardly as big as a sparrow's1 so that it can easily find a place in the warbler's or even the wren's tiny nest without arousing the adoptive mother's suspicions4 ,moreover1 this egg is variable in its color1 as if the better to harmonize with the coloring of those with which it will be incubated1 whether in this or that or the other nest4 ,sometimes the cuckoo's egg is ash-colored1 at other times red1 green1 or pale blue4 ,it may closely resemble the sparrow's eggs1 or it may be mottled with spots of smaller or larger size1 in lesser or greater numbers2 or1 again1 it may be marbled with black streaks4 ,but1 despite these variations1 it is always easy to see the difference between the cuckoo's egg and the others in a nest4 ,if one of the eggs is found to differ from the others in shape and color1 that one certainly came from the cuckoo4 ,by that sign alone ,i recognized the egg we have here from the warbler's nest40 8,the other five10 ,jules declared1 8are as like one another as so many drops of water2 but the sixth1 which you have there1 is very different40 8,and that is why ,i am sure it belongs to the cuckoo10 replied his uncle4 8,the cuckoo seems to me10 said ,louis1 8very large to be able to get into such a small nest as the warbler's1 the redbreast's1 or the nightingale's1 so as to lay its egg there40 8,that is not what the bird does4 ,the egg is laid on the ground1 anywhere2 then the mother takes it up in her beak1 puts it in a sort of pocket at the base of her gullet--a pocket provided for that purpose--and flies through the neighboring thickets on the lookout for a place for its final reception4 ,when she finds a nest to suit her she stretches her neck over the edge1 opens her beak1 and lets the egg gently drop among the others4 ,that done1 the cuckoo flies away and never returns to learn the result4 ,other eggs are placed in the same way1 here and there1 one by one1 in different nests40 8,and do the owners of the nests make no objections80 asked ,jules4 8,if they are at home they receive the cuckoo with angry pecks and chase her away2 but she usually succeeds in choosing the right moment and approaches the nest by stealth when the owners are absent40 8,but when they come back they must see at least that there is a strange egg in the nest and throw it out40 8,not at all4 ,whether or not the mother bird perceives that there is an egg too many1 ,i could not say4 ,but at any rate1 as there must be cuckoos in the world1 things are so arranged that their species shall not become extinct1 and all the eggs in the nest are watched over and hatched with impartial care1 until the last young bird is out4 ,at first all goes well enough3 the young ones need but little food1 and for one more the parents can easily find enough worms4 ,all are fed alike1 with no more for the children of the house than for the stranger4 8,but pretty soon the young cuckoo is found to be growing faster than the others2 it will soon need for itself alone all the food that its foster-parents can possibly secure with the utmost industry2 it is always opening its wide beak1 always complaining of hunger4 ,moreover1 it is cramped for room in the little house of hair and wool4 ,its featherless body1 squatting there flat and red1 its large head1 its bottomless abyss of a beak1 its big1 bulging eyes1 all give it the appearance of a toad sitting at the bottom of the nest4 ,there is no longer room in the house for all its inmates1 nor yet enough food to live on4 ,then a dreadful deed is done4 ,the young cuckoo slips under one of the little birds1 takes it on its back1 which is hollowed as if for the purpose1 and holds it there by slightly raising its wings4 ,dragging itself backward to the raised rim of the nest1 it rests a moment1 and then throws the burden over40 8,the horrid creature throws out of the nest the little one of the bird that feeds it80 exclaimed ,emile incredulously4 8,yes1 in cold blood1 so as to have more room for itself4 ,with the tips of its wings it feels around for a moment to make sure the little bird is gone1 and then returns to the bottom of the nest to go through the same process with another4 ,and so they all go1 one after another1 to the very last2 all are thrown out of the nest40 8,i'd like to be there to catch him at it--the scoundrel60 was ,emile's comment4 8,what becomes of the poor little things pushed out of their own home by the ungrateful young cuckoo8 ,if the nest is high above the ground all perish1 crushed by their fall1 and the ants immediately begin to suck their blood4 ,if it is low1 some live and take refuge in the moss1 where the mother comes to console them and bring them something to eat4 ,the cuckoo remains in sole possession of the nest40 8,and the horrid toad will starve to death there10 said ,jules4 8,the father and mother1 now that their brood is destroyed1 won't bring it anything more to eat40 8,that is where you are mistaken4 ,they continue to feed it liberally1 as if nothing had happened2 they perform wonders to satisfy its big appetite2 they do not allow themselves a minute's rest in their efforts to fill that beak that is always open and is wide enough to swallow the nurses themselves40 8,then the warbler isn't afraid of her greedy nursling that might gobble her up any moment80 queried ,jules4 8,although she is its mother only by chance1 she is devoted to it4 ,she comes joyfully with a caterpillar at the end of her beak while the cuckoo gapes at the edge of the nest1 as ugly as a little monster4 ,with no tremor of fear the warbler delivers the mouthful by putting her head into the yawning gulf4 ,the gulf closes1 swallows1 and yawns again1 demanding something more1 and all haste is made to satisfy its needs40 8,kind warbler60 murmured ,jules4 8,what self-denial in order to bring up the ugly rascal that has ravaged her nest60 8,so it has to be10 ,uncle ,paul rejoined1 8or we should long ago have been left with no cuckoos in the world to help us get rid of the processionary caterpillars of the oak-tree40 8,all the same1 ,i don't like that bird40 ,and with this ,jules took up the cuckoo's egg he had found in the garden nest4 8,may ,i80 said he to his uncle1 with a gesture4 8,yes1 ,i have no objection10 answered ,uncle ,paul1 who preferred five warblers in his garden to one vagabond cuckoo4 ,and smack went the egg as the boy dashed it to the ground4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,shrikes 8,all sorts of absurd stories have been made up about the cuckoo and its curious habits1 and thus fable has added to the actual facts1 which are in themselves strange enough4 ,even to-day there are in circulation any number of fairy tales on the subject of this bird4 ,i will tell you a few of them in order to put you on your guard against these childish notions4 8,first1 they say cuckoos change their nature twice a year1 being cuckoos in the spring and sparrow-hawks the rest of the year4 ,according to this account1 the bird comes to us from some distant country in ,april in its first form on the back of a kite that is so accommodating as to serve it as a mount4 ,this mode of travel is adopted by the cuckoo to spare its own wings1 still too weak to carry it4 ,undoubtedly the bird's plumage--which1 as ,i have told you1 resembles in its brown crosswise stripes on the breast the plumage of certain birds of prey--has fostered this popular belief in the changing of the cuckoo into a sparrow-hawk and of the sparrow-hawk into a cuckoo4 ,people have allowed themselves to be deceived by this variegated dress4 ,when the bird sings in ,april and ,may it is a cuckoo because it has the cuckoo's cry2 but when it falls silent in summer it becomes a sparrow-hawk because it has the plumage of one4 ,so the cuckoo is changed into a sparrow-hawk1 and when spring comes again the sparrow-hawk is changed into a cuckoo once more4 ,for thousands and thousands of years this nonsense has been believed by most people4 8,the cuckoo is a migratory bird3 it remains with us from ,april to ,september1 but departs for ,africa at the approach of winter4 ,to explain its reappearance in the spring some one invented the story of its being carried on the back of a kite2 but ,i need not assure you that there is not a word of truth in this fairy tale4 ,the cuckoo is always a cuckoo1 and it returns from warmer climes on its own wings1 as does the swallow4 ,another legend is that the cuckoo turns into a toad40 8,isn't that because the cuckoo1 when it is young and before it has any feathers1 is very ugly and looks like a toad80 asked ,jules4 8,exactly4 ,and1 finally1 the bird is accused of discharging on plants a fatal saliva that breeds insects4 ,the truth of the matter is that a tiny insect1 light green and shaped somewhat like a grasshopper1 is in the habit of pricking the stems of plants with its sucker to make the sap run2 and this sap presents the appearance of a white foam that looks like saliva4 ,the insect takes its position in the midst of this cool and foamy froth to shelter itself from the heat of the sun and to drink at its leisure4 ,there you have the real facts in the case4 #8,cuckoo-spit' is the name popularly given to the insect4 ,it does little harm to plants4 ,in reality1 then1 the supposed harmful saliva of the cuckoo is merely an ingenious means employed by an inoffensive little creature to keep itself cool4 ,many other ridiculous stories are told about the cuckoo1 but it would be only a waste of time to dwell on them4 ,let us get on4 8,we have already had occasion several times to speak of our doubtful helpers1 those co-workers whose valuable services are offset by certain grave offenses4 ,you have just seen how that devourer of hairy caterpillars1 the cuckoo1 is guilty of the blackest ingratitude toward the warbler1 its nurse1 in brutally throwing out of their nest the little birds which would have become model caterpillar-destroyers4 ,that is a rather high price to pay for the destruction of oak-tree processionary caterpillars4 ,to finish the list of these birds whose conduct deserves1 from an agricultural point of view1 both praise and blame1 ,i will tell you about the shrike1 a great insect-destroyer1 but also a barbarous slaughterer of small birds4 8,despite their diminutive size--the largest shrike being hardly as big as a thrush--these birds have the fierce boldness of the most powerful birds of prey4 ,they will even pursue any falcon that ventures near their nest4 ,their diet consists chiefly of large insects2 but unfortunately they also pounce on little birds1 greedily devouring their brains and afterward tearing their flesh to shreds and eating it too4 ,for this life of rapine they have a strong hooked beak1 toothed toward the tip of the upper mandible1 and powerful talons ending in sharp nails that resemble in miniature the claws of birds of prey4 ,we have in this country four species of shrikes4 8,the common shrike is of the size of a blackbird1 and its plumage is ashy gray above and white underneath4 ,a wide black stripe1 starting from the beak1 continues around the eye and runs down over the cheek4 ,the wings and tail are black1 ornamented with white4 ,the bird likes to perch on lofty tree-tops1 where it keeps repeating its cry of truee1 truee1 in a piercing tone4 ,in flying from tree to tree it looks as if it were going to alight on the ground2 but presently it rises again1 describing a graceful curve in the air4 ,its food consists chiefly of field-mice and large beetles1 but occasionally of small birds which it catches on the wing4 ,it likes to build its nest in tangled and thorny hedges1 and lays from four to six eggs1 reddish in color and encircled toward the large end by a ring of brown spots4 ,similar rings are found placed in the same way on the eggs of our various other shrikes and furnish a distinctive and easily recognizable characteristic mark4 8,the black-headed shrike can be recognized1 as its name indicates1 by the wide black stripe that encircles the forehead4 ,this bird is of about the lark's size and has the plumage of the common shrike except on the stomach1 which is reddish4 ,the eggs1 white tinted with red1 have the ring at the large end formed of numerous little spots1 red1 brown1 or violet in color4 8,the red shrike is slightly smaller4 ,the top of its head and the back of its neck are bright red1 the stomach and rump white4 ,otherwise the plumage is like that of the two species just described4 8,the red-backed shrike is the smallest and the best-known of our shrikes4 ,it is ash color on the head and rump1 chestnut red on the back1 and light red underneath4 ,a black ring encircles the eye1 the throat is white1 and the large tail-feathers and wing-feathers are black4 8,these last three shrikes that ,i have named can at will imitate the various cries of small birds1 and they make use of this talent1 it is said1 to lure them to their destruction4 ,the red-backed shrike is especially expert in this4 ,it first hides in some dense shrubbery and then imitates the song of whatever species it hears chirping in the neighborhood4 ,the imprudent ones come at its call1 which they think proceeds from one of their own kind1 and the red-backed shrike pounces on them as soon as it has them well within reach4 ,but this trick succeeds only with inexperienced little birds1 the older ones knowing it and taking care not to be deceived4 ,the captured bird is skinned before being eaten1 and that is the origin of the ,french name 7corcheur1 flayer7 given to this fourth species of shrike4 ,the others1 however1 share this habit4 ,as they lack the faculty of rolling the feathers into a ball and throwing them up after digestion1 as do the hornless owls1 these birds take the precaution to prepare the game beforehand by tearing off the skin in shreds4 ,it is a quick way of plucking their victim4 ,notwithstanding its talent in imitating the calls of other birds1 the red-backed shrike is not so lucky as to make dupes every day4 ,in case of failure the shrike contents itself with common mice1 field-mice1 grasshoppers1 ,june-bugs1 and fat beetles4 ,such is the shrike's passion for beetles that when it has eaten all it can it continues to hunt them just for the fun of hunting2 and1 not knowing what to do with the captured insects1 it impales them on the thorns of bushes4 ,perhaps that is its way of stocking its larder with food and letting it acquire a strong flavor like venison1 a flavor much to its taste4 8,the other shrikes also have this mania for laying up reserves of beetles stuck on thorns1 reserves which the bird does not always come back for1 and which often dry up on the spot without being touched4 ,but this waste of game is of little consequence1 as the final result is always to our advantage3 we are delivered from a multitude of foes by these eager hunters4 ,when they do us such service shall we count it an unpardonable crime that they sometimes allow themselves the pleasure of feasting on little birds8 ,for my part ,i should be very reluctant to do so4 ,i pity with all my heart the poor little bird that foolishly lets itself be caught by the shrike2 but ,i also have a lively sympathy for the beautiful tree which1 if bereft of its defenders1 would soon be given over to the worms and honeycombed with holes all packed with filth4 8,the red-backed shrike frequents groves1 orchards1 and gardens4 ,it nests in thick hedges1 sometimes in the interlacing branches of apple-trees4 ,its eggs are white tinged with red4 ,the ring at the large end is composed of brown1 gray1 and greenish spots4 ,in building its nest the bird uses a kind of everlasting that grows abundantly in the fields and has stems all covered with a white cotton-like fluff4 ,the inside of the nest is furnished with a couch of little twigs and fine rootlets interwoven and comfortably overlaid with wool1 down1 and horsehair4 ,the other shrikes use in their nests the same materials1 especially the everlasting with its white fluff40 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,the ,,titmouse 8,at last we come to some caterpillar-destroyers that are never anything but helpful4 ,first of all there is the titmouse1 also known as the tomtit4 8,it is a graceful little bird1 lively and quick-tempered1 always on the go1 flying continually from tree to tree1 carefully inspecting the branches1 hanging from the tip ends of the slenderest of them in all sorts of positions1 often head downward1 swaying this way and that with its flexible support and never letting go its hold1 while it examines all buds that it suspects of containing worms1 and tears these buds to pieces in order to get at the grubs and insect eggs they contain4 ,it is calculated that a titmouse consumes three hundred thousand insect eggs a year1 and certainly few birds have larger families to provide for6 ,twenty or more little ones all huddled together in the same nest are not too great a strain on the parent's energy and industry4 ,the mother bird has to examine buds and the fissures in the bark of trees in order to find grubs1 spiders1 caterpillars1 worms of every kind1 and feed a score of beaks always open and demanding food in the bottom of the nest4 ,she comes with a caterpillar1 the brood is all excitement1 twenty mouths fly open1 but only one receives the morsel1 leaving nineteen still expectant4 ,then away flies the titmouse again without an instant's pause1 to seek more food4 ,thus back and forth she flies1 without rest and without weariness2 and by the time the twentieth mouth is fed the first one is again open1 and has been open a good while1 clamoring for more4 8,i will leave you to guess how many worms are eaten in a day by such a household2 and ,i will also let you reach your own conclusions regarding the value of these birds as caterpillar-hunters among our fruit-trees4 ,complaint is made1 ,i know1 that they tear open the buds and destroy them2 but the harm they do is only apparent4 ,when they pluck a bud it is to get out some tiny larva lodged between two scales1 and not to harm the young leaves or flowers that are forming4 ,it is better that this wormy bud should perish2 it would not have produced anything1 and the enemy lodged within it would have produced countless others to ravage the tree the next year40 8,then the titmouse does not feed on vegetable matter80 asked ,louis4 8,no1 except perhaps occasionally on a few seeds1 such as those of hemp4 ,the bird requires animal food2 small insects of all kinds1 their eggs and larv1 suit it best4 ,its appetite for prey is so keen that it has the courage to attack little1 disabled birds or those caught in snares1 pecking at their skulls and greedily devouring their brains4 ,it is true that the titmouse is remarkably courageous despite its smallness of size2 it is extremely quick and quarrelsome1 and a regular little ogre in time of famine4 ,its beak is conical1 strong1 short1 and pointed2 and its claws end in hooked nails designed for seizing their victims1 like the talons of birds of prey4 ,with these the bird grasps its food and conveys it to its beak1 like the parrot4 8,at the end of the brooding season the tomtits all assemble in companies of one or two families each and travel together by short stages4 ,these companies appear to have a leader1 probably the father or the mother1 and every now and then they are called together from one tree to another1 after which they separate again1 only to reunite once more at the leader's summons4 ,their flight is short and irregular3 they scatter through the woods1 gardens1 fields1 and orchards1 inspecting trees and bushes on the way and picking up larv and insects4 8,the titmouse family is made up of many species4 ,we have eight in our country1 but ,i shall speak only of the principal ones4 8,the coal-tit is the largest1 being of about the redbreast's size4 ,it is bluish gray on the back and yellow underneath4 ,the head is of a beautiful glossy black1 and a wide stripe of the same color runs down the middle of the chest and stomach and around the eyes1 which are also set off by a large white spot4 ,the large wing-feathers are edged with ashy blue4 8,this bird is very common in copses and gardens1 and is the one we hear in autumn repeating1 as it examines the bark of fruit-trees1 its cry of titipoo1 titipoo1 titipoo4 ,at times this cry has a harsh sound like the rasping of a file1 and this has given to the bird1 in some neighborhoods1 the name of locksmith4 ,it nests in a hollow tree trunk1 lining its quarters with some soft1 silky material1 chiefly fine feathers4 ,its laying consists of about fifteen white eggs spotted with light red1 especially toward the large end4 ,its family demands not fewer than three hundred caterpillars a day1 or their equivalent in vermin of some sort4 ,what the gardener1 the nurseryman1 and the forester owe this valiant caterpillar-destroyer by the end of the year cannot be calculated4 ,yet ,i have seen these very persons angrily thrust an arm into the hollow trunk of an old apple-tree to pull out the coal-tit's nest and throw the whole thing to the winds1--eggs1 feathers1 and little birds only a day old4 ,and they thought they were doing something worthy of praise1 for according to them the coal-tit eats buds4 ,but ,i declare that the coal-tit does not eat buds2 it eats the little larv lodged in the bud's scales1 and its instinct never allows it to molest healthy buds1 which contain nothing of any value to the bird4 ,leave it in peace1 then1 to pluck the wormy buds1 which it can very easily tell from the sound ones4 8,the coal-tit sometimes eats hemp-seed or hazelnuts1 picking out the edible part with a dexterity of beak and claw--,i had almost said hand--possessed by no other bird4 ,the sparrow1 chaffinch1 goldfinch1 and others crush the hemp-seed between their mandibles2 the coal-tit grasps it in its claw1 carries it to the beak1 and makes in the shell a small round opening through which it picks out the meat4 ,the hazelnut is managed with the same skill4 8,the blue tit is a beautiful little bird that keeps company with the coal-tit and frequents orchards4 ,it is olive-colored above and yellow underneath1 with the top of the head an azure blue1 the forehead white1 and the cheeks white framed in black4 ,a little collar of black also encircles the back and sides of the neck4 ,the large feathers of the tail and wings are edged with blue4 ,this titmouse1 so elegant in plumage1 so graceful in its bearing1 always running about over the bark of tree trunks and around the branches1 always hanging from the flexible boughs1 and always pecking and searching1 is no whit inferior to the coal-tit in its talent for catching caterpillars4 ,it has been seen in a few hours to clear a rosebush of two thousand plant-lice4 ,caterpillars and the eggs of insects1 especially of those that attack fruit1 are its chief food4 ,it is very fond of little birds' brains1 but if need be can get along with hemp-seed4 ,like the coal-tit1 it nests in a hollow tree trunk1 its nest being nothing but a heap of small feathers4 ,no other species raises a larger family4 ,the eggs are more than twenty in number1 white with reddish spots1 especially at the large end4 8,two other tomtits1 of less value as caterpillar-destroyers1 build their nests with much art4 ,they are the long-tailed titmouse and the penduline4 8,the first of these is different from all other tomtits in the length of its tail1 which forms more than half the length of the body4 ,this bird lives in the woods during the summer and visits our gardens and orchards only in the winter4 ,it is a small bird1 scarcely bigger than a wren1 reddish gray on the back and white underneath1 with a tinge of red on the stomach and with white nape and cheeks4 8,the nest is occasionally built in the fork of some branch in bush or hedge1 a few feet from the ground1 but oftener it is attached to the trunk of a willow or a poplar4 ,its shape is that of an elongated oval or1 rather1 an enormous cocoon enlarged at the base1 with an entrance on the side about an inch from the top4 ,the outside is made of lichens such as grow on old tree trunks1 having thus the appearance of bark and deceiving the casual observer4 ,filaments of wool bind the whole compactly together4 ,the dome or roof1 ingeniously contrived for shedding rain1 is a thick felt of moss and cobweb4 ,the inside is like an oven with a bowl-shaped bottom and high arched top4 ,its shape and the thick layer of soft feathers lining it make the nest warm and cozy4 ,from sixteen to twenty young birds are packed into the narrow space1 which does not exceed the hollow of the hand4 ,by what miracle of orderly arrangement do these twenty little creatures and their mother manage to find room for themselves in this tiny abode1 and how can tails of such length develop there8 ,it would be impossible to find anywhere a more economical use of space40 8,how ,i should like to see the twenty little tomtits snuggling together in that tiny nest60 ,emile exclaimed4 8,i have had that good fortune10 said his uncle1 8and even now ,i am strangely moved whenever ,i think of those twenty little heads stretching up from the bottom of the nest1 trembling and with open beaks as if their mother had come4 ,i looked for a moment through the opening of the nest at the tiny creatures1 and then withdrew4 ,the parents were already at hand1 ruffling their feathers with anxiety4 ,fear nothing1 little birds1 so watchful of your family2 ,uncle ,paul is not one to commit the crime of touching your nest40 8,nor ,emile1 either10 chimed in the boy4 8,nor yet ,jules or ,louis10 added the last-named4 8,i hope not1 indeed2 for otherwise ,uncle ,paul would tell you no more stories4 8,the penduline's nest is still more remarkable4 ,this titmouse is found hardly anywhere except along the banks of the lower ,rhone4 ,it hangs its nest very high1 from the tip of some swaying tree branch by the waterside1 so that its young are gently rocked by the breeze from the water4 ,the nest is a sort of oval purse about as large as a quart bottle and pierced on the side near the top by a narrow opening that would hardly admit a man's thumb4 ,to enter its nest the tomtit1 small though it is1 must stretch the elastic wall1 which yields a little and then contracts again4 ,this purse-shaped abode is made of the cotton-like fluff that flies off in ,may from the ripe catkins of poplars and willows4 ,the bird gathers this material and then weaves it together with a warp of wool and hemp4 ,the resulting fabric resembles the felt of a coarse hat4 8,i am at a loss to understand how the bird manages to weave with its beak and claws a stuff superior to any that the unaided human fingers could produce2 and yet it does this with no instruction1 with no hesitation1 and with no hints from the work of others4 ,at its very first attempt the titmouse puts to shame the studied art of our weavers and fullers4 ,the top or roof of the nest includes in its structure the tip of the branch from which it hangs and also the little twigs growing out of that tip end which serve as a framework for the vault2 but the foliage emerges from the sides of the nest and furnishes shade from the sun's heat4 ,finally1 to secure the nest more firmly1 cordage of wool and hemp binds the upper part to the branch and below is worked into the woof of the felt4 ,the inside is lined with poplar fluff of the best quality4 ,it takes a pair of pendulines three weeks of the hardest work to make this marvel40 8,doesn't the rain ever get through the covering of the nest80 ,emile inquired4 8,no2 the felt is so thick and so closely woven that even with the hardest rain not a drop of water can leak into the cotton-lined interior40 8,how comfortable the little birds must be in their snug nest6 ,the wind rocks them gently over the water1 and from their little window they can see the river flowing below4 ,what is this clever penduline like80 8,it is ash-colored1 with brown wings and tail1 and a black stripe across the forehead4 ,its dress is simple1 you see1 as is always the case with those that possess real merit4 ,the blue tit has rich plumage1 but when it comes to nest-building it can only pile feathers on top of one another at the bottom of a tree-hollow4 ,the penduline is of modest appearance1 but it builds the most wonderful nest it is possible to find4 ,to each his portion1 talent or fine clothes40 8,all of us here choose talent10 declared ,jules4 8,never1 my children10 urged ,uncle ,paul1 8be untrue to that sentiment40 8,we should have to forget your teachings10 the other replied1 8before we could do that40 8,and what are the eggs like80 asked ,emile4 8,emile is bound to have all ,i can tell him about the penduline4 ,does this builder of felt nests interest you1 then1 so very much80 8,yes1 it does10 ,emile assured him4 8,well1 the eggs are quite white and rather long4 ,there are three or four of them to a nest40 8,no more than that1 when the other tomtits have twenty80 8,no more2 but to make up for it there are two layings a year40 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,wren ,,and ,,the ,,kinglet 8,another highly talented architect1 past master in the building of nests1 is the wren1 known in learned language as the troglodyte4 ,if you ask me the meaning of this strange name ,i shall reply that it is a ,greek word signifying #8dweller in holes4' ,some inventor of names1 more in love with ,greek than desirous of being understood1 thought he was doing a fine thing when he gave this big name to the little bird that worms its way into small holes as a mouse would4 ,perhaps my description will be more easily understood than his hard name4 ,the troglodyte or wren is a fluffy bunch of plumage resembling that of the woodcock4 ,with trailing wings1 beak to windward1 and tail erect over its rump1 it is always frisking and hopping about1 uttering the while its cheery cry of teederee1 teeree1 teeree40 8,i know that bird10 ,jules broke in4 8,it isn't much bigger than a walnut1 and every winter it comes flying about the house1 hunting in the woodpile and in holes in the walls1 and darting into the thickest parts of bushes4 ,from a distance you would take it for a bold little rat40 8,that is it1 that is the wren4 ,in summer it lives in densely grown woods4 ,there1 under the arch formed by some large upward-curving root coated with a thick fleece of moss1 it builds a home for itself in imitation of the penduline's nest4 ,the materials it uses are bits of moss1 which make the nest look like its support4 ,it forms them into a large hollow ball with a very narrow opening on one side4 ,it is lined with feathers4 ,occasionally the wren builds its nest in some chimney or a pile of fagots1 a thick clump of ivy or a natural cavity in the bank of a shady stream4 ,the laying consists of about ten white eggs dotted with red at the large end4 8,when the weather turns cold1 the bird leaves the woods and approaches our farm-houses4 ,you can see it then1 always busy and on the move1 prying into dark holes in woodpiles1 old walls1 dead trees1 and thick bushes1 looking in every crack and cranny for all kinds of vermin that take up their winter quarters in the fissures with which old bark is furrowed and in the cracks that occur in weather-beaten mortar4 ,to gain an idea of their unceasing activity in this sort of research1 you have only to watch them once as they go prying into a heap of brush1 flying in and out on all sides of it without a moment's pause for rest40 8,yes10 assented ,jules1 8but it is so tiny a creature it can't do much work40 8,if the wren hunted big game1 certainly at the end of the day it would not have captured its prey by the dozen4 ,what could such a little thing do with a ,june-bug8 ,it would not come to the end of such a supply of food for several days40 8,and the ,june-bug would be too hard for its beak1 too10 remarked ,jules4 8,what it needs is the smallest of caterpillars and the tiniest of gnats1 which make a more delicate mouthful and are better adapted to the bird's small throat4 ,i need not remind you that the worst foes to our crops are the smallest4 ,a grub too tiny to catch the eye endangers our cereals1 and others equally small ravage our fruit while it is still in the bud4 ,how much does it