,,university ,,of ,,california ,,publications ,,college ,,of ,,agriculture ,,agricultural ,,experiment ,,station ,,berkeley1 ,,california ,,the ,,almond ,,in ,,california ,,by ,r4 ,h4 ,,taylor ,,bulletin ,no4 #big ,,august1 #aiah ,,university ,,of ,,california ,,press ,,berkeley #aiah ,,benjamin ,,ide ,,wheeler1 ,president of the ,university4 ,,experiment ,,station ,,staff ,,heads ,,of ,,divisions ,,thomas ,,forsyth ,,hunt1 ,director4 ,,edward ,j4 ,,wickson1 ,horticulture 7,emeritus74 ,,herbert ,j4 ,,webber1 ,director ,citrus ,experiment ,station2 ,plant ,breeding4 ,,hubert ,e4 ,,van ,,norman1 ,vice-,director2 ,dairy ,management4 ,,william ,a4 ,,setchell1 ,botany4 ,,myer ,e4 ,,jaffa1 ,nutrition4 ,,charles ,w4 ,,woodworth1 ,entomology4 ,,ralph ,e4 ,,smith1 ,plant ,pathology4 ,j4 ,,eliot ,,coit1 ,citriculture4 ,,john ,w4 ,,gilmore1 ,agronomy4 ,,charles ,f4 ,,shaw1 ,soil ,technology4 ,,john ,w4 ,,gregg1 ,landscape ,gardening and ,floriculture4 ,,frederic ,t4 ,,bioletti1 ,viticulture and ,enology4 ,,warren ,t4 ,,clarke1 ,agricultural ,extension4 ,,john ,s4 ,,burd1 ,agricultural ,chemistry4 ,,charles ,b4 ,,lipman1 ,soil ,chemistry and ,bacteriology4 ,,clarence ,m4 ,,haring1 ,veterinary ,science and ,bacteriology4 ,,ernest ,b4 ,,babcock1 ,genetics4 ,,gordon ,h4 ,,true1 ,animal ,husbandry4 ,,james ,t4 ,,barrett1 ,plant ,pathology4 ,,fritz ,w4 ,,woll1 ,animal ,nutrition4 ,,walter ,,mulford1 ,forestry4 ,w4 ,p4 ,,kelley1 ,agricultural ,chemistry4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,quayle1 ,entomology4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,davidson1 ,agricultural ,engineering4 ,,elwood ,,mead1 ,rural ,institutions4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,reed1 ,plant ,physiology4 ,w4 ,l4 ,,howard1 ,pomology4 ,,frank ,,adams1 ,irrigation ,investigations4 ,c4 ,l4 ,,roadhouse1 ,dairy ,industry4 ,o4 ,j4 ,,kern1 ,agricultural ,education4 ,,john ,e4 ,,dougherty1 ,poultry ,husbandry4 ,s4 ,s4 ,,rogers1 ,olericulture4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,moodey1 ,assistant to the ,director4 ,mrs4 ,d4 ,l4 ,,bunnell1 ,librarian4 ,,division ,,of ,,pomology ,w4 ,l4 ,,howard ,r4 ,h4 ,,taylor ,a4 ,h4 ,,hendrickson 99,e4 ,l4 ,,overholser ,w4 ,p4 ,,tufts ,w4 ,l4 ,,sweet ,g4 ,l4 ,,philp ,v4 ,w4 ,,hoffman ,m4 ,n4 ,,wood ,in military service4 ,in co-operation with office of ,public ,roads and ,rural ,engineering1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 99 ,exchange professor from ,cornell ,university for #aiah-ai4 ,,the ,,almond ,,in ,,california ,,by ,r4 ,h4 ,,taylor ,,introduction ,the almond 7,prunus communis7 is supposed to be native to the countries around the ,mediterranean and at present the bulk of the world's supply is produced in that region4 ,it resembles the peach somewhat in manner of growth and character of blossoms and leaves1 but the wood is much harder and the tree is longer-lived under equally favorable conditions4 ,the fruit1 instead of having a thick1 fleshy pericarp as in the case of the peach1 has a thin1 leathery pericarp or hull1 which splits on ripening and generally opens when dry1 exposing the nut inside4 ,california produces over #ih per cent of the entire ,american crop and has done so for many years4 ,during the period from #aijj to #aiac the number of bearing trees remained approximately the same1 new plantings having replaced old orchards that were being pulled out4 ,the variation in ,california production from year to year prior to #aiae1 as shown in figure #a1 is due to seasonal variations rather than to change in acreage4 ,imports into the ,united ,states from the ,mediterranean countries are also shown in figure #a1 the top line representing the total imports1 the other lines1 as indicated1 showing the proportion of that total originating in the three principal countries exporting to the ,united ,states4 ,previous to #aiab the records of shelled and unshelled almonds were not kept separate4 ,since the records have been segregated1 the percentages of shelled almonds imported each year have been approximately as follows3 ,per cent #aiab-ac #hc #aiac-ad #gj #aiad-ae #ga #aiae-af #hb #aiaf-ag #gi --- ,average #gg ,with the #aiae crop the production in ,california entered upon what appears to be a long prospective increase4 ,the large acreage of almonds set out in the last four or five years is the result of greatly improved market conditions due to the successful work of the ,california ,almond ,growers' ,exchange4 ,the first of these new plantings are now coming into bearing1 and each year for many years in the future will continue to see increased yields4 ,large acreages are still being planted so that the almond production in ,california bids fair to continue to grow4 ,within the next few years ,california growers will1 in all probability1 be forced to accept lower prices for their almonds than they are now receiving4 ,the ,american markets are fully supplied at present prices1 yet constantly increasing acreage will inevitably result in a greatly increased tonnage4 ,european almonds are being produced at a lower net cost and can be laid down on the ,atlantic ,coast more cheaply than is possible with the ,california product4 ,this brings the grower face to face with the necessity of becoming more thoroughly familiar with the most economical methods of production and marketing if they are to continue to make a profit4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 that a careful study be made of all the factors concerned in the growth1 production and final disposition of the almond crop4 ,,habits ,the almond is the first of the deciduous fruit trees to start growth and come into bloom in the spring1 and normally the last one to shed its leaves in the fall4 ,in other words1 it has a very short period of rest4 ,when the trees are forced into premature dormancy by mites or lack of moisture1 they soon reach the end of their normal rest period before the winter season is over4 ,then the first warm weather in spring will bring the trees into blossom4 ,in some cases where moisture and temperature conditions are favorable late in the fall1 they may actually blossom before the winter season4 ,in young trees that have become dormant unusually early1 the rest period may terminate and then the tips of the branches resume growth and continue to slowly develop new leaves at the terminals throughout the winter4 ,trees which have been kept growing thriftily until the leaves have been forced to fall by the cold weather and frosts of winter1 do not tend to blossom as early in the spring1 nor do they open under the influence of a few days of warm weather in late winter or early spring4 ,young trees blossom somewhat later than the older trees1 and buds on sucker growth blossom later than the more mature portions of the same tree4 ,the difference may amount to three or four days or almost a week4 ,well-grown trees carry large numbers of blossoms over the entire tree1 as shown in figure #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,,imports ,,of ,,almonds ,,into ,,the ,u4,s4 ,crops of #ahii to #aiag4 ,the wood of the almond is very hard and strong1 enabling the tree to bear the weight of heavy crops where pruning has been given proper attention during the formative period of the young tree4 ,as with other fruit trees1 the almond is subject to heart-rot and care should always be exercised to prevent the checking and cracking of large wounds and consequent infection with decay organisms4 ,the hardness of the wood makes it the finest kind of fuel1 and when old orchards are being dug up the returns from the sale of wood often more than pay for the expense of digging and cutting up the trees and burning the brush4 ,the nuts are of two general classes--sweet and bitter almonds4 ,the former is primarily the almond of commerce1 though the latter is used largely in the manufacture of almond oil and almond flavoring1 as well as in the manufacture of prussic acid4 ,the bitter almond is also used largely in nurseries as a rootstock upon which to bud the almond and some other fruits4 ,for a long time there has been considerable evidence to show that some varieties are always self-sterile while a few are sometimes self-fertile4 ,work done in #aiaf and #aiag by ,tufts#a shows that practically all varieties are self-sterile and that some of the self-sterile varieties are also inter-sterile4 ,in these tests the principal commercial varieties were used4 ,blossoms of each variety were pollenized with pollen from its own blossoms and from each of the others4 ,checks were for natural pollination with each variety4 ,the important results of this work are briefly summarized as follows3 ,the ,nonpareil and ,i4,x4,l4 are inter-sterile1 although both are inter-fertile with the ,ne ,plus ,ultra4 ,the ,languedoc and ,texas are inter-sterile4 ,the ,i4,x4,l4 and ,peerless are practically inter-sterile4 ,the ,california has proved the best pollenizer thus far tested1 for all varieties that bloom near it4 ,the ,drake is inter-fertile with the ,nonpareil1 ,i4,x4,l41 ,ne ,plus ,ultra1 ,peerless and ,jordan1 the only ones tested4 ,the ,i4,x4,l4 is inter-fertile with the ,drake1 ,jordan1 ,california1 ,languedoc1 ,ne ,plus ,ultra and ,texas4 ,the ,ne ,plus ,ultra is inter-fertile with the ,california1 ,drake1 ,i4,x4,l41 ,languedoc and ,nonpareil4 ,,requirements ,while the almond is in many ways an easy tree to grow where conditions are favorable1 it is more particular in its requirements than most common orchard fruits1 and the grower may find it difficult to produce a good1 thrifty tree unless he chooses the proper location4 ,very often it will grow well and make a fine healthy tree1 but owing to unfavorable conditions1 will not bear regularly1 if it all4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,seven-year-old ,ne ,plus ,ultra almond in full bloom1 at the ,university ,farm1 ,march1 #aiae1 showing distribution of blossoms well down into center of tree4 ,paper bags cover blossoms pollenized by hand4 ,,climate ,heat4--,where the conditions of soil and moisture are favorable the almond will endure the intense heat of the interior valleys and even of the ,imperial ,valley1 provided it is pruned properly to shade the main branches so as to prevent sunburn4 ,where trees1 by severe pruning1 are opened up suddenly to the intense heat of the summer sun1 almonds will sunburn1 but if the necessary opening up is done gradually1 the bark will become inured to the new conditions without danger4 ,the nuts grow and ripen more satisfactorily in the greater heat of the interior than along the coast4 ,frost4--,the almond tree is hardy and will endure fully as much cold as the hardiest peach without injury4 ,trees are found growing well in ,illinois1 ,ohio1 ,new ,york and other ,eastern states4 ,in very favorable seasons they may even bear fruit1 though this happens very seldom1 due to the extremely early habit of blooming before the spring frosts are over4 ,the first warm weather seems to start the trees into bloom1 especially where the enforced dormant season of winter is very long4 ,the blossoms1 on the other hand1 are very tender4 ,there is a great range in the degree of frost which will cause injury1 depending largely on the condition of the tree during the time that the fruit buds are forming and developing1 as well as on the duration and severity of the frost4 ,buds and blossoms on trees which have been forced into premature dormancy1 either by lack of moisture or by severe attacks of red spider1 are much more susceptible to frost than those on trees which have continued growth late enough in the fall to provide for the proper development and maturity of the buds4 ,after differentiation of fruit buds commences in the summer1 the almond leaves should remain on the tree until late into the fall in order to strengthen and develop the fruit buds and store up the elaborated food material for the use of the buds in their normal development through the winter4 ,studies of almond buds gathered from healthy trees which held their leaves until late fall frosts at ,davis1 showed the first evidence of differentiation between fruit and flower buds commencing about ,august #ah1 while the flower was not completely developed until ,february #ah following4 ,during the intervening time development proceeded unchecked through the winter even though the tree was apparently dormant4 ,during the time the crop is ripening on the trees1 little is done toward storing food material for the buds4 ,if the leaves turn yellow or drop soon after harvest1 the trees do not have the opportunity of storing a sufficient supply of plant food for their normal requirements and the buds are insufficiently nourished during the winter period4 ,the resulting buds are weakened and the indications are that they are unable to endure unfavorable climatic conditions in the spring1 such as light frosts1 continued cold weather or sudden changes from warm to cold weather4 ,the most tender stage in the blossoming and development of the young fruit seems to be immediately following the dropping of the calyx lobes from the young fruit as it first commences to swell rapidly4 ,the blossom becomes more and more tender as it opens out and reaches the above stage4 ,after the young fruit has attained the size of a pea it rapidly becomes more resistant to low temperatures4 ,blossoms with the petals exposed but not yet opened have been known to stand temperatures of #bd degrees ,f4 and blossoms with petals beginning to fall have stood #bh degrees ,f4 ,no records are available as to the duration of these temperatures4 ,in other cases1 blossoms with the petals falling have been killed by temperatures of #cj and #ca degrees ,f4 ,it must be remembered in this connection that the almond blooms earlier than other orchard fruits and1 therefore1 is often subjected to much more severe frosts than occur during the blooming period of the later fruits4 ,the greatest injury is likely to occur when a frost follows one or more days of warm weather4 ,when the mean temperature both day and night remains low1 frosts that might otherwise kill the flowers or setting fruit do no harm4 ,this is what occurred in ,february1 #aiag1 at the ,university ,farm1 when repeated frosts at blooming time did no harm whatever4 ,in determining the desirability of a location in regard to its freedom from frost1 the possibility of adequate air drainage is an important item4 ,for this reason the lands along the lower foothills immediately above the floor of the valleys are ordinarily much less subject to frost--because the cold air is free to drain away to the lower levels4 ,generally the lands along the banks of streams which have been built up higher than the other lands of the ,great ,valleys through which they flow1 are less subject to frost by reason of the natural flow of the cold air from them to the lower lands adjacent4 ,for the same reason the planting of almonds in the lower lands of the valleys1 no matter how large the valleys may be1 should be avoided1 unless the locality has been thoroughly tested for a long period of years and has proved to be an exception to the rule because of some peculiar situation with favoring air currents or air drainage1 such as might exist near a natural draw in the hills where the settling of the cold air in some portions of the adjacent valley might be prevented4 ,such locations are generally confined to very small areas4 ,oftentimes an opening or draw in the hills may serve as an outlet for the drainage of much colder air from considerably higher elevations beyond1 and then the danger from frost is very greatly increased4 ,this is very common where caons act as drains to conduct the cold air from the high ,sierras to the valleys below4 ,variable weather conditions1 and especially as regards temperature in the spring after growth commences1 are highly undesirable4 ,warm weather immediately followed by cold tends to produce sour-sap1 fruit drop and kindred physiological ills4 ,oftentimes crops have been lost where no frosts occurred after blooming commenced1 simply due to sudden changes in the weather4 ,however1 it is highly probable that the greater portion of the trouble with fruit dropping1 when of the size of peas or larger1 is due to improper pollination4 ,when the soil is not sufficiently well drained at such a time1 the sour-sap effect is greatly augmented4 ,humidity4--,foggy or moist weather during ripening or harvesting is highly objectionable4 ,the nuts do not dry out rapidly enough on the trees to prevent the growth of molds and consequent darkening of the shells4 ,the nuts then require much heavier bleaching to brighten them properly for the demands of the market4 ,the damp weather prevents the rapid and thorough drying-out of the kernel2 the sulphur fumes are absorbed by the moist kernel and it sometimes becomes rancid before it is six months old4 ,much damp weather in the spring encourages the growth of 8shot-hole0 fungus in the blossoms and fruit1 often causing the loss of a considerable portion of the crop2 the loss of leaf surface from the fungus infection is sometimes so great as to materially affect the vigor and vitality of the tree4 ,rainfall4--,it is impossible to state any definite amount of rainfall which will or will not maintain the trees and enable them to bear regular crops of nuts1 for so much depends not only on the variation in rainfall in different sections and in different years1 as regards distribution