take to destroy a blossom that would produce a pear the size of your two fists8 ,one single larva just visible to the naked eye4 ,well1 the wren attacks these tiny foes of ours that are all the more troublesome because we cannot see them easily4 ,now guess how many little caterpillars a day the wren needs for feeding its brood4 ,observers whose patience ,i admire have calculated the number40 8,let us say ten caterpillars to each little bird10 replied ,jules1 8and ten little birds in the nest4 ,that would make a hundred caterpillars a day1 and it is certainly a lot40 8,a lot6 ,ah1 how far out you are in your reckoning6 ,the mother wren brings something to her little ones at least thirty-six times an hour4 ,she feeds them a mixed diet of insects1 larv and eggs4 ,at the end of a day the number of insects destroyed1 of one kind and another1 amounts to one hundred and fifty-six thousand4 ,that leaves your paltry hundred a long way behind1 my dear ,jules40 8,then the caterpillars must be very small1 or the brood of wrens would die of indigestion40 8,undoubtedly they are exceedingly small1 and then a great many are not even hatched yet2 but the result as far as we are concerned is just as important1 so many eggs devoured meaning so many ravagers the fewer a little later40 8,supposing10 said ,louis1 8that the wren takes only the worms that attack pears1 that would be one hundred and fifty-six thousand pears the little birds would save for us in one day80 8,evidently40 8,but that is beyond belief40 8,i admit that the result is very great in comparison with the means employed4 ,a tiny bird that nobody notices goes pecking here and there1 and we find that at the end of the day the caterpillar-eater has destroyed1 either in the egg or in the nymph-stage or in the final form1 thousands of insects which1 if allowed to live1 would have deprived us of enormous basketfuls of fruit and hundreds of bushels of grain4 ,if we were to estimate the value of the crops saved by insectivorous birds1 it would be a fabulous sum4 ,leave them1 therefore1 in peace1 my children1 and do all you can to protect them2 for these busy little creatures ward off famine from our homes4 8,while we are on the subject let us speak of another little ,tom ,thumb of a bird1 another caterpillar-destroyer as energetic as the wren4 ,it is called the kinglet1 that is to say1 the little king1 on account of the crown of golden yellow edged with black that encircles its head4 ,it is the smallest of our birds4 ,it is olive-colored above and yellowish-white beneath4 ,its beautiful crown feathers can stand up like a crest4 8,the kinglet breeds in the cold countries of ,europe1 and especially in the fir forests of ,norway4 ,its nest is a little ball no bigger than your fist1 open at the top1 artistically fashioned outside with moss1 wool1 and spiders' webs1 and lined with the softest down4 ,it rests flat on some fir branch at an inaccessible height4 ,the eggs1 from six to eight in number1 are of a uniform flesh color4 8,although very delicate in appearance1 the kinglet stands the cold with great hardihood4 ,it comes to us from the land of its birth in small flocks when the autumnal fogs are gathering and the leaves are falling4 ,these flocks of five or six birds at most scatter through the woods1 public promenades1 and orchards1 to examine the cracks in bark1 to explore the heaps of dead leaves1 and to inspect the buds while clinging to the tips of the smallest branches4 ,not even the tomtit shows itself a more expert gymnast in hanging with head downward and working in all sorts of attitudes4 ,the task of destroying caterpillars is accompanied by a continual little rallying cry3 zee-zee-zee1 zee-zee-zee4 8,the kinglet has great confidence in mankind4 ,with no sign of fear even when within hearing of the footsteps and conversation of persons walking about1 it continues its evolutions1 its hunting1 its zee-zee-zee4 ,it will let one come close1 almost near enough to reach out a hand and take hold of it4 ,but the knowing little creature1 although it appears not to see you because it is so busy1 darts suddenly away and mounts to the upper branches to carry on its work at a safer distance40 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,swallows 8,we have whole tribes of helpers that devote themselves to the patient search for insect eggs in the cracks of tree bark and in piles of dead leaves1 for larv between the scales of buds and in the worm-holes in wood1 and for insects lurking in narrow crevices where they hide from their pursuers4 ,these invaluable assistants of ours embrace the magpies1 nuthatches1 wrynecks1 climbers1 tomtits1 wrens1 kinglets1 and many others4 ,in the kind of hunting here referred to the bird is not obliged to chase the game1 to vie with it in swiftness2 it is enough to know how to find it in its hiding-place4 ,for this a sharp eye and a slender beak are necessary2 wings are only of secondary importance4 8,but now we come to other species of birds that hunt in the air1 chase their game on the wing1 pursuing gnats and flies and butterflies1 moths and mosquitoes and beetles4 ,they require a short beak1 but one that opens very wide and is pretty sure to catch insects as they fly--a beak1 in fine1 that may be depended on to work almost of itself and without an instant's pause in the bird's flight2 a beak that1 above all1 is so sticky inside that as soon as an insect's wing grazes this viscous lining it is caught fast in the glue-like substance4 ,the beak of the bat1 that other hunter of insects on the wing1 the bat's beak1 ,i say1 opening from ear to ear1 may serve as a model in respect to the width of its opening4 ,but above all else the hunter must have swift wings that never tire1 that can fly as fast as the prey which is trying so hard to escape1 that can follow the bewildering zigzags of a moth manuvering to save its life4 ,a cleft beak that opens wide and wings that are strong and tireless--such must be the equipment of the bird that pursues its prey in the open air4 8,chief among these hunters is the swallow1 which may be called the daylight bat1 as the bat is the twilight swallow4 ,both chase flying insects1 following them in their endless dodgings and doublings and snapping them up with yawning beak1 then passing on without an instant's delay to the pursuit of others4 ,but how much more pleasing in appearance1 how much swifter in flight is the swallow than that hunter1 the sad-looking bat6 ,while we may compare their work and their way of hunting1 we cannot compare them in anything else4 ,buffon quotes ,guneau de ,montbliard as saying3 8#8,the air is the swallow's appropriate element1 and it is the nature of the bird to be ever on the wing4 ,it eats flying1 bathes flying1 and sometimes even feeds its young when flying4 ,it glides through the air with no effort1 with perfect ease1 conscious of being in its own domain4 ,it explores arial space in all its dimensions1 as if to enjoy it to the utmost1 and its delight in the act is expressed by little cries of rapture4 ,it may be seen giving chase to flying insects and following with supple agility their evasive and tortuous course2 or it may leave one to pursue another and snap up a third in passing2 or1 again1 it lightly skims the surface of land and water to catch any that may be gathered there for the sake of coolness and moisture2 or1 finally1 it may in its turn be driven to flee with all speed before the lightning-like onset of some bird of prey4 ,always in full control of its movements even when flying at topmost speed1 it is continually changing its course1 describing in the air a bewildering maze whose paths cross1 interlace1 recede from and approach one another1 meet1 wind1 ascend1 descend1 interweave1 and mingle in a thousand different ways and after a plan so complicated as to defy representation to the eye by the art of drawing and scarcely to lend itself to description for the imagination through the medium of speech4' 8,we have three kinds of swallows in ,france1 of which the best known is the martin1 black above with glints of blue1 and white beneath and on the rump4 ,it builds its nest in window-corners1 under the eaves of roofs1 and on the cornices of buildings4 ,the materials it uses are fine soil1 chiefly that which is deposited by earthworms1 after digestion1 in little mounds over our fields and gardens4 ,the swallow carries it1 a beakful at a time1 mixes it with a little viscous saliva to make it stick together1 and lays it by courses until it takes the shape of a hemisphere attached to the wall and provided with a small opening at the top4 ,bits of straw give additional firmness to the masonry2 and1 finally1 the interior is lined with an abundance of little feathers4 ,the laying consists of four or five pure white eggs without any spots4 8,the nests are used year after year by the same pairs of birds1 being recognized by them on their annual return in the spring and made as good as new with a few repairs4 ,if some are left vacant by reason of the owners' death in distant lands1 new couples profit by the fact40 8,don't they ever quarrel over the old nests80 asked ,jules4 8,very seldom4 ,swallows like to live in colonies1 and their nests touch one another sometimes to the number of hundreds on the same cornice4 ,each couple recognizes its own nest without the slightest hesitation1 and scrupulously respects others' property in order to have its own respected4 ,there is among them a deep feeling of joint responsibility1 and they help one another with as much intelligence as zeal4 ,occasionally it happens that a nest is no sooner finished than it gives way1 either because the mortar used is not strong enough or because the masons were in too great a hurry and had not the patience to let one course dry before laying another1 or for some other reason4 ,on hearing of the disaster the neighbors hasten to console the unlucky pair and help them to rebuild4 ,all set to work1 bringing the best mortar1 straw1 and feathers1 and in forty-eight hours the nest is rebuilt4 ,left to themselves1 it would have taken the owners a fortnight to repair the damage40 8,that's the kind of friends in need ,i like to see60 declared ,emile4 8,but ,i have something still better to tell you4 ,let us suppose a swallow has been so careless as to become entangled in a mesh of loose threads1 and the more frantically it struggles to escape the more firmly it binds its fetters4 ,with wings and claws held fast it is in danger of perishing4 ,uttering piteous cries1 it calls on its comrades for help4 ,all hasten to give aid1 noisily making plans for relief and working away with beak and talons until they finally unsnarl the tangle and free the captive4 ,the happy event is then celebrated with chirpings of delight4 ,that is what ,i saw with my own eyes1 right here in the garden1 one day when ,mother ,ambroisine was bleaching some of the linen thread she spins on her distaff4 8,an author #f of note tells us that he once witnessed something similar4 ,these are his words3 #8,i saw a swallow that had unfortunately1 ,i know not how1 caught its foot in a slip-knot tied in a string1 the other end of which was fastened to a roof gutter4 ,the bird's strength was exhausted and it hung1 crying1 from the end of the string1 with an occasional effort to escape4 ,all the swallows in the neighborhood had assembled1 to the number of several thousand4 ,they formed a veritable cloud1 each one uttering cries of alarm and pity4 ,after considerable hesitation one of them hit on a plan for freeing their luckless companion and communicated it to the others1 whereupon they all set to work4 ,a space was cleared and every swallow within hail came1 one after another1 as in a ring-game1 and gave in passing a peck at the string4 ,these blows1 all delivered at the same point1 followed one another with only a second's interval or less4 ,half an hour of this work sufficed to sever the thread and liberate the prisoner4 ,but the entire company of birds1 with a few exceptions1 stayed there until night1 chattering away incessantly1 though no longer in anxious tones1 but rather as if in mutual congratulation and animated comment4' 8,again3 #8,an insolent sparrow invades a swallow's nest and likes it so well it wishes to stay4 ,the owners assail the intruder1 but the latter1 having a stronger beak and being also protected by the ramparts of the nest1 easily repulses their attacks4 ,ha6 so you won't budge1 then8 ,we'll see about that4 ,one of the two swallows remains to hold the blockade while the other goes for help4 ,the neighbors hasten to the spot1 consider the situation1 deliberate on means to be employed1 and finally conclude that it is out of the question to hope to dislodge by force an enemy so securely entrenched in the nest as in a strong redoubt4 ,there is but one opinion3 the invader cannot be ousted from the nest1 but the proprietors must at least be avenged4 ,no sooner said than done4 ,while a few courageous ones posted at the opening intimidate the interloper with their cries1 the others fetch a supply of their usual mortar1 soil moistened with saliva1 and little by little close the entrance to the nest4'0 8,who was the fool that time80 cried ,jules1 in high delight4 8,it certainly was the sparrow1 sealed up in its narrow prison and left to perish40 8,caught1 you nest-robber60 ,emile exclaimed1 clapping his hands4 8,the chimney-swallow or house-swallow1 also called barn-swallow1 has chestnut-red forehead1 throat1 and eyebrows1 a black back with violet sheen1 and a white breast and stomach4 ,its name of house-swallow is given to it because it seeks man's neighborhood and even nests inside our houses1 especially where there is but little commotion or noise4 ,open and empty rooms1 sheds and coach-houses1 the eaves of roofs1 the under side of balcony floors1 and the inside of tall chimneys are its chosen nesting-places4 ,the nest itself is made of moistened clay mixed with straw and hay and furnished inside with feathers and dry grass4 ,it is in the shape of a half-cup wide open at the top4 ,the eggs are five in number1 white with small brown and violet spots4 8,the house-swallow is the most interesting of the tribe4 ,it is the farmer's cheery companion and the guest of the barn1 while the martin prefers towns and the cornices of monuments4 ,its characteristic cry is a sweet little song which the father1 perched on the edge of the nest1 keeps repeating to the brooding mother to beguile the long hours of incubation4 ,this bird is found all over the world4 ,it reaches us after a long migration about the first of ,april1 twelve days before the martin and a month ahead of the swift4 8,the sand-martin is smaller and of less frequent occurrence than the other two swallows of which we are speaking4 ,its back is mouse-gray in color1 as are also its cheeks and a wide stripe across the chest1 while breast and stomach are pure white4 ,with its beak and claws--poor tools for such rough work did not energetic good will supply the deficiency--it tunnels into steep sand-banks by the waterside1 or into the face of cliffs and the walls of quarries1 making a hole with a narrow entrance and extending in a winding passage for nearly two feet4 ,at the further end a little space is hollowed out and furnished with a thick bed of straw1 dry grass1 and feathers1 all heaped together with no art4 ,there are laid five or six slightly translucent white eggs4 ,the sand-martin perches only on rocks1 to which it clings easily with its long and pointed claws4 ,it haunts the water's edge1 which it explores in rapid flight1 darting to and fro and snapping up the gnats attracted by the coolness40 8,it is said10 remarked ,jules1 8that swallows take long journeys40 8,yes1 all our swallows migrate every year1 not from a love of wandering but from necessity4 ,many other birds1 particularly those that live on insects1 do the same4 ,swallows1 like bats1 live entirely on flying insects1 and when cold weather comes these are lacking4 ,what does the bat do then to keep from starving80 8,it goes to sleep10 answered ,emile4 8,yes1 it closes as tightly as it can the draft in the vital stove--that natural stove1 you know1 that gives us heat1 movement1 and animation by burning up our blood with the help of air4 ,the bat almost stops its breath in order to economize the fuel stored up in its little veins and make it last until the reappearance of insects at the approach of summer4 ,in a word1 it goes to sleep in the depths of some grotto1 falling into an unconsciousness resembling death4 ,birds1 however1 cannot thus save their fuel4 ,their little stoves are always burning away under forced draft1 because of the violent exercise of flying4 ,their temperature1 summer and winter1 is forty-two degrees1 centigrade1 whereas man's is only thirty-eight4 ,when such a fire has to be kept going1 imagine if you can take a six months' nap because there was nothing to eat in the larder4 ,it is quite out of the question4 ,what1 then1 do birds do8 8,unable to do as the bat does1 they form a bold resolve3 they leave their native land1 which is about to be stripped of flying insects by the cold1 and go far away1 sad to leave but not without the hope of returning some day4 ,they migrate1 the strong helping the weak1 the old and much-traveled ones guiding the young and inexperienced4 ,they form in flocks and fly southward to ,africa1 where abundant food and a warmer sun await them4 ,with no compass but instinct to direct their course1 they cross the sea1 the vast expanse of water in which only an occasional islet offers them a halting-place4 ,many perish in the crossing1 and many arrive faint with hunger and spent with fatigue1 but they do arrive at last40 8,it must be a trying time for the swallows when the day for starting comes10 ,jules observed4 8,a very trying time indeed1 for the bird has to tear itself away from its beloved haunts1 the place where it was born1 to face the fatigues and dangers of a tremendous journey1 a journey never before taken by the greater number of the emigrants4 ,in a general assembly the date of departure is fixed for about the end of ,august in the case of martins and sand-martins1 and later1 even as late as ,october1 for house-swallows4 ,this being arranged1 the martins gather for several successive days on the roofs of high buildings4 ,every now and then small groups detach themselves from the rest and circle about in the air with anxious cries1 taking a last look at their birthplace and bidding it farewell2 then they return to their companions and1 we may imagine1 fall to chattering about their hopes and fears as they prepare for the journey by a careful examination of their plumage1 which they oil a feather at a time4 ,after several repetitions of these touching farewells a plaintive twittering announces the fateful hour3 they must start4 ,launching themselves on their desperate adventure1 they take flight in a body toward the south4 8,house-swallows1 when the time for their departure approaches1 hold a consultation on some leafless tree1 and almost always in the rain4 ,the emigrating flock numbers three or four hundred birds40 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,swifts ,,and ,,night-,,jars 8,the swift is that large black swallow that flies in flocks on summer evenings and utters a shrill cry as it passes4 ,hunting insects on the wing is its occupation4 ,it has a very short beak that opens wide1 a big gullet1 always coated with a glue that holds the captured game1 long and pointed wings which enable it to cover in continuous flight eighty leagues an hour1 and piercing eyes capable of seeing a gnat at a hundred meters' distance1 or even farther4 ,every insect that ventures into the upper air is lost3 the swift's open beak is a living trap1 a trap that advances rapidly to swallow up the tiny prey4 8,if the bird has little ones1 it sometimes stows away its prey in its cheek-pouches and1 when they are full1 returns to its nest to feed these provisions to the hungry mouths waiting to be filled1 discharging through its beak the accumulated flies1 moths1 and beetles4 8,what a slaughter of twilight-flying insects takes place when the screaming flocks of swifts fly hither and thither1 circling about in the calm glow of sunset6 ,what an onrush of whirring wings6 ,what dash and eagerness6 ,how animated the scene6 ,some fly merely as chance dictates1 letting themselves glide gently through the air for the mere pleasure of the motion2 others describe intertwining circles without number2 others1 again1 soar aloft on motionless wings or let themselves fall from dizzy heights as if wounded and helpless2 still others follow a straight course1 racing toward some distant goal and then returning for a fresh start2 and1 finally1 there are those that go whirling in noisy companies about some lofty building4 ,but what of this one that darts across our vision in such hot haste8 ,it flashes past with three strokes of the wings and is lost in the haze of the distance4 ,what impetuosity1 children1 what amazing speed60 8,i have often wished ,i could fly when ,i was watching those birds10 said ,emile4 8,if ,i only had their wings to carry me to those blue mountains we see from here1 how ,i should like to go flying to the top of that highest peak and then come back as quickly as ,i went60 8,that wish1 my boy1 is common to us all2 every one must envy the swift its wings1 but certainly no one would ever think of envying it its feet40 8,why80 8,because they are so misshapen and the legs are so short that they cannot be used for walking4 ,all four toes point forward4 ,that tells you the swift does not perch1 being unable to grasp the supporting branch1 but must cling to walls for a brief rest1 after which it must take flight again1 starting with a falling movement as bats do4 ,guneau de ,montbliard tells us this3 8#8,swifts have to be on the wing a great part of the time4 ,they never voluntarily alight on the ground1 and if by some accident they fall to earth they cannot rise again into the air without extreme difficulty1 by dragging themselves up on to a little mound or by climbing with beak and claws upon a stone from which they can spread their long wings4 ,if the ground is quite level they either lie prone on the stomach or sway from side to side with a balancing motion1 or they manage to struggle forward a little by beating the earth with their wings4 ,after repeated efforts they sometimes succeed in flying off4 ,the earth1 therefore1 is to them a great danger that must be avoided with the utmost care4 ,any state between swift motion and absolute rest is hardly possible with them4 ,violent exercise in the air and perfect quiet in their place of retreat--these two1 as a rule1 make up their existence4 ,the only variation known to them is to hang on to some wall near their hole and then drag themselves into the nest by clambering along with the help of beak and any chance support that they can find4 ,usually they enter their retreat in full flight4 ,after passing and repassing its entrance more than a hundred times1 all at once they dart in so quickly that they are lost to sight before you know whither they are gone4 ,you feel almost inclined to believe they have vanished into thin air4' 8,their nest is nearly always placed in a deep hole in the wall and at a great height4 ,it is made of hemp threads1 little wisps of tow1 bits of straw1 feathers1 rags1 and cotton-like down from poplar and willow catkins4 ,these materials are stuck together with the viscous saliva that constantly oozes from the swift's throat and serves as glue to entangle captured insects4 ,the bird spreads it over the nest and thoroughly moistens the successive layers4 ,in drying this saliva hardens and takes on the shiny appearance of gum1 giving consistency and even elasticity to the whole structure4 ,if you squeeze the nest between your two hands it will shrink up without breaking1 and when the pressure is removed it will resume its former shape4 8,the swift1 then1 furnishes its own adhesive cement1 but whence does it obtain the other materials it needs1 such as tow1 rags1 straw1 and feathers8 ,of course it is not so foolish as to go and pick them up from the ground1 where it might find them as other birds do2 for if it touched the ground it would certainly come to grief4 ,therefore it resorts to cunning4 ,as it reaches us rather late in the season1 it takes advantage of such holes as it finds already abandoned by the sparrows1 and there it finds abundant materials which it uses in its own way by sticking them together with its glue4 ,if the sparrows have not yet broken up housekeeping1 it boldly invades their nests1 steals bits of flock and tufts of hair1 straw1 and feathers1 a little from one and a little from another1 and makes with these its own nest in another hole in the same wall4 ,the female lays from two to four eggs1 pure white and rather elongated4 ,swifts seldom stay more than three months with us4 ,arriving after the swallows early in ,may1 they leave at the end of ,july4 8,the white-breasted swift differs from the bird ,i have just described in being larger and having a white breast and stomach4 ,it is found in the region of the ,alps and of the ,pyrenees and frequents the ,mediterranean shores1 especially where the waves beat against high1 steep cliffs4 ,middle and northern ,europe are not visited by this bird4 ,its flight is even swifter than that of its black cousin1 and it flies habitually at a great height1 descending only when bad weather threatens4 ,it builds its nest at the summit of high1 steep rocks1 making it of straw and moss stuck together with the glue from its own throat4 8,the night-jar closely resembles the swift1 having1 like that bird1 a short beak which is very broad at the base and opens very wide1 while from the gullet comes a sticky saliva for holding fast any insects that are caught4 ,its size is about that of the thrush2 its plumage is light1 soft1 and shaded with gray and brown2 its eyes are large and prominent and very sensitive to light2 the base of its beak bristles with long1 stiff hairs2 and its legs are short1 but at the same time not ill adapted to walking4 8,as indicated by the sensitiveness of its eyes1 which cannot endure the full light of day1 and by the softness and lightness and gray color of its plumage1 which resembles that of the hornless owl1 the night-jar is a twilight bird3 it is the swift of the evening1 flying and hunting only when the sun is near setting4 ,by the fading light of a summer evening it may be seen scanning the ground in low flight to and fro over its surface1 after the manner of the swallow4 ,it flies with mouth wide open1 so that the air in striking the throat produces a low and continuous humming like that of a spinning-wheel40 8,and is it from that humming sound that it gets its name of night-jar80 asked ,jules4 8,precisely4 ,but it does not make this humming sound for the mere love of hearing it2 its object is to snap up the twilight-flying insects as it passes with distended beak4 ,big beetles sporting in the evening air1 ,june-bugs1 and other plump winged creatures disappear in the viscous gullet1 while small butterflies1 moths1 gnats1 and mosquitoes become entangled by the dozen in the fatal glue4 ,if the game is large1 the bird swallows it at once1 whole and still alive2 if small1 it waits until it has caught a certain number and then swallows them all in one mouthful40 8,but does it really swallow big beetles and ,june-bugs alive80 ,emile asked4 8,you can readily understand that in its headlong chase the bird has no time to dismember its captives4 ,pouncing upon the insect with wide-open beak1 snapping it up1 and gulping it down--all this it does as it flies1 without a moment's pause4 ,no sooner is the plumpest prey captured than down it goes1 alive and struggling1 into the bird's crop40 8,a dozen of that sort of game must stir up a big rumpus in the bird's crop10 was ,emile's opinion4 8,almost any other creature in the night-jar's place would have its digestion ruined by a brisk company of coleopters kicking about in the stomach and tickling its walls with their rough and prickly legs2 but ,i am inclined to believe the bird has the means of quieting them immediately by smothering them with its digestive juices4 ,as it carries on the business of stuffing its crop with large live beetles1 it ought to know the secret of how to prevent their making a hole in its stomach4 ,but that does not lessen my admiration for its digestive powers4 ,no creature enjoys a more remarkable immunity from dyspepsia4 8,on a near view the night-jar is not a pretty bird4 ,its flat skull2 its tremendously yawning beak1 which seems to split the whole head in two2 its wide-open gullet1 red and slimy and powdered with the remains of moths recently devoured2 its large and prominent eyes--all these give it somewhat the appearance of a toad4 ,that is why it is sometimes called the flying toad4 ,another common name for it is goat-sucker1 based on a false belief as to one of its habits4 ,it likes to visit pastures and sheepfolds1 where it chases the beetles to be found there4 ,noting its frequent appearance among the sheep and goats1 shepherds imagined it came there to suck their milk4 ,if they had watched it more closely they would have seen the absurdity of any such notion4 ,a bird suck8 ,what nonsense6 ,but the more ridiculous an idea is1 the more likely it is to spread1 and the absurd name of goat-sucker is better known in many places than the appropriate and expressive one of night-jar4 8,this bird comes to us from warmer lands toward the beginning of ,may1 and leaves us in ,september4 ,it builds no nest1 imitating in this various nocturnal birds of prey4 ,some hole in the ground or among broken stones1 at the foot of a tree or a rock1 and usually taken just as it happens to be1 suffices to hold the bird's eggs1 which are two or three in number1 white with tawny and bluish spots4 8,in closing let me beg you to remember what we owe these big-throated birds that hunt insects on the wing1 and more especially the swifts and swallows1 who defend our granaries and gardens1 our wardrobes and our very persons4 ,what would you think of any one who1 possessing the terrible secret of creating by the bushel moths1 gnats1 mosquitoes1 weevils1 and other destructive insects1 should let loose a swarm of these creatures in the air about us80 8,i should say hanging was too good for him10 answered ,louis4 8,but that is exactly what any one does who kills a swallow4 ,it is true he does not create moths and mosquitoes and other insects1 but he saves the lives of those that the swallow would have eaten1 and thus he is guilty of as grave an offense as if he had created them on purpose to turn them loose on us4 ,he does a wicked deed1 for he receives with deadly shotgun the pretty1 joyous creature1 messenger of spring and sunshine1 that comes trustfully asking his hospitality and the permission to build its nest under the eaves of his house4 ,he causes famine1 for he encourages the multiplication of those devouring hordes that levy every year on our farm products a tax that amounts to thousands of millions of francs in its total sum and is constantly increasing as insect-eating birds decrease4 ,a wicked deed1 ,i say1 a deed which causes famine--that is what is really done by the murderer of swallows40 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,the ,,bird',s ,,beak 8,there are many other small birds that live almost exclusively on insects1 and in so doing render a great service to agriculture4 ,a full account of them all would take too long2 and1 besides1 you are familiar with the greater number1 seeing them daily in the woods1 fields1 orchards1 and gardens4 ,i will confine myself1 therefore1 to the chief difference between insect-eaters and birds that live on seeds and grain2 and then a glance at some of the habits of the most important species will complete our rapid review4 8,the food of small birds falls into two classes1 seeds and insects4 ,certain birds require millet1 hemp-seed1 pips1 and similar seeds of all kinds1 while others need grubs1 larv1 insects4 ,the choice