throughout the year1 but also on the time and intensity of the fall1 the character of the weather following the rains and the ability of the soil to receive and retain the rain that falls4 ,ordinarily1 however1 with the above factors favorable1 it is conceded that where the winter rainfall averages sixteen inches1 almonds can generally be grown without supplementing the water supply by irrigation1 if the orchardist exercises reasonable care to conserve the moisture for the use of the trees4 ,where the rainfall is inadequate some means of irrigation must be found to make up the deficit4 ,in some sections the annual rainfall varies greatly from year to year4 ,often it falls in such a way that a large proportion of it is lost in the surface run-off4 ,in many places the soil is so leachy that it is incapable of holding sufficient water for the use of the trees throughout the summer1 much of the winter rainfall being lost in the underground drainage4 ,under either of these conditions1 #dj inches of rainfall might not be sufficient4 ,very often winter rains are followed by desiccating winds so that a considerable portion of the rain which falls is lost by evaporation before anything can be done to hold it4 ,continued rainy1 damp and cold weather at the time of blooming is apt to sour the pollen or actually wash it away and thus prevent the fertilization of the blossoms1 without which a crop is impossible4 ,bees and other insects are the principal means of accomplishing the pollination of almonds and such weather prevents them from working4 ,,soil ,the almond is a deep-rooting tree and draws heavily upon the plant-nourishing elements of the soil4 ,in ripening the large number of seeds which it is required to do1 the tree must draw upon a considerable area of soil in order to supply the large amount of mineral matter that is needed to develop and mature the seeds4 ,analyses of almonds1 as compared with other commonly grown fruits and nuts1 made by ,colby1#b show that the almond leads in the total quantity of mineral matters withdrawn from the soil4 ,colby further states that 8,the stone fruits fall much below the almond in total ash 7mineral matter7 excepting the olive1 the ash of which1 however1 is largely silica 7nearly eight-tenths71 an ingredient so plentifully distributed in all soils that it is of no pecuniary value40 ,table ,i illustrates this statement4 ,these figures suggest the necessity of having a deep1 rich1 well-drained soil for best results4 ,for this reason and because of the deep-rooting habit of the almond1 the soil should be at least ten or twelve feet deep4 ,hardpan4--,compacted substrata in the soil1 whether they be hard clay layers or cemented layers of silicious1 ferruginous or calcareous origin1 are objectionable4 ,they not only prevent the roots from foraging to a considerable depth as they normally tend to do1 but they prevent proper drainage and aeration of the soil4 ,if such layers are comparatively thin1 that is1 not more that two or three feet thick at the most1 they may be shattered with dynamite so as to allow the moisture1 air and roots to penetrate to the better soil below4 ,hardpan1 therefore1 should be avoided where it is too thick to be broken up or where it is not underlaid by desirable soil4 ,,table ,i ,,soil ,,ingredients ,,extracted ,,by ,,the ,,almond ,,as ,,compared ,,with ,,other ,,orchard ,,trees1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,analysis ,,of #ajjj ,,lbs4 ,,each ,,of ,,the ,,crops ,,in ,a ,,fresh ,,condition ,phosphoric ,total ,potash1 ,lime1 ,acid1 ,ash1 ,nitrogen1 ,fruit lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 ,almond 7hulled7 #e4di #a4gb #d4cc #ae4jj #af4dj ,almond 7not hulled7 #i4ie #a4jd #b4jd #ag4bi #ag4ja ,walnut 7hulled7 #a4ej #a4ha #b4gh #g4ej #aj4bj ,walnut 7not hulled7 #h4ah #a4ee #a4dg #ab4ih #e4da ,chestnut 7hulled7 #c4gb 4#ga #a4hi #h4bj #h4jj ,chestnut 7not hulled7 #c4fg #a4bj #a4eh #i4eb #f4dj ,prunes 7green7 #b4ff 4#ac 4#ec #d4jc #a4dh ,apricots 7green7 #b4hc 4#ah 4#ga #e4af #b4bi ,olives #h4he #b4cb #a4ah #id4fc99 #e4he 99 #hj4g pounds of which is silica4 ,humus4--,a plentiful supply of humus in the soil is essential4 ,it not only improves the physical condition of the soil1 but assists drainage1 moisture retention and in rendering the plant food available in sufficient quantities for the use of the trees and for the maturing of full crops of almonds4 ,many orchards have been very light producers year after year because of a deficiency of humus in the soil4 ,drainage4--,the almond root is very particular as to its air and moisture requirements in the soil4 ,it will not endure standing water in the soil for any length of time1 especially during the growing season4 ,exclusion of air by excessive moisture is believed to be one of the most productive causes of 8sour-sap40 ,if allowed to continue for any length of time such conditions will cause the death of many or even all the roots and with them the top4 ,water ,table4--,a factor which is very commonly overlooked in connection with the natural drainage of almond lands is the position of the water table at different seasons of the year4 ,great care must be exercised in choosing a location to be sure that the water table does not rise during the summer4 ,this is a very serious problem in many irrigated sections4 ,where the water table during the winter months is less than #ab feet in depth it is highly desirable to have as little fluctuation as possible4 ,where fluctuations take place at a greater depth than #ab feet they are not generally serious4 ,the ideal condition is where the water table is highest in the winter and quickly drops after the winter rains are over1 to a depth of from #aj to #ab or #ae feet1 remaining at that point during the remainder of the growing season4 ,the soil in addition to being well drained1 must be sufficiently retentive of moisture to supply the tree throughout a long1 dry growing-season4 ,if the soil will not retain a sufficient amount of the winter and spring rains1 recourse must be had to irrigation to supply the deficiency4 ,alkali4--,alkali lands are unsuited to almond culture and should be carefully avoided4 ,in summarizing the soil requirements for almond culture1 it may be stated that the ideal almond soil is a medium loam1 uniform in texture1 or nearly so1 to a depth of at least twelve feet1 well drained and yet retentive of moisture for the use of the tree during the summer4 ,fortunately some of the best almond soils are situated along stream banks where the land is relatively high1 and is1 therefore1 less subject to frost4 ,these streams flowing from the mountains and foothills have built up their own beds by the detritus brought from the hills4 ,the coarser particles being deposited first and nearest the stream itself1 make the better drained soils1 while the finer particles and the clays1 deposited further back from the bank and in the lower lands1 form the heavier soils4 ,the various conditions mentioned above are what the tree should have for best conditions of growth and production4 ,oftentimes these conditions may be approached without the soil being as deep as ten or twelve feet4 ,exceptions to this will be mentioned in discussing the various almond districts of the state4 ,it is essential to understand that trees1 while growing and bearing on shallow soils in some localities1 do so because of other exceptionally favorable conditions2 either the soil is exceptionally well drained and yet sufficiently retentive of moisture1 or the humus in the soil is plentiful and the roots are able to work into the underlying partially decomposed rock for moisture and some plant food4 ,in such localities the trees bear comparatively well because of the exceptional freedom from frost in the spring4 ,trees in these localities are generally smaller than on the deeper1 richer soils1 and where other conditions are equal1 they bear crops in proportion to their size4 ,,almond ,,districts ,almonds are grown in nearly every county in ,california4 ,in some counties the few trees growing only occasionally succeed in producing a crop of nuts4 ,there are sections in nearly all parts of the state1 however1 where they are a success commercially4 ,within these sections may be found desirable and undesirable locations1 depending upon soil and moisture conditions and freedom from injurious frosts4 ,any discussion of a district1 therefore1 does not necessarily mean that all lands within that district are uniformly adapted to almond culture4 ,on this account it is impossible to define a district any more closely than to name the center and include with it the outlying districts4 ,in the same way it is sometimes impossible to say just where one district begins and another ends4 ,adaptability of any special location can be determined only by careful study of the land itself and diligent inquiry of those familiar with it4 ,as far as possible1 districts should be chosen where a definite cold winter season exists4 ,warm weather and lack of freezing temperatures do not hold the trees fully dormant and any frequent occurrence or unusual continuation of spring weather in the winter will start the trees into growth2 cooler weather following1 interferes with the normal flow of sap1 results in injury to the tree and blossoms1 and often causes gumming of the nuts which mature4 ,this condition exists largely in the lower elevations in ,southern ,california and especially in the coastal portion1 where the ameliorating influence of the ,pacific is felt4 ,this same condition exists close to the coast in the northern portion of the state4 ,further inland and at higher elevations the winters are more pronounced1 and where these are not too severe or prolonged the almond thrives best4 ,,sacramento ,,valley ,,and ,,foothill ,,sections ,commencing in ,solano ,county1 about eight miles northwest of ,suisun and extending as far north as the southern end of ,shasta ,county1 close to the base of the foothills on the west side of the ,sacramento ,river1 are a large number of orchards on the bottom lands of the valley4 ,these are found principally on the higher lands along the banks of streams flowing from the ,coast ,range in a generally easterly direction to the ,sacramento ,river4 ,the two most important streams of this type are ,putah ,creek1 forming the boundary between ,yolo and ,solano counties1 and ,cache ,creek1 flowing through the ,capay ,valley and across ,yolo ,county to the ,sacramento ,river4 ,these plantings being on the floor of the valley are more subject to frost than the foothill plantings1 but they have the advantage of being on the rich valley soils1 and while they may lose a crop occasionally from frosts1 they make it up in the long run by the much larger growth of the trees and their ability to produce larger yields4 ,many orchards do not show any such ability to produce large crops1 but such a failure must be attributed to lack of pruning and care1 rather than to any inherent inability of the large trees to produce nuts4 ,again1 trees on the rich and moist bottom lands may be kept so vigorous and healthy by good care that they are apparently able to endure lower temperatures than less vigorous trees on the shallow and poor upland soils where frosts are less common or severe4 ,many recent plantings have been made along the lower foothills on the west side of the ,sacramento ,valley4 ,the three most important districts where these plantings have been made are west of ,dunnigan1 ,arbuckle and ,corning4 ,the plantings in these districts are mostly on a gravelly clay or clay loam soil which is not as rich nor generally as deep as the bottom lands and1 consequently1 the trees are somewhat smaller1 but they have the advantage of freedom from spring frosts due to superior air drainage4 ,the problem in this district is chiefly one of moisture retention by cultivation1 as in most cases the growers are unable to get water for irrigation at a reasonable cost1 if at all4 ,the valley districts extend to ,tehama ,county and down the east side of the ,sacramento ,river1 the same as on the west side1 the principal centers being at ,chico1 ,durham1 ,liveoak1 ,pennington and ,sutter4 ,parts of the ,liveoak section are too low and many orchards have suffered from poor drainage both of water and air4 ,the foothill sections on the east side are principally around ,antelope1 ,fairoaks and ,orangevale in ,sacramento ,county and the southern end of ,placer ,county4 ,here the danger from frost is slightly greater than on the western foothills because of the proximity to the snow-covered ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains4 ,on the other hand1 water from the ,sierras renders irrigation possible at a reasonable cost1 so the trees can be kept in good condition4 ,care must be exercised here to avoid frost pockets4 ,there is also danger of poor soil drainage in the swales4 ,,san ,,joaquin ,,valley ,,and ,,foothill ,,sections ,conditions here blend very much into those of the ,sacramento ,valley sections4 ,continuing south there are plantings around ,acampo1 ,lodi1 ,stockton1 ,linden1 ,ripon1 ,modesto and more scattered plantings farther up the valley4 ,the danger from spring frosts increases southward due to the earlier blooming of the trees4 ,in some of these sections1 notably around ,ripon and ,modesto1 the excessive use of irrigation water for alfalfa and other crops has resulted in a rise of the water table in many places until it is within a foot or two of the surface during the summer months1 and in many other places comes to within four feet of the surface4 ,on the west side of the ,san ,joaquin ,valley the principal plantings have been in eastern ,contra ,costa ,county4 ,most of these orchards are of old trees1 planted from #ae to #cj years ago4 ,in order to obtain satisfactory air and soil drainage the orchards were planted on the rolling hills1 the soil being nearly all blow-sand4 ,irrigation is too expensive to be installed on most of this land1 and the problem in that section is to conserve moisture and at the same time hold the soil in place and prevent it from being carried away by the wind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,typical hillside orchard of ,jordan almonds near ,los ,gatos4 ,trees are variable in size1 and some are missing4 ,in the right foreground is a typical spot of missing trees resulting from ,oak fungus infection4 ,,the ,,coast ,,section ,almonds were planted quite extensively in past years in many of the coast valleys1 such as the ,santa ,clara1 and where they were protected from the direct influence of the moist ocean breezes1 they apparently did well4 ,later most of these orchards were replaced by prunes and apricots as they were generally found to be better paying crops in these valleys4 ,on the hills1 however1 many typical hillside orchards remain1 as shown in figure #c4 ,localities directly affected by the coast breezes have proved themselves to be unfit for commercial almond culture4 ,,interior ,,coast ,,valleys ,,and ,,hills ,back from the coast in the smaller valleys and on the hills where the coast fogs seldom reach1 many locations may be found where almonds are producing successfully4 ,these favorable localities are scattered1 owing to lack of proper soil or moisture conditions4 ,paso ,robles ,district4--,the one outstanding district in the coast hills where the almond is being grown successfully is in the country west of ,paso ,robles4 ,there1 at an elevation ranging from #ijj to #bjjj feet1 where there is sufficient air drainage to the considerably lower land near by1 the almonds are doing well4 ,these plantings are1 in most cases1 on a comparatively heavy soil1 sometimes approaching adobe1 and underlaid by marl4 ,this limestone formation is quite permeable to both water and the roots of the trees1 and the rock itself acts as a sponge and holds considerable quantities of moisture4 ,on the other hand1 consisting of steep hills1 the land is excellently drained and the trees seldom suffer from standing water around the roots4 ,the chief objection is that most of this land is very shallow1 generally ranging from two to four or five feet deep4 ,in some places almonds are found growing where the marl is so close to the surface as to be turned up by the plow4 ,this makes the retention of moisture for the use of the trees a serious problem4 ,the trees do not attain large size on such soils and the nuts are inclined to be somewhat smaller than normal4 ,the steep character of much of the land makes tillage and spraying rather difficult and expensive4 ,as long as the price of the land is kept down to a reasonable figure1 the grower can afford to put more money into the care of both land and trees4 ,it must be thoroughly understood that there are many localities close to ,paso ,robles that are greatly subject to frost and hence not at all suited to almond culture4 ,this is especially true of the lands directly around and east of ,paso ,robles1 and also of any of the comparatively low lands throughout the district4 ,,southern ,,california ,the entire coast district of ,southern ,california has practically proved itself to be unfitted for almond culture1 except at elevations above #aejj or #bjjj feet4 ,the limiting factor seems to be the lack of a sufficiently definite winter season at the lower elevations4 ,trees are inclined to bloom too early in the season or before the winter is over4 ,above #aejj or #bjjj feet