of one or the other sort of food is determined by the shape of the beak1 just as a mammal's diet depends on the structure of the animal's teeth4 ,the molars of the horse and the ox call for forage to grind under their flat1 wide crowns2 but those of the wolf and the cat1 with their sharp edges1 need flesh to cut to pieces4 ,in the same manner the bird's beak1 according to whether it is shaped this way or that1 whether large or small1 thick or slender1 strong or weak1 requires hard seeds that crack under the mandibles and in opening yield their kernels1 or the tender grub that is swallowed without having to be crushed4 ,show me your teeth1 we said to the mammal1 and ,i shall know what you eat4 ,show me your beak1 we might now say to the bird1 and ,i shall know whether you live on insects or seeds4 8,the beak of the bird that lives on seeds or grain--that is1 the granivorous bird--is thick1 conical1 wide at the base1 and strong in proportion to the hardness of the seeds it has to crack open2 but the beak of the bird that lives on insects--that is1 the insectivorous bird--is thin1 slender1 delicate1 and weak in proportion to the softness of the insects it catches4 ,in our everyday speech we note this difference by applying to the small granivorous birds the general designation grosbeak1 while the insect-eaters are often called slender-beaked birds4 ,let us remember these two expressive words and formulate the general principle thus3 ,seeds for the grosbeak1 worms for the slender beak4 8,and now without further delay we will put the rule into practice4 ,here is a bird whose diet is perhaps a matter of uncertainty to you4 ,if ,i ask you what1 to judge from the shape of its beak1 is its customary food1 shall you be at a loss how to reply80 8,that strong beak1 so wide at the base1 must be meant for crunching the very hardest seeds10 was ,jules's opinion4 8,yes10 ,emile chimed in1 8that bird certainly lives on seeds2 it is written all over its big face40 8,it is1 indeed1 a consumer of all kinds of seeds2 it is the greenfinch of our copses1 greenish underneath and with a yellow border to its tail4 ,the dominant color of its costume1 green mixed with yellow1 has given it the name of greenfinch4 ,and this one80 8,seeds for the grosbeak1 worms for the slender beak10 repeated ,emile4 8,the beak has no strength2 it is rather long but thin2 the bird is an insect-eater40 8,and one of the greediest1 for it belongs to the family of warblers1 those delightful songsters that would be afraid of getting hoarse if they ate dry1 farinaceous grain4 ,to keep their vocal cords flexible these artists must have the gentle lubricant furnished by caterpillars and the succulent flesh of larv4 ,they take good heed not to touch coarse seeds1 which would injure the voice4 ,this bird is the reed-warbler1 which lives on dragon-flies1 small ,june-bugs1 mosquitoes1 and horse-flies1 snapping them up on the wing4 ,it builds its nest among the reeds in willow thickets4 ,it is reddish brown above and yellowish white underneath4 8,finally1 let us look at this third one40 8,another slender beak10 said ,emile2 8another insect-eater40 8,yes2 you see it isn't difficult4 ,the bird has three names among us3 washerwoman1 wagtail1 and little shepherdess4 ,washerwoman1 because it frequents the waterside in company with those that wash linen2 wagtail1 because it wags its tail at every step it takes2 and little shepherdess1 because it likes the society of shepherds and flocks4 ,it is ash-colored above1 white underneath1 and black on the back of the head and also on the throat and breast4 8,wagtails go hopping along in a lively manner over the sand at the water's edge1 looking for little worms4 ,every now and then they fly up a few feet into the air1 balance1 pirouette1 and alight again on some slight elevation4 ,they may also be seen skipping across the fields among the sheep and standing on the backs of the latter even in the shepherd's presence1 in order to get the parasitic insects lurking under the wool4 ,they live on small slugs1 moths1 flies1 and larv4 8,midway between birds eating only seeds and those eating only insects must be placed1 in respect to their food1 those that have a mixed diet and eat1 according to season1 place1 and circumstances1 insects and seeds1 larv and berries4 ,their beak has neither a strong1 conical structure like that of purely granivorous birds1 nor a delicately slender form like the beak of the insect-eaters1 but is between these two extremes4 ,this beak1 instrument of general utility1 is found in the lark1 that bringer of gladness to our plowed fields2 in the thrush and the blackbird1 lovers of grapes and juniper-berries1 but not less fond of insects2 in the oriole1 that superb black and yellow bird so appreciative of cherries flavored with toothsome larv2 and in the starling1 devourer of figs1 grapes1 insects1 slugs1 and various kinds of seeds4 8,the starling is a magnificent bird almost as large as a blackbird1 brilliant with glints of metallic luster on a dark background4 ,its color is black with greenish sheen on head and wings and violet on breast and back4 ,most of the feathers are adorned with a reddish-white spot at the very end4 ,it nests under the roofs of buildings1 in dove-cotes1 and in hollow tree trunks4 ,the nest1 composed on the outside of straw1 and within of dry grasses and feathers1 contains four spotless whitish eggs4 ,starlings come to us in the autumn4 ,they fly in large flocks1 whirling about like grain winnowed in a sieve and sending forth piercing cries from high up in the air4 ,they alight in marshes and damp meadows1 where they destroy much vermin40 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,insectivorous ,,birds 8,now let us go back to the principal slender-beaked birds1 eaters of insects only and consequently our greatest helpers4 ,they are all small in size1 delicately and gracefully formed1 and modest in dress4 ,among them we find the sweet singers that make the woods echo in spring with the refreshing songs of the opening season4 8,first there is the nightingale1 clothed all in brown except the under parts1 which are whitish in color4 ,listen to it some calm evening in ,may4 ,all is quiet1 so we need not lose a note of the bird's hymn4 ,it begins with a few timid and tentative phrases1 thus3 ,teoo-oo1 teoo-oo1 teoo-oo1 teoo-oo1 ,shpe1 teoo-oo1 tokooa4 ,then it becomes more animated3 ,teo1 teo1 teo1 teo1 teo1 ,koo-oo-teoo1 koo-oo-teoo1 koo-oo-teoo1 koo-oo-teoo1 ,tskoo-o1 tskoo-o1 tskoo-o1 tskoo-o1 ,tsee-ee1 tsee-ee1 tsee-ee1 tsee-ee1 tsee-ee1 tsee-ee4 ,here the phrasing becomes more marked1 the melody quicker3 ,dlo1 dlo1 dlo1 dlo1 dlo1 dlo1 ,koo-e-oo1 trrrrrrritz6 ,lu-lu-lu1 le-le-le-le1 lee-lee-lee-lee4 ,enthusiasm then bursts all bounds and the bird indulges in the most brilliant roulades2 but our harsh alphabet is powerless to show the sounds that come from this wonderful throat4 8#8,the nightingale1' says ,buffon1 #8begins with a timid prelude in weak and almost wavering tones1 as if wishing to try its instrument and win the attention of those within hearing2 but presently1 gaining assurance1 it gradually becomes animated and displays all the resources of its incomparable organ4 ,bursts of melody1 lively volleys of rippling song in which clearness is equaled only by volubility1 low and voiceless murmurs inaudible to the listener1 but calculated to increase the brilliance of the notes about to be heard1 vivid and rapid trills that sweep the gamut and are articulated with force and even with a certain hardness of effect not unpleasing to the ear1 plaintive cadences softly modulated1 notes struck without art but full of soul1 enchanting and poignant chords that seem to come from the very heart and to convey a touching significance--such are the impassioned strains by which1 in a tongue doubtless full of sentiment1 this natural songster appears to try to charm its mate or1 rather1 to contend before her with his jealous rivals for the prize of supreme excellence in song4' 8,i have seen unfeeling barbarians cut short this pretty romance with a shot from a gun4 ,they say that half a dozen nightingales make an excellent broiled dish4 ,horrors6 ,what a frightful brute is man when he thinks of nothing but his stomach6 8,the nightingale builds its nest in bushes and rather near the ground1 sometimes even among the roots4 ,coarse grasses and oak leaves are used for the outside1 tufts of fleece and horsehair for the inside4 ,the female lays five dark-green eggs4 8,with the nightingale1 though less wonderful as singers1 are to be classed the warblers1 thirty or more species of which can be counted in ,europe4 ,all live on flies1 caterpillars1 small beetles1 spiders1 and larv of various kinds4 ,their nests are constructed with much art4 ,some nest in trees and hedges in our gardens2 others prefer thickets and lonely groves2 still others choose holes in tree trunks and walls4 ,others1 again1 build on piling that projects above the water in marshes2 that is1 they unite three or four slender reeds with a ligature and build their nest on this swaying support4 ,others1 finally1 content themselves with a little hole in the ground4 ,among the best-known of these birds is the black-capped warbler1 so named on account of the black hood that covers the top of the head and the nape of the neck4 ,you remember it is one of the cuckoo's victims1 as was proved by the egg found a few days ago1 in the nest at the foot of the garden4 ,then we must include the babbling warbler1 lover of copses1 orchards1 and gardens2 the little red warbler1 which visits our fruit-trees and says1 zip-zap1 zip-zap1 zip-zap2 the marsh-warbler1 which builds its nest among the marsh reeds2 and the ,alpine warbler1 guest of chalets and tuneful songster of high1 snowy mountains4 8,now let us look at the fallow-finch or whitetail1 which flies from clod to clod in our fallow fields 7whence its name of fallow-finch71 and in flying spreads its white tail1 a target for the huntsman and the reason for its second name4 ,it is ash-colored on the back and reddish white underneath1 with black wings and eyebrows4 ,it frequents cultivated fields to catch the grubs turned up by the plow4 ,its nest1 placed under a clod of turf1 amid a pile of stones1 or in a hole in some dry wall1 is made of moss1 grass1 and feathers4 ,the eggs1 five or six in number1 are light blue4 ,the fallow-finch's chosen haunts are dry1 rocky uplands1 where it may be seen in the autumn in large flocks1 flying from one rock to another and from one clod to another1 keeping close to the ground4 8,by the fallow-finch's side let us place the stonechat1 a little1 lively1 active bird always seen perched on the topmost branch of a bush or bramble1 where it repeats1 with frisky movements1 its short cry of ooistratra1 ooistratra4 ,if from this place of observation it sees an insect on the ground1 it flies down1 seizes it1 and returns in a trice to its perch by a short curving flight like that so characteristic of the shrike4 ,its plumage is brown1 with red breast and black throat4 ,the sides of the neck1 together with the wings and the rump1 are ornamented with white4 ,stonechats frequent hedges that border sown fields and dry pastures1 and are never seen1 any more than are fallow-finches1 in damp lands along the banks of rivers4 ,they build their nests1 in which they lay five or six greenish-blue eggs1 among the roots of bushes1 in crevices in rocks1 and among piles of stones4 8,i should count it almost a crime to omit here the robin redbreast1 in my opinion the most pleasing of our smaller birds in its wide-awake manner1 its gentle look1 and its friendly curiosity1 which makes it come and pick up the shepherd's crumbs when he is eating his lunch4 ,at the first dawn of day it begins its lively song1 uttering now and then a note or two that recall certain parts of the nightingale's more elaborate performance4 ,who does not know its alert cry from the depths of some clump of bushes1 treet1 tee-ree-tee-teet1 tee-reet1 tee-ree-tee-teet1 and its call to some passing member of its kin1 oo-eep1 oo-eep8 8,the redbreast is greenish brown above1 bright red on the throat and breast1 and white on the stomach4 ,it nests in the densest woods amid the moss-grown tree roots1 and its nest1 made of leaves1 horsehair1 tufts of wool1 and feathers1 contains from five to seven whitish eggs spotted with red4 8,in winter the redbreast leaves the forest1 draws near our farms1 and even ventures into our houses in quest of food4 ,god forbid1 boys1 that you should ever betray its confidence when1 on a stormy winter's day1 it comes discreetly tapping with its beak on the window-pane1 asking hospitality4 ,welcome the poor little famished creature1 and it will pay you a hundred times over with its gentle warbling and its zeal in defending the fruits of the earth4 8,but enough about the slender-beaks4 ,you ought by this time to appreciate the immense help we receive from these legions of insect-eaters which share the work of the fields1 hedges1 meadows1 gardens1 woods1 and orchards1 and wage incessant warfare on every sort of vermin that would destroy our harvests unless others than ourselves were constantly on the watch--others cleverer and endowed with sharper eyesight and greater patience for the unending hunt1 and also having nothing else to do4 ,i am not exaggerating1 ,i assure you2 without our insectivorous birds we should soon suffer from famine4 ,who1 then1 except an idiot with a mania for destruction1 would dare touch the nests of these birds of the good ,god that enliven the country-side with their varied plumage and protect us from insects8 ,there are1 ,i well know1 unruly boys who1 tired of their books and lessons1 delight to play truant and make a pastime of climbing trees and searching hedges in order to toss the new-born birds out of their nests to a miserable death and to smash the eggs4 ,the rural guard is on the watch for these wicked thieves1 and the law punishes them1 that our fields and orchards may enjoy the birds' protection and continue to produce their sheaves and their fruit40 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,granivorous ,,birds 8,it might at first seem that ,i ought to be as lenient toward those who hunt granivorous birds as ,i have just shown myself severe toward the destroyers of insectivorous birds2 for can it be denied that birds given to a vegetable diet are harmful to our crops1 that they plunder our grain-fields and devour great quantities of seeds1 buds1 fruit1 and young garden plants8 ,some of them know how to extract the wheat grains from the ear1 and others boldly come to get their share of the oats thrown to the poultry in our barnyards4 ,others1 again1 prefer the juicy flesh of fruit and know before we do when cherries are ripe or pears are mellow1 so that when we come to gather in the harvest all that we find is merely what they have left4 ,there are even some that have a queer-shaped beak for splitting fruit open and dividing it into quarters so as to get at the pips1 which are to them the very choicest of titbits4 ,look at this one's beak and tell me if you have ever seen a more singular tool40 8,the two mandibles cross each other10 said ,jules4 8,instead of meeting they go criss-cross like the blades of an old pair of scissors out of order40 8,what can such a rickety beak be good for10 ,emile asked1 8with its tips pointing one up and the other down8 ,it will never be able to pick up a seed from the ground40 8,consequently1 it does not get its food from the ground4 ,its manner of proceeding is more complicated4 8,first ,i will say that the bird is known as a crossbill1 from the position of the two mandibles4 ,this odd arrangement is not the result of an accident to the bird1 as for instance a sprain following some violent effort2 it is not a crippled beak1 nor is it a rickety beak1 as ,emile calls it1 but a beak in its natural and perfect state4 ,the bird is born with this odd beak and has never had any other4 ,it is even extremely doubtful whether it would consent to make a change if it had the opportunity1 so useful a tool is this beak for the work it has to do4 ,the crossbill has a fondness for pine seeds above all other food4 ,take a pine-cone and lift the scales with the point of a penknife4 ,you will find behind each scale two seeds full of oil and smelling slightly of resin4 ,they are the titbits the bird is after4 ,but how get at them under scales so hard and so firmly held in place8 ,in vain would the grosbeak hammer at these scales with its strong tool2 it would never succeed in opening them4 ,even we ourselves with the aid of a knife find it difficult4 ,but the crossbill makes play of this hard work4 ,it inserts the tip of one mandible under the scale and1 using the other as a fulcrum1 pries with a turning movement until the scale is lifted and the seed laid bare2 and the whole thing is done in next to no time4 ,a key turning in the lock does not push the bolt more easily40 8,i must change my mind10 ,jules acknowledged1 8about this beak that at first seemed to me so awkward2 it is a first-rate key to force the lock of a pine-cone40 8,and it is not less useful10 proceeded his uncle1 8in quartering apples and getting out the pips4 ,i should not like to have crossbills by the dozen in any orchard of mine2 they would soon tear all the fruit to pieces4 ,fortunately1 it is not our level plains that these birds choose as their haunts1 but cold1 mountainous regions covered with dark forests of cone-bearing evergreens4 ,their plumage is bright red more or less tinged with green and yellow4 ,crossbills breed in the coldest countries of ,europe and build their nests even in midwinter4 ,their materials are moss and lichens1 made to shed the melting snow by a coating of resin4 8,i shall enter no plea for the crossbill3 its taste for apple and pear seeds is a serious matter2 but ,i will mention certain things that seem to plead for the granivorous birds as a class4 ,first1 the greater number of these birds feed on wild seeds of no value to us even if not actually harmful to our cultivated fields4 ,we weed our tilled land1 clearing it of all plants that exhaust it to no purpose4 ,many granivorous birds also weed1 in their own way3 they gather the seeds that would otherwise infest the soil4 ,for example1 must we not acknowledge the services of the goldfinch1 which1 when thistles have matured1 alights on their prickly heads and searches for the seeds amid the thistle-down8 ,i need not describe this pretty little bird1 so well is it known to you all40 8,it has a splash of red on its head10 said ,emile1 8with yellow1 black1 and white on its wings40 8,yes1 that is the goldfinch4 ,its nest1 which is one of the most carefully built to be found anywhere1 is placed in the fork of some flexible branch4 ,the outside consists of mosses and lichens with a padding of down from thistles and other plants bearing seeds that have silky tufts1 as for example the groundsel and the dandelion4 ,the inside1 artistically rounded1 is lined with a thick layer of horsehair1 wool1 and feathers4 ,the eggs1 five or six in number1 are white with reddish-brown spots1 chiefly at the large end4 ,the goldfinch merits our gratitude3 it cheers us with its singing and works diligently at weeding lands infested with thistles and groundsel4 8,i will say as much in favor of the linnet1 which feeds on all kinds of small seeds in our fields and to that extent follows the honorable trade of weeding4 ,at the same time ,i will not hide its liking for linseed1 which has given it the name it bears4 ,it is very fond of hemp-seed1 also4 ,but hemp and flax are not found everywhere1 and the bird manages to get along very well without them by gathering a quantity of other seeds1 more or less harmful to agriculture4 ,it likes to breed in hilly country1 choosing some thickly grown juniper-tree or bush4 ,its nest contains five or six white eggs with red spots4 ,its plumage is brown with a dash of crimson on head and breast4 8,to the part of weeders1 seed-eating birds add a second even more praiseworthy one4 ,seeds1 it is true1 furnish their customary food2 but most of the birds devour a great number of insects when these are plentiful and easy to find4 ,if they lack the patience to hunt for worms in their most hidden retreats with the painstaking care of the slender-beaks1 they at least profit by those that fortune places within their reach4 ,a few grubs to season their regular diet of seeds are a godsend to them2 and1 moreover1 their favorite seeds may by some mischance be lacking in their neighborhood4 ,not every day can the goldfinch find thistle-seeds nor the linnet flaxseed4 ,what1 then1 is to be done except to have patience and in the meantime eat insects8 8,last but not least1 in their young days when1 weak and featherless1 they are fed from the parents' beak1 many granivorous birds are brought up on insects4 ,the reason is plain enough4 ,you can readily understand that the delicate crop of a young bird just out of the shell has not the strength to digest hard1 dry seeds4 ,it must have something more nourishing1 something smaller and1 above all1 more succulent1 such as a marmalade of grubs prepared in the mother's beak4 ,a few days later1 with the first growth of down1 will come little soft caterpillars served whole2 then tougher insects will prepare the stomach for the more difficult digestion of seeds4 ,i select a few examples at random4 8,the chaffinch1 the gay chaffinch1 is well known to be a granivorous bird1 a lover of millet and hemp-seed4 ,now1 what does it give its little ones while they are still in the nest8 ,it gives them hairless caterpillars and tender larv1 chosen as being the easiest food to digest4 ,i can say the same of the greenfinch1 a bird with plumage midway between green and yellow2 of the bullfinch1 known by its red breast and stomach2 and of the various buntings that come in the winter in flocks1 pecking around our straw-stacks4 ,these last1 however1 feed perhaps more than the others on seeds1 as they have on the inside of the upper mandible a small1 hard excrescence intended expressly for crushing them4 8,i might add to these examples1 but prefer to conclude with a bird that is one of the most familiar to you1 the sparrow4 ,here1 certainly1 we have an undoubted seed-eater4 ,it raids our dove-cotes and poultry-yards and steals the food of our pigeons and poultry4 ,it goes a-harvesting in the grain-fields before our reapers have begun their task4 ,a great many other misdeeds are laid at its door4 ,it strips cherry-trees1 plunders our gardens1 forages for sprouting seeds1 regales itself on young lettuce1 and nips the first little leaflets of green peas4 ,but when hatching-time comes this bold pilferer is transformed into a helper inferior to none4 ,at least twenty times an hour the father and the mother1 by turns1 bring a mouthful to their young ones1 and each time it consists of either a caterpillar or an insect large enough to require quartering1 or perhaps a larva as fat as butter2 or it may be a grasshopper or some other small game4 ,in one week the brood consumes about three thousand insects1 including larv1 caterpillars1 and grubs of all kinds4 ,i have counted in the immediate vicinity of a single nest of these birds the remains of seven hundred ,june-bugs besides small insects without number4 ,behold what a store of food is needed for raising only one brood6 ,what quantities of vermin1 then1 must all the broods of a community devour6 ,after such services let him who will presume to raise a hand against our sparrows2 as for me1 ,i leave them in peace as long as they do not become too troublesome4 8,my closing word is this3 eaters of seeds and eaters of insects1 grosbeaks and slender-beaks1 some in greater degree1 some in less1 all come to our aid4 ,peace1 then1 to the little birds1 the joy of the country-side and the protectors of our crops60 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,snakes ,,and ,,lizards 8,i propose to-day to undertake the defense of reptiles1 which many people fear and dislike1 even look upon with horror4 ,i have shown you what services are rendered by bats despite the repugnance we feel for them4 ,these animals1 regarded by us as hideous and treated as enemies1 ,i have brought you to look upon as valuable helpers1 veritable swallows of the night1 devoted to the extermination of twilight insects4 ,as soon as reason illuminates the darkness of prejudice the detested creature is found to be a very useful animal4 ,in like manner ,i shall now try to make you separate the false from the true in respect to the reptiles4 ,let us begin with the snake4 8,if to explain our dislike for bats we mention their strange and repulsive appearance1 we have not the same excuse in regard to snakes4 ,their slender form is not lacking in grace1 the suppleness they display in their undulating movements is pleasing to the eye1 and their scaly skin is decorated with well-defined colors that are prettily arranged4 ,our aversion1 then1 must be otherwise explained4 ,some serpents are venomous2 they are armed with a formidable and death-dealing weapon4 ,certainly it is not for these that ,i ask your favor4 ,indeed1 if it were in my power to exterminate them all ,i would gladly free the earth of their presence4 ,but others--and these are far more numerous--are not venomous and consequently are perfectly harmless unless they are large enough to hurt us by muscular force1 which is not rare in the hot countries of the equator1 but never to be feared in our part of the world1 where the largest snake is not so strong as a mere child4 ,thus it is that some are much to be feared on account of their venom1 while others1 at least those of this region1 are not in the least dangerous4 ,but we are all too prone to lose sight of this difference in serpents4 ,the evil reputation of the one with venomous fangs is fastened on all the others1 so that we abhor them all alike because we believe them all to be venomous4 ,in ,france we have only one venomous serpent1 the viper1 and all the others1 large as well as small1 are perfectly harmless and we will refer to them simply as snakes4 8,in one of our former talks #g ,i told you about the viper1 describing its form and coloring1 the structure of its venomous apparatus1 and the effects of its bite4 ,i here repeat the principal facts then related1 in order to give you now a connected account of our serpents as a class4 8,all serpents dart back and forth between their lips1 with extreme rapidity1 something that looks like a black thread1 of great flexibility and ending in a fork4 ,many persons believe this to be the reptile's weapon1 the sting1 as they call it1 whereas in reality it is nothing but the tongue--a quite inoffensive tongue1 which the creature uses for catching insects to feed upon1 and also for expressing in its own peculiar fashion the passions that agitate it4 ,this last it does by shooting the tongue swiftly in and out between the lips4 ,all serpents without exception have a tongue1 but in our country it is only the viper that possesses the terrible apparatus for injecting venom4 8,this apparatus is composed1 first1 of two fangs or long1 sharp teeth1 situated in the upper jaw4 ,unlike ordinary teeth1 these fangs are not fixed firmly in their sockets1 but can at the creature's will stand up for attack or lie down in a groove of the gum and remain there as harmless as a stiletto in its sheath4 ,in this way the viper runs no risk of wounding itself4 ,the fangs are hollow and pierced near the point with a very small opening through which the venom is discharged into the wound they give4 ,finally1 at the base of each fang is a small pocket or sac filled with a venomous liquid4 ,it is to all appearance a perfectly harmless liquid1 odorless and tasteless1 so that you would take it for nothing but water4 ,when the viper strikes with its fangs1 the venom sac discharges a drop of its contents into the tiny channel perforating the fang1 and the liquid is injected into the wound4 ,it is by mixing with the blood that the venom produces its terrifying effects40 8,i remember all that very well10 said ,jules1 8and also what you said must be done to prevent the mixing of the venom with the blood in general that circulates through the body40 8,and ,i also told you that the viper haunts by preference warm1 rocky hills2 it lurks under stones and in underbrush4 ,in color it is brown or reddish1 with a dark zigzag stripe along the back and a row of spots on each side1 each spot fitting into one of the angles made by the zigzag stripe4 ,its stomach is slate-color and its head rather triangular in shape1 being broader than the neck and running to a blunt point at the mouth4 ,the viper is timid by nature and attacks man only in self-defense4 ,its movements are abrupt1 irregular1 and sluggish40 8,what does it live on80 ,jules inquired4 8,does it eat nothing but little insects that it can catch with its tongue80 8,its chief food consists of larger prey1 which calls for the use of its venomous weapon4 ,small field-rats1 field-mice1 meadow-mice1 moles1 sometimes frogs and even toads1 are its usual victims4 ,the animal attacked by the reptile is first stung with the venomous fangs1 whereupon it is immediately overcome with agony4 ,as soon as the prey is dead the viper twines its folds about the lifeless body1 squeezes it tightly1 and subjects it to a sort of kneading process in order to make it smaller2 for the victim must be gulped down in one mouthful even if it exceeds the serpent itself in size4 ,this preparation finished1 the gullet opens to its utmost width and the two jaws1 seeming almost to fly apart1 seize with their sharp teeth1 which point backward toward the throat1 the head of the mole or field-mouse or whatever the small game may be4 ,a flow of saliva then streams over the body to make it slip down more readily1 but it is so large a mouthful that the viper manages to swallow it only by a violent effort4 ,the throat dilates and contracts1 the jaws move alternately from right to left and from left to right1 to coax the unwieldy mass downward1 and so it is that this laborious swallowing is protracted sometimes for hours1 sometimes for a whole day4 ,indeed1 it not seldom occurs that the forward half of the prey is already undergoing digestion in the stomach while the hind quarters still stick in the throat or protrude from the mouth4 8,let us pass on to the common snakes4 ,these have no venomous fangs in the jaw2 their teeth are small and even and lacking in strength1 useful as an aid in holding the captured prey and helping in the swallowing of it 7which is as difficult as with the viper71 but incapable of inflicting a serious wound4 ,these creatures1 too1 are extremely timid1 fleeing at the slightest alarm2 but if retreat is cut off they put on a bold front to impose on the enemy1 coiling themselves in a spiral1 erecting the head1 swaying this way and that1 hissing1 and trying to bite4 ,there is no need1 however1 to be afraid2 a scratch of no more importance than a pin-prick would be the worst that could befall one4 ,you would suffer far greater injury by thrusting your hand into a bramble-bush40 8,if it isn't any more dangerous than that10 ,jules declared boldly1 8,i shan't mind taking up snakes in my hands40 8,i do not tell you this to encourage you to capture these creatures and make playthings of them2 on the contrary1 ,i wish you to leave them alone1 but ,i also desire to remove an unwarranted fear1 the fear of snakes that is so prevalent in country districts4 ,fear1 always an evil counselor1 never does a good deed in prompting one to throw stones at a harmless creature found in a hole in the wall4 ,the passer-by attacks it with his stick if he sees it crossing the road1 and the mower in the hay-field cuts off its head with his scythe4 ,were they not listening to a foolish fear and yielding to an unreasonable dislike1 they would leave the poor thing in peace and no one would be the worse for it1 as snakes not only are harmless1 but they render us excellent service by destroying numerous insects and small rodents such as meadow-mice and field-mice4 ,from this point of view1 snakes deserve protection and not the hatred that is commonly felt for them40 8,but10 objected ,louis1 8they say snakes can charm birds by their gaze and draw them into their open mouth by first overcoming them with their poisonous breath4 ,helpless1 the bird plunges headlong into the creature's horrible gullet40 8,there is a grain of truth in what you say1 but far more untruth1 the result of popular superstition which deliberately credits the serpent with sorcery4 ,in the first place1 the breath of a serpent1 or of any reptile whatever1 has nothing poisonous about it1 nothing magically attractive1 nothing supernatural4 ,you all have too much common sense to make it necessary for me to dwell on these ridiculous tales4 ,there remains only the belief that the bird is charmed by the reptile's hard1 fixed gaze4 ,the marvel of this amounts in reality to very little4 8,some of our snakes are very fond of birds' eggs4 ,they climb trees1 search out the nests1 and eat the eggs when the mothers are not there to protect them4 ,more than one human nest-robber who thought he was seizing a jay's or a blackbird's brood has put his hand instead on the cold coiled body of a reptile in the bottom of the nest4 ,i have even known instances in which the plunderers1 seized with horror at this unexpected encounter1 fell backward from the tree-top and did not come out of the adventure without broken bones4 ,a warning to others4 ,the larger snakes do not content themselves with eggs1 but devour the young birds as well1 even those that are outside the nest when they can catch them1 which fortunately is not easy4 ,imagine an innocent little bird surprised by a snake in the underbrush4 ,the poor little thing suddenly sees before it a mouth horribly wide open and glittering eyes regarding it steadily4 ,scared almost to death1 the bird loses its head and is powerless to take flight4 ,in vain it beats its wings1 cries plaintively1 and finally falls from the branch1 paralyzed and dying4 ,the monster lying in wait catches the poor thing in its mouth4 8,the power to charm that serpents are supposed to have is therefore in reality only the power so to terrify a bird that it cannot fly4 ,we ourselves1 on being suddenly confronted by an appalling danger--do we always retain the presence of mind necessary to face it8 ,are there not plenty of persons that get bewildered1 lose their wits completely1 and make matters worse by acting foolishly8 ,the charm exerted by serpents all comes down simply to that4 ,i am inclined to believe that a bird1 on being surprised by a snake1 usually is able to overcome the first feeling of terror and to take flight as soon as it sees the reptile's horrible gullet yawning to receive the expected prey2 and so the serpent's attempt to paralyze its victim has a chance to succeed only with very young and inexperienced birds4 ,what paralyzes with fright an ignorant young nestling hardly affects a bird that is master of itself2 what terrifies a child or a person of weak character makes little impression on a man capable of keeping his head in time of danger4 ,acquire the habit1 children1 of keeping calm in times of danger or excitement1 and you will avoid many calamities and escape many perils1 just as the bird that does not lose its head escapes the snake lurking in ambush to catch it4 8,one of our common snakes is the water-snake1 so called because it likes damp places and frequents still water1 where it shows itself a good swimmer in its pursuit of little fish1 water insects1 and tadpoles4 ,it lays its eggs usually in dunghills1 where they will be hatched out by the heat4 ,these eggs are of an elongated oval shape1 with a soft shell resembling wet parchment4 ,in size they are about as large as a magpie's eggs4 ,they are joined together in a string by a semi-liquid viscous substance4 ,on stirring a heap of dung1 country people often turn up with their forks these soft-shelled eggs whose origin is unknown to them and from which1 to their great surprise1 come young serpents4 ,they declare them to be roosters' eggs1 unnatural eggs1 magic eggs that produce snakes instead of chickens2 and it would be difficult to convince them that this is not true4 ,as for you1 my children1 if you ever happen to hear any one speak of eggs laid by roosters in dunghills and producing serpents1 remember that they are simply the eggs of the water-snake4 8,put no faith1 either1 in still another fable current in our villages4 ,according to this1 all snakes have a consuming desire to enter the mouth and then the body of any one sleeping on the cool grass4 ,to rid the patient of this inconvenient guest the serpent must be lured from its retreat by the smell of warm milk4 ,of course this is pure nonsense1 as no animal can wish to take refuge in the human stomach1 where it would be digested1 reduced to pap1 by the same process that digests our bread4 8,one often meets in hay-fields or even in hay itself a small reptile differing from the snake in structure4 ,it is known as the slow-worm or blind-worm4 ,its head is small and merges into the body without narrowing into a neck2 furthermore1 the tail is blunt1 so that the two ends of the body are of nearly the same shape and leave us for a moment in doubt as to which is the head and which the tail4 ,the slow-worm is covered with very smooth and shiny scales4 ,the back is silvery yellow and marked from one end to the other by three black lines which change1 as the worm grows older1 to a succession of dots and even disappear entirely at last4 ,the stomach is blackish4 ,on being disturbed the slow-worm forcibly contracts1 stiffens1 and becomes almost as rigid as a lizard's tail4 8,many people believe that this little creature is venomous1 and even to touch it or meet its eye is thought to be very dangerous4 ,but its evil reputation is quite undeserved4 ,the slow-worm is really the most harmless of reptiles3 it does not even offer to bite in its own defense1 but contents itself with stiffening until it is as rigid as a wooden rod4 ,it lives chiefly on beetles and earthworms4 8,now to conclude this brief account of snakes3 vipers excepted1 not one of our serpents is venomous1 none can harm us1 the bite of none is in the least dangerous4 ,snakes do us no injury whatever2 on the contrary1 they help us by destroying a multitude of insects and small rodents4 ,let us1 then1 conquer an unreasonable horror and hatred and suffer these helpers of ours to live in peace4 8,equal consideration should be shown to lizards1 those agile hunters of insects and even of small fur-bearing game such as rodents4 ,who does not know the little gray lizard1 lover of sunny walls8 ,it lies in wait for flies1 darting its tongue in and out as if in play2 and it ransacks one hole after another in quest of insects4 ,it is the protector of wall-fruit4 8,when on a fine spring day the sun shines warm on some wall or hillside1 the lizard may be seen stretched out comfortably on this wall or on the new grass covering the hillside4 ,it steeps itself delightedly in the healthful warmth2 it shows its pleasure by gentle undulations of its relaxed tail and by its shining eyes2 and presently1 perhaps1 it darts like an arrow to seize some small prey or to find a spot still more to its liking4 ,far from fleeing at the approach of man1 it seems to regard him with friendliness2 but at the slightest alarming sound1 as the fall of a leaf1 it rolls over1 falls1 and remains motionless for some moments1 as if stunned by the fall2 or else it darts away1 vanishes from sight1 reappears1 hides again1 then comes forth once more1 turns and twists until the eye can hardly follow it1 folds itself over several times1 and finally retires to some shelter to recover from its fright4 8,as useful as it is graceful in form1 the little gray lizard lives on flies1 crickets1 grasshoppers1 earthworms1 and nearly all insects that prey upon our fruit and grain2 thus it would be much to our advantage if the species were more widely scattered4 ,the greater our supply of gray lizards1 the faster should we see the enemies of our gardens disappear4 8,the green lizard so common everywhere--in hedges1 on the skirts of woods1 in thickets having an undergrowth of wild grass--attains a length of three decimeters4 ,the back shows an elegant embroidery of green pearls set off with black and yellow dots4 ,this little creature is marvelously swift of foot1 darting into the midst of underbrush and dry leaves with a suddenness that always takes one by surprise and causes at first a little start of fear4 ,when it is attacked by a dog it throws itself at the assailant's snout and plants its teeth with such determination that it will let itself be carried along and even killed rather than relax its hold4 ,but its bite is not at all venomous2 it merely punctures the skin without leaving in the wound any kind of poison4 ,in captivity it becomes very tame1 very gentle1 and willingly lets itself be handled4 ,its food consists chiefly of insects4 8,the olive-growing districts of ,france have another lizard1 larger1 stronger1 heavier1 and more squat in form than the common green lizard4 ,the people of ,provence call it the glass-bead1 but scientists give it the name of ocellated lizard from the small black spots scattered like little eyes 7ocelli1 in ,latin7 on the bluish-green background of the creature's back4 ,this lizard haunts dry hillsides exposed to the full heat of the sun4 ,it bores for itself a deep hole in some sandy spot1 generally under the shelter of a projecting stone4 ,trusting to its formidable bite1 it is very bold4 ,not only does it leap at dogs' snouts1 but it will even attack man if it finds itself too hard-pressed4 ,this courage has won for it a terrible reputation among country people1 who think it very dangerous1 more venomous than even the viper4 8,now1 ,uncle ,paul1 who knows this lizard as well as he knows the bottom of his own pocket1 who has watched its movements for whole days in order to learn its habits1 who has examined its teeth very carefully so as to be able to report with authority on its bite1 and who has even let himself be bitten by it in order to leave no doubt on the subject--,uncle ,paul1 ,i say1 declares that this dreaded lizard does not deserve the reputation it bears4 ,it is not venomous in the least2 it bites hard1 it is true1 nipping the skin and even taking away a piece1 but without poisoning the wound2 in a word1 it is no more to be feared than the common green lizard4 ,its food consists of beetles1 grasshoppers1 and small field-rats2 and therefore1 despite the fear it inspires1 ,i have no hesitation in placing the ocellated lizard in the class of helpers40 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,the ,,batrachians 8,i have kept until the last the ugliest and the least esteemed of our helpers1 the toad4 ,with it must be classed the frog and the tree-toad because of their close resemblance to it in form and1 still more1 because of the similar change all three undergo in developing from the egg to the full-grown animal4 ,common language gives the name of reptile1 from a ,latin word meaning to creep or crawl1 to the snake and the toad1 the lizard and the frog1 and all similar hairless animals having either no legs at all or very short ones and crawling on the stomach4 ,science1 however1 makes a difference2 it limits the name reptile to the snake1 the lizard1 and other animals having a scaly skin and hatching from the egg in the form they are to keep2 and it gives the name batrachian 7from the ,greek batrachos1 a frog7 to the toad1 frog1 tree-toad1 and some others1 which have a naked skin and whose first shape gives place later to a different one4 ,reptiles do not undergo a complete change2 batrachians do4 ,just as the butterfly is first a caterpillar1 quite different in structure1 its way of living1 and its diet from what it finally becomes in its perfect state1 so the toad1 the frog1 and the tree-toad begin their existence as tadpoles with none of the structure and habits they are finally to have4 8,tadpole or big-head1 that is the word to indicate the batrachian in its transitory state4 ,a very large head merging into a plump stomach that ends abruptly in a flat tail--such is the animal in the beginning4 ,it has no limbs1 no organs of locomotion unless it be the tail1 which whips the water to push the creature forward and serves as oar and rudder at the same time4 ,the toad tadpole is small and entirely black2 the frog tadpole is much larger1 silvery on the belly and grayish on the back4 ,all tadpoles inhabit still waters1 as ponds or pools warmed by the sun2 but for toad tadpoles even shallow puddles or wagon-ruts with a few inches of rain will suffice1 where they can gather in black rows or stretch themselves flat on the stomach in the tepid mud at the water's edge4 ,frog tadpoles1 however1 thrive best in ponds of some extent1 with various water-plants and sufficient depth for diving and swimming4 ,like fish1 tadpoles breathe the air that is in water2 and like them1 also1 they die if kept out of water a short time4 ,thus they are real fish as far as breathing is concerned4 ,but in their final form batrachians breathe atmospheric air and die of suffocation in water4 ,they are land animals in that state1 and breathe like other land animals4 8,you have very often seen frogs and toads in the water1 and no doubt you think they could live there indefinitely4 ,undeceive yourselves3 they go to the water only to lay their eggs or to escape from some danger or to bathe in hot weather1 but they could not remain under water any length of time without dying4 ,they have to come up at intervals to breathe1 which they do by getting at least the nostrils out4 ,here we have a difference between the tadpole and the full-grown batrachian1 between the larva1 so to speak1 and the creature at its maturity3 the tadpole lives in water and perishes in the air1 whereas the frog that comes from it lives in the air and perishes in water4 8,and there is a still further difference3 the tadpole lives exclusively on vegetable matter1 its mouth is equipped with a sort of small horny beak to browse the foliage of water-plants1 and in its big belly it has a very long intestine coiled about several times so as to prolong the passage of the food through the body and thus make sure that all the juices it may contain are extracted4 ,the mature batrachian exchanges this horny beak for real jaws furnished with irregularities that serve as teeth1 it lives solely on an animal diet1 especially on insects1 and its intestine is short because the food it eats is easy of digestion and readily yields what nourishment it contains4 8,to turn a tadpole into a frog or a toad it is not enough to change its respiratory and digestive organs2 new organs form1 organs of which there was not the least sign when the creature was hatched1 while still others disappear without leaving any trace4 ,the tadpole is born absolutely without legs4 ,after a while the hind legs appear1 later come the fore legs1 and still later the tail shrinks and vanishes40 8,i remember seeing tadpoles10 said ,jules1 8some with two legs1 some with four2 but every one of them had a tail40 8,when the tail has disappeared the animal is no longer a tadpole1 but a young toad or frog40 8,does the tail come off itself1 or does the animal pull it off80 ,emile inquired with eager interest4 8,neither the one nor the other4 ,the tail is too valuable when the change takes place to be thrown away in that reckless fashion4 ,it contains a store of material suitable for making something else in the bodily organism4 ,when the legs begin to put forth1 when the organs of digestion and those of respiration begin to take a new form1 these new creations1 these transformations1 require material with which to build4 ,fleshy substance is needed for the up-building of the body just as bricks and mortar are needed for the construction of the house4 ,of course the tadpole eats to make flesh and to provide a reserve for the work of transformation2 but this method of accumulation is slow1 and therefore1 to save time1 the organs useless to the future animal are destroyed1 bit by bit1 and their material is used in the construction of new parts4 ,it is thus that the tail disappears4 ,the blood circulating through it gradually eats it away1 dissolves it1 as we might say1 at the proper time and carries elsewhere the fluid substance1 which1 turned again into flesh1 helps to form the legs or other parts of the remodeled organism40 8,what a deal of economy in getting rid of a tadpole's tail60 exclaimed ,emile4 8,not a particle of it1 even if no bigger than a pin's head1 must be thrown away1 for it might be used to make the little toe on one of the feet40 8,yes1 my boy1 a wonderful economy1 an economy careful of every atom of matter in order that life1 the divine worker1 may not fail to have at its disposal1 undiminished by waste1 the resources committed to its keeping by the ,creator for works that are unceasingly being destroyed and then restored on a new plan4 8,i should add here that certain batrachians keep the tail as long as they live4 ,to this class belong the salamanders1 one species of which1 the terrestrial or land salamander1 is extremely ugly4 ,in form it is half-way between a toad and a lizard1 and its color is black with large bright-yellow spots4 ,it is from one to two decimeters long4 ,it haunts damp places near springs and eats insects and earthworms4 ,despite its repulsive appearance it is perfectly harmless4 8,the tadpole of the salamander breathes through fine tuft-like appendages which spread out in the water on each side of the neck4 ,these tufts are called gills1 and they correspond to the fish's breathing organs or gills1 which are likewise situated on each side of the neck under the tiny flap commonly called the ear4 ,tadpoles of the frog and the toad have1 for the first few days1 fringed gills floating out freely2 but in a short time they are drawn in under the skin and become invisible like the gills of fish4 8,frogs have a slender form not devoid of a certain grace4 ,their hind legs are very long and powerful1 being especially good at jumping1 the frog's customary mode of progress4 ,first gathering itself together1 the animal suddenly relaxes like a spring and throws itself forward by a vigorous thrust of the thighs4 ,the hind toes are very markedly webbed2 in other words1 they are united by a membrane as are the toes of swimming birds1 the duck in particular4 ,this arrangement of the toes so as to form a broad paddle or oar1 together with the suppleness of the hind legs1 which are alternately drawn up against the sides and then forcibly extended1 makes the frog an expert swimmer4 8,the common or green frog is spotted with black on a green background1 and it has three yellowish stripes on the back1 the belly also being yellow4 ,it abounds on the banks of all still waters1 and to it we owe the noisy croaking that comes from every ditch on a summer evening4 8,the red frog is spotted with black on a reddish background1 and is easily recognizable by the black stripe running from the eye over the ear4 ,it likes cool places such as damp meadows and fields and underbrush4 ,it is less fond of the water than the one just named1 and it croaks much less4 8,both live on live prey1 as for example aquatic larv1 worms1 flies and other insects1 and snails1 and they never touch vegetable matter2 therefore they are good helpers in our gardens4 8,tree-toads--or1 less correctly1 tree-frogs--differ from ordinary frogs in having viscous cushions at the end of their toes1 which enable them to climb trees1 where they hunt insects4 ,they stay all summer in the foliage and go to the water only to lay their eggs4 ,their cry1 which gains force from a sort of pocket that shows plainly under the throat1 is very loud and raucous4 ,the tree-toad that we have around here1 the common tree-toad1 is of a beautiful delicate green hue on the back and yellowish-white on the belly40 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,,the ,,toad 8,what shall ,i say in defense of that poor creature1 the toad1 whose very name is enough to excite disgust8 ,it is really loathed by all4 ,it seems to us the ugliest and most disgusting of animals4 ,what has it done1 poor thing1 to deserve the dislike every one feels for it8 8,it is ugly1 the plaintiff asserts4 ,its flabby form is a shapeless lump1 thrown together as if in careless haste1 and its flattened1 dirt-colored back is strewn with livid warts4 ,its legs1 too short for symmetry or for effectual service1 are unable to lift out of the mud its swollen stomach1 which drags on the ground4 ,its big head merges into a hideous mouth1 and heavy eyelids open to show large and prominent eyes which stare stupidly4 ,if some danger threatens1 it puffs itself up1 forming under its skin an air-cushion which resists blows with its flabby elasticity4 8,it is venomous1 the plaintiff further declares4 ,squatting in the mire at the bottom of some dark hole1 it absorbs the unwholesome humors of the slime for use in filling the warts on its back with a milky venom which oozes out and moistens the entire body in time of peril4 ,it also squirts into the eyes of any one who attacks it a liquid1 its urine1 which burns and stings4 ,it infects the atmosphere with its foul breath4 ,from its gullet drips a fluid that poisons the grass and fruit over which the animal passes1 so that its track is as fatal as its appearance is loathsome4 ,in a word1 the toad is ugly and venomous2 then war without mercy on the hideous creature that infects earth1 air1 water1 and by its very appearance disgusts the beholder6 ,there you have the charges against the toad4 8,now what shall ,i say in my turn1 in defense of the poor creature8 ,i shall tell the truth1 the simple truth1 and the charges made against it will be reduced to nothing4 8,as to the ugliness of the toad ,i will not say a word2 all are welcome to their own opinion on that subject4 ,i only ask you to recall our talk about bats40 8,i don't think the toad so horribly ugly10 ,jules ventured to assert4 8,its golden-yellow eyes are full of fire1 its voice is sweet1 almost flute-like1 while the frog's croak is anything but musical4 ,i admit that the toad's bloated body is not graceful2 but1 after all1 it has some good points40 8,little toads hopping about among the reeds at the edge of the pond10 said ,emile1 8are pretty to look at1 and they make me laugh when they tumble heels over head every time they jump4 ,i have taken them up in my hand1 but ,i wouldn't touch big toads2 ,i am afraid of them40 8,i wouldn't either10 ,jules agreed1 8for fear of their venom40 8,ah1 the venom6 ,that is the serious side of the question1 and not the creature's ugliness1 which is open to discussion4 ,the toad has the beauty appropriate to it1 the beauty of a toad1 and it cannot have any other without ceasing to be what it is4 8,on being molested toads perspire through the warts that cover their skin a thick and viscous fluid that looks somewhat like milk4 ,this secretion has a nauseous1 burning taste and is unbearably bitter40 8,some one1 then1 has tasted the milky sweat that oozes from the toad's warts80 asked ,jules4 8,yes1 scientists have tasted it in order to tell us the truth about it1 just as others have done with the viper's venom4 ,we must respect highly these courageous investigators1 who are willing to make any sacrifice if only they may add to our knowledge and relieve our sufferings40 8,the toad sweats this milky liquid when tormented2 is that the way it defends itself80 ,jules further inquired4 8,it hopes to defend itself by the horrid odor of its sweat and by its intolerably bitter taste2 but this sweat is put to no further use4 ,the animal would be truly dangerous if it could inject its sweat into our blood as the viper injects its venom through its fangs into the wound already made by them4 ,i will now relate a few experiments made by the scientists ,i just referred to4 8,a drop of the toad's milky fluid is introduced with a pointed steel instrument into the flesh of a little bird4 ,in a few minutes the bird staggers as if intoxicated1 shuts its eyes1 gasps1 and falls dead40 8,really and truly dead80 asked ,emile4 8,really and truly dead10 his uncle replied4 8,a dog is treated in the same manner1 but with a stronger dose4 ,in less than an hour the animal dies in a frightful frenzy40 8,then this white sweat of the toad must be a perfectly horrible venom10 ,jules remarked4 8,travelers tell us that certain ,south ,american ,indian tribes poison the tips of their arrows with this venom4 ,first they impale alive on a long stick a number of these animals1 and then put them near the fire to make their warts sweat4 ,the fluid that oozes out is collected in a large leaf1 and into this fluid the savages dip their arrow-heads1 a wound from which is then likely to prove fatal40 8,isn't it the truth1 then10 asked ,jules1 8that toads are venomous80 8,yes and no4 ,applied in any way but by injection1 the toad's sweat is harmless2 to act as venom it must mix with the blood through a wound4 ,but ,i will not repeat what ,i have already told you about the viper's venom4 ,the toad is powerless to make the slightest wound in our flesh1 and therefore it is absolutely impossible for it to harm us4 ,it possesses a poison without being able to make any use of it except to bedew its own body by perspiring1 thus repelling its enemies by the horrid smell and taste of this sweat4 ,you can handle a toad without any sort of risk if you wish to2 wash your hands immediately afterward if they have become moistened by the contact1 and there will be no further trouble4 ,unless the foolish fancy should seize you to collect a little of the venomous liquid on the point of a penknife and then prick yourself with the knife till you drew blood1 ,i can assure you positively that the toad would cause you no injury whatever40 8,that is plain enough10 ,jules admitted1 8for the toad has no means of making a wound to receive the venom from its warts2 but they tell of other kinds of venom such as urine thrown to a distance and drivel running from the mouth40 8,no drivel runs from the toad's mouth1 nor is there any truth in the animal's poisoning fruit and grass with its saliva4 ,that is pure calumny invented to blacken the detested animal40 8,and the urine80 8,the toad1 when molested1 discharges its urine as a means of defense1 but not to any distance4 ,you would have to hold your face close to the animal to receive the discharge in the eyes4 ,if that should happen to some careless person1 a temporary redness of the eyes would be the utmost result4 ,but no one would think of putting his face so close to the animal1 and so there is no cause for alarm on that score40 8,what about the creature's terrible breath80 was ,jules's next inquiry4 8,another calumny on a par with that about the saliva4 ,its breath is no more harmful than any other animal's4 ,so there is absolutely nothing left of the charges brought against the toad4 ,the poison it sweats in moments of danger to drive away its enemies cannot injure as venom injures1 because the animal has no means of injecting it into a wound and mixing it with the blood1 as venom must be mixed to take effect4 ,the discharge of its urine falls too short to be dangerous1 and even if it should reach its mark its effect would be so slight that it is not worth considering4 ,does any one give a thought to the hedgehog's urine when that animal sprays itself with this liquid on being molested8 ,the toad's similar mode of defense is no more to be feared4 ,the other complaints1 such as the swelling of one's hands after touching the animal1 air poisoned by its breath1 fruit and vegetables infected by the saliva and the creature's tracks1 all come from people's prejudice1 their imagination1 which has given the poor batrachian a bad reputation4 8,the toad is harmless1 but that is not enough to entitle it to our consideration4 ,it is also a very useful helper1 a devourer of beetles1 slugs1 larv--vermin of every description1 in short4 ,after spending the day under a cool stone or in some dark hole1 it leaves its retreat at nightfall to make its rounds1 hunching itself along on its big belly4 ,here is a slug making such haste as it can toward the lettuce bed1 there a cricket chirping at the mouth of its hole1 and there again a ,june-bug laying its eggs in the ground4 ,very softly the toad approaches and in three mouthfuls gobbles them all up with a gurgle of satisfaction4 ,ah1 those tasted good6 ,and now for some more4 8,it continues on its way1 and by the time it has finished its rounds1 at daybreak1 you may imagine what a multitude of worms and other small prey the glutton has stowed away in its capacious stomach4 ,and yet this useful creature is stoned to death because it is ugly6 ,my children1 never commit any such act of cruelty1 at once foolish and harmful2 do not stone the toad1 for you would thereby deprive the fields and gardens of a vigilant guardian4 ,let it go its way in peace and it will destroy so many insects that you will in the end find it less ugly than you had thought4 8,so well known is the toad's usefulness that in ,england the animal is an article of commerce4 ,toads are bought in the market at so much a head1 carried home carefully so as not to come to any harm1 and then allowed the freedom of the garden or placed in a hothouse1 a crystal palace1 perhaps1 where wonderful plants are grown4 ,the toad's business is to lie in wait for beetles1 slugs1 and other destroyers that might nibble the valuable plants2 and it does its duty with zeal4 ,what a change of fortune for the maligned creature when it finds itself living in a warm atmosphere and surrounded by the most splendid flowers procured at great expense from all parts of the world and now exhaling the most fragrant odors6 ,as a finishing touch to the honor done the poor thing in its floral palace of glass1 there is offered the tribute of poetry1 that flower of the human imagination and invention4 ,listen to this4 8,a wretched toad with head split open and one eye gouged out by some cruel hand was painfully dragging itself along through the mud of a public highway1 when four small boys chanced to spy it as they were passing4 8,they spied the toad1 ,and one and all sent up a gleeful shout3 #8,come on1 come on1 let's kill the ugly lout6 ,but first we'll have some fun4' ,they laughed their fill1 ,as boys will laugh1 hard-hearted1 when they kill4 ,they pricked and goaded with a pointed stick1 ,devising each in turn some cruel trick1 ,flushed with their sport1 egged on by passers-by1 ,while for the martyred toad none gave a sigh4 ,poor ugly thing6 ,but nature made it so2 ,for this alone its blood was caused to flow4 ,it tried to flee2 one foot was severed quite1 ,which gave the heartless band renewed delight4 ,its gouged-out eye hung down2 half-blind it sought ,some sheltering reeds2 its efforts came to naught4 ,its mangled form had been1 you would have sworn1 ,through some machine1 to be so rent and torn4 ,and1 oh1 to think that hearts can be so base ,as to wish ill to one in such sad case1 ,and to so great a load of suffering sore ,to undertake to add one torment more6 ,well-nigh exhausted now1 hope almost gone1 ,the half-dismembered creature still toiled on4 ,e'en death itself would not1 for pity's sake1 ,so hideous a thing consent to take2 ,or thus it seemed1 and so with antics rude ,the toad's tormentors still their sport pursued4 ,attempts to snare it next were made in vain3 ,it dodged1 and sought a rut half filled with rain2 ,and1 by its muddy bath somewhat restored1 ,withstood the missiles that upon it poured4 ,ah1 what a sight was there1 the beauty fresh ,of childhood1 and its joy in bleeding flesh6 ,such sport as theirs there surely ne'er had been3 #8,come on1' they called1 #8come ,john1 come ,benjamin6 ,and bring a stone1 a big one1 and we'll see ,if ,master ,toad is quite as smart as we4' ,accordingly a massive stone was found1 ,of ponderous weight1 unwieldy1 large1 and round2 ,but cheerfully the lads their muscles strained1 ,with ends so laudable to be attained4 ,just then1 by curious chance1 there passed that way ,an over-loaded1 heavy-rumbling dray4 ,an aged donkey1 deaf1 half-starved1 and lame1 ,was harnessed to the cart--the more's the shame-- ,and on its back a pannier also bore4 ,a long day's march behind and home before1 ,the patient beast trudged on with labored breath1 ,though each step more seemed like to be its death4 ,its toil-worn frame was so exceeding thin ,you would have said #8twas naught but bones and skin4 ,it bore full many marks of cruel blows1 ,and in its eyes one read the tale of those ,that suffer hardship without hope4 ,meanwhile ,its master heaped upon it curses vile1 ,nor spared the cudgel2 but the road was deep ,in mire that clogged the wheels1 the hills were steep4 ,creaking and groaning in lugubrious tones1 ,the dray1 thus pulled by thing of skin and bones1 ,moved slowly forward till at length the road ,descended sharply1 and thus eased the load2 ,but this now crowded on the nigh-spent beast ,with force sufficient 7so it seemed1 at least7 ,to hurl him headlong4 ,and yet1 strange to tell1 ,the donkey paused1 unheeding blows that fell ,from wrathful hand4 ,the boys broke off their play1 ,content to yield the donkey right of way4 #8,stand off6' they cried2 #8let go there1 ,dick and ,bob2 ,let go the stone1 the cart will do our job ,with much more sport for us1 so stand aside6' ,all stood alert to see what should betide ,their wretched victim4 ,but far otherwise ,the thing fell out before their wondering eyes ,than they had thought3 the donkey1 bruised and lame1 ,at sight of woes that put his own to shame ,spared not himself1 but gathered all his strength ,and held the loaded cart until1 at length1 ,although remonstrant blows rained on his back1 ,he turned the dray from out the beaten track4 ,the grinding wheels1 diverted1 harmless pass1 ,and tortured toad is saved by tortured ass4 ,the driver cracks his whip1 pulls at the reins1 ,and now the dray once more the road regains4 ,at that1 one of the group engaged in play 7,the very one who tells you this to-day7 ,let fall the stone he'd been about to cast ,just as the laden wain came rumbling past2 ,and as he dropped it1 lo1 in accents clear ,a mandate from on high fell on his ear1 ,a mandate that was quickly understood1 ,for it was brief1 these simple words3 #8,be good4' #h 8,in closing ,i repeat1 with the great poet3 #8,be good4' ,be good if you wish ,god to love you2 be good that you may grow up to be noble-hearted men2 be good to one another1 helping one another2 be good to the animals that give us their fleece1 their strength1 and their life1 and those that protect the fruits of the earth for us by keeping vigilant guard over them4 ,be kind to them all1 even to the humblest among them1 the toad1 which serves us uncomplainingly and asks in return no pay but a pitying glance40 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,,instinct ,jules and ,emile had put a caterpillar into a glass and brought it to their uncle1 who made it the subject of a little talk to his young hearers4 8,examine the creature closely10 said he4 8,its skin is delicate1 so delicate that even a light touch hurts it2 but here on the head1 at the point called the skull1 it has the hardness of horn1 forming a sort of cap or helmet which can without injury endure friction with the hard texture of wood4 ,the head is the part of the creature that opens the way1 and it is therefore protected by armor1 while the rest of the body1 as it follows the head1 does not need this casing of horn40 8,i understand10 said ,emile2 8the creature works its way along by scratching and tunneling with its feet40 8,no1 my boy2 the feet are not used for boring through wood4 ,the caterpillar has eight pairs4 ,the first three pairs1 or those nearest the head1 have quite a different shape from the others3 they are slender and pointed1 and it is they that in the change that takes place later become the butterfly's legs1 though in doing so they grow much longer and take another shape4 ,hence they are called the true legs4 ,the next four pairs are placed toward the middle of the body1 and the last pair is at the very end4 ,these five pairs bear the name of false legs because they completely disappear when the caterpillar gives place to the butterfly or moth4 ,they are short and wide1 and are furnished beneath with numerous little hooks by which the caterpillar clings to the walls of its abode4 ,the stiff hairs covering the body are also used for locomotion1 the caterpillar wriggling and squirming in its tunnel somewhat as does the chimney-sweep in helping himself with knees and back as he makes his way up the inside of a chimney40 8,then what does the caterpillar use for boring through the wood80 asked ,jules4 8,the tool for chipping away the wood consists of two curved fangs or teeth1 almost black1 one on each side of the mouth1 which open and shut like a pair of cutting nippers4 ,they are called mandibles and are in reality jaws or1 more properly1 teeth which1 instead of meeting in a vertical plane as do ours1 come together horizontally or sidewise4 ,for precision of movement these mandibles are superior to our best cutting nippers1 and for hardness they are almost equal to steel4 ,they seize the wood1 bit by bit1 patiently and untiringly2 they cut1 saw1 tear away a little at a time1 and so bore a tunnel just large enough for the caterpillar to pass through40 8,and what becomes of the wood-dust80 ,jules further inquired4 8,i should think it would block the way1 the passage being so narrow40 8,the wood-dust passes through the creature's body2 the caterpillar eats it1 and after digestion has taken from it the very small amount of nourishment it contains1 it is ejected behind1 molded into tiny pellets4 ,digestion in a caterpillar is soon accomplished4 ,just think of it3 wood is an extremely meager fare1 and so the worm must keep on eating its way forward1 cutting1 gnawing1 digesting4 ,to acquire the fatness necessary for the coming change the creature must have a good-sized pear-tree limb or lilac trunk to work on4 8,the wormhole dust left behind by the boring worm sometimes betrays the insect to its enemies4 ,whenever you see any of this dust left by digestion coming out at some little orifice in the bark of a pear-tree1 apple-tree1 or other tree1 you may know the borer is at work1 and the branch where he is at work should be cut off immediately1 to prevent more serious harm4 ,if the caterpillar has not gone too far1 a pointed iron wire may be thrust into the opening and an attempt made to kill the creature in its hole4 ,but as the passage is very winding1 this method is by no means certain of success40 8,couldn't the wire be pushed in through another opening80 queried ,jules4 8,but1 my boy1 you don't suppose the caterpillar is so simple as to make windows here and there in its dwelling and so make it easy for its foes1 of which it has many besides man1 to attack it6 ,if it should take a fancy1 let us say1 to go out and get a little fresh air some fine day1 a sparrow might spy it and carry it off as a choice titbit for its brood under the roof tiles4 ,all these dangers it knows2 or1 rather1 it guesses them vaguely1 for every creature1 even to the smallest worm1 knows how to protect itself and preserve its species4 ,unquestionably it lacks the reasoning faculty1 which belongs only to man2 but it none the less acts as if it reasoned out its own interests with an accuracy that astounds the thoughtful observer4 ,as a matter of fact1 my dear children1 ,another has already reasoned for it1 and that ,other is the universal ,reason in and by whom all live2 it is ,god1 the ,father of men1 and also the ,father of lilacs and of the caterpillars that gnaw them4 ,the creature knows1 then1 without ever having learned2 it is master of its art without having been taught2 and at the very first trial1 with no experience to rely on1 it does admirably the thing it was intended to do4 ,this gift bestowed at birth1 this unfailing inspiration that guides it in its work1 is called instinct4 8,in its butterfly state the leopard-moth takes very little food1 at the most a few drops of honey from the opening flowers4 ,its proboscis1 so slender and so delicate1 is fitted to get this food4 ,now that it no longer has its strong mandibles1 how can the moth imagine that wood is eatable8 ,is it possible that it remembers what it liked as a caterpillar8 ,who can say8 ,moreover1 how can the moth tell what trees have wood suitable for the larv1 when we ourselves must have a certain degree of education in order to know the commonest varieties8 ,the moth1 with no previous education1 never mistakes a plane-tree for a pear-tree1 a box-tree for a lilac1 an oak for an elm4 ,thus the eggs are always laid on the right sort of tree1 never on any other4 ,where man might make a mistake1 the insect never errs4 8,the young larva comes out of the egg4 ,what does the poor little thing know from experience of the hard trade it is to follow8 ,nothing1 absolutely nothing4 ,no matter2 as soon as it is born it attacks the wood it rests upon and hollows out a shelter for itself with the least possible delay4 ,this most urgent business being attended to1 it now leisurely gnaws its way ahead1 nibbling a little here and a little there and shaping its course according to the quality of the wood4 ,the passage lengthens1 increasing in diameter as the creature grows1 and sometimes ascending1 sometimes descending1 sometimes running horizontally quite through the trunk or branch4 ,the mass of the wood may be attacked with little system and without economy1 for the larva is assured of food enough in any event4 ,one precaution1 however1 it invariably takes3 it never bores through the bark1 for fear of betraying its presence to hostile eyes4 ,but how does the larva1 working in total darkness1 know when it is getting near the bark and must turn back8 ,what gives it the fear it has of showing itself8 ,what makes it so careful to remain in the heart of the wood and thus avoid the vigilant sparrow it has never seen8 ,it is instinct1 the inspiration that protects all animal-kind in the fierce battle of life40 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,,the ,,grain-,,weevil ,uncle ,paul had sent old ,jacques to town to buy the drug they were going to apply to ,simon's wheat4 ,meanwhile he took occasion to tell his young hearers about the wheat-devourer that was to have the benefit of the drug4 ,the handful of grain left by ,simon was in a plate on the table4 ,the little weevils were running about in frantic endeavors to escape1 while ,emile with a straw was pushing them back into the middle of the plate1 where they cowered among the kernels of wheat4 ,louis and ,jules were also there1 all attention to what was going on4 8,this ravager of our granaries10 began ,uncle ,paul1 8is called the grain-weevil1 or1 in ,latin1 calandra4 ,it belongs to the order of coleoptera or beetles4 ,its defensive armor is a hard brown casing finely engraved4 ,it has no membranous wings under the elytra or wing sheaths4 ,hence it is unable to fly1 but it runs fast enough and it clings to objects with a firm grip4 ,you see how busy ,emile is kept with his straw in preventing the prisoners' escape4 ,the grain-weevil is about four millimeters long1 its body is of a uniform blackish brown1 and its head ends in a long snout1 a kind of slender trumpet4 ,the corselet or thorax is long1 marked with fine pricks or dots1 and the wing sheaths are delicately furrowed4 ,the insect's most striking characteristic is its long1 trumpet-shaped snout40 8,it seems to me10 said ,jules1 8,i have seen other beetles1 and rather large ones1 too1 with the head ending in a trumpet like that40 8,i've found them on hazels10 added ,louis1 8and they had a long1 slender beak that would make you think the insect was smoking a long pipe40 8,the trumpet beetles form a numerous class1 and they are all weevils1 but their mode of life varies for the different species4 ,some attack fruit-trees and grape-vines4 ,we will speak of them one of these days4 8,with its pointed snout the grain-weevil makes a tiny hole in a kernel of wheat1 and in this it lays an egg which it makes fast by means of a sticky liquid from its own body4 ,then it passes immediately to other kernels and treats them in the same way1 until its store of eggs is exhausted4 ,and all this is done with such delicate nicety that the sharpest eyes would fail to detect any trace of these mischievous germs in the kernels4 ,but a weevil knows very well when a kernel has already received an egg1 from whatever source1 and never does it commit the blunder of laying a second one there1 for the grain of wheat is too small for more than one eater4 ,to each kernel its larva1 to each larva its kernel1 and no more4 8,soon the eggs hatch4 ,the tiny worm punctures the envelop of the grain and through the almost invisible opening makes its way into the mealy substance within4 ,there it is at home1 in perfect quiet1 peacefully devoted to the pleasures of feasting4 ,for its own exclusive use a grain of wheat1 a whole grain of wheat6 ,thus it grows big and fat4 ,in five or six weeks the flour is all eaten up1 but the bran remains1 for the clever larva is careful not to make a hole in it2 it will need it to serve as a cradle during the coming change4 ,the gnawed kernel appears quite whole1 when as a matter of fact it is hollow and lodges a weevil4 ,in this hiding-place the larva turns into a nymph1 and the latter into a perfect insect4 ,then the fully developed weevil tears open the bran covering and leaves its home to explore the pile of wheat1 select certain ungnawed grains1 and lay its eggs in them1 eggs that will in time produce a new population of ravagers40 ,here ,uncle ,paul picked out a few grains1 one by one1 and submitted them to his hearers' scrutiny4 8,what do you see that is at all unusual in those grains80 he asked4 8,look at them well40 8,i have looked and looked10 ,emile replied after a little1 8and ,i don't see anything40 8,i don't see anything1 either10 said ,jules4 8,nor ,i10 added ,louis4 8,those grains1 boys1 have no flour in them1 despite their fair outside appearance2 the weevil has emptied them40 8,but how can you tell so easily80 asked ,jules4 8,a kernel inhabited by the grain-weevil yields to the pressure of a finger and is also lighter in weight than one that is sound4 ,from appearance alone one cannot tell infested kernels from uninjured ones1 as the outside looks the same in both cases4 ,thus1 without extreme vigilance1 the inroads of the weevil pass unperceived until the developed insects show themselves2 and then the evil is beyond remedy4 ,didn't ,simon think he had a fine lot of wheat when there was hardly anything but the bran left8 ,a very simple experiment suffices to prove the condition of the wheat4 ,throw a handful of it into water and all the sound kernels will sink to the bottom1 all the unsound ones float on the surface4 ,we will perform this experiment with the wheat on the plate if ,jules will go to the spring and bring a glass of water40 ,the water was brought and ,uncle ,paul threw the wheat into it4 ,a few grains sank1 many floated4 ,these latter were opened with the point of a pin1 and in some was found a little soft white worm1 without legs1 but furnished with strong mandibles4 ,it was the larva of the grain-weevil4 ,in others there was a white nymph1 and in a few was the perfect insect all ready to leave its snug abode4 8,to judge by the number of grains that floated10 ,jules remarked1 8,simon's pile of wheat1 even if it is not a very big one1 must contain millions of weevils4 ,it must have taken a lot of the creatures to produce such an immense family1 mustn't it80 8,not so many as you might think4 ,how many eggs do you suppose one weevil lays80 8,a dozen1 perhaps40 8,ah1 how far out you are in your reckoning6 ,in the course of one season a weevil lays from eight to ten thousand eggs1 from which spring as many larv1 each gnawing a grain4 ,a liter measure #i contains1 on an average1 ten thousand grains of wheat4 ,to feed the family of one weevil1 therefore1 nearly a liter of wheat is needed4 ,suppose there are a thousand pairs of these insects in a granary2 that would be enough to destroy ten hectoliters of wheat1 rye1 barley1 or oats2 for they attack all kinds of grain impartially40 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,,the ,,common ,,caterpillar 8,i remember10 said ,jules1 8one ,sunday last winter--it was some time in ,december or ,january1 ,i think--the mayor had just posted a notice on the door of the town hall1 and the people were reading it as they came from church4 ,the notice was something about caterpillars1 and the mayor had ordered their nests to be destroyed40 8,yes10 rejoined ,uncle ,paul1 8the mayor had in mind1 luckily for us1 the caterpillar law40 8,what6 ,is there a law about caterpillars1 with a fine for disobeying it80 8,yes1 my boy1 there is a law about caterpillars1 and ,i thank the legislature that had the wisdom to pass it4 ,god grant it may become a more general statute and include a greater number of our insect enemies1 the ,june-bug especially1 and that it may be strictly enforced60 8,but that would put people out1 to have to leave their business and go and hunt for caterpillar-nests and burn them4 ,at least1 that's what ,one-eyed ,john said when he read the mayor's notice40 8,leave their business1 you say8 ,is it leaving one's business to go and save the crops when they are threatened8 ,laws1 my young friend1 are rules made for the general good1 and we should all obey them scrupulously4 ,if there are any narrow-minded objectors or stupid grumblers--any ,one-eyed ,johns1 in short--that choose to take offense1 so much the worse for them3 they will have to obey in any event1 for the common interest is not to be compromised by the foolishness of a few4 8,the mayor's notice had especial reference to a caterpillar whose ravages are1 in some seasons1 truly calamitous4 ,so abundant is this caterpillar in central and northern ,france that it is called1 briefly1 the common caterpillar4 ,it is encountered everywhere1 on fruit-trees and forest trees1 in garden walks and on plants and hedges1 and even on the bark of trees1 sometimes in countless legions4 8,it is dark brown in color with six rows of little tubercles or pimples of the same hue1 each bearing a tuft of long1 red hair4 ,the ring-like segment to which is attached the last pair of false legs1 and also the following segment1 have each a plump red nipple which can at the caterpillar's pleasure recede under the skin or stand out prominently4 ,the butterfly developing from this caterpillar is pure white except on the abdomen1 which is brown4 ,furthermore1 the female has a thick tuft of red hair at the end of the abdomen4 ,its purpose is shown when the eggs are laid3 after these are deposited1 to the number of three or four hundred1 the butterfly rubs off the hair and places it over the eggs4 ,the laying takes place in ,july and the eggs1 deposited in a little heap on a leaf1 are rose red40 8,but if they are on a leaf10 objected ,emile1 8they must fall from the tree when the leaves fall1 and then the wind might blow them away40 8,the butterfly that lays its eggs on a leaf knows very well what it is about4 ,on the other hand1 those butterflies that lay eggs that are to go through the winter and hatch in the spring are very careful not to entrust their eggs to a leaf1 which will soon fall to the ground4 ,they make their eggs fast to the bark4 ,but whence do they get their knowledge of the future8 ,who told them the leaves would fall and therefore would be insecure resting-places for the eggs8 ,they do not learn this by experience1 for they have never seen the autumnal shedding of leaves1 having been born when the foliage is already well advanced for their nourishment1 and laying their eggs and dying while it is still on the trees4 ,if1 then1 experience cannot account for it1 we must ascribe the insect's mysterious foreknowledge to the incomprehensible inspiration of instinct1 which sees the invisible and knows the unknown because there is a ,sovereign ,intelligence that knows all and orders all4 8,our common caterpillar likewise is led by instinct when it lays its eggs on a leaf1 for long before the fall of that leaf they will hatch1 in the last fortnight of ,july40 8,a cunning rascal1 that caterpillar10 said ,emile2 8it knows the order of the seasons as if it had the almanac by heart40 8,i haven't told you all4 ,another motive acts in determining the butterfly's course4 ,in laying its eggs on a leaf the insect places them where the young caterpillars are sure to find food close at hand when they come out of the eggs1 so that they will not have to go running about over the branches1 a dangerous thing at their tender age4 ,all anxiety as to food supply is thus removed at the outset1 and this assurance against famine is so much to the good in this world of chance and uncertainty1 whether for men or caterpillars40 8,if the butterfly reasoned it all out10 said ,jules1 8it couldn't do any better40 8,perhaps not so well1 my child4 ,are there not plenty of people1 alas1 that show far less foresight8 ,the butterfly leaves to its young a leaf as a heritage1 a leaf to eat1 whereas the spendthrift1 the idler1 leaves to his family nothing but poverty and suffering4 ,he has not even the wisdom of an insect40 ,,chapter ,,xl ,,caterpillars ,,at ,,table 8,in the latter part of ,july the eggs hatch and through the covering of down appear1 here and there1 little heads pushing aside the fluff that is in their way4 ,the first caterpillar hatched out crawls forward and begins to browse on the upper surface of the leaf1 grazing it lightly and without eating through to the under surface or touching the veins2 it feeds only on the pulpy matter forming most of the leaf's thickness4 ,as the hatching continues1 another little caterpillar advances and takes its place beside the first1 then a third1 a fourth1 and so on until the whole width of the leaf is occupied4 ,in this way is formed the first row of browsing caterpillars1 all with heads in a straight line and leaving in front a certain unoccupied space4 ,the next caterpillar to emerge from under the matting of down begins a second row by taking its station at the tail of one of the preceding ones1 after which others place themselves at the right and left4 ,this row completed1 a third is formed in the same manner1 and then others1 so that in a short time the entire surface of the leaf except the forward end is covered with rows of eaters4 ,if one leaf is not enough for the whole brood1 the later comers establish themselves in like order on neighboring leaves4 8,there they are1 then1 all at table4 ,the strictest discipline prevails in this leafy dining-hall3 each caterpillar gnaws what is directly under its mandibles1 without turning to right or left1 as that would take from its neighbor's share2 without advancing ahead of its own line1 as that would mean using the supplies of the future2 and without falling behind1 as that would throw the rear ranks into confusion4 ,under these conditions a few mouthfuls and no more fall to each caterpillar4 ,that is very little for a larva's appetite4 ,it must have more1 but how obtain it8 ,scatter abroad on other leaves1 haphazard8 ,undoubtedly there is plenty of room for all on the tree4 ,but that would be highly imprudent3 they must keep together1 for union is the strength of the weak2 they must keep together to be able to offer some sort of formidable appearance to their enemies4 ,it would be equally objectionable for each to be a law to itself and gnaw where it chose on the same leaf4 ,the resulting confusion would cause waste1 and also it would be very difficult for each to get its proper share1 some stuffing themselves and others near by dying of hunger4 ,in such absence of law and order they would come to blows and fight desperately for a footing on the leaf1 so that civil war would soon thin their ranks1 for there is no worse counselor in such emergencies than the stomach4 ,order is the only solution of their problem1 order which safeguards human as well as insect communities40 8,what do they do1 then80 asked ,jules4 8,we are coming to that4 ,each caterpillar1 as ,i said1 gnaws only the spot directly within reach4 ,in this way there is left unbrowsed1 first the part covered by each body1 and then the forward part of the leaf1 which is still unoccupied4 ,the first row of caterpillars advances one step and finds a second ration in the part thus reached2 but at the same time it uncovers in the rear a crosswise strip one step wide1 which the second row now advances to feed upon1 while in its turn it leaves a similar strip free for the third row2 and so on4 ,one step forward for the whole troop puts each row in possession of the strip left uncovered by the preceding row4 ,as for the first row1 it feeds little by little on the forward part of the leaf1 designedly left unoccupied in the beginning4 ,when step by step the very end of the leaf is reached1 each caterpillar has gnawed a strip as long and as wide as its own body4 ,by that time the first meal is finished4 ,you see that with order and economy a hundred and more caterpillars all have a place in the dining-hall on the surface of the leaf1 and all have as nearly equal rations as if these had been allotted by weight and measure40 8,animals with their instinct are wonderful creatures1 ,uncle10 observed ,jules4 8,every day brings some fresh surprise40 8,it is not the creature itself that is to be wondered at1 my dear child2 the marvels it accomplishes are not the fruit of its reflection4 ,a grub just out of the egg can have no ideas on method1 economy1 coperation1 when in order to acquire these ideas man needs the full maturity of his reason4 ,our tribute of admiration should be paid to the ,infinite ,wisdom which governs the world and leads a brood of caterpillars browsing the surface of a leaf4 8,their first hunger appeased1 the caterpillars construct a shelter from rain and the heat of the sun4 ,on its gnawed side the leaf is dryer than on the other1 and consequently has of itself taken a kind of concave shape by curling up1 which makes it serve excellently for the floor and walls of the new abode4 ,as for the ceiling1 that is to be of silk4 ,from one raised edge of the leaf to the other the caterpillars stretch threads to strengthen their shelter and serve as framework for the roof1 and finally they weave a fabric on this network of threads4 ,thus is erected a tent under which the caterpillars take refuge for the night after roaming over the foliage most of the day1 feeding sometimes on one leaf1 sometimes on another4 ,thither also they retire when the heat is excessive or the weather threatening4 ,it is a shelter hastily constructed and not of enduring quality1 besides being too small to hold them all4 ,so other tents are made of other gnawed leaves1 and the caterpillars live for a while divided into small families4 8,but with the first rain-storms of autumn1 in ,september or ,october1 a large building is constructed for housing the whole colony through the winter4 ,it is a bulky mass of dry leaves and white silk1 with no definite shape4 ,the inside is divided with silk partitions into numerous apartments to which there is access through holes that pierce1 systematically1 the several partitions4 ,each enclosure thus has its doors which1 without being directly opposite each other1 yet provide free circulation4 ,in short1 this common nest1 though made of extremely fine silk1 is substantial enough to be proof against wind and weather1 for the caterpillars use many webs1 placed one over another and each containing a great number of threads4 ,with the coming of the first cold weather all shut themselves up1 the doors are barricaded with silk1 and everything is made snug for the winter4 ,now let the wind blow and the snow fall6 ,curled up together and snuggling against one another1 the caterpillars sleep the deep sleep produced by the cold1 lying torpid in their house of silk until the warmth of opening spring awakens them and sends them forth to browse on the growing leaves40 8,and don't they eat anything all winter80 asked ,emile4 8,all winter as well as a part of the autumn and spring they take no food whatever4 ,their fast lasts six months1 and it is an absolute fast that must leave them with very empty stomachs40 8,they must be awfully hungry when they wake up40 8,so hungry that they make a dash for the tender young leaves and opening flowers1 and in less than no time strip an orchard bare4 ,if the nests are very numerous whole forests are browsed to the last leaf40 8,and then80 8,to prevent these ravages the mayor's notice is heeded4 ,some time in the winter these terrible bags of dry leaves and silk are detached from the trees1 hedges1 and bushes1 and the nests with their occupants are burned4 ,in spring it would be too late3 the caterpillars would all have left their quarters40 ,,chapter ,,xli ,,enemies ,,of ,,the ,,grapevine ,one morning ,jules was sent to the mill to give notice that his uncle's wheat was ready to be ground4 ,after he had left the village his road ran along beside a vineyard that showed signs of neglect1 weeds and thistles springing up unchecked4 ,nevertheless the vines were pleasing to the eye in the spring freshness of their tender green shoots1 with their clusters of blossoms still in the bud and their delicate tendrils reaching out for something to cling to4 ,here and there leaves of faded and ragged appearance1 with others that were dried up and shriveled1 took away somewhat from the general effect2 but they were not very numerous and ,jules failed to notice them at first4 ,afterward1 for the last half of the way along the vineyard1 these withered leaves became so abundant that the young vine shoots looked as if they had been swept by a fire4 8,some ravager is at work here10 said the boy to himself1 for his eyes were daily becoming more keenly observant4 8,let's look into this a little40 ,the vines were pitiful to behold1 their young shoots showing more and more toward the growing end1 where the grape clusters were forming1 dried and crumpled leaves1 some of these being rolled up like cigars4 ,under closer scrutiny there was often to be seen an insect with a long beak1 a weevil of a brilliant metallic green color4 ,without question this beautiful weevil was the cause of the mischief4 ,insects and cigars1 especially the former1 sparkling creatures in the bright light of the sun1 were soon collected by ,jules as specimens to take home4 ,just then ,one-eyed ,john1 the owner of the vineyard1 came along4 8,what are you doing there80 he demanded4 8,catching a few of these insects that are ruining your vines10 the boy replied4 8,let me see them40 8,here they are40 8,and you say they are ruining my vines80 8,i think so4 ,i have just seen some of them making these cigars40 8,oh1 bosh1 you silly6 ,do you think they would take the trouble to make cigars out of leaves8 ,they don't smoke4 ,it's the moon that has burned my vines1 the moon40 ,and so1 satisfied with his explanation1 ,one-eyed ,john turned on his heel and went off1 whistling a tune4 ,but he would stop whistling when1 three years later1 he had to pull up those vines1 exhausted as they were by the cigar-rollers4 ,nevertheless he would not take back what he had said3 the moon had caused all the mischief4 ,returning from the mill1 ,jules picked up ,louis on the way and brought him back to share in the benefit of what ,uncle ,paul might have to say concerning the specimens ,jules had collected4 8,the insect found on the vine10 said he1 after examining one of the brilliant creatures1 8is a weevil4 ,you all remember that this name is given to various beetles with a head tapering into a sort of trumpet4 ,this one is the rhynchites1 as entomologists call it1 or the vine-grub1 as it is known to vine-growers4 ,it is of a magnificent lustrous green on the back1 and underneath it shines like gold4 ,some dark-blue ones are also found1 but they are more rare4 ,the male has on each side of