the increased elevation gives a sufficiently definite cold winter season and the trees tend to blossom at more seasonable times4 ,aside from scattered plantings in the hills of ,san ,diego ,county and a few orchards around ,hemet and ,san ,jacinto in ,riverside ,county1 the principal plantings are at ,banning and in the ,mojave ,desert4 ,banning ,district4--,within a radius of three miles of ,banning1 with an average elevation of #bcjj feet1 where a plentiful supply of water is to be had from the mountains to the north1 are a large number of orchards ranging in age from #b to #bi years4 ,the bulk of the plantings were made during #aiaj and #aiaa4 ,this is the oldest district in southern ,california and has proved itself to be well fitted for almond culture4 ,antelope ,valley and ,vicinity4--,the old plantings in the ,mojave ,desert are few and far between4 ,they have1 however1 served as an impetus for large plantings in recent years many of which have turned out to be failures4 ,this happened in many portions of ,antelope ,valley1 west of ,lancaster1 on the ,southern ,pacific ,railroad in northern ,los ,angeles ,county4 ,many more of these plantings are young and still have to prove themselves4 ,orchard almond trees are never grown from seed1 as they do not reproduce true to type1 but are propagated by budding desirable varieties on seedling roots in the manner commonly employed in nursery practices for other stone fruits1 like the peach4 ,every grower must decide1 however1 on what rootstocks he will plant his trees4 ,,rootstocks ,there is much to learn yet regarding the behavior of the different roots under varying conditions when used as stock for the almond1 but sufficient information has already been gathered to permit of certain recommendations being made4 ,almond ,root4--,the greatest proportion of almonds in this state are on almond roots4 ,where the most desirable soil1 moisture and drainage conditions exist it is best to select the almond root4 ,it will live in comparatively dry soils1 but cannot be expected to make a tree of large size or bear crops of nuts if the dry conditions continue4 ,where irrigation is not available1 and the soil is deep and of proper texture1 sufficient moisture may be retained in most years by cultivation to enable the tree to grow and bear fruit4 ,when extra dry years come1 the almond root may not enable the tree to grow or produce any better than would another kind of root1 but it will carry the tree over a few dry seasons as well or better than any other4 ,then1 when sufficient moisture does come1 the almond root is ready to start the tree off in its normal course with the least loss of time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,languedoc almond on peach#c root2 typical of other trees in same orchard1 near ,davis4 ,planted about forty-seven years before4 ,compare with trees in same orchard on ,myrobalan root1 as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,the bitter almond is often recommended as being superior to the sweet almond as a stock4 ,this claim has never been proved4 ,experiments indicate that there is fully as much variation between the bitter almond seedlings grown from seed from different trees as there is between seedlings from bitter and sweet almonds4 ,both are equally subject to attack by gophers4 ,the grower's chief object1 therefore1 should be to secure as healthy1 vigorous trees as possible whether they be on sweet or bitter almond roots4 ,peach ,root4--,where the soil moisture is quite variable in different portions of the soil1 or variable from time to time during the growing season1 the peach root will probably be most satisfactory4 ,soils less than six or eight feet deep1 or where gravelly or hardpan layers occur at less depths1 are not satisfactory in most cases for the almond root1 and under these conditions the peach root is better4 ,the peach root is a little better where irrigation is practiced during the summer1 and especially so where there is danger of slow drainage of excess water from the soil4 ,the peach does not thrive with standing water around its roots1 but will better withstand fluctuating or temporary extremes in water supply than the almond4 ,its union with the almond is entirely satisfactory4 ,see figure #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,languedoc almond on ,myrobalan root1 typical of many other trees in same orchard1 near ,davis1 planted about forty-seven years ago4 ,compare with trees planted same time on peach root as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,davidiana ,root4--,within the last five or six years the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has introduced the seed of a ,chinese peach1 ,prunus davidiana1 the root of which is more resistant to alkali than the ordinary peach4 ,this has been found to unite readily with the almond1 although experiments have not yet gone far enough to fully determine its true value4 ,it gives promise1 however1 of being a very desirable stock for sections where alkali may be troublesome4 ,undesirable ,roots4--,the ,myrobalan plum has frequently been recommended as a stock for the almond on poorly drained soils4 ,the two make a strong union1 but the plum root grows much slower than the almond top1 as indicated in figure #e4 ,a comparison with figure #d1 in which both trees are #dh-year-old ,languedoc1 shows that the trees on ,myrobalan root are pinched-in below the union while those on peach root are swollen at the base4 ,even young trees show the same pinching-in below the union4 ,almond trees on ,myrobalan root do not make as large trees nor do they bear satisfactory crops in any portion of the state where it has been possible to compare them with the same varieties on other roots in similar situations4 ,the apricot is occasionally recommended because of its strong1 thrifty growth1 but it is a mistake to attempt to use it1 as the union is not satisfactory4 ,the trees grow thriftily for awhile1 but before they reach full bearing they either break off at the union or are blown over above the union by moderate winds4 ,,top-,,working ,,old ,,trees ,often through injudicious selection of varieties for original plantings1 or for some other reason1 it becomes desirable to work over old trees to more desirable varieties4 ,this may be done by budding or grafting4 ,in either case the tree may be entirely reworked in one season or one-half may be done the first season and the other half the next4 ,the almond will recover fully if completely deheaded to a height of from five to six feet from the ground1 provided it is not subjected to severe winds or excessive moisture in the soil4 ,winds are liable to break off the new top during the first year or two4 ,where these are dangerous it may be well to leave half of the tree on the windward side to be worked the second season4 ,the remaining portions will help to serve as a wind-break until the top-worked portion of the tree has a chance to unite solidly with the stub of the main branch to which it is attached4 ,where winds are not likely to do damage it is generally the most economical method to work over the entire tree at one time4 ,if the roots are subjected to excessive moisture conditions during the first season1 the new growth may be unusually vigorous and much more likely to be blown out as a result of the heavy top and the poor attachment to the stub4 8,sour-sap0 may also be very serious4 ,under such conditions leaving half the tree the first season will enable it to distribute the growth more evenly with less undesirable forcing4 ,whether the top-working shall be done by budding or grafting depends largely upon the wishes of the grower and the skill of the workman4 ,grafting will give a new tree more quickly than budding1 because by the latter method a year is lost in growing a supply of new wood on the stubs into which the buds must be placed4 ,by grafting1 the new scions may start growing the first spring without any delay4 ,ordinarily the best method is to graft the trees the first winter and then1 where the grafts fail to grow1 buds may be inserted in the new growth which will come from the stub4 ,during the first two seasons especially1 great care must be exercised to keep out the sprouts that interfere with the growth of the scions4 ,at the same time1 all water-sprouts should not be removed during the first summer or there will not be sufficient leaf surface to perform the necessary functions of the tree4 ,in addition1 the scions tend to grow so rankly that they will be top-heavy and much more liable to be blown out by the wind1 as shown in figure #f4 ,this may largely be prevented by pinching the ends of the new scion growth during the early summer to force lateral branching4 ,at the end of the first year all water-sprouts should be removed leaving nothing but the growth from the scions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,twenty-seven-year-old trees deheaded two years before1 showing the break-off of the new growth by strong winds4 ,,planting ,the usual preparation given land for orchard purposes prior to planting should be applied to land being prepared for almonds4 ,special care must be given to insure thorough aeration of the subsoil by breaking up all hardpan1 plow-pan or other compacted layers in the soil1 where possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,almonds planted twelve feet apart4 ,trees in very weak condition and almost entirely defoliated by mites before harvest4 ,the few nuts ripening on the trees are small 8sticktights40 ,photo taken ,september #ba1 #aiae4 ,distance4--,almonds in most soils should be planted #cj #cj feet on the square4 ,in rich1 deep soils the trees quickly fill the intervening space1 the roots occupying the entire soil area long before the tops touch4 ,in poor1 shallow soils1 or soils deficient in available moisture1 the trees may not occupy the entire area above ground1 but the roots will require more horizontal feeding space to enable them to make the size trees and bear the crops that they should4 ,trees planted too close together often abstract the moisture from the soil before the growing season is completed4 ,this shortage of moisture1 with the aid of mites1 commonly called red-spider1 causes the loss of the leaves long before they normally should drop4 ,under such conditions the fruit buds are unable to make the vigorous growth which they should4 ,these weak buds are unable to endure the degree of frost or other unfavorable conditions that stronger ones withstand without serious injury4 ,the trees must have plenty of sunlight and air4 ,if planted too close1 the trees tend to grow too high1 each one striving for the light which is only available from above4 ,in figure #g the upward tendency of the trees is clearly shown4 ,such trees1 if pruned as they ought to be1 have a much greater tendency to send out numerous water-sprouts than trees which have plenty of room for the tops to expand laterally4 ,after the tops of the trees interlock and shut out the sunlight from the lower portions1 the smaller branches and fruit spurs in those parts gradually weaken and die1 and eventually the entire crop is produced on or near the tops of the trees1 where direct sunlight is available1 as shown in figure #g4 ,the excessive upward growth of the trees1 with the consequent forcing of the fruit bearing to the top1 not only greatly increases the difficulty and cost of pruning1 spraying and harvesting1 but reduces the possible bearing surface of the trees4 ,setting the ,trees4--,the utmost care is necessary in setting out the trees to secure a uniform stand of vigorous trees4 ,the trees are planted much the same as other deciduous orchard trees1 but care must be used to spread the roots well to secure a thorough compacting of the soil around all the roots1 and to see that the trees are not planted deeper than they were in the nursery4 ,,culture ,soil ,handling4--,the almond is one of the most exacting of fruits as regards its cultivation4 ,the assumption is very often made by growers that because the tree will live through periods of prolonged drouth1 it will also thrive under careless or poor methods of cultivation4 ,that this is entirely erroneous may be inferred from the fact previously referred to that the almond draws more heavily upon the plant food of the soil for the ripening of its crop than any of the common orchard fruits4 ,experience has abundantly proved that many almond orchards are not bearing profitable crops because the requisite soil constituents are not available in sufficient quantities during the long growing season4 ,the reasons for this condition may be one or several4 ,first1 there may not be sufficient moisture available throughout the season1 or it may not be distributed evenly or in sufficient amounts throughout the entire soil area4 ,second1 there may be insufficient aeration of the soil2 and third1 there may not be sufficient humus to fix the soluble plant food in the soil and render it readily available as needed by the roots4 ,proper distribution of moisture in sufficient quantities is essential to secure adequate solution of the mineral elements needed by the roots for the use of the tree in all its parts4 ,sufficient aeration is needed to provide for the normal oxidation and weathering of the soil particles1 and also for the respiration of the roots themselves4 ,there seems to be no question about the value of spring plowing and cultivation to put the soil in good physical condition1 but many growers apparently question the value of summer cultivation4 ,though the surface of the soil appears to be unchanged after a period of several months1 the fact is entirely overlooked that the structure of the mulch has been gradually changed and capillarity to the surface has been restored4 ,the result is that evaporation takes place so rapidly from soils in such a condition1 as well as from the leaves of the trees1 that long before the end of the season the moisture is practically gone4 ,the methods and tools used are much the same as for other orchard trees and it is only necessary to call attention to items likely to be neglected4 ,spring plowing should vary in depth from year to year to avoid the formation of an impervious plow-sole4 ,the depth to plow ranges from a minimum of six inches to ten or twelve inches or more as desirable4 ,summer cultivation should be kept up at least once a month1 and preferably oftener1 throughout the summer months and the soil should be stirred to a depth of four inches to provide a mulch sufficient to hold the moisture effectively in the hot1 dry climates where almonds are grown4 ,the actual number of cultivations necessary will depend on the types of soil4 ,harness with projecting hames or broad singletrees or with projections of any kind to catch on the branches or bark of the trees should never be used in an orchard4 ,cover ,crops4--,constant cultivation throughout the summer allows the humus to be burned out of the surface soil and1 by hindering the growth of vegetation1 prevents the addition of a natural supply of humus to replace that which has been lost4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that some artificial means be used to supply the deficiency4 ,the annual growth of winter cover crops to be plowed in during the spring1 while not entirely replacing the humus burned out in the summer1 serves to reduce the annual loss and at the same time assists materially in improving the texture of the soil4 ,a shade crop1 such as alfalfa1 may be grown successfully in mature orchards where irrigation water is available1 and where perfect drainage of surface and subsoil can be maintained4 ,during the first four or five years or more such a crop is generally a detriment to the almond trees1 but after the trees reach maturity it may be beneficial in securing better drainage and aeration of the soil by the penetration of the numerous roots to considerable depths and their consequent decay when it is plowed in4 ,alfalfa also supplies nitrogen to the soil and thus gradually increases the fertility4 ,the great danger with such a crop is that the orchardist is apt to irrigate for the alfalfa at the expense of the trees because of the quicker returns from the former4 ,in deep1 rich soils the cuttings of alfalfa may be removed from the land1 though the last cutting in the fall should be allowed to remain on the land4 ,where this is done1 a natural mulch is obtained which helps to increase the supply of humus4 ,if the soil is poor and lacking in humus it is better to leave more cuttings of the alfalfa on the ground to decay4 ,as this continues the soil becomes1 through the increased accumulations of humus1 more permeable and yet more retentive of moisture1 and less irrigation will serve the trees more effectively4 ,during the early spring a well-established stand of alfalfa may assist so materially in getting rid of the excess water in the soil that sour-sap1 fruit drop and kindred ills resulting from the unseasonable warm weather while the ground is filled with water and the trees are starting into growth1 may be greatly reduced or avoided entirely4 ,irrigation4--,water for irrigating almonds must always be used with great care whether it be in summer or winter4 ,all water should be so applied that it will readily spread through the soil and not remain in excessive quantities for any length of time4 ,water should not be applied during blossoming or setting of the fruit in the spring or within a week or more of harvest4 ,on the other hand1 water applied just before the hulls commence to open1 where the soil has become too dry1 greatly reduces the number of sticktights1 or almonds in which the hulls stick to the ripening nuts without opening4 ,fertilization4--,little or no systematic work has been done up to the present time in the use of commercial fertilizers on almonds4 ,the use of barnyard manure is desirable wherever obtainable4 ,the value of almond hulls as fertilizers is doubtful because of the difficulty of bringing about their thorough decay when applied in sufficient quantities to be worth while4 ,the use of lime to correct soil acidity and for improving the texture of heavy soils will be found desirable where this is obtainable at reasonable rates4 ,,pruning ,the almond trees normally set a larger number of fruit buds than they are capable of maturing4 ,the number of blossoms set on a healthy tree to produce a full crop will be generally not more than #bj per cent of the total number which opened in the spring1 and oftentimes much less4 ,it has frequently been noted that trees which are somewhat lacking in vigor are inclined to set a larger number of fruit buds than those that are strong and vigorous4 ,the normal set of blossoms on a young1 vigorous tree is shown in figure #b4 ,the result is that with the sub-normal strength of such trees being distributed among the extra number of fruit buds1 the latter are not able to develop into the strong1 healthy buds they should4 ,the results of such conditions have been discussed on pages #bc1 bottom1 and #bd1 top4 ,one of the best means of securing and keeping healthy1 productive trees is by careful1 thoughtful and systematic pruning4 ,the treatment given most of the almond orchards would indicate that the growers consider pruning to be one of the least important of the cultural practices4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,typical ,drake almond tree in ,university ,farm orchard2 nine years old4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,typical ,languedoc almond tree in ,university ,farm orchard2 nine years old4 ,to be most effective1 pruning must be followed systematically throughout the entire life of the tree4 ,the details of the practice will vary greatly1 depending on the soil1 moisture and climatic conditions surrounding the tree1 as well as other treatment accorded it4 ,at planting time1 it is generally agreed that the tree should be cut back to between #ah and #bd inches from the ground to reduce the top to correspond to the shortened root system and to form a low head for the tree4 ,a low head is desirable to avoid sunburn of the trunk and to keep the tree within easy reach for pruning1 spraying and harvesting4 ,during the first summer in the orchard much can be done to obtain a well-balanced head1 to get the main branches well spaced on the trunk1 and to prevent crowding later on1 by pinching out all undesirable growth as fast as it appears and forcing the growth into those parts of the tree which are to remain4 ,if these branches tend to grow too long and willowy1 they may be made to branch by pinching back when they attain the desired height4 ,in this way1 if the tree can be kept growing vigorously1 the beginning of an excellent foundation framework may be developed the first year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,typical ,nonpareil almond tree in ,university ,farm orchard2 nine years old4 ,note numerous water sprouts which must be removed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,typical ,i4,x4,l4 almond tree in ,university ,farm orchard2 nine years old4 ,the following winter1 when the tree is one year old in the orchard1 if it has grown too vigorously and the branches are too long and willowy and not properly branched it should be headed back to improve the shape and symmetry of the whole tree4 ,if the tree has not made sufficient growth to give it a properly shaped head1 it should also be cut back even more severely than in the case of the too vigorous growth4 ,there sometimes will be trees that during the first year will develop such a well-shaped and stocky frame that no further heading will be necessary1 all future pruning being limited to thinning out undesirable and interfering branches4 ,ordinarily1 however1 it will be highly desirable or necessary to continue the practice of heading-in the yearling tree at least4 ,as long as heading continues it will pay to give special attention to pinching and thinning the following summer4 ,in this way the frame of the tree may be developed more quickly and the future necessity of heading be materially lessened4 ,in rich bottom lands where moisture is plentiful1 heading may be necessary when the tree is two1 three and1 in extreme cases1 #d years old1 in order to spread the tree and prevent it from growing too high4 ,the necessity for this can only be determined by a careful study of the tree itself and the conditions surrounding it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,typical ,ne ,plus ,ultra almond tree in ,university ,farm orchard2 nine years old4 ,the habit of growth of a given variety will have a great deal to do with the number of seasons during which heading back will be practiced4 ,spreading varieties1 such as the ,drake 7see figure #h71 if making a strong1 vigorous growth1 should not be headed any longer than is necessary to start a sufficient number of main branches4 ,every opportunity must be given the trees of this variety to grow as upright as possible4 ,summer pruning of the drooping1 undesirable branches wherever they develop1 will help to increase the growth of the upright branches4 ,by pruning as far as possible to inside buds1 every opportunity will be given the trees to grow upward4 ,if trees of such varieties make a poor1 weak growth1 a very heavy heading will force them to make a stronger and more vigorous growth the following season1 provided any unfavorable soil and moisture conditions are corrected4 ,care must be exercised with these trees to prevent the downward growth of any of the branches by pruning them off during the summer1 as suggested above4 ,as soon as a strong1 upright growth is started1 no further heading should be done1 but careful thinning by removal of undesirable growth should be continued4 ,upright varieties1 such as the ,languedoc 7see figure #i7 and ,texas1 may require heading for a longer time than the more spreading varieties4 ,it is necessary to force them to branch nearer the ground and they should be made to spread as much as possible4 ,pruning to outside buds and summer pinching will aid materially and make it unnecessary to head back after the first two or three years4 ,where this is not done1 heading may be necessary at the end of the third and possibly to the fourth year if the tree is in rich1 deep1 moist soil4 ,another advantage of summer pinching and removal of water sprouts is that the trees are not allowed to develop a thick 8crow's nest0 at the end of the stubs where heading back was done the previous winter1 making the following winter pruning much easier4 ,the habit of growth of each of the principal commercial varieties is shown in figures #h to #ab1 inclusive4 ,after the main framework is properly started1 further pruning will be limited to thinning out the tree to keep it sufficiently open and to remove all dead1 injured and interfering branches4 ,most of the growth after this will continue from the ends of the remaining branches and as the trees grow higher they will tend to branch more4 ,all cross branches and those that are liable to interfere later should be taken out4 ,all water sprouts should be removed unless they are needed to fill in undesirable open spaces4 ,as the trees come into full bearing and approach maturity1 the vigorous wood growth will cease and will be replaced by a moderate yearly growth of wood which will gradually increase the size of the tree without making it unmanageable4 ,where trees continue to make excessive wood growth when they should be bearing1 the trouble may generally be traced to unusually rich1 moist soil1 a condition which pruning cannot correct4 ,it may be beneficial to stop pruning altogether for a few years1 which will be likely to throw the trees into heavy bearing and thus stop excessive wood growth4 ,after the bearing habit is once thoroughly established1 moderate pruning may be done to get the tree back into proper shape4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,eighteen-year-old almond trees deheaded six feet from ground1 in the ,armstrong orchard near ,davis4 ,stubs painted with white lead4 ,photo taken ,february1 #aiad4 ,compare with ,figs4 #ad to #ai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,same trees as ,fig4 #ac1 showing growth one year after deheading4 ,photo taken ,march1 #aiae4 ,on some of the trees long stubs were left near the bottom of the trees from which new growth never started4 ,only a moderate thinning out of the new growth was done4 ,the mature tree should have its branches so spaced that sunlight may penetrate to all portions of the tree4 ,this is necessary for the continued health and life of the fruit spurs in the lower portions of the tree4 ,if the top is too dense1 the new growth can only continue in the top and outer portions of the tree where sunlight can penetrate4 ,when an adventitious bud does start in the center of the tree it immediately makes a strong vigorous growth to reach the sunlight far above4 ,such a growth is called a water sprout4 ,if the trees are kept so pruned that the shadow on the ground during the greater part of the day is mottled with sunlight while the trees are in full leaf1 the small growth may be maintained in the center and the bearing surface greatly increased4 ,where this is done the trees will not tend to grow as high as they otherwise would4 ,pruning of healthy1 mature trees1 therefore1 will be limited to thinning out and removal of dead and interfering branches and water sprouts4 ,portions which grow too high may be brought down by removal close to a shorter and lower branch4 ,by giving this treatment only to small portions of the tree during a season1 the forcing of water sprouts may be largely avoided4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,same trees as ,fig4 #ad1 showing two seasons' growth after deheading4 ,photo taken ,february1 #aiaf1 just after pruning had been completed4 ,old trees1 or those which1 through improper care or neglect have become weak and unfruitful1 may often be rejuvenated4 ,one method is to dehead them to a height of about six feet from the ground and to grow entirely new tops4 ,by this method about three years are required to bring the trees back to the point where they are again ready to bear profitable crops4 ,the objections to this are that it is an expensive operation1 no crops whatever can be obtained for two years1 organisms of decay may gain entrance to the wood1 and sometimes the sudden shock to the tree renders it more subject to physiological disturbances4 ,the advantages are that if proper care is given the trees during the rebuilding period1 much better formed trees may be obtained and a finer quality of bearing wood be secured throughout the new trees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,same trees as ,fig4 #ad1 showing three seasons' growth after deheading4 ,photo taken ,january1 #aiag4 ,no pruning done this winter4 ,trees have not borne more than a few almonds but have a good set of fruit buds4 ,to be successful1 the deheading process must be followed by careful thinning of the sprouts that will be forced from the old stubs4 ,if too much thinning is done the first year1 there is danger of those that are left becoming top-heavy and breaking off4 ,this is especially troublesome in sections subject to strong winds4 ,the new sprouts should be left sufficiently thick to help support each other1 and yet should be thinned out sufficiently to prevent crowding4 ,at the end of the first season's growth1 further trimming should be done1 giving those branches best adapted for the frame of the new tree a chance to take the lead the following season4 ,a sufficient amount of secondary growth should be left to help take care of the excessive sap flow in the shortened tree1 but this must be watched to see that it does not interfere with the growth which is to be permanent4 ,by the end of the second year1 the permanent branches should be sufficiently strong and firm to permit the entire removal of all other branches4 ,the amount of wood to be left until the end of the second season and then removed is clearly shown in figures #ah and #ai4 ,the third year the tree should make sufficient growth to restore very largely the equilibrium between the top and the roots and also produce a small crop4 ,figures #ac to #ag1 inclusive1 illustrate the steps in rejuvenating an orchard by the deheading process from the start until the trees are again in commercial bearing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,same trees as ,fig4 #ad1 showing four seasons' growth after deheading4 ,photo taken ,december1 #aiag1 after trees have borne their first good crop of nuts4 ,no pruning has been done since ,january1 #aiaf4 ,some growers find it more desirable to cut back only one-half of each tree at a time4 ,the shock to the tree is not so great and the liability to sour-sap correspondingly less4 ,the halves of the tree left standing act as a wind-break to prevent the blowing out of the new growth1 which at the same time is less likely to break off because of its slower and more sturdy growth4 ,the objection to this method is that the other half must be cut off the following winter and the shaping process is more or less uneven1 and necessarily continued over a long time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,two seasons' growth before pruning of almond trees deheaded six feet from the ground ,january1 #aiad1 in the ,armstrong orchard near ,davis4 ,the tree was only moderately thinned at the end of the first year4 ,photo taken ,february #b1 #aiaf4 ,the other method of rejuvenation is to thin out gradually the dead and weakened branches in the old trees and rebuild them gradually1 removing only a small portion in any one year4 ,as the new growth is forced out it is used to replace the old wood where possible4 ,such a system requires more cutting of small branches high up in the tree to be successful1 for it must not be opened to sunlight too suddenly or sunburn will result4 ,the cutting of a large number of small branches tends to force the growth of new buds over a large proportion of the tree and if done moderately many of these will quickly develop into fruiting wood4 ,eventually1 many large branches may have to be removed as newer branches are developed1 but this must necessarily be a comparatively gradual process4 ,the advantages of this method are that there is no sudden shock to the tree1 there is always sufficient leaf surface to care for any extra supply of sap which may be forced into the tree by unfavorable weather and moisture conditions1 and cropping will be continuous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,same tree as ,fig4 #ah after pruning4 ,the actual time required to prune this tree was twenty-five minutes4 ,photo taken ,february1 #aiaf4 ,whatever method of rejuvenation is used1 the grower must be very careful from the first to protect all large wounds by some paint or other protective covering1 such as asphaltum1 to prevent checking and weathering and to keep decay from getting started and working into the heart of the tree4 ,with very large wounds a protective covering must be kept on during the remainder of the life of the tree1 or until the wounds heal over completely4 ,,influence ,,of ,,culture ,,on ,,nuts ,the effect of culture on the nuts is quite marked4 ,all varieties will vary in size from season to season and in different orchards during the same season1 depending on the plant food and moisture supply available during the time the nuts are maturing4 ,some varieties1 notably the ,nonpareil1 will vary more in size than in plumpness1 while other varieties1 like the ,ne ,plus ,ultra1 are more inclined to produce somewhat shriveled kernels and imperfectly developed shells and the variation in size will not be as great4 ,as the trees bear larger crops the nuts produced are inclined to be smaller4 ,young1 vigorous trees with a light crop will often produce unusually large nuts with comparatively thin shells4 ,the value of a variety1 therefore1 will depend largely upon its behavior after the trees reach full maturity and bearing4 ,,orchard ,,heating ,,for ,,frost ,,prevention ,there has been considerable interest in protecting almonds from frost because of the frequency with which they are subjected to such conditions by reason of their early blossoming habit4 ,the use of orchard heaters in some districts has become a common and successful practice4 ,it is possible to economically control several degrees of frost for three or four nights or possibly more by a judicious use of heaters4 ,the best type of heater for almond orchards has not been thoroughly worked out as yet1 but the reservoir heaters of the ,bolton or ,hamilton type have been commonly and successfully used4 ,the former are commonly known as 8pots40 ,at least #ge one or two-gallon heaters per acre are necessary to control temperatures