the thorax a little pointed protuberance directed forward4 ,the larva is a small1 white1 legless worm that begins life in a roll made by the mother with a vine leaf4 ,in the month of ,may she begins operations by cutting the stem of the leaf three-quarters through to arrest the flow of sap1 so that the leaf may wither and be the easier to roll4 ,then the weevil rolls it up and lays three or four eggs in its folds4 ,when in the process of drying the leaf has assumed the color of tobacco1 you would take it for a cigar hanging from the vine4 ,the young larv soon abandon this first shelter1 let themselves fall1 and burrow into the ground1 where they finish developing4 ,the vine-grub saps the vigor of the vine by destroying its leaves1 and therefore the cigar-like rolls should be picked off and burned in ,may or ,june4 ,in this way the infant insects are destroyed in the cradle and much future damage is prevented40 8,along with the shiny green weevil that rolls vine leaves into cigars ,i found this other insect10 ,jules announced1 displaying the creature4 8,that is not a weevil1 as you can see from the shape of its head1 which has no tapering beak4 ,its wing sheaths are chestnut red1 the rest of the body being black4 ,it is known as the eumolpus or1 more commonly1 the vine-fretter1 or1 in our language1 the scrivener because in gnawing the surface of the vine leaves it traces fine lines that look somewhat like intricate handwriting4 ,it attacks in the same way the stems of grape leaves and of grape clusters1 the young shoots of the vine1 and the grapes themselves4 ,if the insects are numerous1 all these incisions and lacerations cause the vines to wither away and produce but little fruit1 and that of poor quality4 8,the larv of the vine-fretter live in the ground1 and to destroy them the soil thus infested is turned over in the winter1 as exposure to the cold kills the grubs4 ,when the insects are fully developed it is exceedingly difficult to rid the vines of them4 ,at the slightest alarm the little creature1 busy with its destructive writing on the leaves1 draws its legs up under its belly and lets itself drop to the ground1 where it cannot be easily seen because of its dull hue2 and it also keeps perfectly still1 playing dead40 8,does it think it can escape by not moving80 asked ,emile4 8,doubtless1 because then1 even if it should by any chance be discovered1 it would probably be mistaken for a grain of earth40 8,wouldn't it be better for it to fly away or run away than to play dead80 8,its flight is too heavy and its legs too short4 ,all insects that cannot take instant flight and are without means of defense do as does the vine-fretter in time of danger3 they remain perfectly motionless4 ,nearly always this expedient succeeds with them because their color1 commonly a dull one1 causes them to be confounded with the soil40 8,ah1 the sly rogues60 8,well1 then1 this ruse of the vine-fretter must be turned to account by us in our efforts to exterminate the insect4 ,under the vine we stretch a cloth1 after which a sharp blow is given to the main stem4 ,the vine-fretters let themselves fall1 they play dead1 but they can be seen on the cloth and not one escapes the sad fate awaiting it40 ,,chapter ,,xlii ,,clever ,,mischief-,,makers 8,here is another weevil ,i have to show you10 began ,uncle ,paul the next day4 8,what do you think of it8 ,note its shiny violet coat with glints of blue that bring out the delicate down with which the whole body is covered4 ,the purple of our richest silks is not so magnificent40 8,oh1 the pretty little thing60 cried ,emile4 8,what can it do with its beautiful clothes80 8,nothing to our advantage1 my boy4 ,fine clothes do not make useful citizens1 either among insects or among men4 ,the bee's dress is a modest brown1 and the bee works at honey-making2 the dress of the weevil ,i show you here is very handsome1 but the elegant creature lives at our expense4 ,if you have in your garden any fine plums or pears or apples1 it gets ahead of you in harvesting the crop2 it does not even wait for the fruit to ripen1 so fearful is it of being too late4 ,in ,june it punctures with its pointed snout the young apple or pear or plum and lays an egg in the unripe flesh4 ,the fruit thus treated feeds the larva for some time1 and then dries up and falls off4 ,then the worm emigrates1 leaves the plum that has nourished it1 and buries itself in the ground to reappear the next spring as a perfect insect40 8,i should like to know the name of this plum-pricker2 ,i'd teach it to behave if ,i got hold of it40 8,it is called1 very inappropriately1 the rhynchites bacchus40 8,bacchus1 if ,i remember rightly10 said ,jules1 8is the god of wine40 8,exactly2 and that is where the word is out of place here4 ,no doubt the first observers confounded the weevil of our orchards with that of our vineyards1 giving to the former the name that should belong to the latter4 ,but the mistake has been made and we can't do anything about it now4 ,let us keep the names as they are1 but not confound the two weevils so different in appearance and habits4 ,the weevil that rolls the vine leaves is hairless and of a golden-green color2 the other is all covered with hairs and its color is a lustrous violet4 ,to avoid confusion in our talk1 why should we not call this latter insect the plum-weevil1 or the pear-weevil80 8,that would be a good name for it10 assented ,louis4 8,i shall just call it the plum-pricker10 declared ,emile4 8,there is no reason why you should not10 his uncle agreed4 8,now let us pass on to another member of the family4 ,see what widely dissimilar habits there are in a group of insects in which the expert eye can nevertheless perceive close resemblances1 ,i might almost say a near relationship4 ,some roll grape or oak or poplar leaves2 others puncture fruit with the beak2 this one here that ,i am going to tell you about severs--partly1 never wholly--the tips of young and tender shoots of various fruit-trees4 ,hence they are commonly known as bud-cutters4 ,it is a weevil1 but much smaller than that of the grapevine4 ,the adjective conical is given to it on account of the shape of its thorax or breastplate1 which tapers a little toward the front like a sugar-loaf4 ,it is rather lustrous and of a blue color shading into green4 8,it shows remarkable cleverness in its operations4 ,establishing itself in spring on a pear1 cherry1 apricot1 plum1 or hawthorn tree1 indifferently1 it selects one by one the shoots that suit it1 and in the not yet unfolded terminal bud it bores with its beak a tiny hole1 in which it lays an egg4 ,but it appears that the young larva requires a diet especially prepared for it1 one that is slightly decomposed1 and not the bitter juices of the vigorously growing shoot4 ,have not we ourselves similar tastes8 ,do we eat medlars and sorb-apples just as they come from the tree8 ,no indeed2 they must first be left to ripen on straw1 even to decay a little40 8,then they are first-rate10 was ,emile's pronouncement2 8but before that they are horrid40 8,that is what the larva of the weevil would say about the shoot on which it has just hatched out4 ,before being treated it is bitter1 it rasps the throat and sets the mandibles on edge2 after treatment it is delicious40 8,yet it doesn't put the branch to ripen on straw as we do medlars80 8,no4 ,in most cases larv show no ingenuity whatever2 they eat like gluttons and without a thought for anything but eating4 ,you know well enough that giving oneself up to gorging is hardly the way to improve the mind4 ,for these larv1 then1 a ready-made pap has to be provided1 as otherwise1 not knowing how to prepare it themselves1 they would stupidly starve to death4 ,and who prepares the food and makes it just right for them8 ,the mother1 if you please1 the mother whose great and only occupation it is to provide for the future needs of her unborn young4 ,she makes it her business to find for them food that not only has no nourishment in it for herself1 but which she dislikes2 she denies herself the enjoyment of flowery fields and summer sunshine to devote all her energies to arduous labors that are of no advantage to her personally2 and when she has spent her little span of life at this hard task she retires into a corner and dies content3 the table is set1 the young larv will not lack for food4 8,when you see the weevil on a vine leaf1 sparkling like a precious gem1 do not think it is there to enjoy itself4 ,it is spending itself in the difficult undertaking of sawing the leaf half-way through at the stem1 after which it will roll the leaf into a sheath to serve as lodging and first food for the larv4 ,its whole life of two or three weeks is given to this work4 ,how can it benefit the insect itself to saw leaf stems and make the leaves wither in the sun and then roll them up8 ,in no way whatever2 the weevil does not eat these leaves or lodge in the sheath made by rolling one of them up4 ,it spends its energies in this work solely for the larv that are to be hatched out after its death4 ,have you ever reflected1 my children1 on this perpetual miracle1--the miracle of a mother living only for her little ones1 little ones that she is destined never to see8 ,i will not conceal from you that every time ,i think of this maternal foresight1 this laborious preparation for a future unknown to the mother herself1 ,i feel myself deeply moved4 ,the ,all-seeing ,eye is there4 8,in a way peculiar to itself the conical weevil makes ready the pap that is to feed its family4 ,the larv1 as ,i said1 require the mild juices of a shoot that has been deprived of its natural vigor4 ,what does the mother do to put the branch in the proper condition8 ,under the spot where the egg is laid she cuts away the bark and some of the wood in a circle1 with her fine mandibles1 leaving the shoot supported only by the central portion of the stem4 ,the sap no longer circulating beyond this girdle1 the leaves affected soon wither and the entire tip of the shoot turns black and acquires that state of decay best liked by the new-born grub40 8,i knew how to ripen medlars on straw10 said ,emile1 8but ,i should have been puzzled to tell how to ripen a branch of a tree4 ,what curious creatures those are1 with their clever ways of doing things6 ,one can do one thing and another can do another1 and it is always ingenious and never the same40 8,it is vexatious that all too often the insect's labors involve harm and loss to us4 ,when a fruit-tree has been operated on by the conical weevil you can see1 in the month of ,may1 the tips of the shoots hanging withered and blackened1 after which they dry up and fall40 8,do the larv stay in the tips of the fallen branches80 asked ,jules4 8,what would they do there8 ,food would fail them1 and so they bury themselves in the ground to finish their growth and pass the winter there snugly and safely4 ,in the spring their metamorphosis takes place40 8,then to guard against insect ravages for the next year10 said ,louis1 8the withered shoots that hang from the trees should be collected and burned while the larv are still there40 8,yes1 that is the best thing to do40 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,,nut-,,weevils ,,and ,,flower-,,weevils 8,ha1 you rascal1 ,i've caught you at it now1 eating my hazelnuts60 cried ,louis one day on seeing a weevil piercing with its long beak a still tender young nut4 8,i've caught you at it4 ,but first ,i'll learn all about you1 and then we'll have a reckoning40 ,the weevil was placed in a paper cornucopia together with some pierced hazelnuts1 and in his first spare moment ,louis hastened to ,uncle ,paul's house1 his cheeks flushed with excitement4 ,little ,louis was very fond of hazelnuts1 and to catch in the very act the insect that attacks them was a very serious matter1 to his thinking4 ,in the evening ,uncle ,paul had his usual audience around him to listen to his account of the hazelnut-weevil4 8,here is the little insect ,louis has caught10 he began4 8,look at its beak a moment40 8,what a nose60 exclaimed ,emile4 8,oh1 what a nose6 ,it is as slender as a hair and very long and turned back at the end40 8,doesn't it look as if it were smoking a long pipe1 as ,i said the other day80 asked ,louis4 8,see1 ,uncle10 ,emile pointed out1 8how close together its eyes are2 they almost touch each other1 and the insect seems to be squinting4 ,how funny it is1 with its nose like a pipe-stem and its squinting eyes60 8,where is its mouth80 asked ,jules4 8,at the very end of what ,emile calls its long nose10 his uncle replied4 8,how does it manage to eat8 ,food must have a hard time getting through that stem not so big around as a thread40 8,yes1 how does it manage to eat80 ,emile chimed in4 8,i should be in a terrible fix if ,i had to take my food through a straw as long as myself40 8,the weevil is obliged to exercise moderation2 at the most it drinks with its beak only a few drops of sap from the hazelnut-tree it inhabits4 ,but if the weevil is temperate in its diet1 the larva of the weevil eats with a good appetite3 it demands the whole kernel of a hazelnut1 and it is on purpose to give the larva this food that the weevil is provided with the long beak that astonishes you4 ,the perfect insect1 ,i repeat1 lives much more for its future family than for itself1 its equipment being designed with reference to the future of its young4 ,if the weevil had to think merely of its own food its trumpet would be highly inconvenient2 but it must above all look out for the well-being of its larv1 and to make provision for that1 the creature's long and slender beak is a wonderful tool1 serving as a fine gimlet for boring through the nutshell so that the egg may be laid in the very meat itself and the larva be hatched out in the lap of plenty40 8,that must be a long1 hard job for so fine a gimlet10 ,jules remarked4 8,not at all4 ,the tiny mandibles at the end of the trumpet bite the shell almost as easily as an edged tool of steel would do it2 and moreover the weevil chooses its time4 ,it is in ,may1 when the hazelnuts are beginning to grow and their shells are soft1 that the task is undertaken4 ,the insect attacks the nut at the base through the green covering called the cup4 ,as soon as the hole is made1 an egg is laid inside the nut and in a week the larva is hatched out4 ,it is a legless worm1 white with a red head4 ,as the grub eats very little at first1 the hazelnut continues to grow and its kernel to ripen1 though gnawed little by little4 ,when ,august comes1 the store of provision is exhausted and the wormy nut lies on the ground4 ,then the worm1 its mandibles strong by this time1 makes a round hole in the empty shell and1 leaving the nut1 buries itself in the ground1 where it undergoes transformation the following spring40 8,when ,i am cracking nuts with my teeth10 said ,emile1 8,i once in a while bite into something bitter and soft40 8,that is the grub of the weevil40 8,pah6 ,the nasty thing60 8,how can ,i keep the creatures off my hazelnut-trees80 asked ,louis4 8,that is very simple4 ,gather the wormy nuts1 which sooner or later fall to the ground just as does fruit attacked by insects4 ,if they are not pierced with a large hole the worm is still there4 ,by burning them you destroy the weevils of the following year40 8,but this year's weevils will be left40 8,no1 for it is a rule that insects die soon after laying their eggs40 8,you haven't told us the name of this hazelnut-eater10 said ,jules4 8,it is called the hazelnut-balaninus or hazelnut-weevil1 and you can easily recognize it by its very fine1 long1 and recurved beak1 as also by the yellowish-gray down that covers the whole of the insect4 8,another balaninus1 smaller but of the same shape and color1 lives in acorns in its larva state1 and is known as the oak-balaninus4 ,a third1 not very often seen around here1 lives in cherry-stones4 ,it is the cherry-balaninus40 8,how different they all are in their ways of living60 ,jules remarked4 8,the grain-weevil gnaws the kernels of grain2 the vine-weevils and fruit-weevils roll leaves or prick pears and plums or cut the buds2 and now here are the nut-weevils that attack the hazelnut-meat1 the cherry-stone1 and the acorn4 ,are there any that eat flowers80 8,indeed there are4 ,no part of a plant is spared by insects4 ,the apple-tree1 the pear-tree1 and the cherry-tree have each its peculiar weevil that in its larva state lives at the expense of the flower buds4 ,these ravagers are called by a ,greek name meaning flower-eaters4 ,see this apple-tree weevil1 the one most familiar to us4 ,it is brown1 with a small white stripe edged with black and placed slantwise on the end of each wing sheath4 ,beginning in ,april1 it spreads over the apple-trees and pierces the flower buds with its fine beak1 laying an egg in each one4 ,a week later the larva is hatched out1 and immediately the little worm begins to gnaw the flower that is curled up in the bud4 ,only the outside covering is left intact by this devourer4 ,of course a bud that has had its heart eaten out cannot blossom1 and so flower and fruit are both lost4 ,the damaged buds1 being gnawed only within1 keep their shape and take in drying the appearance of cloves40 8,those cloves that ,mother ,ambroisine puts in stews80 asked ,emile4 8,the same40 8,what are cloves80 8,they are1 as ,i have already told you1 #aj the buds or unopened flowers of the clove-tree1 an aromatic bush growing in hot countries4 ,they are gathered before opening and are dried in the sun40 8,i see why buds pricked by the flower-weevil look like cloves4 ,in both cases they are buds that have dried up without opening40 8,the larva of the flower-weevil1 like those of weevils in general1 is a tiny legless worm1 white in color4 ,it does not leave the bud it has gnawed when this falls from the tree4 ,the larva of the nut-weevil leaves its nut by boring a hole through the shell1 that of the conical weevil leaves the fallen shoot1 the vine-weevil lets itself drop out of its rolled leaf1 and all three bury themselves in the ground to pass the winter in safety and be transformed the following spring4 ,the larva of the flower-weevil is more expeditious3 its change into an insect takes place as soon as it has eaten its bud1 so that there is no need for it to leave its quarters4 ,as animals never do anything without a purpose1 the grub remains shut up in the dry bud4 ,six weeks after the egg is laid the larva emerges transformed into a perfect insect and flits from one apple-tree to another all summer4 ,then comes the winter40 8,that must be a trying time10 said ,jules4 8,many perish1 but others survive1 hidden under moss1 in the cracks of bark1 or among dry leaves4 ,indeed1 there are plenty of them left to destroy the buds on our apple-trees when spring comes4 8,the flower-weevil of the pear-tree and that of the cherry-tree resemble the one ,i have just shown you1 and their habits are exactly the same4 8,it is not easy to get rid of these flower-destroyers4 ,if one had only a few trees to take care of1 and those easy to get at in every part1 one could if necessary gather and burn the dry buds inhabited by the larv4 ,by this painstaking process some of the following year's fruit might be saved2 but not even so should we get rid of all the flower-weevils1 as these insects fly well and far and they would come from the surrounding region after we had destroyed all our own4 ,besides1 the gathering of injured buds is impracticable on a large scale40 8,will these little flower-eaters come to be masters of our orchards80 asked ,jules4 8,will they destroy our apples and pears in the bud1 and can't we do anything to prevent it80 8,they would indeed be masters had we not vigilant guards1 sharp-eyed helpers1 that from sunrise to sunset lie in wait for insects and hunt them with a patience1 skill1 and industry that none of us would be capable of40 8,you mean the birds80 said ,emile4 8,yes1 the birds4 ,when you see on an apple-tree in bloom a little bird hopping from branch to branch1 warbling and pecking1 thank ,god1 my children1 for giving us the charming creature that with every peck of its beak delivers us from an enemy40 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,,enemies ,,of ,,clover 8,would you like to see another little creature that by reason of its very smallness and its countless numbers braves our wrath and commits ravages that can be checked only by our agricultural helpers1 the foes of our foes8 ,here it is40 8,i see it1 with its long beak10 cried ,jules2 8it is another weevil40 8,oh1 how tiny it is60 exclaimed ,emile4 8,surely it can't eat very much40 8,it is small1 but so numerous that to feed its larv it requires whole fields of clover2 not the entire plant1 but only the blossom1 as with the larv of the flower-weevil40 8,what gluttons6 ,they think they must have blossoms1 tender and sweet-smelling40 8,it is the clover-weevil1 and it measures scarcely three millimeters in length4 ,the body1 of a uniform black1 is slightly globular behind4 ,you know clover well enough1 with its blossoms massed in a round head4 ,well1 the clover-weevil lays its eggs on the flower-head before the blossoms open40 8,without boring into each flower separately to lay its eggs in80 ,jules inquired4 8,the weevil does not take that trouble4 ,the larv must manage for themselves4 ,as soon as it is hatched out each one pierces the base of the flower that suits it and works its way inside4 ,once there1 it eats the heart of the bud1 especially the part that would have become fruit1 the little pod with its seeds4 ,that done1 it takes on its insect form4 8,another weevil1 equally small and equally numerous1 runs neck and neck with this one in destroying clover blossoms4 ,it is black1 with yellow legs4 ,both abound in cultivated fields4 ,in winter they can be found gathered at the foot of trees1 waiting for the clover to bloom before they go to work4 8,you might think these two weevils enough to destroy this useful forage plant2 but there are others still1 some larger and some smaller1 and all eager to get at the poor clover4 ,it would almost seem as if insects had agreed to attack especially those plants that are useful to man4 ,they set to work1 by threes1 by fours1 by tens1 and even by hundreds if need be1 to carry out their ruinous operations1 some on the flowers1 others on the roots1 and still others on the leaves and stems of our most valuable plants4 ,the grapevine has its caterpillars1 beetles1 and lice2 wheat feeds destroyers still more numerous and varied1 such as weevils1 moths1 white worms1 gnats1 and many others2 and for the pear-tree alone we can count five hundred ravagers1 perhaps more40 8,do they want to starve us1 then80 ,jules again inquired4 8,what shall ,i say8 ,they go to work in a way to frighten one4 ,you ask their motive4 ,i will try to show you some other time2 but now let us finish our talk on the enemies of clover4 8,this one1 here in my hand1 is known by the learned as the clover-hylast4 ,it is a tiny brown beetle with truncated wing sheaths like those of the bark-beetle1 which it closely resembles4 ,in fact it belongs to the same family4 ,while the clover-weevil is busy destroying the blossoms1 this creature stays in the ground and gnaws the roots of the plant4 8,we have now the roots1 the blossoms1 and the young shoots devoured4 ,who will look after the leaves8 #8,i1' replies a little beetle with a rounded back and a flattened stomach1 and called the globular lasia2 #8,i will do it so that man shall not find anything to mow after we get through with the clover4' 8,you are familiar with the ladybird or ladybug1 that little red beetle with tiny black spots on its back1 the good ,god's insect4 ,never molest it when you find it in the garden4 ,it works for us1 going from one plant to another1 devouring lice1 those pot-bellied creatures that in countless swarms infest the tender shoots of plants and suck the sap4 ,the ladybird eats our enemies1 plant-lice2 it dotes on them4 ,do not disturb it4 8,the insect known as the globular lasia is of the same family as the ladybird1 and like the latter it is round and red and has black spots1 but they are placed differently and usually number about a dozen on each wing sheath4 ,the larva is yellow and all bristling with little hairs that stand up like tiny thorns4 ,both the larva and the mature insect live1 not on lice1 but on leaves1 whether of clover1 vetch1 lucerne1 or some other plant4 ,the marks they make on the gnawed leaves look like furrows made by a four-toothed comb4 8,finally1 who is to take in hand the stems of the clover8 ,this task will fall to various caterpillars equipped with good teeth and strong jaws1 as for example the glyphic noctua1 a rather pretty moth with upper wings bearing irregular spots encircled each by a light-gray thread on a brown background1 and lower wings brightly spotted with a light shade of yellow4 8,on every part of the clover1 on stems and blossoms1 leaves and roots1 ravenous devourers are now installed4 ,have ,i exhausted the list8 ,by no means4 ,there are others in plenty1 if only to take the leavings of those ,i have named40 ,,chapter ,,xlv ,,cabbage-,,eaters ,one day ,jacques came in from the garden with a cabbage root all covered with warts having the shape and size of a pea4 ,in each wart was a little worm4 8,some of the cabbages are withering away10 announced the old gardener1 8though there are no worms on the leaves4 ,i think the trouble comes from the warts on the roots40 8,you have guessed right1 my good ,jacques10 replied ,uncle ,paul4 8,leave me that root and pull up all the cabbages that appear to you to be affected4 ,of course you will burn all the diseased roots4 ,by so doing you will arrest the evil in the beginning1 as the insect causing the mischief is rare with us4 ,the important thing is not to let it multiply in the garden1 even if we have to throw away many of the cabbages in exterminating it40 ,uncle ,paul's instructions were followed1 and no more warty roots have been seen since4 ,next day the cabbage's enemies were the subject of conversation4 8,cultivated plants10 said ,uncle ,paul1 8are more exposed to the ravages of insects than the same plants in a wild state1 because they are of a finer flavor1 tenderer1 and of more luxuriant growth4 ,let us first consider the cabbage1 now that ,jacques has furnished us the occasion4 8,look at this root1 quite covered with ugly warts1 hollow inside4 ,i open one4 ,what do we find within8 ,a small worm1 a larva that would1 if left undisturbed1 develop into a weevil with a beak that lies down on the breast between the forelegs when the insect curls up and plays dead4 ,this weevil is known to men of science as belonging to a genus called ceuthorhynchus1 a name formed from two ,greek words and meaning snout-hider4 ,it is black1 with grayish hairs on the back and white scales on the belly4 ,its thorax has a deep furrow and its wing sheaths are ornamented with fine parallel grooves4 8,it lays its eggs about the beginning of summer4 ,the insect works its way down to the root and punctures it here and there with its beak1 laying an egg in each puncture4 ,in flowing around the wounded part the sap of the plant forms a knob or fleshy wart in which the larva grows until the end of ,october1 when the worm leaves this nest to bury itself in the ground1 safe from the cold1 and undergo transformation4 ,the punctured root exhausts its energies in bleeding sap to form the warts occupied by the larv1 so that the cabbage rapidly withers away2 and in this manner the cabbage-weevil makes itself an enemy much to be feared1 especially in ,england where it is extremely common4 ,nor does it confine its depredations to cabbages2 it attacks turnips also1 and radishes and rape40 8,this weevil seems to eat a good many things10 said ,jules4 8,i thought each kind of insect always fed on one particular plant40 8,you were not far wrong1 my boy4 ,in most cases insects have very exclusive tastes1 each confining itself to one kind of plant and disdaining all others4 ,sometimes1 however1 they vary their diet1 and as they are connoisseurs1 very well up on vegetable flavors1 in changing their food they choose plants having nearly identical nutritive properties1 taste1 and smell4 ,do not we ourselves find in the radish and the turnip something of the smell and taste of the cabbage80 8,that's so10 assented ,louis4 8,we find more or less similarity in the qualities characteristic of a great many other plants grouped together by botanists in the family of crucifer and including1 for instance1 the cress1 the radish1 and colza40 8,botanists1 crucifer--,i don't know very well what those are10 said ,emile4 8,no1 those are strange words to you4 ,botanists are learned persons who spend their time studying plants and who tell us their names and properties1 differences and resemblances1 where they grow and when they blossom1 with other matters of that sort40 8,and crucifer80 8,that word means cross-bearers and is applied to a large group of plants with blossoms having four pieces or petals placed two by two1 opposite each other1 so as to form a sort of cross4 ,a good example is the colza blossom4 ,plants with cross-shaped flowers include the cabbage1 rape1 turnip1 radish1 clove1 colza1 cress1 and many others40 8,they are all crucifer80 8,yes1 all crucifer4 ,but their likeness is not confined to the shape of the blossom2 their inner properties also1 such as smell1 taste1 and the rest1 are the same1 or very nearly so4 ,consequently1 the cabbage-weevil1 as knowing a little creature as can be found1 goes to the turnip when there are no cabbages to be had1 to the colza if turnips also are lacking1 or to other plants still1 but always to some member of the crucifer family4 ,other insects show this same peculiarity1 each species having its particular group of plants and going from one to another without ever making a mistake as to family40 8,then they are expert botanists1 ,i should say10 ,jules remarked4 8,one might almost think so2 at least they show in their choice so keen a discernment that often men of science go to school to them to learn the various degrees of relationship in the plant world40 8,oh1 ,uncle ,paul1 you are joking60 exclaimed ,jules4 8,joking8 ,listen4 ,you know the nasturtium1 that beautiful orange-colored flower ending at the bottom in a kind of horn2 and you know the mignonette1 that sweet-smelling plant that ,mother ,ambroisine grows in the window40 8,yes1 ,i know them40 8,then tell me whether you find between mignonette1 nasturtium1 and cabbage any resemblance1 any sign of plant-relationship40 8,no1 indeed6 ,those three plants are wholly unlike one another3 their flowers haven't the same shape1 nor their leaves1 nor yet their fruit40 8,well1 my dear boy1 you1 who rather pride yourself on knowing something about flowers1 really know much less about them than a poor little green caterpillar very common in our gardens2 and many persons of far more learning than you could take lessons from this same caterpillar4 ,it feeds indifferently on various crucifer1 such as the cabbage1 rape1 and the turnip2 but it also feeds on the nasturtium and the mignonette4 ,why8 ,you must ask the scientists who make a thorough study of plants and are determined to find out the minutest details concerning them4 ,they would tell you that there is something in their innermost structure1 something invisible to our untrained eyes1 that makes the nasturtium and the mignonette very nearly akin to the crucifer without looking like them4 ,it is enough to puzzle anybody1 ,i admit4 ,a worthless caterpillar has1 from the beginning of the world1 eaten mignonette as well as turnip1 cabbage as well as nasturtium1 and has been familiar with plant-relationships unsuspected by science until our own time40 8,i should like to see this caterpillar that knows so much about plants40 8,your desire shall be gratified without delay40 ,,chapter ,,xlvi ,a ,,destructive ,,family ,they went out to the garden and ,uncle ,paul hunted for some time in the cabbage bed before he found what he wanted4 8,here is the caterpillar we were talking about10 he announced at last4 8,it is of a delicate green color with three yellow stripes running lengthwise4 ,now you must make the acquaintance of the butterfly4 ,jules1 go and bring me the net40 ,uncle ,paul had a large gauze net1 the mouth of which was attached to a hoop of coarse iron wire fastened to the end of a long stick4 ,that was his butterfly-net1 and in his leisure moments he used it for catching butterflies1 that he might destroy them before they laid their eggs on the plants in the garden4 ,the more butterflies destroyed1 the fewer hundreds of caterpillars a little later4 ,jules came back with the net1 but the chase did not accomplish the desired result1 though another butterfly was caught very much like the one they were after4 8,we must be content with this10 said ,uncle ,paul4 8,my butterfly-hunting of the last few days seems to have left us none of the sort ,i am looking for2 so we will not waste any more time4 8,the insect ,i have just caught is known as the cabbage-butterfly4 ,its wings are white1 the forward ones having black tips and two or three spots of the same color in the middle40 8,i see that butterfly everywhere10 declared ,emile4 8,it is in fact one of the most widely prevalent species4 ,its caterpillar is greenish1 marked with black dots and three longitudinal yellow stripes4 ,it does not spin a cocoon for its metamorphosis4 ,the chrysalis is spotted with yellow and black1 and is found near where the caterpillar lived1 suspended from a wall or a tree in a very ingenious manner4 ,before shedding its skin the caterpillar emits its small supply of liquid silk1 gluing the end of its tail to the spot it has selected and then spinning a fine band which it passes across its body1 fastening the two ends at right and left on the stone or the bark to which it is clinging4 ,these preliminaries concluded1 the chrysalis stage is reached1 the chrysalis being held firmly in place with its lower end glued to the supporting object and its upper half kept from falling by the silk band40 8,without any cocoon to protect it80 asked ,emile4 8,without any cocoon whatever2 hence it is called a naked chrysalis4 ,many other caterpillars adopt the same method3 having only a scanty little drop of liquid silk1 much too small a quantity for spinning a cocoon1 they content themselves1 when their metamorphosis approaches1 with gluing their tail to some object and supporting themselves further with a narrow band4 ,it is to be noted that butterflies from caterpillars that do not spin cocoons all have very slender antenn ending abruptly in a rounded protuberance or swelling1 and that they fly by day in the brightest sunshine4 ,they are butterflies proper1 as distinguished from moths4 ,these latter have the chrysalis enclosed in a cocoon1 and their antenn are sometimes of a feathery appearance1 sometimes spindle-shaped1 or they may take the form of elongated clubs1 or1 finally1 they may be thread-like1 tapering but little toward the end4 ,they fly mostly in the evening twilight1 or even in the night4 ,compare the antenn of the cabbage-butterfly with those of the silkworm-moth or the leopard-moth and you will see how easy it is to distinguish a butterfly from a moth1 a cocoonless from a cocoon-spinning insect40 8,then that's all you have to do--just see whether the antenn end in a little round swelling10 said ,jules4 8,with something on the antenn10 repeated ,emile1 8no cocoon2 without that1 a cocoon4 ,how easy it is60 8,as the youngest and giddiest of my hearers has understood my explanation so well1 ,i will pass on4 ,let us return to the butterfly whose caterpillar is so interesting to ,jules because it eats indifferently cabbages1 turnips1 radishes1 nasturtiums1 and mignonette4 ,this butterfly is very much like the cabbage-butterfly4 ,it too is white1 with black spots on the forward wings1 but not of so deep a shade4 ,furthermore it is about a third smaller4 ,it is called the radish-butterfly4 ,to distinguish these two species1 so much alike in coloring and both feeding on the same plants1 gardeners call the former the big cabbage-butterfly1 and the latter the little cabbage-butterfly40 8,i know those butterflies10 ,jules interposed4 8,many a time ,i've seen both kinds on the flowers in the garden1 and ,i got them mixed because there is hardly any difference in their color4 ,now ,i shall know how to tell them apart4 ,the larger one is the cabbage-butterfly1 the smaller the radish-butterfly40 8,you must bear in mind that the words cabbage and radish used to designate the two butterflies do not mean that the caterpillar of the one eats exclusively cabbages and that of the other only radishes4 ,as a matter of fact1 the names could be reversed without any impropriety1 for both caterpillars1 as occasion offers1 feed on either the cabbage1 the radish1 the turnip1 or some other cruciferous plant4 ,but let it be noted also that these two terms have been chosen as substantially true to the facts1 though likely to mislead if taken in too literal a sense4 8,the same remark applies to a third species1 the turnip-butterfly1 whose caterpillar feeds not only on the leaves of turnip plants1 but also on those of the nasturtium1 the mignonette1 the radish1 cabbage1 and many other crucifers4 ,it is of about the size of the radish-butterfly1 and its wings are white with greenish veins underneath4 ,the forward wings have also black spots on their upper surfaces4 ,the caterpillar is slightly hairy and of a uniform green color with no yellow stripes running lengthwise40 ,,chapter ,,xlvii ,,fliers ,,with ,,wings ,,of ,,gauze ,questioned as to the means to be adopted in order to protect from their insect enemies the various plants he had mentioned in his last talk1 ,uncle ,paul was forced to acknowledge the inadequacy of any preventive measures at our command4 8,for protecting a few square yards of cabbage-patch from these devourers10 he explained1 8a rigorous search for worms and an incessant chase after butterflies on that particular piece of land might prove effective2 but how keep watch over acres and acres1 with butterflies and moths of many kinds flying all about and alighting every moment to lay their eggs8 ,the cost of any such watchfulness would far exceed the value of the crop4 ,and so it is in general1 with all raising of farm products on a large scale3 when once the enemy is in possession it is all but impossible to drive him out if we depend on our own resources1 however much we may spend in the attempt4 ,because of their infinite numbers the insects always have the advantage of us4 ,but fortunately there are others fighting for us1 and they wage valiant warfare against our insect foes1 especially against worms and caterpillars40 8,you mean the birds80 asked ,jules4 8,yes1 and other equally useful helpers that you have never heard of1 notwithstanding the immense service they render us4 ,i refer to the insects belonging to the order known as hymenoptera40 8,hymenoptera8 ,i've never heard that word before40 8,and for that reason ,i hasten to explain its meaning to you4 ,you are familiar with the honey-bee1 the bumblebee1 and the wasp4 ,like butterflies1 they have four wings for flying2 but these wings1 instead of being covered with scales--those scales that come off on your hand and look like dust--are simply membranes of a transparent or gauzy appearance4 ,hence the name hymenoptera that is given to these insects1 a ,latin name that may be translated as #8membranous-winged creatures4' ,furthermore1 they have at the end of the abdomen a very fine sting which comes out of its sheath when the irritated insect seeks to defend itself by pricking the venturesome fingers that have seized it4 ,in other species this sting is represented sometimes by a kind of saw or cutlass1 sometimes by a blade1 more or less long and slender1 hidden in a fold of the stomach or else projecting and open to view4 ,well1 insects thus armed with a sting1 a saw1 or a blade1 and having four membranous wings as fine and transparent as those of the honey-bee1 the bumblebee1 and the wasp1 are called hymenoptera4 ,they form an order just as butterflies and moths form the order of lepidoptera1 and insects with sheaths protecting the lower pair of wings form the order of coleoptera40 8,the grasshopper10 ,jules observed1 8has a kind of sword on the end of its body1 but it hasn't the bee's fine1 transparent wings40 8,therefore it is not one of the hymenoptera40 8,the grasshopper doesn't hurt any one with its sword1 does it80 asked ,emile4 8,no2 it uses this tool simply for placing its eggs in the ground where they are to hatch4 ,it is a sort of conveyor for the eggs1 and is called a terebra4 ,the saw1 the blade1 the cutlass1 and other like implements that terminate the body of various insects have also this name4 ,they serve to deposit the eggs in suitable places where the larv can find food4 ,but this implement1 dangerous though it looks1 never stings when the insect is molested2 it is not a defensive weapon4 ,only the honey-bee1 the bumblebee1 the wasp1 and some others have for their defense a sting that inflicts a painful wound40 8,so painful10 ,emile interrupted1 8that ,i still remember how once1 when ,i wanted to see what was going on in the beehive1 ,i was stung by the bees40 8,the wasp's sting is much worse10 remarked ,louis4 8,when ,i was gathering the grapes last year ,i took hold of a bunch where there were some wasps1 and my hand was swollen all day and pained me so ,i should have cried if there had been nobody around40 8,how wonderful that such small creatures really hurt like that60 ,jules exclaimed4 8,i should like to know why40 8,i will tell you4 ,the sting of these insects is a slender lancet1 hard and sharp-pointed1 a kind of dagger finer than the finest needle4 ,it is situated at the end of the abdomen4 ,in repose it is not seen1 being concealed in a sort of scabbard let into the creature's body2 but in time of danger it comes out of this scabbard4 ,now1 it is not exactly the wound made by the sting that causes the smarting pain you know so well4 ,this wound is so slight1 so subtle1 that we cannot see it1 and we should hardly feel it if it were made by a needle or a thorn as fine as the sting4 ,but the sting communicates with a venom-sac lodged in the insect's body1 and through a tiny channel running the length of the sting there is injected into the very heart of the wound a minute quantity of a highly dangerous liquid4 ,after this injection the sting is withdrawn1 while the venom remains in the wound2 and that is what causes the pain4 8,learned men who have studied this curious subject relate the following experiment1 which was performed in order to prove that it is the venomous liquid introduced into the wound1 and not the wound itself1 that causes the pain4 ,when one pricks oneself with a very fine needle the pain is of no consequence and passes almost immediately4 ,well1 the prick of a needle1 insignificant in itself1 can be made very painful indeed if the little wound is poisoned with venom from a bee or a wasp4 ,the learned men ,i just spoke of dipped the point of a needle into the bee's venom-sac and with the needle thus moistened lightly pricked themselves4 ,the pain that followed was severe and protracted1 even severer and of longer duration than if the insect itself had stung the experimenters4 ,this difference is to be explained by the fact that the needle1 large in comparison with the insect's sting1 introduced into the wound much more venom than the sting itself could have conveyed4 ,now you understand1 ,i hope1 that it is the injection of the venom into the wound that causes all the mischief40 8,that is plain enough10 assented ,jules4 8,the bee's sting is barbed10 continued ,uncle ,paul2 8that is to say1 it is furnished with teeth somewhat like those of a saw and pointing backward4 ,in its haste to fly away after stinging1 the bee does not always succeed1 on account of these teeth1 in drawing out the sting from the wound it has inflicted2 and thus the sting is wrenched from the bee's body1 to the endangering of the insect's life4 ,the venom-sac is left behind also2 it is that little white globule one sees outside the wound and at the base of the sting4 ,if the person stung1 hastening to extract the sting1 is awkward enough to press on the little sac1 a great part of the venom is likely to be injected into the wound1 with a corresponding increase of pain4 ,this is a warning to you1 whenever you are stung by a bee1 to draw out the sting cautiously and to be careful not to press on the venom-sac40 ,,chapter ,,xlviii ,,beneficent ,,parasites ,continuing the subject of the day before1 ,uncle ,paul laid emphasis on the distinction between those hymenopterous insects that sting and those that do not4 8,at the end of the abdomen10 said he1 8the one class have a poisoned weapon for self-defense1 as in bees and wasps1 while the other class are furnished simply with the implement called a terebra1 sometimes concealed in a fold of the skin1 sometimes standing out in full view1 and used1 not for stinging1 but for introducing the creature's eggs into such places as will provide the nourishment required by the future brood4 ,insects of this latter class are called by the general name of ichneumons4 ,this morning ,emile caught one1 which ,i will show you40 8,i found it on a flower10 said ,emile1 8and ,i wrapped a handkerchief round my hand for fear of being stung4 ,the thing it has sticking out at the end of its body looks rather dangerous40 8,the precaution was needless10 his uncle assured him4 8,no ichneumon1 however long its terebra may be1 can sting your hand4 ,the hymenopters that are to be feared have their sting hidden1 and they bring it out only at the moment of attack40 8,those three thread-like things as long as the insect's body--what are they for80 asked ,jules4 8,the two lateral ones unite and form a scabbard for holding and protecting the middle one1 the most important of the three1 for it is used to deposit the eggs at the point chosen as suitable by the insect40 8,i've seen ichneumons very much like this one10 said ,louis1 8with the terebra stuck right into the thick bark of a poplar4 ,they must have been laying their eggs in the wood under the bark40 8,no1 they were doing something better than that4 ,the larv of ichneumons live in the bodies of other larv1 which they devour little by little without killing them until the very last4 ,they are carnivorous larv3 they must have fresh meat that is renewed about as fast as they eat it4 ,the ichneumons ,louis speaks of were engaged in depositing their eggs in the bodies of plump worms that live in the wood of the tree and turn into beetles40 8,but these beetle-worms10 ,jules pointed out1 8were not in sight4 ,they were under the bark and perhaps in the wood itself40 8,the ichneumon does not need to see them to know where they are40 8,does it hear them then80 8,no more than it sees them4 ,the worm stays quietly in its little tunnel1 being careful not to make any noise that will attract the attention of its enemy40 8,then the ichneumon must at least smell them40 8,that is very doubtful4 ,a live larva has no odor4 ,and1 besides1 the most difficult part is not to find out whether or not a suitably plump larva is there under the bark1 at such and such a depth2 it is also necessary to ascertain whether another ichneumon egg has not already been laid in the body of the coveted worm1 as one larva would be insufficient for two nurslings4 ,an egg deposited in some fat worm is not seen1 heard1 or felt2 that is very evident4 ,nevertheless the ichneumon never plunges its terebra through the bark into a larva already occupied4 ,what guides it8 ,i do not know2 nobody knows4 ,instinct has ways and means unsuspected by our wisdom4 ,an ichneumon alights on the trunk of a tree4 ,the perfectly healthy bark betrays to the sharpest eyes no sign of what the hymenopter is after4 ,never mind2 the insect soon satisfies itself as to whether or not the place is a good one for its purpose4 ,it makes a careful examination1 tapping with its antenn and keeping up a continual vibratory movement4 ,a spot is chosen4 ,the insect plants itself firmly on its legs1 draws up its abdomen1 and1 holding its terebra in a vertical position1 plunges the point of it into an imperceptible fissure in the bark4 ,the little auger pierces the bark1 though not without effort and occasional pauses1 for there are difficulties to be overcome2 nevertheless it goes as far as its length permits4 ,the end is attained2 the point of the instrument penetrates the flesh of the worm hidden under the bark4 ,the egg being deposited in the incision thus made1 the insect withdraws its blade carefully1 so as not to break it1 and proceeds to lay eggs in the bodies of other larv40 8,then the great length of this blade10 ,jules remarked1 8though at first it seems unhandy for the creature1 is on the contrary perfectly fitted for the work to be done4 ,with too short a terebra the ichneumon couldn't reach the larv under the bark and even in the wood itself40 8,from the length of the terebra one can estimate at what depth1 as a rule1 the eggs are laid4 ,ichneumons with a long terebra lay their eggs in larv protected by a thick layer of bark or wood or earth or other material2 those with a short terebra seek larv living in the open air1 such as caterpillars for example4 ,however1 if the caterpillar is covered with long hairs1 thus keeping the ichneumon at a distance from the skin of its victim1 a long implement is still necessary to convey the eggs into the flesh4 ,but for smooth-skinned caterpillars without any defense the ichneumon is furnished with a very short terebra1 often invisible when not in action1 so that the end of the insect's abdomen must be pressed in order to make the egg-conveyer show itself1 be it lancet1 saw1 fine blade1 or other instrument of that sort4 8,the ichneumon on the hunt is one of the most curious sights imaginable4 ,caterpillars are peacefully browsing on leaves4 ,an ichneumon comes along1 flies about over them1 selects the ones that look best for its purpose1 and never fails to exclude those that already have eggs in their bodies4 ,at the sound of their enemy's wings the terrified caterpillars stop eating and begin to move their heads in a startled manner from side to side1 doubtless in the hope of frightening off the foe4 ,but the latter pays no attention to these vain threats2 it alights on the caterpillar of its choice and1 so quickly that you hardly have time to see the operation1 darts its terebra and lays an egg in the wound40 8,and doesn't the caterpillar make any resistance80 asked ,emile4 8,it performs some lively antics1 but that is all4 ,the poor creature cannot defend itself against an enemy in the air1 a winged enemy that can always keep at a safe distance and is always ready to fly away4 ,the other eligible caterpillars in the group are attacked in the same manner1 one by one1 until the ichneumon has laid all its eggs40 8,each caterpillar gets only one egg80 asked ,jules4 8,that depends on the size of the egg-layer4 ,if it is large it lays but one egg in each caterpillar1 so that the larv may each have enough food2 if small1 it lays several40 8,and then what happens80 ,emile inquired4 8,the ichneumon gone1 the pricked caterpillars soon recover their composure and resume their eating4 ,the prick1 not being poisoned with venom1 causes very little pain2 besides1 it would take a good deal more than that to affect their appetites4 ,all goes well for a few days1 as long as the eggs are unhatched40 8,do those eggs hatch in the caterpillar's body80 8,yes40 8,and as soon as they have hatched do the little larv set to work devouring the caterpillar's inside80 8,that's the way of it40 8,what an awful stomach-ache for the poor caterpillars60 8,nevertheless1 even with such pain as may result from the gradual consumption of their flesh1 the caterpillars continue to eat as if nothing had happened1 the satisfaction of their appetite making them forget their sufferings1 so imperious is their need of food4 ,and furthermore1 for a reason that ,i will explain1 the parasitic worms observe a certain caution in their ravages4 8,in the body of every animal are certain organs more indispensable than others for the maintenance of life1 and if they are injured1 even though slightly1 death follows4 ,such are the heart and brain in the higher animals4 ,in a caterpillar's body there are1 it is true1 no heart or brain like those of animals higher in the scale2 but there are analogous organs just as necessary to the ongoing of the vital functions4 ,if the ichneumon's larv1 in eating their victim's flesh1 were to injure these vital organs1 the caterpillar would quickly die1 and the larv would perish too1 for they must have fresh meat1 not decayed flesh4 ,it is a question of life or death to them whether the grubs avoid biting in the wrong place or not4 ,the caterpillar must live in order that they may live2 it must prolong its miserable existence until they are ready for their metamorphosis4 ,so the little parasites scrupulously respect any organ indispensable to the maintenance of life and feed on the rest2 guided by instinct1 they distinguish admirably between what they may attack and what they must let alone4 ,a time comes1 however1 when because of their approaching transformation they do not need to exercise further self-restraint1 and they accordingly devour the parts until then left intact4 ,thereupon the caterpillar dies1 being reduced to an empty skin which the larv promptly abandon in order to spin their cocoons and turn into nymphs and finally into ichneumons4 8,sometimes the caterpillar is spared until it has shut itself up in a case and turned into a chrysalis1 with the result that the larv inhabiting the caterpillar find themselves1 without any labor on their part1 provided with snug quarters for the winter4 ,out of every such wormy chrysalis1 consumed to the skin1 there emerges in the spring1 not a butterfly1 but a swarm of ichneumons40 8,last autumn10 said ,jules1 8,i found in the garden a large brown cocoon1 and ,i hoped to see a beautiful butterfly come out of it2 but this spring1 to my great astonishment1 out came a swarm of little flies40 8,what you took for flies was a brood of ichneumons4 ,yet there are flies1 real flies1 that lay their eggs in the bodies of caterpillars1 just as the hymenopterous butterflies do with their terebra40 8,with their strange way of living on other creatures10 observed ,louis1 8ichneumons must destroy lots of caterpillars40 8,they destroy so many that often1 if you take a hundred caterpillars haphazard from cabbages or other growing vegetables1 you will find not more than two or three that are sound and in a condition to undergo metamorphosis40 8,can those that have eggs in them be told from the rest80 asked ,louis4 8,easily4 ,the point pierced by the ichneumon's terebra is surrounded by a little black spot4 ,when you are gathering caterpillars it is well not to crush those that you see are pricked1 nor yet those that look diseased and have a loose skin4 ,they are ichneumon-feeders1 and their preservation means so many more swarms of ichneumons the next summer for the destruction of caterpillars40 ,,chapter ,,xlix ,,apple-,,eaters 8,please tell us about the worm we find in apples and pears10 was ,louis's request one day when the children were gathered about their uncle4 8,that worm1 my lad10 he began1 8as ,i have already briefly explained1 is the grub or larva of a small moth40 8,seems to me10 interrupted ,jules1 8the moth is responsible for a good deal of mischief40 8,yes1 moths do more harm than any other insects2 but not as moths1 for these never give us any cause for complaint1 being content to suck a little honey through their slender trumpet from the flowers growing on every side4 ,it is in the larva state1 with appetites of the most varied sort1 that they commit their ravages4 ,i have already told you about worms that gnaw wood and those that eat woolen stuffs1 those that browse the foliage and those that attack roots4 ,now we come to some that give their attention to fruit4 8,the best-known of these is the worm that lives in apples and pears4 ,we usually call it the apple-worm1 and its moth is known as the apple-pyralis4 ,the term pyralis is new to you2 it comes from a ,greek word meaning fire1 and was long ago ignorantly applied to the apple-moth because that insect was supposed to eat fire as its regular diet4 ,its forward wings are ash-gray streaked crosswise with brown and ornamented at the tip with a large red spot encircled by a golden-red border4 ,the rear wings are brown4 ,when the fruit is just beginning to form1 the pyralis lays an egg in the blossom end of apple or pear1 no matter which1 and the little worm that soon comes from this egg takes up its abode close to the seeds4 ,the narrow channel by which it entered skins over so that the wormy fruit appears intact for some time4 ,meanwhile the worm is living in the lap of luxury1 with an abundance of its favorite food all around2 but it must have a passage communicating with the outside so as to get air and make the abode sanitary1 encumbered as it is with refuse and excrement4 ,accordingly the worm bores a little tunnel through the flesh of the fruit to the skin and through this also2 there the tunnel ends in a round hole4 ,through this passageway the larva receives fresh air and throws out from time to time the chewed and digested pulp1 in the form familiar to us as reddish wormhole dust4 ,the translucent quality of its skin causes the worm to vary in hue according to the color of what it eats1 being sometimes white1 sometimes brown or yellow1 and sometimes pink4 ,it is ornamented with little black tubercles or pimples arranged in pairs4 ,the head and the first ring-like section of the body are brown4 8,apples and pears containing worms continue to grow2 indeed1 they ripen sooner than the others1 but it is a sickly maturity that hastens the fall of the fruit4 ,as a rule1 the larva in wormy fruit that has fallen to the ground is by that time fully grown2 accordingly1 it leaves its domicile by the passage already made and creeps into some crevice in the bark of a tree1 or sometimes it retires underground1 after which it makes for itself a shell of silk mixed with fragments of wood or dead leaves1 and turns into a moth the next year1 when all the young apples and pears are ready to receive its eggs for the new generation4 8,in plums and apricots is found a worm closely resembling that infesting apples and pears2 another occurs in chestnuts1 and a third in pea-pods1 the tender young peas furnishing excellent food for the intruder4 ,all these worms are the larv of moths commonly named from the fruit or vegetable they infest4 ,the pea-worm1 after it has devoured the best part of the pod's contents1 passes into another pod by boring a round hole4 ,its moth appears in ,june1 and the larva in ,july and ,august4 ,consequently1 spring peas are never wormy1 while those of late summer very often are4 ,this example shows you how1 in certain instances1 a crop can be saved by hastening or delaying the sowing1 according to the time when the ravagers may be expected to appear40 8,but no such plan can be carried out with chestnuts10 said ,emile4 8,that is plain enough1 for chestnut-trees bear their nuts at a fixed time1 and we can't hurry them up or keep them back4 ,the chestnut-moth comes just when the table is set for its young ones4 ,what disgusting-looking worms they are1 too--all red and soaked in their own juice in the chestnut-meat60 8,we can't do anything1 either1 for the apple-trees and the pear-trees1 can we80 ,louis inquired4 8,not much4 ,some people gather the wormy apples and pears fallen from or still on the trees1 and crush them to kill the worms inside4 ,that makes so many enemies the fewer for the following year2 but again it has to be admitted that1 left to our own resources1 we could never defend ourselves against the pyralis and other similar moths that produce larv from which hardly anything is safe4 ,fortunately the swallow catches these moths on the wing1 bats chase them assiduously in the twilight1 and the little gray lizard snaps them up when they alight on the trunks of trees4 ,these are so many friends1 protectors of our gardens and orchards40 8,the moths you call by that queer name1 pyralis--are there a good many of them80 asked ,jules4 8,there are numerous species1 and each species is represented by countless legions of individual moths4 ,some of these attack fruit2 ,i have just told you about the principal ones4 ,others have a different mode of life1 and of these ,i will speak to-morrow4 ,but they are all very small moths1 and some are beautifully colored4 ,their antenn are fine and their wings1 rounding at the shoulders1 spread out in the form of a cape and are folded together in repose like the two halves of a sloping roof2 that is1 they incline to right and left4 ,their grubs have a smooth and shiny skin4 ,these worms draw back quickly when molested and let themselves fall to the ground1 deadening the shock of the fall by means of a silk thread that holds them suspended by the lip40 8,that's a clever trick10 ,emile observed4 8,as soon as the worm is frightened it glues the end of the thread to something and down it drops1 but gently and only as fast as the thread is let out by the spinneret40 8,this morning10 said ,jules1 8,mother ,ambroisine was picking over some dried peas4 ,a few were pierced with a round hole1 and others had a little brown insect spotted with white4 ,peas1 then1 have two enemies3 the pyralis-worm that eats fresh fruit and the insect ,i am speaking of that eats them dry40 8,the insect that eats dried peas is a small beetle1 a weevil with a wide and very short snout4 ,it is known as the pea-weevil4 ,another weevil eats beans1 and still another lentils4 ,it is always the larva that does the mischief4 ,once arrived at the perfect state1 the weevil bores a round hole in the seed and gets out4 ,these weevils have the same habits as the grain-weevil4 ,they are destroyed by the use of sulphide of carbon1 or simply by the action of heat if the seeds they infest are not to be sown1 for the temperature required to kill the insects and their larv would also destroy the germinative principle of the seed40 ,,chapter ,l ,,leaf-,,rollers 8,many of the moths bearing the name of pyralis have a curious habit in their larva state1 of rolling up the leaves of trees1 or of folding them lengthwise1 or of uniting several in the form of a sheath by means of silk threads1 so as to make a shelter in which they may nibble away in safety at the interior of their green abode4 ,for this reason they are called leaf-rollers4 ,the one best known1 on account of the damage it does1 is the grapevine-pyralis4 8,it is a small moth with yellow wings having the metallic sheen of copper and crossed by brown stripes4 ,its larva is greenish1 bristling with short hairs and having a head of a dark lustrous green color4 ,in ,august the moth lays its eggs on the vine leaves in little slabs of twenty at most4 ,hatching takes place in ,september4 ,at this advanced season of the year caterpillars do not eat2 they suspend themselves by a thread and wait for the wind to drive them against the vine or one of its supports4 ,as soon as they get a foothold on the desired object they take refuge in cracks in the bark and fissures in the wood1 and there they lie torpid through the winter4 ,at the reawakening of vegetable life and the first pushing forth of the new vine shoots they leave their winter quarters1 invade the vines1 and entwine with silk threads the young grape clusters and the tender leaves1 after which they feed upon them with an appetite sharpened by a fast of five or six months4 ,with such ravenous eaters devastation proceeds apace1 and in a few weeks1 if the worms are numerous1 the most flourishing vine is reduced to a pitiful condition and all hope of a harvest is abandoned4 ,the ravages wrought by this moth between #ahce and #ahdj in the vineyards of ,bourgogne will long be remembered4 ,over immense tracts of land1 when vintage-time came1 there was not a single bunch of grapes to