as low as #bg or #bh degrees ,f4 ,probably not over #ajj pots to an acre would be needed at most4 ,double the number of pots should be placed around the outside row of the orchard to afford the necessary protection4 ,the gravity of oil best suited for orchard heating is between #bj and #be degrees ,beaum4 ,it is essential that it be as free from impurities1 such as sulphur1 as possible4 ,during the spring of #aiag1 orchard heating was done very extensively in some districts of the state while the trees were approaching full bloom4 ,as the season progressed it became apparent that some serious injury had been done by the heating1 for the bulk of the blossoms fell off and the leaves turned yellow in streaks as if burned by an acid4 ,the appearance was exactly as if the particles of soot settling on the pistils of the flowers and on the young leaves had absorbed sulphur dioxide gas 7a product of oil combustion where sulphur is contained in the oil7 and that the dews uniting with it to form sulphurous acid had done the damage4 ,had the heating been done later and only after the trees had passed full bloom1 it is possible that a much heavier set of nuts might have been secured1 since the small fruits1 where they had formed1 seemed to have been uninjured1 only the pistils of the flowers having been affected1 probably preventing pollination and fertilization of the ovules4 ,the time of heating is therefore a very important point4 ,almond blossoms become progressively more tender to frost as they advance in development4 ,with their petals on they are not nearly as tender as they are after the petals have fallen4 ,they reach their most tender stage after the calyx shucks have fallen from the young expanding fruits before they are the size of a pea4 ,ordinarily1 orchard heating before the trees have passed full bloom is a waste of time and material and is often injurious4 ,the most needed time is for a period of two or three weeks after the bulk of the petals have fallen1 unless temperatures below #bh or #bi degrees are encountered before that time4 ,,crop ,,handling ,harvesting4--,the harvesting of the crop should be commenced as soon as the hulls have opened to their fullest extent and no time should be lost in completing the work4 ,the nuts in the center of the tree are the last ones to ripen and so may be used as indicators4 ,if harvesting is commenced early1 the nuts will cling to the tree rather tenaciously and knocking must be very vigorous in order to shake them loose4 ,on the other hand1 if they are allowed to hang too long after ripening1 a number of difficulties may be encountered4 ,they may be blown to the ground by light winds and the cost of gathering be increased1 as quite commonly occurs with the ,peerless1 or the hulls may dry up and in doing so1 close around the nuts to a greater or less extent and add to the cost and difficulty of hulling4 ,this is most noticeable with the ,nonpareil4 ,strong winds will break off a great many of the nuts of any of the varieties1 and promptness is doubly essential where there is any likelihood of such winds during the harvest season4 ,depredations by birds may cause serious losses1 especially with the soft and papershell varieties4 ,infestation by worms may often be quite serious in the papershell varieties when they are allowed to hang too long4 ,in case of damp or foggy weather the shells turn dark and sometimes commence to mildew1 requiring heavier bleaching to brighten them sufficiently for market demands4 ,rain stains can never be removed entirely by bleaching4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,harvesting almonds by knocking onto sheets spread on ground4 ,the crop is gathered by knocking the ripened nuts and hulls with long poles onto sheets spread on the ground under the trees4 ,the knocking should be done near the portions of the trees where the nuts are borne and by striking a number of light1 quick blows1 rather than by a heavy blow aimed to jar a large branch4 ,this will avoid injury to the bark by bruising and will accomplish the work in less time4 ,the blows should always be delivered squarely against the branch4 ,a glancing blow will tear the bark and break off a great many fruit spurs1 thus reducing the bearing surface for the next year4 ,for this reason harvesters must be watched closely all the time to insure the proper use of the poles4 ,the sheets1 two in number1 are spread under the trees so they will overlap and catch all the nuts that fall 7see figure #bj74 ,when sufficiently loaded with nuts to make dragging the sheets from one tree to another difficult1 they are emptied into lug boxes and sent to the huller4 ,the character of the harvesting equipment may vary considerably1 depending on the acreage1 character of trees and ground1 time required1 capital available1 and the personal wishes of the owner4 ,some growers use heavy poles of pine1 spruce or fir1 while others prefer the lighter bamboo poles4 ,the heavy poles are from #a to #b inches in diameter at the base and from to #a inch in diameter at the top4 ,experience has shown that poles of this type over #bj feet in length become unwieldy1 and not only swing slowly but do more damage because of the greater difficulty of control4 ,most growers prefer #af-;foot poles with a few #bj-;foot ones for use in the tops of the taller trees4 ,where the tops cannot be reached with these1 the men climb into the trees with shorter poles4 ,the bamboo poles used are about #bd feet long and because of their lightness can be used with greater speed4 ,bamboo poles with short internodes should be selected as they are less likely to break4 ,breakage may also be reduced by storing the poles in a cool place where drying-out will not be excessive4 ,the sheets used are made of duck ranging in weight from #g to #ab ounces4 ,sizes of single sheets range from #ab #bd to #bd #dh feet4 ,sheets need not be much longer than the longest diameter of the tree4 ,to prevent mildew and rotting of the fabric in the sheets they should be boiled in a solution of tannin before being used4 ,the life of sheets thus treated will be greatly lengthened4 ,a number of growers have provided special contrivances by which sheets are mounted on sleds or wheels so they are not dragged on the ground4 ,the principal objection to such an arrangement is that the sled or wheeled frame must be made in two sections1 one for each side of the tree1 thus increasing the cost of the operation because the horses can be used for nothing else while harvesting is in progress4 ,on the other hand1 by the dragging process sheets will not last more than two or three seasons1 whereas by the sled or wagon method they will last from six to ten years longer4 ,the two wagons shown in figure #ba1 each #ab #bd feet1 cost between #fj and #gj1 about #aiad4 ,the canvas portion is of #h-ounce duck4 ,by this method the knockers can gather ten lug boxes before emptying4 ,the work can be done much faster with wagons4 ,with the sleds a sheet is fastened lengthwise on the right-hand side of one and another on the left-hand side of the other sled4 ,hulling4--,after harvesting1 the almonds1 hulls and all are taken while still moist1 to the huller to separate them4 ,if they become dry before hulling they must be dipped in water or the shells will be broken4 ,all hulling was formerly done by hand1 and this is still done where only small lots are to be handled4 ,the invention of machinery for this purpose has reduced the cost of hulling from #fj to #hj per cent1 for most outfits separate the hulls from the nuts before they leave the machine4 ,some of the hand hullers consist simply of the hulling portion of the large power machines without the separating screens4 ,these cost about one-sixth or one-seventh as much as the large machines1 and where a man has a small acreage and is too far away to haul to a large huller1 a hand machine will greatly facilitate the work1 even though the final separation must be done by hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,portable almond sheets mounted on wheels as used by ,n4 ,j4 ,lund1 ,oakdale1 ,california1 #aiaf4 ,there are three different kinds of hulling and separating machines now in operation in ,california1 all invented by ,california almond growers4 ,the first one made was the ,read 8,sure-,pop0 almond huller4 ,this is now manufactured in three sizes by the ,schmeiser ,manufacturing ,company1 ,davis1 ,california4 ,the ,no4 #c huller does not have any separating device and is generally best for orchards of less than ten acres4 ,it may be operated by hand or by a small engine or motor4 ,the ,no4 #b hullers both hull and separate and are operated only by power4 ,they should pay in orchards of ten acres or more4 ,the ,no4 #a is the largest made and is for use in large orchards of #ajj acres or more4 ,the ,beach huller is of more recent origin1 having been in use only since #ahie4 ,it was invented by ,j4 ,e4 ,beach of ,fairoaks1 ,california1 and is being manufactured by him4 ,the two sizes of this machine are both power outfits2 they are doing satisfactory work at the present time4 ,the third huller is that made by ,c4 ,u4 ,reams of ,suisun4 ,one of the first machines made by him was in #ahig1 and is now in working order at the ,f4 ,o4 ,scarlett ranch1 northeast of ,suisun1 and is doing satisfactory work4 ,since the first invention1 ,reams has made a number of improvements both in the method of hulling and of separating4 ,many growers do not have sufficient tonnage to enable them to afford a commercial huller1 and yet hulling by hand is a slow and tedious practice4 ,c4 ,e4 ,sedgwick1 ,manager of the ,solano ,district of the ,pacific ,gas and ,electric ,company1 located at ,dixon1 ,california1 conceived the idea of using a centrifugal blower operated by a small electric motor to do the hulling4 ,his description of this outfit1 quoted from 8,pacific ,service ,magazine10 ,april1 #aiaf1 page #cic1 after making two small corrections given by ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 is as follows3 ,the equipment consists of a ,no4 #j ,sturtevant exhaust fan belted to a #a h4p4 motor4 ,the nuts are fed into the suction side of the fan where they are picked up by the runner1 hurled against the casing of the fan and blown out of the discharge into a box4 ,the motor consumes three-tenths kilowatts when almonds are fed into the fan at the rate of a lug box every minutes and one-half1 so that the power cost1 even at the #h-;cent lighting rate1 is only #b4d cents per hour4 ,the fan costs about #bj1 while the regular commercial hullers run as high as #gej4 ,further inquiry from ,mr4 ,sedgwick developed the fact that this huller has operated for three seasons on a #bj-;acre almond orchard4 ,peerless1 ,drake and ,i4,x4,l4 almonds were all hulled successfully4 ,nonpareils have not as yet been tried4 ,the speed most commonly used was about #abjj r4p4m41 though it varied somewhat with the different varieties4 ,he believes that a larger size would do better work4 ,the efficiency of any of the above hullers depends largely upon the speed of the machine and upon the condition of the almonds in the hulls4 ,if the machine runs too fast the almonds will be broken and injured1 and if it runs too slowly many of the almonds are not hulled4 ,if the almonds are allowed to hang on the trees too long1 or if allowed to lie around too long after being harvested1 the hulls become dry and leathery and the difficulty of hulling is greatly increased4 ,dipping in water in such cases may help to overcome this difficulty to a limited extent4 ,the papershell varieties1 notably the ,nonpareil1 are much more difficult to hull without breaking the shells than are the harder shelled varieties4 ,the ,nonpareil hull has a tendency to close around the nut on drying1 making hulling under such circumstances very difficult4 ,often when the moisture supply in the soil is exhausted before the nuts are ripe1 or where the loss of leaf surface due to mites is serious prior to ripening1 the hulls open only slightly or not at all1 but dry onto the shell of the nut4 ,such 8sticktights0 can only be disposed of profitably by allowing them to thoroughly dry1 when they are cracked and sold as kernels4 ,after the hulling operation all almonds must be gone over by hand to remove pieces of hulls and inferior or gummy nuts4 ,where canvas drapers are not available for sorting directly from the huller1 the nuts are piled in hoppers and sorted on benches beneath them4 ,drying4--,immediately following the sorting1 the nuts are spread on trays and thoroughly dried in the sun4 ,in the interior valleys during the hot1 dry weather the nuts will sometimes dry so quickly that by the time the sorting from hoppers is completed the nuts are sufficiently dry to be bleached4 ,the grower must be certain1 however1 that such is the case before any bleaching is done1 or before the almonds are delivered to the warehouses for bleaching4 ,the nuts are sufficiently dry when the kernels will break without bending4 ,quick drying is essential to prevent the excessive darkening of the shell4 ,bleaching4--,when thoroughly dry the nuts are ready for bleaching4 ,the shells are first moistened by spraying with water or subjecting them to low-pressure steam for #aj to #bj minutes4 ,the shells are then subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur for #aj to #cj minutes4 ,the sulphur fumes are absorbed by the moisture on the shells1 which are bleached to a bright yellow color4 ,after bleaching the nuts are exposed to the air for a few moments to allow them to dry4 ,the market demands a nut that has been sufficiently bleached to give it a bright1 clean1 yellow color4 ,an over-bleached almond is equally objectionable because of its pale1 sickly1 yellow or whitish color4 ,over-steaming or sulphuring permits excessive penetration of the sulphur fumes1 with the resulting danger of absorption by the kernel4 ,while this may not be noticeable in the flavor1 it will eventually result in premature deterioration in the form of rancidity4 ,unbleached almonds remain edible much longer than bleached almonds in nearly every case4 ,ordinarily one to three pounds of the best flowers of sulphur is required to bleach a ton of almonds4 ,lump sulphur is not satisfactory4 ,sacking4--,during the preliminary handling of almonds ordinary grain sacks are commonly used4 ,after bleaching1 in which condition they are ready for market1 they are put in standard almond bags1 measuring #bj #dj inches and weighing #a pounds4 ,the weight of a bag of almonds will vary1 depending not only on the variety but also on the year in which the crop was grown and the locality in which it was produced4 ,for selling purposes the ,california ,almond ,growers' ,exchange estimates weights of different varieties to be as follows3 ,nonpareil about #he pounds to the bag2 ,i4,x4,l4 about #hj pounds2 ,ne ,plus ,ultra1 #ge pounds2 ,drake1 #ij to #ajj pounds2 ,languedoc1 #ajj pounds2 and hardshell almonds1 #ajj to #abj pounds4 ,shelling4--,within the past two years the shelling of almonds has taken a prominent place in the consideration of the men charged with the disposal of the almond crop4 ,the increasing popularity of shelled almonds1 and the limited market for unshelled almonds1 makes the production of more shelled almonds imperative in view of the prospects of greatly increased production in the next few years4 ,a small proportion of the shelled almonds marketed are those accidentally shelled during the hulling process4 ,this probably averages less than #cj pounds per ton of almonds hulled in ordinary years4 ,the varieties most commonly shelled are the papershells4 ,they are much more easily shelled without breaking the kernels than are the harder shelled varieties and1 in addition1 are worth more for shelling because of the high percentage of kernel compared to shell4 ,grading4--,grading almonds for size is not done at present but probably will be within the next few years4 ,grading for quality is done regularly by testing an entire lot rather than attempting to separate inferior nuts4 ,the standard grade consists of all lots having the required percentage of good kernels1 free from worms or gummy nuts4 ,this requirement varies between #ij and #ie per cent1 depending on the condition of the crop as a whole and on the market conditions4 ,the standard grade of a given variety sells on guarantee that it shall be up to advertised standard4 ,all lots which cannot pass this are sold on sample1 and therefore1 on their own individual merits4 ,,marketing ,the marketing of the ,california almond crop is at present on a firmer basis than at any time in the past4 ,previous to #aiaj there was little or no coperation among growers and the buyers had everything their own way4 ,in ,may of that year1 however1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,dargitz1 an almond grower near ,acampo1 ,california1 successfully organized the ,california ,almond ,growers' ,exchange1 consisting of nine local associations with a total membership of #bcj growers4 ,the ,exchange started business with #ajjj borrowed capital1 personally guaranteed by the directors4 ,on ,june #a1 #aiah1 there were #bb sub-associations representing about #bjjj growers1 controlling about three-fourths of the crop4 ,the ,exchange now is not only out of debt but owns investments aggregating #ajj1jjj in value1 including warehouses1 a central shelling plant and other property4 ,at the same time1 the growers have been receiving about #ej per cent more for their almonds than before the ,exchange was organized4 ,the success of the ,exchange1 with the consequent higher prices to the grower1 has resulted in a large increase in the acreage of almonds in ,california4 ,this increase is making it necessary to develop new markets to absorb the greater tonnage1 and this can only be done effectively or satisfactorily by coperative effort4 ,heretofore1 ,california almonds have been marketed chiefly in the shell4 ,a small proportion has been cracked annually to supply western brokers and confectioners1 and practically all of these have been sold west of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,only the whole nuts have been shipped to the eastern markets4 ,the ,european crops are sent to the ,united ,states largely as kernels and have had a practical monopoly of the shelled almond business east of the ,rockies4 ,the ,tarragonas and ,valencias shipped to ,america come into direct competition with the ,i4,x4,l41 ,drake1 ,languedoc and other ,california almonds1 all of which are unshelled for the eastern markets4 ,the imports of unshelled almonds average about the same as the ,california production4 ,the ,jordan1 ,princess and other varieties1 however1 come in shelled1 constituting the bulk of the importations4 ,the ,jordan1 because of its superior quality1 is in a class by itself and does not compete at present with the ,california product4 ,the ,princess and other almonds of that type are much the same as the ,california shelling varieties and will be serious competitors when sold in the same markets4#d ,storing4--,almonds awaiting removal or sale will become rancid if stored in warm or damp places4 ,if the almonds have been properly cared for during the handling process to prevent worm infection1 and if the nuts have been thoroughly cured1 they will keep satisfactorily for a year or more4 ,the ideal condition is to keep them stored in a uniformly cool1 dry storage place with ample ventilation4 ,,yields ,the yield of almonds in different years and in different orchards is probably more variable than that of any other of the common orchard fruits4 ,the fluctuations from year to year are largely due to climatic conditions1 while the variations in different orchards are largely due to variety1 care given the trees throughout their life1 the character of the soil1 and location with relation to local frost conditions4 ,almonds first commence bearing at from two to four years of age2 the first crop ranging from one or two nuts up to a hatful or possibly more4 ,the trees will first commence to bear a crop which it will pay to harvest1 at from three to five years of age4 ,ordinarily1 it will be nearer the latter1 depending upon the type of soil in which the trees are growing and the moisture conditions surrounding them4 ,on the hill lands the trees begin to mature much earlier than in the rich bottom lands and consequently come into bearing earlier4 ,it must be borne in mind that a crop which it will pay to harvest does not necessarily pay for the cost of orchard maintenance4 ,a crop is not considered a paying crop until it pays for the cost of maintenance as well as harvesting and handling4 ,almond orchards1 as a rule1 reach this point at from five to seven years of age4 ,from this time on the trees should continue to increase in production from year to year1 allowing for failures due to frost and other unfavorable conditions1 until they are from #ab to #bj years old4 ,under the common methods of care that most orchards receive1 the trees commence to decrease in their production at from #be to #cj years1 although in some cases it will be even sooner than that4 ,on the other hand1 well cared-for orchards will continue their maximum production even longer4 ,the age at which an orchard will no longer pay will range from #cj years upward4 ,the top limit is still unknown4 ,investigations carried on during #aiac-aiade brought out the following facts3 ,the average production of almonds in ,california is between #gjj and #hjj pounds per acre2 if care is exercised in the selection of a proper location for an orchard and if good judgment is used in managing it1 #ajjj pounds per acre would be a safe estimate for business purposes2 in many years competent men might be expected to obtain #aejj pounds per acre1 but this could not be expected to hold for a ten-year average4 ,the possibilities are shown by the crop from one acre on the ,university ,farm1 at ,davis1 ,california1 of ten-year-old trees which amounted to nearly #bhjj pounds in #aiag4 ,,cost ,,of ,,production ,the cost of producing almonds involves a number of variable factors1 including overhead charges1 such as the cost of the land1 equipment1 taxes1 insurance and depreciation2 and also the cost of maintenance and handling4 ,maintenance includes such costs as pruning1 plowing1 cultivating1 spraying and irrigation4 ,handling includes harvesting1 hulling1 hauling1 and warehousing4 ,tabulations of estimates in tables ,,ii to ,,viii are based on information collected during the years #aiac to #aiaf1 inclusive1 from a large number of growers in practically all the almond districts of the state1 and represent as accurately as possible with the data at hand the average costs which actually exist throughout ,california4 ,cost of the ,land4--,the estimates given in table ,,ii are to be taken as only partially indicative of conditions which actually exist in the various districts mentioned4 ,these figures do not give the entire range of prices but indicate some of the more common values placed upon the land4 ,,table ,,ii ,,value ,,of ,,almond ,,land ,,in ,,california ,land in bearing ,district-- ,bare land orchard ,best ,sacramento ,valley land #bjj-djj #djj-fjj ,other good interior valley lands #aej- #cjj #djj- #ejj ,sacramento ,valley1 foothill sections #ge- #aej #bjj- #djj ,contra ,costa ,county #ajj- #cjj #bej- #ejj ,santa ,clara and ,san ,benito counties #cjj- #fjj #ejj- #hjj ,paso ,robles district #ej- #aej 44444444 ,banning district #djj- #hjj #fjj-ajjj --------- -------- ,averages for ,california #bej #ejj ,equipment4--,it has been found impossible to gather accurate figures upon cost of equipment in almond orchards1 and especially so in view of the present abnormal economic conditions1 but the list given in table ,,iii will give an idea of the equipment required4 ,in addition1 there will be other small items the grower will need which are not mentioned here4 ,,table ,,iii ,,almond ,,orchard ,,equipment ,plows ,harrows 7spike-tooth and spring-tooth7 ,disc ,cultivator ,weed cutter ,clod masher ,roller ,hoes1 shovels1 etc4 ,pruning tools ,brush burner ,spray outfit ,wagon ,barns1 sheds and other buildings ,harvesting equipment3 ,almond sheets ,poles ,lug boxes ,hulling machine ,sorting tables and bins ,drying trays ,sacks for transportation to warehouse ,orchard heating equipment 7#be-cj per acre7 ,horses or tractors ,harness ,average ,overhead ,charges4--,table ,,iv shows the average overhead charges for almond orchards4 ,interest and depreciation on buildings are not included because of the great variation in their character1 so that an extra charge must be figured on these items by the individual grower4 ,,table ,,iv ,,average ,,overhead ,,charges ,,per ,,acre ,taxes and insurance #d4jj ,interest #cj4jj ,depreciation on working equipment #d4jj ------ ,total #ch4jj ,cost of ,production4--,table ,v shows the average cost of production for bearing orchards of varieties in all districts1 based on personal observation and cost records from a large number of orchards mentioned previously4 ,wherever cost is dependent upon tonnage the average yield of #gjj pounds per acre is used as the basis for computation4 ,depreciation on buildings and trees1 time spent by teams in idleness1 feed consumed during such times and other minor items are too variable to safely estimate1 but must be considered4 ,,table ,v ,,average ,,cost ,,of ,,production ,,of ,,all ,,bearing ,,orchards ,,in ,,california ,per acre ,maintenance3 ,pruning #c4jj ,plowing #b4ge ,harrowing 4#ge ,cultivation and weed cutting #c4jj ,spraying #c4jj ,irrigation #b4jj ,handling3 ,harvesting1 hulling1 etc4 #bj4jj ,warehousing 7including bleaching71 c per lb4 #a4ge ,miscellaneous expense for maintenance and handling #b4jj #ch4be ------ ,overhead charges #ch4jj ------ ,total cost per acre #gf4be ,cost per pound for maintenance and handling #j4jee ,cost per pound for overhead charges #j4jed ------ ,total cost per pound #j4aji ,returns4--,prices paid to growers have fluctuated considerably1 due to the great variation in both the ,california and ,european crops from year to year4 ,table ,,vi shows the average prices per pound paid to the growers for the four principal varieties marketed through the ,exchange since its organization4 ,,table ,,vi ,,net ,,prices ,,realized ,,by ,,the ,,exchange ,,members ,,for ,,different ,,varieties ,,for ,,the ,,years #aiaj ,,to #aiaf1 ,,inclusive1 ,,in ,,cents ,,per ,,pound ,ne ,plus ,crop ,year ,nonpareil ,i4,x4,l4 ,ultra ,drake tons #aiaj #ad4jj #ac4jj #ab4jj #aj4jj #c1ejj #aiaa #af4ej #ae4ej #ad4ej #ab4jj #a1dej #aiab #ac4be #ab4be #aa4be #i4ej #c1jjj #aiac #ag4be #af4be #ae4be #ac4be #a1ajj #aiad #ah4jj #ae4jj #ad4ej #aa4ej #b1bej #aiae #ac4jj #ab4jj #aa4jj #i4be #c1ejj #aiaf #ag4be #ad4ge #ac4ge #ac4jj #c1djj ----- ----- ----- ----- ------- ,average #ae4fa #ad4aa #ac4ah #aa4bb #b1ega4d ,table ,,vii shows the average price per pound paid to the growers for all almonds 7unshelled7 regardless of quality and variety1 based upon the entire crop handled by the ,exchange during the years #aiaj to #aiaf1 inclusive4 ,from these figures the average return per pound for all varieties for seven years based on the crop tonnage for each year1 #aiaj to #aiaf1 inclusive1 has been found to be #ac4ji cents per pound4 ,,table ,,vii ,,average ,,prices ,,per ,,pound ,,paid ,,growers ,,for ,,all ,,unshelled ,,almonds ,,for ,,the ,,years #aiaj ,,to #aiaf1 ,,inclusive ,price per pound1 ,california crop1 ,year cents tons #aiaj #ab4j #c1cjj #aiaa #ac4e #a1dej #aiab #aa4j #c1jjj #aiac #ae4e #a1ajj #aiad #ad4je #b1bej #aiae #aj4ge #c1ejj #aiaf #ac4ig #c1djj ----- ------- ,average #ac4ji #b1ega4d ,the relation of yields1 returns and profits from the growers' standpoint is one which every person must consider before entering the business4 ,in view of the extravagant claims which have been made as to the enormous profits realized by the average grower1 the figures in tables ,,ii to ,,viii have been worked out and presented here4 ,the summation of the relation of yields1 returns and cost of production to the profits for the average grower of almonds is shown in table ,,viii4 ,,table ,,viii ,,relation ,,of ,,average ,,yields1 ,,costs ,,and ,,returns1 ,,to ,,profits ,average yield per acre #gjj pounds ,average returns to grower per acre #ig4cj ,average cost of production per acre #gf4be ------ ,average profit per acre #ba4je ,depreciation on buildings and trees1 and other unfigured costs1 are too variable to estimate1 but they must come from these profits4 ,,diseases ,crown ,gall4--,also commonly known as root-knot4 ,this disease is one of the most serious with which the grower has to contend4 ,it is found practically everywhere almonds are grown and either greatly reduces the vitality of or kills the trees affected1 depending upon the seriousness of the attack4 ,the disease is caused by a bacterial organism1 ,bacterium tumefaciens1 that seems to be native to most ,california soils4 ,it is characterized by large swellings on the root crown or main roots just below the surface of the ground1 though lesser infections may sometimes be found also on the smaller roots4 ,when cut open1 these knots appear spongy as if the bark and wood were all mixed together in one mass4 ,they are most serious when spread over a large surface1 either partially or completely girdling the root or crown of the tree4 ,control methods are of three kinds3 7#a7 ,plant nothing but clean1 healthy nursery trees1 free from all trace of galls4 ,in planting these trees be careful to trim off all broken or injured roots1 leaving nothing but smooth clean cuts at the ends of the roots which will heal over readily with the minimum opportunity for infection4 7#b7 ,galls on orchard trees may be cut out to clean1 healthy wood with a sharp knife or gouge chisel4 ,the wound should be thoroughly disinfected with a strong copper-sulphate or corrosive-sublimate solution1 and painted with a protective covering such as paint or melted asphaltum1 or it may be covered directly with ,bordeaux paste and then the earth returned to its place over the roots4 7#c7 ,a method used with apparent success is to bore a one-inch hole about two-third of the way through each gall1 as soon as the trees have become dormant in the fall4 ,then fill each hole with a concentrated solution of copper sulphate and plug the opening4 ,by spring1 when growth is ready to start1 the gall may be knocked off with a hammer4 ,in most cases the gall is so thoroughly permeated by the solution that the infection is completely killed and further gall growth ceases in that place1 unless later infection occurs4 ,the use of resistant stocks has been suggested as a means of avoiding infection1 but no such stock suitable for the almond has yet been proved to be sufficiently resistant under average conditions to be safely recommended4 ,the greatest hopes for future success in combating this disease1 however1 lie along this line4 ,oak ,fungus4--,this is one of the most difficult diseases to control because it works and spreads beneath the surface of the ground in the roots of trees4 ,in some sections of the state it is very serious in many orchards4 ,the disease is often known as root-rot1 being caused by a fungus ,armillaria mellea1 commonly called 8toadstool0 fungus4 ,it is known as ,oak fungus because the disease is most commonly found in spots where old oak trees have stood4 ,where orchards have been planted on such land1 spots appear in which the trees gradually die1 the disease spreading from tree to tree1 in ever-widening circles1 involving ordinarily about one row of trees each year4 ,during the winter1 clusters of toadstools may be seen at the base of the affected trees4 ,the fungus lives over in the old oak roots for many years and1 as the orchard becomes well established1 the fungus spreads to the almond roots4 ,if not checked the spot will eventually involve the entire orchard and prevent further growth of almonds on such land for many years4 ,control is very difficult but may be secured by digging a deep trench around the affected area and preventing the infection from passing beyond through the roots4 ,the spread of the disease may sometimes be held in check by grubbing out a row or two of healthy trees outside the affected area and taking care that all of the large roots are removed to a depth of several feet4 ,carbon bisulphide has been suggested for killing the fungus1 but the cost is prohibitive except in small spots just starting4 ,there are no resistant stocks known at present upon which the almond can be worked4 ,the fig1 pear or black walnut might safely replace the almond in such spots4 ,shot-hole ,fungus4--,there are three different fungi that produce the shot-hole effect on the leaves of the almond1 thus giving rise to the name4 7#a7 ,coryneum beyerinikii1 or peach blight1 is the most common form4 ,it is not as serious on the wood of the almond as it is on the peach1 but in seasons of damp spring weather it does much damage to the blossoms1 fruits and leaves4 ,affected blossoms are killed outright1 the entire blossoms turning brown and dropping much as if killed by frost4 ,the young fruit becomes spotted by the fungus and this causes malformation1 gumming and shriveling of the nuts1 varying considerably with the severity of the attack4 ,on the leaves many small dead spots appear1 the dead tissue soon falling out and giving the shot-hole effect4 ,where the twigs are affected1 small dead spots appear during the winter1 most often at the buds4 ,this causes the death of the buds and often the ends of the twigs4 ,during the spring1 after growth starts1 considerable gumming occurs from these spots4 ,effective control can only be secured by two sprays--,bordeaux mixture in the fall1 as soon as the tree becomes dormant1 and either ,bordeaux or lime-sulphur solution 7winter strength7 just before the buds open in the spring4 ,both fall and spring sprays must be thoroughly applied to be effective4 7#b7 ,cercospora circumscissa is another fungus causing much the same effect as the ,coryneum4 ,it is difficult for an untrained person to distinguish between them4 ,the same sprays used for ,coryneum are effective in controlling this1 though if this form alone is present the ,bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur spray in the spring should be sufficient4 7#c7 ,gloeosporium amygdalinum1 while apparently uncommon in this state1 has been found to exist in some places4 ,further work must be done on this to determine its behavior and the most satisfactory methods of control1 but it is believed that the control measures mentioned for the other forms of 8shot-hole0 will also be applicable to this4 ,prune ,rust 7,puccinia ,pruni74--,this fungus is worst in the southern coast sections where almonds are not extensively grown4 ,it is not serious on thrifty trees well supplied with