go into the basket4 ,the greedy caterpillars ruined the country40 8,didn't the people try to get rid of the creatures80 asked ,louis4 8,they tried various methods1 but with little success until finally one proved effective1 and that the simplest and cheapest of all4 ,let us note by the way1 my little friends1 what an advantage it is to be acquainted with the habits of an insect that does us harm4 ,if this moth's peculiarities had not been studied1 if it had not been known that its larv hide themselves in the fissures of the vines and the trellises1 there to lie torpid all winter1 our vineyards might still be suffering from this terrible enemy4 ,this fact being known1 the remedy was not far to seek4 8,it is this3 in winter the vines and trellises are scalded with boiling water1 the water being heated over a fire in the middle of the vineyard4 8,with a coffee-pot about a liter of hot water is poured on each vine so as to reach all the parts where worms may be lurking4 ,protected by its tough bark1 the vine itself does not suffer from this scalding bath1 while the caterpillars are completely destroyed4 ,by this method the vineyards of ,bourgogne were so entirely rid of the dreaded moth that no further ravages of any account have been reported40 8,couldn't the moths come back again some time1 as many as ever80 asked ,jules4 8,that is hardly possible if at their first appearance the coffee-pot of hot water is brought into play4 8,the other leaf-rolling moths of this family are of less importance4 ,the leaf-roller of the plum-tree lives first on the blossoms of the tree2 later it makes a roll of leaves and lines it with silk4 ,the moth has a large white spot at the tip of each fore wing4 8,the cherry-tree leaf-roller has about the same habits4 ,its moth is recognized by two wide oblique stripes of the color of rust on its fore wings4 ,on the pear-tree lives a leaf-roller with a triangular white spot in the middle of each fore wing40 8,i don't remember ever having seen the moths you are telling us about10 said ,jules4 8,they are too small to be noticed by any one who is not on the lookout for them40 8,i have often seen the nests of leaf-rolling caterpillars on fruit-trees and bushes and all sorts of plants4 ,there are leaves folded lengthwise so that the edges join and make a sort of tunnel2 others are in twos or threes or more2 and there are some fastened together in a big bunch1 all twisted and ragged1 with silk threads holding them together4 ,on opening these nests of leaves and silk ,i have sometimes found a caterpillar and sometimes a spider40 8,various spiders with too little silk to spin a large web for catching flies make an ambush by bringing the edges of two or three adjacent leaves together4 ,like the leaf-rolling caterpillars they use silk threads to hold the pieces of their abode in place1 but their ultimate object is quite different4 ,the rollers bring the leaves together so as to nibble them in peace1 safely hidden away in the shelter thus formed2 the spiders bring them together to make a simple abode for themselves and an ambush from which they can pounce upon such insects as come within their reach40 8,the spiders that make a nest of leaves joined together do not harm trees80 8,i should rather say they are helpful to trees4 ,they are vigilant guardians1 always on the watch for flies1 gnats1 little moths1 and other ravagers that would come and infest the trees with their eggs40 ,,chapter ,,li ,,the ,,hop-,,moth 8,what is that pretty butterfly in your box1 next to the pyralis80 ,emile asked his uncle when the latter was showing the children some of his specimens of moths and butterflies4 8,it has silver wings bordered with red40 8,that is not a butterfly1 my boy10 replied ,uncle ,paul2 8it is a moth that infests hop-vines40 8,are hops those things they make beer with80 8,beer is not made from hops1 my boy2 it is made from barley4 ,first the barley is slightly moistened1 after which it is kept at a mild temperature4 ,the grain begins to sprout just as it would do if sown in the field4 ,for the nourishment of the little plants1 which have no roots as yet1 a special food already prepared is needed1 just as the young kitten1 not yet big enough to catch mice1 needs its mother's milk4 ,all grain1 in beginning to grow1 whether it be wheat or oats or rye or any other1 requires a special form of nourishment1 ready prepared4 ,but where do you suppose it is to be found8 ,you hadn't thought of that4 ,i will tell you4 ,the grain has it in itself4 ,in a kernel of barley or wheat or oats or rye there is a white substance which1 when ground to powder1 is known as flour40 8,then the sprouting plant feeds on flour80 8,not exactly2 flour is too coarse a food for it4 ,the little plant takes its nourishment much as we do when we are very small4 ,it sucks up water holding in solution the substances needed for its growth4 ,but flour will not dissolve in water1 as you very well know2 consequently1 the little plant would die of hunger right beside its store of provision if the flour were not prepared for it--,i might say1 cooked for it--in a way suited to its needs40 8,that must be a funny arrangement--food cooked for a plant60 8,it is more wonderful than you can imagine4 ,as the sprout pushes upward the flour in the grain is being turned to sugar1 real sugar1 very sweet and easily dissolved in water2 so that the young plant has for its nourishment a sufficient supply of sweetened water or1 to express it in another way1 a sort of milk40 8,oh1 yes60 cried ,emile4 8,now ,i understand4 ,last ,christmas ,mother ,ambroisine put some wheat to sprout in a plate and kept it moist on the mantelpiece4 ,when the little blades began to show1 the wheat was all soft and would crush under your fingers2 and it gave out a sort of very sweet milk40 8,this wonderful transformation of flour into sugar during germination is turned to account by man in making beer4 ,he causes barley to germinate1 and when he judges that all the flour substance it contains has turned to sugar he quickly kills the little plants1 as otherwise the sweetened liquid would be taken up by them and would undergo another transformation by being turned into plant substance4 ,accordingly1 the grain is promptly dried in an oven1 after which it is ground in a mill1 and this ground barley is called malt4 ,by adding water and keeping it at a mild temperature we induce a fresh change3 the sugar turns to alcohol1 which is the essential element of beer and wine40 8,the flour of the grain1 then10 said ,jules1 8turns to sugar or to plant substance or to alcohol1 according to the way it is treated2 is that it80 8,yes1 and it can be converted into many other things4 ,boiled with water it becomes paste4 ,after entering into the composition of beer it can be turned into vinegar by being left exposed to the air and allowed to sour4 ,but we will not now dwell on these various changes4 ,let us return to the subject of beer4 ,in order to impart to that beverage the bitter taste and the aroma peculiar to it1 we use hops4 ,barley is the fundamental ingredient of the drink1 hops are the flavoring4 8,the hop-plant is a long1 slender vine unable to hold itself up without supporting poles1 around which it twines to the height of perhaps ten meters4 ,its leaves are lobed somewhat like those of the grape1 and its fruit takes the shape of cones or catkins similar to those of the pine-tree1 but much smaller and composed of thin scales coated with a sort of bitter resin4 ,it is these cones that are used in making beer4 ,hops are extensively cultivated in ,alsace and in ,germany4 ,the chief enemies of the hop-vine are two worms1 one of which nibbles the roots and the other the inside of the stem or vine4 8,the epialid are distinguished from all other moths by their very short antenn4 ,their larv live in the ground and feed on roots4 ,the most important member of this family is the hop-moth1 of which the male has white wings touched with silver and edged with a reddish border1 and the female has fore wings of bright yellow with tawny edges and two tawny oblique stripes4 ,the grub is whitish1 covered with little yellow tubercles overgrown with black hair4 ,it does great damage to hop plantations by gnawing the roots4 ,to destroy it the hop-grower is advised to spray the base of the vine with water in which hog-manure has been left to steep--an application that is said to kill the worms4 8,within the stem of the plant lives the grub of the pyralis that ,i show you here4 ,the moth has dark-yellow fore wings edged with a scalloped stripe of a lighter shade and marked with a number of red spots4 ,the hind wings are white with purple spots and yellowish edges40 8,alongside of that moth there are two more in your box10 ,emile pointed out4 8,they are the madder-moth and the woad-moth4 ,madder used to be cultivated for its root1 which yields a red dye1 the most beautiful and lasting of all red dyes40 8,isn't ,mother ,ambroisine's ,sunday kerchief dyed with madder80 8,yes2 and with the red there are black1 pink1 garnet1 and violet on the kerchief1 all obtained from madder4 ,in the methods formerly in use various drugs were first applied to the goods to be dyed1 this being done by means of wooden blocks engraved with the desired patterns1 after which a bath of boiling water containing powdered madder root brought out all the different colors1 at once1 their respective tints depending on the drugs previously applied4 ,these colors1 of which there were many varieties1 had the great advantage of never fading in the sun and of resisting soap2 hence madder used to be the most highly prized of dyestuffs and was a source of much profit to ,alsace and the department of ,vaucluse1 the only districts devoted to its culture4 ,its insect foe was the moth ,i now show you4 ,at weeding-time it was the custom to destroy the caterpillars1 which fed on the leaves of the plant4 8,woad is another plant used in dyeing4 ,prepared in a certain way1 the green matter of its leaves gives a fine blue color4 ,the caterpillar of a leaf-rolling moth eats first the woad leaves and then the stalk40 ,,chapter ,,lii ,,the ,,inchworm ,one day ,uncle ,paul was in his garden engaged in an operation on his pear-trees that greatly puzzled ,emile and ,jules4 ,he had a pot of black1 sticky stuff with a strong smell1 and was smearing it with a brush all around the base of the trees4 ,oh1 how ,one-eyed ,john would have laughed if he had peeped through the hedge and seen ,uncle ,paul daubing the foot of his pear-trees with black6 ,but he would have been greatly in the wrong1 as is proved by what the boys' uncle said to them that same evening4 8,what do you call that stuff you were putting on the trees this morning80 ,jules inquired4 8,it is called tar1 and is a substance derived from coal4 ,to make illuminating gas coal is put into large cast-iron vessels and heated red-hot1 all outside air being excluded meanwhile4 ,the heat decomposes the coal1 which cannot burn for want of air4 ,the products of this decomposition are illuminating gas1 tar1 and coke1 this last being a kind of coal of metallic appearance1 very porous and light4 ,the gas and the tar are drawn off through a pipe1 the coke remaining in the cast-iron vessel4 ,tar is a very black1 sticky substance with a strong odor repugnant to insects40 8,then you put a coating of it around the tree trunks to keep off insects80 8,certain moths whose caterpillars ,i fear came through my hedge4 ,the girdle of tar put on at the base of the trunk is to prevent their climbing to the branches to lay their eggs4 ,in that way ,i protect the fruit-trees from the caterpillars that a little later would destroy the foliage40 8,but moths can fly well enough1 and your tar wouldn't stop them4 ,if they can't reach the branches by climbing the trunk they will fly up to them40 8,for a moth that flies1 agreed4 ,if on the contrary it cannot fly1 but has to content itself with walking1 is it not true that the coating of tar encircling the foot of the tree trunk will prove an impassable obstacle8 ,in the first place1 the smell of tar is offensive to the moth1 and then if it ventures on the sticky girdle it will infallibly become entangled and die1 stuck fast in the tar40 8,that is plain10 assented ,louis4 8,but are there any moths that can't fly80 8,there are40 8,are the lazy things afraid to use their wings80 asked ,emile4 8,perhaps they think it's too much trouble40 8,how could they use them8 ,they haven't any to use1 poor things40 8,that accounts for it1 then4 ,moths without wings60 8,yes1 my boy1 moths without wings4 ,you shall see some4 ,this one is called by learned men phalna geometra1 which means geometer-moth ,you will soon see why it is so named40 8,but it has wings1 magnificent ones1 all dotted with brown spots on a yellowish background40 8,yes1 and ,i will add that the forward ones have dark stripes4 ,now what do you think of this other moth80 8,that ugly thing isn't a moth40 8,you judge by appearances1 my dear child1 and not by reality4 ,this ungainly creature laboriously dragging along its big1 naked1 yellowish abdomen1 with large black spots1 is the female of the other moth40 8,i should never have guessed it40 8,neither you nor a great many others4 ,henceforth you will know that there are numerous species of moths whose females are either wingless or equipped with such mere stumps of wings that they are unable to fly1 whereas the males invariably have well-developed wings4 ,now1 the male is not the one to be feared2 it is the female with her eggs4 ,the office of the tar girdle at the foot of the tree is to arrest the moth when it tries to climb to the branches where the laying takes place4 ,repulsed by the odor1 it turns back2 or if it persists in its endeavors to pass1 it sticks to the tar and so perishes40 8,if the female laid her eggs somewhere else10 suggested ,jules1 8instead of on the branches--for instance1 on the ground--wouldn't the caterpillars know enough to climb the trees by themselves80 8,the tar barrier would still be there to stop them4 ,besides1 caterpillars hatched on the ground would hardly think of climbing the tree to the place where1 in the usual order1 the hatching would have taken place4 ,as long as the customary conditions remain unaltered1 insects show an astonishing instinct2 beyond these conditions they do not know how to act4 8,the caterpillar of the geometer-moth is gray with a yellow stripe running lengthwise on each side4 ,it has a curious way of walking common to it and other caterpillars of the same group4 8,these caterpillars are long and cylindrical in shape1 and they usually have but two pairs of false legs1 at some distance from the true front legs4 ,in walking they first rest themselves on the forward legs and then bring up the others by curving the body into a loop or ring4 ,the next movement is to raise the forward legs and advance them in a stride as long as the creature itself1 after which the body again bends into a loop by the bringing up of the hind legs as before4 ,these peculiar strides give the worm the appearance of a pair of dividers getting over the ground by alternately opening and closing its two legs4 ,you might say the creature surveys or measures the road it travels1 and that is why its moth is known as the geometer-moth4 ,the common name of inchworm applied to the caterpillar is familiar to you as referring to the caterpillar's length4 8,further characteristics are to be noted4 ,clinging to the branch solely by their hind creepers1 these worms remain for hours in the strangest postures1 the body stiff and motionless4 ,you will see some stretched out straight1 some turned up behind1 some arched in a semicircular position4 ,not one moves1 not one shows weariness in these uncomfortable attitudes which demand an incredible amount of strength4 ,you have witnessed the feats of those strong-armed acrobats who1 in the side-show at the fair1 seize a vertical bar with both hands and without further support sustain themselves in the air1 the body horizontal4 ,inchworms do the same thing1 but with this difference3 whereas the acrobats are exhausted in a few moments1 the caterpillars keep their balance all day if necessary40 8,why do they do all those stunts80 was ,emile's question4 8,they are not doing stunts1 as you call it2 they are simply using their natural means of escaping observation on the part of their enemies4 ,by reason of their complete immobility1 rigid posture1 and grayish hue they are confounded with the small dry twigs which they closely resemble4 ,unless examined at very short range they deceive all eyes1 even those of birds1 whose sight is so keen40 8,ah1 the crafty rogues6 ,to stiffen themselves and stay perfectly still so as to look like little dry twigs and in that way fool the birds that would come and snap them up1 is a very clever trick40 8,the name of leaf-stripper1 which is also given to this moth1 indicates its way of living before it is transformed into the perfect insect4 ,the caterpillar gnaws the leaves of all fruit-trees without distinction1 and even of other trees1 such as oaks1 birches1 and lindens4 ,for trees that have not been smeared with a tar girdle to stop the moths at laying time there is but one mode of defense left1 and that is not nearly so good as the first3 it is to shake the infested trees so as to make the caterpillars fall1 and then crush them40 8,i prefer the tar girdle10 said ,louis4 8,yes1 but it must be applied in time1 in the autumn when the moths are about to make their appearance4 8,another moth of this group1 sometimes called the winter moth1 has fore wings of a grayish wine-color dotted with brown and striped crosswise in a darker shade4 ,the female is a little better favored than that of the one we have just been considering1 having wings of a sort1 but too rudimentary to admit of flying4 ,it may be seen running over the ground toward the end of autumn1 when cold weather is approaching4 ,its tardy appearance has earned it the name of winter moth4 ,like the moth of the inchworm it climbs trees to lay its eggs1 but can be prevented by the use of tar on the trunk4 ,its eggs hatch in the spring1 and the caterpillars are full-grown by ,may4 ,they are generally blackish1 with white1 yellow1 or green stripes running lengthwise4 ,on leaving the egg these caterpillars bore the buds of pear1 apple1 apricot1 and other fruit trees4 ,later they install themselves1 one by one1 between two leaves1 the edges of which they unite with threads of silk40 ,,chapter ,,liii ,,sap-,,suckers 8,what do plant-lice eat80 asked ,jules one day4 8,i have never seen them feeding on leaves40 8,they do not feed on them10 his uncle replied2 8they drink the sap through a very fine1 short1 pointed sucker which they carry against the breast when not in use4 ,the insect plunges it into the plant and for whole days without moving drinks the sap at the point pricked4 ,when this place is sucked dry it passes to another1 but without much change of position4 ,the plant-louse is a sedentary creature2 to move around a stem no bigger than your little finger is for the louse a long journey fraught with perils not lightly to be faced1 a few steps forward to make room in the rear for some fifty children as fast as they are brought into the world being about all that the boldest of these creatures dares to undertake4 ,but plant-lice of the last generation of the year have wings and lay eggs which in the spring renew the race annihilated by the cold of winter4 ,these winged lice are no timid stay-at-homes like the others3 they gladly quit the natal leaf to see a bit of the world4 ,it is their business to travel hither and yon and lay their eggs in many places so that in the following spring all plants shall have their share of lice1 and it is to fulfill this duty that they are expressly provided with wings4 ,clouds of these traveling plant-lice1 dense enough to obscure the light of day1 have been observed4 8,many other insects have1 like the plant-louse1 a straight1 pointed sucker which they plunge into the substance they wish to drain of its juice1 and which they hold against the breast when not in use4 ,the cicada furnishes us a very good example1 as do also the large bugs found on trees and on many plants4 ,the cabbage feeds two of them3 the harlequin cabbage-bug1 which is red with numerous black spots1 and still another cabbage-bug of a bluish-green color with white or red spots4 8,bugs of this class have four wings1 the upper pair covering the other pair when in repose4 ,the forward half of each upper wing is hard like the beetle's wing sheaths1 but the other half is membranous and of fine texture4 ,this structure makes them half sheaths for protection and half wings for flying1 and it is because of this peculiarity that insects of this sort are called hemiptera1 or half-winged creatures4 ,the cicada is a half-winged insect1 as is also the plant-louse1 although its upper wings 7,i am speaking of winged plant-lice1 of course71 instead of being one half hard and the other half of a more delicate texture1 have the same fineness and transparency throughout4 ,but the most striking characteristic of these insects1 and the one that determines their mode of life1 is the beak for sucking4 ,so we will call hemiptera all insects equipped with a pointed sucker which lies against the breast when in repose1 and we will not concern ourselves with the question of wings1 whether half or entirely membranous40 8,do the hemiptera form an order by themselves80 asked ,jules4 8,they form an order in the same way that coleoptera1 lepidoptera1 hymenoptera1 diptera1 and so on1 form each an order4 ,but hemiptera do not undergo so thorough a transformation as other insects1 being born with very nearly the form they will always have4 ,the chief change consists in the growing of wings1 which the insect does not have at first1 but acquires later when it has attained sufficient size4 ,in some species several generations succeed one another before the winged state1 which is the perfect one1 is reached4 ,plant-lice belong to this class1 the earlier generations of the year having no wings1 and only the last being equipped with them4 8,a hemipterous insect with habits somewhat like those of the plant louse causes considerable damage to pear-trees4 ,it is commonly called the flea-louse of the pear1 and is a small reddish insect with diaphanous wings that fold at an angle like the two sides of an acute-angled roof4 ,it is found on pear-trees1 and more rarely on apple-trees1 toward the end of ,april4 ,the eggs are laid one by one in slight gashes made in the leafstem by the female with a little auger situated at the end of the abdomen4 ,the larv that come from these eggs grow rapidly and differ from the perfect insect only in their lack of wings4 ,by sloughing the skin these larv become nymphs1 short and stubby and already having on each side a rudimentary wing4 ,in its final form the insect acquires perfect wings4 ,in all three of its successive stages the insect plunges its sucker into the tender bark1 or into the leaves1 and sucks the sap4 ,the best way to destroy these creatures is to use a hard bristle brush on those parts of the bark where they are to be found in multitudes40 ,,chapter ,,liv ,,queer ,,musical ,,instruments ,uncle ,paul had placed in the lettuce bed two large pots half full of water and set into the ground flush with the surface4 ,he said they were a trap for mole-crickets1 which1 from the withered appearance of some of the plants1 he suspected were in the garden4 ,one morning1 on going to look into the pots1 ,emile found three drowned mole-crickets in them4 ,that evening ,uncle ,paul told the children about these creatures4 8,the insects ,emile found in the trap10 said he1 8are called mole-crickets from their habit of burrowing into the ground like moles and from their resembling in certain other ways ordinary crickets4 ,the mole-cricket has the common cricket's long and slender antenn1 its two flexible filaments at the end of the abdomen1 and its rough wings which are rubbed against each other so as to make a sort of singing noise4 ,it is a formidable ravager of our gardens40 8,do crickets really chirp with their wings80 asked ,emile1 in surprise4 8,yes1 my boy4 ,in chirping the cricket raises its wings1 which are dry and wrinkled1 and rubs the edges together vigorously4 ,the other chirping insects do about the same4 ,the vineyard grasshopper1 the one with the large green and yellow belly1 has on its back two round scales which fit together and rub against each other4 ,they constitute its musical instrument4 ,other grasshoppers play the violin2 that is to say1 they scrape the rough edges of their wings with their big curved thighs as bows or fiddle-sticks4 ,the cicada has under its stomach in a double cavity1 protected by covers capable of being raised more or less1 two dry and shiny membranes stretched as taut as drumheads4 ,the insect sings by making these vibrate in their cases40 8,does the mole-cricket say cree-cree like the ordinary cricket80 8,no2 its song has a monotonous sound1 being a sort of sharp buzzing1 rather subdued1 and continuous40 8,and why does the mole-cricket sing8 ,what an ugly creature with its little crafty eyes1 short wings1 big stomach1 and frightful fore feet60 8,it sings to cheer its solitude and call its mate4 ,you think it ugly2 ,i find it admirably equipped for the work it has to do4 ,it lives in the ground1 just as moles do1 and like them it is provided with a special tool for digging in the earth and cutting the roots that bar its way4 ,have you ever noticed a mole's fore feet8 ,they are broadly shovel-shaped and furnished with strong claws4 ,the mole-cricket's fore feet are very much like them1 being short and wide and edged with saw-teeth4 ,with this pair of powerful tools the insect digs its subterranean tunnels40 8,then that10 said ,jules1 8must be the reason for calling it a mole-cricket3 it has the mole's wide feet for digging40 8,i should like to know10 ,emile interposed1 8what the mole and mole-cricket do under the ground40 8,they hunt for worms and all kinds of insects for food4 ,in their subterranean operations both cut with their fore feet the roots that obstruct their progress1 but the mole1 exclusively carnivorous1 does not eat them1 whereas the mole-cricket1 living on both animal and vegetable matter1 nibbles them at its pleasure4 ,nor does it disdain a tender lettuce leaf when at night it comes up above ground to get a little air and cultivate the acquaintance of its neighbors4 ,hence the mole-cricket does a great deal of damage in gardens by laying bare the roots of young plants when it is boring its tunnels1 or by severing these roots with the saw-like edges of its feet1 or by nibbling them when hungry4 8,not far beneath the surface of the ground the female makes her nest1 which is in the form of a hollow ball of earth about as large as your fist4 ,in this cavity1 after it has been carefully smoothed and prepared1 she lays her eggs1 to the number of three or four hundred1 after which she remains in the neighborhood as if to watch over them4 ,when first hatched the young ones are white all over and look like big ants4 ,when the ground is spaded these nests should always be destroyed4 8,the mole-cricket's domain is composed of passages running down to a greater or less distance1 with hunting galleries just under the surface4 ,to dislodge the insect from its retreat a little oil is poured into the hole where it is thought to have taken refuge1 and then plenty of water from the watering-pot1 until all the passages are inundated4 ,threatened with suffocation by the oil1 which interferes with its breathing1 the mole-cricket soon comes to the surface4 ,one can also use the trap that ,i have found serviceable4 ,a wide and deep vessel is set into the ground1 level with the surface1 and half filled with water4 ,attracted by the coolness1 the mole-crickets fall in and drown in the course of their nocturnal promenades4 ,sometimes1 again1 at the approach of cold weather holes are dug here and there and filled with horse manure4 ,the warmth of the manure is agreeable to the mole-crickets1 and they come and hide in it for the winter4 ,when cold weather begins1 these lurking-places are searched and the foolish occupants destroyed4 8,the mole-cricket1 the house-cricket1 the locust1 and the grasshopper belong to a family of insects called orthoptera1 so named from their straight wings2 that is1 the lower wings1 those used for flying1 are folded lengthwise in a straight line when in repose1 like a closed fan4 ,look at the red or blue wings of the crickets that abound in autumn1 in dry grass1 and you will see them neatly folded lengthwise1 while the upper wings1 which are somewhat leathery1 are usually brought together in the shape of a roof4 ,many1 but not all1 of the orthoptera have thick thighs ending in long and bristly legs that serve for jumping4 ,finally1 some of these insects have at the end of the abdomen a terebra1 commonly called a sword1 its office being to lay the eggs in the ground4 8,one of these orthoptera commits terrible ravages in ,africa4 ,it is the migratory locust1 so named because it assembles in immense swarms and migrates to another region when food fails4 ,the migrating swarm takes flight as at a given signal and moves through the air like a great cloud1 even intercepting the light of the sun4 ,sooner or later the devastating hordes swoop down like a living storm on the cultivated fields of some province1 and in a few hours leaves1 grain1 pastures1 fields1 all are browsed bare as if swept by a conflagration1 the ground showing not a green blade of any kind surviving40 8,if those ravenous locusts travel like that10 said ,jules1 8couldn't they come here80 8,driven by a favorable wind1 clouds of locusts do sometimes cross the ,mediterranean and alight in our southern departments4 ,at various times the territory of ,arles has suffered this terrible visitation4 ,it should be added that if the country suits them where they chance to alight1 the locusts lay their eggs there1 and from these there springs a legion of devourers more numerous than the first4 ,to lessen the ravages of this second generation search is made for the eggs1 which the locust lays in a cylindrical hole running a few centimeters into the ground4 ,in #ahcb1 in the neighborhood of ,arles1 nearly four thousand kilograms of eggs were gathered besides bagfuls of the insects themselves4 ,it takes eighty thousand eggs to make a kilogram2 hence in that harvest of eggs there were three hundred and twenty million locusts destroyed before they were born4 ,imagine the ravages of such a swarm of devourers alighting on the vegetation of any given district4 ,before so terrible a scourge man bows his head and acknowledges his powerlessness1 the insect ravager overwhelming him by its very numbers4 8,how many other ravagers there are1 my children1 besides locusts1 that by their inconceivable multitude defy our attempts to defend ourselves6 ,you are now in a position to realize somewhat the serious nature of these devastations when you think of all the moths and caterpillars and worms1 all the creeping and burrowing and flying insects1 of all shapes and sizes and appetites1 that attack our gardens and fields4 ,they would certainly gain the upper hand if we had to depend on ourselves in combating them4 ,but fortunately we are most ably assisted in this contest40 ,,notes #a ,see 8,field1 ,forest1 and ,farm40 #b ,see 8,the ,story-,book of ,science40 #c ,the ,french campagnol is translated in this book by meadow-mouse4 ,the term vole1 another rendering1 is purely ,british and too uncommon in ,america to warrant its use in these pages4--,translator4 #d ,a name given to the cat in ,la ,fontaine's 8,fables40--,translator4 #e ,audubon3 8,ornithological ,biography10 ,i4 #afj-afb4--,translator4 #f ,dupont de ,nemours4 #g ,see 8,the ,story-,book of ,science40 #h ,from 8,le ,crapaud0 78,the ,toad071 by ,victor ,hugo4--,translator4 #i ,a liter is slightly more than a quart1 a hectoliter a little more than one hundred quarts4--,translator4 #aj ,see 8,the ,secret of ,everyday ,things40