moisture4 ,the disease is characterized by reddish pustules on the under-sides of the leaves1 appearing generally about ,july or ,august and causing a premature yellowing and dropping of the leaves4 ,ordinarily the only treatment needed is to supply the necessary moisture in the soil to keep the trees healthy and vigorous4 ,heart ,rot4--,this is one of the most insidious of tree diseases1 for it works inside beneath an apparently healthy exterior until the decay has progressed so far that the tree commences to break down1 and then it is too late for remedial measures4 ,the almond is not as susceptible to this as most other kinds of orchard trees1 but where large wounds have been exposed to the weather1 infection may take place readily1 and after it is once well started it continues at a comparatively rapid rate4 ,decay is caused in most cases by one or more of about a dozen different fungi1 of which the oyster-shell fungus is by far the most common4 ,control consists in taking care to leave no open wounds exposed to the air to dry and crack1 thus permitting the entrance of decay organisms4 ,much of this can be avoided by care in pruning the young tree so that the removal of the large limbs will not be necessary later on4 ,where such wounds must be made1 measures should be taken to prevent infection4 ,this can best be done by making smooth1 clean cuts close to the part from which the branch to be removed emanates1 leaving no stub4 ,stubs dry out and crack more quickly and require very much longer to heal over1 if this is possible at all4 ,further1 all such wounds which will not heal over the first season should be covered with some good disinfectant1 such as corrosive sublimate1 one part to one thousand parts of water1 and then painted over with some elastic coating1 such as 8,flotine0 or asphaltum1 grade ,d1 applied with a brush4 ,the entire wound must be covered or the work is largely wasted4 ,die-back4--,this is serious in many orchards where moisture is insufficient to carry the trees through the growing season1 and the trees show considerable dying-back of the branches4 ,unfavorable soil conditions1 such as hardpan1 gravel or sand may be the direct cause of such moisture shortage4 ,lack of soil fertility is also a common cause4 ,control measures consist in remedying the defective conditions and where this cannot be done economically it is better to abandon further attempts at almond culture on such land4 ,sour-sap4--,this is one of the so-called 8physiological diseases0 and is quite common with the almond4 ,it is most frequently found where trees are planted in heavy or poorly drained soils4 ,the inability of the almond to endure standing water around its roots for any length of time and particularly so after growth commences in the spring1 renders it especially liable to sour-sap when planted in soils where excess water from the late winter and spring rains cannot be readily drained away4 ,the direct cause of the trouble is sudden changes in weather from warm to cold after growth commences1 which checks the flow of sap very suddenly1 causing stagnation1 cracking of the bark and then fermentation4 ,with an unusually strong flow of sap in trees in wet soils1 such climatic changes cause unusually severe disturbances in the normal functioning of the trees4 ,the affected trees ordinarily show the disease first in the spring when gum may be seen oozing from the bark of the trunk or main branches1 and sometimes even from the smaller branches4 ,small or large branches may die1 and in severe cases the tree may die soon after having commenced to leaf out strongly4 ,on cutting through the bark to the wood and peeling back1 a strong sour odor is noticeable4 ,the cambium layer appears brownish or reddish in color and often masses of gum may be found between the bark and the wood4 ,mild cases may not be serious enough to show on the outside of the tree and only portions of the cambium layer may die4 ,the sudden dropping of the blossoms or young fruit may in some instances be attributable to sour-sap4 ,all affected parts on smaller branches should be cut back to healthy wood1 while on the main branches or trunk1 where only a small portion or one side is affected1 it is best to clean out the dead bark and paint the bared wood with a protective covering until new bark can cover the spot4 ,at the same time every effort should be made to remedy the soil-moisture conditions which were largely responsible for the trouble in the first place4 ,fruit-drop4--,the same conditions which cause sour-sap may cause fruit drop4 ,it may be caused by lack of pollination due to improper mixing of varieties or to rain during blossoming4 ,frost may also produce the same thing by killing the germ in the young fruit4 ,in such cases1 the fruit may remain on the tree for one or two weeks after the injury occurs before falling1 and in some cases1 may even appear to continue its development for a short while4 ,,insect ,,pests ,mites4--,commonly called red spiders4 ,there are two kinds of mites that do much damage in almond orchards1 the brown or almond mite and the yellow or two-spotted mite4 ,both are common in all parts of the state and are the worst pests the almond grower must regularly face4 ,the brown mite 7,bryobia pratensis7 is the larger of the two1 is dark red or brown in adult stage1 has very long front legs1 and a flattened back4 ,it does not spin any web and works on the green bark of the small twigs as well as on the leaves1 sucking the plant juices from beneath the bark4 ,it causes a mottling of the leaves which eventually fall1 although not as readily or in such large numbers as when attacked by the yellow mite4 ,the injury to the tree is equally as great because of the serious drain on the vitality as a whole and because it commences work earlier in the season4 ,this mite may spend its entire life on the tree2 the very small1 round1 red eggs being laid largely on the under-side of the branches and in cracks and crevices in the bark and twigs4 ,these remain on the tree throughout the winter and hatch early in the spring soon after the trees have their leaves half developed1 leaving the white egg-shells in place4 ,most of their work is done in the spring and early summer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,nonpareil almonds4 ,branch on left free from ,red ,spider and holding its full supply of leaves in green1 healthy condition2 branch on right defoliated by ,yellow ,mite4 ,note premature ripening of nuts on defoliated branch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,forty-three-year-old ,languedoc almonds on peach root1 near ,davis4 ,this orchard has not been thoroughly cultivated or irrigated4 ,mites have largely defoliated the trees4 ,see contrast in ,fig4 #bd4 ,the brown mite may be controlled satisfactorily by means of a dormant spray of lime-sulphur solution1 #a gallon to #aj gallons of water1 applied just before the buds open in the spring4 ,crude oil emulsion as a dormant spray is also effective1 if thoroughly applied over the entire tree under high pressure4 ,this also applies to applications of the lime-sulphur spray4 ,during the growing season a milder material must be used4 ,dry dust sulphur1 using only the very finest grade of 8flowers of sulphur10 is often very effective1 provided weather conditions are satisfactory1 but generally this must be applied a number of times if best results are to be obtained4 ,the work is done by blowing the sulphur dust into the tree with blowers in the early morning when there is little or no wind4 ,a more satisfactory method is the use of 8,atomic sulphur0 or other sulphur pastes or similar material4 8,atomic sulphur0 is a prepared spray whose value consists in the fact that the sulphur is held in suspension in water so that it may be applied as a liquid spray4 ,by this method the material may be more effectively and thoroughly applied4 8,atomic sulphur0 is applied at the rate of #aj pounds to #ajj gallons of water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,forty-three-year-old ,languedoc almonds on peach root1 near ,davis4 ,this orchard has been irrigated and thoroughly cultivated1 and mites have not defoliated the trees4 ,note contrast in ,fig4 #bc4 ,the use of lime-sulphur1 the commercial strength of #cc to #cd degrees ,beaum being diluted #a part to #ce parts water1 is another effective method4 ,for such use a flour paste may be added at the rate of #d gallons to each #ajj gallons of the spray mixture to act as a spreader4 ,this paste is made by cooking one pound of flour with enough water to make one gallon of the mixture4 ,the yellow mite 7,tetranychus telarius7 is much smaller than the brown mite and is of a pale yellow color with occasionally a reddish tinge and sometimes with two darker spots on either side of the body4 ,unlike the brown mite1 the winter is spent in concealment somewhere1 presumably off the tree4 ,during the warm days of early summer1 generally in ,june1 the mite makes its appearance on the trees1 spinning a fine web on the leaves1 generally on the upper surface1 and then works under this web4 ,the mite sucks the plant juices from the leaves giving them a yellowish mottled appearance4 ,these leaves soon die and drop to the ground4 ,in serious infestations the trees are often almost completely defoliated by the end of ,august4 7,see figure #bb47 ,the use of dormant sprays is not effective for controlling the yellow mite1 but the summer sprays mentioned above are all satisfactory1 and for best results1 must be applied under high pressure1 preferably #bjj pounds or more4 ,the mites are much easier controlled where a comparatively high percentage of moisture is kept in the soil by frequent cultivations1 or1 if necessary1 by irrigation 7figures #bc and #bd74 ,peach ,twig ,borer 7,anarsia lineatella74--,in the larval stage these borers work on the young buds and shoots in the early spring4 ,they are especially troublesome in newly planted orchard trees when a comparatively small number may kill most of the new shoots which are needed to make the desired framework of the tree4 ,in some years they may be serious in large trees also4 ,dormant spray of lime-sulphur applied under high pressure just as the buds are opening in the spring will control the borers very effectively4 ,this same spray may be used to control the brown mite1 thereby accomplishing double control4 ,california ,peach ,borer 7geria opalescens74--,the larvae are serious in many parts of the state where they burrow just under the bark near the surface of the ground4 ,they may be detected by the small bits of frass and gum at the entrance of their burrows4 ,if allowed to continue1 they will eventually girdle the tree4 ,the surest means of control is to dig out the worms with a knife or kill them with a wire probe4 ,this work should be done systematically once or twice every year and very thoroughly if it is to be effective4 ,the application of hot 8,flotine0 or asphaltum1 grade ,d1 after the worms are killed should help considerably to prevent the entrance of the larvae4 ,to be effective it must be applied at least twice a year on young trees and probably the same on old trees4 ,thrips4--,these are most serious on the almond leaves1 their attacks being serious enough to cause considerable defoliation in late spring or early summer4 ,they may be controlled by spraying with lime-sulphur1 #a to #cj1 to which has been added black-leaf #dj 7#dj per cent nicotine7 at the rate of #a part to #aejj parts of water or other spray-mixture4 ,it is possible that other than the pear thrips have been doing damage1 but the same spray as described above should be effective against all4 ,grasshopper4--,grasshoppers have been serious in orchards in outlying foothill districts in some years1 and especially so in young orchards where it has been almost impossible to get trees started properly4 ,in such locations special means must be employed on a large scale to protect orchards from their devastations1 of which poisoned bait and hopper dozers are the most effective4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,almonds infested with larvae of ,indian ,meal ,moth 7,plodia interpunctella74 ,indian ,meal ,moth 7,plodia interpunctella74--,the larva of this moth feeds on the kernels of the harvested almonds when they are stored4 ,infestation usually takes place in storerooms or warehouses in which the nuts have been placed for a time4 ,the warehouses become infested from old grain bags which have been kept there at one time or another4 ,so far as known1 infestation does not take place in the field4 ,the larvae will continue to work in the stored almonds for a long time1 doing a very great amount of damage 7fig4 #be74 ,they may be controlled by thoroughly cleaning out the corners of the warehouse and thoroughly disinfecting4 ,the nuts should be disinfected with carbon bisulphide 7explosive when in the form of a gas mixed with air71 or other means used to control insects in grain4#f ,prevention is far easier than the cure in this case4 ,scale1 aphis1 diabrotica and other insects are sometimes found on the trees1 but are generally not sufficiently troublesome to require special attention4 ,most of them are held in check by the control measures used for the more serious pests4 ,,other ,,pests ,gophers4--,these often do great damage to the trees by girdling them just below the surface of the ground1 or if they do not actually girdle the trees1 they cut them enough to devitalize them and1 in addition1 the wounds made by their gnawings frequently become infected with crown-gall organisms4 ,the only safe means of control is the constant use of traps supplemented by poisoned bait4 ,squirrels4--,squirrels are very troublesome1 as they harvest a large amount of almonds before they are sufficiently ripe to be harvested by the grower4 ,the use of poisoned grain or 8gas10 if used over a large area of surrounding territory1 will prevent serious depredations4 ,birds4--,birds also carry off large amounts of almonds if the orchards are near open country or hills1 especially if wooded4 ,crows1 bluejays1 blackbirds1 yellow-hammers1 robins and other similar birds are the worst offenders4 ,sometimes linnets eat off large numbers of fruit buds in the spring in a few of the newer sections where plantings are scattered4 ,sap-suckers have been known to girdle entire trees or large branches by cutting large numbers of holes in a series of lines close together around the trunk or limbs4 ,morning-glory4--,this is probably the worst of the weeds in almond orchards1 and is the hardest to control4 ,sheep and chickens may be used with excellent results1 provided care is taken to see that the sheep are not allowed to go hungry1 for then they will bark the trunks of the trees very quickly4 ,an excellent plan is to arrange gates so that the sheep must go through the orchard from pasture to get water4 ,in passing back and forth they will forage over the entire orchard and dig up all the morning-glory in sight4 ,chickens are fond of the succulent new shoots1 and will keep them below the ground until the underground stems and roots weaken and die4 ,cultivation throughout the growing season1 often enough to prevent the morning-glory from developing any leaves for a whole year at least1 and longer if necessary1 will starve the plants to death4 ,,varieties ,the problem of selecting varieties of almonds for planting in ,california is to choose the ones that are most marketable and at the same time to secure best results in cross-pollination4 ,at the present time there are comparatively few varieties of almonds which have won and retained their popularity with the grower and the trade4 ,there are a number of reasons for this condition4 ,the cultural1 climatic and soil conditions under which the almond thrives are much more limited than for most of the common deciduous fruits2 the area of production in ,america is limited largely to ,california2 the industry is comparatively new1 and in general1 there is not the great varietal variation in season1 appearance1 texture1 flavor and behavior that is found in the apple1 peach1 pear and similar fruits4 ,the comparatively rapid deterioration of fleshy fruits after ripening makes a succession of varieties desirable to extend the period of consumption4 ,with almonds1 the season of all varieties extends from one harvest to the next1 if properly handled4 ,growers are1 therefore1 recommended to plant only standard1 marketable varieties as far as possible4 ,early ripening varieties must be chosen4 ,the crop must be in the hands of the trade early1 for the bulk of it is used in the holiday trade4 ,this is especially true with unshelled almonds4 ,early almonds only can be harvested and sold before the bulk of the ,european shipments arrive4 ,the actual time of ripening of the different varieties is variable from season to season1 and in different sections or even different orchards in the same season4 ,generally1 harvesting commences early in ,august and closes about the middle of ,october4 ,the approximate order of ripening of the better known varieties is shown in table ,,ix4 ,,table ,,ix ,,approximate ,,order ,,of ,,ripening ,,of ,,varieties ,,of ,,almonds #a4 ,nonpareil #b4 ,i4,x4,l4 ,jordan #c4 ,ne ,plus ,ultra #d4 ,peerless ,princess ,california ,king ,silver #e4 ,golden ,state #f4 ,lewelling #g4 ,drake #h4 ,languedoc ,texas ,many new varieties have been originated in ,california but most of them have fallen into disfavor in a short time4 ,in fact1 it is impossible to locate even single trees of some varieties which were formerly well known4 ,from time to time1 however1 worthy varieties have been introduced and have succeeded in making a permanent place for themselves through their ability to fill a demand that before had been but partially or poorly supplied4 ,in view of the changing market situation for ,california almonds1 due to the rapidly increasing acreage and the very limited demand for unshelled almonds1 it is safe to predict that the only new varieties which will be of value in the future will be those that are primarily of superior quality for shelling purposes4 ,yield must take second place4 ,well known varieties are not only in heavier demand in the principal markets1 but they invariably bring much better prices than the newer varieties4 ,in some years1 when the domestic crop of a given variety is light and the demand good1 it is possible to unload poorer or less known varieties at fairly good prices4 ,more often1 however1 they are a drag on the market4 ,owing to the increasing consumption of shelled almonds and the probability of a still greater increase in the future1 growers should arrange future plantings with a view to supplying the best shelling varieties4 ,at the present time1 the best shelling varieties are not ordinarily the heaviest producers4 ,with a limited production they may not even bring as large returns as the poorer but heavier yielding varieties4 ,as the production increases1 which it is doing very rapidly1 the relative value of the best shelling varieties will increase in proportion and they may be sold at good prices when it will be impossible to move a heavy tonnage of a poor variety at a profitable price4 ,although the future almond markets will no doubt use shelled almonds very largely1 there will always be a limited demand for unshelled almonds for use in the holiday trade and for home table use4 ,unshelled almonds to be acceptable for such purposes must be large1 attractive nuts with light-colored1 clean-looking shells1 soft enough to be broken with the hands4 ,the kernels must be well filled and free from gum4 ,the ,i4,x4,l4 is the most popular and highest-priced nut for this purpose4 ,the ,ne ,plus ,ultra ranks next because of its attractive outside appearance and shape2 one of the principal objections to it being its tendency to have gummy kernels4 ,the ,drake is another variety in demand for this purpose4 ,it is moderately large1 plump and well filled with a good quality kernel1 and while not as attractive as the ,i4,x4,l4 or ,ne ,plus ,ultra1 it is popular with the medium-priced trade4 ,a certain class of trade prefers the ,nonpareil for such use1 and it appears to be growing in popularity because of the attractive kernel and the ease with which shelling by hand is accomplished4 ,the confectioners1 on the other hand1 care nothing for shell4 ,they want a medium or large sized kernel1 uniform in shape1 and plump2 one that can be coated smoothly or evenly with candy4 ,for blanching and salting purposes1 the kernels must be large and smooth4 ,the best ,california variety for this purpose is the ,nonpareil4 ,it is also the best nut for table use when sold shelled4 ,as a rule1 the papershell varieties are the best for shelling because of the large percentage of unbroken kernels which may be obtained4 ,the broken kernels and those obtained from cheaper and less desirable varieties are used largely by the bakers and almond-paste manufacturers4 ,the planting of large blocks of orchards to single varieties is not a wise practice4 ,planting of several varieties will assist greatly in lengthening the harvest season1 and thus enable one to handle large crops with fewer men and less equipment4 ,for example1 the four best varieties--the ,nonpareil1 ,i4,x4,l41 ,ne ,plus ,ultra and ,drake--ripen in the order named2 the ,nonpareil ripening about two weeks before the ,i4,x4,l41 the ,ne ,plus ,ultra about a week after the ,i4,x4,l41 and the ,drake about two weeks after the ,ne ,plus ,ultra4 ,where there is danger of failure of varieties to set fruit due to frost or improper pollination or unfavorable weather conditions during1 or soon after1 blooming1 the grower is more likely to get a crop from some variety if several are planted to secure a succession of bloom in the spring4 ,the principal reason for interplanting varieties is to secure adequate cross-pollination4 ,for this purpose the ,ne ,plus ,ultra and ,drake are probably the best to use as pollenizers4 ,other combinations1 as indicated on page #f1 may be made that will be satisfactory1 though care must be exercised to secure varieties that blossom near enough together to be effective4 ,figure #bf shows the effective blossoming period for fifteen varieties4 ,adaptation of ,varieties4--,the best marketable nuts are1 as has been suggested1 few in number1 and most of these do well in all of the principal almond districts of ,california4 ,where the climatic and soil condition are equally favorable there is no great variation in their behavior1 but owing to such differences it has been found that certain varieties are better adapted to some districts than others4 ,the ,nonpareil1 the best variety known at the present time for ,california conditions1 bears more nearly uniform crops from year to year and shows a wider range of adaptation than any of the other good commercial varieties4 ,it has proved itself to be satisfactory in every almond district in the state4 ,the ,drake closely approaches the ,nonpareil in this respect4 ,the ,i4,x4,l4 and ,ne ,plus ,ultra are the most variable in their behavior4 ,the blossoms of the two varieties seem to be more tender and hence more liable to injury under unfavorable conditions2 gumming is more prevalent near the coast1 and during harvest the slower ripening and opening of the hulls in the more moist atmosphere in many of the coast valleys causes excessive darkening and sometimes molding of the shell4 ,the ,ne ,plus ,ultra does its best on comparatively high1 well-drained soils1 adjacent to the larger streams in the ,sacramento ,valley1 such as the lands along the ,sacramento ,river1 ,putah ,creek1 ,cache ,creek1 etc41 though it also grows and produces well in the ,banning district and in many of the foothill sections where conditions are favorable4 ,the ,i4,x4,l4 does best on the foothills surrounding the ,sacramento ,valley1 notable on the west side4 ,in the ,banning district the ,ne ,plus ,ultra seems to be a better producer than the ,i4,x4,l4 ,varieties which ripen later than the ,drake should be avoided in the ,banning district because of the liability to damage from the frequent ,october rains4 ,there are a number of different varieties1 such as the ,eureka and ,jordan1 which give promise of filling a limited place in the markets but which have not yet been thoroughly tested throughout the state4 ,the ,eureka is popular with confectioners because of the similarity in shape to the ,jordan4 ,in limited quantities the demand is good4 ,it is still a question as to whether it would hold up in price if grown in very large quantities4 ,the ,jordan nut is of excellent quality but in ,california the trees are variable in vigor4 ,in some cases the trees make unusually large1 vigorous growth while in others they are small and apparently stunted4 ,the cause of this has never been adequately determined4 ,in general1 the ,jordans do not bear sufficiently heavy crops to make them pay at the prevailing low prices4 ,the chief reasons for the low prices are the extreme hardness of the shell and the absence of satisfactory methods of shelling4 ,the invention of a satisfactory machine for this purpose would probably make it pay to plant ,jordans in much larger quantities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,period of ,effective ,blossoming of ,almonds--,university ,farm--#aiag4 ,other varieties1 such as the ,texas1 have been sufficiently tested to show them to be well adapted to most districts1 but they are not to be recommended because of the difficulty experienced in marketing them at a profit in large quantities4 ,the ,texas has been planted extensively in ,california without sufficient justification4 ,it was planted because of its value as a pollenizer1 its precocious and prolific bearing1 and its upright habit of growth4 ,in small quantities it was sold in less exacting markets as a ,drake1 but in larger quantities there has been a good deal of objection to it on the part of the trade4 ,as the bearing trees become older and bear heavier crops1 the nuts tend to become smaller and the shells harder1 which increases the difficulty of selling4 ,from the standpoint of the grower as well as the market1 the lateness in ripening is very objectionable4 ,the ,california ,almond ,growers' ,exchange is finding it harder each year to satisfactorily market the rapidly increasing tonnage of this variety4 ,it should1 therefore1 be avoided in new plantings4 ,,size ,,of ,,almonds ,records of fourteen varieties of almonds grown in the same orchard under similar conditions of soil and culture have been kept at the ,university ,farm at ,davis1 for the years #aiac to #aiaf1 inclusive4 ,these trees are all of the same age1 except the ,texas1 ,peerless and ,harriott1 which are one year younger than the others4 ,these figures show that there is a wide variation within varieties from year to year1 not only as regards size1 but proportion of shell to whole nut1 and in the proportion of double kernels4 ,table ,x shows the variation in size from year to year1 as indicated by the number of nuts per pound4 ,five-pound samples of each variety were used to determine the average size3 ,,table ,x ,,number ,,of ,,almonds ,,per ,,pound ,,for ,,years #aiac ,,to #aiaf1 ,,inclusive ,variety #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf ,average ,nonpareil #bef #bdj #bbd #bbc #bcf ,i4,x4,l4 #adi #adi #aei #aej #aeb ,ne ,plus ,ultra -- #afc #agi #afi #afg ,drake #ahi #acb #aca #acj #ade4e ,languedoc #bbf #bbj #ahe #bac #baa ,texas #ahb #aga #afe #agc #agc ,reams #ach #abc #adc #adh #adj4e ,lewelling #aed #aej #aeh #aci #aej ,peerless -- #aah #abg #acd #abd ,princess #bgj #bda #aij #beb #bch ,california -- #bcb #baa #bjf #baf ,king -- #bdf #bcd #bdd #bda ,harriott -- #age #aea #agf #afg ,jordan -- #gf #gj #ge #gd ,the value of an almond for shelling depends not alone on its relative ease of cracking1 but also upon the percentage of kernel to the whole nut as shown in table ,,xi3 ,,table ,,xi ,,percentage ,,of ,,kernels ,,to ,,whole ,,nuts #aiac #aiad #aiae #aiaf ,average ,variety ,per cent ,per cent ,per cent ,per cent ,per cent ,nonpareil #fg4e #fe4j #fg4b #fg4j #ff4f ,i4,x4,l4 #de4ca #dh4e #fj4f #ed4g #eb4bh ,ne ,plus ,ultra -- #ec4be #eg4f #eh4e #ef4de ,drake #df4cc #db4dj #dg4j #db4b #dd4dh ,languedoc #dh4ge #ej4j #di4d #dh4e #di4af ,texas #dc4ge #de4j #db4d #dd4d #dc4hi ,reams #de4id #db4e #di4be #dc4d #de4bg ,lewelling #dc4dd #dh4h #ej4f #de4j #df4if ,peerless -- #cf4j #ci4fe #cb4e #cf4je ,princess #fe4j #gc4j #gj4f #gc4h #gj4f ,california -- #ga4b #gj4f #fi4e #gj4dc ,king -- #gj4j #gb4j #ga4f #ga4b ,harriott -- #ef4be #ed4b #ej4f #ec4fh ,jordan -- #be4j #bc4h #bf4i #be4bc ,double kernels are particularly undesirable in nuts for shelling because of the irregular shape of the halves1 which renders them unfit for confectionery or bakery purposes where whole kernels are used4 ,table ,,xii shows the percentage of double kernels by number3 ,,table ,,xii ,,percentage ,,of ,,double ,,kernels ,,for ,,different ,,varieties ,variety #aiad #aiae #aiaf ,average ,nonpareil #a4ji #a4if #f4aj #c4je ,i4,x4,l4 4#ej 4#ej 4#hj 4#fj ,ne ,plus ,ultra #d4cj #e4gf #ab4jf #g4cg ,drake #ab4gb #f4be #f4fe #h4ed ,languedoc 4#ii 4#cb #a4fj 4#ig ,texas #aa4ef #g4dj #aa4ij #aj4bi ,reams #i4ib #ac4gi #d4hb #i4ea ,lewelling #ac4cj #bh4gj #df4ej #bi4ej ,peerless #d4dd #g4je #h4ch #f4fb ,princess 4#hc 4#ba #d4fa #a4hh ,california 4#jj 4#jj 4#jig 4#jcb ,king 4#jj #a4bh #b4ac #a4ad ,harriott #a4dc 4#dj 4#hj 4#hh ,jordan #a4cb #c4gb #c4gd #b4ic ,,methods ,,of ,,classification ,almonds are classified according to hardness of shell1 into four classes3 ,papershell4--,those almonds having a thin1 papery shell which may easily be broken between the fingers of one hand4 ,softshell4--,those which have a more or less spongy or thin shell which may be broken between the fingers of two hands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,almond varieties4 ,,languedoc4 ,,texas4 ,,drake4 ,,nonpareil4 ,i4,x4,l4 ,,ne ,,plus ,,ultra4 ,,tarragona4 ,,jordan4 ,,peerless4 ,standardshell4--,those requiring very strong pressure of the hand or the use of a nut-cracker to break4 ,these may have a spongy or smooth outer shell4 ,hardshell4--,those which cannot be broken by hand but require a sharp blow with a hammer or strong pressure with a nut cracker to crack them4 ,the papershell varieties are excellent for shelling as they contain a large percentage of kernels which may easily be obtained whole4 ,the principal objections are that birds are particularly fond of them since they can crack them easily1 and the shells are often poorly sealed4 ,the latter fact makes it difficult to prevent worm infestation and to prevent the penetration of sulphur fumes to the kernel during the bleaching process4 ,as a result practically none of the papershells are bleached but are sold for shelling purposes4 ,the softshells are generally more attractive for table use because the shells are more perfect and1 in commercial varieties1 are brighter in color and more attractive4 ,the shells are usually well sealed and can be bleached to give additional brightness with less danger of the fumes penetrating to the kernel than the papershells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,almond varieties4 ,,harriott4 ,,eureka4 ,,lewelling4 ,,king4 ,,california4 ,,princess4 ,,stuart4 ,,la ,,prima4 ,,batham4 ,the standardshells have the greatest range in character1 thickness and hardness of shell4 ,for table use they are sometimes too hard for high-class trade4 ,the percentage of kernel is too low to make them very attractive to the retail trade4 ,of this class of almond the ,drake is probably the best of the ,california varieties4 ,almond varieties of all these classes are shown in figures #bg and #bh4 ,these illustrations show most of the varieties grown to any extent in ,california and others that have attracted much interest and inquiry1 together with the ,european ,tarragona4 ,,footnotes #a ,tufts1 ,w4 ,p41 unpublished data from experiments conducted in the ,university ,farm orchard1 at ,davis1 ,california4 #b ,colby1 ,geo4 ,e41 ,ann4 ,rept4 ,cal4 ,agri4 ,exp4 ,sta41 #ahie-ahif and #ahif-ahig4 #c ,as this bulletin goes to press doubt is raised as to whether some of these trees may not be on almond stock1 but this in no material way affects the discussion4 #d ,just what conditions will exist after the close of the present war cannot be forecast with any degree of accuracy4 ,one thing is certain1 the increasing popularity of shelled almonds makes it essential that the ,american markets become familiar with the ,california shelled product1 and that this trade be extended as quickly as possible4 #e ,cir4 #aba1 ,univ4 ,calif4 ,agri4 ,exp4 ,station1 ,october1 #aiad4 #f ,the fumigation of ,stored ,grain1 ,dried ,fruits1 and ,other ,products1 ,e4 ,r4 ,de,ong1 ,cal4 ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,dec41 #aiag4 ,,bibliography ,,treat1 ,w4 #ahij4 ,almond ,culture4 ,report of ,california ,board of ,horticulture1 #aijj1 pp4 #gb-gh4 ,,fuller1 ,a4 ,s4 #ahif4 ,the ,nut ,culturist1 pp4 #ab-dc4 ,orange ,judd ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,,corsa1 ,w4 ,p4 #ahif4 ,nut ,culture in the ,united ,states1 ,embracing ,native and ,introduced ,species4 ,u4 ,s4 ,d4 ,a41 ,division of ,pomology1 pp4 #ai-bh4 ,,colby1 ,,geo4 ,e4 #ahih4 ,analysis of ,california ,almonds4 ,university of ,california ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta4 ,report #ahie-ahif2 #ahif-ahig1 pp4 #ade-aea4 ,,fairchild1 ,,david ,g4 #aijb4 ,spanish ,almonds and ,their ,introduction into ,america4 ,bulletin #bf1 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,d4 ,a41 pp4 #g-ad and #h plates4 ,,dargitz1 ,j4 ,p4 #aiji4 ,the ,almond ,commercially ,considered4 ,proc4 #cfth ,cal4 ,state ,fruit ,growers' ,convention1 pp4 #fd-ga4 ,,wickson1 ,e4 ,j4 #aiad4 ,california ,fruits and ,how to ,grow ,them4 #gth edition41 pp4 #dbd-dcj4 ,,bailey1 ,l4 ,h41 and ,,wickson1 ,e4 ,j4 #aiad4 ,almond1 ,standard ,cyclopedia of ,horticulture1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bdi-bea4 ,,hunt1 ,,thos4 ,f41 and ,staff4 #aiad4 ,some ,things the ,prospective ,settler ,should ,know4 ,circular #aba1 ,cal4 ,agr4 ,exp4 ,station1 pp4 #c1 #h1 #da-db4 ,,taylor1 ,r4 ,h4 #aiae4 ,present ,status of the ,nut ,industry in ,california4 ,proceedings of the ,society for ,horticultural ,science1 #aiae1 pp4 #ca-ci4 #aiae4 ,a ,symposium of ,california ,pomology3 ,the ,almond4 ,proceedings ,american ,pomological ,society1 #aiae1 pp4 #aba-abf4 ,,pierce1 ,,geo4 ,w4 #aiae4 ,the ,status of the ,almond ,industry of the ,pacific ,coast4 ,proceedings ,american ,pomological ,society1 #aiae1 pp4 #ge-hb4 ,,steubenrauch1 ,a4 ,v41 and ,,taylor1 ,r4 ,h4 #aiae4 ,some ,lessons from the ,california ,nut ,industry4 ,proceedings #adth ,ann4 ,conv4 ,national ,nut ,growers' ,association1 #aiae1 pp4 #ij-ic4